Britannica Book of the Year 1954
During the period 1938-2018 Encyclopædia Britannica published annually a "Book of the Year" covering the past
1,167 71 228MB
English Pages [801] Year 1954
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Table of Contents
Introduction
Editors and Contributors
Calendar of Events, 1953
BOOK OF THE YEAR
ABYSSINIA
AMERICAN CITIZENS ABROAD
ARMIES OF THE WORLD
AVIATION, CIVIL
BENTON
BRITISH COLUMBIA
BUSINESS REVIEW
CHEMISTRY
CLARK
COPPER
DEMOCRACY
EDUCATION, RELIGIOUS
EXCHANGE CONTROL
FLORIDA
FROZEN FOODS
GREAT BRITAIN
HOUSING
INFANT MORTALITY
IRELAND, REPUBLIC OF
KOREAN WAR
LEBANON
MALENKOV
METHODIST CHURCH
MOTOR TRANSPORTATION
NETHERLANDS
NORTHWEST TERRITORIES
OIL
PHOTOGRAPHY
PRICES
RAILROADS
RUBBER
SILVA, AUGUSTO
SPANISH COLONIAL EMPIRE
TAXATION
TUNNELS
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
WALES
ZOOLOGY
INDEX
A
B
C
D-E
F-G
H
I
J-K-L
M-N
O-P
Q-R
S
T
U
V-W-X-Y-Z
Citation preview
i
I
I
1954
BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR
A the
Record of
March of Events ofl953
BRITANNICA
BOOK OF THE YEAR
1954 Prepared
Under
the Editorial Direction of
WALTER rUST Editor of Encyclopaedia Britannica
PMished
by
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, CHICAGO
•
TORONTO
•
LONDON
INC.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, BY ENCYCLOPi^DIA BRITANNICA, INC.
COPYRIGHT
IN
I
954
COPYRIGHT UNDER INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT UNION ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER PAN AMERICAN COPYRIGHT CONVENTIONS BY ENCYCLOPiEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
Britannica Book of the Year (Trade Mark Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.}
PRINTED IN
The
editor of the
U.S.A.
Britannica Book of the Year acknowledges with
privilege of using
26
pictures
ship of all illustrations
may
from Life.
Acknowledgments of
gratitude the
the copyright
be found on the following three pages.
owner-
the editor
.
TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations
and Acknowledgment
of Copyright,
v
Introduction, viii Editors and Contributors, ix
Calendar, 1954, xxii
Calendar of Events, 1953,
1
Britannica Book of the Year, 17
Index. 761
OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST
(Acknowledgment
of Copyright
Asterisks denote Illustrations
is
from
found
to be
Astronomy
Accident Prevention
Shipping symbols (Courtesy, UNATIONS) 18 Driver training device (Wide World) 19 Adams. Maude (United Press) 525 Adenauer, Konrad. voting (Wide World) ... 20 Advertising sign in Japan (European) 21 Afghanistan irrigation project (Wide World) . 23
Surface of moon (Courtesy, Mt. Wilson-Palomar Observatories) Atomic EnergyExplosion of house, series of four photographs (Courtesy, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Photographs by Edgerton, Germeshausen
Agriculture Texas dust dune (United Press) Ploughing pattern (Wide World) Scything demonstration (Courtesy,
and Grier) Atomic light (Courtesy, U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Photograph by J. E. Westcott) .Australian rabbits at water hole (Dunstan from
....
26 27
UNA-
TIONS)
31
Aircraft Manufacture
Rotating bomb bay door (Official U.S. Air Force Photo) Air Races and Records Jacqueline Cochran (Wide World) Alaskan volcano (Wide World) Aliens Sen. Patrick McCarran (Wide World). ...
Americans Abroad George V. Allen (International) American Literature Carl Sandburg (.Mian Grant)* Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Mohammed Naguib (Wide World) Anthropology Chavante Indian (Photo by Edward Weyer,
32 ii 35
38 40 43 46
Archaeology Neolithic skull (Topical Press .Agency, Ltd.,
London)
51
Fortified village (Courtesy. The River Basins Surveys, Smithsonian Institution)
....
53
Archery Royal Company of Archers (Picture Post Photo by R. Startup-Pix from Publix)
54
.
.
Architecture
Harvard lecture hall (Copyright, Ezra StoUer) Frank Lloyd Wright skyscraper (Wide World) .
U.N.E.S.C.O. headquarters (Courtesy,
CO) Campus
55 55
UNES55
.
71
55
\'ietnamese soldier (United Press) Art Exhibitions Japanese scroll (Courtesy. National Gallery
63
58 61
66
.Africa
Saddle-shaped roof (United Press) Hydraulic roof raising (Wide World)
New
cars in lot
80 8 85
85
.
....
Daseball Gil Hodges (United Press) County stadium, Milwaukee, Wis. (Wide World) Basketball coaching by telephone (Wide World) Belgian Colonial Empire
...
tribesman (Dmitri Kessel)*
Belloc, Hilaire (Wide World) Berlin rioters stoning tank (Wide World) Blind. Education of the Multiple-lens glasses (International)
,
.
.
85 85 85 85 87
94 95 97
101
....
106
108
.
.... .
.
.
.
. .
140
Toronto subway (Wide World) Nuclear reactor (Courtesy, Atomic Energy Commission of Canada, Ltd.) Canals and Inland Waterways Longest ship in Illinois waterway (Wide World) Cancer therapy unit (Wide World) Carol II (Wide World) Cartoons "A Ruble for Your Thoughts, Comrade" (Courtesy. Vardley, Baltimore Sun) '.An Olive Branch— Will It Grow or Die?" (Courtesy. Don Hesse, St. Louis GlobeDemocrat) ".And Now the K-Bomb" (Courtesy, John .
.
.
3
113
114 115
144 145
147
149 525
704
406
110 Fischetti. NE.A Service Inc.) ".At Last— The Perfect Security Risk" (Cour179 tesy. Roy Justus. The Minneapolis Star) "Beginning to Register" (Courtesy, F. O. 299 .Alexander, Philadelphia Bulletin) .
....
"Break
in the Clouds" (Courtesy, Jerry CosKnickerbocker News) Up or Get Out!" (Courtesy, F. O. -Ale.xander, Philadelphia Bulletin) besides endangering "Confound it. Colonel! national defense, the cut in military spending ." (Courtesy, is liable to hurt somebody George Lichty and the Chicago Sun-Times Syndicate) "French Toast" (Courtesy, John Fischetti. .\EA Service Inc.) "Happy Landings" (Courtesy, Art Binirose, Portland Oregonian) tello.
98 525
Bohlen. Charles (Wide World) Bolivian antityphus worker (IJnited Press) Bowling congress opening (United Press) ... .
132
136 139
(Wide World)
Canada
Aviation. Civil
Boeing RB-47E Stratojct (Official U.S. Air Force Photo) Short S.B.5 (British Information Services). McDonnell XF3H-1 (United Press) Flying aircraft carrier (United Press) Aircraft barrier (Official U.S. Air Force Photo)
14
131
Willow Run assembly line (Joe Scherschel)* Supermarket in Germany (Wide World)
Packard Patrician (Courtesy, Packard Motor Car Company) Studebaker Conestoga station wagon (Courtesy. Studebaker Corporation)
Fouga CM 170. R (United Press) Lockheed P2\-5 (United Press)
126
525
.... .
Newark airport (Wide World) German aeroplane (Wide World)
.
Business Review-
Riviera (Courtesy. General Motors Corp.) Hudson Hornet (Courtesy, Hudson Motor Car
(United Press) t^. LaStarza Brazilian villagers in well (United Press)
West
Gold Coast boatmen (Alfred Eisenstaedt)*. Brownell. Herbert. Jr. (Wide World) Bruce. Nigel (Wide World) Building and Construction Industry
Super
Boxing Marciano
123
.Star)
British
poration)
Mayombe
plan by Eero Saarinen (Courtesy,
Richard Shirk) Argentina Statue of Juan Peron (Francis C. Fuerst from Black Star) Armies of the World Signal corps trainees (Robert Kelley)* ...
of Art)
cleansing ceremony (Wide World). 123 123 Karoibangi women evicted (International) Nyeri club stables (Leuenberger from Black
Aviation, Military 47
Bridge near \'eracruz, Mex. (Courtesy, The James F. Lincoln .Arc Welding Foundation). 1 19 British East .Africa 123 Demolition teams (United Press)
Mau Mau
Company)
'
Jr.)
68
Black Star) Automobile Industry Plymouth Belvedere (Courtesy, Chrysler Cor-
Buick
in the Parentheses.
Life)
"Clean
....
.
.
318 411
.
.
.
128
294 381
V
LIST OF t
-Continued
.irtiionH
ICducatiou—
"I Ain't CioinK .\iiywh«"re" (Courtesy. lU-ibort
.
.
." (Courtesy, CieorRC Lichty and the it! Chicaiio Sun-Tiine« Syndicate) in FrontI" (Courtesy. Tom Little, Naihfille Tenntssran) "Picture ol' a Man Waitinn To Be RecoKnized" (Courtesy, Scott Lour, Minneapolis Tribune) "Presented with the Same Souvenir Wherever He Cloes" (Courtesy, R. A. Lewis, The \liln-nukee Journal) "R.iinbow 'Round Shoulder" (Courtesy, Ralph Voes. The San Diego Union) "Smile" (Courtesy. Newton Pratt, McClatchy .
.
from
.
Newspapers) "Strange How (Courtesy,
.
.
72
.
(Wide World)
On
2
vacation (United Press)
242
Rotor 708
wind tunnel (Courtesy, Westinghouse
in
Electric Corp.) 245 Electronic calculator, the "701" (Courtesy, International Business Machines Corp.) 246 . Elizabeth II (Wide World) 7 English Literature Eric .'\n\bler (Elliot Erwitt, Magnum Photos), 251 .
2J0 142
217
Exchange Control and Exchange Rates Koreans outside bank (International) 259 Exploration and Discovery Tensing Norkay on Mt. Everest (Courtesy, .
LIFE; copyright,
741
Plane" (Courtesy, Scott Long, Minneapolis Tribune) 609 "That Flashy Rookie ..." (Courtesy, Reg ManninR. NIcNauwht Syndicate, Inc.), 679 "The Great Ilumnnitarian" (Courtesy, Jerry Costello. Knickerbocker Xexvs) 312 "Topic of Conversation" (Courtesy. Reg
TIME
Inc..
.
.
...
1953)*
265
"Suicide
.
.
NLtnning. McNauRlU Syndicate. Inc.). "Who's Afraid of the Big Bad Wolves?" (Courtesy. D. R. Fitzpatrick, .S/. /,o«ii foi/Dispalch) "Ves? What's on Your Mind?" (Courtesy, Ned White. Akron Beacon Journal) "Voo Hoo!" (Courtesy. Paule Loring, The Providence Bulletin) "Vou Need a Younger Man with New Ideas" (Courtesy. Yardley. Baltimore Sun) Census. U.S., at 160,000,000 (Wide World) Ceramic exhibition winning entry (Courtesy, .
.
.... .
.
712
29 571
257 153
.
.
Veterans Chemically
in all hospitals.
.
.
U.S
etched printing plate (Courtesy, Dow Chemical Company) Chicago parking lot (United Press) Children's Books Caldecott award illustration (Courtesy of Houghton MifHin Company) Child Welfare British lamp (Wide children under sun World) Children of former Huks (United Press) China Mao Tse-tung (Eastfoto) Shanghai cotton mill (Eastfoto) .
.
197 154
556 578
.
.
.
161 165
167
168 169 171 173
.
.
178
Guard)
181 182
184
(Wide World) Congress changing hands (Mark Kauffman)*. of Stalin
.
190 193
Coronation Elizabeth II returning to Buckingham palace (Topical Press. London) 17 Royal family (Wide World) 201 Fireworks display (United Press) 201 Elizabeth receiving benediction (Kemsley Picture Service-Pix from Publix) 201 .\waiting anointment (United Press) 201 .\rchbishop paying homage (Wide World) .201 Cortisone being inspected (Wide \Vorld) 203 Coty, Rene (United Press) 15
.... .... .
.
.
272 276 278
.
281
.
.
Foreign Aid Programs
power
(Courtesy, Operations Administration)
Sicilian
site
283
Formosa Chinese
Nationalist
soldiers
(Howard
churek)* France Trash in Paris street (Wide World) French officials (Wide World)
So291
....
293 295
Frontispiece
Dance Pakistan ballet group (Wide World)
.
.
.212
....
215
Democracy Soviet jet at Bornholm (Wide World) Disasters Sand-bag brigade (Larry Burrows)*
Dufy. Raoul (Wide World) Dulles. John Foster (European) Durkin, Martin P. (Wide World)
221 .
.
.
222
Amman
(Wide World)
.
.
.
395
11
Shanghai art class (Eastfoto) 235 Storage closet schoolroom (Post-Dispatch Pic235 tures from Black Star)
*
^^asperi, Alcide de (Wide World) ^^ Gasworks in Germany (United Press)
10 .
.
303
Germany Billboard in Frankfurt (Wide World) ,311 East Berlin woman with milk bottle (Wide World) 311 Refugee family (Wide World) 311 Crowds near food centres (Wide World) .311 Golf .
.
3
Protest in .Seoul (Michael Rougier)*
No
Ben Hogan (Wide World) 316 Gottwald, Klement (Wide World) 529 Great Britain Pallbearers for Queen Mary (European) .319 Tito and Churchill (Wide World) 321 Greece Earthquake ruins (United Press) 322 Five-mile tunnel (Courtesy, U.S. Foreign 323 Operations Administration) Gymnastics festival in Germany (Wide World) 325 .
*
3
....
329 6 6
....
333 10
335
Horticulture Radioactive flowers (United Press) Hospitals
.
.
401 403 403 403
.
(Wide World)
Jo.seph
L^'l
Warren (United Lebanon Earl
415
Press)
Survivor of "Champollion" (Henry Wallace)* 420 Libraries
Bof)kmobile
in Puerto Rico (International) street during coronation (United Press) Louisiana Delta marsh survey (United Press) Luce. Clare Boothe (Wide World)
.
.
423 430 431 2
Luxembourg Royal wedding (Nationaal Foto Persbureau)* 434 lUlachinery and Machine Tools ''' Steel cog inspection (Courtesy, General
Company)
436 15
3
Mau Mau
disturbances, Kenya . . 121 British Caribbean federation plan (Courtesy, The New York Times) 127 .
Korean War. 1953 Mt. Everest exploration routes (Courtesy, The Times, London) Rhodesia-Nyasaland federation Toll roads, northeastern U.S Truce camp areas. Korea Marin, John (Wide World) Manine Biology J. B. Smith and coelacanth (Wide World) Marines testing reconnaissance craft (Wide World) Mary, Queen (Wide World) Mathematics teaching aid (Wide World) .
Meat
336
Atom bank
at Argonne hospital (Post-Dis337 patch Pictures from Black Star) Housing project in Jordan valley (Courtesy, 341 UNATIONS)
.
.
.
.
increase in Great Britain (United Press)
400 264 613 615 404 529 442 443
.
529 448 449
.
451 452
.
454
Medicine Plastic brain (European)
Research centre in Maryland (Wide World) Medicine, Military Hydraulic lift ambulance (Wide World) .
.
Meteorology Tornado damage, Worcester, Mass. (United Press)
LJammarskjold, Dag (Wide World) Hearing Telephone booth for deaf (European) Hemingway, Ernest (Wide World) Hobby. Oveta Culp (Wide World) Home Economics Fountain at Paris fair (United Press) Hoover. Herbert C. (Wide World) Horse Racing Native Dancer (Wide World)
....
man's land boundary (Jun Miki)*. Returning prisoner (United Press) Mortar crew (Wide World) Marines helping wounded comrade (Courtesy. Department of Defense. Photo by Cpl. Jack Weber, Marine Corps) 403 General Clark signing truce (U.S. Navy photograph) 403 Korowicz, Marek (Wide World) 11 Krebs. Hans A. (Wide World) 14
Area of
.301
.
.
529
War
Korean
Maps
Frontispiece
(1)
Fruit crates in Switzerland (Wide World)
....
Arctic research centre (Wide World) literacy poster (Courtesy, UNESCO)
Mexican
.
456
458 461
Missouri
Harry
Truman
S.
(Post-Dispatch Pictures from
Black Star)
Moroccan
soldiers in (Jasablanca (United Press)
Wayne (Wide World) Moscow farmhouses (United Press) Morse,
469 472 6 473
Motion Pictures Scene from The Robe (20th Century-Fox Stu475
dios)* Cecil B. de Mille (J. R.
Eyerman)* .... 476 (Wide World) 477 478 Japanese studio technicians (Wide World) Mulay Mohammed ben Arafa, Sidi (European) 11 Munitions Atomic artillery gun (Courtesy, U.S. Air
Dungeon
ballet
.
.
485
Force)
Museums Ice skater
Hayes Alan Jenkins (Wide World)
Illiterate tional)
Immigrants World)
Indian
women
in
class
.
346
(Interna-
348 in
New York
city factory
(Wide
Whitney Memorial hall (Wide World) ... 487 Music Ralph Vaughan Williams (Picture Post photo 489 by Bert Hardy- Fix from Publix)
349
Naguib, Mohammed (Wide World)
Indian children learning about malaria (Wide
World) Indochina Parachute drop at Lang Son (United Press)
gamma
globulin (Courtesy,
353 .
356
.
.
Pakistan wheat shipments (Courtesy, Foreign Operations Administration)
.
2 7
Geographic
360
Society) of the World Full-pressure flight suit (Official U.S.
.
363
Soviet cruiser (European)
493
Navies
Navy 496 497
photograph)
Nehru, Jawaharlal (European) Netherlands
U.S. .
Nagy, Imre (Wide World) National Geographic Society Aquascope (Courtesy, National
.
The Na-
tional Foundation for Infantile Paralysis) Interior Decoration Swedish housing project (Wide World)
.
371
Wholesalers'
building
in
Rotterdam
11
(Wide 500
World)
Iran
Damaged 227 525 10
education
~
at
Magsaysay, Ramon (Wide World) Malenkov, Georgi M. (United Press)
International Trade
News balloon (Wide World) Denmark
Arab refugees
LTapell. William (Wide World) Kcnyatta, Jonio (Wide World)
Electric
Photomontage. Photos: Wide World (6); United Press (3); Owen from Black Star (1); Hatami from Black Star (1); Courtesv, Eleanor Lambert. Inc. (1); Courtesy, UNATIONS (1); Courtesy, U. S. Department of Defense
Bottling project (United Press)
393 529
London
U.S. Foreign
Infantile Paralysis
f^ams ^^ Hirakud dam
j.)o
391
Jordan
iel.
(International) Fire at General Motors plant (Wide World) Floods on Kyushu Island, Jap. (Wide World) Football Minnesota v. Michigan (United Press)
.
Communism Drawing
389
Star) Surrender of soldier (Wide World) Jet Propulsion British Avro Vulcan bombers (United Press) Joad. Cyril E. M. (Wide World)
267
dam
.
665 666 734
176 14
.... ....
Davis
.
645 382
Church Membership Jehovah's Witnesses convention (Wide World) Churchill, Winston Leonard S. (Wide World) Civil Aeronautics Administration "Push-button" hangars (Wide World) Clothing Industry Businessmen in shorts (Lisa Larsen)* Coal miners in Formosa (Wide World) Coast guard icebreaker (Courtesy, U.S. Coast
|7airs and Exhibitions * Display at Paris fair (United Press) Federal Power Commission
.
579
Ceramics Monthly) 158 Charts .\dvcrtising, dollar expenditures lor, 1935-53 22 Cotton crop, U.S 205 Council-manager plan, adoption by U.S. cities (Pictograph Corp.) 481 Farm income, gross, U.S 28 Instalment and cash buying, U.S. (Pictograph Corp.) Marital status, ages 14-74, U.S Petroleum production, world Prices, wholesale and consumers', U.S. Older persons in U.S.. increase, 1900-60 (Pictograph Corp.) Steel production. U.S Stocks, sales and prices of U.S. (Data, copyright by Dow-jones & Co.; courtesy. The Wall Street Journal) Stocks, trading in, U.S
sculpture (United Press)
Japan Candidate billboard (East-West from Black
Electrical Industries
Bed-Fellows!" the Justus, The Minneapolis
Star)
" 235
Albert Einstein (Wide World photo by Patrick Burns) 235 Pupils on strike (Wide World) 236 Egyptian p>easants in palace (United Press) 241 Ei.senhower. Dwight David Portrait
Quiet
Roy
Jamaican
UNRWA)
.
507
"Look! We're out
My
ILLUSTRATIONS
Dniinued
Besi'arch l(ur(^au. Prtwidt-nt, Intvrnationul Pluniicd
KiHlrriiiioii
Mai'K.tri't
i>f
Purnitliood
Ki'n.
Marine Biology
MAUY
SKAKS. I'lanktonolciKist. Woods Woods llolf, Mass.
M.S.W.
M.
WIl.DK
S.
niiition.
World
Orcani/ation,
Sports Writer. The New York Times. New Editor. Sports .Section. Informulion Please Almanac, itc.
ork. N.V.
Shipbuilding
PETEI{ DUFF.
MILDKKI) THRONK.
A.s-sociate
Iowa City.
Editor of tho State
Historical
la.
M.T.H. H.XKI^.
T.
Diri-ctor.
U«'posit
I-'odoral
Insuranct- Corpora-
DC.
Washington,
Editor. Shipping .Shipping.
Bacteriology Professor and Head of t lie Depart nieiit of Haeteriology, rni\ersity of Illinois College of Medicine, Chieano, HI. lUicterioIo>;ist in Chief. Uesearcli and Kducational Hospital, and Consultant on IJacteriology, \eterans Administration, Hines, III.
MIL-AN VACLAV Ni part)
History. University of Utrecht,
Netherlands: former Profes.sor of Dutch History and Institutions! University of London. Lond(m. Eng. Author of The Revuli of the Netherlands; Napoleon. For and Aoain.it.
PAUL
Chemotherapy
WEUMEK,
M.D. Secretary. Committee on Research: A.-^Secretary. Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, American Medical .\ssociation. Co-editor of .A /or/rrn Treatment. L.
sistant
''^s*
Insurance (in part) Insurance Editor and Correspondent to Financial Times. Bankers' .Magazine. Ineestors' Chronicle, Lloyd's List, Lotulon Eng.
PERCY STEBBINGS.
M.V.W.
Juvenile Delinquency
M KIAM VAN WATERS.
Superintendent, Reformatory for
I
Framingham. Mass. Author of Youth
Women,
in Cvnflict; etc.
''•^•W.
M.Wa.
Jewish Literature Professor of lUble, Jewish History and I'hilosophy, Hebrew Theological College. Chicago. 111. Professor of Jewish Literature, the College of Jewish Studies, Chicago. 111. Author of .1
.MEYEK WAX.MAN.
Jlistonj of Jeirish Literature;
A Handbook
of Judaism.
Na.G.
Fairs
and Exhibitions
-NAT GREEX. Manager, Chicago, HI., Barnum & Bailey Combined Shows, Inc.
Office,
P-T»-
Employment; Strikes Professor of Economics, Brown University, ProviAuthor of Economics and Problems of Labor; etc.
C.
BROWN.
Ringling Pros, and
(in part)
Professor Emeritus of Forest Utilization.
Boxing
N.FI.
New
(in part)
Editor, the Ring.
Pre,sident.
National Boxing Writers' Association, New York, N.Y. Fleischer's All Time Ring Record Book; etc.
Author of
Nat
N.F.T.
NATHAN
F.
TWINING.
Aviation, Military (in part) General. U.S.A. F. Chief of Staff, U.S.
Air Force.
Jerusalem
No.B.
Professor of International Relations,
The
Hebrew University, Jerusalem, Pal. Author of Palestine; Judea Lives Again; Jewish Youth Comes Home; Israel; etc. N.Sy.
NICOLAS SLONIMSKY. Music Critic. since 1900;
nomic and Financial .\dviser and Acting Colonial Secretary, Leewaid P.W.R.
Table Tennis National Chairman, History Committee,
U.S. Table Tennis As.sociation.
Q'W.
QUINCY WRIGHT. of Chicago. Chicago,
International Law Professor of International Law, The University 111. Author of A Study of War; etc.
R.A.Bn.
Advertising
ROGER A. BARTON. Editor, Advertising Agency Magazine, NewYork. N.Y., and Advertising Handbook. Lecturer in Advertising. Grailuate School of Business, Columbia University. New York, N.Y. R.A.Dn.
Maldive Islands
ROSEMARY ANNE DIXON.
NORMAN BENTWICH.
Music
Music (in part) Composer. Author of .A/usic
of Latin America; etc.
Socialism (in part) 1928-48.
N.T.
NORMAN THOMAS. Author of America's Way
Leeward Islands
Government Eco-
Islands.
York State College of Forestry, Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.
FLEISCHER. PubUsher and
THE HON. PERCY WILMIR BECKWITH.
(in part): etc.
Lumber
N ELSON
P-W.Be.
PETER W. ROBERTS.
N.C.B.
Horse Racing (in part) Racing correspondent. Sporting
London. Eng.
dence, R.I.
Georgia H. COLLINS, JR. Assistant Professor of Pohtical Science. The University of Georgia, Athens, Ga. Director, Hureau of Public Administration.
MOKKIS W.
S.
PETER STIRLING WILLETT. Chronicle.
PHILIP T.AFT.
M.W.H.C.
NAT
Author of
Netherlands Professor of
P.L.W.
M.V.N.
(/n /n/r/); etc.
World. London. Eng.
^^^-
PIETEK (iEYL. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation
MAPLK
and
(in part)
Editor. Cleveland Plain Dealer. Cleveland. O.
''•'^^-
Iowa
.Society of Iowa.
Cleveland; Ohio
PAUL BELLAMY.
British Ships
M.Te.
tion.
N
^^y-
nitcd Nations, (icncva. .Switz.
I
Billiards
PETER BRANDWEIN.
lloh' Ori-aiio^rapliic InsUlii-
World Health Organization Information omccr. Division of Public Infor-
Piil.lio
lltaltli
...
Irrigation Irrigation Economist, U.S. Depart-
^•^'-
M.Ss. tion.
p A F '^^^P.\UL A. EWING. Former Senior ment of .Agriculture.
Socialist presidential candidate, Out; Socialist's Faith; etc.
A
Health, Education and Welfare, U.S. Department of Secretary, U.S. Department of Health, Education and W'elfare. Wasiiington, D.C. Author of Codification of State Banking Laws in Texas; etc.
of
Ceylon.
R.A.O.
Aviation, Military (in part) A. OFSTIE. Vice-Admiral, U.S.N. Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air), Department of the Navy, Washington, D.C.
RALPH
R.B.Gt.
Endocrinology
ROBERT BENJAMIN GREENBLATT,
Professor of Endo crinology. Medical College of Georgia, Augusta, Ga. Author of Office Endocrinology.
R.B.Kr. R. B.
O.C.Hy.
(in part)
London Correspondent, the Times
KOEBER.
Chamber
of
M.D.
San Francisco Manager, Research Department, San Francisco
Commerce, San Francisco,
Calif.
OVETA CULP HOBBY.
R.B.McL.
Farmers
ROBERT
B.
tration, Wasiiington,
O.H.C. O. H.
Motion Pictures
COELLN,
JR. Editor and Publisher, Business Screen. Chicago,
State,
Securities and Exchange Commission Secretary, Securities and Exchange Commission,
O.M.T.
Arabia
OWEN MEREDITH TWEEDY.
(in part);
Surgery
OSCAR SUGAR, M.D.
American Citizens Abroad Department of
Director, Passport Office, U.S.
Washington, D.C.
Physiology Associate Professor of Physiology, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chiicago, III.
R.C.I.
Patents
R.C.W.
ROBERT
WATSON.
Commissioner of Patents, Patent U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. C.
Office,
(in part)
Associate Professor of Neurology and Neurological Surgery, University of IlUnois Neuropsychiatric Institute, 111.
SHIPLEY.
Syria (in part); etc.
Former
British government officer. of the Sahara; Cairo to Persia and Back; etc.
O.Sr.
Chiicago,
B.
RAYMOND CLIFFORD INGRAHAM.
Wasiiington, D.C.
Author of By Way
D.C.
R.B.S.
RUTH
ORVAL L. DuBOIS.
Administration
(in part)
111.
O.L.DuB.
Home
.McLEAISH. Administrator, Farmers Home Adminis-
R.D.B.
ROGER bus, O,
D.
BONHAM.
Ceramic Arts and Crafts Associate Editor, Ceramics Monthly. Colum-
I
[
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Brazil (in par/)
R.d'E,
RAUL
d'ECA. Lecturer on Latin- American affairs. Outline History of Latin America.
Co-author of
*
Baptist Church Past President. The American Baptist Emeritus Professor of History of Christianity, Historical Society. Crozer Seminary, Chester, Pa. Editor, The Chronicle; Journal of
R.E.E.H.
REUBEN
E. E.
HARKNESS.
R.R.R.B.
ROliERT
R. R. Massachusetts.
R.S.Br.
Program Secretary
in
North
America, World Council of Churches. Minister, Westminster Presbyterian Church, Jamaica, N.Y. Author of What \fust the Church Do?;
Libraries (in part) E. ELLSWORTH. Director of Libraries and Professor of Librarianship. State University of Iowa, Iowa City, la. Co-author of Modular Planning for College and University Libraries.
R.S.Ss.
Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. Admiral U.S.C. and G.S. Director. U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, Wasiiington, D.C.
R.S.T.
R.E.EI.
RALPH
R.F.A.S.
F. A.
Religion; Christian Unity
ROBERT SPERRY BILHEIMER. etc.
Baptist History.
ROBERT
BROOKS.
XIX Bowles, Chester Dean, Williams College, Williamstown,
STUDDS. Rear
Painting; Sculpture (in part) Curator in charge of educational worlc, the National Gallery of Art, Wasliington, D.C. Author of The Arts and Man.
RAYMOND SOMERS
STITES.
Munitions
ROBERT
(in
parO
THOMAS.
Military Historian, Office of the chief of Military History, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C. Author of The Story of the 30th Division, A.E.F.; etc. S.
Spanish Literature
R.F.B.
REGINALD FRANCIS BROWN.
Cowdray Professor
of Spanish,
Author of La Xovela espanola 1700-1S50.
University of Leeds, Eng.
Methodist Church Executive Director, The Commission on Public Relations and Methodist Information.
R.Sy.
RALPH STOODY.
R.G.D.A.
Prices (in part) Professor of Statistics, University of London, London, Eng. Author of Mathematical Analysis of Economics; Statistics for Economists; etc.
R.T.B.F.
Paper and Pulp Industry R. G. MACDONALD. Secretary-Treasurer, Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, New York, N.Y.
R.Tu.
ROY GEORGE DOUGLAS ALLEN.
Obituaries:
Mary
ROGER THOMAS BALDWIN FULFORD. Queen Victoria; Royal Dukes; The Greville Memoirs.
etc.
Author of George IV; Editor (with Lytton Strachey) of
R.G.M.
Tunnels
R.H.Ds.
ROBERT
H. DODDS. Associate Editor. Engineering News-Record. York, N.Y. Co-author of Building the Navy's Bases in World
New War
Eisenhower, Dwight D. (in part); Stevenson, Adiai E. Writer of syndicated column. "The National WhirUglg." Author of The Mirrors of 19S2; Sons of the Wild Jackass.
RAY TUCKER.
II.
Museums
R.H.Ls.
RALPH
RAYMOND VICTOR BERNARD BLACKMAN.
(in part)
LEWIS.
Assistant Chief, INIuseum Branch, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C.
H.
Navies of the World Editor, Jane's Fighting Ships, London, Eng. Author of Modern World Book of Ships.
R.V.B.B.
R.W.Cr.
Radio and Television
RUFUS WILLIAM CRATER. New New
Telecasting Magazine,
York
Editor,
(in part)
Broadcasting-
York, N.Y.
New
R.H.M.
ROGER H. Trenton, N.J
MciDONOUGH.
Director,
New
Jersey Jersey State Library,
Exploration and Discovery
S.A.K.
SERGE A. KORFF.
Vice-President and
Member of Board of Directors,
the Explorers' Club.
R.Ho.
Detroit
ROYCE HOWES.
Textile Industry (in part) President. Textile Economics Bureau, Inc.,
S.B.H.
City Editor, the Detroit Free Press.
STANLEY
Community Trusts Executive Director. New York Community Trust. Director. Equitable Security Trust Company: Coca-Cola, International, Wilmington, Del.; James Foundation. St. James, Mo.
R.Hs.
New
B.
HUNT.
York. N.Y. Editor, Textile Organon,
New
York, N.Y.
RALPH HAYES.
R.H.Y.
British West Indies Assistant Public Relations Adviser. Welfare Organization in the West Indies.
RICHARD HUGH YOUNG. Development and
S.Gd.
Furs
SAMUEL J. GOTTESFELD.
Fur News Editor, Women's Wear Daily. India
S.GI.
(in part)
SARVEPALLI GOPAL. Assistant Director, National Archives of New Delhi. Ind. Author of The Permanent Settlement in Bengal
India.
and Its
Results;
The Viceroyalty of Lord Ripon, 1880-188Jf.
Physics
Ri.SI.
RICHARD SCHLEGEL. Associate Professor of Physics, Michigan State College, East Lansing, Mich.
S.L.H.
Greece
Office,
Archaeology (in part) ROBERT J. BRAIDWOOD. Associate Professor of Old World Prehistory, The Oriental Institute and the Department of Anthropology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, 111.
(in part)
STELIO LUCIAN HOURMOUZIOS. London. Author
Director, Greek Information of Salute to Greece; Starvation in Greece.
R.J.B.
R.L.Fo. R. L. cage.
FORNEY,
Accident Prevention (in part) General Secretary, National Safety Council, Chi-
Judaism; Religious Education
S.M.B.
SAMUEL M. BLUM ENFIELD. Chicago. Educator.
111.
Author of Master
S.McC.L.
International Labour Organization Professor Emeritus of Social Legislation, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Author of Railway Labor in the U.S.; Emergency Housing Legislation; etc.
SAMUEL McCUNE LINDSAY.
111.
Motion Pictures (in pari) Academy, Loudon, Eng. Editor, The Cinema; Experiment in the Film; etc. Author of Film; A Parade; Movie etc. Seat at the Cinema; etc. Co-author of
R.Man.
ROGER MANVELL.
Director, British Film
S.McG.
Texas
STUART McGregor. Dallas. Tex.
R.M.S.
Soil
Conservation
ROBERT M. SALTER. Chief, Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Architecture
SCOTT MEREDITH.
R.Nb.
REXFORD NEWCOMB.
Dean, College of Fine and AppUed Arts, and Director, Bureau of Coxmnunity Planning, University of Illinois, Urbana, 111. Author of Architecture of the Old Northwest Territory; etc.
New
Associate Editor, the Dallas Morning News,
Editor, The Texas Almanac.
S.Mh. Inc.,
York, N.Y.
Humour of 1953 President, Scott Meredith Literary Agency, Author of Week-End Book of Humor; etc.
S.M.Mc.
Philosophy
STERLING M. McMURRIN.
Professor of Philosophy, University of
Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah. S.Nn.
Missouri
R.P.Br.
RALPH
P.
BIEBER.
Washington University,
WilUam St.
Louis,
Eliot
Smith Professor of History,
English Literature (in part)
SYLVA NORMAN. Slielley;
P.
KEESECKER, III.
critic,
London. Eng. Author of After
Cat Without Substance.
S.Nr.
Association, Chicago,
Writer and
Mo.
R.P.K.
RAYMOND
(in part)
President, College of Jewish Studies, of Troyes; a Study of Rashi, the
D.O.
Medicine (in part) Editor, American Osteopathic
Formosa; Guam; etc. Office of International Materials PoUcy, U.S. of State. Washington, D.C. Professorial Lecturer, Ameri-
STANLEY NEHMEK. Department
can University, Washington, D.C.
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS
XX
Aviation, Military (in part)
S.P.J.
PAUL JOHNSTON.
S.
Scl«>nc«'s,
New
Oirfctor.
lusiituti'
of
AiToiiniitlral
tin-
York. N.Y. Foreign Investments
S.Pr.
V.B.B.
Business Review
(in part)
VIVA liRLLE nOOTHE.
Director, Hurcau of llusincss Kt-scarch, ("olloK*' of ConimiTce and AdniiniKtration. Tlie Ohio State Unlvi-rsHy, Coliiinhu-i. . Author of Sfusonulily of liniploynienl in Ohio; learnings in
Ohio
Jndu!itrii-s;*vlc.
SAMl
Ki^ IM/JCK. t'liiof. Iiitornatioiml Invcstnifiit Stvtioii. Halaiinof I'uynuMits l)i\|sii)ii. OtTIc*- of ltiisiiu>Ks Kconoiiiics, l'..S. Dcimriincnt ( of 'olUIIUTf«', WusliiiiKloii. li.C
V.Pn.
VAI> PKTKIt.SON.
Civil Defense. US. Administrator, Federal Civil licfcusc Adini.iis-
tration, WasliiriKton.
U.C.
Glass
S.R.S.
SAMl'KI. U.\Y StMlOLKS. York
Ni'w
.State
Kmorltiis Profi>.ssor of Cla.ss Tt-cliiiolo^y, CoIIckc of Ceramics, Alfred University. Alfrt-d
NY.
V.T.E.
Austria
VlCTOli THO.MA.S ICCCKIi. publishers and printers.
Export-Import Bank
S.Sd.
SIDNEY SHERWOOD.
.Secretary, Export- Import
of Washington Hank of Wa.sh-
incton, Wa.shinKtOD. D.C.
Music
S.Sp.
SKiMlND
{in pari)
SP.\KTH.
Lecturer and broadcaster, .\nthor of Crrat History of Popular Music in America; Opportunities in
Symphonies; A Music; Barber Shop
Dlr««tor,
Kroadcaster on
(in /xiit)
London branch, Austrian and economics.
|M>litic8
V.T.L.
Psychiatry (in part) T. LATHHIUY. M.D. As.sistant Professor of I'sychiatry, Medical School. University of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia. Pa.
VINCENT W.A.A.
W.
Veterinary Medicine
AITKEN,
D.V..M.
American Veterinary
Editor in Chief, Medical Association publications, Chicago, III. A.
liatlads; etc.
W.A.Dn. Radio and Television (in part) SOL TAISHOFK. President. Editor and I'ublisher of BroadcastingTelecasting Magazine, Washington. D.C.
S.Tf.
Theatre
WILLIAM AUBREY DARLINGTON. Drama
(in part)
Editor and Chief
Drama Critic, the Daily Telegraph, London, Eng. London Drama (Correspondent, The Mew York Times. Author of The Actor and His Audience; etc.
S.W.K.
Hawaii
SAMIELWILDEH
KING. Governor
W.A.Dw.
of Hawaii.
Fencing
WARREN
Wealth and Income, Distribution of (in part) n.\KN.\. Chief. Statistics Section. Research DivisionI'niteil Nations Economic Commission for Europe. Former Fellow, Nuftleld Colleue. Oxford. Ens;. Author of Redistribution of Income Through Public Finance in I'J37.
T.Bar.
DOW.
A.
Former Secretary. Amateur Fencers League of
America.
TIMOR
Stepinac. Aloysius; Feltin, Maurice; etc. Publicity Director. Hishops" Committee for Victims of War. National Catholic W'elfare Conference, Washing-
T.Ce.
THO.MAS ton,
J.
CILH.\NE.
D.C.
T.C.St.
THEODORE
C.
STREIBERT.
United States Information Agency Director. United States Information
Agency, Washington. D.C. T.D.D.
THOMAS DRAKE DURRANCE.
Liberia (in part) Free-lance writer.
T.E.Hy.
Christian Science
THO.MAS
HURLEY.
Manager. Committees on Publication of The Mother Church. The First Church of Christ, Scientist. Boston, Mass. E.
W.B.Br.
Cartography
WILLIAM IJ. I5RIERLY. Geographer, Array ington D.C. Author of Special-Use Maps. W.B.Dy.
Service,
Box\r\g {in part)
WILLIAM HENRY HARRINGTON DALBY.
Writer and broad-
W.Dd.
Foreign Aid Programs, U.S. Director of Economic Studies, CCouncil on Foreign Relations. New York, N.Y. Author of Trade and Payments in Western Europe; Xew Directions in Our Trade Policy.
WILLIAM DIEBOLD. JR.
W.Dk.
Blood, Diseases of the Professor Clinical Medicine, Tufts College Medical School. Medford. Mass. Senior Physician and HemaEditor-intologist. New England Center Hospital, Boston, Mass. Chief, Blood the Journal of Hematology.
WILLIAM DAMESHEK, M.D.
—
D. MITCHELL, istration, Washington, D.C.
WILLIAM
Small Business Administration Administrator, Small Business Admin-
Photography
W.D.Mn. T.G.W.
TERENCE GERARD WEILER. Home
Office.
Aliens (in part) Principal. Aliens Department,
Wash-
cast«r on boxing. Administrative Steward, British Boxing Board of Control, London, Eng.
W.D.MI. Political Parties, British T.E.U. T. E. UTLEY. Leader Writer. The Times. London, Eng. Author of Essays in Consercatism.
Map
WILLARD
D. MORGAN. Editor, The Encyclopedia of Photography (11 volumes). Author of Synchroflash Photography; etc.
London, Eng.
Shows
W.E.O. Geology
T.H.K.
TRUMAN
H. KUHN. Dean of the Graduate .School and Professor of Geology. Colorado School of Mines, Golden. Colo. T.Pe.
Germany (in part) PRITTIE. German Cor-
Berlin (in part);
THE HON. TERENCE CORNELIUS respondent, the Manchester Guardian.
Author of South
to
Freedom;
etc.
WILLIAM Stock
E.
(in part)
OGILVIE.
Secretary-Manager, International Live Author of Pioneer Agricultural Chicago, 111.
Exposition.
Journalists.
New Hampshire
W.E.Ss.
WAYNE EDSON College. Hanover.
STEVENS.
Professor of History,
Dartmouth
N.H.
Motion Pictures (iw porO Secretary-Treasurer. Motion Picture Research Council, Inc., Hollywood. Calif. Editor of Motion Picture Sound Engineering.
W.F.Ky. T.Q.C.
THOMAS QUINN
CURTISS.
Drama
Critic.
Theatre (in part) Contributing Book York Times Book Re-
Reviewer to Jlcrald-Tribune Books and The New view, New York, N.Y.; Drama and Film Critic of Porfs Herald-Tribune, Paris, Fr. Theatre Correspondent of Variety, Paris, Fr. ;
Contract Bridge (in part) Bridge Correspondent, the Observer and Evening Xews, London, Eng. Author of Reese on Play; etc. Co-author of Acol System of Contract Bridge.
T.Ree.
JOHN TERENCE REESE.
T.T.M.
Tropical Diseases
THOMAS
T. MACKIE. Chairman, The American Foundation for Tropical Medicine. New York, N.Y. Consultant, Internal and Tropical Medicine, the Roosevelt Hospital. New York, N.Y. the Norwalk Hospital. Norwalk. Conn. Author of Manual of Tropical Medicine.
WILLIAM
F.
KELLEY. Manager and
Paraguay
W.Ft.
WESLEY FROST. ilton College,
Former Professor of International Relations, HamClinton. N.Y. Former U.S. Ambassador to Paraguay. Bread and Bakery Products
W.H.E.
WILLIAM HENRY EVANS,
(in part)
Editor, Baker and Confectioner, Lon-
don, Eng.
Nyasaland
W.H.Is.
WILLIAM HAROLD INGRA.MS. London, Eng. Author of Arabia and
(in part); etc.
Adviser on Overseas Information, the Isles;
Hong Kong;
etc.
,
T.V.H,
THOMAS New
Air Races and Records; Track and Field Sports; etc. V. HANEY. Member of the Staff. The Xew York Times
York. N.Y.
Business Review
W.H.Jn.
U. E.
BAUGHMAN.
Leeds, Eng.
W.H.McC. Secret Service, U.S. Chief. United States Secret Service, Treasury
Department. Washington. D.C.
pflrO
Assistant Editor, Yorkshire Post, Translator of Hegel's Science of Logic.
WILLIAM HUNTER MrCREA. U.E.B.
(m
WALTER HENRY JOHNSTON.
Astronomy
Professor of Mathematics, University of London, at Royal Holloway College, Englefield Green. Surrey, Eng. Author of Physics of the Sun and Stars; Relativity Physics; etc.
I
(
EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Yachting
.H.Tr. W.H.Tr
WILLIAM
H.
TAYLOR. Managing
Editor,
Genetics
WARREN
Yachting.
XXI
W.P.S. P.
SPENCER.
Professor of Biology, College of Wooster,
Wooster, O.
W.J.Bp.
Staudinger, Hermann; Zernike, Frits Librarian. Wellcome Historical Medical Co-author of Notable Names in Medicine and
WILLIAM JOHN BISHOP. Library, London. Surgery.
Co-operatives
W.J. CI.
WALLACE JUSTIN CAMPBELL. Oflice,
Director,
WOODTHORPE JUDE HARRISON.
Motor Transportation {in part) Economist, London, Eng.
WILL JUDY.
Editor. Dog World. Chicago, Breeding; Dog Encyclopaedia; etc.
III.
Shows (in part) Author of Principles Eye, Diseases of the
W.L.Be.
WILLIAM
W.L.MI.
WILLIAM
L.
Tennessee
WILLIAM THOMAS ALDERSON.
Editor. Tennessee Assistant Archivist, Tennessee State Library and
Assistant
Historical Quarterly. Archives, Nashville, Tenn.
Law
W.T.We.
WILLIAM THOMAS WELLS.
(in part)
Member
of Parliament for Walsall, Eng. Member of the Lord Chancellor's Committee on the Practice and Procedure of the Supreme Court and Magistrates' Courts Rules Committee. Author of How English Law Works. Barrister.
BENEDICT, M.D.
Emeritus Professor of Ophthalmology. University of Minnesota Graduate School, Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minn. L.
(in part)
Director. International Co-operative Alliance, London, Eng. Co-author of Co-operation: a Survey of the Principles and Organisation of the Co-operative Mooement in Great Britain and Ireland.
W.T.A.
W.Ju.
Dog
part)
Co-operatives
WILLIAM PASCOE WATKINS.
Washington, D.C.,
Cooperative League of the U.S.A.
W.J.Hn.
of
(m
W.P.Ws.
MITCHELL.
Social Security (in part) Acting Commissioner, Social Security
Administration, Washington, D.C.
W.V.M.
Kimpton, Lawrence Alpheus
MORGENSTERN.
WILLIAM
V. University of Chicago, Chicago,
Chemurgy
WHEELER McMILLEN.
Editor in Chief. Farrn Journal. Editorial Director, Town Journal. Author of New Riches From the Soil; etc.
Hong Kong
W.V.PI.
Motor-Boat Racing W. MELVIN CROOK. Associate Editor, Yachting, New York, N.Y. Author of Power For The Small Boat.
W.M.Cr.
Morning
Post,
The
111.
WILFRED VICTOR PENNELL.
W.McM.
Director of Public Relations,
(in part)
Associate Editor, South China
Hong Kong.
W.V.R. Great Britain
&
Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of
WILLIAM VAUGHAN REYNOLDS. Birmingham, Eng. Author of
Selections
W.V.WI.
Editor, the
(in part)
Birmingham
Post,
From Johnson. Prices (in part)
WILLIAM W.Mr.
WILLIAM MANGER. American
Organization of American States Assistant Secretary-General, Organization of
States.
W.W.Bn.
W.N.F.
Anthropology Executive Secretary, Division of Anthropology aud Psychology, National Research Council, Washington, D.C. Author of Area Studies in American Universities; The Iroquois Eagle Dance.
WILLIAM
N.
FENTON.
Education
W.O.L.S.
(i"n
porO
WILLIAM OWEN LESTER SMITH.
Former Professor of the Education, University of London. Author of To Whom
Sociology of Do Schools Belong-'; Education in Great Britain; etc.
W.P.Ma.
WALTER
Telegraphy P.
MARSHALL.
graph Company,
V. WILMOT, JR. Instructor, Department of Economics, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.
New
President,
The Western Union
Tele-
York, N.Y.
Education
Associate Professor of Education and Chairman, Department of History of Education, New York University, New York, N.Y. President's Research Fellow, Brown University, Providence, R.I., 1950-.51. Editor. School and Society. Author of Guide to Research in Educational History.
Kentucky
W.W.Js.
WALTER
W. JENNINGS.
Professor of Economics. University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky. Author of Introduction to the Econimiic History of European Peoples: Introduction to the Economic History of the American People; Twenty Giants of American Business; etc.
W.W.Ms.
Protestant Episcopal Church Librarian, the Church Historical Society, Author of History of the American Episcopal Church.
WILLIAM W. MANROSS. Philadelphia, Pa.
W.Pr.
Louisiana WALTER PRICHARD. FrauQois Xavier Martin Professor of Louisiana History, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La.
(in part)
WILLIAM W. BRICKMAN.
ANONYMOUS.
3
1953 S
JANUARY M T W 1
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AUGUST
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MARCH
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APRIL 2
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SEPTEMBER
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OaOBER 3 10 17
7 14
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FEBRUARY 7
10 17 23 24
2
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SEPTEMBEf 6 13
JULY f
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APRIL 6 7 12 13 14 19 20 21 26 27 28
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2
JANUARY M T W T
AUGUST
5 6 12 13 19 20
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MARCH
9 16 23 30
W 1
FEBRUARY
9
12 8 15 22 29
15
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25 26
8
8
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f
1
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1955 JULY
2
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5 12 19
7 14
8 15
9 16
2
3
4
9
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10 17 24
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30 31
MAY 3 4 10 It 17 18 24 25
5 12
19
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NOVEMBEf
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7
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14
8 15
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3 10 17
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MAY 3 10
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NOVEMBER 5 12
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JUNE
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DECEMBER
4 3 10 11 17 18
24 25
5 6 12 13 19 20 26 27
JANUARY 1
4
5
New
Veur's
6 13 20
7 14
27
28
JUNE
1 2 3 4 9 10 11 8 15 16 17 18 22 23 24 25 29 30 31
21
1954
clay.
Indt'iK-'ndence day, Burma. Annular eclipse of the sun, invisible at Washington. D.C. (date as of Greenwich civil time).
Epiphany, or Twelfth Night. Second session of 83rd U.S. congress convenes 8 Jackson day. 18-19 Total eclipse of the moon, visible at Washington, D.C. (date as of Greenwich civil time). 26 Republic day, India. 26 .Australia day.
5
12 19
5 12 19
26
26
THE
year 1954 of the Christian Era corresponds to the
j-ear of
6
7
13
14
20 21 27 28
Crea-
tion 5714-5715 of the Jewish calendar; to the year 137J-1374 of the
Mohammedan
hegira; to the 178th jear of the United States;
and to
19 19 25
28
the
of
Ground-hog day. Lincoln's birtliday, 1809. Georgia day, U.S.
Septuagesima Sunday. St. \'alentine's day.
Washington's birthday, 1732. Quinquagesima (Shrove) Sunday.
7
First Sunday in Lent. Girl Scout day, U.S. Ides of March. St. Patrick's day, patron saint of Ireland. Purim (Jewish festival). 1st day. Equino.x (3:54 A.M. Greenwich civil time), beginning of spring. .Annunciation. Quarter day. Seward day, Alaska. 100th anniversary, signing of first
21
25 30 31
treaty
between
Japan
negotiated by Matthew C. Perry.
U.S.,
All Fools' day.
4
Passion Sunday.
day.
International
labour
31
Independence day, Israel. Mother's day. U.S. -Armed Forces day, U.S. Constitution day, Norway. Rogation Sunday.
12
Victoria day. -Xscension day. Memorial (Decoration) day, U.S. L^nion day. Union of South .Africa.
and
the
Commodore
Thomas Jeflferson' s birthday, 1 743. Pan-American day. Maundy Thursday.
Good Friday. Jewish Passover, 1st day. Easter Sunday. Easter Monday. English
Trooping the colour
in II's
15
Lammas
of
the
Mohammedan
year 1374 begins at
World War 1 1. Labor day, U.S.
time).
JULY 1
Dominian day, Canada.
4 4
Independence day, U.S. Independence day, Philippines. !50th anniversary, birth of Nathaniel Hawthorne, U.S. nov'elist. Independence day, Venezuela. Independence day, Argentina.
5 9
23
16 17 18 23
anniversary,
25
Saints' day. Allhallows.
Election
of
29 30
beginning of celebraticn by American Jewish Tercentenary committee of 300th anniversary of Jewish settlement in what is now the U.S. Independence day. Mexico. Constitution day, U.S. Regatta day, Hawaii.
Greenwich
beginning of autumn. Dominion day. New Zealand. Rosh Hashanah (Jewish holiday beginning year 5715), 1st day. Michaelmas. Quarter day. Feast of St. Jerome.
OCTOBER 4
certain
U.S.
Guy Fawkes
day. 100th anniversary, birth of John Philip Sousa, U.S. composer and Ijandmaster. riic October Revolution, U.S.S.R. Lord Mayor's show, London. Martinmas, or St. Martin's day. Armistice day (World War I). Remembrance day, Canada. 50th anniversary, birth of Franklin Pierce, 14th president of the U.S. Thanksgiv'ing day, L'.S. I
Constitution day, U.S.S.R. Feast of St. Nicholas. Indei)endence day, Finland. Immaculate Conception. Dingaan's day. Union of South
DECEMBER 8
16
Africa.
Independence day, Brazil.
(1:56 p.m.
(in
5
20
Feast of St. Francis of
.\ssisi.
llanukkah (Jewish Feast
of Dedi-
cation), 1st day.
Official
Equinox
day
Independence day, Panama.
First Sunday in .\dvent. St. .Vndrew's day, patron saint of Scotland.
6
beginning
civil time),
26 28
Taber-
28 30
21
.
Greenwich
beginning of summer. Midsummer day. Quarter day. St. John's day. Total eclipse of the sun, visible at Washington, D.C. (date as of civil
11 11 11
6
6
p.m.
6
confederation,
SEPTEMBER
Father's day, U.S.
17
23 ?4 30 31
NOVEMBER
7
Switzerland. Feast of the Transfiguration. Tishah Bov (Jewish Fast of .\b). Independence day, Pakistan. .Assumption of the Blessed Virgin
Trinity Sunday. Flag day. U.S.
(10:55
Hallowe'en.
9
day. English bank holi-
Founding
13 14 17 17 20
Solstice
3 10
states).
the
Independence day, Belgium. Feast of St. Mary Magdalene. Constitution day, Puerto Rico. Independence day, Peru.
15th
civil time),
2 9 16
of atone-
of
31
3 5
1
21
8 15 22 29
Alaska day, Alaska. Labor day. New Zealand.
moon, partly visible at Washington, D.C. (date as of Greenwich civil
Klamehameha day, Hawaii.
7
7
14
18 25
.\ll
sunset.
12
6 13
Kippur (Jewish day
.Ml Souls' day.
.April 21, 1926.
Corpus Christi. Bunker Hill day. U.S.
5 12
Columbus day. Sukkoth (Jewish Feast
Mary. 29
18 19 20 21 25 26 27 28
1
11
4
bank
honor of
Queen Elizabeth birthday. Her majesty was actually born on
Greenwich
Palm Sunday.
18 18 19
Shebuoth (Jewish Pentecost), 1st
8 14
25
2 2
day.
6 lioli-
day.
24 24 30
1
14 15 16
7
10
1
11
Ire-
AUGUST 1
Pentecost (Whitsunday). Wliitmonday. English bank
and died July 12. Orangeman's day. Northern land.
22 25 28
18
who was mortally wounded
14 Bastille day, France. 15-16 Partial eclipse of
21
Vom
1
4
ment).
12 12
time).
day.
11
holiday.
23 24 27 30
7
APRIL 1
8 9 15 17
6
Shrove Tuesday. Mardi gras. Texas Independence day. .\sh Wednesday.
19
May
MAY
JUNE
MARCH 2 2 3 12 15 17
Confederate Memorial day (also May 10, May 30, June 3).
ISOth anniversary, duel between .\aron Burr and .Alexander Hamilton,
festival.
Purification
Virgin.
2
12 12 14 14 22
11
New
Zealand.
26
1
FEBRUARY Candlemas.
Patriots' day, U.S. Primrose day, England. day. .Australia and
.Viizac
7
4 11
nacles), 1st day.
the lS6th year of the Encydopcedia Brilannica.
6
6
DECEMBER
1 3 2 8 9 10 15 16 17 22 23 24 29 30
150th anniversary, birth of Benjamin Disraeli, 1st earl of Beaconsfield,
British statesman and novel-
ist.
22
Forefathers' day (also Dec. 21, Dec. 23), U.S.
22
Solstice (9:25 a.m. Greenwich civil time), beginning of winter.
25
Christmas. Quarter day. English
Dec. 20,
bank holiday. 25
27 28 30 31
.\nnular eclipse of the sun, invisible at Washington, D.C. (date as of Greenwich civil time). Boxing day. English bank holiday. Childermas. Holy Innocents' day. Rizal day, Philippines. New Year's Eve (Hogmanay).
Federal reserve board raised discount rate to banks from
its
CALENDAR OF EVENTS 1953
13ur\'e\' the progress of defence prep-
JANUARY— Confinoed Qi
Eisenhower
Pres.
fcH iiouncnl tho intnidod
anpro-
motion of Allen W. Dulles, depuly ilireetor of llie Central Intelli^;enc-e agency, to post of
goods.
formul.i
limiting
lor
chological warfare.
gram cial
Wilson was con-
firmed b\ the senate as defense by vote of 77 to 6.
secy,
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development announced a SI 9,500,000 loan to India for tion
and
dam
for ailvanced stuiK' in so-
relations
human
and
be-
haviour.
Soviet-Iranian fishery agreement on fishing rights in the Caspian sea was terminated.
consumer>'
Dutch government inform.dly requested resumption of U.S. aid because of economic conse(|uences of severe floods.
for
OT Dutch government
in-
Zf
formed the U.S. that the Netherlands wouki not need direct U.S. economic aiti during 1953.
I
office categorically denied a charge by
Moscow
radio that Sweden had concluded a secret military agreement with the U.S.
the
2
Eisenhower
Pres.
in his first
state of the union message to congress announced that he had ordered the U.S. 7th fleet to end neutralization of Formosa.
Atomic Energy com-
mission stated
semiannual report that the investment of the U.S. in nuclear research in
and development approached §7,500,000,000.
Soviet government rejected an Anglo-U.S.-French invitation to resume 4-power negotiations on an Austrian peace treaty.
the-world
tour
of b\-
the
British
Uueen Elizaand the duke of Edin-
beth II burgh, beginning
U.S. Budget Director Joseph M. Dodge placed sharp restricti(jn> on the spending auof
all
death sentences.
O Great
Britain
and Egypt
Guatemalan congress
voted
to oust 4 su|)remc court justices after the court had rendered an
adverse dela>ing tlecision on the government agrarian reform i)rogram.
Eisenhower an7 Pres. nounced the select ion of Clare
North Korean radio reported the promotion to the rank of generalissimo of Kim II Sung, North Korean premier and preme commander.
Gen. Mark W. 8 commander in
su-
Clark, U.N. Korea, re-
signed an agreenunt |)i()viding ior the immediate introduction of self-go\ernmenl in the .Anglo- Egyptian Sudan and selfdetermination by the Sudanese people of their future political
status.
government broke ofl' diplomatic relations with Israel, charging that Israeli police had connived in the bombing of the soviet legation at Tel Aviv. Soviet
Federal price ceilings were orremoved on many addi-
tlered tional
items, including tires, gasoline, poultry and eggs.
IQ
Office of Defense Mobili-
zation relaxed procurement on steel, copper and aluminum. I
ported that the U.S. army dept. had authorized an increase in the size of the South Korean army
controls
from 12 to 14 divisions.
Polish government issued a decree sharply limiting the right of the Roman Catholic Church
Soviet legation's main offices in Tel Aviv, I.-,racl, were wrecked by a bomb.
9
to
make
church
its
own appointments
to
offices.
in Xo\'. 1953.
3
thority
Eisenhower refused to grant executive clemency to Ethel and Julius Rosenberg, convicted atom spies under
IZ
Plans were revealed fora round-
Commonwealth
NPres.
I
sador to Italy.
Swedish foreign the
purchase of half of Bolivia's tin production was re\ealed to have been made by a British company.
U.S.
of
irrigation projects.
3-year contract
on ZO
number
Boothe Luce to be U.S. ambas-
FEBRUARY
construc-
for 3 years.
.i
Cuba
Ql Ford foundation an01 nounced a 83,500,000 pro-
E.
on wages and decontrolled
fcdif.il (Diiiruls
sal.iries
l.irge
a '^-nian biurd headed by William H. Jackson to study the problem of unifying U.S. psy-
Charles
all
proclamation vesting in himself and a 13-member army council the power to rule ICg\ pt tional
Pres. Eisenhowersuspendcd
Cuban government .innounced
Eisenhower created
'*'"®*-
9R ZO
6 .ind
a
1953
000 short tons.
arations and uniluMtion of the N.ATO countries.
1953 sugar jnoduction to 5,000,0(K) Spanish long tons, with preference to smaller producer^.
(lireelor.
•
federal
depart-
Federal Communications commission approved, 5 to 2, the proposed merger of United Parainount Theatres, Inc., and the American Broadcasting Co.
Italian court ordered the temporary sequestration of a cargo of Iranian oil which had arrived at Venice aboard an
U
Italian tanker.
ments and agencies.
Gen. rean
Nam truce
II, chief North negotiator, and
deputy were charged
in
Kohis
a U.N.
command intelligence report with having deliberately plotted outbreaks in U.N. prisoner of war camps.
on Zw
French
union forces
in
Indochina launched an amphibious attack against VietAlinh forces near Quinhon, 200 mi. N. of Saigon. Britis h government announced that industrial production during 1952 fell 3% below the 1951 level.
British Foreign Secy. Anthony Eden told the house of commons that Britain had protested Pres. Eisenhower's decision to deneutralize Formosa prior to its
Renewed discussion by the deputy foreign ministers of the U.S., the U.K., France and the U.S.S. R. on an Austrian peace treaty were adjourned indefinitely in a
Paul G. Hoffman resigned
as president and trustee of the Ford foundation to become
on an 11-point program of legislation to be enacted bv congress
board chairman of Studebaker Corp.
in 1953.
5
government pub-
lished a revised plan for unit-
in West German governlU ment banned a neonazi secret
pledged
society
to
Chinese Communist Premier
000), about 37% of which allocated to defense.
Chou
chairman of the U.S. Energy commission.
Iraqi government was formed by Jamil al-Madfai to replace that of Nureddin Mahmud.
30
Secy.of State John Foster Dulles, accompanied by
Gordon En-lai called on the U.S.
to return unconditionally to Korean truce negotiations at Pan-
American Iron
Dean
E.
European
resigned as
Atomic
&,
Steel insti-
tute reported that U.S. steelmaking capacity had reached a
and Steel operations began under the direction of its high authority at Luxembourg.
record annual total of 117,500,-
Premier Mohammed Naguib issued a constituEgyptian
—
Pres. Eisenhower named Charles D. Jackson to be his special adviser on psychologi-
Q
cal warfare.
U.S. air force announced that 2 U.S. jet fighters had fired on 2 soviet-type fighters over Hokkaido Island, Japan, and forced their withdrawal.
Coal
Community
munjom.
—
over-
000,000.000 francs (810,726,800,-
New
government
of a new currenc}' the hwan to replace the inflated won at the new rate of 60 hwan to U.S. 81.
I
throw democracy in Germany and arrested 4 of its leaders.
was
Korean
IP
ing Southern and Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in a Central African federation.
French national assembly approved a 1953 budget of 3,831,-
term.
announced the issuance Pres. Eisenhower and Republican congressional leaders agreed
British
u
South
deadlock.
announcement.
4
C Paraguayan
Pres. FederiCO Chaves was elected without opposition to a 2nd 5->r. I I
The
pictures on this page are,
left to right:
TITO
EISENHOWER TAYLOR
Jan. 14 Jan. 20 Jan. 23
LUCE NAGUIB
Feb. 7 Feb. 10
CALENDAR OF EVENTS NATO
FEBRUARY— Conf/nuec/ South African house of assembly approved a public safety bill
to
empowering the government suspend any statutory or
common
7
quarters installations in western
Europe.
distributions of land were made under GuaI I temala's agrarian reform law. First
Pres. Eisenhower, at his first press conference since taking office, said that he was not then considering blockading or em-
bargoing Communist China and that he planned no tax reductions until the budget was balanced.
John D. Provoo, former U.S. army sergeant, was sentenced to imprisonment after conviction of acts of treason committed while a Japanese prisoner of war life
during World
War
Oft Federal reserve board reduced margin recjuirements on stock market transactions from 75%,to50%oeffectiveFeb. 24.
ZU
Pres. Juan D. Peron of Argentina arrived in Santiago, Chile, for a week's visit with Chilean officials.
Eisenhower asked con-
Pres.
gress to adopt a resolution ac-
cusing the U.S.S. R. of having perverted secret World War II agreements so as to subjugate
Former Gov. Val Peterson of Nebraska was nominated to be U.S.
Civil
Defense
adminis-
trator.
II.
01 Marshal
IQ U.S. High Commissioner 10 James B. Conant declared that the U.S. w^ould insist on the right of all residents of Berlin to move freely through-
Vasili D. ovski was revealed been appointed chief of the soviet armed forces
L
I
cession
to
Gen.
Sokolhave
to
staff of
United Na-
legisla-
yuan voted to abrogate China's 1945 treaty with the U.S.S.R.
tive
Robert
Johnson,
L.
president
of Temple university, accepted Pres. Eisenhower's invitation to become acting head of the inter-
national information administration in the U.S. state dept.
or ZO
Pres. Eisenhower stated that he would go to any reasonable place to meet soviet
Premier Stalin, if he thought it do any good for world
w^ould peace.
M.
Office of Price Stabilization decontrolled cigarettes, most dry groceries and copper and alumi-
10% in the size of U.S. standing military forces and the defense budget.
Communist tank and infantry tra n ng centre near Pyong%ang was attacked by a large force of U.S. air force and marine jet fighter bombers.
army
exhibited a new rapid-firing radar-controlled antiaircraft gun designed to search out hostile aircraft in all kinds of weather and to destroy them at altitudes up to 4 mi.
U.S.
0*7 Agriculture
Benson
Taft
I
Ezra announced
Secy.
Pres. Truman announced the sale of rights to his memoirs to Lije magazine.
of dairy prodparity for anyear beginning April 1,
ucts at
other
90%
of
announced widespread tax ductions, including an 11% tax
cut,
Canadian budget
voluntary health insurance with financial support by federal, state and municipal governments. increased
War
I.
the E.
Bohlen to be U.S. ambassador to the U.S.S. R. and Francis White to be ambassador to Mexico.
armed
forces were
di-
offered to join the collective security against the aggressive aims of the U.S.S. R., provided that in so
doing to
it
any
ston pictures on this page are,
BOHLEN
MALENKOV
would not commit
itself
on Iranian Premier MohamLO med Mossadegh was forcflee his home in Tehran b>" mobs demonstrating for Shah
ed to
Mohammed Greece,
Riza Pahlavi.
Turkey and Yugo-
slavia signed a 5-yr. treaty of friendship and collaboration at
YOSHIDA
HAMMARSKJOLD KENYATTA
Feb. 23
31
April
8
Tehran and began rounding up opponents of Premier Mohammed Mossadegh.
of
Secy, of State John Foster Dulles cleared John Carter Vincent, minister to Morocco, of disloyalty and security charges but accepted his resignation and
4
application for retirement.
Allied High commission in German}- decontrolled the Krupp industrial empire in ex-
change Alfred
for
agreement
by
liquidate
his
steel holdings
and
an
Krupp
coal, iron
and
to
Stalin, soviet dicta29 years, died at Moscow, U.S.S.R.
An
intact soviet jet fighter
plane was flown to the Danish island of Bornholm by a Polish
Prime Minister Win-
Churchill
announced a
forces during
Committee
for Economic Development asserted in a report that continued financial aid to Britain was the alternative to collapse of the Anglo-U.S. alliance and diplomatic and economic isolation for the U.S.
control of tin mines on Bangka Island centre of Indonesian tin production.
over
World War
full
—
MARCH
II.
6
14
24
U.N. general assembly reconvened for the second part
political
who
applied for
asylum.
Pres. Rajendra Prasad of India issued a proclamation taking over under the Indian constitution the Patiala and East Punjab States Union because of the inability of the state government to function.
Ankara, Turk.
political goals.
general coronation year amnesty for 14,260 deserters from British
armed March March March
Iranian government forces regained effective control
air force officer
OQ White House revealed ZO designation of Charles
Indonesian government took
left to right:
Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Y. Vishinsky admitted to U.N. committee that the a U.S.S.R. was supphing armaments to Communist China in exchange for strategic materials.
5 Joseph tor for
British
The
tence.
West German representatives
Yugoslavia system of
British government made puba proposed 1953-54 defense budget of £1,636,000,000— the largest in peacetime history.
munist leader under death sen-
signed agreements with the U.S., Britain, France and 16 other nations to pay off $3,270,000,000 in German debts incurred in 30 countries since the end of World
rected in special orders of the day to maintain the highest battle preparedness and to guard soviet national interests against a threat from any quarter.
lic
Hungarian
Commission
President's
Soviet
000,000.
the
offer to exchange a British citizen imprisoned in Hungary for a Mala\an Com-
on the Health Needs of the Nation urged a program of
OQ LL
re-
beginning April 1, 1953, which estimated revenue at $4,473, 000,000 and expenditure at $4,462,-
principle
never re-enter those industries.
in-
in presenting for fiscal year
in
1953.
i
Finance MinIQ Canadian lU ister Douglas C. Abbott
ed
num.
L
Shtemenko.
Former
at least
British Prime Minister 2 Winston Churchill reject-
3
continued support
Citizens Advisory Commission on Utilization of Manpower in the Armed Forces headed by David Sarnoff recommended an over-all reduction of
munit\-, an Islamic reform group, were put down by police in
Karachi, Pak.
China's
Nationalist
in suc-
Sergei
out the city.
come
1953
government's
free peoples.
i
•
of its 7th session at tions, N.V.
laws, with certain ex-
ceptions, if it considered public safety to be endangered. 1
council restored $224,000,000 to N.ATO's 1953 construction budget for building air bases, jet fuel pipe lines, communications systems and head-
I
Severe demonstrations Ahmadi\a com-
against the
Arthur F. Burns of Colum6 bia university was named a
member
of
Pres.
Eisenhower's
council of economic ad\isers.
Georgi
M.
Malenkov
was
named
to succeed Joseph Stalin as chairman of the soviet council of ministers; L. P. Beria, V.
M. Molotov, N. A. Bulganin and i\I. Kaganovich were named
L.
first
7
deputy chairmen.
U.S.
and Britain concluded
a conference at Washington, D.C., on financial and economic problems with an agreement to work toward eventual convertibility of sterling and other cur-
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
1953
•
Office of Price Stabilization litleil all remaining Icdrral ])rice controls on consumer good>.
S.
restrictions.
|0 U.S.S.R. vetoed the nom10 illation of Canadian Sec\'. of
Czechoslovak Premier Antonin Zapotocky was named
Danish government in note 8 to Poland defended its right
State for Fxternal AlTairs Lester B. Pearson as U.N. secretary-
ent
to
general.
MARCH — Conf/nueJ ami relaxation
rciicics
investigate
thoroughlv'
cir-
i Government of Japanese 14 Premier Shigeru Yoshida
was ousted on a vote U.S.
supreme court
up-
held, 6 to 3, the constitutionality of a law enacted b\' congress in 1951 to reciuire the registration of gamblers and the purchase of $50 gambling tax
stamps.
Secy, of State John Foster Dulles told a press conference that the death of soviet Premier Stalin had enhanced the world's chances for peace.
in Leading U.S. defense oflU ficials assured the senate armed
committee that U.S. troops overseas had sufficient ammunition of all kinds.
of
no con-
fidence b>' the house of rei)rescntatives.
U.S. formally joined AngloEg>ptian negotiations on the withdrawal of British troops from the Suez Canal Zone.
C Soviet Premier G. M. Malenkov declared in his I J I
inaugural address to the supreme soviet that all troublesome and unsolved questions between the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. could be resolved by peaceful negotia-
British First Lord of the Ad-
miralty
J. P. L.
Thomas
told
the house of commons that the U.S.S.R. had the second largest in
air
force
disclosed
increasing b\- 8500,000,000 the authority of the Federal Housing administration to insure home
Tactical artillery atomic weapon was exploded at Yucca
maintenance and repair loans.
Flat,
Nev.
HPres.
Last were
lifted
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development announced a loan of S14,000,000 to Northern Rhodesia for railroad development.
I
I
federal
franchise on
conferring the
women came
into
Office of Price
in William H. Taft III, son 10 of Sen. Robert A. Taft (Rep., O.), was nominated to be U.S. ambassador to Ireland.
in Gen. Mark W. Iw U.S. commander in
Clark,
the far east, arrived at Saigon, Vietnam, for a survey visit to Indochina.
ratified
German
the
.
Europeaft
bundestag
Defense
treaty and the peace contract with the western pow-
10
ers.
Soviet jet fighters shot down a British 4-engine bomber in the Berlin-Hamburg air corridor.
Defense Secy. Charles son ordered the armed
E. Wilservices
to drop 39,346 civilian employees by May 31, 1953.
in
he stated that victory
in
was within
sight
which Korea
Soviet government ordercd a general amnesty of all short-term prisoners and a general lightening of all priscjn terms except for major criminals.
Council of the Arab league admitted Libya to full membership in the league.
when truce
Chinese and North Korean
talks began in July 1951.
00 Chinese Communist LO forces launched a heavy attack on the western front Korea.
as a
in
Communist commanders
ac-
cepted a long-standing U.N. proposal for an immediate exchange of sick
and wounded prisoners
of
war.
Gen.
Vasili I. Chuikov, soviet control commission chairman in Germany, expressed regret over the death of 7 British airmen whose bomber was shot down by soviet fighters.
on Iranian Premier MohamZU med Mossadegh rejected Anglo-U.S. proposals for settlement of issues arising out of the nationalization of properties in Iran.
British
oil
Ol Soviet Premier G. M. Zl Malenkov was revealed to have
relinquished voluntarily post as a secretary of the soviet Communist party and N. his
member.
Burmese government
announced tiiat the U.S. government had been asked to terminate all U.S. economic aid on June 30, 1953.
Peter Thorneycroft, president of
the British board of trade,
announced a substantial
relaxa-
tion of import restrictions.
ZH
Ceylonese government
banned private businessmen from importing rubber and other materials for transshipment to Communist China.
strategic
6 Czechoslovaks escaped to the U.S. zone of Germany by seizing a Czechoslovak commercial air liner with 23 other persons aboard.
OC French Premier Rene arrived in Washington, D.C., for discussions with U.S. officials on political, economic and military problems.
Pres. Eisenhower submitted to congress a reorganization plan for the simplification and improvement of agriculture dept. operations.
Soviet
Western
Community
British Commonwealth division, in action since July 1951 on the Korean front, was revealed to have been taken out of the line and put into reserve.
Korea,
in
Z J Mayer
Stabilization.
effect.
Pres. Eisenhower submitted to congress a reorganI L ization plan designed to convert the Federal Security agency into a new department of health, education and welfare.
negotiated an agree-
of 242 Cireek vessels not to trade at Chinese Communist, North Korean or Soviet Union far eastern ports.
Gen.
\)\'
controls
price
by the
Mexican constitutional
amendment
testimony
\'an Fleet, former U.S.
commander
Oil
U.S.
bill
nom-
relea>e(l
James A.
commission.
that a soviet jet fighter had tried to shoot down a U.S. RB50 weather reconnaissance plane 25 mi. off the Siberian coast.
Eisenhower
tee
in
IT
inated B. Frank Heintzleman to be governor of Alaska and Frederick B. Lee of Vermont to be Civil Aeronautics administrator.
Senate armed forces commit-
the United Kingdom.
action on a proposed resolution denouncing enslavement of peoples by the U.S.S.R.
signed a
nia.-.s
near Nairobi, Kenya.
Philip Young was designated chairman of the U.S. civil service commission after being sworn
navy
Eisenhower
man had
ment with owners
OO More than 2,500 African LL tribesmen were arrotcd in QQ a raid by troops ami pcjjice ZO
Yugoslav Pres. Tito arIP rived in London for visit to 10
Senate foreign relations committee indefinite!>' postponed
Pres.
pariiameiii lo >uc(eed Kleni(jottwald, as president of
Sen. Joseph McCarthy (Rep., Wis.) announced tliat the senate committee of which he was chair-
tions.
services
U.S. air force jet fighter was shot down in the U.S. zone of Germany by 2 soviet-built Czechoslovak fighters.
!)>
Czechoslovakia; Viliam Siroky succeeded Zapotocky as premier.
I
tory.
the registration of lobbyists and legislative agents.
of first secrel.ir\ of the party.
of trade
cumstances surrounding landing of Polish plane on Danish terri-
9
Khrushchev wa^ reported to have succeeded to the position
that
it
credit nist
government
disclosed
had signed new trade and protocols
with
on OU
U.S. navy disclosed that a jet-propelled guided missile had been put into production and that a U.S. submarine had been ecjuipped to launch the missile.
Communist Chinese Premier Chou En-lai proposed that the deadlock on a Korean truce be settled by turning over to a neutral state all war prisoners who refused to be repatriated.
01 U.N. Security council 01 recommended, with soviet concurrence, the election of Dag Hammarskjold of Sweden U.N. secretary-general.
government
Soviet
as
ordered
price decreases on 125 categories of retail products.
Frank P. Graham reported to the U.N. Security council that India and Pakistan had again failed to agree on the demilitarization of Kashmir during further negotiations at Geneva, Switz.
Commu-
China based on the 1950
APRIL
Sino-soviet treaty.
OP Burma submitted a forZO mal complaint to the U.N. general assembly against aggression in Burma by 12,000 Chinese nationalist troops.
Soviet Foreign Minister V. M. Molotov endorsed Chinese Communist and North Korean proposals for an exchange of prisoners and terminaI
tion of the
Mau Mau
Korean
conflict.
terrorists massacred
about 150 loxal Kikuyu tribesmen near Nairobi, Kenya.
Pres. Eisenhower signed a congressional joint resolution trans-
OT
forming the Federal Security agency into a new department of health, education and welfare.
Z/ of
Senate confirmed by vote nomination Bohlen as U.S.
of 74 to 13 the
Charles E.
ambassador to the U.S.S.R. C. Wesley Roberts resigned as chairman of the Republican National committee after being charged with having violated the spirit of Kansas laws calling for
House
of representatives
passed, 285 to 108, and sent to the senate a bill to give states title to submerged lands within their historic boundaries. Civil
service
protection
for
CALENDAR OF EVENTS U.S. $1 to dr. 30,000 to U.S. $1.
of Toronto, Ont.,
APRIL— Continued many
high government positions was removed by an executive order issued by Pres. Eisenhower.
and the U.S. signed 2 Japan a 10-year treaty of friendship,
commerce and navigation.
Chancellor Julius Raab
of the
Delegates to the International Wheat council from 4 wheat-exporting and 42 wheatimporting countries agreed to
recommend
to their
governments
a 3-yr. renewal of the International Wheat agreement with a price range of $1.55 to s$2.05 per bushel.
Eisenhower
Pres.
and
German Chancellor Konrad
a new coalition cabinet replacing that of Leopold Figl.
Adenauer
Eisenhower nominated
Kenton R. Cravens of Missouri to be administrator of the Reconstruction Finance Corp.
a communi(iue issued after a conference at Washington, D.C., stated that the U.S. had agreed to supply Germany with military equipment Defense after the European Community treaty and the west German peace contract were in
French government an3 nounced that the U.S.S.R.
ratified.
had obtained the release of 14 French civilians interned by North Korea since 1950.
in Leonard W. Hall of New lU York was unanimously Repub-
elected chairman of the
Soviet ministry of internal affairs announced the release
of 9 doctors arrested in Jan. 1953 on charges of plotting to kill soviet leaders.
German government
West
announced that
group headed by Rear C. Daniel to conduct negotiations for the exchange of wounded and disabled prisoners of war in Korea. liaison
Iranian Premier Moham6 med Mossadegh in a radio address demanded that the shah of Iran be reduced to a figurehead without power to rule.
and wounded prisoners of the Korean conflict, on condition that none would be
change of
all
sick
returned against his
will.
Dag Hammarskjbid of Sweden was elected secretary-general of the U.N. by 57 to 1 vote of the U.N. general assembly.
espionage
Culp
Hobby
of
in as the
secretary of the new departof health, education and welfare. first
ment
U.N. and
Communist nego-
tiators signed a formal agreement for the e.xchange of sick
and wounded Korean prisoners
R U
I*!
Eisenhower named
Pres.
his brother, Milton S. Eisenhower, to be his personal repre-
sentative on a good-will and fact-finding mission to Latin
America.
IQ French high command in Indochina announced withI drawal of its garrison from Sam Neua, in northeastern Laos, in the face of an imminent VietMinh attack.
Pres. Eisenhower requested congress to extend as an interim measure the Reciprocal Trade Agreements act for another vear
U.S. treasury dept. placed on sale SI, 000,000,000 worth of 30year U.S. bonds bearing 3}4%
beyond June
1933.
BJomo
Kenyatta and 5 other Kikuyu leaders were sentenced to prison terms by a Kenya court for participating in and leading the
terrorist activities of the secret society in Kenya colony.
Mau Mau
Eisenhower
UPres.
congress
asked
authorize
to
the
sale to private industry of federalh' owned synthetic rubber plants, having capacity of 806,500 long tons a year.
Chancellor
the
of
nounced sweeping tax cuts in presenting to the house of commons the budget for the fiscal
armament.
year
Rhine
which estimated expenditure at £4,259,286,000 and revenue at
Exchequer R. A. Butler
beginning April
Ghu-
muddin and his cabinet and named Mohammed Ali, Pakistani ambassador to the a
new
U.S., to
OC Lv
Sen.
Wayne Morse
Ore.) broke
North Atlantic treaty council at conclusion of a
White House announced the nomination of Edmund F. Mansure of Illinois to be U.S. general services administrator.
Commerce
(Ind.,
senate records by a speech continuing 22 hr. 26 min., in opposition to a bill on offshore lands. all
form
cabinet.
Secy. Sinclair
revoked temporarily his ouster of Allen V. Astin as director of the national bureau of standards, pending appraisal of bureau operations.
IQ f^''6"ch garrison at XienI w Khouang in Laos was evacuated to main defense positions on the Plain of the Jars, 20 mi. to the west.
in Paris
Israeli foreign office revealed that Israel had appealed to Britain, the U.S., France and Turkey to prevent deterioration of the situation on Israel's borders.
3-day meeting it had
announced that
established a firm military program for 1953 and a provisional program for 1954.
Soviet leaders published a statement expressing their sympathy with Pres. Eisenhower's call for a genuine and complete peace.
op Zu
Full Korean truce negotiations were resumed at
Panmunjom by U.N. and Communist delegates.
OT L
command
U.S. far east
I revealed that
had offered
it
$50,000 and political asylum to
any Communist pilot delivering a modern soviet jet aircraft to U.N. forces in Korea; a bonus of S50,000 was offered for the first
exchange of U.N. &.U and Communist sick and wounded prisoners of war took place at Panmunjom. First
Anglo-Egyptian negotiations with respect to the stationing of British forces in the Suez Canal
Zone opened at Cairo.
U.S. Subversive Activities Control board after extensive hearings ordered the U.S. Communist party to register with the justice dept. as a Communistaction organization dominated by the Soviet Union.
Justice dept.
filed
a
antitrust suit against 5
ma-
companies accused of taking part in an international
jor
op LO
Lieut. Gen. William K. Harrison, Jr., chief U.N.
truce negotiator, threatened to recess the renewed truce talks unless the Communists made a
constructive proposal on prisoner repatriation issue.
the
civil
oil
oil cartel.
French authorities
in
Indo-
announced capture by Viet-Minh forces of Pakseng, 43 mi. N.E. of Luang Prabang,
china
royal capital of Laos.
1,
ministers of Latvian nationality in the government of the Latvian S.S.R. had been dismissed and replaced by Russians.
U.S. defense dept. announced that sympathetic consideration was being given to a request by Thailand to expe-
00 LL
dite military assistance deliveries in view of the situation in the neighbouring kingdom of Laos.
Atty. Gen. Herbert Brownell, requested the Subversive Activities Control board to order the registration with the justice
Secy, of State John Foster Dulles warned the parliaments of western Europe that delay in their approval of the European army was holding back the only good solution to the problem of
Communist-
creating a strong and peaceful
Pres. Eisenhower urged congress to authorize the admission to the U.S. of 240,000 immigrants above legal quotas.
an-
1953,
Jr.,
dept. of 12 alleged front organizations.
C Kingdom of Laos in IndolU china appealed to the U.N. I
an
and the
condemnation against
free it
Viet-Minh
world for formal
by
of aggression
Communist-led
forces.
QQ ZO
U.N.
general
QQ Lv
Europe.
£4,368,215,000.
orof
dered a drastic devaluation the drachma from dr. 15,000 to
U.S. internal revenue bureau reported that a record $68,500,000,000 in taxes had been collected from U.S. taxpayers in 1952.
Riga radio announced that 6
British
Greek government, in 9 effort to curb inflation,
Pakistani Gov. Gen.
the highest rate since
Soviet Foreign Minister Andrei Y. Vishinsky offered to the U.N. general assembly a modified soviet plan for world dis-
river port of Kehl, opposite Strasbourg, was restored by French authorities to German control.
II.
jet so delivered.
Z
interest,
highest and oldest British order by Queen Eliza-
in
lam Mohammeddismissed Prime Minister Khwaja Nazi-
21
12, 1953._
^^^^-
1/
on
10
4 British
beth
Eisenhower
a major foreign policy address outlined a specific series of peaceful acts by the U.S.S.R. which would aid in establishing world peace. I I
of war.
I
liaison group accepted 7 aU.N. Communist proposal for ex-
had smashed a
was sworn
Prime Minister Winston Churchill was made a Knight of the Garter,
Q
Z4
of knighthood,
lation of 1,191,000.
ring.
commander Gen. nOveta 5 U.N. Mark W. Clark appointed a Texas Adm. John
it
soviet-directed
large
suburbs to form the municipality of greater Toronto, with a popu-
Weeks
lican National committee.
4
of the city 12 of its
and
west
Austrian People's party formed
Pres.
1953
•
Merger was effected
assembly
recessed after adopting resolutions calling for impartial investigation of Communist germ warfare charges and the withdrawal or internment of Chinese nationalist troops in Burma.
on OU
Representatives
of 5 Brit-
West Indian colonies announced in London that they ish
had agreed to form a British Caribbean federation. Pres.
Eisenhower
told a
news
CALENDAR OP EVENTS 51 U.S. senate
APR\l — Continued conftM-cnce
ho would ask for
th.it
at least S8,5()(),0()(),()()0 less new iiioneN than contoniplatetl in
former
Truman's
Pres.
pa-'>ed, 5() to
.LS,
and ^ent to ct)nfi'rence with the house of repreM'ntati\'es the bill giving the coastal states title to submerged lands within their historic boundaries se.nvard.
1954
budget.
Pres.
Eisenhower
in a special to congress urged authorization of S5,828,732,500 for
nii^^agi'
Pres. Eisenhower Mihinitted to congress .1 pi. in for reorg.mi/.ing the defense dept. which would place greater res|)onsil)ilit> in the hands of the defense secy.
the Mutual Security program the fiscal \ear 1954.
in
Egyptiao constitutional committee agreetl to draft a new constitution based on republican
MAY
give
bodia
in
economic mailers.
Advance Viet-Minh units were reported to he helween 9 anil 12 mi. from Luang Prabang, royal capital of Laos in Indochina.
Fawzi el-MuIki formed a new Jordanian government replacing that of Tewfik Abulhuda.
the ^'®"*^*^ government anin lU nounced the de\aluation of
the Indochinese piastre in tjriler to thwart operations of currency profiteers.
Secy, of State John Foster Dulles and .Mutual Security IJircclor Harold Slasscn left Washington, D.C, for a 2()-day factfinding tour of middle eastern and southern Asian nations.
Metropolitan Kyril of Plovdiv was elected patriarch of the national Orthodox Church of Bulgaria.
French authorities in In6 dochinaannounced that Com-
MSir
commissioner
in
succession
Sir
cies
munist-led Viet-Minh forces were withdrawing northward through the kingdom of Laos.
tina.
Anglo-Egyptian negotiations
eign affairs.
concerning the Suez Canal Zone were adjourned following disagreement on basic issues.
Winston
were openly engaging in a campaign of lies against Argen-
Salam formed a new Lebanese government replacing that of Khaled Shehab.
Saeb
ready liberated.
was installed as Iraq and Hussein I as II
king of king of Jordan
in
an-
nounced the di.ssolution of his French People's Rally (R.P.F.) as a political party.
Queen Elizabeth
II gave the royal assent to a bill providing for the denationalization of the British motor transport indus-
Baghdad and Amman,
respec-
Secy, of State John Foster Dulles stated that the U.S. was hastening the delivery of critically needed military supplies to forces defending the Indochinese
Gen. Nathan 7 was named to
F.
Twining
Communisttruce negotiators
fications of existing legislation.
commander
in
chief of
union forces
in
Indochina.
of
of
sick
war was completed
at
in
munjom. university 4 Columbia nounced the award of
anthe 1953 Pulitzer prize for fiction to Ernest Hemingway for his novel The Old Man and the Sea and for drama to William Inge for his play Piaiic.
Kirk-
Field Marshal Sir William Slim was sworn in as governor general of Australia in succession to Sir William McKell.
Treasury Secy.
George
M.
Humphrey
told a senate committee that the cost of national defense and foreign aid would make it impossible to balance the U.S. budget for fiscal year
1954.
the Iranian government royal decree.
Sir
by a
Representatives of France 9 and Cambodia completed a
ington, D.C.
series
of
Eisenhower nomiAdm. Arthur W.
Pres. nated
Radford as chairman chiefs
protocols intended
to
Rumania and Yugoslavia
were ie\ ealed to have reached an agreement on rules for administration of the Iron Gate sector of the Danube river.
International Monetary fund announced that it had agreed to a new devalued par value for the Bolivian boliviano at the rale of 190 bolivianos to U.S. vSl.
Queen Elizabeth
II gave the royal assent to a bill providing for the denationalization of the liritish iron and steel industry.
of
staff
of the U.S.
C State dept. announced
U
|0 Japanese court rejected ID an application of AngloIranian Oil Co. for an injunction to prevent a Japanese company from dealing in a cargo of Iranian oil brought to Japan in a Japa-
nese ship.
Truce negotiations at Panmunjom, Kor., were temporarily adjourned by consent
of
both
sides.
and Gen. U.S. Mutual Security agency announced the termination of economic aid to Iceland at the
Announcement
IQ Xien-Khouang, 10 the Plain of the
Ridgway
B.
of the apGen. Alfred M. Gruenther as supreme commander, Allied forces in Europe, was made simultaneously in Washington, D.C, and Paris.
pointment
of
British admiralty revealed that 4 destroyers and royal marine units had been dispatched to the
Suez Canal Zone to bolster de-
request of the Icelandic govern-
ment. S.E. of Jars in Laos, was recaptured from VietMinh forces by a Franco-Laotian force.
State of emergency was ordered in the northern region of Nigeria when rioting continued for third successive native metropolis of
day in the Kano.
fenses there.
Lieut. Gen. John B. Coulter was named agent-general of the U.N. Korean Reconstruction agency.
Austria and Hungary signed an agreement providing for the regulation of shipping on the river.
State dept. revealed that 13 U.S. ambassador Charles E.
^''^^- Eisenhower in a nationwide radio address called for a 6-month extension of the e.xcess-profits tax beyond June
IQ I
w
The
pictures on this page are,
left to right:
HOBBY IVIORSE
HEMINGWAY OATIS
TENSING
r
that
Antonin Zapotocky had pardoned William N. Oatis, U.S. news correspondent charged with espionage by the Czechoslovak government. Pres.
as army chief of staff; he indicated that Adm. Robert B. Carney would be named chief of naval operations.
Danube
Pres. Eisenhower opened a 2day conference with state and territorial governors at Wash-
U
I I
Privately held estates of the shah of Iran were transferred to
10 \L
Australia and the U.S. signed 3 coineniions designed to prevent double taxation in respect of income, estate and gift taxes.
for-
French
and Pan-
Ivone
in
for a conference of the heads of state of the leading powers to try to settle some of the differences between east and west.
Matthew
French government named 8 Gen. Henri E. Navarre to be
Korean prisoners
Germany
Churchill declared that the time was appropriate
joint
bipartisan commission to reexamine U.S. foreign economic policy and to recommend modi-
Exchange 3 wounded
high
Prime Minister
British
force chief of staff.
Pres. Eisenhower recommended to congress the creation of a
of Laos.
to
Millar
U.SS.R.
who was named perma-
succeed Gen. Hoyt S. Vandenbcrg as U.S. air
Korea accepted a U.N. proposal that war prisoners unwilling to be repatriated be kept in neutral custody in Korea rather than be transferred to a neutral nation.
kingdom
patrick,
H.
British
try.
ceremonies at
tively.
named
nent undersecy. of state for
Gen. Charles de Gaulle U.N. liaison officers demanded the return by the Communists of 375 additional sick and wounded U.N. prisoners of war who had been identified by prisoners al-
Frederick
was
(
Argentine Pres. Juan D.Peron charged that 3 U.S. news agen-
Bohlcn had asked the soviet government to permit Russian wives of U.S. citizens to leave
principles.
I
2Feisal
1953
•
sovereignty to Cammilitar\, judicial and
full
April 11 April 25 May 4 May 15
May
29
—
CALENDAR OF EVENTS death sentences.
MAY
Continued First firing of
30, 1953,
and ruled out any tax
reductions in 1953.
Argentine government
lifted
its ban on receipt of incoming news by U.S. news agencies.
Japanese Liberal party leader Shigeru Voshida was redesignated premier of Japan by the diet.
on ZU
Second Polish
an atomic shell
from an artillery piece took place at atomic testing grounds in Nevada.
pilot crash-
landed a soviet-built MIG jet fighter on the Danish island of Bornholm after escaping from Poland.
Adm. William M.
1953
•
Mt. Everest, highest mountain in the world, was scaled for the first time by Edmond P. Hillary
New
Zealand
Norkay
of Nepal,
of
and Tensing
members
of a
headed
by
British expedition Col. John Hunt.
national assembly refused, 328 to 244, to give him a vote of confidence to enable him to make
budget cuts.
Plans were announced
for a
conference at Bermuda in June 1953 between Pres. Eisenhower, British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill and the premier of France.
Motors
General
on Czechoslovak governOU ment announced a drastic revaluation of the Czechoslovak
southern Europe.
koruna.
New proposals for resolving the deadlock on the Korean war prisoner repatriation issue were presented at Panmunjom after consultation among the U.N.
Pres. Tito of Yugoslavia ordered the abolition of the
full
I
governments concerned; the
system of political commissars the Yugoslav armed forces.
South Korean delegate did not
in
op
State dept. declared ChrisL\} tache Zambeti, first secy, of the Rumanian legation at Washington, D.C., persona non grata for having tried to blackmail a U.S. citizen into spying for
president of Lawrence college, was elected president of Harvard university by the Harvard corporation, subject to formal confirmation by the board of overseers.
Israel-Jordan Mixed Armistice commission met in emergency session to consider complaints of violations by both
and to transfer and information
armistice
and Jordan.
to 2
new
foreign aid responsibilities agencies. its
O^
Gen. J. Lawton Collins, I retiring army chief of staff, was named a member of the military committee and of the standing group of by Pres.
John
wage provisions of its 5-yr. escalator agreement with United Automobile Workers, C.I.O., even though the agreement had 2 yr. to run.
Eisenhower.
Queen Elizabeth II of 2 the United Kingdom was
Pres. Eisenhower signed the bill granting the states title to ofi^shore lands within their historic boundaries.
on lO
crowned in traditional ceremonies at Westminster abbey, London.
OQ Zu
Majority report of a senate armed forces subcommittee charged that ammunition shortages in Korea had caused needless loss of American lives.
L
Soviet control commission in Germany was abolS.
Semenov was
soviet high commissioner to represent soviet interests in
Germany.
Danish people approved in a referendum a new constitution
programs as a result of cuts in congressional appropriations went into effect.
South Korean Foreign Minister Pyun Yung Tae told the
Suspension or reduction
.;r.im to Pres. .S\ngman Rhee denounced the killer's action in ordering
the
IT U.S. Supreme Court Jus-
Communist
/ tice William O. Douglas stayeii the death sentences of
O
and Ethel Rosenberg, convicted atom spies, pending determination of a previously undecided point of law. Julius
Antonin Zapotocky
of Czechoslovakia adinitied in a speech that there had been widespread protests and rioting against the recent currenc\' reform.
release of nonwar prisoners.
Robert A. Taft (Rep., senate majority leader, announced that because of ill health he was turning over his duties to Sen. William F. Knowland (I^ep., Calif.) for the remainder of the current session of congress.
Commerce com36% in-
Sen.
Interstate
().),
mission authorized a
crease in U.S. parcel post zone rates.
in Pres. Syngman Rhee of 10 South Korea ordered South Korean guards to release thouof non-Communist war prisoners in an effort to thwart U.N. truce plans.
fcH Talbott announced tiiecancellation of all aircraft contracts with Willys Motors, subsidiary of Kaiser Corp.
Inc.,
a
Motors
British
and French
governments called upon the
U.S.S.R. for the exact text of a peace treatx with .Austria which the U.S.S.R. would be willing to sign.
Egyptian council of the revolution proclaimed Eg>pt a republic with Mohammed Naguib as president and premier.
French Foreign Minister Georges Bidault
failed
by
1
to win
the designation of the national assembh as premier.
\()le
Energy commission and designated him chairman of the com-
India closed its embassy in Lisbon in protest against Portugal's refusal to di.scuss transfer of its Indian colonies to India.
lO United Steelworkers of \L America, C.I.O., and U.S. Steel Corp. signed a wage agreement providing for an increase of 8J^ cents per hour.
Yugoslav government granted
IQ
w
U.S.
supreme court
at a
nounced that control air traffic
of all civil
over western (iermany
had been transferred to the western (German government.
Chinese nationalist gov2 ernment announced that the
merging Northern and Southern Rhodesia and Ny-
repatriation of about 29,000 nationalist soldiers and their de-
asaland
into a central African federation received its third and final reading in the British house of commons.
pendents from Indochina been completed.
Federal reserve board announced decreased reserve requirements for member banks.
ers of the Indochinese states of
had
French government in a 3 note to the high commissionVietnam, Laos and Cambodia its intention of comthe independence and sovereignty of those states.
declared pleting
Syngman
Pres.
Rhee
pub-
lished a letter previously sent to Gen. Mark W. Clark in which
draw the South Korean army from the U.N. command if a truce were signed with the munists.
QC
Pres.
Eisenhower
Maurice Dejean, French ambassador to Japan, was named French commissioner-general in Indochina.
Com-
4lmre issued
in
Nagy
replaced
Matyas
Rakosi as premier of Hungary a major reshuffle of govern-
term convened by Chief Justice Fred M. Vinson vacated the stay granted Julius and Ethel Rosenberg by Justice William O. Douglas; the Rosenbergs were executed at Sing Sing
imV an executive order withdrawing civil service protection from about 134,000 U.S. govern-
ment
ment
taineering
prison, Ossining, N.Y., after Pres. Eisenhower again refused
Utah as director of the U.S. bureau of mines was withdrawn by Pres. Eisenhower.
est
Walter
U.S. asst. secy, of state for far eastern affairs, arrived in Seoul, Kor., for conference with Pres. Syng-
ed that strict orders had been issued barring the enlistment of escaped anti-Communist prisoners in the South Korean
man
army.
I
special
executive clemency.
jobs.
Nomination
of
Tom
Lyon
of
posts.
German and Austrian mounteam climbed Nanga Parbat, Kashmir, 7lh highest peak in the world and 2nd highpeak scaled by man.
Korean Defense 5 South statMinister Sohn Won 1 1
Hawaiian Communist lead-
1
7
headed by Lieut. Gen. Gustavo Rojas Pinilla.
ers were convicted by a federal jury of conspiring to teach and advocate the violent overthrow of the U.S. government.
UPres.
assas>inaleil in Tunis.
Bill
10 Roberto Urdaneta Arbelaez was ousted as acting president of Colombia by a coup
Prince Ezzedine, heir jiresumptive to tiie crown of Tunisia, was
mission.
he warned that he would witha sov'iet request for passage of 26 soviet naval vessels down the Danube river to the Black sea.
hat the deficit for the fiscal vear ending June 30 was ,S9,389,000,000, he largest in U.S. peacetime histor\'. I
Allied high commissionersan-
Eisenhower nominated Rear Adm. Lewis L. Strauss as a member of the U..S. Atomic Pres.
sands
MU.S.,
U.S. treasury dept. revealed I
t
i Air Force Secy. Harold E.
Martial law backed by soviet troops was declared in eastern Berlin after rioting workers threatened to seize control of the east German government.
JULY
.i
I
government
I'.S.
tlu'
of Mexico.
an out-
m.iki'
1953
•
Robertson,
S.
Rhee.
Tito of Yugoslavia
on Communist truce nego- op Independent Joseph ZU tiators charged that the ZQ Laniel was designated by
mittee
U.N. command had connived with South Korean Pres. Syngman Rhee in permitting the escape of war prisoners.
the French national assembly, 398 to 206, as premier, thereby ending the longest cabinet crisis
ress made by the defense dept. in compiling a single catalogue of items purchased by the U.S. armed forces.
exile in Thailand to emphasize his country's demands for free-
King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia returned to his coun-
dom.
try
British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, on advice of his doctors, post-
revealed that the so\'iet gov-
ernment had requested the resumption of normal diplomatic relations with Vugosla\
ia.
King Norodom Sihanouk of Cambodia went into \oluntary
after
exile in
Pres. Eisenhower in an informal speech at Dartmouth college warned graduates not to join the "book burners" who would bar even the knowledge of commu-
nism from
libraries.
ir indictment charging lU Harry R. Bridges, Pacific coast labour leader, and 2 co-
defendants with perjury and conspiracy was dismissed by the U.S. supreme court as barred by the statute of limitations.
IP James S. Kemper of IllilU nois was nominated as U.S. ambassador to
Brazil.
Luther Evans,
librarian of con-
00 LL
a
brief
self-imposed
French history.
QT
LI
for at least a month his proposed meeting at Bermuda with Pres. Eisenhower and the premier of France.
poned
Thailand.
Soviet foreign
office rethat travel restrictions for foreigners in large areas of European Russia, Byelorussia, the Ukraine, the Caucasus area and central Asia had
been
in
vealed
OQ lO
Attacking Chinese Communist troops made gains on both the western and eastern fronts in Korea.
lifted.
on Zw
Mark W.
Delegates of Burma, nationalChina, the U.S. and Thailand reached a tentative agreement on the transfer of refugee Chinese nationalist troops from Burma to Formosa.
U.N. commander in Korea, called upon the Communists to resume truce negotiations despite the opposition of South Korean Pres. Syngman Rhee.
OQ LO
on OU
ist
Gen.
House armed forces subcom-
Chinese Communist gov6 ernment announced that it had concluded an $84,000,000 reciprocal trade agreement with a private group of British businessmen. Pres. Eisenhower nominated Guy Farmer of Washington, D.C., to succeed Paul M. Herzog, resigned, as a member of the National Labor Relations board.
7
Clark,
Communist commanders 8 accepted Gen. Mark W. Clark's proposal to proceed with final arrangements for signing a Korean armistice without South
Korean Pres.
Syngman Rhee
South Korea
of reiterated his
criticized the slow prog-
P. McCoy was nominated to be director of
participation.
Whitley
Argentina and Chile signed a
refusal to accept the proposed
the Federal Mediation and Con-
treaty of economic union at Bue-
Korean truce terms.
ciliation service.
nos Aires.
CALENDAR OF EVENTS JULY— Conf/ni/ec/ State of Arkansas
filed
a suit
court in Washington, D.C., attacking as unconstitutional the so-called tidelands act which gave the states title to submerged lands off their
vise Agriculture
U
Foreign ministers of the U.S., Britain and France at the conclusion of a meeting in
U.S.S.R. had extended credits equivalent to vS57,000,000 for the purchase of foods in the second
Washington, D.C., \varned that governments would resume the war in Korea if the expected truce were broken by renewed
half of 1953.
Free transit was resumed between east and west Berlin, although martial law remained in effect in east Berlin.
9
government made
public
a letter from Pres. Eisenhower to
Iranian Premier Mohammed Mossadegh stating that no ad-
Communist
aggression.
union of Northern and Southern Rhodesia and Nyasaland in the central African federation received the as-
Queen Elizabeth
sent of
policies.
Ol East German governZl ment announced that the
Libya and Britain signed a treaty of friendship and alliance and related military and finanagreements at Benghazi.
cial
on UU
Pres. Eisenhower asked congress to increase the statutor\- debt limit from S275,000,000,000 to $290,000,000,000.
C Senate
bv a vote
body.
civilian offenses.
in
L. p. Beria, first deputy soviet premier and minister of internal affairs, was revealed to have been expelled from the
U
I I
J
ratified
Pres.
Glenn
of
NATO
72 to 15 a
Eisenhower nominated Emmons of New Mex-
L.
commissioner of
ico to be U.S.
Indian
affairs.
an
Governments ain
of the people.
House of representatives voted 325 to 77 to continue the e.xcessprofits tax in effect until Dec. 31, state dept. announced nU.S. that Pres. Syngman Rhee of
South Korea had accepted the proposed Korean armistice terms. Pres. Eisenhower ordered the discontinuance, effective Aug. 26, 1953, of new draft deferments based solely on fatherhood.
ations.
its
Soviet
government
protested
to Turkey against the entry of foreign warships into the Black
00 LL
Soviet High Commissioner V. S. Semenov de-
manded that the U.S. halt the distribution of free food to east Berlin.
00 ZO
French national assem-
biy approved by vote of 468 to 127 a constitutional reform bill designed to make French
of the U.S., Brit-
and France formally request-
ed the U.S.S.R. to agree to a short 4-power foreign ministers' conference.
France and the U.S.S.R.
1953.
Soviet
cabinets more stable.
Communist party and dismissed his ministerial posts as
Former Pres. Herbert Hoover agreed to head a new commission on federal government oper-
sea.
II.
protocol allowing U.S. troops abroad to be tried in foreign civil courts for
enemy
Benson on farm program
government
Austria that
it
advised
would thereafter
pay its own occupation costs zone of Austria.
in
Bill providing for the
ditional aid could be furnished to Iran until the oil dispute with Britain had been settled or submitted to a neutral international
from
Ezra T.
Secy.
their
coasts.
I
1953
revealed that it had ruled that the welfare fund of the United Mine Workers did not qualify for tax e.xemption.
in the U.S. district
U.S.
•
sign-
ed a 3-year trade agreement in Paris providing for an exchange of goods and raw materials amounting to sS34, 285,000 for each country the first year.
IP U.N. troops launched
a
U heavy counteroffensive on the east-central Korean front. I
Oi Wilhelm
Zaisser, eastern
ZH
Sastroamidjojo, Indoneambassador to the U.S., formed a new Indonesian government replacing that of Wilopo. Ali sian
Soviet government charged that 4 U.S. fighter planes had shot down a soviet passenger plane over Communist China on July 27; U.S. government protested the shooting down of a U.S. air force RB-50 over Sea of Japan on July 29. I I
Administration of a 2]4-mi. demilitarized zone across Korea passed to the Military Armistice commission.
Germany's state security minister, was ousted on charges
AUGUST
of defeatism.
OC Lv
Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and
Prime Minister Mohammed AH began talks at Karachi, Pak., on outstanding issues between their countries. Pakistani
op ZU
British
government
announced a loan of £10,000,000 to Pakistan for the purchase of capital goods in Britain.
Senate finance committee voted to defer action on a to increase the statutory debt limit to S290,000,000,000 as requested by I'res. Eisenhower. I
bill
Presidential reorganization plan took effect placing all U.S. foreign aid programs under a new Foreign Operations administration.
New
Gen. Alfred
M. Gruenther
formally took over as supreme
all-Christian Democrat cabinet was formed by Italian Premier Alcide de Gasperi.
Virtually
Chinese nationalist sources claimed the capture by guerrilla forces of Tungshan Island, 35 mi.
the whole adult population of Short Creek, Ariz., was arrested in a mass raid aimed at wiping out what was said to be the last remaining centre of organized polygamy
Pres. Eisenhower submitted to congress a proposal to extend the coverage of the federal Social Security act to an estimated 10,500,000 additional persons.
N.E. of Swatow.
in the U.S.
2Abdel
commander
of Allied forces in replacing Gen. Mat-
Europe,
thew B. Ridgway.
10 Senate appropriations \L committee was revealed to have
received
a
staff
report
charging that France was constitutionally incapable of balancing its budget and was substituting U.S. aid for taxes.
Egypt
IT Harvey V. Higley
Molotov
categorically, rejected Pres. Eisenhower's offer to supply food to eastern Germany.
Wis-
I
trator.
French
Soviet Foreign Minister V. M.
of
consin was nominated to be U.S. veterans' affairs adminis-
1
ply base at Langson, Indochina, 10 mi. from the Chinese frontier.
in Senate nvestigations 10 subcommittee report i
Portuguese Premier Antonio Salazar stated that Portugal could not under any circumstances enter into negotiations looking toward the transfer to India of Portuguese India.
jO Both houses
of congress 1 approved and sent to the White House a compromise bill authorizing the appropriation of §5,157,232,500 for military, eco-
nomic and technical aid nations in the 1954
to foreign year.
fiscal
Chinese Communist troops launched their largest drive in two years on the east-central
Korean
U.S. correspondents were permitted to enter Bucharest, Rum., for the first time in five years on
Hungarian govern ment granted an amnesty to thousands of nonpolitical prisoners and ordered the discontinuance of internment as a means of punishment.
QT
Armistice ending the war in Korea was signed at Panmunjom at 10:01 A.M., Korean
other Communist countries at the cost of lives of U.N. troops.
time; hostilities were officially halted at 10 P.M.
in French naval commando
on ZO
forces made a successful raid on Quangngai, on the central
Vietnam
on ZU
Diplomatic relations were
coast.
resumed between the U.S. S.R. and Israel following an Israeli apology for the bombing of the soviet legation in Tel Aviv.
front.
Eisenhower created an 18-member commission to ad-
Pres.
U.S. internal revenue service
elections.
4
V
of
English
channel from England to France in a new record time of 13 hr. 45 min.
Korean conflict U.S. allies had permitted increased trading with Communist China and
I
the
of the National Liberation party, was elected president of Costa Rica by a large majority in national
charged that since the outbreak of the
Abou Heif
swam
Jose Figueres, candidate
union
paratroopers smashed a large Viet-Minh sup-
Litif
the occasion of a World
Youth
festival.
Appointment was announced Lord Llewellin as first governor general of the new central African federation. of
I
denied that plans to use troops to rebuild
U.S. combat war-torn Korea.
Premier Alcide de Gas-
peri resigned after the Italof deputies refused, 282 to 263, to give his eighth postwar cabinet a vote of confidence. De Gasperi was asked to head a caretaker government. ian
House 3 White there were any
chamber
on Zw
Both houses of congress appro^ed by voice vote a compromise bill appropriating 834.371,541,000 for the defense dept. in the fiscal year 1954.
Congress completed action on a bill
extending for one year from 12, 1953, the power of the
June
president to enter into reciprocal trade agreements without senate ratification.
Congress completed action on a appropriating 86,652,422,390 unspent and new funds for foreign aid during the fiscal year beginning July 1, bill
in previously
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
10
AUGUST— Conf/nued
I
1053, and also on a supplemental
•
1953
IC Adm. Arthur W. Radford
and Okinawa.
U
Bakshi Ghu- man 9 Pro-Indian lam Mohammed w.isii.mK'd stall
look o\Tr he oil ICC of ch.iirof the U..S. joint chiefs of I
from retiring Gen.
French authorities banished Sidi
.Sullaii
V'oiissef
Mohammed
ben
Morocco
after
of
III
Omar armed
N. Bradley.
Berber tribesmen began converging on Rabat.
ciudecl
as premier of the ^t.ile of Kashmir in succession to Sheikh Mo-
hammed
rehabilitation.
missed.
Eisenhower signed a bill limiting to 820,000 a year the income tax exemiJtion of U.S. citizens who live outside the U.S. for at least 17 of 18 consecutive
signed an agreement providing for the return of a numi)er of former German vessels allocated to the U.S. at the end of World
months.
War
IP Shah Mohammed Riza ID Pahlavi of Iran Hed his
Prime Ministers Jawaharlal Nehru of India and Moii.mnned
kingdom after failure of an attempt to dismiss Premier Mo-
Ali of Pakistan agreed on i)lans to bring about a plebiscite in the state of Kashmir to determine its future status.
apprear" in a poll of U.S. football coaches. S. Thimayya, the Neutral Nations Repatriation commission, stated that all prisoners of war in the demilitarized zone of Korea would be released on Jan. 22, 1954, in the absence of a contrary U.N. -Communist agree-
Lieut.
Gen. K. of
ment. British foreign office revealed that it had lifted a ban on the export to Spain of some types of modern military equipment.
Army Secy. John Slezak was named to succeed Earl D. Johnson as army undersecy. efAsst.
tion.
lO U.N. representative Ar- 1954 edition of Janes All \L thur H. Dean broke off World's Aircraft, published negotiations at Panmunjom for London, revealed that
Pres. Eisenhower, British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill
concluded their conference at
Bermuda with reaffirming
a
Korean
conference when Communist Chinese delegate accused the U.S. of perfidy.
a
political
fective Jan. 25, 1954. the in
the U.S.S.R. had developed a rocketdriven fighter plane to defend against high-altitude bombers.
communique
NATO as the founda-
and stating that they had approved a fourpower conference with the tion of their policy
U.S.S.R.
The
C Maryland football coach James M. Tatum was named
u
draft call for Feb. 1954 had been reduced to 18,000— the lowest number since June 1952.
and French Premier Joseph Lan-
and the U.S.S.R.
Defense Secy. Charles E. Wilson disclosed that the
W'ilming-
resolution requesting its president to reconvene the session, under certain circumstances, for discussion of the Korean ques-
iel
India
that nothing in the Taft-Hartact precluded employer from
le\'
in
Pont de Nemours & Co. charging it with a monopoly in the manufacture and sale of
chairman
ganization.
Indochina.
U.S.
U.S. district court
I I
Sale to the Cuban government of the British-owned United Railways of Havana and subsidiaries was completed.
2
Vice-Pres. Richard M. Nixon returned to Washington, D.C., from a good-will trip to the far, middle and near cast.
Yugoslavia and Italy agreed to withdraw their troops from their
relations.
discharging struck employees who publicly denounce the em-
nadian companies.
ef-
ton, Del., dismissed a federal anti-trust action against E. I.
sume diplomatic
igan State's 3rd.
for the construction at a total cost of $35,000,000 of the first transatlantic telephone cable system was announced by the British post office, American Telephone and Telegraph Co. and two Ca-
Community became
Defense
fective at an early date.
Moscow radio rejected Pres. Eisenhower's plan for an international atomic energy pool for
Iran and Great Britain announced their decision to re-
5
Pres. Eisenhower summarily removed two Democrats from their posts on the War Claims commission and named two Re-
Signing of agreement
fundamental forEuropean
Israeli Foreign Minister Moshe Sharett was designated to form a new cabinet to replace that of David Ben-Gurion.
conference on current world problems at Tucker's Town, Bermuda.
supreme court. Associated Press poll of sports writers and broadcasters rated Maryland's 1953 football team 1st, Notre Dame's 2nd and Mich-
its
eign policy unless the
Pres. Eisenhower's National Security Training commission proposed the institution of a military training program for 18-yr.-olds to be operated concurrently with Selective Service.
in 1954.
U.N. Food and Agriculture
New York Stock exchange
of State John Foster Dulles stated that the U.S. would ha\'e to consider
USecy. changing
9 General nounced
in
Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill and French Premier Joseph Laniel, accompanied by their foreign ministers, began a
total to 18.
in
ful uses.
on Lw
8th arm\- commander, announced the formation of 2 new South Korean divisions, bringing the
-day stri ke of photoengravers which had forced all major New York cit\ newspapers to suspend publication was ended by a small
Soviet Union announced that it would give serious attention to Pres. Eisenhower's proposal for pooling the world's atomic energy resources for peaceful uses.
1 1
wage settlement and fact-finding agreement as to any further in-
I I
Q 22 pro-Communist prisoners of
first.
C Moscow
radio announced
L. P. Beria, former secret police chief, had confessed to state crimes and would be tried for treason with 6 other secret police officials.
that
U.S.
war refused
to
attend U.N. explanation sessions, insisting that explanations to South Korean prisoners be completed
I 1
NATO
council
in
communique
at the close of a meeting in Paris
stated that the European Defense Communit}' remained an essential objective for reinforce-
CALENDAR OF EVENTS
16
the U.S. on materials.
DECEMBER — Conf/'nuec/ incnt of
thi-
tlrfcnsive strength
NATO.
of
—
control of atomic
PremierNguyenVanTam
of N'ielii.ini and his cabinet I resijjned followinjj disagreement
I
could address einpl()\ees on company time and property before a representation election without giving union representatives similar p)ri\ileges.
was sen-
tenced to years' solitary confinement b> a military tribunal .S
in
Tehran.
ous stand and approved a system of cohiur television which could also be received in black and white on existing sets.
OO Lieut. Gen. Sir Frederick LL Morgan was appointed conof
troller
that it had protested to the nations representcti on the Neutral
Nations
Repatriation
commis-
sion the lattcr's refusal to force anti-Communist prisoners to attend explanation sessions.
militar\'
weapons
00
Beria and 6 co-de4.0 fendants were shot as traitors to the U.S.S.R. after a secret trial before a special commission L.
P.
supreme court.
Carl A. Hall and Bonnie B. Heady were executed in the gas chamber of the Missouri penitentiary under sentence of a federal court for the kidnapmurder of 6-yr.-old Robert C.
Pres. Eisenhower stated that he viewed the proposed European Defense Community as the only practical wa\' of maintaining peace between France and
Greenlease, Jr.
in Shah Mohammed Riza Iv Pahlavi signed a decree dissolving the
Iranian parliament
and authorizing immediate
elec-
Italy and Yugoslavia completed the withdrawal of their troops from frontier positions in the Trieste area.
01 Soviet Union
L
I
expressed
its
willingness to negotiate with
Secy, of State John Foster Dulles warned the
Communists
OC Zu
Polish
and Czechoslovak
members
of the .Neutral Repatriation commission protested the decision rtf the majority of the commission to end prisoner of war explanations.
Nations
Queen Elizabeth Britain
II of Great a world-wide Christ-
in
mas broadcast from .Auckland, N.Z., vowed to uphold a new conception of an etiual partnership of races and nations in the British
Commonwealth.
op ZU
Pres. Eisenhower announced the early withdrawal from Korea and return to the U.S. of 2 U.S. divisions.
Soviet government
proposed
that the conference of Big Four foreign ministers at Berlin should begin on or after Jan. 25 rather than Jan. 4, 1954.
forces
report-
ed to have cut Indochina in two at its narrowest point by the capture of Thakhek on the Thailand border.
Pres. Eisenhower directed that as much government contract work as possible be placed with plants in areas having large and chronic unemployment.
Threatened strike
Railway Labor
on OU
Egypt and Great Britain
resumed informal negotiations on the control of the Suez Canal Zone after a 10-week recess.
Ramdn Magsaysay gurated
for a 4-year as president of the Philip-
pines.
Sir Gerald Templer, high commissioner in Malaya, was designated to take
Gen.
British
of the
army group
NATO
northwestern GerOct. 1954.
league (professional) title playoff for the 2nd con.secutive year.
Tuskegee institute
Rene Coty was
in joint session.
Prisoner of war explanations at Panmunjom came to an end at midnight under the terms of
Pres. Eisenhower placed a ceiling of 2,500,000 bu. on oats imported into the U.S. from nonCanadian sources until Sept. 30,
OQ ZO
U.S. state dept. formally denied to India that the U.S. sought bases in Pakistan or a military
been
Football
many,
01 Soviet Union returned eastern Germany the last I World War
Defense dept. reported that the U.S. armed forces had reduced
from
a
peak
strength of 3,685,000 in April 1952 to 3,455,954 on Nov. 30,
Bowl Games, Jan.
1,
1954
Calif.)
Southern, 8 Calif., 67;
Great Lakes Naval Train-
ing centre, 12
Cotton Bowl (Dallas, Tex.) — Rice, 28; Alabama, 6 Sugar Bowl (New Orleans, La.) — Georgia Tech, 42; West Virginia, 19 Orange Bowl (Miami, Fla.) — Oklahoma, 7; Maryland, Gator Bowl (Jacksonville, Fla.) — Texas Tech, 35; Auburn, 13 Cigar Bowl (Tampa, Fla.) — La Crosse (Wis.) State, 12; Missouri Valley, 12 (tie)
to 33
II
reparations.
Australia won the Davis cup challenge (final) round by defeating the U.S., 3 to 2, in tennis matches at Melbourne, Austr.
(El Paso, Tex.)
Salad Bowl (Phoenix, Ariz.)— Fort Ord,
effective in
reported that no lynchings had been recorded in the U.S. for the 2nd consecutive year.
— Michigan State, 28; U.C.L.A., 20 — Texas Western, 37; Mississippi Southern, 14 Tangerine Bowl (Orlando, Fla.) — East Texas, 7; Arkansas State, 7 (tie) Prairie View Bowl (Houston, Tex.) — Prairie View A. & M., H; Texas Rose Bowl (Pasadena,
Sun Bowl
in
of the industrial plants seized for
1954.
the armistice agreement.
was inau-
Manila
in
Germany.
parliament
nonop-
act.
ern
elected to succeed Vincent Auriol as president of France on the 13th ballot of
of
erating employees on the major U.S. railroads was forestalled by the creation by Pres. Eisenhower of an emergency board under the
command
OT
of
in
east.
term
Viet-Minh forces were
reduction
that
Korea did not mean that the U.S. was hedging on its commitments in the far U.S.
Detroit Lions defeated the Lt Cleveland Browns, 17 to 16, to win the National Football
tions.
on ZU
the U.S.
in
Great Britain's new atomic energy administration.
of the soviet
in 10
K>ukyu
Former Iranian Premier Mo-
nounced that it had accepted an Albanian offer for the resumption of diplomatic relations.
announced
on Zw
group of Ul.mds was
fcHlhc
Yugoslav government an-
Communist China
1953.
Oi Amami Oshima rcturnt-d to Ja()an b\
re\ersing an earlier ruled that emi)loyers
with Chief of State Bao Dai.
Federal Communications commission reversed its previ-
1953
board,
hammed Mossadegh 1*7
•
alliance with Pakistan.
National Labor Relations stanil.
U.S. air force rt'portoil that Maj. Charles 10. \'eagcr, fl>'ing; Hell X-l.A r.i_ houiulfii on the north by lennesscc. on the east by Cieorgia, on 'j ,1 -1 ,1 ,1 T-i f^ I »u the south by Florida and the Cult ol Mexico and on the west by Mississippi. Called the "Cotton state" or the "Vellow-Hammer state." its area includes 51,078 sq. mi. of land and 531 sq.mi. • 1^1 ^ AlQhOmO
I,-
.•
!\
Peonuts, lb
Hoy, tons Sweet potatoes, bo
./^-
1
1
•
3,051.000; 43.8^r .\,
,
,
-.11
.
,
.
.
.
1
•
Decatur, 19,974; Huntsville, 16.437; 21.584; +->/' Phenix City, J ^ -"^' ^ 2;. ^051 Selma, 22,840. ,', .\ ^ ^, J , Ihe second biennial legislative session under Gov. MisTory.
an,
•^
'
—
^ Gordon
,
S.
creases were voted
y
.,,.,.
.
ill
D Persons
e
,
.
»jj-iAdditional
•
took place
1
in
1953.
Alabama teachers; money was
the state r,,,
III
•
1
1
state
and
.,
from
his
The ^,
Ottice
•
is
f
J
I
•
•
pay check,
in order to
' in intercultural education, with special
Federation of Labor: see Labour Unions. Geographical Society: see Cartography;
American Indians: American institute of Accountants: see Indians,
American. see Societies
and
P.
of
emphasis on the Negro. Sallie E. Coy, Westerly (R.I.) Public library, received the
making her
Associations, U.S.
Letter librarian award ($100)
American
factor in the cultural and social development of her region.
American
Arkansas Library commission was given the Letter library award for extending and improving library service in 1952.
Institute of Architects: see Societies and Associations, U.S. Institute of Chemical Engineers: see SociAND Associations, U.S. American Institute of Electrical Engineers: see Societies AND Associations, U.S. American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers: see Societies and Associ.\tions, U.S. American Iron and Steel institute: see Societies and
tin
and the A.L.A. Public Relations committee
lic
relations programs.
Mexico City college, Pennsylvania Library associaand South Carolina State Library board. During 1953 the A.L.A. through its American Heritage project, which was financed by a grant from the Fund for Adult Education (an independent organization established by the Ford foundation), established and sponsored local discussion groups under public library auspices on United States political principles and their application to present-day problems. More than 500 discussion leaders were trained and 40 discussion groups for both adults and young persons were conducted during this second year of operation. An additional grant enabled the project to plan operations in 16 major areas during 1953-54. tion
Veterans' Organizations.
American library Association. l^'ry^TsocZli'n (A.L.A.). the
official
organization for librarians in the United
States and Canada, had a
membership in 1953 of more than 21,500 from the U.S. and possessions. Canada and more than 50 other countries. In 1952 the association had an endowment capof about $2,253,000 and a total income of $1,214,000. Headquarters are located at 50 East Huron street, Chicago, II, 111., with David H. Clift the executive secretary and Grace Stevenson the associate executive secretary. The annual mid-
ital
winter meeting of the association was held in Chicago, Feb. 2-7, 1953. An attendance of 3,200 was registered at the 72nd annual
conference in Los Angeles, Calif., June 21-27. Future conference plans called for a midwinter meeting in Chicago, Jan. 31-Feb. 6,
1954, and annual conferences in Minneapolis, Minn., June 20-
26,
1954, and in
elected
by
ballot,
Philadelphia,
who assumed
Pa.,
July 3-9,
1955.
Officers,
The survey of made possible by
adult education activities in public libraries, a special grant to
A.L.A. from the Fund for
1952-53. was completed. An additional grant of $100,000 was given for strengthening and improving existing
Adult Education
in
adult education programs in individual libraries.
As a result of a meeting in May 1953 of librarians, publishers and public-spirited citizens, a manifesto on "The Freedom to Read" was issued and endorsed by the A.L.A. and the American (D. H. C.) Book Publishers council. {See also Libraries.)
their duties at the annual con-
ference were: president. Flora B. Ludington,
College library, South Hadley, Mass.;
first
Mount Holyoke
vice-president and
Quincy L. Mumford. Cleveland (O.; Public library; second vice-president, Laura K. Martin, professor of library science. University of Kentucky, Lexington; and treasurer, Raymond C. Lindquist, Cuyahoga County Public library,
president-elect,
Cleveland.
The annual A.L.A. citations for distinguished service as library trustees were awarded to Jacob M. Lashly, St. Louis, Mo., and Frank A. Smith, Clayton, Ga. The 32nd Newbery medal was Ann Nolan Clark for Secret of the Andes, judged to be
given to
for effective pub-
Field citations for library recruiting
($100) were awarded to Alpha Beta Alpha, the undergraduate association,
see
The
library fraternity, Detroit Junior Librarians, Medical Library
American Law U.S.
The
Dana
Associations, U.S.
American Legion:
library a vital
Sixteen libraries were presented with the 1953 John Cotton Publicity awards, sponsored by the Wilson Library Bulle-
eties
Institute: see Societies and Assooations,
for
Amprioan nillCIIUali
I itpntiirp LllCiaiUIC.
^^' ^'^' '^^^ in a
^^
"""^'"^
fiction,
poetry
^""""^
dead centre, in
and criticism the patterns had been set and followed and no new challenges flung down. Although there was good reading aplenty, there were few really distinguished works and no new lines of development opening up. In nonfiction there was the usual good reportage of the present and exploration of the past. Perhaps in keeping with the new political administration, there were signs of a trend toward conservatism, visible in such books as Peter Viereck's Shame and Glory of the Intellectuals, a treatise on the rediscovery of
AMERICAN LITERATURE
42
The Conservative Mind, a study of the Santayana; and Chad Walsh's Campus Cods on Trial. Even more marked was the tendency, noted in previous years, to focus upon the past, and the yield of good historical works of all sorts was enormous. But the feeling, in all areas, was one of hiatus, of waiting for new figures or forms or ideas to appear, and of hesitance in tackling the more controvalues; Russell Kirk's
from Burke
tradition
versial issues of the day.
World
Affairs.
buildings with illustrations and detailed discussion. In Roots of Contemporary American Architecture, Lewis Mumford edited
to
sion of civic architecture
and study during the year. John Jay Mc-
I'olicy.
The Challenge
American Foreign Gordon A. Craig and Felix Gilbert, editors of The Diplo-
proach to world relations
in
to
mats: igiQ-ig^Q, an anthology of diplomatic documents, also
recommended
a
modernizing of state department machinery.
Other studies in this area were William .Appleton Williams' American-Russian Relations, I78i-ig47 and Joseph C. Grew's two-volume memoir. The Turbulent Era, edited by Walter John-
city planning.
Another work of
and text by the curatorial staff of the museum. Aaron Copland gathered together a group of lectures on creation and appreciation in Music and Imagination.
lections, the selections
Among many
Cloy. former high commissioner to Germany, proposed a rational reorganization of the state department and a co-operative ap-
and
widespread popularity was the Metropolitan Museum of Art's Art Treasures: A Selection From the European and Asiatic Col•
—The foreign policy of the United States was
the topic of discussion
essays by various writers from the mid- 19th century up to the present. Christopher Tunnard's The City of Man was a discus-
excellent biographies
was Ex-Prodigy, by Nor-
bert A\'iener. the life of a child prodigy
A. Lindbergh reappeared ical
in the
who made
good. Charles
public eye with an autobiograph-
volume. The Spirit of St. Louis. Two Lives, by Wesley and Lucy Sprague Mitchell, was the record of a
Clair Mitchell
happy marriage. And Jackson recalled History.
— In
in
a prairie
The Buffalo Walhnv Charles Tenney boyhood.
the large group of excellent historical
works,
study of the role of schools in a modern democracy, to Lillian
most notable trend was toward the presentation of documents which made available to the general reader the actual source materials of U.S. history. The most panoramic of these was A Docnvientary History of the United States, edited by Richard D. Heffner. which presented basic documents from the Declaration of Independence to the Marshall plan. George F. Willison's The Pilgrim Reader included documents of the Plymouth Colony up to the death of William Bradford; and Richard M. Dorson gathered eye-witness accounts, from letters and other sources, of events from Lexington to Yorktown in Amer-
Ross's Picture, in which she followed the making of a movie
ican Rebels: Narrative of the Patriots.
from idea to showing. Howard Mumford Jones's The Pursuit of Happiness showed the changing conception of happiness from
Other studies went back to the very roots of the continent. Alpheus Hyatt Verrill and Ruth Verrill, archaeologists, wrote America's Ancient Civilizations. Frederick Julius Pohl. in The
son,
which covered the U.S. diplomats career from 1904 to North From Malaya, advocated a
1945. William 0. Douglas, in
approach
political
to the
problems of that part of the world, and
Eleanor Roosevelt's report on her travels, India and the Awakeniui^ East,
presented the
difficulties of establishing
democracy
there.
The American Scene.
— Books
about the American scene
ranged from James Bryant Conant's Education and Liberty, a
the time of the constitution to the present. Sidney Hook's controversial
Heresy,
Yes
— Conspiracy,
No!
tried
to
proper limits of liberal thought and action. Barrows
define
the
Dunham,
in
the
Lost Discovery, basing his research on
a literal reading of the
sages, told the story of the vikings in
America. Ruth Murray
Red Man's America,
discussed the white man's
Giant in Chaijis, proposed that the interplay of philosophical
Underbill, in
theory and practice can free mankind.
dealings with the Indians in the past as well as his current re-
Alfred C. Kinsey and associates published the second volume of his
monumental
statistical
study. Sexual Behavior in
sponsibilities
An
the
Human
toward them.
important work was William Winslow Crosskey's Politics
Female. Attacked by some as being insufficiently psychiand by others as insufficiently moral, it was still a basic contribution to the understanding of American civilization. More general in its approach was M. F. Ashley-Montagu's The Natural Superiority of Women. The publication of Harry Stack Sullivan's The Interpersonal Theory of Psychiatry made avail-
and the Constitution in the History of the United States, in which he attempted to show, partly through a study of the vo-
able the ideas of the country's leading contributor to psychiatric
Constitutio?ial Principles of
atric
thought. James Bryant Conant's Modern- Science and
Man
reviewed the cultural significance of
Modern
somewhat simpler form
of
government than has been generally
supposed. Another historian. Caleb Perry Patterson, approached
book The Volume seven of
the constitution through a study of one figure in his
The Papers of Thomas
Thomas
Jefferson.
Jefferson, edited
by Julian
P.
Boyd, with
activities
Elizabeth L. Hutter and Mina R. Bryan, covered the time from
the national scene.
March 2. 1784. to Feb. 25. 1785. Three excellent documentary biographies in the "Makers of the American Tradition Series"
scientific
since 1930.
Many books explored specific aspects of Among these was George R. Stewart's U.S.
cabulary of the constitution, that the founding fathers intended a
of the
were Roger Williams, by Perry Miller; Andrew Jackson, by Harold C. Syrett; and Benjamin Frankli^i, by I. Bernard Cohen. Volume five of the monumental biography of George Washing-
Trial, reported
ton by Douglas Southall Freeman appeared. Victory With the
40, a
panorama of from one
the country, physical, economic and cultural, as seen
main coast-to-coast highways. Richard B. Morris, in Fair on 14 famous judicial proceedings from Anne Hutchinson to Alger Hiss. Bloody Williamson, by Paul McClelland Angle, was the history of an Illinois county which offered an epitome of labour and gangster violence. Amory Cleveland, in The Last Resorts, gave a sprightly account of a vanishing life in Bar Harbor. Me., Palm Beach. Fla., and other such haunts of the wealthy. Ludwig Bemelmans' Father, Dear Father, was the
wry account
And
S.
number
J.
of a trip abroad with his
Perelman
in
15-year-old daughter.
The Ill-Tempered Clavichord made a
of observations as a victim of civilization.
There was considerable interest in summing up recent developments in architecture. The Museum of Modern Arts (New York, N.Y.) publication Built in USA: Post-War Architecture, edited by Henry-Russell Hitchcock and Arthur Drexler, presented 43
Help of France. Bernard De\'oto's The Course of Empire, well documented and written in the grand manner, was a history of territorial expansion and exploration. Carl Bridenbaugh analyzed three distinct southern cultures and the myths about them in Myths aiid Realities: Societies of the Colonial South. Jared van W^agenen's
The Golden Age
of
Homespun
described
life in
the early 19th
century; and Edouard A. Stackpole wrote The Sea-Hunters: The New England Whalemen During Two Centuries, 1635-1835.
James Garfield Randall added volume
three,
Midstream, of
his
Lincoln, the President, a scholarly and vivid picture of the year 1863. to his life of Abraham Lincoln. His wife, Ruth Painter
Randall, wrote
Mary
Lincoln: Biography of a Marriage, which
AMERICAN LITERATURE corrected finally the slanderous picture previously accepted of the president's wife. Roy P. Basler brought out Lincoln's Collected
Works
in a great
nine-volume edition. Harold E. Briggs
and Ernestine B. Briggs. not finding many
much
sented as
Hanks
a picture of a milieu as a
facts to go on, pre-
biography
in
Nancy
Lincoln, a Frontier Portrait. Allan Nevins. in The States-
manship of the Civil War, had little good to say for southern diplomacy and much for Lincoln's. Ishbel Ross's popular Proud Kate was an expert study of Kate Chase and her White House ambitions.
There were a number of biographies and a collection of letwhich were important historical and economic studies as well as portraits of individual figures. Both Allan Nevins' Study in Power: John D. Rockefeller, Industrialist and Philanthropist ters
and Matthew Josephson's Sidney Hilhnan: Statesman of American Labor focused on the era. The two-volume Holme s-Laski Letters, iqi6-i9js> edited by Mark De'Wolfe Howe, presented a fascinating portrait of the interplay of two important liberal minds. the first volume of a work ten years in the makby Frank Freidel. The Apprenticeship, volume one of a sixvolume biography of Franklin D. Roosevelt; it covered the years through World War L Samuel Eliot Morison added volume eight, perhaps the most impressive and thorough of his naval history of World War II, New Guinea and the Marianas, March I g44- August 1944. In a year marked by no new development and no Fiction.
The year saw
ing
—
new outstanding
figure in
U.S. fiction, the reader could take
competence in American writing was extremely high. Also of interest was the large number of Negro writers who shared this competence. Saul Bellow, one of a new generation of good writers who had passed their apprenticeship, recorded the growth of a slum boy into an uncertain and ultimately undefined manhood in The Adventures of Angle March. Ilona Karmel's first novel, Stephania, was a moving and vivid picture of life in a hospital and the struggle of a cripple to find herself. Theodore Morrison, in The Stones of the House, wTote skilfully and wittily of a man's first year as a college president. Far different in tone was Richard Wright's The Outsider, a strange and sometimes unsatisfactory blend of violence and talkiness in the story of a man's fight for existence. Langston Hughes's 5/?«/>/e Takes a Wife was the quietly humorous study of a Harlem Negro in the throes of courtship. Of the books by or about Negroes, A Good Man, by Jefferson Young, recorded the symbolic struggle of a rural Mississippi Negro to paint his house and the hostility he encountered. James Baldwin, in Go Tell It on the Mountain, wrote with dignity and seriousness of a rehgious revival in Harlem. Poetic prose, delicacy of observation artd an underlying bitterness marked Gwendolyn Brook's story of a Negro girl in Chicago, Maud Martha. Hubert Creekmore, in The Chain in the Heart, followed a southern Negro family's search for freedom in its fullest sense comfort
in the realization that the general level of
through three generations.
The
of a marine, from boot camp to death, was the subLeon M. Uris' Battle Cry. Other novels of battle included Warren Eyster's Far From the Customary Skies, about men on a destroyer in the Pacific war, and James A. Michener's The life
ject of
Bridges at Toko-Ri, a not entirely successful attempt to substitute jet planes for
men
Ben Ames Williams,
as heroes.
posthumous novel, The Unconmore as a historian than as a novelist, although his smoothness as a popular writer remained. Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings showed her in
his
quered, approached the period of the Reconstruction
CARL SANDBURG, who celebrated his 75th birthday in 1953 with the publication of his autobiography, Always the Young Strangers
43
AMERICAN LITERATURE
44 usual quiet skill in \'ork
The Sojourner,
the
life
New
of an upstate
farmer. William Carlos Williams completed his trilogy
ahout the character and ambitions of
a
Scandinavian immiprant
The Light in the Forest, attempted, through the story of a white boy brought up among Indians, an understanding of both Indians and colonists. The Devil Rides Outside, by John H. Griftin. described the mental sufferings of an unbelieving American in a French monastery. Wright Morris, in The Deep Sleep, analyzed the feelings, not invariably admirable, of a man's family on the day of his death. The U'eh of Time, by Josephine Lawrence, was a study of old age and retirement. Upton Sinclair revived his ubiquitous hero and led him through all the major events of recent times in The Return of Lanny Budd. John Phillips' (J. P. Marquand, Jr.) The Second Happiest Day was a slick novel of the upper crust somewhat redeemed by a sceptical narrator. There was a sharp increase in the number of good books of short stories, many of which sold remarkably well. One of the best was J. D. Salinger's Nine Stories, which demonstrated girl
and her husband
T/ie Build-up.
in
Conrad Richter,
in
among other things his continuing skill in portraying the adolescent. Waldo Frank's Not Heaven was a group of interrelated short stories about man's attempts to deal with the cruelty of the universe. Also distinguished were the stories in Jean Stafford's
Children Are Bored on Sunday. The people of
Schulberg's
Some Faces
in
the
Crowd
are
Budd
warm and human.
Charles Jackson in Earthly Creatures and John Cheever in The
Enormous Radio, and Other
Stories demonstrated in their vari-
ous ways the aimlessness and insecurity of the people around
them. H. L. Davis' excellent Tearn Bells
Woke Me, and
Other
Stories revolves around people and settings of the far w'est.
The growing popularity
of paper-covered books had
in the field of the short story
thology of
new
writing.
New
its effect
with the phenomenon of the an-
writers as well as established ones
found an outlet in such publications as New Voices: America^i Writing Today, edited by Don M. Wolfe; Discovery, edited by John W. Aldridge and Vance Bourjaily; and the second and third issues of
Mentor
—One
New World
Writitig.
most distinguished scholarly works of the year w^as Leon Edel's The Untried Years, volume one of a projected life of Henry James. Blake R. Nevius presented a perceptive reading in Edith Wharton: A Study of Her Fiction. A rising interest in Willa Cather was indicated by the publication of a biography and two memoirs. Willa Cather, a Critical Biography, by E. K. Brown, completed by Leon Edel, was a biography of considerable excellence. Personal memoirs were Edith Lewis' Willa Cather, Livi?ig and Elizabeth Shepley Sergeant's Willa Cather, a Memoir. Philip Young's Ernest Hemingway was a study of the Hemingway hero for whom there is Scholarship.
of the
victory in defeat.
Two
volumes of
letters
aroused considerable interest
in figures
The Letters of Sherwood Anderson, selected and edited by Howard Mumford Jones and Walter B. Rideout, recreated the personality and milieu of a writer. The Letters of Edna St. Viticent Millay, edited by Allan Ross Macdougall, show the poet as a vivid and reckless person. Of more general works one of the most interesting w-as Van Wyck Brooks's The Writer iji America, in which he sums up his philosophy of life and letters, explaining the optimism of his approach to American literature. Maxwell David Geismar continued his study of the American novel with Rebels and Ancestors: The American Novel, i8go-igij. Perry Miller, in The New England Mind, added a second volume to his analysis of the of the 1920s.
growth of
Among
religious thought.
and biographies was Carl Sandburgs Always the Yowig Strangers, a rambling account of a literary reminiscences
prairie its
boyhood, more a picture of
a
midwestern small town and
inhabitants than the story of the genesis of a poet. George
Santayana's
My
autobiography.
Host the World was the
Two
instalment of his
final
distinguished collections of essays about
the writers' experiences and opinions were Katherine ter's
The Days Before and Gilbert Highet's People,
Anne PorPlaces,
and
Books.
The collection of essays and reviews by F. O. Matthiessen, The Responsibilities of the Critic, summarized the ideas of this distinguished critic on present.
Edmund
all
life, past and The Shores of the 1920s and 1930s.
phases of U.S. literary
Wilson's collected reviews
Light constituted a literary chronicle of Allen Tate, in The Forlorn
Demon,
man
of letters in our time. Poetry
rell,
was
a defense of the
in
discussed the role of the
and the Age, by Randall Jar-
modern poet against the charge
of
obscurantism. Richard P. Blackmur's Language as Gesture was
group of discerning essays on the history and criticism of American and British poetry. Eric Bentley's In Search of Theater analyzed the drama of five countries, especially as it was the vehicle for ideas. Editions and selections included The F.nigma of Thomas Wolfe, biographical and critical selections edited by Richard Gaither Walser. The Man From Main Street, edited by Harry E. Maule and others, included essays and other writings by Sinclair Lewis. Robert Wooster Stallman edited Stephen Crane: An Omnibus, with critical comment. Other collections were The Portable Melville, edited by Jay Leyda; The Hemiyigway Reader, selected by Charles Poore; and Henry James: Selected Fiction, edited by Leon Edel. Poetry. The year brought many books of poetry, some of which surveyed the life work of established poets while others brought new young poets to the reader's attention. Collected Poems: igij-igs2, by Archibald MacLeish, showed the change and growth of the poet over the years. Yvor Winters' Collected Poems, actually a selection, showed the neat, tough lyrics of which he is capable. The verse of Mark Van Doren's Spring Birth, and Other Poems was traditional and unpretentiously skilled. Three posthumous collections were The Poet's Testament, poems and two plays by George Santayana; Selected Poems, lyrics of social protest as well as of inner emotions, by Claude McKay; and Poems, by the American mystic Ridgely a
—
Torrence.
Perhaps the most successful
in establishing
an idiom of his
own was Theodore Roethke. Poems written from 1933 to 1953, collected in The Waking, were concerned with the perceptions and depths of the child. Brother to Dragons, a moral tale in by Robert Penn Warren, was an uneven work using historical materials from the Jeffersonian era. Another long poem was The Dragon and the Unicorn, in which Kenneth Rexroth wrote about places he had been and ideas he had had. Ogden Nash collected his humorous and satirical verse in The Private Dining Room. The lyrics of May Sarton's The Land of Silence, and Other Poems skilfully captured evanescent moods. Norman Rosten's The Plane and the Shadow included many good poems verse and voice
on contemporary
issues.
Of the newer poets, David Wagoner published Dry Sun, Dry Wind, poems in terse rhythm anatomizing the aridity and vacancy in nature and in people. Another first book was The Green Loving, by Dorothy Hughes. Carleton Drewry wTOte The Writhen Wood, a group of elegiac lyrics, and LeRoy Smith The Fourth King, a sequence of poems which consider man as descendant of Adam. Other collections of some stature were Stanley Burnshaw's Early and Late Testament, Carl Bode's The Sacred Seasons, Harold Norse's The Undersea Mountain and Peter \'iereck's The First Morning. In poetry too the paper-covered book was offering publication to new and often previously unpub-
AMERICAN MATHEMATICAL SOCIETY — ANGLING The most notable collection was New Poems by American Poets, edited by Rolfe Humphries and ranging from new poems by such established writers as W. H. Auden to those by unknown writers. {See also Book Publishing; Children's Books; English Literature; Literary Prizes.) (H. M. H.) lished poets.
Jean Menant, the French
vigitier,
45
taking offense from an alleged
and political measures adopted by the council of the valleys, published a decree that all Frenchmen entering Andorra must have passports and visas long
costing 1,000
economic
unfriendly
of
series
fr.
This edict seriously affected the local economy,
were expected in 1953. co-prince (Vincent Auriol) on Sept. 12 withdrew
for 300,000 visitors
American Mathematical Society:
see Societies
and As-
The French
recognition from the syndic and the French vigiiier was ordered
sociations, U.S.
American Medical Association:
and Asso-
see Societies
ciations, U.S.
American Optometric Association:
see Societies
and
to refuse visas for
F. Cayrat.
On
reaffirmed
its
Andorran passports bearing the signature of
Sept. 22 the council of the valleys unanimously
confidence in the syndic. This rebuff sprang, in
from the attitude of the Spanish co-prince who regive his approval to a draft Franco-Andorran agree-
part at least,
Associations. U.S.
American Prison Association:
and Asso-
see Societies
fused to
ment on
ciations, U.S.
American Society of
Civil
Engineers:
see
Societies
AND ASSOCUTIONS, U.S. American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers: see Societies and Associations, U.S. American Society of Heating and Ventilating Engineers: see Societies and Associations, U.S. American Society of Mechanical Engineers: see Societies AND Associations, U.S. American Sunday-School Union: see Societies and Asso-
the grounds that since it proposed special treatment for French residents in Andorra, Spanish residents should have the same advantages. In a note to the prefect of Pyrenees Orientales, who represented the French co-prince, the council of the valleys recalled
that the "indivisible co-sovereignty" of the two princes
prince and asked
American Veterans' Committee:
see
Veterans' Organi-
him
to
reconsider favourably his measures
against Andorra. Economy.
ciations, U.S.
was the
fundamental principle of the statute of the principality; the council expressed its "respectful submission" to the French co-
—Xo
budget or
ta.xes.
Cigarette factory, with yearly turnover
of about 50,000,000 pesetas. Duties collected
on imported goods
in
1952:
appro.ximately 2,250,000 pesetas.
zations.
American Veterans of World
War
II
(Amvets):
see
^^ ^952. 171127,896 fishing licences were sold in the United States, a record-breaking total representing
Vetera.ns" Organizations.
Anrrlinrr nllgililgi
Anaemia:
a gross cost of $33,609,539 to anglers. This latter figure in-
see Blood,
Diseases of the.
cluded licences, special permits, seals and one-half the cost of
combination licences (instead of
Anderson, Robert Bernard 'Zromcsl:
"ifs^ZZ
meagre
his
living as a dairy
He worked
Angling and Casting clubs was held at Toledo, O., Aug. 26-30,
farmer and cotton picker.
way through Weatherford
college,
the University of Texas, Austin, receiving his law degree from the latter institution in 1932. In the
same
year, within a period
was admitted to the Texas bar, set up law practice in Ft. Worth and was elected to the Texas legislature. In that year also he became assistant attorney general of the state and in 1934 state tax commissioner; two years later he was chairman and executive director of the Texas Unemployment commission. He then entered private business, later becoming director of a number of corporations and general manager of a of a few months, he
500,000-ac. ranch in northwest Texas. a prominent
in
tion
principality
between France and
Spain. Andorra has an area of 191 sq.mi. Popula-
(1953 est.): about 6,500, excluding approximately 1,200 mainly Spaniards. Language: Catalan. Religion: Capital:
Catholic.
Andorra-la-Vieja, pop.
(1952
est.)
600. Co-princes: the president of the French republic and the
bishop of Urgel, Spain, respectively represented by their vigniers (deputies).
points one of
An
its
elected general council of 24
members
members
ap-
as the syndic general des vallees
(from 1946, Francisco Cayrat). History. In June 1953 the relations between France and Andorra never cordial since World War II became strained.
—
-3-
ft.
The loth
Tuna Cup match was held at Wedgeand the Alton B. Sharp cup was won by
International
port, N.S.. Sept. 10-12,
Mexican team.
The
International
Game
Fish association's outstanding world's
by Alfred Glassell, Jr., on Aug. 4, 1953 in the waters off Talara, Peru. There were several other record fish certified, many of them caught in 1952. A 358-lb. 6-oz. Pacific sailfish was taken on Nov. 10, 1952, off La Paz, Mex., by Mrs. E. C. de Berrios. An 83-lb. 7.7-oz. California white sea bass was taken off San Felipe, Mex., on March 31, 1953, by L. C. Baumgardner. A 2,372-lb. white shark was taken in Streaky bay, Austr., on Jan. 8, 1953, by A. Dean. A 1,182-lb. broadbill swordfish was caught off Iquique, Chile, on May 7, 1953, by L. Marron. A 32-lb. 4-oz. pollack was taken oft" Belmar, N.J., on April 25, 1953, by J. Wolf. A 368-lb. big-eyed tuna was taken off Talara, Peru, on March 23, 1953, by H. L. Woodward. A 1192-lb. amberjack was caught off Rio de Janeiro, Braz., on Jan. 13, 1952, by C. de Mello Cunha. A 172-lb. bonefish was taken off Oahu, T.H., on
in the
foreigners,
Roman
425
fly
ft.
Republican national convention at Chicago,
An autonomous
1
distance trout
record catch for the year was a 1,560-lb. black marlin, taken
1932; he was also active
nllUUIIdi
The
state's elec-
campaign preceding the November election. In December of that year Anderson was designated by Eisenhower as secretary of the navy, whereupon he relinquished all his corporate directorships and other business interests. He was confirmed by the senate on Feb. 2, 1953. 111.,
event was won by Myron Gregory and an average of 151 ft.; the |-oz. bait-casting event was won by W. J. Lovely with a long cast of 375 ft. and an average of 3645 ft., which broke the record for the average cast; W. J. Lovely also won the |-oz. distance baitcasting event with a long cast of 428 ft. and an average of 1953.
with a long cast of 152
the
With Gov. Allan Shivers of Texas, Anderson took part in Dwight D. Eisenhower's campaign for the toral votes at the
previous years).
Weatherford, Tex., and
a farm near Burleson, Tex., on June 4 and in his youth earned a
full cost, as in
The states of California, Michigan and Wisconsin each sold more than 1,000,000 licences. The 45th annual tournament of the National Association of
—
—
by J. Yoshida. A 39-lb. 15-oz. oceanic bonito was taken off Walker Cay, the Bahamas, on Jan. 21, 1952, by F. Drowley. A 76-lb. 8-oz. kingfish was taken off Bimini, the Bahamas, on May 22, 1952, by R. E. Maytag. A black drum, weighing 87 lb. 12 oz. was taken off Cape Charles, Va., on April Aug.
23,
1952,
ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SUDAN
46 ji. 11)5:,
by Paul
Pennewell.
J.
On May
25, 1952,
Hubert Ham-
mers broke the world's record for lake trout with a 63-lb. 2-oz. fish out oi Lake Superior. (A. J. Me.)
A Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.
territory in northeast Africa,
Sudan
An^io-EKyptian
the
is
under the joint st)\ereignty of Great Britain and Egypt. Area: 967.500 sq.mi. Pop. (1952
est.,
no census ever taken): 8,766,-
000. Language: English, Arabic and various Nilotic and tribal dialects in the south.
Religion: Arabic minority
lem: Negro population mainly heathen; only about ulation in the south
Khartoum
(cap..
is
is
20%
Negro Mos-
of pop-
Christian. Chief towns (pop.. 1948 est.):
71.400);
Omdurman
El-Obeid
(125.300);
Wad
(70.100);
Medani (57.300); Port Sudan (47.000). Gover1953. Sir Robert Howe.
nor-general in
History.
— During
1953 the Anglo-Egyptian negotiations on
the future of the Sudan, which had been entered into in Nov.
1952, were brought to a successful conclusion. An agreement was reached between representatives of the two countries and signed on Feb. 12. Careful provision was made for the future of the southern Sudan. During a transitional period of not more than three years, which was to elapse before the fulfilment of Sudanese independence, the governor-general would have a spe-
ensure the equitable treatment of the in-
cial responsibility to
was further provided that the in parliament by one quarter of the members and that two offices of ministerial rank in any Sudanese cabinet were to be held by southerners. The principal article of the agreement was the decision for habitants of
all
provinces.
It
southern Sudan was to be represented
full
independence after a short transitional period. This period
was was
to begin after the election of a to last for not
more than three
Sudanese parliament and years.
During
this period
the governor-general would have the supreme authority although in
matters of defense and external
affairs
he would be respon-
codomini. But he would be assisted by a commis-
sible to the
MOHAMMED NAGUIB. Egyptian presid-;,:, ..„Lli antly with which he signed the British-Egypt Sudan agreement '„
lioMi: in
.,
,
.
,
1953
of this agreement represented considerable concessions on both
In particular
sides.
was not
it
opinion would allow without to sovereignty over the
many
to be expected that
comment
Egyptian
the sacrifice of that claim
Sudan which had been strongly held
for
years. Fresh difficulties did arise about British policy in
the southern Sudan, and over delays in the appointment of the
commission. The
and one Egyptian member, and two Sudanese, \vhose names were to be proposed by the British and Egyptian governments in agreement and offered for approval to the Sudanese parliament. Provision was made, too, for the setting up of a commission to supervise the preparation and conduct of elections. This was to have an Indian chairman and six other members, one British, one Egyptian, one U.S. citizen, and three Sudanese to be appointed by the governor-general with the approval of his commission. Provision was made for the Sudanization of the govern-
Sudanese nominees
ment
the elections before the second half of June, by which time the
sion of five, consisting of a Pakistani chairman, one British
service under the control of another joint committee, al-
though
it
was stated that the Sudanese parliament might,
wished, retain the services of British
officials.
if it
Finally, the whole
process of the implementation of independence and of Sudaniza-
was
tion
national
to
be conducted under the supervision of an inter-
body
to
be appointed for
this purpose.
This agreement was welcomed in London where Anthony
Eden, the foreign secretary, described it as "a reasonable settlement of this question which has for so long bedevilled our re-
and also in Cairo, where Gen. Mohammed was "good news" and would '"inaugurate a new and reera in the relations with our brethren, the Sudanese store confidence in the relations between Egypt and Great
lations with Egypt''
Naguib said
it
.
.
.
Britain."
made the
attempt to bring with
Egypt
as a result of a statement
an independent Sudan from claiming membership of
Commonwealth
Eden
in
house of commons that there was nothing
in the British
to prevent
of Nations. General
this
Naguib stated that any
about would invalidate the agreement, but
reaffirmed the view that complete independence did carry it
cusations that British
the right to form external associations at will.
The terms
officials
were abusing
their
power
in the
southern Sudan and that they were delaying the process toward
made
self-government. In fact a good deal of such progress was
during the spring and summer. At the end of March the names
members of the governor-general's commission were announced and on April 7 the electoral commission was formed. However, on May 6 the electoral commission announced that of the
it
w^ould be impossible to
rains
make
the necessary preparations for
would make polling impossible
in
many
areas.
They were
accordingly postponed until after the middle of October. (See also
(H.
Egypt.)
—
— (1950):
S.
D.)
Northern system government schools: elementary 262 (pupils 37,000), subgrade and Koran 540 (pupils 40,000), intermediate 21 (pupils 2,661), secondary 6 (pupils 1,457), technical 3 (pupils 264), teachers' training colleges 5 (teachers trained annually more than 255); nongovernment schools 172 (pupils 15.900); university education at Gordon Memorial college and higher education at Kitchener schools: elementary 3 (pupils 327). School of Medicine. Sonl/icni system secondary 1. intermediate i (pupils 150): pupils at mission schools 23,384: government training schools 2; primary teachers' training centres 2. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: Egyptian pound with an exchange rate of ££0.975 to £1 sterling and ££0.348 to $i U.S. Budget: (1951(i953~S4 52 est.) revenue ££24,800,000, expenditure ££17,800,000; est.) revenue ££26,900.000, expenditure ££26,800,000. Total external debt (Dec. 31, 1949) ££12,300,000 of which ££5,300,000 to Egypt for Education.
—
—
development.
Anxiety was expressed
to the governor-general's
British government, with full opposition support, rejected ac-
—
(1952) Imports ££6i ,000,000; exports ££42,700.000. Main sources of imports: U.K. i2.g%\ India i2.87o; Egypt 7-1 destinations of exports: U.K. 55.1%; France 8%: India 7-3%- Main imports (1952): sugar ££5,500.000; cotton piece goods ££9,200,000: vehicles and transport equipment ££4,700,000. Main exports: cotton, ginned, ££28,800,000; gum. hashab ££2,400,000; cottonseed ££2,200,000. Foreign Trade.
%
Main
—
Transport and Communications. Railways (1950): 2,056 mi. Licensed motor vehicles (1951): cars 5,200; commercial 5,700. Telephones (1952): 9,824. Radio receiving set licences (1949): 3,227. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons): cotton lint (1952) 87,000;
—
ANGOLA — ANTHROPOLOGY cottonseed (1952) 127,000; sesame seed (1951) 33-30o; gum arable (exports 1949) 33,900; peanuts (1951) 15,000; dates (1949) 25,000; maize (1949) 19,000; millet (1949) 92,000; sorghum (1950) 867.000. Livestock (Sept. 1952) cattle 5.500.000; sheep 6.000.000; camels (1949) 1.500,000; horses 20,000; pigs (1949) 4,000; goats (1949) 4.300,000; asses 500,000. :
47
volumes honoured the fourth InternaAnthrnnninrru MninrOpOIOgy. tlonal congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, which was held in Vienna. Aus., in Sept. 1952: Kultur mid Sprache, Arcliiv filr Volkerkunde and a Fest'^^''^^
from the Anthropological Society of Vienna. Thor HeyerAmerican Indians in the Pacific: The Theory Behind the Kon-Tiki Expedition coincided with the 30th Congress of Amerischrift
Angola: see Portuguese Overseas Territories. Animal Fats: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats. Animal Industry, Bureau of: see Agricultural Research
dahl's
Administration; Veterinary Medicine. Annam: see Indochina.
aboriginal migration in the Pacific evoked critical reviews.
Anniversaries and Centennials: page
see
canists in
Cambridge. Heyerdahl's arguments for a westward
Calendar,
The Vienna congress accepted
1954,
Anthropological
xxii.
Antabuse:
Alcoholic.
see Intoxication,
A
U.S. edition followed.
1956.
association
The National Research
to
the invitation of the American
go
council
to
Philadelphia.
was requested
Pa.,
in
to organize
the congress.
nllldluUwd.
Atlantic.
arctic continent
is
Pacific
and Indian oceans, the ant-
slightly less than 6,000,000 sq.mi.
about two-thirds of which has never been seen by
is
somewhat
circular in outline except for
Ross and Weddell
tions, the is
man
in
area,
or camera.
almost entirely within the Antarctic circle (67° S.) and
It lies
seas.
two gross indenta-
Nine-tenths of the
known
ft.
above sea
level.
The geographical south
in the centre of the continent at
History.
—The
pole
is
located
an elevation of almost 10,000
ft.
French expedition, under the leadership of
Capt. Paul Emile Victor, which established the Port Martin base in the French-claimed sector of Adelie Land, south of Australia, in Jan.
1950, abandoned
its
base and returned to Melbourne,
first
Strauss as secretary-general, admitted the International Union
and Ethnological Science as one of governmental adhering organizations. of .Anthropological
six
non-
An Encyclopedic Inventory and An ApAnthropology Today, edited by S. Tax. L. Eiseley, Rouse and C. F. Voegelin. comprised the proceedings of the
Anthropology Today: praisal of I.
Wenner-Gren symposium
of
June 1952. The International Di-
rectory of Anthropological Institutions, edited by \V. L.
Thomas
and A. M. Pikelis, classified the world's resources in the science. The Wenner-Gren foundation's supper conferences moved to 111., during the year in charge of a committee of editors American Anthropologist, who featured I. Schapera of London in a symposium on the comparative method in social
Chicago,
of the
Austr., in Jan. 1953.
For more than
International Social Science Research council, which held
meeting at the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization (U.N.E.S.C.O.) with Claude Leviits
area
snow- and ice-covered with an average elevation of about
5,000
The
Separated from other continents by the South
.•
.
five years Australia
had maintained
scientific
stations at lonely, snow-swept islands in the Antarctic ocean,
mainly for meteorological observations. In Feb. 1953 the Austrahan government decided to send an expedition to the Aus-
anthropology.
The
Institute for Social Anthropology in the Smithsonian in-
tralian-claimed territory to set up a permanent research station
A total of ten men, whose aim would be to install the basic requirements of the station and carry out a restricted program of scientific work and exploration, were 10 winter the first year. The station was to be along the coast of Princess Elizabeth Land.
maintained at least until the conclusion of the International Geophysical year in 1958. In the past few years diplomatic differences had occurred over the sovereignty ot the Palmer peninsula sector of
which
tica,
is
pendencies survey.
Chile and Argentina had long challenged
Great Britain's claim to is
West Antarc-
within the British-claimed Falkland Islands De-
this sector, of
which Deception Island
The British. Chileans and Argentines each number of bases in the Palmer peninsula area,
the focal point.
maintained a
partly to further the diplomatic validity of their claims.
The Argentines
in Jan.
on Livingston Island
1953 set up a new base at Bahia Lune South Shetland Islands. This action
in the
was strongly protested in London, and retaliatory action was taken by the British in destroying Argentine installations on Deception Island and arresting and deporting two Argentines manning the station. A near-by hut owned by the Chileans was torn
down
at the
same time.
On
Stonington Island, in Marguerite bay, the wintering base of the 1946-48 Finn Ronne expedition, 19 men of an Argentine naval garrison were marooned by heavy, premature pack ice in late March 1953. A break in the freakish antarctic weather a
week
later allowed an Argentine air force plane to parachute sup-
beleaguered force. No attempt to relieve them by sea would be possible until the end of the year, when the antarctic summer would begin. The Argentine government announced plans to estabhsh still plies to the
another base in the antarctic during the coming southern hemisphere summer. (F. Re.)
CHAVANTE chief
photographed in Mato Grosso, Brazil, In May 1953 by EdAmerican Museum of Natural History, New York city. The Chavantes, rarely contacted because of their reputation for extreme hostility, traded with Weyer's party and allowed motion pictures to be made.
ward Weyer,
Jr.,
ANTHROPOLOGY
48 >liUuion
terminated
its
activities,
leaving
the
Unitctl
Stales
without a siicntitk bureau devoted to the study of culture contacts.
The
Point Kour proj^ram attcin|)ted to identify positions
medal
iniin.jrial
for 1953 to
Arnhcm Land;
at
eral anthropology;
thropological association brought 450 persons to the University
The Society
museum
Bulletin of Research in
in
on
its
Philadelphia on Dec. 28-30 to witness a variety of
F.
Thompson
W.
Alfonso Caso y Andrade, archaeology; and
society-\'ictoria
medal
medal went
Count
to
Eigil
to Sir
Knuth
The Royal Geographic John Myres and the Patron's
for contributions to
No
Man
became
Anthropology founded
for Ap[)lied
Human
behind the "iron curtain." The Arctic Institute of North America sent seven scholars including an archaeologist, three linguists
and an ecologist to the Northwest coast, .\leutians, Point Barrow and northern Quebec. Dartmouth college, Hanover, N.H., the extensive Stefansson library and announced a Northern Studies project directed by R. A. McKennan. The Carnegie Corporation of New York enabled Yale university, the University of Hawaii and the Bernice P. Bishop museum, Honolulu, to enter upon co-operative research in the Pacilic along two lines: field studies of the spread of the native
natives. C.
Wagley (Columbia) spent the year in Brazil, and American Museum of Natural History made the
E. W'eyer of the
first motion pictures of the Chavantes, while H. Tschopik. Jr., and Raoul de los Rias of Peru embarked on a socio-anthropological study of the Indians of the upper Amazon. H. Conklin (Yale) resumed field work begun in Mindanao during the war. The Pacific Science board of the National Research council announced a Coral Atoll Research program underway at Ifaluk, south of Guam in the western Carolines, led by E. G. Burrows. The eighth Pacific Science congress met in November in Manila.
Sociological research in Africa south of the Sahara
was the
subject of a meeting of Belgian and British field workers in
February at Kampala, Uganda. The Eighth Report of the Colonial Social Science Research Council of London noted progress of colonial studies in British universities, particularly the close tie
between the University of Manchester and the Rhodes-
Livingston institute. The report of the Royal Commission on
Higher Education for Africans
in
Central Africa recommended
establishing a university college in central Africa on a multiracial basis, initially
bury
in
under the University of London, at
Southern Rhodesia. The Peabody
sent J. Marshall to the
Kaukauveld
for
museum
hunting techniques, child behaviour and group interaction the
Salis-
Harvard about 14 months to film of
among
Bushmen. M. Gusinde (Catholic University of America)
re-
a
Clearinghouse
Organization, Charles F. Hard-
In Kuala Lumpur, Malaya, Maj. P. D.
An
R. Williams-Hunt Introduction to the
Malayan Aborigines. The government of India resumed anthropological
publication.
(1952) surveyed the inhabitants of the Anda-
Its first Bulletin
man and Nicobar
Islands, reported the application of performance tests to the Bhils of central India and contained a valuable brief survey of Indian anthropological literature.
acquired
peoples and cultures, and the effect of western civilization on the
his
the Anthropological Quarterly.
prepared for the British security forces
Shimkin assessed anthropology
man and
longer content to study merely primitive
works. Primitive
ing III, editor.
university. D.
Eskimo arch-
aeology.
Although Communist aggression had closed much of the world to field work and exploration, the Americas, Africa, the margins of Asia and Oceania remained open. At the Russian Research
Harvard
work Kob-
L. Strauss, Jr., physical anthropology.
symposia.
center.
for field
ben. Viking fund medals and awards went to J. H. Steward, gen-
program and field staffs, but few of iliese positions materialized. Gordon MacGregor surveyed Iraq and Egypt for applied anthropology. Engineers and anthropologists shared views at a symposium before Section K of the American Anthropological association meeting in St. Louis, Mo., ami Section H held a symposium on "The Plains and the Rio Grande Pueblos." The 51st annual meeting of the American Anfor anthropologists
Donald
the Curl Bequest prize for 1952 to A. J.
In
Man
Sir
John Myres appraised the monographs by Milenko
Filipovic, ethnographer of Yugoslavia, illustrating the stability
of folk culture with Bosnian folk festival descriptions. E. E. Evans-Pritchard (Oxford) and Fred Eggan (Chicago) wrote forewords to Structure and Function in Primitive Society,
now
a collection of A. R. Radcliffe-Brown's essays in riodicals.
scarce pe-
Also appeared the collected writings of A. L. Kroeber,
The Nature of Culture, and two important theoretical contribuKroeber and Clyde Kluckhohn, Culture: A Critical Review of Concepts and Defittitio7is, and H. G. Harnett, Innovation. Experimental psychology and ethnology met early on the ground of individual differences to which V. F. Ray returned in "Techniques and Problems in the Study of Human Color Perception," Southwest Journal of Anthropology. Recently personality and culture brought social anthropology and social psychology together, and the cross-cultural approach was used by J. Whiting and I. L. Child in Child-Training and Personality (1953). The psychologist D. Eggan joined in "The Manifest Content of Dreams: A Challenge to Social Science," in the American Anthropologist. Theories of "Evolution and Historical Process" (K. E. Bock, American Anthropologist) continued to draw fire. Ethnohistory was the theme for the eighth Conference on Iroquois Research tions,
M.
{Science).
Hodgen
T.
applied anthropological techniques of
Change and His"The Excavation and Historical Identification of a Huron Ossuary," American historical inference to dated distributions in
tory; and K. E.
Kidd reversed
the process in
Antiquity.
In linguistics, notable books were: P. Rivet and G. de Crequi-
Montfort, Bibliographie des langties Ayniara Institut d'Ethnologie,
Paris;
W.
et
Kicua, vol.
ii,
Schmidt, Die Tasmanischen
turned to the
Bushmen of Kalahari, South Africa, on a grant from the National Science foundation, and M. J. Herskovits
Sprachen; and F. Lounsbury, Oneida Verb Morphology. The Bureau of American Ethnology in its biggest year of
toured African research centres.
monumental ethnogeography, J. R. Swanton, The htdian Tribes of North America, and three monographs from the Institute of Social
New York, the NaResearch council and the Social Science Research council jointly sponsored a conference limited to members of the aca-
Anthropology.
demic community on '"Problems of .\rea Research in Contemporary Africa" in Princeton during October. The purpose was to
La Decouverte du
inventory research accomplished and point up problems for fu-
Pleistocene Geology aJtd Prehistory of Uganda, part
ture research.
Americas,
Assisted by the Carnegie Corporation of
tional
The Huxley memorial medal for 1953 was awarded to M. Ginsburg. and for 1954 to Ralph Linton of Yale university. The William H. Welch medal of the American Association for the History of Medicine went to I. H. Ackerknecht; the Rivers
re-
cent publication printed eight Bulletiiis, including a
Important publications passe
in prehistory .
.
.
were: A. Laming (ed.),
(Paris, 1952); C.
van Riet-Lowe, ii;
for the
The Arctic Woodland Culture of the Kobuk River; J. B. Griffin (ed.), The Archeology of the Eastern United States; Watson Smith, Kiva Mural Decorations
at
J.
Awatovi
L. Giddings, Jr.,
aftd
Kawaika; and G. R. Willey,
metit Patterns in the Virii Valley, Peru.
Prehistoric Settle-
—
ANTI-AIRCRAFT G U N S — ARC H AEO LOG Y Gradual progress on it difficult
all
to distinguish milestones.
Race summarized
made
fronts of physical anthropology
scientific
The
UNESCO
Statement on
"What
opinion on the question
is
Truciul Sheikhdoms {or T.
49
Oman,
T.
Coast).
—Abu
Dhabi,
Ajman, Dubai, Fujairah, Ras al Khaimah, Sharjah and Umm al Qawain sheikhdoms. Total area, about 16,000 sq.mi.; total pop. (1952 est.) 76,000. Chief towns: Sharjah (British political headquarters), Abu Dhabi (port).
race?" Additions to the U.X.E.S.C.O. race series were T/ie Significance of Racial Differences by G. M. Morant, Race and So-
cer's
and Race and Class in Rural Brazil, edited by body surface may be an environmental adaptation was a theory advanced by C. Coon in the Smithsonian Annual Report for 1952 and by M. T. Newman in "The Application of Ecological Rules to the Racial Anthropology of the Aboriginal New World," American Anthropologist. The same line of inquiry was followed by J. Hiernaux (Brussels) in his Vienna paper "Influence de la nutrition sur la morphologic des Bahatu du Ruanda."' The one milestone was H. Vallois's fourth edition
sultanate of Oman and Muscat together and sheikhdom of Abu Dhabi continued to be involved with the Saudi Arabian government during 1953 about the latter's claims over, and incursions into, the Baraimi oasis. To maintain their position and to prevent supplies being sent to the Saudi Arabian interlopers, levies from Trucial Oman were despatched to the oasis. {See Saudi Arabia.) Early in the year the sheikh of Kuwait appointed a board to invest part of the state's oil revenues, which were likely to be
of Boule's Les Hommes jossiles. The British journal Man reviewed the more important African publications, including those of the International African institute of London under Daryll
increased with the recent discovery of a
ciety
by K.
Little
C. Wagley. That
Forde.
From Denmark came Fifth Thule E.xpedition,"
And
An
for Oceania, Yale
volume of "Reports of the H. Ostermann, The Alaskan Eskimos.
the tenth
Human
Relations Area Files published
Atoll Culture; Ethnography of Ifahik in the Central Caro-
lines
by E. G. Burrows and M.
E. Spiro. G. Weltfish,
The
Origiji
of Art, concluded the year. {See also Archaeology.)
History.
offi-
— The
the Trucial
neutral zone between the sheikhdom
new
oil
field in
the
and Saudi Arabia, 30 mi.
S.
(0. M. T.) Production. Oil production (metric tons): Bahrein (1951) 1,509,000, (1952) 1,512,000, (si.\ months, 1953) 746,000: Katar (1951) 2.348.000, (1952) 3,300.000, (six months, 1953) 1,978,000; Kuwait (1951) 28,327. 000. (1952) 37,632,000, (si.x months, 1953) 20,900.000. Foreign Trade. Muscat and Oman (April i, 1951— March 31, 1952): imports Rs. 20,731,500; exports Rs, 23.355.000. Monetary unit: Indian rupee, valued at 21 cents U.S. Bahrein. Katar. Trucial Sheikhdoms (combined. 1952): imports from U.K. £11,176.928: exports to U.K, £8.193,1S6. Kuicait (1951-52): imports (excluding Kuwait Oil company) £9,000.000: cxi)orts £3,000,000. Imports from U.K. £9,956,259; exports to U.K. of the existing Barjan field.
—
£137.419-480.
(W. N.
F.)
Anti-aircraft Guns: see Munitions. Antibiotics: see Bacteriology; Chemistry; Chemotherapy; Respiratory Diseases; Stomach and Intestines, Dis-
Arab League:
eases OF the.
^°^^®'"" Hemisphere.— The year 1953 yieldArrh/tPnlnCTV nlulldCUIUgJf. Q^ considerable new knowledge of man's past, gained through archaeological research. The outstanding events included the continuing work at the biblical site of Jericho in
Leeward Islands. Antimony: see Mineral and Metal Production and Apples: see Fruit. Apricots: see Fruit. Aqueducts: see Irrigation; Tunnels.
Antigua:
see
Prices.
see Ir.aq;
Jordan; Lebanon; Saudi Ar.abia;
Syria.
Jordan, increasing evidence of the degree of literacy of the in Greece, and new finds of documents of both and Greek hterary importance in the Dead sea valley. An important conference on the prehistory of Africa was called in London for the summer of 1953 by Kenneth Oakley.
Mycenaean age
biblical
^''^bia
Arohio
nl dUldi
a peninsula of southwestern Asia,
is
north by Jordan and Iraq, southwest by the
southeast by the Gulf of
Aden and
bounded
Red
sea,
the Indian ocean and north-
by the Persian gulf and the Gulf of Oman. Area about 1,027,600 sq.mi., four-fifths occupied by the kingdom of Saudi Arabia {q.v.)\ in the northeast, southeast and part of the southwest coastal regions are tne kingdom of Yemen {q.v.), the British colony and protectorate of Aden {q.v.) and the states listed below. Total pop. (est.) 12,310,000, mostly Arabic-speaking Sunni Moslems. east
Muscat and Oman.
—This
Pleistocene
Prehistory.
— Camille
quisition of further primitive "pebble tools"
ment of the
dates
makes them the
oldest
sistent habit in
the tools
at
Ralph Solecki of the Smithsonian tan,
The dependency bl Gwadur, an enclave on the south coast of Mekran (Pakistan), comprises a port (pop. about 5,000) and about 300 sq.mi. of adjoining country. Chief towns: Muscat
reports that C. B.
Sheikhdoms.
—The
British political agent, Persian gulf,
Agents
in 1953:
Sir
Rupert
headquarters
Manama,
at
is
Hay and (from
of
the
Bahrein.
Oct. 22) B. A. B.
Burrows. Bahrein.
—This archipelago
lies
20 mi.
off
Al Hasa on the Per-
sian gulf coast of Saudi Arabia. Total area, 213
(1952
est.)
112,000
(about
50%
Shia
sq.mi.;
Moslems).
(cap.), pop. (1950) 39,648. Sheikh, Sir Sulman ibn Khalifah; British political agent, W. S. Laver. Katar {Qatar). Area, about 4,000 sq.mi.; pop. (1952
—
17,000. Cap.;
Doha
(or Bidaj. Sheikh,
—
.-Mi
pop.
Manama Hamad al
con-
establish-
c.
500,000 years ago and tools of one per-
institution established a in the area of Iraqi
key
Kurdis-
through his work at the Shanidar cave. There were also
Arabia, has an area of about 65,000 sq.mi. Pop. (1952 est.) 550,-
British-Protected
and the
now available and dated human artifactual production.
sequence for the Upper Pleistocene
Taimur.
Paris
fauna of the V'illafranchian or Lower Pleistocene Age. Such an associationship
sultanate occupying regions ex-
(cap.), est. pop. 5,500; Matrah, 8,500. Sultan, Said bin
of
direct relationship of these tools with the e.xtinct
tending northwest and southwest from the most easterly point of 000.
Arambourg
cluded his excavations at Ain Hanesh in Algeria with the ac-
M. McBurney
of
Cambridge university had
obtained a long sequence of Stone Age stratified material in a cave
in
Libya.
In Europe two important
new occurrences
of
Upper
Pleisto-
cene cave art w'ere described. In a cave called Las Monedas, near the classic site of Castillo, Santander, Sp.. Jesus Carvallo en-
countered brilliant charcoal drawings of horses and reindeer,
which he assigned to the Aurignacian. A. C. Blanc of Rome announced the discovery of a remarkable series of engravings of animals and human beings in a cave near Palermo, Sicily. The humans were rendered better than usual and seemed to show masked dancers and acrobats; the dating of the series was evidently not very precise.
est.),
bin Abdullah al-Thani.
.Andre Leroi-Gourhan of Lyons investigated a pair of adjacent rock shelters at Arcy-sur-Cure, Yonne, Fr. These yielded a remarkably long range of stratified flint artifacts and the well-
Kuwait. Area, about 9,000 sq.mi.; pop. (1952 est.), 150,000. Cap.: Kuwait, pop. about 25,000. Sheikh, Abdullah bin Salim
preserved upper and lower jaws of a
al-Subah; British political agent, C.
with early Mousterian artifacts. Hallam L. Movius of the Pea-
J. Pelly.
man found
in
context
—
ARCHAEOLOGY
50
body museum, Harvard university, excavated an Upper Pleistocene site at Les Eyzies. Fr., which yielded a vast bulk of material for
Near
the detailed study of this range.
East.
—In Epypt. W.
B.
tomb of King tomb robbers, the
Emery
of
methods used during the Persian storming of the
of the siege
town
in
498
B.C.
Classical Lands.
London excavated
the
ist-dynasty
Uadji.
times by
large structure with elaborate wall
Although looted
in
ancient
— Scattered indications of
Mycenaean age were Pylos
late tablets at
and A.
in 1939.
Blegen had resumed work at Pylos,
B. VVace and George
J.
Wace
literacy during the
greatly bolstered by Carl Blegens finds of
Mylonas were
at
work
at
My-
crenellation and a unique bulls' head frieze yielded important
cenae
study material. The
gathered together in bundles or dossiers in two rooms of a house at Mycenae. The tablets were of unbaked clay and carried incised pictographic signs; the signs could not yet
on
Israeli directorate of antiquities carried
various salvage excavations and.
among
new work again at the site Varmuk. Pinhas Delougaz of
the prehistoric village on the
versity of Chicago led the
of
other places, undertook
The Uni-
the Oriental institute of
first
foreign expedition to
work
in
the state of Israel, excavating on Byzantine and earlier levels at
Khirbet Kerak on Lake Tiberias; a small church with an scription
The
was
in-
cleared.
joint British
and United States excavations on the
site
of Jericho, in Jordan, were continued under the direction of
Kathleen Kenyon of London. Levels of the Iron Age, the middle and early Bronze Age and the Neolithic were again examined; a series of
remarkable tomb linds of the middle Bronze Age was
made, including well-preserved wooden furniture, chests, dishes and smaller articles of wood, basketry and even desiccated joints of meat. Further architectural clearance of the walled
the Neolithic levels was made, and levels
it is
town of
possible that even earlier
were reached. The most remarkable
made human
find
pottery Neolithic levels was a group of seven
Dead
by Bedouin shepherds
sea valley.
A
and dating before
Bible,
70.
which had
Further fragments,
"commodity" sign. Wace believed it logical to suspect that the Mycenaean tablets were in Greek; even unread, the increasing number of these documents emphasized the extent of literacy of the Mycenaean Elsewhere
Greece, the American School of Classical Studies
in
proceeded with the excavation of the Athenian agora. The southern limit of the early agora was defined; a late archaic altar
and
a fine portrait sculpture
head of a
ram ever found
(it
had rams" heads
A
ivory head of a w-oman, at least half as
many
life-size,
fine
appeared, as well
small objects; the palace of King Adad-nirari III was
Roman
covery of a rich In Italy,
aristocracy; the villas, terraces, theatres and baths reflect the
in the early
Christian
Roman Ghirshman. The great pyramid was under clearance, and many fine
step
ziggurat or
objects in
metal and with inscriptions were encountered. Archaeologists were active in Turkey. at
Boghaz Keui under Kurt
Bittel cleared a large area of the
acropolis of the ancient Hittite capital, recovered a very early
fragment of
—
and exposed about 70 burials some in which the remains of horses were also found. The British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara continued its important work in Assyrian and later levels of Sultantepe, ancient Harran; the school also cleared some remarkable early Christian mosaics near Urfa. F. J. Tritsch underrelief sculpture
inhumation, some cremation
took a survey Hellenistic
in Lycia,
—
with important results in the classic and
Greek range and
and Lycian
inscriptions.
seum (University
in the recoverj^ of bilingual
The
Greek
muRodney
expedition of the University
of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia), under
Young, continued its work on ancient Gordion, and proceeded from the Greek backward into the Hittite levels with important results.
Rich
finds
were made by
J.
H.
Iliffe
and T. Bruce Mitford
in
the British excavations at Paphos, Cyprus; these included gold
and ivory carvings. Careful excavation
led to an understanding
where
the important events
was discovered that the central
it
part of the city was once a sacred zone.
The already known
were examined, and new sacred buildings were uncovered; almost 1,000,000 small objects had been entemples of the
site
countered.
—Great numbers
dOr,
the Cote
of finds of regional importance were
the year; of these, a few stand out. At Vix, on
tomb
in France, a
of an important Celtic person-
age was discovered. It contained a four-wheeled chariot and remarkably fine examples of Greek and Etruscan metal vases
with
The German expedition
Rome,
Christian range, especially the identification of of a.d. 78. Large-scale examinations were being
graffiti
Europe.
French mission under
re-
tomb.
Amadeo Maiuri undertook important clearances at The site was once a resort of Roman
made during
its
The
Baiae, north of Naples.
Another great town, contemporary with Assyria, was the Elamite site of Choga Zambil in Iran, being excavated by the
and
it).
university continued his excava-
clearance begun.
also discovered
on
Samothrace, with architectural clearances and the
tions on
carried on at Paestum,
clearances of the royal Assyrian buildings at Nimrud.
ancient batter-
New York
Karl Lehmann of
tury A.D. date. his large-scale
first
in relief
fine 7th-century pottery at Argos.
luxurious character of the town. In
London continued
of the ist century
French school recovered some
were
of
woman
Mycenaean and Geometric tombs and wells, were found. The school's work at Corinth also proceeded with work in the agora there. At Olympia, the German institute uncovered votive objects buried when the stadium was reconstructed in A.D., as well as
Langhe, recovered a number of Greek and early Arabic fragments, including portions of Euripides" Andromache of 6th cen-
Max Mallowan
a
civilization.
discovered by a Belgian expedition under Canon Robert de
In Iraq,
of personal names,
lists
them numbers and
set against
ing
large library discovered
a.d.
be read, but the tablets were apparently
the 4th century B.C., and these included the
tions of about 70 scrolls, representing at least 19 different books
of the
—
originally
skulls, the
year before was found to contain por-
a
alone had recovered 38 inscribed tablets
in the pre-
bony structures of which had been modelled over in plaster, painted and provided with inset eyes of cowrie shell. Jordan also was the scene of continuing search for scrolls in caves flanking the
itself;
relief decoration.
In Jutland, Den., the traces of the sacri-
weapons into a now dried-up lake were encountered; the many weapons found date to about a.d. 450. Considerable portions of the Roman town underlying Canterbury, Eng., were exposed in the areas of the city which suffered ficial
casting of
bomb damage. A
rich Scythian cemetery of approximately the
was excavated at Chotin in Czechoslovakia. The journal Archaeology contained an article by TaAsia. keshi Sekino on recent archaeological investigations in China; 4th century
B.C.
—
Sekino's notes, taken from far the
Communist Chinese
most comprehensive
by The im-
sources, were
to reach the outside world.
portant prehistoric village of Yang-shao had been reopened, as had a number of other pre-Shang sites. Excavations were also
being continued at Anyang, the Shang dynasty capital. Grave pits for sacrificial victims contained up to 200 headless skeletons, as later (Chan-Kuo; with many horse found, was "warring states" period) cemetery skeletons and the remains of 19 wooden chariots.
well as
some horse
The Russian markable
skeletons.
A somewhat
I. Rudenko published the rework on ice-bound Scythian tombs in
archaeologist S.
results of his
NEOLITHIC SKULL,
with
overlaid
plaster,
unearthed
in
1953
Jericho,
at
Jordan
on comparable discoveries that had recently been made along central Siberia. Again an affair which contained chariots sacrificially killed horses,
the exceptional find
was
and
a well-pre-
served Persian carpet about 2,400 years old. Africa.
—In
southern Algeria, Marguerite van Berchem car-
on architectural clearances on the gth-century
ried
city of Sedrata,
Sahara to which the Ibadite Berbers had the
Berber
a.d.
an elaborate establishment on an oasis
Arab conquest. M. H. Thote published
in the
time of
fled at the
a large collection of
the Atlantic seaboard. Related sites included the
Vermont, the Williamson site North Carolina and the Quad
in Virginia, site of
Regan
site in
the Badin focus of
northern Alabama. These
palaeo-Indian sites are characteristically located on ridge tops, the artifacts and
use was
made
flint
chips are not abundant, and considerable
of flint imported
from a distance. In addition to made from
fluted projectile points, cores, flake blades, scrapers flakes,
and gravers are part of the assemblage. The name was used for this complex by various writers.
''En-
rock drawings and paintings of northwest Africa in the Bulletin
terline"
de I'Institut Fraitqais d'Ajrique Noire (July 1953). (R.
Thomas E. Lee of the National Museum of Canada announced the discovery of a prolific early site at Seguiandah, Manitoulin Island, Ont. The site was related to an old beach now elevated 90 ft. above the level of Lake Huron. The 3,300
Western Hemisphere. was host
J.
May
7
University of
Illinois,
B.)
Urbana,
meeting of the Society for American
to the annual
Archaeology,
—The
J.
and
8,
1953.
The program, arranged by
Charles Kelly, included several workshop sessions, and the
meeting was well attended. Alfonso Caso y Andrade, Mexican anthropologist, was selected by the society as recipient of the 1952 Viking fund award in archaeology.
artifacts recovered
were
all
of quartz, principally large, crudely
chipped blades up to ten inches in length. This industry was apparently related to the George lake complex which was investigated and described by E. F. Greenman.
man in the Americas during the Wisconsin, the most recent Pleistocene ice sheets, had been
Interest continued to increase in the technique of radiocarbon
The
few of the available dates were questioned by archaeologists. During 1953 several additional
period
state universities installed the apparatus necessary for use of the
of evidence of pre-Wisconsin cultural remains
technique.
times during 1953. George F. Carter described discoveries, sup-
dating, despite the fact that a
Early Man. tinct
—Artifacts
Pleistocene
faunal
eastern United States.
in
unquestionable association with ex-
remains had not been found
Still
it
in
the
was becoming increasingly ap-
parent that the fluted projectile points of the region are a part
complex that may well be as old as western Folsom. John Wittoff's report on the important Shoop site of eastern Pennsylvania {Proceedings of the American Philof a chipped-stone cultural
osophical Society, vol. 96, pp. 464-495 [1952]) focused interest
arrival of
of
the
abundantly demonstrated
in the
preceding 20 years. The question
was raised several
posedly of this date, from the vicinity of San Diego,
Calif., in
the Southwestern Journal of Anthropology, and similar discoveries
were reported from Texas and Michigan. The uncertainty
from the fact that most archaeologists were dubious as to the identification of specimens as man-made artifacts a doubt directly comparable with that surrounded these discoveries derived
—
that concerning the so-called "eoliths" of Great Britain. Arctic.
—The
field
party from Peabody museum, Harvard uni-
51
ARCHAEOLOGY
52
headed by Wilbert Carter, continued the proj^ram of
versity,
excavation at prehistoric Eskimo
sites
near Point Barrow, Alsk.
The
lowest levels of several of the refuse
site
were exposed, and an exceptionally
mounds
at the Birnirk
fine collection of early
Birnirk period artifacts was obtained. Plane table mapping of the vicinity of the Birnirk site and of the
Nunagiak
80 mi.
site,
work had been carried on in the areas of the work was supported by government appropriations expended under the direction of the Smithsonian institution and the national park service, which usually made contracts for the actual field work with state universities and other competent organizations. Because of the large number of ological salvage
basins to be flooded. This
to the southward, yielded evidence that the northwest coast of
dams under
Alaska has subsided about eight feet since Birnirk times.
a substantial part of this
An
integrated program of linguistic, ethnological and archae-
work was
ological field
initiated
among
the northern Tlingit of
Laguna Br\n Mawr, Pa. This program was con-
the Vakutat region of Alaska in 1949 by Frederica de
Mawr
Bryn
of
college,
construction on the tributaries of the Missouri river,
work was accomplished in the Great for this salvage work was drastically
The 1953-54 budget
Plains.
reduced, to the extent that
many
of the basin areas scheduled
for flooding during 1954 could not be
examined before they were
covered with water.
The
tinued in each succeeding season, with excellent results. Fang-
tenth annual Plains conference was held at the Laboratory
kuei Li of the University of Washington, Seattle, studied the
of Anthropology, University of Nebraska, Lincoln,
Nov. 27-29.
Eyak language
Carlyle Smith was chairman. In addition to various
field reports,
place in the
its
Yakutat and Cordova
at
Na-Dene
in
linguistic stock.
order to determine
Dr. de Laguna and
Catherine McClellan collected ethnological information showing that northern Tlingit culture has
more connections with the
terior than has southern. Archaeological field
was accomplished by
direction of Francis Riddell,
a
students from the University of California, Berkeley. nological
mer
and
linguistic investigations
in-
work, under the
were completed
group of
The
in the
eth-
sum-
of 1952, but Riddell and his assistants continued the ar-
chaeological
work during 1953.
Giddings,
J. L.
made a study of the archaeology of the Churchill region on Hudson bay and collected dendrochronological samples from delphia,
living trees near the
Pacific Coast.
timber
Swanson, worked
summer
parties
by Earl H. Columbia river near
of 1953. One, led
in caves located along the
Vantage. The other, directed by Warren Caldwell, excavated at the
Wakemap mound
at
The
and Wood-
and "Plains Ethnohistory." During the summer of 1952, the Royal Ontario Museum of Archaeology had a party in the field, tures of the Plains"
Eastern North America.
—
J. R. Harper, to make excavations at two Cameron's point and the Serpent mound on Rice
under the direction of
mound
sites:
Both these
lake.
localities
are in southeastern Ontario. Addi-
was obtained about these constructions, but their cultural affiliations were not determined. A party of four, headed by William A. Ritchie, of the New York State Science service, searched for more complete data on the
line.
—The University of Washington had two
the field during the
in
Man
land Occupation of the Plains," "Post-Woodland Village Cul-
tional information
of the University of Pennsylvania, Phila-
Jr.,
there were three interesting symposia: "Early
Dalles.
Wash.
Students of the University of Southern California, Los An-
Point Peninsula culture.
where
They excavated
at
Collins
bay,
had been almost completely destroyed by a housing development. At Indian river, Jefferson county, N.Y., a number of stone crematories were found. These contained both cremated and unburned burials, accompanied by red ochre and a number of typical artifacts. Ont.,
a
Point Peninsula burial
site
yield three distinct cultures which probably represent separate
Mayer-Oakes of the Upper Ohio Valley Archaeomuseum, Pittsburgh, Pa., concentrated the 1952 field season survey work in the central section of the Ohio valley between Pittsburgh and the West Virginia line. A number of new sites were discovered, including a deep stratified midden deposit in which test pits yielded the entire ceramic
time periods.
chronology for the region.
geles,
excavated a rock shelter in Little Sycamore canyon in
Ventura county. It contained a deep, culturally stratified deposit. Another group was engaged in making an archaeological survey of Death valley, and had located 123 sites. These seemed to
Additional work was undertaken at Danger cave near
William
J.
logical survey, Carnegie
Wen-
Paul L. Beaubien and Wilfred D. Logan of the national park
Mound
National monu-
dover, Utah, by Jesse D. Jennings and a group of students from
service conducted excavations at Effigy
the university. Various aspects of the past excavations were re-
ment
checked, and additional data were secured on
the development of the park. Previous seasons' work had determined that the constructions were of Hopewellian cultural affiliations, and a radiocarbon date of 900^300 years before present was obtained. A second mound dug in 1953 had burials in an excavated subfloor pit. Accompanying grave goods were a copper
levels.
Carbon samples were obtained
Rudy
Jack R.
all
the occupation
for radiocarbon dating.
of the Statewide Archaeological survey
made
surveys and limited excavations in the Beef Basin Ruin park region in southeastern Utah. Culturally the area
Mesa Verde. Southwest. The University
is
closely re-
breastplate, with fragments of a twined textile adhering to
lated to the
—
of Arizona field school, held at
Point of Pines for the eighth year, ran from June 12 to Aug.
The work
7.
was concentrated upon cultural remains dating between a.d. 500 and 1000. Excavations at Pueblo Grande, near Phoenix, Ariz., were under the direction of Joseph J. Hoffmeier. A portion of the site was being uncovered and staof the 1953 season
bihzed as an outdoor
museum
exhibit.
Enough
of the Ball Court
had been uncovered to determine that it aligned north-south and was a late type. Robert H. Lister of the University of Colorado, Boulder, worked in northwestern Chihuahua during June and July, continuing a program begun a year before. A series of caves were tested by small excavations and yielded Mogollon-type cultural material. Plains.
—During
the past few years, as flood control
dams
were planned and constructed by army engineers and other agencies
on
many
northeastern Iowa during the 1952 season, as a step in
in
of the larger rivers of the United States, archae-
A
third
mound
it.
also yielded burials, another copper breastplate
and tubular copper beads. Exhibits for the museum at Effigy Mound National monument were completed and were being installed.
The
sixth
summer
field session of the
University of Missouri,
Columbia, under the direction of Carl H. Chapman, worked in the basin of the proposed Table Rock r£servoir on White river. Several rock shelters were tested, and one located in Stone county was extensively excavated. This latter contained evidence
two nonpottery occupations, overlaid by cultural deposit including pottery. The two preceramic horizons appear to be related to the Grove focus of northeastern Oklahoma. The Georgia Historical commission purchased the well-known Etowah mound group in northern Georgia, and this site was to be preserved as a state park. The Historical commission and the department of state parks were to co-operate in a program of exploration and development that was expected to last from of
seven to ten years. Preliminary
under the direction of
W. H.
field
work was begun
in July,
Sears of the University of Georgia,
INDIAN SETTLEMENT along the Missouri river excavated by archaeologists of the Smithsonian institution. An agricultural people with a superior culture, the inhabitants defended themselves from nomad raiders by fortifying their villages. They were believed to have been destroyed, however, by an epidemic of smallpox introduced by early white pioneers
Athens.
The geological and archaeological survey of the coastal marshes of Louisiana, undertaken by Louisiana State university. Baton Rouge, under sponsorship of the navy department, had progressed to the stage of analysis of collections. ological phase of the
work was under the
The archaeWiUiam
direction of
Mclntyre. The Mississippi river delta region has very close relations with the northwest coast of Florida, and the chronology
promised
to correlate
very well with the sequence of old stream
ducted tests
—In
Veracruz,
Mex.,
the Zempoala region at
in
Payon conthe Mata Verde and Garcia
Both yielded preclassic-type
Chalahuite
sites.
lated with
Lower Tres Zapotes
Building A, at the
and
figurines.
Linton Satterthwaite of the University of Pennsylvania and
Gordon Willey
site of
artifacts that col-
culture. Consolidation
work
of
Tajin Chico, was continued, and Payon
La Concha. Carmen Cook de Leonard, Alfonso Soto Soria and Manuel
began exploratory trenches
at the
near-by
site of
Vargus Castelazo excavated a small residential
site
near Teoti-
Harvard university made a reconnaissance of new sites were found, and new dated
of
British Honduras. Several
monuments were
channels.
Middle America.
During 1953, the sarcophagus found in the vaulted chamber at the base of the pyramid was opened. It contained an adult male human skeleton accompanied by a number of burial offerings. These included a mosaic jade mask, jade ear plugs, finger rings
discovered.
South America.
—In
Brazil,
and quartz arrowheads, and
valley of Lima, Peru,
and neighbouring
New World
Archaeological foundation, supported
valleys.
He was
had been made from
a
number
The Columbia
Dunwork on the south coast of Peru. Sur-
university field party, headed by William
survey work
underlying the Nazca sequence. Occupation at this
The Carnegie of
its
institution continued to concentrate the efforts
entire staff at the
The discovery
Mayapan
of the remarkable
tomb beneath the Temple
of
by archaeologists working under the direction of Alberto Ruz of the Mexican Institute Nacional de Anthropologia y Historia had been described a year before. the Inscriptions at Palenque
its
face survey work covered 60 sites in the valleys of lea, Ocucaje, Nazca and Chala, dating from preceramic to the colonial periods.
Intensive excavations were conducted principally at Cahuachi in
Nazca
valley.
There
during the classic Nazca period, but late In Chile the
was found ended Nazca culture was in-
a long Paracas cultural sequence
vestigated at a near-by
site.
of ad-
ditional sites.
can Strong, completed
Tabasco.
the
and had excavated
by the Morman Church, did considerable survey work and made stratigraphic excavations in the Grijalva river drainage, under the direction of Pedro Armillas. New varieties of ceramics were discovered, the full significance of which remained to be worked out. Philip Drucker and Heinrich Berlin were also engaged in in
in
concen-
Playa Grande (Ancon) and Marquex (on the Chillon
river). Surface collections
Tabasco. The
in these artifacts.
trating on sites of the "Interlocking" period
had been used
from earhest Teotihuacan times.
appeared that a chronology could
Louis M. Strumer undertook large-scale excavations
sites at
as dwellings
it
be based upon the changes that occurred
huacan. They also investigated the caves in the vicinity which
Considerable archaeological activity occurred in the state of
H. V. Walters was excavating
1953 in rock shelters near Belo Horizonte in Minas Gerais. The deposits in these shelters yielded quantities of bone during
site,
Tambo
site
de Copara.
Museo Arqueologico de
la
Serena was engaged in
investigating "el Molle" culture, the oldest yet found in that region. culture,
El Molle precedes the Chilean sequence of Diaguita which was worked out by Francisco L. Comely. {See
53
ARCHERY — ARCHITECTURE
54 also
Anthropoldcy.)
(J. A. I'D.)
Flight
Shoo!
— ConfinueJ
Junior boyi
ArrhprV ^^^ niUllClj.
^^^^ annual National Archery Association lour-
nament was held at the University of MassachuAmherst, Mass., Aug. 10-15, I953. with 279 archers participating. The championship scores of the winners in all divi-
35-lb. class: 50-lb. class:
yd. yd.
Ronald Ockerman, Fairborn, O. Ronald Ockerman, Fairborn, O.
35-lb. class: Intermediate boys
317 yd.
Nancy Brenemon, Columbus, O.
35-lb. closs; 50-lb. class:
185 yd.
Gory Couse, Gary Couse,
Junior girls
setts,
sions were as
shown
Men
Target Archery Bill
Double York round Double American round
Claclcin, St. Louis,
Mo.
1,775 1,403, 3,178 Ann Corby. Boonton, N.J.
Lodies' championship
Double National round Double Columbia round Double American round Junior boys' championship Double Hereford round Scores: Double American round Junior girls' championship Double National round Scores: Double Columbio round Double Americon round Intermediate boys* championship Quadruple Jr. American round Scores: (No intermediate girls participating) Beginner boys' championship Quadruple Jr. Columbia round Scores: Beginner girls' championship Quadruple Jr. Columbia round Scores: Score
(No ladies
(36 orrows Ladies (36 orrov^s Ladies (36 arrows Junior Boys (36 arrows Junior Girls (36 arrows Intermediate boys Beginner boys Beginner girls
The
1.376, 3,579 Albert Ankrom, Pittsburgh, Po.
three
1,600 1,097, 2,697 Ann Morslon, Wyandotte, Mich.
863
ol at at at at
80 40 20 20 120 1
yd.)
St. Louis,
St. Louis,
Mo. Mo.
Bill
1
1
yd.)
lady
arrows at 60 yd.) with
won
won
rows at 50 yd.) with a
1,846
Mo.
tier, Calif., in
The North
Detroit
the ladies' team round (96 ar-
all-time record of 2,640 attained
Jockie Couse, St. Louis, 1,491
284 280 306 276 280 296 244 127
the men's team round event (96
a total score of 2.479.
1,267, 3,196 Glazier, Storrs, Conn.
Albert Boehm, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Mo.
Springfield Archers, Springfield, Mass., with a team of
men and one
2,644
Wayne
Glackin, St. Louis,
Carole Meinhort, Pittsburgh, Pa. Luro Wilson, Greene, N.Y. Albert Ankrom, Pittsburgh, Pa. Ann Marston, Wyandotte, Mich. Wayne Gloiier, Storrs, Conn. Gary Couse, St. Louis, Mo. Jackie Couse, St. Louis, Mo.
yd.) yd.) yd.)
I
Archers of Detroit, Mich.,
1,066
total score of 2,688, thus breaking the
by the United Archers, Whit-
1951.
Jean Richards captured the world women's championship crown in Oslo, Nor., July 20-25, 1953, with a score of 3,056. She placed
Paul Eyfel, Dunellen, N.J. 1,131 1,254, 2,385
Double American round Double American round
fifth in the
National U.S. tournament at Amherst with a
score of 3,435.
(L. E. Bs.)
participating)
Flight
ArnhitOPtlirO
50-lb. class: 490 yd. 65-lb. closs: 559 yd. 80-lb. class: 615 yd. Unlimited class: 591 yd. Footbow closs; 675 yd.
Al Von der Kogel, Plandome, N.Y. Charles Pierson, Cincinnofi, O. Irving Boker, Wesffield, N.J. Irving Baker, Westfield, N.J.
Chorles A. Pierson, Cincinnoti, O.
Women 35-lb. closs: 393 yd. 50-lb. class: 394 yd. Unlimited class: 420 yd.
THOMAS GRAINGER-STEWART,
Lucille Lucille Lucille
Gourley, Tulsa, Oklo. Gourley, Tulsa, Okla. Gourley, Tulsa, Okla.
a member of the Queen's Bodyguard Royal Company of Archers, shooting in 1953 for the "Musselburgh arrow," prize given annually to the outstanding shot of the royal company
for Scotland, the
^""chitectural activity
ftlbllllcUlUrC. was
Shoof
Men
BRIG.
yd.
1,029 1,174
Crosjbow Men's championship Scores:
205
Cloul Shoof
in the table.
Men's championship Scores:
384 425
retrenchments of
money
in
in
the
United States
at a high level throughout 1953 despite
governmental construction and
rising
prices
to finance building projects. Indeed, at the midyear,
construction had reached such a pace that federal experts were predicting a $34,ooo,ooo,ooo-year for the nation's construction.
Commercial construction was running 43.2% ahead of 1952 and show a great decline, was less than 1% below that of 1952. The largest increase was in the public industrial field, which was up 28% from the 1952 levels.
private industrial building, which was expected to
Activity in architects'
offices, as
reported at the 85th annual
convention of the American Institute of .Architects, held at June, showed schools leading all building and commercial work followed in order and residential activity remained strong. In several sections of the nation church construction was reported lively. Final action taken by the 83rd congress on legislation affecting Seattle.
Wash.,
in late
Industrial
types.
the architectural profession included an appropriation of $70.-
000,000 for school construction programs. This was $14,500,000 lower than the president's request. For hospital construction, $65,000,000 was appropriated under the Hill-Burton act; mihtary construction received $490,100,000, a cut below the previ-
ous year;
civil
defense received $46,500,000; and the construc-
tion of only 20.000 public housing units
Structurally, progress crete
was made
and other applications of
erected
its
first
was authorized.
in the
use of prestressed con-
this versatile material.
England
multistory, continuous frame building employ-
ing prestressed beams, the
new Telephone Manager's
office in
northwest London. The Ford rotunda at Dearborn. Mich., was covered with an Sl-ton aluminum dome, built upon the so-called "geodesic"' principle developed structure,
which has
by R. Buckminster
a 93-ft. inner court,
is
Fuller.
The
used for exhibition
purposes.
Design.
—The
profession's
award
of merit for distinguished
design went to Saarinen, Saarinen and Associates for the engineering staff building of the General Motors Technical centre at Warren, Mich., and to William Henley Deitrick of DeitrickKnight and Associates for the North Carolina State Fair building at Raleigh. Awards of merit went also to the Corning Glass centre, Corning, N.Y., of which Wallace K. Harrison. Max Abramowitz and Charles H. Abbe were the architects, and to the
ALLSTON BURR LECTURE HALL at Harvard univer provide an excellent view of the speaker. Shepley, Bulfinch, architects Above:
Right:
OKLAHOMA SKYSCRAPER
struction
in
(
;n
banked seats and Abbott,
designed by Frank Lloyd Wright and under con-
1953
Below: MODEL of plan proposed in signers Breuer, Nervi and Zehrfuss
1953
for U.N.E.S.C.O.'s Paris
headquarters. De-
EERO SAARINEN'S plan for a section of the cannpus at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. On the right is the domed auditorium. The cylindrical building at the left is a chapel and is connected to the flat-roofed administrative offices behind It Bottom:
m--'
,-^#fet:'
AREAS AND POPULATIONS
Sb
and plant of the Republic Supply Co., at San Leandro, of which George V. Russell was the architect. Three residences were given merit awards in this, the fifth annual ex-
ni;irkc'd
Calif.,
iimovalions. The firei^Iace, hallway and kitchen in the Dresser house are circular and throughout there are no corners to gather dust. The walls are of masonry; the dome is of con-
hibition of outstanding U.S. architecture held in connection with
crete applied over a steel frame.
the institute convention.
Other Countries. Abroad, Brazil, Great Britain and the Commonwealth of Nations and Mexico showed the greatest
ortice
—
Considerable interest developed around a panel
on
religious
art
discussion
which concluded that the eclectic school of
and that modern church architecture had rid itself of false trappings and had become truly functional. Nevertheless, participants were reminded that the church is a community of believers, and therefore the church edifice should be a community building. It was architecture had lost
religious
its
influence
held that the designing of a church should not be the "exercise of an architect's virtuosity, no matter what his eminence in
may
be
other fields of architecture.'" Certainly some unusual church
found upon architects' boards during the year, Saarinen's windowless cylindrical chapel for
designs were
among them Eero
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
in
Cambridge, Mass., the
England erected schools, hospitals and Rhodes Centenary exhibition at Bulawayo Andrew's Scottish church at Nairobi, Kenya, exhibited modern designs. The latter, following a plan laid down
architectural
activity.
housing. Africa, in the
and
in St.
strikingly
by the Scottish the aisles.
The
ritual, seats
exterior
tower and the nave parabolic arches 40
make
In London, Eric
from a moat and by a glass bell tower spotlighting dome-crowned auditorium for the same institution, another daring design, was under construction. An interesting design was that for the Experimental theatre at the University of Miami, Fla., of which Robert M. Little
The
light
the altar. Saarinen's
and Marion
I.
Manley were
auditorium, loo
ft.
in
the architects.
The dome-covered
diameter, provides for five seating ar-
latter
is
in
square stone
crowned by seven
rein forced-concrete,
high, which, linked
by concrete beams,
interior.
Bedford's Telephone Manager's
W. Holders
new
air terminal at
office,
al-
Post Office building at
modern
lines
and good
Waterloo, South Bank.
conversion and extension of the Water-
in reality a
loo entrance built for the 195
1
Festival of Britain. Another en-
gaging recent structure was the Indian Students' hostel in Fitz-
Modern and well planned, was designed as an orientation centre for newly arrived Indian students who have not yet found permanent residential quarters. roy square designed by Ralph Tubbs.
it
London's
effort to rebuild
rangements for 400 people: arena, proscenium, horseshoe, Elizabethan and musical comedy. Thus, every type of performance
as one-third accomplished.
At the front of the auditorium is the administrative wing and foyer; at the rear the workshop, dressing rooms, "prop" rooms, etc. A feature is the revolving stage. The new 16-story Hotel Statler. of ultramodern design, was
world-famous
finds a proper setting.
nave and 200
is
Hill attracted attention for their
planning, as did the
in the
a massive,
ft.
ready mentioned, and F.
Crouch
500 people
dominated by
and inspiring
a beautiful
design of which calls for illumination through arches which reflect
is
city's 701
war-damaged churches was reported
German airmen
struck 624 of the
among them 15 had now been restored. England took contemporary architecture in a huge exhibition
Anglican churches, but 200 of these, edifices,
stock of Brazil's
London Building
Nations building in
were the deby Oscar Niemeyer, the Lebanese club in the same city, and Affonzo Reidy's models for the Pedregulho (suburb of Rio de Janeiro) neighbourhood unit, a central feature of which was a long curved seven-story
of glass,
block of
under construction in Hartford, Conn. Strikingly different from most hotels, it somewhat resembles Lever house and the United
New York city. The exterior walls are made aluminum and porcelain-enamelled metal of glasslike texture. Although completely air-conditioned, each guest room has a picture window which can be opened. The ballroom accommodating 1,300 dancers may be divided into a series of smaller rooms by means of sliding, soundproof partitions. Office Buildings. Several cities showed renewed interest in
—
the construction of office buildings. Several of these, such as the 41-story Prudential building in Chicago,
111.,
a 15-story struc-
ture in Jersey City, N.J., and the recently planned $75,000,000
Boston centre, utilized air rights over railroad terminals. The above the Boston and Albany railroad yards in the Back Bay area, includes more than 1,000,000 sq.ft. of office space and 850,000 sq.ft. of store space, as well as a hotel of 750 rooms and a convention hall. The architects were Pietro Belluschi, Walter
latter,
Gropius, Walter F. Bogner, Carl
At New Orleans, under erection and,
Koch and Hugh
La., a 14-story hotel
and
Stubbins.
office
building was
Houston, Tex., the 20-story South Texas National bank. In Miami arose the Ainsley building, and at San Francisco, Calif., the 26-story Equitable Life Assurance Society
at the
flats
following the contour of a
Ronchamp edifice
Vosges mountains, bombed out
in the
organically expressive structure.
Building.
— Residential
construction
continued
brisk despite the drastic cut in public housing. In June the
moved
into the 12-story
in the nation to be occupied. cellently designed residences,
first
Lake Meadows housing project
in Chicago, the first privately financed
er's
in 1944.
This
he pronounced the "pearl'' of his career. The great French
architect received the 1953 gold
medal of the Royal Institute
of British Architects. In Paris, the United Nations Educational,
and Cultural organization had under consideration its headquarters; Marcel Breuer, Bernard Zehrfuss and Pier Luigi Nervi were the architects. At Strasbourg an 808-unit apartment project was completed. At Scientific
still
another design for
Hiroshima, Jap., a Memorial Peace palace was under construction and in Istanbul, Turk., a modern hotel. In Mexico, work progressed on the National university, and the ultramodern
La
Monterrey continued to attract popular attention. The latter is crowned by lofty parabolic vaults and (R. Nb.) ornamented by a soaring square campanile. Purisima church
in
at
was under construction. Perhaps the most imaginative of these edifices was Frank Lloyd Wright's proposed skyscraper for the H. C. Price company at Bartlesville, Okla., the models of which showed an
families
hill.
In France, Le Corbusier designed a chapel to replace one near
Areas and Populations of the Countries The
building
Residential
centre. Particularly popular
signs for the Imperator hotel at Sao Paulo
redevelopment project
The year brought forth many exsome of which, like James Dress-
dome-topped, circular house at Madison, Wis., displayed
Of the World.
political entities of the
world are listed
here with their areas, populations and
ber of persons per square mile.
The
num-
latest census or official esti-
mates are given for each country. Areas in square miles are in accordance with the boundaries for the year of the population figure unless otherwise noted.
Some
of the later
boundary ad-
justments had not been recognized at the end of 1953 by the U.S. government. The subtotals for colonial groupings within continents do not carry density figures.
Where two
given for a country, the most recent
used in the continental
and world
totals.
The
country comparisons.
is
figures are
table provides a fundamental basis for
ARGENTINA Areas and Populations of the Countries of the
Areas and Populations of the Countries of the World ond dotes see seporole country and empire
IFor stotistical deloils
World AFRICA
of continent ond stole
total
Area
(in
lin sq.mi.l
thousands!
colonies, dependencies, protector. . otes, trusteeships ond condominium
2,506,934 206,603 15,237
2,998,274 386,1 10 47,876
73,639 20,729
53.7
1,104
23.1
5,000
42.9
48.1
Egypt
departments and oversees
territories.
350,000 4,221,467 198,275 40,000
.
Liberia
679,340 794,959
Libya Portuguese colonies
317,725 134,715 232 472,494 6,000,000 10,572,686 251,000 193,000 8,000
....
ANTARCTICA ASIA
(exclusive of U.S.S.R.)
Afghanistan
Arabian desert Bhutan
245,730 261,600 25.332
6.5
1,280 1,500 1,150 10,563
37.5 1.7
424
1.3
517.2 27.3
Uninhabited
1,341,877 3,000 1
126.9 51.8
Largely uninhabited
300
16.7
475,000
272,548
27,917 356,692 78,163 19,319 5,100
575,893 634,413
Indonesia Iran Iraq
168,1 14
8,084
1,614
146,690 37,110 85,248 9,000 3,470 606,000 54,000 159,375 65,000 364,737 15,600 8,876 4,000
86,300 1,330 28,400 150
Israel
Japan Jordan, Hashemite Kingdom of
Korea Kuwait
Lebanon Mongolion People's Republic Nepal Netherlands New Guinea Oman and Muscat Pakistan, Dominion of Philippines, Republic of the Portuguese colonies
1
.
935
.
597,000 70,014 197,660 6,000 296,185 31,000 3,304,700
Saudi Arabia Syria
Thailand (Siam) Truciol Sheiks
Turkey
Yemen AUSTRALIA and OCEANIA ond
72.8 319.9
1,304
122.5
333.1 16.7
375.8
900
1.5
7,000
129.6
750 550
4.7
75,635 21,650
207.4 187.3
1,268 17 951 6,000 3,433 19,375
4.3 1,017.1
Zealand Zealand dependencies end
States trusteeship
tEUROPE
possessions,
(exclusive of U.S.S.R.)
2,974,581
183,561
1,476
4.1
2.9
104
1,903,908 1,100
399,080
32,375 11,783 123 42,796 49,354
Belgium British colonies
Bulgaria
Czechoslovakia
18.7
17,109 17,838 130,159 213,010 181,742 37,420 51,182 35,893 39,768 26,600 16,224 24,954
Islands)
....
France
Germany (1937 area, 1939 population) Germany (1 952, including Soar) .... Greece (including Aegean Islands) . .
.
1
.
Hungary Iceland Ireland, Republic of Italy
1
Latvia Liechtenstein Lithuania
61
25,173
Luxembourg
1,010
Monaco Netherlands
Norway
0.6
....
(including Spitzbergen) Poland (pre-World War II) Poland (1953) Portugal (incl. Azores ond Madeira Islonds)
Rumania San Marino Spain (including Canary Islands)
....
Sweden Switzerland Trieste, Free Territory of United Kingdom Vatican City Yugoslavia (after Sept. 15, 1947)
Bolivio Brazil
and dependencies
12,868 149,161 150,052 1 20,359 35,415 91,654
38 194,945 173,390 15,944 293 94,501 0.5
.
.
24
Colombia Ecuodor French department (French Guiono)
.
.
.
.
Peru
19.8 153.3
2,291
1
2,020
45,452
2,931
64.5
10,74 8
3,315 1,513 27,021
308.4 35.0 35.5
366
176
4 80.9
57,145 28,575 3,022,387 590,521
1,088 841
19.0 29.4 53.2
160,917 2,490
6,857,176 1,079,965 416,040 3,286,170 90,681 286,323 439,520 104,510 35,135 55,212 157,047 482,258 72,172 352,143
....
114,791 17,981 3,089
16.7 16.6 7.4 17.8
54,477
446 5,931
20.7 25.9 30.6 0.7
11,384 3,203 26
227
4.1 9.1
1,425 8,714 2,448 5,440
computing the world density the area of Antarctica is omitted. Areas and populations of Baltic republics included in 1950 U.S.S.R.
18.1
33.9 15.4
'In t
totals.
republic occupying the southeastemmost sec-
'^
Arirontinq
nlgCllllllCli
tion of South America. Argentina
is
bounded on
the north by Paraguay, Bolivia and Brazil; on the south and
and on the east by Uruguay, the Rio de la Plata and the Atlantic ocean. It is the second largest Latin-American west by Chile nation
and
—only
;
Brazil
is
—with an area
ancestry.
The
capital (est.
of 1,079,965 sq.mi.
larger
a population of 17,981,359 (est. 1952),
and leading
port,
mostly of European
Buenos
Aires, has 3,371,-
1950). Other leading cities are: Rosario,
Cordoba, 369,886; Avellaneda, 279,572; Eva Peron
(La Plata), 271,738; Lanus, 242,760; Tucuman, 194,166; Santa Fe, 168,791; Lomas de Zamora, 125,943; Mar del Plata, 114,729; Mendoza, 105,328; and Bahia Blanca, 112,597. Religion:
Roman
Catholic. President in 1953: Gen.
History.
—During
1953, inflation continued to present a
challenge to the Peron regime.
1,246 7 6,919 8,758
209.6 112.3 34.0 213.7 743.3
340 7,390 12,340
172.8 250.0
4,366 1,200 4,125 42,500 69,317 70,386 7,631 9,460
255.2 67.3 31.7 199.5 381.4 512.2
Foeroe
incl.
573
45.2
132.8 0.03
Juan
Some improvement was
major felt in
agricultural production as the two-year drought ended, but ex-
....
Austria
Greenlond,
178
625
191
(excl.
1,206
3.8
869
D. Peron.
1,939
1,337
1
....,
SOUTH AMERICA Argentino
Christian, mostly
548
7,402
Andorra
Denmark
(excluding Canal Zone) United States United States possessions
467.937;
4.8
ond
Albania
Estonia Finland (including Aland Islands)
....
Panoma
49.0 98.0
trustee-
territory
5,871
Netherlands overseos territory (The Netherlonds Antilles)
000 inhabitants
70.7 145.2
ship
United
44,217 840,000 19,129 13,176
43,277 760,373
10.1
British colonies,
New New
24.5
2,939 14,781
Honduras Mexico
8.5
20,935 4,500 13,623 8,753
24,880 9,199 103,740
229,660
21,357 3,843,144 19,238
Haiti
trus-
dependencies, condominium, protectorate and protected state . . . colonies French
9,360,311
Guotemoio
Uruguay Venezuelo 313.2 135.7 30.5 30.3 199.7 588.3 35.8
76
1
Australia Australian dependency, territory teeship
1,199 19,045 8,104 1
3,876,956
1,174,1 16
20.9 23.4
....
Paraguay
states
.
Salvodor
Nicaroguo
1,452
12,912
....
Netherlonds overseas territory (Surinom)
India, Republic of
170,467 201,300
Danish colony (Greenland, including Ice cop) Dominican Republic French territory and departments
120
.
.
Cuba
British colonies
Ceylon, Dominion of China (35 provinces, including Formosa, Kwantung and South Manchurian railway, Manchuria and Tibet) French overseas territory and associated
(U.S. occupied territory)
and dependencies
est.)
Chile
Burma
Is.
950 area, 1950 pop.
Costo Rica
British
Qatar Ryukyu
(1939) (I
British colonies
51,493
1
colonies, dependencies, protectorates, protected state ond independent state under British protection
U.S.S.R. U.S.S.R.
lin
Canada
West
Africa (mondote of Union of South Africa) Spanish colonies and protectorate Tangier, International Zone of Union of South Africa
sq.mi.
8,173,557 8,598,678
of continent and stote
NORTH AMERICA
17.9
El
Italian trusteeship
South-
1
Nome
"
British
Eritrea Ethiopia French colonies, trusteeships, protectorotes,
Pe'sons per
thousands)
Populotion
Areo
Personj per
58,164,833 1,567,374 925,907 1
Belgian colony ond trusteeship
lin
sq.mi.l
arlicles)
Population
Nome
57 World — Continued
.
99,181
149.1
263.6
148 2,948 47,041 2,100 14 3,000
303 20
3.7 1
10.8
404.7 84.2
229.5 1
19.2
10,451
300.0 33,670.0 812.2
3,343 35,339 26,200
235.5 217.7
22.4
7,151
243.1 177.8 342.1 146.3 41.2
4,862
304.9
8,609 16,300 13
28,528
383 50,370 1
16,927
1,307.2
533.0 2,000.0 170.7
ports to the U.S. continued to
fall
below imports. Arrests and
denial of civil liberties characterized the regime,
and several
cabinet ministers and important government officials resigned
following charges of corruption and venality. To improve its economic position, Argentina signed a one-year supplementary agreement to the commercial and financial treaty with Germany of July 31,
1950, calling for $136,600,000 sales each way.
A
was negotiated with the U.S.S.R. In March a barter agreement was signed with Brazil under which Argentina was to export to Brazil 1,500,000 tons of wheat at $112 per ton, which was about 15% above the world price, and Brazil would export to .\rgentina bananas, coffee, timber and scrap iron. About 400,000 tons of the wheat would be credited against Argentina's debt of $95,000,000 to commercial agreement along similar
lines
Brazil.
In February Peron visited Chile as the Carlos Ibafiez del
Campo, and on Feb.
official
21
guest of Pres,
Ibaiiez
and Peron
signed a protocol establishing a joint commission to study the
problem of co-ordinating production and trade, increasing exportable surpluses and encouraging private investments. They were pledged
to negotiate a definitive treaty within 120 days.
In July Ibafiez returned Peron "s
visit.
On
July 8 they signed
life.
This led to repressive measures and
many
arrests.
An
in-
\cstigation was launched which resulted in the resignations of
Juan R. Duarte, Peron's private secretary and brother of his wife, Eva, who had died the preceding year, and Orlando Oscar Bertolini, the husband of Ernestina Duarte, Eva Peron's sister. Duarte later committed suicide. Several prominent persons were expelled from the Peronista party including Col. Domingo Mercante, former governor of Buenos Aires province and at one time apparent successor to Peron. The cardinal-archbishops of Buenos Aires and Rosario suggested a political amnesty,
backed by members of the opposition and the Peronista party, but Interior Minister Angel Borlenghi eliminated all hopes for
when he placed the blame for the disorders on the opposition and said that the government could not permit such a minority to complain with such boldness. Throughout the year Peron continued to have trouble with it
rising living costs.
The
cattle
growers tried to keep beef
off
the
market, but they had to capitulate to a government ultimatum.
Many
arrests on charges of profiteering
were made and an
in-
crease in wages in the major industries was decreed
government. Education.
(J.
—On
by the McAd.)
June 30, 1951. there were 15,874 primary schools with 2,446,138 pupils and 101,646 teachers. There were 2,069 public secondary, normal and special schools with 360,917 students and 46,204 teachers; 32 autonomous schools with 2,544 students and 206 teachers; and 1,132 private schools with 153,926 students and 4,993 teachers. There were national universities at Buenos Aires (41,325 students), Eva Peron (La Plata) (7,409), Cordoba (9,355), Cuyo (2,596), Tucuman (3,191) and the National University of the Litoral at Santa Fe (16,325). University professors totalled 3,621. In 1951 there were 2,190 motion-picture theatres with seating capacity of 957,209. Finance. The monetary unit is the peso, valued on Sept. 30, 1953, at 13-33 cents U.S. currency, basic rate; 20 cents, preferential rate; and 7.16 cents, free market rate. The 1954 budget as approved by congress allocated 8.321,100,000 pesos for the national administration (to be covered by general revenues estimated at 8,354,500,000 pesos), 1,100,000,000 pesos for public works and other capital expenditures (to be covered by borrowing), 3,657,600,000 pesos for autonomous agencies (self-balancing) and 2,703.000,000 pesos for special accounts (self-balancing). Expenditures of the national administration amounted to 9,364,500,000 pesos in 1952; general revenue was 9,436,600,000 pesos, leaving an apparent surplus of 72,100,000 pesos. During the year, however, borrowing amounted to 3.945,200,000 pesos. The national debt was 21,762,900,000 pesos on Dec. 31, 1951, The debt figures did not include the floating debt at call or the debt of I. .A. P. I. (8.369,000,000 pesos on Dec. 31, 1950) and other official agencies and of the provincial and municipal governments. Currency and subsidiary money in circulation on Aug. 31, 1953, totalled 18.667,000,000 pesos; demand deposits were 13.900,000,000 pesos on Dec. 31, 1952. The cost of living index (Buenos Aires) stood at 322 in
—
MARBLE STATUE pleted
in
of
Juan Peron by Leone Tommasi,
Italian
sculptor,
com-
1953
the Argentine-Chilean
Economic Union
treaty. It provided the
general rules to cover future commercial operations. In the pre-
amble
it
was stated that new
political conditions
orientation of economic activities in a
manner
permitted the
that
would guar-
antee political sovereignty, social justice and the independence of the signatory powers. It
was agreed that within 90 days after
signing each country would appoint five of
cil
men
to a national coun-
Argentine-Chilean Economic union which, jointly,
the
should fonn the General council of the union. Article
2
set
which would co-ordinate production, reform the restrictive customs system, modify exchange regulations, establish methods to supply cerforth II fundamental objectives of the agreement,
tain frontier areas, liberalize reciprocal credits, equalize taxes,
and a system for transit facilities of imports from other countries through both Argentina and Chile, improve establish free ports
communications, promote tourism and speed up construction of the Southern Transandine railroad and improve the Northern and Central Transandine lines. Peron later announced the introduction of a bill to encourage foreign capital investments in Argentina. Investments might be made in industry and mining, either setting up new plants or co-operating with established entities, and capital might be in
must receive prior must be inscribed in the national registry and would receive the same treatment as Argentine capital. After two years, profits up to 8% of the registered capital remaining at the end of each subsequent financial period might be the form of dollars or equipment. Investments
presidential approval,
transferred to the country of origin.
The
profits
eligible
for
and after ten years of original inscription the investor might withdraw his capital in annual transfer might be capitalized
quotas of
Upon
58
10%
his
20%. return from Chile there was an attempt on Peron's to
Aug. 1953 (1948=100). Trade and Communications. Exports in 1952 were officially valued at 4.392.000.000 pesos and imports at 8,361,200,000 pesos. Leading exports were processed agricultural products (20%), meat (20%), wool (17%), cereals and linseed (14%) and hides and skins (9%); leading imports, machinery and vehicles (18%), fuels and lubricants (15%), iron and steel and manufactures (14%), textiles (10%) and wood (9%). Leading customers were the U.S. (26%), the United Kingdom (14%), France (8%), Brazil (7%) and Sweden (6%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (18%), Brazil (11%), Germany (8%), France (7%) and the United
—
Kingdom (6%). Railways (1949) totalled 26,893 mi.; in 1952 they carried 538,200,000 passengers and 36,976.000 metric tons of freight. National highway mileage (1949) was about 43.500. Registered motor vehicles on Jan. i, 1951, included 275.000 cars. 140,000 trucks and 16,000 buses. Commercial air lines flew 10,924,250 mi. in 1952 and carried 393,400 passengers. According to Lloyd's Register of Shipping, the merchant marine (June 30, 1952) consisted of 365 steamers and motor ships (100 tons and over) aggregating 1.033,571 gross tons. Agriculture. Production figures for the crop year 1952-53 were officially reported as follows (in metric tons): wheat 7,800,000: rye 1,342,000; oats 1.106,000: barley 1,194,000; maize 3,620,000; linseed 571,000; sunflower seed 528,000; peanuts 173,000; olives 19,000. Other crops included rice (rough) 168,000 metric tons and cotton 600,000 bales of 480 lb. each. Sugar production (1952) was 560,000 metric tons. Exports in 1952 (metric tons) included wheat 59,013; maize 636,386; linseed 25,064; oats 43,755; barley 117,813. The 1952 livestock census showed 45,262,995 cattle, 54,683,731 sheep, 3,989.188 pigs, (census 1947) 7,237,663 horses, 4,933,679 goats. Wool exports in the wool year ending Sept. 30, i953. were reported unofficially at 491,899 bales, of which 221,306 bales went to the U.S., 85,379 bales to the United Kingdom and 47.470 bales to Belgium. In 1952. i.594.920 frozen beef quarters, 331,192 mutton carcasses. 1,220,689 lamb carcasses, 1,536,241 calf skins, 961,868 dried ox skins and 6,018.409 salted ox skins were exported. Quebracho extract exports (including re-exports from Paraguay) totalled 163,120 metric tons in 1952AAanufactures. Industrial establishments numbered 101,884 in 1947 and in June 1951 industrial employment totalled 944,800, of whorn 191,400 were employed in the food and beverage industries and 184,500 in the tex-
—
—
—
—
ARIZONA — ARKANSAS manufactures industries. Production fij,'ures in 1952 included Portland cement 1,548.000 metric tons: wheat flour 1,874.000 tons; cotton yarn 82,000 tons: manufactured gas 295,200,000 cu.m.; electric energy 4,717,714.000 kw.hr. Mineral Production. Petroleum production totalled 3,540,000 metric tons (about 24.750.000 bbl.) in 1952. Some lead and zinc were also produced. Coal imports were 1,740,288 metric tons in 1952. \'>iiiLiOGKAPn\. —Reviciv of the River Plate (Buenos Aires); Bank of London and South America, Fortnightly Review (London): Sintesis esladistica incnsual (Buenos Aires). (J. W. Mvv.)
and
tile
textile
—
Arizona,
Arizona.
known
"Grand Canyon
as the
the southwestern part of the United States, being
Mesa (1950) had 16,700; Douglas, 9,442; Yuma, 9,145; Glendale, 8,179; Tempe, 7,684; Flagstaff, 7,663; and Prescott,
48,774.
History.
— State
officers
all
(1953),
Table
Marion
L.
Brooks.
Sorghums grain, bu Corn, bu Alfalfa seed, bu Flaxseed, bu Cotton, bales Grapefruit, boxes
An
The
legislature
21st
was the
was passed providing
for
An
act
and referendum were
towns were permitted to adopt budgets
1953-54
in excess of
new budgets
to be circulated
20%
for
the
over those of the previous
to 80
and year
They
(i) limited the house
increased the senate to 28; (2) increased the
justices of the peace during
term of
office; (3)
aboHshed
the state board of education and the elected state superinten-
dent; (4)
removed
the requirement that state
money
be appropriated on the basis of attendance. The passed at the September election and the
On
Oct. 6
Governor Pyle
last
for schools
first
two were
two were defeated.
called a special session for Oct. 13 to
adjust the taxing system.
—
Education. The State superintendent reported for 1952-53 an enrolment with the number of teachers as follows: elementary schools, 151,540 and 4.631; high schools, 36,593 and 1,474. .Arizona has been noted for its private schools attended by out-of-state pupil.-;. The legislature provided an annual appropriation of $100,000 for any junior college with suitable buildings and proper attendance. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. total number of recipients of state assistance in .Aug. 1953 was 20,328. The state welfare appropriations were: industrial school. $103,800: state hospital, $1,773,650: crippled children, $268,000; state tuberculosis sanitarium, $244,273; pioneer home, $143,157; prison, $632,356; aid to the blind, $242,808; dependent children, $1,209,883; old-age assistance. $3,818,700. Communications. The Arizona highway department reported the following mileage for 1953: state highways, 3,960; county roads, 16.148; federal-aid highways, 2,520; national roads. 8,211. Railroad mileage was 2,542 and the number of telephones 202.500. Phoeni.x had eight radio sta-
The
—
tions
and Tucson
five.
Each
—
of the
two
cities
had two television stations.
Banking and Finance. The superintendent of banks reported for June 30, 1953, that national banks had deposits of $601,731,083; loans and discounts, $198,885,538; government securities, $123,485,520. State banks had deposits of $175,776,168; loans and discounts, $57,854,881; government securities, $80,293,632, the total sum being in excess of that of 1952. The slate and local ta.xes for the fiscal year 1952-53 were $117.090,521, and federal taxes were $165,742,130, all based on an income of $1,287,000,000. Agriculture. At the beginning of 1953, .Arizona led the nation in percentage of growth in agricultural income lor the decade, the increase being 328%. Cotton represented about 50% of the farm and ranch income. The total from farms and ranches for 1952 was $423,000,000, as compared with the ten-year (1942-51) average of $193,000,000. A United Slates
—
900,000 1,517,000
Table
Mineral Production of Arizona
II.
lln
,
short Ions, except as noted!
1951
227,000 416,000 116,000 17,000 54,000
Copper Gold (02.) Lead
Sand and gravel
.
.
309,000 53,000
Stone Zinc
Other minerols
....
...
Total
ranked
Quontity
472,000 201,281,000 4,063,000 6,018,000 773,000 2,203,000 4,635,000 354,000 19,292,000 4,796,000 $243,887,000 $
2,691,000 5,121,000
.
1950
Volue
Quantity
Mineral Clays
Value
224,000 403,000 118,000 26,000 52,000 2,499,000
$
512,000 167,773,000 4,141,000 7,123,000
718,000 1,590,000 4,820,000 140,000 17,176,000 3,413,000 $207,406,000
5,325,000 228,000 60,000 ...
among
the states in the production of copper, second in asand fourth in silver, and stood 15th in the value of mineral output, with 1.81% of the U.S. total for 1951. first
bestos, third in zinc
fiscal year,
was prohibited. four constitutional amendments to be considered
members and
pay of
cities
fiscal
The feeding The legislature
at a special election Sept. 29, 1953.
3,000,000
—
Arkansas, a south central state of the United
to be a basis for future budgets.
of untreated garbage to swine
provided for
a
which new wells were prohibited. Petitions
according to definite form, to prevent fraud. Counties,
the
420,000 113,000 78,000 948,000
—
Lime
attempt to solve the underground water problem established relative to the initiative
598,000 572,000
Manufacturing. In July 1953 the number employed in manufacturing was 28.100, an increase over the previous year, while the output had doubled since 1950. The principal products were furniture and lumber, primary and fabricated metal products, electrical machinery, motor vehicles and transportation equipment. Among the nondurable goods were: food, textile mill products, apparel and chemicals. (H. A. H.) Mineral Production. Table II shows the tonnage and value of mineral commodities produced in Arizona in 1950 and 1951. data for 1952 not being available, listing items whose value exceeded $100,000. Arizona
Silver (oz.)
restricted area in
4,372,000 589,000 397,000 2,034,000 380,000 145,600 504,000 312,000 3,220,000 1,000,000 1,403,000
1,632,000
990,000 3,500,000 1,130,000 2,343,000
Oranges, boxes Pototoes, bu Source; U.S. Department of Agriculture.
1942-51
1952
5,885,000
...
Howard Pyle (Rep.); treasurer. J. W. Kelley; at-
the annual testing of dairy cattle and goats for brucellosis.
longest in history (79 days).
Average,
1953 Estimote
7,236,000 598,000 572,000 1,800,000 510,000 86,660
Democrats but two, were:
torney general. Ross F. Jones (Rep.); superintendent of public instruction,
— Principal Crops of Arizona
Barley, bu
chief justice, R. C. Stanford; governor, J.
secretary of state, Wesley Bolin;
I.
Wheat, bu Oats, bu
state," lies in
hounded on the west by the Colorado river and Nevada and on the south by Mexico. The area is 113,575 sq.mi. The population (1950 census) was 749,587, a 50.1% increase over that of 1940, 416,000 being urban and 333,587 rural. There was an estimated increase to 859,000 by July i, 1952. Whites (1950) numbered 654,511, or 87.3%; Negroes, 3.5%; and Indians, 8.8%. The capital, Phoenix (1953 census), numbered 127,015 and Tucson
6,764.
59
geological survey report early in 1953 indicated that the above increased return was based to a considerable degree on the exhaustion of the underground water reserve. The water level from pumping was dropping 10 feet per year in several districts. This exhaustion was augmented by the lack of rainfall, as the spring peak storage in reservoirs in 1953 was 1,456,000 ac.-ft. as compared with 1,727,000 ac.-ft. the previous year.
Arkansas. area
is
States,
was admitted
to the
union
1836. Its
in
53,104 sq.mi., including 429 sq.mi. of water. Pop. (1950
census)
(July
1,909.511;
census figures placed
Little
The 1950
1,876,000.
of the population in rural areas
The population was listed 0.5% foreign-born and 22.3% Negro.
pared with 77.8% native white.
1952, est.)
i,
67%
in 1940.
Rock, the capital
Other principal Rock, 44.097;
cities
Pine
city,
are: Bluff,
as
com-
77.1%
had 102,213 inhabitants in 1950. North Little
Fort Smith, 47,942; 37,162;
Hot
Springs,
29,307;
El
Dorado, 23,076; Fayetteville, 17,071; Jonesboro, 16,310; Blytheville, 16,234; Texarkana, 15,875. History.
— With
the creation in 1953 of the legislative post
government was removed from the executive to the legislative branch. The state legislative auditor was Orvel M. Johnson. Arkansas adopted a new fiscal code which reorganized the executive branch of state government and put control of all spending into the hands of one official. Frank Storey was director audit division, the auditing function of Arkansas
of finance.
"Quickie" marriages were
made
impossible with the removal
of the waiver on the three-day waiting period
and the
installa-
tion of the premarital blood test as a statutory requirement.
Welfare
rolls
were made public for the
first
time
in
Arkansas.
Francis Cherry was governor in 1953; Nathan Gordon, lieutenant governor; Tom Gentry, attorney general; C. G. Hall, secretary of state; J. Oscar Humphrey, auditor; J. ton, treasurer; Claude Rankin, land commissioner.
—
Vance Clay-
Education. For the school year of 1951-52 Arkansas had 2.061 elementary schools with an enrolment of 333.822 and 635 secondary schools with an enrolment of 78,304. Total college and university enrolment for 1951-52 was 20.971. Teachers and principals in elementary schools numbered 7,576; in secondary schools, 5,764. Expenditures from state funds for the year ending June 30, 1952, totalled $20,731,305. Arch W. Ford was commissioner of education.
ARMIES OF THE WORLD
60
"lablt \.— Principal Crops of Arkansas Average,
indicated 1953
Crop
::::::::: Ric::roo.ii,.ba„.- :::::::: SoYbeoni, bu Oott. bu Pototooj, bu
'l^ioSC
'i'lfill
w'ltZ
^SoCo
8.796,000 6,369,000
13,856,000 3,998,000
473,000 390,000
780,000 402,000 270 000
^,28l;oSo 5,799,000 6,876,000 2,627,000 1,323,000
Sweet pototoet, bu Apples bu
124 000
:::::::;::
GrC;,'.":.P*""'-'"'
27,307,000
13,935,000
''Sooo
c:J;::;,''.°'
systems and two
triple systems,
making 42
"objects"'
and
1953
and Procyon, are
intrinsically brighter than the sun.
^^
Sirius,
There
times the sun"s
luminosity. But four of the "objects'" here counted as single stars show evidence of possessing unseen companions which may be even fainter. About 36 of the 55 stars are red dwarfs classed as dM; they include five that are known to be "flare" stars. The latter form a class that is being increasingly studied. They are liable to flare up to about ten times their normal brightness and then die back more slowly, all within the interval of about one hour. Some workers attributed the phenomenon to the development of "hot spots" on the surfaces of the stars, others (considering the spectroscopic evidence in more detail) to the sudden
emission of jets of carbon vapour.
The
structure of the enormously dense white dwarf stars (with
ATHLETICS — ATOMIC ENERGY densities of several tons per cubic centimetre) factorily understood for about 20 years.
had been
satis-
But the source of
luminosity had remained unexplained; they could not be
their
in the
white dwarf state and at the same time possess the sources of atomic energy that supply the luminosity of normal stars. In 1953 L. Mestel published an apparently satisfactory explanation.
His calculations showed that a white dwarf actually needs no sources of energy generation; it is merely a slowly cooling body,
its
away of its initial was shown to be in general
radiation being the gradual wasting
store of thermal energy. This store
quite ample for the survival of the star through astronomical times.
The normal
career of a white dwarf
ful in the extreme.
ment
is
its
What
robs
is
therefore unevent-
of the possibility of
it
any
excite-
almost complete lack of hydrogen. As Mestel went
on to demonstrate, however,
can
it
courses of evolution by accreting a
follow
more
interesting
relatively small
mass of
hydrogen from the vast, though exceedingly diffuse, quantities of this gas which permeate interstellar space. The most spectacular possibility occurred if such accretion took place before the cooling
had proceeded too
far,
when
would be gigantic hydrogen
the result
what Mestel described as the explosion of a bomb, thus possibly accounting for the outbursts of one type of known supernova. It should be added that white dwarfs also present observational
problems of great
of their intrinsic faintness
and of their
difficulty
because
ill-defined spectral fea-
tures. W. J. Luyten obtained new spectral observations of 44 such stars with the 82-in. McDonald (Mt. Locke, Tex.) and 100-
Mt. Wilson (near Pasadena, Calif. )^telescopes. He also examined plates taken in the southern hemisphere with a view- to identifying further white dwarfs; his discoveries brought the total of known "probable" white dwarfs to 267. in.
In the years since
our
own and other
World War
II the division of the stars in
galaxies into two ''populations," as
first
pro-
69
the orthodox view, with the revised measures, such expansion
The most drastic alternawas that proposed in 1948 by H. Bondi and T. Gold and by Hoyle according to which the large-scale behaviour of the
started about 5,000,000,000 years ago. tive F.
universe
is
always the same, the receding galaxies being replaced
by fresh ones composed of more recently created matter. One particular consequence of the latter view is that no one epoch universe as a whole is more favourable than another for atom building, while the same need not hold good
in the history of the
any individual galaxy in the universe. 1952 a great advance was made in delineating the spiral structure in our own galaxy by means of measurements of hydrogen emission regions and of 21-cm. radio emission. In 1953 G. Miinch gave a preliminary account of observations, using the new coude spectrograph on the 200-in. Hale telescope, of "interstellar" spectral lines which confirmed in regard to the history of
Interstellar
Matter.
— In
that the interstellar gas clouds are concentrated into the regions of the spiral
arms as located by the other methods.
Rotation of the Earth.
— Previously astronomers had believed
the rate of rotation of the earth to be slowly but steadily decreasing because of the action of the oceanic tides. E. R. R.
Holmberg now pointed
however, that there
out,
is
an unex-
pectedly large tendency in the opposite direction produced by the solar led
him
component of the atmospheric tides. His calculations from small oscillations in either
to conclude that, apart
direction, the rate of rotation has attained an equilibrium value.
(See also Electronics; National Geographic Society.) Bibliography. L. H. .Aller, Astrophysics (Xew York, 1953); Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin. Stars in the Making (Harvard, 1952); R. A. Lyttleton, Comets, and Their Origin (Cambridge, 1953). (W. H. McC.)
—
Athletics: see Track and Field Sports; etc. Atlantic Treaty: see European Union; North Atlantic Treaty Organization.
posed by W, Baade, had become generally accepted, and various indications
had been noted of differences
in the
chemical com-
position of these populations. Chiefly as a result of spectroscopic studies carried out in the United States in 1953 the view fast being consolidated that
the differences were
was
much more
systematic and considerable than had previously been supposed, the stars of population I evidently containing a
much
proportion of heavy elements than those of population
had great evolutionary
bigger
II.
This
was widely accepted that stars of population I are on the average much younger than the others and moreover are still in process of being formed from interstellar matter in the spiral arms of the galaxies. It then followed that the abundance of heavy elements had not been the same at all stages in the history of a galaxy. This appeared to be strong evidence for the view that such elements are synthesized in certain types of star and by them fed into interstellar space, as opposed to the view that the heavy elements had been formed, effectively, once and for all in the very early career of an expanding universe. Thus the situation in cosmological speculation had reached a highly interesting stage. The "orthodox"' theory of the expanding universe had been assailed because it had yielded too short a past life for the universe; but the significance. It
Atomic Energy.' when
The
international atomic
entered
a
new phase
in the
armament race summer of 1953
became know-n that the U.S.S.R., as w-ell as the United had exploded an experimental prototype of the hydrogen bomb. While no details were made public by either government. U.S. and European scientists were inclined to believe that neither nation had as yet perfected a usable h\drogen bomb that could it
States,
be delivered by aeroplane. It was estimated, however, that the
United States would probably achieve this goal in a year or two and the U.S.S.R. almost as soon. The day was seen to be rapidly approaching, therefore, when each would possess the potential means for the total annihilation of the other. Diplomats agreed that the hydrogen bomb constituted the foremost problem facing the world. The nations of western Europe, apprehensive of being caught between the United States and the U.S.S.R. in a conflict fought with both H-bombs and A-bombs, were eager to see some settlement of the "cold war." Great Britain began preparations in the spring of 1953 for its
second atomic
bomb
test.
This took place at the
Woomera
range in Australia in October.
Prospects for the peacetime application of atomic energy to
doubling of the distance scale (mentioned above) also doubled
industry were greatly enhanced during 1953. In June the U.S.
the past lifetime according to this theory, and this new value appeared to be reconcilable with other evidence. Nevertheless,
Atomic Energy commission disclosed that the experimental breeder reactor at Arco, Ida., had succeeded in producing as much atomic fuel as it consumed while furnishing the energy
at
this
juncture, evidence concerning the abundances of the
elements (including that just described) strengthened the argu-
to operate a steam-electric turbogenerator.
ments against the theory. Of course, few astronomers questioned
On June 24, 1953, Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhow^er appointed Rear Adm. Lewis L. Strauss to succeed Gordon Dean as chairman of the U.S. Atomic Energy commission.
the inference that the universe
is
expanding
in the sense that
the galaxies are receding from each other. (Indeed, the greatest apparent speed of recession of 61,000 km. per second yet measured by M. Humason with the 200-in. Hale telescope, Palomar
mountain,
Calif.,
was reported during the year.) According
to
Other important events in the realm of atomic energy during the year included the electrocution of the convicted atomic spies, Julius
and Ethel Rosenberg, the
first civilians
in the history of
ATOMIC ENERGY
70
the nation to suffer the death penalty for espionage
hearings of
;
the joint congressional committee on atomic energy to discuss
changes
in the
Atomic Energy
act that
would make possible the facilities by private
ownership and operation of atomic power
and a series of Nevada proving ground, the
industrial corporations;
sions at the
plex series >et conducted at the
The Soviet H-Bomb.
ii
bomb
explo-
8.
1953, by Premier
the course of a two-hour address on
in
domestic and foreign policies before 1.300 members of the su-
preme
soviet in the Great hall of the Kremlin.
When
the United States lost
Malenkov it
is
the
it
bomb
production of the hydrogen
many
largely because no atomic explosion had been
U.S.
known
to
20, the Soviet
information on the subject indicates that this test involved both
and thermonuclear reactions."
A-Bomb
Lima,
0.. published letters written
members of U.S. navy The explosion took
miles into the
to burn,
type on Aug. 23. It stated that
Nevada proving ground.
There seemed some reason to believe that this Soviet explowas the start of a series of tests similar to the U.S. tests in Nevada. The commission added that it would not publicize futhey
contained
some unusual
and the island became a mass of flames that persisted Three of the letters said that the island disappeared
Physics of the of
in
the U.S.
—
It
was recognized
States that Russian mastery of the hydrogen
growing stock tion
of
many
pile of
of
nation's
the
foreign
— Physicists discussed the
possibility
energy by the synthesis of helium from
hydrogen more than 20 years before the discovery of uranium fission in 1939. If four atoms of hydrogen were transformed
atom
of helium, there would be a loss in
units. This, in
mass of 0.0286
accordance with the Einstein equa-
E = mc'-, would
tion for the transformation of matter into energy,
the release of 2,670,000 ev of energy.
During the 1930s astronomers came
to the conclusion that
sun and earth
stars.
But they despaired of duplicating the process on
because
it
apparently
required
the
found only in the interior of the sun and
high
stars.
temperatures
Because of their
dependence on high temperatures, such nuclear transformations
a revalua-
and domestic
provide temperatures of the kind needed for thermonuclear re-
in
the
United
bomb and
Russian atomic bombs required
aspects
H-Bomb.
releasing atomic
became known as thermonuclear reactions. However, even before the atomic bomb had been achieved, J. Robert Oppenheimer and his associates at the Los Alamos laboratory realized that the explosion of a uranium bomb would
feature.
Reactions
five
This flame lasted for about seven seconds.
air.
such a process accounted for the generation of energy in the
sion
unless
be ten times as bright as
from view.
into one
—On
fission
light, said to
for six hours.
the explosion was within the range of those which the United
explosions
place at an island about 3 mi. long and
Next thousands of tons of earth were thrown straight into the sky. About 20 seconds after the explosion, a great mushroom cloud formed. This was described variously, and according to some was 15 mi. high and 30 mi. wide at the top. About 15
mean
Soviet
and crew
compared with the momentary touch of a red-hot iron. The letters spoke of a flame two miles wide shooting
atomic explosion of the
ture
officers
than a mile wide situated about 35 mi. from Eniwetok. The closest ship was apparently 30 mi. from the explosion. It was
atomic mass
States had set off at the
by junior
ships at the scene.
less
Aug. 31, 1953, the U.S. Atomic Energy commission announced that the U.S.S.R. had staged an Tests.
first
minutes after the explosion, the vegetation on the island began
government announced, "Within the last few days an explosion of one of a variety of hydrogen bombs was carried out for experimental purposes." This was confirmed the same day in a statement from the U.S. Atomic Energy commission, which said. "The Soviet Union conducted an atomic test on the morning of Aug. 12. Subsequent
Soviet
1.
heard of the 1952 explosion when newspapers such widely separated locations as Los Angeles, Calif., and public
the sun, followed by a w-ave of heat which one letter writer
take place in the U.S.S.R. since Oct. 1951.
fission
the spring of 195
heralded by a flash of
This statement was greeted with scepticism by
On Aug.
in
The
took solace in the illusion that
either."'
officials,
atoll at
probably was the
monopoly of the atomic bomb,
necessary to report to the Supreme Soviet that the United States in
Eniwetok
It
it
not so." he continued. "The government deems
has no monopoly
at
1952 (Eniwetok time).
its
said to his listeners,
possessed a monopoly of the hydrogen bomb.
"This
tok
in
mastery of the secret of the
I,
most violent man-made explosion in the history of the world. A smaller hydrogen nuclear exi)losion had been staged at Eniwe-
com-
site.
— Russian
hydrogen bomb was announced on Aug. Georgi M. Malenkov
atomic
longest and most
132 detonated a hydrogen nuclear explosion
7:15 A.M. on Nov.
the
them that it might be possible to create hydrogen bomb which would use an atomic bomb as the fuse
actions. It occurred to
policies.
Sen. Alexander Wiley (Rep., Wis.), chairman of the senate
foreign relations committee, said that action on the highest levels
Washington and Moscow was called for to determine whether new ground existed for the establishment of international atomic in
control.
Admiral Strauss warned, 'Tt
is
a
fallacy to
stock pile of atomic weapons in our hands
is
assume that a any longer
in itself
a
to detonate
it.
After the end of World
War
II,
preliminary studies were in-
Alamos laboratory to explore these possibilities. It was realized that it was not feasible to employ ordinary hydrogen, which is a mixture of 98% light-weight hydrogen and 2% deuterium or double-weight hydrogen. It did stituted at the Los
bomb
could be
made with
a complete deterrent to aggressive action."
appear, however, that a hydrogen
was anticipated that global strategy would be restudied and more emphasis placed on civilian defense. It seemed entirely probable that expenditures for national defense would have to
deuterium; or with tritium or triple-weight hydrogen; or with a combination of deuterium and tritium, probably the most satis-
be increased.
Deuterium can be separated from ordinary hydrogen by chemical means. However, tritium occurs in nature only in infinitesimal amounts. It is possible, however, to produce tritium by
It
At a White House press conference in July, President Eisenhower stated that he favoured giving the public more information on both U.S. and Soviet atomic weapons, feeling that wise decisions could be made only by an informed public. Such a course had been previously urged by J. Robert Oppenheimer, head of the Los Alamos laboratory during World War II, and by Gordon Dean in his final press conference on retiring from the chairmanship of the U.S. Atomic Energy commission. The U.S. Hydrogen Bomb. United States joint task force
—
factory method.
bombarding lithium with neutrons in a nuclear reactor. It was estimated that a given weight of tritium would release seven times as much energy as an equal weight of plutonium. One kilogram (2.2 Ib.j of tritium would be the equivalent in explosive violence of 140,000 tons of T.N.T. It will be recalled that the first atomic of T.N.T.
bombs were
the equivalent of 20,000 tons
ATOMIC ENERGY
72
exploded over the Japanese
World War
Hiroshima and Nagasaki in had staged five and Great Britain
cities of
II; the U.S.S.R.
one.
—
U.S. Y. U.S.S.R. Strength. It was generally believed during 1053 that the United States was ahead of the U.S.S.R. in the extent of its atomic establishment, the variety and size of its stock pile of atomic bombs,
its ability to deliver the bombs and progress toward a usable hydrogen bomb. While no oflicial
its
figures
had ever been made public,
was generally assumed more than 1,000 atomic bombs while the Soviet Union had between 100 and 300. British A-Bomb Test. Great Britain conducted its second atomic bomb test on the Woomera rocket range in Australia in it
that the United States had a stock pile of
—
Oct. 1953. It will be recalled that the
was detonated
Monte
in the
British atomic
first
Bello Islands, 50 mi.
N.W.
bomb of the
coast of Australia, on Oct. 3, 1952. Sir William Penney,
directed the explosion of the 1952
bomb, was again
in
who
charge
for the 1953 test.
—
Expansion of U.S. Facilities. Substantial progress in every its program was reported during 1953 by the U.S. Atomic Energy commission. Construction of new plant facilities phase of
in the $3,500,000,000
program previously authorized by congress rate. Atomic energy projects ac-
proceeded at an accelerated
counted for about in the
3%
United States
of
all
expenditures for new construction
in 1953. It
was expected
to increase to
5%
in 1954.
"LOOK! WE'RE OUT
IN
FRONT!'
a
1953 cartoon by
Little of the
Nashville
Tennessean
Production of uranium from domestic ores was increased durThe Union of South Africa joined the Belgian Congo
ing 1953.
Unlike the A-bomb, the hydrogen
bomb would
not be limited
any critical mass. Theoretically it appeared possible hydrogen bomb many thousands of times more powerful than an atomic bomb. Cost of production and difficulties of transportation appeared to be the limiting factors. Nevada Bomb Tests. Eleven atomic explosions were staged by the U.S. Atomic Energy commission at the Nevada proving ground, about 75 mi. from Las Vegas, Nev., in the spring of 1953. Some of these were bombs dropped from aeroplanes, others were experimental nuclear devices exploded atop steel towers. The department of defense, the Federal Civil Defense administration and other government agencies co-operated in the tests. The department of defense took advantage of several of the explosions to indoctrinate both ground troops and airmen in the effects of atomic weapons and to execute simulated combat manoeuvres. in size to
to create a
—
and Canada as an important source of uranium. Promising deposits of uranium ore were discovered in Australia during the year.
The commission revealed that first six months
materials in the
the production of fissionable
was greater than
of 1953
in
any previous period of similar length.
As
of Jan.
i,
1953, the nation's capital investment in atomic
was approximately $4,000,000,000. The first six months of 1953 saw a greater number of significant events in reactor development than any previous period, the U.S. Atomic Energy commission reported. Chief among these was the progress made with the
energy plant
Advances
facilities in
Reactors.
—
experimental breeder reactor.
This reactor employs a core of uranium-235 about the a football. Surrounding this
is
size of
a blanket of ordinary uranium.
17.
Neutrons released by fission in the core strike this blanket, converting atoms of uranium- 238 into plutonium. The heat generated by the fission is carried to a heat exchanger by liquid sodium alloy which circulates through the core. A second stream of liquid alloy transfers the heat to a steam boiler. The steam operates a turbine which turns the armature of an elec-
trenches as the device exploded.
tric
The
first
explosion in the series was a prototype of a tactical
atomic bomb, believed to possess the power of 15,000 tons of T.N.T. It was exploded atop a steel tower 300 ft. high on March
About 1,500 troops and observers crouched in five-foot They were about two miles from the tower, closer than any Americans had ever been to an atomic explosion. By arrangement with the Federal Civil Defense administration, two typical U.S. houses and 53 automobiles were exposed to the blast. One house was 3,500 ft. from the tower, the other 7.500 ft. Dummies, wearing various types of clothing, were also exposed in and near the houses and autos. Atonnic Cannon. The firing of the first atomic artillery shell in the history of the world, on May 25, constituted the tenth explosion in the 1953 series of tests in Nevada. The projectile, II in. in diameter, was fired from the army's 280-mm.
—
—According
to the best avail-
able unofiicial count, the Soviet hydrogen explosion was the 50th
nuclear detonation in the history of the world. plosion of Aug. 23 was the 51st.
ceed consumption. Electric power was also generated successfully during 1953 with a second type of reactor known as the homogeneous reactor. In this reactor, the
Up
The Russian
ex-
to Sept. 15, 1953, the U.S.
had staged 45 nuclear explosions, including the two A-bombs
atomic fuel
is
in liquid
mixed with the moderator so that the two
form and
is
circulate together in
the reactor.
On March
cannon.
The Atomic Explosion Total.
generator.
During 1953 the breeder reactor had succeeded in producing an amount of plutonium equal to the amount of uranium-235 consumed. It was hoped that the reactor could be improved to the point where the production of new atomic fuel would ex-
was announced that the land-based prototype was generating substantial amounts of power. 31
it
for the nuclear reactor for the submarine "Nautilus"
Construction of the land-based prototype of a submarine intermediate
reactor
went
forward
during
the
year
at
the
Knolls Atomic Power laboratory. At the same time, design work
was begun at the laboratory on an advanced nuclear power plant for a submarine of significantly higher speed than the first two nuclear-powered submarines. Private Enterprise
in
Reactors.— Between June
24 and July
31, 1953, the congressional joint committee on atomic energy held a series of 14 hearings on the subject of atomic power de-
velopment and private enterprise. These hearings followed the presentation to the committee on May 26 of a statement of policy from the U.S. Atomic Energy commission. This proposed a series of moves which would permit the ownership and opera-
power
tion of nuclear
facilities
by groups other than the com-
mission.
June 1951 had entered into agreement companies for joint studies of ways in which private firms might enter the field. These groups submitted reports to the commission which were made public
The commission
in
with four groups of industrial
on
May
31, 1953.
—
The Argonne Cancer Research Atomic Energy commission at a cost of $4,180,000 as part of its program of research in biology and medicine, was dedicated on March 14, 1953. It was the
Cancer Research Hospital. by
laboratory, built
the U.S.
largest institution ever built for the specific
purpose of applying
atomic energy to the diagnosis, investigation and treatment of cancer and allied diseases.
—
Brookhaven Cosmotron. The synchro-cyclotron at the Brookhaven National laboratory, Upton, N.Y., was formally dedicated on Dec. 15, 1952, although it had been in operation since the previous June. It was producing a beam of protons
LIGHT BULB
power generated by atomic reactor at 1953. The experiment pointed the way to
illuminated by electric
Oak Ridge National laboratory
In
future civilian uses of atomic energy
with energies of almost 2,500.000,000 ev.
The synchro-cyclotron tion laboratory
of the University of California Radia-
was expected
to
be completed before the end of
1953. It would produce a proton
beam with
energies of 6,000,-
000.000 ev.
—
Great Britain announced on May i, was building the world's first atomic power station. The new plant, which was expected to take two years to complete, is in Cumberland. It was planned to utilize an improved type of natural uranium reactor enclosed in a shell, the heat from it being transferred by gas under pressure to a conventional steam-electric turbogenerator. The output was expected to be 50,000,000 w. A more ambitious installation which would make use of a breeder type of reactor was also planned British
Power Station.
1953, that
in
it
Great Britain.
government-owned factory at Alwaye which are rich in uranium. Swiss Power Project. Three of the major engineering firms in Switzerland joined forces to plan an atomic power project to supply electricity to Swiss industry. The firms were BrownBoveri, Escher-Wyss and Sulzer Brothers. European Laboratory. Plans of the European Council for 1952,
Nehru dedicated
—
—
Nuclear Research to establish an atomic laboratory in Geneva, Switz., were threatened
Birmingham university, England, under the direction of P. B. Moon. It took seven years to construct the machine. New Canadian Reactor. A new and improved nuclear reactor to cost $30,000,000 was under construction at the Chalk
—
river atomic energy establishment, 130 mi.
W.
On June 28, 1953, the Commuwas defeated by an overwhelming vote of the canton of Geneva. Ten European governments were associated in nist proposal
Brazil's
ment
United States
of an atomic
100
from 19 countries attended the first International Conference on Atomic Power for Industrial Uses in Oslo, Nor., from Aug. 11 to Aug. 13, 1953, under the auspices of the Atomic Energy institute, a joint project of the Norwegian and Nether-
scientists
The conference voted
to
who was
a visitor
in 1952, visited that
power
project.
He
—
it.
open to
Alvaro Alberto, chairman
some of the world's richest deposits of uranium and said that it was hoped to have the first atomic power plant in operation by 1958. He estimated the cost of the first plant, a small one, at $5,000,000. {See also Budget, National; Physics; Uranium.) thorium.
tional association,
—Adm.
Alberto said that recent studies had disclosed that Brazil possesses
lands governments.
Project.
country again in 1953. The council was in charge of Brazilian plans for the developto the
of Ottawa, Ont.
— More than
Atomic
of the Brazilian National Research council,
The establishment was under the direction of a governmentowned company. Atomic Energy of Canada, Ltd. The largest reactor in operation at the establishment was closed down on Dec. 13, 1952, when a radioactive leak occurred
Atomic Power Conference.
Geneva
in
ting the laboratory to be built.
the council.
eration at
International
when Communist elements
succeeded in forcing a plebiscite upon the question of permit-
—
Europe's Largest Synchrotron. The second largest proton synchrotron in the world and the largest in Europe was in op-
in
a
to process monazite sands
form an interna-
scientists of all nations of the world,
promote the peaceful uses of atomic energy. Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru of India announced that that country planned to construct a medium-
Bibliography. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, Thirteenth Semiannual Report (Jan. 1953), Fourteenth Semiannual Report (July 1953); Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Atomic Power and Private Enterprise (Dec. 1952), Atomic Power Development and Private Enterprise (Sept. 1953); Bulletin oj the Atomic Scientists (1953); Policy," Foreign J. Robert Oppenheimer, "Atomic Weapons and American (O- ^^-^ Affairs, vol. xxxi, p. 525 (July i953)-
Atom Smashers:
see Atomic Energy. Audio-visual Education: see Motion Pictures.
to
Indian Reactor.
—
sized nuclear reactor for use in scientific research.
On Dec.
24,
-
.I-
A
Australia, Australia
is
I1.1.
Commonwealth
situated in
X
A
realm of the
Com-
of.
monweaith of Nations, the southern hemisphere. Areas and pop-
73
—
AUSTRALIA
74 ulations of
the
federated
six
Xorlhcrii Territory and
slates.
Australian Capital Territory are:
were the only commodities from which receipts had fallen as compiired with those of 1952. These facts, associated with the increase in private and public investment,
Areo
Sloto or
Coriial
territory
(with For. Dec. 1952 est.)
South Walat
Sydney .(1.621,000) Melbourne (1,393,000) Brisbane . (444,700) Adelaide (422,000) Perth (309,000*) Hobort (87,120)
New
Victoria
Qoeensland South Austrolio
.
.
Canberra
Territory
....
"Including
87,884
670,500 380,070 975,920 26,215 523,620
.
—
Northern Territory Australian Capitol
Popu alion 11947 census!
sq.mi.l
309,433
.
Western Australia Tasmania
Totals
lin
939
(15,156t)
2,974,581
Fremar tie.
One other
t1947
IDer. |952sst.1
2,984,838 2,054,701 1,106,415
3,421,768 2,356.823 1,247,890
646,073 502,480 257,078
751,535 614,483 315,955
10,868
15,884
16,905 7,579,358
28,481
8,752,819
census.
more than loo.ooo population
city with
in
Dec.
1952 was Newcastle, N.S.W. (134.580). Full-blooded aboriginals in
Australia
46.638;
(1947),
half-castes
Territories
27,179.
under the administration of the commonwealth but not included in
comprise Papua and the trust territory of
New
Papua-New
sq.mi.;
it
(see
[1952
est.]
[1948
1,000), the trust territory of
est.]
Islands,
Gui.xea), Norfolk Island
3.162).
Heard
the
Island,
Territory
McDonald
of
(13
Guinea pop.
Nauru (8 sq.mi.; pop. Ashmore and Cartier
Islands and the Australian
Antarctic Territory. Language: English. Religion (1947 census): Anglican 2.957,032; Roman Catholic 1,569,726; Methodist
Presbyterian
871,425;
743,540;
Baptist
113,527;
Lutheran
Jewish 32,019; other nonand no religion 45,036; no reply 824,824. Governor general, Field Marshal Sir William Slim; prime minister, Robert Gordon Menzies. History. The most notable events in and influences upon the commonwealth of Australia during 1953 were the coronation of Elizabeth II. the state of the economy and the end of the war in Korea. There was otherwise a kind of hiatus in Australian affairs in which no significant movements of any sort were apparent. For Australia the coronation was a distant event followed closely, however, through radio, films and the press and an event reflected by the going out and return of the many Australians who took part in or witnessed the ceremony and celebrations in London. Severe inflation in Australia had ended in 1951. The fall in employment and income which followed did not, in 1952, reach a low level. The year 1953 saw a slight recovery and the operation of economic forces tending to maintain existing levels of activity or to raise them slightly. In Nov. 1951, 2,643.000 persons were in employment (the highest figure ever reached), but 63,243;
other
Christian
Christian 4,543;
354,443;
indefinite
—
by Jan. 1953 the figure had fallen to 2,522,000, rising to 2,560,000 by June. But between Nov. 1951 and June 1953 net migration to Australia was 147,259 persons (of whom more than one-third entered the labour force), and about another 30.000
income
Government tcrmin;iting the l)ut
meant
that national
1953 would be considerably above that of 1952.
in
during the
polic>
had had
1952
in
boom, which up first
half of 1953
inflationary effect on balance;
a
po.sitive
to that year
had was
it
this
it
effect
in
had stimulated.
a negative or slightly reflected in the issue
The 1953 budget, introduced to the house of representatives on Sept. 9, was on balance inflationary. Its striking features were reductions in of treasury bills to cover an actual deficit.
and indirect taxation rates to an average of about i2\% rates, and certain indirect taxes were reduced by a higher proportion. However, the higher money incomes which would prevail meant that the total of tax receipts would direct
on existing direct
be only a
tial
little
than
less
Defense expenditure
deficit.
£.\ 200.000.000.
back
fell
from £A2 15,000,000
but there were slight increases
other expenditure items.
it
the previous year. This allowed
in
expenditure to be iA7,ooo,ooo greater without a substan-
total
in
The budget represented
to
pensions and a slight set-
appeared to be balanced but issue, though considerably less
to the "welfare state" idea. It
involved a slight treasury
bill
than in the previous year.
The sudden check
to the
boom, with consequent unemploy-
ment, was followed by the election of the Labour party
and a substantial increase
states
party in the commonwealth senate
in three
the representation of that
in
in 1952.
The
slight
economic
1953 was followed by some recovery of the Liberal-Country parties in by-elections. It was hardly
recovery and stability
in
1953 budget alone would influence this recovery enough to cause the re-election of the commonwealth government parties in the 1954 general elections. In 1952-53 there was a very high level of public and private likely that the
investment level
When
in Australia.
allowance
made
is
for the high
of stocks (accumulated from the surfeit of imports in
1951),
it
remains that more than
was taken up
in public
40%
of national production
and private investment. Under
ence black coal output was
25%
this influ-
higher than in 1949, and steel
and pig iron were both 40% above 1949. On the other hand, output of many consumer goods rose by much less, or actually fell, during the same period. The Australian economy in 1949 had been described as a "milk-bar" one, but by 1953 it had become rather a coal, steel or pig-iron one; or, taking into account the high level of public investment in water and power works, perhaps a ferroconcrete one.
However, the
demand
for
feeling w^as widespread in 1953 that the world
exports was not likely to stay high
Australian
boosted by almost
persons (net) entered the labour force through increased age.
enough
Hence 83,000 persons fewer were
uncontrolled inflation for three years, to remain without con-
in
than at the top of the inflationary
been an increase
Not
all
in the
of these were
employment in June 1953 boom, although there had
labour force of about 80,000 persons.
unemployed
in the real sense.
There had
been a decrease in employment of married women, and
many
whose retirements had been postponed had left work. In May 1953 oflicial unemployment figures were 3.1% or 85,000, but there was considerable variation among industries from 9.2% to 1.2%. In Nov. 1951 only 719 persons had been receiving unemployment benefits; in Jan. 1953 the figure was 41,633 and in June 25,914.
—
Retail prices continued to rise throughout the year, the rise
two quarters being 2.8%. It was clear by would be received for the wool clip than in 1952, and total receipts from exports as a whole would increase by as much, if not more, but increase in the receipts from wheat, sugar, butter and meat were all greater than the
in
each of the
June that
25%
first
to
ss% more
percentage increase of wool
receipts.
Lead and fresh
fruits
to allow the Australian cost level,
siderable
downward
pressure.
year,
Consequently
efforts
secure
to
wage reductions continued during the
general and particular
and there was much activity
to
secure higher
tariffs,
opposition to the further removal of import restrictions, and discussion about depreciation of the Australian pound.
Again the premiers' conference
at
Canberra revealed the
urgent financial problems which had been produced by the commonwealth constitution. Each of the states, with very limited
more from taxation (collected by the commonwealth) and from public loans than the commonwealth was willing to allow them. The deadlock proved no nearer solution in 1953. Again there was sources of revenue for themselves, sought considerably
little
sign that decisions
made
at the conference of British
Com-
monwealth prime ministers that Australia should produce relatively more food could be implemented by anything more than the chancy operation of the market.
The end
of the
war
in
Korea was received
in Australia
with
—
CROWDING A WATER HOLE,
rabbits in Australia continued in
1953
to harass
sheep breeders by overrunning pastures
census) 6,918,959. Language: Gerinan thankfulness. Less stress was laid on defense preparation
in
Australia in 1953, and the feeling was widespread that a decline in
the
"cold war"
had taken place.
{See
also
Guinea; Trust Territories.) Education.
2%
98%, other
(mainly
Roman
(1939):
Catholic
88.27%, Protestant 5-35%, Jewish 1.26% (0.2% in 1945), 5.12%. Principal towns (pop., 1951 census): Vienna
(J. F. C.)
(cap.), 1,760,784; Graz, 226,271; Linz, 185,177; Salzburg, 100,096; Innsbruck, 94,599; Klagenfurt, 62,792. President, Theodor Koerner. Chancellors in 1953: Leopold Figl and (from
—
—
Foreign Trade. (1952) Imports £Ai .050,200,000 exports £.'\66S,ooo,000. (1952) Main sources of imports: U.K. 44%; U.S. 10%; India 5%; Japan 4%; main destinations of exports: U.K. 31%; U.S. 11%: France 9%; Japan 7%. (1952) Main imports: machinery and vehicles 25%; piece goods 11%: other textile manufactures 7%; petroleum and products ;
48%; wheat 8%; machinery and
Religion
other
9, students 29,641. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit, Australian pound; £.\i=£i sterling; £.\o.45 = U.S. $1. Budget: (1952-53) revenue £A988,2oo,ooo, expenditure £.^974, 800,000; (1953-54 est.) revenue £.\9S2, 100, 000, e.xpendiiure £.^98 1. 900, 000. Total public debt (June 30, 1952) £.^3, 264,000. 000. Currency circulation (July 1953) £.'^301,000,000; (July 1952) £.^301 ,000,000. Gold and balances held abroad (July 1953) £.'\489.500.ooo; (July 1952) £.\288, 500,000. Bank deposits (July 1953) £Ai, 143. 000, 000: (July 1952) £.^995,000,000.
exports: wool
Carinthia).
in
Papua-New
Schools (1950): state 7,790, pupils 958,112, teachers 36,08s; private 1,870, pupils 309,673, teachers 12,909. Universities (1952)
7%; main meats s%-
Slovene
vehicles
8%;
—
Transport and Communications. Roads (June 1951): 518.210 mi. Licensed motor vehicles (June 30, 1952): cars 1,032,358; commercial vehicles 583,247. Government railways (1951-52): 26,847 mi.; passenger journeys 500,350.000; goods carried 44,800.000 tons; train miles run 93,400,000. Shipping: merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over (July 1952) iSS\ total tonnage 559,442. Air transport (1952): i.ntcrnal and overseas miles flown 49.300,000; passenger-niilcs 923.600,000; freight, including mail, net ton-miles 39,400,000. Telephones (1952): 1,259,212. Radio receiving set licenses (June 1953): 1,985,655. Agriculture. ;\Iain crops (metric tons, 1952): wheat 5.252,000; oats 626,000; barley 490.000; maize 76,000; sugar (raw value) 967,000; potatoes 460.000. Livestock (Oct. 1951-Sept. 1952): sheep 117.647,000: cattle 14,895,000; pigs 1,022.000: horses 935,000. Wool production (clean basis. 1952) 298.000 metric tons. Milk production (1952'): 5,400.000 metric tons. Food production (metric tons, 1952): butter 151,200; cheese 45,600; meat 1.047.600, including beef and veal 614,400. Industry. Manufacturing establishments (1950-51) 43.147; persons employed (including working proprietors) 969.093. Fuel and power (1952): coal 19.752.000 metric tons; lignite 8,244,000 metric Ions; manufactured gas 1.13S.S00.000 cu.m.; electricity 11.304.000.000 kw.hr. Raw materials (metric tons. 1952): refined copper 19.200; refined lead 200.400: zinc SS.Soo: pig iron 1.440.000; steel ingots 1.548.000; gold (1952) 978,000 fine ounces. Manufactured goods (metric tons. 1952): wool yarn 16,800; cement 1,357,200. New dwelling units completed (1952) 78,780; (1951) 71,592.
—
—
April
Raab
Julius
2)
{q.v.).
The Austrian government had
jurisdiction throughout Austria, with certain limitations regard-
ing matters control over which
was reserved
to quadripartite
By Dec.
decision in the Allied Council for Austria.
31, 1953.
members of the A.C.A. were: France, Jean Payart; United Kingdom, Sir Harold Caccia; United States, Llewellyn E. Thompson, Jr.; U.S.S.R.. Lieut. Gen. V. P. Sviridov and (from June
7)
Ivan
History.
Ilyichev.
I.
—The
third general election since
held on Feb. 22. In contrast to the of the
same year the
None
of
emerged
issues
was
II
Italian elections
were purely domestic and economic.
powers
occupying
the
World War
German and interfered.
The
Socialists
as the largest single party in votes but not in seats.
They made
noticeable gains in rural areas, particularly in the
Russian-occupied province
Independante
in
of
Lower
Austria.
Losses
the
of
such traditionally pan-German areas as Salz-
burg and Styria showed a decline of nazi sentiment and a consolidation
of conservative opinion in the
People's
(Christian
Democratic) party. The Communists, who campaigned together with two small left groups under the name of People's Opposition,
lost a
seat in
the Russian-occupied zone of Vienna. In
general the two-party system was strengthened; but since the
parliamentary lead of the People's party was reduced to 74 (as 73 Socialists) the problem became one of finding a
against
method whereby the two
hostile partners could be induced to
continue to serve in a coahtion.
more than 195,000
The
Socialists,
having gained
votes, expected increased participation in
the government, while the People's party
wanted either
member
to intro-
or to form
bounded AllCtrid niloUKi. north by Germany and Czechoslovakia, east by Hungary, south by Yugoslavia and Italy and west by Switzer-
with them an exclusively bourgeois government. Chancellor Figl
land. Area: 32,375 sq.mi. Pop.: (1939 census) 6,652,720; (1951
viewpoints. Indeed,
'^
republic of. central Europe, Austria
is
duce the Independante as a third coalition
was unable
to discover
common ground between
among
the
more
intransigent
such opposed
members
of
75
AUTOBIOGRAPHY — AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
76
was considered too unoilhodux
party, he
liis
to be trusted
to
preside over another "red-black" coalition. After six weeks of
Raab was
negotiations
at last able to
form
government. Raab
a
represented the business section of the People's party, while Figl
the
was the spokesman of the peasants. With the exception of new chancellor and two new Socialist undersecretaries the
new government remained unchanged. Co-operation of the two coalition parties was easier than had
been expected. This was a result partly of an improvement the economic situation, partly of the discovery of a interest
of peasants
and town workers
subsidized agriculture.
In the dispute
market economy the peasants were
in
for
to be
in
common
the continuance of
and against a free found on the side of
the Socialists ranged against their political allies in the People's party. This c'.
was an
new departure,
interesting
as the proletarians
peasants conflict had always been taken as a main feature of
the Austrian social scene.
Measures were taken to ease the deflationary trend in the economy. The bank rate was reduced from 6% to 4% and on April 30 the National bank announced a devaluation of the currency by about 20% (from the old rate of 21.36 schillings to U.S. $1, applying to the commercial rate only and not to the tourist rate). During the summer months exports reached their highest level since World War II and there was every hope that, despite a decline in U.S. aid. the gap in the balance of payments would be bridged by the income from tourist traffic. The Austrian balance at the European Payments union rose from $3,700.000
May
in
Unemployment
June was 143. 114. an increase of about 24.000 over the same month in the previous year and representing a little more than 4% of the working population. in
By far the most important trade partner was western Germany with Italy and Great Britain following far behind. Trade with eastern Europe continued to stagnate. The growing economic orientation toward western Germany was exemplified by the huge stream of German tourists who for the first time since war debouched on
the
their traditional holiday resorts in the
Austrian Alps.
—
:
—
—
Autobiography: see American Literature; etc. Automobile Accidents: see Accident Prevention.
in Soviet foreign policy
fruits in Austria.
On June
7
bore some of
in line
most
the U.S.S.R. appointed
Ilyichev high commissioner and ambassador in
General Sviridov, thus falling
its
succession to
with the western practice
of having a civilian as representative in the Allied Council for
^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ °^ shortages and restrictions the United States au-
Aiitnmnhilo Inrliiotni
MUlOlllODIIc inOUSUy.
1953 what promised to be one of a record volume of 3,239.569 passenger cars being turned out and a near record of 638,300
tomobile industry enjoyed
The
best years.
its
in
half
first
saw
commercial vehicles. From January through December an esticars rolled off the industry's assem-
mated 6,235,000 passenger bly lines
The new trend remarkable
)
to $18,100,000 in August. Nonetheless, with the
exception of agriculture, there was no marked improvement in total output.
Education. Schools (1951-52); ticinentary and private 4.517. pupils 6:2,603, leachtTS 24,992: secondary 167. pupils 61.634, teachers 3,896; technical and commercial 31, pupils 8,652, teachers 1,266. Teachers' traininK collcKes 35, students 4.030, professors and lecturers 548; universities 4, students 12.939, professors and lecturers 1.825. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: schillinR, with an cxchanRC rale (beginninK May 4, 1953) of 26. oS schillinKs to the U.S. dollar. HudKet (195- est.); revenue 18.669,000.000 schillinRs; expenditure 19,700,000.000 schillinKS. Internal debt (Dec. 1949) 11,826,000,000 schillinjis. Currency circulation (July i9S,5) 9.240,000,000 schillinRs. Bank deposits (June 195,0 10,890,000,000 schillinKS. Foreign Trade. Imports 13,959.000,000 schillings; exports 10,( 195 > 797.000.000 schillings. Main sources of imports (1952): German Federal Republic 22%: U..S. 18%: U.K. 10%; Italy 6%: VuKOslavia 4%. Main destinations of exports: German Federal Republic 20%; Italy 13%: U.K. 7%; .Switzerland 5%. Main exports (1952): iron, steel and manufactures 22%; wood 20';^; machinery and vehicles 13%; pulp, paper and manufactures 10%. Main imports: coal, coke and peat 16%; machinery and vehicles 13%: Krains 16 7, raw cotton and wool s7r Transport and Communications. Roads (1951): 31.567 km. Licensed motor vehicles (Dec. 1951I: cars 59,400, commercial vehicles 49,900. Railways (1951); 6,046 km.: (1952) 4,668.000.000 passenser-km.; freight (1952) 5.904,000,000 ton-km. Telephones (1952): 426,934. Radio recei\ing sets (1951): 1,427,000. Agriculture. --Main crops (metric tons, 1952): wheat 401,000; barley 251.000; oats 340.000: rye 340.000; maize 122,000: potatoes 2,567,000: sugar (raw) 132,000. Livestock (Dec. 1951): cattle 2.280.548; sheep 362.457; pigs (March 195') 2.523,182; horses 283,025: goats 322,816; poultry 6,971 ,694. Industry. Insured persons employed (Aug. 1951): 2.046.000. Fuel and power (1952): coal 190.800 metric tons: lignite 5,160.000 tons; electricity 6.264.000,000 kw.hr.; crude oil (1952 est.) 3.000,000 metric tons. Raw materials (metric tons. 1952); iron ore 2.652.000; pig iron 1,172,400; crude steel 1,057,200: magnesite (1951) 664,000: aluminum 36,700: lead (smelter) 9,360: copper (smelter) 7,480. Manufactured goods (metric tons. 1952): woven cotton fabrics 12,000; cotton yarn 17.400: wool yarn 9.200; rayon staple fibre 30.500; paper (1951) 261.000; cement 1,389,600. BiBLiooR.APHV, M. Gibbon. Austria (London, 1953); R. Schlesinger, Central European Democracy and lis Background (London, 1953); R. Hiscocks, The Rebirth of Austria (London, 1953).
One
—an
of the
44%
over the previous year's output.
in this
production upswing was the gov-
increase of
main factors
ernment's relaxation of controls on
The only major deterrence 000,000
fire
steel,
copper and aluminum.
was the $70,Hydramatic plant in Livonia,
to production in 1953
at General Motors'
Mich. This plant had supplied automatic transmissions to three of G.M.'s lines and to several other auto makers. However,
On June 8 the lifting of Soviet zonal frontier controls was announced. On July 30 the Soviet government agreed to pay its own occupation costs and two weeks later it agreed to the removal of all forms of censorship. Many minor concessions were made during the same period, and the impression
year, the 136,000.000th
gained ground that the Russians were drastically reducing their
left
troops in Austria.
highways. Besides the remarkable civilian output record, the
Austria.
As the United States had begun of
its
low
to
pay the occupation costs now had to fol-
forces in 1947, Great Britain and France
suit.
Great Britain reduced
its
military establishment in
Negotiations for a state treaty remained unsuccessful, the Soviet government denying the right of the United Nations to
and
insisting
ment was made within the factory to join
industry accelerated panies
it
should take an active part
in the negotiation.
In
—
Table
more com-
preparation
for
meet the nation's military needs. In the spring the United Automobile Workers its
I.
— Monfbly
five-year contract with
Production of U.S. Vehicles 1952
January February
March April
'
May' June
'
July
Sept. 23 the shortened draft as unlikely to lead to a conclusion
September
(V. T. E.)
in
the auto builders. According to the terms of the original agree-
reply to a Soviet note the Austrian government rejected on
of the treaty.
rate of defense output as
of America requested a reopening of
in 1952.
agreed that
its
a short time. During the production motor vehicle in the industry's hjstory the more than 50.000.000 still on the
completed their tooling programs
on unconditional withdrawal of the short-
But there was one interesting change: for the first time Austria was not merely object of the discussions, for the Austrian government was ofificially consulted and all parties
and by extending the use
large-scale production to
ened draft treaty which had been introduced by the western
powers
facilities
of torque converter transmissions to the affected cars, an adjust-
Employment.
Austria to the token force of one battalion.
interfere
through expanding existing
August Total, nine months
375,410 435,216 482,973 529,585 503,917 518,7)0 211,782 270,982 551,559 3,879,734
Source: Automobile Manufacturers Association.
1953
565,172 583,001 700,685 723,532 643,487 661,992 705,132 615,386 567,700 5,766,087
%Gain
52% 34% 45% 37% 28% 28% 234% 128%
3%
49%
Above,
1954 HUDSON Hornet
left:
Above: 1954
STUDEBAKER
1954
Left:
Below,
left:
Below: 1954
ment, the contract would not be reopened until
May
ever, a change in the bureau of labour statistics
1955.
How-
consumer price
index instigated the renegotiations which resulted in several revisions of the labour contract.
One
of the
most
significant
changes was the incorporation of 19 cents of the existing 24 cents hourly cost-of-living bonus into the workers' basic wage.
Other changes included
a
one cent hourly increase
"improvement factor" and a boost
The completion
in the
in retirement benefits.
market
in the nation's
automotive centres.
in
Many
companies launched extensive recruiting drives in an attempt to fill their growing needs as the marginal labour market disappeared.
—
Materials. For the first time in nearly two years, the automotive industry was able to breathe more easily when considits materials problem. By the end of 1952, steel output had regained most of the ground lost during the midsummer strike, and steel showed promise of being removed from the critical list. Though copper and aluminum were in considerably more ample supply in 1953, the National Production authority
ering
continued to determine their distribution.
The beginning
A
Belvedere
became even brighter with
a lagging Euro-
considerable improvement in
the
aluminum supply was
1953. However, a stepped-up governmental stock-
program denied civilian production a large portion of the aluminum industry's expanded output. Nevertheless, appreciably greater quantities of aluminum found their way into the automotive industry. Several plans were made for using the extra stock of this light metal. The Aluminum association announced in March that one truck manufacturer had been using aluminum in radiator top and bottom tanks as well as in side columns in the form of castings. Also, the possibilities of producing die-cast aluminum six-cylinder engine blocks were piling
explored.
Progress was bodies
body
when
made
in the use of
shell, doors, air ducts,
made
new materials
for automobile
a British firm built an all-magnesium body.
The
gas tank and radiator grille were
magnesium. While this type of body it was interesting to note that the complete body shell, with doors, weighed only 140 lb.
all
of welded sheet
government stock-piling objectives. Many hopes were pinned on the possible lower ammunition demands from Korea and the
One company
By May
PLYMOUTH
Patrician
replenish the domestic supply.
was
possible substitution of steel for copper in shell cases.
PACKARD
As much as 5,000 to 10,000 tons of copper month were expected from these two sources to help
1953 saw the copper shortage loosening slightly, even though the supply was not adequate in terms of of
Conestoga station wagon
the Belgian Congo.
per
realized in
of several defense tooling programs coupled
1954
Riviera
pean demand on the U.S. supply. Also encouraging were the quantities of copper coming into the U.S. from Rhodesia and
annual
with considerably sped-up civilian production rates resulted a tight labour
the copper picture
BUICK Super
still
in the
experimental stage,
started turning out an
all
plastic-fibreglass sport
car body, although fabrication problems limited extensive
mass
production.
77
—
AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
78 Table
II.
— U.S.
Motor Vehicle Production, 1945-53
19*5 1946 1947
;;:;::::;::
j;;^ i?5o 1951
,952 1953-
'.'.'.'.
'.
'.
'.
'.
;
w«:"Au.omobn.
a coniprcssion ratlo of 7.5
Total
725,215
655,683 940,866
69,532 2,148,699 3,558,178
1,239,443
3,089,565 4,797,621
IT^lill
If^tZt
Ifslitt
6,665,863 5,338,435 4,320,794
1,337,193 1,426,828 1,218,165 '942,127
8,003,056 6,765,263 5,538,959 5>65,'987
4,'823,'86o
'.
'.
powered by a loo-h.p. engine, had and cnibodied many of the styling featurcs Ul 't,aiuics of the Uie bieccr Ulg^cr tdfS cars Ol of its line US UnC. An cver-swelling rural and suburban population was held re-
Thi.s si.x-passciigcr car vvas
Commercioi vehicles
Passt-nger cars
Yrtjr
sponsible for the increasing popularity of the station wagon.
Though
this type of car had been built for 30 years, the pro,• .• ,• ^ . duttion voiume ofr Station wagons never rose lbeyondj a fraction pe 31 long-range intercontinental bomber was under development. Six turbine-driven propeller engines, probably a development of the German BMW-028 enIt
were said to furnish the power. Its range and other performance capabilities were thought to be similar to those of the
Few new
data came to light on Soviet aircraft engine develop-
ment. Judging from the reported performance of the Soviet aircraft and the examination of the few actual pieces of equipment
come into U.X. possession, it was evident that designwere keeping abreast of developments elsewhere. Altogether, although statistical evidence was lacking. Soviet
fered an unfortunate accident in the 1952 display,
the picture. It
must be considered
aviation in 1953
and productive staff of the
as incorporating technical
capabilities of a high order.
The
vice-chief of
U.S. air force, Gen. T. D. White, said late in the
year that the Soviet bomber of the United States,
was comparable in size to that and that Soviet aircraft compared favourtleet
ably with those of the U.S. strategic air command.
The
biggest question facing U.S. military experts concerned
atomic and hydrogen bombs.
It seemed clear that the Soviet Union had made experimental explosions of both the fissionable and thermonuclear types. Whether they had designed a practical weapon of either type was still unknown. It must be concluded also that they had the ability to deliver such bombs by air against targets on the North American continent. It was as-
sumed that Soviet bombardment aviation possessed a sufficient number of heavy bombers to mount a series of one-way attacks against U.S. industrial targets.
Greaf
Bri+ain
and the Commonwealth.
—The
British un-
and naval aircraft in the annual Farndisplay and exhibition in mid-Sept. 1953. Al-
veiled their latest military
borough
flying
though nothing radically new appeared, sound and steady advance was
in
evidence in
all
phases of the air rearmament pro-
gram.
The trend toward
the delta wing configuration in British dewas pointed up by the final fly-by of two delta Avro Vulcan bombers escorted by four single-seat delta research aircraft and delta trainers. The Vulcan had appeared briefly in the air over Farnborough in 1952, but this was the first time observers had the opportunity to witness both the high- and low-speed capasign
bilities
The
of these aircraft at close range. British were also carrying the concept of delta wings
into the long-range
bomber
field.
Few
specifications
were
re-
Avro Vulcan bomber. Its wing span was about 100 and the experimental model was powered with four Arm-
leased on the ft.,
strong Siddeley Sapphire engines.
01\mpus engine was
to be used,
The
it
Blackburn
&
General Aircraft Ltd. exhibited
a
a practically vertical
ratios
being
such
at
that
Farnthey
climb from take-off.
The Fairey Gannet carrier-borne anti-submarine aeroplane arm was in production. It was powered by
double
Mamba
was reported
turboprop engine.
to be in the
The Gloster Meteor, an
It
for the
carried three people and
300 m.p.h. category. old service type, turned
up
in
1953
as a night fighter fitted with a radar nose, auxiliary fuel tanks
and four wing-mounted 22-mm. guns. The Gloster Javelin (which was in service and in quantity production; was modified to pemiit the installation of afterburners on the Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire engines.
Handley Page came up with an experimental bomber of a span more than 100 ft. with an unusual wung configuration. Varying degrees of sweep for the three sections of the wing gave a characteristically crescent shape. The experimental machine was powered with four .Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire engines. The Hawker Hunter was one of the most interesting exhibits of the 1953 show. These swept-wing single-seat fighters, powered with Rolls-Royce Avon (or Armstrong Siddeley Sapphire) of
engines, repeatedly demonstrated their ability to fly through
the speed of sound.
The Supermarine Swift was Great
Britain's other swept-wing
was first exhibited in 1952. but the 1953 model showed improved performance, with Rolls-Royce Avon engines and additional armament. In early Oct. 1953 the Swift raised the world's speed record previously held by the Hunter, but before the month was out a United States pilot flying a Douglas F4D surpassed the speed mark set by both the Hunter production fighter.
It
and the Swift. In 1952 Vickers-Armstrongs Ltd. displayed briefly (and at a distance) an aerodynamically clean heavy bomber, the Valiant. An improved version was on hand in 1953. General specifications were not released, but the machine was greater than 100 ft. in span and was powered with four Rolls-Royce Avon engines. A commercial version (the VC-7), intended for transatlantic servwas projected. The span of this aircraft was said to be 140 ft. It had a reputed all-up weight of 200,000 lb. or more and
ice,
to be powered with Rofls-Royce Conw-ay engines. Generally speaking. British and U.S. engine manufacturers
was
were developing power plants of approximately the same thrust ratings.
It
could be concluded, therefore, that British engines
went into large
the other hand, total production and total flight time of U.S.
production. ver\'
and bulky military cargo such as guns, light tanks, etc. It was equipped with four Bristol Centaurus engines. The machine was designed (i6:-ft. span) four-engined aircraft to carry troops
make
remarkable climb characteristics
weight-'j. -thrust
were running on test beds in the 10,000-1 5.000-lb. thrust range. British engines tended to be a little lighter and to show slightly better fuel consumption than the United States engines. On
larger "two-spool"' Bristol
however, when
their
the fleet air
that had ers
exhibited
engines,
jet
engines vastly exceeded British output and experience, prob-
ably at a ratio of more than 20 to
Few
radically
i.
new developments appeared
in the British
Com-
J
BARRIER, consisting of a "fence" with heavy chains attached to used on U.S. air strips in the far east in 1953. The barrier saved many planes which might otherwise have been lost by faulty tal^e-offs or by landing after being damaged in battle AlrC^'-Fi
it,
had the next most powerful and most modern air force in Europe. The Swedish air force was equipped with all jet interceptor
SAAB- 29 swept-wing
fighters, largely the
monwealth
in
1953.
The Canadian-built Avro CF-ioo
twin-
engined, long-range, all-weather fighter was improved both as
performance and armament. The production model was to be fitted with the Canadian-built Orenda turbojet engine. These machines were coming out of production for service use. The to
production of North American designed Sabrejets was continued
by Canadair
in its
The guided
Montreal plant.
Woomera, Austr., was furMost of the work there was secret, number of British firms who were build-
missile test range at
ther developed during 1953.
but
it
was known that a had sent
ing guided missiles
Woomera
scientific
and
personnel to
test
for testing various types of missiles.
—
Other Countries. Few radically new military aviation developments came out of France during 1953. The Dassault Mystere IV, fitted with the
going
flight
trials at
f rench-built
Atar
jet engine,
the Bretigny test centre.
A
was under-
night fighter
version with radar in the nose and modified engine air intakes
was under development
at
Dassault experimental plant at
St.
Cloud.
An interesting development with future military implications was continuing in the ramjet Leduc. Earlier models were tested by making "pick-a-back" take-offs at altitude from large carrier The O.21, reported under construction
than 600 m.p.h.
A
large
number
type capable of more
of day and night fighter wings
had been organized and implemented. As an indication, more than 700 Swedish air force aircraft took part in a display over Stockholm in June 1953. The number involved and the exact performance in aircraft were not available, because of security reasons. A great deal of attention was given to arctic operating problems and to the development of auxiliary equipment for cold-weather flying. A large portion of Sweden's aircraft manufacturing plants and air force bases were located underground. The SAAB Aircraft company was the principal producer of jet fighters for Sweden. The SAAB-32, a two-place, swept-wing, high-performance day and night fighter, had completed its flying and ground tests and was coming into production. A RollsRoyce Avon turbojet was used in the prototype, but the production versions would probably carry Swedish-built engines with afterburners. The speed was said to be more than 700 m.p.h.
An
experimental twin-engine delta-wing aircraft, the
SAAB-
during 1953. Its appearance forecast the adoption of the delta wing configuration for fighter types by 210,
was
test flown
Swedish designers. Italy
came back somewhat
into the military picture during
1953. Plans for offshore procurement under the
North Atlantic
midsummer
Treaty organization were moving more slowly than had been
had a maximum duct diameter of approximately eight and was designed to take off from the ground assisted by two Turbomeca turbojets. one mounted in each wing tip. The cockpit was in the form of a transparent cone mounted in the front end of the duct. Two 20-mm. cannon would be fitted. It was estimated to be able to climb to more than 30.000 ft. in
hoped, but during the year, in addition to orders for British de Havilland Venom and Ghost engines, the Fiat company under-
aircraft.
in
of 1953, feet
2
min. with a powered
50,000
flight
duration of 15 min. at around
ft.
Apart from the U.S.S.R. and Great Britain, Sweden probably
took to produce the North American F-86G Sabre under licence.
produced a few prototype trainers and reof immediate military significance. The Netherlands was also a source of offshore procurement under NATO, building Gloster Meteor and Hawker Hunter fighters. On their own. the Dutch also were occupied with the Italian constructors
search aircraft but
little
development of two-place
fighter
and propeller
trainers.
87
B
AVOCADOS— ACTERIOLOGY
88 Research.
— In
cal
\ prime
cant development of i95:j-53 was the formation of the Advisory
in
1950 and
Group
winter, led the centre to issue warning of a possible epidemic in the winter of 1952-53. True to prediction, by the end of Jan.
the reahii of aeroiuiutical research, a signifi-
for Aeronautical Research
and Development. This
ganization of aeronautical research scientists
was engaged
tries
in bringing together the
those countries for their facilities of its
member
common
own but
good.
in
the
NATO
or-
coun-
advanced thinking
It
in
operated no research
co-ordinated research efforts of the
it
{See also Armies of
the World;
Aeronautics Administration; War; Munitions.)
Avocados:
see Fruit.
Axores:
Portugal.
see
RoPtorinlnfTU DdUlcriUIUgy.
Aviatio.n. Civil;
Propulsion;
Jet
Civil
Korean
(S. P. J.)
•^'^"^^"^'^
comparative biochemistry has studmetabolism of bacterial cells
ied closely the
sex.
The
life,
however, revealed the
intense study of the nutritional aspects of bacterial lirst
States, Japan,
shown
itself in
South Africa
Liverpool, Eng., the following
Hawaii and the Philippines.
status of vaccines had improved.
As early vaccines did not include sufficient types, protection was chiefly on a chance
The recently improved vaccine containing all the essentypes of virus reduced attacks to about one-fourth of those expected. Protection was of short duration, however, and far basis. tial
the control of this debilitating and ubiquitous disease.
in
combination of
requirements of bacteria were observed to be time with evolutionary changes in synthetic abilities.
one assumed that mutation followed by environmental
se-
The
a high degree of predictability
and an effective vaccine would go far toward preventing an epidemic such as that of the winter of 1952-53 and make improbable a recurrence of the disastrous world-wide epidemic of 1918.
New Weapons
clue to the role of sex in bacteria.
Nutritional
If
first
in
from being as efl'ective as smallpox vaccination. The development of a new vehicle to intensify the degree of immunity and prolong the usefulness might well be a milestone
and observed similarities with other forms of life, most workers have regarded bacteria as unique in having no genes, nuclei or
altered in
an epidemic
in
1953 most of northern Europe had felt the ravages of the A prime subtype as epidemics swept through Europe, the United
The
countries.
which had
strain,
Against Poliomyelitis.
—The year
1952 was
the greatest epidemic year for poliomyelitis in the United States,
but
it
also furnished the opportunity to try to evaluate
weapons
in the light against this crippling disease.
gamma
new
During 1953
was responsible for the evolution of old cultures, one must assume a genetic basis. Proof of this contention was found during the early 1940s in the development by X-irradiation of nutritional mutants in the yeast. Neurospora were used in the study of metabohc pathways for the synthesis and deg-
material tested to prove conclusively to be of value against the
radation of essential nutrients. This established a genetic basis
disease. If given early
for biochemical reactions within the
is
preventive;
a
milder course with rapid recovery and rarely any paralysis
lection
the evaluation of
also
during the height of the epidemic, established several
bacterium Escherichia
cell.
coli yielded similar
Later, cultures of the
mutants.
The next step in the proof of a genetic pattern came with the detection of a mode of inheritance
Gamma
requiring biotin and meth-
strain
protection
is
for a rapid diagnosis of early poliomyelitis, so that
than on a wholesale basis to the virus,
Upon
plating of this mixture, prototrophs were obtained which in the
absence of
all
these factors, indicat-
ing a reshuffling of the respective alleles at the five loci. Other cultures,
more
difficult to
analyze, were found to give varied pat-
many
need was for
of
whom
a vaccine to
immunity
active
gamma
might be administered only where necessary rather
globulin
ionine but able to synthesize threonine, leucine and thiamine
would grow readily
globulin
globulin was in short supply, enough for only one dose, and of short duration. There was a dual need. One
was mixed with
a strain with opposite nutritional requirements.
gamma
gamma
since a pint of blood furnishes
was
A
enough after contact the
first
given in the late incubation stage of the disease
of bacterial
its
supplements.
if
usually results. However,
were developed which required various
facts.
capable of giving passive immunity to pa-
for bacteria
Mutant
nutritional
is
exposed to poliomyelitis virus, thereby becoming the
tients
characters similar to the Mendelian process in higher types. strains of E. coli
globulin
globulin, first used on a large scale
all those who had been exposed to had immunity already. The other
produce
a safe, strong
and long lasting Developments
as vaccination does for smallpox.
1953 produced heartening news w-ith respect to both these problems. It was believed that the adapting of all three strains of in
mean
terns of requirement. Analysis of the recombination products
poliomyelitis virus to mice might
showed that the genes were present in a linear order on one or more chromosomes. The intimate details of mating were under investigation dur-
search
might no longer be necessary, and that improvements in tissue culture methods might soon yield a simple test tube laboratory
ing 1953. Morphological studies were
diagnosis superior, as indicated
in frequency
of mating.
The few
difificult
because of the
investigations reported were
suggestive but uncertain. It was assumed that this process in-
volves a cell-to-cell contact, and presumptively copulation or
conjugation with zygote formation.
The
sexual activity of bacteria was only fragmentarily under-
stood; however, geneticists were able to appreciate the remarkable similarity which bacteria
higher forms of 1>-
life.
show
in their genetic patterns to
Indeed, bacteria were becoming increasing-
important in the study of comparative biology of
sex.
—
The Epidemiology of Influenza. As early as 1947 the World Health organization set up the World Influenza centre in London, Eng., and a network of influenza laboratories for the study of strains of the virus isolated throughout the world.
During
1953 the network, consisting of 55 laboratories in 44 countries, plus informally co-operating laboratories, had a chance to demonstrate
its
epidemiological value. Influenza
is
known
to
be
caused by three major virus types and several subgroups.
The
identification in South Africa in
May
1952 of the identi-
technique of
monkey
challenge
by early
that the expensive re-
with
suspected
report, to the
virus
monkey
challenge. a vaccine was rapid, and the report that a strain had been adapted to embryonated egg culture technique by a major laboratory was presumptive evidence that a commercial vaccine might soon be generally available. Tissue culture methods, heretofore used in cancer research but not in virus research, had been developed, and yields of all three strains of virus were approaching commercially usable quantities. Experimental vaccines had proved protective and safe for monkeys and apes. Tests conducted with human volunteers and feeble-
Progress on
of the virus
minded children had
also
proved the value of vaccines.
scale test awaited only a sufficient
Antibiotics
v.
Resistance.
amount
A
full-
of vaccine.
—The usefulness of the commonly
had decreased as the bacteria which were originally susceptible showed an increasing tendency toward resistance to such agents as streptomycin and penicillin. For example, only 17% of all strains of Micrococcus pyogenes used
antibiotics
{Staphylococcus aureus) were resistant to penicillin when tests
—
BADMINTON— BALTIMORE
89 new luxury 300-bed
were made soon after penicillin was commercially available, whereas many laboratories reported as of 1953 that 60% of tested strains were resistant to high concentrations of penicillin.
houses, extensions to existing hotels and a
Similar reports about strains resistant to chlortetracycline (aure-
hotels, golf courses, etc., to
omycin) became more prevalent during the year, and since it had been proved that oxy tetracycline (terramycin) is chemical-
Eleuthera and Andros, and a plan was put forward for a new luxury hotel on the site of the Butlin holiday village on Grand
ly similar to chlortetracycline to the extent that drug resistance
of a bacterial strain to either of these drugs usually
panied by concomitant resistance to the other,
it
is
accom-
could be en-
New
hotel on
sharing in this
The Out
Providence.
boom;
of
6%
(89% from
in the first six
were made
in
of tourists continued to
grow
the United States) and an increase
months
of 1953 over the corresponding
More manufacturers took advantage
visioned that a similar fate was in store for the broad spectrum
figure for the previous year.
antibiotics.
of the
The ability of the scientist to continue to isolate and produce new antibiotics from those prolific organisms the streptomyces
industry expanded further. Nevertheless, the colony was
Encouragement of Industries
unable to absorb
answer to drug-fastness. Streptomyces
number
erythreus yielded erythromycin, and 5. halstedii produced car-
in 1952.
seemed
to be the best
have spectra similar
to that of penicillin
against organisms which have
The
become
and are effective
of antibiotics must be viewed as the inevitable result of the rela-
it
illustrates the natural
its
environment, since
occurrence of protective devices
in na-
Thus mankind will always be faced with the threat of infectious disease and the development of new control factors must therefore be a continuous process. (M. V. N.) ture to prevent the extermination of the species.
DqHmintnn
^^^'^*^
Freeman of Pasadena, CaHf., regained the
DdUillMllUII* United States men's singles badminton championship when he defeated Joseph Alston of Detroit. Mich., 1 5-1 1, 15-6, in the final of the annual tournament held at the
Boston, Mass.,
University club in
Alston shared two cadia, Calif.,
March 31-April
combining with
4,
N.Y., star, continued as queen in the women's ranks, capturing
Judy and Susan
Devlin of Baltimore. Md., won the women's doubles, while
Wayne
Schell of Boston
triumphed
and Robert Wright of Elmhurst, N.Y.,
in the veterans' division.
Judy Devlin added
to her long
list
in the U.S.
one of the best-equipped in the Caribbean. Education. Schools (1952): board of education primary 127 (13,296 pupils); denominational primary 48 (4.230 pupils); secondary 6 (981 pupils). Finance and Trade. ^Monetary unit: pound sterling: U.S. and Canadian dollars generally accepted. Budget (1952 actual): revenue £2,397,097; expenditure £2,414,256, Imports (1952) £8,823,786; exports £926,275, Main exports: lumber, crawfish, salt, tomatoes (.canned and fresh). (Jo. \. Hn,)
—
Bahrein:
see Arabia.
Balance of Payments:
see Excha.xge Control and Exchange Rates; Lnternatioxal Trade, Balearic Islands: see Spain. Balkan States: see Albania; Bulgaria; Greece; Rumania; Turkey; Yugoslavia. Ballet: see Dance: Ballet. Baltic States: see Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania.
1953.
Lois Alston to win the mixed doubles. Ethel Marshall. Buffalo, the singles for the seventh consecutive season.
still
labouring population, and an average
Bahamian workers were employed
of 3,500
Wynn
Rogers of Arto retain the senior doubles crown and pairing with titles,
and the canning
—
penicillin-resistant.
increase in resistant forms as a consequence of the use
tionship between the micro-organism and
its
legislation,
During the year the governor opened the new general hospital,
bomycin. These antibiotics are closely related chemically to each other,
all
new
develop the tourist attractions of
Bahama. Meanwhile the number 84,718 in 1952
Islands showed signs of
large-scale investments
of conquests later in April
Baltimore
is
Maryland and had
the metropolis of
Baltimore.
an estimated population of 956,500 in Sept, 1952. The land area of the city is 78.72 sq.mi.; the water area, 13.21
Mayor in 1953: Thomas D'Alesandro, Jr., Democrat. Budget appropriations for 1953 were $174,530,115.63; for 1952, $166,657,113.38. The city tax rate for 1953 was $2.82 per $100 of assessed valuation, and the rate for 1952 was $2.74. The taxable basis for 1953 was $2,712,022,681, and for 1952 it was $2,600,466,616. The gross funded debt as of June 30, 1953, was sq.mi.
San Antonio, Tex. She annexed the girls' singles for the fifth straight time; paired with Linda Cobb of Weston, Mass., to take the doubles final; and teamed with Don Davis of Seattle. Wash., for mixed doubles
$250,093,700; the sinking funds amounted to $37,468,087, leaving a net debt on that date of $212,625,613, not including ac-
honours. Davis shared in two other championships, capturing
1953-
in the national junior title
tourney
at
Dean Maurry of Manhattan Beach, Calif., as his partner. The all-England championship meeting drew a field of world stars, the men's singles prize being carried off by E. B. Choong
crued income. The percentage of net debt to the taxable basis (excluding self-supporting indebtedness) was 5,12% for the year
The
the boys' singles and the boys' doubles with
who also won in the men's doubles with a brother, Choong. M. Ussing of Denmark triumphed in the women's
net enrolment on Oct, 31, 1952, in the public schools of
the city was 84,944 white students
and 47,422 Negro students;
13,106 white and 5,154 Negro students were en-
in addition,
rolled in adult education classes,
John H, Fischer became super-
Baltimore city schools
The
of Malaya,
intendent
E. L.
public schools of Baltimore are a separate and distinct unit and
Cooley and J. R. White, English team, took the women's doubles title, and Miss White and E. L. Choong were victors in the mixed doubles. (T. V. H.) singles. I. L.
of
the
in
Feb,
1953.
are not under the jurisdiction of the state department of education.
Ranking
as the second United States port in foreign trade
tonnage, the combined volume of exports and imports at the port
amounted to 21,539.600 tons, 3.5% from the all-time high of 22,310,298 tons for previous year. The dechne in foreign trade volume was di-
^^^^ British colony consists of about 20 ISIdllDS. inhabited and 680 uninhabited islands off the Florida coast. Area: 4,404 sq.mi. Pop.: (1943 census) 68,846; (1952 est.) 82,000 (about 83% Negro). Language: Eng-
of Baltimore during the year 1952
Religion: Christian. Capital: Nassau, pop. (1943J 29.391, on New Providence Island. Governor in 1953: Earl of Ran-
try for approximately six
DihoniQ Iclonrlo
Ddlldllld
lish.
furly.
History.
—On
all
sides there
was evidence during 1953 of a and in the continued
belief in the future of the tourist industry
prosperity of the Bahamas.
New
building included banks, guest
a decrease of
the
rectly attributable to the
shutdown of the country's steel indusweeks during the year. This affected products and the importation of iron
normal exports of steel ore, two major shipping items, during the period. The port's foreign commerce in 1952 was valued at $864,800,000, as against $882,300,000 in 1 95 1. Two new port records were established in
1952,
when 4,640 ocean-going
vessels in all
categories
of
BANANAS — BANKING
90
water-borne trade arrived at Baltimore, and 8,407.500 long tons were unloaded there.
oi metallic ores
.Manufacturing activity
the
in
Baltimore metropolitan area
reserve discount rate in January, and the increase in the prime commercial loan rate from 3% to 3^% in April gave emphasis to the general advance in the interest rate structure during the
continued at a very high level throughout 195:. Emplo_\ment in manufacturing was affected .somewhat by the nation-wide steel
first
and averaged 19^,400 for the year. The leading industry groups based upon the volume of employment included primary metal industries, blast furnaces and steelworks, food and kindred
$8,200,000,000, a
products, aircraft, apparel, fabricated metal products, machin-
period, despite uncertainties in the securities
strike
ery,
equipment, shipbuilding and repair, chemicals,
electrical
automobiles,
tin
cans and tinware, beverages, printing and pub-
Total nonagricultural
lishing.
employment
in
the
Baltimore
metropolitan area, exclusive of self-employed, domestic servants
and unpaid family workers,
195: averaged 5j8,ioo. an in-
half of the year.
Total corporate offerings for new
new
money during 1952 came to The volume of publicly
all-time record.
offered issues totalled $1,800,000,000 during the second quarter of 1953, higher than in any quarter in the post-World War II
postponement of several
market and the
offerings. Nevertheless, corporate of-
ferings for the period Jan. through Aug. 1953 were below the corresponding figures for 1952. Most new money financing continued to be for plant and equipment expenditures.
crease of 7,800 workers, or about 2\c, over the generally high
The seasonal increase in commercial and industrial loans at weekly reporting member banks in the second half of 1953 was
level for the preceding year.
less
Bananas:
in
(C. N. E.)
see Fruit.
RsnlfinO' UailMlig>
^^^°'"*^
peacetime demands for funds
States,
the
"honest dollar" program
in the
of
United
the
new
period of 1952. This smaller increase in 1953 served to ease conditions and reflected, in part, a diminished
money market
accumulation of inventories.
The year saw another
administration and some easing of monetary policies beginning
summer were key
early
in
than the previous year. In fact, the increase from the end
of June to the middle of Oct. 1953, $400,000,000. was less than one-third of the increase, $1,270,000,000, in the corresponding
markets during 1953. As a
factors
result the
in
the
money and
capital
year was unusually eventful
as a
result
home mortgage debt new mortgage credit in excess of
large increase in
of extension of
mortgage debt retirement. Savings and loan associations
in-
for banking.
creased their holdings the most, followed by the net additions to
The year 1953 saw sharp fluctuations in interest rates. Large and growing demands for funds resulted in a gradual but gen-
their
eral firming of interest rates until mid-April.
From
then through
June, interest rates advanced sharply. Later in the year rates declined.
The second quarter
of the year saw extremeh' tight money and market conditions. This situation was the result of a combination of factors. These included sustained record demands for funds through corporate bond offerings, state and municipal security flotations, home mortgage demands and rapid expansion of consumer borrowing; a tendency of business borcapital
portfolios by life insurance companies, mutual savings banks and commercial banks. Outstanding mortgage debts se-
cured by one- to four-.glucose-6-phosphate
6-phosphogluconic acid
revealed the main reaction
-2H TPN »
(3-kelo-6-phosphogluconic acid)
-COi ribulose-5-phosphate
oxidized
Co
I;=± I
^LTPP + reduced Co
I
(3)
S^
In addition to it
^ ribose-5-phosphate
These reactions were the first demonstration of the mechanism by which ribose phosphate is synthesized in living tissues. The importance of ribose phosphate can be appreciated when it is realized that this sugar phosphate is an essential component of such coenzymes as coenzymes I and II, coenzyme A and adenosine triphosphate, Ribose also is an integral part of ribose nucleic acid, which is an essential constituent of all living tissues.
its
function in fat and carbohydrate oxidation,
was suggested that
lipoic acid
is
a critical
compound
in the
Lipoic acid occurs in green plants and
photosynthesis process.
there appears to be one lipoic acid molecule per chloroplast
granum (about 500-1,000 molecules acid
ATP
-t-
HS/
of the sub-
sequence: glucose
A
>LTPP
was
This was in sharp contrast to the brilliant and extensive work whidi had been completed over the past few decades on the anaerobic breakdown of glucose to lactic acid. It was now shown that glucose is oxidized directly in animal, cells.
HS^
HS
sequent products.
plant and bacterial
>LTPP+(2)
>LTPP-|-coenzyme A-SH?=i
HS^ acetvl-Co
(I)
HSv
S V
acetvK
Carbohydrates.— Understanding of carbohydrate metabolism was furthered during
LTPP + CO2
HS
'
S/ /
Rinohomictru DlUbllClllloUy.
.,/ /LTPP,— acetvl^
p\Tu\'ate-f
(P. Br,)
city
is
presumably involved
in
of chlorophyll).
Lipoic
the transfer of the electromag-
netic energy of light into chemical energy which the plant can use. a-Lipoic
was found
to
adsorb light
in
the visible range.
the absence of light lipoic acid apparently functions in the
ner just described for carbohydrate oxidation.
quantum
When
In
man-
an im-
adsorbed by the chlorophyll, the electromagnetic energy is presumed to be transferred to the lipoic acid. The energy of one quanta (30-40 kg.cal.) is sufficient to cause the rupture of the di-thio linkage with the formation of a dithyl free radical. This free radical is capable of picking hydro-
pinging light
gen
off suitable
hydrogen donors. The resultant disulphhydryl
compound proceeds within the
cell
is
to
reduce other secondarily reducing agents
leading eventually to the reduction and thus the
fixation of carbon dioxide.
BIOGRAPHY — BIRTH STATISTICS
104
— Several
separation of jiroteins were introduced.
Jawaharlal Xehru, the program which was adopted was provided with a budget of $1,300,000 to carry out family planning serv-
experiments contributed to the understanding of the biological activity of these compounds. Chromatography on columns
addition,
Protein Purification.
new general melluxis for llie The results of these
proved extremely fruitful for the separation and isolation, pure form, of proteins having similar structure and occurring
in
in
government hospitals and public health agencies. In its aim was to make intensive studies in motivation regarding family planning and to carry on field experiments in different methods of fertility control, as well as medical and
ices
in
mixtures which had not yet been separated by other techniques
technical research in this area.
such as electrophoresis and ultracentrifugation. Proteins were chromatographed on columns either by partition between two
lecture tour of the United States, speaking
liquid phases, the
column serving only as
phase, or by making use of adsorption
a support for
phenomena
one
or ion ex-
Late
1953 Lady
in
Rama Rau embarked
on a coast-to-coast on 'Tndia's Social
Revolution." The tour was under the auspices of the Planned
Parenthood federation. The lectures
in
cities,
35
with consider-
change. Paper chromatography also proved useful for the sepa-
able corollar>' publicity in newspapers, magazines and on radio
enzymes and various plant viruses. Electrophoresis on filter paper was also done successCountcrcurrent distribution was another promising fully. method which was developed. By these new methods it was
and
ration of various proteins such as
television,
were expected
broaden greatly American
to
understanding of family planning as related to India's pressing population problems.
found that various proteins hitherto considered extremely pure are actually mixtures. For example, it was shown that a sample of insulin which was homogeneous by criteria of solubility and
Asian concern and growing leadership in the population field were further evidenced by the sponsorship of a Japanese tour for Mrs. Sanger by the Mainichi newspapers of Tokyo. The invitation, which was signed by 3,000 Japanese, brought the
electrophoretic and ultracentrifugal behaviour could be sepa-
birth control pioneer to
rated into two factions of apparently identical amino acid com-
of public meetings, broadcasts
by countercurrent distribution. Similarly a sample of the enzyme ribonuclease which was electrophorctically homogeneous was separated by column partition chromatography into two constituents both of which were enzymatically active. {See
perts, she helped encourage, according to the vice-minister of
position
also Physiology.) Bibliography. F. Dickens, "The Significance of the Direct Pathway for Glucose O.xidation." Brookliaven Symposia in Biology, no. 5. pp. 134161 (1953); L. J. Reed and B. G. DeBusk, "Lipoic .\cid Conjugase." J. Am. Chem. Sac, 74:4727-28 (1952): M. Calvin, '"The Quantum ConEiigin. News, 31:1735-39 (1953). version in Photosynthesis," Chem.
—
&
(L.
M. K.)
Biography: see American Literature; Book Publishing; English Literature; Obituaries; and, in their alphabetical positions, biographies of living persons.
Biology: see Anthropology; Botany; Endocrinology; Genetics; Marine Biology; Physiology; Zoology.
The planning Birth Control.
of
of family size as a basic
alleviating
family
overcrowding and poverty, with their resulting national tensions, gained acceptance in
many
local
means
problems,
welfare
and
inter-
parts of the world
during the latter part of 1952 and in 1953. In+erno+ionol. An outstanding achievement was the estab-
—
hshment of the first global organization, the International Planned Parenthood federation. It was formed at the third International Planned Parenthood conference, held in Bombay, India, in Nov. 1952, the first meeting of its kind to be held in the far
Japan
1952, where, by means and panel discussions with ex-
in Oct.
welfare, "the Japanese Government's campaign to control con-
ception by legal means."
Research.
—The
urgent need to balance the dwindling world
resources and the expanding
human
population focused scientific
and public attention on research efforts to develop a simple, safe and low-cost means of fertility control. Interest during the year 1953 centred about physiological means of control by pills,
teas or inoculations. Reports issued described the use of
animals and human and certain synthesized products were found effective. Fertility control problems not yet fully resolved were toxicity, large-scale production and cost. U.S. Services. The Planned Parenthood Federation of Amerchemical agents for control of
beings.
Certain
naturally
fertility in
occurring
—
was during 1953 the national clearinghouse for 12 state leagues and 120 local committees. Birth control clinics numbered 519. These services were in 274 public health departments, 48 hospitals and 175 clinics sponsored by federation affiliates. There were 22 referral services. The seven states which included birth control in their public health services were Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina and Virginia. The known infertihty clinics were 74, of which 12 were (M. Sr.) under federation affiliates' auspices. ica
Rirth QtotictipC Dlllll
OldlloUbd.
^^^ number
of
States during the
births first
in
the
United
seven months of
1953 was estimated as 2,219,000, and the birth rate on an annual
east.
When
the
fourth
International
ference took place in
agency was formally
Stockholm,
ratified
and
Planned Swed..
officers
Sanger, founder of the birth control
in
Parenthood Aug.
1953,
conthe
were elected. Margaret
movement and honorary
president of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America,
was designated president; Lady Rama Rau, founder and president of the Family Planning Association of India, was elected chairman. The aims of the new international body were set forth: to bring about the universal acceptance of planned par-
and by means of a program devoted to educaservice and research. The federation's membership com-
enthood
in the interests of family welfare, social well-being
was an increase of 1.3% from the rate for the corresponding period of 1952. For the entire year 1952, the number of registered live births was estimated to be 3.824,000, with a birth rate of 24.6 per i.ooo popubasis as 24.2 per 1,000 population. This
When allowance was made for births not registered, the came to 3.889,000, and the birth rate to 25.0 per 1,000. This rate was somewhat below the peak of 26.6 per 1,000 for lation.
total
1947,
but
it
was higher than the rate for the other years
since 1925.
Of the
first
seven months of 1953, only April recorded fewer For the seven-month period as a
international good will
births than the year before.
tion,
whole, the increases in births since the like period of 1952 were concentrated very largely in the west south-central and
prised planned parenthood organizations in Great Britain. India,
Sweden, the Netherlands, the United States, Hong Kong, Singapore and west Germany. Still
another major event was the inclusion of a family plan-
ning program in the Indian government's
first
five-year plan.
Presented to both houses of parhament by Prime
Minister
mountain states. Florida and Missouri also showed appreciable gains. However, the birth record for South Dakota in the first seven months of 1953 was much below that for the same period of 1952. For the rest of the country, the records for the two years were
much
alike.
Among
the larger cities, births in Ne\\i
BISMARCK ARCHIPELAGO— BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE Orleans rose appreciably, but Boston, Chicago and
New York
birth rates for 1950, being based
upon the enumerated
population of a census year, were generally more reliable than
widest diameter of such
For the entire United States
in
1950, the birth rate
was
24.1
per i,OGO population, including an allowance for unregistered
Within the country, there was
level of the birth rates. Highest of all
mountain
prising the
states,
a
wide variation
in the
was the aggregate com-
with a rate of 28.8 per 1,000 popu-
not far behind were the east and west south-central
lation;
and 27.3 respectively. On the other hand, the rate for the middle Atlantic states was only 20.7 per 1. 000 and that for the New England states 21.0. As far as individual states are concerned. New Mexico ranked highest with a rate of 34.5 per 1,000 and Connecticut lowest with 20.2. Births in Canada increased by about 3% from the first seven states, the rates being 27.5
of 1952 to the like period of 1953. With an estimate of 395.000 births for Canada during the entire year 1952. the birth rate per i.ooo population was then 27.4. Provisional records
months
covering the large urban places of England and Wales for the first
births.
months
and 1953 indicated a 1.8% rise in For the country as a whole in 1952, the recorded births
eight
of 1952
totalled 673.559 3rid the birth rate 15.3 per 1,000 population. New- Zealand had, in 1952, a total of 46,469 births in its popu-
field
subtends an angular distance no
greater than 20 degrees."'
The
those based upon estimates of population for noncensus years.
births.
by
British
joint
Empire Society
action
the
of
for the Blind
colonial
British
(founded
National Institute for the Blind, London), with
its
unofficial in
movement
for a
and
Africa, the near
permanent system of blind welfare and the British West Indies.
During the three years, the educational provision for blind children in those territories had more than doubled, and it was expected that eventually the "British Empire Campaign Against Blindness" would cover about 45 territories containing about 80.000.000 persons, of whom i. 000. 000 were blind, millions more had painful and incapacitating eye diseases, and for whom specialized medical and welfare facilities were inadequate. In West Africa (Gold Coast, Cameroons and northern Nigeria), as the
first
of its medical projects, the society
had begun a
three-year sur\'ey of eye diseases and their prevention, including
trachoma and onchocerciasis, the dreaded "river blindness"' spread by the bite of the simulium fly. which in the Gold Coast alone had blinded at least 100,000 persons.
A
Demonstration Centre for the Blind, created through the United Nations, the specialized agencies, the Egyptian government and interested nongovernmental organjoint interest of the
tion, courses of instruction for potential
two countries being 23.7 and 24.6 per
The most recent birth rates available for a number of countries are shown in the accompanying table. {See also Census Data, U.S.; Infant Mortality.) per 1,000 Populafion
Country
in
1952
1951
27.4 54.8 42.2 51.8 43.9 31.2 35.9 48.7 34.5 24.6
27.2 47.6 41.5 52.4 44.2 32.4 37.5 48.8 36.7 24.5
North Americo
Canada Costa Rico Dominican Republic
.
.
Guatemala Mexico
Panama Puerto Rico Salvador, El Trinidad United States
....
South America Argentine
Peru
24.9 33.6 25.9
24.9 32.4 33.4 44.3
14.5
14.8 16.4 17.8 23.0 19.5 15.8
Venezuela
1952
Austria
Belgium
Denmark Finland
France (western)
.
.
Ireland
17.8 23.0 19.2 15.7 21.8
21.1
—National
printing plant,
through the
1953.
facilities
home
of
in opera-
teachers of the
blind were started, and an industrial and vocational expert to be
A
the
was
provided under the auspices of the International Labour
organization. Additional Braille printing plants had been put into
operation, or were being constructed, in Turkey, Israel. Mexico,
Cuba. Korea, Formosa, Malaya, Thailand and Pakistan. Surveys were made of programs and facilities for the blind during the year in Guatemala, Thailand, Egypt. Yugoslavia and
Itoly
17.6 22.4 18.7 24.7 20.8 15.5 17.4 15.7 29.7
18.5 22.3 18.5 24.5 19.9 15.6 17.2 15.8 26.9
,„
o, , 37.3 34.0
enlarged survey was to be conducted in the same area by a
25.0 32.7 25.6
United Nations expert during 1954. Students from a number of overseas areas studied existing
Netherlands
Norwoy Portugal
Spain
Sweden Switzerland United Kingdom Yugoslavia
*"°
...
,
Ceylon
,
39.5 32.0 26.8 31.6 26.0
India Israel
Japan Union of South Africa (European) .
.
.
25.9
25.5
23.3 26.0 24.8 45.4
22.9 25.6 24.4 45.0
Oceanic Australia
New
Zeoland Europeans Maoris
....
the Saar. In addition. United Nations experts submitted recommendations for the improvement of existing services for the
blind in Burma, India and Pakistan. A mission from the American-Korean foundation surveyed conditions among the physically handicapped in Korea during the jear. and a further
methods of education of the blind in the United States; they included fellows from India, Egypt, Mexico. Indonesia, France, Thailand. Japan, Honduras, Costa Rica. Brazil. Italy, Greece, \'enezuela, the United Kingdom, Pakistan. Sweden, New Zealand, Australia and Israel.
The second Conference on Library
Office of Vital Statistics, Monthly Vital Statistics Bulletin and various issues of Vital Statistics Special Reports (issued irregularly) Office of Population Research, Princeton University,
—
;
Princeton, N.J., and the Population Association of America. Population Index (quarterly); United Nations, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics; Metropolitan Life Insurance Companv, Statistical Bulletin (monthly)
(M.
Bismarck Archipelago: see Trust Territories. Bismuth: see Mineral and Metal Production and
Sp.)
the United States
was held
Services for the Blind in
Dec. 1952. under the auspices of the Library of Congress, the first one having been convened in
Nov. 195
1.
in
The 1952 conference discussed
the problems of the
volunteer Braille transcribers and recorders of single-copy materials,
including the training of volunteers in the necessar>- tech-
niques, and the types of materials needed by the blind through
Prices.
this source.
The unprecedented At meetings in Feb. 1953 of Blind, Education of the. the United Nations Technical Working Party for the Phj-sically Handicapped and the Conference of Non-governmental Organizations Interested in the Rehabilitation of the Physically
in Cairo. Egy., in Jan.
installed
1951
Source: United Notions, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, (Sept. 1953).
Bibliography.
Braille
1952
Africa
Europe
was formally opened
izations,
Country
Hong Kong
Chile
Germany
Selected Countries for 1951 and
associated
far east
American Foundation for Overseas Blind, was placed
I.ooo respectively.
1950
organizations, was in the process of establishing an extensive
Zealand experienced higher birth rates than for the like period of 1952, the rates for the
in
and the Royal
oftice
European origin, the birth rate being 24.8 per 1,000. During the same year, there were 201,650 births in Austraha (excluding full-blooded aboriginals; the birth rate was 23.3 per I.ooo). For the first quarter of 1953, both Australia and New lation of
Birfh Rates
105 eye with
less in the better
correcting glasses, or a peripheral field so contracted that the
city fell behind.
The
"Central visual acuity of 20/200 or
Handicapped progress was made
toward the evolution of an internationally acceptable definition of blindness. In the United States, the accepted definition is:
increase during the preceding decade in
work
the establishment of
for the blind in previously under-
developed areas had resulted in
a
constant upward estimate in
the total extent of blindness in those regions.
A
similar
and
unanticipated increase had also appeared in such medically ad-
vanced countries as the United States and Great Britain, particularly in the
number
handicaps and
of children born blind or with severe visual
in the
aged (65 years and older). The increase
BLOOD, DISEASES OF THE
106
it
possible to tide these patients over severe bleeding crises as
well as to conduct
collecting
blood,
it
any needed major surgical procedures. By from the plasma of several units of
the platelets
was possible
to transfuse a large bulk of platelets
all
at once.
Repeated transfusions of
thrombo-
platelets in patients with
cytopenia were found to be increasingly
and it was suspected that antibodies against platelets were being developed. These were actually demonstrated; their further study showed that there were platelet groups and types, as with red less
effective,
cells. The platelet groups were detected by finding in normal persons, never previously transfused or pregnant, the
blood
presence of naturally occurring platelet antibodies.
When
were reacted against large numbers of normal subjects,
these
was them on the basis of groups. Four platelet groups were found, and in addition a number of less welldefined subgroups or types were discriminated. The regular (red it
possible to separate
cell)
blood groups did not correspond with the platelet blood
groups. It was thought possible that
some transfusion
reactions
might be on the basis of platelet group incompatibility, thus pointing to the advisability of finding the appropriate donor for a patient receiving
The
multiple transfusions.
disorder idiopathic thrombocytopenic purpura (ITP) re-
ceived further attention. It was concluded that the acute cases
were probably "allergic." the condition being a hypersensitivity reaction to a chemical, a drug or an infectious agent. Such acute cases were observed following the repeated use of such drugs as
quinidine and chlortrimeton.
In
the
chronic cases antibodies
against platelets were frequently demonstrated, and
MULTIPLE-LENS GLASSES
designed by William Feinbloom (right) in 1953 Persons with as little as vision were able to work, read, watch television when equipped with the new glasses
2%
for use by the nearly blind.
it
was ap-
parent that these antibodies could attack not only platelets a
test
thus
tube but also the patient's auto-antibodies,
own
corresponding
platelets.
to
the
in
These were
auto-antibodies
against red blood cells in certain cases of haemolytic anaemia. in the incidence of congenital blindness
was attributable not only
The treatment
of chronic cases of
ITP was
to the increase in the total of live births but also to the saving
removal of the spleen (splenectomy), but
of the lives of the prematurely born. Similarly, the prolonga-
ful waiting
still
largely that of
in acute cases
watch-
tion of life expectancy
and the judicious use of platelet transfusions and the hormones ACTH and cortisone almost always proved effec-
suffering
tive to control the situation until
had increased the number of persons from the degenerative diseases of old age. including blindness or severe visual defect. Statistics showed that the previously estimated total of 260,000 bhnd persons in the United States had to be revised upward to more than 308,000. A like survey in England and Wales for 1952 showed an increase from 83.464 to 86.389 registered blind persons in that year. Statistics also showed that in children of school age the number of boys
among those with partial vision was appreciably larger than the number of girls. On the other hand, in the older age group of 65 years and older, the number of blind or visually handicapped females was much higher than the number of males so affected. The reason for the larger number of young blind males over females was not known the larger number of aged blind females was probably due. in large
among
the totally blind and
;
became increasingly apparent
(F. E. D.)
DlOOQ, UIS63S6S 01 inc. in
platelet
tlnued sharp interest in
reduction
the
(thrombocytopenia).
By the use of special techniques involving the coating of needles, glassware, tubing and the like with "antiwetting" agents such as silicones or other chemicals, it was possible to prevent the clumping of the normally sticky platelets and thus collect them for transfusion purposes. With the use of plastic bags and all-plastic
equipment,
it
was
also possible to collect fresh blood
and preserve the blood, with the platelets intact, for at least 24 hours. The development of these methods revolutionized the treatment of patients with severe thrombocytopenia and made
Henoch-
Schonlein purpura, disseminated lupus and periarteritis nodosa (so-called collagen disorders) might also be the result of the development of an abnormal antibody or hypersensitivity mechanism. That this was likely was indicated by the natural history of Henoch-Schonlein purpura, which usually developed within
one to three weeks after
a
tonsillar or other streptococcal in-
fection. In periarteritis nodosa, in
which blood vessels through-
out the body were extensively inflamed, a history of repeated penicillin or other
drug administrations was often found, thus was one
indicating the probability that the blood vessel reaction of hypersensitivity. Disseminated lupus
was often found
to be
associated with the presence of multiple antibodies, including cells.
The
them very
seri-
concept that
many
ous, resulted
from the development of immune reactions against chemicals and drugs assumed increasing
bacteria,
blood platelets and
spontaneous cure took place. that such diseases as
one (the "L.E. factor') which acted against white
expectancy of females over males.
part, to the longer life
It
diverse conditions,
some
of
viruses,
importance.
—
Haemoglobin Variations and Disease. Until recently, it had been thought that human haemoglobin was a constant material, always showing the same chemical configuration. Recent studies demonstrated that several different types of haemoglobin were present. The great majority of human beings have normal haemoglobin, but in the newborn and in some patients with severe anaemia a foetal type of haemoglobin was demonstrated, with different electrophoretic and chemical features. Sickle cell
haemoglobin was also sharply distinct, especially electrophoretically. The haemoglobin of persons with sickle cell anaemia (al-
BLUE CROSS — BOBSLEDDING most always Negroes) contained
107
largely sickle cell haemoglobin, whereas the carriers of the sickle cell trait contained both normal and sickle cell haemoglobin in their red cells. Sickle cell anaemia, a serious hereditary disease of the red cells found almost exclusively in Negroes, was also demon-
managed
strated in Greeks, Italians and possibly other groups. Studies of
ment
of acute leukemia in adults
relatively mild examples of sickle
tory,
even with the use of such new chemotherapeutic principles
quite well for periods of one to several years
cases in children were for the most part benefited very greatly by aminopterin (an antagonist of folic acid), especially when this chemical was used in conjunction with ACTH. The treat-
was almost always unsatisfac-
anaemia demonstrated some in which there were mixtures of sickle cell haemoglobin with other types of haemoglobin. These were named C and D
as G.T. 41
varieties.
cell
processes, at least temporarily,
this
was no longer of value
cell
These studies of the haemoglobin abnormalities required the setting up of a new system of nomenclature of the human
that
With
A
normal
F:
foetal
S:
sickle
Others:
etc.
new
letters
There seemed
to be
—
way. There was prothrombin, which in the presence of thromboplastin and calcium became thrombin. This material induced the fibrinogen in the blood to change to fibrin, the substance of the clot. As of 1953. however, the belief was that tively simple
there was (i) a group of reactions centring around the platelets and various plasma factors, culminating in the development of thromboplastin; (2) a group of reactions speeded up by certain accessory factors which induced prothrombin to develop into
thrombin; (3) a rapid "autocatalytic"" or chain reaction at
this
point, which, with the help of other accelerators such as factor
VII or "stable factor." led eventually to the development of fibrin from fibrinogen and thus to the development of the clot. (This "simple" description leaves out the
clot
all
mention of various
dissolving
[fibrinolytic]
system.)
This complexity, though certain positive advances.
it
sible
out
single
to
had
"PTC"
its
disadvantages, also led to
deficiency or "Christmas dis-
ease" was differentiated from haemophilia. Other deficiencies of
plasmatic constituents were found to cause disorders resembling haemophilia. This disease, which had long been
known
as
a
hereditary disorder of clotting in the male, transmitted by the
tors could be
human its
size.
xylol
found.
Not only
and
became something to be examined more closely. Was a hand truly haemophilia, or was it PTC deficiency or perhaps PTA deficiency? What was really haemophilia? Further studies indicated that some cases of supposed haemophilia could be corrected by the use of haemophilic blood, and that transfusions of fresh whole blood might not be so advis-
in
haemophilia and
factor
deficiency.
as serum. For example,
PTC
serum transfusions
(stable factor) deficiency, whole blood deficiency,
Some authors
and fresh plasma
suggested
that
might best be divided into haemophilia A, B, C,
in labile
haemophilia etc.,
or that
haemophilialike diseases could be classified as haemophilioid diseases A. B. C and the like. The complexity of the coagulation problem was further aggravated by the many often stubbornly held theories of various investigators regarding the mechanism of blood clotting and by the use of different names for the same factor. Leukemia; Aplastic Anaemia; Drug Reactions. There
—
was
little
advance
in
exposed
is
appalling in
many
industries, but they are present
as Chloromycetin, anti-epileptic drugs, drugs used for skin dis-
Even cosmetics and and in preserving foods might not be completely without danger. Another growing source of bone marrow injury was the increased use of X-rays, not only eases and even certain "antihistamines." certain chemicals used in baking
for prolonged diagnostic study, but also for the treatment of
chronic skin disease and even for the fitting of shoes. Whatever the causes, aplastic anaemia
knowledge of either the causes or the states. Chronic cases were
treatment of leukemia and associated
was certainly on the
increase.
The
condition was often irreversible; treatment with various medications
was usually completely unsatisfactory and transfusions
were only temporarily helpful. Probably related to aplastic anaemia were certain cases in which only the white cells or the platelets were the affected element of the bone marrow and blood. Agranulocytosis (extreme white cell reduction) and thrombocytopenic purpura (extreme platelet reduction) were often caused by drug reactions, either when the drug was given in excess or when the patient had become sensitized as the result of repeated and intermittent administrations.
With
the possibility
that
some cases
of leukemia
might result from chemical exposure, it was evident that chemicals and drugs played a large part in the development of blood disorders. Thus, as various diseases were conquered with newly
remained few
VII
is
automobile gasolines and exhausts, tars on the streets and high-potency medications including antibiotics such
devised chemicals,
in factor
others no causative fac-
of chemicals to which the
are these found in solvents such as benzol,
toluol used in
case at
some cases
many
The number
being in present-day society
female,
were best
chemicals or drugs to
certain
patient had been exposed, but in
in-
was poswhich the
it
in insecticides,
Coagulation Fac+ors. The known coagulation factors continued to increase. Formerly, blood appeared to clot in a rela-
of
was the
which the productive marrow had apparently been rendered
factors.
able in
of action.
D
no doubt in 1953 that the subject of the varieties of human haemoglobins and the various disorders with which they were associated would become as complex as the Rh system or that of the coagulation
and
mode
rapidly growing problem in the haematologic field
presence of increasing numbers of cases of aplastic anaemia, in
these were simply variants, say of A.
or. if
factors
by one chemical, and when
to attack the disease with another
capable of further activity. In some of these cases
they could be termed A), A2,
inhibitor}'
(myleran) and 6-mercaptopurine. It became evident might be possible to destroy certain malignant white
C
the discovery of other types of haemoglobin,
could be assigned
it
chemical having an entirely different
haemoglobins, as follows: A:
by the
judicious use of combined X-ray and chemical treatment. Acute
in
new ones sprang up. As long as these latter number compared with the very large measure
of beneficial response exerted
by the drugs,
this state of affairs
could be tolerated. However, should the reactions to a given
drug continue to increase, criminate use. (See also
it
was high time
to stop its indis-
Chemotherapy; Cortisone, Hydro-
cortisone AND Corticotropin; Medicine, Military: Physiology.)
—
Bibliography. M. Stefanini and \V. Dameshek, "Collection, Preservaand Transfusion of Platelets." Xnv England J. Mid.. 248:797-802 (^lay 7, 1953): -M. Stefanini and O. Plitman. ".Antigenicity of Platelets and Evidence for Platelet Groups in Humans." /. Clin. Invest., 32:606 (June. 1953): W. Dameshek, ".\cuic Vascular Purpura: An ImmunoVascular Disorder." Blood. 8:382-384 (April 1953): "Statement Concerning a System of Nomenclature for the \arieties of Human Hemoglobin." Blood. 8:386 (.\pril 1953': ^I- Stefanini. 'Mechanism of Blood Coagulation in Normal and Pathologic Conditions," Am. J. Med.. 14:64(^V. Dk.) 86 (Jan. 1953). tion
Blue Cross:
see
Insurance. Arthur Tyler and Edward Seymour of Roch-
Bobsledding.
ester,
N.V.. successfully defended their na-
BOHLEN. CHARLES
108
E.
— BOLIVIA
two-man
title in the Amateur Athletic union championVan Hoevenherg at Lake Placid. N.V.. Feb. 14-15, i()53. The victors rocketed down the one-mile course four times in a total of 5 min. 19.30 sec. The second days competition saw Stan Benham. Lake Placid Olympian, pilot his team of Pat Martin (^Llssena. X.V.). Jim Atkinson (Rome. N.V.) and John Helmer (Lake Placid) to four-man honours. The winners' elapsed time for four heats was 4 min. 53.40 sec. The same
tional
ships on Mt.
teams repeated their victories in the North American meet over the same run on Feb. 23. Tyler and Seymour triumphed in 2 min. 35. 68 sec. for a new course record. In the first heat they were timed in 1 min. iS.oi sec. beating by twenty one-hundredths of a second the old mark set by Benham in 1951. and
they bettered their
were caught
in
i
new clocking
min. 17.67 sec.
and Martin, brakesman,
the
to
in the
second heat when they
Benham drove
Atkinson, Helmer
four-man laurels
in
min.
2
26.29 sec.
Lloyd Johnson of Rapid City, S.D.. riding with Sgt. Pat Biesiadecki (Ware, Mass.), Capt. Hubert Miller (Saranac Lake.
N.V.) and Lieut. Joseph W. Smith (Cullman, Ala.), piloted the United States No. 2 sled to the world four-man laurels at Garmisch-Partenkirchen. Ger., Feb.
i.
min. 28. 79 sec. Andreas Ostler, straight crown, brought his team 2
sec.
The championship was
fatal accident of Felix
The champions were timed in German ace seeking his third home second in 2 min. 29.13
limited to two heats following the
Endrich of Switzerland, who
lost his life
run on Jan. 31 when his sled spun over the wall at the notorious Bavarian curve about half-way down the 1,650-m. in a test
course. Endrich
man
title
in 5
min. 1.90
and Fritz Stoeckli had annexed the world two-
over the same layout on Jan. 25 when they were timed
DOnlGfl, ChdrlGS lUSIIS .\ug. 30.
(T. V. H.)
sec. for four runs.
was
bom
at Clayton,
NY
,
on
took his bachelor's degree from Harvard university in
ACHACACHI, BOLlVI/5 villages in the six mountain states of the country visited in 1953 oy antityphus teams sponsored by the World Health organization and the Pan American Sanitary bureau. The disease, which formerly caused one death out of every eight cases in Bolivia, was curbed by DDT dusting and instruction to the villagers on the role of body lice as typhus carriers
The
1927 and entered the U.S. foreign service in 1929. His first assignment was as vice-consul at Prague, Czech. (1929-31),
40,128; the actual seat of government
after which he served in like capacity at Paris (1931-34) and
Other major
Moscow (1934). At the soviet capital he acquired a thorough knowledge of the Russian language and of soviet political and economic history; he was advanced to third secretary after a few months there and in 1938 became consul. After acting as
bamba
second secretary at Tokyo
ment
in
1940-41 he returned to the depart-
became in 1943 assistant European affairs. Later, until Jan. 1944. he was first secretary at Moscow, during which time he attended the Moscow conference of Oct. 1943 and the Tehran conference the following month. In 1944 he became chief of the department of state's division of eastern European affairs. In this post Bohlen accompanied Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt to the Yalta conference in Feb. 1945 and acted as interpreter for Roosevelt and Joseph Stalin; he was also interpreter for Pres. Harry S. Truman at the Potsdam conference in July 1945. Following World War II Bohlen acted as adviser or delegate to numerous international conferences and organizations in which the United of state in Washington, where he
chief of the division of
States participated.
Dwight D. Eisenhower's nomination of Bohlen to sucKennan (who had been declared persona non grata in Moscow) as ambassador to the U.S.S.R. on Feb. 23, 1953, was opposed by Sen. Joseph R. McCarthy and others on the ground that Bohlen had been too closely identified with the Roosevelt-Truman foreign policy. He was finally confirmed by Pres.
ceed George F.
the senate on
March
est.): 3.089.000.
(with pop.,
•
is
a landlocked republic in south central
America. Area; 416,040 sq.mi.; pop. (1952
South official
Sucre, pop. (1950 census) is
La
Paz. pop. 321,073.
1950 census) include Cocha-
to be
52.34% Indian, 27.5% mestizo, 13.08% white, 0.22% Negro and 6.85% unspecified. Religion is predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1953: Victor Paz Estenssoro. History. The year 1953 was eventful for Bolivians, with the Paz Estenssoro regime, which had come to power the year before, pushing forward with widespread economic reforms. Concern over foreign attitudes led the government to issue in January a statement denying that the regime was either Communist or Fascist. Two aspects of the governments program were of special significance in 1953: nationalization of the tin mines and agrarian reform. The tin properties had been nationalized on Oct. 31, 1952, and their administration entrusted to the Bolivian Mining corporation, a newly created government agency. By June of the following year, retroactive wage increases and other labour benefits for the tin miners had increased the amount of money in circulation by 36%, and the accompanying inflation was reflected in the fall of the value of the boliviano from 250 to 530 to the U.S. dollar. In April the government opened negotiations with the dispossessed Patiiio and Hochschild mining interests to determine the amount to be paid in compensation for
—
their lost
mining properties.
A
contract to purchase
put of the former Patiiio holdings production of
tin
—one-half
all
the out-
of the country's
—was signed with Williams, Harvey and
Co., Ltd.. of Liverpool;
Bolivia
is
(80,795), Oruro (62,975), Potosi (45,758), Santa Cruz (34,837) and Tarija (16.869). Racial distribution is estimated
total
27.
cities
legal capital
and negotiations with the U.S. for
tin
purchases and compensation of expropriated holdings remained inconclusive at the end of the year.
BOMBS — BOOK-COLLECTING The
agrarian reform program was initiated on Feb.
the president appointed a commission to
draw up
a
when
i,
proposed
measure. Six months later, on Aug. 2, agrarian reform was promulgated with considerable fanfare. The law provided for the expropriation of large landholdings and for the compensation
owners through government bonds redeemable
of the
in
25
years. Bolivian citizens over 18 years of age, regardless of sex,
were permitted by the law to apply for 123-ac. holdings on condi-
work on the land be begun within two years
tion that
of its
of the affected land was located in eastern
Bolivia,
and the government declared that it expected about 2,500.000 Bolivians to acquire land through this law. In a speech on April 14, the first anniversary of his assumption of power, President Paz Estenssoro promised reforms in four additional fields
— education,
election administration,
woman
suffrage
and
the nation's financial structure.
Meanwhile, threats of renewed
political instability
were
re-
during the year by indications of a serious division
flected
within the government party, the Movimiento Nacionalista Rev-
(M.N.R.). Early
olucionario that
it
had foiled
ary, a rift
and
tration)
a
January the regime revealed revolutionary attempt directed by "traitors" in
M.N.R. When the party held its convention in Februwas apparent between the group's right (proadminis-
within the
with government supporters branding
left wings,
Violence broke out
which time
it
among
seemed
the tin miners in mid-March, at
likely that Sen.
Juan Lechin, an
influ-
labour leader, was endeavouring to construct his
personal machine within the
own
Campo
Education.
(G.
at Santiago.
I.
B.)
because genuinely desirable materials of more than
capital, but
had ceased to come into the market in spite of alluringly high prices. War and postwar taxes had forced the sale of some private libraries, certain of which, in no few instances, had been building for generations. Indeed, taxes on real property had risen to such fantastic heights that the owners of some of Great Britain's finest manorial homes razed them as economy measures. Thus it was that the market was frequently glutted with notorious literary rarities. Curiously, the flood of material did not depress the market. Holders of the newer fortunes competed, often feverishly, for the possession of the bibliophilic properties thus
—
—
(1951: $150,800,000); imports were $64,300,000 (1951: $90,400,000). Leading exports in 1952 were tin (59%). tungsten (10%), zinc (9%), lead (8%) and silver (4%). Leading customers in 1951 were the U.S. (66%) and the United Kingdom (32%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (55%). Peru (11%), the United Kingdom (7%) and Chile (3%). Railway lines in operation (1951) totalled 1,491 mi. Several lines were in various stages of construction in 1953. including two from .Argentina and Brazil, respectively, to Santa Cruz in the eastern lowlands. The highway system (1949) comprised an estimated 15,420 mi., of which 4.008 mi. were improved. Motor vehicles in 1950 included 3.727 automobiles, 8,391 trucks and 467 buses. Agriculture. Important crops included wheat, maize, barley, rice, potatoes and cotton. In 1951 there were an estimated 1,800.000 cattle, 4.000,000 sheep, 700,000 goats, 400,000 pigs and 1,800,000 llamas and alpacas. The principal exploited forest products were rubber and cinchona bark. Manufactures.. In 1948 there were 2,305 factories with 25.000 employees. Most important, in terms of value of production, were electricity, textiles and clothing, beverages, foodstuffs and glassware and ceramics. Minerals. Exports in 1952 were reported as follows: tin 32.471 metric tons; zinc 35,619 tons; lead 30,012 tons; wolfram (tungsten) 2,224 tons; copper 4,702 tons; antimony 9,807 tons; silver 7,075,000 fine oz. Production of crude petroleum was 535,000 bbl. (J. W. M\v.)
—
—
—
flood eventually
had to
available.
cease,
market. Certain
of
the
internationally
famous
dealers,
noted
for
the excellence of their catalogues and of the materials offered
The condition
was summarized by the Times (London) Literary Supplement of Aug. 22, 1952, which commented, "there is a real shortage of fine books."
The Parke-Bernet
Galleries
(New York
number
city)
of important
come on the market and in its annual report to pubhc stated that during the season 1952-53 the highest price fetched was a modest $7,700 for an imperfect set of the collections to
the
The year was nevertheless distinguished by a few events of more than passing interest. Internationally famous rare booksellers, Maggs Brothers, Ltd,, London, observed its looth anniversary of continuous operation. The antiquarian trade considered itself saluted when John Carter, antiquarian bookseller, bibliographer and co-author of
Atomic Energy.
An Enquiry
Into the Nature of
Certain Nineteenth Century Pamphlets (1934), the shattering expose of Thomas J. Wise (1859-1937), was "loaned" to the British foreign office to
ambassador
York
at
become personal
Washington, D.C. Edgar
assistant to the British S.
Oppenheimer,
a
New
collector, acquired the noted Bussell collection of English
juvenile books, representing the development of juvenile literature in English
from 1650
to 1850.
The personal and commercial
papers of Grant Richards, London publisher active during the
895-1 930, became the property of the University of and the collection of about 50,000 pieces relating to the arctic assembled by explorer Vilhjalmur period
1
Illinois
hbrary, Urbana;
Stefansson was acquired by Dartmouth college, Hanover, N.H.
A
copy of Adolf Hitler's Mcin Kampj, allegedly the author's
personal copy, was offered at public auction in London, failed to bring the upset price of £4,000 and was returned to
New York virtually
its
consignor.
Whitman Bennett achieved the goal of every American bookman by locating and buying a antiquarian
previously unrecorded copy of Tamerlane (1827), Edgar Allan Poe's
first
book and one of the
rarest of all U.S. publications.
manuscripts of 47 fairy tales written by Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm emerged from the library of an unnamed
The
original
European monastery and were offered
New York
autograph dealer
was not made
Mary
for sale as a collection
h. Benjamin.
The asking
by
price
public, but informed quarters stated that the col-
had been insured for $100,000. Bibliographers, undisturbed by the vagaries of the market,
lection
see
made
and by 1953 a common trade complaint was that nothing of significance was coming into the
The
four folios of Shakespeare.
—
Bolivia in 1950 had 1,500 rural schools with 110,000 pupils and 1,595 elementary schools with 147,060 pupils. There were 104 secondary schools (national and private") with 18,029 pupils and also several training colleges for teachers. There were universities with more than one faculty at Cochabamba, La Paz, Oruro, Potosi and Sucre. Education was scheduled to receive 15% of government expenditures in 1952. In 1951 there were 47 motion-picture theatres (not including those maintained by the tin-mining companies) with estimated seating capacity of 32,300. Finance. The monetary unit is the boliviano, valued on Sept. 30, 1953, at 0.53 cents U.S. currency, official rate, and on Sept. 12, 1953. at 0.13 cents, legal free rate. Effective May 14. 1953, the par value of the boliviano was changed from 60 to 190 bolivianos per U.S. $1 and all former multiple currency practices were eliminated. The 1953 budget was balanced at 6,335.000,000 bolivianos. Central government revenue was reported at 3,752,512,000,000 bolivianos in 1952. The public debt on Aug. 31, 1951, was 12,233,000,000 bolivianos, about half of which represented the foreign debt (including accrued interest). Currency in circulation on Feb. 28, 1953, totalled 6,351,000,000 bolivianos; demand deposits 4,056.000,000 bolivianos: gold reserves of the Central bank $23,300,000; foreign exchange reserves (May 31, 1953) $21,400,000: dollar exchange in U.S. banks (.\ug. 31, 1953) $20,600,000. The cost-of-living index at La Paz stood at 396 in ]\LTy 1953 (1948= 100). Trade and Communications. Exports in 1952 were about $143,000,000
Bombs:
;^,^S„LZ
whose beginning was marked roughly by the outbreak of World War II registered a sharp decline in 1953. The decline was not caused by either lack of desire or want of ready the period
reported that there was a decline in the
M.N.R.
It was announced in September that President Paz Estenssoro would accept an invitation to visit Chilean Pres. Carlos Ibanez
del
Book-Collecting and Book Sales.
therein, all but ceased publication of catalogues.
the latter as Trotskyites.
ential
Bonaire: see Netherlands Antilles. Bonds: see Banking; Stocks and Bonds.
relatively small financial value
acquisition.
Most
109
BOOK PUBLISHING
110
continued to publish their findings. The following bibliophili. publications were issued: T. S. Eliot:
A
Bibliography, by
Don
Gallup; Bibliography of Eric Gill, by Evan R. Gill A Bibliography oj James Joyce, by John J. Slocum and Herbert aid
C.
Cahoon;
Bibliography of Oliver Wendell Holmes, by Thomas and Eleanor M. Tilton; ABC For Book-
.-1
Currier
I'ranklin
by John Carter; Catalogue of the Library of Thomas ii-iii, by E. Millicent Sowerby; Bibliographical Studies of Seven Authors of Crawfordsville, Indiana, by Dorothy R. Russo and Thelma Sullivan; A Bibliography of Canadian Imprints: 1751-1800, by Marie Tremaine; A Bibliography of Selected Early Books and Pamphlets Relating to Australia: 16 10-1880, by Sydney A. Spence. (J. Bk.) Collectors,
5^*??;^Vi^:'
Jefferson, vol.
^^^ number
DnnL Diihliphinfr DOUK rUDMSning.
new books and new
of
editions published in the United States
months between Oct. 1952 and Oct. 1953 totalled upward trend of the past few years. The total for the calendar year 1952 was 11,840 (the all-time high in U.S. book production), compared with 11,255 ir» the year for the
12
ir.948. continuing the
1
95
1.
All indications pointed to a slight rise for the full year of
1953. Fiction titles totalled 1,662 for the
first
nine months of
1953 compared with 1,570 for the same period in 1952. Juveniles rose to 977 for this period in 1953 compared with 810 in 1952. Technical books, which had risen considerably in 1952, tapered
305 in the first nine months of 1953 compared 1952, but books in the field of business rose to 236
off to
with 359 in
by the end of Sept. 1953 against 185 for the same period in 1952. In other categories there were no noticeable decreases, law books showing the greatest drop, 171 in the first nine months of 1953 against 227 in 1952.
Best Sellers.
—The
fiction best-seller
list,
as of Sept.
1953,
was headed by Too Late the Phalarope by Alan Paton, published in August. In Sept. 1953 second place was filled by Desiree by Annemarie Selinko, which had headed the fiction best-seller list for seven months since its publication in February. Third on the list in September was A. J. Cronin's Beyond This Place, followed by Ti7ne aiid Time Again by James Hilton, The Unconquered by Ben Ames WiUiams, Battle Cry by Leon M. Uris, The High and the Mighty by Ernest K. Gann, Come, My Beloved by Pearl S. Buck and The Bridges at Toko-Ri by James Michener, in that order. The Silver Chalice by Thomas B. Costain, fiction leader for 1952, was still on the list in tenth place in Sept. 1953.
In nonfiction The
Power
of Positive Thinking
by Norman
from Jan. through Sept. 1953. In second place for September was Sexual Behavior in the Human Female by Alfred C. Kinsey and others, published on Sept. 9. In the previous eight months the second spot position had been held from March through July by Annapurna by Maurice Hertzog, tenth on the list by September. The Revised Standard Version of the Bible, which had headed the nonfiction list for the year 1952, was in sixth place by Sept. 1953, and \'incent Peale
A Man
was
in first place
Called Peter, by Catherine Marshall, second for the year
1952, was in fourth place. Other nonfiction best sellers in September were A House Is Not a Home by Polly Adler in third place, The Spirit of St. Louis by Charles A. Lindbergh in fifth place, Lelia by Andre Maurois, The Silent World by J.-Y. Cousteau and Frederic Dumas and Angel Unaware by Dale E. Rogers in
seventh to ninth places, respectively.
These records were compiled on
a
percentage basis from the
reports of 52 booksellers in various parts of the United States.
Because of the heavy bookstore sales of a year,
might
it
differ
in the last three
was possible that the final ten top from the September statistics.
months
titles for
1953
i^ccording to the retail trade report of the bureau of the
"AND NOW THE K-BOMB,"
a
1953 cartoon by
NEA
Fischetti of the
Service,
Inc.
made up of one to ten by 7% in the first six months of 1953. The Publishers' Weekly, the trade journal of the industry, commenting on this report, gave other figures to substantiate this upcensus, the sales in retail bookstore firms
outlets increased
ward
trend.
Great
(A.
— Perhaps
J.
Rr.)
most remarkable feature of book publishing in Great Britain in 1953 was the further increase in exports. These rose to nearly £15.000,000 (compared with about £3,000,000 annually before World War II), representing
Britain.
3S^%
the
of total turnover. Allowing for the higher dis-
counts on export business, this probably meant that during
1953 almost every other book was sold abroad. Total turnover also rose in 1953 to £45,000.000, the increase probably resulting
from higher published prices so that fewer volumes were actually sold in 1953 than in 1952. Slightly fewer titles were pubhshed in 1953 than in 1952. Early in the year the demand for paper and print appreciably declined and the prices of these commodities fell. In an attempt to reduce prices, some fiction publishers experimented in the simultaneous publication of paper-covered and standard editions of new fiction to spread the cost of composition over two editions
and so render possible
a reduction of about is. in the price
of the standard edition.
In 1953 further contributions were made to the subject of the of broadcasting on reading. The British Broadcasting
effect
corporation, as part of
its
"Further Education Experiment,"
issued a report of a test to establish whether broadcasting stimulated the reading habit or acted as a substitute for
it.
indicated that in so far as broadcasting had any effect of stimulation.
The it
report
was one
In addition, the United Nations Educational,
and Cultural organization issued a report. Television and Educatioti in the United States (H.M.S.O., London), which indicated that more television meant fewer readers. The report also indicated, however, that hke sound radio, television could Scientific
be used to stimulate a demand for books. In 1953
some
ent. T. S. Eliot
league on
modern poetry was appargave the annual lecture of the National Book
revival of interest in
"The Three Voices
ized the fourth International
The league also organBook Design exhibition at which
of Poetry."
BOOKS — BOTANY no fewer than
1 1
countries were represented.
—
Universal Convention. In the international field. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower commended the Universal Copyright convention to the U.S. senate, and bills were introduced in both the house of representatives and the senate to amend the U.S. copyright law to enable the United States to become a party to the universal convention. (See also American Literature; English Literature; Humour of 1953; etc.) (F. D. Ss.)
Book Publishing; Children's Books; Literary American Literature; English Literature; French Literature; Jewish Literature; etc. Books:
111
school of education, the school committee by a 3-2 vote directed
see
Prizes; see also under
the closing as of Sept.
i
of 17 elementary schools and three high
schools and the consolidation of two district high schools. Pro-
ponents
supported
such
action
changes, decline in school
on
the
basis
of
population
census and ages of the buildings
There were 91,089 pupils enrolled in the public schools 1953 and 44,495 in private schools. The most far-reaching development during the year was the purchase by a realty syndicate of the Boston & Albany railroad yards in the Back Bay. It was contemplated that this 28-ac. tract would be the site of a $75,000,000 development along the closed.
in Sept.
lines of Rockefeller centre in
A
New York
city.
city-wide rehabilitation and conservation program was in-
appointment of 14 neighbourhood committees. and encouraging property owners to improve buildings and structures, it was itiated with the
By
Borgongini Duca, Francesco
iiL'ce Francesfo'carl" Duca. papal nuncio to Italy, was born in Rome Ordained to the priesthood on Dec. 22. 1906. he was
nal Borgongini
on Feb.
26.
from 1907 to 1921 professor of theology at the Urban College of Propaganda in Rome, where he taught thousands of missionary priests of all nationalities. As a member of the faculty of the North American college in Rome, he taught many seminarians from the United States. As a diplomat perhaps his greatest contribution was his labour in the negotiations which finally healed
Church and the Italian govwhich he signed as the Lateran treaty of 1929
the relations between the Catholic
ernment
—
—
secretary of the Vatican's Congregation for Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs.
On June
7,
He
then became the
1929, he was
named
first
titular
papal nuncio to Italy.
archbishop of Eraclea in
Europe and was consecrated by Pietro Cardinal Gasparri on June 29, 1929. He was for many years actively interested in the work of the Knights of Columbus playground in Rome, called the Oratory of St. Peter and located next to the great basiUca. In May 1951 he visited the United States. Pope Pius XII, on Nov. 29, 1952, elevated him to the Sacred College of Cardinals, and following the consistory of Jan. 12, 1953, he was assigned the titular Church of Santa Maria in Vallicella. He received the red biretta from Pres. Luigi Einaudi of Italy. On May 19, 1953, he was named cardinal protector of the Ursuline Nuns of the Roman Union (which includes many branches in the United (T. Ce.)
States and Canada).
planned to check blight and decay in the older residential areas. (C. J. Fx.)
Dnt^nif ^^ DUldllj.
work on
Dnotnn
DUolUlu
see
British Borneo.
801,444 (1950 census) and a land area of 43.9 sq.mi. Boston is located in Suffolk county, which includes the
and the
lative act passed in 1831,
county.
The
city operates
tow^n of Winthrop.
Boston pays under
years.
The
The mayor
all
a strong
Under
cities
a legis-
the expenses of the
mayoral form of gov-
1953 was John B. Hynes. was $70.70, an increase of $3.90 over and was based on an assessed valuation (real in
tax rate for 1953
the previous year,
M.
French summarized recent
S.
transfers of excitation energy between pigments of pho-
ophyll a is the only pigment which accomplishes the primary photochemical reaction of photosynthesis. In the purple bacteria, a
form of bacteriochlorophyll with an absorption maximum A has a similar function. Other pigments transfer excita-
at 8,900
tion energy to chlorophyll a or to bacteriochlorophyll (8.900
with high
efificiency.
A)
Action spectra for fluorescence show com-
plete transfer from chlorophyll b to chlorophyll a in green algae,
from phycobilins to chlorophyll a in red and blue-green algae, and from two forms of bacteriochlorophyll to a third. Transfer is also complete between fucoxanthol and chlorophyll in brown algae, but 40'fc eftective between carotenoids and bacteriochlorophyll in purple bacteria, and 20% effective between carotenoids
and chlorophyll
in red algae.
The photoreactions
diverse
controlling
morphogenetic
re-
sponses of plants were investigated further by H. A. Borthwick, S. B.
Hendricks and M.
\V. Parker.
Germination of
light-sensi-
promoted by the same wave lengths of red Hght (about 6,500 A max.) which inhibit flowertive lettuce seeds
when supplied
was found in the
to be
dark period to short-day plants. Lettuce dormancy by subsequent ex-
posure to infra-red radiation (7,300 A max.). The reversal of the stimulation by red light also occurs thermally in darkness.
With Xanthiiim saccharattim,
a
short-day plant, infra-red radia-
was then found to decrease the dark requirement for flowering and to reverse the inhibition of flowering produced by extion
ernment, with a council of nine members elected at large every
two
Duysens and C.
seed, however, could be returned to
Boston, the capital of Massachusetts and the tenth largest city in the United States, has a population of
of Chelsea and Revere
^953> during a conference on photosynthesis. T.
\v.
tosynthetic organisms. Throughout the algae investigated, chlor-
ing
Borneo:
enforcing health and safety regulations
and personal; of $1,565,666,000, representing a decrease of $7,850,000 from 1952. Budgets of city and county departments totalled $100,447,891.66, an increase of $2,058,937.66 over 1952,
posure to red
light.
The authors
believed that light controls the
amounts of the two forms of pigment (red or infra-red sensitive) and does not merely provide energy for the primary photoreaction. They suggested that this reversible activation of a pigment may be a general phenomenon controlling lightand temperature-sensitive responses in plants and perhaps in relative
animals.
The
role of auxins in
the formation of plant tumours
was
investigated through the effects of auxin antagonists on developing galls. P. E.
Waggoner and
A. E.
Dimond found
that X-irradi-
whereas the school budget of $27,043,530.94 represented a decrease of $1,453,265.74. The net debt of the city was reduced
ation suppressed crown-gall development by affecting growth
approximately $3,000,000, making a
cells.
total reduction of $9,750,000
in the last three years.
in
Latest available statistics indicated 74,872 workers engaged manufacturing in 2.284 establishments producing products
valued at $1,225,650,987. Acting on the resuhs of a survey of the Harvard university
tumour would suppress crown-gall development at concentrations which did not affect growth of the causative bacteria. R. M. Klein and D. T. Klein were unable to obtain crown-gall suppression with maleic hydrazide, but L. G. Xickell reported inhibition of growth of virus tumour tissue of Riimex acetosa by the same agent. R. M. Klein of the host rather than the alteration of normal cells to
They
also reported that maleic h\drazide
BOWLES. CHESTER
112
and G. K. K. Link recognized three periods in crown-gall development of which the tirst, the transformation period, may be di\ided into two phases. The i)reinduction and inception phase involves the action of a tumour-inducing principle and results in the cell acquiring the potentiality for autonomous development but not the capacity for rapid duplication. The promotion and completion phase requires the participation of auxin to bring about the change from an incipient to an active tumour cell. The distinction of phases was based on the temporal interrelations of attenuated crown-gall organisms and supplementary auxin
in
effecting gall
formation. R.
M. Klein reported
that the
tumour-inducing principle was contained
extracts
obtained
in
later
cell-free
from cultures of Phytoinonas tumefaciens
grown on wounded tobacco
grouij of popular ornamental plants.
The Arnold arboretum of Boston, Mass., completed a ground cover demonstration plot containing 150 different ground covers
—the most complete mental area
pool of the host was reported by B.
The Los Angeles
State and County arboretum of Arcadia, announced a planting of 45 different bamboos and 150 species of eucalyptus, making this the most complete collection Calif.,
of this genus in America.
The Queen Elizabeth arboretum ahead with
possibly
may
Commoner, who
also
dem-
Takahashi and M. di'iiinmondi.
This
Ishii
X
be virus precursors.
A
noninfective
by W. N. from infected tobacco, tomato and Phlox
virus
a
precursor,
was
isolated
protein shared antigenic properties with
tobacco mosaic virus regardless of the host species from which the
X
protein was obtained, but normal proteins of the host gave
X
protein or for tobacco mosaic
virus. Infected plants contained a
second abnormal component
no reaction with antisera for the
which was not separable from normal constituents. The signiticance of introgression in phylogeny was emphasized by R. E. Woodson, Jr., who investigated the ranges and attri-
\vhich appeared in electron micrographs as short rods but
butes of tw'o sympatric subspecies of Asclepias tuberosa. Subspecies tenninaUs
is
an ancient form established throughout the
central United States is
and northern Mexico. Subspecies interior
considered to be of more recent origin. It occupies a more
stricted range concentric with that of terminalis
and appears
re-
to
be replacing terminalis by gene transfer rather than through competition.
Woodson
believed that attributes of interior, es-
pecially superior pollen and seed production,
vantage over attributes of terminalis.
To
have
a selective ad-
this invasion
and
re-
placement through hybridization and natural selection, he applied the term "sabinism.""
Other significant contributions of 1953: R. J. Foster, D. H. J. Bonner demonstrated that two-point attachment
McRae and
to a receptor
can account for growth inhibitions by high concen-
trations of auxins; J. R. Singleton completed and extended a detailed study of the cytology of Neiirospora crassa begun by
B.
McChntock;
P.
Kallio evaluated nuclear and cytoplasmic
influences in controlling the
morphology
of desmids.
—
BiBLiOGR.APHY. William Crocker and Leia \'. Barton, Physiology oj Seeds (London, 1953); Katherine Esau. Plant Anatomy (New York, • 953); P. W. Richards. The Tropical Rain Forest (London. 1952): S. A. Waksman, Soil Microbiology (New York. 1952 J: C. W. Wardlaw, Phylogeny and Morp/iogcnesis (London. 1952). (C. W. Hn.)
Arbore+ums and Botanical Gardens. was
— Clarendon
gardens
in
a
Vancouver, B.C., forged
community project of the Columbia in co-operation
the world.
pletion.
Wn.)
was being attached to the native flora of that was being studied intensively in numerous botanical gardens. At the Royal Botanic garders. Kew, Eng.. special atgreat importance
region and
it
was paid during 1953
tention
to the flora of tropical East Africa
was being prepared. In addition at Kew. the national Dianthus collection was extended and the Australasian house was fully planted so that the collection of plants from this region was now one of the most complete in the world. Selected rubber and cocoa plants were grown under quarantine before the distribution of healthy stocks for comof which a complete survey
mercial planting.
Thanks
from Reginald Corry, extensive and developments were made in the University Botanic garden, Cambridge. A new rock garden was being built at the northern side of the lake and nearly four acres of ground was being laid out for research purposes. It was hoped to complete all these projects by the bicentenary of the founding of the to a generous bequest
alterations
garden
in i960.
At the Royal Botanic garden, Edinburgh, Scot., work was continued on the difficult problem of classifying the genus Rhododendron, knowledge of which had been vastly increased by recent explorations in southeastern Asia. Work on Gentiana and Primida also continued and H. R. Fletcher, who was formerly engaged on Primida classification at Edinburgh, continued his in the Royal Horticultural society's gardens at Wisley
work
where also
a
very
fine collection of this
genus had been made. {See
Horticulture; Palaeontology.)
(A. G. L. H.)
^'^°'" ^•^- ^"^^""^ '"^ \tamtr, ^' was born on April 5 m Springfield, Mass. He attended Choate school and Yale university, graduating in 1924, worked for a year on the Springfield Republican and four
Rnu/loc UIIColCI DUWICO, PhpQtor
years in a ship with of Benton
OPA
in
(D.
In view of the probable economic expansion of tropical Africa,
North America, 185 different named species and varieties being grown there. These gardens were the result of the combined interests of Francis W. Howe and Peter Dowd, both of whom contributed much to their com-
first
collections of hollies
was
from downtown Vancouver, the arboretum was to contain eventually a specimen of every tree native to Canada as well as hundreds of specimens from lands around
its
largest
plantings. This
pulp and paper industry of British
opened to the public on Oct. 26, 1952. This small botanical garden, ten years in the making, contained thousands of camellias, azaleas and dogwoods arranged picturesquely about a five-acre lake. There was also one of the of Pinehurst, N.C.,
its
with the Vancouver board of park commissioners. Situated only
onstrated the appearance during virus synthesis of nonvirus,
protein,
at its experi-
a few minutes drive
tissue.
Evidence that the nitrogen of tobacco mosaic virus is derived from free ammonia without passing through the amino acid
soluble proteins which
in America. This was located Weston, Mass.
in
New York advertising firm. In June 1929, in partnerWilHam Benton (g.v.), he started the advertising firm and Bowles,
and
Inc.,
in
1936 he became chairman of
board of directors. In June 1942 he was appointed district director of the Office
of Price Administration for the state of Connecticut. In the fol-
lowing year Pres. Franklin D. Roosevelt
him director of economic all
named him national S. Truman made
administrator. In early 1946 Pres. Harry stabilization with
anti-inflation wage, price
and production
responsibility for
controls.
In Nov. 1946 Bowles was appointed a U.S. delegate to the first conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
The American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums appointed a committee to work through 1953 on a revision
Cultural organization in Paris, and in the early spring of 1947
of the booklet Lilacs for America. First published in 1941, this
for Children.
booklet had been widely used as a standard reference for this
he became international chairman of the United Nations Appeal In Nov. 1948 Bowles was elected governor of Connecticut.
BOWLING — BOXING
113
^^
FIRST OF 43,000 Chicago,
III.,
Feb.
contestants open the
1953 American Bowling congress
in
21
award with a 637, and the Griffs Grill five of Pontiac, Mich., added to the triumphs of stars from the midwest by lead-
singles
During the two years of lation
his administration he introduced legis-
providing for expansion of pubhc education, housing,
welfare and child care programs, labour legislation and reorganization of the state government. in
1950 by
defeated for re-election
Truman appointed Bowles
U.S. ambassador to India
and Nepal
in Sept. 195 1. After the election of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower, Bowles resigned as ambassador and returned to the United States in
1953 with bipartisan recognition of his contribution to
early
improved U.S. -Indian relations. Author of Tomorrow Without Fear, he lectures and writes extensively on both domestic and foreign affairs. (R. R. R. B.)
DniA/linfr
'^^^
golden jubilee tournament of the American
DUWIIIIg. Bowhng congress drew
lers
from 44
prizes, a
new
a record entry of 43,000 keg-
states to Chicago's Coliseum,
where $573,860
high. total for the event, was at stake.
When
in
the
marathon competition that had opened on Feb. 21, 1953, came to a close on May 24, two of the major awards were in possession of Frank Santore of Long Island City, N.Y. Santore put together games of 226, 279 and 244 for a total of 749 to capture the singles crown. A 600 in team play and a doubles count of 645 gave him an over-all total of 1,994 and the all-events championship, which he also had won in 1950. Eddie Koepp and Joe Kissoff of
Marion Ladewig
of
Grand Rapids. Mich., took women's
for the fourth straight time in the national all-star
ships at Chicago in Dec. 1952
narrow margin.
a
President
He was
ing the booster teams with a total of 2,368.
The Pfeifbecome the secfive-man team title twice
Cleveland. 0., tallied 1.339 for doubles laurels.
"bowler of the year."
Don
when she again was chosen woman
Carter of Detroit led the men's divi-
Buzz Fazio and Tony Lindemann, Detroit
sion.
laurels
champion-
pair, success-
defended their national doubles laurels in match play in Nov. 1952. Mrs. Ladewig retained her match play singles title fully
and helped the Fanatorium Majors
of
Grand Rapids annex team
laurels.
Al Rush of Baltimore, Md., rolled 457 to win singles honours National Duck Pin Bowling congress tournament, while
in the
CaroU Hildebrand and Hal Tucker of Baltimore were doubles New Haven, Conn., bowled 1,306 for the all-events crown, and the Broadway Candy & Tobacco Co. of Baltimore won team laurels with 2,031. Gladys Broska of Stamford, Conn., scored 425 for the women's singles prize, and Myrtle Liphard and Elizabeth Berger of Baltimore triumphed in doubles with 752. Gladys Broska also was first in leaders with 841. Charles Kebart of
all-events with
1,153, ^vhile the
Frederick Generator-Franklin
representatives took team honours with 1.749.
and Larkin Weedon of Washington, D.C., won
Marion Hamilton in mixed doubles
with 802.
Bowls:
(T. V. H.)
see
Lawn Bowling.
fer Beer five of Detroit, Mich., scored 3. 181 to
ond team
in A. B.C. history to take the
The
in a
row.
E&
B's in 1952.
Pfeiffers
competed under the banner of the Detroit
At the Woman's International Bowling congress tourney in 8, Doris Knechtges of Detroit won or shared in three titles. She helped the B & B Chevrolet five of Detroit tally 2.931 for the team prize, paired with Jane Grudzien for the winning doubles count of 1,211 and gained all-events laurels with i,S86. Marge Baginski of Berwyn, 111., annexed the
Detroit, April 9-June
Dnvinrr DUAlllg.
Television took a firmer grip on professional boxing in
the
United States during 1953, with the result some of which
that a majority of the small clubs of the country,
had carried on for many years without a break in their weekly The Ring magazine reported
schedule, were forced to shut down. that
51%
of the fight clubs that had operated in 1952 went out
of business because of the inroads
made by
television.
Small organizations that previously had been able to operate
by using ordinary
local talent
found
it
impossible to compete
BOXING
114
with the opposition furnished by four weekly national television
a
boxing shows. This resulted
as the
in
the elimination of the smaller
clubs, the cradles of boxing, and, with their passing, in a
huge
shrinkage of national talent.
Because of
the International Boxing guild, a protective
this,
tormer champion, fought his way back to regain the position
number-one contender.
On March
21 Jimmy Carruthers of Australia defended his bantamweight title by knocking out Vic Toweel, from whom he had won the crown, in ten rounds at Johannesburg, U. of S. Af.
organization for managers and boxers, was organized. Through
On Nov.
major networks carrjing nation-wide television boxing shows agreed to pay each of the main event fighters $4,000 for every network show. This arrangement made up in some degree for the losses sustained by the managers and fighters as a result of poor attendances at shows that were nationally
Gault of the United States
the
efforts,
its
televised.
The attendance
often
below i.ooo
fell
in the nation's
major arenas.
The
Sydney, Austr., he outpointed Henry (Pappy) in a 15-round title bout in which he held the advantage almost all the way. 13, at
Yoshio Shirai of Japan outpointed Tanny Campo of the Philipworld flyweight title on May 18. at Tokyo. On Oct. 27 he again successfully defended his title in a pines in defense of his
15-round bout with Terry Allen of England, a former champion, also in
Tokyo. Previous
was stopped
to this bout, Shirai
in
seven
was attracted by the Rocky Marciano-Roland LaStarza world heavyweight championship bout, held on Sept. 24 at the Polo grounds. New York city, with the receipts amounting to $435,820 and the attendance 44,562. Mar-
world during 1953 (to Oct. 6), five of these deaths, one of a professional boxer and four of amateurs, occurring in the United
ciano, undefeated in 45 professional bouts,
States.
biggest gate of 1953
nth
in the
the
cities,
34
Shown on
round. first
knocked out LaStarza
a closed circuit in 45 theatres in
actual nation-wide theatre telecast of a bout,
from that source. Earlier, Marciano engaged in his first title defense, knocking out Jersey Joe Walcott in one round at Chicago, 111., before a gathering which paid $331,795. It was the eighth one-round knockout in a world heavyweight championship bout. this
fight
May
on
also brought in $125,000
15.
Archie Moore, who had won the world light heavyweight championship from Joey Maxim in Dec. 1952 at St. Louis, Mo., successfully defended his title against Maxim on June 24 at Ogden, Utah, the first title contest ever held in that state. Moore won a 15-round decision, with the receipts amounting to $80,000.
Ray Robinson
After
on Dec.
retired as world middleweight
18, 1952, the title
became vacant and
champion
a series of elimina-
rounds by Leo Espinoza of the Philippines
in a nontitle bout.
There were 19 deaths during boxing contests throughout the
Interest in
number
amateur boxing continued
Gloves, the Chicago team defeated the
bouts to 13,000.
to
though
decline,
a
of large tournaments were held. In the Inter-City Golden
5,
at the
Chicago stadium, March
A European team
New York
squad, 11
26, before a
crowd of
then defeated the U.S. squad. With
the signing of an armistice in Korea there was a stepped-up program of boxing in service installations both in the United States and overseas. The 1953 National Collegiate Athletic association boxing tournament, held at Idaho State college, Pocatello, was won by Idaho State, with the University of Wisconsin (Madison) second and Louisiana State university (Baton Rouge) third.
(N. Fl.)
Great pire
Britain.
— Don
Cockell,
who won
the British and
em-
heavyweight championship by outpointing the holder, John-
meet Rocky Mar-
tions w-as held to find a successor. On June 9. 1953, Randolph Turpin of England, former world champion, defeated Charles
ny Williams,
Humez
the champion, in spite of the fact that he put up a good performance at Seattle, W'ash., in August, when he outpointed Harry
of France at
White City stadium, London,
to qualify as
Ten days later, Carl (Bobo) Hawaii outpointed Paddy Young of New York at Madi-
the European entry in the finals.
Olson of
son Square Garden,
New
York,
in a
15-round fight to enter the
it
in
May, expressed
was doubtful
if
his desire to
he could offer serious opposition to
Matthews.
The World Regulating Championship committee came
into
Madison Square Garden to decide the issue. Olson won a unanimous decision, and thus became world middleweight champion. The bout was televised nationally but was blacked out in the New York area. Kid Gavilan of Cuba, the world welterweight champion and one of the most active titleholders, defended his crown three times. On Feb. 11 he stopped Chuck Davey in ten rounds at the Chicago stadium before a crowd that paid $275,415. Davey, a college graduate whose reputation had grown through his many successful appearances on television, was thoroughly beaten. On Sept. 18, Gavilan won a close 15-round decision from Carmen Basilio of Canastota, N.Y., in Syracuse, N.Y., but had trouble making the weight. Finally, on Nov. 13 he virtually annihilated Johnny Bratton at Chicago, although Bratton managed to go the finals.
full
Turpin and Olson met on Oct. 21
ciano, but
in
15 rounds.
James Carter of New York, long known as a colourless performer, emerged as one of the scintillating fighters of the year in his lightweight title bouts. On April 24 he scored a record number of knockdowns, ten in all, in stopping Tommy Collins in four rounds in the Boston Garden, Boston. On June 12 in Madison Square Garden, coming into the fight as an underdog against highly considered George Araujo, he proceeded to knock Araujo out in the 13th round. Carter engaged in his third successful title
defense of the year on Nov. 11 when he stopped
Savoie of Canada
in the fifth
round
at
Armand
Montreal. It was the
first
Canada in more than 50 years. With featherweight champion Sandy Saddler still in the U.S. army, there was again no title bout in that division. Willie Pep, world championship bout held
in
ROCKY MARCIANO (right), preparing to land a left during the successful defense of his world heavyweight title against Roland LaStarza Sept. 24, 1953
BOY SCOUTS — BRAZIL
115
being, comprised of two representatives from the United States,
one from Europe and one from Great Britain.
Frank Johnson, the British and empire lightweight champion, by default when he came in overweight for his fight against Joe Lucy at the White City. London, on June 9.
lost his titles
Lucy, a 23-year-old "southpaw." subsequently \von the vacant
Tommy McGovern
by outpointing former champion
British title
after a fine fight at Earls Court on Sept. 29.
Wally Thorn, of Birkenhead, made
a
comeback when he
out-
pointed his fellow townsman Peter Fallon over 15 rounds at Liverpool, on Sept. 24. to regain the British welterweight
vacant by the retirement of
left
on March
Curvis cost Great Britain one
22,
when he
field
title
Cliff Curvis. Earlier in the year,
the
title in
European
Lavoine. the French welterweight,
lost to Gilbert
on a disquahfication. This was balanced, however, when Peter
Keenan defeated Maurice Sandeyron, cant bantamweight
title.
On
of France, to win the va-
Oct. 3, at Belfast, Peter
Keenan
lost his title against J. Kelly.
The
Amateur Boxing
British
association circulated clubs under
jurisdiction stressing the importance of "in-fighting" and urg-
its
ing the need for adequate tuition by club instructors in this art, which had been neglected not only by boxers but also by amateur referees as well. (W. B. Dy.)
Boy Scouts:
see Societies
and Associations, U.S. BRAZILIAN VILLAGERS
Dr07ll ^ DIClLll.
federal republic in eastern Brazil
ica,
is
and central South Amer-
the second largest nation in the western
History.
hemisphere. Language: Portuguese. Religion: predominantly Ro-
man
Catholic (39.177.880 according to the 1950 census), with
about 1,500.000 Protestants of various denominations and 500,-
000 Spiritualists. Chief est.
cities:
Rio de Janeiro, the
capital (1951
pop. 2,500,000); Sao Paulo (2,300,000); Recife (550,000);
Salvador (450,000); Porto Alegre (425,000); Belo Horizonte (370,000); Fortaleza (290,000); Belem (270.000).
in
a well for a trickle of
water during
—At the beginning of
nomic and
financial
1953 a number of serious ecoproblems confronted the nation. Inflation
continued to increase at an alarming
rate.
According to
official
data supplied by the minister of finance to the national con-
had increased from 100 in 1939 to 296 1946 and 681 in July 1953. During the first six months of the year cost of living had increased 15%. Excessive buying abroad gress, the index of prices in
debtedness which by the middle of the year included about U.S.
western hemisphere. The population was 52.645.479 (1952 est.) 54,477,000, concentrated mostly
$450,000,000, £250,000,000 and smaller amounts in other cur-
is
census);
(1950
waiting deep the sertao area
second only to that of Can-
Brazil's area of 3,286.170 sq.mi. in the
in
during the previous years had also piled up commercial in-
President (since Jan. 31, 1951): Getulio Vargas.
ada
1953 drought
the
rencies.
The
along a narrow coastal strip.
situation
was further aggravated by
large accumulation
of stocks of cotton, cacao, sisal and other commodities. In order Areo ond Population of Sfafes and
Territories
of Brazil
to assist producers,
by the Insfituto Brasileiro de Geogrofio e Estotistico)
lEslimotes published
Slate or territory
(sq. mi.l
IJan.
(terr.)
Amozonos Rio Bronco (terr.)
Poro
Amopo
,.'
(terr.)
Goopore
(terr.)
57,153 595,474 97,438 470,752 55,489 96,986
Capitol
116,124 530,920 17,623 1,142,846 38,374 37,438
Rio Bronco
M^aus Boo Visto Belem
Macapo Porto Veiho
Northeast
Moronhoo
133,674 94,819
Piaui
Cearo Rio Grande do Norte
57,371
1,600,396 1,064,438 2,735,702
Sao
Luii
Teresino Fortolezo
11,031
983,572 1,730,784 3,430,630 1,106,454
7
648
8,321
650,132 4,900,419 7,839,792 162,062 870,987 2,326,201 2,413,152
... Vitorio NIteroi Rio de Janeiro
9,242,610 2,149,509 1,578,159 4,213,316
Curitibo Florionopolis P6rto Alegre
20,236
Poroibo
21,591
Pernombuco Alagoos Fernando de Noronho
38,315 (terr.)
Natal
Jooo Pessoo Recife
Moceio ...
East
Sergipe Bohio Minos Gerais
204,393 228,469
(Serro dos Aimores)* Espirito
Rio
Sonto
de Janeiro
Distrifo
(stote)
Federal
...
17,688 16,372 451
Arocaju Salvador Belo Horiionte
South
Soo Paulo
95,459
Porona Santo Cotorino
82,741
Rio
Grande do
Sol
31,118 110,150
Soo Poulo
Central- West
Goias
Molo Grosso 'Area
in
of
Brazil
had purchased large
1,
1950)
North
Atre
Bank
vailing in the international markets. This prevented the disposal
Pop.
Area
the
quantities of these commodities at prices higher than those pre-
of such commodities without was unwilling to take.
By
a considerable loss
which the bank
the middle of the year public criticism of the administra-
tions policies reached such a point that the minister of finance,
Horacio Lafer, was compelled to resign. He was replaced by Oswaldo Aranha, a statesman and diplomat well-known abroad, especially in the United States. .\ranha's announced reform program was favourably received both within and without the country. This program included immediate negotiation with foreign creditors for the expeditious liquidation of commercial debts; the use of free exchange market to increase exports; immediate sale of stocks of commodities owned by the Bank of Brazil at best possible prices; guarantees to foreign investors; increase in
power of the cruzeiro; decrease in expenditures pubhc works; and discouragement of too-fast national industrialization. Aranha assured the nation that the government would not issue any more paper currency unless absolutely the purchasing for
necessary.
President Vargas,
in a
move
to conciliate public opinion, also
replaced at about the same time the ministers of labour, trans225,266 485,405
1,234,740 528,451
Goionio
Cuioba
dispute between the states of Minos Gerais and Espirito Sonto.
portation and public works, education and public health, justice,
and foreign
affairs.
Nevertheless, the high cost of living brought
BREAD AND BAKERY PRODUCTS
116 much strikes in the
criticism
to
and resulted
the administration
which broke out
in the capital
serious
in
among dock workers and
Agriculture.
important industrial city of Sao Paulo.
Political activity included jockeying for position in anticipa-
(to be held in
tion of the presidential elections in
October
a
of
the state
meeting took place
Sao Paulo
in
in
a
1955). Early
small interior town in
which the governor of the state
(Lucas Garcez) and several prominent high-ranking army
offi-
(Marshal Eurico Caspar Dutra. former president of the republic; Gen. Canrobert Pereira da Costa, former minister of war; and others) participated. The announced purpose of the meeting was to consider the political situation and possibly cers
agree on a single candidate for the presidency in 1955.
During the year two important congressional
bills
received
wide attention. One, creating a government monopoly of petroleum exploitation, became law by presidential signature on Oct.
3.
A government
be created to finance
corporation,
all oil
known
as Petrobras,
exploitation and development.
ernment tax on gasoline and the
was
A
to
(introduced
in
would be under-
congress by the executive on
Sept. 9) called for the expropriation of fertile lands suitable for
agriculture which owners were not cultivating. These lands were to
among small farmers, payment to the original ownmade by the government at assessed values. It was estimated that of all arable land only 9.5% was under cultivation. be distributed ers to be
Relations with the United States were strengthened by the ratification
in
May, by
the Brazilian senate, of the military
assistance pact between the two nations.
Under
this
agreement
the United States was to supply technical military assistance
and training equipment to Brazil, and the latter was to supply strategic materials needed by the United States. The United States-Brazil joint commission for economic development (installed in July 195 1) came to an end about the middle of the year after approving 41 projects involving an estimated expenditure of U.S. $387,385,000 and Cr$ 14,016.547.000.
Loans already granted by U.S.
U.S. $139,696,000. roads,
harbours,
The
financial institutions totalled
projects included improvements in
fluvial
navigation
facilities
rail-
and automobile (R. d'E.)
roads.
—
In 1951 there were 82,678 primary schools with 146,722 teachers and 5,350.401 pupils; (1949) 1,993 secondary schools with 389,762 students, 2,340 vocational schools with 110,070 students and 846 commercial schools with 83,110 students. There were 11 universities, of which 3 were private (Catholic), 7 state and i federal (University of Brazil at Rio de Janeiro), The rate of illiteracy (.i950 census) among those 10 years or more of age was 51.65%, Finance. The monetary unit is the cruzeiro (Cr$). valued at $0.0531 U.S. currency, official rate, and $0,0222. legal free rate, on Oct. 31, 1953. The 1953 budget as approved by congress called for expenditure of Cr$ 34,005.000,000 and revenue of Cr$ 34,295,000,000, The 1954 draft budget called for expenditure of Cr$ 41,900,300,000 and revenue of Cr$ 41,900,Education.
—
998,000. .Actual government expenditure in 1952 was Cr$ 28.460,700,000; revenue, Cr$ 30,739,600,000. The foreign debt on Dec. 31, 1952, was reported to be the equivalent of Cr$ 4,700,000,000, The internal floating debt on Dec, 31, 1950, was reported at Cr$ 14,849,110,182: internal funded debt (Dec. 31, 1951), Cr$ 10,446,000.000, Currency in circulation (Sept, 30, 1953) amounted to Cr$ 35,870,000,000; demand deposits, Cr$ 79,070,000,000; gold reserves (.Aug. 31, 1953) U.S. $317,000,000; foreign exchange reserves, Bank of Brazil (Aug, 31, 1953) $324,000,000; dollar e.xchange in U.S, banks (Sept. 30. 1953) $164,000,000. The cost of living index (Sao Paulo) stood at 166 in Sept, 1953 (1948=100). Trade, Exports in 1952 totalled Cr$ 26,064,993,000; imports, Cr$ 37,178,619,000, In the first six months of 1953 exports were Cr$ 11,450.000,000 and imports Cr$ 11,710,000,000, Leading exports in 1952 were coffee (74%), cacao (3%), raw cotton (2%), pine wood (2%) and rice (2%); leading imports, machinery and vehicles (42%), petroleum and products (12%), wheat and flour (10%) and iron and steel and manufactures (5%). The leading customers were the U.S. (52%), .Argentina (7%), France (6%), Germany (6%) and Sweden (4%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (42%), Germany (9%), the United Kingdom (9%),
—
France (4%) and Sweden (3%), Communications. Railway mileage (1951) was about 23,000; highways, 38.000; common roads, 124,000. At the end of 1951 there were 262.529 automobiles, 210,244 trucks and 16,144 i)uses. In 1951 Brazilian air lines flew 60,000,000 mi. and carried 2,200,000 passengers.- Navigable rivers
—
—
gov-
taken to raise Cr$ 10,000,000,000 by 1957 for the capital of the new corporation. bill
—
Coffee production in the I9S2-S3 season totalled 19,170,of 132 lb. each; 15,821,000 bags were exported in 1952, Cacao production in 195^-53 was 88. 650 metric tons; 58.250 tons were exported in 1952. I'reliminary estimates for other crops in 1952-53 included cotton (lint) 516,000 metric tons; wheat 586,000 tons; rice (rough) 2,725,000 tons; maize 6.245,000 tons; potatoes 72r.ooo tons; peanuts 152,000 tons; sisal 63,766 tons; manioc 12,809,000 tons. Refined sugar production in 1952-53 (June i-May 31) was 2,044,000 metric tons. Livestock estimates (Dec, 31, 1952) showed 55,853,990 cattle, 7,110,750 horses, 30,915,640 hogs, 16.263,570 sheep and 8,821,810 goats. Rubber production (.1952) was 27,000 metric tons; carnauba wax exports 7,200 tons. Manufactures.- -The 1 950 census of industry listed 89,086 industrial establishments with 1,256,807 workers and production (1949) valued at Cr$ 116.747,264,000, of which the food processing industry accounted for 29%. textile 17%. chemical and drug 8% and metallurgical 7%. Production figures for 1952 included cement 1,574,000 metric tons; pig iron 810,000 tons; raw steel 931,000 tons. The national steel plant at Volta Redonda produced 476,234 metric tons of steel in 1952. AAineral Production. Production in 1952 included coal 1,959,000 metric tons and gold 141.600 fine ounces: iron ore, manganese, tungsten, bauxite and diamonds were also produced in important quantities. In 1952, 885,000 metric tons of coal were imported. (J. W. Mw,)
000 bags
sale of shares of Petrobras to
the states, the municipalities and car owners
The other
total 25,590 mi. .According to Lloyd's Register of Shipping, the merchant marine had 384 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating 797,155 gross tons on June 30, 1952,
Details of the John C.
Bread and Bakery Products.
Baker Do-Maker conwere revealed in reports presented before the 1953 meetings of the American Association of Cereal Chemists and of the Millers National federation. This process, on which commercial tests were initiated in 1953 in selected bakeries in the United States, consists of the continuous mixing of ingredients to make a dough, the extrusion of measured portions of the dough into pans, all with automatic equipment specially designed for the purpose, followed by con-
method
tinuous process
of bread production
ventional pan proofing and baking.
No
ingredients other than
those ordinarily used in bread production are necessary, and
it is
possible to reproduce the characteristics of
any commercial type of bread. Not only does the process save time and labour, eliminate the need for dusting flour and most of the divider oil ordinarily used, but
it
also
makes unnecessary much
of the con-
ventional equipment, such as dough troughs and fermentation
rooms, dividers, moulders, rounders and overhead proofers. The flavour and quality of bread
made experimentally by
the
new
process were claimed to be good.
The
factors which contribute to a desirable flavour in bread
were studied by
who concluded
J.
C. Baker.
that a
H. K. Parker and K. L. Fortman, of volatile substances produced
number
during fermentation and baking are chiefly responsible. They offered
numerous suggestions
retention of these flavours.
for increasing the
They
cess in the merchandising of frozen
products
in the
development and
attributed the commercial suc-
dough and
baked
partially
United States to their superior taste appeal, be-
cause of their consumption shortly after the completion of the in the home. was the dedication in Chicago, 1953, of what was considered to be the world's
baking of these products
An event June
8,
bakery. This
of interest
new bakery
of the National Biscuit
III.,
on
largest
company cov-
ered 12 ac. of ground and had a production capacity of 167,000,-
000 lb. of crackers and cookies per year. Comprehensive production figures and other data on the baking industry in the United States had not been published since the previous report of the census of manufactures for the year 1947, but it was generally believed during 1953 that there had been some decline
in actual
tonnage of bread produced.
In Canada, the production of commercial bread enriched with thiamine, riboflavin, niacin and iron was
new
ruling
which became
—
effective Feb,
2,
made
possible
by a
1953.
Bibliography. William J. Orchard, "The John C. Baker Do-Maker Process," Baking Industry (May 23, 1953); J- C. Baker, H. K. Parker and K. L. Fortman, "Flavor of Bread,'' Cereal Cficniistrv. 30:22-30 (1953); W, C. Bechtel, D, F. Meisner and \V. B, Bradley, "The Effect of the Crust on the Staling of Bread," Ccrca! Chemistry. 30:160-168 (1953); N- Sherry, "White Bread Returns in England," Baking Industry (F- C, Be.) (Sept, 12, 1953).
—
BREWING AND BEER — BRICKER Great
Britain.
—A
World War
early days of
known
degree of freedom not II
since the
was welcomed by bakers and confec-
117
history of the brewing industry. 1,
000,000 man-hours
in
The injury frequency
may
1952
of 20 per
be compared with 35 per
tioners in 1953. Cereals were decontrolled, bringing the white loaf
1,000,000 man-hours in 1948.
back into competition with 81% extraction national bread; sugar was also freed, together with dried fruit, dried hen egg albumen, glucose, home-produced frozen whole egg and shell eggs (provided the trade bought them from wholesalers) and fats, the major product awaiting decontrol, were in greater supply with
The foundation's Armed Forces Liaison program, helping to maintain wholesome conditions surrounding the retail sale of
;
a
minimum
quantity available for
Those interested could
new
entrants to the industry.
also obtain an allocation of
manufactur-
ing meat.
beer at establishments frequented by military personnel, had received
official
recognition of
navy department
of a
tention
to
all
armed
forces with the issuance
directive during 1953, calling officers' at-
the availability of
this
co-operative service by a
civihan agency. Similar recognition had been accorded earlier by
army and
the
air force.
This liaison service was an extension of
Cereals decontrol undoubtedly had the greatest effect on the
the industry's self-regulation program, operated by the founda-
gave bakers a chance to make white bread again free and thus sell part of their bread output outside the subsidy. Unfortunately the difference in price be-
tion and designed to impress upon industry members and the pubhc the importance of strictly observing all laws and regulations and of maintaining high standards of operation in the pub-
tween national and white bread was so great when the latter was produced on Aug. 31 that it soon had an adverse effect on
lic
trade. It
from
price control
all
first
This was unavoidable, because the white bread price to
sales.
the public had to include not only the
amount represented by
interest.
In the industr>' distribution of economic benefits, agriculture
and labour continued
to
draw
their high share.
Brewers paid out
nearly $300,000,000 for farm products, while their 1952 pay
roll
the bread subsidy, but also the one-time flour subsidy paid to
exceeded $360,000,000. The weekly average for brewery pro-
margin, which generally speaking had
duction workers during the calendar year 1952 was $82.20, compared with $67.97 for all manufacturing. A new high was recorded in July 1952 when, according to the department of la-
millers
and a
fair profit
only been obtainable on national bread by firms selling
it
for
(i.e., those with no retail distributive costs). While the reintroduction of white bread was a major revolution by itself, carried out in face of bitter criticism, it was also associated with that part of the report of the Conference on the Post War Loaf which specified that a certain nutritional level should be maintained when low extraction flour was again avail-
resale
The white
able.
of Great Britain, to bring
had
and
iron, vitamin Bi
as well as, of course, including the
in the history
nicotinic acid
81%
to the nutritional standard of
it
time
loaf, therefore, for the first
added
extraction flour
now customary
creta prae-
parata (calcium carbonate) medically recommended. It was the most nutritious white loaf ever offered to the British public. (W. H. E.) {See also Wheat.)
onH Door
Droiiiinn'
DlcWing June
dllD
DCCI.
Beer and States
sales
ale
for
the
in
fiscal
the
United
year
ending
30, 1953, totalled 84,544,253 bbl. (of 31 U.S. gal. each),
the third highest fiscal year on record.
The
largest sales total
was 86,992,795 bbl. in 1948. Although 1953 exceeded 1952 figures by 250,000 bbl., the increase, it was believed, would have been considerably greater but for a 76-day for a fiscal year sales
which closed Milwaukee breweries during May and June. important 1953 developments was the lifting of can quotas at the beginning of the year, removing a major obstacle to higher package beer sales. Since bottled and can beer ac-
strike
Among
75%
counts for
of brewers' national output
—
beer
is
—
a reversal of the
maintained prior to 1934 and about 25% of package sold in cans, the removal of controls for cans was ex-
ratio that
pected to provide greater market opportunities for the brewing industry.
The trend toward
greater
home consumption, which
started
about 1935 with the introduction of improved packaging designs, including the can and no-deposit bottle, was continued during the year.
Many
taverns were supplementing draught beer sales by
merchandising carry-home packs of greater scale than ever before.
promoted by 1953
in
ta\-ern
six
units
or more, on a
The merchandising movement,
associations,
had
its
greatest impetus in
Pennsylvania.
Continued progress in the safety campaign spearheaded by the United States Brewers foundation was another 1953 industry
high
light.
The industry-wide
safety campaign sponsored by the
foundation had spurred regional groups to conduct their own safety drives, with the result that fewer workers were injured
on the job
in
1952 than
in
any previous year
in the
modern
bour, brewery workers' weekly earnings averaged $88.16.
Federal excise taxes, at $9 per barrel, and special taxes on fiscal year 1953 totalled $768,681.000 the highest recorded in a single year. This brought the cumula-
malt beverages for the
tive total since relegahzation of
1933)
sachusetts
.
.... .
.
.
.
.
Charles Erwin Wilson
Oveta Culp Hobby
.
.
.
Sinclair Weeks lames P. Mitchell
.
.
.
.
.
.
New
Jersey
Michigan
Texas
Government Departments and Bureaus, U.S.) Great Britain. On Nov. 4, 1953, the British cabinet was (See also
—
composed
as follows:
Name
Posl I'rimc minister
and
first lord of the treasury Secretary of state for foreign affairs Lord president of the council Lord chancellor Secretary of state for the home department and minister for
Sir
....
Welsh
affairs
.
.
....
David Patrick
Richard .\usten
^L^x\velI Fyfe
lUitler
Woolton
F. C. Crookshank Earl Alexander of Tunis
H.
.... .
Sir
\'iscount
relations
Secretary of state for the colonies Secretary of state for Scotland Minister of labour and national
Winston Leonard Spencer
Churchill Robert .Anthony Eden Maniuess of Sali^bury
Lord Simonds
Chancellor of the exchequer Chancellor of the duchy of Lancaster and minister of materials Lord privy seal Minister of Defense Secretary of state for commonwealth
.
.
\iscount Swinton Oliver Lyttelton
James Gray Stuart Sir \\'alter
Turner Monckton
Minister of housing and local
government
Harold Macmillan
President of the board of trade Minister of agriculture and fisheries Minister of education Minister of food .
it
.
.
Herbert lirowncll, Jr \rtluir E. Sunimerfield
service
analogous to those met by cotton
ficulties
State
John Kosler Dulles
.... ....
to stimulate exports
raw materials. Thus a trade agreement with Brazil early in March provided for the export of 1,500,000 tons of wheat at a price 15% above that of world market levels. A meat export agreement with Great Britain provided for a price inof certain
141
1953
i,
Secretary of state Secretary of the treasury Attorneyecncr.il Postmaster general Secretary of the interior Secretary of agriculture Secretary of commerce Secretary of labour Secretary of defense Secretary of health. education and welfare
tin
In Argentina particular efforts were
on Nov.
Post
The common-
wool. Industry was generally well maintained.
government
office
Cacao:
.
.
Edward
C.eorge
.
.
Sir
P. Thorneycroft
Thomas Dugdale
Florence Horsbrugh
Gwilym Lloyd-Oeorge
see Cocoa.
Cadmium:
see Mineral and Metal Production and Calendar of Events, 1953: see pages 1-16.
Butler,
Richard Austen l:,r-;„™ i' Ait":'"^": 9. He was educated at Marlborough college
northern India, Dec.
and Pembroke college. Cambridge. From 1929 he represented Saffron Walden, Essex, in the house of commons. In 1931 he became parliamentary secretary to the secretary of state for India and Burma and in 1932 went to India as a member of the franchise committee; as undersecretary of state at the India office he was responsible for much of the work on the Government of India act, 1935. He was parliamentary secretary to the ministry of labour, 1937-38. and undersecretary of state at the foreign office. 1938-41. In July 1941 he became president of the board of education. In the caretaker government. June-July 1945. he was minister of labour, and after the Conservative party's defeat in the 1945 election he became chairman of its advisory committee on policy and political education and also of its research department. In Winston Churchill's government of 1 95 1, Butler became chancellor of the exchequer. His first "incentive budget" in 1952 was widely praised, but at the Conservative
party
conference
September
in
"tougher" year for 1953. In June he called for dollar
problem by "trade not aid"
—
a
predicted
he
became an
important feature of his policy. In March 1953 he visited the United States with Anthony Eden for "exploratory" talks with the
new U.S. administration, afterward going on
to
Canada.
He
presided at cabinet meetings during the absence of Sir Winston Churchill and
Anthony Eden
in
Sept.
UdlllUMMd.
1952 and again during
June-Aug. 1953.
Popularly termed the "Golden
state''
the association of gold with
its
California achieved statehood on Sept.
9,
1850.
The most
see
Dairy Products; Vegetable Oils and Animal
second nationally
in both area and population. Its total area 158,693 sq.mi. includes 1,953 sq.mi. of water area. As of July I, 1952, the U.S. bureau of the census estimate of Califor-
nia population
numbered 11,390,000 inhabitants (1950
10,586,223). Chief cities (with 1952 pop.
partment of finance and 1950 pop.
est.
census,
of the state de-
parentheses) were Los
in
Angeles, 2.100.000 (1,970,358); San Francisco, 775,000 (775,357); San Diego, 434.924 (334.387); Oakland. 395-800 (384,575); Long Beach, 253,800 (250,767); Sacramento Cthe state
150,000 (137,572); Berkeley, 114,000 (113,805); Glendale, 111,488 (95.702); Pasadena. 106.035 (104,577); San capital),
Jose, 102,000 (95,280);
Richmond, 100,000 (99.545); Fresno,
99,669 (91,669).
History.
—Three changes were made
in California state offices
during 1953. Lieut. Gov. Goodwin J. Knight was elevated to the governorship when Earl Warren accepted the chief justiceship
and Harold J. Powers, president pro by constitutional provision assumed the lieutenant governorship. Robert Kirkwood replaced Thomas H. Kuchel as controller when the latter was appointed to fill the unexpired United States senatorial term of Vice-Pres. Richard Nixon. Otherwise the state officers remained Frank M. Jordan, the United tempore of the
of
States,
state senate,
("Pat") Brown, attorney general; and
Roy
Edmund
G.
E. Simpson, super-
intendent of public instruction.
Fats.
An
Cabinet Members.
south-
of
secretary of state; Charles G. Johnson, treasurer;
Butter:
because of
early history,
erly Pacific coast state of the United States. California ranks
a
a solution of the
slogan which
rQlifHrnio
Prices.
The following members of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower's cabinet held
additional traffic burden of
operating
in
more than 2,000,000 vehicles World War II, coupled
California since the close of
with rising construction costs, a predicted population increase
—
CALIFORNIA
142
camps
in three forestry
remainder were
(or boys and 1,082 in four schools for boys; the other institutions or prisons.
in
Communications.- Final automobile registrations for 1951 were 4.320,124. while the total number of vehicles aggregated 5,367,514. Estimated expenditures by the state division of highways for reconditioning, resurfacing and construction of highways for 1952- 53 were estimated at $126,524,245, including $21,576,214 in federal aid contributions (195152, $130,236,944 including $21,748,839 in federal assistance). Figures compiled in 1950 indicated 7.518 mi of steam railways and 702 mi. of electric railroads in California. .As of 1951 the state had 530 airfields, including 169 commercial. 162 municipal, 43 military and 156 other airports. .At the >ame time there were 3,984 mi. of federal airways. .As of Jan. I, 1953. iclephone stations within the state totalled 4.341,539. total
Banking and Finance. Total assets of the 117 slate-litenscd savings and loan associations operating in California (as of Dec. 31, 1952) were $971,145,332, while 73 federal savings and loan associations had assets of $1,205,516,396, and total bank debits reached $120,104,026,000. As of June 30, 1953, California's 122 federal reserve member banks had assets of $16,024,779,000. Estimated total state revenues for 1952-53 were $1,149,427,040 (195152, $1,086,344,000), and estimated total expenditures were $1,244,064,000 (1951-52, $1,068,072,000). California's net bonded debt (outstanding .\ov. 30. 1952) was $498,584,534. Per capita income for 1953 was calculated at $2,056 and per capita tax at $93.66, while state tax collections in 1952-53 amounted to $1,094,426,000 (1951-S2. $1,031,944,000). Agriculture. California's gross cash farm incoi.ie exceeded $2,000,000,000 for the seventh successive year during 1952, being $2,728,701,000 (1951, $2,743,344,000). Returns from livestock and poultry products aggregated $1,044,456,000 {1951, $1,067,012,000), and crop returns total
—
Table
I.
— Leading
Agricullural Products of California
1,72 5,000
Cotton, boles
Hay,
5,913,000 47,920,000
tons
Potatoes, bu
Oranges, boxes
13,000,000 52,160,000 11,931,000 4,057,000 12,772,000 3,059,000 696,000 32,961,000 11,750,000 7,770,000 2,578,000 200,000 140,000 86,000 62,000 40,000
Lemons, boxes Barley, bu
Wheat, bu Beans, dry, bogs (100
lb.)
Rice, bogs (100 lb.) Sugar beets, tons
•RAINBOW 'ROUND MY SHOULDER,"
a
1953 cartoon by Yoes
Diego Union
(Calif.)
and greater
travel, resulted in a revision of state
of the
San
Flaxseed, bu. Peaches, bu
.
Peers, bu
Apples, bu
highway plan-
ning to be financed by an added i^ cents per gallon state tax on gasoline and by higher fees for automobile licences and
Average,
Indicated 1953
Crop
Grapes, tons Apricots, tons Prunes, ton Plums, tons Walnuts, tons Almonds, tons
1952
1942-51
1,818,000 5,932,000 41,760,000 45,330,000 1,900,000 53,892,000 13,587,000 4,315,000 1 1,880,000 2,636,000 1,408,000 30,378,000 16,043,000 9,200,000 2,976,000 158,000 135,000 53,000
763,000 5,758,000 37,947,000 46,265,000 12,722,000 45,919,000 10,799,000 4,574,000 7,719,000 2,304,000 2,933,000 31,957,000 13,038,000 8,002,000 2,695,200 201,100 182,600 81,600 63,560 35,880
1
75,600 36,400
Source: U.S. Deportment of Agriculture.
operators" permits. Table W.— Annual Average Employment Manufacturing Industries
Continued migration, with the arrival of an estimated 235,000
newcomers southern
in
1952, swelled population figures, particularly in
California,
while accelerated
illegal
Mexican nationals caused grave concern over
Aircraft
their displacement
of native agricultural labour.
Food and kindred products Machinery (except electricol) ery and transportation equipment). Lumber and wood products (except furni.
semester of 1953. Meanwhile, new construction of classteachers, especially on the elementary
rooms lagged, and lack of level,
forced
The 1953 which were
many
schools into double daily sessions.
new superior Los Angeles area. Growth was
legislature created 29 in the
courts,
iS of
machinery
Apparel and publishing
Printing
Primary metals Stone, glass and cloy products Petroleum products Chemicals and allied products
also reflected
youth authority from three to five members. During the year the state opened its new Deuel Vocational institution at Tracy, and approval was granted for
Table
Mesa. California's unique system of cross-filing was changed to
include the party designation of individual candidates.
During the year the
state
came
into legislative possession of
n short tons,
tidelands
oil
deposits, subject to judicial review.
—
Education. .Average daily attendance for budgetary purposes for 1951— 52 was calculated at 1,382,816 for elementary school districts, at 438,527 for high school districts and at 83.583 for junior college districts.
Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. .As of July 1953 there were 270.822 recipients of old-age security payments, with average monthly aid being $69.31 per person (July 1952, 272,904 at $66.18 per recipient). Aid to the needy blind i:irogram paid 11,330 persons average payments of $85.47. An average of $49.45 was paid for support of 135,848 needy children, while general home relief was provided for 25.154 cases. For the month of .Aug. 1953 the three California-administered social insurance programs compensated 79,779 unemployed or disabled claimants per week in a total amount of $7,895,544 for the month. Total expenditures for the state department of corrections for the year 1952-53 were estimated at $15,038,669. .Adult population of California correctional institutions as of .Aug. 31, 1953, numbered 13.735, including 446 women. Inmates of youth authority institutions totalled 2,448 (as of July 1953), of whom 256 were in two schools for girls, 311 Social
86.52
86,300 137,500 76,800
76,400
82.02
63,900
68,900 67,500 56,100 53,100 46,400 40,800 35,900 35,400
88.75
57,400 53,300 50,150 49,800 46,200 35,800 34,500 33,700
53.66 96.76 84.64 80.40 90.52 80.39
except as noted) 1951
Boron minerals. Cloys
.
.
•
.
.
(bbl.) .... ....
Coke' Copper Gold (oz.)
gravel.
.
.
558,398,000 21,247,000 327,607.000 7,081,000 157,000 868,000 41,894,000 1
Talc Tungsten concentrate
60% WOs ....
Zinc
Other minerals. Total
.
.
.
2,000 3,495,000 52,592,000 ;i, 209,428,000
4,274,000 2,723,000 313,000
Silver (oz.)
Stone
3,000 10,000
16,000 171,000 4,000
lb.)
Salt
Sand and
82,745.000 65.923,000 797.760,000 15,528,000 1,229.000 5.262,000 41.280,000 1,036,000 14,715,000 2,270,000
269,000 14,424,000 2,463,000
Lead
.
66 449,000 566,751,000 21,132,000 65 527,000 707 630,000 354,561,000 8,401,000 14,497,000 264,000 971,000 1,276,000 3,817,000 35,548,000 46,928,000 1,145.000 970,000 12,537,000 13,998,000 27,000 2,069,000
646 412,000 962,000 951,000 667,000
pig*
(thousond cu. ft.) . . Natural gasoline (bbl.). . . Petroleum (bbl.) Petroleum gases (bbl.). Pumice ond pumicite .
$20,030,000 77,754,000 3,757,000
15,890,000 65,259,000 2,905.000
Gypsum
Lime Mercury (flosks, 76 Natural gas
863,000 28,956,000 1,615,000 568,000 921 340,000 1,093,000 1,325,000 920,000 14,000 203,000 4,000
648,000 26,685,000 1,455,000 513,000
Iron ore
1,072,000 1,765,000 1 1 0,000
2,000 8,000
2
t
2
1
3,000 2,144,000 30,515,000 $1,056,047,000
for processed materials ore not included fVolue included with other minerals.
Values
Quantity
Value
Guontity
Mineral
Cement
1
81.81
1950
Iron,
its
$82.97 71.57
-Mineral Production of California
in the expansion of California's
a $12,000,000 mental institution at Costa
•
ture) Electrical
fall
215,900 188,300 78,500
Fabricated metal products (except machin-
Voters approved a measure for increased basic aid to public schools, whose total enrolment was estimated at 2.199,600 for the
California
No. emoloyed Average weekly Averoge no. employed 1952 earnings Aug. 1953
Irdustry
immigration of
in
in
the totals.
3
446,000 1
1,891,000 2,603,000 t 2
4,833,000 3,367,000 900.000
1
1
.
1
.
1
CAMBODIA — CANADA $1,673,039,000 (1951. $1,662,843,000). Government payments added $11,206,000 (1951, $13,490,000) to slate farm income. Total value of truck crops for 1952 was $340,475,000, field crops $789,180,000 and fruit and nut crops $480,369,000. Manufocturing. As of Aug. 1953. 1,128.500 wage and salary workers were employed in California manufacturing industries. .Approximately 417,700 were employed in production of nondurable goods, while 710.800 were engaged in the manufacture of durable goods. At the midyear point total civilian employment was 4,891,000, while unemployment figures showed 160,000 not working. (D. C. Cr.) Mineral Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those mineral commodities produced in California in 1950 and 1951 whose value e.xceeded $100,000, data for 1952 not being available. California ranked first among the states in the production of borates, diatomite. sand and gravel and tungsten; second in cement, petroleum and iiotash; and third broiisht
—
—
in gold
143
and natural
gas. In 1951 the state stood third in the value of its mineral output, with 8.94% of the U.S. total.
Cambodia: see French Uxion; Indochina. Cameroons: see British West Africa; Trust Territories. Cameroun: see French Equatorial Africa; French Union.
Camp
Fire Girls: see Societies and Associations, U.S.
^
PqIIqHo
ball' program. It was decided to utilize the same plant and labour in order to proceed forthwith with the Fessenheim development. the third stage of the scheme
—
—
The Netherlands. The Port of Amsterdam association reported that upward Rhine traffic showed a steady increase, the latest returns being the highest since World War II. The average prewar level of the years 1936-38 was considerably surpassed.
Downward Pakistan.
shipping again failed to reach prewar level.
— Inland
continued to
water transport, over 2.760 mi. of route, contribution to the commercial
make an important
development of East Pakistan. The joint steamer companies carried about 70% of the total cargo handled by mechanically propelled craft. The registration of craft under the Inland Steam Vessels act, 1951, was continued: the same enactment provided for government control of hire and freight rates and for the establishment of an inland waterways control board with powers
and routes in an emergency. The Pakistan Development corporation continued work on a scheme
to allocate priorities
Industrial
for the construction of a big dockyard at Khulna.
.
(See also
AND FlOOD CONTROL
Rivers a.nd Harbours.)
Canary
(A. H.
IrRIG.\-
;
J.
B.)
Islands: see Spain.
United States during 1953, about 530,000 perwere stricken by cancer, and approximately 700,000 were under treatment for it. During the year, the disease claimed 225,000 lives (a rate of 140 per 100.000), con-
PonPOr udllUbl.
^"
^^'^
sons
tinuing to be the second leading cause of death. However, it was the chief cause of death among diseases which affected children between ages 5 and 19. According to recent estimates of the National Cancer institute, of every 100 babies born in the U.S. in 1953, 32 would get cancer at some time in their lives, and approximately 50.000,000 persons of all ages living in 1953 were expected to develop it. Costs of total hospital bed occupancy occasioned by cancer were about $179,000,000, which provided bed care for an estimated 441,530 cancer patients.
The
U.S. public voluntarily contributed $19,764,666 to the
American Cancer
program of cancer control (through and improved care facilities), of which 25% was allocated to investigations carried on in 136 scientific laboratories and clinical institutions. The Damon Runyon fund society's
research, education
received an additional $1,300,000 of public gifts for research support. Federal government appropriations for cancer research
and control amounted to $20,237,000, of which $13,500,000 was earmarked for laboratory and clinical studies. Evidence reported during 1953 indicated that the continuing program of public cancer education was creating more general awareness of cancer's early symptoms and signs, which in turn was resulting generally in somewhat earlier diagnosis. Other data recorded lengthening survivorship for many forms of cancer, probably because of earlier diagnosis and improved treatment methods. The most notable advances in treatment appeared to have been made in the radiation field, where X-rays generated at 1,000,000 and 2,000.000 v. and beams from betatrons and synchro-cyclotrons gave promising early results in deep-lying
tumours.
At the second meeting of the National Committee on Lung Cancer, further evidence implicating cigarette smoking as in
some degree responsible the lung was presented.
for the alarming increase in cancer of It
was the consensus that other factors
might be responsible also, and atmosphere pollutants such as smoke from industrial plants and fumes from internal-combustion engines
Among
were considered.
the
many
reports of progress in the field of cancer re-
search during the year was the announcement by a team of British scientists of the discovery of a
treating certain kinds of leukemia
blood-forming
—a
new drug
of value in
cancerlike disease of the
tissue. Initial tests of the drug, called
myleran,
X-rays in controlling one form of the disease and even to have advantages under certain circumstances. The testing of numerous such clinical compounds was somewhat accelerated, and prospects of better methods of testing were improved by the development of techniques which per-
showed
it
to be as effective as
mitted (i) the successful transplantation of into
experimental
animals
(rats,
human
cancer tissue
mice and hamsters)
given
and (2) the growth of human cancer in test tubes containing nutrient fluid obtained from patients with cancer. Ultrasonic waves were explored for their effect on cancer, but were found to damage healthy and diseased tissue about equally and therefore to offer little promise as a method of treatment. However, a more promising use of ultrasound was found in the study of echograms; i.e., the relative amount of sound energy echoed back (and detected on a cathode-ray oscilloscope) from cortisone,
CANDY— CANNING INDUSTRY Human
149
Am. J. Path., 28:839-861 (.Sc|)t;-Oct. 1952); Soulham and I'. J. (ioettler. "(irowth of Human Epidermoid Carcinoma Cells in Tissue Culture," Cancer, 6:809-827 (luly 195?).
Intact C. iM.
Breast,"
(Cir. C.)
in
1953 about 1,500 confectionery manufacturthe United States produced approximately
lb.
of
^'^'''"g
PonHir
bdllUy.
crs
2,776,800.000
wholesale
candy valued
at
$1,011,920,000 at
the
level, or
$1,713,920,000 at the retail level. The.se figures were based on an estimated increase of 4% over the 1952
volume. Approximately 75.000 persons were employed in candy production throughout the country and about 50.000 more in selling and distributing to wholesale channels. Approximately 2,000,000
outlets
retail
confectionery
sold
products
in
the
United States.
The most ing 1953
development
significant
was
20%
was estimated that
It
The
bars.
in the
candy industry durdime bars.
the emphasis placed on the marketing of
of bar goods consisted of ten-cent
bar goods business represented
total
48%
of
the
entire industry's tonnage.
Other major developments of the year were: (i) the continued marketing emphasis in volume outlets; (2) greater stress on the merchandising of candy in food stores, especially super-
markets; (3) the continued high price of cocoa beans; (4) increased activity by importers of candy from abroad, especially
England
(a
survey made at the year's end revealed that one
British chocolate firm
cent candies)
COBALT •BOMB" being demonstrated at Montefiore hospital, New York, N.Y. The new cancer therapy unit, first in a U.S. hospital, was reported to produce gamma-rays with energy equal to all the medically used radium in the world at the time of
its
installation in Feb.
1953
living tissues subjected to pulses of high-frequency
sound waves. Cancerous tissue gave stronger echoes than normal tissue or benign tumours. The method could be used, however, only with tumours lying fairly near the surface. It had long been known that there
is
great variation in the
same type of cancer respond
the
way
different patients with
to treatment with
X-rays or
radium. By examining certain cells seen in vaginal secretions and carefully measuring the changes induced by such treatment, it appeared possible to forecast the radiation effect on cancer of the uterine cervix (neck of the womb) and thus to select
appeared to have been added to the
(A
K
cells
list
of
derived from the organs of m.ice
from leukemia were spun rapidly (centrifuged) in tubes so as to throw to the bottom all cell structures. The cell-free fluid above (supernate) was then injected into healthy infant mice of another strain (C3H). Within a year many of the injected mice developed cancer of the salivary glands a tumour very rarely seen previously. A viruslike agent strain) suffering
—
may
be responsible for this phenomenon and,
added
if
so,
further
once all-but-discarded "virus theory" of cancer's cause, although no similar virus had been found to have
weight
is
among
the 30 best-selling ten-
candies, for such holidays as Hal-
sales of special-occasion
in
loween, Easter, Christmas. etc.
St.
Valentine's day.
Mother's day,
Increases were also reported in package goods retailing at
more per pound. The increase in business in this category was about 10%. Per capita consumption of candy in the United States declined in 1953 to a low of 16.8 lb. as compared with 17 lb. in $1 or
1952 and 17.2
lb. in
1951.
The confectionery industry through moved to take steps to
halt the decline.
Chocolate-coated and chocolate-containing candies continued consumer popularity, even in the face of high
to the
to lead the field in
cocoa bean prices. At the same time increases were noted in the
production and sale of candies coated with what are described
compound or hard-butterfat coatings. The average price of candy at the wholesale level was 36.5 cents per pound, compared with 36.4 cents in 1952 and 36.2 cents in 1951. The highest wholesale candy price ever recorded was in 1948 when the average price was 37.5 cents per pound. as
Imports of chocolate confectionery, chewing gum and cocoa products
in
1952 amounted to 13.385.000
lb.
valued at $6,820,-
investigations gave support to the view that, as cancer
000. In 1953 this increased about 8.6%. Candy exports decreased further following a decrease in 1952.
not a single disease but a large family of diseases having in
when chocolate-coated and chocolate-containing candy accounted
any relation
Many is
bars
opment; (6) greater interest in sanitation in the candy plant; (7) an influx of heavy machinery, both production and packaging, from abroad, especially from Switzerland and Italy; and (S) larger expenditures by candy manufacturers on advertising and promotional efforts. The greatest gain reported in the industry during 1953 was
those in lower animals which seem to be induced by viruses.
Suspensions of leukemia
5
the National Confectioners' association
the poor-response patients for surgical treatment.
A new tumour
had
(5) greater interest in research on product devel-
;
common
to
human
cancer.
the attribute of uncontrolled cell multiplication,
unlikely that a single cause will be found for
all
it
is
cancers. (See
Chemotherapy; Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of; Nutrition, Experimental; Stomach and Intestines, Dis-
for
5,186.000
lb.
valued
accounted for 7,223.000
at
lb.
$2,355,000. Qther candy exports
valued at $2,254,000.
(H. D. G.)
also
Cane Sugar:
see Sugar.
eases OF the; Surgery; X-ray and Radiology.) BiBHOGK.APHY.
— Liidwig
ing in Adult C3H Filtered (Berkefeld E.xtracts." Cancer,
Gross, ''Neck Tumors, or Leukemia, DevelopMice Following Inoculation, in Early Infancy, with N), or Centrifugated (144.000 .\ g), .AK-Leukcmic 6:948-957 (Sept. 1953); R. M. Graham and J. B.
Graham, "A Cellular Index 6:215-223 (March 1953);
of Sensitivity to Ionizing Radiation," Cancer,
J. J. Wild and J. M. Rcid, "Further Pilot Echographic Studies on the Histologic Structure of Tumors of the Living
ronninfr InHiictru lldlininE inOUSiry.
^^^ United
States and territorial pack
canned fruits, vegetables, juices, specialties, milk, meat and fish was about 613,000.000 cases in 1952 or about 3% less than the 1951 pack, according to the National Canners association. The pack of canned foods for of
CAPE VERDE
150 Table
I.
— Production of Various (In
1941
1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950
.
.
.
.
.
.
Canned
(fUllJ
juices
40
.
.
..
.
.
.
.
52 49 62 59 47
.
.
.
57
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
98
157 155 147.
93 100
208
103 103
.
68 66
.
.
.
71
91
77
113 104 109
.
.
.
,
.
82
76
.
58 77
96 100
.
.
71
17 19 19 23 18
208 200
.
.
r,5h
49
12
.
.
milk
60 67
109 100
1
SL
83
46 46 66 84
15
1
191
51
83
73 82
90 74 77 81
66 69 67 66
meol* 1
Tclol
338 354 402 493
1
14 17
26 48 50 50 50 39 34 24
17 18 19 21
22 24 26 30 25 26
is
shown
Table
in
Total stocks of canned
—CAR N EY
for the first time with a semisolid product, cream-style sweet
corn.
601
and other related types of milk products, concentrated orange juice and banana puree. Further research and testing were being conducted for the purpose of adapting the process to solid
543 532 588
23
37 42 42
all food was about 232% of the 1935-39 average. During the 195^-53 season research and study continued in the application of new technical developments. The use of the aseptic canning process was tried in a commercial canning plant
544 573 630
631
613
The
were reported to be encouraging. Also during was used commercially for fluid whole milk
results
the year the process
or semisolid products. Further strides were also
vegetables and juices carried
over by canners at the end of the 1952-53 marketing season were several million cases more than canners' carry-over stock at the end of the previous season, 1951-52. However, the quantity shipped from canners' warehouses during the 1952-53 season was also greater than shipments during the 1951-52 season.
The 1953-54 packs
outside and inside and adapting the coating modity requirements.
crease in general popularity and usage in the U.S.
tin plate mills in the
shipments by canners of 134,000.000 doz. reached a record high. Shipments during the first eight months of 1953 averaged about
above the previous year.
Purchases of canned fruits for consumption by the armed forces represented more than 6% of the 1952 canned fruit pack, about s% of the canned vegetable pack and somewhat more than
of the total canned juice pack of the single strength,
3'~f
'"hot-pack"' juices.
of canned
E.xports
amounted
foods from the United States in
1952 about 684.000.000 lb. with an estimated than $103,000,000 according to the U.S.
to a total of
value of slightly less
department of commerce. This compares with an average during the three-year period 1948-50 of 774.522.920 lb. with a value of $120,843,146.
According to the Food Topics Publishing company the value of domestic consumption of canned foods of
The
retail of
retail
kinds in
1952 was $3,900,000,000 compared
the United States during
with a value at
all
general controls on the use of tin plate in packaging had been removed. The Iron and Steel corporation sanctioned a £40.000,000 scheme for a new plant at Velindre, planned, with the
Trostre works opened
It
in 1952, to give
was decided on Feb.
17, at a
ments for higher canning speeds. Tin plate manufacturers felt that it would be possible to implement the standard when the reorganization of their industry was complete. At a press conference in February, after a tour of Africa, Australia and the far east. Sir Robert Barlow, chairman of the Metal Box company, examined the prospects of the canning and can-making industries throughout the world, with particular reference to underdeveloped areas. He saw no reason why the populations of those areas should continue to scrape a bare existence
from the
soil;
indeed, he considered
and
in that
portant part.
Cape Verde
Carney, Robert Bostwick
U.S. According to the bureau of labour statistics the average
World War
and
ve'getables in 1952
was 164%
Table
— Percentage of Total Farm
II.
Sales of Major Fruits
Vegetables Canned During 1952 Per cent
Item
13%
Apples Apricots Cherries, sour Cherries, sweet
.
.
.
.
Cronberries
.
.
Figs
.
55% 63% 23% 55% 12%
Item
Per cent
44% Peaches 41% Peers 48% Oranges .... 20% Gropefruit 40% Asparagus 45% Olives
in
and
the U.S. Per cent
Item
and
Beans, green
wax
38% 65% 75% .... 80% 75%
Corn, sweet Peas, green
.
.
.
Tomatoes
.
.
.
Beets
.
.
.
.
.
.
Production data from Bureau of Agricultural Economics, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Colculations by Division of Statistics, National Canners Association.
Source:
inevitable that
development the food can would play an im(G. H. M. F.)
ries.
of the 1935-39 average price for these items. During the same
it
such people would sooner or later demand a better standard of
by the industry. In 1952, 17.2% of the U.S. tonnage of fruits was utilized by canners. In 1947 it was only 14.7%. The peak was reached in 1951 when 18.2% of all farm sales of fruit went to the canning plant. Table II shows the percentage of total farm sales of each of the major fruits and vegetables which was canned during 1952. During 1952 the retail prices of canned fruits and vegetables were relatively lower than for most other food products in the retail price of canr^ed fruits
conference under the aegis of
for tin plate. Users stressed the importance of reducing the wastage which resulted from faulty material. Can makers emphasized the need to increase manufacturing speeds and to improve the accuracy of their products to meet canners' require-
vegetables can be seen in the proportion of the total farm sales of the various fruits and vegetables which are utilized
Wales the most up-to-date
world.
the British Standards institution, to prepare a British standard
living,
$3,800,000,000 in 1951.
importance of the U.S. canning industry in providing year-round supplies of seasonally produced fruits and relative
com-
—
all
The 1952
to the specific
(H. L. Sr.) Great Britain. On Jan. 16, 1953, the remaining restrictions on canning in the United Kingdom were removed. Canners now no longer needed to be licensed by the ministry of food and were permitted to use small-sized cans. Three months previously
of canned foods in the U.S. were expected be about the same as the 1952-53 packs. The canned fruit pack was expected to be higher while the canned vegetable pack was expected to be lower. Canned baby foods continued to into
10%
made during
the year in reduction of tin required to plate tin cans, primarily as a result of further extension of using differential coatings on
I.
fruits,
DS
521 491
'Includes soups containing meot.
various years
AN
time the average price for
Conned Conned Conned
vegoloblei jpeciallie!
79 96
.
1952
Canned
122 108 133 163 194 179 175 166
.
1951
Canned
39 43 55 59 73
52 83
I
the U.S.
in
millions o( slondord coscsl
Conned Year
1938 1939 1940 ..
Canned Foods
islands: see Portuguese Overseas Territo-
Carnegie Trusts:
on March
see Societies
and Associations,
tT...
U.S.
tZlTLt
Appointed to the U.S. Naval academy at Annapolis. Md.. by Pres. William Howard Taft in 191 2, he was graduated and commissioned ensign in 191 6 and saw active servCalif.,
ice in the Atlantic
26.
during World
War
I.
In the years preceding
was active in designing motor torpedo boats. After the U.S. entered the war he was given various commands in the Pacific and rose to the rank of vice-admiral in 1942. In July 1943 he was named chief of staff to Adm. William F. Halse}', and in 1946 he became deputy chief of naval operations (logistics), in Washington, D.C. He succeeded to command of the U.S. 2nd fleet on April i, 1950, and the following autumn was named commander in chief of U.S. naval forces in the eastern Atlantic and the Mediterranean, with the rank of admiral. In June 1951 he became commander in chief of .-Mlied forces in southern Europe for the North Atlantic Treaty organization. II he
CARNIVALS — CARTOGRAPHY Pres.
Dwight D. Eisenhower on
May
chief of naval operations to succeed
and
12, igs;,. named him U.S. Adm. William M. Fechteler,
nomination was confirmed by the senate on June
his
2.
maps
at 1:1,500,000 scale
151 was published by the Ejercito Argen-
tino Instituto Geogrdfico Militar.
—
Europe. In London on June 9, 1953, the Royal Institution Chartered Surveyors displayed more than 100,000 early atlases, books and maps in an exhibition entitled "Five Centuries of Maps and Map-Making."' The Royal Geographical society of
Carnivals: see Shows. Caroline Islands: see Marshall, Caroline and Mariana IsLA.xDs; Trust Territories.
—
Events of international imInternational. portance during 1953 included the eighth International Congress of Surveyors, held at the Sorbonne in Paris
Portnirrnnhu Udl lUgldpiiy. from Aug. 28
to Sept. 6. Items of interest were the reports of commissions: (i) technical terms; (2) land reparcelling and the Cadaster; (3) methods and instruments; (4) urbanism;
held a small exhibition of historical Chinese
of prices; and (6)
list
(5)
teaching and the young surveyors.
the considerable display of
new instruments and map
ex-
by participating countries, the exhibits of various French agencies were the most comprehensive of the congress. hibits
On
Map
Sept. 30, 1953, the Central
Bureau of the International
World was transferred to the Cartographic office of the United Nations. This bureau was charged with co-ordinating of the
the world-wide publication of the "International
Map
of the
World" sheets at 1:1,000,000 scale on uniform specifications. Western Hemisphere. An outstanding exhibition of historic maps, globes and panoramas was sponsored by the Walters Art gallery of Baltimore, Md.. in Oct. and Nov. 1952. Selected maps in the exhibit were published in monochrome as a volume entitled The World Encompassed. The National Geographic society iq.v.) of Washington, D.C., published two handy reference maps: "Mexico and Central America,"' at 1:3,500,000 scale, with a separate gazetteer; and a "Historical Map of the
—
United States," at 1:5,000,000. Several significant
The
maps were
geological survey's "Index
tography"'
issued
Map
showed holdings of
by the U.S. government.
of the Status of Aerial Pho-
federal,
state
and commercial
its
South Georgia expedition of 1952. The Murchison grant was awarded to G. B. Stigant of the admiralty hydrographic department for Japanese coastal mapping.
The ordnance survey
si.x
Among
maps and made
annual awards. The Cuthbert Peek grant, for exploratory surveys and mapping, was gi\en to Duncan Carse. leader of the
map
new hypsometric
of Ireland published a
covering Ireland at 1:500,000 scale, with insets of Dublin,
A
Belfast and Cork.
seventh edition of the University Atlas was
published by George Philip
&
Son, Ltd.
Grants from the Swedish government and the Wallenburg foundation facilitated the issuance of initial sheets of the Atlas of
Sweden by
the Swedish Society of .Anthropology
and Geog-
When
completed, the atlas would comprise about 300 pages of text with 150 maps. Maps printed to date included: raphy.
plate 15-16, geology (Quaternary deposits); 25-26, temperature
and
humidity;
snow,
hail,
29-30, meteorology (precipitation); 31-32, thunderstorms, annual precipitation and temperature;
61-62, population (density and groupings of habitations in rural areas); and 63-64, agriculture (cultivated soils).
The Generalstabens
Litografiska Anstalt published part
ii
of
Svenska Orter: two volumes of text and one map volume, the Atlas over Sverige, which contained the largest-scale (1:300,000) contoured maps available on southern Sweden.
The Stockholm School
of
an Atlas of Latvia. The Bavarian land survey at
1
1
:
Economics had under preparation office
published new contour maps,
00,000 scale, on areas of tourist interest utilizing
toured bases
made
to replace the old
new conA new
hachured sheets.
reported that only four
1:250.000 series of district maps (Bezirkskarte) of the Soviet
1:250,000 sheets out of the 153 covering Alaska remained to be
zone was issued by the V. E. B. Geographische-Kartographische
The
agencies.
published.
Manual
geological survey also
New
sections of the geological survey's Loose Leaf
of Topographic Instruction published during the year
were: 6 B-i aerial photographic contracts; 3A-9
map
represen-
woodland; 2E-1 standards and planning for levelling; 3A-10 obtaining names information; 3C-19 photogrammetric compilation symbols; 3A-1 mapping of roads and railroads; 3B-3 planning vertical photography; 3C-13 radial triangulation with vertical photographs; and 3C-14 radial triangulation with trimetrogon photographs. tation of
Publications of the bureau of the census included
"U.S.
Distribution
Populatio.n
Urban and Rural.
maps
1950"'
of
and
"Congressional Districts for the 83rd Congress.'" with 53 metropolitan insets. The American Geographical society issued two additional plates for the Atlas of Diseases
— "The
Distribution
1952" and a "Study in Human Starvation: I. Sources of Selected Foods." The society also published a new map of "The Americas" at 1:12,500,000, with hypsometric tints of
Leprosy,
and Transport," "Agricultural Land Use." "Natural Vegetation" and "Moisture Regions." A 1:500,000 scale map of "Virginias Mineral Resources" was
and four
insets:
"Cities
In Ottawa, Ont., the department of mines and technical sur-
veys reported that w^ork on the National Atlas of Canada was continuing and a revision to the 1930 edition of the Geographi-
The "History
Columbia was
in progress.
of Cartography in Colombia" was presented in
the Boletin de la Sociedad Geogrdfica dc
Colombia
(vol.
x,
no. 4).
An
Atlas dc la
RepuhUca Argentina containing
in
Gotha. The Falk Verlag published a new atlas at
1:50,000 with a 72-page gazetteer of
The
cities of
provincial
the
Ruhr
area.
Istituto Geografico Militare displayed an excellent
contoured road
map
new
at 1:200,000 during a Dec. 1952 exhibition
Ten sheets of this "Carta d'ltalia" had been pubboth with and without shaded relief. Most elaborate of several new map catalogues was the Cata-
in Florence.
lished,
logue des cartes en service, issued by the Institut Geographique National. listed
and
standard series available for
All
inde.xed.
public
sale
were
and programs underway were described.
The new edition of the Soviet encyclopaedia included many hypsometric maps comprising new areal data. About five volumes a year had been published since 1951, hence the series was due for completion Asia.
— An
about
in
atlas of Israel
Committee of
Israel
five years.
was
in
preparation by the National
Geographers, besides a Hebrew-language
Dictionary of Geographical Terms. A. Collin Davies published a revised edition of the Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula, ranging from 500 B.C. to a.d. 1947. Japan proper and the Ryukyu Islands were completely mapped, with city insets and listed installations, in the Latest Prefectural Atlas of
published by the state engineering experimental station.
cal Gazetteer of British
Anstalt
Japan, by Nitchi
Publishing Co., Ltd.
A
hypsometric
map
at
1:2,000,000 scale entitled "Afghani-
stan" was produced by the United Nations Technical Assistance mission to that country. Pakistan's internal boundaries were de-
map at 1:3.168.000. published by the Survey of Pakistan. John Bartholomew & Son, Ltd., issued a 1:4,000,000 polychrome map of "Burma, Malaya, and Indolineated on a 1953-edition
China."
C
CATASTROPHES — ENSUS DATA.
152
—
Africa. A new atlas of Sierra Leone was publi>hc(i by the survey and lands department of Freetown. New sheets were issued
Table
— Populafion
I.
U.S.
of the Uniled Stales, Territories, Possessions, J
Gross area,
for several basic topographic or planimetric series of various jiolitical
Tanganyika,
Basutoland,
desia.
1:125,000
Uganda;
and
Swaziland
Area
the
— The department of national development released
maps and accompanying texts of the new Alias of Austral'um The 1:6.000,000 scale maps covered "Soils" (July
Hawaii Aloska
422,770 72,524
2,210,703 59,498 26,665 8,937 1,1 19
1,869,255 22,290 24,889 1 2,908
52,822
51,827
...
1,304
...
4
....
54,843
...
8,475
Guam Virgin Islands of the U.S
American Samoa
1
Midway, Wake and other
Pocific islands
Canol Zone Corn Islands (leased from Nicaragua) Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands
.
Members
armed forces employed by
of the Civilian citizens
Crews
301,595 govern-
U.S.
.Associations. U.S.
and
"I
>
llflOll ""'''•'•'
of
employees
107,350 45,690
of merchant vessels
••• ..•
f t
tNot available.
presented in Tables XI,
amounted
XII and XIII.) The aggregate populawhich
Table
may
be compared with 134,265,231 in substantially the same areas in 1940. In the matter of area, the only one of the outlying units which contributed mato 154,233,234,
grand total was Alaska, with an area of 586,400 much as continental United States So large a part of this area was without inhabitants, how-
terially to the
sq.mi. or nearly one-fifth as itself.
ever, that the average population density for the entire territory
was
Fibres.
206 133 76 38 553
tion in 1950, including all these outlying areas, as listed in I,
Catholic Rural Life Conference, National: see Societies and Associations. U.S. Catholic Welfare Conference, National: see Societies AND .Associations, U.S. Cattle: see Livestock. Cellulose Products: see Rayon and Other Synthetic
forces personnel
•Omitting the Philippine Islands.
is
Societies and
armed
civilian citizen
Catastrophes: see Disasters. Catholic Church: see Roman Catholic Church. Catholic Community Service, National: see Societies see
3,435
560
26,910 J
Families of
U.S.
6,423
586,400
Population abroad
meni
Catholic Organizations for Youth:
134,265,231* 3,628,130 131,669,275 3,022,387
499,794 128,643
Possessions Puerto Rico
1952), "Mineral Deposits" (July 1952), "Rainfall" (Aug. 1952),
AND Associations.
milesl
Territories
Kfsoiircis.
"Underground Water" (Jan. 1953) and "Temperatures' (March 1953). The completed atlas would contain about 42 maps. (See also Co.\ST AND Geodetic Survey, U.S.; Geological Survey, (W. B. Br.) U.S.)
(square
1940
154,233,234 150,697,361
Continental United States
1:250,000 for Anglo-Egyptian Sudan. Australia.
1950
Aggregate
at
Somaliland Protectorate and Tanganyika; and at
in
1950 Population
1:50,000 in the Gold Coast, Northern Rho-
units: at
Etc.,
950 and 1940
than ^ person per square mile,
less
or,
conversely, 4.6 sq.mi.
of area per inhabitant, while in continental United States there
production of cement in 1952 had expanded
Pnmont
^^ ^''^^
UClllulll.
to 175.267.000 short tons, an increase of
1945. Figures of world production by countries are
321%
shown
Mineral and Metal Production and Prices. United States. The salient features of the cement
since in the
—
industry
United States were reported by the U.S. bureau of mines Industry
in
fhe U.S.
(Millions of barrels)
Production
Other varieties
1949
212.9
164.1 2.5
186.5 3.0
3.4
3.2
209.9
1950
1951
1952
230.3 249.6 252.7 226.0 246.1 249.3
107.8 106.4
172.1
169.6
190.4 187.5
207.7 204.3
209.3 206.2
1.5
2.5
2.9
3.4
3.2
4.2
3.5
3.4
16.4 4.5 0.2
11.0
10.0 3.6
13.0 3.9
18.1
16.0 5.3
0.1
11.2 3.8 0.2
14.7
3.9 0.1
6.5
5.2
6.8
5.9
4.6
101.4
166.9
183.5
202.0
204.9
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
...
Exports
Avoiloble supply
1948
208.9 205.4
1.5
Stocks Portland cement Clinker
Other varieties
1947
189.5
102.8
Shipments Portland cement Other varieties
1946
166.5
.
.
.
.
.
—The population of the United States
4.2
3.5
3.4
232.0 244.7 254.8 227.8 241.2 251.4
4.6 0.2
0.2
4.7 0.2
2.4
2.9
0.1
3.2
231.0 242.7 252.1
Production and shipments of portland cement made new record highs in 1950, 1951 and 1952. In the first seven months of production advanced sharply, to
shipments only slightly 158.08S.000
same months
bbl.
and
less, to
172,717,000
bbl.,
and
172,275,000 bbl. compared with
164,163,000
bbl..
respectively,
(G. A. Ro.
of 1952.
at
than the 1950 population of any one of the dozen most populous
With decennial
states.
increases
for
the
first
seven decades
;
B. B.
in
the
M.)
The percentage
in-
creases in subsequent decades were smaller, reaching the low
point of
7.2%
decade between 1930 and 1940,
in the depression
but the absolute increase in any of these decades (except 1930-
40; exceeded that of any decade prior to 1890; and the total population counted in the census of 1950 was 150,697,361, being
14.5% more than the population
in
1940 and almost 2^ times the
—or about 40 times Current Estimates. — ^Monthly estimates
population of 1890
that of 1790.
made
of the population of
1940 census by adding each month the number of births, subtracting the number the United States have been
1953
Puerto
census, in 1790, was only 3,929,214. or less
to 62,947,714, or 16 times the initial figure.
1945
104.3
...
Portland cement
first
in
around 35%^ then declining slowly to 25.5% between 1880 and 1890, the population at the end of the first 100 years had grown
as follows:
Cemenf
Population Growth. the time of the
article
in the
were 50.2 persons per square mile of gross area and Rico 643.6.
since the
of deaths (with allowances for underregistration of births
and
deaths) and then adding the net civilian immigration into con-
United States. The annual increase
tinental
for July
0.97%
I
(in
in
the estimates
of each year between 1940 and 1945 ranged from
1940-41) to 1.39%
(in
1942-43), with lower figures
for the remaining years in the period.
The United
Census Data,
U.S.
States population figures
published by the bureau of the census
represent for the most part the population of the 48 states and the
District
of Columbia, usually referred
United States. There
are,
to
as
continental
however, considerable areas of other
most Hawaii and
For the period between 1945 and 1950 the annual increases averaged 1.63%, with a maximum of 1.94% in the year ending June 30, 1947, representing a numerical increase of 2,738,000. The maximum percentage in any later fiscal year was 1.77 in the year ending June 30, 1951; and the maximum later numeri-
was 2,715,000
year ending June 30, 1953.
territory under the jurisdiction of the United States, the
cal increase
important being the formally organized territories of
i of the years from 1950 to 1953, inTable II, with the births, deaths and net immigration on which the estimates were based. The table gives the three types of estimates which were available; namely, total population including armed forces overseas, civilian popu-
Alaska and the island of Puerto Rico, session'' but. since the
approval of
classified in
its
new
1950 as a "pos-
constitution in 1951,
partaking more of the status of a specially privileged "territory."
(Further detail with regard to the population of these three areas
The
estimates for July
clusive, are presented in
in the
\
—
Table
.
— EsHmated
II.
Total Populofion of the United Stales, Including
Armed July
July
July
1,
July
1,
I,
1953
1952
1951
1950
159,696,000
156,981,000
154,360,000
151,677,000
Item
Population
Forces Overseas
I,
Increase during preceding
year
2,715,000
2,621,000
2,683,000
1.73
1.70
1.77
1.67
3,927,000 1,522,000
3,835,000 1,503,000
3,761,000 1,484,000
3,612,000 1,462,000
2,405,000 310,000 156,106,000
2,332,000 289,000 153,324,000
2,277,000 406,000 151,082,000
2,150,000 339,000 150,196,000
158,375,000
155,767,000
153,383,000
151,228,000
Amount Percent Factors
2,4
89,000
increose
in
Births'
Deaths* Excess of births over
deaths
Net
civilian
immigration.
Civilian population
.
Population residing tinental U.S
.
in
.
con-
•Adjusted for underregistration.
and population residing
lation
in continental
United States (the
census population). Incidentally
it
may
be noted that, according to the continuing
estimates, the total population of the United States passed the
round
figure of 160,000,000 in Aug. 1953.
The major factor in the annual increase in population is the number of births, which reached a near maximum of 3,927,000 in the fiscal year 1952-53, onl\- slightly below the previous high figure
of
3.931,000,
established
in
1946-47. The number of
deaths (which must be subtracted from the births
in
new population estimate) was only 1,462,000
the
computing
in
1950, or
POPULATION reaching a new high of 160,000,000 Aug. 10, 1953, as recorded by the statistical "clock" in the department of commerce U.S.
Table
Population of the United Stales, Total and Nonwhite, by States,
III.
1950 and 1940 Per cent Division
ond state
United States
New
Total population 1940 1950
.150,697,361
Non\\ h:te 1950
nonwhite 1950 1940
1940
131,669,275 15,755,333 13,454,405
10.5
10.2
....
New
Hampshire Vermont .
.
.
.
2,928
2,683
03
0.3
967 559
535 425
0.2
4,316,721
0.1 0.1 1.4
years since 1950 emphasized the problem faced by those popu-
1.6
lation experts
59,125
0.1
.
4,690,514
791,896
713,346
1.7 1.9
1,709,242
79,01 14,881 54,951
1,541
2,007,280
33,835
2.7
2.0
.
.
.
.
14,830,192 4,835,329 10,498,012
13,479,142 4,160,165 9,900,180
958,097 323,744 644,164
599,596 229,078 473,191
6.5 6.7 6.1
4.4 5.5 4.8
7,946,627 3,934,224 8,712,176 6,371,766 3,434,575
6,907,612 3,4 27,796 7,897,241 5,256,106 3,137,587
341,081
666,1 18
2,982,483 2,621,073 3,954,653
2,792,300 2,538,268 3,784,664
619,636 652,740
641,935
.
Island
847,226 491,524 359,231
.
.
Rhode Middle
1
1
Atlantic
New New
York. . Jersey . Pennsylvania
.
East north central
Ohio
.
Indiana. Illinois
,
.
.
....
Michigan
. .
.
.
.
.
Wisconsin.
.
.
.
West
518,405 175,712
6.5 4.4 7.6
4.9 3.6 5.0
453,941 41,885
122,473 393,039 216,463 24,835
7.1 1.2
0.8
28,786 21,527 299,060
23,318 17,577 245,477
0.8 7.6
4.1
north central
Minnesota
.
.
.
.
Iowa
.
.
Missouri
.
North Dakota South Dakota
Nebroska. Kansas
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
.
1,325,510 1,905,299
642,961 1,315,834 1,801,028
1,188
10,471
24,236 24,182 76,338
23,886 18,210 66,532
1
1.0
1.8 3.7 1.8 4.0
0.8 0.7 6.5 1.6 3.7 1.4
District of
.
.
.
.
•
.
Virginia . . West Virginia
Florida
. .
2,771,305
1,821,244 663,091 2,677,773 1,901,974 3,571,623 1,899,804 3,123,723 1,897,414
2,944,806 3,291,718 3,061,743 2,178,914
2,845,627 2,915,841 2,832,961 2,183,796
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
266,505
802,178 3,318,680 2,005,552 4,061,929 2,117,027 3,444,578
.
North Carolina. South Carolina
.318,085 -2,343,001
. .
44,207 388,026 284,313 737,125 115,270 1,078,808 823,622
35,977 302,763 188,765 662,190 117,872
13.9 16.6 35.4 22.2
1,064,001
1,003,988 815,496 1,085,445
605,254
515,428
26.6 38.9 30.9 21.8
202,716 531,461 982,152 990,282
214,202 508,935 983,864 1,077,469
5.7
13.5 16.6 28.5 24.7 6.2 28.1
42.9 34.7 27.2
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Alabama Mississippi
West
6.9 16.1 32.1
45.4
7.5 17.5
34.7 49.3
.
Louisiana
.
Oklohoma Texas
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
.
1,909,511
2,683,516 2,233,351 7,711,194
1,949,387 2,363,880 2,336,434 6,414,824
4 28,004
483,303
886,833 200.825 984,660
232,206 927,279
852,141
22.4 33.0 9.0 12.8
.
.
Wyoming.
.
.... .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Colorado New Mexico Arizono
.
.
Utah
Nevada
many
years that a
and
high,
177,400,000.
The medium
projections
for
assuming a considerable decline from the 1953 level of population increase, were as follows: for 1965. 186.100,-' 000; for 1970. 196.300.000; and for 1975, 206,600,000. Colour, by States. The colour composition of the population of the United States as a whole changed little between 1940 and 1950; and even the nominal increase from 10.2% nonwhite years,
—
1940 to 10. 55c in 1950 may be charged in part to the actual decrease of more than i. 000. 000 in the foreign-born white. The relative increase in the native white population
591,024 588,637 290,529
559,456 524,873 250,742
1,325,089
1,123,296
681,187 749,587 688,862 160,083
531,818 499,261 550,310 110,247
18,988
18,986 7,242 6.520 28,436 50,976 95,076 11,953 10,175
4,145 16,794 39,506 72,469 7,370 6,217
62,467 24,213 671,050
38,044 13,953 310,624
5,581
3.2 1.2 2.2 2.1
Washington
.
.
.
.
.
.
2,378,963 1,521,341
California.
.
.
.
10,586,223
.
1,736,191
1,089,684 6,907,387
between 1940
11.0%
in the
foreign-born white, reducing the percentage for the total white
9.9 14.5
population to 14.1), which
3.4 1.1
1.7 1.5 7.4
7.5 12.7
14.5
1.7 6.4
1.3 5.6
Pacific
Oregon
to i6.8 the pound sterling and Rs. 4.758 to the U.S. :
dolliir.
—
Foreign Trade. (1952) Imports Rs. 1,705.000.000; exports Rs. 1.502,000.000. Main sources of imports (1952): U.K. 22%; India 12%; Burma ii''c: U.S. 9%; Australia 7%. Main destinations of domestic exports: V.K. 29%; U.S. 11%: .Australia 6%; Canada 5%. ^lain imports: rice, cotton piece goods and sugar. Main exports: tea, rubber and coconut products. Transport and Communications. Roads (1950): 6.556 mi. Licensed motor vehicles (1951); cars 40,000; commercial vehicles 15,700. Railways (1950) S96 mi.; passengers (1950) 26.000,000; freight (1950-51) 1,281,000 metric tons. .Air transport (1951): passenger-miles 6.151.590; cargo, ton-miles 66,615. Telephones (1952): 18.362. Radio receiving set licences (i95> ): 51,000. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons): tea (1951) 148.000; rice, paddy (1951) 535-000; cassava (1950) 185.000: sweet potatoes and yams (1950) 59-000; millet (1951) 24,000. Copra exports (1952) 26.100 metric tons. Livestock (1951): cattle 1.072,000: sheep (1952) 84.000; pigs 75.000; buffaloes 522,000; goats 370.000. Coconut oil exports (1952) 108.400 metric tons. Industry.— Fuel and power: manufactured gas (1952) 9,240,000 cu.m.; electricity (1951) 106.800.000 kw.hr. Raw materials (metric tons): rubber (1952) 96,000; graphite (long tons, exports, 1950) 12.5; salt (1951) 26,200.
—
—
Merck &
sight.
159
Co., Inc., devised a 30-step synthesis starting
with benzoquinone; Monsanto Chemical Co. developed a 28-step on toluene, a cheaper, more easily available
synthesis- based
had been commercialized by late 1953, seemed probable that large-scale production of synthetic cortisone was near. Meanwhile Squibb was experimenting with cortisone derivatives, and researchers at the University of Kansas, Lawrence, were hoping to synthesize a simpler molecule that was .similar enough to cortisone to work in the same way. starting material. Neither
but
it
Hypertension and ulcers also received attention from chemduring the year, and the approach was to find and attack
ists
the basic causes of these ailments rather than simply to alleviate the conditions.
The new
Similarly the
new hypertension drugs acted on
tem, which
the cause, rather than on the blood vessels, which
is
see
French Equatorial Africa.
Chambers of Commerce:
see Societies
High hopes
for isonicotinic acid hydrazide, the antitubercudiscovery of 1952, were dashed by the observation that the tuberculosis bacilli quickly developed resistance to the drug. losis
Many
serious investigators began to question the worth of
chlorophyll in
mouthwashes and deodorants. The was the use of antiare supposed to combat the enzymes
dentifrices,
latest innovation in dentifrice formulations
that
and Associations,
the nervous sys-
merely exhibit the symptoms.
enzymes, chemicals that
Chad:
ulcer drugs, for example, did not
stomach acid; they repressed overstimulation of the vagus nerve and thus prevented formation of excess acid. neutralize excess
break
carbohydrates
down
to
enamel-destroying
acids.
Again, as with ammoniation, fluoridation and other alleged de-
would take years of study
U.S.
cay preventives,
Channel Islands: see Commonwealth of Nations; Great Britain & Northern Treland. United Kingdom of. Charles Hayden Foundation: see Societies and Associa-
true worth.
tions, U.S.
but proposed legislation stipulated that no chemical could be
Cheese:
Dairy Products.
see
Chemicals
added to food
rhomictru bllClllloliy.
chemical output
in the
United States
in-
—
creased 230% from 1938 to 1952 a faster growth rate than in any other country. By 1953 the U.S. accounted for nearly half of total world chemical production and exported more than any other country. Considering the vital role chemicals play in a war economy, it is significant to note that the U.S. and its allies accounted for four-fifths of world
chemical output.
Much
of the build-up after 1951
was encouraged by the gov-
ernment
to provide for military contingencies; but the protean nature of chemicals permits them to be employed for peaceful ends as well: ammonia for high explosives, or ammonia for soil fertilization;
hydrazine for rocket
tuberculosis drugs, and for
—
weed
fuel,
or hydrazine for anti-
killers.
Drugs. In the field of antibiotics, penicillin declined in relaimportance as the newer antibiotics surged ahead. Aureomycin (Lederle laboratories) and terramycin (Chas. Pfizer and tive
were shown announced late
Co., Inc.)
to
be chemically related, and a new anti-
biotic
in
1953 by Heyden Chemical Corp. was
thought to be similar
magnamycin
(Pfizer),
Other new antibiotics were which counteracts microorganisms that
in structure.
have developed resistance to earlier antibiotics; erythromycin (Abbott laboratories), effective against staphylococcus, streptococcus and pneumococcus; fumagillin (Abbott), for intestinal amoebiasis; and chartreusin (Upjohn Co.), still in the experimental stage. While research continued apace to discover new antibiotics, work was being done to modify older ones, such as penicillin, and to extend their usefulness in combating plant and animal
Foods.
—There was much
tion to the subject of chemicals in foods.
try leaders '^°*^'^^
in
it
search.
until its safety
to assess their
congressional atten-
No
action was taken,
had been proved. Chemical indus-
feared that such legislation would
Polyoxyethylene softeners
(Myrj,
etc.)
food rewere banned
stifle
from standard bread by the Food and Drug administration, not because the materials had been proved harmful but because their harmlessness to all persons over a lifetime of use had not been ascertained. The ban was upheld by the court of appeals and the U.S. supreme court.
Synthetic Fibres.
—Dacron,
—The
output of the newer synthetic fibres
—
had by 1953 become large enough so that they could challenge natural fibres and the older synthetics (rayon, acetate, nylon) in a variety of textile materials and applications. The new fibres endowed fabrics with some desirable properties, making them shrinkproof, mothproof, wrinkle-resistant and at the same time crease-retaining. But there were also drawbacks. They would melt under a hot iron or at the touch of a glowing cigarette ash, they were not cool for summer wear or especially warm for winter use, they were difficult to dye, they built up static electricity and hence attracted dust, and they were costly. There seemed to be no question but that the new fibres would eventually find wide applications, but it might take a few years' e.xperience to learn what their optimum uses were. In the meantime, there was continued research aimed at improving natural fibres such as wool and cotton. Wool Industries Research association (Torridon. Leeds, Eng.) enlarged its facilities, continued its research projects on sheep breeding, chemical modification of wool to confer moth and beetle resistance, fundamental studies of fibre structure, and other means to raise Orion, dynel, Acrilan
quality and reduce cost.
In the United States the Institute of Textile Technology at
diseases.
Charlottesville, Va., developed a treatment of cotton that im-
More and cheaper cortisone, the most effective drug j'et known to combat arthritis and several other ailments, was in
proved dyeing, conferred permanent mildew resistance and made the fabric stronger after exposure to high temperature. Curious-
CHEMISTRY
160
cotton was treated in this process with acrylonitrile, the raw material for many of the newer synthetics. The U.S. departly,
ment of agriculture developed a treatment of cotton -with anhydrous monoethylamine that made the fibre tougher, stronger and more receptive to dyes. Carbide and Carbon Chemicals Co. developed a form of dynel fibre that
was dyed before
was spun.
it
—
Detergents. Although official figures were not available toward the end of the year, it was believed that production of synthetic detergents might for the first time surpass that of soap. In IQ52 soap production in the U.S. was i.Soo.ooo.ooo lb. and that of detergents was 1,600,000,000. But the former was
500.000,000 lb. a year by late 1956. A laminate of cellophane and polyethylene ai)peared in a new packaging material that seemed to have important applications in frozen fruit juice
The packaging would be
handling.
velopes" rather than
Another
in the bulkier,
development
plastics
in
the
form of
more expensive
— that
film
"en-
cans.
of epoxy resins
—
i^crmit-
ted cans to replace glass jars or bottles for containing corrosive liquids. Starting from practically nothing in 1950 and reaching
about 12,000,000
lb. in 1952, production capacity by the end of 1953 ^^as expected to reach about 30,000,000 lb. per year. Anti-
of the syn-
corrosive coatings consumed the major part of the production, and adhcsives accounted for most of the remainder. Potential usage was great in structural applications, where it was lami-
on two types of products: lowsuds formulations for automatic washing machines and dish-
nated with glass fibres to provide a material suitable for pipe, in structural members for automobile bodies and airframes, and
washers, and liquid detergents for hand dishwashing.
Epoxy adhesives would stick almost anything and the coatings were useful on food cans, metal, masonry and other materials. The resins themselves were being used to "pof components of electronic circuits in television receivers and other devices, where they protected high-voltage elements from the air.
declining and the latter was
still
climbing.
Makers
thetic detergents concentrated
in storage tanks.
—
Conditioners and Fertilizers. The 1953 growing season was the first test for commercial synthetic soil conditioners in the United States. As a result, it appeared that these materials were too expen.sive (up to $2,500 an acre) to warrant large-scale use. but that they had definite uses in greenhouses, nurseries, special-crop farms and amateurs" gardens. The U.S. department of agriculture tested 28 products and described the best among them as "highly effective." Soil
Monsanto Chemicals Krilium. tirst on the market and probably the best known, was a vinyl chloride-maleic anhydride copolymer; most of the others contained sodium polyacrylate. A new one that appeared during the year was an iron-ammonium complex of an organic compound and was developed in Italy.
Also used were cellulose derivatives, lignin derivatives,
peat moss and silicates such as vermiculite, but the synthetic organic materials were receiving the most attention.
Closely related to the soil-conditioner
boom was
Both E.
fertilizers.
I.
about 50,000 tons in the U.S. during 1948, exceeded 300.000 tons in 1953. Although special application equipment w-as needed, the farmer
still
saved
money because ammonia
is
the
cheapest
source of fixed nitrogen.
During the year much attention was paid
to trace elements
such as copper, manganese, iron, molybdenum, zinc and boron, w'hich are required
by plants
in
almost infinitesimal quantities
but deficiencies of which stunt plant growth, cau.se abnormalities or lessen resistance to disease.
—
Rubber and Plastics. Significant to the industry was the by congress to sell the government's $700,000,000 synthetic rubber facilities. It was expected that when the sale was decision
completed the benefits of intercompany competition would accrue to synthetic rubber production, an enterprise that since its
inception
more than
a
Synthetic rubber processes had been improved, markets had
it
retained
50%
—even
with natural rubber freely
of the total rubber market, and the
percentage was expected to increase in the years ahead. Early
1953 the first experimental large-scale run of rosin-extended synthetic rubber was made at Baton Rouge, La. The rubber had
in
2S9c-5o% more
resistance to abrasion than ordinary synthetic
rubber and was being tested for vehicle Fastest growing of the plastics
tire use.
was polyethylene. Produced
commercially for only a few years, the versatile plastic that
show up everyw'here from ice-cube trays to squeezable cosmetic bottles was expected to be turned out at a rate of seemed
to
became
a strong competitor of alloy steel pipe
applications. It
competed on the basis of flexibility,
tings to get
around curves;
tion
easy assembly, because joints were
losses;
by cementing
Haubstadt, Ind.,
for
lower
less installation labour;
a slip-sleeve coupling;
lightness,
requiring fewer
made
and corrosion
fit-
fric-
rapidly
resistance.
example, installed a mile of four-inch
was noteworthy that some steel firms were setting up or buying into plastic pipe manufacturing plastic
water main.
It
facilities.
field, where they wrested sales away from and cheaper coverings. More expensive than other types, they counteracted their initial cost by longer wear. In 1953 they accounted for more than 10% of all floor-covering
the floor-covering
linoleum
sales.
Polyvinyl chloride's usefulness was increased through a process
developed by the U.S. Rubber Co. whereby
firmly bonded to steel and aluminum.
The new
it
could be
laminate, which
combined the strength of the metal with the bright colours and corrosion resistance of vinyl plastic, was suggested for such uses as siding, panelling, lawn furniture, machine housings, piping and containers for chemicals, counter tops and office furniture. Among the new materials was a polyester rubber made from ethylene and propylene glycols and adipic acid. While it was costlier than the well-known rubbers and had inferior resilience, it was long wearing, strong, air retentive and oil and oxidation resistant. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. was developing commercial applications.
Developments
in
two other industries, foundries and auto-
mobile manufacture, were abetted by plastics progress. Shell moulding, a foundry
method
that offered
many advan-
tages over existing techniques, depended on phenolic resin bind-
been broadened, and by 1953
—
many
hence greater ease of handling;
decade before had been a government
monopoly.
available
Plastic pipe
for
Vinyl plastics, too, made important strides, particularly in
the increased
du Pont de Nemours and Co. and Monsanto brought out complete plant food formulations in liquid form for home gardeners, nurseries and greenhouses. Farmers were also using liquid anhydrous ammonia as a source of nitrogen. Consumption of ammonia in this form, only emphasis on liquid
to anything,
ers.
Although
shell
moulding took 6,000,000
lb.
of phenol in
1953, one large manufacturer of phenol predicted that it would eventually require several hundred million pounds of phenol
annually. Light, strong, virtually undentable automobile bodies of plas-
come. But an earnest of the future was given when both Chevrolet and Kaiser-Frazer contracted for hundreds of sports-car bodies fabricated from polyester-glass fibre laminates. Mass production, however, still awaited development of mass-production techniques impossible at the existing state of the art. Truck bodies, which have tic
were
still
to
during the year
—
far simpler lines,
were already being made of
plastic,
and the
U.S. coast guard was using plastic boat hulls. Silicones.
— Closely
related to plastics
and equally
versatile
are the ubiquitous silicones. Used initially in electrical insulators
lents
and later employed in polishes, lubricants and water-repeland for a myriad other purposes, the silicones made head-
way during 1953
A new
masonry
paints, as a base
in glass cloth-silicone
rubber insulation.
in water-repellent
for skin ointments,
and
product was a foamed silicone resin for structural use it stood up to temperatures of more than 700° F.
in aircraft;
Use of
foam in food procFood and Drug ad-
a silicone material for suppressing
operations was approved by the
essing
ministration.
—
Metals. Among the newer metals that fall within the purview of the chemical industry are titanium, zirconium, indium, lithium and sodium.
Titanium vaulted into prominence when military jet engine the government to set a production goal of ten times the 1952 output and 25.000 tons a year by 1956 almost five times the 1953 estimated production. Titanium's strong point is its ability to stand up under extremely high temperatures; its weak point is its high price of $5 a pound. If a direct process could be developed to produce it at $1 a pound, it could command a market of an estimated 2,000,000 tons a
demands caused
year as
—
replacement for stainless
a
steel.
Twice as expensive as titanium but still required by the Atomic Energy commission in the amount of 150,000 lb. a year was zirconium, whose low affinity for neutrons makes it ideal for some processing equipment used in the atomic energy field. A plant was completed in 1953 by Carborundum Metals Co. Peacetime markets provided the price was right lay in corthe metal is untouched by strong rosion-resistant equipment acids, alkalies and sea water.
—
—
CHEMICALLY ETCHED magnesium
printing
plate
being
removed from an
new platemaking process developed by the Dov* Chemical company and announced in 1953. The process permitted high-quality, economical platemaking with less time consumed in etching etching machine, a step
a
in
;
Consolidated Mining and Smelting Co. (Canada) readied a process in 1953 to
make indium,
a metal so rare
and expensive
anges that, unlike biphenyl, would not affect their taste and fragrance.
($2.25 an ounce) that no serious commercial uses had been developed. It had promise, however, in alloys, lubricants and
New materials based on amine-formaldehyde polymers were added to the growing list of replacements for natural tanning
low-friction bearings.
agents.
Lithium, on the other hand, had a number of established uses,
and
was believed that output of
it
uses
were
—
uncovered
all
A new in
compounds
during
1953,
lb.
its
in
1954 could
While no new major ones
established
—
in
aluminum welding and brazing and ceramics, among
greases,
others
its
production of 3,000,000
triple the 1951
development
in
sodium was
likely to
extend
its utility
the metal was deposited thinly on an inert carrier, its
thus in-
—
New Products; The following paragraphs describe only a few of the more important and significant new products of 1953. Among
the agricultural chemicals, maleic hydrazide, a hydra-
was approved by the U.S. department of
culture for use in extending the marketing and storage
potatoes and onions. Applied harvesting,
A new
it
agri-
life
of
by spray a few weeks before
prevents subsequent sprouting of the vegetables.
herbicide, phenyldimethylurea,
was introduced;
at
2
lb.
per acre it controls weeds, and at 8 lb. per acre it denudes the ground of vegetation. Malathon, a less toxic and more ephemeral insecticidal supplement to parathion, was commercialized, and Shell Chemical Co. was conducting research with two new systemic insecticides materials taken up from the ground by plant roots and rendering them insecticidal in themselves.
—
was
found to retard mould, and could possibly be used on wrappers for cheese, pickles, meats, etc. Biphenyl made progress as a fungistat for lemons, obviating the necessity for individual paper wrappings, and researchers were seeking to find a material for orSorbic
acid
lubricant,
di-iso-octyl
sebacate,
passed
which operate at temperatures that break down ordinary petroleum lubricants. Another new product designed to meet military specifications was polydihydroperfluorobutyl acrylate, a synthetic rubber with outstanding resistance to heat, ozone,
oil
Providing some freedom from dependence on coal tar were a series of
thesis
new
synthetic pyridines. These were used for the syn-
of certain
of
textiles, elastomers,
reactivity.
zine derivative,
synthetic
and solvents.
grew.
chemical reactions. It was "high-surface sodium," wherein
creasing
A
military specifications for jet and turboprop aviation engines,
(2,4-hexadienoic
acid)
department
of
the
and
vitamins,
waterproofers
in
drugs and the newer textile
agriculture
project
resulted
fibres.
the
in
A
for
U.S.
commer-
and plastics; they were derived from animal and vegetable fats and oils. Another cialization of various plasticizers for resins
plasticizer,
tricresyl
was found
to
phosphate,
TCP
the
reduce spark-plug
fouling
in
Shell
gasoline,
caused by metallic
deposits.
New
Processes.
—One major
field
zation of low-grade raw materials. print
of endeavour
was the
The manufacture
from bagasse, the residue from sugar cane, was
undertaken
in
way
to
be
50 tons daily capacity. for a plant to extract vitamin B12 from
a $2,600,000 plant
Plans were under
utili-
of news-
of
sewage. It was estimated that 70,000 tons of sewage would yield 140 kg. of the vitamin, and the Food and Drug administration
had approved the addition of it to livestock feeds. A process was developed at the University of Saskatchewan to permit utilization of low-grade uranium ores, and a process with similar intent was developed by the U.S. bureau of mines for beryl ores. Another new ore beneficiation process employed no water or reagents; the ore was simply ground, dried, treated
161
CHEMOTHERAPY
162 by a
separation
Tennessee
from the gangue. The
to move toward the south. Since 195 1 the government had authorized about $2,300,000,000 of chemical expansion. By far
means
the largest share
means and passed between electrodes which
a secret
of
the
valuable portion
N'alley authority perfected a
effected
of smelting clay
an aluminum-silicon alloy useful as a reducing agent and as a component of high-aluminum castings; it was to be commercialized by private interests. TVA also developed procto yield
which were being taken up by commercial
esses,
firms, to sub-
—$705.000,000 — went
see.
for the east south central area
Alabama and
stitute nitric acid for part or all of the sulphuric acid used in
states,
only $297,000,000
The
work
spurred by the
was temporary sulphur shortage, but the process was
progressing on
its
own
fertilizers.
original
merits.
General Electric Co. showed that bombardment by electrons food and drugs, increases the toughness and heat re-
sistance
and deactivates enzymes. Ultra-violet radiation was used to make the insecticide benzene he.xachloride and vitamin D from ergosterol and recent progchemical
reactions
;
ress
made
it
chlorinating
look promising for polymerizing vinyl chloride,
methane and pentane. converting ammonia
to hy-
and many other useful reactions.
drazine,
came into operation during 1953 employing new procmake hydrogen peroxide and phenol. Electric power was largely used in older peroxide processes, but du Font's new Plants
esses to
used an organic carrier to reduce oxygen to hydrogen
plant
The first plant to make phenol and acetone by oxidacumene (which in turn is made from benzene and pro-
peroxide. tion of
pylene) was completed during 1953 in Canada, and installations for this purpose were under construction in the United States.
under development was a means of making polymethylfrom carbon monoxide and hydrogen. This polymer is higher-melting than the familiar polyethylene. Also new was a means of preventing swelling and shrinking of cellulose caused by moisture. It involved the treatment of wood (and wallboard and possibly cotton) with a monoester of propylene glycol and Still
ene
sebacic acid.
Government
—
Industry had tradiand universities for fundamental research; i.e., basic broadening of scientific knowledge without regard to its commercial utility. By 1953. however, the federal Private
v.
Enterprise.
tionally looked to the colleges
government was paying more than half of the country's total annual research outlay of $3,500,000,000; it was spending more than
were
in
Mississippi.
—Kentucky, Tennes-
contrast, the middle Atlantic
of the chemical industry, were
seat in
By
new
$300,000,000 annually
at
nonprofit
institutions,
mostly
educational institutions, and only a fifth of that amount was
The rest was spent for applied research, development and physical equipment. Thus, scientists were being subverted from their search for new knowledge. A related problem was involved in federal research policy, high-lighted in 1953 by the Astin case. Allen V. Astin was disgoing to basic research.
missed by Secretary of Commerce Sinclair Weeks as director of the national bureau of standards because he had declared worthless a storage battery rejuvenator made and sold by a small
to
get
plants. In 1947,
middle Atlantic states
29.3% of the chemiand only 7.5% in Gulf
the current expansion was bringing those percentages
together. (See also Bioche.mistrv; Chemotherapy; Physics; Plastics Industry; Vitamins and Nutrition.)
closer
polyethylene plastics, polymerizes, depolymerizes,
of
certain
triggers
traditional
cal plants
states;
sterilizes
plants in the Gulf
the south Atlantic states, and a third segment of $199,000,000
was slated
making
superphosphate
for
coast states. Another $298,000,000 had gone or was going into
PhprnnthoranU UilCIIIUUICldpy. poliomyelitis
if
^^^
(H. C. E. J.) gamma globu-
disclosure in 1952 that
could modify the course of paralytic
lin
inoculated either just prior to exposure or in
the early stages of the disease furnished a therapeutic measure which held some possibility of reducing the incidence of the disease by providing a short-lived immunity of approximately five weeks. Human gamma globulin was not. however, considered a curative agent. Because it was in short supply, its distribution as a critical drug was controlled in 1953 through the Office of Defense Mobilization.
The
goal of the medical profession in poliomyelitis control
was prevention of the disease by some sort of inoculation which would confer immunity over an extended period of time. Announcements from three sources indicated that vaccines against poliomyelitis had been prepared which apparently were capable of producing such immunity in human beings. Two of these vaccines contained living virus of poliomyelitis which had been attenuated to such a degree that they could not cause clinical
One of these forms of vaccine had been grown in the embryo and contained only one strain of the poliomyelitis virus. The other living virus vaccine contained all three of the known strains of poliomyelitis virus and had been grown on monkey spinal cord. The third vaccine was a killed virus vaccine prepared by tissue culture methods on various monkey disease.
chick
tissues
and contained
all
Plans were proceeding to
three strains of poliomyelitis virus. test this killed virus
vaccine
in
hun-
dreds of thousands of children during the period between the
end of the poliomyelitis season of 1953 and the beginning of the poliomyelitis season in 1954, in one of the most gigantic experiments ever undertaken in the field of medicine. Preliminary studies with smaller groups of children apparently demonstrated that the killed virus vaccine was capable of producing a high
titre of
antipoliomyelitis antibodies in children.
The question which remained
to be
answered was whether
this
whole matter was
produced an active immunity of sufficient longevity or whether it would require frequent booster injections. Other investigators reported that infection with the relatively benign Coxsackie virus may impart resistance to poliomyelitis infection, judging from animal experiments and epidemiological studies at the New York state department of health laboratories. If confirmed, the situation would be analogous to
by the National Academy of Sciences.
the use of
businessman. The senate small business committee asked Postmaster General Arthur Summerfield to rescind a fraud order against
the
businessman. Astin was later reinstated and the in abeyance late in the year awaiting a report
Private development of nuclear chemistry hinged on proposed
new legislation. Such chemical firms as du Pont, Union Carbide and Carbon Corp., Monsanto, Dow Chemical Co. and American Cyanamid Co. had been in the vanguard of developments in this field, and some of them had participated in industry-utility teams to study power reactors. The Atomic Energy commission had proposed amendments to the McMahon act that would give more scope in the atomic energy field. Southward Movement. Of long-range significance to the entire national economy was the trend of the chemical industry private enterprise
—
killed vaccine
cowpox
\-accine
to vaccinate
against smallpox in-
fection.
The Sloan-Kettering
institute
reported that an investigator
had succeeded in growing human cancer cells in experimental animals by pretreating the animal with the adrenal hormone cortisone.
One
of the difficulties in cancer research previously
had been species differences in response to therapeutic agents. Thus an animal with a spontaneously growing cancer might not respond favourably to an agent which would favourably affect a similar human cancer. With the development of the new technique, it would be possible to test all potential anticancer com-
CHEMOTHERAPY pounds against the human cancer
cells
growing
in experimental
163
needles of varying sizes which
interstitial
into diseased tissues.
One of a large series of purine drugs synthesized by a New York pharmaceutical manufacturer, called 6-mercaptopurine,
of cobalt-60,
most of the cancer
actually killed
perimental animals. In
trials in
cells of
duced remission of the disease both by
by laboratory
sarcoma i8o
in ex-
acute leukemia, the drug proclinical
symptoms and
for one to six improved but showed evidence of persistence of the disease. The drug also proved effective in temporarily controlling another form of cancer of analysis in
14
months. Eleven children were
children
of 45
clinically
could be inserted
Each needle consisted \ mm. in diameter and ^ cm.
animals.
of several pieces
These
in length.
pieces of cobalt-60 wire were sealed within stainless steel hypodermic needle tubing which was of sufficient thickness to filter
out beta-ray radiations. In order to vary the dosage of gamma radiation, the length of the needles was increased by increments of \ cm.
up
to 12 cm.
In a somewhat similar application, radioactive phosphorus needles were devised which deposited radioactive phosphate ion
blood change remissions in chronic leukemia, even reducing the
in tumours and then dissolved in body fluids. These needles were tested and developed in the U.S. Naval hospital in St. Albans, N.Y. The needles were made by fusing germanium dioxide and titanium phosphate at high temperatures, the phosphate having been prepared from radioactive phosphorus. As
size of enlarged organs.
the molten material cooled,
the blood-forming tissues, chronic myelocytic leukemia.
Another recently synthesized drug, triethylene thiophosphoramide, called thio-TEPA, also produced satisfactory clinical
A new
it
was drawn
needles had the advantage of requiring a
These
into needles.
minimum
was believed might affect cancer diagnosis and therapy was described by an investigator from Southwestern Medical school. The researcher found a factor which regulates the speed with which energy derived from food is transported to the body cells by the phosphates and their enzyme systems. He named it the Q factor, and found that the Q factor slows down energy transfers. Cancer patients either have less of the factor in the blood stream than normal persons or possess an agent which destroys the Q factor, therefore permit-
from tumorous tissue. human serum albumin was tagged with radioactive iodine. This material proved to be a valuable diagnostic tool in determining the amount of blood volume depletion following haemorrhage and shock. The radioactive albumin may be injected intravenously, and a few moments later a sam-
ting a higher speed of energy transfer than normal.
ple of blood
In the
theory which
it
field of antibiotics research,
two new antibiotics were
introduced for prescription use by physicians during the year. Fumagillin was an antibiotic with practically no bacterial spectrum but with rather intense effect upon the intestinal form of amoebic dysentery. Magnamycin was chiefly of value in treating those patients who were infected with organisms which had proved resistant to penicillin, although it was also effective against large viruses, the rickettsial diseases and certain protozoans.
A new
which was being clinically tested was amicecombat gram-positive bacteria, tuberculosis organisms. Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus subtilis It
tin.
antibiotic
showed
ability to
in experimental animals.
Combination of the various antibiotic substances and other chemotherapeutic agents provided a more diversified attack upon infectious organisms. Streptomycin and penicillin combinations probably are the best examples. However, combinations of streptomycin with isoniazid were shown by English workers at
Guy's hospital to be better than treatment with isoniazid
alone or with streptomycin and para-amino-salicylic acid.
of shielding
for protection of the personnel utilizing the needles
and the
further advantage of not requiring a supplementary procedure for their removal
Also during the year
may
be withdrawn. The amount of dilution of
radioactive albumin in the sample indicates
placement
is
how much
fluid re-
required by the patient. Radioactive albumin was
also used in the detection of brain
tumours and obstructions of
the spinal cord.
In the treatment of hypertension, an ancient drug used by physicians of India, Ratiwolfia serpentma, was undergoing considerable research in the United States. Several alkaloids had
been isolated which seemed to exert a hypotensive effect upon the central nervous system and produce varying degrees of drop in blood pressure in all subjects. The alkaloids apparently were
remarkably nontoxic but the effectiveness of the product seemed to be short-lived.
Herpes zoster, an extremely painful first cousin of the "cold which causes a series of eruptions along the course of various cranial and spinal nerves, was reported to be reheved by high dosage injections of vitamin B12 daily. sore,"
In
multiple
in
sclerosis
one
research,
report
indicated
that
monophosphate brought about some improvement the endurance and bladder disabilities of patients. It was
adenosine stated
5
that
it
changed the high pyruvic acid
lactic
to
acid
In further studies on isoniazid, chemists synthesized the drug
blood ratios, bringing them nearer to normal. Unfortunately,
with an isotope of carbon (C-14) and followed its absorption, metabolism and excretion in human beings. They found that after a single injection of 250 mg. the peak concentration in the blood was reached in i hour and that the drug persisted in the blood stream for about 24 hours. Of interest was the fact that the drug penetrated into the caseous areas of pulmonary tuberculosis within three hours and that repeated injections of the drug caused accumulation of the agent in these
the drug did not improve in-co-ordination, visual disturbances,
caseous areas.
A
electroshock therapy, indicative of the resistance of their mental condition.
field of radioactive isotopes,
localization
sensations
or
sexual
weakness
of
the
Bubonic plague, a scourge of past ages, especially in the pneumonic form, proved to be sensitive to antibiotic therapy. In an outbreak in Madagascar, 11 of 13 patients with the dread
pneumonic form recovered following treatment with
either one
or a combination of the antibiotics Chloromycetin, terramycin
In the field of laboratory diagnosis, histoplasmin, a filtrate of Histoplasma capsulatuni,
was introduced. The
filtrate
was
injected under the skii in suspicious cases and helped to differentiate
the
disease
histoplasmosis
from
tuberculosis
and
mycotic infections. Several workers at the Walter
sulphur-35 was utilized
hormone to permit investigators to trace its and metabolic fate within the body. Cobalt-60 was released for use by physicians in the form of
to tag thyrotropic
abnormal
or streptomycin.
on isoniazid action was the disclosure during 1953 that it aided the rehabilitation of 28 of 41 mental patients with anxieties and depressed states within three weeks. Of eight patients who failed to improve five also failed on curious sidelight
In the
spasticity,
patients.
Reed Army hospital reported means of determining the
the development of a rapid, accurate
calcium content of the urine by the use of a spectrophotometric method. This development was expected to prove valuable in the diagnosis of vitamin D intoxication, cancer of the bone, para-
^ CHEMURG Y — CHESS
164
thyroid disorders and certain kidney diseases.
(See also Allergy; Bacteriology; Cortisone. Hydrocorti-
sone AND Corticotropin; Physiology; \itamins and Nutri(P. L. W.)
tion.)
no new crop had been developed for the northern wheat lands. Use of corn cobs, mostly for furfural, passed the predicted rate of 600,000 tons per year. cipal
market,
grown
soaps, had
C^emurgic accomplishment
PhomiirO'V UllCIIIUl5ji
moved during 1953
the United States
in
which quickly suggested far-reaching potentials. A process was perfected which turns oranges into a powder which may be reconstituted into highly palatable orange juice.
More than ment because
'"^o
'''
"t^^^'
'""ea
usual significance was attached to this developof e.xpectations that
it
could extend to other per-
and thus increase substantially their marketing opportunities. Tomatoes were being powdered for juice with success by the Western Regional Research laboratory of the U.S. department of agriculture, where the experiments were conducted. It was believed that the process might be adaptable, with variations, to other fruits and to potatoes, eggs and even milk. ishable products
The orange powder, up
to
stored in cans, would stand temperatures 100° F. for several months. In this form it could be
shipped farther at
less
expense and kept longer than oranges
fresh or frozen condition. in
areas where
it
Consumers could enjoy orange
in
juice
had been unobtainable. The army quarter-
master corps had tested the product, and early commercial production was announced by an Oakland, Calif., firm. Perishable foods had always presented marketing problems to
farmers and to food merchandisers. The powder process indicated a significant
new approach. To whatever extent
perish-
ables might be preserved in this form, their period and range of
The endeavour was and convenience.
usefulness would be increased. stability, palatability
A new in
to achieve
process to utilize animal fats and vegetable
substantial commercial use during
oils
veloped at the Eastern Regional Research laboratory, treats edible fats or oils w-ith hydrogen peroxide. their
market as
plasticizers in
was
1953. This process, de-
The
making vinyl
in-
o.xidized oils find
plastic products.
They help to prevent discoloration and deterioration. The sulting new market was timely because the growing use of tergents had tended to reduce the demand for fats and oils. The effort at the same laboratory to establish canaigre,
the
proved that the canaigre tanning material is quebracho or other substances. The pilot plant studies were proceeding to determine the costs. If these should work out favourably, the United States, which had had to depend upon imports since the chestnut blight destroyed the former home source, would again have a domestic source of tannin. Interest in new crops rose during the autumn as wheat and cotton growers considered how best to use the 20.000.000 or 30,000,000 ac. which quota restrictions would take out of w-heat, cotton and possibly corn. Although it had long been pointed out that equally profitable new crops might be found to occupy the acres devoted to excess production of wheat and cotton, little research had been done. The acreage in castor beans had approached 200,000 and no doubt would be increased considerably in the southwest to replace cotton, but castor beans would by no means meet the farmers" need for substitute crops. Safflower production for its oilseeds had made headway the preceding two or three years, although regular and satisfactory markets had not been established. Another oilseed, sesame, used test
fully equal to
acreage in
was expected to increase its food the Carolinas, western Texas and New Mexico, but purposes,
utili-
The decline in farm prices during 1952 and 1953 stimulated more active interest in chemurgic research. It became obvious that despite the rising population, agriculture needed more industrial outlets for its inedible products, more profitable markets for its residues and additional new crops to replace those grown in overabundance. Even with a new customer coming along every 12 seconds a customer who would consume an average of 1,600 lb. of food annually through life new industrial as well as food markets were needed to match increasing efficiency in agricultural production. (W. McM.)
—
Cherries:
—
see Fruit.
^^^ world
chess challengers' tournament that opened Neuhausen, Switz.. on Aug. 30, 1953, was concluded in ZUrich, Switz., on Oct. 24, 1953, with Vassily Smyslov of the U.S.S.R. the winner over 14 other masters. By finishing on top with 18 points won and 10 lost, Smyslov gained the right to challenge for the international championship held by Mikhail Botvinnik, another Soviet star. Ludmilla Rudenko of Moscow remained the women's world titleholder, not being called upon to defend her laurels, while Oscar Panno, youthful student from Buenos Aires, Arg., became the junior ruler by triumphing in the biennial tournament at Copenhagen. Panno finished all even with Klaus Darga of west Germany with a count of si-il- but was awarded the championship on the basis of his better record as scored under the Sonneborn-Berger system. Borislav Ivkov of Yugoslavia, the defender, finished third. Botvinnik annexed the Soviet national title when he defeated Mark Taimanov,
Phocc
UllCoo.
at
Moscow.
tie at
New York
city,
former national open
annexed the challengers' tournament of the United States Chess federation with a score of 8^-1^ at Philadelphia. Pa., in September. Hans Berliner of Washington, D.C., placed second. Three others qualified for the 1954 U.S. championship test. They
ruler,
each pair tanned by canaigre and the other tanned by the usual
for
for
cobs were available annually, so that the greatly enlarged
Arthur B. Bisguier of
the co-operation of a shoe manufacturer, shoes were pro-
principally
filler
zation had hardly begun to absorb the potential supply.
32~22» i" a play-off of a
vided to 68 postmen in the Philadelphia area with one sole of
The
prin-
hand number. About 15,000,000 tons of corn
re-
material reached the pilot plant stage after successful tests.
materials.
in
de-
root of a wild desert plant from the southwest, as a tanning
With
Nylon manufacture was the
although other uses, including
were Atilio Di Camillo. Philadelphia, Pa.; Paul Brandts, New York; and Saul Wachs, Philadelphia. Larry Evans of New York was not required to defend his laurels as U.S. champion in 1953. Donald Byrne of Brooklyn, N.Y., won the U.S. open diadem at Milwaukee, Wis., scoring 10^2^ as against the 10-3 tallied by Max Pavey of Brooklyn. Byrne clinched the laurels when he set back Pavey in 42 moves. Nicolas Rossolimo of Paris, Fr., was awarded third prize after a six-way tie. United States junior honours were taken by Saul N. Yarmak of Passaic, N.J.. in a tourney at Kansas City. Yarmak won eight matches, lost one and tied one. Martin Harrow of Jamaica, L.I., N.Y., was placed second. Larry
Mary Bain
Evans held
his
her U.S. women's
Miguel Najdorf of Buenos Aires concluded in Argentina, 9r"8^.
speed championship and Samuel Reshevsky defeated a challenge match that was
U.S.
title.
in
Winners in other major events of 1953 included the following: Alexander C. Tolush, U.S.S.R., Bucharest international; H. Golombek, England, J. Penrose, England, A. Medina, Spain, and D. Yanofsky, Canada, tied in Hastings international; Anthony E. Santasiere, New York, Hollywood international; Svetozar Gligoric, Yugoslavia, Mar del Plata, Arg.. international; Arthur
New York, Vienna international; Columbia univerYork, U.S. intercollegiate; and Columbia-Har\ard(T. V. H.) Yale-Princeton league team tournaments. B. Bisguier,
sity,
New
blliailg IXdl'ollC^
national government. (For his early ca-
Encyclopcedia Brita7i7iica.) Having spent most of his
reer, see
mature hfe
in
unifying China and having been the virtual ruler
Government of the Republic of China for about it was driven by the Communists to take refuge Taiwan (Formosa), Chiang became somewhat restive in 1953 he worked and waited for the right moment to return to the
of the national
20 years before in
as
Addressing the Nationalist forces on
mainland with
his forces.
Dec.
he pledged that preparations for a counteroffen-
22, 1952,
Communists on
sive against the
the mainland would be com-
pleted within 1953. Hailing U.S. Pres.
Dwight D. Eisenhower's
order of "deneutralization" of Formosa, Chiang reiterated on
Government
Feb. 3 the determination of the national
to fight
and on Feb. 28, on the eve of the third anniversary of his resumption of the office of president on Formosa, he called on free China to mobihze all its manpower and resources and to speed up united efforts to attain that goal. He outlined then the 1953 twin program of agricultural reform and a four-year plan of industrial and agricultural development in order to make Formosa self-sufficient. Repeatedly he urged the free world to take effective measures against international Communism and to form an anti-Communist Pacific alliance or a wider mutual security pact with all Asian countries, infor the recovery of the mainland,
cluding Nationalist China. Prior to the final signing of the armistice
agreement
in
Korea, Chiang, on July
States to extend miHtary aid to
all
20,
urged the United
countries under
Communist
Korea no away affect free China's determination to recover the mainland, and he promised the anti-Communist Chinese prisoners of the Korean war that they would be permitted to go (H. T. Ch.) to Formosa. (See also China.)
pressure. In August he declared that
would
the cease-fire in
in
Phinorrn Second largest U.S. city, a port of entry and the UllludgU. county seat of Cook county. 111., Chicago lies at the southwest corner of
Lake Michigan.
Its
population in the
1950 census was 3,620,962, an increase of 6.6% over the 1940 population. For the six-county Chicago metropolitan area, the census for 1950 showed 5,495,364, a 13.9% increase. It was estimated that the 1953 population was about 3,680,000 in the city and 5,650,000 in the metropolitan area. The mayor in 1953 was
Martin H. Kennelly.
Employment
rose
to
an all-time high and unemployment
low level during 1953. New orders for defense purposes decreased in volume and a shift back to manufacture of
dropped
civilian
Bank
to a
goods was experienced following the Korean truce. clearings in Chicago for the first nine months of 1953
increased
8.6%
to $35,928,636,000 from $33,095,761,000 in the
same period of 1952.
New
investment in industrial plants in
nine months of 1953 amounted to $103,975,000, compared with $167,253,000 for the the Chicago metropolitan area for the
first
same period of 1952. The dollar volume of industrial production was expected to exceed $17,000,000,000 for an all-time
in 1953
record.
amounted months of 1953,
Steel production in the Chicago metropolitan area to a record 15,690,500 net tons in the first nine
and
it
was estimated that
it
would exceed 20,000,000 tons for
^953) topping the previous record of 18,800,000 tons produced Retail sales in 1953 were estimated at $5,000,000,000, an in-
4%
over 1952. Chicago continued to be the world's
largest centre of rail
and
air traffic.
The number of passengers carried on the surface lines of the Chicago Transit authority continued to decline slightly. Elevated lines
the
showed a moderate increase. The total number carried eight months of 1953 was 457,198,643.
first
lot pfv-jfc„t ur.Jci
in
Ai^ciiK,:'.
Chicago
.:.
in
1953
All types of construction contracts awarded in the first eight months of 1953 involved an outlay of $426,969,000, an increase of 23.3% from the first eight months of 1952, when similar expenditures amounted to $346,161,000. In the first eight months of 1953, permits for the building of individual homes in Chicago totalled 6,062, in suburban towns 14,834 and in unincorporated areas 4,371, for a total of 25,267. At the same time permits were issued for 2.559 apartment units within the city limits, 527 apartment units in the suburbs and 4 apartment units in unincorporated areas, for a
grand
total of 28.357 dwelling units in the period,
an increase of
over the 23,342 permits issued in the first eight months of 1952. School enrolment in Chicago, at the beginning of school in the fall, amounted to approximately 295,000 public and 155,000
21%
parochial
elementary pupils, plus 90,000
public
and 42,000
parochial high school students.
burden in Cook county for the months of 1953 approximated $47,094,434, a sHght increase over the $46,908,568 for the same period of 1952. A monthly average of 125,879 persons were receiving relief during the first eight months of 1953, which compared with 132,104 persons in 1952. The average monthly allowance per person obtaining some form of assistance in Cook county was $46.77 in this period of 1953, which may be compared with $44.39 average
The
first
total public assistance
eight
same period of 1952. The 1953 total Vu^^gets for current operations
for the
ernments that cover Chicago
in 1951.
crease of
UNDERGROUND PARKING
necessitated the rerouting of Michigan avenue
of Chicago, $368,451,516;
in
whole or
of the six gov-
in part
follow:
city
Cook county, $126,933,054: Cook
county forest preserve district. $5,486,782; Chicago board of education, $158,557,594; Chicago sanitary district, $49,602,411;
and Chicago park
district,
$47,895,143.
1952 property tax rate for the combined six taxing authorities in the city of Chicago was $3-598 per $100 of equal-
The
ized
total
100%
assessed valuation.
165
—
CHILD LABOUR — CHILDREN'S BOOKS
166
Total bonded debt applicable to the city of Chicajjo lor these
same
governments as of Jan. i, 1953, aniounted to $367,388.000. which was equivalent to 4.198% of the total assessed valuasix
tion of property in the city or equivalent to $101.46 per capita.
reduced from 12 to 10
Hampshire
Child Labour,
u,' inued
— Youth
Great
employment con-
high level, with an average of
at a
about 2,500,000 youth 14 through 17 \ears of age employed in the 12-month period ending June 30. 1953. according to census
Of
estimates.
The number
rolled in school increased during
of
1953 for the
first
17.
time since
The trend
school enrolment of children 14 and 15 continued upward
from 94.8% Advances
96.4%
1951 to
in
protecting the welfare of children employed in
in 1952.
of the strengthened child-labour provisions of the Fair Labor act.
Increased attention was given to improving edu-
cational opportunities for children of migrant agricultural work-
broadened efforts of national, state and local groups. Four regional conferences sponsored by the office of education and the National Association of Chief State School Officers in ers through
June 1952 stimulated many school officials to seek out migrant children and get them into school. A seminar on services for children of migratory agricultural workers held by representatives of various tivity
federal agencies contributed
to provide health
increased ac-
to
and welfare services, so often
a pre-
requisite for school attendance. Representatives of public
private agencies
from nine
states
in
to
made recommendations
the southwest and west
for strong action
programs
improve conditions. Increasing concern was expressed in
many
sections of the
United States about working conditions of children
in special
occupations not fully regulated by law. Pin setting was one of the occupations in question.
As
a result, the U.S.
department of
The Boy BeBowling Alleys. Many local, state and national groups interested in youth employment, as well as the industry itself, began to work tosvard eliminating abuses and improving conditions. The National Child Labor committee, a private organization, interested itself in promoting safety for children on farms, through educating farm parents and farm employers on the danger of permitting children to work with farm machinery. Less than a dozen bills directly affecting child labour were passed in the states during 1953. A New York law raised from 12 to 14 the minimum age for boys in street trades, except carrier boys, for whom the minimum was still 12. The act also set for all employment in street trades a maximum five-hour day on days when school is not in session and a maximum four-hour day on school days for work outside school hours. It also placed under the workmen's compensation law any distributor having four or more street traders as employees. An Ohio act setting a labour
made
hind the Pins
minimum
a
survey and issued
a report entitled
—A Report on Pinsetters
in
age of 18 for a considerable number of hazardous
occupations was extended to Sept.
i,
its
relaxation
However, the act girls between 18 and
1955.
suspended the night-work prohibition for 21 and permitted girls 16 and 17 to work
made permanent
provision
until 9 p.m.
New^ Hampshire amended
newspapers after
5
its
permitting
law setting a
minimum
During 1953
in
195
of
May
1952
1,
on the basis of
16
minimum
age
a.m. and to work as golf caddies. Florida
(11%)
of the total
sample of the records
were encouraged by the
service to improve their vocational guid-
and 17 years, though inevitably most of
Other Countries.
left
—
their
work was
school at 15 years.
At its general session in Geneva, Switz., June 1953, the International Labour conference adopted a recommendation concerning the minimum age of admission to work underground in coal mines. This recommendation provided that young persons under 16 years of age should not be employed underground in coal mines and that those under 18 years should not be so employed except for purposes of vocational training and under specified conditions and adequate in
supervision.
The conference recommended
that
each
member
government apply the provisions of this recommendation as national conditions permitted and report to the International Labour organization on measures taken to effect such application.
to
During the year Italy ratified seven conventions pertaining employment conditions of young persons: No. 58 fixing a
minimum
age for admission of children to employment at sea; No. 59 fixing a minimum age for admission of children to industrial employment; No. 60 for their admission to nonindustrial employment; No. 77 and No. 78 concerning medical examinations of children and young persons in industrial and nonindustrial occupations, respectively; No. 79 concerning restriction of night work of children in nonindustrial occupations; No. 90 concerning night work of young persons employed in indus-
Mexico ratified convention No. 58 fixing admission of children to employment at sea.
try.
The year 1953 was
Children's Books.
minimum
age for
(E. S. J.) singularly rich in
the field of children's books, not only
from the standpoint of numbers published, notable colour work, and integrity of writing, but from the contribution made to students, parents, teachers and librarians in the several evaluations of the development in writing for chiloriginality of plot
dren. Cornelia Meigs" editing of
A
Critical History of Children's
Literature was an authoritative study in a in
world literature. Lillian Smith
in
now
recognized area
The Unreluctant Years gave
an interpretive evaluation of the role of children's books in the child's development, while Bess Adams' About Books and Childreti was designed to aid teachers in their use of books with children of elementary and junior high school age.
Picture books were varied, both as to techniques used and as to plot. line,
From Europe came
exciting in colour
and
the
work
Fischer's Pitschi
two artists, strong in namely Selina Chonz' by Alois Carigiet, and
of
originality,
Fiorina and the Wild Bird, illustrated
titles
of 14, for boys to deliver
a
ance and placement services for young persons leaving school
of
girls
was estimated that
it
local school authorities
Employment
Juvenile
Hans
authorizing relaxations of certain labour laws during emergenof 12, instead of the former
— As
of the ministry of national insurance.
Indiana
16 and 17 to work until 9 p.m. except in hazardous work. New York and Massachusetts each extended for one year their acts
cies.
labour force as
and
participated in a regional conference to discuss needs of mi-
grants and
Britain.
concerned with the children who
in
New
their
workers made up about the same proportion
at
agriculture during school hours continued through enforcement
Standards
strengthened
1,381.000 young persons 15 through 17 years of age and 814,000 18- and 19-year-olds were employed. These two groups of young
employed youth not en-
was among youth 16 and
1944. All this increase in
were school youth working
these, nearly two-thirds
outside school hours.
age for nonfactory work
compulsory school-attendance laws by tightening the exemption provisions.
(L. Ln.)
United States.
minimum
its
outside school hours. Illinois, Minnesota, Nebraska and
(about a kitten).
Sequels
to
popular
appeared, as Madeline's Rescue by Ludwig Bemelmans,
Noel for Jeanne-Marie by Frangoise Seignobosc and the pleasingly repetitive Atiother Day by M. H. Ets. Small creatures had their day in Lydia and Don Freeman's Pet of the Met (the music-loving mouse at the opera), in C. S. Bailey's Finnegan II, His Ni?te Lives (a New Hampshire cat), in the Friendly Phoebe (about an orphan bird), of Berta and Elmer Hader and in the
CHILDREN'S BOOKS
167
19th century) by H. T. Wriston.
Fantasy was highly original: Mr. Revere and I by Robert Lawson evoked broad laughter, The Borrowers of Mary Norton was more subtle and The Magic Ball From Mars by C. L. Biemiller was filled with amusing magic. Tall tales were Journey Cake, Ho! by Ruth Sawyer and Big Mose by Katherine
Shippen, legendary to
New York
state.
Two
collections of folk-
were Which was Witch? (Korean) by E. M. Jewett and Tales of the Cheyennes by G. J. Penney. Pets were often the central figures in books, noteworthy being Meindert Dejong's Shadrach (a rabbit of the Netherlands), tales for the storyteller
by Jacqueline Jackson, truly side-splitting, and Alberta for Short by Pearl Frye, of a genial family with too many pets. Creatures of the woods were unforgettably portrayed by Emil Liers in An Otter's Story, by W. T. Person in Bar-Face (raccoon) and in Sheba (grizzly bear) of G. C. Franklin. Stories of horses and dogs were still popular with both boys and girls. Marguerite Henry's Brighty of the Grand Canyon was of a burro, The River Horse by N. A. Frey was of a wild horse in Guatemala and Laurie by E. B. Clapp told of a girl's struggle to keep her horse. A boy's devotion to his dog in pioneer times was the theme of Howl at the Moon by R. J. Hogan and the saga of a wolf-dog in northern Canada was selected by J. E. Chipperfield for his Beyond The Timberland Julie's Secret Sloth
Trail.
Books
of information to satisfy a variety of interests were
girls. How to Make Doll Clothes by E. R. Dow and The Cook-A-Meal Cook Book by Garel Clark proved useful. Boys read All About Radio and Television by Jack Gould and Ships and Life Afloat: From the Galley to the Turbine by Walter Buehr. F. N. Chrystie's Pets was an excellent handbook and Our Country, America by Christie McFall was a graphic presentation of the United States. Harry Behn again contributed to children's poetry with Windy Morning and Lillian Morrison presented a wealth of new riddles in Black Within and
numerous. For
ILLUSTRATION from Lynd Ward's The Biggest Bear, winner Caldecott award presented by the Children's Library association appealing holiday
story
The Christmas Bimny
the
1953
Will
and
of
of
Nicholas. Theodor Seuss Geisel was buoyant as usual in Scram-
Red Without. Biography, always
bled Eggs Super!
Geoffrey Trease in The Seven Queens of England assembled
Books to be shared by adult and child through reading towere numerous: for the machinery-minded, Norman Bate's Who Built The Highway? was stimulating, Margaret
interesting
gether
Otto told of a six-year-old's first train ride in Stephen's Train and her The Tractor Book, written with Stuart Otto, interested
somewhat older boys, Ruth and Latrobe Carroll's Beanie (a boy and his dog) was appealing both in text and illustrations, J. B. Payne"s The Journey of Josiah Talltatters shared humour and a love of hfe and M. E. Mason's The Major and His Camels told of a highway development in Texas. C. T. Newberry wrote for older children than usual in her touching Ice
Cream
Two
for
(about a boy and his cat) and Lee Kingman's Peter's Long
Walk was the record Boys and girls of
of a Httle boy's search for companions.
the fourth and fifth grades continued to
enjoy the misadventures of Ellen Tebbitts Otis Spoford, chuckled over Eddie's
in
Beverly Cleary's
Pay Dirt by Carolyn Hay-
wood and bicycled through Maine with Holiday on Wheels by Catherine Woolley. Fiction for the middle grades was particuElizabeth Ladd's Enchanted Island (Maine) was a
larly rich:
quietly sensitive story for girls, Brother Dusty-Feet (Elizabethan
England) by Rosemary Sutcliff told of a runaway boy and his dog, the Tree Wagon (Oregon trail) of E. S. Lampman was exciting and heart-tugging. Two stories of Florida were marked with refreshing humour, both enjoyed by girls, the One Hundred White Horses of Mildred Lawrence and Up A Crooked River of May McNeer. Books about young herders seemed popular with boys
and were
satisfying
and distinguished,
as
.
.
.
and
now Miguel (New Mexico) by Joseph Krumgold, All Alone (the French Alps) by C. H. Bishop and Show Lamb (Vermont,
material, C.
a rich field,
0. Peare gave a
was no exception.
friendly picture
of
American achievement with Pike of Pike's Peak and James Daugherty fashioned a full-dimensioned study in Marcus and Narcissa Whitman, Pioneers of Oregon. The many fields of science were
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, N.
B. Baker added to
explored, as in What's Inside the Earth? by H. S. Zim.
Fiction
for older girls
Lois Lenski in
Negro; E.
J.
suspense, H.
Mama
seemed somewhat more worthwhile.
Hattie's Girl wrote provocatively of the
McGraw M.
filled Mara, Daughter of the Nile with Miller placed her romance in the Canadian
Northwest in the late i8oos in Promenade All while another historical romance was My True Love Waits by L. M. Weber. Contemporary stories were Lee Kingman's Kathy and the Mysterious Statue, N. J. Seller's Cross My Heart (a high school senior) and M. S. S^olz' sensitive In a Mirror (college). Older boys' books were fast paced, as Captain of the Araby by Howard Pease, A. J. Villier's Ajid Not To Yield (sailing around Ireland) and Triple Threat Patrol by K. Gilbert (log pirates on Puget Sound) testified. Stories with historical background were rich and varied, represented by A Kingdom to Win (Viking and Byzantine) by Roser-ary Sprague, The West Is On Your Left 1753) by Nancy Faulkner, The Secret of the (England and the slave trade) by Leonard Wibberley, Your Orders, Sir (War of 181 2) by R. C. Du Soe and River Circus (Mississippi river boat) by West Lathrop, while My Friend Yakub (Siberia) by Nicholas Kalashnikoff was thoughtHaftd
(Ohio,
Hawk
For family enjoyment America Before Man by E. C. Baity proved a distinguished contribution as did May Edel's The Story of People and Elizabeth Ripley's Michelangelo.
provoking.
»l»."-l
CHriD WELFARE
168 The newly
illustrated edition by Garth Williams ol ail ot Wilder "Little House" books was an outstanding publishing event. Kenneth Grahame's The Wind in the Willows had a few more drawings of Ernest Shepard added and Karl De
the L.
I.
Schweinitz' series
Crowing Up was completely redone.
and the "Young Traveller's Series,'' edited by F. C. Sa>er^. The appearance of many new names to the roster of children's authors was a commendable contribution from the editors of children's books. (Sec also Book Publishing; Literary Prizes.) (E. A. Gs.) Britain.
—A
("Great
added
Are Findings Keepings?, and volume five the Oxford Junior Encyclopaedia was the children's reference shelf. (E. H. Cl.)
Lives")
to
of
Publishers'
continued to appear, such as "World Landmark Hooks"
Great
the law in action in
useful addition to the librarian's book-
International
ClUld Welfare. sembly
Services.
—The
general
as-
of the United Nations, on Oct. 6,
1953, adopted unanimously a resolution authorizing continua-
United Nations International Children's Emergency fund (U.N.I.C.E.F.). Under previous mandate the fund was to
tion of the
have operated only through the year 1953. The proceedings of the general assembly for Oct. 5 and 6 included testimony from representatives of many countries to
1953 was the Library association's Books for Young People: Group Two, Eleven to Thirteen Plus, edited by Edgar
manent
Osborne.
assembly, remarked that the unanimous passage of the resolu-
The youngest children rejoiced in a new picture book by Edward Ardizzone, Tim in Danger, and the story of Noah and the Flood was imaginatively reconstructed for them by M. Fan-
tion stood as a recognition of the fund's success in reaching tens
shelf in
chiotti in
A Bow
and 1953 was no exception, for there was Eleanor Farjeon's The Silver Curlew, C. S. Lewis' The Silver Chair, Marjorie Phillips' Aitnabel and Bryony and D. Counihan's Unicorn Magic. In King Arthur and the Round Table many stories were woven into one narrative by A. M. Hadfield. Barbara L. Picard produced a distinguished retelling in The Tales of the Norse Gods and Heroes. Boys love adventure, however improbable, and found it in John Pudney's Tuesday Adventure. Peril on the Iron Road, by B. Carter, recaptured the thrill of building the early railways, in
Drumbeats David Severn brought strange adventure
through an African drum. Girls and boys enjoyed Monica Edwards' two well-written books, The Wanderer and Storm Ahead, and M. E. Atkinson's The Barnstormers. By Special Request was a collection of short stories edited by Noel Streatfeild.
There were several competent mystery stories: Bill Holmes Red Panthers, by F. Hughes; Follow the Footprints, by W. Mayne; Detectives in Wales, by Jean Henson; and Norman and Henry Bones Investigate, by A. C. Wilson. Historical stories were represented by Geoffrey Trease's Silken atid the
Secret, a tale of the i8th century.
basis.
of millions assistance.
Mme.
its continuation on a perVijayalakshmi Pandit, president of the
of
children with both emergency and long-range
Its
value lay not only in the lives saved but in
the whole communities assisted. Its outstanding vitality stood
in the Cloud.
English children's literature had always been rich in fantasy,
and
the value of the fund and need for
The
life
as a tribute to the devoted
tributed to
its
work
of
all
those
who had
success. She also recognized that the fund
con-
had
contributed to the prestige of the United Nations as a whole
and then called on member states to support the work of the agency.
The
resolution changed the
name
of the agency to United
Nations Children's fund but retained the well-known symbol requested the secretary-general of the U.N. programs carried on by U.N.I.C.E.F. continue to be co-ordinated effectively with the regular and technical assistance programs of the U.N. and the specialized agencies; and to report thereon to the Economic and Social council. U.N.I.C.E.F. and the World Health organization (W.H.O.) continued the close co-operation characterizing their work in recent years. Typical of their collaboration was their joint participation in 1952 and 1953 in pilot projects for treatment of trachoma and leprosy and certain work in environmental transportation. This was decided upon by the Joint Committee on Health Policy consisting of representatives of the two agencies. Numerous joint projects of U.N.I.C.E.F. and W.H.O.
U.N.I.C.E.F.
It also
to ensure that the
reached children and adults in 50 countries. U.N.I.C.E.F. spent $20,000,000 for supplies and W.H.O. provided about 100 profes-
of children in other
lands was portrayed in Aleko's Island (Greece), by E. Fenton;
Drover's
Road (New
loping Green
Zealand), by
J.
Daly of Galand Anne-Marie
W^est; Delia
(Ireland), by Patricia Lynch;
and the Pale Pink Frock (South Africa
in
pioneer days), by
B. Knight.
For older boys and girls, a long-awaited series of career was introduced in Policeman in the Family, by Laurence Meynell; An Actor's Life for Me, by Roland Pertwee; Janet Carr, Journalist, by J. Kamm; and Room for the Cuckoo, a
stories
story of farming,
by M. E.
Allan.
Informative books included several biographies: Cecil Woodham Smith's 'youth" version of her life of Florence Nightin-
The Blue Train, a life of Anton Dolin, by J. Selby Lowndes; and Ten Saints by Eleanor Farjeon, published in Great Britain for the first lime. Sweden and England and Wales were added to the "Young Traveller Series," by G. L. Proctor and Geoffrey Trease. A. Weymouth in Going to London provided a useful guide. E. Osmond's A Valley Grows Up showed in text and pictures a million years in the life of a typical English valley, and Geoffrey Trease wrote on The Seven
gale;
Queens of England. Wheels on the Road by S. E. Ellacott, Flying the Atlantic by M. Reiss and The Story of British Locomotives by B. W'ay dealt with the history of transport. Claude Myllins showed
SUN LAMP TREATMENT tional Health plan
for British children, one of the benefits of the
which during 1953 was
in its fifth
year of operation
Na-
sional workers. In these projects, in keeping with a long-established policy, the
governments
aided provided
in the countries
the equivalent of funds and services
made
available by the two
U.N. agencies, or even more than the U.N. contribution. The accumulative achievements of U.N.I.C.E.F. and W.H.O. by 1953 had accounted for testing of 12,000,000 persons for tuberculosis in India, of whom 4,000,000 were vaccinated with
BCG
(Bacillus-Calmette Guerin).
The number
in
Pakistan ex-
ceeded 2,000,000 tested and 1,000,000 given BCG. This program was extended to Burma, Ceylon, Indonesia and Thailand.
Nearly 50,000,000 children in Europe had been tested for tuberand about 20,000,000 given BCG vaccinations. About 12,000,000 in Mediterranean and Asiatic countries had been pro-
culosis
More than 11,000,000 had been examined for yaws and related diseases and about 3,000,000 tected from malaria and typhus.
given treatment with penicillin to control yaws.
The need for emergency feeding of children had decreased World War II; but in all, about 12,000,000 children and mothers in more than 20 countries had received milk and other foods from U.N.I.C.E.F. In 1953 this type of assistance was since
provided especially
in
famine areas of India and Pakistan and
to refugees in the eastern
certain
Pacific
islands
Mediterranean area, South Korea and
devastated by typhoons. About 5,500
maternal and child welfare centres had been established
Many
countries by 1953.
in
43
of these centres were in rural areas
where such service formerly had been nonexistent. The United States contributed $9,814,000 toward the 1953 budget of U.N.I.C.E.F. Contribution was made late in the year with some uncertainty as to renewal in 1954. In all, the United States had contributed nearly $100,000,000 since the fund's establishment. International relief provided by U.N. and
many
other organ-
was concentrated in South Korea. After June 1953 the agency through which such relief was channelled was the Korean civil assistance command, which was accountable to the U.N. command in Tokyo. Prior to June, the United States army had given administrative supervision to the U.N. civil assistance command. Through these and related agencies, more than $500,000,000 was provided for Korean relief, much of it for the relief and care of children. About 30,000 children were receiving care in orphanages under various auspices in South Korea. This was probably less than one-third of children who needed such care because of devastation wrought by the war and the low
CHILDREN OF FORMER HUKS (Philippine Communists) play ma in nrc f the villages provided by the Philippine government. The jungle communities were established to provide homes and land for former Reds who wished to begin life again in a free nation
izations
standards of living
The department
in that part of the
relief
provided by
many
voluntary and govern-
mental agencies and by the U.N. In Latin America maternal and child welfare centres were being developed in Peru, and new in this
facilities for training
workers
type of service were in operation in Brazil and Chile.
Malaria control had a major place services
affecting
the welfare
of
in the health
children
in
and sanitation Dominican
the
Republic, Guatemala and Mexico.
In Canada the Newfoundland legislature passed in 1953 a Youth Guidance Authority act, modelled after legislation enacted in Saskatchewan in 1950 and 1951. This was part of the
world.
of social affairs of the
need for disaster
U.N. made a study of
movement
in
Canada
to
improve juvenile court services and
juvenile delinquency in five different regions. In 1953 reports
extend them to the rural parts of each province by provision
were available of
of a provincial juvenile court
this
study in three of these regions, North
National Developments.
—Tropical
and related
services.
Juvenile delinquency was a subject of nation-wide concern in
America, Latin America and Europe. diseases were under at-
the United States during 1953.
The United
States senate au-
tack during 1953 in several parts of Africa, much of this being stimulated by U.N. agencies, but in some countries the govern-
thorized a study to investigate juvenile delinquency. This study,
mental health authorities had an important share
Baltimore, Boston, Buffalo, Chicago, Cleveland, Denver, Gary,
paigns. Outstanding
was the campaign against
in these
cam-
syphilis in
Mo-
rocco and an effort to control yaws in Bechuanaland. In both cases children and expectant mothers were given precedence.
Maternal and child welfare centres were becoming a part of established of
community
life at
India, Indonesia,
1954,
was
intensified
in
the following cities:
Kansas City, Los Angeles, Memphis, Milwaukee, Newark, New Orleans, New York, Oklahoma City, Philadelphia, San Antonio, San Francisco and Washington, D.C.
Jacksonville,
In 1952 the children's bureau of the Federal Security agency, department of health, education and welfare, created a
scattered points in the far corners
later the
Burma, Cambodia, Formosa, Malaya, Pakistan, the Philippines,
juvenile delinquency board within the bureau's division of social
Asia including Afghanistan,
Hong Kong,
extending into
services. Co-ordination of activities pertaining to juvenile de-
Sarawak and Vietnam. The same development was under way in the eastern Mediterranean region, especially in Iraq. This trend in countries where the positions of women and children had long been inferior was an important step in creating a society more favourable to the development of children and of family
linquency was the major task of this new unit.
life.
ulate action leading to the
Earthquakes
in the
Ionian Islands in Aug. 1953 created a
It
worked
closely
with the bureau's Special Juvenile Delinquency project, a pro-
gram supported largely by contributions from philanthropic foundations. The purpose of this project was to call public attention to the problems of juvenile delinquency and to stim-
improvement of services
for delin-
quent youth. The bureau's data on delinquency showed for
169
CHILE
170
1952 about 385.000 youths, ages 10 to 17 years, appearing in juvenile courts because of violations of law, an increase of 10%
over
95 1. Paul Tappan of
tion
1
New York university, in the U.X. publica"A Comparative Survey on Juvenile Delinquency," reviewed He
the development of juvenile courts in the United States.
called attention to the great increase in specialized services dur-
ing the
half of the 20th century, not only in the personnel
first
many
of juvenile courts but in the
social agencies related to
the courts, especially child guidance clinics and protective and
He
pointed to advantages and disadvan-
child
care agencies.
tages
of the informality of procedure characteristic
Departure from traditional court procedures allows the
courts.
judge and the court's probation professional
an>-
these
of
officers to utilize to the
throwing
services
on
light
the
utmost be-
child's
ha\iour and needs and to obtain, as far as practical, the co-
The
oi)eralion of the child's family.
marked
larger step
a
been taken
in
away from
entire juvenile court concept
punitive attitudes than had
courts dealing with adults, with attention focused
pLji
A
uilllC.
of South
republic extending along the southern Pacific coast
America for about 2. boo mi.. Chile has an average width of 110 mi. It is bounded on the north by Peru, on the south by the .Antarctic ocean, on the east by Bolivia and Argentina and on the west by the Pacific ocean. It has an area 286,323 sq.mi. and a population of 5.930.809 (April 1952 census). Santiago, the capital, including suburbs has 1,348,283 inhabitants (April 1952 census). Other leading cities of more of
than 50,000 are \"alparaiso, 218,829 inhabitants; Vina del Mar, 85,281; Concepcion, 119,887; Antofagasta, 62,272; Talca, 55,-
Temuco, 51.497; Chilian, 52.576; Talcahuano. Religion: Christian, mainly Roman Catholic. President
059;
54,782. in
1953:
Gen. Carlos Ibanez del Campo.
—
History. During 1953 Chile continued to suffer from an unbalanced budget, unchecked intlation, excessive public e.xpenditure and w-eak controls. There were continued cabinet crises and resignations throughout the year as a result of the diftkult financial situation and the fact that Ibanez did not have a clear
majority
in the national congress.
on the offender's needs, treatment and rehabilitation. This de-
In February congress voted Ibanez extraordinary economic
velopment, however, allowed uses of evidence not countenanced
and administrative powers to curb inflation and reorganize the government. In July Ibanez proposed a four-point anti-inflation
most other courts, sometimes to the disadvantage of those most concerned, a danger especially characteristic of courts in which judges and probation staff lacked skills suitable for their in
plan: to establish one fixed exchange rate of
work.
wages and
The employment of mothers continued as one of the country's most serious problems. The inability of employed mothers to provide sufficient supervision for their children obviously was
to actual production;
Few
related to the rise in juvenile delinquency.
with large numbers
of the cities or
mothers employed provided suitable day care services for children of these workers. Existing facilities for day care usually were overcrowded, and sometimes the waiting lists at day care centres were two or centres
industrial
three times the capacity.
A
of
report on these conditions by the
women's bureau. U.S. department of labour, noted that
in
1951
mothers with children under 18 years of age were in the labour force. In 1940 only one out of nine women in the labour force was a mother with children under 18, whereas by 1950 this proportion had risen to one out of four. During 1953 there were reductions in several items in the
one-fourth of
all
The congress
federal budget affecting services to children. fused, however, to reduce the
amount spent
for school lunches, even though the
recommended
a
in the
re-
previous year
department of agriculture
reduction of more than $8,000,000 because of
increased availability of surplus foods
for
school lunch pro-
grams. In voting $83,365,000 for this purpose for the fiscal year beginning July i, 1953. the house appropriations committee called attention to the increase of about
numbers
An
of children benefiting
its
each year
in
the
act of congress provided for admission into the United
States of not
more than 500
adopted abroad or
age,
S%
from school lunch programs.
citizens
ser\^ing
to
eligible
orphans under ten years of
be adopted
abroad either
in
in the
the
United States by
armed
forces
or in
other governmental employment. This law designated Dec. 31, 1954. as the final date for issuance of nonquota visas pertaining to these children.
Child Labour; Juvenile Delinquency; M.arAND Divorce; Red Cross; Social Security; World
(See also Ri.AGE
Health Organization.)
—
UiBLioc.RAPHV. Child Welfare League of .\mcrica, Residential Treatoj Emoiionally Disturbed Children (New York, 1952); Department of Social .\ffairs of the U.N., A Comparative Survey on Juvenile Dcliiiijucncy Sortli America (1952): United Nations Children's Fund, The Compendium, vol. iv, 1953-54 (1953); World Health Organization, The Work oj IV.H.O. IQS2 (1953); Women's Bureau, U.S. Department of Labor. "Employed Mothers and Child Care" (1953); Children's Bureau, The Child (issued monthly): Child Welfare League of America. Child Weljare (issued monthly); Social Legislation Information Service, freQuent bulletins. (H. W. Hk.)
ment
—
no
to 120 pesos
for U.S. $1 instead of a multiple exchange system; to increase
and channel credit and to penalize speculators and profiteers by having tax returns and private accounts fully inspected Also in February Pres. Juan D. Peron of Argentina paid an official six-day visit to Chile. The visit got off to a bad start social security benefits; to control
because of a declaration, attributed to Peron, claiming that he
favoured the annexation of Chile. Apparently Peron desired a close
union, political and economic, with Chile;
but Chilean
authorities repeatedly pointed out that only economic co-operation
was contemplated.
It
was reported that Peron was informed
of Ibanez's difficult position in view of the coming congres-
and
sional elections
his desire not to allow the visit to
become
a political issue.
Peron donated 21.000.000 pesos (U.S. $15,groups provided they would support Ibafiez in the congressional election. This caused a reaction and the expulsion of Maria Hamuy and Maria de la Cruz, the first women elected to the Chilean senate from the Progressive
During
000 j
to
his visit
two
feminist
Feminist party. The donation was returned. After signing a preliminary agreement providing for a joint
commission to draft an economic treaty within 120 days. Ibanez accompanied Peron to the Argentine town of Las Cuevas on the border, which was renamed Villa Peron. In July, Ibanez returned Peron's visit, and the Argentine-Chilean Economic Union treaty was signed in Buenos Aires. This provided for economic cooperation and commercial exchanges. Elections were held in March to elect 147 members of the house, 25 senators and 1,552 municipal officials. There were many political parties participating but they were grouped into three broad alliances:
the
supporters of Ibanez, the Radical
him and the left wing. Voting was very light. Election returns showed that the new house would have 73 members supporting Ibanez, 73 opposing him and i independent. The new senate would have 13 supporters of Ibanez and 32 in the opposition. The Communists and their sympathizers were coalition opposing
offering their support to Ibanez provided that he law for the defense of democracy (which bans the repeal the Communist party), denounce the military pact with the U.S.,
prompt
in
improve the standard of living and and the "iron pronouncepublic in a came reply Ibariez's countries. curtain" ment labelling Communism a despotic and cruel foreign im-
institute agrarian reforms,
re-establish diplomatic relations with the U.S.S.R.
CHINA perinlism. In his annual message
to congress
171
he again attacked
the Communists and upheld ihe charter of the Organization of American States and the Rio military assistance pact.
Ibanez also gave assurance that he did not intend to nationthe copper and nitrate industries. The government announced that it was considering measures to attract more foreign capital. During the year the U.S. designated Willard L. Beaulac as its new ambassador, succeeding Claude G. Bowers,
alize
who had
Bank
held the post since
1939.
(See also International
for Reconstruction and Development.)
(J.
McAd.)
—
In 1949 the public primary schools had 547.863 pupils and the private and municipal primary schools 206,631 pupils. Secondary schools had 73,943 pupils. University education was available at the state university of Chile (6,903 students in 1950), the Catholic university of Santiago (1,914 students), the University of Concepcion (1,433 students) and the Catholic university of X'alparaiso (642 students). Education.
Finance.- -The monetary unit is the peso, valued at 0.51 cent U.S. currency, free market (curb) rate, on Auii. 31, 1953. The rate for imports into Ciiile was 1.66 cents (provisional commercial), i.22 cents (official), 2.32 cents (banking market), 1.996 cents (special commercial). 0.91 cent free market (bank) or the free market (curb) rate, depending upon their relative importance to the econom)'. The 1954 budget, as submitted to congress, balanced revenue and expenditure at 59,248.000.000 pesos. In 1952 ordinary e.\|)enditurc was 41,948.000,000 pesos; revenue, 36,184.000,000 pesos. The funded external debt on Dec. 31, 1952, was £19.112.464, $109.858.500 and 86,496.200 Fr. Swiss; the direct internal debt, 10,046,926,773 pesos. Xotes and coin in circulation totalled 13.100,000,000 pesos on July 31. 1952. The cost of living index stood at 265 in Aug. 1953 (1948
=
100). Trade and Communications.— Exports in 1952 (excluding gold) amounted $454,500,000; imports were $369,800,000. Leading exports were copper (479^), nitrate of soda (13'y ). metallurgical products, Iargel>' iron and steel (7%), and cereals, pulses and fruit (4%); leading imports, machinery (r6%). chemicals and drugs (15%), transport materials and vehicles (to%), metals and manufactures (7% and sugar and derivatives (5% ). Chief customers were the U.S. (57% ), Argentina (8% ), the United Kingdom (5%), Germany (5%) and Italy (3%); chief suppliers, the U.S. (527c). the United Kingdom (9%), Argentina (8%). Peru (6%) to
)
and Germany {6%). The railwaj' system totalled 5,434 mi. in 1949. of which 3,859 mi. were owned by the government. In 1951 there were 31.215 mi. of highways. Motor vehicles (1951) included 43,390 automobiles. 30,998 trucks and 4,222 buses, .\ccording to Lloyd's Register of Shipping, the merchant marine had 92 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating 187.618 gross tons on June 50, 1952. Agriculture.
— Production
of the principal crops in the crop year 1952-53 (in metric tons); wheat 1,199,471; oats 105,526; barley 140,404; potatoes 547,520; beans 84,012; maize 90,368; lentils 19,231; chick-peas 5,083. Livestock included (1952) 2,292.954 cattle, (1949) 585.000 pigs. 636.000 goats and 6,435.000 sheep. Wool production
was estimated as follows
averages 17.000 short tons a year, lumber production about 275,000,000 bd.ft. and landings of fish (including shellfish) about 70.000 short tons. Manufactures.
— Manufacturing
establishments were reported to number 5.585 in 1948. with capital of 1,466.587.000 pesos and 296,000 employees. There were about 375 textile mills in 1950. including 43 cotton mills, 220 knitting mills and 46 silk and rayon mills. Production figures (1952) included steel 246.474 metric tons; pig iron 270,175 tons; cement 817,200 tons; woven cotton fabrics 28,350,000 yd.; wheat flour 585.000 tons: manufactured gas 148.000.000 cu.m. The index for manufacturing industries averaged 133 in 1952 (1948=100). Electrical energy is used extensively; production in 1952 was 1.872.000,000 kw.hr.
—
Mineral Production. Chile is the leading mineral-producing country in South -America. Production in 1952 included copper 404,739 metric tons; coal 2,416,894 tons; iron ore 2.310.474 tons; nitrate of soda 1,427,817 tons; gold 177.050 tro>' oz.; silver 1,246.633 oz.; mercury 13,150 lb. Petroleum production on-Tierra del Fuego totalled 115,680 metric tons in 1952.
rti
•
(J.
W. Mw.)
China borders the U.S.S.R. and Outer Mongolia for
llllMld. more than 6.000 mi, on the north,
is flanked by Japan on the east and India on the southwest, and adjoins Korea,
Indochina and Burma. Including Manchuria and Sinkiang on the mainland and Formosa (Taiwan) and numerous other islands, it has a total area of 3,876,956 sq.mi. with a population of approximately 475.000,000. Politically, during 1953 it remained divided
two entities: (i) Communist China on the mainland and Hainan Island under the Central People's government in Peking with Mao Tse-tung as its chairman; (:) the Nationalists on Formosa and 17 other islands under the National government in Taipei with Chiang Kai-shek as its president, China under the Communist regime is divided into eight major administrative units, including six greater administrative regions and two autonomies (Inner Mongolia and Tibet). In 1952 cities with more than 1,000,000 population were: Peking, into
MAO TSE-TUNG
acknowledging applause celebration in Peking
(right)
as
he
leaves
the
rostrum
1953 May day
following the
2,240,000; Shanghai, 5,410.000; Tientsin, 2,010.000; Chungking,
Mukden,
2.000.000;
1.790.000;
(Hankow and Wuchang),
Canton,
i.
210. 000;
Wuhan
1,090,000; Nanking, 1,020,000; Port
Arthur and Dairen 1,010,000; Harbin, more than 1,000,000. "To resist United States aggression and aid Korea" History.
—
remained the basic foreign policy of the Peking (Communist) government. Toward the end of 1952 and in the midst of the
Korean war. two major domestic programs were initiated giving some indication of a gradual shifting of emphasis to internal policies. First. Premier Chou En-lai announced on Dec. 24, 1952, a five-year plan of economic development with a provisional
program
its political
for 1953. Second, in order to consolidate further
authority the Central People's government council
adopted on Jan. 13, 1953, a decision to hold nation-wide elections which would lead to the convocation later in 1953 of the first
all-China people's congress to adopt a constitution, approve
the
outline
of
five-year
the
plan
and
elect
a
new Central
People's government.
Under Peking's democratic dictatorship prescribed in the coma highly centralized government unknown in China's history was in operation. All elements actually or potentially regarded as inimical to the new regime were purged or eliminated. The traditional Chinese culture and ethical standards were discredited and replaced by the new ideologies of Marx and Mao. The Central People's government considered it opportune to prepare for the drafting of a constitution and
mon program
people's
electing a
congress.
On
Jan.
13
the
committee for
drafting the constitution was formed under the chairmanship of
Mao. According committee,
to the timetable fixed
all local
by the
central election
congresses were to be convened by the end
of 1953 for the indirect election of the all-China people's con-
On
it was announced that the national legislawould be postponed until the spring of 1954. In Formosa it was decided on Sept. 28 to extend the life of the Nationalist assembly in order to enable it to conduct a presi-
gress.
Sept. 19
tive elections
dential election in Feb. 1954.
During 1953 drought in northern areas and floods in southwest China were reported. Furthermore, the stress and strain of the Korean war seriously affected the economy of Communist China
CHINA
172 and retarded
its
development. The importance and urgency of
tory, but the actual stalemate or
was keenly
that were greater
impasse
left
unresolved issues
by Peking authorities. In the announcement of the beginning of the five-year plan on Jan. i, it was stated that economic construction had been completed
started the war.
during 1950-53, particularly
hower's order of "deneutralization" of Formosa
industrialization
by means
talism
fell
in
reducing the elements of capi-
of political power, in developing state agencies
to achieve monopolistic economy and in accumulating funds for economic reconstruction. Emphasis of the five-year plan was on the development of heavy industries and the modernization of national defense. As a result of long negotiations, it was announced on Sept. 15 that the Soviet government had agreed to extend "systematic economic and technical aid" to Communist China's economic construction. Although there were indications of difficulties between Peking and Moscow, their relations showed no serious strain. In ac-
cordance with the Sino-Soviet treaty of Feb. 1950 and after prolonged negotiations, an agreement was signed on Dec. 31, 1952, whereby the Soviet
Union relinquished
its
rights in the
administration of the Chinese Changchun railway.
joint
The
practical arrangements for the transfer of the railway administration to the direct control of the Chinese ministry of rail-
ways took place
in April shortly after the signing of additional
protocols on trade and economic agreements toward the end of
March. Soviet troops remained terminals of the railway.
On
in
Dairen and Port Arthur, the
Feb. 24 the Nationalist legislative
yuan unanimously approved the decision of the executive yuan repudiating the Sino-Soviet treaty of Aug. 1945. Joseph Stalin's
death caused wide speculation on the relations between Peking
and Moscow-. However, that
the
shaken.
Mao
Tse-tung reiterated
March
in early
unbreakable Sino-Soviet alliance would remain un-
On March
10 V. V. Kuznetsov, a leading
member
of the
Russian Communist party, was appointed by Georgi Malenkov as the
new ambassador
to
Peking
in
order to strengthen Sino-
Soviet relations. In the United Nations the Soviet Union con-
Communist China and repeatany big-power negotiations. On Oct. I Peking authorities called for closer military and economic collaboration with the Soviet Union. Endorsing the Soviet proposal of Sept. 28 for a conference of the Big Five, Premier Chou declared on Oct. 8 that a settlement in Asia was impossible unless Communist China was admitted to the United tinued to champion the cause of
edly suggested
its
inclusion in
Nations.
On Dec.
3,
1952, the United Nations general assembly adopted
an Indian resolution recognizing the
right of
Korean war prison-
ers to be repatriated but rejecting the use of force to
those
who
did not wish to be repatriated. Five
members
compel of the
Soviet bloc voted against the resolution while Nationalist China abstained, explaining that Poland and Czechoslovakia of the
Repatriation commission were not really neutral. Mao's govern-
ment formally rejected the U.N. truce offer on Dec. 15. On the same day Premier Jawaharlal Nehru of India revealed that it was only after obtaining Peking's approval to the basic principles that the Indian resolution was introduced. Following the initial agreement for exchanging sick and wounded prisoners of war on both sides, Chou proposed in a radio speech from Peking on March 30 that the deadlock on armistice negotiations be setChous proposal was welcomed by many U.N. members as it was along the line of the original Indian formula. On April i \'yacheslav Molotov pledged help in ending the Korean war on terms proposed by Chou and recommended at the same time the admission of Communist China and North Korea to the United Nations. The truce negotiations at Panmunjom reopened on April 26. Despite the release of a large number of Korean prisoners of war in South Korea by Pres. Syngman Rhee and his threat to remove the army from U.N. command, the armistice agreement was signed on July 27. Both sides claimed victled.
It
and more
intricate than the
was believed that United States
Pres.
problems which
Dwight D. Eisenin early
Febru-
Mutual Security agency's move to cut down on shipments to and from Communist China by putting strict regulations on vessels carrying trade or aid into the Asian coastal area, the discussion of a possible blockade of Communist China by the U.S. department of state and some congressional leaders, and Secretary of State John Foster Dulles' warning through India's Premier Nehru during the former's visit to New Delhi in May of enlarging the war if the truce talks broke down, all had a sobering effect on Peking and Moscow. On the other hand, pressure from England, Canada and India particularly caused the United States not to insist on the release of war prisoners of Korean nationality who refused to be repatriated and to agree to turn the question of prisoners of war over to a political conference. However, the fundamental issues of a far eastern settlement remained to divide east and west and the allies of the free world. While the United States maintained that a far eastern settlement could be achieved only by keeping a position of strength, the United Kingdom and India particularly seemed to believe such a settlement could be obtained by conceding to Peking and Moscow such points as admission of Communist China into the United Nations and recognition of its sovereignty over Formosa. Furthermore, there was the quesary, the
tion of trade with
insisted
on trading
Communist China, in nonstrategic
as the United
Kingdom
goods with Peking despite
United States congressional complaints. Efforts were made by Washington, London and Paris to reach some common understanding on far eastern issues. On March 17 British Foreign Secretary Anthony
Eden declared
that he w^as not prepared to
advocate that the United Nations admit "the People's Government of China which is in full aggression against the United
Nations and shooting down our troops." Meanwhile more aid to the Vietminh forces in Indochina by Peking was reported. As a result of French-U.S. policy talks in
Washington, a communique
was issued on March 28 warning that "should the Chinese Communist regime take advantage of such an armistice to pursue aggressive war elsewhere in the Far East, such action would
have the most serious consequences for the efforts to bring ." After their talks in Washington about peace in the world. the foreign ministers of the United States, the United Kingdom and France issued a communique on July 14 warning that the three governments would go back to war in Korea at once if the expected armistice w-as violated by renewed aggression from the Communist side. Regarding the China issue they could only state that "in existing circumstances and pending further consultation, the common policies of the three Powers towards .
.
Communist China should be maintained." The attitude of the U.S. congress toward the admission of Communist China into the United Nations as a quid pro quo for a settlement in Asia w-as more pronounced and determined.
On May
27 the senate appropriations
committee voted
to with-
hold further contributions to the United Nations in the event that Communist China should be admitted to the organization. President Eisenhower's strong advice and his promise to take an abandonment of a
active part in opposing admission led to the
congressional resolution to that effect on June 2. Next day the senate approved by a roll-call vote of 76 to o an unqualified declaration of opposition to the admission of
Communist China
United Nations. Shortly after the house of representatives voted 379 to c against the admission of Communist China, Secretary of State Dulles said on July 21 at a press to the
conference that the issue would not be appropriate for review
at the prospective
Korean
political conference.
President Eisenhower's state of the union message to congress of Feb. 2, which formally ended the jth fleet's protective screen of Communist China, brought hope and encouragement to the
government but caused concern to Great Britain. Peking denounced Eisenhower's order of "deneutralization" of Formosa. In the meantime more military aid to Formosa was planned by the United States. However, the omission of any mention of China or Formosa in President Eisenhower's major foreign policy speech of April i6 outlining proposals for world peace was noticeable. At an informal press conference in midNational
April Dulles revealed a possible over-all far eastern settlement
based on acceptance of a state of peaceful coexistence with Communist China in exchange for peace in Korea and Indoit was confirmed that a gentlemen's agreement Washington and Taipei whereby the Nationalists would not intensify military operations against the mainland without prior consultation with the U.S. mihtary authorities. On Aug. 17 the seventh session of the general assembly was called back to discuss the composition of the Korean political
china.
On Aug.
i8
existed between
conference. In supporting the Soviet position at the general
assembly, Peking urged that the conference should be of the round-table type to discuss a wide range of topics.
On Aug.
28
the general assembly adopted the U.S. resolution for a two-sided
conference on Korea, opposing India's participation, which had received majority support in the Political and Security committee of the general assembly. Two days before the
political
opening of the eighth session of the general assembly on Sept. 15, Peking formally requested a round-table conference on
Korea including the U.S.S.R., India, Indonesia, Pakistan and Burma. On Sept. 15 the general assembly rejected the Soviet proposal to admit Communist China and voted to postpone the remainder of 1953, with 44 countries in favour. 10 against and 2 abstentions. The Soviet move to reopen debate on issue for the
the composition of the
Korean
political
conference was also
unsuccessful.
On March
26
Burma submitted
a complaint to the general
assembly accusing the National government of having committed aggression by failing to order
Burma,
to
its
troops,
driven into
submit to disarmament and internment.
won immediate support from the Soviet and Yugoslavia. The general assembly adopted on accusation
Burma's
bloc, India
April 23 a
NaBurma. In May the representatives of the United States, Burma, Thailand and Nationalist China conferred in Bangkok to implement the resolution but negotiations broke down on Sept. 17. (See also Communism; Formosa; Korean War; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; United Naresolution calling for the withdrawal or internment of the tionalist troops in
tions.)
—
Education. Primary education on the mainland had been reduced to five years, "giving greater opportunity to children of the labouring classes." According to 1953 official figures, there were in 1952 about 550,000 primary schools with a total enrolment of about 53,000,000. The numbers of secondary schools and their enrolment in 1952 were about 5,500 and 3,000,000, respectively. The oflicial figures placed the number of colleges and universities in June 1953 at 218 (compared with nearly 250 in 1951) with 219.700
students (175,000 in 1951). Defense. The total strength of the Chinese People's liberation army was estimated at 4,000,000 to 5,000,000 men organized into four armies, each consisting normally of three divisions, with Soviet advisers at nearly all levels. The Chinese Communist air force was believed to have about 1.800 planes, half of them jet fighters, with about 200,000 personnel. It was reported that Peking had received about 50 naval vessels, including 20 submarines, from the Soviet Union. Half of approximately 600.000 Nationalist forces on Formosa was classified as combat effective. Most planes of the Nationalist air force were obsolete, but in 1953 some jet trainer planes were sent to Formosa and about 50 Chinese jet pilots were being trained in the United States. The Nationalist navy had about 100 small vessels. Finance. --i'eking's finance minister. Po-I-po. who was replaced in September, announced in February the 1953 budget estimates in monetary terms for the first time. The revenue came to 233,499,100,000,000 People's bank notes or yuan (an equivalent of U.S. $9,864,700,000), an increase of 2^.6% compared with 1952. The expenditures also amounted
—
SHANGHAI COTTON a
MILL, state owned and controlled, which in 1953 adopted new spinning method designed to increase both quantity and quality of
production and reduce wastage
to exactly 233,499,100,000,000 People's bank notes, an increase of 43.06% compared with 1952. The projected receipts of the total revenue would come from the following sources; taxation, 49%; proceeds of stale enterprises, 29.97%; credit loans and insurance, 4.4%; balance from 1952, 16.51%. The expenditure would be apportioned as follows; national construction, 59.24%; national defense, 22.38%; administration, 10.19%; miscellaneous, 1.56%, reserve fund, 6.63%. The government fi.xed an official exchange rate of 23,670 People's bank notes to U.S. $1. The National government on Formosa continued to depend on U.S. aid to balance its budget, and the new Taiwan dollar's official rate was 15 to U.S. $1. Trade and Communications. According to the official report. Communist China's trade with the Soviet Union and its satellite countries rose from
—
26%
of the total foreign trade in
1950
to
72%
in
1952. Further expansion
of this trade was assured in 1953 t>y 'he signing of a Sino-Soviet additional trade protocol, a Sino-Czech trade pact and a Sino-Polish trade agreement. A five-year trade agreement between the Peking government and Ceylon in Dec. 1952 provided for the exchange of rubber and rice. In Peking the China National Import and Export corporation signed commercial agreements with the British and French trade delegations in July and June, respectively, involving a total trade of about £80,000,000.
A
trade agreement was signed between Peking and Finland. Japanese trade missions visited Peking. A formal trade agreement was signed between Nationalist China and Japan in June. After the railways (about 16.000 mi.) on the mainland and Hainan Island had been restored to the prewar position in July 1951. the Peking government started to build new lines largely based on the plan laid down by the Nationalists. The main lines completed were: Chennankwan-Liuchow. linking north China with the Indochinese frontier; Chengtu-Chungking, connecting northwest and southwest China; Tienshui-Lanchow, linking the northwest with the eastern seaboard. The last two lines completed in 1952 totalled approximately 450 mi.
—
Agricultural and Industrial Production. Official 1952 figures of important agricultural output (in tons) weie; grain, 163.750,000; raw cotton. 1,292.000; tobacco, 202,000; tea. 82,500: marine products, 1,710,000. Except for tea, all items mentioned exceeded the highest figure in the pre-World War II period. Taking 1949 as the base of 100, the official percentage figures for 1952 industrial production were: pig iron, 750; steel, 940; rolled steel, 820; electrical power, 180; coal, 200; crude oil. 310; copper, 1,020; cotton yarn, 200; cotton cloth, 230. With 1953 production as the base of 100, the goals of 1953 output in the first year of the five-year plan were comparatively modest: grain, 109; raw cotton, 116; piece goods, 1 16; cotton yarn, 109; tea, 116; pig iron, 114; steel insjols. 133; coal, 100; power, 127; petroleum, 142; copper, 139; lead, 149; zinc, 154; tools. 134; cement 117. HiBLioc.R.APHY. Carsun Chang, Tlic Tliird Force in China (New York, 1953); Frank Moraes, Report on Mao's China (New York. 1953); Raja Hutheesing. The Great Peace (New York, I9S3); Joseph W. Ballantine, (H. T. Ch.) Formosa (Washington, 1952).
machine
—
173
CHIROPRACTIC — CHRISTIAN UNITY
174 Chiropractic:
mount importance,
Medicine.
sec
although the Church of South India was
for,
the only church which had successfully
Phrictiiin Ulll loLldll
E-''P^'*"^c^ ^'^"^
strengthened relations
QpionnO OUICllUC. with young Christian
armed services and Mother Church, the
in
college
First
highlighted
Church of
ton, Mass., during the year 1953.
Scientists in the
activities
of
the
Christ. Scientist, in Bos-
Notable among these was the
establishment of a division of college organizational activities to
provide guidance for the 119 recognized Christian Science
organizations on college and university campuses, and informal
student groups,
in
the United States and overseas.
Co-ordination of relations of the Mother Church with the
armed States
forces and the \'eterans administration was reorganized with the establishment of
ment. Christian Science Activities for the
in
the United
new departArmed Services. The a
department procures chaplains and procures and supervises the civilian workers (of whom there were 470 in 1953) who minister to troops at military establishments pitals.
A
entists
branch
stationed
office in
the
in
London, British
in
and
at veterans' hos-
touch with Christian Sci-
Isles.
Hong Kong, Malaya,
presbyterian and into one,
it
their present
combined the episcopal,
congregational conceptions of church order
had done .so among churches which originated in form at the time of the Reformation and with
churches, therefore, of the western world. cussion with the
The union under
Mar Thoma Church would add
thus broaden the significance of the existing union.
The genChurch of South India scheme were being developed in Ceylon, and a new edition during the year of the Ceylon Scheme oj Union marked further progress there. In England, renewed impetus was given to discussions on unity between the Church of England and the Free churches. The archbishop of Canterbury provided a background for them in repeated statements, of which the following sentence from a sermon in St. Paul's cathedral is illustrative: "Are [the churches] not ready now to say that the Holy Catholic Church embraces all baptized persons and all groups of baptized persons: and that however erroneous or imperfect or even scaneral principles of the
we may consider one another
dalous
During the year 15 Christian Science chaplains were on active duty in Korea, Japan, Austria and the United States. As of July I, 1953, the Mother Church had 3.103 branch churches and societies throughout the world. Thirty-four new branches were recognized during the year. Included were those in Casablanca, Morocco; Apeldoorn, Xeth.; and three in Germany. Members of the Christian Science Board of Lectureship toured the orient, including Korea, as well as North and South America, Europe and Australia. Accounts of spiritual healing a vital aspect of the denomination's teachings were reported in the Christian Science religious periodicals. They included complete recovery from
within the Holy Catholic Church and not across
—
organic
ills
including
cancer,
diabetes,
heart
trouble,
tuber-
and blindness, as well as broken bones, functional disorders and problems of human relations. Circulation of the Christian Science Monitor, the denominaculosis
tion's international
daily newspaper, reached
translations of certain of the writings of
new
peaks.
New
Mary Baker Eddy,
the discoverer and founder of Christian Science, into Spanish,
Swedish, Dutch, Greek and Russian were published during the year.
Expenditure of more than $1,000,000 for charitable purposes was reported by church officials. Weekly transcribed religious programs of the Mother Church were heard on about 600 radio stations in North and South America, Australia, South Africa and Europe.
Phriction
uNilulKlll
llnttll UlliLjf.
(T. E. Hy.)
Although no church unions were consummated in 1952-53, interesting and
important discussions continued. The Church of South India,
which is the most comprehensive united church in existence, having merged Anglican (Episcopal). Methodist, Congregationalist and Presbyterian churches, continued conversations with Lutheran churches with a view to their joining the united church. The ancient Mar Thoma Church of South India took the first steps looking toward closer unity with the Church of South India. The first stage, recommended by an official committee appointed by the metropolitan, was intercommunion between the Mar Thoma Church and the Church of South India, according to which each church would recognize the other as "part of the One Universal Church" and agree to admit members of the other church to participate in the Sacrament of Holy Communion. A second stage, which was only beginning to be discussed, w-ould involve union between the Mar Thoma and the Church of South India. These discussions were of para-
dis-
church of
episcopal order from the Orthodox tradition of the east and
Singapore, Egypt, Gibraltar and other points, also was opened.
—
a
to be,
our divisions are its
borders."
In Oct. 1952 the upper house of the Convocation of Canterbury
voted that consideration be given "to the possibility of opening conversations [on church unity] with individual free churches."
In the United
States,
a
plan to unite
three
Presbyterian
churches, Presbyterian U.S.A. (north), Presbyterian U.S. (south)
and United Presbyterian, was advanced a stage further by all three churches. The proposed merger of five Lutheran bodies was not further advanced (American Lutheran Church, Evangelical Lutheran Church, United Evangelical Lutheran Church, Augustana Lutheran Church and Lutheran Free Church). Apart from these discussions of union among churches, the scene was dominated in 1952-53, as in former years, by Christian co-operation among churches. The development and increasing prestige of the World Council of Churches and the growing collateral work of councils of churches in various nations were a steady influence toward better co-operation among Orthodox and Protestant bodies. In the United States, 1952 marked the end of the first biennium of the new National Council of the Churches of Christ in the U.S.A. The areas of co-operation among its member churches grew in variety and extent, and it became increasingly the vehicle of a united Protestant voice on many issues of church and national poHcy. The World Council of Churches proceeded with plans for its world assembly in 1954 (Aug. 15-31, at Northwestern university, Evanston, 111.) and in its work of interchurch aid (see Religion) and international study continued to deepen unity
among
Christians.
issued
an
The ecumenical
encyclical
favourable
patriarch at Constantinople to
the
co-operation
of
the
movement. Christian unity across the barrier of the "iron curtain" was furthered by contact, in part achieved through the World Council of Churches, in Germany, Hungary and to some extent in Czechoslovakia. Unity among the churches of Yugoslavia and the west, as well as of Greece and the west, was deepened through the work of interchurch aid. Unity between Christians of the orient, Africa and the western countries was furthered by ecumenical meetings in India in Dec. 1952-Jan. 1953. The third World Conference of Christian Youth in Kottayam, India, and the meeting of the Central committee of the World Council of Churches in Lucknow marked the first time that such ecumenical meetings had been held in the far east. Continued, vigorous work in Asia and Africa on the part of western missionary societies, and increased attention to the development of indigenous Christian leadership and church life there, further
Orthodox
churches
in
the
ecumenical
CHROMIUM AND CH RO M ITE— C H U RC H MEMBERSHIP developed unity between Christians of east and west. Two developments in the theolog'cal world aided the growth
The
was the continuing work, projected movement, especially following the third World Conference on Faith and Order which adjourned in early Sept. 1952. It was clear from this work that the major theological question, which in one of unity.
sense governs tian
unity,
is
of these
first
with more clarity
all
other theological questions concerning Chris-
that
which deals with the relationship of Jesus
Christ the Lord to the Church Universal and to the various de-
mean
nominations. Specifically, what does
it
and
acknowledge Jesus Christ one way or another claim the Universal Church? If
different churches that they all
common
to be their
Lord, and
all in
for the separated
have a distinctive relationship to a single Lord of all and membership in a single Holy Catholic Church mean that there should be greater visible unity among the different denominations, what form should that unity take? to
Many had now come
to the conclusion that this
important issue of faith involved
in
is
the most
the problem of Christian
unity.
A
Council of Europe. In the general election of Oct.
1951 the Conservatives were returned to power and on Oct. 26 Winston Churchill again took office as prime minister.
On
1953, of the Faith and Order
in
second development was the conclusion
in the
summer
of
1953 of the work of a commission of influential Protestant. An-
and Orthodox theologians. The commission had been creWorld Council of Churches to prepare a statement of the "Christian Hope" in preparation for its second assembly in 1954. Such a representative commission of theologians had never before been convened, and the successful completion of their task marked a new step forward. Agreement on the main outlines of a full theological statement of the Christian hope and its meaning for the present time provided a unity in the area of the Christian message to the world which had not been
Jan.
1953, Churchill arrived in the United States for
5,
Washington with Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower, John Foster Dulles and the new ambassador to Great Britain, William Aldrich. In March he had discussions with Marshal Tito during the latter's state visit to Great Britain and held a luncheon in his honour on March 19. Early in April, because of the indisposition of Anthony Eden, the foreign secretary, Churchill assumed charge of the foreign office. On April 24, at Windsor, the queen invested him Knight of the Garter. On May 15 he had discussions with Konrad Adenauer, the German chancellor, during the latter's two-day visit to London as guest of the government. Late in June it was announced that Churchill's doctors had ordered him to rest, and he remained at Chartwell until July 24, when he went to Chequers for the remainder of his convalescence. He announced on Oct. 15 his acceptance of the Nobel prize for literature for 1953. Early in December Churchill had informal discussions in Bermuda with President Eisenhower and Premier Joseph Laniel of France, at which they decided to accept the Soviet offer to hold talks in
four-power foreign ministers' conference
glican
a
ated by the
gested that the conference start Jan.
reached before. Increased attention was given during the year to another aspect of unity. This was "nontheological," or that which has to
do with overcoming divisions
logical
and cultural
in the
churches caused by socio-
factors. Divisions of race
and of caste and
of class in society in general are seen to have their influence also
upon
and within the World members careful attention was
divisions within the church
Council of Churches and
its
in
175 smaller bodies of the nation.
Table
I.
— Church
in Spain, Italy
and Colombia
in
Confinenfal Unifed States, as Reported
1953
Advenfists, Seventh-day
Apostolic Overcoming Holy Church of
in
More Than 50,000 Members
Body
Assemblies of
were noted with regret.
Membership
for Religious Bodies With
Members,
Catholics and Protestants was
upon Protestants
Berhn, and sug-
;
not marked by any particular event during the year, but disabilities visited
in
1954.
^^^ ^'^''^ information in 1953 Mpmhpr^hin concerning church membership mCIIIUCIdlli|J. in 251 religious bodies in continental United States, appearing in the Yearbook of American Churches (New York, 1953), indicated that there were 92,277,129 persons in 285.277 local churches or congregations. The figures were mainly for years ending in 1952. This compared with 88,673,005 members reported in the Yearbook a year earlier. There were 76 religious bodies reporting more than 50,000 members {see Table I), and their total membership was 90,656.935, or more than 98% of all members of religious bodies. The remaining 2% was found
1953,
Roman
4,
Phiirrh bilUibil
given to these issues.
Co-operation between
175
God
God
Members, 1952
253,889 75,000 370,118
245,974 75,000 318,478
1,505,653 7,634,493 4,467,779 2,606,289 286,691
400,000 51,105
1,554,304 7,373,498 4,467,779 2,645,789 286,691 400,000 50,487
57,674 80,000 72,000 100,000
57,674 79,000 72,000 78,350
188,467 73,000
186,358 73,000 682,172 52,935
Baptist Bodies:
The World Council
and the International Missionary council, chief agencies of Protestant and Orthodox cooperation on the world level, took additional steps toward more
American Baptist Convention
closely integrating their work. In the field of world ministry to
American Baptist Association
two agencies merged their programs, and in the area of Christian study and inquiry concerning church and social problems increasingly co-ordinated their work. (See also Lutherans; Presbyterian Church; Unitarian Church.)
General Boptists
of Churches
refugees, the
(R.
Chromium and Chromite:
see
S.
Br.)
Mineral and Metal Pro-
duction and Prices.
Chronology:
see
1953, pages 1-16.
Spencer
(1874-
at
British statesman,
Oxfordshire, on Nov. 30. For his
was born
Blenheim palace, biography and political career
Wars I and II, see Encyclopcedia Britannica. After the defeat of his government in the general election of 1945, he led the Conservative opposition in the house of comduring World
mons. His
speec'-. at
starting point of the
Free Will Baptists Baptist Evangelical Life and Soul Siving Assembly of U.S.A Notional Primitive Baptist Convenlion of the U.S.A. . .
National
Primitive Baptists
United American Free Will Baptist Chuich Brethren
(German
Baptist):
Church of the Brethren Buddhist Churches of America
1,112,123
Christ Unity Science Church
Calendar of Events,
Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard ),
Southern Baptist Convention Notionol Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc National Baptist Convention of America
Fulton, Mo., in 1946 was regarded as the
movement
for
European unity and for a
Christian
56,097
and Missionary Alliance
Churches of God: Church of God (Cleveland, Tenn.) Church of God (Anderson, Ind.) The Church of God
Church of
God
in
Christ
Church of Our Lord Jesus Christ of the Apostolic
Faith, Inc.*
Church of the Naiarene Churches of Christ
Congregational Christian Churches Disciples of Christ, Internotional Convention
126,844 111,011 56,188 328,304 50,000 243,152 1,500,000 1,269,466 1,815,627
Eastern Orthodox Churches:
American Carpatho-Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic
.75,000
Church
*Not reported
in
1952.
121,706 100,814 54,560 323,305
235,670 1,000,000 1,241,477 1,792,985
——
—
JEHOVAH'S WITNESSES Yankee stadium
in
(the Watchtower Bible and Tract society) packed city during an eight-day world assembly in
New York
Members,
July 1953
Body
Members,
1953
1962
Pentecostal Assemblies:
Toble
Church Membership
I.
in
Confinenfal Unifed States, as Reported in
Members— Continued
1953, for Religious Bodies With More Than 50,000
Members, Body
Federated Churchesf Religious Society of Friends (Five-Years Meeting)
....
Independent Fundomentol Churches of America
Gospel
Jewish Congregations
Cumberland Presbyterian Church
130,000
50,000
400,000 55,000 75,000 75,000
Roman
51,850 720,544
Solvotlon
88,411
88,411
68,612 65,000 78,471 5,000,000
68,612 65,000 64,109 5,000,000
Catholic Church
Army
Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Doy Saints Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints
1,077,285 128,731
American Lutheran Conference: American Lutheran Church Augustana Evangelical Lutheran Church
Other States United Lutheran Church Mennonite Church
1,111,314 126,453
739,508 479,510 854,949 63,613
1,674,901
ond
America
in
715,640 465,062 825,466 59,860
1,728,989 Wisconsin
Methodist Bodies: African Methodist Episcopal Church African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church Colored Methodist Episcopal Church The Methodist Church
Moravian Church in Americo (Unitas Fratrum)* Old Catholic Churches: N.A. Old Roman Catholic Church*
International
General Assembly of
Spiritualists
.
.
Table
Eastern Orthodox Protestant
Jewish*
.
.
.
.
Mohammedan. Zoroastrion. Shinto Taoist
316,839
311,477
1,962,256 61,811
1,925,506
1,166,301
1,166,301
760,158 392,167
728,150 392,167
9,180,428 50,190
9,065,727
58,330
...
Universalist Church of
America
Totals
Source: Yeorboolt of Americon Churches (1953
Church membership, many years, as had
ship in
about
the
total
.... .... .
.
Buddhist
.
.
.
....
Primitive
.
.
.
Others or none
Grand
total
.
59%
155,310 187,256 29,241,580 227,821
157,000
150,000
82,420 75,982 90,656,935
79,901
and 1952).
63,975 87,081,504
*Not reported
In
1952.
reported, had been increasing
officially
also the proportion of church
population.
In
33%. However, known about church attendance or other participaproportion of church members contributing money.
the estimated population increased less than
tion, or the
The Church
people and the reporting of such statistics for publication.
58%
of church
7
members
man
953
South
144,983,863 80,997,000 2,353,783 61,633,080 5,205,000 32,600
Europe
06,973,050 104,640,000
452,869,814 226,850,000§ 1 2,447,669 113,572,145 3,420,500§ 3,866,000
1
1
2,333,050
628,030 139,156
15,000 86,000 165,000 1 0,000 50,000 65,231,537 215,779,000
12,000
17,000 95,000
50,000
35,000 275,000
1
1
0,000
1,000,000
2,837,764 1
12,100,000
86,747,686 546,976,000
members of a synagogue. and Turkey.
Asiot
29,654,774 1 2,886,000 8,106,071
8,662,703 1,567,300 251,227,847 139,010
25,000,000 50,000,000 300,000,000 1 50,000,000 303,200,000 45,000,000 162,354,269 1,318,143,200
membership
of Christ, Scientist, does not report
because a regulation of that body forbids the numbering of the
Africa
27,079,120 15,177,000 5,868,089
Oceonioi 25,456,312 18,019,000
7,437,312 58,000
6,034,031
680,000 60,359,000
75,000
1,200 7,500
8,000 52,000
300,000 75,000,000 18,860,180 182,287,000
00,000 100,000 8,153,488 34,002,800
tincludes Indonesia but not the Philippines.
1
Totol
787,016,933 458,569,000 128,775,612 199,672,321 11,558,830 315,699,603 139,010 25,000,000 50,053,200 300,290,500 150,310,000 303,885,000 121,150,000 344,184,924 2,409,288,000
{Includes the Philippines.
were
in the U.S.
Catholic,
5%
in
3%
and
clas-
34% Ro-
as Protestant,
congregations
America
member-
1952 church members were
of the population. Since 1926, the date of the last
nothing was
Estimaied Memberships of the Principal Religions of the World,
*lncludes all Jews whether or not §This figure includes Asiatic U.S.S.R.
176
173,764 192,827 30,253,427 232,631
adequate census of religious bodies made by the bureau of the census, church membership had increased more than 70 S^, while
In 1952 about
85,000
.
Confucian
Hindu
II.
North America .
2,417,464
.
.
Unitarian Churches
sified
Catholic
2,482,887
Spiritualists:
for
Evangelical Lutheran Church Lutheran Free Church Lutheran Synodical Conference of N.A.: Lutheran Church, Missouri Synod Evangelical Lutheran Joint Synod of
Roman
81,086 702,266
tAs of 1936.
Lutheran:
Total Christians:
100,000 265,879
2,364,112 219,027
Protestant Episcopol Church
Reformed Bodies: Christian Reformed Church Reformed Church in America
735,941
Saints:
Religion
50,000 ...
81,086 718,791 2,441,933 222,201
Presbyterian Church in the U.S Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A United Presbyterian Church of N.A
1,000,000
750,000 55,000 75,000 75,000 70,000 751,003 51,850 724,055
Evangelical United Brethren Church
International Church of the Foursquare
50,000 55,000 125,000 265,879
Presbyterian Bodies:
130,000 1,000,000 50,000
Evangelical Mission Covenant Church of America
Day
1952
Continued
Armenion Apostolic Orthodox Church of America . . . Greek Archdiocese of North and South America . . . Rumanian Orthodox Church. The Russian Orthodox Greek Catholic Church of North America The Russian Orthodox Church Outside Russia Serbian Eastern Orthodox Church Syrian Antiochian Orthodox Church Ukrainian Orthodox Church of U.S.A.* Evangelical and Reformed Church
Latter
Members,
1953
Eastern Orthodox Churches
Pentecostal Assemblies of the World, Inc Pentecostal Church of God of America* United Pentecostol Church Polish National Catholic Church
Jewish in
all
other bodies including Eastern
Orthodox and Old Catholic. (B. Y. L.) Principal
World.
—
Religions of the the
of
Statistics
world's religions are only very
rough
approximations.
from Christianity, few if
Aside
religions,
any, attempt to keep statis-
tical
records;
estants
employ
and
and even Prot-
Roman
different
Catholics
methods
of
counting members. All persons
CICOGNANI — CIVIL AERONAUTICS ADMINISTRATION who have
of whatever age
received
baptism
the
in
members, while
Roman
most Protestant churches only those who "join"' the church are numbered. The compiling of statistics is further complicated by the fact that in China one may be at the same time a Confucian, a Taoist and a Buddhist. In Japan, one may be both a Buddhist and
Cathohc Church are counted
as
in
(C. S. B.)
a Shintoist.
nnnn'
(^^^^~
Onni'nnn
UlCOgllani, udBldflO
)•
^^'^
Eminence Gae-
tano Cardinal Cicognani, apostolic
nuncio to Spain, was born on Nov. 26
Faenza (Romagna), It. He completed studies for the priesthood seminary and went to Rome to study canon law; he was ordained to the priesthood on Sept. 24, 1904. Then followed training for a career in the diplomatic service of the Catholic Church. Named a papal chamberlain with the title of very reverend monsignor, March 9, 1916, he was sent to Madrid in 1917 as secretary of the papal nunciature there. Monsignor Cicognani was next sent to Brussels, Belg., as auditor of the
Pope Pius XI named him archbishop of Ancira, and he was so consecrated on and left for South America, where he represented the
On
titular
Feb.
I
1940,
Portugal, a neutral country.
He was
by Pope Pius XII
created and published a
at the consistory of Jan. 12,
1953, and received the red biretta on Jan. 20, 1953, from Gen.
Francisco Craveiro Lopes, president of Portugal.
(T. Ce.)
in Brisighella, diocese of
at the diocesan
papal nunciature.
in
which ended the strained relations between the two states. Also in 1940 he achieved the signing of the Missionary agreement, ensuring the organization of new dioceses in the Portuguese colonies in Africa. During World War II he carried on the Holy See's assistance work for prisoners of war and refugees through cardinal priest
P'
177
concordat between Portugal and the Holy See, signed
Jan. 11, 1925,
City and
Town
Planning:
see
Town and Regional Plan-
ning.
Civil
Aeronautics Administration.
versary
of
pow-
ered flight was celebrated during 1953, and at midyear indications were that it would be the best year in the history of
commercial aviation. During the first six months of the year the domestic scheduled carriers gained in every category;
the international scheduled
carriers gained in all categories except express
and
freight.
Holy See as papal nuncio to Bolivia. In 1929-36 he held the same post in Peru, and in 1937 he was transferred to Vienna as papal nuncio to Austria. He went to Madrid during the difficult time of the Spanish Civil War and assumed the post of papal nuncio to Spain on May 16, 1938. During World War II
Revenue passenger-miles flown by domestic scheduled carriers increased 22%, from 5,843,922,000 in the first six months of 1952 to 7,156,026,000 in the first six months of 1953. Revenue passenger-miles flown by international scheduled carriers increased 14% in the same period, from 1,396,932,000 in 1952
he helped solve the problems of war-devastated churches, semi-
to 1,601,831.000 in 1953.
and rehgious houses. Pope Pius XII, on Nov. 29, 1952, named him a cardinal priest, and he was so nominated and
first six months of 1953, the domestic scheduled carshowed an increase of 22% in ton-miles of express carried, 14% in ton-miles of freight and 2% in ton-miles of U.S. mail, compared with the same period in 1952. Express and freight ton-miles in international operations, for the same period, decreased 0.2%, while ton-miles of U.S. mail increased 5%. A total of 2,263 civil aircraft were manufactured in the first six months of 1953, as compared with 1,655 ^^^ the same
naries
created at the consistory of Jan. 12, 1953. In traditional serv-
he received the red biretta on Jan. 23, 1953, from the hands of Gen. Francisco Franco, head of the Spanish state, in the chapel of the executive palace in Madrid. He is brother of ices,
His Excellency the Most Reverend .^mleto Giovanni Cicognani, titular
archbishop of Laodicea and apostolic delegate to the
United States.
(T. Ce.)
In the
riers
period in 1952, an increase of
The domestic scheduled
Cigars and Cigarettes: see Tobacco. Cinerama: see Motion Pictures.
substantially the
C.i.O.: see Labour Unions.
was
Circuses:
see
100,000,000 passenger-mi. for the
Shows.
0.8.
^'' Eminence Pietro Cardinal Ciriaci, apostolic nuncio to Portugal, ^'^^^7.
Piptrn riClIU
was born on Dec. shopkeepers.
His
2
in
^-
.
Rome, where his parents were small Commendatore Agosto Ciriaci (d.
brother,
1936), was lay head of. the Catholic Action organization in Italy and was director of the Vatican Polyglot Press. Pietro Ciriaci attended the local school of Sant' Apollinare and the Roman seminary, where he received degrees in philosophy, theology and canon law. Ordained in 1909 in the Basilica of St. John Lateran, Rome, by Cardinal Respighi, he served as a curate in St. Roch's
church on the Via Ripetta. at the
Academy
of
He
taught philosophy and theology
Propaganda Fide and was appointed profes-
sor of philosophy at the
Lyceum
he was named to his
post in the
first
same
as for the
passenger fatality rate per
months of 1953 was same period in 1952, which
first six
There were no passenger fatalities in international first six months of 1953, as compared
operations during the
with 6.4 PiriflPi ullluul|
36%.
air lines'
of Sant' Apollinare. In 1911
Roman
Curia, as registrar
and then secretary. In
was appointed educational adviser to the Congregation of the Council. In 191 7 he was assigned as clerk and later as undersecretary in the papal secretariat of state. He successfully completed a special mission to Prague to solve a serious disagreement, and his reward was his nomination as apostohc nuncio to Prague on Feb. 15, 1928. In March of that year he was consecrated titular archbishop of Tarsc In Jan. 1934 he was named papal nuncio to Lisbon, where his diplomacy was largely responsible for the to the Sacred Penitentiary,
19 13 he
fatalities
for every
100,000,000 passenger-mi. in the
months of 1952. During the first six months of the year, there was a decline in the number of all classes of pilot certificates issued, except student, as compared with the same period in 1952. While first six
student pilot certificate issuances increased
23%, private pilot 30%, commercial issuances 39% and air line transport pilot issuances 21%. There was an increase in the total number of registered civil aircraft of slightly more than 2%, from 88,418 on July i, 1952, issuances decreased
on July I, 1953. During the year preceding July
to 90,461
i,
1953, 184 projects repre-
senting $10,618,000 in federal funds under the Federal Aid Air-
port program were placed under grant agreement. These federal
funds were matched by local public agencies and were utilized primarily for the construction and development of facilities on the larger airports serving the
major
air transport
centres of
the country.
The
results of studies
e.xisting airport
made on
the utilization of
numerous
administration buildings were published during
the year in a booklet entitled Airport Tenniiml Buildings. It stressed
simple,
nonmonumental
architectural
treatment and
construction and was expected to serve as a guide for architects in designing airport
terminal buildings.
As of June
CAA
30,
had
and
certificated 6 turbojet engines,
inquiries concerning the certification of
20 additional turbine
engines had been received. These engines, turbojet and turboprop, had outputs ranging from 800 to 10,000 lb. thrust and 175 to 6,500
h.p., respectively.
Real progress was made on the world's
in
the standardization of flight aids
The navigation
aids installed were and I.C.A.O. (International Civil .Aviation organization )-spons()red common system types such as air
routes.
largely of the U.S. -developed
\0R
(very-high-frequency omnidirectional
radio
and
range)
ILS.
An important
contribution to the advancement of U.S. -type
navigational aids, services, equipment and safety practices was
made by
the training of foreign nationals and
government
Aircraft Manufacture; Aviation, Civil.)
(B.
Responsibility for
Defense, U.S.
Civil
offi-
aeronautical specialties in the United States. (See also
cials in
the United States
civil is
M.
St.)
defense in
vested prima-
and their political subdivisions, with the fedgovernment providing co-ordination and guidance, in accordance with the Federal Civil Defense Act of 1950 (public law 920). This act, approved Jan. 12, 1951, established the Federal Civil Defense administration (FCDA) in the executive branch of the government with responsibility for developing a national program to minimize casualties and damage from attack and to maintain maximum civilian support of the nation's armed forces. rily in the states
eral
"PUSH-BUTTON" HANGARS
installed at Suffolk County (N.Y.) Air Force base permit jets to roll out under their own power. In the case of an attack, the time saved in the new operation would enable them to meet their adversaries an estimated 40 mi. farther out
At the Technical Development and Evaluation centre
in Indi-
anapolis, Ind., in collaboration with rubber manufacturers. 95 new materials developed for use in casings and liners of crash-
dynamic burst tests. Conmethod of determining the loads imposed crash was developed.
resistant fuel tanks were evaluated in
In Jan. 1953 the president assigned to
currently, a rational
task of co-ordinating the activities of
on wing tanks
natural disaster rehef.
in a
In co-operation with industry and military services, several
were tested, and high-intensity helicopter rotor wing tip lights and streamlined wing tip lights for conventional aircraft were developed and flight tested. One lighting manufacturer designed an improved light unit based on the centres analysis of ideal candle-power distribution of runway lights. A complete system of these runway lights was installed at Milwaukee, Wis., airport for service testing. high-intensity
aircraft
By midyear,
lights
the Victor airways had been increased to 52,000
mi. of primary and 20,000 mi. of alternate airways, and 375 omniranges had been commissioned in the domestic United States to implement the
new airways. These ultramodern, very-
the additional
federal agencies in
program through volunteer workers
States carry out the
pervised by full-time
FCD.\
all
By 1953
su-
and major cities had civil defense organizations. States with mutual aid compacts with other states numbered 29, and most states authorized similar agreements among their communities. Civil defense forces were actively serving in peacetime emergencies and disasters in S3 states and five territories. Thirty-three states and Hawaii had civil defense workmen's compensation coverstaffs.
all
states, territories
age, an increase of 18 in 1953.
In 1953 the FCDA National Training centre at Olney, Md., graduated approximately 400 persons from its staff school and trained more than 300 rescue workers on the specially designed
These
workers and instructors trained
high-frequency airways would eventually replace the existing
"Rescue
72,000 mi. of federally maintained low-frequency airways.
other civil defense workers in training schools and training con-
Progress was
made toward completing
DME
the initial 450 ground
street."
ferences in their respective states.
(distance measuring equipment) system.
During 1953 the
ILS (instrument landing system) or omnirange stations, enables a pilot to know by a glance at his instrument panel how many miles away from the station he is. With omniranges, it makes bad weather approaches possible at locations where ILS is not provided, permits aircraft to
the distribution of
stations in the
DME,
installed in aircraft
and
at
bypass densely populated areas, permits lower
flight altitudes in
mountainous terrain and eliminates the necessity of separate electronic aids to tell a pilot how far away from a given point he is. More than 100 ground stations had been completed
by July I. A program was
staff
FCDA its
pubHc education program increased
publications and
made wider
use of the
nation's newspapers, magazines, radio, television, theatres and
mediums
other civil
for public instruction. Volunteer enrolment in
defense increased to about 4.300,000 persons.
In 1953
FCDA
maintained co-operation with the
air
force
and state civil defense directors in an educational and recruitment program for the ground observer corps, a civilian component of the air force. By the end of June 1953 more than 300,000 ground observer corps volunteers were enrolled by state and local civil defense directors.
FCDA
also maintained cosponsorship of the national blood
development of high-altitude airways, the implementation of which would be of major benefit
program with the department of defense and the American Red
to air carrier type of operations.
Cross.
The
CAA
initiated for the
team of engineering and flight specialists continued to study the problems connected with the manufacture and operation of turbine-powered transport aircraft, and discussions were held with the British concerning the certification and operation of British turbine-powered aircraft in the United States.
178
FCDA
is
responsible for providing a mass
nating warnings of approaching ings are provided
readiness at
by the
air
the local level,
enemy
means
of dissemi-
aircraft as these
warn-
During 1953 the state of as reflected by warning devices force.
and in operation, was estimated at 35%. By 1954, with additional warning devices purchased under the 1952 and 1953 installed
CIVIL RIGHTS
— CIVIL
matching-funds programs, attack warning coverage would be provided for about In
54%
FCDA
peacetime disaster
relief
negotiated ten additional agreements with the
army and various government
agencies to implement this pro-
gram. In the 1953 spring and early summer storms and tornadoes and the many droughts, FCDA used experience gained in previous peacetime disasters to provide prompt and effective
During the year, the Federal Civil Defense administration participated with the Atomic Energy commission and the dein
explosion in Nevada.
Operation "Doorstep." an atomic
FCDA's
test
effectiveness of simple
homes
to test the
basement shelters; (2) exposure of eight
outdoor, home-type shelters in a joint project with test the structural strength of
AEC,
protection
afforded
to
passengers
mechanical operation of the
to
such shelters; and (3) exposure
of a variety of typical passenger cars to determine the of
test
program had three major
(i) exposure of two typical U.S.
projects:
cars.
and the
(See also
amount on the
effect
Atomic Energy.)
In Sept. 1953 FCDA made available to the public a list of probable target areas in the country. These 193 concentrations of U.S. productive strength included 70 targets listed as critical.
Previously this target
list
had been treated as restricted
information.
On May of
AM
The
tional.
and
15 "Conelrad,"' a plan providing limited operations
radio stations during alerts and attacks,
plan allowed the broadcast of
vital civil
became opera-
official
information
defense instructions without furnishing naviga-
enemy. At the end of the fiscal year. $55,600,000 in medical and special weapons defense supplies and equipment, financed by federal funds and federal-state matching funds, had been delivtional aids to an
ered to
FCDA
reduced the number of lay-off categories from 26 to
It
or other federal warehouses or to the states.
This compared with only $26,400,000
six months earlier. Stockequipment essential to the emerfacilities was under way in 70 storage
6,
own agency,
and notified all federal agencies that they could not retain an indefinite employee in a position in their commuting area for which a career employee was qualified. Probably the most widely discussed personnel action of the year was the executive order of April i which set up a conor policy-determining
category of employees to be These positions were placed outside of civil service and agency heads were given authority to appoint and dismiss at their discretion. Positions were allocated to Schedule C on the basis of department recommendations, subject to approval b\' the Civil Service commission. The executive order was justified on the grounds that department heads fidential
known
assistance.
partment of defense
179
restricted an employee's "bumping"' rights to his
of the people in the target areas.
role as co-ordinator of federal
its
activities,
gram.
SERVICE
as Schedule C.
could not effectively carry out less
new administration policies unin sympathy with
they had authority to appoint persons
As
commission had granted 407 C and had denied 32. On May 27, the Civil Service commissions Loyalty Reviewboard and the citizen boards were abolished. Employees suspended or placed in nonsensitive positions were to be given hearings before three-man boards composed of federal emploj-ees. The boards were to make recommendations, but the final decision was left to the department head. The criteria to be applied in judging an employees suitability were spelled out the program.
of mid-August, the
requests to transfer jobs to Schedule
in the order.
Dwight D. Eisenhower had made his appointments to Service commission by April 1953. The two new Republican members were Philip Young, chairman, and George M. Moore. The Democratic member was Frederick J. Lawton. Young was also designated as personnel adviser to the president and invited to attend cabinet meetings. In August the commission released a report describing a new organizational setup designed to separate the commission's administrative and planning functions more definitely from its inspection and Pres.
the
Civil
piling of critical engineering
gency restoration of vital locations throughout the nation. For fiscal 1954 congress approved an appropriation of $46,525.000 for the Federal Civil Defense administration. Of this amount, $8,525,000 was for operations, $10,500,000 for contri-
HAVe YOU EVER WRITTEN ANYTHING OF A CONTf^OVERStAL
butions and $27,500,000 for stock-piling.
Val Peterson, former governor of Nebraska, was Federal Civil
Defense administrator
in
1953.
NATURE?
(See also Civil Aeronautics
Administration; Municipal Go\ernment.)
(V. Pn.)
Civil Rights: see Education; Law; Negroes, American.
United States. Civil
Service.
changes
in federal
— During
publican administration
1953. the
made
new Re-
several
major
personnel poHcy. most of which were put into
by executive order. The changes that had the greatest civil service employees dealt with reductions in force, the loyalty program, veteran preference and the establishment of a confidential, policy-making category of federal employees effect
impact on
placed outside of
civil service.
The government adopted a definite program to reduce the number of federal employees. In August Philip Young, chair-
man
of the Civil Service commission, announced that the fedpay roll had been cut by 80,000 employees, and that plans were under way to drop 100,000 more by July i, 1954. Approximately 50,000 would be discharged; the other 50,000 would be taken care of by not filling vacancies. On June 30, 1953, the end of the fiscal year, the government employed 2.469.640 persons. The Civil Service commission revised several regulations in eral
order to
make
it
easier to administer this
retrenchment pro-
MINNEAPOLIS STA«
—
"AT last THE PERFECT SECURITY RISK!" a cartoon by Justus Minneapolis Star (Minn.), which appeared in 1953
of the
CLARK— CLEVELAND
180 check-up responsibilities.
govern pay; or
There were two important legislative acts affecting civil service. Congress modified the Veterans' Preference act (i) to re-
main categories
make
quire veterans to
were added the register
a passing
grade before preference points
and (2) to only veterans with more than
to their test scores
top of
lloat to the
10% compensable
disabilities.
The Thomas
leave rider, which required federal employees to
was earned, was repealed. The new legislation permitted federal employees to accumulate a ma.ximum of 30 days. Employees who had already accumulated more than this amount were expected to reduce the leave to the 30-day maximum within a reasonable number of years. The same law authorized the president to set annual and sick leave take annual leave in the year
it
who earned more than $15,000. In would not receive terminal leave pay. At the close of the 1953 legislative year, 12 states had passed significant personnel legislation. Louisiana voters adopted a conpolicy for federal otTicials
addition, these employees
stitutional
system.
amendment
New York
re-established
that
state celebrated
a
state-wide merit
70th civil service anni-
its
in the rates of
— bearing
pay
mind
at present in force for the
connexion the need for pay of those categories; (b) in the hours of work, arrangements for overtime and remuneration for extra duty, and annual leave allowances; (c) within the framework of the existing superannuation scheme." The royal commission started work during the late autumn. (See also in
in this
a suitable relationship between the
Government Departments and Bureaus; Municipal Government.)
(E. E. Bs.)
general, was bom Madison Barracks, N.Y. He graduated from the U.S. Military academy. West Point, X.Y., in 19 17 and saw action in France during World War I. He was graduated from the Command and General Staff school. Fort Leavenworth, Kan., in 1935 and from the Army War college, Washington, D.C. two years later. In .Aug. 1942 he went to England to take over command of U.S. ground forces in the European theatre of operations, and in Nov. 1942 he was second in command of the U.S. forces in the North African in-
^'^^^" on May
Plart mdl^ Marl WaunO Uldl^ VVdJfllC
He
),
i
us.
at
versary, and the legislature passed a law which followed the
vasion.
recently revised pattern of the U.S. Civil Service Commission.
city
Nov. 1944 was named commander in chief of the .Allied 15th army group. After World War II Clark was U.S. high commissioner for Austria (1945-47), commander of the U.S. 6th army in San Francisco (1947-49) and commander of the U.S. army field forces at Fort Monroe, Va. (1949-52). On April 28, 1952, Pres. Harry S. Truman appointed Clark supreme commander of U.N. forces in Korea to succeed Gen. Matthew^ B. Ridgway. Clark took command on May 12 during the height of the Koje prisoner of war disturbances, which were later successfully subdued. During the rest of 1952 and the first half of 1953 his principal task was to direct the delicate negotiations for a truce in Korea. Perhaps the most difficult part of this task was to win over Pres. Syngman Rhee of South Korea
—
ments were signed by Clark at his headquarters near Munsan on July 27, 1953. Shortly thereafter he returned to the United States, and on Aug. 6 he announced in Washington, D.C, that he would retire from the army on Oct. 31, 1953.
The president
of
Commission became the administrative
the
head, and the other two commissioners were to serve with him as policy makers.
Montana and Nevada extended
to all but policy level employees. Georgia
departments under sonnel
division
administration.
made
it
brought
civil
service
six additional
and Kansas established a pernewly created state depariment of
civil service,
within
a
Connecticut and Alabama passed laws which
possible for cities and counties to procure technical aid
in personnel
matters from the state on a cost basis.
New
York,
Massachusetts and CaUfornia had had similar arrangements with their local subdivisions for a
During 1953,
number
of years.
and state governments were still finding it difficult to recruit and retain enough competent employees to provide essential services. Shortages were particularly acute for stenographers, police and fire personnel, engineers, hospital attendants, nurses and doctors. (E. S. Rl.) Great Britain. Each quarter since April i, 1952, had shown a reduction in staff numbers. On Oct. i, 1953, there were 660,514 nonindustrial civil servants, as compared with 673,687 on Oct.
I,
led the U.S.
army
5th
in the invasion
to the idea of a truce without a united Korea.
Clay Products:
see
In 1953 the government, following discussions with staff repannounced that it had been decided that, while
truce docu-
Ceramic Arts and Crafts.
Cleveland, 0., had a population of 914,808 by
Cleveland.
must remain for the middle and higher ranks, some measure of freedom (not including parliamentary candidature) should be allowed to civil ser\'ants in the clerical and subclerical classes and in the lower reaches of the scientific and technical classes. As from Jan. i, 1952, all nonindustrial civil servants on salaries of up to £2,000 a year had received a special ''pay addition," on a graduated percentage basis, which took account of movements outside the civil service up to Dec. 31, 1951. The
which includes the city and most of
the ban on political activities
staff side of
the National Whitley council claimed an increase
in this '"pay addition'" to operate official side
from the beginning of 1953.
rejected this claim, and declined to repeat the
exceptional step of adjusting the pay of the whole service by a central settlement.
As
a result, a large
claims were presented, and fixed
The
1952.
resentatives,
The
of Italy in
Sept. 1943 and in
by negotiation or
many new
arbitration.
number
of sectional
increases ranged from
about £20 for the lowest grades up to about £40 for grades with salaries of £1,500.
In July the government announced the appointment of a royal commission under Sir Raymond Priestley's chairmanship, to consider, with respect to nonindustrial civil servants, whether any changes were desirable: "(a) in the principies which should
1950. its
Cuyahoga county,
suburbs, had a 1950
The county's estimated population Mayor Thomas A. Burke, who served longer than any other mayor in the city's history, was population April
I,
of
1.389,532.
1953, was
1,441,000.
appointed to complete the senate term of Sen. Robert
.\.
Taft
and did not run for re-election as mayor in 1953. Anthony J. Celebrezze, a state senator, was chosen in the Nov. 1953 election to succeed Mayor Burke. Having defeated the regular Democratic candidate in the Sept. 29 primary election, Celebrezze ran as an independent Democrat to beat the Republican J. McDermott, in the regular election. At the same time voters endorsed two important bond issues, $35,000,000 for a subway and $7,000,000 for slum clearance and
candidate, William
reconstruction.
The
consolidated scales were
The
the federal census of
in
city council
capital
on
May
expenditures,
25 voted approval of $14,000,000
which, with an earlier appropriation
improvements program These projects included sewers, buildings, bridges, paving, parking facilities and improvements of airports, zoo and lake front. On Aug. 11 the of
$15,920,000,
brought
the
capital
to $29,920,000, largest in the city's history.
council voted to hold the city tax for general operating expense at no more than the existing rate, $15.60 per $1,000.
CLIMATE — COAL Two
181
amendments were passed at the Sept. 29 One empowered the council to set the mayor's
city charter
primary election. salary and the other eliminated the necessity for a councilmanic candidate to run in the regular election if he received a majority of the votes cast in the primary election. Construction of a $40,000,000 plant which was to house two of the most powerful hydraulic forge presses in the country began in suburban Cuyahoga Heights in 1953. The plant would be owned by the United States air force and operated by the
Aluminum Company
A
of America.
tornado sweeping across northern Ohio struck Cleveland on
the night of June
8. killing
nine persons and causing millions of
worth of damage. A $5,000,000 Dougherty Lumber company yard on the dollars
Aug.
16.
A
mysterious explosion of gas
up three-quarters the death of a
The
of a mile of
woman and
fire
destroyed
the
city's southeast side
in a
West 117th
sewer Sept. 10 tore street, resulting in
injuries to 58 other persons.
general fund budget of the city of Cleveland for 1953
was $41,905,489. On Jan. i, 1953, the net tax-supported debt of the city was $90,377,000; the gross general debt was $99,925,000. In addition there were self-supporting debts of $6,938,000 represented by sewage disposal bonds and $46,172,500 represented by utilities bonds. At the end of Sept. 1953 there were 231,700 hourly production workers on the pay rolls of greater Cleveland industry as compared with 230,800 a year earlier. Enrolment in Cleveland public schools in Sept. 1953 was 109.052. (P. Bv.)
BUSINESSMEN for
on
New York
production, about
2%
avenue demonstrating walking shorts
city's Fifth
summer wear. These became
1953
increasingly popular during
/%.
to
in
women's wear industry.
the
Blouse and skirt production showed the greatest increase, and
Climate:
see
dress production
Meteorology.
showed
a
proportionate slight decrease, indi-
cating the growing popularity of the blouse and skirt as against
The United
Clothing Industry.
States clothing industry in
showed a definite improvement compared with the previous year. During the first half of 1952, the industry had been in the last stages of liquidating the excessive inventories that had accumulated as a result of overproduction which took place during the early months of the Korean war. When the fall season of 1952 began, these inventories were liquidated, and production started on an even keel. This improvement was continued well into 1953. In men's clothing there was a substantial improvement in the first half of 1953 as compared with the same six months of the 'i [953
as
previous year. In the production of
and other items of tailored apparel
suits,
overcoats, topcoats
men, the industry operated at 87% of capacity during this period, compared with 68*;; during the comparable period of 1952. Of particular interest in men's wear were the increasing use of lightweight fabrics in summer suits and the growing popularity of blends (man-made fibre plus wool).
for
women's coat and suit industry and in is wool. During the latter part of 1952 and the first half of 1953, the w'orld price of raw wool was fairly well stabilized. This meant there w'ere only minor basic fibre in the
fluctuations in the price of wool fabrics throughout the world.
Business
conditions
in
throughout the
industry
clothing
the
world were therefore on a more even keel than years. In Great Britain, on the
Africa,
Canada and other
in the
European continent,
previous in
South
countries, the clothing industry oper-
ated at a fairly profitable level, and production did not exceed
demand to any extent. The sportswear trend was more noticeable in Europe than Great Britain. Wool was still by far the most favoured fibre
Women's
clothing in Great Britain. (See also
in in
Fashion's.)
(H. A. Cn.)
in-
With the exception of 1949, world coal production had uUflia increased each year since the low of 1945. and in 1952 it
in-
was
more. For example, fewer than 1,000.000 sport coats were made in 1942, compared with approximately S.000,000 during 1952 and probably even more in 1953. There had been also a phenomenal growth in the
demand
for separate pants
the increase was particularly noticeable in pants
and
slacks,
made
The production of sport shirts increased 34% compared with the previous year, and that of the
fabrics.
and
of rayon in
1952
dress or
19% for the year. During the months of 1953, sport shirts showed a 25^;, gain as compared with the same period in the previous year, and dress shirts showed an increase of only 19%. The popularity of dungarees, slacks, levis and similar types of clothing, for both men and women, was far more noticeable than ever before. For the first quarter of 1953 there was a slight increase in
business type of shirt decreased six
The
the men's clothing industry
p_«i
creasingly popular. This trend had been growing for a decade or
first
1953-
This demand for dacron and wool or orlon and
wool was expected to grow even greater in 1954. In keeping with the trend toward more comfortable and formal wear, sport coats and single pants or slacks became
as
the one-piece dress. This trend was expected to continue for
43%
greater than in 1945.
The outputs
of the
ducing countries and the world totals are shown Table
Canada United States Belgium Ciechoslovokic France
.
.
.
.
.
Netherlonds. Poland Spain United Kingdom .
Yugoslavia China
.
.
.
.
....
South Africa. Australia
Total
.
.
.
all
I,
as
World
grodesl
1946
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
17.81
15.87 687.81 26.89 42.53 52.16 11.56 271.49
18.45
19.12
19.14
18.59
17.58
656.65
480.57 30.70 47.98 58.47
560.38
576.33 32.68 54.34 60.60 17.78 401.42 17.20 49.30 13.97 95.44 14.39 249.63 310? 13.27 47.67 38.56 29.36 28.50 2,120
505.58 33.49 57.98 63.22
594.43 25.19 37.01
29.41
45.56 49.75 13.85 294.34 11.68 39.98 12.47
15.72
327.44
30.10 50.66 57.90 16.63 344.52
13.04
14.61
83.01
44.15 13.13 86.75
13.25 234.52 226?
13.41
43.81 13.71 91.31 13.71
240.93 260?
242.28 291?
33.27 26.02 21.94
17? 31.81 26.25 23.48
11.82 20? 33.74 26.47 24.05
13.36 18? 35.50 28.10 24.05
14.18 40.79 36.18 29.18 26.72
1,621
1,808
1,890
1,825
2,000
9.77 53.07 13.33 214.81 178? 7.50 14?
India
—
major proTable
1947
251.95 7.00 25.05
Hungary Japan
Producfion of fhe
millions of short Ions
54.34 8.69
Soar
Germany
U.S.S.R
— Coo/
I.
(In
in
9.71
33.13 11.66 70.43 3.08 221.14 193? 10.24
17.90
422.26 20.72 49.48 14.07 99.13 15.28 253.67
332? 13.34
56? 40.57 30.94 30.83
2,130
—
COAL
182
COAL MINERS in Formosa, where in 1953 the U.S. Mutual Security agency was assisting in the modernization of mining methods and development of Formosan resources
The ig countries include more than 10,000,000 tons a year.
reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. all
those having an output of
These countries usually account for 97'>^-98% of the world total, and in 1952 the four leading producers supplied 71% of the world total. United States. The most important features of the coal industry in the United States are shown in Table II, and the production by states in Table III, both as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Total coal production in 1952 was 12% below the 1951 level; output showed a sharp downward trend throughout the first half of the year, and in the second half suffered three major
—
breaks in production
— the
usual
work holiday
in
July, a so-
"memorial holiday" in August, and other off week in October, aside from the lesser decline in production at the year end. Anthracite production was more uniform than bituminous and showed a better over-all record, with a decline of only 5% called
Table
II.
Dafa of the Coal Industry (In
Production, fetal Anthracite. . Soft cools. . Bituminous. Lignite
.
United States
1947
1948
1949
1950
687,814 57,190 630,624 627,750
656,658 57,140 599,518 596,432 3,086
480,570 42,702 437,868 434,776
560,388 44,077
1S,353 43,787 6,657 50,483 6,676
10,377 32,325 5,012 37,690 4,943
2,874
.
in the
thousands of short tons)
3,092
5 16,3 11
512,941 3,370
1951
1952
576,335 42,670 533,665 530,373
505,583 40,583 465,000 462,000
3,292
3,000
1,135
10,697 29,886 5,155 35,428 4,592 29
Anthracite
Open-cut . Underground Used locally. Shipped
12,603 44,587 6,138 51,052 8,510 10
.
Exports. Imports. Stocks .
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
.
.
702
964
975
Consumption.
48,200
50,200
37,700
Bituminous and .
.
Exports. Imports. Stocks .
.
.
.
.
.
.
Consumption. Railroads
Coke ovens Power utilities Steel mills
Cement Other
1
31,534 5,163 37,507 5,956 27
982
1,709
37,000
35,300
lig nite
Open-cut Underground Used locally. Shipped . .
11,834 32,243 5,047 39,030 3,892 18 1,268 39,900
mills
Industrial Retail dealers .
139,395 491,229 17,680 612,943 68,667 290 57,7B7 557,243 109,296 104,800 86,009 10,048 7,938 139,989 99,163
139,506 460,012 16,329 583,189 45,925 291
76,662 519,909 94,838 107,306 95,620 10,046 8,554 113,798 89,747
106,045 331,823
123,467 392,844
117,618 416,047
11,651
13,217 563,292 25,468
15,162 8,503 56,726
347
292 76,636 468,904 54,005 13,448 101,898 7,973
47,637 262 76,745 418,650 37,962 97,534 103,273 6,820
8,525 105,634 76,531
95,863 68,393
426,217 27,842 315 48,373 445,538 68,123 91,176 80,610 7,451
7,988 98,957 90,299
72,516 454,202 60,969 103,845 88,262 7,698 7,943 98,164 86,604
103,000 362,000
compared with a drop of 13% in bituminous output. Bituminous and anthracite production both continued to de-
cline
in y^953,
time with anthracite making the poorer
25% decline. Canada.
— Coal production increased appreciably
8,756,353 tons in the tons in the
Great
first
— In
in 1953, to
half of the year, against 7,733,284
same period of 1952.
Britain.
spite of the
(G. A. Ro.; B. B. M.) marked improvement which
occurred during 1952 in the recruitment of labour, the coal industry at the beginning of 1953 entered upon one of its most periods since nationalization. Productivity was declin-
difficult
ing and the cost of production had risen sharply in sions.
price.
the divi-
all
The National Coal board was forced to ask for The accounts for the first and second quarters
a rise in of 1953
showed that after making full allowance for taxation and for the payment of interest there were net surpluses of £541,113 and £808,187, respectively, but it was not expected that the increased revenue would do much more than cover the anticipated loss in 1953 caused by the extra week's holiday with pay granted to the miners that year, and the cost of the wages agreement negotiated with the National Union of Mineworkers in
February.
During the first half of 1953 there was a further increase in inland consumption of nearly 2,000,000 tons compared with the Table \l\.— United States Production of Coal, by Stales (In
..... Colorado ....
Alabama Illinois
Kentucky
8,078
this
Bituminous output to Oct. 17 totalled 361,853,000 tons, a drop of 2% from the same period of 1952, while the corresponding anthracite figures were 24,052,000 tons and a showing.
Indiana
1
1
as
Ohio Pennsylvania.
...
Tennessee Utah Virginia West Virginia
.
.
.
Wyoming Others Total bituminous
Grand
1947
1948
6.2 5.9
19.0 6.4
18.8
63.5 21.7 66.6 32.3 125.5
67.9 25.4 84.2 37.5 147.1
65.3 23.8
5.6 6.0 15.5
6.3 7.4
1
.
82.1
38.7 134.5 6.5 6.8 18.0
20.2 176.2
7.6 23.5
24.9
26.9
630.6 57.2 687.8
599.5
533.9
.
594.4
60.5 total
5.6
144.0
.
Anthracite
millions of short tons)
1946
8.1
12.9 4.6 47.2 16.6 62.6 31.0 89.2 4.2 6.2
14.6
168.9
122.6
6.4
6.0 20.3
57.1
656.6
437.9 42.7 480.6
1950
1951
14.4
13.6
4.3
4.1
56.3 20.0 78.5 37.8 105.9
54.2 19.5 75.0 37.9 108.6
5.1
6.7 17.7 149.1 6.4 17.3
516.3 44.1
560.4
5.4 6.1
11.0 3.6
45.6 16.3
68.3 35.2 89.1 4.3 6.1
21.4 163.3
20.4 142.2
6.4 18.4
17.0
533.7 42.7 576.3
6.1
465.0 40.6
5056
t COAST AND GEOD ETIC SURVEY, and the rate of increase was still rising. The annual expenditure on new developments and reconstruction was due to reach its peak in 1953, but the rate of investment was still only about 64^- of that scheduled in the plan for coal and the lag was already having a detrimental effect on production since it had been expected that some of the new deep mines would by this time have been making a greater contribufirst
half of 1952,
tion to the annual output.
The most important
projects started in
1953 were in the
anthracite area of the south Wales coal field where the sites
were being prepared for two large collieries which together would cost between £12,000,000 and £14.000,000. The new sinking was expected to reach depths of about 800 yd., and each of the two collieries was designed for an output of 750,000 to 1,000,000 tons a year with reserves which were expected to last for more than 100 years. It was intended that two more new collieries of about the same size would eventually be opened in the area, and the National Coal board planned to raise the total annual output of anthracite to 6.000,000 tons.
A
large propor-
would again be made available for export. Exports from Great Britain in 1953 were considerably higher than in 1952 and it seemed probable that the revised target of 13,000,000 tons would be reached by the end of the year. More than 80% of all the deep-mined coal produced in 1953 was undercut by machinery and mechanically conveyed from the face, but the bulk of it was loaded by hand and progress in mechanical loading was still the main problem in mechanization remaining to be solved. The National Coal board decided in 1952 to set up a central engineering establishment for the development of new machinery and equipment and to act as a link between the board's own research organization and the manufacturers of mining machinery. It was reported in 1953 that a site for the new establishment had been chosen in Derbyshire. Among the new machines imported from the United States during the year was a Marietta tunnelling machine which in the autumn was undergoing trials in the east midlands division. Four or five machines of the auger type used in open-cast mines in the United States had also been imported but in Great Britain they were being used underground. Further progress was made during the year in the development of techniques for the drainage of methane from the strata in the neighbourhood of the working faces. The outstanding scheme brought into operation in 1953 was at Haig colliery in Cumberland, where arrangements were being made by the Nation Coal board and the Gas board in that area to blend the methane with town gas for distribution through the gas grid. The quality of the coal supplied to consumers in Great Britain had been deteriorating steadily for many years, partly betion of this
cause of the exhaustion of the best seams and partly because
U.S.
183
neering work; observations of the earth's magnetism to provide
magnetic information essential to the mariner, aviator and land surveyor; seismological observations and investigations to supply data required in designing structures to reduce the earth-
quake hazard; and the production of nautical and aeronautical charts to meet the needs of marine and air commerce. Seventeen ships and three shore-based parties were engaged along the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific coasts, and in Alaska, mak-
new nautical charts and for modModern electronic devices, such as
ing hydrographic surveys for ernization of existing ones.
Shoran and the electronic position indicator (EPI), were used and provided economical and highly effective methods of surveying at great distances from shore and during fog and inclement weather. A survey vessel, using EPI, in the Gulf of Mexico was able to locate to control the hydrographic surveys,
depths at a distance of 420 mi. from a shore station.
Photogrammetric mapping was continued along coastal areas of the United States and Alaska as part of the bureau's charting
program. Special emphasis was placed on the unmapped areas in the Aleutian Islands and the western and arctic coasts of
The program
Alaska.
of
mapping airports
for the preparation
of aeronautical charts of airports and airport obstruction plans
was carried forward. Fifty-six airports in the United States were photographed for this purpose. The tidal program of the bureau is designed to provide data for charting and mapping activities and to provide tide predictions a year in advance for the use of the navigator. Observations of the rise and fall of the tide were made at principal seaports of the United States and Alaska and in some of the islands in the western Pacific. Special tidal current surv'eys were completed for Puget sound and Boston harbour, and similar surveys were in progress in San Francisco bay and in Delaware bay and river. Major emphasis was continued on extending the networks of horizontal and vertical control in Alaska to meet the needs of the department of defense. Connections between existing arcs of triangulation in the interior were in progress; completion of these would permit an adjustment of the major system of the territory. In the United States, the geodetic control program was directed primarily toward providing horizontal and vertical control in various priority areas for use by federal agencies and others engaged in mapping and engineering work. The program of astronomic work in Florida and the Bahama Islands area, in connection with guided missile experiments by the air force, was continued. In furtherance of the magnetic survey of the United States,
made
observations were stations
and
at 52
new
field stations, at
52 repeat
at seven observatories.
Seismologic work
consisted principally of the
mapping of
increased facilities for coal cleaning on the surface were not
potential danger areas and the analyses of destructive earth-
keeping pace with mechanization at the coal face, which was
quake motions. The locations of about 750 earthquakes were determined during the year, using many instrumental reports received from co-operating stations in the United States and
necessarily accompanied
by the loading out of a greater proportion of dirt with the coal. During World War II it had not been possible to build new washeries and a great deal of leeway had still to be made up before the program for cleaning between 70% and 80% of the total output mechanically was fulfilled. (See also Labour Unions.) (J. A. S. R.)
abroad.
The bureau operated 67 strong-motion seismographs
five states of the
The
in
western seismic region.
seismic sea
wave warning system, which
the bureau de-
veloped for warning the Hawaiian Islands of an impending destructive sea wave, operated effectively on
Nov.
4,
1952,
when
destructive waves originating with a submarine earthquake near
Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. bul"*
oul
partment of commerce continued the survey of the coastal areas of the United States and Alaska to ensure safe navigation; the observation, analysis and prediction of tides and currents to furnish datum planes to engineers and tide and current tables to mariners; the establishment of the basic networks of control to provide a framework for mapping and other engi-
Kamchatka struck the islands. Considerable property damage was caused, but no lives were lost. A special publication, No. 300, dealing with this sea wave was published. More than 40,000.000 nautical and aeronautical charts were published requiring 90.000.000 press impressions.
New
repro-
duction processes and techniques, using screens, were developed
which reduced by
10%
the
number
of press impressions re-
;
COAST GUARD,
184 quired
for
classes
certain
of
aeronautical
The
charts.
U.S
rapid
expansion of aviation has made necessary a corresponding expansion of aeronautical chart coverage. Thirteen charts of a '"Terminal Area Holding and Departure." were comand published. Planning was begun for a proposed series of jet navigation charts, which would eventually replace the route charts. A total of 707 nautical charts and 1.394 aeronautical charts were available in different series to meet the various needs of marine
new
series.
piled
and
{See also Oce.anography
air navigation.
;
Seismology.) (R. F. A. S.)
Pnoot PllorH II Q uOdol UUdrQ, U.O.
Maintaining safety and order upon the
high
seas
and navigable waters
subject to the jurisdiction of the United States bility of the U.S. coast guard.
varied duties
its
to prevent loss of life
is
is
a responsi-
The primary purpose
of most of and property result-
ing from unsafe or illegal practices.
Administered by the commandant from headquarters in Washington, D.C., the coast guard is a military organization and a branch of the armed forces. It operates under the treasury
department except in time of war or when the president so directs, when it becomes a specialized service in the navy. Military strength on active duty at the end of
fiscal
year 1953
was 34,943, and consisted of 3,177 commissioned officers, 452 commissioned warrant officers, 343 cadets, 906 warrant officers and 30.065 enlisted men. Reserves numbered 17.597. of whom 951 officers and 1,602 enlisted men were on extended active duty.
The authorized 919
at
strength of civilian employees consisted of
headquarters in Washington, and a
field
force of 1,472
PLOWING
through ice-covered Bering sea in the winter of 1952-53, a U.S. coast guard icebreai^er, the "Northwind" (right), and the U.S.S. "Burton Island" of the navy attempted to reach Nome, Alsk. Ice prevented the successful completion of the expedition
ner's
documents bearing evidence of security clearance were
issued to 47,750 individuals, and 93,535 port security cards were issued to pilots, longshoremen, warehousemen and other water-
front workers.
In addition to search and rescue activities engaged in by
all
wage board employees and 586 parttime lamplighters. This was a decrease of 27 in civilian em-
coast guard establishments, six search and rescue groups, each
ployees since 1952.
were maintained outside the continental U.S. to serve principal
Larger ships in commission consisted of 195 cutters of various types including icebreakers and buoy tenders. 63 patrol
military and civilian air lanes.
and ten buoy boats. Also in operation were 268 motor surfboats, 171 motor lifeboats, 1,198 miscellaneous motorboats. 1.913 nonpowered craft and 76 barges.
cations, air navigation facilities
salaried personnel, 3,179
boats, 36 lightships, 41 harbour tugs
Shore establishments included
and depots, 46 marine inspection
12
district
offices,
offices,
24 bases
seven merchant ma-
two supply centres,
comprised of a rescue co-ordination centre, vessel and
aircraft,
and rescue, communiand meteorological services in areas regularly traversed by aircraft of the U.S. and co-operating governments. Five stations each were operated in the Pacific and North Atlantic, and the operation of one other Atlantic station was shared, two-thirds by the U.S. and one-
Ocean station
vessels provided search
ting stations, three radio beacon stations
by the Netherlands. Funds available in 1953 totalled $249,923,929. During this period the value of vessels and aircraft assisted, including cargo, was $933,269,930. The number of calls for assistance responded to was 18,443, 3i^d 5,213 persons were saved or rescued from
tion finder station.
peril.
During the year 137 fixed and rotary wing aircraft were in operation from nine air stations. Air detachments provided search and rescue facilities at Argentia, Nfd.; Bermuda, B.W.I. San Juan. P.R.; Honolulu, Midway Island, Wake Island and Guam; Sangley point, Phil.; and at Annette Island and Kodiak,
During the year no person lost his life as a result of any marine casualty involving inspected and certified United States passenger vessels. During the year 6,275 vessels were inspected, 360,201 undocumented vessels were numbered, and 93,285 docu-
rine details in foreign ports, one shipyard,
one receiving centre, one training station, one academy, 13 air detachments. 16 radio stations, 150 lifeboat stations, 331
manned
lights,
56 light attendant stations, 37 loran transmitand one radio direc-
Alsk.
In addition to the general enforcement of federal laws on the
third
ments were issued merchant marine personnel. A total of 38.169 aids to navigation were maintained U.S.,
its
territories,
and
possessions,
Pacific Islands
guard assisted other departments and agencies of the govern-
sisted of loran, radar
ment having primary
22,267 buoys of various types.
responsibility for the enforcement of the
Pollution act, anchorage regulations, laws relating to in-
ternal revenue, customs, immigration, quarantine
and the con-
servation and protection of wildlife and fisheries.
Port security units continued to operate on
a
front facilities
These aids conand
light stations, lightships
Typical examples of assistance rendered during the year: On July 18, 1952, the U.S.S. "Black Gull" advised by SOS
was afire south of Block Island, Long Island. The C.G.C. "Mackinac," en route from New York to her ocean station, aided in the rescue of 45 of the 49 persons aboard. that she
limited scale
major shipping centres to protect selected vessels and waterfrom sabotage, screen water-front workers and merchant seamen sailing on U.S. vessels, control the entry of certain merchant vessels and supervise the loading and unloading of explosives and other dangerous cargoes. Merchant mari-
in
beacon and
in the
Trust Territory of the
at overseas military bases.
high seas and territorial waters of the United States, the coast
Oil
the
On
Dec.
8,
1952. coast guard search and rescue facilities in rescuing four persons and recov-
Bermuda were instrumental in ering 17 bodies from a Cuban the sea.
aircraft
which had crashed into
——
COBALT — COINAGE 1953, search and rescue aircraft from Sangley point, Phil., went to the assistance of a naval aircraft which had
On
Jan. 19,
ditched 10 mi.
the China coast as a result of
off
A
fire.
waters
Formosa
in the
and picked up
landed
coast guard plane
anti-aircraft
straits,
in
185
^^°''l
drawing the rubber of
New
test
matches against Australia. In the
Zealand tour that followed, South Africa won the only
McGlew
per pound as compared with prices as high as 22 cents per
finished test
pound
carrying his bat for 255 not out. In Jan. 1953 India for the
in
1950-51.
World Cotton Production and Trade.
— Production
1952-53 season was approximately 35.750.000
bales,
in the
and pre-
liminary indications were that the 1953-54 crop would be nearly as
large,
thus adding about
2,300,000 bales to the mounting
world surplus. Not only was the U.S. crop fully as large as 1952, but the Indian crop
about
12%
less,
was
large.
in
The Mexican crop was
compared with 1952, and smaller crops were Turkey and Syria.
indicated for Pakistan. Egypt.
Carry-over stocks at the end of 1952-53 were approximately 17,100,000 bales, as compared with as few as 11,600,000 bales
end of the 1950-51 season, but as compared also with a prewar carry-over which averaged 17,000,000 bales. Trade tended to lag, as compared with the previous year, partly because of price uncertainty and a tendency to use stocks as recently as the
on hand rather than accumulate forward supplies. Exports fell perhaps 10% below the level of the previous year. Turkey and Peru exported
at high or
its
—
Cottonseed
281
cated as about 1.700.000 bales. Carry-over stocks of linters on
pared with 548.000
minimum
Cottonseed. The 1953 U.S. cottonseed outturn was indicated as a probable 6.376,000 tons, as compared with 6,176,000 tons in 1952. The support price was reduced to $54.50 per ton,
000 tons.
compared with 5.500.000 in the previous year. It was announced that there would be no export subsidy on 1953 crop cotton, such as was provided from late 1944 until late 1950 when
Aug.
providing
closely associated with U.S. support prices.
249 289 379
as
much
in
1,024
for the year 1952-53 being only 3,200.000 bales
the subsidy reached as
tions in 1951-52,
334
flncludes Pokistan.
ton exports caused cline
The Raw Cotton commission
75%
Average, 1935-39
1,100 1,400
involved
sustaining a loss of about $70,000,000 in
as the Principal Producing Countries
thousands of 5001b. balesi
Egypt
loss
was perhaps as much as 20% above
for their own account from nondollar and nonsterling countries. Premiums on nondollar cotton had narrowed or disappeared, with world price levels, when adjusted for quality, apparently
Florida Virginia Other states
Brazil
the
312 716 568 697 543 522 429 345
New Mexico
3,200 1,400
officially
spinners had the option of buying through the commission or
Missouri
India
of the
911
Oklohomo
...
30%
890 948 729 756 657
Tennessee North Carolina
Country
Kar-
for
3,162 1,670
Georgia
United Stotes China (including Monchuriol
30',;
decree, acreage devoted to
1942-51
Aiiiono
(In
market plus
3,808 1,906 1,818 1,366
Louisiana South Carolina
— Coffon Production of
By
types.
4,150 2,100
975 990 775 790 710 670 460 440 430 335
III.
Ashmouni
1952
Alabumo
Toble
for
$'/,
based on
the previous
sell at
1953
1,725 1,485
Californio
at a fixed price
value on the world market.
Indicated
Stote
Texas
.iiid
prices to growers, which
Cotton Production by Leading Slates
New York
da\'s closing price of the
to II.
would buy the crop
1950
only.
Toble
it
the estimated cost of production and would
1953*
Japan
— CRICKET
announced that
Goods
Piece
OIL
record levels, whereas U.S. exports
slumped. Pakistan, after heavy exports,
in
September placed an
export duty of $20 on each bale.
Egyptian exports increased, though the Alexandria market
was closed by government decree
in
Nov. 1952. The government
match by an innings and 180
runs.
D.
J.
first
time visited the West Indies. Although six days were allotted to the games, four were drawn, the
West Indies winning
the other
by 142 runs.
The advent sett
of the Australian touring
team under A. L. Has-
excited the liveliest expectation in England. In the
match
first
Nottingham on June 11 Australia, thanks to A. L. Morris (67), Hassett (115) and K. R. Miller (55), scored 249 runs, A. V. Bedser taking 7 wickets for 55 runs, to which England replied with 144. Australia's position seemed strong but test
at
they were
all out for 123, Bedser taking 7 wickets for 44 runs. England scored 120 runs for 2 wickets, rain seriously curtailing play and the match being drawn. In contrast at Lords there were five days of sunshine. Hassett
made a century, but to the Australian total of 346 England, with L. H. Hutton (145) and T. W. Graveney (78), replied with 372. To Australia's second innings' total of 368 Miller's 115 and Morris' 89 were the chief contributions. In England's T. E. Bailey (71) and W. Watson (109) saved the
final innings
game by 3 wickets. The weather dominated Australia's total of 318
the third
match
at Manchester.
To
—R.N.Harvey (122) and G. B.Hole (66)
CRIME
—England had
replied with
There was no more play
1
26 for 4 by the end of the third day.
until after
luncheon on the
day;
fifth
thanks to Bailey again, the risk of a follow-on was averted. In the hour that was left Australia lost 8 wickets for 35 runs.
On
the
first
day of the fourth
scored no more than 142 for
7 in
test
match
England
at Leeds,
52 hours, and Australia ended
the second day with a lead of 99. About two hours were possible on the Saturday, and just before rain shut dow-n on the play, L. H. Hutton.
who
captained England in the series, w'as out
still 37 behind. W. J. Edrich (64) and D. Compton (60 not out) batted bravely on the Monday, but by the
207
burglaries at $180 and general larcenies at $81. In 383 cities
more than 25,000 population, representing a total of somewhat more than 50,000,000 inhabitants, the total loss resulting from these property crimes was in excess of $250,000,000. The smaller urban places, and especially the rural districts, generally had lower per capita rates of property crimes and lower average of
values attaching to the property stolen.
Of 42,443 robberies committed in 1952 in these representative more than 52% were committed on the streets. Robberies
cities,
and other commercial places
with England
of banks, chain stores,
close 5 wickets were
accounted for 32.8%, while only i robbery out of 11 was committed in a residence. On the other hand, residence burglaries,
down
for a lead of only 78.
after fine defensive batting
On
by Bailey, Australia,
than two hours' play, just failed to
make
the last day,
with
left
less
and the
runs,
177
stations
40%
of the
1952 in these
cities,
both by day and by night, accounted for more than total of burglaries.
Of the 575,996
match was drawn.
oil
reported in
larcenies
With Hutton
and personal articles from automobiles constituted 40.6% of the total. Pocket picking and purse snatching accounted for only 3.3% of the thefts. Bicycle thefts still repre-
(82) fighting hard, England reached 154 before the third wicket
sented a respectable share of the larceny total, with 14.8%.
but Bailey (64), supported by the tail, wrung a precious lead of only 31. With 59 up and only Hassett out, Australia was on terms again, but G. A. R. Lock (5 for 45) and Laker then
(See also Federal Bureau of Investigation; Juvenile Delinquency; Law; Secret Service, U.S.)
Oval, Hassett (53) gave his side a good start but only a fine 62 by R. Lindwall redeemed the failure
In the
final test at the
of the middle batsmen, to achieve a total of 275.
fell,
took charge and only a gallant 49 by R. G. Archer saved Australia from collapse and set England 132 to win. In the final
game the English batting never Edrich (55) and Compton finally ran to the
stage of the
faltered,
and
as
pavilion, a vast
crow'd acclaimed the winning of the Ashes for the
first
time in
20 years.
thefts of accessories
—
Bibliography. Federal Bureau of Investigation, Unijorm Crime Reports jor the United States and Its Possessions, no. i and 2 (1952). no. I (1953): International City Managers Association, Municipal Year Book, vol.
XX (1953).
Great
Britain.
ber of persons found guilty of offenses of (against 723,320 in 1951), of dictable
Surrey won the county championship; the Gentlemen beat the Players; Cambridge
won
the university match; and
Harrow.
Eton beat
(H.
S.
A.)
Primo
uMlliC>
— Major
crimes rose
in
volume for
the fifth successive year, bringing the mid-1953 level
to a point
9%
higher than that recorded in 1951. In the
first
half of the year the most pronounced increase was in attacks
with deadly weapons, which rose to a point 8.4% higher than the already high levels established during the corresponding
months
of
A 6.5%
1952.
rise
also
occurred in rape, which
brought the mid-1953 level for that crime to a point more than
75% higher than during the pre-World War II By contrast with these two crimes, the trend slaughter and offenses against property was
years.
in murder, manmore encouraging,
with auto theft the only one to show more than a nominal at 5.1%. Since this particular crime customarily
rise,
shows rather
wide annual fluctuations, the current increase was not necessarily significant.
Such broad generalizations
for the nation as a
whole some-
times obscure local changes of some significance. In 1953, for example, the general increase here noted was the result of a rural
upswing of 9%, w-hereas the
with only a 0.5% increase notable
cities
in the total of
were almost stationary major crimes. The only
urban increases were for aggravated assault at
neghgent manslaughter (chiefly highway
fatalities) at
7%, 6.6% and
auto theft at 4.8%.
Complete data for 1952 show that automobiles constituted of all property stolen during that year. Auto accessories, luggage and bicycles made up 16% of the total, currency 11% and jewellery 8%. Paralleling some of these figures were the
55%
rates for recovery of stolen property, with stolen automobiles
leading at
92.4%
—
far
above the general average for
all
prop-
erty recoveries, which in that year stood at 59.1%. Currency
(10.2%), jewellery (13.5%) and furs (6.1%) show-ed the lowest rates of recovery.
Highest values per offense naturally attached to auto theft, at $1,060 per case. Robberies followed with an average of $235,
616,298
offenses,
whom
all
the
num-
kinds was 753.012
131,047 had committed in-
nonindictable
offenses
and
5,667
offenses against defense regulations. This represented a slight defirst and third categories and an increase of 31,844 second category, which was largely accounted for by an
crease in the in the
increase in
United States.
(BR- S.)
—In England and Wales during 1952
offenses.
creases
traffic,
Among in
prostitution
and Wireless Telegraphy acts
indictable offenses there were substantial in-
embezzlement (19%), frauds and
false
pretenses
(15%) and robbery (8%), whereas the figures for most offenses in the larceny group went down. The increase in sex offenses was smaller (3%) than in previous years. Of those found guilty of indictable
offenses
114,859
were males and
16,188
females
The proportion of offenses from 11.9% to 12.4%. The
(against 117,004 and 15,813 in 1951).
by females had therefore increased age group distribution showed a further decline for boys aged 8 and under 14 from 21.1% in 1950 and 20% in 1951 to 18.4% in 1952, and a further increase for men aged 30 and over from 25% in 1950 and 26.7% in 1951 to 27.4% in 1952. The changes in the age distribution were particularly marked for robbery where the share of those under 17 declined by 31% and that of those of 17 and over increased by 28%. While the number of murderers (or suspects) of persons aged one year or over increased from 104 in 195 1 to 108, the number of those found guilty of murder had nearly doubled (41 against 22). In six cases the murderer remained undetected, and 36 committed suicide before arrest. Seventy-two persons were arrested in murder cases involving 81 victims. Two of them were certified insane before trial, 14 were found unfit to plead, 17 found guilty but insane, 2 found guilty and detained during the queen's pleasure (under 18 years of age), 5 were acquitted. Of the 32) who were sentenced to death, 17 were executed, i was certified insane after sentence and removed to Broadmoor institution, and in 13 cases the sentence was commuted to life imprisonment. Of those sentenced to death, 54% were therefore executed. Verdicts of suicide numbered 4,290 (against 4,282 in 1951) and attempted suicides 4,484 (against 4,524). Indictable offenses known to the police numbered 513,559 (against 524,506 in 195 1), a decline wholly due to the fall in larceny cases. The percentage of indictable offenses that were cleared up by the police was 47.5 (against
47.1%
in 1951).
CRUDE OIL — CUBA
208
In the Metropolitan Police district the numbers of indictable
known
39:!,
by 1.5% from 111,091 to 109,and the percentage of crimes cleared up rose from 31.5 to
31.9.
The
offenses
to the police fell
decline
was much more pronounced
groups (13.8% for children, in
the older ones.
On
in the
for all groups
younger age
under 21
J
than
was restricted to the was an increase in the more
the whole, the decline
less serious offenses, while
serious classes.
10% there
There was substantial increase
in
robberies in
the Metropolitan area
(29S against 214 in 1951, but, as the commissioner pointed out, the figure was still substantially below
in 1948.
The same
showed increases
in
first
crime over the
four months of
corresponding
pared with 17.9 in the ten large burghs with separate police forces and 9.6 in the 19 counties or joint police areas. Thirteen 195
murder became known
of
1
to the police against nine in
of the five persons proceeded against, three were convicted
;
murder and executed. (See also Betting and Gambling; Police; Prisons.)
—
Bibliography. Marshall B. Clinard. Tlie Black Market (New York, 1952); JVIabel A. Elliott, Crime in Modern Society (Xew York., 1952); Estes Kefauver, Crime in America (Xew York, 1951); J. D. W. Pearce, Juvenile Delinquency (London, 1952). (H. Mil.)
Crude
Oil: see Petroleum. '^^^ republic of
P11I1A
Cuba occupies
buDd.
between 20° and 25° N. lat., and 74° and 85° W. long. island and numerous small islands under Cuban sovereignty have an aggregate area of 44,217 sq.mi. The census of 1953 disclosed a population of 5,870,904, an increase of 972.321 of
Havana
in greater
held 1.544,000, of
its
island, held 1,814,000, of
leading city, Santiago, contained
more than 175,000.
President (provisional) in 1953, Fulgencio Batista. History. The sugar crop of 1953 amounted to
—
tons.
The reduction from
whom
Havana. Oriente province,
embracing the eastern quarter of the
whom
5,007,000
the record crop of 1952 (which was
more than 7,000,000 tons) was
effected in an orderly fashion,
so as to bring production in line with world demand. All of the
crop was sold, as well as some of the 1,800,000-ton carr>'-over of June 1952.
The import quota assigned
to
Cuban sugar by
United States department of agriculture (Oct. 2,719,107 tons. Further progress was
$10,000,000.
up
as a
promoter of industry,
foreign assets of the National
at about $525,000,000; the fiduciary from $431,000,000 in Nov. 1952 to $416,000.000 in July 1953, as unemployment rose, and the government curtailed its less productive expenditures. Inasmuch as some funds tended to be exported early in 1953, a tax of 2% on all remittances abroad was instituted in May. The public works program of the government for 1953 was set at a maxi-
circulation declined
of $60,000,000.
July 25 the government designated an interventor in the United railways, and $20,000,000 were authorized for the acquisition
and rehabilitation of that system. An agreement was
reached with the private owners on a purchase price of $13,000,000. At the end of the summer the United railways passed under
government control, and almost at once 2,000 employees were discharged and wage reductions of from 10% to 30% were decreed. Foreign capital was reported to be ready for use in expanding and electrifying the system. It was still e.xpected. until midsummer, that the election w'ould occur in November. But at the end of July, a revolt against Batista broke out in the mountains of Oriente province and was quelled only after 100 Hves were lost. The chance of a long postponement of the election appeared greater after the rebellion was put down, and it was finally set for Nov. i, 1954. The status of the minor opposition groups, and particularly of the Revolutionary party (whose principal leaders included the two preceding presidents, Ramon Grau San Martin and Carlos Prio Socarras), seemed precarious, despite the large following among workers, both urban and agricultural, of the Revolutionary party. The foreign relations of Cuba were amicable and devoid of critical incidents. A policy of revision of commercial treaties to meet the present needs of the economy was advanced; a new treaty with Spain was concluded. (C. E. Mc.)
—
Education. In 1950 there were 7,598 public primary schools with 546,984 students and 20.774 teachers. There were 21 institutes for secondary education and a normal school and a commercial school in each province. University education was available at the University of Havana, the Oriente university (Santiago de Cuba) and the Catholic University of Villanova (Havana). Finance. The monetary unit is the peso, officially pegged at par w-ith the U.S. dollar. The budget for the fiscal year 1953-54 (July i-June 30) was placed initially at $298,000,000. On Dec. 31, 1951. the funded national debt amounted to $217,700,000; estimates of the floating debt ranged as high as $180,000,000. Currency in circulation (March 31, 1953) totalled $1,014,000,000, of which $617,000,000 was in U.S. dollars; demand deposits (July 31, i9S3) were $525,000,000; gold reserves (.Aug. 31, 1953) $196,000,000. The retail food price index (Havana) stood at 92 in July 1953 (1948 = 100). Trade and Communications. Exports in 1952 totalled $675,344,980; imports were $618,314,082. The International Monetary fund estimated that exports of sugar and fresh fruits were undervalued by $2,000,000. The chief exports were sugar and molasses (85%) and tobacco and products (6%). Leading customers were the U.S. (61%), the United Kingdom (8%), Japan (67o), the Netherlands (4%) and Germany (2%). Leading suppliers were the U.S. (75%), the U.K. (3%) and Germany (2%). Railways (1949) included 3.017 mi. of main line. 660 mi. of sidings and yards and 7,870 mi. of industrial trackage. Roads (1949) included 1.720 mi. of paved highways and 600 mi. of improved highways. .As of Jan. I, 1952, there were 86,464 passenger cars, 37,215 trucks and 4.930 buses. Gross tonnage of ocean-going and coastwise vessels totalled 67,401 in Oct. 1951. Four television stations were in operation in I9S3; about 575,000 radios were in use in 1949. Agriculture. Sugar cane continued to be by far the most important crop. Production of sugar in the 1952-53 season, limited by government decree, totalled 5,686,966 short tons (1951-52: 7,963.689 tons). Molasses production was 278.274,000 gal. Production estimates for other crops in 1952-53 included rice (rough) 288.000.000 lb.: henequen fibre 27,900,000 lb.: cacao 7,300,000 lb.; tobacco 36.000 metric tons; coffee 442.000 bags of 132 lb. each. In 1950-51 there were an estimated 4.116,000 cattle. 154.000 sheep and 1,344.000 hogs. Manufactures. There were 161 sugar mills in operation during the 1952-53 grinding season. In 1952, 419,000 metric tons of cement were produced. Production of electricity totalled 836.400.000 kw.hr. in 1951. Mineral Production. In 1952, 19,106 short tons of copper and 8,957 tons of nickel were produced. Production of other minerals included chem-
—
the entire island lying
The main
over 1943. The province more than 1,000,000 were
a capital of
bank remained constant
On
months of the previous year and the decline began only in May, the four days of dense fog in December produced an approximate doubling of offenses, and for shopbreaking the figures rose even to more than three times the average. In Scotland the number of persons against whom a crime or an offense was proved was 104.391 in 1952 as against 99,950 in 195 1, an increase of 4.4%. The percentage of male offenders was 91.2, as compared with 91.8 in 1951. The highest incidence was in the 21-24 3ge group for males and in the 30-39 age group for females. The number of crimes and offenses known to the police was 188.768, an increase of 2.2% against 1951; 57% of all crimes were committed in the four counties of cities, where the number of crimes per 1,000 of the population was 24.6, as com-
cases of
The
mum
introduce corporal punishment. While the all
set
with
for
was abolished
as a whole, an important fact in view of the agitation to re-
1952
The Financiera Nacional was
applied to the country
that for the years before corporal punishment
robbery with violence
so as to reduce the dependence upon foreign sources of meat.
made
13,
in the
the
1953) was
summer
1953 on a revision of the International Sugar agreement, conference in London.
of
in a
The investment of domestic and especially foreign capital in new mineral ventures was accelerated in 1953. Deep drilling for petroleum was undertaken near Santa Clara and Camagiiey.
A
government subsidy for zinc and copper mining was begun. Sustained efforts were made by the government to diversify agricultural production, and increase the production of livestock,
—
_
—
—
—
manganese ore 9,654 long tons (metal content 81.5%), metallurgical manganese ore 238.047 long tons (metal content 44%), refractory chromite 54,832 long tons (metal content 36%) and iron ore 99.69S long ical
tons.
(J-
W. Mw.)
;
CURACAO — CZECHOSLOVAKIA Curacao:
open
Netherlands Antilles.
see
laurels,
209
dethroning Jeanne Robinson of Detroit by the slim
advantage of two points. Miss Xieman annexed This winter pastime continued to grow ity
in
popular-
during the 1952-53 season, great progress being
made in the midwestern section of the United States where new indoor rinks were constructed. The big prize of the game was returned to Canada when curlers from that country defeated a U.S. team by a score of 269-165 in an international bonspiel at
Montreal to regain the Gordon medal. The eighth annual Midwest association tournament, held on the Milwaukee-Wauwatosa ice in Wisconsin, saw Karl Maier's rink gain the 1953 championship and the
Midwest All-American trophy. In the same bon-
the Francis Kleffman rink of Hibbing, Minn., captured
spiel,
the Twentieth Century trophy and the
umph,
111.,
skipped by Clarence Wilson,
Waltham club of Triwon the McGrath prize.
the
I
and 3-mi. races and was second
-mi.
first
places in
Miss Robinson at
to
time for the long event being 17 min. 42.9
5 mi., the victor's
sec.
Tommy
O'Rourke became the first U.S. rider in seven years to win the High Park 25. Canada's most important cycling event, when he scored a one-length victory over George Bronetto of Toronto, Ont.. in a field of 12 at Toronto on May 18. Italian stars swept world amateur laurels, Riccardo Filippi winning the road title, Marino Morettini the sprint crown and Gino Messina the pursuit trophy. World professional champions were Fausto Coppi (Italy), road; Arie van Vliet (the Netherlands), sprint; Sid Patterson (Australia), pursuit; and Adolphe \'erschueren (Belgium), motor-paced.
Louison Bobet,
a
former French baker, triumphed
in the
40th
Forty-eight teams from Canada and the United States were at-
running of the Tour de France, long one of Europe's sports
tracted to the annual international gathering at Detroit, Mich.,
classics.
and the Lloyd Raney rink from Mclntyre.
time of 129 hr. 23 min. 25
annexed top
Ont.,
honours for the third successive season. Other major winners
Bobet won the gruelling
test of 2.795 mi. in the elapsed
France's Jean Mallejac beat
sec.
Astrua by only 43
Italy's Giancarol
second prize.
sec. for
(T. V. H.)
during the campaign included the following: Brookline trophy,
Schenectady (N.Y.) Country club; Dewar cup. Hawkesbury, Ont.; Mitchell medal, Lachine, Que.; Country Club cup. Schenectady (at Utica, N.Y.);
Emmett and Mohawk
C.Y.O.:
see Societies
;
Clyde Park cup. Sherbrooke, Que.; Stockton cup, Detroit (at the Country club, Brookline, Mass.). The Wauwatosa Granite club of Milwaukee carried off honours in the fifth annual United States women's championship at
ganizations for Youth.
Cyprus is a British island colony in the eastern Uj}JIUo. Mediterranean. Area: 3.572 sq.mi. Pop.: (1946 census) 450,114; (1952 est.) 498.000. Language: Greek 80.3%, Turkish 17.8%; 10% also speak English. Religion: Greek Or«.,_„,,_
thodox 80.4%, Moslem 17.9%. Chief towns (pop. 1951): Nicosia (cap.), 36,806; Larnaca, 15,364; Limassol, 24.462;
gusta, 17,973.
History.
trophy as the runners-up. The Indian Hill club Squaws of Win-
at the fourth
received the Indian Hill trophy, and teams from the
Chicago club Heathers won both the Exmoor and Skokie
The 65th annual Manitoba bonspiel
at
prizes.
Winnipeg had a
field
of 372 teams and resulted in a tie for the grand aggregate prize between a Winnipeg four, skipped by Mac Scales, and Bob Dunbar's rink from St. Paul, Minn. Justice D. P. J. Kelly led the Granite club of Toronto to two of the big awards in the Quebec international bonspiel, his men taking the grand aggregate trophy and the Lieutenant Governor's trophy. Ken Weidon's curlers representing the St. George's club of Montreal captured the British Consols trophy. Manitoba, represented by a team from the small town of Dauphin skipped by Ab Gowanlock, finished first in the Canadian championships at Sudbury, Ont. Manitoba had a record of nine won and two lost, Quebec placing second w'ith eight and three after losing a play-off to the title
(T. V. H.)
winners.
first
Governor
— Eight
Milwaukee. The Milwaukee club Kilties won the Appleton
111.,
see
Rates. See also
Coinage; Exchange Control and Exchange under various countries.
1953, Sir
in
Fama-
Andrew Wright.
foreign countries were represented in 1953
and largest trade
took place in 1935).
A
island to discuss increases in
fair to
be held
Cyprus (the
in
mission from Japan visited the
mutual trade. At Limni large
re-
serves of sulphide ore encouraged plans for a plant to treat
semioxidized ore. timber,
to
A
law was enacted to reduce import duties on
encourage
the
building
industry
remedy the
to
housing shortage.
Enosis claims continued to be made. Archbishop Makarios
re-
questing the government to give effect to Cypriot Greeks' de-
mands
for union with Greece.
To
this the
governor replied that
the British government contemplated no alteration in the col-
ony's sovereignty. Legislation
was introduced
(religious head) for the
to
permit the election of a mufti
Turkish community. In the
first
munici-
pal elections since 1949 left-wing parties gained control of three
towns and right-wing nationalists also won three. Events in the middle east continued to focus British attention on Cyprus,
Currency:
U.S.: Catholic Or-
medals. Utica;
Gordon medal, Schenectady (at Schenectady) Archibald cup, Griffith medal and Utica cup, Ardsley, N.Y.; Douglas medal, Hamilton (Ont.) Thistles (at St. Andrews, Mt. Hope, N.Y.)
netka,
and Associations,
and
this,
with the favourable financial position
enjoyed for some time past, allowed an expansion of the island's ten-year development plan: £13. 000. 000 were to be spent in the ten-year period ending 1956. Developments introduced into the
Ronald Rhoads, Long Beach, Calif., won senior Piinlinn' Ujbllllgi open honours in the United States amateur championships at St. Louis, Mo., Sept. 5-6, 1953, gaining the title by a margin of only two points over Richard Gatto of San Jose, Calif. Rhoads took first in one race, the 3-mi. event, which he annexed in 9 min. 3.3 sec. but gained second, third and fourth places in other races to top the scoring. Gatto sprint in 3 min. 2.1 sec;
Roy
5-mi. field in 11 min. 30 sec;
Mich., captured the featured
Rhoads
2
won
the i-mi.
Stetina of Cleveland, O., led the
and
Tom
O'Rourke of Detroit,
5-mi. grind in
i
hr. 3
finished second. Jack
it
was begun and going forward
to completion
in
1953 were a new broadcasting station, a social security scheme and a mineral resources survey. The worst earthquake in Cyprus history caused
much
loss of life
and damage
also Disasters.)
— Schools (1953): primary secondary and — Monetary
Education.
668);
in Sept. 1953. (See (J. J.
709
Ty.)
(enrolment, 1951-52, 64,Teachers' training colleges 2.
50. agricultural 2, trade i. Trade. unit: piastre (i8o piastres = £i sterling $2.80). Budget (1952 est.): revenue £5,855,880; expenditure £5,572,782. Foreign trade (1952): imports £20,400,000: exports £18,000,000. Main products: citrus, seeds, vine products, carob, wool and copper.
Finance
= U.S.
min. 31 sec.
Hartman, Los Gatos. Calif., carried the junior men's crown back to the Pacific coast, sweeping the I -mi., 3-mi. and 5-mi. tests in his division. Nancy Nieman, Detroit star who was runner-up in 1952, won the girls' as
plan after
people's republic of central Europe, p7QPhnclnW0l/i0 ^ IlLClliUolUVdMd. Czechoslovakia is bounded west and
northwest by Germany, north and northeast by Poland, east by the U.S.S.R., south by
Hungary and
Austria. Area: 49,354 sq. mi.
DAHOMEY — DA IRY PRODUCTS
210
Pop. (1950 census"): 12,339,674. Language (1950 est.): Czech 67%; Slovak 25%; German 3.5%; Hungarian 3.5%; Ukrainian
1.5%; Polish 0.7%. Religion (1930 census): Roman Catholic (Latin
works to the town hall, attacked public buildings, shouted antigovernment slogans and carried large photographs of former presidents T. G. Masaryk and Eduard Benes. One account
rite) 73.5%; Protestant (all denominations) 7.7%; Czechoslovak Church 5.4%; Greek Catholic 4%; Greek Orthodox 1%; Jewish 2.4%; atheist 5.8%. Chief towns, pop. (1947
claimed that a military unit sent against them had gone over to them, and that an army lieutenant and six workers were later executed. The only concession that followed the riots was the
census): Prague (cap.) 921,416; Brno 272,760; Moravska Os-
repeal on July
trava
181. 181;
Bratislava
172,664;
Plzen
118,152;
Olomouc
58.675; Kosice 58,089; Liberec 52.498. Presidents of the republic
in
1953: Klement Gottwald and (from
Zapotocky. Prime ministers
(from ^L^rch History.
21
21) Antonin
1953: Antonin Zapotocky and
\ilem Siroky.
)
— On
in
March
Dec.
17,
1952,
7
of a severe decree
—against absenteeism
fore
On
Sept.
II, a
large
Gottwald made a
government
number
Communist
of deputy premiers
of
title
and Karel Bacilek, formerly minister of the
became
security,
was reduced
to four.
ing the year 1952 the number of collective farms of type i (in which the greatest concessions were made to private ownership) fell from 2,479 to 1,356, while those in types 2. 3 and 4 had risen from 3,771 to 7,280. Collective farms of types 3 and 4
premiers (the latter keeping the ministry of defense)
alone
(the
types
most nearly approximating
kolkhoz) held at the end of 1952 more than land of the republic. lective
farms of
all
The
to
27%
the
Soviet
of the arable
total area of arable land held
by
col-
types increased during 1952 from 1,290,000
President Gottwald died on
March
14, 1953, a
few days after
from Moscow, where he had apparently caught pneumonia while attending Stalin's funeral. As chairman of the party and president of the republic, he had concentrated in his hands the supreme power in both government and party. This power appeared to have been divided under the arrangement that followed his death. his return
On March 21, Zapotocky, till then premier, succeeded him and was replaced by Siroky, the leading Communist of Slovakia. No one was elected chairman of the party, but Antonin Novotny became head of the secretariat. Under the existing constitution the office of president was more important than in any of the other people's democracies. It therefore seemed likely that Zapotocky remained the most powerful single individual after Gottwald"s death.
On May 30 a new currency reform was introduced. The korwta (crown) was tied to the Soviet rouble (i.oo roubles = 1.80 koruny). The rate of exchange of new currency for old varied from 1:5 for wages and salaries and for savings deposits of less than 5.000 koruny up to 1:50 for larger
sums
or in bank deposits. Ration cards were abolished.
in
cash
The reform
was accompanied by price reductions: of bread and fiour by 22%, sugar by 50%, pork by 43%, fats by 60% and industrial goods by 30% to 40%. The effect of the reform was to deprive the peasants and the better-paid workers of all their savings. During 1952 the shortage of consumers' goods had forced skilled workers, who earned good money wages, to save cash. It had also had the effect of making them work less hard. If they could buy nothing with extra wages, it was not worth while earning them. Similar considerations applied to peasants,
who
in any case resisted collectivization pressure by less work. For the past year the government had urged workers and peasants to work harder, without giving them incentives and therefore without success. Now it decided to force them to work by confiscating their savings. In order to keep their families from hunger, more women, adolescents and old people would have to go to work, and able-bodied workers would have to work longer
and more
intensively.
The currency reform provoked greater rage than any previous measure of the Communist regime. Circumstantial accounts by refugees who escaped to Bavaria made it clear that there were big demonstrations and riots in Plzen and Moravska Ostrava. It was said that in Plzen the crowds marched from the Skoda
Of
first ;
these
deputy
the other
premiers, were Vaclav Kopecky,
who took over a newly created ministry of culture, and Jindfich Uher, who took over a unified ministry of agriculture. Zdenek Nejedly was demoted to minister without portfolio, Vaclav Nosek (former minister of the interior) to minister of manpower, and Zdenek Fierlinger to the presidency of the national assembly.
These ministerial reorganizations were
ha. to 2.340,000 ha.
first
party. In the government,
two, Jaromir Dolansky and Alexej Cepicka, became
who were merely deputy
In the
secretary;
first
statement on the progress of collectivization of agriculture. Dur-
two,
week be-
a
reshuffle occurred.
party leadership. Novotny received the secretary of the Slovak
President
— published only
in the factories.
clearly
modelled on
those which had recently taken place in the Soviet Union.
new
policy was also modelled on the
new
The
Soviet concern for
On Sept. 15 the government promised that heavy industry would be substantially reduced, in agriculture greatly increased. Debts of collective and private peasants would be largely cancelled. During 1953 a further 30,000 flats would be built, and in 1954 there would be 40.000 more fiats and 10.000 one-family houses. On Oct. i food prices were reduced by io%-20% and prices of some articles of clothing by 40%. In all these changes there was no indication that the position of Zapotocky had weakened, or how the fall of L. P. Beria in the U.S.S.R. had affected the leadership of the Czech(H. S-W.) oslovak party. consumers' goods.
investment
in
—
Education. Schools (1953): nursery, pupils 165.000; primary 9,045, pupils 1,030,000; higher primary 2,745, pupils 473,000; secondary 304, pupils 80,300: vocational, pupils 113,000; institutions of higher education 17, students 42,000. Hungarian schools in -Slovakia: nursery 215; primary 553, pupils 44,033; also vocational and secondary.
—
Monetary unit: koruna, revalued on May 30. 1953. with an exchange rate of 1.80 koruny to the rouble; previous exchange was 12.50 koruny to the rouble. Xew external value of the koruna, high and nominal: U.S. $1 = 7.20 koruny. Budget (1953 est.): revenue Finance.
official
rate
435.207,000.000 koruny; Foreign Trode. (1950) 000,000. ^Main sources Rumania, Hungary and
—
expenditure 430,910.000.000 koruny. Imports U.S. $653,000,000; exports U.S. $800.of imports (1950): U.S.S.R. 29.4%; Poland,
Bulgaria 26%. Main destinations of exports: U.S.S.R. 28%; four other eastern European countries 21.1%. Czechoslovak trade with 18 western European countries (1952): imports U.S. $110,000,000; exports U.S. $157,100,000. Transport and Communications. Roads (1946): 43.969 mi. Licensed motor vehicles (Dec. 1950): cars 165.000, commercial vehicles 65.000. Railways (1947): 8,161 mi. .^ir transport (1949): flights 16,833; 4,884,000 mi. flown. Telephones (1950): 380,000. Radio receiving sets (Dec. 1952): 2,717,000. Agriculture. Xo reliable data published since 1951- Main crops (metric tons, 1950): wheat 1,540,000: barley 1,135,000; oats 950,000; rye 1,140,000: maize 235.000; potatoes 7,500.000; sugar, raw value (1952 est.), 628.000. In 1951 and 1952 the annual Soviet grain deliveries amounted to 1,000.000 tons, three-fourths of which were bread grains. The 1953 harvest was described as not entirely unfavourable. Livestock: cattle (1951^ 4,100.000; pigs (1951) 3,700.000; sheep (1950) 480,000; horses (1950) 640.000. Industry. Employment in manufacturing (Nov, 1949): i.477,700. Production (metric tons, 1952 est.): coal 20,230.000; coke 5.343,000; lignite 33.800.000: crude oil 148,000; crude steel 3,667,000; electricity 11,639,000,000 kw.hr.
—
—
—
Dahomey: see French Union; French West Africa. Dairy Industry, Bureau of: see Agricultural Research Administration.
flQirU PrnrilirtC
Udiry
I
rUDUClo.
'^^^^^ ^''^' "^^"^
indicated
at
production for 1953 was 118.000,000,000 lb.
about
Because of widespread drought and hot weather, production de-
DAKAR— DAMS clined in the rate of est lb.
second half of the year as compared with the record
about 123,000,000,000
early in 1953. This
lb.
was the
211 Milk Production
lln
larg-
milk flow since 1947; the total for 1952 was 115,517.000,000 The higher level of production attained was largely the result
ply conditions, particularly late in 1952 and early 1953, plus an
Conado
decline in the price
of beef and the accompanying drop in carcass value of dairy ani-
mals marketed for beef had
repercussions on the milk supply
its
millions of pounds!
United Sfotes France
Western Germany United Kingdom
2%. The
Principal Producing Countries
Country
of very favourable mild weather, abundant pasture and feed sup-
increase in milking herds of about
in
1951
1950
115,517 34,170 34,862 22,454 16,785
115,741
117,602 34,080 30,556 23,062 16,449 12,723
Netherlands
12,271
Denmark
10,922 11,849 11,149 10,093 fAverage 1935-39.
Australia
New Zeoland Sweden •Averoge, 1935-38.
Average, 1934-38
t952
36,350 33,447 22,124 16,424 12,494 11,537 11,356 11,003 10,529
105,416 33,000 33,069* 18,424 15,284t 11,180 11,684 11,780 10,176 10,238
11,931
12,848 10,416 10,789
because farmers, therefore, retained older milk cows longer and culled their herds less severely.
mould
Both butter and cheese buying were resumed by the government in Dec. 1952 to support a declining milk market. In March 1953 the U.S. department of agriculture announced that it would
Also, chemists reported that milk stays sweet without souring as
continue to support the market at
90%
of parity through
March
much
solids in carload lots. Butter base prices
were
at terminal
markets
New
York, N.Y.; Chicago, 111.; San Francisco, Calif.; and Wash. Under the support program, purchases January through September in whole milk equivalent were 9,598,000,000 lb., a volume far exceeding that of any previous year. Purchases included 343,864,000 lb. of butter, 272,782,000 lb. of cheese and of
Seattle,
513,461,000
of nonfat dry milk soHds. In the last quarter of
lb.
the year the purchases largely ceased,
some of
the accumulation
moving back into trade channels and larger amounts into domestic and foreign welfare programs, but it was evident that stocks carried over into 1954 would be uncommonly large. Exports of dairy products declined to low levels in 1953. Imports had been controlled since Aug. 1951 under section 104 of
on wrapping of natural and processed cheese.
as four times longer
if
cows are fed small amounts of
menadione, a precursor of vitamin K, which apparently acts as an antibiotic.
Milk production
1954, equivalent to $3.74 per hundredweight for manufacturing
milk testing 3.95% fat and 67.3 cents a pound for butterfat, by purchasing creamery butter, Cheddar cheese and nonfat dry milk
inhibitor,
302,000,000,000
in
1952 in 14 major producing countries was
slightly less than in
lb.,
the prewar average of 281,638,000,000
more than
1952, but
lb.
Conditions
suggested a resumption of the upward trend. About
in
35%
1953
of the
11% for cheeses and and dried milk. In the United Kingdom milk production in 1953 continued to rise, but less fresh milk was being drunk, possibly because it was at a record high price. Butter and cheese were still relatively scarce, but condensed milk stocks were mounting and, that type total
6%
was used
for butter production, about
for canned
not being subsidized,
it
was, unlike prewar,
more expensive than
fresh milk.
The U.S.S.R. of butter from
in the late
summer made
substantial purchases
Denmark, the Netherlands, Australia and New
Zealand.
Dakar:
(J.
see
K. R.)
French West Africa.
the Defense Production act which expired June 30, 1953. After that,
quotas were established under section 22 of the Agricul-
tural
Adjustment act
for about
20,747,000
lb.
of cheese and
U Alton, John FrSnCiS bishop of
John cardinal D'Alton, arch-
Armagh and primate
of all Ireland, iiith successor
about 3.000,000 lb. of other products including butter, a total milk equivalent of 220,000,000 lb,, as against a milk equivalent
of St. Patrick in the primatial see,
import
County Mayo,
in
1952 of 788,000,000
745,000,000
lb.
and a prewar average of about
college, Dublin,
lb.
appeared that butter production would approximate 1,590,000,000 lb., as compared with 1,417,000,000 lb. in 1952 It
and 2,195,000,000 tion would be 8.7
World War
and that consumplb. per person, very slightly above 1952 but only about half as high as prewar. The farmer was receiving about 65 cents per pound for butterfat, as compared with 74 cents a year earlier, and butter in September was retailing at 78 lb.
before
II
cents per pound.
Cheese production of several types, mostly Cheddar, was dicated at 1,290,000,000
000,000
lb. in
sumption was
lb.
in
1953, as
compared with
1952 and only 673,000,000 7.7 lb.
—
slightly
more than
lb. in
in-
1,170,-
1935-39. Con-
in recent years. Retail
prices averaged near 60 cents per pound.
Evaporated milk production declined 2,840.000,000
lb.
to 2,700.000.000 lb. from Condensed milk production cream dechned to 6,900,000,-
the previous year.
Net milk used in ice compared with 7,150,000,000 lb. in 1952 substitute materials and consumer resistance were apparently the causes. Manufacture of nonfat dry milk solids increased from 863.000,also declined.
000
lb.,
—
as
000
lb. in 1952 to an indicated 1,100,000,000 lb. in 1953. Meanwhile the farmer received $4.28 per hundredweight for milk de-
livered to plants
and dealers
in
September, as compared with
$4.92 a year earlier. It appeared that the sale of milk and dairy
Ire.,
on Oct.
11.
and received
was born
He was
Claremorris,
Holy Rome. He was
his ecclesiastical studies at
Cross college, Clonliffe, and the Irish college ordained to the priesthood in
at
educated at Blackrock
Rome
on April
in
18, 1908.
in
pur-
1910 was appointed lecturer
in classics at St. Patrick's col-
Maynooth, Ireland's national seminary. Next he was named to the junior chair of classics there and in 1922 became professor of Greek, In 1934 he was named vice-president, and in 1936 president, of Maynooth's St. Patrick's college. On June 29, 1942, he was consecrated titular bishop of Binda and named coadjutor bishop of Meath, succeeding to that see in 1943 upon the death of Bishop Thomas Mulvany. On June 13, 1946, he was promoted archbishop of Armagh and primate of all Ireland, succeeding to the post left vacant by the death of Joseph Cardinal MacRory. Pope Pius XII created him a cardinal priest of the Holy Roman Church in the consistory of Jan. 12, 1953, and he journeyed to Rome to receive the red hat. He was assigned the titular Church of St. Agatha del Goti. Among his outstanding hterary works are: Horace and His Age (1917); Roman Literary Theory and Criticism (1931); Selections From (T. Ce.) St. John Chrysostom (1940). lege,
Dams under construction during 1953 for the developUdlllo. ment of hydroelectric power predominated throughout the world over the construction of dams for the development of I*
products would account for only about 13.5% of the total cash receipts from farming in 1953 as compared with 14.1% in 1952. Many cheese manufacturers applied to the Food and Drug
other water resources.
administration for permits to use sorbic acid, a
world completed or under construction during 1953.
new chemical
He
sued higher studies at Oxford and Cambridge universities, and
The
table on p.
212
lists
15 of the important
dams
of the
DAMS
212
WOMEN
INDIAN project
carrying concrete mix on their heads for the Hirakud
Orissa, India, in
in
danfi
1953
be closed of the four large main river dams which were under In the United States, in an effort to balance the national budget, and with a reduced emphasis on development of hydroelectric
power by the federal government, the vast multipurpose
dam programs ment were
of the various agencies of the federal govern-
However, work continued during 1953 on
curtailed.
construction, closure
was jeopardized when, during April 1953,
excavation of the earth plug at the entrance of the diversion
dumping of embankment. The water rose
tunnels progressed too slowly to keep up with the the boulder
about
5 ft.,
for the closure
fill
washing away the top i^
A
ft.
of the closure
240-ton dragline was
fill
for a
moved two
miles
the projects in the Columbia river basin to alleviate the power
width of about 100
shortage in the northwest. Concrete was being poured at a rate
hours by means of a fleet of ten tractors to complete the removal of the entrance plug to permit diversion of the river through the tunnels, and the closure was successfully completed.
of 3.500 cu.yd. per day at Chief Joseph dam.
McNary dam was
completed during 1953, but because of low flows, the reservoir filling at the rate of only about o.i ft. per day at the end of Sept. 1953, with about 16 ft. to go. The diversion cofferdam was
was
dam. downstream of McNary. On the headwaters of the Columbia river, Hungry Horse, the world's fourth largest concrete dam, was completed. Also completed in 1953 was the Cabinet Gorge dam, a privately owned public utility development on the Clark Fork, in Idaho, a 200,000 kw.
underway
at the Dalles
hydroelectric project.
On the Missouri river. Fort Randall dam was 65% complete by midsummer of 1953. At Garrison dam. upstream, second to Chief
Dams Complefed
in six
Fortunately, the river flow was only 15,000 cu.ft. per second instead of the 40,000 cu.ft. per second normally expected at that season.
high. 10,000
ft.
dam
Place
River
Type Earth
Canyon
Montono, U.S. Washington, U.S. Oregon, U.S.
Concrete gravity Concrete gravity Concrete gravity
Mexico— U.S.
Earth
Ferry
....
Missouri
fill
Detroit
Columbia N. Sontiam
Falcon
Rio
Fort Randall
Missouri Missouri
South Dokoto, U.S. North Dakota, U.S.
Earth Earth
Flathead, S. Fork
Montana,
Concrete arch
Chief Joseph
Garrison Hungry Horse
....
Kenney
Mullardoch
Oahe Tignes Vaitorna
— Flood
Control,
I
—
fill fill
—
Columbia, Can Oregon- Washington, U.S. British
—
Rock fill Concrete gravity
—
fill)
in Latin
dam (200
neared completion.
dam
in
the
1953
Crest
Volume
length.
leu. yd.)
Ift.l
11,143,300 340,500
187 225 220 454 128
4,700 1,000 1,500 1,528 26,290
1
160 210 564
10,000 1 2,000 2,115
30,000,000 68,511,000 3,331,000
gravity
gress,
the middle
prestige
to,
triumphant career
19th century,
in the
of the
rapid prog-
20th century witnessed the loss of
in many countries at the upsurge of communism and fascism diametrically opand contemptuous of, democracy. The opponents of
of
democracy
movements such posed
''^
when democracy everywhere made
as
democracy overlooked the fact that democracy, the form of government and the way of life which grew up in 17th-century England and in 18th-century Anglo- America and northw'estern Europe, was not, as they claimed, a senescent and obsolete system, destined to give way to "waves of the future" and the supposedly more vital energies of "younger" peoples and movements. In reality, democracy was an entirely new departure in history, a daring experiment to abolish the authoritarian forms
year ending June 30, 1953, a monthly average of 972 children were cared for in their own or foster homes at a cost of $397,842. The number of dependent children aided averaged 2.218 per month at a cost of $828,014. fiscal
The state appropriation for public welfare was $5,117,612. The Xew Castle count\' workhouse, which accepts long-term prisoners from the other counties (there is no state prison), received 2.553 prisoners and discharged 2,554 during the fiscal year. On June 30, 1953. there were 342 inmates. Communications. The mileage of all highways and rural roads was 3.974. The income of the state highway department for the fiscal year was $9,including federal aid of $2,424,508. Railroad mileage was ap836.672. proximately 270. \'ehicles crossing the Delaware river b,v the new Delaware Memorial bridge connecting the Delaware and Xew Jersey highway systems numbered 6.995.019 in the year ending May 31. 1953; revenue from tolls was $6,035,206.
—
For the nine months January through September 1953 tonnage at the port of Wilmington was 644.426: value of cargoes was $39,801,960. On Oct. I. 1953. the state had 191,993 telephones in use. Bonking and Finance. On June 30, 1953, there were 60 state banks and trust companies, including branches, having total resources of $656,443,309. Assets of the 11 national banks were $619,577,148, making the total resources of all Delaware banks $1,276,020,457.
—
Total state receipts for the year ending June 30, 1953. were $66,482.031, of which $28,348,401 was from taxes and $38,133,630 from special funds. The cash balance at the beginning of the year was $22,874,050. Expenditures were $74,700,468. The gross debt was $60,548,000 and total debt service (interest and redemptions) amounted to $3,148,107. Agriculture.
employees under the unemployment com|)ensation law, June 30, 1953. was 18.798. Total wages paid for the year ending June 30, 1953. were $440.000.000. The Wilmington area (juarlerly survey of employment .Aug. 15, '953. showed 7-'.9-'i employed by 577 employers, compared with 68,31.' by 5*^3 employers on ihe .same day in 1952. .\ew corporations chartered at Dover lor the year ending June 30, 1953. were 3,245 compared with 2,767 the previous year. Corporations that became void numbered 980 compared with 965 the year before. (J. En.) Mineral Production.- Delaware has the smallest mineral out[)ut among the states, and that entirely in buildin,, materials. Data for 1952 were not available in 1953. but in 1950 and 1951 sand and gravel amounted to 368.000 tons and 655.000 tons, respectively ($292,000 and $364,0001; stone 77.000 tons and 99.000 tons ($190,000 and $245,000): and clays 41.000 Ions and 36.000 tons ($40,000 and $35,000): total value $522,000 and $644,000. 1
later than the eighth grade.
—The estimated
total
cash income from agricultural produc-
1953 w'as $101,364,700. of which $84,417,000 was from livestock, $16,597,000 from crops and $350,700 government payments, compared with total cash income of $103,385,000 for 1952. Manufacturing, Gross receipts of 889 licensed manufacturers for the year ending June 30, 1953, were $805,313,919, compared with 709 for the previous year with gross receipts of $453,790,170. The total number of
of
government
to
which communists and
fascists
had returned.
Their prediction of the inevitable decay of democracy was not after World communists and fascists. The weakness of democracy, which had been apparent before and immediately after World War II and which had much encouraged fascists and communists who expected easy victory, was a result not of any intrinsic defect but of a lack of understanding of the nature and intentions of the antidemoverified
War
by
histor>\
Democracy learned during and
II to cope with the assault of
cratic forces.
In the years after World
War
II
democracy overcame these
weaknesses, and in countries with old democratic traditions, it showed its immunity to fascist and communist trends. Even in nations such as Italy and France where class and religious antagonism prevented democracy from taking firm roots, communism after 1948 was in retreat and unable to prevent the adhesion of those nations to the democratic front as organized in the North
such as Great Britain, the U.S. and Scandinavia,
Atlantic Treaty organization (q.v.).
Nevertheless, the weakness of democracy
in
those two coun-
tion in
—
Table
I.
Leading Agrieullural Products of Delaware Average,
Indicated
Crop Corn, bu Apples, bu
Hoy, tons Wheat, bo Soybeans, bu Peaches, bu Oats, bu Barley, bu Potatoes, bu Tomatoes, tons (processed) Strawberries, crates Lima beans, tons shelled
1953
1952
1942-51
6,596,000 288,000 102,000 1,007,000 1,023,000 141,000 224,000
6,422,000 186,000 102,000 1,218,000
4,409,000 449,000 101,000 1,164,000
936,000 99,000 217,000 300,000 862,000 31,200 88,000
658,000 226,000 179,000 304,000 394,000
330,000 .
.
.
....
1,775,000 27,000 80,000 15,750
II.
Industry
Food Clothing
Household supplies Auto supplies Drugs and medicol supplies
Tobocco Miscellaneous
coalition under Alcide de Gasperi, leader of the Christian crats,
whose government had assured
stable development.
13,720
small majority
Much more Delaware
Principal Industries of
to
Italy
Demo-
four years of
The new democratic government under Giucommanded only a very
seppe Pella, also a Christian Democrat,
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Table
became apparent in 1953. France during several weeks in the spring was without a government, and in the late summer widespread strikes by government employees and other workers threatened to weaken national life. The elections held in Italy in June brought a sharp increase for the communists and the left-wing socialists who followed the communist line, these parties gaining 35 seats, and for the right-wing antidemocratic forces, which gained 49 seats; all these seats were gained at the expense of the democratic centre parties w-hich had formed a tries
1953
1952
$87,084,575 150,452,413 2,148,277 10,140,902 85,483 4,581,624 550,820,645
$79,555,197 115,394,061 6,938.235 5,308,584 3,119,507 3,769,944 239,624,642
in the Italian
chamber and
senate.
promising from the democratic point of view were
the elections held in two countries adjacent to the Soviet bloc and under strong pressure from communism. Greece, which in 1948 had fought for its life against communist insurgents, supported from the outside, voted on Nov. 16, 1952, for a singlechamber assembly of 300 seats. The Greek Rally under the leadership of Field Marshal Alexander Papagos won a decisive
victory and received 238 seats. It was thus able, for the
time a
in a
first
long period, to establish a strong government based on
workable majority
much-needed
parliament, and thus to provide the
in
stability to carry
through the necessary economic
The procommunist Union of Democratic Leftists received 10.42% of the votes. Even more important were the elections held Feb. 22, 1953, reforms.
in Austria, a
country of which about one-fourth remained under
The two democratic parties easily carried The right-wing and strongly anticommunist SociaUsts
Soviet occupation. the day.
received 1,818,811 votes, the Austrian People's party, a Cath-
olic-democratic party, received 1,781,969 votes, while the right-
League of Independents received 473,022 and the commuonly 228,228 votes. The two leading democratic parties, of which the People's party held 74 and the SociaHsts 73 seats, renewed their coalition, which since 1945 had assured a stable democratic development to this small country at the border of the Soviet orbit. The neofascist Independents and the communists lost seats, though the communists had camouflaged their party under the name of "People's Opposition"' and had tried to attract noncommunist elements. As significant was the victory for democracy in the German ist
nists
in the election held Sept. 6. Compared with Weimar repubHc, and even with the whole past history of Germany, democracy seemed stronger in Germany during 1953 than ever before. The reasons may be found in the fact that the new German state had returned to the traditional German federalism, abandoning the nationalist centralization of the Bismarckian reich and of the Weimar republic; it had
Federal
Repubhc
the period of the
from Berlin with its militarist traditions of HohenzoUern period to the west, where affinities with the democratic world were old and strong; Prussia had ceased to exist, and the influence of the Junker squirearchy was broken. The German Federal Republic did not know the political assassinations and the influence of organized military' bands which had disfigured the Weimar republic. Chancellor Konrad Adenauer had tried to follow a foreign poHcy not primarily directed toward undoing the defeats in World Wars I and II but toward a sincere reconcihation with the west. The elections bore him out; they were a vote of confidence in his policy. All the neonazi parties, in which many observers had seen a danger of German neofascism, as well as the communists were routed and received not a single seat. The vote which the Communist party received fell from 5.7% in 1949 to 2.2% in 1953. The German Reich party, most important of the neonazi groups, received only 1.1% of the vote. The Christian Democratic union of Chancellor Adenauer and the Social Democratic party, a strongly
shifted the capital the
anticommunist group, were the chief winners in the contest. Democracy also showed surprising strength during 1953 countries such as India, Pakistan and Ceylon, where
attributed
to
their
long
connection with Great
it
in
might be and
Britain
Now
could take
root
among
the
educated
had been shown that through the educated classes the masses, in spite of prevaihng illiteracy and poverty, could be mobilized for orderly elections and constitutional government. The U.S. occupation poHcy apparently helped to strengthen the growth of democracy in Japan. All these countries were able to withstand the strong pressure of communist
classes.
it
propaganda.
Democracy two
difficulties
in
anti-Communist
those
who
riots in east Berlin
intend to use them to abolish democracy.
two atomic
The execu-
and Ethel Rosenberg, in June 1953 in the U.S. was disapproved by many democrats in Europe, while the communists tried to use the fate of the two convicted spies for their own propaganda purposes. In the difiicult question of how to balance the need of defense against antidemocratic forces with the protection of the civil and political liberties inherent in democracy, no agreement was reached by the end of 1953, but the discussion itself threw the problems of democracy and the complexity of the situation into sharper relief and thus contributed to an invigoration of democracy itself. The second difficult task faced by democracy was the need tion of
spies, Julius
for ever closer co-operation of the democratic nations sharing
the
common
western tradition based upon individual liberty,
by the threat of communist aggression, the democracies under the leadership of the U.S. began after 1947 to co-operate militarily and economically to meet the acute danger. But it was difficult for them to overcome the ingrained traditions of national sovereignty. In spite of the efforts to make the North Atlantic Treaty organization, most important development of democracy in the international field, and the plans for western European integration workable by ever closer co-operation and steps toward a future federalization, the lessening of the immediate danger by the new Soviet foreign pohcy, initiated by Joseph Stalin in Oct. 1952 and carried on after his death in March 1953 by his successors, brought about a weakening and a relaxation in the tolerance and freedom of thought. Confronted
where, thanks to this connection, democratic principles and par-
liamentary institutions
NEWS BALLOON, one of 8,000 released from west Germany at the Czechoslovakian border carrying news behind the "iron curtain" of the June 17, 1953,
1953 found itself confronted, however, with it had not yet entirely learned to master.
which
One was
efforts of establishing a united front of the
Communist
democratic nations.
was directed in 1953 toward the disintegraof the North Atlantic Treaty organization and toward policy
the struggle against infiltration of antidemocratic elements, fascists and communists, into important governmental
strengthening the isolationism of the democratic nations, espe-
and economic positions under the protection of the civil liberties which are an inahenable part of democracy extending even to
the
tion
cially the U.S.
and Great
democratic world.
Britain, the
{See
also
two strongest forces
in
Communism; Education;
221
DEMOCRATIC
222
P
— D EN M A RK
A RT Y
first MIG-15,
Elections, U.S.; Europe.ax Union; Fascism; Great Britain; Socialism; United States.)
—
—
BiBLiOGRAPHY.^ Sidney Hook. Heresy, Yes Conspiracy, No! CToron1953): H.ins Kohn, "Is the Free West in Decline?" Commentary (July 1953); Leslie .\. Fiedler. '"A Postscript to the Rosenberg Case," Encounter (London, Oct. 1953). (H. Ko.) to.
Soviet-built
On March Bornholm
hands. of
new one was
5,
jet
fighter,
1953, a Polish
chosen.
flier
to be delivered intact into western landed his plane on the Danish island
(This provision was a direct result of
wartime experience.)
Among
new
was the kingdom and its representation by two members in the jolketing. (See Greenland.) The problem of succession to the throne was settled by abandonment of the centuries-old requirement of male succesother notable changes
in
the
constitution
inclusion of Greenland as an integral part of the
Democratic Party:
see Political Parties, U.S.
n____„|.
A monarchy
UCIIMIal^.
has an area of 16,569 sq.mi. Pop.: (1950 census)
of north central Europe,
Denmark
4,281,275; (1952 est.) 4,334.000. Capital: Copenhagen, 768,105, or including
suburbs
census): Aarhus,
1,168.340.
Other principal
116,167; Odense,
cities
100,940; Aalborg,
(1950 79.806.
Religion: Lutheran Christian. Ruler in 1953: King Frederick
IX; prime minister, Erik Eriksen, to Sept. 30, 1953; thereafter, Hans Hedtoft. History. The adoption of a new constitution was the major
—
event
in
Danish
political
life
in
1953.
Denmark's
first
liberal
constitution dated from 1849, ai^d the last general revision
made
in 1915.
was
In 1946 a commission was set up to study the situ-
make recommendations; the 1953 constitution resulted. The new document put into legal form some of the practices
ation and
which had developed with the growth of democratic procedures. For example, a vote of no confidence in a minister required him to resign; a vote of no contidence in the prime minister required the whole cabinet to resign or to call new elections. The new parliament was made unicameral and give the name jolketing. The 227 members of the two houses were reduced to 179 in the new single house. To allay the dangers of sudden decision or majority tyranny, inherent
in a
unicameral system, a safeguard
was established. One-third of the jolketing was empowered to call for a referendum, and if a majority at the polls (which had to be at least 30% of the eligible voters) declared against a measure it was defeated. Special provisions were written into the constitution, as recommended by the United Nations, to enable Denmark to join international bodies which might take over portions of Danish sovereignty. However, any specific proposal to transfer sovereignty had to be approved by five-sixths of the jolketing and was, like other measures, subject to referendum by demand of one-third of the membership. The jolketing was specifically empowered to pass on all questions of increase or decrease of the national territory and any major matters of foreign poHcy. The parliamentary term was put at four years, but new elections might be called at any time after the prime minister had once faced the jolketing. In case any unforeseen event should prevent an election at the proper time, the old body was to continue in existence until a of plebiscites
A
if there were no son King Frederick IX had only three daughters, this provision made the eldest. Princess Margrethe, heir to the throne, and reduced the king's brother, Prince Knud, to fourth in line.
sion.
son
the daughters
still
held precedence, but
would
inherit. Since
New
elections were held as required for the jolketing on April and for the landsting on April 28. All the major parties approved the revision, and it passed both houses of the rigsdag for the second time. It then went to a popular vote on May 28 and received slightly more than the requisite percentage of the 21
electors' affirmative
June
5,
votes
—46%,
or a total of
1,181,173.
On
the 104th anniversary of the constitution of 1849, the
king signed the constitution of 1953.
The new one-chamber jolketing was elected in September. Former Prime Minister Knud Kristensen was one of the few
who opposed the constitution, and at the elections newly formed Independent party fell short of the minimum number of votes and did not win a single seat. The Social politicians his
Democrats and Moderate Liberals increased their popular vote, and the Conservatives and the German Minority made slight gains. The Social Liberals. Justice Union and Communists each lost votes, despite the increase in the electorate
(through lower-
ing of the voting age).
A
peculiar situation arose after the April elections
Social
Democrats won two additional
when
the
Prime Minister Erik coalition government of
seats.
Eriksen then tried to resign with his
Moderate Liberals and Conservatives. But Hans Hedtoft, leader of the Social Democrats, evidently feeling that his party's 61 seats
were
still
far short
of a majority
and that they might
be stronger in opposition until the later elections, refused. After the
September elections the Social Democrats had
higher percentage of the seats, but
two
still
a
slightly
not a majority (though
more than Eriksen's coalition). Decision was delayed, Hans Hedtoft announced a new Social Democabinet (the Liberals had refused an invitation to form
seats
but on Sept. 30 cratic
a coalition).
The new minority government faced some delicate problems. Economically the Danes had struggled to an improved position,
DENTISTRY — DERMATOLOGY it was not secure. They needed a greater dollar market, although they were able to announce cessation of aid under the European Recovery program; they had received a total of approximately $300,000,000 under the program. Defense re-
but
quirements were
difficult to
meet, for both economic and psycho-
The presence
and bases was distasteful, and the increase of military service from 12 to 18 months actually caused a mutinous demonstration in February. (F. D. S.) logical reasons.
of foreign troops
—
Education. Schools (1951): primary, middle and secondary 4.107, pupils 532,184; technical 371, pupils 60,224; commercial 208, pupils agricultural 32,680; 27, pupils 2,721. Teachers' training colleges 21, students 3.603. Universities 2, professors and lecturers 275, students 5.683; other institutions of higher education 8, students 5,465.
—
Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: krone with an exchange rate of 19.34 Kr. to the pound sterling and 6.92 Kr. to the U.S. dollar. Budget: (1951-5- est.) revenue 2,569.000,000 Kr., expenditure 2.573.000.000 Kr.; (1952-53 est.) revenue 2,511,000,000 Kr.. expenditure 2,507.000.000 Kr. Real public debt (1951): 4.970,400.000 Kr. Currency circulation (July 1953): 1,761.000,000 Kr. Bank deposits (July 1953) 5.121,000,000 Kr. Gold and foreign exchange (July 1953): U.S. $146,700,000. Foreign Trade.
— (1952)
Imports 6.645,000,000 Kr., exports 5,874,000.imports (1952): U.K. 27%; German Federal
000 Kr. Main sources of Republic 16%; Sweden 9%: U.S. 8%. Main destinations of exports: U.K. 38%; German Federal Republic 14%: Sweden 5%. Main imports: machinery and vehicles 15%; textiles coal, petroleum and products g'^c i2