Britannica Book of the Year 1949

Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Table of Contents
Introduction
Editors and Contributors
Calendar of Events, 1948
Book of the Year
ABDULLAH IBN HUSSEIN
ALIMENTARY SYSTEM
ARCHAEOLOGY
ATOMIC ENERGY
BADMINTON
BIRTH STATISTICS
BUDGET, NATIONAL
CANCER
CHIANG KAI-SHEK
COBALT
CRIME
DENTISTRY
EISENHOWER, DWIGHT D.
EXCHANGE CONTROL
FISHING
FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
HOUSING
INSURANCE, OLD AGE
ITALIAN COLONIAL EMPIRE
LAW
MACKENZIE KING
METEROLOGY
MOTION PICTURES
NAZIMUDDIN, KHWAJA
NOSE
OLYMPIC GAMES
PETROLEUM
PORTUGUESE COLONIAL EMPIRE
PUBLISHING (BOOK)
REPRESENTATIVES, HOUSE OF
SEEING EYE
SOKOLOVSKI, VASILI
SWITZERLAND
THEATRE LIBRARY ASSOCIATION
UNITED NATIONS
USSR
WASHINGTON
YUKON TERRITORY
INDEX
A
B
C
D-E
F
G
H-I
J-K-L
M
N
O-P
Q-R
S
T
U
V-W
X-Y-Z

Citation preview

1949 BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR

A Record of the March of Events of 1948

1949 BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR • Prepared Under the Editorial Direction of Walter Yust, Editor of Encyclopaedia Britannica

PUBLISHED BY

ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC. CHICAGO • TORONTO • LONDON

COPYRIGHT BY

COPYRIGHT ALL

RIGHTS

IN

UNITED

ENCYCLOPEDIA

UNDER

RESERVED BY

THE

STATES

PAN

ENCYCLOPEDIA

Britannica

COPYRIGHT

AMERICAN

BRITANNICA,

Book

AMERICA, 1949

BRITANNICA, INC.

INTERNATIONAL

UNDER

OF

of

the

UNION

COPYRIGHT CONVENTIONS INC.

Year

(Trade Mark Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.)

The editor of the

Britannica Book of the Year

privilege of using 36 pictures from

Life.

acknowledges with gratitude the

Acknowledgments of the copyright owner-

ship of all illustrations may be found on the following three pages.

the editor

TABLE OF CONTENTS List of Illustrations and Acknowledgment of Copyright

.

V

Introduction

.

Vlll

......

Editors and Contributors Calendar, 1949

•

....

•

.....

•

Calendar of Events, 1948

....

••• ix

.

xxii

•

I

Britannica Book of the Year .

•

17

The Present and Its Roots in the Past: A Survey

•

•

783

Index

•

•

793

.......

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Acknowledgment of Copyright is to be found in the Parentheses. Asterisks denote Illustrations from Life)

Abdullah ibn Hussein (Wide World).

6 Accidents Rescuing a window-washer (Acme).19 Adams, Sherman (Courtesy, Republiran Party of New Hampshire; photo by Fabian Bachrach).507 Advertising U.S. Treasury advertisement (Courtesy, The U.S. Treasury Dept, and The Advertising Council).. • • 20 Health advertisement (Courtesy, General Mills, Inc., Minneapolis, Minn.).21 Agricultural Research Administration Wheat harvest in experimental field (U.S.D.A. Photo by Osborne).24 Agriculture Corn detasseler (Alfred Eisenstaedt—Pix from Publix).25 Wheat harvest in Italy (Dmitri Kessel)*. . . 27 Overflow of wheat (Wide World).29 Aircraft manufacture of B-SOA’s (Courtesy, Boe¬ ing Airplane Co.). 51 Airport, Germans building a new (H. G. Walker) * 33 Alabama, demonstration for Gov. Thurmond in (Acme).55 Alberta, dismantling a refinery for transport to (Courtesy, Imperial Oil, Ltd.) ...... 57 American citizens abroad in Italy (Dmitri Kessel) * 43 American Federation of Labor Strike at the N.Y. Stock Exchange (Press Association, Inc.). 44 American Legion, Pres. Truman addressing mem¬ bers of (Wide World).45 American Literature Scene from All the King's Men (Herbert Gehr) * 47 Anglers at ice fishing contest of winter carnival in Minnesota (Press Association, Inc.) .... 52 Anthropology, Ruth Benedict, late professor of (Science Illustrated Photo by Dick Wolters). 55 Arabia, clearing a path for an oil pipe line in (Acme).57 Archaeology Diggings in Panama (Courtesy, National Geo¬ graphic Society).59 Marble torso uncovered in Athens (Courtesy, American School of Classical Studies at Athens).60 Excavations in Iraq (Oriental Institute from Wide World).61 Architecture University of Miami (Photo by Ezra Stoller— Pictorial Services; Robert Law Weed & Asso¬ ciates, architects; Marion I. Manley, asso¬ ciate) .65

Architecture—Continued Co-operative apartments (Photo by Ezra Stol¬ ler— Pictorial Services; Leonard Schultze & Associates, architects).65 Private home in California (Courtesy, Mot¬ ley Baer; Jon Konigshofer, designer and builder; Thomas D. Church, landscape architect).65 Container Corp. of America plant (Photo by Lionel Freedman—Pictorial Services; The Ballinger Co., architects-engineers; Walter Gropius, consultant architect).65 Argentina, demonstration for Pres. Peron of (Acme).67 Armies of the World Basic training at Fort Dix (Wide World) . . 72 Art Exhibitions “Portrait of a Man” (Gossaert) (Raymond & Raymond, Inc.).76 Astronomy Comet Honda-Bernasconi (Science Service) . 79 Atomic Energy Atomic pile at Brookhaven (Science Illustrated Photo by Dick Wolters).81 Scientific road show (Ralph Morse)* .... 81 Generator in Belgian laboratory (Wide World) 81 Water treatment plant at Harwell (Wide World).81 Attlee, Cement (Wide World). 2 Austin, Warren (Wide World). 3 Australia, immigrants to (Wide World) . . . , 85 Austrians scanning missing persons notices (Kosmos from Black Star).87 Automobile Industry Press preview (Wide World).89 The Italian Cisitalia (Wide World).90 Aviation, Civil Crew members of a record flight (Wide World) 91 The "Southern Cross” (Acme).93 Aviation, Military The YB-49 (Courtesy, Northrop Aircraft, Inc.) 95 The Bell X-1 (U.S. Air Force Photo, Washing¬ ton, D.C.).95 Lockheed P2V-2s (Official U.S. Navy Photo). 95 Consolidated-Vultee B-36 (U.S. Air Force Photo, Washington, D.C.).95 Fairchild C-82 Packet (Courtesy, Fairchild Engine and Airplane Corp.; photo by Dan Frankforter).95 Vampire Ills (Wide World).98

Bacterial virus heads (Courtesy, James Hillier, Stuart Mudd and Andrew G. Smith) . . Barkley, Alben W, (Press Association, Inc.) .

. 100 . 14

Baseball Disputed world series play (Wide World) . . 105 Boston Red Sox v. N.Y. Yankees (New York Herald Tribune Photo by Don Rice). . . 107 Basketball Olympic semifinals (Acme).109 Beard, Charles A, (Wide World).523 Beardsley, William S. (Courtesy, Republican Party of Iowa; photo by Tyler Studios) . . 394 Belgium, Ernest Bevin broadcasting from (Acme).112 Benes, Eduard (Wide World).523 Ben-Gurion, David (Wide World). 3 Ben-Gurion, David, visiting Haganah troops (International).113 Bentley, Elizabeth (Wide World).10 Berlin Noncommunist rally (Acme).115 Open-air newscast (P. G. Lutz from Black Star).115 Children watching air lift operations (Inter¬ national) .115 Traffic inspection point (Wide World). ... 115 Templehof airport during night air lift opera¬ tions (Wide World).17 Bernadette, Count Folke (Wide World) .... 10 Bonner, John W. (Courtesy, John W. Bonner; photo by DeWalt Studio).473 Book Publishing Authors of Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (Wallace Kirkland) *.123 Bowles, Chester (Courtesy, Chester Bowles; photo by Louis Roushon).212 Boxing match for world middleweight title (Wide World) . ..125 Brazil, child polio victim in (Dmitri Kessel) *. . 127 Bridge, wreckage of the Cologne-Deutz (Courtesy, D. B. Steinman).131 Brill, A. A. (International).523 Browning, Gordon (Courtesy, Headquarters of Governor-Elect Gordon Browning, Tennes¬ see; Nashville Tennessean Photo by Robert C. Holt, Jr.).694 Building and Construction Industry Volunteer building project (Wide World) . . 141 Sheets of “plimber” (Acme).143 Bulgarian youth labour brigade (Czechopress from Black Star).144 Bundle, Ralph J. (Wide World).11 Burma, flag raising ceremony in Union of (Press Association, Inc.). . . ..145 Business Review Workers made idle in Detroit (Courtesy, The De¬ troit Times; photo by James L. McGarrigle) 147

VI

LrST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

California, paraplegic student at the University of (Johnny Florea)*.152 Canada Oil leakage at Edmonton (Wide World) . . . 154 Prime Minister St. Laurent (International). . 155 ■Atomic plant at Chalk River (Press .Associa¬ tion, Inc.).157 Canal, clearance work on the Corinth (Dmitri Kessel)*.159 Cancer Dr. S. C. Harvey {Science Illustraled Photo by Jack Manning).161 Cartographic workers (Courtesy, National Geo¬ graphic Society).163 Cartoons "Actors and Pupoets”.332 ".April 18. 1948”.401 ".Another Topsy—Just Growed?”.148 "Best View He’s Had in 16 Years".621 “Cominform Meeting".668 “Crow!".707 Exchange rates.283 “In 'Uncle Joe's' Pocket".757 "It's Good to Have it for a While. .Anyway". 688 "Of All the Impudence".138 "Martyrs of Humanity".78 “Move Over!".597 “Report From the Cold War".82 “Sixteen in a Circle” (Sovfoto).280 Soviet foreign policy.714 Soviet production (Sovfoto).716 “State of the Union”.685 "This is Getting Embarrassing!”.238 "Uneasy Path”.206 "Versatile Volga Boatman”.230 "Vicious Circle”.416 "We're carrying out the Czech People's Front program".226 "We’re off to see the wizard, the wonderful wizard of U.S.".278 "Whew—1”.260 "Yesterday—and Today”.360 Carvel, Elbert N. (Courtesy, Elbert X, Carvel; photo by The Waller Studio).235 Cattle feeding (Acme).165 Chambers, Whittaker (Wide World).15 Charles, Prince (Acme).15 Charts .Air force, proposed U.S. 70-group (.Adapted from a New York Times chart).94 Combat strength (U.S.S.R., U.S.. Great Britain and France).73 Consumer credit, U.S.213 Cotton crop, U.S.219 Displaced persons, resettlement of (Courtesy, The New York Times).616 Durable and nondurable goods, industrial pro¬ duction, U.S.149 European Recovery program, allocation of U.S. funds.279 Farm income, gross. U.S.30 Food production, U.S. 28 Gold production, world.337 Hog-corn price ratios, U.S.354 Job discrimination, bases of, U.S.193 l.abour force trends. U.S.168 Newspaper advertising linage. U.S.22 Petroleum production, world.561 Postal revenue and expenditures, U.S.581 Prices of all foods. U.S. retail.307 Prices, wholesale and consumers’. U.S. . . . 587 Silver production, world.647 Steel production, U.S.397 Stocks, sales and prices of, U.S.".671 Stocks, trading in, U.S.672 Veterans in all hospitals, U.S.748 Chemistry Micro-chemical equipment (Courtesy, The Gulf Oil Corp.).173 Naval ordnance laboratory (J. R. Eyerman)*. 175 Chess match, a multiple (Wide World) . . . .179 Chiang Kai-shek (Press .Association. Inc.) ... 14 Chiang Kai-shek reviewing troops (Wide World) 180 Children’s Books Jacket design for White Snow Bright Snow iCour¬ tesy, Lothrop. Lee & Shepard Co., Inc., N.A’.; from White Snow Bright Snow by Alvin Tresselt, copyright 1947, Lothrop, Lee & Shepard Co., Inc.).182 Child Welfare British child play centre (.Acme).183 Child clinic in Israel (Esten-Illustrated from Black Star).184 U.-N. field worker in .Austria {Picture Post Photo by Raymond S. Kleboe—Pix from Publix).185 China Coolies hauling inflated currency (Jack Birns)* 187 Communist troops (Triangle Plioto Service) . 188 Clay. Lucius D. (Wide World). 14 Coal Trailers full of coal for Berlin (Walter Sanders)* 197 Miners returning to pits (Press .Association, Inc.).198 Coast guard aerial ice surx'ey photo (Official U.S. Coast Guard Photo).199 Colombians dragging assassin’s body (Interna¬ tional News Photo from M-G-M News-ofthe-Day Newsreel).202 Communist speaking in Helsinki (Press .Associa¬ tion, Inc.).207 Congress of Industrial Organizations Packinghouse workers on strike (Press .Associa¬ tion. Inc.).212 Corn, unloading a shipment of Russian (Reuterphoto from European).217

Costello. John .A. (Wide World). 3 Cowherd. Barney (Courtesy, The Louisville Courier-Journal and Times).512 Crane, .A. G. (Courtesy. .A. G. Crane).775 Cuban police evicting students (Press .Associa¬ tion. Inc.).221 Cycling Vacationists and their bicycles (Mark Kauff¬ man)*.223 Czechoslovakia Mass meeting in Prague (.Acme).225 Swearing in of new cabinet (Press -Association. Inc.).225 Voluntary exiles (Press .Association. Inc.) . . 225 Czechs mourning Jan Masaryk (International) 225 Qam. the French Castillon (Acme).227 Dance Classical Symphony (National Film Board of Canada, Ottawa).228 Fall River Legend (Courtesy, Ballet Theatre; photo by Louis Melangon).229 Deaf children in a London school {Picture Post— Pix from Publix).231 Democracy Open hand vote in Switzerland (Owen from Black Star).237 Dever, Paul A. (Courtesy. Paul .A. Dever; photo by Fabian Ilachrach).449 Dewey. Thomas E. (Wide World). 7 Dewey, Thomas E., demonstration for (Gjon Mili)*. . 242 Disasters Japanese fleeing earthquake (Carl Mydans)* . 245 rastern Orthodox Churches, leaders of the in“ dependent (Sovfoto).251 Education German medical students (Foto Relang from Black Star).255 British essay winners (Reuterphoto from Euro¬ pean) .255 Human Growth (Courtesy, The E. C. Brown Trust Fund and the University of Oregon, sponsors; photo by Eddie Albert Productions) 255 U.N. nursery school (Official United Nations Photo; courtesy. Department of Public In¬ formation) .255 Egyptian army buglers (Wide World).259 Eisenhower. Dwight D. (Wide World). 2 Eisenstein, Sergei (International).523 Electrical Industries "Cold lab” (Press Association, Inc.).263 Welding generator frame sections (Courtesy, General Electric Co.).264 Eliot, Thomas Stearns (Acme). 15 Electronic detector (Courtesy, Westinghouse Electric Corp.).267 Elizabeth, Princess, with her infant son (Wide World).269 Entomology Fog of sprayed DDT (George Silk)*.274 Exchange post for soviet currency in Berlin (Kosmos from Black Star).281 rascism r Sir Oswald Mosley {Picture Post Photo byCharles Hewitt—Pix from Publix) .... 287 Fashion and Dress Fitted and belted coats (Courtesy, Harper’s Bazaar; photo by Leslie Gill).288 Cardigan jacket (Courtesy, Harper's Bazaar; photo by Genevieve Naylor).288 The “walkaway” skirt (Courtesy, Harper’s Bazaar; photo by Genevieve Naylor) . . . 288 The lamp-shade dress (Courtesy, Harper’s Ba¬ zaar; photo by Richard .Avedon).288 Fencers in Olympic sabre team finals (Olympic Photo -Association from Keystone Pictures, Inc.).295 Fisheries Smelt dippers working at night (Press Associ¬ ation, Inc.).299 Flood workers near Portland. Ore. (Hugh -Ackroyd).301 Food packages for Italian children (3) (John Phillips)*.305 Football -Army v. Lafayette (Wide World).309 France Striking coal miners (.Associated Press)* . . . 315 -Andre Marie (Wide World).317 ^andhi, Mohandas K. (Press -Association. Inc.) 523 Garvey, Dan E. (Courtesy. Democratic Party of -Arizona; photo by Claude Bate) .... 69 Gaulle. Charles de (Wide World). 3 Gaulle. Charles de. speakingat Compiegne (.Acme) 327 Genetics, set-up for research in seed (Herbert Gehr)*.328 George VI and Queen Elizabeth (Reuterphoto from European).330 Germany Building a power station addition (Wide World) 333 Demonstration at Nuernberg (Wide World) . 335 Glaspell. Susan (Wide World).526 Golf match at St. Louis (Wide World).339 Gottwald, Klement (W'ide World). 7 Great Britain Mobile health clinic (British Official Photo from British Information Services) .... 341 Champion coal miner (Acme).343 Greece Forced labour {Picture Post Photo by Bert Hardy—Pix from Publix).345 Evacuating children (Wide World).345

Greece—Continued .Army commandos {Picture Post Photo by Bert Hardy—Pix from Publix).345 Political trial {Picture Post Photo by Bert Hardy—Pix from Publix).345 Griffith. D. W. (Wide World).526

Hawaii, new hospital in (Courtesy. Triplet Gen¬ eral Hospital).351 Hiss. Alger (Wide World). 15 Hoffman. Paul G. (Wide World). 6 Horse Racing Citation at Belmont park (Wide World). . . 357 Hospitals The Sloan-Kettering institute (Courtesy. Memorial Hospital Center; photo by A. F. Sozio).359 Housing project in Puerto Rico (Wide World) . 361 Hughes, Charles Evans (Wide World).526 Hungarian caricature of the “Voice of America” (International)*.364 I ce Skating * Barbara Ann Scott (Press -Association, Inc.). 367 Immigrants en route to South -Africa {Picture Post Photo by Merlyn Severn—Pi.x from Publix). 369 India Spectators watching British troops leave (Stronachs from Black Star).372 Funeral of Mohandas K. Gandhi (European). 373 Infantile paralysis victim (James Whitmore)* . 377 Interior decoration designs, prize winning {The New York Times Studio).380 International Conference of American States, ses¬ sion of the (Press As.sociation, Inc.).... 383 International Court of Justice, U.N. (ABC Press Service from Black Star).387 International Trade Automobile conveyor in British plant {Picture Post Photo by Raymond Kleboe—Pix from Publix).391 Irrigation, Israeli farmland reclaimed by {Science Illustrated Photo by Jerry Cooke).399 Italy Wall slogan (Paul Pietzsch from Black Star). 403 Crowd listening to Father Lombardi (Paul Pietzsch from Black Star).403 Infantry and motorized units massed in Rome (Wide World).403 Hillside cave dwellings (Wide World) .... 403 Japan ** Tokyo police (.Acme).405 Workers drying salt (Acme).406 Jet-propelled North -American F-86-A (U.S. -Air Force Photo. Washington. D.C.).407 Jinnah, Mohammed Ali (Wide World).526 Juliana, Queen (Wide World).11 ^oreans voting (U.S. Army Photo).412

I about Unions ^ Jack Paley (International).414 Lament, Thomas W. (Wide World).526 Langlie, -Arthur B. (Courtesy, Republican Party of Washington; photo by Beaudin Photos) '. 759 Lausche, Frank J. (Courtesy. Democratic Party of Ohio).538 Law Hungarian priests on trial (Wide World). . . 419 Lee. J. Bracken (Courtesy, Republican Partv of Utah).. 740 Lehar, Franz (Wide World).S3o Leper colonist in Japan (Wide World).424 Library, the Firestone Memorial (Wide World). 427 Lie, Trygve (Wide World). 3 Linen worker setting up a damask design {Picture Post Photo by Merlyn Severn—Pix from Publix).429 London, unveiling statue in (International) . . 434 Long, Earl K. (Wide World).435 Ludwig, Emil (Wide World).530 l^ac-Arthur. Douglas (Wide World).11 Machinery and Machine Tools Vacuum pumps (Courtesy, Packard Motor Car Co.).439 McKay, Douglas (Courtesy. Republican State Central Committee of Oregon; photo by Photo--Art Commercial Studios) ..... 543 McMath, Sidney S. (Courtesy, Sidney S. McMath; photo by Campbell Studios) .... 70 Malayan guerilla communists (Jack Birns)* . . 442 Mantle, Burns (Wide World).530 Mao Tse-tung (Wide World).14 Maps -Antarctica, international claims in.53 Berlin. -Allied air lift corridors to.116 Electoral votes in U.S. presidential elections . 262 Germany, proposed state of western .... 334 Voice of -America air lanes (From a New York Times map by Manditch).727 Marine Biology Deep sea f&sh photo (Courtesy. Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Mass.; plioto by D. M. Owen).445 Marriage and Divorce Chinese mass wedding (European).447 Marshall, George C. (Wide World). 2 Masaryk, Jan (International).530 Medical Rehabilitation of the Disabled X-ray of artificial hip joint (.Albert Fenn)*. . 452 Medicine Pneumonia vaccine (Courtesy, E. R. Squibb & Sons).455

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS Mexico, Hotel del Prado in (Wide World) . . . 463 Michael I and his bride (European).464 Mindszenty, Joseph Cardinal (Press Association. ■ .. 15 Motion Pictures Johnny Belinda (Courtesy, Warner Bros. Pic¬ tures, Inc. Copyright, 1948, Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc.).477 Hamlet (Courtesy, Universal-International Films, Inc.).477 Treasure of Sierra Madre (Courtesy, Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc. Copyright, 1947, War¬ ner Bros. Pictures, Inc.).477 Key Largo (Courtesy, Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc. Copyright, 1948, Warner Bros. Pictures, Inc.).477 The Red Shoes (Courtesy, the J. Arthur Rank Production of The Red Shoes; an Eagle Lion Films release).477 The Search (Courtesy, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Pictures).477 Motor Transportation The Ford F-8 (Courtesy, Ford Motor Co.). . 481 Munitions of War Schnorkel tube (Press Association, Inc.) . . . 487 Firing a dummy torpedo (Loomis Dean)’ . . 487 Ramjet ready for launching (Official U.S. Navy Photo; courtesy. Aero Digest).487 Compiling wind tunnel measurements (Cour¬ tesy, Ballistic Research Laboratories, Aber¬ deen Proving Ground, Md.).487 Music Peter Grimes (Courtesy, Metropolitan Opera Association, Inc., N.Y.; photo by Louis Melangon).491

Petroleum exposition at Tulsa (Hopkins Photog¬ raphy Co., Tulsa, Oklahoma).560 Photography Wide-angle lens photo (Andreas Feininger) ’ . 565 George Jean Nathan andH. L. Mencken (Photo by Irving Penn; reprinted from the Feb. 1, 1948, issue of Vogue. Copyright 1948, The Conde Nast Publications, Inc.).566 Physics Cosmotron model (Courtesy, Brookhaven Na¬ tional Laboratory).567 Physiology Dr. Melvin Knisely (F. W. Goro)*.569 Plastic mounts (Albert Fenn)*.573 Police, motorized equipment for (Acme).... 577 Poultry, sorting eggs from pedigreed (U.S.D.A. Photo by Knell).583 Prices, housewives protesting high meat (Acme). 585 Prisoners of war returning to Vienna {Picture Post Photo by Gerti Deutsch—Fix from Publix).589 Psychiatry The Feeling of Hostility (Courtesy, National Film Board of Canada, Ottawa).591 Dr. Fredric Wertham (Courtesy, Lafargue Clinic; photo by Gordon Parks).592 Psychology infant I.Q. test {Science Illustrated Photo by John Corcoran).593 Public health centre (Courtesy, Bureau of Health Education, New York City Department of Health).596 Puerto Rico, the Caonillas dam in (Wide World). 600

Narcotics,

^^ueuille, Henri (Wide World).11

refugees being searched for (Betty and Arthur Reef from Black Star) .... 493 National Geographic Society, members of, at Adak (Cdurtesy, National Geographic So¬ ciety) .494 Navies of the World U.S. navy crash crew (Official U.S. Navy Photo).499 H.M.I.S. “Delhi” (British Combine) .... 500 Negro councilman in Richmond, Va. (Ralph Morse)*.502 Netherlands royal family (ABC Press Service from Black Star).504 News photographs, prize-winning "He Who Laughed Last” (International News Photo by A1 Muto).510 "Farewell to No. 3” (Wide World Photo by Harry Harris).510 "My Baby Brother” (James L. Mooney) . . 510 "Rain” (Barney Cowherd).511 “Bus Station” (2) (Courtesy, Standard Oil Co. [N.J.]; photos by Esther Bubley).511 New York city, rear courtyard of soviet consulate in (International News Photo by Frank Jurkoski).514

Olympic Games Swedish pentathlon

victor (Olympic Photo Association—Reuterphoto from European). 541 Wembley stadium (Olympic Photo Association —Reuterphoto from Acme).541 Women’s swimming relay (Wide World). . . 541 Robert Mathias (Wide World).541 Fanny Blankers-Koen (Reuterphoto from Eu¬ ropean) .541

Painting Portrait of Dr. Jean Piccard (Breinin) (Cour¬ tesy, The Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts).547 "Landscape” (Jamieson) (Courtesy, Pepsi¬ Cola's Fifth Annual “Paintings of the Year” Exhibition).547 “Approaching Storm” (Ellis) (Courtesy, The Cleveland Museum of Art and Dean Ellis). 547 Water-front scene (Eppolito) (Courtesy, Scho¬ lastic Magazines).547 Palestine Residents fleeing, following a bombing (Inter¬ national) .550 Irgun Zvai Leumi troops (Wide World) . . . 551 Paris meeting of the Committee on European Ekionomic Cooperation (International), . . 555 Patteson, Okey L.765 Pauley, Edwin G. (Wide World) ....... 2 Payne, Frederick G. (Courtesy, Republican Party of Maine; photo by Dora Clark Tash). . . 441 Pershing, John J. (Wide World).530

Dadio •• The transistor (Courtesy, Bell Telephone Laboratories).603 "Report Uncensored” (Courtesy, WBBM, Chicago, Ill.; photo by Fran Byrne). . . . 605 Arthur Godfrey (Martha Holmes)*.606 Railroads Central reservation office (Courtesy, Chesa¬ peake & Ohio Railway Co.).607 Night shunting in London {Picture Post Photo by Charles Hewitt—Pix from Publix) . . . 609 Chicago, railroad fair in (Wide World) . . . . 610 Red Cross entertainment program in U.S. Army hospital in Korea (Courtesy, American Red Cross).615 Refugees leaving Berlin (Walter Sanders)*. . . 617 Religion On the Way of the Cross in Jerusalem (Wide World).618 Rivers and Harbours Flood-control test model {Science Illustrated Photo by Bradley Smith).624 Roman Catholic Church Msgr. F. J. Sheen in Australia (Wide World). 627 Rome, new railway station in (Bernd Lohse from Black Star).628 Rowing event, eight-oared Olympic (Acme) . . 629 Roxas y Acuna, Manuel (Wide World) .... 535 Ruth, George Herman (Babe) (Wide World). . 535

St. Laurent, Louis Stephen (Wide World).

, . 11 Salvation Army workers in China (Acme). . 635 Schricker, Henry F. (Wide World).374 Scott, W. Kerr.517 Sculpture "Thunder” (Hord) (Courtesy, The American Academy of Arts and Letters and Donal Hord).637 Shipbuilding The “Caronia” (British Information Services) 642 Shipping, Merchant Marine Former navy freight barge (Courtesy, Howard Staples, Associates).643 Skiing event at St. Moritz (Press Association. Inc.).647 Smith, Forrest (Courtesy, Democratic Party of Missouri).471 Smith. Walter Bedell (Wide World). 6 Socialist youth meeting in Austria (Associated Press Photo from London).651 Soil conservation, one-day demonstration of (U.S.D.A. Photo by Hermann Postlethwaite) 659 Sokolovski, Vasili D. (Wide World). 2 South Africa, Union of Daniel F. Malan (Black Star).661

VII

Spain, Gen. Franco reviewing troops in (Wide World).664 Stalin, Joseph V. (VVide World). 7 Stevenson. Adlai E. (Courtesy, Democratic Party of Illinois).368 Strike at Univis Lens Co., Ohio (Wide World) . 673 Sugar, dock worker emptying bags of raw (Wide World).674 Surgeons viewing operation through telescopes {Detroit Free Press).. 677 Sweden, King Gustavus V of (European) . . . 678 Switzerland, opening of winter Olympic games in (Mark Kauffman)*.680 Talmadge, Herman (Courtesy, Herman Tal■ madge).331 Telephone cable, rolls of (Courtesy, American Telephone & Telegraph Co.; photo by Nick Lazarnick).691 Telescope at Mt. Palomar observatory (Bob Landry—Pix from Publix).691 Television Television studio 8-G (Courtesy, National Broadcasting Co., Inc.).693 “Howdy Doody” show (Courtesy, National Broadcasting Co.. Inc.). . . 693 Ireene Wicker (Courtesy, American Broad¬ casting Co.; photo by Harold Stein, N.Y.) . 693 New studio in California (Courtesy, Don Lee Mutual Broadcasting System; photo by Bob Plunkett).693 Tennessee Valley Authority Turbine runner (Courtesy. Tennessee Valley Authority).695 Tennis Ted Schroeder and Adrian Quist (Wide World) 696 Theatre A Streetcar Named Desire (Eileen Darby— Graphic House).699 Thurmond. J. Strom (Wide World). 10 Tito (Wide World). 7 Tobin. Maurice J. (Wide World).10 Track and Field Sports Harrison Dillard (Olympic Photo Association —Reuterphoto from European).704 Truman, Harry S. (Wide World).14 Truman, Harry S., speaking at Des Moines, la., duringihis 1948 presidential campaign (Wide World).Frontispiece ii Tubercular children in Berlin (European) . . . 708 Tunnel, twin-tube vehicular (Wide World). . . 710 Turkish troops in Ankara (Courtesy, Turkish In¬ formation Office).711

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Marshals of the soviet union (Sovfoto).

. . 713 Building an apartment house in Moscow (Sov¬ foto) .715 United Nations General Assembly session (Robert Cohen— Agip from Black Star).719 Count Folke Bernadotte (Wide World) . . . 721 United States Sending munitions to Turkey (Acme) .... 725 Pres. Truman accepting the presidential nom¬ ination (International).729 Elizabeth T. Bentley testifying (Acme) . . .730 Watican City State *• Pius XII giving his Easter blessing (Press Association, Inc.).742 Venezuela, inauguration of Pres. Gallegos of (Werner Cohnitz)*.746 Veterinary students (International).751

Wallace, Henry A. (Wide World).10 War crimes, Germans on trial for (Wide World).758 Warren, Earl (Wide World). 7 Warren, Fuller.302 Weizmann, Chaim (Wide World). 6 Whitty, Dame May (Wide World).535 Wildlife Conservation Bird counters (Francis Miller)*.767 Wilhelmina arriving for birthday festivities in Amsterdam (Dmitri Kessel and Yale Joel)*. 769 Williams, G. Mennen (Courtesy, G. Mennen Williams; photo by Craine, Detroit). . . . 464 Williams, Tennessee (International). 6 Wright, Orville (Wide World).535 yhdanov, Andrei A. (Sovfoto).535 ^ Zoology Radiograph of a pregnant turtle (Courtesy, General Electric X-Ray Corp.).781

INTRODUCTION

T

YiE, present volume is the twelfth Britannica Book of the Tear. These books, issued every year since

have attempted to refect the character of each year with

objectivity, and consequently must rejpeal ideas freely expressed. But the right to express ideas freely carries with it a responsibility. First, contributors must be selected whose intellectual and moral honesty cannot be questioned. Second, con¬ tributions must be scannedfor evidence of evasion and untruth, since it is often difficult for even the honest reporter to know, to recognize and to record the truth. If any iniquitous special pleading has worried its way into these pages, it is not because the contributors and the editors have not earnestly tried to remove it, hut because propa¬ ganda of this sort is often as difficult to discover as truth. A bookis value may be measured at least in part by its freedom from such propaganda. In the end, the same is true of the relationship of men and nations with each other. If the Book of the Tear helps to indicate the truth, no matter in how small a way, about igfd, and the importance of truth to a troubled world, it has achieved its primary purpose.

An innovation in the Book of the Tear is the section the Past,” page ySg.

The Present and Its Roots in

This section devotes itself to four areas of human interest: eco¬

nomic, scientific, political and cultural. Prepared by Alvin H. Hansen (economics), William L. Laurence (science), Allan JVevins (politics) and Norman Cousins (cul¬ ture), the four pieces are an attempt to lay igqS against the parallels and background of history. Direct footnote references are made to material in the Encyclop(edia Britan¬ nica and general references to background reading in both the Encylopcedia Britan¬ nica and Britannica Junior. It is earnestly hoped that this addition to the Book of the Tear will prove to be highly informative.

WALTER YUST

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS WALTER YUST, EDITOR OF ENCYCL0PT:DIA BRITANNICA AND OF THE BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR HOWARD E. KASCH, Associate Editor of the Book of the Tear RUTH SOFFER, Picture Editor

LIBRARIAN CONSULTANTS ANNE FRASER LEIDENDEKER, Assistant City Librarian, Central Library and Municipal Reference, Public Library, Los Angeles, Calif.

DAVID CLIFT, Associate Librarian, Tale Lfniversity Library. WINIFRED VER NOOY, Reference Librarian, The University of Chicago.

{Initials and names of contributors to the Britannica Book of the Tear with the principal articles written by them. The arrangement is alphabetical by initials.)

A.A.P.

Greece (in part)

ALEXANDER A. PALLIS. Minister Plenipotentiary, Director of the Greek OfiQce of Information, London, Eng. Author of Greece’s Anatolian Venture—and After; etc.

A.B.Bu.

Mississippi

ALFRED B. BUTTS. Technical Civilian Educational Adviser, Gen¬ eral Staff. U.S. Army. Author of Public Administration in Mississippi.

A.Bh.

Exchange Control and Exchange Rates

ANTONIN BASCH. Chief Economist, International Bank for Re¬ construction and Development, Washington, D.C.

A.B.S.

Georgia

ALBERT B. SAVE. Associate Professor of Political Science. The University of Georgia, Athens, Ga.

Ab.W.

Public Health Engineering

ABEL WOLM AN. Professor of Sanitary Engineering. The Johns Hop¬ kins University, Baltimore, Md.

A.C.Be.

Nebraska

ADAM CARLYLE BRECKENRIDGE. Assistant Professor of Po¬ litical Science, University of Nebraska. Lincoln. Neb.

A.C.Ch.

X-Ray and Radiology

ARTHUR C. CHRISTIE, M.D. Chief, Department of Radiology. Doctors Hospital Medical Center. Washington. D.C.

A.C.Eu. ALVIN C. EURICH.

Stanford University Vice-President, Stanford University. Stanford.

Football (in part)

ALLISON DANZIG. Member of Sports Staff, The New York Times, New York, N.Y. Author of The Racquet Game; etc.

A.Dr.

Textile Industry (in part)

ALFRED DAWBER. Editor, Textile Manufacturer, Manchester, Eng.

A.E.Du.

Decorations, Medals and Badges—Military, Naval and Civil (in part)

ARTHUR E. DuBOIS. Director. Heraldic Affairs, Office of the Quar¬ termaster General, Department of the Army, Washington. D.C.

A.E.Sh.

A. G. L. IVES. London, Eng.

Hospitals (in part) Secretary, King Edward’s Hospital Fund for London,

A.G.Ne.

Munitions of War (in part)

A. G. NOBLE. Rear Admiral. U.S.N. Chief of the Bureau of Ord¬ nance, Department of the Navy, Washington, D.C.

A.G.S.

Insurance (in part)

ANTONE G. SINGSEN. Assistant Director. Blue Cross Commission, American Hospital Association.

A.H.C.

Washington University (St. Louis)

ARTHUR HOLLY COMPTON. Saint Louis, Mo.

A.H.Md.

Chancellor, Washington University,

Betting and Gambling (in part); etc.

ALBERT H. MOREHEAD. Publisher, The Bridge World. Bridge Editor, The New York Times. Author of The Modern Hoyle; etc.

A.J.A.

Social Security (in part)

A. J. ALTMEYER. Commissioner, Federal Security Agency. Social Security Administration, Washington. D.C.

A.J.Ar.

Industrial Health (in port)

ARTHUR JOSEPH AMOR, M.D. Principal Medical Officer, Imperial Chemical Industries, Ltd. Author of X-Ray Atlas of Silicosis; etc.

A.J.Li.

Liquors, Alcoholic (in part)

ALFRED J. LIEBMANN. New York, N.Y.

President, Schenley Research Institute,

A.J.Lo.

Birth Statistics; etc.

ALFRED J. LOTKA. Former Assistant Statistician, Metropoiitan Life Insurance Company, New York, N.Y.

Calif.

A.Da.

A.G.L.t.

Chemotherapy

AUSTIN E. SMITH. Director. Division of Therapy and Research; Secretary. Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, American Medical Association. Author of Technic of Medication; etc.

A.J.M.

Pacifism

A. J. MUSTE. Executive Secretary, Fellowship of Reconciliation. Associate Editor, The Presbyterian Tribune.

A.J.Mac.

Church of England; etc.

ALLAN JOHN MacDONALD. D.D. Rector of St. Dunstan-in-theWest, London, Eng. Rural Dean of the City of London. Author of Lanfranc, His Life, Work and Destiny; etc.

A.J.Me. A. J. McCLANE.

Angling Fishing Editor, Field & Stream.

A.L.Ba. ARTHUR LESLIE BANKS.

Public Health Services (in part) Principal

A.L.C. ANTHONY LEONARD CRIPPS.

A.G.Br.

Dyestuffs

ANSCO G. BRUINIER. JR. Technical Advertising Manager, Dye¬ stuffs Division. Organic Chemicals Department, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Company. Inc., Wilmington. Del.

Medical

Officer.

Ministry

of Health, London, Eng.

A.LeR.L.

Lav/ (in part) Barrister, London, Eng.

Negroes, American

ALAIN LEROY LOCKE. Professor of Philosophy, Howard Univer¬ sity, Washington, D.C. Author of The Negro in America; etc.

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

X

A.L.W.S. Stocks and Bonds (in part) ALFRED LOUIS WILLIAM SHILLADY. Chief Market Editor, Financial Times, London, Eng. A.Md. ABDUL MAJID.

Islam Editor, Islamic Review, Woking, Eng.

A.M.Ds. Municipal Government (in part) AUDREY M. DAVIES. Librarian, Institute of Public Administration, New York, N.Y. A.Mu. Dance (in part) ARTHUR MURRAY. President, National Institute of Social Dancing. Author of How to Become a Good Dancer; Modern Dancing; etc. A.N.O. International Monetary Fund ANDREW N. OVERBY. U.S. Executive Director, International Monetary Fund, Washington, D.C. A.N.P. Florida ANCIL N. PAYNE. Associate Professor of History and Political Science, University of Florida, Gainesville, Fla. A.Nr. Painting ALFRED NEUMEYER. Director, Mills College Art Gallery; Pro¬ fessor of Art History, Mills College, Oakland, Calif. ^ A.O. Surgery ALTON OCHSNER, M.D. Director, Section on Surgery, Ochsner Clinic, New Orleans, La. William Henderson Professor of Surgery, School of Medicine, Tulane University of Louisiana, New Orleans, La. A.P.Cw. Food Research ARTHUR P. CHEW. Information Specialist, Office of Information, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Author of Plow¬ shares into Swords; etc. A,R.Hd. Agriculture (in parO ANTHONY RICHARD HURD. Member of Parliament for New¬ bury. Agricultural Correspondent, The Times, London, Eng. A.R.K. Chambers of Commerce (in part) ARTHUR RICHARD KNOWLES. Secretary, Association of British Chambers of Commerce. A.R.N. North Carolina ALBERT RAY NEWSOME. Professor and Head of the Department of History, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C. A.S.A. SIR ARTHUR STANLEY ANGWIN. less Limited, London, Eng.

Telegraphy (in part) Chairman, Cable and Wire¬

A.T.M. Irrigation A. T. MITCHELSON. Senior Irrigation Engineer, Division of Irriga¬ tion, Soil Conservation Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Berkeley, Calif. A.V.O. North Dakota A. V. OVERN. Professor of Education, Department of Education, University of North Dakota, Grand Porks, N.D. Author of The Teacher in Modern Education; etc. A. Wt. ALEXANDER WETMORE. Washington, D.C.

Secretary,

Smithsonian Institution Smithsonian Institution,

B. A. Community Chest BARBARA ABEL. Editor, Public Relations Department, Community Chests and Councils of America, Inc. B. Fy. Machinery and Machine Tools (in part) BURNHAM FINNEY. Editor, American Machinist, New York, N.Y. B.H. Jewish Religious Life BERNARD HELLER. Rabbi. Lecturer. Member, Board of Di¬ rectors, Polio Institute of Palestine. Author of A Harvest of Weeds; etc. B.H.P. BEN H. PARKER. Colo.

Geology (in part) President, Colorado School of Mines, Golden,

B.L. Lumber (in pari) BRYAN LATHAM. Former President, Timber Trade Federation of the United Kingdom, London, Eng. B.L.B. Immigration and Emigration (in part) BERTHA LILIAN BRACEY. Women’s Affairs Officer for SchleswigHolstein, Control Commission for Germany (British Element). B.O.M. BYRON O. McCOY. ton, Mass. B.O.Mr. B. O. MILLER. Angeles, Cahf.

B.R.P. Siam (Thailand) (in pari) BERTIE REGINALD PEARN. Former Professor of History, Uni¬ versity of Rangoon. Author of History of Rangoon; The Indian in Burma; etc.

Dams Hydraulic Engineer, Chas. T. Main, Inc., Bos¬

Los Angeles President, Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce, Los

Br.S. Crime (in part); etc. BRUCE SMITH. Secretary, Institute of Public Administration, New York, N.Y. Author of Rural Crime Control. B.Sa. BERNARD SAMUEL. Mayor, Philadelphia, Pa. B.Sk. BEN SHUPACK.

Philadelphia

Gliding Director, The Soaring Society of America.

B.Y. Veterans of Foreign Wars BARNEY YANOPSKY. Editor of Foreign Service and Director of Public Relations, Veterans of Foreign Wars of the United States, Kansas City, Mo. B.Y.L. Church Membership (in part) BENSON Y. LANDIS. Secretary, Washington Office, The Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America and Cooperating Bodies. B. Z.R. Allergy B. Z. RAPPAPORT, M.D. Clinical Associate Professor of Medicine and Director of Clinical Investigation, Allergy Unit, University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago, Ill. C. A.Bn. CHARLES A. BRESKIN. N.Y. C.A.Rs. C. A. ROBINS.

Plastics Industry Publisher, Modern Plastics, New York,

Idaho Governor of Idaho.

C.A.T. Spices C. A. THAYER. Former President and Former Director, American Spice Trade Association. C.B.Cs. CLIFTON B. CATES. of the Marine Corps.

General, U.S, Marine Corps.

Marine Corps Commandant

C-Bt. Golf CHARLES BARTLETT. Golf Editor, Chicago Daily Tribune, Chi¬ cago, Ill. Secretary, the Golf Writers’ Association of America. Bu. CARLYLE BURROWS. New York, N.Y.

Art Editor, New

Sculpture York Herald Tribune

C.C.Ws. Consumer Credit (in part) CHARLES COWLEY WORTERS. Secretary, International Asso¬ ciation for Promotion and Protection of Trade. Secretary, Hire Pur¬ chase Trade Association, London, Eng. C.Cy. Canada, Dominion of; Canadian Literature; etc. CHARLES CLAY. Director, Canadian Research and Editorial Insti¬ tute, Ottawa, Ont. Author of Young Voyageur; Muskrat Man; etc. C.D.Hu. CHARLES D. HURD. versity, Evanston, Ill.

Chemistry Professor of Chemistry. Northwestern Uni¬

C-E-A. Tennessee CHARLES E. ALLRED. Head, Department of Agricultural Eco¬ nomics and Rural Sociology, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tenn. C.E.Fe. Vermont CLARA E. FOLLETTE. Secretary and Assistant to the Director, Vermont Historical Society, Montpelier, Vt. C.E.L-Q. Lutherans CARL E. LUND-QUIST. Assistant Executive Director, National Lutheran Council. Editor, National Lutheran. Forests (in part) CHARLES EDGAR RANDALL. Information Specialist, Division of Information and Education, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Author of Our Forests; etc. .E.R.S. Railroads (in part) CHARLES ELY ROSE SHERRINGTON. Secretary, British Rail¬ ways Research Service. Former Lecturer in Transport, London School of Economics, London University. London, Eng. B.Ls. CHARLES F. LEWIS. Pa.

Pittsburgh Director, The Buhl Foundation, Pittsburgh,

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Cambridge University CHARLES POX. Former Director of Training, Cambridge Univer¬ sity, Cambridge, Eng. Author of Educational Psychology; The Mind and Its Body; etc. H.A. West Virginia CHARLES H. AMBLER. Professor of History, West Virginia Uni¬ versity, Morgantown, W.Va. Author of West Virginia: The Mountain State. C.H.Bd. Leprosy C. H. BINPORD, M.D. Senior Surgeon, U.S. Public Health Service. Pathologist. U.S. Marine Hospital. Baltimore, Md. C.H.Bu. Machinery and Machine Tools {in part) CHARLES HENRY BURDER. Acting Editor, Machinery, London, Eng. C.He. Arabia (in part); etc. CHRISTOPHER HOLME. Chief Assistant to Controller, Third Program, British Broadcasting Corporation, London, Eng. C.H.G.T. C. H. GORDON TETHER. Eng.

Bank of England Writer, the Financial Times, London,

C.J.Br. Fertilizers CHARLES J. BRAND. Economic Consultant, Washington, D.C. Executive Secretary and Treasurer, The National Fertilizer Associa¬ tion, 1925-45. Former President, Agricultural History Society of U.S.A. Author of What Economic System for America? C.J.Fx. > Boston CHARLES JAMES FOX. Auditor of the City of Boston and County of Suffolk, Boston, Mass. C.L.Bt. Rowing C. LEVERICH BRETT. Secretary-Treasurer, Cory and Brett Lumber Corporation, New York, N.Y. Editor, National Association of Amateur Oarsmen Rowing News. C.L.G. Mexico CHESTER L. GUTHRIE. Director, Medical Administration Divi¬ sion, Medical Service, Veterans’ Administration, Branch 12. C.L.L. CLIFFORD L. LORD. son, Wis.

Wisconsin Director, State Historical Society, Madi¬

C.L.V.M. Architecture {in part) CARROLL L. V. MEEKS. Associate Professor of Architecture and of the History of Art, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. President, Society of Architectural Historians. C.M.An. Wool CARLETON M. ALLEN. Lecturer on Wool and Woollen Textiles, Boston University, Boston, Mass. C.Me. Spain {in part) CONSTANTINE EDWARD McGUIRE. Economic Adviser. Au¬ thor of Italy’s International Economic Position; etc. C.M.Pn. Industrial Health (in parO CARL M. PETERSON, M.D. Secretary. Council on Industrial Health, American Medical Association. C.M.R. Girl Scouts (in part) CONSTANCE M- RITTENHOUSE (Mrs. Paul Rittenhouse). Na¬ tional Director, Girl Scouts of the United States of America. C.O’D.I. Oceanography C. O’D. ISELIN. Director, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Woods Hole, Mass. C.R.A. Marriage and Divorce CLIFFORD R. ADAMS. Founder and Director, Annual Institute on Marriage and Home Adjustment, Pennsylvania State College, State College, Pa. Regional Consultant, American Institute of Family Relations. Co-author of How To Pick A Mate. C.R.Gy. Veterans’ Administration CARL RAYMOND GRAY, JR. Administrator of Veterans’ Affairs, Veterans’ Administration, Washington, D.C.

CARL ZEISBERG. Association.

Table Tennis Former President, United States Table Tennis

D.A.Dy. DENNIS A. DOOLEY. Mass. D.A.G.R.

xi

Massachusetts State Librarian of Massachusetts, Boston,

Building and Construction Industry {in part)

DONALD A. G. REID. Principal, London County Council Brixton School of Building, London, Eng. G-AI. Pennsylvania, University of DONALD KINNEY'ANGELL. Secretary of the Corporation, Uni¬ versity of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa. D.A.Sn. Berlin; etc. DERRICK ADOLPHUS SINGTON. Control Officer, Die Welt, British-Controlled Newspaper, British Zone, Germany. Author of Belsen Uncovered; etc. G.B.L. Farmers Home Administration DILLARD B. LASSETER. Administrator, Farmers Home Adminis¬ tration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. D.B.S. Bridges DAVID BARNARD STEINMAN. Authority on the Design and Con¬ struction of Long-Span Bridges. D.C.Cr. California DONALD C. CUTTER. Assistant in History, University of Cali¬ fornia, Los Angeles, Calif. D.C.H.J. Libraries (in par() D. C. HENRIK JONES. Librarian and Information Officer, The Library Association, London, Eng. D.D.W. South Carolina DAVID DUNCAN WALLACE. Professor Emeritus of History. Wof¬ ford College, Spartanburg. S.C. Author of History of South Carolina; etc. D.Dz. Atomic Energy DAVID DIETZ. Science Editor. Scripps-Howard Newspapers. Lec¬ turer in General Science, Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio. Author of Atomic Energy in the Coming Era; etc. D.G.Ds. Rivers and Harbours {in part); etc. DELWYN G. DAVIES. Water Engineer and Manager. Harrogate Waterworks, Harrogate, Eng. D.G.Wo. Textile Industry (in pari) DOUGLAS G. WOOLF. Former Editor in Chief, Textile World. Tex¬ tile Consultant and Publisher, East Pasadena Herald, Pasadena, Calif. D.H.D. Palaeontology (in part) DAVID H. DUNKLE. Associate Curator, Division of Vertebrate Paleontology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. D.Hn. Newspapers and Magazines (in part) DEREK HUDSON. Staff Member. The Times, London, Eng. Author of British Journalists and Newspapers; etc. D.J.H. Wages and Hours (in part) DONALD J. HART. Associate Professor of Economics, Carroll College, Waukesha, Wis. D.J.W. Sodality of Our Lady, The DOROTHY J. WILLMANN. Organizational Secretary. Women’s Parish Sodalities. Associate Editor, Action Now. D.Lh. Tariffs DAVID LYNCH. Principal Economist, United States Tariff Commis¬ sion. Author of The Concentration of Economic Power; etc. D.Nn. LADY DOROTHY NICHOLSON. and Christian; The Londoner; etc.

London Author of Private Letters: Pagan

D.R.G. Football (in part) DAVID ROBERT GENT. Rugby Football Correspondent, The Sun¬ day Times, London. Eng.

C.S.C. Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service CYRUS S. CHING. Director, Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service, Washington, D.C.

D.R.Gi. France (in part); etc. DARSIE R. GILLIE. Paris Correspondent, the Manchester Guardian, Paris, France.

Fashion and Dress

D.Rn. Housing (in part); etc. DOROTHY R. ROSENMAN (Mrs. Samuel I. Rosenman). Former Chairman of the Board. National Committee on Housing. Author of A Million Homes a Year.

CARMEL SNOW.

Editor of Harper’s Bazaar, New York, N.Y.

C.W.Dn. COLGATE WHITEHEAD DARDEN, JR. Virginia, Charlottesville, Va. C.W.S.

Virginia, University of President, University of

Motor Transportation {in part)

CARL W. STOCKS. Editor. Bus Transportation, New York, N.Y.

D.St. Advertising (in pari) DANIEL STARCH. Consultant in Business Research. Former Lec¬ turer and Professor at Harvard University and the University of Wis¬ consin. Author of Principles of Advertising; etc.

••

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

XII

D.V. DOUGLAS VEALE.

Oxford University Registrar of Oxford University, Oxford, Eng.

D.Wn. Botany (in part) DONALD WYMAN. Horticulturist, Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. D.W.R. Civil Aeronautics Administration DELOS W. RENTZEL. Administrator of Civil Aeronautics, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. D. W.Ws. Shows, Animal (in part) D. W. WILLIAMS. Vice-Chancellor for Agriculture, The Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College System, College Station, Tex. Author of Beef Cattle in the South; etc. E. A.Gs. Children’s Books ELIZABETH A. GROVES. Assistant Professor, School of Librarianship, University of Washington, Seattle, Wash.

E.L.R. E. LANSING RAY. St. Louis, Mo.

St. Louis President and Editor, St. Louis Globe-Democrat,

E.L.S. Armies of the World EDWIN L. SIBERT. Brigadier General, U.S.A. Commanding Gen¬ eral of the United States Army Forces in the Antilles. E.M.E. EMERY M. ELLINGSON. America, Los Angeles, Calif.

Airports and Flying Fields (in part) Manager, Air Transport Association of

E.M.Wt. Palestine (in part) EDWIN M. WRIGHT. Special Assistant to the Director, Office of Near Eastern and African Affairs, Department of State, Washington, D.C. E.O.E. Entomology EDWARD OLIVER ESSIG. Chairman, Division of Entomology and Parasitology, University of California, Berkeley, Calif.

E.A.P. Portugal (in part); etc. EDGAR ALLISON PEERS. Professor of Spanish, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, Eng. Author of A History of the Romantic Move¬ ment in Spain; etc.

E.O.Se. Chambers of Commerce (in part) EARL O. SHREVE. President, Chamber of Commerce of the United States, Washington, D.C.

E.By. Hdtels ERNEST L. BYFIELD. President, Hotel Sherman, Inc.; Hotel Am¬ bassador East, Inc., Chicago, Ill.

E.P.Jo. Diabetes E. P. JOSLIN, M.D. Professor Emeritus of Clinical Medicine, Harvard University Medical School; Medical Director, George F. Baker Clinic, New England Deaconess Hospital, Boston, Mass.

E.C.D.M. E. CHARLES D. MARRIAGE. Library, Carson City, Nev.

State Librarian,

Nevada Nevada State

E.Cul. Contract Bridge (in part) ELY CULBERTSON. Editor, The Bridge World. President, World Federation, Inc. Author of Total Peace. Ed.D. Motion Pictures (in part) EDGAR DALE. Professor of Education, Bureau of Educational Research, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. E.E.B. Montana EDWARD E. BENNETT. Professor of History and Political Science, Montana State University, Missoula, Mont. E.E.D. EDMUND E. DAY.

Cornell University President, Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y.

E.P.Nd. Ireland, Northern EWART PRICE NORTHWOOD. Information Officer, Northern Ireland Government Office, London, Eng. E.S.Br. Tennis EDWIN S. BAKER. Executive Secretary, United States Lawn Tennis Association. E.S.Bs. Southern California, University of EMORY S. BOGARDUS. Dean of the Graduate School, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. E.S.C. ELTON S. COOK. Cincinnati, Ohio.

Institutum Divi Thomae Dean of Research, Institutum Divi Thomae,

E.Se. EDMOND SEGRAVE.

Book Publishing (in part); etc. Editor of the Bookseller, London. Eng.

E.F,D. Maine EDWARD FRENCH DOW. Professor of Government and Head of the Department of History and Government, University of Maine, Orono, Me.

E.S.J. Child Labour ELIZABETH S. JOHNSON. Director, Child Labor Branch, Wage and Hour and Public Contracts Division, U.S. Department of Labor, Washington, D.C.

E.G.An. Shoe Industry ESTELLE G. ANDERSON (Mrs. Arthur D. Anderson). Associate Editor, Boot and Shoe Recorder.

E.T. Kentucky EDWARD TUTHILL. Professor of History, University of Kentucky, Lexington, Ky., 1908-1945.

E.G.W.W. EDWARD G. W. WOOD. tion, London, Eng.

E.T.B.H. ERIC T. B. HICKS. Journalist.

Boy Scouts (in part) Press Secretary, The Boy Scouts Associa¬

E.H.Co. Gold (in part) EDWARD H. COLLINS. Member, Editorial Board, The New York Times, New York, N.Y. Author of Inflation and Your Money. E.H.Kr. Mineralogy EDWARD HENRY KRAUS. Dean Emeritus of the College of Liter¬ ature, Science and the Arts. University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. E.I.F. Horticulture E. I. FARRINGTON. Former Secretary, Massachusetts Horticultural Society and Editor of Horticulture. Author of The Gardener’s Almanac; etc. E.I.P. Salvation Army ERNEST I. PUGMIRE. National Commander of the Salvation Army in the United States. E.J.C. EDWIN J. CAMERON. Canners Association.

Canning Industry Director, Research Laboratories, National

E.Kn. Contract Bridge (in part) EWART KEMPSON. Co-author of Just Bridge. Author of Kempson on Bidding; etc. EI.Br. Anti-Semitism ELMER BERGER. Executive Director, The American Council for Judaism, Inc. Author of The Jewish Dilemma. E.L.Mn. Philosophy EDWIN L. MARVIN. Associate Professor of Philosophy and Psychol¬ ogy, Montana State University, Missoula, Mont.

E.V.Lh. E. V. LAHEY. Foundation Inc.

Crime (in part); etc. Author of Secrets of Scotland Yard.

Brewing and Beer President and Chairman, United States Brewers

E.W.G. Electrical Industries (in part); etc. EDWARD WILLIAM GOLDING. Head, Rural Electrification Sec¬ tion, Electrical Research Association, London, Eng. Author of Electri¬ fication of Agriculture and Rural Districts; etc. E.W.Gn. Illiteracy ELLA WASHINGTON GRIFFIN. Research Assistant, Division of Higher Education. U.S. Office of Education, Washington, D.C. E.Wi. Italy (in part); etc. ELIZABETH WISKEMANN. Former Correspondent, The Econo¬ mist, Rome, Italy. Author of Czechs and Germans; Undeclared War; etc. E. Ws. Psychosomatic Medicine EDWARD WEISS, M.D. Professor of Clinical Medicine. Temple University Medical School, Philadelphia. Pa. Co-author of Psy¬ chosomatic Medicine. F-A.H. Electric Transportation (in part) FREDERICK ARTHUR HARPER. Mechanical Engineer, London, Midland and Scottish Railway. F. A.Sw. Art Exhibitions (in part); etc. FREDERICK A. SWEET. Associate Curator of Painting and Sculp¬ ture, The Art Institute of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. F-B.C. M usic (in part) FRANK B. COOKSON. Assistant Professor of Theory and Composi¬ tion, School of Music, Northwestern University, Evanston, HI. Managing Editor, Educational Music Magazine.

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS F.C.Bg. Bread and Bakery Products FRANKLIN C. BING. Director, Americaa Institute of Baking. F.C.Bo. Shipbuilding (in part); etc. PRANK C. BOWEN. Editor, Merchant Ships of the World. Author of The Golden Age of Sail; etc. F-C.J. F. CYRIL JAMES. sity. Montreal, Que. F-Cn. PRANK CARLSON.

McGill University Principal and Vice-Chancellor, McGill Univer¬

Kansas Governor of Kansas.

F.C.W. Cancer FRANCIS CARTER WOOD, M.D. Emeritus Director, Cancer Re¬ search, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Author of Clinical Diagnosis; etc. F.D.N. Seventh-day Adventists FRANCIS D. NICHOL. Editor, Review and Herald. Author of The Midnight Cry; The Answer to Modern Religious Thinking; etc. F.D.R. New Mexico FRANK D. REEVE. Professor of History, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque, N.M. F.D.S. Estonia; Sweden; etc. FRANKLIN D. SCOTT. Professor of History, Northwestern Uni¬ versity, Evanston, Ill. Author of Bernadotte and the Fall of Napoleon; The United States and Scandinavia; etc. F.E.Fe. , Physiology FLORENT EDWIN FRANKE, M.D. Associate Professor, Depart¬ ment of Physiology, School of Medicine, St. Louis University, St. Louis, Mo. F.E.McM. Navies of the World FRANCIS EDWIN McMURTRIE. Former Editor, Jane's Fight¬ ing Ships. Naval Correspondent of the Sunday Express, London, Eng. F.E.R. , Michigan, University of FRANK E. ROBBINS. Assistant to the President, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich.

XIII

F.W.N. Yeast FREDERIC W. NORDSIEK. Assistant Director, Research Service Department, Standard Brands Incorporated, New York, N.Y. F.W.Pk.

British South African Protectorates

FREDERICK WALTER PICK. Lecturer in Government, Co-oper¬ ative College, Stanford Hall, Loughborough, Eng. Author of Search¬ light on German Africa; The Baltic Nations; etc. F. W.Rr. Meteorology {in part) P. W. REICHELDERFER. Chief, Weather Bureau. U.S. Depart¬ ment of Commerce, Washington, D.C. G. A.Ro, Copper; Secondary Metals; etc. GAR A. ROUSH. Former Editor, Mineral Industry, Arlington, Va. Author of Strategic Mineral Supplies. G.A.Si,

United Church of Canada

GORDON A. SISCO, D.D. Secretary, The United Church of Canada. G.B.En.

Alimentary System, Disorders of

GEORGE B. EUSTERMAN, M.D. Senior Consultant in Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. Professor of Medicine, Mayo Founda¬ tion, University of Minnesota Graduate School. Minneapolis. Minn. G.B.O. World Council of Churches G. BROMLEY OXNAM, D.D. Bishop of The Methodist Church, New York Area. One of the Presidents of the World Council of Churches. Author of Preaching in a Revolutionary Age; etc. G.D.H.C. Wages and Hours (in part); etc. GEORGE DOUGLAS HOWARD COLE. Chichele Professor of Social and Political Theory, Oxford, Oxford, Eng. Author of The World of Labour; Self-Government in Industry; Guild Socialism Restated; etc. Ge.Bu. GEORGE BUGBEE. ciation.

Hospitals (in part) Executive Director, American Hospital Asso¬

G.E.L. Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of (in part) GEORGE E. LIEBERMAN, M.D. Associate in Otolaryngology, University of Pennsylvania Graduate School of Medicine, Phila¬ delphia. Pa.

F.H.Aw. Netherlands F. H. ANDREW. British Adviser to the Netherlands Embassy.

G.E.R.G. Austria (in part) GEORGE ERIC ROWE GEDYE. Foreign Correspondent for the Daily Herald, London, Eng. Author of Wayfarer in Austria; etc.

F.J.B. Relief FRANK J. BRUNO. Professor Emeritus. Applied Sociology, and Chairman. Department of Social Work. Washington University, St. Louis. Mo.

G.Gr. GILBERT GROSVENOR. graphic Society.

F.j.se. Vitamins FREDERICK J. STARE, M.D. Professor of Nutrition, Schools of Medicine and Public Health, Harvard University. Boston, Mass.

G.Hb. Floods and Flood Control (in part); etc. GENE HOLCOMB. Assistant Chief, Technical Information Division. OfHce of the Chief of Engineers. Department of the Army, Washing¬ ton. D.C.

F.L.Kp. FORREST L. KNAPP. tian Education.

Sunday Schools General Secretary, World Council of Chris¬

G-H.D. Belgian Colonial Empire (in part); etc. GEORGES-HENRI DUMONT. Editorial Director, Vrai. Author of Marie de Bourgogne; Leopold III, Roi des Beiges; etc.

F.L.W. Jewish Welfare Board, National FRANK L. WEIL. President, The National Jewish Welfare Board. Former Vice-President, United Service Organizations, Inc.

G.H.H. International Court of Justice GREEN H. HACKWORTH. Judge. International Court of Justice, The Hague. Author of Digest of International Law.

p lyi

Marine Biology

FRANCIS MARSH BALDWIN. Professor and Chairman. Biology Division: Sorpetime Director, Marine Biological Station, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, Calif. Accidents {in part) F.M.K. FRANKLIN M. KREML. Director, Northwestern University Traffic Institute, Evanston, Ill. F.M.V.T. Geology (in part) FRANCIS M. VAN TUYL. Professor and Head of the Department of Geology, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo. .P.G. FRANK PORTER GRAHAM. Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C.

North Carolina, University o President, The University of North

P Pg

Antarctica

FINNE RONNE. Expert Consultant with the U.S. Army on Arctic Equipment. Lecturer on the Antarctic. Commander, Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition, 1946-48. F.R.I. FRANK R. INNES.

Electrical Industries {in part) Associate Editor, Electrical World.

, pg

Hand-ball

FREDERICK ROTHE. Governor and Member of Athletic Com¬ mittee, New York Athletic Club, New York, N.Y. yg FREDERICK TOLLES. Librarian, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa.

Friends, Religious Society of Friends

Historical

Library,

National Geographic Society President and Editor. National Geo¬

G.H.S. Public Opinion Surveys GEORGE HORSLEY SMITH. Lecturer in Psychology. Princeton University, Princeton. N.J. Associate Professor of Psychology, Newark Colleges of Rutgers University, Newark, N.J. Research Associate, Office of Public Opinion Research. G.I.B. Argentina; Cuba; etc. GEORGE I. BLANKSTEN. Instructor in Political Science, North¬ western University, Evanston. Ill. G.I.Q. Archaeology {in part) GEORGE I. QUIMBY, JR. Curator of Exhibits, Department of Anthropology. Chicago Natural History Museum, Chicago, Ill. Au¬ thor of Aleutian Islanders; etc. G.J.C. Economics GEORGE JOHNSON CADY. Associate Professor of Economics, Northwestern University, Evanston, Ill. Author of Entrepreneurial Costs and Price. G.J.N. Theatre (in part) GEORGE JEAN NATHAN. Critic. Author of The Critic and the Drama; Encyclopaedia of the Theatre; etc. G.L.BI. International Trade GEORGE L. BELL. Associate and Acting Director, Office of Inter¬ national Trade, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington. D.C. G.L.Bs. Radio (in part); etc. GEORGE LISLE BEERS. Assistant Director of Engineering, RCA Victor Division, Radio Corporation of America. Camden. N.J.

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

XIV

G.L.W. Refugees GEORGE L. WARREN. Adviser on Refugees and Displaced Persons, Department of State, Washington, D.C.

H.Bu. Public Health Services (in part) HERMAN N. BUNDESEN, M.D. President, Board of Health, Chi¬ cago, Ill. Author of The Growing Child; etc.

G.M.C. Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of (in part) GEORGE MORRISON COATES, M.D. Professor of Otorhinology, Graduate School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Phila¬ delphia, Pa.

H.B Ws. HERMAN B WELLS. Ind.

G.M.Ck. Disciples of Christ GAINES M. COOK. Executive Secretary, International Convention of Disciples of Christ. Author of The Privileges of Church Membership; etc. G.M.Hy. Newspapers and Magazines (in part) GRANT M. HYDE. Director and Professor of Journalism, School of Journalism, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis. G.M.J. G. McSTAY JACKSON. Ill. G.M.M. GREER M. MURPHY. ington, D.C.

Interior Decoration President, McStay Jackson Co., Chicago,

Aviation, Civil; etc. Attorney, Civil Aeronautics Board, Wash¬

G.P.Du S. GRAHAM PHILLIP DU SHANE. University, Stanford, California.

Zoology (iri part) Professor of Biology, Stanford

G.R.Mn. Rhodesia, Southern (in part) GEORGE ROY MORRISON. Editorial Assistant, East Africa and Rhodesia. Author of Mixed Farming in East Africa. G.T.H. British Columbia G. T. HATCHER. Director, Bureau of Economics and Statistics, Province of British Columbia, Victoria, B.C. G. W.Hd. Rural Electrification (in part) GEORGE W. HAGGARD. Assistant Administrator, Rural Electrifi¬ cation Administration, Washington, D.C.

Indiana University President, Indiana University, Bloomington,

H.B.Wy. Supreme Court of the United States HAROLD B. WILLEY. Deputy Clerk, United States Supreme Court, Washington, D.C. H.C.D. Education (in part) HAROLD COLLETT DENT. Editor of The Times Educational Sup¬ plement, London, Eng. ' H.C.R. Tulane University HORACE C. RENEGAR. Director of Public Relations, Tulane University, New Orleans, Louisiana. H.D.G. H. DON GUSSOW. York, N.Y.

Candy Publisher and Editor of Candy Industry, New

He.Br. HENRY BRUfiRE. N.Y. ,

Banking (in part) President, Bowery Savings Bank, New York,

H.E.F. HORACE EDGAR FLACK. Reference, Baltimore, Md.

Baltimore; Maryland Director, Department of Legislative

H.E.Hi. Epidemics HERMAN E. HILLEBOE, M.D. Commissioner of Health, New York State Department of Health, Albany, N.Y. H.Fx. Dermatology HOWARD POX, M.D. Professor Emeritus of Dermatology and Syphilology, College of Medicine, New York University. New York, N.Y. Author of Skin Diseases in Infancy and Childhood; etc.

H. A.C. Deafness HOWARD A. CARTER. Secretary, Council on Physical Medicine, American Medical Association.

H.G.M. Fisheries (in part); etc. HENRY GASCOYEN MAURICE. President, Zoological Society of London, London, Eng. Secretary, Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire. Author of Sometimes an Angler.

H.A.Ce. HENRY A. COLGATE. town, N.J.

H.G.Rn. India, Dominion of (in part); etc. H. G. RAWLINSON. Former Principal, Deccan College, Poona, India.

Seeing Eye, The President, The Seeing Eye, Inc., Morris¬

H.A.H. HOWARD ARCHIBALD HUBBARD. versity of Arizona, Tucson, Ariz.

Arizona Professor of History, Uni¬

Har.H. Reconstruction Finance Corporation HARLEY HISE. Chairman of the Board of Directors, Reconstruction Finance Corporation, Washington, D.C. H.A.Rh. Medical Rehabilitation of the Disabled HOWARD ARCHIBALD RUSK, M.D. Professor and Chairman of the Department of Rehabilitation and Physical Medicine, New York University College of Medicine, New York, N.Y. Associate Editor, The New York Times, New York, N.Y. H.A.Rn. HOBART A. REIMANN, M.D. Medical College, Philadelphia, Pa.

Cold, Common Professor of Medicine, Jefferson

H.A.We. HAROLD A. WALLACE. Executive Credit Bureaus of America, Inc.

Consumer Credit (in part) Vice-President, Associated

H.B.Bn. American Dental Association HERBERT B. BAIN. Director, Bureau of Public Information, American Dental Association. H.B.Cs. Anthropology HENRY B. COLLINS, JR. Senior Ethnologist. Bureau of American Ethnology, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. H.Bd. HARVIE BARNARD. Clinton, la.

Flour Research Chemist, Clinton Industries, Inc.,

H.G.S. Shipbuilding (in part) H. GERRISH SMITH. President, Shipbuilders Council of America. H.H.Be. Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation HUGH H. BENNETT. Chief, Soil Conservation Service, U.S. De¬ partment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. H.H.P. HOWARD H. PECKHAM. Indianapolis, Ind.

^ Indiana Director, Indiana Historical Bureau

H.Hr.

Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government HERBERT HOOVER. Former President of the United States. Chairman, Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government.

Accidents (in part) HELEN ISABEL SUTHERLAND. Secretary, The Royal Society for the Prevention of Accidents. Author of Safety in the Home; etc. H.J.A. Narcotics and Narcotic Traffic H. J. ANSLINGER. Commissioner of Narcotics, Treasury Depart¬ ment, Washington, D.C. Author of The Physician and the Federal Narcotic Law. .J.De. Washington HERMAN J. DEUTSCH. Professor of History, State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash. •J®HARLEAN JAMES. Civic Association.

Town and Regional Planning; etc. Executive Secretary, American Planning and

H.Bec. Sociology HOWARD BECKER. Professor of Sociology, University of Wis¬ consin, Madison, Wis. Author of German Youth, Bond or Free; etc.

•Ko. Communism; Fascism; etc. HANS KOHN. Sydenham Clark Parsons Professor of History, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. Author of The Idea of Nationalism, a Study of Its Origins and Background; etc.

H.BI. HERSCHEL BRICKELL. Literary Critic. International Education, New York, N.Y.

Ohio State University HOWARD LANDIS BEVIS. President, The Ohio State University Columbus, Ohio. ’

American Literature Consultant, Institute of

H.Bm. Red Cross (in part) HOWARD BONHAM. Vice-President for Public Relations, American National Red Cross.

Rubber HARLAN L. TRUMBULL. Assistant to the Director of Research The B. F. Goodrich Co., Research Center, Brecksville, O.

‘

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Ark3ns3s HENRY M. ALEXANDER. Professor of History and Political Science, University o€ Arkansas, Fayetteville, Ark. Author of Organic zation and Function of State and Local Government in Arkansas. H.M.Ce.

Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of (in part) HONOR MINTURN CROOME. Member of Editorial Staff, Econo¬ mist, London, Eng. Author of Approach to Economics; etc.

H.M.Wr. Infantile Paralysis H. M. WEAVER. Director of Research, National Foundation for In¬ fantile Paralysis, New York, N.Y. H.Od. Standards, National Bureau of HUGH ODISHAW. Assistant to the Director, National Bureau of Standards, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. H.O.V. New York University HAROLD O. YOORHIS. Vice-Chancellor and Secretary, New York University, New York, N.Y. H.P.D. Christian Unity; Religion HARLAN PAUL DOUGLASS, D.D. Associate Editor, The Ecumen¬ ical Review. Director, Committee for Cooperative Field Research. Author of A Decade of Objective Progress in Church Unity; etc. H.Pk. Psychology HELEN PEAK. Professor of Psychology, Connecticut College, New London, Conn. Author of Observations on the Characteristics and Dis¬ tribution of German Nazis. H.R.G. . Airports and Flying Fields (in part) HAROLD RODERICK GILLMAN. Secretary, Aerodrome Owners’ Association. H.R.V. Psychiatry HENRY R. VIETS, M.D. Lecturer on Neurology, Harvard Medical School; Neurologist, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Mass. Librarian, Boston Medical Library, Boston, Mass.

XV

H.W.Hk. Child Welfare HOWARD WILLIAM HOPKIRK. Senior Consultant, Child Wel¬ fare League of America, Inc., New York, N.Y. H.W.L. HARRY W. LAIDLER. Democracy.

Socialism {in part) Executive Director, League for Industrial

H.W.RI. Smith College HELEN WHITCOMB RANDALL. Professor of English and Dean of the College, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. H.W.Rn. HAROLD Methods.

W.

RICHARDSON.

Executive

Editor,

Tunnels Construction

H. Z. Wildlife Conservation {in part) HOWARD ZAHNISER. Executive Secretary. The Wilderness Soci¬ ety. Editor of The Living Wilderness. I. A.L. Spanish-American Literature IRVING A. LEONARD. Professor of Spanish-American Literature and Chairman of the Department of Romance Languages, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. I.Bo. Johns Hopkins University ISAIAH BOWMAN. President, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Author of Geography in Relation to the Social Sciences; etc. I.Br. Theatre {in part) IVOR BROWN. Associate Editor of the Observer, London, Eng. Professor of Drama to the Royal Society of Literature. I.Gg. Post Office {in part) ISAAC GREGG. Former Director of Press Relations, Office of the Postmaster General, Washington, D.C. I.L.BI. Linen and Flax; etc. IRENE L. BLUNT. Secretary. The National Federation of Textiles, Inc., New York, N.Y.

H.S.A. Cricket HARRY SURTEES ALTHAM. Housemaster, Winchester College, Winchester, Eng. Author of A History of Cricket.

I.M.S. INGRAM M. STAINBACK.

H.S.C.C. Archery HENRY S. C. CUMMINGS. Secretary-Treasurer, National Archery Association of the United States.

I.R.M.M. Architecture {in part) IAN ROBERT MORE McCALLUM. Assistant Editor, Architectural Review. Editor of Physical Planning: The Groundwork of a New Technique.

H.S.D. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan {in part); etc. HERBERT STANLEY DEIGHTON. Fellow and Dean of Pembroke College, Oxford University. Oxford, Eng.

I.W.D. Farm Credit Administration I. W. DUGGAN. Governor, Farm Credit Administration, U.S. De¬ partment of Agriculture, Washington, D.C.

H.S.S. South Dakota HERBERT S. SCHELL. Professor of American History and Director of the Graduate School, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, S.D. Author of South Dakota, Its Beginnings and Growth.

I. W.R. Words and Meanings, New I. WILLIS RUSSELL. Chairman of the Research Committee on New Words of the American Dialect Society which prepared the article. The Committee consists of: Henry Alexander, Atcheson L. Hench, Albert H. Marckwardt, Mamie J. Meredith. Peter Tamony, and Harold Wentworth.

H.S.Vg. HOYT S. VANDENBERG.

Aviation, Military {in part) Chief of Staff, United States Air Force.

H S-W. Bulgaria {in part); etc. HUGH SETON-WATSON. Fellow and Praelector in Politics, Uni¬ versity College, Oxford University, Oxford, Eng. Author of Eastern Europe Between the Wars. H.T. HENRY TETLOW.

Soap, Perfumery and Cosmetics Henry Tetlow Company, Washington, D.C.

-f

Chiang Kai-shek; China

HUNG-TI CHU. Former Head of Information and Reference Depart¬ ment, Chinese News Service. y Dg.

Decorations, Medals and Badges—Military, Naval and Civil {in part)

HENRY TAPRELL DORLING. Captain, R.N. (Retired). of Ribbons and Medals; Swept Channels; Endless Story; etc.

yy Qg

War

History

Prisoners of War; etc.

HENRY W. DUNNING. Executive Secretary, League of Red Cross Societies, Geneva, Switzerland. H.W.Do. HAROLD W. DODDS. N.J. ^

j.A.G. Furniture Industry JEROME ARTHUR GARY. Editor, Furniture Age, Chicago, Ill. Author of The Romance of Period Furniture; etc. J. A.Ma. J. ARTHUR MATHEWSON. Editor, Quebec Official Reports.

Barrister, Montreal, Que.

Montreal English

J.A.Mi. Electric Transportation {in part) JOHN ANDERSON MILLER. General Electric Co., Schenectady, N.Y. Author of Fares Pleaset; Men and Volts at War; etc. J.A.My. Tuberculosis J. A. MYERS, M.D. Professor of Medicine and Preventive Medicine and Public Health, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minne¬ apolis, Minn. Author of Man’s Greatest Victory over Tuberculosis; etc.

Author

New Zealand, Dominion of {in part) HUBERT WITHERFORD. Research Assistant, Branch, Internal Affairs Department, London, Eng.

Hawaii Governor of Hawaii.

Princeton University President. Princeton University, Princeton,

United States {in part) HARVEY WISH. Associate Professor of History, Western Rese^e University, Cleveland, Ohio. Autlior of Contemporary America; The National Scene Since 1900; etc.

J.A.S.R. Coal {in part) J. A. S. RITSON. Professor of Mining, Royal School of Mines, South Kensington, Eng. Member of Council of the Institutions of Mining and Metallurgy and Mining Engineers, London, Eng. j_Bk. Book-Collecting and Book Prices JACOB BLANCK. Editor, Bibliography of American Literature. Author of Peter Parley to Penrod; etc. j_Br. JAMES BREWSTER. Hartford, Conn.

Connecticut State Librarian. Connecticut State Library,

J.C.Ar. J. CECIL ALTER. Senior Meteorologist, U.S. Weather Bureau. His¬ torian and Editor, Utah State Historical Society. Author of Utah, the Storied Domain; etc.

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

XVI

J.C.As. Veterans’ Organizations (in part) JOHN CHRISTOPHER ANDREWS. Press and Publicity Ofdcer, British Legion.

J.L-Ee.

J.C.Or. International Conference of American States JOHN C. DREIER. Chief, Division of Special Inter-American Affairs, Department of State, Washington, D.C.

J.L.J. Manitoba J. L. JOHNSTON. Librarian, Provincial Library, Winnipeg, Man.

J.CI. Forests (in part) JOHN CLARK. Land Agent and Director of Northern Forestry Products, Ltd., Eng. J.D.Pe. Aviation, Military (in part) JOHN DALE PRICE. Vice Admiral, U.S.N. Deputy Chief of Naval Operations (Air), Department of the Navy, Washington, D.C. J.E.Ar. Notre Dame, University of JAMES E. ARMSTRONG. Alumni Secretary, Alumni Association, University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, Ind. J.E.Fm. JAMES E. FOLSOM.

Alabama

k

J.E.Mo. National Education Association JOY ELMER MORGAN. Editor, Journal of the National Education Association, Washington, D.C. J.En. JEANNETTE ECKMAN. Writer. First State.

Delaware Editor, Delaware, A Guide to the

J.E.Sr. Catholic Organizations for Youth JOSEPH E. SCHIEDER. Director, Youth Department, National Catholic Welfare Conference, Washington, D.C. J.E.Wt. National Association of Evangelicals J. ELWIN WRIGHT. Secretary for International Cooperation, National Association of Evangelicals, Boston, Mass.

J.H.Df. JAMES H. DUFF.

Coast Guard, U.S. Commandant, United States Coast Guard. Pennsylvania

Governor of Pennsylvania.

J.H.L. Unitarian Church JOHN HOWLAND LATHROP, D.D. Minister, the First Unitarian Congregational Society in Brooklyn, N.Y. J.H.Nr. Spanish Literature JOHN HORACE NUNEMAKER. Professor and Chairman, De¬ partment of Foreign Languages, State College of Washington, Pullman, Wash. Author of Foreign Language Pronunciation; etc. Housing (in part) J.H.S. JOHN HERBERT STONE. Principal in the Housing Division, Ministry of Health, London, Eng. J.J.Dn. Civil Service (in part) J. J. DONOVAN. Associate Director, Civil Service Assembly of the United States and Canada. J.J.Dy. JOHN J. DEVINY.

Printing Office, U.S. Government Public Printer of the United States.

J.J.Kt. JAMES J. KILPATRICK. Leader, Richmond, Va.

Associate Editor,

Virginia The Richmond News

J.J.McC. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development JOHN JAY McCLOY. President, International Bank for Reconstruc¬ tion and Development, Washington, D.C. J.J.My. Secret Service, U.S. JAMES J. MALONEY. Chief, United States Secret Service, Treasury Department, Washington, D.C. J.K.L. JOHN K. LANGUM. Chicago, Chicago, Ill.

J.L.MI. J. L. MORRILL. Minn.

Minnesota, University of President, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis,

Social Security (in part) J.McAt. JOHN McALMONT. Member of British Civil Service. J.Md. , South Africa, The Union of (in part) JULIAN MOCKFORD. Public Relations Officer to the South African High Commissioner in London, Eng. J.M.Mag. Taxation (in part) JOHN M. MAGUIRE. Professor of Law, Harvard Law School, Cam¬ bridge, Mass. Co-author, Casebook on Taxation.

Governor of Alabama.

J.E.H. Federal Bureau of Investigation J. EDGAR HOOVER. Director, Federal Bureau of Investigation, U,S. Department of Justice, Washington, D.C.

J.F.Fy. JOSEPH F. PARLEY.

Puerto Rico

JUAN LABADIE-EURITE. Chief, Division of Statistics, Bureau of the Budget, San Juan, Puerto Rico.

Vice-President,

Banking (in part); etc. Federal Reserve Bank of

J.Kr. German Literature JOSEPH KALMER. Author of Warrior of God: The Life and Death of John Huss; Contemporary European Poetry. J.K.R. Agriculture (in pari); Fruit; etc. JOHN KERR ROSE. Geographer, Legislative Reference Service, Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. J.LaF. Roman Catholic Church; Pius XII; etc. JOHN LaPARGE, S.J. Editor in Chief, America, National Cathohc Weekly, New York, N.Y.

J.Nn. JEROME NATHANSON. the City of New York, N.Y.

Ethical Culture Movement Leader, Society for Ethical Culture in Author of Forerunners of Freedom.

Jo.A.Hn. British West Africa (in part); Cyprus (in part); etc. JOHN ANTHONY HUTTON. Research Assistant, Institute of Colonial Studies, Oxford, Eng. Jo.C.W. Paints and Varnishes JOHN C. WEAVER. Chemist, Department of Research Administra¬ tion, The Sherwin-Williams Co., Cleveland, O. J.P.D. Boxing JAMES P. DAWSON. Writer on Baseball and Boxing, The New York Times, New York, N.Y. J.P.J. Donations and Bequests (in part) JOHN PRICE JONES. President, The John Price Jones Corpora¬ tion, New York, N.Y. Author of The Yearbook of Philanthropy. J.R.CI. Mormons J. REUBEN CLARK, JR. First Counselor in the First Presidency, Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, Salt Lake City, Utah. J.R.Fo. Osteopathy J. R. FORBES, D.O. Director, Division of Public and Professional Welfare, American Osteopathic Association. .R.J. Methodist Church JAMES R. JOY. Librarian and Historian, The Methodist Historical Society in the City of New York, N.Y. J.R.K. Massachusetts Institute of Technology JAMES RHYNE KILLIAN, JR. President, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Mass. J.R.W.A. Public Utilities (in part) JOHN RUSSELL WILLIS ALEXANDER. General Manager, British Gas Council, London, Eng. J.S.Ks. JAMES S. KEARNS. Chicago, Ill.

Sports Writer.

Horse Racing (in part) Public Relations Counsel,

J.S.L. Anaesthesiology JOHN S. LUNDY, M.D. Professor of Anaesthesiology, University of Minnesota Graduate School, Minneapolis, Minn. Head, Section on Anaesthesiology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. J.Sto. Electronics JAMES STOKLEY. Publicity Representative, General Electric Research Laboratory, Schenectady, N.Y. Author of Science Remakes Our World; Electrons in Action. J.T.Ar. Etching JOHN TAYLOR ARMS. President, Society of American Etchers. First Vice-President, National Academy of Design. Author of HandBook of Print Making and Print Makers; etc. J.We. Wines JULIUS WILE. Educational Director and Plant Supervisor, Julius Wile Sons & Co., Inc., New York, N.Y. J.W.Je. Federal Power Commission JOHN W. JENKINS. Publications Division, Federal Power Com¬ mission, Washington, D.C. J. W.Mw. Reparations JOSEPH W. MARLOW. Lawyer. Editor and Research Analyst, MiUtary Intelligence Service, U.S. War Department, 1944-46. K. Bn. Libraries (in part) KARL BROWN. Associate Bibliographer, New York Public Library, New York, N.Y, Editor, Library Journal.

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS KATHARINE ELIZABETH McBRIDE, College, Bryn Mawr, Pa.

Bryn Mawr College President, Bryn Mawr

National Guard KENNETH FRANK CRAMER. Major General, U.S.A. Chief, National Guard Bureau, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C. K.Gr. Home Economics KATHERINE GOEPPINGER. Professor of Home Economics Jour¬ nalism, Iowa State College, Ames, la. K.M.B. Art Exhibitions (in pari) KARL M. BIRKMEYER. Curator for the Exhibition Masterpieces from the Berlin Museums, on tour during 1948. K.M.E. London University KITTY M. EGAN. Assistant, University of London, London, Eng. K.R.K. Tennessee Valley Authority KENNETH R. KENNEDY. Reports Editor, Information Ofidce, Tennessee Valley Authority, Knoxville, Tenn. K.S.L. Missions, Foreign (Religious) KENNETH SCOTT LATOURETTE, D.D. Professor of Missions and Oriental History, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. K. Sm. Poland (in part); etc. KAZIMIERZ SMOGORZEWSKI. Polish journalist in Paris, Berlin, etc. Founder and Editor, Free Europe, London, Eng. L. A.L. Insurance (in parO LEROY A. LINCOLN. President, Metropolitan Life Insurance Com¬ pany, New York, N.Y. L.A.M. Veterinary Medicine LOUIS A. MERILLAT, D.V.M., V.S. Editor, Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association and American Journal of Veterinary Research. Author of Veterinary Military History of the United States. L.A.Wi. Telephone LEROY A. WILSON. President, American Telephone and Telegraph Company, New York,'N.Y. L.C.H. LESTER C. HUNT.

Wyoming Governor of Wyoming.

L.C.K. Patents LAWRENCE C. KINGSLAND. Commissioner, U.S. Patent OCBce, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. L.de B.H. Swimming LOUIS de BREDA HANDLEY. Honorary Coach, Women’s Swim¬ ming Association of New York. Author of Swimming for Women; etc. L.D.U. Detroit LENT D. UPSON. Dean, School of Public Affairs and Social Work, Wayne University, Detroit, Mich. L.E.F. Insurance (in part); etc. LAURENCE E. FALLS. Secretary-Treasurer, Insurance Institute of America, Inc., New York, N.Y. LE.T. Census Data, U.S. LEON E. TRUESDELL. Chief Demographer, United States Bureau of the Census, Washington, D.C. Author of Farm Population of the U.S.; The Canadian Born in the United States; etc. L.Gu. Municipal Government (in part) LUTHER GULICK. President, Institute of Public Administration, New York, N.Y. Author of Administrative Reflections from World War II. L.G.V.V. Michigan LEWIS GEORGE VANDER VELDE. Chairman. Department of History and Director of the Michigan Historical Collections, Univer¬ sity of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich. Chicago; Illinois LEWIS HARPER LEECH. Editorial Writer, Chicago Daily News, Chicago, Ill. Author of The Paradox of Plenty; etc. L.M.F. Petroleum LEONARD M. PANNING. Author of American Oil Operations Abroad; The Rise of American Oil; etc. L.M.Gh. United Nations (U.N.) LELAND M. GOODRICH. Professor of Political Science, Brown University, Providence, R.I. Co-author of Charter of the United Nations: Commentary and Documents. L.ivih. Dance (in part) LUCILE MARSH. Director, National Dance League. Author of The Dance in Education; Textbook of Social Dancing; etc.

XVII

L.M.S.M. Dentistry LEROY M. S. MINER, D.M.D., M.D. Professor of Oral Surgery, Harvard University: Emeritus Professor of Stomatology, Boston Uni¬ versity, Boston, Mass. L.M.W. Alaska LEW M. WILLIAMS. Secretary of Alaska, U.S. Department of the Interior, Juneau, Alaska. L.O.C. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. LEO OTIS COLBERT. Rear Admiral. U.S.C.& G.S. Director, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. Department of Commerce, Wash¬ ington, D.C. L.O.P. Motion Pictures (in part) LOUELLA O. PARSONS. Motion Picture Editor, International News Service. Author of The Gay Illiterate; How To Write in the Movies. L-R.L. Railroads (in pari) LENOX R. LOHR. President, Museum of Science and Industry, Chicago, Ill. President, The Chicago Railroad Pair, Chicago, Ill. L.W.Ba. LORNE W. BARCLAY. Scouts of America.

Boy Scouts (in part) National Director of Publications, Boy

L.W.F. Prisons (in pari) LIONEL WRAY POX. Chairman, Prison Commission for England and Wales. Author of The Modern English Prison. L.W.Mh. Minnesota LOWELL W. MARSH. Director, Division of Business Research, De¬ partment of Business Research and Development, St. Paul, Minn. L. Wo. Labour Unions (in part) LEO WOLMAN. Professor of Economics, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Author of Ebb and Flow in Trade Unionism; etc. M. Ab. Foreign Investments MILTON ABELSON. Economic Analyst, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. Ma.B. Turkey (in pari) MALCOLM BURR. Author of In Bolshevik Siberia; A Fossicker in Angola; Quest and Conquest; etc. M.A.Md. Horse Racing (in part) MICHAEL AUSTIN MELPORD. Athletics Correspondent, the Ob¬ server, London, Eng. Editor, the Thoroughbred, London, Eng. M.A.S. MARJORIE AIM£e SANDEMAN. Girl Guides Association.

Girl Scouts (in part) Press and Publicity Secretary,

M.C.MI. Rhode Island MATTHEW C. MITCHELL. Associate Professor of Political Science, Brown University, Providence, R.I. M.C.Rt. Seismology MARY COLLINS RABBITT. Geophysicist, U.S. Coast and Geo¬ detic Survey, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. M.Dk. Eastern Orthodox Churches MICHAEL DERRICK. Assistant Editor, the Tablet, London, Eng. Author of Eastern Catholics Under Soviet Rule; etc. M.Dn. MITCHELL DAWSON. Bar Record, Chicago, Ill.

Lawyer, writer.

Law (in part) Former Editor, Chicago

M.D.T. Military Academy, U.S. MAXWELL D. TAYLOR. Major General, U.S.A. Superintendent, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, N.Y. M.E.Gy. Yale University MARTIN E. GORMLEY, JR. Office of University Development, Yale University, New Haven, Conn. M.E.H. Biochemistry MARTIN E. HANKE. Associate Professor of Biochemistry, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Co-author of Practical Methods in Biochemistry. M.E.S. Young Womens Christian Association (in part) MOLLIE E. SULLIVAN. Director of Public Information, National Board, Young Womens Christian Associations of the United States of America. M.F.C. Italian Literature MICHELE P. CANTARELLA. Associate Professor, Department of Italian Language and Literature, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. Co-author of Died Novelle Contemporanee; etc. M.Fd, Pneumonia MAXWELL FINLAND, M.D. Associate Physician, Thorndike Me¬ morial Laboratory; Physician in Chief, Fourth Medical Service, Boston City Hospital. Associate Professor of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Mass.

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

XVIII

M.Fe. Trustee Territories (in part); etc. MAURICE FANSHAWE. Former Chief Intelligence OfiBcer, Central OBBce, United Nations Association of Great Britain.

M.T.H. Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation MAPLE T. HARD. Chairman. Federal Deposit Insurance Corpora¬ tion, Washington. D.C.

M.Fi. Medicine (in part); etc. MORRIS FISHBEIN, M.D. Editor, The Journal of the American Medical Association and Hygeia, Chicago. Ill. Editor of medical articles. Britannica Book of the Year.

M.V.W. Juvenile Delinquency MIRIAM VAN WATERS. Superintendent, Reformatory for Women. Framingham, Mass. Author of Youth in Conflict; etc.

M.Fr. Bacteriology MARTIN FROBISHER, JR. Chief, Bacteriology Branch. Commu¬ nicable Disease Center, U.S. Public Health Service. Atlanta, Ga. Author of Fundamentals of Bacteriology; etc. M.G.G. Public Utilities (in part) MARTIN G. GLAESER. Professor of Economics, University of Wis¬ consin, Madison. Wis. M.Gt. Budget, National; Income and Product, U.S.; etc MILTON GILBERT. Chief, National Income Division, Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington. D.C.

M.W.H. Parents and Teachers, National Congress of MABEL W. HUGHES (Mrs. L. W. Hughes). President. National Congress of Parents and Teachers, Chicago, Ill. M. W.Ss. Aqueducts MICHAEL W. STRAUS. Commissioner, Bureau of Reclamation. U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. N. B.D. National Parks and Monuments (in part) NEWTON B. DRURY. Director, National Park Service, U.S. De¬ partment of the Interior, Washington, D.C. N.C.B. Lu mber (in part) NELSON C. BROWN. Professor in Charge of Forest Utilization, New York State College of Forestry. Syracuse University, Syracuse, N.Y.

M.Ha. Philately MANNED HAHN. Head. Service Section, The Botarian and Revista Rotaria. Author of U.S. Post Office, 1851-60; U.S. Postal Markings, 18Jt7-51; So You’re Collecting Stamps; etc. *

N.E.W. Plague, Bubonic and Pneumonic NEWTON E. WAYSON, M.D. Former Medical Officer in Charge. Plague Investigations, U.S. PubUc Health Service, San Francisco. Calif.

M.H.T. MILTON HALSEY THOMAS. University, New York, N.Y.

Columbia University Curator of Columbiana, Columbia

N.F.S. Jet Propulsion; Munitions of War (in part) NATHANIEL F. SILSBEE. Colonel, Air Reserve. Managing Editor, AerolDigest. Co-author of Jet Propulsion Progress.

M.H.W. Oklahoma MURIEL H. WRIGHT. Associate Editor, The Chronicles of Oklahoma, Oklahoma Historical Society, Oklahoma City. Okla.

N.T. Socialism (in part) NORMAN THOMAS. Socialist Presidential Candidate, 1940, 1944, 1948. Author of America’s Way Out; Appeal to the_Nations; etc.

M.Jol. MARIA JOLAS (Mrs. Eugene Jolas).

N.T.R. NELLIE TAYLOE ROSS. Washington, D.C.

French Literature Paris, France.

M.J.Sy. Vocational Rehabilitation, Office of MICHAEL J. SHORTLEY. Director, Office of Vocational Rehabilita¬ tion, Federal Security Agency. Washington, D.C. M.Kr. Young Womens Christian Association (in part) MARGARET KEMPSTER. Press and Publicity Secretary, Young Womens Christian Association of Great Britain. M.Lb. Liquors, Alcoholic (in part) MAX LOEB. Department Supervisor, Illinois Liquor Control Com¬ mission. M.L.E. Civil Liberties (in part) MORRIS L. ERNST. Attorney, firm of Greenbaum, Wolff and Ernst, New York. N.Y. Author of The First Freedom; etc. M.L.M. Guatemala; Honduras; etc. MAX L. MOORHEAD. Assistant Professor of History. University of Oklahoma. Norman. Okla. M.L.W. Four-H Clubs M. L. WILSON. Director of Extension Work, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Author of Farm Relief and Domestic Allotment Plan; etc. M.M.Hn. MILDRED McAFEE HORTON Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass.

(Mrs.

D.

Wellesley College Horton). President,

Coinage Director of the United States Mint,

O.E.P. Young Men’s Christian Association (in part) OWEN E. PENCE. Director, Bureau of Records, Studies and Trends. National Council of the Young Men’s Christian Associations of the United States of America. O.L.Ds. Securities and Exchange Commission ORVAL L. DuBOIS. Secretary, Securities and Exchange Commission, Washington„D.C. O.Le. Mongolian People’s Republic OWEN LATTIMORE. Director. Page School of International Rela¬ tions, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. Author of Solution in Asia; etc. Montreal, University of OLIVIER MAURAULT. Rector, University of Montreal. Montreal. Que. Author of Marges D’Histoire; etc. Automobile Industry OSCAR PAUL PEARSON. Manager, Statistical Department, Auto¬ mobile Manufacturers’ Association, Detroit, Mich. O.P.S. Geography OTIS P. STARKEY. Professor of Geography, Indiana University, Bloomington, Ind. Author of Economic Geography of Barbados; etc. O.R.E. OSCAR R. EWING. D.C.

Federal Security Agency Federal Security Administrator, Washington

M.MI. Betting and Gambiing (in part) MICHAEL MacDOUGALL. Author of Gamblers Don’t Gamble; Card Mastery; MacDougall on Dice and Cards; etc.

P«Ae. PEARL ANOE. Colorado.

M.O.P. American Library Association MILDRED OTHMER PETERSON. Special Assistant, American Library Association.

P'B.D. Drug Administration, U.S. PAUL B. DUNBAR. Commissioner of Pood and Drugs, Food and Drug Administration. Federal Security Agency, Washington, D.C.

(

M.P.W. MILTON P. WOODARD. Baseball Club.

Basketball; Track and Field Sports; etc. General Manager, Hot Springs, Ark.,

Colorado Feature Writer for the Director of Publicity. State of

PHILIP B. FLEMING. Major General, Federal Works Agency, Washington. D.C.

Federal Works Agency U.S.A. Administrator,

M.Se. Camp Fire Girls MARION SECUNDA. Assistant, National Public Relations Department. Camp Fire Girls, Inc.

P.Br. Billiards PETER BRANDWEIN. Sports Reporter, The iVeio Ybrlt Times, New York, N.Y.

M.Si. Printing MACD. SINCLAIR. Editor, Printing Equipment Engineer, Cleveland Ohio.

P-ByPAUL BELLAMY.

M.Sr. Birth Control MARGARET SANGER. Honorary Chairman, Planned Parenthood Federation of America, Inc. Author of Happiness in Marriage; etc. M.Te. Iowa MILDRED THRONE. Associate Editor of the State Historical Society of Iowa, Iowa City, la.

Cleveland; Ohio Editor, Cleveland Plain Dealer, Cleveland, Ohio.

P.D.W. Heart and Heart Diseases PAUL D. WHITE, M.D. Clinical Professor of Medicine, Harvard University Medical School; Physician, Massachusetts General Hos¬ pital, Boston. Mass. Author of Heart Disease; etc. P-EQ* Business Review (in part) PAUL EINZIG. Political Correspondent, the Financial Times, Lon¬ don. Eng. London Correspondent, Commercial and Financial Chronicle

of New York,

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS European Recovery Program; etc. ®- MOSELY. Professor of International Relations, Russian Institute of Columbia University, New York, N.Y, P.J.M.

R.E.Rs. Chambers of Commerce (in part) RAYMOND E. ROBERTS. Editor, Future, publication of the United States Junior Chamber of Commerce.

National Labor Relations Board Chairman, National Labor Relations Board,

R.F.K. Polo ROBERT F. KELLEY. Assistant Secretary, United States Polo Association. Former Sports Writer, The New York Times, New York, N.Y.

P.My. Congress of Industrial Organizations PHILIP MURRAY. President, Congress of Industrial Organizations. Arthritis PHILIP S. HENCH, M.D. Professor of Medicine, Mayo Foundation, Graduate School, University of Minnesota, Rochester, Minn. Chief, Section on Rheumatic Diseases, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. P-Ss. Insurance (in part) PERCY STEBBINGS. Insurance Editor and Correspondent to Finan¬ cial Times; Bankers’ Magazine; etc., London, Eng. P.T. Gynaecology and Obstetrics PAUL TITUS, M.D. Secretary-Treasurer, American Board of Ob¬ stetrics and Gynecology. Author of Management of Obstetric Difficulties. P.Ta. Employment; Strikes PHILIP TAFT. Professor of Economics, Brown University, Provi¬ dence, R.I. Author of Economics and Problems of Labor; etc. P. V.C. ^ Agricultural Research Administration P. V. CARDON. Research Administrator, Agricultural Research Administration, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Q. W. War Crimes; etc. QUINCY WRIGHT. Professor of International Law, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. Author of A Study of War; etc. R. A.Bn. Advertising (in part) ROGER A. BARTON. Editor, Advertising & Selling, New York, N.Y. Lecturer in Advertising, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. R.A.G. Northwest Territories R. A. GIBSON, Deputy Commissioner, Administration of the Northwest Territories, Can. Ra.L. Endocrinology (in part) RACHMIEL LEVINE, M.D. Director of Metabolic and Endocrine Research, Michael Reese Hospital; Professorial Lecturer, Department of Physiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. R.B.A. RAYMOND B. Seattle, Wash.

R.E.F. Federal Trade Commission ROBERT E. FREER. Former Chairman, Federal Trade Commission, Washington, D.C.

Catholic University of America Rector, The Catholic University of

PATRICK J. McCORMICK. America, Washington, D.C. P.Nl.Hg. PAUL M. HERZOG. Washington, D.C.

XIX

ALLEN.

Washington, University of (Seattle) President, University of Washington,

R.B.B. Leather RALPH B. BRYAN. Former Editor, The Community News, Chicago, Ill. Editor in Chief, Encyclopedia of the Shoe and Leather Industry. R.B.E. Lynching ROBERT BURNS ELEAZER. Former Specialist in Race Relations, General Board of Education, The Methodist Church. R.B.Kr. ®an Francisco R. B. KOEBER. Manager, Research Department, San Francisco . Chamber of Commerce, San Francisco, CaUf. American Citizens Abroad R.B.S. RUTH B. SHIPLEY. Chief, Passport Division, Department of State, Washington, D.C. R.C.Pe. United States (in part) REXFORD C. PARMELEE. Acting Director, Clearing Office for Foreign Transactions, U.S. Department of Commerce, Washington, D.C. R.d’E. Brazil RAUL D’EQA. Chief, West Coast Section, Latin American Area Branch, Office of Information and Educational Exchange, Washington, D.C. Co-author of Outline History of Latin America. R_E_Bs. Nobel Prizes; Pulitzer Prizes; etc. RUTH ELLEN BAINS. Assistant to the Book Editor, R. R. Bowker Co., New York, N.Y. R.E.Cd. Botany (in part) R. E. CLELAND. Professor of Botany, Head of Department of Botany, Indialia University, Bloomington, Ind. R.E.E.H. Baptist Church REUBEN E. E. HARKNESS. President, The American Baptist His¬ torical Society. Professor of History of Christianity, Crozer Seminary, Chester, Pa.

R.G.B. Australia, Commonwealth of (in part) RAYMOND GEORGE BAXTER. Raymond Baxter & Co., Melbourne, Australia. R.G.D.A. Prices (in part) ROY GEORGE DOUGLAS ALLEN. Professor of Statistics, Uni¬ versity of London, London, Eng. Author of Mathematical Analysis for Economists. R.G.M. Paper and Pulp Industry R. G. MACDONALD. Secretary-Treasurer, Technical Association of the Pulp and Paper Industry, New York, N.Y. R.G.S. California, University of ROBERT G. SPROUL. President, University of California, Berkeley, Calif. R.H.Ls. Museums (in pari) RALPH H. LEWIS. Assistant Chief, Museum Branch, National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. R.Hs. Community Trusts RALPH HAYES. Executive Director, New York Community Trust. Director, Equitable Trust Company, Wilmington, Del. Ri.A.B. Veterans’ Organizations (in part) RICHARD A. BROWN. Executive Secretary, Veterans’ Organiza¬ tions Information Service, New York, N.Y. R.ls. Anaemia RAPHAEL ISAACS, M.D. Attending Physician in Haematology, Michael Reese Hospital, Chicago, Ill. Co-author of Diseases of the Blood. R.J.B. Archaeology (in part) ROBERT J. BRAIDWOOD. Associate Professor of Old World Pre¬ history, The Oriental Institute and the Department of Anthropology, The University of Chicago, Chicago. Ill. R.Kx. RAWLE KNOX. Editorial Staff, Mellifont Press, Dublin Correspondent, the Spectator, Dublin, Eire.

Eire (in part) Dublin. Eire.

R.L.Cn. Fisheries (in part) RACHEL L. CARSON. Chief, Editorial Section, Pish and Wildlife Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, Washington, D.C. R.L,Fo R. L. FORNEY. cago, Ill.

Accidents (in part) General Secretary, National Safety Council, Chi¬

R.L.Fs. ROBERT LEE FLOWERS. N.C.

Duke University President, Duke University, Durham,

Colorado, University of R.L.St. ROBERT L. STEARNS. President, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colo. R.Man. Motion Pictures (in part) ROGER MANVELL. Secretary-General, British Film Academy. Co-author of Twenty Years of British Cinema. Housing (in part) R.M.Fy. RAYMOND M. FOLEY. Administrator, Housing and Home Finance Agency, Washington, D.C. R.M.MacD. RAIBEART MACINTYRE MACDOUGALL. to the Governor of Burma. Ro.B. ROBERT BEAN. field, Ill.

Burma (in part) Former Counsellor

Zoology (in part) Director, The Chicago Zoological Park, Brook¬

Ro.McG. ROSCOE McGOWEN. York, N.Y.

Baseball Sports Writer, The New York Times, New

R.P.Bo. RALPH PHILIP BOAS, JR, views.

Mathematics Executive Editor of Mathematical Re¬

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS

XX R.P.Br. RALPH P. BIBBER. St. Louis, Mo.

Missouri Professor of History, Washington University,

S.Nr. Formosa; Guam; etc. STANLEY NBHMER. Chief, Industrial Resources Section, North¬ east Asia Economic Branch, Division of Research for Far East, Depart¬ ment of State, Washington, D.C. Lecturer in Economics, American University, Washington, D.C.

R.S.T. Munitions of War (in part) ROBERT S. THOMAS. Military Historian, Historical Division, Special Staff, War Department, Washington, D.C. Author of The Story of the 30th Division, A.E.F.

S.P.Bn. S. PERRY BROWN.

R.S.W.P. Civil Liberties (in part) ROBERT SPENCE WATSON POLLARD. Author of Conscience and Liberty; The New Education Act Explained.

S.P.J. S. PAUL JOHNSTON. Sciences, New York, N.Y.

R.Tr. ROBERT TAYLOR. consin, Madison, Wis.

Wisconsin, University of Director, News Service, University of Wis¬

S.R.S. Glass SAMUEL RAY SCHOLES'. Head. Department of Glass Technology, New York State College of Ceramiqs, Alfred University, Alfred, N.Y.

R.Tu. Democratic Party; Republican Party; etc. RAY TUCKER. Writer of Syndicated Column, “The National Whirli¬ gig.” Author of The Mirrors of 1932; Sons of the Wild Jackass.

S.Sd. Export-Import Bank of Washington SIDNEY SHERWOOD. Secretary, Export-Import Bank of Wash¬ ington, Washington, D.C.

R.W.Br. Palaeontology (in part) ROLAND W. BROWN. Geologist and Paleobotanist, U.S. Geological Survey, Washington, D.C.

S.S.H. Stocks and Bonds (in part) SOLOMON S. HUEBNER. President, American College of Life Un¬ derwriters. Professor of Insurance and Commerce, Wharton School of Finance and Commerce, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pa.

R.W.Cr. RUFUS WILLIAM CRATER. Magazine, Washington, D.C,

Associate

Editor,

Radio (in part) Broadcasting

R.W.J.K. Young Men’s Christian Association (in part) REGINALD WILLIAM JAMES KEEBLE. Press Officer, National Council of Young Men’s Christian Associations. R. W.Sr. ROBERT WILLIAM SAWYER. Bulletin, Bend, Ore.

Oregon (in part) Editor and Publisher, The Bend

S. A.L. Prisons (in port) SAM A. LEWISOHN. Former President, American Prison Associa¬ tion. Director, Federal Prison Industries, Inc., Department of Justice, Washington, D.C. S.B.Wr. SAM B.2,WARNER.

Copyright Register of Copyrights, Washington, D.C.

S.C.Ha. SIDNEY CHANDLER HAYWARD. lege, Hanover, N.H.

Dartmouth College Secretary of Dartmouth Col¬

S.de la R. Liberia SIDNEY de la RUE. Senior Vice-President and Director of Stettinius Associates-Liberia, Inc., New York, N.Y. S.E.Sh. Toronto, University of SIDNEY E. SMITH. President. University of Toronto, Toronto, Ont.

American Legion National Commander, The American Legion.

Director,

Aviation, Military (in part) Institute of the Aeronautical

S.So. Endocrinology (in port) SAMUEL SOSKIN. M.D. Dean, Michael Reese Hospital Post¬ graduate School; Professorial Lecturer, Department of Physiology, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Ill. S.Sp. Music (in part) SIGMUND SPAETH. Lecturer and Broadcaster. Author of At Home With Music; Music For Fun; Read 'em and Weep; etc. S. Tf. Radio (in part) SOL TAISHOFF. President, Editor and Publisher of Broadcasting Publications, Inc., Washington, D.C. T. Bar. Wealth and Income, Distribution of (in part); etc. TIBOR BARNA. Fellow, Nuffield College, Oxford, Eng. Author of Redistribution of Incomes through Public Finance in 1937. T.E.S. TEDFORD EUGENE SCHOONOVER. tion Board, Washington, D.C. T.E.U. T. E. UTLEY.

National Mediation Board Mediator, National Media¬

Political Parties, British Special Writer, The Times, London, England.

T.H.MacD. Roads and Highways THOMAS H. MacDONALD. Commissioner, Public Roads Adminis¬ tration, Federal Works Agency, Washington, D.C.

Albania (in part) Organizer, European

T.H.O. Physics THOMAS H. OSGOOD. Director, Division of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Michigan State College, East Lansing, Mich. Co¬ author of An Outline of Atomic Physics.

S.F.Mm. Museums (in part) SYDNEY FRANK MARKHAM. Honorary Director, International Council of Museums. Author of Climate and the Energy of Nations; etc.

T-J-B. Venereal Diseases (in part) THEODORE J. BAUER, M.D. Chief, Division of Venereal Disease, U. S. Public Health Service, Washington, D.C.

S.Gn. New Jersey SIDNEY GOLDMANN. Head, Archives and History Bureau of New Jersey, Trenton, N.J.

T.J.D.

S.Hr. SEBASTIAN HAFFNER. London, Eng.

T.N.B. Prices (in part) THEODORE N. BECKMAN. Professor of Business Organization, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Author of Credits and Collections in Theory and Practice; Wholesaling; etc.

S.E.Ws. SEWARD ELIOT WATROUS. Program Service, British Broadcasting Corporation.

Western European Union Diplomatic Correspondent, the Observer,

S.L.S. Clothing Industry STANLEY L. SIMONS. Editor, The Clothing Trade Journal. Direc¬ tor, Garment Technical Institute. S.McC. Korea SHANNON McCUNE. Associate Professor and Head of the De¬ partment of Geography, Colgate University, Hamilton, N.Y. S.McC.C. Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America SAMUEL McCREA CAVERT, D.D. General Secretary, The Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America. S.McC.L. International Labour Organization SAMUEL McCUNE LINDSAY. Professor Emeritus of Social Legis¬ lation, Columbia University, New York, N.Y. Author of Railway Labor in the U.S.; Emergency Housing Legislation; etc. S.McG. Texas STUART McGregor. Associate Editor, The Dallas Morning News, ' Dallas, Tex. Editor, The Texas Almanac.

Cycling;

Lacrosse; etc.

THOMAS J. DEEGAN, JR. Vice-President in Charge of Public Re¬ lations, Chesapeake & Ohio Lines. Author of This Is Public Relations.

• .S.P. Texas, University of T. S. PAINTER. President, University of Texas, Austin, Tex. T.T.S. Nervous System THEODORE T. STONE. M.D. Professor in Nervous and Mental Diseases, Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago, Ill. V.B.B. Business Review (in part) VIVA BELLE BOOTHE. Director, Bureau of Business Research, College of Commerce and Administration, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. Author of Earnings in Ohio Industries; etc. V. D.C. VIVIAN DAVIS CORBLY. Veterans, Cincinnati, O.

Disabled Arnerican Veterans National Adjutant, Disabled American

W. A.Dw. Fencing WARREN A. DOW. Secretary, Amateur Fencers League of America.

EDITORS AND CONTRIBUTORS Aliens (in part): etc. WATSON B. MILLER. Commissioner, Immigration and Naturaliza¬ tion Service, U.S. Department of Justice, Washington, D.C. Presbyterian Church WILLIAM BARROW PUGB[, D.D. Stated Clerk, The Presbyterian Church in the United States of America.

Archives, National WAYNE C. GROVER.

W.J.CI.

W.Ju.

Federal

Communications

W.D.K.

Commission,

Christian Science

WILLIAM D. KILPATRICK. Manager, Committees on Publica¬ tion, The First Church of Christ, Scientist, Boston, Mass.

W.D.Mn.

Shows, Animal (in part) Author of Principles

Editor, Dog World, Chicago, Ill. of Dog Breeding; etc. WILL JUDY.

W.L.Be.

Eye, Diseases of

WILLIAM L. BENEDICT, M.D. The Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn. Professor of Ophthalmology, University of Minnesota Graduate School, Mayo Foundation, Rochester, Minn.

Federal Communications Commission

WAYNE COY. Chairman, Washington, D.C.

Co-operatives

WALLACE JUSTIN CAMPBELL. Assistant Secretary, Cooperative League of the U.S. A. Editor, Cooperative News Service.

Archivist of the United States.

W.Cy.

XXI

W.L.T.

Intoxication, Alcoholic

W. L. TREADWAY, M.D. Medical Director, U.S. Public Health Service (Retired), Santa Barbara, Calif.

W.McM.

Chemurgy

WHEELER McMILLEN. Editor in Chief, Farm Journal and Path¬ finder. Author of New Riches from the Soil; etc.

Photography

WILLARD D. MORGAN. Editor, The Encyclopedia of Photography. Author of Synchroflash Photography; etc.

W.E.An,

English Literature

WALTER ERNEST ALLEN. Novelist and Literary Critic. Author of Rogue Elephant; The Black Country; etc.

W.E.Cw.

Moscow; Russian Literature; etc. Author of Russia and The

W.M.Pn.

W.Mr. WILLIAM MANGER. American States.

Pan American Union Assistant Secretary-General, Organization of

W.M.Wn.

WILLIAM EDWARD CRANKSHAW. Russians; Russia and Great Britain; etc.

W.E.Ds.

Harvard University

WILLIAM M. PINKERTON. Director, University News Office, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

Shows, Animal (in part)

W. M. WARREN. Assistant Professor, Department of Animal Hus¬ bandry, Agricultural and Mechanical College of Texas, College Station, Tex.

Cartography

WILLIAM E. DAVIES. Assistant Chief, Technical Services, Army Map Service, Department of the Army, Washington, D.C.

W.E.J.

Mu nicipal Government (in part)

W. ERIC JACKSON. London, Eng.

Assistant Clerk,

W.E.Le.

London County Council,

Interstate Commerce Commission

W.N.M.

Shows, Animal (in part)

WILLIAM E. OGILVIE. Secretary-Manager, International Live Stock Exposition. Chicago, Ill. Author of Pioneer Agricultural

Director, Endell Street Clinic,

W.P.K. WALTER PHILLIPS Health, London, Eng.

Medicine (in part) KENNEDY.

Medical

W.P.Ma.

WILLIAM E. LEE. Commissioner, Interstate Commerce Commis¬ sion, Washington, D.C.

W.E.O.

Venereal Diseases (in part)

WILLIAM NEVILLE MASCALL. St. Paul's Hospital, London, Eng.

WALTER P. MARSHALL. President, graph Company, New York, N.Y.

W.Pr.

Officer.

Ministry of

Telegraphy (in pari) The Western Union Tele¬

Louisiana

WALTER PRICHARD. Francois Xavier Martin Professor Louisiana History, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, La.

of

Journalists. W.P.S. W.E.Ss. WAYNE EDSON STEVENS. College, Hanover, N.H.

Professor

of

History,

Dartmouth

Urology

WILLIAM F. BRAASCH, M.D. Professor Emeritus of Urology, University of Minnesota Graduate School, Mayo Foundation, Roch¬ ester, Minn. Editorial Committee, Quarterly Review of Urology.

Newfoundland and Labrador (in part)

WALTER FREDERIC RENDELL. foundland in London, Eng.

Paraguay

W.P.Ty.

Naval Academy, U.S.

W.V.M.

Legal Adviser, Standard Vacuum Petroleum

WALLACE V. WOLFE. Inc., Hollywood, Calif.

Virgin Islands

WILLIAM H. HASTIE.

Governor of the Virgin Islands of the United

States.

W.H.Se.

Protestant Episcopal Church

WALTER H. STOWE. President, Church Historical Society. Histo¬ riographer of the Diocese of New Jersey. Author of The Episcopal

Motion Pictures (in part) President, Motion Picture Research Council,

W.W.B.

Indians, American

WILLARD W. BEATTY. Director of Education, Office of Indian Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior, Chicago, Ill.

W.W.Bn.

Education (in parO WILLIAM W. BRICKMAN. Department of History and Philosophy of Education, New York University, New York, N.Y. Former Editor

Co., The Hague, Holland.

W.H.He.

Hutchins, Robert Maynard

WILLIAM V. MORGENSTERN. Director of Public Relations, The University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois.

Netherlands Indies (in part)

WIBO G. PEEKEMA.

Telescopes

WALTER S. ADAMS. Research Associate, Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington, D.C.

W.V.W.

W. G. COOPER. Captain, U.S.N. Secretary, Academic Board, United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md.

y^.G.P.

Syracuse University

WILLIAM PEARSON TOLLEY, D.D. Chancellor of S^acuse University, Syracuse, N.Y. Author of The Idea of God in the Philosophy of St. Augustine; etc.

American Federation of Labor President, American Federation of Labor.

W.G.Cr.

Principal, Home Office, London,

W.S.Ad.

WESLEY FROST. Professor of International Relations, the American Institute for Foreign Trade, Phoenix, Ariz.

WILLIAM GREEN.

Aliens (in part)

WILLIAM PARKER SPEAKE. Eng.

Trade Commissioner for New¬

W.Ft.

W.G.

Professor of Genetics, College of Wooster,

W.P.Se.

W.F.Br.

W.F.RI.

Genetics

WARREN P. SPENCER. Wooster, Ohio.

New Hampshire

Education Abstracts. W.W.L.

Japan

WILLIAM W. LOCKWOOD. Assistant Director. School of Public and International Affairs, Princeton University, Princeton. N.J.

W.W.M.

Astronomy

WILLIAM WILSON MORGAN. Professor of Astronomy, The Uni¬ versity of Chicago, Yerkes Observatory, Williams Bay, Wis. Editor,

Church—A Miniature History.

The Astrophysical Journal. W.H.Tr. WILLIAM

H.

TAYLOR.

Motor-Boat Racing; etc. Associate Editor, Yachting. Co-author,

W.W.Sh. W. W. SMITH. Chairman, Washington, D.C.

Yachting in North America. W.J.Bt. W. J. BRETT.

Furs Editor, Fur Reporter, New York, N.Y.

W.J.C.

States Maritime Commission,

Committee for Economic Deveiopment

W. WALTER WILLIAMS. Chairman of the Board of Trustees, Committee for Economic Development. President, Continental. Inc., Seattle, Wash.

Railroads (in part)

WILLIAM J. CUNNINGHAM. Former James J. Hill Professor of Transportation, Graduate School of Business Administration, Harvard University, Boston, Mass.

W. W.Ws.

Shipping, Merchant Marine (in part) United

X. ANONYMOUS.

1949 1948

1950

1

JANUARY S M T W T F S 1 .1 2 3 1 4 S 6 7 8 9 10 1 11 121314151617 1 1819 20 21 22 23 24 1 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

JULY S M T W T F S .1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 121314151617 1819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31

1 FEBRUARY 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 8 9 1011 121314 1 151617 1819 20 21 1 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 1 29.

AUGUST 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 1314 151617 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 .

1 MARCH 1 .. 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 7 8 9 1011 1213 1 141516171819 20 1 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 1 28 29 30 31 .

SEPTEMBER

1

APRIL i 9 ^ 1 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1 11 121314151617 1 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 25 26 27 28 29 30 ..

1

1 1

MAY .1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 9 1011 12131415 1 161718 19 20 21 22

1 1 1 1 1 1

JUNE .... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13141516171819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30.

5 6 7 8 9 1011 12131415161718 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 2627 28 29 30 .. .. CKTOBER 3 4 6 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13141516 17 1819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31. NOVEMBER .. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10111213 14151617181920 21 22 23 2425 26 27 28 29 30.

JULY $ M T W T F S .. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 12131415 16171819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 .

FEBRUARY . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12131415161718 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 .

AUGUST .... 1 2345 6 7 8 91011 12 13141516171819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 ....

MARCH . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 12 1314151617 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 ..

SEPTEMBER . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 1213 141516 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

APRIL .. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 12 131415 1617 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30.

OCTOBER 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 1213 14 151617181920 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 .

MAY 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 91011 1213 1516171819 20 22 23 24 25 26 27 29 30 31 .

NOVEMBER . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 12 1314151617 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 .. ..

JUNE . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 910 11 12 1314151617 1819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 ..

DECEMBER . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12 13141516 171819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31.

.. 7 14 21 28

DECEMBER 5 6 7 8 9 1011 12131415161718 1920 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 ..

JANUARY 1949 New Year’s day. First session of 81st U.S. congress convenes. 4 Independence day, Union of Bur¬ ma. 6 Epiphany, or Twelfth Night. 8 Jackson day. 13 Festival of St. Veronica. 20 Eve of St. Agnes. 20 Inauguration day, U.S..4. 26 Foundation day, Australia. 27 Feast of St. Chrysostom. FEBRUARY 2 Candlemas. Purification of the Virgin. 2 Ground-Hog day. 12 Georgia day, U.S.A. 12 Lincoln’s birthday, 1809. 13 Septuagesima Sunday. 14 St. Valentine’s day. 22 Washington’s birthday, 1732. 24 Feast of St. Matthias. 27 Quinquagesima (Shrove) Sunday. MARCH 1 Shrove Tuesday. Mardi Gras. 1 St. David’s day, patron saint of Wales. 2 Ash Wednesday. 2 Texas Independence day. 5 First Sunday in Lent. 7 100th anniversary, birth of Luther Burbank, U.S. plant breeder. 12 Girl Scout day, U.S.A. 15 Purim (Jewish festival), 1st day. 15 Ides of March. 17 St. Patrick's day, patron saint of Ireland. 20 Equinox (10:49 p.m. Greenwich civil time), beginning of spring. 25 Annunciation. Quarter day. 30 Seward day, Alaska. APRIL 1 All Fools’ day. 3 Passion Sunday. 6 Army day, U.S..A. 10 Palm Sunday. 13 Total eclipse of the moon, visible at Washington. 13 Thomas Jefferson’s birthday, 1743. 14 Jewish Passover, 1st day. 14 Pan-.American day. 14 Maundy Thursday. 15 Good Friday. English bank holi¬ day. 17 Easter Sunday. 1 3

JANUARY S M T W T F S 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 91011 121314 1516171819 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 .

X

HE year 1949 of the Christian Era corresponds to the year of Crea¬ tion 5709-5710 of the Jewish calendar; to the year 1368-1369 of the Mohammedan hegira; to the 173rd of the United States; and to the year of the Encyclopcedia Britannica.

18

Easter Monday. English bank holiday. 19 Primrose day. England. 19 Patriot’s day, U.S.A. 23 St. George’s day. 25 St. Mark’s day. 25 Anzac day, Australia and New Zealand. 26 Confederate Memorial day (also May 10, May 30, June 3). 28 Partial eclipse of the sun, invisible at Washington. MAY 1 May day. International labour festival. 3 100th anniversary, birth of Jacob A. Riis, U.S. journalist and social reformer. 5 Cinco de Mayo, Mexican holiday. 8 Mother’s day, U.S.A. 17 Independence day, Norway. 20 150th anniversary, birth of Honore de Balzac, French novelist. 22 Rogation Sunday. 24 Empire day. 26 Ascension day. 30 Memorial (Decoration) day, U.S.A. 31 Union day. Union of South Africa. JUNE 3 Shebuoth (Jewish Pentecost). 5 Pentecost (Whitsunday). 5 Constitution day, Denmark. 6 Whit Monday. English bank holi¬ day. 9 Trooping the colour in honour of King George Vi’s birthday. His majesty was actually born on Dec. 14. 11 Kamehameha day (Hawaii). 11 Feast of St. Barnabas. 12 Trinity Sunday. 14 Flag day, U.S.A. 16 Corpus Christi. 17 Bunker Hill day. U.S.A. 19 Father’s day, U.S.A. 21 Solstice (6:03 p.m. Greenwich civil time), beginning of summer. 24 Midsummer day. Quarter day. 24 St. John’s day. 30 St. Paul’s day.

JULY Dominion day, Canada. Independence day, U.S.A. Independence day. Republic of the Philippines. 5 Independence day, Venezuela. 9 National Independence day, Ar¬ gentina. ■\2 Orangemen’s day. Northern Ire¬ land. 14 Bastille day, France. 15 St. Swithin’s day. Independence day. Belgium. 21 22 Feast of St. Mary Magdalene. 25 Occupation day, Puerto Rico. 26 St. Anne’s day. 28 Independence day, Peru. •) 4 4

AUGUST Independence day, Switzerland. Lammas day. English bank holi¬ day. ’ Tishah Bov (Jewish Fast of Ab). " Feast of the "Transfiguration. Feast of St. Lawrence. Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Independence day, India and Pak¬ istan. 24 Feast of St. Bartholomew. 28 200th anniversary, birth of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, German poet. J 1

1 3 5 7 16 17 17 23 24 26 29 30

SEPTEMBER 10th anniversary, beginning of World War 11. lOoth anniversary, birth of Sarah Orne Jewett, U.S. writer. Labor day, U.S.A. Independence day, Brazil. Independence day, Mexico. Regatta day, Hawaii. Constitution day, U.S.A. Equinox (9:06 a.m. Greenwich civil time) beginning of fall. Rosh Hashanah (Jewish holiday beginning year 5710). Dominion day. New Zealand. Michaelmas. Quarter day. Feast of St. Jerome.

OCTOBER Yom Kippur (Jewish Day of Atonement). 4 Feast of St. Francis of Assisi. 6-7 Total eclipse of the moon, visible at Washington. 7 100th anniversary, birth of James Whitcomb Riley, U.S. poet. 8 Succoth (Jewish Feast of Taber¬ nacles), 1st day. 12 Columbus day. 18 Alaska day, Alaska. 21 Partial eclipse of the sun, invisible at Washington. 23 Mohammedan year 1369 begins at sunset. 24 Labor day. New Zealand. 25 St. Crispin and St. Crispinian. 27 Navy day, U.S.A. 28 Independence day, Czechoslo¬ vakia. 31 Hallowe’en. 3

NOVEMBER 1 All Saints’ day. All Hallows. 2 All Souls’ day. 5 Guy Fawkes’ day. 7 Armistice day, Canada. 9 Lord Mayor’s show. London. 10 U.S. Marine Corps day. 11 Martinmas or St. Martin’s day. 11 Armistice day. 16 Feast of St. Edmund. 22 St. Cecilia’s day. 24 Thanksgiving day. 27 First Sunday in Advent. 30 St. Andrew’s day, patron saint of Scotland.

DECEMBER 5

Constitution day. U.S.S.R. 6 Feast of St. Nicholas. 8 Immaculate Conception. 16 Hanukkah (Jewish Feast of Dedi¬ cation), 1st day. 16 Dingaan’s day. Union of South Africa. 17 Aviation day, U.S.A. 22 Solstice (4:24 a.m. Greenwich civil time), beginning of winter. 22 Forefathers’ day (also Dec. 20, Dec. 21, Dec. 23). 25 Christmas. Quarter day. English bank holiday. 26 Boxing day. English bank holiday. 28 Childermas. Holy Innocents’ day. 30 Rizal day. Republic of the Philip¬ pines. 31 Hogmanay.

CALENDAR OF EVENTS, 1948 a For elections and disasters of 1948, see under those headings in the text. For obituaries of prominent persons who died during 1948, see under the entry Obituaries.

JANUARY

I

Nationalization of Great Britain’s railways, canals and their adjuncts took effect under the 1947 Transport act with control vested in the Trans¬ port commission headed by Sir Cyril Hurcomb. Provisions of Italy’s new re¬ publican constitution became operative. Customs union between Bel¬ gium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands was inaugurated.

2

Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru threat¬ ened an invasion of Pakistan to stop Moslem attacks in the state of Kashmir. University of Chicago an¬ nounced formation of partner¬ ship with 7 corporations to co¬ ordinate atomic research with in¬ dustrial development in atomic field. Earl of Listowel, British sec’y of state for Burma, was named minister of state for colonial af¬ fairs.

3

Large T.N.T. shipment bound for the Jews in Pales¬ tine was seized at Jersey City, N.J., after a box marked indus¬ trial machinery was accidentally dropped. British Prime Minister Clement R. Attlee assailed Soviet Union and its satellites in radio broadcast; he praised U.S. defense of human rights and ac¬ knowledged the splendid effort made by British people in 1947. Plans for U.S. stop-gap program of $522,000,000 for immediate aid to Italy, Austria and France were completed with signing of U.S.-Italian agreement in Rome.

4 Union of Burma

became free and independent re¬ public as last British gover¬ nor-general, Sir Hubert Ranee, handed over power to President Sao Shwe Thaik. Interim committee of the U.N. general assembly (“Lit¬ tle Assembly’’), convening for the first time, elected Luis Pa¬ dilla Nervo of Mexico as its president: meeting was boycot¬ ted by Soviet Union and other east European nations. Ministry of Fuel and Power announced that Britain’s coal

production target of 200,000,000tons for 1947 had been missed by only 300,000 tons. U.S. mission in Athens ad¬ vanced additional $15,000,000 to Greek army to raise army and national guard strength by 32,000 men. U.S. state department ex¬ plained dispatch of 1,000 marines to Mediterranean purely as a navy operational action, which had no connection with develop¬ ments in U.S. relations with any Mediterranean nation. India requested the U.N. Secur¬ ity council to call on Pakistan to desist from aiding Moslem forces which had invaded state of Kashmir.

7

Pres. Harry S. Truman in annual state of union mes¬ sage called for immediate tax cut of $40 per person and prompt passage of European Recovery program; he listed 5 goals for next 10 years: to secure essential human rights of U.S. citizens; to protect and develop the country’s human resources; to con¬ serve and use effectively the natural resources of the U.S.; to lift the standard of living; and to achieve world peace based on principles of free¬ dom and justice and the equality of all nations. Arab nationalist movements in northern Africa were reported to have agreed on the formation of a “Liberation Committee for North Africa” under the chair¬ manship of Abdel ECrim, former Riff leader.

8

Sec’y of State George C. Marshall told senate com¬ mittee that proposed $6,800,000,000 contribution for first 15 months of European relief was not “asking figure” but a minimum estimate which congress should accept in full or not undertake program at all. British and U.S. military gov¬ ernors announced acceptance by west German political leaders of 6 proposals to give greater responsibility to Germans in ad¬ ministration of U.S. and British zones.

9

Arab forces raided Jewish settlements in northern Pales¬ tine from across Syrian border for first time, but were repulsed by British troops. Record Chinese budget of 96,000,000,000,000 yuan (U.S. $427,000,000) for the first 6 months of 1948 was announced in Nanking; the deficit in 1947 was U.S. $296,600,000.

Sultan of Morocco, FrenchSpanish protectorate, was re¬ ported to have demanded Mo¬ roccan independence in letter to French President Vincent Auriol. in Brazilian supreme court lU sustained action of congress in ousting all communist legisla¬ tors in Brazil. 10

Annual budget submitted to congress by Pres. Truman for fiscal year begin¬ ning July 1,1948, put expend¬ itures at $39,668,993,983, rev¬ enues at $44,476,862,051, mil¬ itary costs at $11,025,021,298 and international aid at $7,008,615,376.

\L

U.S. supreme court ordered state of Oklahoma to make avail¬ able forthwith to Negro appli¬ cants the same educational facil¬ ities in law that it furnished white students. jO Re-election of Edouard lu Herriot as president of the French national assembly was followed by a near-riot precipi¬ tated by the Communist demand that Jacques Duclos be named first vice-president. Report by Pres. Truman’s Air Policy commission set Jan. 1, 1953, as A-day—the date when foreign nations would possess atomic weapons in quantity; it warned that the U.S. air force was presently inadequate and hopelessly wanting in respect to A-day. I J Protection of Italians in It Italian Somaliland was de¬ manded by Italy in sharp note to Britain after 53 persons were killed in riot in British-occupied area. |C British foreign office publU lished text of Protocol M, document purporting to give Cominform plan of campaign in western Germany to defeat Mar¬ shall plan; German Communists denounced it as fabrication and clumsy provocation. |C

Col. Gen. L. V. Kurasov, soviet commander in Aus¬ tria, charged the U.S. and Brit¬ ain with planning to transform western Austria into military base for Anglo-American im¬ perialism ; he cited a recently un¬ covered nazi plot in British zone as an example of dilatory denazi¬ fication.

10

Ru mania and Bulgaria signed friendship and mutual aid pact in Bucharest.

IT

Netherlands and Indo1/ nesian republic signed a truce agreement witnessed by U.N. committee aboard a U.S. ship off Batavia; it called for the

maintenance of demilitarized zone but gave Dutch temporary control of large part of produc¬ tive areas in Java and Sumatra. IQ Soviet State Planning 10 commission reported that in the last quarter of 1947 indus¬ trial production reached the 1940 level and that agricultural pro¬ duction in 1947 exceeded that of 1946 by 48%. U.N. Security council voted 9 to 0 to establish a 3member commission for media¬ tion of the Indian-Pakistani dis¬ pute over state of Kashmir. U.S. Atomic Energy commis¬ sion announced Owen J. Rob¬ erts, retired U.S. supreme court justice, would head a 5-man board to review the loyalty of atomic workers. 0| U.S. state department aI published 357-page volume of captured German documents recording Russian-German rela¬ tions during period 1939-41. British admiralty announced scrapping of 5 outmoded capital ships (“Queen Elizabeth,” “Val¬ iant,” “Nelson,” “Rodney” and “Renown”), thus reducing active battleship strength to 5. Chinese government protested British eviction of squatters from Kowloon, mainland territory of colony of Hong Kong. Anglo-lraqi treaty signed in England Jan. 15 was denounced by Regent Abdul-Ilah as not ful¬ filling Iraq’s national aspira^ tions. Foreign Sec’y Ernest Bevin announced in foreign policy debate that Britain would seek formation of western Eu¬ ropean union, calling initially for military and economic agree¬ ment among Britain, Belgium, France, Luxembourg and the Netherlands: proposal was en¬ dorsed by Anthony Eden, speak¬ ing for the opposition. Soviet government in¬ formed the U.N. that U.N. Korean commission would not be permitted to enter soviet zone in northern Korea. Edwin W. Pauley, special assistant to the secretary of the army, denied charges levelled by Harold Stassen that he made profits in commodity trading on basis of inside government infocEcation. Hungary and Rumania signed treaty of mutual assistance at Budapest. French cabinet decreed devaluation of franc from

2

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1948

JANUARY—Continued 119 francs to the U.S. dollar to 214 to the dollar, overrid¬ ing opposition by Britain and the International Monetary fund. Nationalization of all Bul¬ garian industry, except co-opera¬ tives and foreign-owned enter¬ prises, was ordered by govern¬ ment decree. Council of Foreign Ministers received new soviet proposals on disposition of German assets in Austria; they included payment by Austria of $200,000,000 with¬ in 2 years and granting Soviet Union two-thirds of Austrian oil production in return for waiver of soviet claims. Soviet Union and Poland concluded 5-year trade treaty aimed at increasing trade volume by 15% and providing for soviet credit of up to $450,000,000 in form of industrial equipment and machinery. Johannes Semmler, Ger¬ man economics director for Anglo-U.S. bizone, was dismissed for malicious opposition toward the occupying powers. Pres. Truman appointed Thomas B. McCabe to chair¬ manship of federal reserve board in place of Marriner S. Eccles, who was demoted to vice-chair¬ manship.

Pravda, soviet Communist party daily, repudiated plan for federation of Balkan nations .advocated earlier by Georgi Dimitrov, Bulgarian premier and former Comintern official. British Labour govern¬ ment lost first Labour con¬ stituency after 1945 national election in voting in Camlachie division of Glasgow. Mohammed el-Sadr replaced Saleh Jabur as Iraqi premier after serious rioting broke out in protest against Anglo-Iraqi trea¬ ty signed by Jabur. Soviet Union, it was reported, had protested the reopening by the U.S. with British consent of Mellaha airfield near Tripoli in the former Italian colony of Libya. Mohandas

K.

Q| U.N. Balkans commisul sion reported it was ex¬ tremely probable that Greek rebels in Epirus area had been supported by artillery fire from Albanian territory. Record soviet budget presented to supreme soviet by Finance Minister A. G. Zverev estimated revenue at 428,000,000,000 rou¬ bles and expenditures at 387,900,000,000 roubles, of which 66,000,000,000 were specifically earmarked for armed forces. Soviet Union charged in note to Iranian government that U.S. military mission was engaged in activities directed toward con¬ verting Iran into a U.S. base.

FEBRUARY .

I

New Federation of Malaya was inaugurated at Kuala Lumpur under constitution giv¬ ing 9 Malay states control over local matters with Britain re¬ taining control of defense and foreign affairs. Soviet Union protested against activities of U.S. planes in mak¬ ing observations of soviet ship¬ ping in Yellow sea and Sea of Japan.

3

Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands stated in a world broadcast that colonialism is dead and she hailed the prog¬ ress toward self-government made by the peoples of Indo¬ nesia, with whom she said the Netherlands and Dutch West Indies would form a partner¬ ship.

4

Ceylon became a self-gov¬

erning dominion in the Commonwealth of Nations under terms of the Ceylon In¬ dependence act, 1947; Prime Minister Don Stephan Senanayake expressed hope that there would be mutual and perpetual friendship between Ceylon and the United King¬ dom. Rumania and U.S.S.R. signed a treaty of friendship, co-opera¬ tion and mutual assistance in Moscow. Supreme soviet of U.S.S.R. approved ouster of Justice Min¬ ister Nikolai M. Rychkov, who had been dismissed for failing to cope with his work.

Italy and U.S. signed in Rome 10-year treaty of friendship, trade and navigation.

Prime Minister Eamon de Valera’s Fianna Fail party lost its absolute majority to an opposition coalition in Eire par¬ liamentary elections.

Charles Malik of Lebanon was elected president of sixth session of U.N. Economic and Social council, meeting at Lake Suc¬ cess, N.Y.

British government called for voluntary freeze of wages to combat inflation.

2

A.F. of L. executive council voted its opposition to Henry A. Wallace’s third-party candidacy for president; action followed similar move made earlier by C.I.O. executive board. Pres. Truman urged congress in special message to adopt 10-point civil rights program, including abolition of poll taxes, establishment of per¬ manent Fair Employment Practices commission and enactment of antilynching bill. Knutson bill for reduction of income taxes was passed in house of representatives by vote of 297 to 120.

Gandhi,

revered Hindu spiritual leader and champion of free India, was assassinated at New Delhi.

alist leaders following disclosure that Gandhi’s assassin was mem¬ ber of Mahasabha, Hindu ex¬ tremist organization.

Government of India out¬ lawed all communal organiza¬ tions and private armies and moved to round up ultranation¬

5

Soviet objections to alleged U.S. military activities in Iran were rejected in Iranian note which charged U.S.S.R. with protecting Iranian traitors. House of representatives sub¬ committee issued a report criti¬ cizing the British, U.S. and French occupation policies in Germany and urging establish¬ ment of a western German gov¬ ernment, complete U.S. control over the Anglo-U.S. bizone and an immediate halt to dismantling of war plants. Bill authorizing short-term loan of £80,000,000 in gold to United Kingdom was passed by Union of South Africa parliament.

6

MaJ. Gen. James Van Fleet was appointed the chief of the U.S. military groups advising Greek army on antiguerrilla tac¬ tics.

Prime Minister Attlee ap¬ pealed to ordinary people to support the government wage stabilization program in a radio broadcast warning Britain that the failure of the drive to in¬ crease production and exports would mean mass unemploy¬ ment and real, desperate hun¬ ger. All-German bizonal econom¬ ic administration was au¬

thorized by Anglo-U.S. proc¬ lamation; new regime had enlarged powers, with elected bicameral parliament which would choose executive com¬ mittee (cabinet).

7

Gen. Dwight D. Eisen¬ hower turned over post of army chief of staff to Gen. Omar N. Bradley in Pentagon cere¬ mony attended by Pres. Tru¬ man. Britain and Argentina con¬ cluded new trade treaty author¬ izing Argentine purchase of Brit¬ ish-owned railways in Argentina and exchange of Argentine meat and cereals for British petroleum products, coal and industrial materials.

8

Allocation of 162 Italian naval vessels under 1947 treaty was announced in Rome; the Soviet Union was to receive 45, including a battleship and a cruiser, while others, including 2 battleships and 4 cruisers, went to France, Greece, the U.S., Yugoslavia, Albania and Brit¬ ain. Sec’y of State George C. Mar¬ shall supported the dismantling and apportioning of German war plants as an aid to European Re¬ covery program in a letter to Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg which stated that any unilateral attempt to end the arrange¬ ment would delay final repara¬ tions settlement, although he added that deliveries to Soviet Union had been halted indefi¬ nitely. Reopening of French-Spanish border, closed for 2 years, was announced in Paris and Madrid.

The pictures on this page are, left to right: ATTLEE.Jan. 3 MARSHALL.Jan. S PAULEY Jan. 24 EISENHOWER.Feb. 7 SOKOLOVSKI.Feb. 13

CALENDAR OF EYENTS*1948 FEBRUARY-Confinued Replying to U.S. publication of captured nazi-soviet docu¬ ments, Soviet Union accused the U.S., Britain and France of hav¬ ing made World War II possible, charging that U.S. dollars fi¬ nanced Hitler’s war industry and that Britain and France had re¬ jected collective security. in Cabinet of Socialist PrelU mier Tetsu Katayama re¬ signed in Tokyo as a result of the dissension between left- and right-wing Socialists. First parliament of the do¬ minion of Ceylon was opened in Colombo by the duke of Glouces¬ ter on behalf of King George VI. 10 Sir Oliver Franks, deputy \L chairman of Paris confer¬ ence on Marshall plan in 1947, was appointed British ambassa¬ dor in Washington in succession to Lord Inverchapel. Chancellor of Exchequer Sir Stafford Cripps announced plan to freeze British prices at level prevailing at end of 1947 and urged labour unions to defer wage demands. Ashes of Mahatma Gandhi were cast upon the waters of the Ganges river at Allahabad, In¬ dia, in presence of more than 1,000,000 people. IQ Marshal Vasili D. Soko10 lovski, soviet commander in Germany, announced estab¬ lishment of new economic ad¬ visory commission in soviet zone comparable with new U.S.-U.K. bizonal structure, but with all members appointed by soviet authorities. British admiralty announced appointment of Lord Fraser of North Cape as first sea lord and chief of naval staff in succession to Sir John Cunningham. IJ Projected London meetIT ing on German economic development was denounced as violation of Potsdam agreement by Soviet Union in note to U.S., Britain and France.

The pictures on this page are, left to right: COSTELLO.Feb. DE GAULLE.March LIE.March AUSTIN.March BEN-GURION.March

18 7 12 19 20

U.S. and U.K. military gov¬ ernors decided to allow Ger¬ mans to resume manufacture of virgin aluminum, prohibited un¬ der Potsdam agreement. jC Creation of a “democratic lU people’s republic’’ and a North Korean people’s army was announced in a broadcast from the soviet headquarters in North Korea. U.N. Palestine commission stated in report to Security coun¬ cil that the partition of Palestine could be carried out only with military force in adequate strength. U.S. and Britain were charged with having sought separate peace with Hitler and with de¬ laying opening of second front, in fourth and final instalment of soviet reply to U.S. disclosure of captured nazi-soviet documents. Departure of all U.S. troops from Panaman territory was re¬ ported by Ambassador Frank T. Hines in note to Panama govern¬ ment. |T President Gabriel Gon1/ zalezVidela of Chile landed at Discovery bay. South Shet¬ land Islands, to establish Chilean claims over an antarctic area already claimed by Britain as part of its Falklands dependency. IP

10

Eamon de Valera’s 16year tenure as Eire’s

prime minister came to end with election of Fine Gael leader John A. Costello as head of coalition cabinet which Fianna Fail declined to join. British physicians voted over¬ whelmingly not to join free medi¬ cal service system set up by National Health Service act. Signing of mutual defense pact between U.S.S.R. and Hungary completed system of agreements between Soviet Union and all its east European neighbours ex¬ cept Finland. Members of National So¬ cialist, Slovak Democrat and People’s parties resigned in Czech cabinet crisis caused by government’s refusal to stop further infiltration of Commu¬ nists into police forces. Q| Chinese government acL\ knowledged capture by com¬ munist troops of Anshan, im¬ portant Manchurian steel centre southwest of nationalist-held Mukden.

Hitoshi Ashida, Democratic party leader, was elected pre¬ mier by Japanese house of repre¬ sentatives by margin of 5 votes. Soviet proposals for discussion in principle of soviet plan for settlement of issue of German assets in Austria before discuss¬ ing it in detail were rejected by U.S. and British delegations at London meeting of foreign min¬ isters’ deputies on Austrian peace treaty. Abdel Rahman Azzam Pasha, Arab league secre¬ tary-general, announced league’s decision not to co-operate in de¬ velopment of oil concessions with any nations advocating forceful partition of Palestine. Communist action com¬ mittees took over all Czech offices and departments headed by non-Communists as well as opposition newspapers and po¬ litical headquarters, as govern¬ ment crisis reached climax. U.S. position on partition of Palestine was stated in the U.N. Security council by delegate Warren Austin who said the gen¬ eral assembly recommendation on partition should be accepted by the council which, however, had no power to raise interna¬ tional force to enforce the parti¬ tion; he proposed naming a 5nation committee to determine whether the situation was a threat to world peace. Communist minority in

3 were unquestionably Argentine territory. U.S., Britain and France is¬ sued joint statement condemn¬ ing setting up of disguised dic¬ tatorship in Czechoslovakia, the consequences of which must surely be disastrous to the Czech¬ oslovak people. British government announced dispatch of cruiser to Belize, British Honduras, to protect col¬ ony from possible invasion by irregular elements in neighbour¬ ing republic of Guatemala, which had put forth claims to area. Joseph Stalin proposed conclusion of military as¬ sistance treaty between Finland and Soviet Union in letter to Pres. Juho K. Paasikivi. House of representatives con¬ curred by overwhelming vote in senate-approved resolution to reduce Pres. Truman’s budget by $2,500,000,000. Dissolution of denazification commissions in soviet zone of Germany was decreed by soviet military government. Stern gang, Jewish terror¬ ist unit, blew up CairoHaifa train north of Rehovoth, Palestine. Battalion of Somerset light in¬ fantry—last British troops to leave India—embarked from Bombay.

Czechoslovakia won com¬ House foreign affairssubplete control of the nation committee published re¬ when Pres. Eduard Benes ac¬ ceded to Premier Element port entitled Strategy and Tac Gottwald’s demand that he tics of World Communism, whicr approve a new cabinet com¬ concluded that world revolution posed of Communists and was goal of communism. their supporters. India’s proposed constitu¬ tion, published in New Delhi, called for sovereign democratic republic organized into union of India, with relationship to Brit¬ ain to be determined at later date. Foreign Sec’y Bevin stated in commons that Chilean and Ar¬ gentine activities in British ant¬ arctic territory did not affect title to area and reasserted Brit¬ ain’s willingness to submit rival claims to International Court of Justice. Argentine foreign minis¬ try said Argentina would refuse to negotiate with Britain over Falkland Islands, which

MARCH

I

Lt. Gen. John R. Hodge, U.S. commander in Korea, announced elections would be held in the U.S. zone as recom¬ mended by the U.N. “Little Assembly”; the soviet-boy¬ cotted Korean commission said it would observe elections in all accessible parts of Korea by May 10. Opening senate debate on for¬ eign aid. Sen. Arthur H. Vandenberg urged quick passage of European Recovery program in order to halt aggressive commu¬ nism and prevent third world war.

CALENDAR OF EVENTS«1948

4

were formally annexed to Greece in ceremony at Rhodes.

MARCH—Continued British Palestine government accused the Jews in Palestine and the Jewish agency speci¬ fically of complicity in terrorist attacks and charged the agency with publishing calculated innu¬ endoes and falsehoods. United Kingdom drew last $100,000,000 of $3,750,000,000 U.S. loan authorized in July 1946.

2

Hermann Puender, Ger¬ man Christian Democrat leader, was elected the head of the executive committee (cabi¬ net) of the new German bizonal regime by minority vote of the bizonal economic council; the Social Democrats and Communists abstained from voting.

S

Juraj Slavik, Czech ambas¬ sador in Washington, D.C., and Frantisek Nemec, Czech minister to Canada, resigned in protest against the Communist coup in Czechoslovakia. U.S. state department stated officially that U.S. 3rd army had halted at soviet request at Pilsen-Carlsbad line in Czecho¬ slovakia in May 1945, instead of going on to Prague.

4

Former King Michael of Rumania issued a statement in London asserting his abdica¬ tion was imposed on him by force to clear way for the Com¬ munist regime.

5

8

U.N. Security council accept¬ ed U.S.-soviet proposal for infor¬ mal major power consultations to determine guidance council might give U.N. Palestine com¬ mission on partitioning of Pales¬ tine; council rejected U.S. pro¬ posal for acceptance of assembly’s partition recommendation. U.S. navy rocket reached a speed of 3,000 m.p.h. and alti¬ tude of 78 mi. in tests at White Sands, N.M., setting new records for U.S. rocket missiles.

10

British government’s Econo¬ mic Survey for 1948 acknowledged Britain’s dependence on U.S. economic assistance and pre¬ dicted that failure to receive Marshall plan aid by mid-1948 would force severe cuts in imports and consequent unem¬ ployment. in

Jan Masaryk, Czech for-

n

Greek army was criticized by the U.S. mission in Athens for its failure to start major offensive against the guer¬ rillas despite superiority in men and weapons. 10

Chilean delegate Hernan Santa Cruz requested U.N. Security council to investigate the situation in Czechoslovakia as one likely to endanger world peace after a similar request by Czech delegate Jan Papanek had been disqualified by SecretaryGeneral Trygve Lie as a nongov¬ ernmental communication.

IL

10

Detention of 6 Gold Coast nationalist leaders was re¬ ported in Accra following 2 weeks of rioting in British West African colony.

10

London communique of 6nation conference on Ger¬ Sen ate approved the Euro¬ many (U.S., U.K., France, Bel¬ gium, Netherlands and Luxem¬ pean Recovery program by bourg) reported agreement in a vote of 69 to 17 after rejecting principle on internationalization an amendment reducing the pro¬ of Ruhr industrial area, associa¬ posed authorization for first 12 tion of Benelux nations in broad months from $5,300,000,000 to policy matters relating to Ger¬ $4,000,000,000. many, federal system of govern¬ ment for Germany and closer |C More than 200,000 softeconomic integration of French IV coal miners stopped work and Anglo-U.S. zones. after the rejection by mine

7

Prime Minister Attlee an¬ nounced British government’s decision to ban communists and fascists from government work vital to national security, in¬ cluding atomic research.

U.S. supreme court ruled and Trans-Jordan that religious teaching in the Britain public schools violated the first concluded new military treaty amendment to the U.S. consti¬ continuing British subsidy of $8,000,000 but placing defense tution. arrangements on a more bilat¬ Provisional federal govern¬ eral basis. ment for the Netherlands Indies, in which the republic of Capture by Chinese communist Indonesia was not represented, troops of Yenan, the former red was set up in Batavia under the capital, was reported in Peiping. chairmanship of Dutch Acting Governor-General Hubertus'van IP European Economic conMook. ference of 16 nations ended 2-day plenary session at Paris by Relinquishment of arbitrary inviting 3 western zones of Ger¬ power of arrest and search by many to join work of conference U.S. forces in Germany was an¬ and be represented in its per¬ nounced in Frankfurt. manent organization.

lU eign minister, was killed hy fall from window of his apartment in Prague; Czech officials called his death a an¬ suicide.

Buckingham palace nounced that at the invita¬ tion of the Australian and New Zealand prime ministers. King George VI, Queen Elizabeth and Princess Margaret would visit the two dominions in 1949.

6

Gen. Charles de Gaulle de¬ clared in speech that France must unite above political par¬ ties, and must take lead in a western European union, backed by U.S. military aid, to keep Europe free from soviet men¬ ace.

Provision In Taft-Hartley law banning political expenditures by unions was held unconstitu¬ tional by federal court in Wash¬ ington, D.C.

U

operators of their demand for Dodecanese Islands, ceded an expanded old-age pension by Italy under 1947 treaty, program.

U.S. meat production was halved as 100,000 C.I.O. work¬ ers went on strike in 140 packing houses in support of demand for third-round wage increase.

IT

Pres. Truman, addressing special joint session of congress, called for enact¬ ment of universal military training supported by tem¬ porary draft and quick adop¬ tion of European Recovery program to forestall threat¬ ened communist control and police-state rule of remain¬ ing free nations of Europe.

If

U.N. Security council voted 9 to 2 to discuss question of wheth¬ er Communist coup in Czecho¬ slovakia was likely to endanger maintenance of world peace; soviet delegate Andrei Gromyko attacked action as gross inter¬ vention in internal affairs of a sovereign people. Foreign ministers of Great Britain, Belgium, France, Luxembourg and the Nether¬ lands signed a 50-year treaty of collective military aid and economic and social co-oper¬ ation in Brussels. IQ

U.S. government officials ordered 25% cut in coal¬ burning railway passenger serv¬ ice and ban on coal exports as result of work stoppage of nearly 400,000 members of the United Mine Workers of America.

10

Bulgaria and Soviet Union signed 20-year treaty of friend¬ ship and alliance in Moscow. U.S. delegate Warren Austin, announcing sharp

reversal of U.S. policy, asked U.N. to suspend Palestine partition plan and call special session of general assembly to consider creation of tem¬

porary U.N. trusteeship over area. Threatened strike at Oak Ridge, Tenn., atomic bomb labo¬ ratory was enjoined at govern¬ ment’s request by federal court acting under national emergency provisions of Taft-Hartley law. U.S., Britain and France proposed in joint note to Soviet Union and Italy that free territory of Trieste, set up under U.N. protection by 1947 treaty, be returned to Italian sovereignty. Soviet Marshal Vasili D.Soko¬ lovski led his delegation out

of an Allied Control council meeting in Berlin after the U.S., British and French rep¬ resentatives refused to report to the council on the London conference on Germany. British foreign office reaffirm¬ ed Britain’s determination to surrender Palestine mandate by May 15; David Ben-Gurion, Jewish agency chairman, assailed U.S. abandonment of partition and rejected trusteeship pro¬ posal. Yugoslavia offered to re¬ turn Trieste to Italy in ex¬ change for strategic Italian city of Gorizia. U.S. senate passed Republicansponsored $4,800,000,000 tax cut measure by vote of 78 to 11. Jewish agency and Jewish National council asserted in Tel Aviv that provisional Jewish government would be set up in Palestine not later than May 16. Far Eastern commission pub¬ lished policy decision in Wash¬ ington, D.C., laying down com¬ prehensive plan for disarming Japan and preventing any reviv¬ al of Japanese military strength. House approved $4,800,000,000 tax reduction bill by bipartisan vote of 289 to 67. Charter of proposed Interna¬ tional Trade organization, in¬ tended to promote expansion of world trade, was signed by 53 of 56 nations attending U.N. con¬ ference on trade and unemploy¬ ment in Havana, Cuba; Argen¬ tina, Poland and Turkey ab¬ stained. Aircraft manufacturer Glenn L. Martin claimed U.S. had developed radioactive cloud which w’ould kill anyone coming in contact with it and was effec¬ tive over much larger area than atomic bomb. Sec’y of State Marshall stated U.S. would continue as joint occupant of Berlin and that any further attempt by Soviet Union to disrupt func¬ tioning of Allied Control council would be considered unilateral

CALENDAR OF EVENTS«1948 MARCH—Continued action aimed against the unifica¬ tion of Germany. Pres. Truman denied that U.S. had abandoned Palestine parti¬ tion plan; he described trustee¬ ship proposal as an emergency action designed to avert grave consequences without prejudice to final political settlement. Assistant Sec’y of State Nor¬ man Armour flatly rejected soviet protest against U.S.-British-French-Benelux conference on Germany in London, in note blaming Soviet Union for 4power disunity and accusing it of barring political freedom and basic human rights in soviet zone. Pres. Truman issued proc¬ lamation requiring licence from National Munitions Con¬ trol board for export of com¬ mercial aircraft, radar and other potential war materiel. Sec’y of Defense Forrestal announced unified

plan for conduct of future wars by U.S. armed forces; strategic air warfare and air transport were made primary responsibility of air force; marine corps was given re¬ sponsibility for amphibious warfare; navy was assigned responsibility for antisub¬ marine patrol.

A. Philip Randolph, president of Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (A.F. of L.), warned sen¬ ate committee that unless racial discrimination were barred in UMT and temporary draft pro¬ grams, Negro youth would be urged to resist induction by civil disobedience. House passed foreign-aid bill by vote of 329 to 74 and reaffirmed proposal to invite Spain to join in program.

APRIL

I

Gen. Hoyt S. Vandenberg was named to succeed Gen. Carl A. Spaatz as U.S. air force chief of staff. Joint senate-house commit¬ tee voted to eliminate all refer¬ ence to Spain in European-aid bill. British Electricity authority headed by Lord Citrine, as¬ sumed control of Britain’s na¬ tionalized electricity industry. Economic attachment of Saar territory to France became ef¬ fective.

2

Truman’s veto of $4,800,000,000 tax reduc¬ tion bill was overridden in the house, 311 to 88, and in the senate, 77 to 10; the meas¬ ure allowed married couples Gen. Lucius Clay approved dis¬ to split family income for tax missal of denazification cases purposes, effected reductions against about 300,000 lesser of from 10% to 30% in tax rates according to income nazis in U.S. zone of Germany. bracket, and increased per¬ Delegates of 16-nation Paris sonal exemption from $500 to Economic conference completed $600. draft charter for permanent Eu¬ ropean organization toadminister European Recovery program. International Typo¬ graphical union (A.F. of L.) agreed to drop no-contract policy after U.S. judge denied application for stay of temporary injunction issued against union. U.S. occupation authorities banned threatened strike of 400,000 Japanese communica¬ tions workers. Impasse between Soviet

Union and western pow¬ ers on proposals for atomic energy control forced indefi¬ nite adjournment of Com¬ mittee on Control of the U.N. Atomic Energy commis¬ sion. Ninth Int. Conference of American States opened in

Bogota, Colombia, with 21 nations in attendance. Ql U.S. and British military ul officials in Berlin rejected soviet proposals to put rail and road traffic into Berlin under virtually complete soviet con¬ trol.

Pres.

Accession of large western In¬ dian state of Kalat to dominion of Pakistan was announced in Karachi. Sec’y of Defense Forrestal pre¬ sented to congress special pro¬ posals for limited draft and uni¬ versal military training under single omnibus bill.

3

Pres. Truman signed For¬ eign Assistance act of 1948, authorizing expenditure within one year of $6,098,000,000, of which $5,300,000,000 was earmarked for eco¬ nomic rehabilitation of 16 European nations, $275,000,000 for military assistance to Greece and Turkey, $463,000,000 for military and eco¬ nomic aid to China and $60,000,000 for U.N. Children’s fund.

5

Paul G. Hoffman, president of Studebaker Corp., was named Economic Cooperation administrator in charge of Euro¬ pean Recovery program, with cabinet rank. 15 persons were killed when soviet fighter plane crashed into

British transport plane over Ber¬ lin. Alfried Kruppvon Bohlen und Halbach and 11 other Krupp di¬ rectors were acquitted by U.S. tribunal of charges of plotting aggressive war; all still faced charges of using slave labour and looting conquered nations. Chancellor of Exchequer Sir Stafford Cripps sub¬ mitted Britain’s 1948-49 budget showing estimated revenues of £3,754,000,000 and surplus of £319,000,000; budget provided for new investment earning tax amounting to capital levy. Finland and Soviet Union signed 10-year military alliance and mutual assistance pact in Moscow. David E. Lilienthal, chairman of U.S. Atomic Energy commis¬ sion, said likelihood of world atomic energy control agreement within 3 years was remote; he added that U.S. was developing new types of atomic weapons.

7

World Health organization became U.N.’s ninth sp)ecialized agency upon ratification of its constitution by the Ukraine, Byelorussia and Mexico.

8

Principal civil aviation com¬ panies of Denmark, Norway and Sweden combined their op¬ erations into single unit, to be known as Scandinavian Airlines system. U.S. government suspended for 30 days sale of all surplus war plants to permit determination of their future value in prepared¬ ness program.

5 Soviet Union knew how to make atomic bombs, but thus far lacked industrial facilities for their manufacture. John L. Lewis ordered striking soft-coal miners to return to pits after compromise was effected on miners’ pension fund by Sen. H. Styles Bridges, newly appointed third trustee of fund.

|0 10

Rumanian national assemblyunanimouslyadopted republican constitution based on soviet model and re-elected Petru Groza as premier. M House of commons apl*r proved suspension of death penalty in Britain for 5-year test in free vote, 245 to 222. Common policy for participa¬ tion of western Germany in Eu¬ ropean Recovery program was adopted by U.S., British and French zonal commanders. Norris E. Dodd, undersec’y of agriculture, was elected director of U.N. Food and Agriculture organization in succession to Sir John Boyd Orr of Great Britain. |C House passed bill authorizlu ing increase in air force strength to 70 groups, despite previously voiced opposition of Defense Sec’y Forrestal, who urged 55-group force in balance with other service components. Greek army opened drive against guerrilla-held territory in central Greece. |C

Jose Arce of Argentina was elected chairman of special session of U.N. general assembly which met at Lake Success, N.Y., to reconsider Palestine partition Bogota, Colombia, site of plan. Inter - American conference, was swept by abortive revolt, Premier Paul-Henri Spaak of touched off by assassination of Belgium was named chairman of Jorge Eliecer Gaitan, Liberal co-ordinating organization set up in Paris by 16 nations participat¬ party leader. ing in European Recovery pro¬ |n Italy’s application for gram. lU U.N. membership was ve¬ toed for third time by Soviet ■ '7 U.N. Security council 11 passed resolution calling for Union. Arab-Jewish truce in Palestine Morgan Phillips, general secre¬ by vote of 9 to 0 (Soviet Union tary of British Labour party, re¬ and the Ukraine abstaining). ported party membership had Premier Alcide de Gasreached new high of 4,685,699 in peri’s Christian Demo¬ 1947, compared with 3,322,358 crat party won 307 out of 574 in 1946.

ID

9

W

14 former SS officers convict¬ ed of mass execution of 2,000,000 persons in the Soviet Union dur¬ ing nazi occupation were sen¬ tenced to death by U.S. war crimes tribunal, sitting in Nuern¬ berg, Germany.

M

French Premier Robert Schuman said he would support plan for creation of west¬ ern German state if 4-power rule proved impossible of attainment.

10 Sec’yof Defense Forrestal \L

told senate committee that

assembly seats and 48.7% of popular vote in hotly con¬ tested national elections in Italy; 182 seats went to Com¬ munist popular front. IQ

Union of Burma was formally admitted to U.N. as its 58th member.

Id

Generalissimo Chiang Kaishek was elected China’s first constitutional president by na¬ tional assembly. Film writer John Howard Lawson was convicted of con-

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1948

6 APRIL—Continued tempt of congress by federal court in Washington, D.C., for refusing to tell house un-Amer¬ ican activities committee wheth¬ er or not he was a Communist.

Federal Justice T. Alan Goldsborough imposed

U.N. Security council voted 8-0 to set up 3-power Palestine truce commission in Jerusalem. U.N. Balkans commission sharply rebuked Albania for re¬ fusing to co-operate with it in settling Albanian-Greek differ¬ ences.

fines of $1,400,000 on United First meeting of Perma¬ Mine Workers and $20,000 on nent Organ of western Eu¬ its leader, John L. Lewis, for ropean union’s Consultative criminal and civil contempt council took place in London. in failing to obey April 3 court order to return to work. Gen. Lucius D. Clay said U.S. Pres. Walter Reuther of Unit¬ ed Auto Workers (C.I.O.) was badly wounded by unidentified gunman in Detroit.

U.S. presented proposal to gen¬ eral assembly for temporary U.N. trusteeship over all of Pal¬ estine. Civil war in Costa Rica termi¬ nated with surrender of Com¬ munist-backed government for¬ ces to right-wing rebels support¬ ing Otilio Ulate Blanco, suc¬ cessful candidate in Feb. 8 presi¬ dential election, cancellation of which by congress had touched off revolt.

01

Pres.Truman namedSec’y of Commerce W. Averell Harriman to be chief European representative of Economic Co¬ operation administration, with rank of ambassador-at-large. Preliminary 80-day antistrike injunction was issued against United Mine WorkersunderTaftHartley law. W. L. Mackenzie King com¬ pleted his 7,621st day as Cana¬ da’s prime minister, thus exceed¬ ing the hitherto record tenure of Sir Robert Walpole (1721-42) as a prime minister under British crown. Zionist forces captured Haifa, forcing Arab evacua¬ tion of Palestine port. British Liberal party conven¬ tion at Blackpool approved coownership in industry as part of party program. Charles Sawyer, former U.S. ambassador to Belgium, was named sec’y of commerce in succession to W. Averell Har¬ riman. Czechoslovakia and Bul¬ garia signed 20-year friend¬ ship and mutual aid pact in Prague.

planes would continue to follow terms of 1945 4-power accord governing flights into Berlin after soviet authorities announced they would try to impose new restrictions on air traffic into Berlin. Soviet Union abandoned its boycott of U.N. Trustee¬ ship council with appointment of Semyon K. Tsarapkin as its first representative. U.S. troops put down riot of several thousand Koreans in Kobe, Japan, said to have been Communist-inspired.

tionalization of industry, leaving only about 8% of total volume of trade and industry in private hands.

Chakravarti Rajagopalachari, Hindu nationalist leader, was appointed tosucceed Earl Mountbatten of Burma as governorgeneral of dominion of India.

External Affairs Minister Louis St. Laurent an¬ nounced Canada’s willingness to participate in collective security arrangements under U.N. charter with nations opposed to totali¬ tarian communist aggression.

4

Albert Forster, former nazi gauleiter in Danzig (Gdansk), was sentenced to death by Po¬ lish court for arranging German seizure of city in 1939. Defense ministers of Brit¬ ain, Belgium, France, Lux¬ embourg and the Netherlands established joint military com¬ mittee in London to examine common defense problems. New Organization of Amer¬ ican States was created by

treaties signed at closing ses¬ sion of Inter-American con¬ ference at Bogota; its charter provided for peaceful settle¬ ment of disputes among 21 member nations.

Congress of Soviet Composers passed resolution criticizing Aram Khachaturian and 5 other soviet composers for failure to follow soviet collective line.

Greek army claimed decisive victory over guerrillas in Mt. Parnassus-Mt. Ghiona area of central Greece.

King George VI and Queen Elizabeth, celebrating silver wedding anniversary, were hailed by almost 1,000,000 Londoners in tour of city.

MAY

King Abdullah ibn H ussein of Trans-Jordan demanded sover¬ eignty over all of Palestine in letter to British High Commis¬ sioner Sir Alan G. Cunningham in which he threatened to move into Palestine before May 15 with his own army—the crack British-trained Arab legion— and those of other Arab states. Haganah, Jewish militia, and the dissident Irgun Zvai Leumi group reached for¬ mal agreement on military oper¬ ations against Arabs. John Platts-Mills, pro¬ soviet member of British parliament, was expelled from Labour party for his general po¬ litical conduct; 21 other Labour¬ ites were threatened with expul¬ sion for their action in support¬ ing left-wing Socialists in Italian elections. Czech constituent assembly passed 6 bills for intensified na¬

I

Soviet-organized people’s committee in North Korea announced establishment of “People’s Republic,” claiming jurisdiction over all of Korea and adopting soviet-type con¬ stitution. Greek government extended state of siege to all of central and southern Greece after assas¬ sination of Justice Minister Christos Ladas by member of communist terrorist group.

3

U.S. supreme court held

judicial enforcement of covenants barring Negroes and other racial groups from owning real estate to be vio¬ lation of equal protection clause of 14th amendment to U.S. constitution. Columbia university an¬ nounced award of 1948 Pulitzer prize for fiction to James A. Michener for his Tales of the South Pacific; award for best U.S. play went to Tennessee Williams for his A Streetcar Named Desire.

Execution was announced of 152 Greek leftists convicted of murders committed during German occupation and 1944 leftist revolt. Foreign Sec’y Ernest Bevin told house of commons Britain would not compromise with So¬ viet Union or leave Berlin, in for¬ eign policy report hailing steady progress which was being made toward creation of western Eu¬ ropean union.

5

Sec’y of State Marshall ad¬ vised house foreign affairs committee that proposals being considered for alteration of U.N. charter and modification of right of veto enjoyed by Big Five might result in destruction of United Nations.

6

Austrian peace treaty ne¬ gotiations in London were adjourned indefinitely as dele¬ gates of U.S., France and Great Britain reached impasse with soviet delegate over Yugoslav claims on Austria.

7

Winston Churchill urged immediate formation of allEuropean assembly as regional organization within U.N. charter in address before unofficial con¬ gress of Europe at The Hague.

9

New soviet-type constitu¬ tion was unanimously ap¬ proved by Czechoslovakia’s re¬ vamped constituent assembly. in

lU

Nation-wide railroad strike was called off when

government obtained injunc¬ tion ordering union leaders to rescind calls for walkout after Pres. Truman had di¬ rected army department to seize lines. Moscow radio reported accept¬ ance by Soviet Union of alleged U.S. proposal for conference to resolve U.S.-soviet differences which, it claimed, had been made by U.S. Ambassador Walter

The pictures on this page are, left to right: HOFFMAN.April 5 ABDULLAH.April 26 WILLIAMS.May 3 SMITH.May 10 WEIZMANN.May 16

CALENDAR OF EVENTS«1948 MAY—Continued Bedell Smith in a previously un¬ published note to Foreign Minis¬ ter Molotov. Pres. Truman accepted resig¬ nation of Sec’y of Agriculture Clinton P. Anderson who left cabinet to stand for election to senate in New Mexico. Elections for national assembly were carried out under U.N. ob¬ servation in U.S. zone of Korea amid widespread violence.

M

Senator Luigi Einaudi was elected first president of Italy by chamber of deputies and senate in joint session. Henry A. Wallace, third party candidate for president, put for¬ ward several proposals for im¬ provement of U.S.-soviet rela¬ tions in open letter to Premier Joseph Stalin. 10 Queen Wilhelmina of the lA Netherlands announced in radio broadcast that she would abdicate in favour of her daugh¬ ter Juliana after celebration of her 50th anniversary on Dutch throne in September. Sec’y of State Marshall denied that Ambassador Smith had pro¬ posed bilateral negotiations be¬ tween U.S. and Soviet Union, as claimed by Moscow radio, and said only purpose of exchange of views between Smith and Mo¬ lotov was to delineate official U.S. policy, which, he indicated, remained unchanged. IQ Andrei A. Gromyko dis10 closed his replacement as head of soviet delegation to U.N. byJacobA. Malik, deputy foreign minister for far eastern affairs. M

14

Establishment of Jewish

state in Palestine, to be known as Israel, was pro¬ claimed by Jewish National council in Tel Aviv; David Ben-Gurion was named prime minister and Moshe Shertok foreign minister of provision¬ al government, whose recog¬ nition as de facto authority in new state was immedi-

The pictures on this page are, left to right: STALIN.May 17 GOTTWALD.June S DEWEY. .June 24 WARREN.June 25 TITO.June 28

ately announced Truman.

by

Pres. listed in Wallace-Stalin corre¬

Special session of U.N. general assembly adjourned after abol¬ ishing Palestine commission and approving British-supported plan for appointment of mediator who was to attempt to obtain peace and carry on public services in Palestine. 1C

British mandate in Pales-

spondence concerned world at large and could be settled by reg¬ ular international agencies. Count Folke Bernadotte

of Sweden was unani¬ mously chosen by Big Five powers to serve as U.N. med¬ iator in Palestine pursuant to general assembly resolution. U.S. packing-house work¬ ers called off 67-day strike against all major meat-packing companies except one, after ac¬ cepting raise offered by compan¬ ies at start of strike.

lu tine expired at one min¬ ute past midnight; forces of Arab states were reported to be invading country from north, east and south under over-all command of King Abdullah of Trans-Jordan Pres. Truman signed $3,198,whose crack Arab legion 100,000 aircraft procurement bill spearheaded attack on Jeru¬ authorizing 70-group air force. salem. jC Chaim Weizmann, veterlU an Zionist leader, was elec¬ ted provisional president of state of Israel. |T Soviet Premier Stalin de11 dared in Moscow that terms of Henry A. Wallace's open let¬ ter offered a good and fruitful basis for resolution of U.S. and soviet differences. U.S. delegate Warren Austin introduced resolution in Security council describing situation in Palestine as threat to world peace and demanding that council or¬ der truce within 36 hours. U.S. Atomic Energy commis¬ sion reported completion of ser¬ ies of tests involving three atomic weapons, each of improved de¬ sign, at proving grounds on Eniwetok atoll in Marshall Islands; at Lake Success, N.Y., U.N. Atomic Energy commission vot¬ ed to suspend its work, propos¬ ing that problem of seeking in¬ ternational control of atomic energy be turned over to general assembly. IQ Foreign office said British 10 subsidies, arms and officers would not be withdrawn from Arab armed forces unless U.N. decided Arabs were acting il¬ legally; Israeli forces announced surrender of Arab garrison at port of Acre, north of Haifa. James Griffiths, minister of national insurance, was elected chairman of British Labour par¬ ty’s national executive during annual conference at Scarbor¬ ough, England. IQ Sec’y of State Marshall Iw told press conference that all of the outstanding disputes

U.N. Security council adopted compromise resolu¬ tion calling on Arabs and Jews to cease fire in Palestine within 36 hours, after rejecting sovietsupported U.S. resolution that Arab invasion be defined as threat to world peace under U.N. charter. Finnish President Juho K. Paasikivi dismissed Communist Interior Minister Yrjoe Leino following latter’s censure by par¬ liament for handing over Finnish citizens to Soviet Union in 1945. Government of Lebanon rejected U.S. demand for re¬ lease of 41 U.S. citizens, de¬ scribed by Lebanon as Zionists of military age, who had been taken off U.S. ship at Beirut. Soviet delegate Gromyko raised total of soviet vetoes in U.N. Security council to 25 when he vetoed proposal to es¬ tablish subcommittee for hearing of evidence on situation in Czech¬ oslovakia. Assistant Sec’y of Agriculture Charles F. Bran nan was pro¬ moted to the secretaryship in succession to Clinton P. Anderson. Premier Alcide de Gasperi’s sixth postwar cabinet was sworn in by President Luigi Ein¬ audi; Communists and left-wing Socialists were again excluded. Wong Wen-hao, a moderate and one of China’s leading scien¬ tists, was appointed premier by President Chiang Kai-shek. Chaim Weizmann, Isra¬ el’s provisional president, announced after conference with Pres. Truman that he had been given some hope that U.S. would

7 lift middle east arms embargo and grant Israel a requested loan of nearly $100,000,000. General Motors Corp. averted strike of its auto workers by granting 11-cent hourly increase to 225,000 employees under unique contract which tied wages to living costs. Arab nations rejected de¬ mand of U. N. Security coun¬ cil for cease-fire order and gave council 48 hours in which to sub¬ mit proposal for settlement of Palestine problems; Israeli lead¬ ers asserted they would not issue cease-fire order until Arabs did. Communists in Finland can¬ celled general strike call when leftist Eino Kilpi was named in¬ terior minister in place of Com¬ munist leader Yrjoe Leino, whose dismissal had caused government crisis. Pres. Truman ordered in¬ vestigation of state depart¬ ment’s “Voice of America” for¬ eign-language program after con¬ gressmen disclosed several in¬ stances in which U.S. states had been allegedly slandered by broadcasts beamed to foreign na¬ tions. International Court of Justice ruled 9 to 6 in its first postwar decision that So¬ viet Union had no right to veto application of a nation for mem¬ bership in U.N. because another nation was not admitted. Garrison in Jewish quarter of old city of Jerusalem surren¬ dered to Trans-Jordanian forces after holding out for 12 days; modern Jerusalem remained un¬ der Israeli control. Gen. Jan Smuts resigned as premier of Union of South Africa after his United National party lost its parliamentary majority in national election to a Nationalist-Afrikaans coalition pledged to uphold white supremacy in the dominion. U.N.

Security

council

adopted amended Brit¬ ish resolution calling for 4vveek truce and imposition of arms embargo in Palestine; action, which was backed up by threat of sanctions, came after rejection of soviet reso¬ lution declaring that threat to world peace existed in Palestine. Senate foreign relations com¬ mittee made public state de-

8

CALENDAR OF EVENTS* 1948

MAY—Continued partment summary showing 37 specific soviet violations of post¬ war agreements pertaining to Germany, Austria, eastern Eu¬ rope, the Balkans, Korea and Manchuria. Arab and Israeli forces en¬ gaged in major battle for control of Jerusalem-Tel Aviv supply route west of Jerusalem. Parliamentary elections in Czechoslovakia, in which the only alternatives were voting for government Communist slate or casting negative ballot, re¬ sulted in overwhelming vote for government. Q|

Syngman Rhee, U.S.-educated crusader for Korean independence, was elected chair¬ man of soviet-boycotted national assembly which convened in Se¬ oul in tJ.S. zone.

01

Soviet Union cancelled one-half of remaining reparations debt (about $75,000,000) due from Finland under 1947 treaty. 200-in. Hale telescope, world’s largest, was dedicated at Palomar Mountain observatory of California Institute of Tech¬ nology.

4

Israeli warship and planes were reported to have driven off Egyptian naval task force at¬ tempting to land invasion army near Tel Aviv. New Nationalist-Afrikaaner cabinet took oath of allegiance to King George VI in Pretoria, Union of South Africa; Prime Minister Daniel F. Malan said dominion’s continued adherence to U.N. was contingent upon noninterference in union’^ do¬ mestic affairs.

House passed by voice vote $5,980,710,228 omnibus foreignU.S.-British-French-Benelux aid appropriation bill—a slash conference on Germany in of $1,500,000,000 from adminis¬ London announced that tration requests.

agreement had been reached on plans for setting up west German state early in 1949, for establishing international authority to control Ruhr industrial area and for pre¬ venting future German ag¬ gression by stationing U.S., British and French troops in Germany for an indefinite period.

■

JUNE

Israeli planes bombed Am¬ man, capital of Trans-Jordan, where Arab leaders were assem¬ bled to consider U.N. truce ap¬ peal.

2

U.N. Security council de¬ cided both Israel and Arab states had accepted uncondition¬ ally its demand for 4-week truce despite reservations by both sides, and asked Count Folke Bernadotte, U.N. mediator in Palestine, to set time for the cease-fire order. Pope Pius XII told Roman Catholic cardinals resident in Rome that communism could best be halted by adoption of social reforms helping poor. British house of 181 to 28 to reject proved by house of abolition of death 5-year trial period.

lords voted proposal ap¬ conimons for penalty for

3

5

Atomic Energy commis¬ sion announced plans for building world’s most powerful atom smasher at Los Alamos, N.M., at cost of $2,000,000.

7

Eduard Benes resigned as president of Czechoslovak republic, reportedl}' because of unwillingness to sign new Communist-sponsored constitu¬ tion. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower assumed office as 13th president of Columbia university in New York city.

4-week truce between Arab and Israeli forces went into effect in Palestine. Senate passed by vote of 64 to 4 a resolution declaring that ex¬ tension of military aid to defen¬ sive alliances of free nations was a high national policy of United States. 10 Pres. Truman declared \lm that U.S. would not permit the world to be split into'two spheres of influence, dominated by U.S. and Soviet Union, in ma¬ jor foreign policy speech at Berke¬ ley, Calif., accusing U.S.S.R. of obstruction and aggression. IQ Appointment was an10 nounced in Geneva, Switz., of David Morse, U.S. ass’t sec’y of labour, as director-general of International Labour organiza¬ tion in succession to Edward J. Phelan.

Approval by U.S. and British governments of 6-power confer¬ ence’s recommendations on west¬ ern Germany was announced in London by Foreign Sec’y Bevin and in Washington by Sec’y of State Marshall.

in Air Force Sec’y W. Stuart lU Symington revealed that U.S. rocket-propelled experimen¬ tal plane had exceeded the speed of sound in level flight, during repeated tests.

U.N. Commission on Human Rights adopted draft of declar¬ ation of human rights; abstain¬ ing soviet bloc members criti¬ cized it as weak and ineffective. Compromise stop-gap draft measure was ap¬

Ord inance giving greater degree of self-government to AngloEgyptian Sudan was promulgat¬ ed by Governor-General Sir Robert Howe with approval of British government.

||r U.S. proposal for internalu tional conference on free navigation of Danube river was accepted by Soviet Union, ac¬ cording to announcement of state department.

Congress adjourned af¬

IP

State of Israel and members of Arab league accepted un¬ conditionally terms laid down by U.N. mediator Count Berna¬ dotte for 4-week truce in Pales¬ tine.

Soviet occupation authorities issued order banning all motor, railway and pedestrian traffic be¬ tween Berlin and western zones of Germany.

Nation-wide maritime strike was temporarily averted by re¬ straining orders signed by federal judges in New York, Cleveland and San Francisco at request of dep’t of justice.

Czechoslovakia’s new consti¬ tution was signed by Premier Klement Gottwald as acting head of state.

9

Serious outbreak of crime and violence, allegedly Communistinspired, forced British officials to impose emergency regulations throughout Federation of Ma¬ laya.

M Communist leader Kle14 ment Gottwald was elect¬ ed president of Czechoslovakia by national assembly; deputy premier Antonin Zapotocky suc¬ ceeded Gottwald as premier.

Soviet Union halved repara¬ tions payments due from Hungary and Rumania under 1947 treaties.

8

Yugoslav border; Pres. Truman said Greece’s situation was still critical in report to congress on Greek aid.

proved by house in 259-136 vote and by senate in voice vote after 17-hour filibuster; measu re required registration of all men from 18 to 25 years old, with possible period of service of 21 months for those from 19 to 25 years old.

U.N. Security council rejected soviet demand that U.N. truce observation team in Palestine be made up of representatives from all nations on council except Syria, rather than U.S., French and Belgian nationals alone.

Pres. Higinio Mormigo of Paraguay was deposed in Pres. Truman called 80th con¬ bloodless coup d’etat which gave gress the worst in the history of Juan Manuel Frutos office of in¬ the country in speech at Spo¬ terim president. kane, Wash. Britain suspended arms ship¬ ments to Arab states for dura¬ tion of truce period and also barred departure from Cyprus internment camps of able-bodied Jews of military age.

N

Senate voted total appropriation of $6,125,710,000 for foreign aid, placing program on 12-month basis instead of 15month basis voted by house.

10

French national assem11 bly accepted with reserva¬ tions 6-power London program for western Germany by vote of 297 to 289.

ter all-night session dur¬ ing which house and senate agreed on compromise ap¬ propriation of $6,030,710,228 for global relief, including $5,055,000,000 for European Recovery program. Currency reform in 3 western zones of Germany was instituted by Allied military governments; old reichsmark was invalidated as deutschemark became the new currency. Q|

U.S. and British authorities in Germany instituted special air services to maintain flow of passenger traffic and es¬ sential supplies to and from Ber¬ lin.

41

Republican party opened na¬ tional convention in Philadel¬ phia, Pa.

Pres. Truman’s veto of bill ex¬ empting railway rate pacts from the antitrust laws was overrid¬ den in the house 297 to 102 after the senate had taken similar ac¬ tion; the veto was third in four days to be rejected by congress.

Fighting broke out in Tel Aviv between Israeli gov¬ ernment forces and Irgun Zvai Leumi irregulars after the latter group tried to land military equipment from a ship off the Palestine coast.

Indian Premier Jawaharlal Nehru reported breakdown of negotiations with Hyderabad in statement reiterating India’s re¬ fusal to recognize independence of large princely state.

James G. McDonald, expert on refugee problems, was named Pres. Truman’s personal repre¬ sentative in state of Israel.

|Q Greek army opened large¬ ly scale offensive against guer¬ rilla stronghold near Albanian-

Soviet delegate Gromyko ve¬ toed U.S. resolution for approv¬ al by Security council of majori¬ ty plan for international control of atomic energy drawn up by

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1948 JUNE—Continued U.N. Atomic Energy commis¬ sion. British government called in troops to move food sup¬ plies tied up by 10-day “out¬ law” strike of London dockworkers.

Last British troops were evacuated from Palestine through port of Haifa. Anglo-U.S. determination to remain in Berlin was asserted by Foreign Sec’y Bevin and Sec’y of State Marshall.

JULY

Gov. Thomas E. Dewey

of New York was unani¬ mously chosen Republican nominee for president on third ballot at party’s con¬ vention in Philadelphia. Peacetime selective service bill was signed by President Truman. Communique issued in War¬ saw by soviet Foreign Minister Molotov and 7 east European foreign ministers demanded 4power control of Ruhr, crea¬ tion of “democratic” central German government, conclusion of a peace treaty with Germany, end of occupation and fulfilment of Germany’s reparations obli¬ gations. Soviet land and water block¬ ade of Berlin was completed

by stoppage of rail freight traffic from Berlin to Helmstedt because of “technical difficulties.” Gov. Earl Warren of Cali¬ fornia was named Republi¬ can party’s vice-presidential can¬ didate. Joe Louis retained world heavy¬ weight boxing championship by knocking out “Jersey Joe” Wal¬ cott at Yankee stadium. New York. John L. Lewis, head of United Mine Workers, signed new oneyear agreement with soft-coal operators. U.S. military authorities in Europe began mobiliza¬ tion of all available aircraft for air-shuttle service to Berlin. Soviet-dominated Cominform accused Marshal Tito and Yugoslav Communist party of retreating from soviet line in foreign and domestic poli¬ cies and inspiring hateful policy against Soviet Union. Pres. Truman signed $6,030,710,228 foreign-aid bill. Count Bernadotte presented new peace proposals to Arab league and state of Israel. Central committee of Yugoslav Communist party denied all charges levelled at it by Caminform. Dockworkers in England ac¬ cepted Prime Minister Attlee’s appeal to end strike after King George VI had declared state of emergency.

(Soviet representatives with¬ drew from Allied Kommandatura for Berlin—last 4-power governing body functioning in Germany. Pres. Truman signed compro¬ mise housing bill but assailed it as slipshod in not including pro¬ visions for slum clearance and public housing. West German provincial lead¬ ers were authorized by U.S., British and French military gov¬ ernors to take steps toward formation of constitutional regime.

2

Sec’y of Treasury John W. Snyder announced the U.S. government had ended the fiscal year with a surplus of $8,419,469,844, highest in the nation’s history. Bucharest radio reported im¬ minent transfer of Cominform headquarters from Belgrade, Yugo., to Bucharest, Rum.

3

Alban ia broke off trade and cultural relations with Yugo¬ slavia and ordered all Yugoslav missions to leave country. Marshal Vasili Sokolovski re¬ fused to lift soviet blockade of Berlin at brief meeting with other zonal commanders.

4

U.N.Sec’y-General Trygve Lie made public Count Bernadotte’s suggestions for resolu¬ tion of Palestine crisis; they en¬ visaged formation of federal re¬ gime composed of a Jewish and an Arab state, latter including Jerusalem area and also Trans¬ jordan, originally part of Pales¬ tine mandate. Pres. Enrique Jimenez sus¬ pended constitutional guaran¬ tees after series of political clash¬ es in Panama. Record load of almost 3,000 tons of food was flown into Berlin by 362 U.S. and British planes.

5

British Labour govern¬ ment’s comprehensive na¬ tional health and social security program, covering 30,000,000 people, went into operation un¬ der provisions of 4 separate acts of parliament.

6

Government of Israel fol¬ lowed Arab league in rejecting Count Bernadotte’s proposals for resolution of Arab-Jewish differ¬ ences.

Britain, U.S. and France, in parallel notes reiterating their determination to stay in Berlin, called on Soviet Union to lift land and water blockade of western sectors of Berlin immediately.

7

U.N. Security council voted 8 to 0 (U.S.S.R., Ukraine and Syria abstaining) to urge Israel and members of Arab league to extend truce in Palestine. Malcolm MacDonald, British commissioner-general in south¬ east Asia, charged in radio broad¬ cast that Communists had planned to stage a violent revo¬ lution in Malaya and seize the government by force. French national assembly ap¬ proved pact with U.S. on ERP aid by vote of 336 to 183, with Communists in opposition and De Gaullists abstaining.

8

British foreign office dis¬ closed that Britain, U.S. and France had suspended all repar¬ ations shipments to Soviet Union from their zones in Germany.

9 U

Attempted assassination of Palmiro Togliatti, Italian Communist leader, by Sicilian student touched off strikes and rioting throughout Italy. Soviet Union rejected AngloU.S.-French protest on Berlin blockade in note which main¬ tained western powers had for¬ feited all legal status in Berlin by violating Yalta and Potsdam pacts for 4-power rule in Ger¬ many. 35 Alabama and Mississippi delegates walked out of Demo¬ cratic national convention at Philadelphia in protest against civil-rights stand taken by ma¬ jority of convention. |C

U.N.

Security

Council

IJ approved by vote of 7 to 1 a U.S. resolution directing a cease-fire order in Palestine, backed up by threat of eco¬ nomic and military sanctions under U.N. charter. Democratic national conven¬ tion nominated Pres. Tru¬

man and Sen. Alben W. Barkley of Kentucky for Drastic cuts in use of electricity president and vice-president; were ordered in western sectors Truman announced in his acceptance speech that he of Berlin to conserve coal. would call congress back for Fighting was renewed be¬ special summer session to tween Israeli and Arab forces act on legislation he con¬ in Palestine when they failed to sidered necessary.

9

agree on extension of 4-week truce period. U.N. “Little Assembly” voted 19 to 7 to request general assem¬ bly to take up question of amend¬ ing U.N. charter, particularly in reference to veto. Gen. Dwight Eisenhower made final and complete refusal to be drafted as Democratic party’s presidential nominee in telegram to Sen. Claude Pepper. |n Israeli forces made imporlU tant gains in Arab-held ter¬ ritory in central Palestine, seiz¬ ing key airport at Lydda. U.S. planes participating in air lift to Berlin were accused by soviet authorities of gross breaches of air safety regulations.

M

U.S. participation in 46 international organizations during fiscal year 1947-48 cost about $109,600,000, according to senate report made public in Washington.

10 British government held \L up quarterly subsidy of £500,000 to Trans-Jordan pend¬ ing outcome of U.N. Security council debate on Palestine.

Gen. John J. Pershing, com¬ mander of A.E.F. in World War I, died at age of 87. |C

Democratic party leaders in South Carolina were or¬ dered by U.S. district judge in Charleston to enrol both Ne¬ groes and whites or be impris¬ oned for contempt of court.

10

Nazareth, in Arab western Gali¬ lee, was captured by Israeli forces. Leo Durocher replaced Mel Ott as manager of the N.Y. Giants baseball team, Burt Shotton suc¬ ceeded Durocher as Brooklyn Dodgers pilot and Ben Chapman was dismissed as Philadelphia Phillies manager. States’ Rights Democrats convention at Birming¬ ham, Ala., nominated Gov. J. Strom Thurmond of South Car¬ olina for presidency of the U.S. and Gov. Fielding L. Wright of Mississippi for vice-presi¬ dency. Maj. Gen. Lewis B. Hershey was reappointed director of se¬ lective service by Pres. Truman.

IQ Count Bernadotte made 10 personal appeal to U.N. Se¬ curity council for unequivocal cease-fire order in Palestine.

IQ

Indefinite truce went into effect in Palestine upon Arab-Israeli acceptance of U.N. Security council order.

John L. Lewis called off 1-week strike'of “captive” coal miners after 18 steel companies signed new contracts.

2 U.S. Superfortress groups arrived at new stations in Eng¬ land for “short period of tempo¬ rary duty.”

10

CALENDAR OF EYENTS*1948

10 JULY—Continued

IQ

Socialist demands for reIw duction of military budget forced resignation of French Premier Robert Schuman. U.S. and Yugoslavia signed agreement for release of Yugo¬ slav assets frozen in U.S. William Z. Foster and 11 other U.S. Communist leaders were indicted by fed¬ eral grand jury in New York on charges of advocating forceful overthrow of U.S. government.

All rail traffic from western zones of Germany to soviet zone was ordered halted by U.S. and British authorities. Premiers of 11 west German states formally accepted respon¬ sibility for setting up west Ger¬ man regime. Pres. Truman urged im¬ mediate enactment of anti-inflation and public housing measures and adop¬ tion of his civil-rights pro¬ gram in message to special session of congress.

91

arshal Tito charged Cominform with attempt¬ ing to provoke civil war in Yu¬ goslavia in speech at Yugoslav Communist party congress.

Explosion and fire at the I. G. Farben chemical works in Ludwigshafen in the French zone of Germany killed at least 184 persons and injured 2,500 more. ,

Soviet offer to feed all of Berlin was denounced as pure propa¬ ganda in British official state¬ ment.

Soviet demand for reinstate¬ ment of ousted Communist po¬ lice chief in Berlin was rejected by city’s acting mayor.

British government’s compromise clause for modification of death penalty was abandoned in house of com¬ mons by vote of 215 to 34 after house of lords had rejected it. People of Newfoundland voted by narrow majority in favour of confederation with Canada instead of return to responsible self-government. Communist party and 3 affiliates were outlawed by British authorities in Malaya. Plans for assignment of addi¬ tional large air transports to double capacity of Berlin air lift were announced in Washington by Gen. Lucius Clay. Henry A. Wallace and Sen. Glen Taylor of Idaho were named presidential and vice-presidential candidates of Progressive party at pau-ty’s first convention in Philadelphia. Andrd Marie, new French pre¬ mier, received 352-190 vote of confidence from national assem¬ bly. Rationing of bread and flour was ended in Britain at mid¬ night. Chancellor of Exchequer Sir Stafford Cripps an¬ nounced plans for formation of joint Anglo-U.S. council of em¬ ployer and union representatives to examine means of increasing British production.

mittee that two former aides of Pres. Roosevelt had given her secret data, later sent to Russia.

Federal Communications commission announced plans to investigate radio giveaway programs as violations of federal lottery laws.

AUGUST

Provincial government of Wuer tt ember g-Ho!henzollern in French zone of Germany resigned in protest against French reparations policy.

■

Israeli Foreign Minister Moshe Shertok advised Count Bernadotte, U.N. medi¬ ator in Palestine, that his gov¬ ernment could not readmit Arab refugees to their former homes as long as a state of war existed,

2

Envoys of the U.S., Britain and France met in Moscow Special session of congress with soviet Premier Stalin and adjourned after enacting Foreign Minister Molotov to limited housing and anti¬ discuss the Berlin situation. inflation measures. Arab states were warned by Israeli authorities that violations Maurice Tobin of Boston, by them of truce in Palestine Mass., was named sec’y of might mean renewal of hostili¬ labour by President Truman. ties.

3

8 former U.S. government officials were accused of Marshal Tito was re-elected having been leaders in a pre¬ secretary-general of Y ugoslav war Communist under¬ Communist party by party con¬ ground movement in Wash¬ gress in Belgrade. ington, D.C., by Whittaker Chambers, admitted former Southern Democrats in Communist. U.S. senate began filibuster to prevent passage of antipoll- Leftist leader Arpad Szakasits tax legislation. was elected by Hungarian parlia¬ ment as president of Hungary in King George VI formally succession to Zoltan Tildy, who opened 14th modem Olympic resigned after his son-in-law was games in ceremony at Wem¬ charged with high treason. bley stadium, London. U.N. Trusteeship council Finland’s first postwar cabi¬ rejected soviet motion to net without Communist repre¬ place South-West Africa under sentation was formed in Helsinki trust system but approved re¬ by Karl Fagerholm, Social Dem¬ port criticizing Union of South ocrat leader. Africa’s administration of man¬ date. Harold E. Stassen, unsuccess¬ ful aspirant for Republican pres¬ 5-day filibuster of southern idential nomination, accepted senators forced abandonment by appointment as president of senate of antipoll-tax bill, University of Pennsylvania. House of representatives Pres. Truman warned con¬ passed by vote of 164 to 27 gress, in letter accompany¬ a senate-approved bill authoriz¬ ing midyear economic report, ing $65,000,000 loan for con¬ that only anti-inflation curbs struction of U.N. headquarters would prevent business collapse. in New York city.

4

5

International conference on control of Danube river opened in Belgrade.

01

Count Bernadotte recom¬ mended to U.N. Security council that it affirm right of estimated 300,000 Arab refugees to return to their homes in Israeli terri¬ tory.

Elizabeth Bentley, confessed communist spy, told house com¬

Pres. Truman denounced con¬ gressional anti-Communist in¬ vestigations as red herrings de¬ signed to divert public attention from inadequacies in Republican legislative program.

Q|

Western powers were told by Andrei Vishinsky, chief soviet delegate, they could ac¬ cept soviet-dictated Danube river pact or leave Belgrade conference.

Formation of new 3-party coal¬ ition cabinet headed by Dutch Socialist leader Willem Drees was announced in The Hague, the Netherlands.

7

U.N. Sec’y-General Trygve Lie asserted in annual report to general assembly that key to suc¬ cess of United Nations was Ger¬ many. Canadian Liberal party con¬ vention elected Louis S. St. Laurent to succeed Prime Minis¬ ter W. L. Mackenzie King as party leader.

8

Poland and Czechoslovakia announced plans for estab¬ lishment in the Katowice (Poland)-Ostrava (Czechoslovakia) area of huge industrial region rivalling the Ruhr.

9

Soviet Ambassador Alex¬ ander Panyushkin de¬ manded surrender to soviet au¬ thorities of Mikhail 1. Samarin, Russian teacher who had sought the protection of the Federal Bureau of Investigation in New York city. in Gaekwar of Baroda, south lU Indian native state, was charged by Baroda legislature with having misused nearly $10,000,000 in state funds or personal spending spree.

M

Count Bernadotte called on Arabs and Jews to halt new outbreak of fighting in Te' rusalem.

The pictures on this page are, left to right: THURMOND.July 17 WALLACE.July 24 BENTLEY.July 31 BERNADOTTE.Aug. 1 TOBIN.Aug. 7

11

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1948 A UGU ST—Con fin ued 10 State dep’t announced iim U.S. recognition of sovietboycotted government of South Korea. Mrs. Oksana S. Kosenkina, Russian teacher, was seriously injured in jump from window of soviet consulate in New York city where she had been brought by soviet officials who claimed they had rescued her from White Russian kidnappers. 10

Belgrade conference on 10 Danube navigation voted 7 to 3 to exclude the U.S., Britain, France and Austria from international regime to be set up for control of Danube. Appointment was announced of Laurence A. Steinhardt as U.S. ambassador to Canada in succession to Ray Atherton.

U

Government of Egypt notified Count Bernadotte that it could not accede to pro¬ posal made by Israel for direct Arab-Israeli peace negotiations. Olympic games ended in Lon¬ don; U.S. placed first in unoffi¬ cial team standings and also led in first-place winners with 38. |C Inauguration of Republic lu of Korea was formally pro¬ claimed by Pres. Syngman Rhee in ceremony at Seoul attended by Gen. Douglas MacArthur. Defense Sec’y James Forrestal arrived in Ottawa to discuss defense problems with Canadian Defense Minister Brooke Claxton.

Maritime union had violated Taft-Hartley act by insisting upon acceptance of hiring hall provision as condition prece¬ dent to collective bargaining with shipowners. Application of the dominion of Ceylon for admission to the U.N. was vetoed by Jacob A. Malik, the soviet delegate on the Securi¬ ty council. Danube navigation confer¬ ence at Belgrade ended with

adoption of convention legal¬ izing monopoly of river ship¬ ping by Soviet Union and its satellite states. U.S. con¬ demned convention, as its delegate and those of France and Great Britain refused to sign.

IQ

Pres. Chiang Kai-shek Iw announced issuance of new Chinese currency based on gold as part of drastic economic re¬ form program designed to sta¬ bilize wages and prices.

tion about U.S. by means of re¬ quests for information sent to U.S. businessmen by east Euro¬ pean “societies,” “journalists” and “museums.” World Council of Churches opened its first constituent assembly in Amster¬ dam, the Netherlands.

Giant flying boat, “Caroline Mars,” landed at Chicago after nonstop flight from Honolulu in record-breaking time of 24 hr. 9 min.

Directors of New York’s Metropolitan opera can¬ celled plans to suspend opera¬ tions after union leaders agreed to drop wage increase de¬ mands.

Japanese government’s ordi¬ nance prohibiting strikes of civil service workers was assailed at meeting of Allied Control council in Tokyo by Maj Geru Andrei Kislenko, soviet member.

Premier Thakin Nu called on Burmese people to assist an allout effort to put down commu¬ nist-backed revolt.

Israel and Egypt accepted U.N. plan to neutralize zone surrounding Red Cross area in Jerusalem.

U.S., British and French en¬ voys met for seventh time in 3 weeks with Premier Stalin in ef¬ fort to find basis for settlement of Berlin question.

Praesidium of soviet supreme council issued decree permitting soviet citizens to buy or build private houses.

Soviet Union announced

Federal reserve board reim¬ posed federal controls, to become effective on Sept. 20, on most instalment credit purchases be¬ tween $50 and $5,000.

closing of its 2 consul¬ ates in U.S. at New York and San Francisco, and requested U.S. to close its only consulate in the U.S.S.R., at Vladivos¬ tok.

U.N. Security council adopted, at the request of Count Berna¬ dotte, a resolution warning both Arab and Israeli forces not to violate the terms of the Palestine truce.

Mrs. Oksana Kosenkina told press conference that her jump from window of soviet consulate in New York was prompted by desire to escape from soviet authorities.

Greek Premier Themistocles Sophoulis declared in order of day issued in Athens that Greek forces had defeated communist guerrillas in Grammos area of northern Greece.

averted issued Medina in New

by 80-day injunction by Judge Harold R. in a federal district court York.

Truman signed bill authorizing bank-credit curbs and reimposition of con¬ sumer credit controls but as¬ sailed congress for passing only tiny fraction of measures he had requested.

U.S. government ordered expulsion of Jacob M. Lomaldn, soviet consul gen¬ eral at New York, for im¬ proper conduct in connection with case of Mrs. Oksana S. Kosenkina.

Alger H iss, former state dep’t official, denied charges made by Whittaker Chambers that he was member of prewar Communist underground in Washington in testimony before house unAmerican activities committee.

“Babe” Ruth, famous baseball star of New York Yankee team, died of cancer.

Deferment of married men, men with dependents and most farmers was ordered by Pres. Truman in regulations’governing peacetime draft.

State of emergency was declared in dominion of Pakistan in effort to cope with economic effects of recent mass population movements.

0| David E. Lilienthal, chair41 man of U.S. Atomic Energy commission, announced that the U.S., Britain and Canada were continuing their wartime policy of co-operation in atomic re¬ search.

Berlin’s city assembly was pre¬ vented from meeting for second successive day by Communist raids.

IQ 10

National Labor Relations board ruled that National

The pictures on this page are, left to right: MacARTHUR.Aug. 15 JULIANA.Sept. 6 ST. LAURENT.Sept. 7 QUEUILLE.Sept. 10 BUNCHE.Sept. 26

U.S. army intelligence offi¬ cials warned that Soviet Union was collecting strategic informa¬

Government of Hydera¬ bad requested U.N. Sec’yGeneral Trygve Lie to bring Hyderabad’s dispute with India to attention of Security council Soviet Foreign Minister Mol¬ otov and western envoys were

reported to have agreed on basis for resumption of nego¬ tiations on Berlin situation in their ninth meeting with¬ in 4 weeks.

Registration began for second U.S. peacetime draft, with Threatened strike of 45,000 25-year-old men the first to east-coast dockworkers was be enrolled.

IR

IQ

Cabinet of French Premier An¬ dre Marie resigned as result of differences concerning economic and financial reforms. .

Infiltration of numerous Communist espionage rings into U.S. government during World War II was charged by house un-American activities committee in interim report.

Q| French national assem01 bly named Robert Schuman premier by vote of 322 to 185. Allied military governors of Germany met in Berlin, pursuant to 4-power directive, in effort to agree upon a common currency for Berlin. Executive board of C.I.O. voted 35-12 to support TrumanBarkley ticket in 1948 presiden¬ tial election. Record 1-day total of 4,836 tons of supplies were carried to Berlin by Anglo-U.S. planes in 694 flights.

SEPTEMBER ■

Chinese communist radio announced establishment of “North China People’s govern¬ ment” as forerunner of new peo¬ ple’s regime for all of China.

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1948

12 SEPTEMBER—ConfinuecT Parliamentary assembly charged with writing provisional constitution for western Ger¬ many was formally constituted at Bonn. Charges that many U.N. per¬ sonnel were using their positions as cloaks for subversive activity in the U.S. were described as un¬ founded by citizen’s committee in report to Sec’y of State Mar¬ shall. Columbia university scientists reported first successful use of a sulfa-type drug to halt poliomy¬ elitis in mice.

2

Pacific-coast longshore¬ men, joined by seagoing un¬ ions, went on strike after expira¬ tion of 80-day injunction issued under Taft-Hartley act.

3 4

Eduard Benes, former presi¬ dent of Czechoslovakia, died.

Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands abdicated throne in favour of her daughter, J uliana. Israeli-Arab agreement to cre¬ ate second U.N.-Red Cross neu¬ tral zone in Jerusalem went into effect.

5

Soviet Union formally re¬ quested meeting of Big Four foreign ministers to consider problem of disposition of former Italian colonies. Polish Vice-Premier Wladyslaw Gomulka was dismissed as Polish Communist party sec’ygeneral for sponsoring nation¬ alist deviation from party line. German Communists, backed by soviet troops, forced Berlin’s city assembly to surren¬ der its quarters in soviet sector and move to British sector of Berlin. U.N. India and Pakistan com¬ mission reported to Security council its inability to arrange for cease-fire in Kashmir. Queen Juliana was formally in augurated as queen of the Neth¬ erlands in ceremony at Amster¬ dam. France’s third govern¬ mental crisis in 6 weeks was precipitated by resignation of newly formed cabinet of Robert Schuman after it failed by nar¬ row margin to obtain national assembly’s confidence. LouisSt. Laurent, Canadian ex¬ ternal affairs minister, in speech at Toronto, advocated creation of North Atlantic security sys¬ tem including U.S., Canada and signatories to Brussels pact. Negotiations of German mil¬ itary governors were sus¬ pended, reportedly because of soviet refusal to lift Berlin

blockade unless Communists were given complete control of Berlin.

8

Federal reserve board or¬ dered member ban ks of federal reserve system to increase their reserves as an anti-inflation move. British government an¬ nounced its opposition to any curtailment of German repara¬ tions shipments in reply to U.S. request for review of British rep¬ arations policy. Soviet troops fired on crowd of more than 250,000 Germans who gathered in Berlin to protest soviet and Communist activ¬ ities. in Henri Queuille, Radical lU Socialist leader, wa^ ap¬ proved as France’s new premier by national assembly. Economic Cooperation Ad¬ ministrator Paul Hoffman stated ERP aid would be with¬ held from any nation which yielded to communist or fascist control.

n

Representatives of Eu¬ ropean nations meeting in Paris reached provisional agree¬ ment on allocation of U.S. aid and intra-European credits for the year ending June 30, 1949. 10 Counter-demonstration \im sponsored by German Com¬ munists in Berlin attracted crowd of only 80,000-100,000 persons. Troops of dominion of India invaded large princely state of Hyderabad in 4-sided attack designed to force Hyderabad’s accession to India.

Dep’t of justice charged 4 lead¬ ing U.S. meat packers with fixing prices and suppressing competi¬ tion, in antitrust suit seeking their division into 14 separate companies. U.N. Security council voted to hear Hyderabad’s charges against dominion of In¬ dia, but deferred decision on question of Hyderabad’s status as independent state. ,

IP

ID

|T Count Folke Bernadotte, 11 U.N. mediator in Palestine, was assassinated' in Israeli-con¬ trolled sector of Jerusalem by members of Stern gang, Jewish terrorist group. Surrender of Hyderabad to In¬ dian troops was announced by Hyderabad’s nizam, who ordered his envoys to drop charges against India in U.N. Security council. IQ U.S. and British planes 10 carried record total of more than 7,000 tons of supplies into Berlin in 24-hr. period. Ralph J. Bunche of the U.S. was confirmed by the Security council as the temporary suc¬ cessor to Count Bernadotte as U.N. mediator in Palestine. State of emergency was de¬ clared throughout Burma after assassination of U Tin Tut, for¬ mer foreign minister. IQ Soviet foreign ministry lu announced plans to with¬ draw all soviet troops from North Korea by Jan. 1, 1949.

10

10

U.S. dep’t of army made plans to hire its own dockers to move essential army cargoes tied up by Pacific-coast longshoremen’s strike. King George VI opened special session of parliament called by Labour government for purpose of having bill reduc¬ ing veto power of house of lords passed for second time.

Special session of Britain’s house of commons passed for second time measure reduc¬ ing veto power of house of lords from 2 years to 1 year. Arab league announced forma¬ tion of Arab regime in Palestine; King Abdullah ibn Hussein of Trans-Jordan said he would not permit its formation within his “security zone” in Palestine.

M

I *T

British government advised parliament that state of the world made it necessary to keep men due for release from armed forces in service for additional 3 months. Appointment was announced of Khwaja Nazimuddin, premier of East Bengal, as acting govern¬ or-general of dominion of Pakis¬ tan in succession to Mohammed Ali Jinnah, deceased. |C Disagreement by reprelU sentatives of Big Four pow¬ ers, meeting in Paris, on future status of former Italian colonies forced referral of question to U.N. general assembly.

Foreign Sec’y Bevin told commons that Britain whole¬ heartedly supported Count Ber¬ nadotte’s final recommendations looking toward partition of Pal¬ estine—a step which had pre¬ viously been opposed by Britain.

Count Bernadette’s final re¬ port to U.N. on Palestine was published posthumously; it called for recognition of Is¬ rael but advocated transfer of Negeb area to Arabs, incor¬ poration of western Galilee in¬ to Israel and placing of Jeru¬ salem under U.N. control. 0|

Herbert Evatt of Australia was elected president of third annual session of U.N. general assembly, meeting in Paris.

Clear-cut statement of Sov¬ iet Union’s intentions in Ber¬ lin was demanded in identi¬ cal notes dispatched by Brit¬ ain, France and the U.S.; British foreign office de¬ scribed move as final effort to settle Berlin dispute. House of lords decisively rejected British Labour gov¬ ernment’s bill cutting down veto power of lords from 2 years to 1 year. Capture of Tsinan, strate¬ gic north China rail centre, was reported by Chinese com¬ munist radio. State dep’t made public U.S. note accusing Bulgaria of syste¬ matic and ruthless attacks on democracy, in violation of 1947 peace treaty. Plans to hold open hearings in atomic espionage investigation were cancelled by house unAmerican activities committee on ground that full disclosure might endanger national secur¬ ity. Soviet Union, replying to final 3-power note on Ber¬ lin, insisted on control of all traffic between Berlin and west¬ ern Germany and virtual eco¬ nomic control of Berlin as price for settlement of dispute. Soviet Union placed before U.N. general assembly a resolu¬ tion calling for reduction of armaments and international control of atomic energy. Foreign ministers of U.S., Britain and France issued joint communique an¬ nouncing their decision to submit Berlin dispute to U.N. Security council. Acting U.N. mediator Bunche called on Israel and Trans-Jor¬ dan to order immediate cease¬ fire on all fronts in Palestine. Berlin city council adopted resolution calling upon occupying powers to with¬ draw from Germany if they could not run occupation on 4-power basis.

Sec’y of State Marshall an¬ nounced U.S. support of Count Bernadotte’s final plan for se¬ curing peace in Palestine.

House un-American activi¬ ties committee issued report accusing 5 persons of wartime atomic espionage allegedly di¬ rected by soviet diplomatic rep¬ resentatives.

Greek government forces were reported to have repulsed power¬ ful communist counterattack in Mt. Vitsi region in western Mace¬ donia.

Formation of permanent common military organiza¬ tion for defense of western Eu¬ rope was announced in Paris by defense ministers of Britain,

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1948 SEPTEMBER—Confinuec/ France, Belgium, the Nether¬ lands and Luxembourg. U.S., Britain and France

formally referred Berlin blockade to U.N. Security council as threat to the peace under U.N. charter. Atomic Energy commission barred 2 allegedly Communistdominated labour unions from U.S. atomic energy plants.

agenda; soviet and Ukrainian delegates declared they would not take part in council’s consideration of matter.

10 Bill placing all arable land IA in Burma under govern¬ ment ownership was passed by Burmese parliament.

White House announced ap¬ pointment of Karl T. Compton to succeed Vannevar Bush as chairman of Research and De¬ velopment board of national military establishment.

M

Cabinet of Japanese Premier Hitoshi Ashida resigned after member was arrested on charges of misappropriation of funds.

U.N. Sec’y-General Trygve Lie presented pro¬ posals to general assembly for establishment of U.N. guard force to protect missions in field.

Gen. Lucius Clay, U.S. com¬ mander in Germany, expressed confidence that city of Berlin could be maintained indefinitely by means of Allied air lift.

Campaign to enrol 150,000 more men and women in British territorial army (national guard) was launched in London by War Sec’y Emanuel Shinwell.

British war office an¬ nounced appointment as chief of imperial general staff of Gen. Sir William Slim, wartime com¬ mander of Allied ground forces in southeast Asia.

OCTOBER

I

California statute prohibit¬ ing interracial marriages was held by California supreme court to violate equal protection clause of U.S. constitution. U.N. Truce commission ad¬ vised Security council that truce in Jerusalem was being sabotaged by misconduct of Israeli forces.

2

Soviet proposal for simul¬ taneous destruction of all existing atomic weapons and establishment of international atomic control was advanced in U.N. general assembly by soviet delegate Vishinsky. Premier George A. Drew of Ontario was elected leader of Canadian Progressive-Conserva¬ tive party in convention at Otta¬ wa. Discovery in Belgian Congo of sengierite, a new uranium-bear¬ ing ore, was reported by Colum¬ bia university mineralogist.

3

Soviet Union contended in note to U.S., Britain and France that Council of Foreign Ministers, not Security council, was proper forum for considera¬ tion of Berlin dispute and other German questions.

8

Cuba, Egypt and Norway were elected by general assembly to 2year terms on U.N. Security council in place of Belgium, Co¬ lombia and Syria.

9

Pres. Truman announced

that after consultation with Sec’y of State Marshall, he had abandoned his plan to send Chief Justice Freder¬ ick M. Vinson to Moscow to confer with Premier Stalin on east-west differences. Winston Churchill urged U.S. not to destroy its atomic bomb reserve in speech at Conserva¬ tive party conference at Llan¬ dudno, Wales, in which he said that only the atomic bomb stood between freedom and communist domination. in

Marshall Tito acknowledged that Cominform-directed economic boycott was forcing Yugoslavia to find new and more expensive sources of supply.

lU

French Interior Minister Jules Moch charged that wave of coal strikes had been insti¬ gated by Cominform as part of its program to sabotage Marshall plan.

Shigeru Yoshida, Conservative leader, was elected premier by Japanese diet.

I *f

U.S. district court in Indian¬ apolis held International Typo¬ graphical union and 4 officers in contempt of court for disobeying injunction banning closed shop conditions in its contracts. |C U.S. and British air comlu manders in Germany signed agreement merging U.S. and British air-lift groups into combined air-lift task force, headed by Maj. Gen. William H. Tunner of U.S. air force. Economic Cooperation Ad¬ ministrator Hoffman said U.S. would insist upon retention in western Germany of any fac¬ tories earmarked for reparations but found to be essential to gen¬ eral European recovery. IP Pres. Truman ordered DelU fense Sec’y Forrestal to take immediate steps to bring U.S. military reserves up to appro¬ priate strength and maximum effectiveness. Leading U.S. scientists reported formation of com¬ mittee to advise scientists in government employ of their rights in loyalty problems.

Egypt and Israel put cease-fire orders into effect in Palestine. Conference of British common¬ wealth prime ministers issued communique in London approv¬ ing western European union and Britain’s association with west¬ ern Europe. Fighting broke out be¬ tween Israeli and Syrian forces in northeastern Galilee. Chiang Kai-shek was urged

to take “vacation” in U.S. by member of legislative yuan as communist forces made new gains in north China. Soviet cabinet and Com¬ munist party jointly an¬ nounced 15-year reclamation and development project covering al¬ most 300,000,000 ac. of land in European Russia and Siberia. Soviet-type “constitution for all Germany” was adopted by soviet zone People’s council after 3-day meeting in Berlin.

Israeli forces were reported to have made important gains in Negeb desert area in face of heavy Egyptian counterattacks.

National Labor Relations board ruled that physical in¬ timidation on and oft picket line and mass picketing which blocked plant entrances consti¬ tuted illegal coercion under TaftHartley act.

IQ Foreign trade of French 10 zone of Germany was joined with that of Anglo-U.S. bizone under agreement signed in Ber¬ lin. Convoy route between Tel Aviv and Israeli settlements in Negeb area of southern Palestine was reported to have been cleared of Eg3^ptian troops by Israeli forces.

French government em¬ ployed army troops to take over strikebound coal mines in northeastern France. Soviet delegate Vishi nsky cast

Russia’s 27th veto to defeat compromise resolution ad¬ vanced in U.N. Security coun¬ U.N. Security council cil by neutral nations for unanimously voted to order settlement of Berlin dispute.

IQ lu immediate cease-fire in southern Palestine after mediator Bunche reported both Israelis and Egyp¬ tians guilty of truce violations.

M

More than 300,000 workers in

Commonwealth of Nations conference opened in London with prime ministers of Britain, Ceylon, India, Southern Rho¬ desia, Pakistan and New Zealand and representatives of South Africa, Australia and Canada in attendance.

of atomic bomb and simulta¬ neously creating internation¬ al control agency was over¬ whelmingly defeated in Po¬ litical committee of U.N. general assembly.

Security council

Cleveland Indians won world

voted 9 to 2 to place ques¬ tion of Berlin blockade on its

baseball series, defeating Bos¬ ton Braves 4 games to 2.

0| U.S. supreme court upL\ held by vote of 6 to 3 Illinois law under which Pro¬ gressive party presidential candi¬

U.N.

6 neutral members of U.N. Security council pre¬ sented compromise resolution on Berlin dispute calling for imme¬ diate lifting of blockade, exclu¬ sive use of soviet-zone currency in Berlin and convening of Coun¬ cil of Foreign Ministers to renew negotiations on Germany.

If

4

French coal and iron mines quit work in strike sponsored by Communist-led General Confederation of Labour.

date Henry A. Wallace was bar¬ red from place on ballot.

I'T

Representatives of France, Britain and the U.S. re¬ affirmed their determination not to negotiate with the Soviet Union until the Berlin blockade had been lifted.

Field Marshal Viscount Montgomery, chief of Brit¬ ish imperial general staff , _ was appointed permanent military chairman of western European union’s defense council.

13

Changchun, capital

of Manchuria, fell to Chi¬ nese communist troops after 3-day battle climaxing year¬ long siege.

U.N. mediator Ralph Bunche ordered state of Israel to give up all gains made in outbreak of hostilities with Egypt in Negeb area. South Korean troops were re¬ ported to have brought commu¬ nist-led revolt in southwestern Korea under control.

Soviet proposal for outlawing United Electrical, Radio and Machine Workers in¬ stituted $1,000,000 suit for dam¬ ages against General Electric Co. and members of Atomic Energy commission for blacklisting it in atomic plants. Israeli spokesman Aubrey S. Eban advised emergency session of U.N. Security council that

CALENDAR OF EVENTS*1948

14 OCTOBER—Continued Israel would not surrender any of territory won in Negeb fight¬ ing. Foreign ministers of Brussels treaty group of nations announ¬ ced that U.S. and Canada would be invited to join with them in forming North Atlantic security alliance. New session of parliament was opened by King George VI in speech revealing Labour govern¬ ment’s intention to nationalize steel industry. Britain and France agreed to delay distribution as rep¬ arations of 300 plants in their German zones pending decision on possible retention under Eu¬ ropean Recovery program. General council of British Trades Union congress issued statement urging affiliated unions to counteract every mani¬ festation of communist influence in their unions. Soviet Premier Stalin as¬

serted in interview with Pravda that western powers had blocked settlement of Berlin dispute in pursuance of plans to unleash a new war. 1948 Nobel prize in medicine was awarded to Paul Mueller of Switzerland for discovery of in¬ sect-killing qualities of DDT. Jose Luis Bustamante was deposed as president of Peru by army-led rightist revolt which swept country. British Labour government published bill for nationalization in 1950 of all large steel com¬ panies and subsidiaries, valued at £195,000,000. U.S. delegation on U.N. Se¬ curity council withdrew U.S. support for Anglo-Chinese reso¬ lution providing for creation of committee to consider possibility of invoking sanctions against Israel.

Non-Communist coal miners started back to work in France after accepting government’s terms for settlement; Commu¬ nist-dominated General Confed¬ eration of Labour continued strike aimed at Marshall plan. Q| Israeli forces ordered 01 cease-fire in northern Pales¬ tine after announcing clearing of Arab troops from whole Galilee area. Chinese government aban¬ doned its anti-inflation program and issued new regulations ac¬ cepting inflation as fact.

NOVEMBER

I

Archbishop Spyrou Athenagoras of New York* was elected patriarch of Greek Ortho¬ dox Church by holy synod of archbishops meeting in Istan¬ bul.

U.N. Security council ordered Egypt and Israel to withdraw troops to positions held in Negeb prior to outbreak of fighting there.

Marshal Alexander Vasilevsky who retained post of deputy de¬ fense minister.

5

and 6 other former Japanese leaders were sentenced to death and 18 codefendants were given prison terms by 11-nation International Mili¬ tary tribunal in Tokyo, after being found guilty as war criminals.

Greece and Italy signed treaty of friendship designed to restore normal relations be¬ tween the two countries. Japanese army was found guilty of inciting aggressive war by International Military tribunal in Tokyo.

7

Coalition cabinet of the aged Greek Premier Themistocles Sophoulis resigned in Athens.

8

Israeli Premier David BenGurion confirmed reports that Israel and two Arab govern¬ ments were holding direct talks on settlement of Palestine dis¬ pute.

Supporters of Gen. Charles de Gaulle made substantial gains in elections for advisory council of republic, upper house of French parliament. Rep. J. Parnell Thomas, chairman of house un-Amer¬ ican activities committee, was indicted by federal grand jury on charges of padding his congres¬ sional office pay roll. in

Mao Tse-tung, Chinese com¬ munist leader, claimed in the Cominform bulletin to have won control of about 25% of China’s area and 35% of its popula¬ tion. Chinese Premier Wong Wenhao resigned as result of the fail¬ ure of his economic recovery pro¬ gram. Harry S. Truman and Al-

ben W. Barkley were elect¬ ed president and vice-presi¬ dent, respectively, of the United States, in a close race that gave them 303 electoral votes to 189 for the DeweyWarren ticket and only 39 for Thurmond and Wright. Wal¬ lace and Taylor failed to win a single state in electoral up¬ set which gave Democrats full control of the house and senate.

3

U.N. general assembly ap¬ proved by unanimous vote a resolution urging Big Five to settle their differences and estab¬ lish lasting peace.

4

Army Sec’y Kenneth Royall ordered reorganization of army high command, placing it on peace-or-war footing.

U.N. general assembly adopted by vote of 40 to 6 U.S.-sponsored atomic energy control plan; soviet proposal was rejected by same margin.

All of Manchuria came

Nobel prizes were awarded to

under control of Chinese communist forces who were reported tohaveentered Muk¬ den, last nationalist strong¬ hold, with little or no re¬ sistance.

Thomas Stearns Eliot, Brit¬ ish poet; Patrick Maynard Stuart Blackett, British atomic scientist and physi¬ cist; and Arne Tiselius, Swed¬ ish biochemist.

Former Premier Hideki Tojo

Wildcat strike of longshoremen protesting new wage agreement tied up port of New York and spread rapidly to other Atlantic ports.

lU

U.S. and British military governors announced plans

for turning over to German trustees limited control over Ruhr industry, pending de¬ termination of ownership by future German govern¬ ment. Soviet authorities in Berlin threatened to force down all U.S. and British planes flying outside air corridors leading to Berlin from western Germany. House subcommittee charged that U.S. new-car buyers had been mulcted out of ^450,000,000 during first 7 months of 1948 by questionable practices of au¬ tomobile dealers.

n

Chinese nationalist sou rces reported that more than 1,000.000 men on both sides were deploying for battle around strategic city of Suchow, north of Nanking.

Anglo-U.S. plan for German trusteeship over Ruhr industry was vigorously denounced by French delegates at 6-power con¬ ference which met in London to draft plan for control of Ruhr output. IQ Moscow radio announced Ifc appointment of Gen. Sergei M. Shtemenko as Red army chief of staff in succession to

IQ

U.N. general assembly President Herbert Evatt and Sec’y-Gen’l Trygve Lie made direct appeal to heads of U.S., British, French and soviet governments, to renew direct negotiations for settlement of Berlin dispute.

10

W

Princess Elizabeth, heir¬ ess presumptive to Brit¬ ish throne, gave birth to a baby boy at Buckingham palace. U.N. mediator Ralph J. Bunche ordered Israel and Egypt to establish wide neutral zone in Negeb desert area of southern Palestine. |C U. S. embassy in Nanking Iw warned all U.S. citizens to leave China at once as commu¬ nist forces made further gains in north China. Louis S. St. Laurent was ap¬ pointed prime minister of Canada in succession to William Lyon Mackenzie King, who retired voluntar¬ ily. jD

Pres. Truman reiterated U.S. refusal to negotiate with Soviet Union until soviet blockade of Berlin had been lifted.

lU

The pictures on this page are, left to right: CLAY.Oct. 7 CHIANG.Oct. 23 MAO.Nov. 1 TRUMAN.Nov. 2 BARKLEY.Nov. 2

CALENDAR OF EVENTS«1948 NOVEMBER-Conffnue’ like . . . but it depends also on the training they have had in the im¬ portance of eating a well-balanced diet. And that's where you, as a teacher, come in For you are in a good position to influence the eat¬ ing habits of your class—by intro¬ ducing nutrition study into your curriculum this term. The materials and individual guidance for such study are readily axailable to you through General Mills’ "Program of Assistance in Nutrition and Health Fducaiion”—now in its fourth year.

All over the country, teachers like yourself, who realize the great need for improving diet standards, are starting classroom nutrition projects with the help of General Mills. By the end of the school year, judging by past experience, these classes will show definite im¬ provement in eating habits. If you would like to know more about adapting a nutrition program to meet your particular needs, mail this coupon today.

General Mills Mahers of Enriched Flours • ResloteJ Cereals Vitamin Products Copyriglu lOlS. General Milts, fne.

EDUCATION SECTION, Oopl. of Public Sorvicei, Oegerol Mill>, Minn opoiis 1, Minn, Plaos* send me the follow[n9i 00 1 1 Information about your nutrition pro^rotn, Qfree subicripiion to News Exchange (news sheet of Nutrition EduCotion informotion). Among the tested materials available to you are the Diet Survey and Nulri* tion Information Tests. With them you can quickly Rauge your group’s knowl¬ edge of nutrition and discover where eating habits arc faulty.

GENERAL MILLS ADVERTISEMENT on nutrition and health education, chosen by the jury on Annual Advertising Awards as 1, of the 12 advertisements of 1948 which contributed most to the public welfare

copy, contests, premiums and offers. While no drastic changes were attempted, the industry believed that the audience would note a more listenable balance of commercial copy against pro¬ gram material and would soon be conscious of higher standards of good taste in mystery and children’s programs. The Broadcast Measurement bureau published its Radio Fam¬ ilies U.S.A.—1948. This was a two-volume study of radio owner¬ ship and radio families in the United States. It reported that 37,623,000 families owned i radio or more in working order as of Jan. 1948. This represented 94.2% of all U.S. families, and compared with B.M.B.’s estimate of 33,998,000 or 90.4% owner¬ ship in Jan. 1946. Urban radio ownership rose slightly from 95.2% to 95.7%. Rural nonfarm ownership was up from 87.4% to 94.4%, and rural farm ownership stood at 88.7% against 76.2% in 1946. (See also Radio.) Television.—A number of surveys of television ownership and listening habits were made in 1948, and optimistic forecasts were offered of future growth. It was estimated by Audience Research, Inc., for instance, that by April 1949 there would be some 825,000 sets in use in the United States. An estimate was also made by Lennen and Mitchell, Inc., advertising agency, in which it was stated that while only 28% of the population of the country was under the television umbrella by the fall of 1948, in five years there would be about 400 stations reaching almost half the United States, and that ultimately about 951 stations would cover, 452 market areas. Actually, by the be¬ ginning of 1949 there were only 51 television outlets in com¬ mercial operation, although the number was increasing rapidly. Rates for television advertising also were increasing. In the spring of 1946, when television time first became a salable com-

22

ADVERTISING Table II.—Advertising Revenue and Circulation of 12 Distinct Magazine

Groups [First Six Months of 1948)

General weeklies. .. Women’s. General monthlies. Home. Fashion. Movie, romance, radio.. • • Business ...••*••••••••• Youth. Outdoor and sports. ... • Science and mechanics Detective and fiction ... . • • Farm.

Adv. Rev. No. of 1st 6 mo. Mogozines 194S 11 $111,566,689 11 41,998,505 14 13,907,567 4 15,765,484 6 10,681,829 26 5,396,065 4 6,843,693 5 2,382,460 5 3,241,506 3 2,944,325 4 409,495 6 14,826,081

Aver. Ore. Per Issue 1st 6 mo. 1948 20,109,859 26,554,344 16,766,229 6,723,869 2,434,356 12,726,088 1,139,099 3,308,311 2,952,280 2,788,864 4,304,612 9,690,861

, 99 $229,963,699 109,498,772 Source: Publishers Information Bureau, Inc. (for advertising revenue figures only).

NEWSPAPER ADVERTISING (total linage in 52 cities of the United States): average per month. Compiled by Media Records, Inc.

modity, the highest price on any unit was $750 for one hour. By 1948 one hour of television time ranged in cost from $60 (in a small community where television had just arrived) to $2,500. Among the many studies of the television audience was one by Hofstra college, Hempstead, N.Y., which showed among other things that in homes with television receivers, participa¬ tion in entertainment outside the home declined 24% and at¬ tendance at motion pictures 20%; among entertainment in the home, radio listening was most seriously affected, the hours of listening dropping 26% for daytime radio and 68% for night¬ time. Families with television receivers were said to average 24 hours of viewing a week and 3^ viewers per set. (See also Television.)

Magazines.—The Magazine Advertising bureau estimated that advertising in magazines in 1948 totalled $475,000,000, compared with $442,000,000 in 1947. A report issued by the Magazine Advertising bureau was said to be the first ever to attempt to define the magazine audience on a nation-wide basis. It showed that of the 39,150,000 fami¬ lies in the United States, 32,300,000 read magazines. The aver¬ age family reading magazines had 3.38 members, read 5.4 maga¬ zines and had 2.44 adult members (more than 15 years old). Of the heads of reader-families, 44.3% had an eighth-grade edu¬ cation or less, 19.4% had one year to three years of high school, 18.7% were high school graduates, 8.7% had one year to three years of college and 6.6% had four or more years of college. Average annual income for the reader family was $3,279. A study of magazine rates and circulations was published in June by the Magazine committee of the Association of National Advertisers, Inc. Its major finding was that advertising rates charged by national advertisers remained in proportion to their circulation from 1940 through the first six months of 1947, but that increases which went into effect in 1948 raised the cost per 1,000 copies as much as 18% over 1940. The study covered 14 major publications. Arno Johnson, director of research for J. Walter Thompson company, also made estimates of magazine advertising cost. He said that if an average of seven leading magazines, three week¬ lies and four women’s magazines, were taken, it would be found that the cost of delivering a full-page advertising message to a family in 1948 was 2% under the cost for the same publica¬ tion in 1940, yet the average family in the country in 1948

represented a market for goods and services 130% greater in dollars than in 1940 and 35% greater in real purchasing power after correction for price changes. Other Media.—The Associated Business Papers questioned 1,200 agencies on the advertising in business papers which they anticipated to place in 1949. Of these, 43% said they would place more advertising, 49% said the same and 8% less. The National Industrial Advertisers association stated that in 1948 its 3,300 member companies spent more than $350,000,000 in industrial advertising, and that of this approximately $200,000,000 was for space in business papers, against $32,000,000 in this medium in 1933 and $51,000,000 in 1938. The National Association of Transportation Advertising, Inc., released a summary of the ten studies of transportation adver¬ tising made for it by The Advertising Research foundation. These were some of the findings: 8 out of 10 adults were ex¬ posed to car-card advertising in the 10 cities where tests were made; 76% of all women were housewives who did most of the buying for their families, and 82% of these housewives were transit riders; 4 out of 10 adults made 5 or more round trips a week by public transit and 2 out of 3 made 2 or more round trips a week; average length of ride was 26 min. a one-way trip; 44% of all daily riders, 34% of all frequent riders (making 2 to 4 round trips a week) and 19% of all occasional riders remembered the average leading card in each study. The aver¬ age cost of impressing the message of the leading card in each city was about $3.14 per 1,000 persons when taken over a 30-day period. There were 192 exhibitors in the Premium and Advertising Specialties exposition held in New York city in 1948, compared with 67 the last time the exhibit was held in that city in 1941. A survey of the effectiveness of window display advertising was conducted for the Point of Purchase Advertising Institute, Inc. All tests showed substantial increases in sales directly attributable to window displays of the products tested. The test demonstrated the use of the medium for the introduction of special offers and new products, for reducing inventory and broadening experience of consumers with products. Advertising in Europe.—An estimate published in the Sta¬ tistical Review indicated that British advertising expenditure in the third quarter was 6.48% higher than the comparable period of 1947, although that for the third quarter of 1947 was 26.11% higher than for the same period of 1946. Newspaper shortage remained the major factor in British ad¬ vertising. All popular newspapers remained four pages, with an occasional exception in an issue of six pages. Largest advertising accepted was three inches deep and two columns across. One or two special positions, booked ahead indefinitely, were available for eight-inch double columns. Provincial papers were also four pages, and accepted advertisements four inches deep across two columns. A new advertiser in the national dallies was per¬ mitted one insertion in three months. In Ireland paper was so scarce that two newspaper advertisements a month were about

AGRICULTURAL RESEA RCH ADMINISTRATION as much as the advertiser could expect. The insertions were limited in size, most of them being less than 12 in. deep. The newspapers averaged from six to eight pages. In France adver¬ tising volume was only approximately one-twentieth that of 1938. Parisian papers were four pages, with a limited percentage of space for advertising. There was little advertising in Italy, the 179 publications there being of few pages. The backbone of advertising in Spain was in 200 daily papers, with 65% of all money going into newspaper advertising, 25% into radio and 10% into motion-picture and outdoor advertising. Bibliography. Charles F. Phillips and Delbert J. Duncan, Marketing Principles and Methods (1948); Rochester Industrial Advertisers, Prac¬ tical Advertising Procedure (1948): C. H. Sandage, Advertising: Theory and Practice (1948). (D. St.; R. A. Bn.)

Aeronautics: see Afffhiinictlin

Aviation, Civil; Aviation, Military.

independent kingdom of Asia bounded N.

niglldillOldll. by the U.S.S.R., W. by Iran, S. and S.E. by Pakistan and E. by China. Area: c. 270,000 sq.mi.; pop. (mid1947 est.): 12,000,000. Religion: Moslem. Languages: Pashtu and Persian. Chief towns (pop. 1946 est.): Kabul (cap. 206,200); Kandahar (77,200); Herat (75,600); Mazar-i-Sharif (41,900). King: Mohammad Zahir Shah; prime minister: Sardar Shah IVJahmud. History .—Although Afghanistan was the only country to vote against the admission of Pakistan to the United Nations (Sept. 30, 1947), relations between the two countries during 1948 were peaceful and formally correct. The unsettled relations between Pakistan and India inter¬ fered with the Afghan foreign trade which for decades had gone mostly by the Khyber pass. Another reason for the not too favourable balance of trade was the falling price of karakul lambskins, the most valuable of the country’s exports. On March 29, 1948, it was announced that the British lega¬ tion at Kabul and the Afghan legation in London were to be raised to the status of embassies. On June 5 a similar step was taken between the U.S. and Afghanistan. Education.—(1948 est.) Primary schools 400, secondary schools higher schools (lycees) 7, and the university at Kabul.

25,

Trade and Finance-Exports (1945—46) amounted to ^13,740,000. In 1938, the government revenue and expenditure were balanced at £2,842,000. The monetary unit is the Afghani rupee and exchange rate in 1947 was: Rs.4 (Afghan) =R.i (Indian) = 30.17 U.S. cents. Transport and Communications.—Roads (1945): 5,850 mi. Three new motor roads were under construction in 1948: Kabul to Mazar, Kabul to Khyber pass and the Badakhshan road from Kabul toward Sinkiang province, China.

A. F. of L see American Africa: see British East Protectorates;

British

Federation of Labor. Africa; British South African

West

Africa;

French

Overseas

Territories; Italian Colonial Empire; Portuguese Colo¬ nial Empire; South Africa, The Union of; Spanish Colo¬ nial Empire; Trustee Territories, etc.

Agricultural and Industrial Chemistry, Bureau of: see

Agricultural Research Administration.

Agricultural Research Administration. Established in 1941 to direct and co-ordinate research in the U.S. department of agriculture, the Agricultural Research ad¬ ministration comprises seven research agencies, operates a i2,ooo'-ac. research centre at Beltsville, Md., and co-ordinates all other research in the physical and biological sciences in the department. Much of the work is done in co-operation with the agricultural experiment stations of the states and with other research agencies. Some examples of the results of ARA research in 1948 follow:

23

Methods for making two types of useful products from waste wheat straw were perfected by the northern regional research laboratory, one of the four large regional laboratories operated by the bureau of agricultural and industrial chemistry with the objective of finding new industrial outlets for agricultural products and by-products. Each year nearly half of the 95,000,000 tons of wheat straw produced in the United States is wasted. It was shown by workers at the laboratory that paper of the better grades and insulating building board could be made economically from wheat straw. For making fine papers the straw would be blended with wood pulp. The synthetic liquid fuels project, begun in 1947, reached the stage of converting corncobs into alcohol suitable for motor fuel. Blends of five parts of regular grade gasoline and one part of corncob alcohol performed at high compression as well as 90-octane gasoline. At the southern regional laboratory, an oil suitable for salad or cooking purposes was extracted from the seed coating and germ removed from rice. As much as 20,000,000 lb. of such oil might be recovered annually from the bran removed in milling the U.S. rice crop. In studies at the eastern laboratory, leaf meals from field and packing-house wastes, including the outer and discarded leaves of beets, broccoli, carrots and other vegetables, were shown to have a high protein content and to be suitable for supple¬ mentary livestock feeding. Poultry feeding tests showed the carotene in these leafy wastes to be an excellent source of vitamin A. Two promising new antibiotics, subtilin and polymyxin, were discovered at the western and northern laboratories, respec¬ tively. Subtilin was found in laboratory experiments to be effective in culture against the micro-organisms that cause tuber¬ culosis, bovine mastitis, trichomoniasis and several other dis¬ eases. Polymyxin promised to be helpful especially in the treat¬ ment of undulant fever, tularaemia and whooping cough. Dehydrofreezing, a method of food preservation in which fruits or vegetables are partially dehydrated and then quickfrozen, developed at the western laboratory, was further ad¬ vanced. Investigations at that laboratory provided useful data for improving the taste, nutritional value and keeping quality of frozen fruits, vegetables and poultry meat. In continued co-operation between the bureau of animal industry and Mexico in efforts to suppress the outbreak of footand-mouth disease that began there in 1946, the original plan of slaughtering all affected and exposed animals was modified to a less drastic program directed chiefly toward preventing the spread of the disease. The use of vaccine, at first rejected, was adopted. The bureau maintained rigid quarantines to pre¬ vent the introduction of the disease into the United States. A research program aimed at learning more about the disease and how to deal with it, to be conducted in the United States under proper safeguards, was authorized by the U.S. congress. As part of a campaign to eradicate brucellosis in the United States, more than 1,000,000 calves were vaccinated. More purebred animals were certified for entry into the United States for breeding purposes in the fiscal year 1948 than in any previous comparable period. Such animals are admitted free of duty for use in improving the livestock industry. Continued favourable results were reported by the bureau of dairy industry in its crossbreeding experiment with various breeds of dairy cattle. Twenty-seven three-breed cows pro¬ duced 14 lb. more butterfat per cow on an average than their two-breed dams. Greater and more economical gains of dairy calves resulted when the calves had access to hay for a total of 12 hr. a day, in four 3-hr. periods, instead of 6 hr. in two 3-hr. periods.

24

AGRICULTURE

Holstein calves ate 25% more hay and Jersey calves 39% more when it was available longer, and the increased consump¬ tion meant faster gains. Experiments showed that colostrum milk, which the cow secretes for the first few days of her calf’s life but all of which is not used by the calf, can be fed to older calves safely if it is diluted with warm water in the proportion of two parts of milk to one of water. The colostrum caused no ill effects on calves up to 60 days of age, and those receiving it stored more vitamin A in their bodies than calves fed whole milk. Excess colostrum milk is usually a waste product, as it is not used for human consumption. Penicillin gave good results in controlling mastitis in bureau of dairy industry herds, relieving infection in 88% of the cases treated. The form of streptococcus which had been believed chiefly responsible for mastitis was found to be less prevalent among the organisms causing the infection than certain other forms. Feeding thyroprotein to dairy cows to increase milk produc¬ tion was not recommended for dairy farmers. Experirr^ents showed that, though the drug increased milk production for a time, it was necessary to give extra feed and the increase was not maintained. A number of new insecticidal materials were tested by the bureau of entomology and plant quarantine, several of which promised to be more effective than DDT for controlling certain insects. One insecticide, parathion, was especially promising against some kinds of fruit insects, adult and larval mosquitoes and adult houseflies, but since it was found to be highly toxic to man, further study of the conditions under which it might be used was indicated. Chlordane and chlorinated camphene were also extensively tested and were recommended for cer-

tain purposes as effective insecticides. A method was developed for detecting weevil infestation in stored wheat and other grains. Grain samples were soaked for 10 minutes in a dye solution containing acid fuchsin; when the sample was washed, cherry-red dots appeared in the kernels where the weevils had laid eggs. This discovery provided a means of determining quickly and easily the percentage of hidden weevil infestation in any lot of grain. It was demonstrated that a leaf hopper transmits the phloem necrosis disease of elms, which destroyed thousands of valuable trees in midwestern United States. An automatic device was demonstrated for releasing aerosols containing DDT in aeroplanes to clear them of insects which might enter uninfested territory by this means of transporta¬ tion. The turn of a single switch released the aerosol simul¬ taneously through nozzles placed throughout the plane. The bureau of human nutrition and home economics com¬ pleted its 2Sth year of service to homemakers on June 30, 1948. A 76-page report was issued during the year of a study of the effects of the various methods of home cooking on the reten¬ tion of vitamins and minerals in foods. The studies were made with 20 vegetables, meats, cereals and breads. Their content of selected nutrients was analyzed before and after cooking in two or more ways. Green peas, carrots and potatoes were put to further, more intensive tests. Potatoes boiled whole in their skins were found to retain more vitamin C than those pre¬ pared in any other way. It was found that vitamin C and thiamin were lost more readily in all the methods of cooking than the other vitamins and the minerals. Many new developments in plant breeding, soil research and agricultural engineering resulted from the work of the bureau of plant industry, soils and agricultural engineering. Seven new corn hybrids were developed, three for the southern United States and four for the middle west. New wheat varieties com¬ bined resistance to the Hessian fly and to leaf and stem rusts, mosaic and other diseases. A new variety of long-staple cotton, Sealand 542, was reported by plant breeders working with cot¬ ton. New varieties of sugar cane and sugar beets, better adapted for mechanical harvesting and resistant to some serious diseases, were released. A new method for propagating elm trees resistant to Dutch elm disease was perfected. Soil surveys of about 4,600,000 ac. of farm land were completed. Methods were devised and equipment assembled for the manufacture of several different radioactive fertilizers used in tracer experiments. An improved method was found for con¬ ditioning mixed fertilizer. Better equipment was developed for rapidly diagnosing alkali soils. Among the accomplishments of the agricultural engineers were; improved equipment for harvesting and dr>’ing ramie and kenaf fibre; a farm-size milk pasteurizer; improved methods for drying peanuts; a new type of cleaner for removing fine trash from cotton lint in the ginning process; designs for tobacco-curing barns that reduce fuel costs by more than 60%; and methods for artificially drying ear corn in farm cribs that sufficiently reduced the loss occasioned by high moisture con¬ tent to more than pay the cost of drjdng. The office of experiment stations administered federal grants to the state agricultural experiment stations in the amount of $9>S75)808. In addition, the stations received from state legis¬ latures about four times that amount. About 4,000 lines of research were active under federal grants, approximately 4,700 under nonfederal funds. (P. V. C.)

HARVESTING WHEAT by hand in an experimental field during 194g. This work was part of a joint state and federal program for the breeding and test¬ ing of new wheat varieties which would resist major crop hazards and increase production

AffriPIlItlirP

United States agriculture, 1948 would go

5 uUllUICi down in history as a fabulous year. It was a

AGRIC ULTURE year without a crop scare, with numerous record and near rec¬ ord yields achieved; the corn crop was more than io% above the previous record and fully 50% above the previous year; the wheat crop was the second largest on record and the fifth con¬ secutive crop of more than 1,000,000,000 bu., one of the five largest wheat crops the country had ever produced; the cotton crop was one-fourth larger than in the previous year. Not only did production of grains set new records, but prices reached new high levels in January, then broke sharply in February and con¬ tinued the decline as the harvest of 1948 crops progressed; apparently agricultural prices reached and passed their postwar peaks in 1948. The decline in livestock numbers continued. Livestock prices during part of the year set new records, but they too declined sharply after September. In spite of the break in prices, the volume of agricultural marketings was such as to provide a gross income to farmers of almost $35,000,000,000, slightly exceeding the r947 record. However, because of higher costs of production, the realized net income had been declining since 1947. Agricultural assets at the beginning of the year were estimated at $r22,278,000,000, com¬ pared with $110,495,000,000 a year earlier and $53,805,000,000 in 1940. It became increasingly apparent that the long expected postwar recession in agriculture was getting under way during 1948, but that it was to be unlike the often mentioned agricul¬ tural panic of 1921. The world food crisis, still in a dangerous phase in the early part of the year, became notably easier with the excellent harvests in many parts of the world and, more particularly, the bumper crops in western Europe and the United States. All except a few of the more pessimistic began to regard the food situation with cautious optimism. Famine for once was not prevalent in any large portion of the world during 1948. (See Food Supply of the World.) As bumper crop piled on bumper crop, worries returned in the surplus exporting areas, particularly CORN DETASSELLER, manned by teen-aged farm workers at Coon Rapids, la., in 1948. Riding down the corn rows, the youngsters pulled tassels of one variety, leaving the other variety to pollinate the detasselled corn for hybrid corn seed

25

the U.S., as to whether world markets would continue to absorb the surpluses, and how price support programs and accumulating stockpiles might be managed. This turn of events received em¬ phasis, as evidence accumulated that the acreage already sown under favourable conditions and to be sown with wheat for 1949 harvest would probably be a new high record, even in the face of an official government request for a reduction to a level 8% below the 1947 acreage. Crop Production.—The aggregate volume of all 1948 crops in the U.S. reached a record of 149% of the 1935-39 base, or 14 points above the previous record highs of 1946 and 1947. Food grains declined moderately, compared with the very high level of 1947, but feed not only increased 48 points over the 1947 level, but exceeded the record of 1946. Cotton was 25 points higher than in 1947. Many other agricultural crops were at or near record levels of production. This record abundance was achieved largely as a result of high yields, total harvested acreage for the 52 principal crops amounting to only 350,857,000 ac., compared with 348,899,000 ac. in 1947, 349,931,000 ac. in 1946, 352,538,000 ac. in 1944 and a ten-year average of 339,663,000 ac. Losses from weather damage or insect destruction of planted crops amounted to nearly 11,400,000 ac.; while larger than the 9,600,000 to 10,400,000 ac. lost in each of the preceding three years, it was less than in any year between 1931 and 1944. Corn was planted under very favourable conditions on a slightly larger acreage than in 1947, but small compared with other late years. Extremely favourable weather during much of the growing season, especially during midsummer, resulted in an average yield of 42.7 bu. per acre for the nation, against only 28.4 bu. in 1947, and an average for the previous decade of only 31.4 bu. Iowa and Illinois both averaged 61.0 bu. per acre. The total crop reached the fabulous figure of 3,650,548,000 bu., more than a 50% increase, more than 1,200,000,000 bu. in excess of the 1947 crop. The 1948 wheat crop, the second largest on record, was the miracle crop of the year. In spite of the fact that a large frac-

iWi

AGRICULTURE

26

Table I.—Index Numbers of the Volume of U.S.Agricultural Production through Two War Periods* (1935-39 = 100) 1915 1920 1925 1930 1935 1940 1944 1945 1946 ops Food grains • • • • Feed grains and hay Cotton. Tobacco . • • • •

147 126 86 80

126 149 100 104

Truck crops (vegetables) . . . Fruits and nuts • • . Sugar crops .... Total crops . . •

35 73 73 95

51 76 98 102

74 74 73 99

91 89 85 96

92 95 89 89

restock Meat animals . Poultry and eggs Dairy products . Total livestock Grand total .

92 78 70 81 86

99 78 72 85 92

107 93 85 96 97

100

90 92 98 93 91

. . . . •

• . . . •

95 109 128 83 122 105 95 113

106 94 99 98

81 91 81 89

no 114 95 101 110

no

104 107 118 109 105

112 no

1947 1948

155 144 68 137

164 172 66 160

196 132 90 145

137 142 123 112 82 94 128 122

158 133 103 135

140 139 129 126 no 95 135 149

147 163 119 140 133

145 153

144 150

137 136

136 136

148 153 94 135

155 153 115 141 136

120 120

184 180 115 122

130 141 118 131 138

♦Estimates by the U.S. department of agriculture; 1948 is preliminary.

tion of the winter wheat acreage in the southern great plains was “dusted in” under most unfavourable conditions and did not sprout until after belated rains in late Nov. and Dec. 1947, the harvest eventually was only 78,780,000 bu. less than the rec¬ ord crop of 1947. The yield of 17.9 bu. per acre was not so‘high as the 18.4 bu. of 1947, but well above the average of 16.i bu. per acre for 1937-46. The total crop of 1,288,406,000 bu. was the fifth consecutive crop in excess of 1,000,000,000 bu. The winter wheat crop amounted to approximately three-fourths of the total crop; the spring wheat crop of 298,308,000 bu. almost equalled the 1947 spring wheat crop. As usual, Kansas, a winter wheat area, was the leading state in production (231,368,000 bu. against 286,702,000 bu. in 1947), followed by North Dakota, a spring wheat state (136,580,000 bu.), and Oklahoma. It was indicated that total domestic consumption of the large 1948 wheat crop would not be much more than 700,000,000 bu. In view of the abundance of feed grains, the use of wheat for feed was not expected to exceed 110,000,000 bu. Exports somewhat in excess of those in 1947 appeared probable, also an increased amount for carry over at the end of the crop year, July i, 1949. In spite of an official request by the federal government that 8% less acreage be sown to wheat for the 1949 crop, the Dec. 1948 crop report indicated that 61,370,000 ac. had been sown to winter wheat for harvest in 1949, compared with 58,161,000 ac. sown to winter wheat in 1947, and an average for the pre¬ vious decade (1937-46) of only 47,684,000 ac. Moreover, the early condition of the crop was definitely more favourable than in 1947 and above average. Thus unofficially it appeared that the acreage for the whole crop might finally come near to or exceed previous records, and, if the weather should remain rea¬ sonably favourable, would provide another very large wheat crop. Reports on the European crop sown in the autumn of 1948 were promising as to acreage and early condition. Table II.—Production of Principal U.S. Crops, 1933—48

Year

1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948

Corn bu. 2,399,632 1,461,123 2,303,747 1,507,089 2,644,995 2,542,238 2,619,137 2,449,200 2,672,541 3,175,154 3,034,354 3,203,310 2,880,933 3,249,950 2,383,970 3,650,548

Oats bu. 733,166 542,306 1,194,902 785,506 1,146,258 1,053,839 937,215 1,235,628 1,176,107 1,358,730 1,137,504 1,154,666 1,535,676 1,497,904 1,199,422 1,491,752

(In thousands) Wheat Cotton Tame hay Rice bu. bales tons bu. 551,683 13,049 66,530 37,651 526,393 9,636 55,270 39,047 626,344 10,638 78,138 38,784 626,766 12,399 63,536 49,002 873,993 18,946 73,785 53,364 930,801 11,943 80,299 52,303 754,971 11,817 75,726 52,306 816,698 12,566 86,312 52,754 945,937 10,744 82,358 54,028 981,327 12,824 92,245 66,363 841,023 11,427 87,244 64,843 1,072,177 12,230 84,076 68,161 1,108,224 9,015 95,289 68,150 1,153,046 8,640 89,195 72,216 1,367,186 11,857 89,286 78,259 1,288,406 14,937 86,998 81,170

Tobacco lb. 1,371,131 1,081,629 1,297,155 1,154,131 1,553,405 1,378,534 1,848,654 1,451,966 1,261,364 1,412,437 1,402,988 1,956,022 1,993,837 2,319,409 2,109,581 1,897,926

Potatoes bu. 342,306 406,105 386,380 331,918 393,289 371,617 364,016 397,722 357,783 371,150 464,999 383,134 418,020 484,174 389,048 445,850

Not only com, but other feed grains, oats, barley, and grain sorghums showed a significant increase for 1948, compared with 1947, and were far in excess of the 1937-46 average. Soybeans were also a record crop at 220,201,000 bu., compared with

183,558,000 bu. in 1947, and only 134,642,000 bu. average (1937-46). Flax seed amounted to 52,533,000 bu., approximate¬ ly double the 26,756,000 bu. average of 1937-46. European barley production increased by 80,000,000 bu., and oats by 173,000,000 bu. The cotton crop of 14,937,000 bales was far from a record, but per acre yields on a comparatively small acreage were excel¬ lent, the total crop being comparable with 11,857,000 bales in 1947, and 12,014,000 bales average 1937-46. The Brazilian crop also increased to 1,400,000 bales from 1,200,000 bales in the previous year. The year was no exception in regard to recent U.S. over¬ supply of white or Irish potatoes. A crop of 445,850,000 bu. was produced, fompared with 389,048,000 bu. in 1947 on ap¬ proximately the same acreage, and 392,143,000 bu. as the tenyear average from a larger acreage. The average yield of 212.4 bu. per acre was well above the 185.2 bu. of 1947, and 139 bu. as a ten-year average. The increase was in part the result of good weather, but also of heavier fertilization, insect control and better seed. The European crop (excluding the U.S.S.R.) was 4,989,975,000 bu., compared with 3,902,503,000 bu. in 1947. Such bountiful U.S. harvests, plus substantial general agriTable III.—U.S. Production and Yield Per Acre, 1948 and 1947 Yield Field Crops Corn, bu. Wheat, bu. ••••*••* Oats, bu. Barley, bu. Rye, bu.. • • • • Flaxseed, bu. • Rice, bu. Hay, all, tons. Beans, bags (yield in lb.) • • Soybeans, bu. ••••••• Peanuts, lb. • Potatoes, bu. Sweet Potatoes, bu. • • • • Tobacco, lb. Sugar beets, tons. Cotton, bales (yield In lb.) • Fruit Crops Apples, bu. • • • Peaches, bu. • . Pears, bu. • • • Grapes, tons • . Oranges, boxes • Grapefruit, boxes

42.7 17.9 37.1 26.3 1 2.6 11.1 46.6 1.36 1,087.0 21.4 706.0 212.4 96.9 1,234.0 1 3.5 31 1.5

1948 Production in thousands 3,650,548 1,288,406 1,491,752 317,037 26,388 52,533 81,170 99,846 20,833 220,201 2,268,110 445,850 49,806 1,897,926 9,418 14,937 90,288 65,749 26,399 2,998 1 1 8,900 56,250

1947 Production in thousands Yield 28.4 18.4 31.2 25.5 12.9 10.1 46.2 1.36 9.79 16.4 646.0 185.2 93.9 1,143.0 14.2 267.3

2,383,970 1,367,186 1,199,422 281,185 25,975 40,536 78,259 102,765 17,218 183,558 2,182,895 389,048 55,746 2,109,581 12,504 11,857 113,041 82,270 35,312 3,024 114,380 61,630

cultural recovery in western Europe to which the U.S. had been exporting much food, brought the problems of emerging surplus production again to the forefront of farm and political discus¬ sion and policy-making. The extension of support prices at 90% of parity for some 1949 crops, and, on a sliding scale thereafter in the Agricultural act of 1948, encouraged continued all-out farm production. Even so, the government, though re¬ questing additional production of some items, particularly meat and livestock products, also officially requested that smaller acreage be planted to wheat and potatoes, among major crops, for 1949 harvests. Livestock Production.—The somewhat regular variation over the decades in livestock numbers, sometimes referred to as the livestock cycle, continued in a generally declining phase during 1948, the number of alt major types of livestock falling to new lows for this swing of the' cycle. The reasons apparently differ somewhat for each type of animal, but high cost feed, scarcity of feed, the very high market price of all meat animals, uncer¬ tainty as to future prices and increasing costs of production were in large degree responsible. At the end of the year the decline appeared to be ending only as regards poultry and hogs. All cattle at the beginning of the year totalled 78,600,000 head, compared with 81,200,000 a year earlier, and 85,600,000 at the peak in 1945, but approximately 10,000,000 head more than prewar. Of that total, 41,200,000 head were beef cattle and calves against 42,700,000 a year before. It was estimated

ITALIAN FAMILY harvesting spring wheat fn 1948. Though European farm¬ ers still lacked adequate machinery, the year’s crop of this critical foodstuff was the best after the close of World War II

that 32,700,000 cattle of all sorts were slaughtered during the year, reducing the herds still further, but providing some 10,750,000,000 lb. of beef and veal, compared with 12,028,000,000 lb. in the previous year, and about 8,000,000,000 Ib. prewar. The government suggested reducing beef breeding herds by about 1,000,000 head to 15,500,000 head as of the year end Dec. 31, 1948, in order to provide more beef in the short run for the extraordinary demand. It was anticipated that slaughter during the next year (1949) would provide only 10,400,000,000 lb. of beef and veal. A new high record for choice fat steers was set during the year of $41.60 per hundredweight. It appeared that the supply of choice fat cattle would not be much expanded in early 1949, in spite of the record com crop, largely because of the very high cost of feeder stock and the high inventory risk involved in the face of a possible sharp break in prices. There were 55,000,000 head of hogs on U.S. farms at the be¬ ginning of the year, a decline from 56,900,000 head in 1947, and much less than the 83,700,000 head at the peak in 1944. The spring pig crop was 51,286,000, or 3% less than a year earlier, and the fall pig crop was indicated at 33,995,000, com¬ pared with 31,345,000 a year before. Total slaughter during the year was indicated at 69,600,000 head with an outturn of 9,830,000,000 lb. of pork, against 74,700,000 head slaughtered in 1947, producing 10,605,000,000 lb. At the year end it was estimated that pork production in 1949 might approximate the 1947 level, a result in part of the request by the government for a 17% expansion in the 1949 spring pig crop, but more especially of the very abundant corn crop and the favourable feeding situation. The corn-hog ratio in Nov. 1948 approxi¬ mated the very favourable level of 18 to i, as against an aver¬ age of about 12 to I over the long term and 13.1 to i for the year 1948. Hog prices rose to a new record high of $31.85 per hundred¬ weight on the Chicago market in August, but had two bad

breaks during the year, one in February, when grains broke sharply, the other beginning unexpectedly in late September from a relatively high level, declining to less than 75% of the previous peak, or about $22.00 per hundredweight for a top price. Hog numbers in the rest of the world, especially in western Europe, began to increase with the more abundant feed harvests of 1948. But the world slaughter in 1948 was estimated at 4% below 1947. Argentine hog numbers reached the lowest point in 30 years, and hog numbers in the United Kingdom were only half as high as prewar. Sheep on U.S. farms at the beginning of the year, 35,300,000 head, were the smallest number from the time records had been kept, having declined from 37,800,000 head the previous year and more than 50,000,000 prewar. Consequently, the lamb crop of 1948 was a record small one of 20,500,000, and the indicated slaughter during 1948 was 17,200,000 head which turned out 738,000,000 lb. of lamb and mutton, against 802,000,000 lb. the previous year. There was a preliminary expecta¬ tion of 700,000,000 lb. in 1949. Late in 1948 the government requested, as an official goal, that farmers rebuild their flocks by 2,000,000 head in 1949. The 25,165,000 milk cows on U.S. farms at the beginning of 1948 represented a decline from 26,098,000 in 1947, and from a peak of 27,770,000 head in Jan. 1945. As a result of heavy feeding of the smaller number of cows, after the abundant harvests of 1948, milk production per cow reached record high levels, and total production for the year was only about 3% less than in 1947. Prices of most dairy products increased in the first half of 1948, but in the latter half, when they usually go up, they slumped. Late in the year, U.S. farmers were asked by the department of agriculture to boost milk production in 1949 by 3%, mostly by increasing the record 5,000 lb. per cow annual average of 1948. The farmers of the United Kingdom made progress in a further shift from starch foods to livestock, and in 1948 milk Of

28

AGRICULTURE

output was i6% above 1939. Food Stocks and Exports.—The record U.S. wheat crop harvested in 1947, plus the later realized prospects that pro¬ duction of food and feed grains in 1948 would be abundant, not only allowed near record domestic consumption but made possible record food exports in the crop year 1947-48 of more than 43,300,000,000 lb., slightly more than the record of 42,900,000,000 lb. established the year before. This was 13.8% of the total U.S. food distributed to consumers. Not only were these enormous exports achieved during 1948, but 1947 wheat pro¬ duction was sufficient to provide an increase in year end (July i) stocks to 196,000,000 bu., compared with a low level of only 86,000,000 bu. the previous year. Stocks of most other food items also were at low levels prior to the abundant 1948 harvest. Europe received the bulk of U.S. food exports, 12,829,000 long tons of a total of 19,347,000 tons, almost all of it to European Recovery program participating countries. Germany received 4,979,000 tons, or more than the 3,182,000 tons total for all of the far east, of which the Japanese and Korean fehare was 2,005,000 tons. Wheat made up a very large part of the food shipped, 13,018,000 long tons of the total of 19,347,000 tons, an increase of about 2,500,000 tons above the previous year and exceeding the goal set early in the year. Other grains dropped to 2,232,000 tons, against 4,166,000 tons in the previous year, largely because the short com crop was retained for domestic use. Meat exports dropped to about one-third the level of the previous year. (See also European Recovery Program.) The U.S.S.R. reappeared as a grain exporter, filling, among other contracts, one for 750,000 tons of feed grains with the United Kingdom. However, exports of food from eastern to western Europe were only a small fraction of the prewar move¬ ment. Farm Prices.—Sparked by fuller and still fuller employment, higher consumer incomes, free spending, a high export program

Meanwhile production expenses, as measured by the prices paid by farmers for commodities, interest and taxes continued their upward trend, the index rising from a record high of 245 in Dec. 1947 (and only 212 in Dec. 1946) to a maximum of 251 during several months of 1948, then dropping off to 247 late in 1948. Farm wages showed additional increase, and the decline late in the year was mostly the result of a decline in the cost of feed bought by farmers. Thus the “parity ratio,” which is a ratio of prices received by farmers for what they sell to prices paid by farmers for what they buy, dropped to 109 (base 190914 = 100), compared with a peak of 133 in Oct. 1946. Farm Income.—Late in the year it was estimated that the total gross farrh income for 1948 would be nearly $35,000,000,000, slightly more than in 1947. This gross income included not only cash income from marketings, but government pay¬ ments, value of home consumption, rental value of dwellings and expenses of agricultural production. Total farm production ex¬ penses amounted to about $18,000,000,000, 7% higher than in the previous year. The largest increase (about 20%) was in the cost of operating motor vehicles and in charges for maintenance and depreciation of farm capital. Because of this increase in expenses in production during 1948, realized net income was estimated at not more than $16,700,000,000, compared with $17,831,000,000 in 1947—the first decline in net income for the average farmer after 1938. Nevertheless, in that prewar year (1938) realized net income was only $4,327,000,000. Cash re¬ ceipts from marketings in 1948 were estimated at about $30,000,000,000, with receipts from livestock and livestock prod¬ ucts up about 3%, compared with 1947. However, the large volume of crops marketed at substantially lower prices reduced the cash receipts from that source fully 5% below the 1947

Table IV.—Farmers’ Average Prices, Certain U.S. Crops, on Selected Dates (in cents per unit)

Wheat per bu.

Oct. average. 1909-13 Oct. 15, 1936 Oct. 1 5, 1937 Oct. 15, 1938 Oct. 15, 1939 Oct. 15, 1940 Oct. 15, 1941 Oct. 15, 1942 Oct. 15, 1943 Oct. 15, 1944 Oct. 15, 1945 Oct. 15, 1946 Oct. 15, 1947 Oct. 15, 1948

88.1 106.8 88.7 52.2 70.3

68.2

91.0 103.5 135.0 142.0 151.0 188.0 266.0 198.0

Corn per bu.

Oats per bu.

64.8 38.4 97.9 43.1 58.9 28.3 41.9 22.1 47.6 30.3 59.4 28.3 64.9 38.9 77.5 43.2 107.0 77.4 113.0 65.9 113.0 62.8 171.0 79.9 223.0 109.0 138.0 70.0

Barley per bu.

60.5 84.2 52.0 36.1 42.2 38.2 49.1 57.6 103.0 95.4

101.0 135.0 177.0

110.0

Rye per bu.

Buck¬ wheat per bu.

72.0 80.4 63.8 32.9 45.1 40.5 51.3 52.9

71.1 78.3 62.4 54.5 62.7 54.4 64.3 77.0

101.0

108.0 138.0 199.0 249.0 143.0

110.0 102.0

106.0 144.0 197.0 117.0

Pota¬ toes per bu.

65.0 97.9 48.5 51.0 66.4 52.0 67.2 102.5 128.0 142.0 126.0

122.0

150.0 142.0

Eggs per doz.

23.8 27.6 25.2 27.1 22.9 23.7 31.8 37.4 45.2 38.8 42.6 51.5 55.3 54.7

Cot¬ ton per lb.

12.10 12.23 8.10 8.53 8.73 9.35 16.55 18.87 20.28 21.25 22.30 37.69 30.65 31.07

and a short 1947 com crop, farm prices spiralled up and up to new record levels. The first phase of the postwar break in farm prices, anticipated by many but correctly timed by few, arrived in Feb. 1948 with a break in grain prices of some 2535%. Livestock also turned down sharply during that period, but later recovered to make new highs. Grains recovered some¬ what, then slumped still lower as the large 1948 harvests be¬ came more certain. Livestock, particularly hogs, slumped sharply and rather unexpectedly in early October, and the break con¬ tinued to the year end with the larger seasonal movement of animals to the market. Wheat declined from an average price paid to farmers of $2.81 in January to $1.96 per bushel in August; com from $2.46 in January to $1.21 per bushel in November; cotton from $33.14 in January to $30.52 per hun¬ dredweight in November; hogs from $27.30 in September to $21.10 per hundredweight in December; and beef cattle from $25.80 in July to $20.50 per hundredweight in November.

UNITED STATES food production as measured by index numbers (1935-39= 100). Estimates by U.S. Department of Agriculture; 1948 is preliminary

AGRICULTURE level. Farm Land Values.—Farm real estate in the U.S., valued at $62,813,000,000 in January 1948, compared with only $33,642,000,000 in 1940, increased 8% further in value during 1948, reaching and exceeding the high 1920 level. Only 12 states were below the World War I levels. However, the boom was moving at a slower rate, giving some indication that the peak had been reached. The situation was not uniform from one part to an¬ other of the U.S.—the great plains states gained 15% or more during 1948, whereas California and Florida declined. Com¬ parison with the previous peak prices of 1920 shows that the west north central area in 1948 was only about 75% as high as after World War I, whereas the east south central and the Pacific areas were about one-third higher than at that earlier period. Though most purchases included a large cash payment, mortgage debt also increased. Farm Debt.—Perhaps the best indication of the essentially healthy state of U.S. agriculture in 1948 was the tendency for liabilities to continue below the prewar level, in spite of the fact that the U.S. agricultural plant was operating at high level and there had been a very substantial inflation of assets. Total liabilities at the beginning of 1948 were $9,065,000,000, com¬ pared with $8,297,000,000 a year previous, and $10,024,000,000 in 1940. All-categories of liabilities increased somewhat during the year, particularly short-term commercial credit, apparently because operating expenses were increasing and inventory costs were very high; non-real estate debt increased about 12%, mak¬ ing up $663,000,000 of the total increase of $768,000,000. Only about one-third of all farms were mortgaged. Interest payments on farm real estate loans were about 4% higher in 1948 than in 1947; interest payments on non-real estate debts were up about 20%. Tax levies on farm property in 1947, payable mostly in early 1948, averaged 15% higher than a year before. Farm Population.—By preliminary estimate as of the begin¬ ning of the year the farm population of 27,440,000 constituted 18.9% of the 145,340,000 U.S. total, the agricultural group hav¬ ing declined compared with 1947, when it was 27,550,000 per¬ sons, or 19.3% of the total. In 1940 there were 30,269,000 included in the farm population, or 23% of the U.S. total, and in 1920 there were 31,614,000 on U.S. farms, 29.9% of the total population. The end of the decline was not in sight. Farm Labour.—Farm employment has sharp seasonal fluc¬ tuations; it reached a peak for the year 1948 in October with the harvesting of the big crops, when 11,650,000 persons were employed on farms. November was nearly as high, and the highest for that date after 1940, the total being 11,054,000 hired and farm family workers compared with 10,938,000 in 1947, and 8,543,000 prewar (1935-39 average). By December the harvest was largely over, and the number had declined to 9,223,000. The average farm employment for the year was 10,089,000, compared with 10,157,000 in 1947. Of that total, 7,809,000 were family workers, and 2,280,000 were hired workers. Farm labour became still more expensive in 1948 than in pre¬ vious years. Farm wage rates during 1948 were preliminarily estimated at 366 (1935-39 = 100) against 346 in 1947—about 6% higher than in 1947. Rural living costs advanced at about the same rate. The daily wage rate in the autumn of 1948 was $5.00 with board, and $5.40 without board; those working by the month earned at the rate of $105.00 with board, and $118.00 without board. Farm Machinery.—The farm machinery supply situation continued tight during 1948 in relation to demand, though pro¬ duction was the highest on record, exceeding 1947 by about 15%. Mechanization of U.S. agriculture continued at an un¬ paralleled rate. The number of tractors on farms at the begin¬

29

ning of the year was 3,150,000, more than double the number in 1940, and 350,000 more than a year earlier. At the same time new machinery became more expensive and old machinery more worn and more difficult to repair. But used machinery of the newer types continued to sell at very high prices at rural sales. In 1948 there were about 20% (or 1,150,000) more auto¬ mobiles and motor trucks on farms than in 1946. Farmers spent on motor vehicles in 1947, $1,139,000,000, and on other ma¬ chinery and equipment (not buildings), $1,251,000,000 of total farm expenditures of about $16,000,000,000. Complaints by U.S. farmers continued because of the diversion of some scarce machinery to foreign markets. Marketing Research.—Activities under the Research and Marketing act of 1946 progressed in 1948 beyond the beginning organizational stages to the beginning of basic work on the efficient processing and distribution of agricultural commodities and new and expanded uses for agricultural products. In fiscal 1948, $9,000,000 was allocated, and recruitment of personnel and approval of projects continued. Meanwhile the farmer’s share of the market-basket dollar continued on approximately the same level as in 1947—of about 53% compared with 40% in 1940. Marketing charges varied widely from one type of product to another, ranging from 40% for meat products to 147% on fresh fruits and vegetables. Rural Electrification.—Rural America moved further and faster into the electric power age during 1948 than in any previous year. Nearly three-fourths of the farms of the U.S. had been electrified, and in an increasing number of instances the power was used as a means of agricultural production as well as for better rural living. Whereas most materials needed OVERFLOW of wheat valued at approximately $250,000 outside an already filled grain elevator at Withrow, Wash., in Sept. 1948. The year’s wheat crop was the second largest in U.S. history

30

AGRICULTURE particularly abundant in relation to demand. Both of these acts came in for considerable discussion during the 1948 presi¬ dential campaign. At the year end agricultural leadership, in congress and in the farm organizations, held widely divergent points of view as to whether and in what fashion the Agricul¬ tural act of 1948 should be changed. (J. K. R.)

GROSS FARM INCOME: net income and production expenses of U.S. farm operators, 1915—48, including government payments beginning in 1933. Compiied by the U.S. bureau of agricultural economics. Data on 1948 are tenta¬ tive estimates

in extending service had been available in insufficient amOunts in 1947, essentially electric conductor was the only item in critical short supply in 1948. Commodity Trading.—One of the more spectacular phases of the agricultural scene during 1948 was the large scale of trading in agricultural commodities, and the February price break which was the sharpest on record. Trading during the year ending June 30, on exchanges supervised by the Com¬ modity Exchange authority of the U.S. department of agricul¬ ture, amounted to a record total of $50,000,000,000, compared with $33,000,000,000 in the preceding year. In dollar terms, cotton trading constituted 38% of the total, and wheat trading, 30%. Contracts for more than 12,000,000,000 bu. of grain were executed, nearly 50% more than in the previous year, 85% of them at the Chicago board of trade. Cotton traded on all ex¬ changes amounted to 110,583,000 bales. By congressional joint resolution the names of approximately 35,000 traders on the commodity exchanges were published. Soil Conservation.—This phase, largely remedial, of U.S. and world agricultural maladjustment received increased atten¬ tion during 1948, not only from official agencies, but semipopular best-seller publications such as Road to Survival, by W. Vogt, and Our Plundered Planet, by F. Osborn. During the year ending June 30, 1948, soil conservation meas¬ ures and land use adjustments were completed under official auspices on more than 21,500,000 ac. of farm and range land in soil conservation districts, an increase of 7% as compared with the previous year. There was, however, a decline in the rate at which such districts were being organized, 144 compared with 251 in the previous year, and a total of 2,033. A major reorganization of governmental conservation efforts was pro¬ posed to the U.S. congress in several introduced bills (par¬ ticularly H.R. 6054), hearings were held, but further action was deferred. It was anticipated that a United Nations scientific conference on conservation and utilization of resources would be held during 1949. Agricultural Legislation.—The 80th congress, second session, gave agriculture attention at two major points other than the appropriations for the department of agriculture. It enacted a new charter for the Commodity Credit corporation. It also enacted in the closing hours of the session the Agriculture act of 1948, which continued, with some modifications, wartime support of prices at 90% of parity for farm crops produced in 1949, after which was to follow a new program of “flexible” farm support prices under which the level of support might fall as low as 60% of parity on basic commodities, if supplies were

Great Britain.—The farmers of Britain grew more grain, potatoes and sugar beets and produced a bigger livestock output in 1948 than they did in 1947. Indeed, until early August the grain crops looked exceptionally good and the early harvest fore¬ casts promised yields up to the 1943 level, which was the peak of the war harvests. The'1948 spring had been early and kind. Unfortunately, August experienced some of the most persistent rainfall of the .year, which prevented farmers from pressing ahead with harvesting operations. The loss of grain amounted to about 15% taking the country as a whole, and instead of an exceptionally bountiful year yields were only slightly above the ten-year average. The high winds as well as rain beat down the crops in many places, causing losses of up to 25%. There were 6,000 combine harvesters in use in the 1948 harvest, almost all of them in England. The 1948 annual returns showed that farmers were taking seriously the opportunities to expand pig and poultry produc¬ tion. Numbers of breeding stock showed a considerable increase, although the totals were still below those of the prewar years. Milk production was being well maintained and each month the milk marketing board was able to record higher gallonages sold wholesale. In 1948 both potatoes and sugar beets gave heavy yields above the average. With a record acreage of potatoes planted it was certain that the crop would more than suffice for human needs, especially as bread rationing was no longer imposed. There was a surplus from the 1948 crop which could usefully be fed to pigs. The sugar factories had a heavy season, working to full capacity. A new crop on many farms in 1948 was linseed. Farmers in the south of England learned to grow flax during the war and linseed, which is the same plant developed for a different pur¬ pose, is no more difficult to grow. It was, however, a difficult crop to harvest. The price that farmers were guaranteed for linseed was £55 a ton which reflected the world scarcity of oil seeds and Britain’s need for supplies that did not cost hard currency. Agricultural politics ran a quiet course in 1948. No major measure like the Agriculture act of 1947 came before parlia¬ ment. This act was now in full operation and experience was being gained of its effects. No significant changes were made in the methods of assessing and fixing the prices guaranteed for the main farm products. The internal organization of the agricultural industry gained strength steadily. The Central Landowners’ association and also the two farm workers’ unions reported records in member¬ ship, and the National Farmers’ union consolidated its strength both in the counties and at headquarters in London. East Africa Peanut Scheme.—While there were no startling pioneer efforts in British agriculture during 1948, new enter¬ prises intended to benefit the British housewife were started by the Overseas Food corporation. One of these was the peanut scheme in Tanganyika. By April 1947 the first few tractors and more than 1,000 Africans had begun work at Kongwa, 240 mi. inland in Tan¬ ganyika. Clearing the ground involved the cutting of paths through the bush, the flattening of the bush, the burning of the debris, windrowing the trash, felling the larger trees and ex¬ tracting the roots. The progress was much slower than the first estimates and the cost much greater. Instead of getting 150,000

AGRICULTURE. U.S. DEPT. OF—AIRCRAFT MANUFACTURE ac. prepared for planting for the 1948 harvest, only 7,500 could be planted. A further 7,500 ac. had been roughly cleared by this time but the ground was not ready for planting. Yields from the first crops of peanuts varied widely accord¬ ing to the time of planting and the type of soil. The original estimate of production assumed an average yield of 850 lb. of peanuts to the acre. In the first season, yields varied from 1,200 lb. to 300 lb. to the acre and in the light of experience it seemed probable that another crop, sunflower, would be taken as the pioneer in making farm land out of the bush. The pea¬ nuts so far grown were needed for seed and it seemed unlikely that a large tonnage would be available for shipment for some years. {See also Agricultural Research Administration; Census Data, U.S.; Chemurgy; Fertilizers; Horticul¬

ture; Irrigation; Livestock; Meteorology; Prices; Rural Electrification; Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation; Vegetables, etc.; also under principal crops.) Films.—Arteries of Life; Seeds of Destruction; Soil Resources (our); The Birth of the Soil; This Vital Earth (Encyclopaedia Britannica Films

Inc.).

(A. R. Hd.)

Agriculture, U.S. Department of: see Government De¬ partments AND Bureaus,

Aircraft Manufacture.

craft," resulting from the tense world situation, began in 1948 to leave its mark on aircraft manufacture. In the U.S., the president’s air policy commission and the congressional Aviation Policy board, outlining long-term national aviation policy, recognized the essentiality to air power and national security of an aircraft manufacturing industry • ASSEMBLING B-50A’s at the Seattle, Wash., plant of the Boeing Airplane Co., where 215 of the long-range bombers were being built for the U.S. air forces in 1948

31

financially strong, technically skilled, efficient in production and capable of rapid expansion in emergencies. With civilian demand unable to support such an establishment, the board’s recom¬ mendations for a 70-group air force and substantial naval avia¬ tion, plus congressional appropriations for the first year of such a program, laid the groundwork for manufacturing growth and stability. Although major results of those appropriations as revealed in production figures would not come until 1949, effects of the new air policy were already being felt. Plants which had been idle since World War II reopened, employment reached a peacetime high, military production began to increase and 1947 financial losses were replaced by profits for many companies. Table I,— Number of Aircraff Produced in the U.S, during 1948 and 1947 Military. Civil Personal planes (2-, 3-, 4- and 5-place models). Transport planes (more than 5-place; including executive and feedertype models).*. Total (ail types)..

1948

1947

1,305*

2J02

7,236t

15,339

264t 8,805$

278 17,719

Source: U.S. Bureau of the Census ond the Civil Aeronautics Administration. *First seven months; later figures unavailable. Aircraft Industries association estimates place military production for entire year at 2,200 to 2,400 units. tLost months of year CAA estimate. $ Estimate.

Expansion posed major problems arising from technical aspects of design in shifting to jet planes, from limited avail¬ ability of materials and components, and from manpower short¬ ages, particularly of engineers and skilled workers. Other prob¬ lems stemmed from congressional failure to grant military avia¬ tion authority for a long-term procurement program and from anticipated administration efforts in 1949 to seek an air force of less than 70 groups.

AIRCRAFT M ANUFACTURE

32

Moreover, greater efficiency to reduce the cost of modern planes became essential. This need was forcefully demonstrated by the fact that the propellers alone on the B-36 bomber cost $168,000. Although overshadowed by military production, efforts to stimulate civilian sales continued. Consolidated Vultee pro¬ posed a plan for leasing, rather than selling transports to air lines, and manufacturers of smaller planes pushed business and industrial sales. Despite these efforts and substantial European Cooperation administration loans for aircraft purchases, civil production and exports declined. Table II.— British Exports of Aircraft and Aircraft Engines in 1948 and 1947 Complete aircraft.. Aircraft engines. Source: British Board of Trade.

1948

1947

971 1,216

1,641 1,495

The British aircraft industry still struggled under the handi¬ caps of postwar economic conditions, and major emphasis was placed on research and development for the future rather than on current production. The industry suffered a blow when the government, relaxing its “fly-British” policy, authorized British Overseas Airways to purchase Canadian planes. Exports de¬ clined, but some jet military aircraft were delivered to foreign countries, and it appeared that in any large-scale rearming of western Europe the British industry would shoulder a major part of the responsibility. Canadian production remained at approximately the 1947 rate, but the industry, though relatively small in output, con¬ tained a well-balanced combination of physical plants and trained personnel. Following receipt of a substantial U.S. mili¬ tary contract for aircraft parts, Canada was negotiating for the rights to build several new U.S. military types. Australia ad¬ hered to its policy of limited, but continuous, production of a few types to maintain an industry nucleus for expansion should the need arise. The French nationalized industry underwent reorganization, but production was still extremely limited. Italian manufactur¬ ing produced its first large postwar transport. Civilian Equipment.—In 1948, commercial transports in scheduled service throughout the world (excluding the U.S.S.R.) totalled 3,646 according to the Aviation Research institute. Of these, 78.4% were manufactured in the U.S. and 13% in Britain. Prewar types, particularly the Douglas DC-3, still predominated. However, Lockheed’s Constellation, Douglas’ DC-6, Martin’s 2-0-2 and Consolidated-Vultee’s Convair-Liner, four of the “big Table III.— British Aeroplanes under Development in 1948

Number and type of engines

Name of plane

Average cruising speed (m.p.h.)

Number of possengers

Expected yeor of entry into service

Handley Page Hermes IV

4; Bristol Hercules 763; piston

300

40

1949 or 1950

Airspeed Ambassador

2; Bristol Centaurus; piston

195-312

40

1952

Bristol Type 175

4; Bristol Proteus; turboprop

325

60-70

1953 or 1954

de Haviliand Comet (D,H. 106}

4; de Havillond Ghost; turbojet

500-600 (unofficial)

40 (unofficial)

1953 or 1954

Saunders-Roe S.R. 45 (flying boat)

1 0; Bristol Proteus; turboprop

more than 300

up to 1 00

1954

Bristol Brabazon (Second Type 1 67)

8;

(unavail¬ able)

100

1954

Bristol Proteus; turboprop

five” U.S. postwar transport types, were flying the airways in substantial numbers by the end of the year. The fifth, Boeing’s Stratocruiser, was undergoing CAA and company flight tests, with its debut anticipated for 1949. Despite considerable specu¬ lation about future U.S. transports, definite designs were con-

spicuously absent. In Britain, future deliveries were stressed, reflecting the gov¬ ernment’s aircraft policy outlined shortly after the war. Be¬ cause of unsatisfactory performance, the Tudor I and II were discarded as passenger transports, and Canadair IVs were or¬ dered to take their place. Table IV.—Latest Types of U.S. Aeroplanes in Use during 1948

Name of plane

Number and type of engines

Average cruising speed (m.p.h.l

Number of possengers

Year placed in operation

Lockheed Constellation

4; Wright Cyclone; piston'

311-328

57-69

1946

Douglas DC-6

4; Prott & Whitno/ R-2800; piston

315

52-58

1947

Mortin 2-0-2

2; Pratt & Whitney R-2800; piston

277

36

1947

Consolidated-Vultee Con¬ vair-Liner

2; Pratt & Whitney R-2800; piston

291

40

1948

Boeing Stratocruiser

4; Prott & Whitney Wasp Major; piston

340

55-75

1949 (expected)

The British orders testified to the good reputation gained by Canada’s Canadair IV, the pressurized DC-4 adaption with Rolls-Royce Merlin engines, which was also ordered by Cana¬ dian Pacific Air Lines for Pacific service. The prototype of the Canadian-designed, 4-engine jet civil transport, the Avro C-102, was nearing completion. This was to be a 40-passenger, 430 m.p.h., medium-range transport, ordered for Trans-Canada Air Lines. No U.S. commercial feeder liners were produced despite the fact that two prototypes, the Northrop Pioneer and the Beech Quad, were successfully flying. But in a smaller class, the 6-9 passenger, 2-engine Beech-18 was widely used as an executive plane. The new 2-engine, 8-10 passenger British Percival Prince was demonstrated as a feeder liner. The Australian-designed, 3-en¬ gine, 6-9 passenger Drover was ordered for government-owned air-line feeder services; and the Canadian-designed, 5-passenger Beaver was placed in production. The trend from 2-passenger to 4-passenger light planes seemed well established in both the U.S. and Britain. For the second successive year, the 4-passenger, 165 h.p. Stinson Voyager led in sales of a single model in the U.S., and the 4-passenger, 145 h.p. Cessna 170, introduced in 1947, had unusually high sales for a newcomer. In Britain, the 4-passenger, 145 h.p. Chrislea Super Ace was delivered to foreign buyers. The U.S. Hiller 360 and the British Cierva Skeeter helicopters attacked high cost, one of the major problems preventing ac¬ ceptance of the helicopter as a personal craft. The 3-passenger Hiller 360, which received the fourth U.S. type certificate for commercial helicopters, was expected to sell for about $20,000, considerably less than the price at the end of 1948 of civil t>'pes in use. The 2-passenger Cierva Skeeter, if manufactured in reasonable quantities, was expected to cost less than $12,000. Research and Development.—U.S. research was intensified as a result of the increased national security appropriations. An interesting aspect of the U.S. program was the widespread prac¬ tice among government agencies responsible for the various phases of research of contracting with universities, private re¬ search organizations and industrial firms to carry out specific projects instead of performing all work in their own establish¬ ments.

Much research in both Britain and the U.S. was directed to guided missiles and electronic equipment for their control and interception. The first U.S. guided missiles were leaving the development stage and entering production. Problems of high-speed flight again monopolized the field and

AIRPORTS AND FLYING FIELDS

33

rapid advances were made in supersonic research. Confirmation that the U.S. Bell X-i first exceeded the speed of sound on Oct. 14, 1947, was followed by a succession of reports of other supersonic flights. The X-i repeatedly exceeded the speed of sound and supersonic flight was reported for a fighter, the North American F-86A. The British announced a supersonic dive for the D.H. 108 and supersonic speeds for a pilotless re¬ search model. However, many problems in aerodynamics, such as stability, control and load distribution for trans-sonic and supersonic air¬ craft with unconventional configurations, had to be solved be¬ fore these speeds could become commonplace. More research in power plants as well as in aerodynamics was necessary to gain a satisfactory combination of speed, range and useful load. Jet engines appeared definitely favoured over the conventional piston engine for combat military aircraft, and turboprops and turbojets made substantial advances in the civil plane category. Turbojet research centred around higher compression ratios and turbine inlet temperatures and development of materials to with¬ stand these temperatures. The British, concentrating on gas turbines since the war, had a variety of turboprops and turbojets already in the air. The Rolls-Royce Avon, in the 6,500-lb. thrust class, was the most powerful turbojet flying. An experimental plane, a Viking with two Nenes (probably the most famous British turbojet) was the first civil transport to fly with jet propulsion. It was followed by a Tudor VIII, also experimental, with four Nenes. A Vick¬ ers Viscount with four Rolls-Royce Darts was the first civilian turboprop to fly. In the U.S., where many military fighters and bombers had turbojet engines, lagging turboprop development was given a boost by large military funds. The compound engine, a con¬ ventional piston engine with geared gas turbine converting to power some of the energy usually lost in exhaust and increasing either range or speed, was placed in production. A helicopter with a pulsejet engine in each rotor tip was successfully flown, and, for the first time in the U.S., a ramjet was tested in a piloted plane. (G. M. M.)

Air Forces of the World: see Aviation, Military. Air Lift: see Aviation, Civil; Aviation, Military; Berlin. Air Mail: see Post Office.

Airports and Flying Fields.

b

States equipped and served by ILS (the instrument landing system). Sixty-six more airports were to be so equipped as rapidly as ILS could be installed and tested for accuracy. Be¬ fore the development of ILS, the lowest limits acceptable for scheduled air-line operation were established at 400 ft. of ceil¬ ing and I mi. visibility, and this only when the pilot could land straight in without circling the airport. In other words, land¬ ings could not be made unless the cloud base was at least 400 ft. above the airport. If the pilot had to circle the airport, he could do so only if the ceiling was at least 500 ft. and the visibility at least i^ mi. ILS reduced these lowest limits by half, and by so doing, took many of the vagaries out of the approaches to the airport. Landings were being made with ceilings as low as 200 ft. and visibility as low as ^ mi. This reduction in landing limits had a great effect upon the completion of air-line schedules. A total of 56.5% of all weather below 400 ft. of ceiling and i-mi. visi¬ bility occurs in this 200-400 ft. level. So it was reasonable to conclude that ILS had eliminated, or would eliminate during the winter of 1948-49, approximately 50% of air-line cancella¬ tions formerly caused by weather below previously acceptable

GERMAN WORKERS building a new airfield in the French sector of Berlin during Oct. 1948. The work was being rushed to provide expanded facilities for the Allied air lift

operating limits. Translated into terms of flights and passengers, it may be stated that because of ILS, an estimated 12,500 flights operated during 1948, which a year earlier would have been cancelled, and roughly 225,000 passengers travelled as planned, who in 1947 would have had their flights cancelled. These esti¬ mates were based, of course, on existing published schedules. Air Traffic Congestion.—The air lines and the CAA (Civil Aeronautics administration) worked jointly to relieve air-trafific congestion. The production of these joint co-operative efforts produced impressive results. La Guardia airport at New York city was chosen as the specific point for comparison. The con¬ gestion problem at this location had been extremely severe. An analysis of a three-month period beginning with Dec. 1946 and ending with Feb. 1947 showed that 87% of all the air-line schedules during instrument weather encountered in this period were either delayed or cancelled, solely because of air traffic congestion. Only 13% of the schedules operated had no traffic delays. One year later, during the corresponding three-month period, the situation was almost reversed. About 79% of all aircraft, military, private and commercial, landed during instru¬ ment weather with no traffic delays. Only 21%, compared with 87% a year earlier, encountered any delay whatever. The improvement in the La Guardia situation was accom¬ plished by the following:

AIR RACES AND RECORDS

34

1. ILS was installed, which eliminated approximately 6o% of the circling previously required. 2. To compensate for the times when surface winds required a landing from the opposite direction, a second approach procedure with all neces¬ sary aids was established on the opposite side of the airport. This re¬ sulted in eliminating practically all so-called circling approaches. 3. A specially developed automatic calculator was installed in the air¬ port control tower. This device relieved the pilot of the mental calcula¬ tions previously required to arrive over the gateway marker inbound to the airport, and by so doing, placed the aircraft over the gateway at the precise time desired by the controller. 4. With the use of GCA (radar), or ground controlled approach, it was possible to space aircraft at regular, consistent intervals along the approach path, and at the same time, deterrnine when a departing aircraft might be cleared for take-off. Radar did as much as any other single factor to increase the instrument capacity of airports. 5. New routes and channels were established so that outbound aircraft travelled on one route, inbound aircraft travelled another, each route operating entirely independently of the other.

These changes produced a marked effect upon the airport capacity. Without in any way causing physical changes to be made in the airport, the instrument capacity, and the capacity of the system feeding the airport, was increased 300%. A similar program was being accomplished at Chicago, Ill., another of the busiest aviation centres in the world, and like programs were underway at Los Angeles and San Francisco, Calif., Boston, Mass., Washington, D.C., Dallas-Fort Worth, Tex., Cleveland, 0., Seattle, Wash., Houston, Tex., Detroit, Mich., Kansas City, Mo., and elsewhere. U.S. Airports and Landing Fields by Class and Type, Jan. 1, 1948 Type CAA Millto ry inter* mediate

Total

Com* merclal

Municipol

Sub 1. 1. II. Ill. IV. V. VI and over. • • •

1,215 2,366 888 526 444 184 136

841 1,533 393 57 19 3 3

177 601 329 307 271 89 44

8 60 77 24 9 0 0

Total.

5,759

2,849

1,818

178

Class

18 38 43 104 130 84 84 501

Mlscellaneous govern* ment

35

Private

19 10 20 13 8 4

136 115 36 14 2 0 1

109

304

Source: Civil Aeronautics Administration.

The Los Angeles Municipal airport was the site of the first installation in the U.S. of a fog dispersal system, known as Fido. The city of Los Angeles, the Civil Aeronautics adminis¬ tration and the scheduled air lines serving Los Angeles were sponsoring this installation, which was expected to be com¬ pleted and operating by March 15, 1949. (See also Civil Aero¬ nautics Administration.) (E. M. E.) Great Britain.—At London airport work was progressing on several runways and 44^ mi. of aerodrome lighting ducts were laid. Eighty-five acres of old gravel ponds were reclaimed on the site. A new passenger reception lounge was opened on the temporary site and the levelling of the main terminal area was continued. A system of low- and high-intensity approach light¬ ing was installed on one runway. At Prestwick, Ayrshire, the main runway was strengthened and plans were being made for another runway. A new flying boat dock and station for the British Overseas Airways corporation (B.O.A.C.) was opened at Southampton on April 14. The Southampton airport was taken over by the ministry of civil aviation on May i. At Bristol the new runway, if mi. long and 100 yd. wide, as well as new sheds, was completed for the Brabazon I aircraft. Belgium.—It was reported that the privately owned Charleroi-Gosselies aerodrome, 3 mi. north of Charleroi, was to be nationalized and subsequently enlarged. Development plans provided for the construction of three concrete runways, im¬ provements to the approach roads, rerouting of the BrusselsCharleroi road to by-pass the airport, and the construction of a new terminal building. France.—At Orly (Paris) the work on the runways continued and new two-story buildings for the various services eased the problem of passenger and office accommodation. At the BasleMulhouse airport work on the buildings, runways and aero¬ drome radio and lighting installation was satisfactorily carried

on: this joint French-Swiss aerodrome was now one of the best and most efficient in Europe. Greece.—It was reported that the airports at Athens (Hassani), Jannina, Kavalla, Kozane, Larissa and Salonika (Sedes) were being enlarged and modernized. Netherlands.—At Schiphol 7,000 workmen were employed on repairing and completing the drainage system, the landing area and four asphalt runways. Night-landing installations and radio equipment were repaired and renewed. Six hangars were erected. The floor space of newly erected technical and other buildings of 198,000 sq.ft, was to be extended to 287,000 sq.ft, by the end of 1948. The terminal building and control tower were under construction. At Eelde airport, Groningen, a sum of ap¬ proximately £400,000 was allocated for development. Italy.—The Italian government had taken over control of all civil aerodromes. Several wartime aerodromes were being used although much work was required to put them in satisfactory condition. Portugal.—Approval of the construction of Algarve airport. Faro, was reported. The prime minister, Antonio Salazar, authorized the sum of approximately £180,000 for the work. Each runway was to be 4,500 ft. long. Spain.—It was announced in the Boletin Oficial of the Span¬ ish air ministry that bids were invited for the work of levelling part of Los Llanos aerodrome, Albacete. (See also Aviation, Civil; Aviation, Military.) Films.—Our Town Builds an Airport (Civil Aeronautics Administra¬ tion—Castle). (H. R. G.)

The air race classic of 1948, the Thompson trophy race held in Cleveland, O., was won by Anson Lynn Johnson, a pilot from Miami Springs, Fla., marking the highlight of a year of exciting and significant world air developments. Johnson, 28, took the feature of the national air races with an average speed of 383.767 m.p.h. He garnered $16,000 in first-place prize money plus additional cash for lap victories. The race over the 15-mi. closed course attracted ten pilots, seven of which were forced by technical problems in their ma¬ chines to drop out before the end. All landed safely. Bruce Ray¬ mond, Hammond, Ind., was second, at 365.234 m.p.h., and Wilson V. Newhall, Chicago, placed third with 313.567 m.p.h. Another feature of the national air races was the Goodyear trophy race won by H. R. Salmon of Van Nuys, Calif. Steve Wittman of Oshkosh, Wis., was second and Art Chester of Los Angeles, Calif., placed third. This event was open to small planes built around the Continental 85-h.p. engine and there were 43 such aircraft entered. Paul Mantz of Hollywood, Calif., famous stunt pilot, won the annual Bendix trophy race for the third successive year, but did not better his own record established in 1947. He was the only person ever to win this classic three times. He flew a Mustang P-51 over the 2,080-mi. course which started in Long Beach, Calif., and ended in Cleveland, O. For the entire flight he aver¬ aged a speed of 447.980 m.p.h. and his elapsed time was 4 hr. 33 min. 48.7 sec. His record speed, set in 1947, was 460.423 m.p.h. Linton B. Carney placed second, in 4 hr. 34 min. 57.8 sec. with an average speed of 446.112 m.p.h. Third place went to Jacqueline Cochran (Mrs. Floyd B. Odium) who also flew a modified Mustang P-51. Miss Cochran was one of the only two women ever to win the Bendix trophy race. She averaged 445.847 m.p.h. with an elapsed time of 4 hr. 35 min. 7.3 sec. Carney also flew a Mustang P-51.

Air Races and Records.

An unofficial world’s speed record was set at the national air races by a U.S. army pilot. Major Richard L. Johnson, who flew a North American F-86A jet fighter 669.75 m.p.h. Although it

was first announced that this mark was the first world’s record set with a standard operational aircraft before a paid audience, the air force officials and those of the National Aeronautic as¬ sociation, who were co-operating with the Federation Aeronautique Internationale of Paris in timing and certifying speed trials, later declared the figures were unofficial. However, on Sept. 15, Maj. Johnson set an approved world speed record of 670.98 m.p.h. in the same plane. Miss Lettice Curtis, a royal air force ferry pilot during World War II, captured the women’s world air speed record over a loo-km. (62.5 mi.) closed circuit course at the Lympne air races in England. She flew a Supermarine Spitfire, averaging 313.07 m.p.h. {See also Gliding.) (T. J. D.)

A.L.A.t see

American Library Association.

AlAliAmn

Alabama, located in the heart of the “deep south” of the United States, was admitted to the union Dec. 14, 1819, as the 22nd state. It is popularly called the “Cotton State,” or the “Yellowhammer State.” Area: 51,609 sq.mi. (51,078 sq.mi. of land and 531 sq.mi. of water). In 1940 the total population of the state was 2,832,961. Of this number 1,849,097 were whites, 983,290 were Negroes and 574 were classified otherwise; 2,821,004 were native-born and 11,957 were foreign-born. In 1948 the total population of the state was estimated by the U.S. census bureau at 2,848,000. Montgomery, the capital city, in 1948 had an estimated population of 109,800, Birmingham, the state’s largest city, 307,000 and Mobile, the state’s only seaport and second largest city, 165,300. History .—The principal elective officials of the state in 1948 were: James E. Folsom, governor; J. C. Inzer, lieutenant gov¬ ernor; Albert A. Carmichael, attorney general; Dan Thomas, state auditor; Haygood Paterson, commissioner of agriculture and industries; Sibyl Pool, secretary of state; John Brandon, state treasurer; Austin R. Meadows, state superintendent of education. The state legislature was not in session during 1948. The principal matter of local state interest to come before the voters in 1948 was a constitutional amendment which would have made provision for the state legislature to call itself into extraordinary session without a proclamation by the governor. On Jan. 6, the voters failed to ratify the amendment. In the November election, presidential electors pledged to cast their vote for States’ Rights candidate, J. Strom Thurmond, received 171,443 votes; electors pledged to vote for the Re¬ publican candidate received 40,930 votes; electors pledged to vote for the candidate of the Progressive party received 1,522 votes; and electors pledged to the Prohibition party nominee received 1,085 votes. There were no elector’s names on the ballot pledged to vote for the national Democratic party nomi¬

fildUdllld*

nee, Harry S. Truman. Education.—During the academic year 1947-48 (ending June 30), the total number of public schools in the state was 3,702. Total enrolment for these schools was 651,480. Of this number 43S,s6i had primary school standings and 215,919 had secondary school standings. There were 12,774 elementary and 7,871 secondary teaching positions in public schools. There were 9 state institutions of higher learning with a total of 24,872 students enrolled and 1,851 teachers. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare ond Related Programs-

Amounts spent for public assistance categories in Alabama during the fiscal year 1947-48 (ending Sept. 30) and average number of recipients (in parentheses) during 1947-48 were as follows: old age assistance $14,531,351-49 (63,245): aid to the blind $278,619.97 (1,085); aid to dependent children $3,917,155.60 (10,155): aid to children in foster care $163,938.22 (512); aid to the handicapped $1,111,170.58 (5,840): temporary aid $38,439.67 (162). During the fiscal year 1947—48 approxi¬ mately 59,700 veterans were paid, under the G.I. Bill of Rights, un¬ employment compensation totalling $17,511,872. Approximately 53,200 nonveterans were paid unemployment compensation totalling $7,484,454. State correctional institutions are largely self-supporting. On Sept. 30, 1948, there were 28 state prisons with a total prison population of 4,580. Total prison expenditures for the fiscal year 1947-48 were $4,028,144.20. At the close of the fiscal year (Sept. 30. 1948) there were 3 state reforma¬ tories with a total reformatory population of 622. Total reformatory expenditures for the fiscal year 1947-48 were $373,144.49.

DEMONSTRATION for Gov. J. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina, nominated 'or president of the U.S. by a rump Democratic convention in Birmingham, Ala., July 17, 1948. Governor Thurmond carried four states in the November elections, plus one electoral vote from Tennessee, giving him a total of 39 electoral votes Communications—The State highway system consisted of 7,505 mi. of road, the county system had 52,786 mi. of road and there were approxi¬ mately 3,500 mi. of municipal streets. For the fiscal year 1947—48 state expenditures for highways by the state highway department were $21,139,916.55. Estimated railroad mileage was 5,342. There were 8 airways with a total airway mileage of 2,863. The number of airports (including those owned by the U.S. national military establishment) was 118. The tonnage of water-borne commerce in the state was 4,332,121. Telephones in the state were estimated at 345,000. Banking and Finance.—On June 30, 1948, there were in Alabama 134 state banks and i branch, which had total deposits of $281,221,259 and total resources of $303,421,504; 68 national banks and 22 branches which had total deposits of $879,558,741 and total resources of $945,880,496. On June 30, 1948, there were 18 federal savings and loan associations with total resources of $38,162,681 and 8 state savings and loan associa¬ tions with total resources of $8,020,531. According to best available in¬ formation, total net state government receipts in the fiscal year 1947-48 were $126,709,225.33; total net disbursements $134,444,451 (some dis¬ bursements were from earmarked funds that were not included in net receipts for the year 1948); the gross state bonded indebtedness on Sept. 30, 1948, was $48,696,000; the net state bonded indebtedness on Sept. 30, 1948, was $24,881,000. Agriculture—The total value of agricultural production for 1947 was estimated at $592,752,000, including crops and livestock. The total acre¬ age of crops harvested in 1947 was estimated at 5,986,000 ac. Cash in¬ come from sale of crops was $272,290,000; sale of livestock and live¬ stock products amounted to $120,363,000; income from government pay¬ ments was $4,673,000. In 1948 spring rains delayed the planting of cotton and made the planting of this crop rather late, this work not being pos¬ sible in most sections until after the middle of April. However, subsequent weather conditions were favourable throughout the season. Table I.— Leading Agricultural Products of Alabama, 1948 and 1947

Cotton, boles . . . Corn, bu. Peanuts, lb. Hoy, tons. Sweet potatoes, bu. Oats, bu. Irish potatoes, bu. Peaches, bu. . . . Soybeans, bu. . . . Sugar cone syrup, gol.

1947 1948 1,656,000 1,278,000 58,824,000 42,842,000 343,200,000 291,690,000 694,000 687,000 5,084,000 4,505,000 5,083,000 5,750,000 3,330,000 3,640,000 1,525,000 1,298,000 738,000 969,000 2,160,000 2,240,000

Value, 1948 $214,416,000 88,236,000 35,350,000 15,615,000 10,136,000 6,900,000 6,224,000 3,245,000 2,616,000 2,576,000

Manufacturing.—The total estimated value of manufactures in Alabama in 1948 was $1,750,000,000. The 3,674 manufacturing establishments in 1948 had an average number of 241,000 employees, to whom they paid wages of $394,400,000. Table II.— Principal Mineral Products of Alabama, 1946 and 1945 Production

Mineral Cool, tons. Iron ore, tons. Cement, bbl. Stone, tons.

1946 15,780,000 5,955,198 8,072,000 1,874,330

1945 18,236,000 6,038,631 7,897,000 2,238,740

Value, 1946 $72,588,000 16,376,000 1 3,1 20,000 3,327,000

Minerals.—The value of Alabama mineral production in 1943 was $110,360,000; in 1946 the value was $117,764,000. (J. E. Fm.)

35

ALAND ISLANDS —ALBANIA

36 Aland Islands: ■I

K-

see Finland.

Alaska, northernmost territory of the United States,

nldolVdi is located between the meridians of 130° W. and 173° E. longitude and between the parallels of 51° and 72° N. latitude. It has an area of 586,400 sq.mi. and an estimated resi¬ dent population (1947) of 82,000, made up of about 60% whites and 40% Eskimos, Aleuts and Indians. The Aleutian Islands, a chain of small islands extending about 1,200 mi. west¬ ward from the extremity of the Alaskan peninsula, constitute part of the territory of Alaska. Juneau (1940 est. pop. 5,748) is the capital of Alaska, and other principal cities are Ketchikan (4,601), Anchorage (3,488), Fairbanks (3,304), Sitka (1,945), Petersburg (1,288), Nome (1,550), Wrangell (1,142), Seward (1939 census, 949). Governor in 1948: Ernest Gruening. History.—Pres. Harry S. Truman in a message to congress during 1948 recommended early admission of the territory as a state. The interior department set up a special Alaska com¬ mittee to explore and advance the development of natural re¬ sources, establishment of industry and development of power sites, aimed toward the goal of statehood. At its general elec¬ tion in Oct. 1948, 23,054 persons cast ballots, an increase of 6,000 over any previous election. The largest previous vote was in 1946 when 16,979 votes were cast. During the summer months 10,466 persons passed into the territory via the Alaska highway through Canada and only 6,533 departed via the same route. The treasury department announced the re-establishment of a U.S. coast guard headquarters in Alaska. The former head¬ quarters had been in Ketchikan during World War II, but was abandoned after the war through a merger with the Seattle, Wash., district. The treasury indicated it would place its ad¬ ministrative headquarters in Juneau on return to the territory by July I, 1949, the service facilities at Ketchikan being re¬ tained. Planes and cutters are used by the coast guard in patrol¬ ling the 26,000 mi. of Alaska coast line. With the re-establish¬ ment of the headquarters in the territory this service was ex¬ pected to be supplemented. Education—School enrolment reflected a population increase. The ter¬ ritorial department of education found it necessary to increase its ele-’ mentary schools from 70 to 80 with an enrolment of 7,809 and its high schools from 24 to 27 with an enrolment of 1,451. The Alaska Native service with 8s day schools for Indian, Aleut and Eskimo children had an enrolment of 4,000 plus 892 students enrolled in its three boarding schools. At Fairbanks, the University of Alaska had an enrolment of about 360. Communications.—Water transportation was again a problem for the territory. A three months’ Pacific coast maritime strike tied up all water shipping to and from Alaska from Sept. 2 to Dec. 6. Just before the year’s end another short strike again disrupted traffic. Alaskans, de¬ pendent on supplies from the states, saw the price of living soar as a result of the tie-up. Food supplies were brought in by air and in some instances this doubled and trebled the already high prices. Small boats sup¬ plemented the air lift in southeast Alaska and some produce was taken into the interior via the Alaska highway. Though commercial ships re¬ sumed limited schedules in December, water transportation was woefully inadequate as the result of two companies’ discontinuing operations to the territory, leaving but one shipping company with but a limited num¬ ber of vessels to handle the trade. Through substantial appropriations by congress, new road projects were undertaken during the year by the Alaska Road commission and the Public Roads administration, co-operating with the territorial road agency which obtains its funds from a two-cents-per-gallon gasoline tax. The latter agency also carries on small airfield construction and several new strips were built and others enlarged during the summer construc¬ tion season, facilitating small aeroplane traffic. Virtually all passenger travel, particularly in the interior, is by aeroplane. Fisheries—While less than normal in volume, the Alaska fisheries in 1948 produced one of the most valuable salmon packs in their history. The pack of 3,936,313 cases, 48 one-pound cans to the case, was valued at $100,000,000. The high value was the result of the highest prices on record, an average of around $25 per case. Pink salmon was sold to the jobbers for more than $23.50 a case and king and red salmon brought from $27 to $30. About 40,000,000 lb. of halibut were pro¬ duced, valued at around $1,000,000, and shrimp, crab and cod added another $1,000,000 to the season’s take from Alaskan waters. Mining.- Mining, closed down during World War II, showed increased activity but still was considerably less than its prewar normal. The 1948 figures, not yet available at the close of the year, were expected to surpass the 1947 production mark of $18,378,000, with gold leading

the field. Gold production was estimated at $10,000,000 and coal, plat¬ inum and silver at between $8,000,000 and $9,000,000. Industry.—Industrially, interest in 1948 centred in the establishment of pulp producing plants in southeast Alaska. Two sites had been selected, one near Ketchikan and the other near Sitka. Some engineering work was done and timber contracts were offered by the government. All of southeast Alaska is in the Tongass national forest, outside the incorporated towns, and jurisdiction over the vast timber area rests with the U.S. forest service, which with other departments of government, had been encouraging the development of the pulp and paper industry. Plans called for an investment of $20,000,000 to $30,000,000 in the pulp plant near Ketchikan. Films.—Alaska: A Modern Frontier (Coronet Instructional Films); Alaska—Story of a Frontier (Films, Inc.). (L. M. W.)

Alaska Highway: see

Roads and Highways.

Alh/ini/l ^ nation in the western part of the Balkan peninniUUlllaa bounded by Yugoslavia to the north and east and by Greece to the south, with an Adriatic coast line of 200 mi. Area: 10,629 sq.mi.; pop.; (census 1939) 1,063,000; (1947 est.) 1,150,000; chief towns (1946 est.): Tirana (cap., 35,000); Scutari or Shkoder (30,000) ; Koritsa or Korce (25,000); Elbasan (15,000). Language; besides the literary Albanian, there are two dialects spoken, the Gheg north of the river Shkumbi and the Tosk in the south. Religions (1939 census): Moslem 720,ooo; Greek Orthodox 213,000; Roman Catholic 106,000. Presi¬ dent: Omar Nishani; prime minister: Colonel General Enver Hoxha. History .—The attitude of the Albanian government toward the western powers remained hostile during 1948. There were many examples of this attitude during the hearing of the Corfu channel dispute by the International Court of Justice (g-v.) at The Hague in March. Albania contested the right of Great Britain to bring the case to the court and contested the right of the court to try the case. Sir Hartley Shawcross, representing Britain, agreed to submit the dispute jointly with Albania, and the court finally rejected Albania’s objection to its competence to try the case. Both governments filed their written documents with the court in September. A public hearing of the Corfu channel dispute started at The Hague on Nov. 5. The Albanian Communist party, although not a member of the Cominform, was among the first in eastern Europe to en¬ dorse the Cominform’s denunciation of the “nationalism” of the Yugoslav leaders. Drastic measures taken by Albania at the end of June included what amounted to an economic volte face, when the government denounced all its standing agreements with Yugoslavia. Further anti-Yugoslav action included the ex¬ pulsion of all Yugoslav specialists and technicians; the cessation of work on the construction of the railway linking the port of Scutari with the Yugoslav frontier; and the prohibition of all oil and other exports to Yugoslavia. At the same time a country-wide campaign prohibited the Yugoslav communist newspaper Borba; ordered the destruction of all portraits of Marshal Tito and closed the Yugoslav book¬ shop in Tirana. In all the Yugoslav government sent four strongly worded notes of protest over the hostile Albanian policy. The notes were rejected as “insulting.” On Aug. 3 a trade agreement was signed with Bulgaria and on Sept. 15 the first shipment of supplies from Russia reached Durazzo. Relations with the Soviet Union became more intimate. Meanwhile relations with Greece remained strained. In Aug¬ ust, the United Nations Special Commission on the Balkans de¬ cided that Albania had assisted and given sanctuary to Greek rebel forces during the Greek government’s offensive in the Grammes area. Britain, the United States and France delivered notes of protest and suggested that the Albanian government should permit observers from the United Nations Special Com¬ mission on the Balkans to operate in Albania. The Albanian government’s reply forbade this and accused Britain, France

37

ALBERTA —ALEMAN, MIGUEL and the United States of interfering in its internal affairs. Throughout the year there were numerous government acts of suppression directed largely against the Roman Catholic Church. In April and May five high-ranking church dignitaries including the regent of the Apostolic delegation, Mgr. Gjini, were exe¬ cuted after prosecution had allegedly proved collaboration with antigovernment sympathizers. In addition Catholic schools and institutions were closed. (S. E. Ws.) Education.—(1947) i,6oo schools with 132,000 pupils. Finance and Trade—(1938, in Albanian francs): Imports 22,398,000; exports 9,750,000. i Albanian franc=s lek. i lek = i Yugoslav dinars 2 cents U.S. (1948). Transport and Communications.—(1947) Roads 2,385 km.; railways 43 km.; motorcars 500; buses and trucks 1,240. Production.—Crude petroleum (1947 est.) 120,000 metric tons; wool (1948 est.) 4,800,000 lb.; maize (1947 est.) 140,000 metric tons; wheat (1946 est.) 60,000 metric tons.

Alhorto

^®st westerly of the three prairie provinces of Canada, Alberta was created by parliament in 1905. The area is 255,285 sq.mi., of which 6,485 sq.mi. are water; pop. (1941) 796,169, (1948 est.) 846,000. Largest city is Ed¬ monton, provincial capital (1948: 126,809, plus about 5,000 in suburbs). Administered by a lieutenant governor, an executive council, and a 57-member legislative assembly, Alberta is fed¬ erally represented by 17 members of parliament and 6 senators. History.—In the Aug. 17, 1948, general provincial election the Social Credit government increased its vote to 55% (from $1% in 1944) but carried only the same number of seats (51). A personal victory was credited to 39-year-old Premier Herbert Manning for his pay-as-you-go, debt-reducing policies. Legislation of 1948 made both employers and unions liable to fines for illegal lock-outs or strikes, increased compensation to injured workers, doubled royalties for mined coal, boosted oldage pensions to $37 monthly, provided government contribu¬ tions to private industry’s voluntary retirement pensions, in¬ creased teachers’ pensions retirement fund and established crown corporations to handle life and general insurance. The government presented a record-breaking $53,349,553 budget to the 1948 legislature, reported that 1948 liquor sales

nlUCI

lUe

profits would be $9,000,000 (1946: $8,000,000) and revealed that the immigration program had brought 6,000 Britons to the province (of the 400,000 planned over the 1948-58 period). Finance.—In March the government announced that over the 1936—48 period the public debt had been reduced by $40,000,000, outstanding public debts had been refinanced on a serial basis providing for complete retirement by 1981, and accumulated surpluses amounted to $34,000,000. Agriculture.—Production figures and values for 1947 (compared with 1946 in parentheses) were: total production value, $438,000,000 ($420,000,000); coarse grains, 133,983,000 bu. (149,610,000 bu.) worth $121,624.000 ($92,273,000); wheat, 103,000,000 bu. (127,000,000 bu.) worth $116,390,000 ($140,970,000); dairy products, $46,739,000 ($36,000,000); poultry production, $22,715,000 ($21,514,000); livestock sales, 1,941,000 animals (2,176,000) worth $91,062,000 ($89,000,000). Industries.—New 1948 industries included a $4,000,000 sugar beet refinery, a $1,000,000 salt-well project, and 53 others. Statistics for 1947 (compared with 1946 in parentheses) were: industrial employees, 170,000 (160,000); industrial pay rolls, $221,000,000 ($200,000,000); value of manufactured products, $263,000,000 ($255,000,000); wholesale sales, $280,000,000 ($241,000,000); retail sales, $415,000,000 ($375,000,000). Minerals.—Total 1947 coal production was only 8,074,000 tons compared with 8,824,400 tons in 1946. The biggest single 1948 economic development was the expanding oil boom. In 1948, Alberta had a daily production of 40,000 bbl. compared with 18,000 bbl. per day in 1947. A new promising field was opened at Redwater, 30 mi. northeast of Edmon¬ ton. Plans for 500-mi. pipe lines to carry Alberta oil to Saskatchewan, the Dakotas and Minnesota were announced. {See also C.^nada.) (C. Cy.)

AlonhnI IniliictnQl P^^uction amounted to 166,/ilvUnOly inDllSiriflla 141,074 wme gallons of 190 proof undenatured ethyl alcohol in the year July i, 1947, to June 30, 1948, compared with 124,399,320 gal. in the preceding year. The rate of production increased during the second half of 1948, rising from 11,900,000 gal. in July to 16,800,000 gal. for November. Prices dropped sharply during 1948, from approximately $i per proof gallon early in the year to about 44 cents at its close, in part the result of bringing new synthetic facilities into pro¬ duction and competition with other solvents. Production by synthesis from ethylene, a petroleum product, accounted for nearly one-half the total. Fermentation from molasses, grain (and in 1948 from surplus potatoes), sulphite liquors and un¬ finished spirits was the older source, but probably more costly. (J. K. R.) Alcoholic Intoxication: see Intoxication, Alcoholic Liquor: see Brewing and Beer;

Alcoholic. Liquors, Alco¬

holic; Wines.

Alpman Mimipl niCllldlli inigUCi

DISMANTLING of an oil refinery at Whitehorse, Yukon, Can., which was transported by truck and rail to the new Leduc oil fields in Edmonton, Alta., Can. On July 17, 1948, the first crude oil was run to a still of the trans¬ ported refinery, a timesaver of IS months over the building of a new piant

born Sept. 29 in Sayula, Veracruz, Mex¬ ico. He entered the National Preparatory school in Mexico City in 1920 and later attended the National university of Mexico, where he received his legal degree in 1928. He became a con¬ sulting attorney for the Mexican ministry of agriculture and a justice of the federal court. He was elected to the senate from Veracruz and was governor of that state from 1936 to 1940. He directed the presidential campaign of Gen. Manuel Avila Camacho, and from 1940 to 1945 was Camacho’s minister of the interior. In 1946 he was elected president of Mexico. His domestic program included the progressive industrializa¬ tion of Mexico; the modernization of agriculture, from which 70% of the population earns its livelihood; the development of irrigation, and the extension of education. On foreign policy, Aleman championed inter-American solidarity. In 1948 Ale¬ man’s administration co-operated with U.S. agricultural authori¬ ties in reducing Mexican cattle herds afflicted with foot-andmouth disease, 650,000 head being slaughtered before vaccina¬ tion was introduced as an alternative. In his annual presidential report. Sept, i, Aleman referred to this campaign as a factor in Mexico’s tight food supply, though he pointed out that other agricultural production was gratifying. When, on Aug. 21, ap¬ proximately 10,000 workers paraded in protest against high food prices and the devaluation of the peso, Aleman declared that devaluation was essential to his domestic program.

38

ALEUTIAN ISLANDS —ALIENS

Aleutian Islands: see

Alien Property Custodian, Office of:

Alaska.

see Foreign In-

VESTMENTS.

Alexander of Tunis, Harold Rupert Leofric Ponrrra Alavondor

Viscount, of Errigal

(1891-

UCOlgC nl6X3fl06rf ), British field marshal and gov¬ ernor-general of Canada, was born on Dec. 10. He was edu¬ cated at Harrow and Sandhurst, and in 19 ii was commissioned in the Irish Guards. He served on the western front during World War I and received the distinguished service order and military cross. At the beginning of World War II he com¬ manded the ist division in France and was responsible for the evacuation of more than 300,000 men of the British expedi¬ tionary force from the beaches of Dunkirk. For a time he was general officer commanding, southern command, but in March 1942 he went to Burma where he was-in charge of the retreat from that country. In August of the same year he was appointed commander in chief, middle east, and it was under him that the German and Italian armies were driven out of Libya. In Feb. 1943 he became deputy commander in chief. North Affica, under General Dwight D. Eisenhower and later, in Nov. 1944, supreme Allied commander in the Mediterranean. In May 1945 Field Marshal Alexander, as he then was, signed an armistice with the defeated German commander in Italy. In 1946 he was created a viscount and in the same year took office as governorgeneral of Canada. On Oct. i, 1947, the powers of the governorgeneral of Canada were increased by letters patent signed by the king, and the holder of the office was given the full royal powers of signing and ratifying treaties and issuing letters of credence to ambassadors. In April 1948 Viscount Alexander visited Great Britain and on April 23 was invested with the Order of the Garter. In June he paid a visit to Brazil, the first ever made by a governor-general of Canada. ■ ir ir

The United States alfalfa crop of 1948 was estimated at 34,083,000 tons of hay from 15,014,000 ac., slightly more than the 33,450,000 tons of 1947 and much more than the average of 31,540,000 tons in 1937-46. This was the third largest crop on record, exceeded only by those of 1942 and 1945. Weather damage was moderate, mostly to the first cutting in some of the more important producing areas. Average yield was 2.27 tons per acre, slightly more than the 2.25 tons per acre of 1947 and higher than the 2.16 tons per acre average for 1937-46.

nlldlld*

U.S. Production of Alfalfa Hay in Leading States, 1948, 1947 and 10-year Average, 1937-46

1,898 2,041 1,294

Petitions for naturalization were filed by 68,265 persons, a decrease of 23% from the 1946-47 fiscal year, when 88,802 petitions were filed. Declarations of intention filed increased to 60,187. There were 37,771 declarations filed in the fiscal year

1,108 545

1946-47; 28,787 in 1945-46; 31,195 in 1944-45; and 42,368 in 1943-44.

(In thousands of tons! State

California Kansas. • Nebraska Idaho « • Wisconsin* Minnesota

• • • • • •

• • . • • •

• • . • • •

1948

1947

10-yr. average

4,162 3,41 I 2,192 1,968 1,948 1,804

4,724 1,981 2,058 2,007 2,263 1,685

3,797 1,288 1,355 1,946 2,232 2,440

State

Michigan * . . • Iowa. Colorado. . • • Illinois. Montana • • • * Oklahoma • • .

1948

1,606 1,509 1,435 1,323 1,316 926

1947

1,693 1,479 1,333 1,172 1,264 800

rO-yr. average

1,121

The price received by farmers for baled alfalfa hay was more than $37 per ton early in 1948, but declined to less than $26 later in the year. The 1948 alfalfa seed crop was estimated at 990,000 bu. com¬ pared with the all-time record of 1,822,400 bu. harvested in 1946 and a crop of 1,700,000 bu. harvested from 996,000 ac. in 1947. Harvested acreage in 1948 was 614,000 ac., and the aver¬ age yield was 1.61 bu. per acre, compared with 1.71 bu. per acre in 1947. Alfalfa seed prices to the producer averaged $26 per bushel in November, with a wide range between sections and types of seed. {See also Hay.) (J. K. R.)

Algeria:

see French Overseas Territories.

Al" n United States.—By using the true figures for imminllbllOi gration and naturalization, and estimating alien mor¬ tality for the period of registration, it is possible to arrive at the approximate alien population. On such a basis it is esti¬ mated that there were approximately 3,000,000 resident aliens in the continental U.S. on June 30, 1946. This estimate does not take into account persons there temporarily; that is, non¬ immigrants, border crossers and imported labourers. Naturalization.—The member of noncitizens naturalized in the fiscal year 1947-48 was 76,150, the lowest number since 1911. Of the total, 69,080 were civilian and 1,070 military naturaliza¬ tions {see Table I). During the fiscal year 1947-48, 2,887 petitions for naturali¬ zation were denied, as compared with 3,953 denied during the previous year. There were 163 judgments of naturalization re¬ voked and certificates of naturalization cancelled during the year, an increase of 69 as compared with the preceding year. In f 50 cases the foreign service of the department of state initi¬ ated the action because naturalized U.S. citizens became perma¬ nent residents of other countries within five years of naturaliza¬ tion. In 13 cases the immigration and naturalization service initiated action because naturalization was otherwise fraudu¬ lently or illegally procured. There was an increasing number of cases of naturalized per¬ sons who had resided abroad for many years and had failed to make a timely return to the United States, thus losing their citizenship under section 404 of the Nationality act of 1940. These persons returned to the United States after the time limited by law and, being admitted as aliens, sought to have their status as citizens re-established on the basis of meritorious facts. The policy was adopted of regarding such persons as not having been expatriated if their return to the United States before Oct. 14, 1946, was prevented by conditions of travel be¬ yond their control. Aside from this ground, nationality could be lost involuntarily through conviction of treason, conviction by court-martial of desertion from the armed forces in time of war and departing or remaining away from the United States to avoid training and service in the land or naval forces. It could be lost voluntarily by naturalization in a foreign state, the taking of an oath of allegiance to a foreign state and the performance of certain acts identified with citizenship of a for¬ eign state. During the year 1947-48, 6,779 persons thus lost United States nationality.

Table I.—l/.S. Noncif/zens Nafura/ized darmg Yeor Ended June 30, 1948, by Countries or Regions of Former Allegiance Country or region of

former allegiance All countries Austria. British Empire. Canada . China. Czechoslovokia . • • . Eire ......... Germony. Greece . Hungary. Italy. Mexico. Philippines*. Poland. U.S.S.R. Yugoslavia Other countries . . . .

Total

naturalized 70,150 1,285 12,361 3,860 763 1,459 1,146 7,486 1,683 1,271 9,452 1,895 5,768 5,136 3,143 858 12,584

Civilian 69,080 1,283 12,157 3,806 707 1,448 1,136 7,416 1,660 1,264 9,334 1,768 5,635 5,107 3,107 847 12,405

Military 1,070 2 204 54 56 11 10 70 23 7 118 127 133 29 36 11 179

ALIEKS Alien Enemies.—Alien enemies were defined as natives, citi¬ zens, denizens and subjects of enemy nations of the United States in World War II—Japan, Germany, Italy, Hungary, Rumania and Bulgaria. At the beginning of the fiscal year 1947-48 there were 203 Germans and 384 Japanese under alien enemy proceedings. Two Germans were added during the year, bringing the total to 589. Seven Germans and i Japanese de¬ parted voluntarily under removal orders issued by the attorney general pursuant to the presidential proclamation of July 14, 1945; 23 Germans and 17 Japanese were released outright; I German died. At the close of the fiscal year there were 174 Germans and 27 Japanese still under orders of removal issued by the attorney general, of which number 161 Germans were in custody, and the rest were on parole. The last alien enemy family internment camp at Crystal City, Tex., was closed on Feb. 27, 1948. New Legislation.—The “cultural relations” act of Jan. 27, 1948, dealt in part with the interchange on a reciprocal basis between the United States and other countries of students, trainees, teachers, guest instructors, professors and leaders in fields of specialized knowledge or skill. An act of March 24, 1948, extended the period of validity of public law 471, 79th congress, entitled “An Act to Facilitate the Admission to the United States of Alien Fiancees or Fiances of Members of the Armed Forces of the United States” to Dec. 31, 1948, and amended the act of June 29, 1946, by repealing clause (b) of the proviso of section i thereof. An act of May 19, 1948, amended the Immigration act of 1924 to provide that husbands of United States citizens be en¬ titled to nonquota status if the marriage occurred prior to Jan. I, 1948. The husbands of citizens marrying on or after that date were to be accorded first preference status within the quota. An act of May 25, 1948, amended the act of Oct. 16, 1918, to provide for the exclusion and deportation of aliens seeking to enter the United States for the purpose of engaging in activi¬ ties to endanger the public safety of the United States. The act of June i, 1948, amended the Nationality act of 1940 to provide for the expeditious naturalization of noncitizens who served honourably in an active-duty status in the military or naval forces of the United States during World War I or during a period beginning Sept, i, 1939, and ending Dec. 31, 1946. The act of June 3, 1948, provided for special return permits for treaty merchants lawfully entering the United States be¬ tween July I, 1924, and July 5, 1932, inclusive. The act of June 16, 1948, provided authorization for the secretary of state, the administrator of civil aeronautics and the chief of the weather bureau of the department of commerce to train foreign nationals in aeronautics and related subjects. The Selective Service act of June 24, 1948, provided, among other things, that any citizen of a foreign country deferred or exempt from training and service might be relieved from lia¬ bility for such training and service upon his application there¬ for, but was .thereafter debarred from becoming a citizen of the United States. The “Displaced Persons” act of 1948 (June 25) authorized admission into the United States during the succeeding two years of 205,000 displaced persons of Europe and the adjust¬ ment of the status of 15,000 such individuals who entered the United States prior to April i, 1948. The act of June 25, 1948, amended the Organic Act of Puerto Rico by providing that section 404 (c) of the Nationality act of 1940 should not apply to persons who acquired United States citizenship under the provisions of sections 5 and 5(a) of the Organic Act of Puerto Rico. The act of July i, 1948, amended the Immigration act of

39

1917, removing the racial bar to suspension of deportation and enlarging the class of persons whose deportation might be suspended to include aliens having at least seven years’ resi¬ dence in the United States and residing in the U.S. on the effective date of the act, notwithstanding lack of family ties. The amendment also provided that instead of negative action permissible in congress under the prior law, the attorney general should cancel deportation proceedings only after congress passed a resolution favouring the suspension of deportation. The act of July 3, 1948, provided for recruitment of farm labour in the western hemisphere for temporary agricultural em¬ ployment in the United States. {See also Law.) (W. B. Mi.) Great Britain.—The number of aliens registered in Great Britain on Oct. i, 1948, was 404,193 (males 262,623; females 141,570). The principal nationalities represented, and the num¬ bers of each, compared with those (in parentheses) at approxi¬ mately the same date in 1947, were: U.S.A. 14,967 (14,743); Austrian 11,254 (i3)294); Belgian 8,241 (9,362); Chinese 9,309 (9,482); Czechoslovak 6,837 (8,199); Dutch 9,456 (10,521); Estonian 6,025 (41517); French 13,019 (13,498); German 42,252 (27,893); Hungarian 5,155 (3,174); Italian 17,680 (17,245); Yugoslav 9,392 (1,299); Latvian 13,723 (9,303); Lithu¬ anian 7,355 (5,428); Norwegian 5,585 (6,387); Polish 136,336 (76,535); Russian 36,254 (37,486); and Swiss 12,063 (11,862). The figures included more than 11,000 aliens to whom no na¬ tionality could be attributed. Nationals of the following countries were, under agreements concluded before or during 1948, absolved from obtaining visas for travel to the United Kingdom: Belgium, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. The settlement of Poles for whom the British government assumed responsibility proceeded throughout 1948. Of the 210,000 Polish servicemen taken to the United Kingdom since mid1945, 98,000 had, up to Oct. i, 1948, been repatriated and 13,000 assisted to emigrate. Almost all the remainder had by then been settled in civilian life in Great Britain, and more than 29,000 persons dependent on them had been brought from abroad to join them. By Oct. I, 1948, about 72,000 aliens formerly temporarily accommodated in displaced persons’ camps on the continent, mostly of Polish or Baltic origin, were found employment in Great Britain with a view to settlement. In addition about 8,500 other displaced aliens, temporarily admitted to the United Kingdom during the process of clearing up various theatres of war following the cessation of hostilities, were accepted for settlement as an alternative to returning to their countries of origin. Between Jan. i and Oct. i, 1948, 7,523 new applications for naturalization were lodged (compared with a yearly average of 1,708 before World War H). Certificates granted during the same period numbered 11,642, an annual rate of naturalization of approximately 15,500 (as against 18,000 in 1947). The British Nationality act, 1948, which passed into law on July 30, had the effect of reconferring British nationality, as from Jan. I, 1949, on women who had lost it by marriage; it also reduced the statutory qualifications for British-protected persons seek¬ ing naturalization. The Burma Independence act, 1947, which came into force on Jan. 4, 1948, had the general effect of de¬ priving citizens of Burma of British nationality. Table II illustrates the increased flow of foreign passenger traffic at United Kingdom ports since the end of World War II. Table 11.—Fore/gn Possenger Troff/c of l/.K. Porfs Allens entering. Aliens leaving.

July 1945 8,880 13,697

July 1946 37,096 29,208

July 1947 85,278 60,277

July 1948 111,553 74,149

40

ALIMENTARY SYSTEM. D ISORDERS OF —ALLERGY

Up to Oct. I, 1948, 249 persons had been deported under orders made during the year. This figure, however, included some persons recently admitted for resettlement from the conti¬ nent, but whose resettlement it was, for various reasons, found impossible satisfactorily to effect. (See also Prisoners of War.) (W. P. Se.)

Alimentary System, Disorders of.

gus. — Oesopha¬ geal hiatus hernia is a synonym for diaphragmatic hernia, or so-called “upside-down stomach.” There are two main types, the thoracic stomach, presumably resulting from congenital short¬ ening of the oesophagus, and the para-oesophageal hiatus type. Differentiation of these two forms is essential since the former is not amenable to surgical treatment. F. F. Radloff and R. L. King summarized their observations in 50 cases of oesophageal hiatus hernia. In a majority of cases (68%) concomitant dis¬ ease was found and was often responsible for the symptoms. The predominant symptoms of only 30% of the patients could logically be attributed to hiatus hernia. The symptom complex found to be most helpful from a diagnostic standpoint was‘pain in the upper part of the abdomen aggravated by reclining, exer¬ tion or by bending over, as in tying one’s shoes. Such hernia is usually insignificant and asymptomatic. When it is responsible for the symptoms, conservative measures usually suffice, and surgical intervention is rarely indicated. The Stomach and Duodenum.—The greater incidence of duodenal ulcer than of gastric ulcer in the United States and in most of the civilized world is generally known. Why ulcer oc¬ curs in the stomach instead of the duodenum in one person and vice versa in another, or why occasionally both organs in the same person may be involved, or why duodenal ulcer is more prevalent, has never been explained. The fact that gastric ulcer is much more common than duodenal ulcer among the fisher folk in Vesteraalen, a Norwegian group of islands north of the Arctic circle, was made the subject of investigation by K. Schanke. From the standpoint of aetiology and pathogenesis the author considered only the prevailing chemicomechanical (acidspasm-distention), neurogenic and gastritic theories. He con¬ cluded that the difference in the occurrence of gastroduodenal ulcer in urban and strictly rural districts was primarily due to the two following groups of factors: (i) this group consists of irregularity in the mode of living, especially the long irregular intervals between unsuitable meals. The disease develops in con¬ formity with the chemicomechanical theory of causation and the ulcers show preference for the stomach. (2) These are psycho¬ genic and nervous environmental factors, which enhance the irritability of the vegetative nervous system. Under these cir¬ cumstances the disease develops in conformity with the neuro¬ genic causal theory and the ulcer shows preference for the duo¬ denum. Comparatively recent innovations in the treatment of chronic gastric and duodenal ulcers are such preparations as aluminum hydroxide, magnesium trisilicate, protein hydrolysates, enterogastrone and the synthetic resins. The enthusiastic claims usually made at the outset by the proponents of new preparations are invariably discounted by the experienced physician and rightly so as a rule. E. Woldman and his associates carried out extensive observations in order to evaluate the effectiveness of protein hydrolysates and concluded that this substance was of value only as a food but had little therapeutic value per se. The addi¬ tion of mucin to a mixture of aluminum hydroxide and mag¬ nesium trisilicate, administered in the form of a powder or a tablet, is of distinct advantage in the opinion of L. L. Hardt and L. P. Brodt on the basis of clinical and gastroscopic studies. Drugs of an antispasmodic and sedative nature also were ac¬ corded much consideration. Belladonna and its derivatives.

barbiturate and papaverine in variable combinations have been advocated. A. H. Douthwaite reported successful results from the use of extract of cannabis indicae in the acute phase to pro¬ cure mental and muscular relaxation, hyoscyamine sulphate to block vagal impulses and a barbiturate as a cerebral sedative to control anxiety and restlessness. Liver.—Acute infectious hepatitis is normally followed by complete recovery in the large majority of patients and the pro¬ gression to hepatic cirrhosis is fortunately rare. Between these extremes is a group of patients who later have persistent acute or recurrent hepatitis; the incidence is as high as 17%, accord¬ ing to H. G. Kunkel and his collaborators. Some authorities state that those patients who subsequently have hepatic cirrhosis are largely recruited from this group. The importance of serial biopsy in the final elucidation of the problem is obvious, and was reflected in the contribution of W. Wolweiler and his asso¬ ciates and others. Moreover, such observations shed added light on the validity of the various hepatic functional tests employed. Pancreas.—The pain of many patients who have chronic pan¬ creatitis is intense and often leads to morphine addiction or chronic alcoholism. According to G. de Takats and L. E. Walter, relief has been obtained by unilateral section of the splanchnic nerve and low thoracic sympathectomy. Such limited procedure obviates the necessity for the more formidable total pancreatec¬ tomy. Intestines.—F. A. Coller and R. L. Berry observed that can¬ cer is the most commonly seen tumour of the colon. The sigmoid'colon is the site of predilection in almost half of all such growths. More than 97% of the patients had vague symptoms of indigestion, abdominal distress, bleeding from the rectum or a change in bowel habits. It is surprising how many small tumours are found in the rectum on routine digital examination, espe¬ cially in middle-aged males. From their study of 235 patients with rectal polyps, J. R. Colvert and C. H. Brown concluded that malignant lesions usually developed early in rectal polyps, or were present from the start. Such malignancy, fortunately, is usually of low grade. Bibliography.—F. F. Radloff and R. L. King, “Esophageal Hiatus Hernia,” Gastroenterology, 9:249—252 (Sept. 1947); Kaare Schanke, “The Behaviour of Gastric and Duodenal' Ulcer in a Fishing District in the North of Norway,” Acta chir. Scandinav. (supp. 115), 94:1—203 (1946); L. L. Hardt and L. P. Brodt, “Aluminum Hydroxide and Magnesium Trisilicate Plus Mucin in the Treatment of Peptic Ulcer: Gastroscopic and Clinical Studies,” Arch. Surg., 55:584—589 (Nov. 1947);' A. H. Douthwaite, “Choice of Drugs in the Treatment of Duodenal Ulcer,” Brit. M. J., 2:43-47 (July 12, 1947). (G. B. En.)

AIIpTITU antihistaminic drugs for relief of allergic sympnllClgy* toms continued to be of interest to investigators during 1948. While new preparations (neoantergan, neohetramine, trimeton, thephorin, decapyryn and others) were tried by numerous investigators, these drugs differed little from the original two preparations described in 1946. Neoantergan, studied by C. E. Arbesman, and thephorin, by L. H. Criep, pro¬ duced less untoward side effects than did most of the other products previously used. One preparation quite different from previous ones which had been found highly effective on guinea pigs by B. N. Halpern in France was studied on humans by G. R. Waldbott and M. I. Young. This material, labelled R.P. 3277 and later called phenergan, produced relief of hay fever for as long as 24 hr. while previous antihistaminics were effec¬ tive for only 4 to 6 hr. The prolonged relief from phenergan resulted from slow excretion of this preparation over 24 hr. compared with the more rapid removal from the body of other antihistaminics. Unfortunately, phenergan had the disadvantage as a side effect of being a potent sleep-producing drug. For this reason, unless used with the utmost caution, dangerous results might occur. Reactions to penicillin in patients who became sensitive to

AMBASSADORS AND ENVOYS this antibiotic were studied extensively by S. Peck and his co¬ workers in a large group of patients. Positive skin reactions of the delayed type (24 to 48 hr.) were found in about 40% of those who were sensitive to penicillin. The authors offered evidence that in some of these patients the sensitivity to peni¬ cillin may have resulted from ringworm infections with fungi which were capable of producing substances related to peni¬ cillin. Fortunately, most cases of penicillin allergy were neither severe nor permanent. For those patients who had severe symp¬ toms, efforts at desensitization before using large doses were fairly successful. Here, as in other allergic conditions, the antihistaminics and epinephrine solution were used to control symptoms of hyper¬ sensitivity. The possibility of the development of hypersensitivity even to drugs commonly used for the relief of allergic symptoms was demonstrated by the work of several investigators. A. Rowe, Jr., and A. Rowe described four cases of cutaneous allergy at in¬ jection sites of epinephrine extract. Synthetic epinephrine was tolerated without difficulty by three of the patients on whom it was tried. Even aminophyllin, a useful drug for the relief of asthma, was not free from danger when used intravenously. A. Bresnick and. his co-workei s reported three deaths from its intra¬ venous injection in patients whose asthma was complicated by cardiac difficulty. The concept of immune reactions was broadened by the work of A. B. Stavitsky. He found that normal guinea pigs could be passively sensitized when injected with emulsions of splenic tissue, lymph nodes or any other lymphoid tissue from sensi¬ tized animals. The work indicated that the antibodies which were capable of producing sensitivity were present in lymphoid cells. Another significant immunologic contribution was that made by D. Pressman and G. Keighley, who injected into rats anti¬ bodies prepared against rat kidney. The antibodies were com¬ bined with radioactive iodine so that the proportion retained in various organs could be measured by a Geiger counter, an instrument for measuring radioactivity. It was found that these antibodies were retained to a large extent by the kidney, the organ against which they had been prepared. The significance of this, as pointed out by the investigators, was the possible future use of irradiated substances for selective treatment of a malignancy in one organ. A similar use of radioactivity for the study of the site of concentration of antigen-antibody reaction in the guinea pig re¬ sulted in a significant contribution by S. Warren and F. J. Dixon. They sensitized guinea pigs with one of the proteins of cow’s blood which had been combined with radioactive iodine. After reinjection of this same protein (the dose producing ana¬ phylactic shock) the tissues were examined for the concentra¬ tion of radioactivity. Anaphylaxis in the guinea pig involved primarily the lungs and produced symptoms closely resembling asthma. It was therefore understandable that the lungs con¬ tained a much higher degree of radioactivity than did any other organ. Bibliography.—G. R. Waldbott and M. I. Young, “Antistine, Neoantergan, Neohetramine, Trimeton, Antihistaminique R.P. 3277—An Ap¬ praisal of Their Clinical Value,” /. Allergy, 19:313-317 (Sept. 1948): A. B. Stavitsky, “Passive Cellular Transfer of the Tuberculin Type^ of Hypersensitivity,” Proc. Soc. Exper, Biol. & Med., 67:225-227 (heb. 1948); D. Pressman and G. Keighley, “The Zone of Activity of Anti¬ bodies as Determined by the Use of Radioactive Tracers: The Zone of Activity of Nephrotoxic Antikidney Serum,” J. Immunol., 59:141-147 (June 1948): S. Warren and F. J. Dixon, “Antigen Tracer Studies and Histol'ogic Observations in Anaphylactic Shock, in the Guinea Pig,” Am. J. M. Sc., 216:136-145 (Aug. 1948). (B- Z. R.)

Allied Council -for Japan: see Japan. Alloys: see Beryllium; Magnesium; Metallurgy; denum; Monazite; Nickel; Titanium; Vanadium.

Molyb¬

Almonds: see

41

Nuts.

Even after a sharp increase in 1947, world pro¬ duction of aluminum was little more than onehalf that at the World War II peak in 1943. The outputs of the major producing countries are shown in Table I.

Aluminuin.

Table I.— World Production of Aluminum (In thousands of short tons) Austria . . Canada • • France • . * Germany . . Great Britain Italy .... Japan . . . Norway . Switzerland • U.S.S.R. . . United States Others • • • Totol

. .

1940 7.3 109.1

1942 38.7 340.6 49.7 250.4 52.3 50.0 93.9

1944 44.3 462.1 28.8

206.3 24.5

26.1 60.6 521.1 38.7

1943 48.6 495.8 51.2 223.8 62.3 50.8 125.7 25.9 20.4 68.7 920.2 60.8

10.7 78.3 776.4 54.9

868.0

1,545.0

2,152.0

1,842.0

68.1

225.7 21.3 42.8 34.8 30.6 31.4

66.1

22.6

1945 5.8 215.7 41.0 22? 35.7

210.2

39.7 16.8 97.3

5.1 5.5 95.1 495.1 ?

193.4 52.4 -- 1 35.4 11.7 -1• 18.4 14.4 ? 409.6 ?

1947 4.0 297.0 58.6 ? 32.4 25.5 0.7 ? 20.7 ? 571.8 ?

944.0

866.0

1,180.0

2.8 6.0

22.1

1946

1.1

Most of the increase in the 1947 output was in the United States and Canada, whose combined output was 73% of the world total, as compared with 66% in 1943 and 32% in 1939. United States .—The postwar decline in aluminum production reached a low of 409,630 short tons in 1946, followed by an increase to 571,750 tons in 1947, and 464,769 tons in the first three quarters of 1948, with a gradually increasing trend which indicated for the full year a total of about 630,000 tons. Table II.—Data of Aiuminum Industry in U,S,, 1940-47 lln thousands of short tons) Production, primary* • Imports.. • Exports. Producers’ stocks. • • Available new supply • Secondary recovery . Total supply.

1940 206.3 17.4 26.9 -30.2 227.0 80.4 307.4

1943 920.2 135.6 117.6 -f60.8 877.4 314.0 1,191.4

1944 776.4 100.9 188.1 -55.3 744.6 325.6 1,070.1

1945 495.1 334.1 5.7 -1-28.8 794.7 298.4 1,093.1

1946 409.6 41.6 16.7 -11.6 446.1 278.1 724.2

1947 571.8 15.6 50.1 4-0.8 586.6 ? ?

Aluminum producers were able to postpone price increases until 1948, when rising costs led to an increase of i cent per pound in June, followed by a similar rise in October, bringing the price to i6 cents for pigs and 17 cents for ingots. Even at these higher prices aluminum still retained a favourable com¬ petitive position as compared with copper at 23.2 cents. (G. A. Ro.)

Ambassadors and Envoys.

ambassadors and envoys to and from the United States and to and from Great Britain Jan. i, 1949. To and From the United States To the United States *Naim, H.R.H. Sardar Mohammad . . . *Remorino, Jeronimo. *Makln, Norman J. O. Kleinwaechter, Ludwig. *Silvercruys, Baron. *Martinez Vargas, Don Ricardo . . . *Nabuco, Mouricio. Mevorah, Nissim. *Nyun, U So... *Wrong, Hume. *Corea, G. C. S. *Nieto del Rio, Felix. *Koo, V. K. Wellington. *Restrepo-Jaramillo, Don Gonzalo . . *Esquivel, Don Mario A. *Belt, Guillermo. *Outrata, Vladimir. *Kauffmann, Henrik de. •Thomen, Luis Francisco. *Dillon, Dori Augusto. ^Abdul Rahim, Mohamed Kamil . . . . Nunon, Sean. Kaiv, Johannes^. Imru, Ras H. S. • • * . .. Jutila, K. T. *Bonnet, Henri • . . .. ^Franks, Sir Oliver Shewell. *Dendramis, Vassili G. *Gonza)ez-Arevaio, Don Ismael • . . *Charles, Joseph D.

Country Afghanistan Argentina Australia Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Burma Canada Ceylon Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Dominican Rep. Ecuador Egyp* Eire Estonia Ethiopia Finland France Germany Great Britain Greece Guatemala Haiti

From the United States ♦Polmer, Ely E. *Bruce, James *Cowen, Myron Melvin Erhordt, John G. *Kirk, Adm. Alan G. *Flack, Joseph *Johnson, Herschel V. Heath, Donald R. ♦Huddle, J. Klahr ♦Steinhardt, Laurence A. ♦Cole, Felix ♦Bowers, Claude G. ♦Stuart, J. Leighton ♦Beaulac, Willard L. ♦Davis, Nathaniel P. ♦Butler, Robert ♦Jacobs, Joseph E. ♦Marvel, Josiah, Jr. ♦Ackerman, Ralph H. ♦Simmons, John F. ♦Griffis, Stcnton Garrett, George A. (Legation at Tallinn closed) Merrell, George R. Warren, Avra M. ♦Caffery, Jefferson Murphy, Robert D.2 ♦Douglas, Lewis W. ♦Grady, Henry F. ♦Patterson, Richard C., Jr. ♦De Courcy, William E.

42

AMERICAN ACADEMY—AMERICAN CITIZENS ABROAD To and From Greaf Britain—Continued

To and From the United States—Continued

*Tarchiani, Alberto .

.

From the United States

Country

To the United States ’Caceres, Don Julian R. . Sik, Andrew • . . • • Thors, Thor ..... *Rama Rau, Sir Senegal *Aia, Hussein. Bokr, Abdullah Ibrahim .

Dinbergs, Anatol^. Malik, Charles. King, Charles D. B. Zadeikis, Povilas. Le Galiais, Hugues. Coiina, Don Rafael de la. tMisra, Subba Iswary Raj®. •Kleffens, E. N. van. *Berend$en, Sir Carl. *Sevitla-Sacasa, Don Guillermo . . . . *Munthe de Morgenstierne, Wilhelm , . *lspohani, M. A. H.

*ValIarino, Don Octavio A. ’Morales, Don Juan Felix. Ferndndez-Davilo, Don Humberto. . . ’Elizalde, Joaquin M. ’Winiewicz, Jozef. •Theot6nio Pereira, Pedro. Ralea, Mihai .. ’Castro, Don Hector David. Al-Faqih, Sheikh Asad. ’Waithayakon, H.R.H. Prince Wan Andrews, H. T. Baroibar, Don German. ’Boheman, Erik. Bruggmann, Charles Ei-Khouri, Faiz. ’Erkin, Feridun C.. . ’Panyushkin, Alexander S. ’Dominguez-Campora, Alberto . . . . ’Carnevali, Gonzalo^^ ....... ’Kosanovic, Sava N.

Honduras Hungary Iceland India Iran Iraq Israel Italy Japan Korea Latvia Lebanon Liberia Lithuania Luxembourg Mexico Morocco Nepal Netherlands New Zealand Nicaragua Norway Pakistan Palestine and Trans-Jordan Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines, Re¬ public of the Poland Portugal Rumania Salvador, El Saudi Arabia Siam South Africa, Union of Spain Sweden Switzerland Syria Turkey U.S.S.R. Uruguay Venezuela Yemen Yugoslavia

Clasen, Andre. •Jimenez O’Farril, Don Federico. . . . (Vacancy). •Verduynen, Jonkheer E. Mlchiels von ♦ »(Vacancy). ’Prebensen, Per Preben.. Barraza, Don Santiago E. (Vacancy).. ’Berckemeyer, Don Fernando . . ♦ . Fernandez, Ramon J. *Michalowski, Jerzy. •Palmella, Duke of. Macavei, Mihail.

Country Afghanistan Argentina Austria Belgium Bolivia Brazil Bulgaria Chile China Colombia Costa Rica Cuba Czechoslovakia Denmark Dominican Rep. Ecuador Egypt Ethiopia Finland France Greece Guatemala Haiti Honduras Hungary Iceland Iran Iraq Italy Lebanon Liberia Liechtenstein Luxembourg Mexico Nepal

From Great Britain Steptoe, H. N. ’Trott, Alan Charles ’Thompson, Geoffrey H. Howard, Douglas Frederick' ’Farquhar, H. L. Snow, Thomas M, Broadmead, Philip M.

Trans-Jordan Turkey U.S.S.R.

Kirkbride, Sir Alec ’Kelly, Sir David ’Peterson, Sir Maurice ‘Franks, Sir Oliver ’Vereker, Sir Gordon Perowne, J. V. T. W. T. ’Magowon, Sir John Hall •Peake, Sir Charles

Leiva, Don Carlos. ’Wahba, Sheikh Hafiz. •prince Nakkhatra Mangala Kitiyakara San Lucor, Duke of. ’Hdggidf, Bo Gunnar R. Torrente, Henri de. Al-Armanazi, Na|eeb. Haidar, H.R.H. Amir Mohamed Abdul Mejid. ’Ajikalin, Cevat. ’Zarubin, GeorgI N. ’Douglas, Lewis W. ’Buero, Don Enrique E.

Macdonald, John J.i® ’Davis, Monnett B. ’Warren, Fletcher ’Tittmann, Harold H., Jr.

AND Associations.

’O’Neal, Emmet ’Gallman, Waldemar J. ’MacVeagh, Lincoln 1 Schoenfeld, Rudolf E. ’Nufer, Albert F. Childs, J. Rives ’Stanton, Edwin F.

American Association for the Advancement of Sci¬ ence: see Societies and Associations. American Association of Law Libraries: see Societies

Winshtp, North (Vocancy) ’Mathews, H. Freeman Vincent, John Carter Keeley, James Hugh, Jr. ’Wadsworth, George ’Smith, Lt. Gen. Walter Bedell ’Briggs, Ellis O. ’Donnelly, Walter J. Childs, J. Rives^2 ’Cannon, Cavendish W.

To and From Great Britain

*2ekria Khan, Sardar Faiz Mohammed Labougle, Ricardo de. Schmid, Heinrich. ’Thieusies, Vicomte Alain Obert de . . ’Solares, Don Napoleon. ’Aragao, J. J. Moniz de. ’Boer, Christo. ’Bianchi, Don Manuel. ’Cheng Tien-hsi . *. ’Esguerra, Don Domingo. Padillo Castro, Don Guillermo .... (Vacancy).. . ’Kratochvil, Bohuslav. ’Reventiow, Count Eduard. Pastoriza, Don Andres. Carrera Andrade, Don Jorge .... ’Amr Pasho, Abdel Fattah. Retta, Ato Abbebe .. Wuori, Eero A.. ’Massigti, Rene. ♦Melos, L^n V. Ydigoras Fuentes, Gen. Don Miguel Duvigneaud, Frederic.. Carias, Don Tiburcio. Eros, Janos.. Thorvardsson, Stefdn. ’Rdis, Mohsen. ’H.R.H. Al-Emir Zeid ibn al-Hussein . . ’Gallarati-Scotti, Duca Tommaso • • . 'Khoury, Victor. Lynden, Baron Robert Aernout de . .

Country Salvador, El Saudi Arabia Siam Spain Sweden Switzerland Syria

’Bursley, Herbert S. Chapin, Selden Butrick, Richard P. ’Henderson, Loy W. ’Wiley, John C. ’Crocker, Edward S., 2nd McDonald, James Grover® ’Dunn, James Clement Sebald, William J.^ Muccio, John J.® (Legation at Riga closed) Pinkerton, Lowell C. Dudley, Edward R. (Legation at Kaunas closed) Kirk, Adm. Alan G. ’Thurston, Walter Plitt, Edwin A.^ Henderson, Loy W.® ’Baruch, Herman B. ’Scotten, Robert M. ’Shaw, George P. ’Bay, Charles Ulrick ’Ailing, Paul H,

’Ambassador. Unstarred—Minister. tCharge d'affaires ad interim. ^Acting consul general. ^U.S. political adviser with the personal ronk of ambassador. ^Special representative. ^Counsellor of mission with the rank of minister plenipotentiary. ^Special representative of the president with the personal rank of ambassador. ^Attache, charge d’affaires ad interim. '^Diplomatic agent and consul general with the personal rank of minister. ^Resident in London, England. ^Resident in New Delhi, India. loConsul general with the rank of minister plenipotentiary. i^No recognized government. ^^Resident in Jidda, Saudi Arabia.

To Great Britain

To Great Britain

From Great Britain Squire, Sir Giles ’Balfour, Sir John Jerram, Sir Bertrand ’Rendel, Sir George ’Rees, Thomas Ifor ’Butler, Sir Nevile Bennett, J. C. Sterndale ’Leche, John H. ’Stevenson, Sir Ralph C. S. ’MacKereth, Gilbert Sullivan, Bernard Ponsonby Dodds, James L. ’Dixon, Pierson John ’Randall, Alec W. G. (Voconcy) Carvell, John Eric Maclean ’Campbell, Sir Ronald Lascelles, D. W. Scott, Oswald Arthur ’Harvey, Sir Oliver Charles ’Norton, Sir Clifford Gallienne, Wilfred H. Routh, Augustus C. Fowler, Rees J. Helm, Alexander K. Baxter, Charles William ’Le Rougetel, Sir John ’Mack, Sir Henry ’Mallet, Sir Victor Houstoun-Boswall, William E Bowering, J. fCabie, Eric Grant fWatson, Col. N. •Rapp, Thomas Cecil ’Falconer, Lieut. Col. Sir George ’Nichols, Sir Philip Steward, N. O. W. ’Collier, Sir Laurence Greenway, John D. Fell, J. R. M. ’Roberts, Walter St. C, H.

Netherlands Nicaragua Norway Panama Paraguay Peru Philippines, Re¬ public of the Foulds, Linton H. Poland ’Gainer, Sir Donald St. C. Portugal ’Ronald, Sir Nigel Rumania Holman, Adrian

*Gil-Fortoul, Don Henrique. ’Cicmil, Obrad.

Uruguay Vatican Venezuela Yugoslavia

’Ambassador. Unstarred—Minister. fCharge d’affaires. ^Ambassador withdrawn in accordonce with United Nations resolution, 1946; embossy headed by a charge d'affaires.

American Academy of Arts and Letters:

see Societies

American Academy of Political and Social Science: see Societies and Associations.

and Associations.

American Bankers Association:

see Societies and As¬

sociations.

American Bar Association:

see Societies and Associa¬

tions.

American Bible Society: see Societies and Associations. American Chemical Society: see Societies and Associa¬ tions.

The number of U.S. citi¬ zens residing abroad in 1948 was 336,231, an increase of 11,231 over 1947. Among these were a large number of former soldiers studying in foreign uni¬ versities under the G.I. Bill of Rights, and also an increased number of Americans re-established in their foreign residences for reasons of pleasure, health or family necessity. There were fewer urgent travellers for purely family and estate reasons than in the two preceding years. In addition to the moderate increase in persons residing abroad, the number of Americans travelling abroad temporarily for business or pleasure was tremendously increased not only by the record issue of more than 250,000 passports for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1948, but by the travel of the families and dependents of servicemen on duty in the far east and in the areas under military occupation in Europe. There was also the addition to the American communities abroad of about 500 officers and 2,000 dependents employed on duties connected with the Economic Cooperation administration. One of the pro¬ visions of the European Recovery act called for sustained ac¬ tivities by the department of commerce to promote American travel to countries aided by the Marshall plan. This envisaged simplification of procedures and removal of restrictions. The resulting large flow of U.S. dollars was an important element of international commerce, for it required a minimum expenditure of raw materials and labour by the recipient country and sus¬ tained already established utilities such as hotels, railroads, buses and guide services. The greatest incentive to foreign residence and extended travel by Americans was the action of many countries, princi¬ pally in Europe, in removing the requirement for a consular visa on the U.S. passport for each country to be visited. The action of the foreign countries in abolishing the visa require¬ ment was in itself a gesture of welcome to the Americans and at the same time a practical relief to the businessman, student and tourist, who had long complained of the peacetime main-

American Citizens Abroad.

tenance of troublesome wartime requirements. Visas were no longer necessary for travel to the Bahamas, Barbados, Belgium (stay of two months or less), Bermuda, Canada, Canal Zone, Cuba, Denmark, El Salvador, Great Britain and Northern Ire¬ land, Guatemala (90 days’ visit), British Guiana (three months or less), Honduras (30-day stay), Italy, Jamaica (six months or less), Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, French Morocco, the Netherlands, Netherlands West Indies, Norway, Nova Scotia, Panama, Siam, Surinam, Sweden (three months’ visit), Switzer¬ land, Trinidad and Tobago, British West Indies, Uruguay, Vene¬ zuela and West Indies (British Leeward and Windward islands). Countries other than those of Central America, however, still required the presentation of a valid U.S. passport at the place of entry. The regulations with respect to travel and residence in Ger¬ many and Austria were liberalized during the year to permit all essential travel, including visits to relatives and friends and a certain amount of tourist visiting. The granting of militar>permission for entry into Germany, Austria and the Free Terri¬ tory of Trieste was no longer handled by the civil affairs divi¬ sion, department of the army, Washington, D.C., but the author¬ ity to grant visas in the United States on behalf of the Com¬ bined Travel Board of the Military Forces in Europe was given to representatives of the United States, Great Britain and France operating in Washington. Persons desiring visas for Germany, Austria and the Free Territory of Trieste were directed to apply to the Military Permit office, 1712 G St. N.W., Washington, D.C., where the representatives of the United States, British and French military forces had their offices. During the year 1948, the quotas restricting the number of U.S. businessmen permitted to enter Japan were lifted and such entrants were permitted to stay in Japan for a period of 60 days. Military permits continued to be required in such cases. Tourists were permitted to enter Japan for specially con¬ ducted tours arranged through the Japan Travel bureau and a transportation agency. No military permits were required for entry of tourists nor were persons trans-shipping in Japan re¬ quired to have permits. Such persons were the responsibility of the carrier during their stay in Japan. Military permits were no longer issued for Korea. U.S. citi¬ zens proceeding there were advised to obtain visas from the appropriate Korean officials. Restrictions on residence of Americans abroad and on tourist travel were entirely removed except with respect to the occu¬ pied countries and certain areas in China and the near east where actual hostilities prevented unnecessary travel during certain periods when the usual assurances of safety could not be given. At the close of the year, those persons in China whose presence was unnecessary were being evacuated. Business operations, relief and educational work continued at the dis¬ cretion of the organizations concerned. The largest U.S. population registered in any European coun¬ try was found in Italy, 17,59s in 1948, with 10,000 of the total in Naples and Palermo and about 5,000 in Rome. The British Isles came second with 9,259, of whom 5,500 resided in London. France ranked third with 8,502, 8,200 of them being in Paris. In South America, Venezuela led with 8,682, more than 7,000 residing in Caracas; Brazil was second with 7,518, of w'hom 4,228 resided in Rio de Janeiro and 2,200 in Sao Paulo. In Central America, the Mexican American colony led with a regis¬ tration of 27,142. Registration of Americans residing abroad in 1948 reached a figure comparable with that of the normal American foreign colonies in the prewar days. YOUNG AMERICAN TOURISTS in Florence, Italy, during the summer of 1948. Behind them is the statue of Hercules and Cacus by the Renaissance sculptor Bandinelli

43

44

AMERICAN COLLEGE OF D E N TI ST S—A. F. OF L. Country

Jan. 1,1948

South America • • . . . Mexico and Central America Europe. Asia. Africa. Australia and New Zealand West Indies and Bermuda . Canada and Newfoundland Fiji Islands. Society Islands. New Caledonia.

Jan. 1,1939

118 34

15,772 21,515 84,603 32,051 4,397 2,398 14,177 175,686 18 180 —

336,231

350,797

32,879 35,944 73,387 44,626 7,975 4,745 1 6,793 11 9,644

86

The above table gives a summary of Americans residing abroad as of Jan. i, 1939, and Jan. i, 1948. (R. B. S.)

American College of Dentists: see

Societies and Asso¬

ciations.

American College of Life Underwriters; see

Societies

AND Associations.

American College of Surgeons: see

Societies and

As¬

sociations.

American Dental Association.

ship of the American

Dental association reached 72,000, the largest in its history. During the year, there was a membership gain of more than 400. The association held its annual session in Chicago, Ill., Sept. 13-17. It was attended by 10,213 dentists, a new high. The house of delegates adopted a new constitution and bylaws re¬ placing a document which had been in effect from 1922. It also passed a number of resolutions concerning the role of dentists in national defense planning. In June, an eight-year campaign of the association for the establishment of a National Institute of Dental Research was ended when congress authorized the appropriation of $2,000,000 for a research building and $750,000 for annual operations. The dental institute was to be constructed on the grounds of the National Institute of Health at Bethesda, Md., and would be operated by the United States public health service. To increase public interest in its program to extend dental health services to greater numbers of children, the association designated the first Monday in February as National Children’s Dental Health day. The first of these annual observances was to be held Feb. 7, 1949. Six dental schools which previously were granted provisional approval by the association’s Council on Dental Education were granted full approval during the year. The council action in¬ creased to 32 the number of fully approved schools. Seven others were provisionally approved. A new program of approv¬ ing hospitals for dental internships and residencies was placed in operation. A total of 13 hospitals in various cities was approved for dental internships and 15 others for both internships and residencies. Formal organization of specialty boards in the fields of prosthodontia, periodontia and pedodontia was completed. A new survey conducted by the association revealed that there were in 1948 a total of 86,323 dentists in the United States and its territories of which about 75,000 were estimated to be in active practice. Included were 2,601 dentists employed by the federal government and 541 residing outside the con¬ tinental limits. In 1948 the American Dental association distributed a vari¬ ety of pamphlets, monographs and health education material. It continued to publish The Journal of the American Dental Association (monthly) and the Journal of Oral Surgery (quar¬ terly). Officers in 1948-49 were: president. Dr. Clyde E. Minges; president-elect, Dr. Philip E. Adams; vice-presidents. Dr. Leo W. Kremer, Dr. Fayette C. Williams and Dr. Leo M. Boire;

secretary. Dr. Harold Hillenbrand; treasurer. Dr. H. B. Wash¬ burn. (H. B. Bn.)

American Economic Association: see

Societies

and

Associations.

American Federation of Lalior. 31, 1948, the American Federation of Labor was composed of 105 national and international unions with 40,000 local unions; 5 departments comprised of local or district councils through¬ out the country; 808 city'central bodies; and 1,330 local unions directly affiliated with the American Federation of Labor. The paid-up membership at the close of the fiscal year was approx¬ imately 8,000,000. The federation during the year followed its established cus¬ tom of advancing the organization and rights of the wage earn¬ ers of the U.S. The federation maintains standing committees on education, taxation, veterans’ affairs, social security and international labour relations, which meet periodically to con¬ sider matters within their respective responsibilities. These committees report to the executive council, and these account¬ ings frequently form the basis of recommendations for action by the annual conventions of the A.F. of L. The federation continued its active fight against communism and all forms of totalitarianism. In its annual report, the execu¬ tive council directed special attention to the menace to freedom

POLICE GUARDS on duty at the entrance to the New York Stock exchange as pickets of the United Financial Employes union (A.F. of L.) blocked exits during a strike for higher wages and a union shop, in March 194S

posed by fifth columnists in the U.S. and urged that the 1948 convention of the federation make paramount in its delibera¬ tions the preservation of free U.S. institutions. During 1948 the federation was vitally concerned in the restoration of free trade unions in Europe and in occupied areas, where its representatives were working in co-operation with U.S. military governments. The A.F. of L. was actively participating in the work of the United Nations. It was also participating fully in the Inter-American Confederation of Labor, which was formed at Lima, Peru, in Jan. 1948. This confedera¬ tion was organized to promote a unified labour movement throughout the western hemisphere and to promote better under¬ standing and good will among the peoples of the Americas. The federation continued its full support of the work of the Inter¬ national Labour organization. The A.F. of L. continued to seek improvements in the fed¬ eral social-insurance system; pressed for better housing, to pro¬ vide a decent home for every U.S. family, and sought to make available to every person in the United States adequate oppor¬ tunities for education. The federation directed special attention to the urgent need for upward revision of the Fair Labor Stand¬ ards act, and the inauguration of a program of activity under the Public Contracts act which would provide more adequate enforcement of the provisions of the law. The federation also sought extension of the activities of the federal department of labour in the interest of the wage earners of the U.S. During the year the A.F. of L. formed the Labor’s League for Political Education, an independent agency created for the express purpose of disseminating information for the guidance of voters, with special reference to the labour records and atti¬ tudes toward labour of candidates in both state and national elections. The A.F. of L. regarded the Taft-Hartley law as an infringe¬ ment on the constitutional rights of free U.S. workers, and as a potential threat to all U.S. institutions, and therefore sought full repeal of the law at the earliest possible date. {See also Congress of Industrial Organizations; Labour Unions; Strikes; United States.) (W. G.)

American Geographical Society: see

Societies

and

Societies

and

Associations.

American Historical Association: see Associations.

American Indians: see Indians, American. American Institute for Property and Liability Un¬ derwriters, Inc.: see Societies and Associations. American Institute of Accountants: see Societies and Associations.

American Institute of Chemical Engineers: see

Soci¬

eties and Associations.

American Institute of Electrical Engineers: see

Soci¬

eties AND Associations.

American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers: see Societies and Associations. American Iron and Steel Institute: see Societies and

pres. TRUMAN (back to camera) addressing the 30th annual convention of the American Legion at Miami, Fla., on Oct. IS, 1948

pension increases from $15 to $21.40 a month for 137,280 widows and 132,210 orphans of members of the armed forces killed in action during World War II; provided additional com¬ pensation ranging from $21 to $56 a month for service-disabled veterans rated not less than 60% disabled; and granted finan¬ cial assistance up to $10,000 to paraplegic veterans for building or remodelling houses especially adapted for wheel-chair living. Other 1948 accomplishments included the building by about 500 posts of new clubhouses valued at $10,000,000; the break¬ ing of ground in Indianapolis, Ind., for the construction of a $1,918,000 new national headquarters building; the chartering of 359 new posts to raise the world-wide total to 17,161. Final 1948 membership approximated 3,100,000, of whom 70% were veterans of World War II. The American Legion held its 30th national convention in Miami, Fla., Oct. 18 to 21, 1948. The 3,444 delegates reiterated their support of universal military training, of legislation to control communist activities and of federal housing aid for the low-income veteran. The convention also took a stand for oldage pensions for veterans of World Wars I and II starting at $60 at the age of 60 years. The Miami convention elected Perry Brown of Beaumont, Tex., as national commander for 1948-49. The 31st national convention was awarded to Philadelphia, Pa., to be held Aug. 29 to Sept. I, 1949. {See also Veterans’ Organizations.) (S. P. Bn.)

Associations.

American Law Institute: see

Ampripilll I Pffinn

Societies and Assocwtions.

congress of the U.S. during

filllClIball LC^IUII* its second brief session enacted 114

bills sponsored by the American Legion. Chief among these were laws which increased the subsistence allowances by 15% a month for about 1,000,000 veterans of World War II attend¬ ing college under the educational provisions of the American Legion-fathered G.I. Bill of Rights; provided cost-of-living

American Library Association. SLtsodatot the world of librarians and others interested in the educational, social and cultural responsibilities of libraries, the American Library association (A.L.A.) is the official organization of li¬ brarians in the United States and Canada. Fstablished on Oct. 6, 1876, in Philadelphia, the A.L.A. had a membership in 1948 of about 18,000 in the United States and possessions, Canada and 50 foreign countries. It is affiliated with more than 60 other

45

46

AMERICAN LITERATURE

library associations throughout the world and works closely with organizations and government agencies concerned with educa¬ tion, recreation, research and public service. In 1948 its activi¬ ties were carried on by a headquarters staff of 95, assisted by 700 volunteer boards and committees. Carl H. Milam resigned as executive secretary of the associa¬ tion on April 30, 1948, after 30 years of significant service, to become director of library services of the United Nations. John Mackenzie Cory, formerly associate librarian of the University of California library, succeeded him on Sept, i at headquarters, located at 50 E. Huron street, Chicago ii, Ill. An International Relations office, financed by a Rockefeller grant, was located in the Library of Congress annex, Washing¬ ton, D.C., with Frederick Cromwell serving as director. A Na¬ tional Relations office, financed by funds contributed by librar¬ ians and friends of libraries and directed by Paul Howard, was operated at 1709 M street N.W., Washington 6, D.C. The 67th annual conference in Atlantic City, N.J., was at¬ tended by 3,752 persons from the U.S., its possessions and for¬ eign countries. The following officers for 1948-49 were inaugu¬ rated: president, E. W. McDiarmid, University of Minnesota library, Minneapolis, Minn.; first vice-president and president¬ elect, Milton E. Lord, Boston Public library, Boston, Mass.; second vice-president, Loleta Dawson Fyan, Michigan State li¬ brary, Lansing, Mich., and treasurer, Harold F. Brigham, state library, Indianapolis, Ind. The annual A.L.A. citations for distinguished service as li¬ brary trustees were awarded to Emma V. Baldwin, Free Public library, Denville township, N.J., and Thomas Porro, Tacoma (Wash.) Public library. The A.L.A. awarded the 27th Newbery medal to William Pene du Bois for Twenty-One Balloons, judged to be the outstanding contribution to children’s literature during 1947. The 12th annual Caldecott medal for the most dis¬ tinguished picture book was conferred upon Roger Duvoisin for his illustrations of White Snow, Bright Snow by Alvin Tresselt. Frederic G. Melcher, publisher of the Library Journal and Pub¬ lishers’ Weekly, annually provides both medals. Carl H. Milam received the Joseph H. Lippincott award of $500 from the donor for distinguished library service. The Letter award of $100 to a librarian “for the humanizing of knowledge” was conferred on Alison B. Alessios, Brooklyn, N.Y. This award, and the Letter library award (winner of which was to be announced in Jan. 1949) were given by Ada McCormick, editor and publisher of Letter magazine, Tucson, Ariz. Seven regional conferences were scheduled for 1949, instead of a national one: west and trans-Mississippi in August; mid¬ west in September; New England, middle Atlantic and south¬ east in October and southwest in November, when the major emphasis was to be placed upon regional problems. The annual midwinter conference, attended by more than 1,000 members, was held in Chicago, Ill., Jan. 29 to Feb. i, 1948. During the year, in addition to its regular periodicals, A.L.A. Bulletin (which carried advertising for the first time). Booklist, Subscription Books Bulletin, College and Research Libraries and Hospital Book Guide, the association issued 14 new books and pamphlets and 21 reprinted publications from a total of more than 200 projects being considered. The association promoted a Great Issues program, which was carried on by librarians throughout the U.S. They offered their resources for stimulating public awareness of the crucial prob¬ lems facing the U.S.: Inflation-Deflation, How Much World Government?, Management-Labor Relations, U.S.-Russian Re¬ lations and Civil Rights. Other major issues considered were censorship, book-banning, loyalty investigations and intellectual freedom, with the result that a revised Library Bill of Rights was adopted.

The National Relations office continued its program of build¬ ing an awareness of the significance of libraries among national leaders in Washington. Although the Library Demonstration bill (S. 48-H.R. 2465) passed the senate unanimously and was ap¬ proved by a subcommittee of the house of representatives, it failed to reach a vote in the house. The congress made some concessions to libraries on postal rates. Co-operative programs were developed with several government departments, especially the U.S. department of agriculture extension service and bureau of agricultural economics, the Library of Congress and the U.S. office of education, and with some 30 national organizations, such as the General Federation of Women’s Clubs and the American Association of University Women. Although library salaries continued to increase they had not equalled rising costs, with the result that Minimum Library Sal¬ ary Standards for 1948 were adopted. In co-operation with the A.L.A. Board on Personnel Administration, the U.S. bureau of labour statistics conducted an economic survey of library per¬ sonnel in November. In view of the fact that the critical short¬ age of librarians continued, the A.L.A. instigated a joint com¬ mittee to consider ways and means of increasing the number of librarians to meet the ever-growing demands. Many libraries set up new film programs as a result of the Film Service Through Libraries project made possible by a twoyear grant of the Carnegie corporation. The A.L.A. established an Audio-Visual board. Considerable progress was reported in the projected books program—71 libraries in 21 states had 398 projectors. In the international field the association took a special in¬ terest in U.S. libraries abroad, the United States Book Exchange, the programs of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization (U.N.E.S.C.O.) and the International Fed¬ eration of Library Associations, the United Nations library, the exchange of persons and materials, and foreign conferences and projects. (M. O. P.)

I itarotliro it® personalities LllCldlUrC* formed the focus of interest of American writers and readers in 1948, both in nonfiction and fiction. The most popular books gave accounts of various aspects of the American victory, of the men who achieved it, both political and military leaders, and of the individual experi¬ ences of the men in the armed forces. Along with this mighty outpouring of words on a single subject came other widely read books on the destructive potentialities of the atom bomb, on how to attain peace of mind amid the new perils of the age and on sex. The sudden upsurge of war novels, serious in approach and intent, swamped, at least momentarily, the highly spiced ro¬ mances of the last few years. The sound historical novel kept its popularity, and the year saw a number of notable additions to this category. A critical phenomenon of note was the general acceptance of William Faulkner as the most distinguished living novelist, somewhat less on the basis of his latest book, Intruder in the Dust, than on the whole body of his work over the pre¬ vious 22 years, beginning with Soldiers’ Pay in 1926. The controversial figure of Franklin Delano Roosevelt held the spotlight in several books, including Robert Sherwood’s edit¬ ing of the Hopkins papers, Roosevelt and Hopkins; an Intimate History, regarded by many observers as the most important publication of the year. Next to the Hopkins book, the outstand¬ ing work of nonfiction was General Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Crusade in Europe, widely praised as a straightforward account by a modest man of the mightiest military effort in history. A sociological study, heavy with statistical tables and dully repetitious, broke clear of the field of professional interest and

became one of the year’s best-sellers in the run-away success of Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, usually referred to as the Kinsey report, and prepared by Alfred C. Kinsey, Wardell B. Pomeroy and Clyde E. Martin. It provoked a flood of com¬ mentaries. Widespread controversy was aroused by William Vogt’s dra¬ matic Road to Survival, a Malthusian jeremiad on the subject of the waste of natural resources which prophesied starvation for the human race unless it learned to conserve and to reduce its rate of reproduction. In Our Plundered Planet Fairfield Os¬ born delivered a similar sermon in somewhat milder accents. Louis Bromfield, the farmer-novelist, reduced the situation to the particular in Malabar Farm, explaining his own Ohio con¬ servation methods. David Bradley’s No Place to Hide was a scientist’s account of the effects of the atom bomb dropped on Bikini, in which he made it clear that no real defense exists against this terrible weapon. In Early Tales of the Atomic Age Daniel Lang gave the facts about the possibilities of atomic power, constructive and destructive. Other important publications included a three-volume Liter¬ ary History of the United States, produced under the editorship of Robert E. Spiller, Willard Thorp, Thomas H. Johnson and Henry Seidel Canby, assisted by Howard Mumford Jones, Dixon Wecter and Stanley T. Williams. Forty-eight contributors wrote two of the volumes, the third being a detailed bibliography. This monumental work undertook to redefine American culture in the light of present-day values. There also appeared the first winnowing of the famous Lin¬ coln documents from the Library of Congress collection, called Papers {The Story of the Collection with Selections to July 4, j86i), two rich volumes edited by David C. Mearns with an introduction by Carl Sandburg, and another Lincoln book of first importance, Lincoln’s Herndon, by David Donald. Douglas Southall Freeman began the publication of what promised to be the definitive life of George Washington with two volumes called The Young Washington, while Saxe Commins edited a selection of The Basic Writings of Washington that appeared to be of permanent value. Dixon Wecter added an absorbing volume to his collection of social histories in The Age of the Great Depression, iQ2g1941; Seymour E. Harris gave sober consideration to the Mar¬ shall plan in The European Recovery Program; Martin Ebon supplied a country-by-country survey in World Communism Today; and Edgar Ansel Mowrer gave an alarming picture of United States relations abroad with The Nightmare of Ameri¬ can Foreign Policy. Hanson W. Baldwin explained what it would cost to keep the American way of life undisturbed in The Price of Power and Betty MacDonald, author of one of the most popular books of these times. The Egg and I, discussed with the same kind of humour her fight against tuberculosis in The Plague and /. Francis Henry Taylor produced the first volume of a twovolume history of art collecting in The Taste of Angels, cover¬ ing the period from Rameses to Napoleon. Dale Carnegie’s latest success was How to Stop Worrying and Start Living and Albert Deutsch, in The Shame of the States, exposed in chapter and verse, with photographs, the neglect of the mentally ill. F.D.R. and the War.—Other books on F. D. Roosevelt and the war included the beginning of James A. Farley’s autobiog¬ raphy, Jim Farley’s Story, the Roosevelt Years. There was an intimate picture of the Roosevelt family circle in Victoria Hen¬ rietta Nesbitt’s White House Diary. Roosevelt was violently attacked by John T. Flynn in The Roosevelt Myth and by Charles A. Beard in his last book. President Roosevelt and the Coming of the War.

SCENE from All the King’s Men by Robert Penn Warren. Adapted from Warren’s novel of the same name, which won the 1947 Pulitzer prize for fiction, the play was produced in New York city early in 194S by the New school’s dramatic workshop

Memoirs of the period included Henry L. Stimson’s On Active Service in Peace and War, which Stimson prepared with the help of McGeorge Bundy, and The Memoirs of Cordell Hull, another two-volume work containing the direct report of one of the principal actors in the Roosevelt drama. The second volume of Roosevelt’s letters, edited by Elliott Roosevelt, with a foreword by Eleanor Roosevelt, threw light upon a develop¬ ing personality. The period covered was 1905 to 1928. War books included, as footnotes to Crusade in Europe, Eisenhower Speaks, edited by Rudolph L. Treuenfels, a collec¬ tion of the general’s speeches and public statements; Stilwell Speaks His Mind, based on the Stilwell Papers, arranged by Theodore H. White, a frank commentary on the situation in India, China and Burma; The Marines’ War by Fletcher Pratt, described as “an account of the struggle for the Pacific from both American and Japanese sources”; and Battle Report (volume 4): The End of an Empire, by Captain Walter Karig, Lieutenant Commander Russell L. Harris and Lieutenant Com¬ mander Frank A. Manson, which describes the fighting from the New Guinea jungles and upper Solomons to the battle of Leyte Gulf. World Problems.—Many books appeared dealing with the troubled spots on the earth’s surface, among them such excel¬ lent studies as John King Fairbank’s The United States and China, a fair estimate of a complex situation which emphasized the fact that China would remain an entity and never become a mere pawn between east and west. On the Indonesian situa¬ tion there was The Indonesian Story; the Birth, Growth and Structure of the Indonesian Republic, by Charles Wolf, who was U.S. vice-consul at Batavia from 1946 to 1947. Mark Gayn’s Japan Diary, covering the year between Dec.

47

48

AMERICAN LITERATURE

194s and Dec. 1946, was definitely critical of General Douglas MacArthur and skeptical of his accomplishments; Russell Brines took exactly the opposite point of view in Mac Arthur’s Japan. F. 0. Matthiessen’s From the Heart of Europe was an Amer¬ ican intellectual’s comments on the situation in Czechoslovakia, which he found tolerable. On Palestine there was Jorge GarciaGranados, chairman of a special United Nations commission, who wrote The Birth of Israel; the Drama as I Saw It; and I. F. Stone’s excellent This Is Israel, with many photographs by Robert Capa and an introduction by Bartley Crum. George Fielding Eliot covered the near east and Italy, excepting the Arabian peninsula, touching Iran, Turkey and Greece, in Hate, Hope and High Explosives; while in Profile of Europe, Samuel Welles devoted one-half of the book to Russia, pleading for peace on the basis of mutual understanding and tolerance. Latin America.—Several books of importance giving a gen¬ eral view of the situation in the other American republics were published, along with four fine anthologies and a brilliant short history of Brazilian literature. Of the first group, Ray Josephs’ Latin America: Continent in Crisis gave a day-by-day account of recent happenings in most of the South American countries. Carleton Beals wrote optimistically of the continent’s future in Lands of the Dawning Morrow, and even handed Juan D. Peron a few bouquets, a like service being performed for Pres. R. L. Trujillo of the Dominican Republic by Stanley Walker in Journey Toward the Sunlight. The four collections were a Sarmiento Anthology, translated by Stuart E. Grummon and edited by Allison Bunkley, an ad¬ mirable sampling of the works of the great Argentine, Domingo Faustino Sarmiento; The Golden Land, edited and translated by Harriet de Onis, a selection of the folk-material that has been made into literature, of interest to the general reader as well as to the scholar; The Southern Americas, edited by Abel Plenn, a collection of material on man’s struggle, from a leftwing point of view; and The Green World of the Naturalists, subtitled A Treasury of Five Centuries of Natural History in South America, edited by Victor Wolfgang von Hagen and con¬ taining a wealth of excellent writing. Samuel Putnam’s Marvel¬ ous Journey was a short but comprehensive history of Brazilian literature, unusually well written. Biography.—Among the biographies of note, in addition to Freeman’s The Young Washington, were Dumas Malone’s Jef¬ ferson, the Virginian, the first of four volumes of a study titled Jefferson and His Time that promised to be definitive, while in The Lost World of Thomas Jefferson, Daniel J. Boorstin wrote of Jefferson and his circle of friends. Herbert S. Allan’s John Hancock, Patriot in Purple was the first modern portrait of a founding father who was an intensely interesting, if very eccen¬ tric, figure. Walter White’s autobiography, A Man Called White, dealt with an aspect of the race problem viewed from the inside. James McGurrin wrote a good biography of Bourke Cockran, Morris Bishop made a living man of a historic figure in Cham¬ plain: The Life of Fortitude and Keith Sward took for his theme the relation of big business to society in The Legend of Henry Ford. Other biographies included Rock of Chicamauga: The Life of General George H. Thomas, by Freeman Cleaves and Thomas: Rock of Chicamauga, by Richard O’Connor; of contemporary figures, David Lilienthal, Public Servant in a Power Age, by Willson Whitman, and Our Unknown Ex-President, by Eugene Lyons, a friendly study of Herbert Hoover. Fiction.—Interest in novels of the war began with the appear¬ ance early in the year of Merle Miller’s That Winter, an ac¬ count of the postwar lives of three veterans who found adjust¬ ment difficult; this interest held up steadily through the ap-

pearance of Ira Wolfert’s Act of Love at the end of the year. Two of the most popular of these novels were the youthful Norman Mailer’s The Naked and the Dead, an unsparingly real¬ istic account of the lives and conversations of soldiers in the Pacific area, notable for the appearance of the familiar fourletter words in abundance; and Irwin Shaw’s The Young Lions. There were also Stefan Heym’s The Crusaders, a story of intelligence work in wartime, and James Gould Cozzens’ Guard of Honor, a story of the air forces. In all these, the note of protest against armed conflict was strong, and in Wolfert’s ambitious if not altogether successful work, the war was used as the setting for a discussion of present-day problems, spir¬ itual and otherwise, that threaten mankind. William Brinkley’s Quicksand, by a young naval officer who was stationed in south¬ ern Italy, and William Gardner Smith’s Last of the Conquerors, the story of a love affair between a Negro G.I. and a German girl, were two of the better war novels among those by younger writers. If Faulkner’s first novel in eight years helped to raise his position among living novelists, although no reviewer called it a major work, others of the veterans either did little more than hold their places or, as in the case of John Dos Passos, definitely lost ground. Coming at the year’s close, Dos Passos’ The Grand Design rounded out a new trilogy which began with Adventures of a Young Man and continued with Number One. It was a novel of New Deal Washington, with many recognizable fig¬ ures in it, but appearing as flat cartoons rather than as people. Thornton Wilder’s novel of the time of the Caesars, The Ides of March, was widely praised as an amazing feat of the imagina¬ tion, while Pearl Buck’s Peony, the story of a Chinese girl of Jewish ancestry, was undistinguished and Erskine Caldwell’s This Very Earth revealed again the narrow range of his talent. Carl Sandburg’s huge Remembrance Rock was as much an epic poem in praise of democracy as it was a novel. Upton Sinclair added volume nine to the saga of Lanny Budd, One Clear Call, while Willa Cather brought to a close a career that began in 1905, with the publication of a volume of short stories, The Old Beauty, and Others. Thomas Mann’s Doctor Faustus was another allegory in this noted author’s somewhat difficult vein, with direct application to the world’s current crisis, but while it was received respect¬ fully, no reviewer placed it among the top achievements of a master. Zora Neale Hurston again displayed her exceptional skill in the use of colloquial speech in Seraph on the Suwanee; Dan Wickenden’s Tobias Brandywine was a successful fantasy; and William Maxwell’s Time Will Darken It .again demon¬ strated the subtle talent of a gifted novelist. Martha Gellhorn wrote her most considerable piece of fiction in Wine of Aston¬ ishment, a novel of contemporary Europe. The production of historical novels was normal, meaning large, and one of the best of these was Esther Forbes’s The Running of the Tide, a story of Salem in its great days, which scored by its excellent presentation of character and did not depend upon its splendidly done setting for its high drama. Hervey Allen continued his tremendously long novel The Dis¬ inherited with Toward the Morning, the middle portion of the book. Two other good books of this classification were concerned with people who lived lives colourful enough to be easily trans¬ ferred to fiction, one of these being Hollister Noble’s Woman with a Sword, the incredible story of Anna Ella Carroll, who played an important part in the north’s Civil War victory; the other was Harnett Kane’s Bride of Fortune, the story of Varina Howell Davis, wife of Jefferson Davis. Anne Parrish’s A Clouded Star told with notable effectiveness the story of Harriet Tubman, the heroine of the underground railway, and Herbert

AMERICAN MEDICAL ASSOCIATION Gorman published a dramatic account of the first chapter in Mexico’s war of independence in Cry of Dolores, which was to be continued. The year’s most striking first novel was Raintree County by Ross Lockridge, a long, confused and uneven account of life in a middle western county which had been on the stands only a short time when the author took his own life. Others of the newer novelists who published during the year were Truman Capote, with Other Voices, Other Rooms, a curious and deca¬ dent story of the gothic south; Hiram Haydn, whose The Time Is Noon was a long novel set in these times, about democracy and its workings, and distinctly talented; Elizabeth Spencer, whose Fire in the Morning was a fine novel of small town life in Mississippi; Dilys Bennett Laing, whose The Great Year was a Vermont story; and Josephina Niggli, whose Step Down, Elder Brother was a discerning novel of Mexican life by a gifted young Texan of half-Mexican parentage. Two of the widely-read novels were Frances Parkinson Keyes’s Dinner at Antoine’s, a lively story with a New Orleans background, and Lloyd C. Douglas’ latest. The Big Fisherman, based upon the life of Simon called Peter, and obviously satis¬ factory to Douglas’ large following. Belles-Lettres.—In addition to the Literary History of the United States mentioned earlier, there were many important books about' writing and writers. Alexander Cowie’s The Rise of the American Novel told in great detail the story of the birth and development of fiction in the United States, and there were valuable volumes on various aspects of the golden age in New England literature, including two notable biographies of Hawthorne, Nathaniel Hawthorne: The American Years, by Robert Cantwell, the first of at least two volumes, and Nathaniel Hawthorne: A Biography, by Randall Stewart, as well as The Portable Hawthorne, edited by Malcolm Cowley. Joseph Wood Krutch’s Henry David Thoreau in the new American Men of Letters series gave a balanced account of the life and works of the man of Walden, while two important books by and about Herman Melville appeared, Melville’s Billy Bndd, edited by F. Barron Freeman, containing the text of the novel Billy Budd, Foretopman, as well as the original short story “Billy Budd, Sailor,” with a commentary on the creative process and sym¬ bolism of the author; and Journal of a Visit to London and the Continent, 1840-1850, edited by Eleanor Melville Metcalf, which shows Melville at 30 setting out on his literary career. John Ward Ostrom edited a two-volume collection of The Letters of Edgar Allen Poe, filled with interesting material, 1949 being the centenary of Poe’s death. American scholarship also supplied The Keats Circle: Letters and Papers, 1816-1878, edited by Hyder Edward Rollins from the Keatsiana collection at Harvard and elsewhere, while Lawrence Grant White pro¬ duced a new translation of The Divine Comedy and Harold March was the author of The Two Worlds of Marcel Proust, concerning the man and his work. Emery Neff added an excellent volume to the American Men of Letters series with a study of Edwin Arlington Robinson, a collection of whose letters was published in 1947 under the title Untriangulated Stars. The letters were written to Robin¬ son’s life-long friend, Harry de Forest Smith, and were edited by Denham Sutcliffe. Herbert J. Muller produced in 1947 a critical study of Thomas Wolfe and Pamela Hansford Johnson, an English¬ woman, wrote discerningly of this novelist in Hungry Gtdliver (1947), an especially apt title. Poetry.—Several volumes of collected poems were published, including Poems ig22—ig47 by Allen Tate, the body of the work of one of the best living poets and critics; A Wider Arc (1947) by Melville Cane, the work of a quarter-century of a subtle.

49

sure talent; Terror and Decorum; Poems 1040-1048, the first collection of the fine work of Peter Viereck; and an enlarged and revised edition of the popular Collected Poems of Robert P. Tristram Coffin. Robinson Jeffers’ The Double Axe and Other Poems disap¬ pointed his admirers, while Mark Van Doren kept to his usual standard in New Poems, as did Muriel Ruykeser in The Green Wave, while Randall Jarrell wrote bitterly of war and its ef¬ fects in Losses. Archibald MacLeish’s Actfive, and Other Poems again revealed this poet’s strengths and weaknesses, his tendency to become rhetorical on civic matters and his sure lyric gift. William Carlos Williams scored again in Paterson, book two. Of the work of the younger poets, John Berryman’s The Dispossessed found appreciation, as did A Beginning by Robert Horan, Ships and Other Figures by William Morris Meredith, Jr., and Mr. Whittier and Other Poems by Winfield Townley Scott. There was also a good biography and critical study of Hart Crane by Brom Weber. {See also English Literature.) (H. Bl.)

American Mathematical Society:

see Societies and As¬

sociations.

American Medical Association. Si 1948 included 139,776 physicians who were grouped in more than 2,000 component medical societies. These, in turn, were grouped in 53 state and territorial medical associations. The gross income of the association exceeded $3,000,000. Its property and equipment were valued at $1,500,000 and its in¬ vestments at approximately $6,000,000. The principal officers of the association in 1948 were: presi¬ dent, R. L. Sensenich, South Bend, Ind.; president-elect, Ernest E. Irons, Chicago, Ill.; secretary and general manager, George F. Lull, Chicago; treasurer, J. J. Moore, Chicago; editor of publications, Morris Fishbein, Chicago; business manager, Thomas R. Gardiner, Chicago. The board of trustees consisted of E. L. Henderson, chairman, Louisville, Ky.; Louis H. Bauer, Hempstead, N.Y.; John H. Fitzgibbon, Portland, Ore.; James R. Miller, Hartford, Conn.; Walter B. Martin, Norfolk, Va.; Dwight H. Murray, Napa, Calif.; E. J. McCormick, Toledo, 0.; Edwin S. Hamilton, Kankakee, Ill.; and Gunnar Gundersen. La Crosse, Wis. The publications of the American Medical association in 1948 included the Journal of the American Medical Association with a circulation of more than 130,000 weekly; Hygeia, a health magazine for the public, with a circulation of approximately 250,000 monthly; nine medical journals for various medical specialties; a complete directory of the medical profession, medical schools, libraries and hospitals; and the Quarterly Cumulative Index Medicus, indexing regularly the contents of more than 1,500 medical periodicals. The association functions through its councils and bureaus. These include the Council on Medical Education and Hospitals, which establishes minimum standards for education in medical schools and hospitals, for occupational therapists, physical thera¬ pists, record librarians and similar medical technologists; the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, which investigates new remedies and controls their advertising claims; the Council on Industrial Health, which standardizes the care of workers in in¬ dustry; the Council on Medical Service, which investigates plans for medical care and encourages the growth of voluntary sick¬ ness insurance plans; the Council on Foods and Nutrition, which investigates foods and nutritional problems; and the Council on Physical Medicine, which studies physical devices used in the treatment of disease. The Council on National Emergency

AMERICAN SOC lETY—ANAEMIA

50

Medical Service, created during 1948, is concerned with the pro¬ vision of medical care to the armed forces and to the civilian population in times of war. The bureaus, which have their headquarters in the office of the association, include those devoted to medical economics, ex¬ hibits, investigations of frauds and quackery, medical legisla¬ tion and health education. The printing establishment of the association and the head¬ quarters office personnel at 535 N. Dearborn St., Chicago 10, employed more than 800 people in 1948. The American Medical association consistently opposed plans for the nationalization of medicine, including compulsory sick¬ ness insurance proposals. The association favoured, however, proposals for the extension and construction of hospitals and health centres throughout the United States, the extension of public health units, the care of maternal and child health, the care of the crippled, the blind and those otherwise disabled, as covered through the Social Security act, and the establishment of a national science foundation to encourage co-ordinated and intensified research. Moreover, the association provided J^oth funds and facilities for extending as widely as possible prepay¬ ment plans to provide for covering hospital costs and medical care to the indigent. The association also favoured insurance against loss of wages caused by illness and against the costs of medical care. The house of delegates of the American Medical association in Dec. 1948 voted to assess each member of the association $25 with a view to raising a fund of several millions of dollars, to be used for a nation-wide campaign of education regarding the status of medicine in the United States and the policies of the house of delegates. (M. Fi.)

American Society of Civil Engineers:

see Societies

AND Associations.

American Society of Composers, Authors and Pub¬ lishers: see Societies and Associations. American Society of Mechanical Engineers: see Soci¬ eties AND Associations.

American Veterans' Committee:

see Veterans’ Organi¬

zations.

American Veterans of World War II (Amvetsl:

see

Veterans’ Organizations.

Amvets:

see Veterans’ Organizations.

AnoomiO

^ cobalt-containing extract of liver (vitamin B12) was found to be active in improving the blood and neurologic disturbances in pernicious anaemia. It appeared to be effective in doses as small as one-millionth of a gram daily. Additional data confirmed the observation that folic acid, while inducing improvement in the blood, did not prevent or alleviate symptoms referable to spinal cord degeneration. The life duration of patients with pernicious anaemia in¬ creased from an average of 6 mo. before 1926 to from 5 to 20 yr., and the standardized death rate fell from 3.4 to 0.6, a reduction of 82%. These patients appeared to be susceptible to gastric cancer and in one series it was noted in 20% of the patients studied. The red blood cells in patients with pernicious anaemia were found to have a shortened survival time indicating that there is a haemolytic or blood-destroying element in the anaemia in addition to the inability of cells to mature. Formation of cholinesterase by the whole blood, red blood cells and plasma during a relapse was below normal, improving with therapy. Acetylcholine was increased in the blood, decreasing with ef¬ fective treatment. Dried, powdered human stomach, from the

nlluullllu*

fundus region, was therapeutically active in relieving the anae¬ mia in pernicious anaemia, while material from the pyloric area was only moderately active. Anaemia, with the formation of large blood cells during preg¬ nancy and the puerperium, responded well to folic acid or proteolyzed liver even when the condition resisted potent liver extract therapy. Many forms of anaemia in infants and adults responded completely to folic acid treatment, and severe nutri¬ tional anaemia in Malaya improved with this medication. The rate of haemoglobin formation in anaemic pregnant women was practically constant regardless of iron or vitamin supplements, or when no therapy was given. In severely malnourished infants there was a 17.2% below normal decrease in the blood cells and 16.1% in the haemoglobin concentration. In a rural population of 1,200 persons, 236 (22.3%) had red blood cells and haemoglobin concentration below normal. Aplastic anaemia (a usually fatal form) was produced by the use of 4 amino pteroylglutamic acid. In uncomplicated kala-azar, (a tropical disease), anaemia occurred as part of the general lessening of all forms of blood cells, increasing when infection was present. Prolonged use of estrogens in adult female dogs produced aplastic anaemia. After multiple transfusions there was depression of red blood cell formation and acceleration of the rate of red blood cell destruction during the period of induced increase of red blood cells, resulting in the development of anaemia. Irreversible toxic “inclusion body” anaemia was described after the use of erythrol tetranitrate for a year. In persons severely infected with hookworm it was possible to prevent the anaemia by the use of ferrous sulphate mixed with manioc flour or brown ferric ammonium citrate in bean gravy. In tapeworm anaemia a remission could not be produced by the use of gastric juice incubated with meat (effective in pernicious anaemia), as long as the worm remained in its place. Iron and liver extracts were usually found to be ineffective in correcting the anaemia caused by trauma to body tissues (in¬ jury or operation) or by chronic septic infection. Diets com¬ posed largely of com grits supplemented by iron led to excessive iron absorption and deposition in rats (10 to 20 times normal). Replacement transfusion by the intraperitoneal administration of citrated blood at the time of surgical operation was found to be a slow, but safe and satisfactory method of transfusion. During the period of development of anaemia in congenital haemolytic jaundice the bone marrow showed a relative degen¬ eration of the erythropoietic or blood-forming elements. Ele¬ vated levels of plasma catalase were found in the blood of pa¬ tients with acquired haemolytic jaundice and in some familial haemolytic anaemias. One-half of a series of patients with pri¬ mary, nonfamilial haemolytic anaemia had small red blood cells with increased fragility to hypotonic saline solutions. These patients showed greater improvement, after splenectomy, than those without microspherocytosis. Ulcers of the legs occurred in patients with Mediterranean disease, similar to those of sickle cell anaemia or congenital haemolytic icterus or jaundice. In sickle cell anaemia, the abnormal tendency of the red blood cells to break up more rapidly than normal was not associated with the sickling process itself, but with an additional factor present in the erythrocytes in the sickle cell anaemia patients. While healthy erythrocytes in normal persons survived from no to 130 days, they persisted for no days in pernicious anaemia, 46 days in jaundiced patients, 41 days in aplastic anaemia with smallpox, 44 to 55 days in splenic anaemia and 52 days or less in chronic infection. Erythroblastosis, a form of rapid destruction of red blood cells, was reported in the first and second infants of Rh-negative

ANAESTHESIOLOGY —ANGLING mothers who had been transfused with Rh-positive blood, and whose husbands were Rh-positive. The routine use of Rh testing reduced the number of post¬ transfusion febrile reactions from 7.9% to 1.2%. Rh sensitiza¬ tion played a predominant role as a cause of haemolytic reac¬ tions in Rh-positive patients. Pigs fed with special diets, lacking pteroylglutamic acid, />-aminobenzoic acid and inositol, but including sulfasuxidine and a pteroylglutamic acid antagonist, developed a macrocytic anae¬ mia. Little or no improvement followed the use of liver extract, but rapid relief was noted after treatment with pteroylglutamic acid. In albino rats with induced turpentine abscesses, the presence or absence of the adrenal gland did not influence materially the development of lessened iron in the blood. BpLiOGRAPHY.—Edward L. Rickes, Norman G. Brink, Frank R. Koniuszy, Thomas R. Wood and Karl Folkers, “Crystalline Vitamin B12,” Science, 107:396-397 (April 16, 1948); E. Lester Smith, “Purification of Anti-Pernicious Anaemia Factors from Liver,” Nature, 161:638-639 (London, April 24, 1948); Erik Landbee-Christensen and Claus Munk Plum, “Experimental Study of the Localization of Castle’s Intrinsic Factor in the Human Stomach: Anti-anemic Effect of Powdered Human Fundus and Pylorus,” Am. J. M. Sc., 215:17-23 (Jan. 1948); P. A. Owren, “Congenital Hemolytic Jaundice: The Pathogenesis of the ‘Hemo¬ lytic Crisis’,” Blood, 3:231-248 (March 1948). (R. Is.)

Afl/lPQthP^tnlnffV

Iiivestigations supplied information on

nllPCdUIColUIUgj* the relation of atmospheres used in in¬ halation anaesthesia in comparison with the blood and tissue content of the various agents used, plus oxygen, nitrogen and carbon-dioxide content. These data, after interpretation, yielded facts which helped clinical anaesthesiologists recognize deficien¬ cies in techniques and correct them. In the field of local anaesthesia new agents were produced, but none was a great improvement over those already in use. In the field of diagnostic and therapeutic blocks, real progress was made. So-called pain clinics were established. Many pa¬ tients were relieved of pain even though the treatment some¬ times was symptomatic. One real advance in technique was that of accurately locating the points of the needles by roent¬ genograms. Dolamin, a solution containing 0.75% of ammonium sulphate, the same amount of benzyl alcohol and 4.8% of sodium chloride, and which has a pH of 7.2 adjusted with ammonium hydroxide, was employed in many instances in the belief that the am¬ monium ion interrupts the pain conduction of the C fibres of a sensory nerve without producing areas of anaesthesia or affecting motor nerves. It does not effect sympathetic nerves but it does effect splanchnic nerves. In the technical estimation of the value of nerve block, five points are of importance; (i) the patient’s tolerance to pain as compared with the tolerance of the average patient; (2) the production of paraesthesias resembling old pain about which the patient was complaining, on inserting the needle; (3) the roentgenogram showing that the needle has been placed prop¬ erly; (4) the exaggeration of the old pain for from ten minutes to an hour and a half after the injection of dolamin; (5) the duration of the relief of pain, which may vary from two hours to two weeks and in rare cases to four months. The longer the duration of the relief, the better the prognosis. For a variety of treatments such as X-ray therapy, injection of alcohol, nerve section, cordotomy and prefrontal lobotomy, it became clear that a positive result from the injection was very valuable but that a negative result did not mean that nothing could be done. Some of the above-mentioned measures were employed to ad¬ vantage. The use of pentothal sodium and curare given intravenously, plus nitrous oxide and oxygen by inhalation, became widespread. This reduced the use of many other types of anaesthesia, espe¬

51

cially spinal anaesthesia. Radioactive pentothal became avail¬ able in Jan. 1948 and was used on animals in the laboratory to determine its absorption, distribution and elimination in the body. The Beckman spectrophotometer made the radioactive pentothal less important than it would have been otherwise from the standpoint of measurement. (See also Surgery.) Bibliography.—N. A. Gillespie, Endotracheal Anaesthesia, 2nd ed. (1948); Victor Goldman, Aids to Anaesthesia, 2nd ed. (London, 1948). (J. S. L.)

Anflnri‘4

autonomous and semi-independent state between

nllUUilQa France and Spain. Area: 174 sq.mi.; pop. (1947 est.): 5,000. Language: Catalan. Capital: Andorra-la-Vieja (pop. est., c. 1,000). Rulers: the president of the French re¬ public and the bishop of Urgel, Spain. History.—A constitutional deadlock which had been reached in 1945 regarding Andorra, officially between its two rulers, and in practice between their representatives or viguiers at Andorrala-Vieja, continued in 1948. In 1933 it had been decided that the general council should be' elected by universal suffrage. In 1941, however, when the chief of the Etat Fran^ais was Marshal Philippe Petain, an agreement was reached with the bishop of Urgel that Andorra should return to the old system of voting only by the heads of families. After the liberation of France, General Charles de Gaulle sent to Andorra 80 French gendarmes and replaced the pro-Vichy French viguier by Baron Degrand. But the bishop of Urgel, Mgr. Ramon Iglesias, retained his viguier, Senor Sansa, a pro-Franco Spaniard. No agreement could be reached about the return to universal suffrage, and though a new council was elected on Dec. 12, 1945, by the heads of families, it was not recognized by France. Although the smooth functioning of the local government was somewhat interrupted by the disharmony between the two representatives of the bicephalous sovereignty, the economic life of Andorra did not greatly suffer.

Anfflinff

licence sales for 1947 reached a new high

nllgllllg. figure of 12,620,464—an increase of 14% over sales in 1946. This was 58% more than sales in r94i. The largest revenue was collected in the state of California, with fees amounting to $1,718,066 from a total sale of 848,446 licences. The greatest licence sale was in the state of Michigan with a total of 989,333. The official estimate in fishing expenditures (retail volume in 1948) was $60,000,000 for rods, reels, lines and other tackle. The 40th annual national casting tournament was held at Fort Worth, Texas. One new world record was set in the |-ounce distance bait event by Earl Osten, with a long cast of 409 ft. The nth international casting tournament of the British Cast¬ ing association was held at Wimbledon Park, London, and the French international tournament was revived for the first time after World War II and held in Paris. The differences in tackle and technique between European and U.S. casters had pro¬ hibited U.S. records from being recognized internationally. The National Association of Angling and Casting Clubs projected a plan in the fall of 1948 to standardize rules and equipment. Manufacture of fishing tackle hit a peak in the spring of 1948 and then levelled off by the end of the year. Top quality rods, reels and lines were made available for the first time after 1945. Importation and design of spinning reels were accelerated in the spring, but these also levelled off by fall, because of high prices. Four world record fish were caught by rod and reel during 1948. A 32-lb. channel catfish (length 42 in., girth 28^ in.) was caught by A. E. Herman in the Oconee river, Ga., on May 3. An 8-lb. Sunapee trout (length 28^ in., girth 19 in.) was landed by Thorsten Lind in Sunapee lake, N.H., on May 29. A 9-lb. chain pickerel (length 30 in., girth 15 in.) was caught by Russell

CIRCULAR PATTERN made by fishermen and their parked cars at the annual winter carnival ice fishing contest near St. Paui, Minn., in Feb. 1948. Angiers are shown fishing through holes in the frozen surface of White Bear lake

Kimble in Green Pond, N.J., on Jan 5. An ii-lb. golden trout (length 28 in., girth 16 in.) was caught by Charles S. Reed in Cook’s lake, Wyo., on Aug. 5. Films.—rie Your Own Flies (Hawley-Lord).

AhwIm rwiintlAn

AnSlO'ESyptlHn SlldBn.

(A. J. Me.)

A territory in northeast Africa under the joint sovereignty of

Great Britain and Egypt. Area: 967,500 sq.mi.; pop. (1948 est.); 7,547,500. Chief towns (1948 est.): Khartoum (cap., 61,800); Omdurman (117,600); Wad Medani (56,600); El Obeid (65,800); Port Sudan (47,000). Languages: English, Arabic and various Nilotic and Negro tribal dialects in the south. Religion: Arabic minority is Moslem; the bulk of the Negro population is heathen; c. 20% of the population in the south is Christian. Governor-general: Sir Robert George Howe. History.—Throughout the year 1948 steady progress was made in developing the resources of the country under the fiveyear development plan adopted in 1946. At the same time, the Sudan government aimed at the progressive preparation of the Sudan for self-government. But Sudanese self-government was a matter involving issues at stake between the British and Egyptian governments. On June 14, 1948, a British government spokesman stated in the house of commons that negotiations with the Egyptian gov¬ ernment had been in progress throughout the year. The British government, he stated, had suggested that certain Egyptian officials serving in the Sudan should have places on the pro¬ posed executive council and that an Egyptian officer should take part in planning Sudanese defense. On May 10 it was stated in Cairo that a joint Anglo-Egyptian committee had been set up to examine Sudanese constitutional questions, but no more was heard of this. The British undersecretary of state in his speech on June 14, declared that his government had received no reply to “repeated requests” for further information. The British government, he said, “therefore feel that they can no longer stand in the way of the governor-general doing as he thinks lit regarding the promulgation of the ordinance” which embodied the projected constitution for the Sudan. (See Egypt.) Shortly afterward, on June 19, the ordinance was published.

52

It provided for a legislative assembly with an elected majority. The assembly was to be triennially elected; members were to be paid a salary of £E25o a year and were to be chosen by the operation of an electoral system varying according to the state of development attained in the districts concerned. Sixty-five members of the assembly would be elected, and ten members would be nominated by the governor-general. All members of the executive council would be entitled to sit in the assembly if they were not already members. The assembly was to elect a speaker, subject to the approval of the governor-general and a “leader of the assembly” who must be appointed a minister and for whom, it appeared, an office analogous to that of prime minister was designed. The three major executive offices were to be continued and their holders were to sit on the executive council, which was to have from 12 to 18 members. The ordinance left the governorgeneral in the possession of powers which were still wide, includ¬ ing that of vetoing legislation and of dismissing ministers, al¬ though, if he should dismiss the “leader of the assembly” he must nominate a successor acceptable to the assembly. He might override the assembly if it rejected a measure prepared by the executive council, by promulgating it as an ordinance, but only if both the British and Egyptian governments approved this course. There were important matters still reserved from the competence of the assembly, notably, besides the constitution itself, relations with foreign powers, relations with the United Kingdom and with Egypt and matters affecting the nationality of the Sudanese. (H. S. D.) The general election, first in the history of the Sudan, took place on Nov. 16. It resulted in a clear victory for the Inde¬ pendence front, which favoured ultimate independence of the country, as opposed to the National front, which sought unity with Egypt. The legislative assembly met for the first time on Dec. 15. Education.—(1946) northern system: government schools: elementary 197, pupils 29,762; subgrade and Koran schools 415, pupils 28,292; intermediate schools 16, pupils 2,210; technical schools 2, pupils 317; teachers’ training colleges 2, pupils 204; secondary schools s, pupils 686; nongovernment schools ss, pupils 12,287; Gordon Memorial .college: stu¬ dents 207; southern system: government schools 2, pupils 179; mission schools 484, pupils 15,413. Banking and Finance.—Budget (1948 est.): revenue ££10,543,531; ex¬ penditure ££10,514,640. Public debt (Dec. 1946) ££13,400,000. Mon-

ANGOLA —ANTARCTICA etary unit: Egyptian pound (£E)=4i3 U.S. cents. Communications.—(1946) roads (for motor traffic) c. 1,000 mi.; rail¬ ways 2,013 mi-: river services 2,325 mi. Shipping at Port Sudan (1946): ships entered 45S> of which 378 were merchant vessels. Air transport (1946): mileage flown within the country 3,379,000. Telephone subscribers (1945) 3,520; wireless licences (1945) 3,227. Pr^uction and Trade—Gum Arabic exports (1946) 30,928 tons valued at £Ei,564,383; cotton (i947~48 est.) 212,000 bales (of 500 lb.). Total imports (1946) £Ei 1,467,962, exports £Eio,o43,524.

Angola: see Portuguese Colonial Empire. Animal Fats: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats. Animal Industry, Bureau of: see Agricultural Research Administration ; Veterinary Medicine.

Annam: see French Overseas Territories. Anniversaries and Centennials: see

Calendar,

1949,

page xxii. AntsrPtiPQ

south pole, at an elevation of more than 9,000 ft., is surrounded by about 6,000,000 sq.mi. of land, only one-third of which has ever been seen by man. The explored 2,000,000-sq.mi. portion of Antarctica has an average elevation of about 5,000 ft. The dispute over the sovereignty of Antarctica flared in 1948. Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, Great Britain and Norway each claimed specific areas, like slices of a pie, all of which they had not explored. The Argentine, British and Chilean claims overlapped in the Palmer Land sector, south of Cape Horn. There Argentina and Chile maintained two bases each, while Great Britain operated five bases in conjunction with the Falk¬ land Islands Dependencies survey. Personnel at the bases of the three nations were concerned mainly with meteorological ob¬ servations, local survey and furthering their nation’s claims through occupation. Australia maintained weather stations on two antarctic islands within its claimed area. None of the various na¬ tions’ claims was recognized by the United States, nor had the United States made any formal claims to the antarc¬ tic, although U.S. expeditions had discovered more land there than all claimant na¬ tions combined. During the year the United States de¬ partment of state was en¬ gaged in an attempt to inter¬ nationalize the antarctic under control of a committee composed of the interested claimant nations. Some of those nations stated their re¬ fusal to co-operate, while others expressed their reluc¬

nllldIvUvd.

tance to do so. On April 15, 1948, the Ronne Antarctic Research ex¬ pedition returned to the United States after a year’s work in the antarctic. The 23 members of the expedition, including scientists, pilots, etc., exclusively manned and operated their 183-ft., 1,200ton diesel-electric-driven ship 15,000 mi. to and from the Palmer Land peninsula. The “M/V Port of Beaumont, Texas” made a new record in

53

southern latitude penetration of the pack ice in the Marguerite bay sector. A geographical exploratory program was carried out with the aid of three aeroplanes, two tractors and two dog-team parties. To accomplish the major objectives, the leap-frog method, anew technique in polar flying, was used. Flights explored and photo¬ graphed the world’s last remaining unexplored coast line (a 450mi. stretch from Palmer Land to Coats Land along the Weddell sea), and followed the inland extension of the Palmer Land mountain range to where it terminates in a 5,ooo-ft.-high plateau toward the south pole. The antarctic was proved to be one con¬ tinent and not divided by a frozen strait between the Weddell sea and the Ross sea. In the 346 hr. of flying, with 86 landings in the field, 250,000 sq.mi. of new land were explored and 450,000 sq.mi. were photographed for more accurate mapping, making a total of 700,000 sq.mi. photographed by 14,000 aerial trimetrogon pic¬ tures and tied in with astronomical fixes, or ground control points, for the first time. First landings were made on Charcot Island and on the continent south of the Robert English coast, where the elevations were found to be 900 ft. and 3,100 ft., respectively. More than 50 new place names had been approved by the United States board of geographical names. Detailed investigations were carried on in 12 branches of science, including meteorology, climatology, solar radiation, atmospheric refraction, terrestrial magnetism, tidal observa¬ tions, oceanography and glaciology. In addition, the first seismological station was established in the antarctic and obtained a year’s record of world-wide earthquakes, as well as a definite correlation between weather information and microseisms (minute earth vibrations). Cosmic-ray data were obtained on two special plane flights made for this purpose. The expedi-

54

ANTHROPOLOGY

tion’s geologist spent 154 days in the field, 52 of which were devoted exclusively to outcrop geologizing. Two navy icebreakers, the U.S.S. “Burton Island” and the U.S.S. “Edisto” departed from the United States for antarctic waters on Nov. 20, 1947. Their first landing was made in the vicinity of Shackleton shelf ice, where ground control points were obtained for Correlation with aerial photographs taken on Operation “Highjump,” Dec. 1946-March 1947. A landing also was made at McMurdo sound before the vessels steamed east¬ ward toward the Palmer peninsula. A number of attempts were made to land and obtain ground control points along the Pacific quadrant of the antarctic, but because of extremely heavy pack ice land was not seen in this sector. Scientists from the two ships collected many specimens in the geological and biological, fields from the various sectors where landings were made. The vessels returned to the United States in the latter part of March 1948. (See also Cartography.) Films.—Discovery (United World Films, Inc.).

(F. Re.)

Anf'ht'nnninmi Anthropological activity in 1948 was characnllllllU|JUIU5y« terized by a marked expansion in field studies, with increased emphasis on co-ordinated, interdiscipli¬ nary research programs whereby cultural and physical anthro¬ pologists joined with biologists and specialists in other disci¬ plines in the study of human populations, past and present, in given areas. An intensive program of field investigations in Micronesia inaugurated by the Pacific Science board of the National Re¬ search council was carried out and completed under the direc¬ tion of G. P. Murdock. The project, which was supported by the U.S. navy and the Viking fund, was conducted by more than 40 anthropologists, linguists and geographers from 22 uni¬ versities and other institutions who worked for var>’ing periods in the Marshall, Caroline and Mariana archipelagoes. Viewed as a whole, the expedition was the largest and best equipped in the history of anthropology. When completed, the reports of the expedition, in addition to presenting a comprehensive scientific description of the islands and their people, would serve as guidance for future administrators. Three anthropolo¬ gists remained in Micronesia as expert advisers to the navy. F. M. Setzler conducted archaeological and anthropological work in northern Australia as a member of the National Geo¬ graphic Society-Smithsonian expedition to Arnhem Land. In India, the department of anthropology (formerly the Anthro¬ pological Survey of India) inaugurated a five-year plan of re¬ search in physical and cultural anthropology. Among projects undertaken in 1948 was a physical, psychological and economic survey of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands by Director B. S. Guha. Frederick Johnson, anthropologist, and Hugh M. Raup, bota¬ nist, led an expedition to the southwestern Yukon territory to study developmental sequences in human cultures, vegetation and postglacial land forms. The expedition obtained new and important data on the movements of plants and man in relation to Pleistocene glaciation over this old migration route. Another northern expedition which employed the co-ordinated approach to anthropological problems of an area was the Peabody Mu¬ seum Aleutian expedition of Harvard university, under the direction of William S. Laughlin. The integrated research pro¬ gram carried out by this seven-man expedition to Umnak and other Aleutian Islands—first of its kind to be undertaken in the far north—included studies in physical anthropology, medicine, dentistry, linguistics, archaeology and ethnology. At the Arctic Research laboratory of the office of naval research at Point Barrow, Alaska, biological studies of the Eskimos were made by a group of biochemists, serologists, physiologists and nutrition¬

ists. Blood types of more than 500 Eskimos were taken by Victor E. Levine. Another member of the Barrow group, Charles G. Wilber, found that the chemical constitution of Eskimo blood differed profoundly from that of white persons. Similar investigations were made on Southampton Island in Hudson bay by the Queen’s University Arctic expedition, which observed the morbidity of various diseases among the Eskimos, studied their nutritional habits and carried out physiological and dietary experiments. In the eastern arctic H. B. Collins con¬ ducted archaeological work on Baffin Island and made physical measurements, photographs and morphological observations on 80 of the living Eskimos, the first anthropometric data to be recorded for that area. In New Mexico J. N. Spuhler and W. C. Boyd made anthro¬ pological and serological studies of the Ramah Navaho. Their work was part of an intensive research project on the biology and public health of this Indian group, under the general direc¬ tion of Clyde Kluckhohn. The scientifically unknown Tepehuan Indians of western Mexico were studied by J. Alden Mason. The research pro¬ gram of the Institute of Social Anthropology of the Smithsonian institution included field studies among the Totonac Indians of Veracruz (by Isabel Kelly), in Otomi and Aztec linguistics (Stanley Newman), sociological field work in a Caboclo com¬ munity near Sao Paulo, Brazil (Donald Pierson), and ethno¬ logical studies of the Terena and Caduveo tribes of Mato Grosso, Brazil (Kalervo Oberg). Under sponsorship of the Viking fund and the Social Science Research council, Ralph Beals began a survey of the status of anthropological research and teaching in South American institutions. Africa continued to be the scene of varied and important anthropological activities. The University of California African expedition, under the leadership of Wendell Phillips, had large field parties working in North and South Africa. Henry Field, directing the expedition’s physical anthropology program in the Faiyum desert and Sinai, made physical measurements and ob¬ servations on 495 males at the villages of Tamiya and Fidimin. Later he recorded similar data on 223 Bedouins in Sinai and on 150 male Masai in Kenya province. In co-operation with the expedition, the Egyptian department of public health dispatched a mobile nutritional unit to Tamiya. The director, Mohammed M. Sadr, and 6 assistants examined 900 individuals, took blood samples and recorded medical, nutritional and sociological data. The southern section of the California expedition, under C. L. Camp, in addition to doing archaeological and palaeontological work, carried out a co-ordinated series of anthropological studies on the primitive tribes of northern South-West Africa. E. M. Loeb, ethnologist of the expedition, recorded a wide range of ethnological, linguistic and psychological data, mostly on the Kuanyama OvaMbo. Anthropometric studies were made by E. W. Williams of the University of the Witwatersrand, Johan¬ nesburg, Transvaal, Union of South Africa, and Laura Bolton recorded native songs, chants and dances. L. S. B. Leakey, field director of the British-Kenya Miocene expedition, reported discovery of the greater part of the skull of a Miocene ape belonging to the genus Proconsul. The skull, from Rusinga Island, Lake Victoria, was remarkable for the absence of the heavy eyebrow ridges characteristic of modern African anthropoid apes. The find was of particular importance because previous remains of Tertiary primates had consisted only of teeth, jaw and limb fragments. In an article in the American Journal of Physical Anthro¬ pology Raymond A. Dart described a new species of South African man-ape of early Pleistocene age, Australopithecus Prometheus, based on a fossil occipital bone discovered in the Makapansgat valley, central Transvaal. Like the other Aus-

tralopithecinae discovered in previous years by Robert H. Broom, this skull fragment exhibited distinct humanoid features. The cavern where the skull fragment was found also contained the fossil remains of many other animals such as baboons, bovidae, carnivores, pigs, rhinoceroses, hippopotamuses and giraffes, about one-half of which were extinct forms. The evi¬ dence of fire, the splintered condition of most of the long bones and the presence of localized fractures on the skulls led Dart to believe that these slight-bodied, erect, large-headed proto¬ humans lived in the caves and hunted the other animals, using the heavy limb bones of some of the ungulates as clubs. The erect posture, at least, of the South African men-apes was questioned by W. L. Straus, who studied the humerus of Paranthropus robustus, another member of the Australopithecinae. From a detailed comparison with human and other primate humeri Straus concluded that the Paranthropus arm bone showed a greater resemblance to the average chimpanzee than to the average man, and that it provided no conclusive evidence as to whether the creature walked upright or on all fours. A definitive description of the second Neanderthal skull from Saccopastore, by Sergio Sergi, was published in Paleontographia Italica. Mile. Germaine Henri-Martin’s discovery of two nonNeanderthaloid human crania from a pre-Mousterian deposit in the cave of Fontechevade (Charante), reported late in 1947, was a further indication that a Homo sapiens type of man may have preceded the Neanderthal in western Europe. In Human Ancestry from a Genetical Point of View, R. Ruggles Gates propounded the view, rejected by anthropologists generally, that the races of mankind are distinct species. The Social Science Research council, through a Carnegie corporation grant, established fellowships and travel grants for research in problems of the contemporary culture of world areas outside the United States and Canada. The Carnegie corpora¬ tion also made grants for establishing programs of European and Scandinavian studies at Columbia and the University of Wis¬ consin, Madison, respectively, and for the substantial enlarge¬ ment of the Russian Research centre at Harvard, directed by Clyde Kluckhohn. D. B. Shimkin joined the latter organization as research director. Additional Carnegie grants enabled North¬ western university, Evanston, Ill., to intensify its African re¬ search program and Cornell university, Ithaca, N.Y., to expand its program in cultural anthropology by surveying the impact created by the introduction of western agricultural, industrial and scientific methods to primitive societies. The Third International Congress of Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences was held at Brussels, Belgium, from Aug. 15 to 23, and was attended by 450 members representing 32 countries. Edouard de Jonghe served as president of the con¬ gress and Frans M. Olbrechts as secretary. The British Institute of Archaeology at Ankara, Turkey, under the direction of John Garstang, was established as a re¬ search centre for archaeology, anthropology and ethnology. A new quarterly journal of ethnography and folk culture. The Eastern Anthropologist, edited by D. N. Majumdar, was pub¬ lished at Lucknow, India. In the United States M. J. Herskovits was chosen as editor of the American Anthropologist and William Howells as editor of the American Journal of Physical Anthropology. Robert Broom of the Transvaal museum, Pretoria, Union of South Africa, was honoured on his 80th birthday by publication of a volume of commemorative essays by the Royal Society of South Africa. E. A. Hooton received the Viking fund medal and award in physical anthropology for the revised edition of his book Up from the Ape. The similar award in archaeology went to J. O. Brew for his Archaeology of Alkali Ridge, South¬ eastern Utah. The Anisfield-Wolf award for the best publica¬

RUTH BENEDICT, late professor of anthropology, shown at Columbia univer¬ sity early in 1948, with some of the material amassed in her then current re¬ search project, a systematic study of national character and contemporary cultures among the nations of the world. She died in New York city on Sept. 17

tion on race relations was made to John Collier for his book Indians of the Americas. W. L. H. Duckworth delivered the Huxley Memorial lecture, “Some Complexities of Human Struc¬ ture,” an analysis of the anatomical and racial factors relating to the organs of speech in man. “Some Aspects of British Civilization,” the subject of the Frazier lecture, delivered by H. J. Fleure, emphasized the strong influence of geography on the development of culture in Great Britain from prehistoric to modern times. Bibliography.—In the United States three general textbooks in an¬ thropology were issued during 1948: M. J. Herskovits’ Man and His Works; John Gillin’s The Ways of Men; and a new and in many respects rewritten edition of A. L. Kroeber’s classic Anthropology. The Bureau of American Ethnology issued vols. iii and iv of the Handbook of South American Indians, edited by Julian H. Steward, vol. iii describing the tropical forest tribes and vol. iv the tribes of the circum-Caribbean area. Other major works were Social Organization, by Robert H. Lowie; A Reader in General Anthropology, edited by C. S. Coon; and The Heathens: Primitive Man and His Religions, by William Howells; Principles of An¬ thropology, by E. D. Chappie and C. S. Coon; and The Dawn of Euro¬ pean Civilization, by V. Gordon Childe. Current economic, social and political conditions in non-European lands were discussed by 14 anthro¬ pologists in Most of the World, the Peoples of Africa, Latin America and the East Today, edited by Ralph Linton. (H. B. Cs.)

Anti-Aircraft Guns: see Munitions of War. Antibiotics: see Bacteriology; Chemotherapy. Antigua: see Leeward Islands. Antimnnii estimated recoverable antimony content of nllUIIIUliya antimony ores mined in the major producing countries and the estimated w’orld total during the past several years is shown in Table I on p. 56. In spite of heavy postwar increases in price, the supply of antimony still remained about as short as it was during World War H. United States.—The important features of the antimony in¬ dustry in the United States are presented in Table H.

55

ANTI-SALOON LEAG U E—AQU ED UCTS

56

Table I.— World Production of Antimony, 1937-47 (Short tonsi 1937

1939

1941

1943

1945

1946

858 444 7,238 20 16,206 1,099 456 10,789 1,429 — 591 1,266 1.595

247 461 10,202 600 13,246 1,116 743 7,984 854 7 507 361 3,678

438 460 15,080 1,465 8,806 1,813 903 11,289 1,587 491 6 1,117 ?

994 586 18,228 513 472 ? ? 13,873 2,725 1,720 9 5,113 ?

95 190 5,614 767 — ? 298 8,877 2,250 2,480 — 1,776 ?

— ? 7,063 315 ? ? ? 6,665 1,068 2,368 ? 2,305 ?

Total. 42,550 41,000 •Some 1947 dota ore estimates.

52,100

55,000

29,200

27,400

Algeria. Australia ..... Bolivia. Canada. China. Czechoslovakia . . Italy. Mexico. Peru.. South Africa. ... Turkey. United States . . . Yugoslavia ....

1947*

* ? 8,000 600 ? ? ? 8,000 1,000 3,000 ? 5,300 ? ?

Table II.— Data of Antimony Industry in the U.S., 1941-47 (Short tons) 1941

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947

Production In ore. 1,214 5,556 4,735 1,930 2,505 5,316 In alloys*. 2,958 2,085 2,857 1,992 1,457 2,031 Imports. 27,504 29,969 17,761 24,649 8,742 ? In or. 19,386 28,755 17,080 22,643 5,903 9,287 Metal. 7,469 932 293 627 2,593 5,901 Other formst. 649 282 388 1,379 246, ? Consumption, primary . . . . 29,994 19,508 23,756 25,761 17,515 23,932 Secondary recovery .... 21,629 15,483 15,886 17,148 19,115 21,574 Smelter output. ? 20,624 20,000 21,000 12,457 13,782 •Antimony content of antimonial lead produced from foreign and domestic ores. fEstimated antimony content of alloys, oxide and liquated sulphide.

The carload bulk price of antimony went up to 38.5 cents per pound, as compared with 14 to 16 cents during World War II. The short supply and the high price brought the domestic mine output back almost to the level of the war peak, and 1947 im¬ ports increased heavily, ore imports by 57% and metal imports by 128%. Consumption in 1947 was higher than in any of the war years except 1941 and 1945. (G. A. Ro.)

Anti-Saloon League of America: see Associations:

Societies

and

Temperance League of America.

Ml Comitipm

report on anti-Semitism during the year 1948 of necessity must reveal un¬ even trends, which, at year’s end, were too difficult for ac¬ curate evaluation. Anti-Semitism has always been a symptom of profound societal tensions. In 1948, therefore, its uneven manifestations merely reflected the uneven degrees of tension that still strained a world which was neither at peace nor at war. Generally recognized authorities agreed that organized antiSemitism in the United States was at the lowest ebb since the depression years of 1932-33. While many areas of social dis¬ crimination continued to exist, most of them were localized and revolved about individuals rather than crusades or organ¬ ized campaigns. Some of the most outspoken leaders of po¬ tential movements of anti-Semitism in the United States were reported to be talking to consistently diminishing audiences. The year 1948 was an election year, with a hard fought cam¬ paign. Competent authorities observed that there had been less appeal to religious prejudice than in some previous cam¬ paigns. This was understandable, for despite the political ten¬ sions of the world, internal conditions in the United States remained generally prosperous. These were significant and hopeful trends. More significant and hopeful was the fact that in conti¬ nental Europe 1948 passed without any notable anti-Semitism. All reports indicated that in western Europe and the Scan¬ dinavian countries the lives of Jews were being adjusted to the hardships of reconstruction, which were the lot of the entire population of that part of the continent. Considering the ex¬ treme difficulties under which this part of the world laboured, the lack of overt and serious discrimination against citizens of Jewish faith was a hopeful testament to the persistence of

I'dClIIIUoIlL

liberal traditions in those areas so long dominated, but ap¬ parently not permanently infected, by Adolf Hitler. There were occasional conflicts between members of the armies of occupation and inmates of displaced persons centres in the American zone of Germany. But none of these was sus¬ tained nor could any of them be attributed to anything more than the extreme irritations that were inevitable in such abnormal conditions. Probably half the Jews of the world lived either in the U.S.S.R. or in soviet controlled nations. Information regarding them was as sparse and unauthoritative as information about almost any other aspect of life in those areas. But there was also no reason to assume that 1948 produced any departure from the Soviet Union’s previous policy of outlawing antiSemitism as a crime against the state. Serious excep^lions to these encouraging conditions were to be found in the Arab countries bordering the Mediterranean and in England. Both of these exceptions were directly at¬ tributable to the continuing crisis in Palestine and the ZionistArab conflict over the state of Israel. Zionists continued their policy of condemning England, and the equating of Zionist and Jew began to add up to serious proportions in that country. At the end of 1948, the situation had shown no perceptible improvement. At that time British Jews were reported to be raising a fund of $800,000 for combating rising anti-Semitism related to the “present international situation.” The situation in the Arab countries was dramatically and immediately worse. There were about 800,000 Jews in these countries. In Cairo, Egypt, the situation was critical. Zionism, as a nationalist movement, had spoken and acted as if it rep¬ resented all Jews, no matter if they were of Egyptian nation¬ ality. The impact of this nationalist activity, coming just at the time that Egyptian nationalism itself had experienced a resurgence, left Jews ground between the upper and lower mill¬ stones, whether they were Zionists or not. In some Arab states, it was reported, the property of Jews had been confiscated to repay the government for the military expenses involved in the Palestine war. The defeat of the Arab states’ armies in the war with Israel added frustration as an irritant in this tragic situation. This confusion of Zionism and Judaism and Zionist and Jew made it difficult to discern a trend in anti-Semitism for 1948. If the confusion persisted, the English and Arab situations would almost inevitably spread. With Israel a fact, there was certain to be sentiment for and against it, as with any other state or political issue. There would be valid, legitimate, politi¬ cal differences. But with Zionist movements operating in many nations as units of Israeli nationalism, it was imperative for men of goodwill to realize that all their fellow citizens of Jew¬ ish faith were not Zionists and that some of their citizens of Christian faith were. {See also Jewish Religious Life; Refu¬ gees.) ' (El. Br.)

Antitrust Law: see Law. Apples: see Fruit. Apricots: see Fruit. II

_j

i

The bureau of reclamation, an agency in the U.S. department of the interior, has developed, designed and constructed many irrigation and multiple-purpose projects to conserve and use water resources in the 17 western states. Its works include thousands of miles of canals, tunnels, siphons and pipe lines to make possible the irrigation of more than 5,000,000 ac. of arid or semiarid lands. During 1948, the reclamation record on aqueducts included completion or con-

nl|UCUUulda

ARABIA tinued construction work on a number of major developments. On the Central Valley project in California, the Friant-Kern canal, i6o mi. long, was to convey San Joaquin river water from behind the Friant dam near Friant, Calif., to farms as far south as the Kem river. The Delta-Mendota canal, 120 mi. long, was to carry Sacramento river water from the San Francisco Bay area southward along the San Joaquin river and discharge it into the San Joaquin river at Mendota, Calif., thereby providing irrigation water to replace that diverted into the Friant-Kern canal. The first 88 mi. of the Friant-Kern canal were complete or under construction in 1948, while about 41 mi. of the DeltaMendota canal were under construction including a huge pump¬ ing plant near Tracy, Calif. This plant was to house six giant pumps which would lift 4,600 cu.ft. of water per second a dis¬ tance of 190 ft. from the Intake canal and discharge it into the Delta-Mendota canal, from where it would flow by gravity the entire 120 mi. to Mendota, Calif. Construction of major irrigation canals continued on the Co¬ lumbia Basin project in Washington. Columbia river water im¬ pounded in Lake Roosevelt behind Grand Coulee dam would be lifted 280 ft. by the world’s largest pumps into an equalizing reservoir in the Grand Coulee, an ancient river bed, from where it would flow by gravity through siphons, tunnels, a man-made lake and the project’s main canal to reach the 1,000,000 ac. of land to be irrigated in south central Washington, 40 mi. south of Grand Coulee dam. The Main canal, which was scheduled to be completed early in 1950, would be the largest irrigation canal in the northwest, with a capacity of 13,200 cu.ft. per second. It divides into the 80-mi. West canal, of which 6^ mi. were under construction, and the 130-mi. East Low canal, of which 12 mi. were under construction. The Colorado-Big Thompson project in Colorado was noted as the project with the longest irrigation tunnel in the world— the 13-mi. Alva B. Adams tunnel, which began in 1947 to carry water from west to east through the Rocky mountains and un¬ der the continental divide. This reclamation project also in¬ cluded Rams Horn and Prospect Mountain tunnels and Aspen Creek siphon, which were complete, and four tunnels on the Horsetooth Feeder canal which were under construction. The 41-mi. Salt Lake aqueduct on the Provo River project in Utah was to transport nearly 100,000,000 gal. of water daily from Deer Creek reservoir near Provo to the vicinity of Salt Lake City for industrial, municipal and irrigation purposes. About 28 mi. of this structure were complete in 1948, while the

57

remaining sections were under construction and scheduled to be completed in 1950. The final sections of the 125-mi. Coachella canal, which branches from the 80-mi. All-American main canal near the Mexican border about 20 mi. west of Yuma, Ariz., and extends in a northwesterly direction past the Salton sea and terminates near Indio, Calif., were completed during the year and placed in limited use pending completion of the lateral distribution system. The 71-mi. San Diego aqueduct, branching from the Colorado River aqueduct near San Jacinto, Calif., was to carry about 50000,000 gal. of water daily to the San Diego area. Designed by the bureau of reclamation, it was built under the supervision of the bureau of yards and docks of the U.S. department of the navy. Construction was completed in 1948 and the aqueduct was placed in service. (See also Canals and Inland Water¬ ways; Dams; Tunnels.) (M. W. Ss.)

Arohlo peninsula of Asia which consists politically of two nldUiui independent Arab states, Saudi Arabia and Yemen (g.v.), the independent sultanates of Oman and Masqat (Mus¬ cat) ; the autonomous sheikdoms of Bahrein, Kuwait, Qatar, and the Trucial sheikdoms; and Aden colony and protectorate (q.v.). Language: Arabic; religion: Moslem. Saudi Arabia.—Area, c. 597,000 sq.mi.; pop. (mid-1947 est.): 6,000,000. Chief towns: Riyadh (cap., 60,000); Mecca (80,000); Hufuf (30,000). Ruler: King ‘Abd-al-‘Aziz Ibn-‘Abdal-Rahman Ibn-Faisal Ibn-Sa‘ud. During 1948 King Ibn-Sa‘ud was prominent in support of the Palestine Arabs against Israeli, and a small Saudian contingent took part in the Arab league’s armed intervention in Palestine after May 15. Despite the king’s displeasure at U.S. support for Israel, development of the oil fields by the Arabian Amer¬ ican Oil company was not interrupted, and U.S. help continued to be accepted in educational projects, irrigation and other pub¬ lic works in Saudi Arabia. Oil production was still further in¬ creased during the year to about 285,000 bbl. a day, and work was continued on the new pipe line to the Mediterranean. The U.S. air base at Dhahran was strengthened, but in Au¬ gust it was learned that the government refused to take up the remaining $15,000,000 of its credit at the Export-Import bank. Diplomatic relations with Iran were resumed in March, after

BULLDOZERS clearing a path near the Persian gulf in 1948, for a 30-in. trans-Arabian pipe line to carry oil across the desert to the Mediterranean and ease demands for U.S. oil, so needed in the reconstruction of European industry

ARAB LEAGUE — ARCHAEOLOGY

58

four years’ interruption, and there was an exchange of diplo¬ matic missions on legation level with Pakistan. The visit on June 28 of King Abdullah of Trans-Jordan to Riyadh resulted in a fraternal declaration which it was hoped would be the be¬ ginning of friendlier relations between the Saudi and Hashimi dynasties. (See Trans-Jordan.) The revolution in Yemen was a matter of close concern to King Ibn-Sa‘ud, who would give no countenance to a delegation from the revolu¬ tionary government, and after the recognition of the Imam Ahmad it was announced that he, too, would visit Riyadh be¬ fore making the pilgrimage to Mecca in the autumn. Some preliminary surveying was done with a view to re¬ opening the Ma‘an-Medina stage of the Hejaz railway, in dis¬ use from 1918, and further work was done on the project to link Riyadh by rail with the new oil port at Dhahran. A U.S. contractor was building for the government a powerful new wireless communication station at Jedda. Oman and Masqat.—Area: c. 65,000 sq.mi.; pop. (mid1947 est.): 830,000. Ruler: Sultan Sayyid Said bin Taimur. Trucial Sheiks.—Area: c. 16,000sq.mi.; pop. (mid-i947,est.): 115,000. Bahrein.—Area: 213 sq.mi.; pop. (mid-1947 est.): 125,000. Ruler: Sheikh Sir Sulman ibn Hamad al Khalifah. Oil produc¬ tion by the Bahrein Petroleum Co. (U.S.-owned) averaged by 1948 about 8,000,000 bbl. yearly. Kuwait.—Area: c. 9,000 sq.mi.; pop. (mid-1947 est.): 100,000, including 80,000 in Kuwait town. Ruler: Sheikh Sir Ahmed ibn Jabir al-Subah. Oil production by the Kuwait Oil Co. (Anglo-U.S.-owned) in the new Burgham field reached 100,000 bbl. per day in 1948. Qatar.—Area: c. 4,000 sq.mi.; pop. (mid-1947 est.) 25,000. Ruler: Sheikh Abdullah ibn Jasim eth Thani. (C. He.) Finance.—The monetary unit is the Saudian rial, nominally equal to R. I (Indian), which fluctuates strongly. The recognized standard is the George V gold sovereign. The chief sources of revenue are oil royalties (more than £5,000,000 yearly) and pilgrimage dues (1944 est., 10,300,000 rials).

Arab League: see

Arabia;

Egypt;

Iraq; Lebanon;

Pal¬

estine; Syria; Trans-Jordan.

ArPhdOnlnffV nl ulldCUIUgjf*

Western Hemisphere.—At the annual meeting of the Society for American Ar¬

chaeology the 1947 Viking Fund Medal and Award for Archae¬ ology was presented to J. 0. Brew in recognition of his out¬ standing contribution on the archaeology of Alkali ridge, Utah. Research on the method of dating archaeological sites by the radioactivity of the carbon isotope in organic materials pro¬ gressed favourably at the University of Chicago. Testing of the method and refinements of techniques were undertaken. It was reported that wood or charcoal was the best substance for dating by the Carbon 14 method. South America.—In the latter half of the year Mr. and Mrs. Clifford Evans, Jr. began an archaeological survey of the lower Amazon region in Brazil. Survey and excavations were planned for Marajo and Caviana Islands, the region of Maraca and the up-river station of Santarem. This work was under the auspices of the Museu Nacional of Brazil. The Society for American Archaeology and the Institute of Andean Research published jointly A Reappraisal of Peruvian Archaeology, assembled by Wendell C. Bennett. This publica¬ tion contains' articles by Bennett, Gordon R. Willey, Marshall T. Newman, John H. Rowe, Junius B. Bird, George Kubler, S. K. Lothrop, Richard Schaedel, Donald Collier, Alfred Kidder II, W. Duncan Strong, Julian H. Steward, Pedro Armillas and A. L. Kroeber. In Herrera province of western Panama, archaeological ex¬ plorations were undertaken by Matthew W. Stirling and Gordon

R. Willey for the bureau of American ethnology and the Na¬ tional Geographic society. Two cemeteries of the Code period were excavated, a village site producing a new pottery style, El Hatillo polychrome, that probably is earlier than Code, was in¬ vestigated, and a shell midden near the sea at Monagrillo was excavated. The simple, plain and incised pottery from the Monagrillo shell heap was considered to be the earliest pottery known for Panama. It resembles some pottery from the West Indies and eastern North America. Middle America.—In Mexico many of the long-term projects of the Institute Nacional de Antropologia e Historia were continued. Investigation^ at Monte Alban were carried on by Jorge Acosta. At Tula the work was directed by Hugo Moedano, and at Tamuin in the Huastecan area investigations were under¬ taken by Wilfredo du Solier. The archaeological work at Tajin in Veracruz was under the supervision of Garcia Payon, that at the archaic site of Tlatilco was supervised by Romero Arturo and Jose Luis Avelero. The excavations at Tlateloko were under the direction of Antonieta Espejo. New excavations by Carolos Margain at Teotihuacan revealed heretofore unknown frescos of importance. Investigation of the Coixtlahuaca site in Oaxaca by Ignacio Bernal, Felipe Montemayor and Jorge Obregon included the excavation of 40 small tornbs. In November, Dr. and Mrs. Richard MacNeish began a pro¬ gram of survey and excavation in coastal Tamaulipas. This program was underwritten by the Viking fund. A second expe¬ dition to Bonampak in Chiapas was sponsored by the Carnegie institution in co-operation with the Institute Nacional de An¬ tropologia e Historia and financed by the United Fruit com¬ pany. Bonampak is a small site of the Maya old empire famous for its mural paintings. In Guatemala a large tomb of the early Miraflores phase was excavated by A. V. Kidder and E. M. Shook at Kaminaljuyu near Guatemala city. The tomb contained 300 pottery vessels, a so-called “Mushroom stone” and a number of jades. In Huehuetenango, Guatemala, the excavation and restoration of the Zaculeu site was continued under the auspices of the United Fruit company. The work was under the direction of John M. Dimick, Aubrey S. Trik and Richard B. Woodbury. This im¬ portant Highland Maya site records an occupancy of about 1,000 years, from early classic times to the conquest. Southwestern United States.—During the summer Arnold Withers of the University of Denver conducted a survey of the high mountain valleys west of Denver, Colo. Nonpottery camp sites attributable to the Ute were found. Excavation of a rock shelter in south central Colorado revealed a Basket-Makerlike occupation of Pueblo III times. Among the ceramic remains was one Woodland type sherd. Under the leadership of Paul S. Martin, assisted by John B. Rinaldo, the Chicago Natural History museum expedition con¬ tinued investigations of the Pine Lawn basin in western New Mexico. Work was concentrated on the excavation of Mogollon pit-houses representative of the phases between Pine Lawn and Three Circle. With the assistance of Ernst Antevs, additional investigations were made of the Chiricahua-period Cochise occu¬ pancy discovered in 1947. Deric O’Bryan of the staff of the Gila pueblo, Arizona, under¬ took six weeks of excavation and survey in western New Mexico in an effort to date the beginnings of the pottery type called St. Johns Polychrome. O’Bryan then continued his excavations of Developmental Pueblo ruins at Mesa Verde National park in Colorado. An expedition from the Museum of Northern Arizona under the direction of Harold S. Colton and S. Watson Smith made a study of the Sinagua-Kayenta remains of the period a.d. 11501200 in- the vicinity of Flagstaff, Ariz. The expedition also in-

ARCHAEOLOGY vestigated some small Pueblo III sites on the Wupatki Na¬ tional monument and near Winona, east of Flagstaff. The University of Arizona archaeological field school con¬ tinued excavations at Point of Pines on the San Carlos Indian reservation in Arizona. The 1948 Southwestern Anthropological Field conference was held at Point of Pines on Aug. 24-26. The Upper Gila expedition of the Peabody museum of Har¬ vard university under the direction of J. 0. Brew continued its archaeological survey of western New Mexico. The Early Man division of this expedition under the supervision of Herbert W. Dick undertook excavation of ancient sites in the St. Augustine plains area. Pacific Coast.—The newly formed California Archaeological survey under the supervision of Franklin Fenenga and Francis A. Riddell excavated a cave site in Lassen county, Calif., sev¬ eral sites in the Pine Flat reservoir area of Kings River canyon, and investigated sites in the Isabella reservoir area of the Kern river. The Southwest Museum expedition under the leadership of M. R. Harrington undertook a second season of excavation at the Stahl site north of Little lake, Calif. This site produced an ancient lithic complex. Under the direction of Philip Drucker of the Pacific coast area office of the Smithsonian Institution River Basin surveys, reconnaissance and excavation were undertaken in the McNary reservoir area of the Columbia river in Oregon and Washington and in the Potholes reservoir area of Moses lake in Washington. The McNary project was sponsored by the University of Oregon and was supervised by D. Osborne; the Potholes project was sponsored by the University of Washington and was supervised by R. D. Daugherty. Plains Area.—A number of archaeological investigations were undertaken in the Missouri River basin by the personnel of the Smithsonian River Basin surveys directed by Frank H. H. Rob-

ARCHAEOLOGISTS of the National Geographic society and the Smithsonian institution, near Parita, Panama, in 1948. Their pre-Christian findings added to growing evidence linking the cuitures of Centrai and South America

59

erts and Waldo R. Wedel in co-operation with other federal and state agencies. The excavations were concentrated in areas that were to be flooded or destroyed by construction work. Excavations at the Medicine Creek reservoir in southwestern Nebraska under the direction of Marvin F. Kivett assisted by George Metcalf revealed much new information on village pat¬ terns and house construction of the Upper Republican culture. In addition to the six Upper Republican sites, two small sites of an earlier Woodland horizon were excavated. Under the direction of Jack T. Hughes a number of non¬ pottery sites were examined at Angostura reservoir near Hot Springs, S.D. At one site projectile points suggestive of Plainview and other early types were weathering out of a stratum containing charcoal and other evidence of a definite camp-site level. A field party under the direction of Paul L. Cooper made test excavations at Heart Butte reservoir, N.D., and in the lower Oake reservoir area between Pierre and the mouth of the Chey¬ enne river in South Dakota where numerous village sites of varied character indicated a lengthy and intensive occupation. Field work in the plains by agencies co-operating with the Smithsonian River Basin surveys was as follows: Under the direction of Preston Holder an early nonpottery site was exca¬ vated by the University of Nebraska State museum. This site in southwestern Nebraska on Medicine creek just below the mouth of Lime creek was in the base of a 55-ft. terrace. A fine series of artifacts and a large collection of bones were obtained. The age of this material and its position in plains archaeology remained to be worked out. A field party from the Nebraska State Historical society un¬ der the direction of A. T. Hill excavated 14 house sites and several middens on Medicine creek north of Lime creek. The houses and middens belonged to the Upper Republican culture or horizon. At Harlan County reservoir in southern Nebraska a site of the Dismal river culture was excavated by a field party from the University of Nebraska laboratory of anthropology under the direction of John L. Champe. This was the easternmost site of the Dismal river complex excavated to that time. In eastern North Dakota a field party from the North Dakota Historical society and the University of North Dakota under the direction of Gordon W. Hewes investigated burial mounds and village sites in the Baldhill reservoir area. The burial mounds contained burials in subfloor pits that were lined with boulders and covered with logs. The burials were accompanied by red ocher, cut jaws and teeth of animals, and buffalo bones painted blue. A Kansas State university expedition under Carlyle Smith undertook excavations in the Kanopolis reservoir on the Smoky Hill river in Kansas. The sites investigated showed presence of Woodland, Hopewellian and Upper Republican horizons in the area. Under the direction of Robert E. Bell the University of Okla¬ homa conducted its first field session in archaeology. During the first four weeks of the session excavations were made at the Scott site near Wister, Okla. The investigations showed that the Fourche Maline complex, an early horizon in eastern Oklahoma, contained both a pottery and a prepottery stratum suggestive of two periods. During the last four weeks of the session excavations were undertaken in a village area and conical mound at the Norman site near Wagoner, Okla. In the village area portions of several superimposed houses and some refuse pits were examined. A preliminary trench was dug at the northern limit of the mound. At the end of the field session, the continued excavation of the mound became a joint project of the University of Oklahoma

60

ARCHAEOLOGY an expression of bear ceremonialism. The Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences field party di¬ rected by William A. Ritchie made a reconnaissance along the Trent waterway in Ontario. Archaeological remains found were indicative of Hopewellian, Point Peninsula and the early stages of Owasco. Under the direction of Douglas S. Byers an expedition spon¬ sored by the Robert S. Peabody foundation of Andover and the Robert Abbe museum continued excavations on a small island in the Union river at Ellsworth Falls, Me. One pre¬ ceramic and two ceramic periods were represented. In Connecticut the Pealjody museum of Yale university and various chapters of the Archaeological society of Connecticut undertook excavations at several sites. Under the direction of Irving Rouse and Howard Sargent a shell heap of the Coastal culture on Grannis Island in New Haven harbour was examined. A rock shelter and quarry revealing two ceramic periods and a much earlier nonceramic period were excavated by Rouse and William S. Fowler at Barkhamsted. Excavations at the E. D. Pray site in Killingly were continued under the supervision of G. D. Pope, Jr.

MARBLE TORSO from the Temple of Hephaistos, dating from about 440 B.C., which was uncovered in 1948 in the Agora, or civic centre, of ancient Athens by archaeologists of the American School of Classical Studies

and the United States national museum, represented by Joseph Caldwell. Upon excavation the Norman mound proved to be a circular, flat-topped mound with six construction levels, the last being a cone-shaped addition to the summit plateau of the fifth construction level. The cone-shaped addition to the mound contained glass trade beads. Artifacts recovered indicated that the mound belonged to the Spiro focus of the Gibson aspect. Eastern North America.—With a grant from the Viking fund, Alex Krieger of the University of Texas excavated the impor¬ tant Battle Mound site on Red river in southwestern Arkansas. Excavations at the Kalomoki site in southwestern Georgia were undertaken by William Sears for the University of Geor¬ gia. The site revealed Lamar-, Weeden-Island-, and late SwiftCreek-derived pottery types. At the Snyder site in Calhoun county. Ill., the University of Michigan under the direction of James B. Griffin excavated a deep midden revealing four periods of Hopewellian ceramic de¬ velopment. The University of Minnesota field party under the direction of L. A. Wilford excavated two mound sites and five village sites in various parts of Minnesota. The sites ranged from Woodland and Oneota sites to a site (Woodland) representing

During the summer, Johannes Brondsted, professor of ar¬ chaeology at the University of Copenhagen, Denmark, made a survey of alleged Norse remains and relics in the United States and Canada. Brondsted concluded his survey with an examina¬ tion of the Kensington runestone found in 1898 on a farm near Kensington, Minn. The inscriptions on the stone tell of a massa¬ cre of'Scandinavian explorers by Indians in a.d. 1362. According to Brondsted, the runic inscriptions on the Kensington stone seemed to be authentic. He planned to make a grammatical analysis of the text to see if it was in keeping with language of the period. In Brondsted’s opinion, it was probable that Norse¬ men were in New England and in the western Great Lakes area in the 14th century. Arctic and Sub-Arctic Area.—The National museum of Den¬ mark and the University of Alaska collaborated on an archaeo¬ logical survey of the Alaskan coast in the Norton sound-Bristol bay area. Helge Larsen and Eric Holtved represented Denmark and J. L. Giddings and Ivor Skarland represented the Univer¬ sity of Alaska. Larsen and Giddings found more than 50 char¬ acteristic Ipiutak sites representative of Asiatic Eskimos with Siberian cultural roots. The Andover-Harvard Yukon expedition, financed by grants from the Peabody foundation (Andover), Harvard university and the Viking fund, conducted an extensive archaeological, botanical and geological survey of the region between White¬ horse and the Donjek river in Yukon territory. Archaeological investigations were directed by Frederick Johnson, botanical studies by Hugh M. Raup and geological investigations by Leland Horberg. (G. I. Q.) Eastern Hemisphere.—The year 1948 was one in which archaeological investigators in the old world showed an astound¬ ing amount of activity, and this in spite of political unrest in much of Europe and in the near and far east. For the first time after 1940, it had become necessary to be selective in com¬ piling this article; the writer here presents only those events in archaeology which in his judgment were the most important ones of the year. At the same time, the reader’s attention may now be called to the new, detailed and excellent archaeological news sections which appeared within the year in the American Journal of Archaeology. This quarterly journal planned to con¬ tinue its news service with a section on each of the following in each year: Greece and Rome, the near east, Europe and the new world. Pleistocene Prehistory.—The outstanding investigations re¬ ported for the year in the more remote prehistoric stages were

ARCHAEOLOGY from France and the near east. Of these, Mile. G. HenriMartin’s discovery of two sapiens-lWie skulls in a Tayacian con¬ text at Fontechevade cave, France, was of double interest. Heretofore, there had been little enough of the early (Third Interglacial) flake-tool industry, known as Tayacian, from either cave sites or terraces. It was important to have more of this industry of small flake tools from the cave-site type of context at Fontechevade. The second point of interest here was the human skulls, assessed by H. Vallois as of Homo sapiens type. The Tayacian deposit containing the skulls was overlaid by a thick and undisturbed stalagmite bed, and then by a range of industries from Mousterian to Magdalenian. This evidence con¬ firmed that already suggested by the Swanscombe, Piltdown, etc., fossil humans (from much less precisely dated gravel con¬ texts), that a relatively modern human type had evolved at least as early as had the more primitive Neanderthaloid physi¬ cal type. The excavations at La Colombiere rock shelter, France, car¬ ried on by a Peabody museum-Harvard university expedition under H. L. Movius, Jr., with an associated geological survey of the adjacent Ain valley terraces under Kirk Bryan, were of importance. A fine upper Aurignacian (Gravettian) industry, including a pebble beautifully engraved with superimposed ani¬ mals, and traces of a Magdalenian industry, were recovered. Secondly, it was possible to establish a late Wuerm (Fourth Glacial) date for the terrace which immediately underlaid the upper Aurignacian level. At the rock shelter of Ksar ‘Akil, north of Beirut, Lebanon, the Boston college-Fordham university expedition, under J. G. Doherty, J. F. Ewing, and J. W. Murphy, was able to enlarge and complete its excavations to bedrock, and an intensive geo¬ logical survey of the environs was carried on by H. Wright of the University of Minnesota. The Ksar ‘Akil sequence, a com¬

EXCAVATIONS at Jarmo in east central Iraq, where dwellings and artifacts of the first known community were uncovered in 1948. The expedition was headed by Robert J. Braidwood (upper left) of the Oriental institute, University of Chicago

61

plete one from Levalloiso-Mousterian through to the end of the Pleistocene, added considerably to existing knowledge of near eastern prehistory. In Egypt, S. A. Huzayyin of the Farouk I university, work¬ ing jointly with a University of California expedition, was able to make substantial progress in clarifying problems in the pre¬ history of the important Fayyum depression. An industry de¬ rived from the Levalloisian, but tending more and more towards core tools, was described for the final Pleistocene stage. The Near East.—Expeditions were at work in all of the near eastern countries, but the greatest activity centred in Egypt, Iraq and Turkey. In chronological order, the outstanding finds were as follows: The University of Chicago Oriental institute’s Iraq project, under Robert J. and Linda Braidwood, worked on two village sites in the Kirkuk region. The first of these, Matarrah, was a low mound which yielded a southern variant of the Hassuna stage, the earliest village material hitherto known in Iraq, and certainly as early as any known village material in any of the near eastern countries. The Matarrah assemblage was one of rectangular-roomed, mud-walled houses, of pottery in several different styles, and of simple small objects in ground or chipped stone and bone. The basal layer consisted of a strange complex of elongated pits dug into sterile soil. The Iraq project’s second site, Jarmo, was of considerably greater interest. Jarmo yielded the remains of a prepottery village-stage, assessed on technological grounds as considerably earlier than any village material so far found in the near east (or anywhere else in the world). Another way of saying this would be that Jarmo contained the traces of a culture which had very recently passed through the great economic revolution wherein agriculture and domesticated animals had replaced sim¬ ple hunting and food-collecting as a means of livelihood. The village had consisted of simple mud-walled houses, each with several rectangular rooms. There were baked-in-place floor basins of clay and a number of human and animal figurines of

62

ARCHAEOLOGY

clay worked plastically, but no portable pottery vessels. Stone vessel fragments were recovered, and a variety of chipped or ground stone tools. The flints included sickles for cutting grain, but also microliths—a peculiar trait which ties the flint-working tradition back into the cave-dwelling, food-collecting stage. The animal bones (which almost certainly contained examples of domesticated species) and the kernels of grain which were re¬ covered, awaited detailed analysis. There was no question how¬ ever that the Jarmo finds added a new and early chapter in near eastern prehistory, and came from a time very close to the beginnings of a new economic stage out of which true civili¬ zation was eventually to grow. Iraq was also the scene of a continuing excavation program at Eridu (Tell Abu Shahrain), under the direction of Sayyid Fuad Safar, for the Directorate General of Antiquities of the Iraq government. As a result of his 1947-48 campaign, Safar considerably elaborated existing knowledge of the Ubaid period. Heretofore, the Ubaid materials were the earliest known arch¬ aeological manifestation in Iraq south of Baghdad. It had been popular to assume that a prehistoric bay of the Persian gulf had dried up only just before their appearance, thus making it impossible to anticipate' any earlier archaeological materials. Safar recovered, at Eridu (well in the south of Iraq), about 12 levels of occupation below the type of Ubaid materials hitherto assumed as basal. Within these levels, the colourful Qal'at Haji Mohammed painted pottery appeared, for the first time in proper archaeological context. Moreover, a completely new painted pottery style tentatively called the “Eridu” style made its appearance in the basal levels. Safar and his colleague Seton Lloyd described this pottery as having design elements reminis¬ cent of the Halafian and Samarran styles in the north, but technically resembling neither. Throughout 10 of these 12 new levels, there was a sequence of temples, the earliest being a small mud-brick rectangular structure with an altar set back into a wall bay opposite the entrance. On a removed slope of the mound, a large Ubaid period cemetery, with mud-brick crypts, was discovered; in a note appended to Safar and Lloyd’s report in Sumer, IV (1948), Charlotte M. Otten (of the Orien¬ tal institute’s Iraq project) assesses the skeletons as certainly of modern Caucasoid type. There was important work done in Turkey. As well as con¬ tinuing his program on the large central Anatolian site of Alaga, Hamit Kosay, director general of antiquities, reported with Mahmut Akok on test excavations at Biiyuk Giilliicek in the Belleteni {Turk Tarih Kurumu or Turkish Historical society), 1948. This site yielded a group of apparently very early (“chalcolithic”) dark-faced burnished pottery, with incised and/or punctate decoration and occasional white paint. Mother-goddess figurines, copper axes, sickle and other flint blades, and groundstone celt and hammer axes also appeared. This would seem to be an assemblage of considerable importance in relation to ques¬ tions of Anatolian-European interconnections. Prof. Hetty Goldman (Institute of Advanced Studies, Prince¬ ton), in the process of drawing to a close her prewar work at Tarsus, in south coastal Turkey, w’as able to clarify the basal layers on that site through a step-trench operation. “Early bronze,” “chalcolithic” and “neolithic” materials were encoun¬ tered, which would serve as a useful elaboration of the nearby Mersin sequence. What was doubtless the most important work of the year in Turkey, the commencement of the first excavation at Kul Tepe (an important Assyrian merchant colony site) by competent archaeologists, had yet to be reported on in detail. It was known that Tahsin and Nimet Ozgiig, of Ankara university, had started work on Kul Tepe, and had already encountered several levels in the period of the Assyrian colony {ca. 1900 b.c.).

More than 1,000 cuneiform tablets were said to have been re¬ covered. A Mesopotamian code of laws, containing the name of Bilalama, king of Eshnunna (soon after 2000 b.c.) and predating the famed Hammurabi code by some generations, is described by Prof. Albrecht Goetze of Yale university, in Sumer (1948). The laws appeared as tablets, found by Sayyid Mohamad Ali Mustafa of the Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities exca¬ vations at Tell Abu Harmal, near Baghdad. Sayyid Taha Baqir identified one of the tablets; the second was subsequently recog¬ nized by Goetze, working in co-operation with Bakir and Sayyid Salim Levy. The text contains about 60 items, which fix prices and wages and prescribe the penalties for a considerable variety of wrongs done to both free men and slaves. The laws pertain to a time, when, following the downfall of the third dynasty of Ur, it was necessary for the Amurrite successors to consolidate their power and control. In Egypt, there was a considerable amount of clearance and restoration being done, particularly important among which was the work of M. Lauer (of the Antiquities department) on the Zoser complex at Sakkara, and of Abd-el-Salsm Effendi on the Dahshur pyramid. In the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, H. W. Fairman resumed the Egypt Exploration society’s excavations at Amarah West. This site, once an island in the Nile, was an administrative, trading and gold-working outpost of Ramesside Egypt. In Palestine, reports on earlier work done at El Affule and Fara appeared, and important “Early Bronze Age” clearances were said to be continuing at these sites. There were also some small-scale clearances, done in spite of the political unrest, but the great find of the year was a purely accidental one. In February, Father Butros Sowmy of the Syrian Orthodox convent in Jerusalem, made available to the American School of Ori¬ ental Research and to the Hebrew university, certain scrolls found by a group of Bedouin in a cave near the Dead sea. The characters on the mss. were Hebrew. Those which were with the American school included a complete copy of the book of Isaiah, a somewhat fragmentary commentary on the book of Habakkuk, a Complete “Sectarian document,” and a fourth and poorly preserved scroll which had not yet been unrolled. The contents of the scrolls in the Hebrew university had not been reported by the close of the year. In Professor Albright’s opin¬ ion, the Isaiah scroll could not be later than about 100 b.c., and probably belonged to the second half of the second century B.c. The Habakkuk scroll was approximately a century later in date. The scrolls needed, of course, a great amount of de¬ tailed study, considering their great importance, but it was already possible to say that the Isaiah text indicated that the Masoretic text had remarkable fidelity. Classical Lands.—^There was less to report of Greece and Italy, where archaeological activity was being resumed on a smaller scale than in the near east. The Greek government had so far allowed only clearance projects, in which the U.S., British and French schools in Athens participated. The Italian and Swedish schools had been re-established. The American school continued its work on the Athenian Agora with Homer A. Thompson as director. In graves to the west of the Aeropagus, one richly furnished cremation burial of a woman of c. 900 B.c. contained about 20 early Geometric vases, assorted jewel¬ lery and two pair of terra-cotta walking boots. A public build¬ ing (perhaps a law court) was beginning to appear, and several 5th-4th century B.c. dwellings were cleared. At Corinth, Saul Weinberg recovered an important cache of Mycenean pottery. The British school worked jointly with the Archaeological institute of Ankara university at Bayrakli Tepe, near Izmir (Smyrna), Turkey. Ex-ploratory trenches yielded qth-sth cen-

ARCHERY—ARCHITECTURE tury and geometric pottery. No details were available of the work of the French school. In Italy, Frank Brown of the American academy in Rome worked during the summer at the Etruscan site of Cosa. While no details of the results at Cosa were yet reported, the fact that the Italian government had given full excavation permission to foreign excavators was of considerable importance. Europe,—The American Journal of Archaeology, v. LII, p. i (1948). had an elaborate summary of the various archaeological events in all European countries during the war years. Un¬ fortunately, there was little direct news of activities of any im¬ portance in the protohistoric and historic stages in Europe for the year 1948, although a number of expeditions were known to have been at work. It was reported that Gerhard Bersu had continued his clearance of raths (sod-roofed round farmsteads surrounded by ditches) in County Antrim, Northern Ireland. Two of these structures, one dating to the 8th, and one to the 9th or loth centuries a.d., yielded a variety of engraved slate slabs, fragments of leather shoes, and an oak-staved chum. The assemblage contributed considerably to an understanding of the Celtic culture in the Irish sea littoral. Far East.—S. Paranavitana, commissioner of the Archaeo¬ logical department, Ceylon, successfully cleared a fine 7th cen¬ tury A.D. Buddhist shrine at Madirigari. This circular (and originally domed) shrine enclosed a 2nd century a.d. stupa, and was a relatively small but architecturally magnificent monu¬ ment. It had been covered by the jungle for some five centuries. An even larger jungle clearance, that of the mediaeval Hydera¬ bad fortress town of Bidar, was effected by G. Yazdani. Africa.—Bernard Fagg, government archaeologist of Nigeria, described further primitive African figurines of terra cotta, re¬ claimed from modern tin- and iron-mining operations. It was as yet impossible to assign a date to the culture from which these figurines derive, but “the middle of the first millennium seems the least unlikely.” The assemblage also included traces of iron smelting, although stone axe and adze blades were com¬ mon, and also querns, rubbers, nut crushers and the kernels of palm and other oil bearing fruits. Such an assemblage was of considerable importance, pertinent to the question of independ¬ ent beginnings of agriculture and village life in Negro Africa. (See also

Anthropology.)

Sources used in the preparation of this article, other than those spe¬ cifically mentioned; Avierican Journal of Archaeology, Antiquaries Jour¬ nal, L’Anthropologic, Antiquity, Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, Illustrated London News, Journal of Near Eastern Studies, Man, Nature, Quarterly of the Department of Antiquities of Palestine. (R. J. B.)

■ I The 64th championship tournament of the NaArCnBry. tional Archery association was held at Reno, Nev., Aug. 2 to 7, 1948, with 202 archers from 28 states of the U.S. and from several other countries participating. Thirty-two new national records were established. The championship winners and their scores were: Torget Shooting Larry Hughes, Burbank, Calif. Men’s Championship 282-1726* Scores: Double York Round 180-1426 3152 Double American Round Jean Lee, Greenfield, Mass. Women’s Championship 144-1082* Scores: Double National Round 144-1172* Double Columbia Round _ 180-1368* 3622* n=>

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Chataigneau—met J.oseph Stalin on Aug. 2. The soviet premier, though maintaining that it was not the purpose of the soviet government to oust the Allied forces from Berlin, reiterated that the western powers no longer had a juridical right to oc¬ cupy the German capital. He pointed out that the blockade had been necessary because of the London decision to establish a German government in the western zones. He suggested, however, that a settlement was possible on the following lines: there should be a simultaneous introduction in the western sec¬ tors of Berlin of the new currency of the soviet zone, together with the removal of all transport restrictions. Later there should be a four-power meeting to consider other problems affecting Germany. In an endeavour to present these suggestions in a written form, four drafting talks followed between the three envoys and Molotov, but they failed to arrive at any satisfactory agree¬ ment. After a new meeting with Stalin (Aug. 23) and two further drafting meetings with Molotov (Aug. 27 and 30), a joint directive was dispatched to the military governors calling for a report on Sept. 7. Beginning Aug. 31 the four military governors: Gen. Sir Brian Robertson, Gen. Clay, Gen. Joseph-Pierre Koenig and Marshal Sokolovski, met in Berlin every day for a week, but they too failed to reach agreement. The soviet military gov¬ ernor not only refused to admit the necessity of a joint Allied control over the currency circulation in Berlin, but he also raised two entirely hew points: (i) that all trade between Ber¬ lin and the western zones should come under exclusive soviet control, and (2) that in the future the western air corridors should be confined to uses specified by the Russians. After the failure of the technical discussions in Berlin, the western envoys on Sept. 14 handed Molotov a memorandum summarizing the points of view of their governments to which the soviet government replied four days later. As this was unsatisfactory, the western powers considered further discus¬

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

sions useless and on Sept. 26 decided to refer the action of the soviet government to the Security council of the United Nations. During the second half of 1948 the struggle of the Berlin S.E.D., reinforced by the other communist-dominated Berlin organizations, to overwhelm the democratic political parties was steadily intensified. The progressive penetration of the police by the S.E.D. was checked on July 26 when Ferdinand Friedensburg of the Christian Democratic union (C.D.U.), the acting lord mayor, suspended Paul Markgraf, the S.E.D. police presi¬ dent. The soviet authorities refused to recognize the suspension. On Aug. 26 came the first organized assault by the S.E.D. on the lawfully elected city assembly. Gangs of S.E.D. support¬ ers with the connivance of the Markgraf police entered the Stadthaus in the eastern sector and broke up the proceedings. After a second attempt to meet on Aug. 27, the assembly ap¬ pealed to Gen. Alexander Kotikov, the Russian commandant, for a guarantee of security, but received an evasive reply. The city assembly made three further attempts to meet, on Aug. 29 and Sept. 2 and, finally, on Sept. 6, after further organized inter¬ ruptions, transferred their sessions to the British sector. In October the city government (Magistrat) began to split apart, and the situation reached its climax on Nov. 30 when Ottomar Geschke (S.E.D.), deputy chairman of the city assem¬ bly, summoned a meeting in the state opera house of the east¬ ern sector deputies and representatives of the communist-con¬ trolled organizations, such as the Free German Trade Union federation. Free German Youth and Union of Those Persecuted by the Nazi Regime. At this meeting a new city government was set up, the lawfully elected Magistral was declared dis¬ solved and Friedrich Ebert (S.E.D.), son of the first president of the Weimar republic, was appointed lord mayor. Elections to the city assembly were scheduled for Nov. 14. On Oct. 4 the Russian authorities prohibited preparations in the soviet sector, and on Oct. 20 General Kotikov laid down cer-

BERMUDA^BEVIN, ERNEST tain conditions for the holding of the elections which were not accepted by the western commandants. On Dec. 5 elections were held, but only in the British, U.S. and French sectors. The S.E.D. refrained from putting forward candidates. Eighty-seven per cent of the population of the west¬ ern sectors voted, the S.P.D. (Social Democratic party) securing 64-5%) the C.D.U. 19.4% and the L.D.P. (Liberal Democratic party) 16.1% of the seats in the new city assembly. (See also Germany;

Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United

Kingdom of;

United Nations;

United States.)

(D. A.

Sn.;

K.

Sm.)

RprmilflQ British colony of some 300 small islands in the UCi IllUUila •western Atlantic about 580 mi. east of Cape Hatteras in North Carolina. Area: 19 sq.mi.; pop. (1947 est.): 3S)56o (13,026 white, 22,534 coloured). Chief towns: Hamil¬ ton (cap. c. 3,000); St. George (c. 1,300). Language: English. Religion: Christian of various denominations. The colony is administered by a governor, assisted by an executive council containing four official and three unofficial members. The legis¬ lative council consists of three official and six unofficial mem¬ bers and the house of assembly of 36 members, four of whom are elected by each of the nine parishes of the colony. As the colony is a naval base it is customary to appoint as governor a high-ranking service officer. Governor in 1948: Admiral Sir Ralph Leatham. History .—The principal event of the year was the publica¬ tion of the report of the joint committee of the legislative council and house of assembly appointed the previous year in response to the secretary of state’s dispatch. Its main rec¬ ommendations were: abolition of plural voting in the future; limited extension of the franchise; lowering of electoral qualifi¬ cation for candidates to that required for the franchise; ap¬ pointment of a committee to draff a plan for greater self-gov¬ ernment; increased list of duty-free imports and a lowering of tariffs on essentials and an increase on luxuries; existing trade union legislation to be given a longer trial period without change; extension of opportunities in government service to coloured people; adoption of social security legislation for sick¬ ness and accident benefits; government assistance to workers building their own houses; free elementary education in nonvested schools, but separate schools for white and coloured children to continue; increased hospital accommodation with facilities for training coloured nurses; more recreational facili¬ ties for young people and the coloured community. The report was the main subject of debate in the elections which took place in July—the first with female franchise and women candidates, two of whom were elected. (Jo. A. Hn.) Education—Primary schools: 37; secondary: 6—all private, but 25 re¬ ceive state aid; there were separate schools for white and coloured children. Finance and Trade.—Currency, based on sterling consists of British coin¬ age and British and Bermudian notes; circulation (Dec. 31, 1947) £797,336. Budget (1947); revenue £1,455,440; expenditure £1,362,511. Public debt (Dec. 31, 1947): £875,000, of which £800,000 were interest free loans to the British government; savings and commercial bank deposits £457,793 and £7,116,822 respectively. Foreign trade (1947): imports £6,004,840; exports domestic £44,859, re-exports £735,608. Flowers form the only important domestic export, but the apparent adverse balance is countered by the tourist trade: 29,000 tourists visited Bermuda in 1947, of whom 23,861 arrived by air.

Donillnim DCI jlllUIIK

production of beryllium ores in the United States increased somewhat in 1947 over the 100

short tons reported in 1946, but imports decreased sharply, from 1,098 tons in 1946 to around 700 tons in 1947. World pro¬ duction was estimated to have declined slightly from the 1,682 tons reported in 1946. (G. A. Ro.)

Bessarabia: see Union Best Sellers: see Book

of Soviet Socialist Republics. Publishing.

117

Betting and Gambling. and according to most estimates less money was bet although there was general increase in the stakes for which gambling games were played. There were fewer players and less money bet in European casinos. Elsewhere in the world there was no apparent decrease in the number of players. The biggest gambling story of the year was the result of bet¬ ting on the United States presidential election in that the pro¬ fessional gamblers, or bookmakers, abandoned their usual prac¬ tice of cross-betting and were caught. Seldom do bookmakers really “gamble” on any event. On their usual method they would have bet 10 to i on Gov. Thomas E. Dewey and i to ii on Pres. Harry S. Truman, and by equalizing the bets accepted on the respective candidates would have assured themselves either a one-point profit or at worst an even break. Instead, assuming a Dewey victory, they discouraged Dewey bets by offering inadequate odds; and gambled everything they had, and much they did not have, against President Truman. On Nov. 3, numerous bookmakers were unable to pay off and some others paid off ten cents on the dollar. Card playing increased, more games were played for stakes and the stakes were higher; but there was less chicanery because club managers recognized the wiles of the “sharpster” and barred all suspicious characters. However, the transoceanic gamblers, landbound for almost a decade, came back with the return of the luxury liners. Bridge, the perennial favourite, was played at more clubs, by more people, for more money, than in any other year after 1929. During World War H, when stakes on gin rummy (for exam¬ ple) went up to $ I per point, the stakes on bridge remained at prewar levels. In 1948 they increased sharply. Games at 40 to SO cents per point were not uncommon in New York city. A London club had a game for £20 per 100 points with an addi¬ tional £100 to the winner of the rubber—equivalent to about $2 per point, and by far the highest stake for which a regular bridge game in a club had ever been played. Oklahoma, a variant of Rummy, leapt in popularity in fashionable circles and was played for high stakes, as were two other Rummy variants, Kaluki and Canasta (the latter an Argentine game). Towie, a type of contract bridge played by three or more play¬ ers, and somewhat more of a gambling game, finally reached the Pacific coast and became popular with players there; it had been played in the east and in Europe for years before. For the third consecutive year betting on the races declined, perhaps as much as 10%. The pari-mutuels handled little more than $1,600,000,000 in the United States. Off-the-track book¬ makers, pressed by the law more than ever, complained that business was down, expenses up. Though some newspaper sur¬ veys estimated that the bookmakers handled five times as much in volume of bets as the pari-mutuel machines, more conserva¬ tive estimates were that they handled only about one and onehalf times as much. Dog racing lost in popularity, with several tracks closing while no new ones opened. Baseball pools thrived; football betting fell off somewhat, perhaps because of the many upsets; betting on basketball games increased, perhaps because bookmakers began accepting bets on either team at 6 to 5, giving or taking a specified number of points (so that, for example, one may bet on the favourite to win by 10 points and lose his bet if its margin of victory is any less). (A. H. Md.; M. Ml.)

M

Crnoct British foreign secretary, was f LrnBSl born at Winsford, Somerset, Eng., March 9. He became national organizer of the Dockers’ union in 1920, and the following year general secretary of the newly formed

BHUTAN-.B10CHEMISTRY

118

Transport and General Workers union. From 1925 to 1940 he was a member of the general council of the Trades Union con¬ gress and in 1937 was chairman. In May 1940 he became min¬ ister of labour in Winston Churchill’s coalition government and entered the house of commons for central Wandsworth. He be¬ came secretary of state for foreign affairs in the Labour govern¬ ment in July 1945. Bevin attended every important international conference after World War II, and after the breakdown of the Council of For¬ eign Ministers in London in Dec. 1947 he announced in the house of commons on Jan. 22, 1948, that the British govern¬ ment would henceforth seek security through regional alliances in western Europe. In Paris, France, on March 16 he sat as chairman at the second conference of the 16 powers taking part in the European Recovery program, and in Brussels, Belgium, on March 17, he signed a treaty of collective military aid and economic co-operation with France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg, creating the nucleus of a western European association. On April 16 he addressed a meeting in Paris of the 16 countries and the western zones of Germany taking pa^t in E.R.P., at which a convention was signed, pledging the signa¬ tories to “close and lasting co-operation” and setting up a perma¬ nent council. Later, in October, complete agreement was reached by Bevin and the foreign ministers of these other powers on the principle of a North Atlantic defense pact. Bevin led the British delegation at the third general assembly of the U.N. which opened in Paris on Sept. 21.

Dhiiton

^ semi-independent state in the eastern Himalayas, lying between Tibet and India. Area: c. 18,000 sq.mi.; pop. (est.): 300,000. Capital: Punaka. Language: a dialect of Tibetan. Religion: mainly Buddhist. Ruler: Maharaja Sir Jigme Wangchuk. History.—A Bhutanese delegation went to Delhi, India, on April 23, 1948, with Bhutan’s request for revision of the 1865 treaty concluded with the government of British India. Bhutan demanded the return of c. 800 sq.mi. of the territory ceded to India in 1865, and promised to forego its claim to subsidy; as an alternative, Bhutan asked for the raising of the annual subsidy from Rs. 200,000 to Rs. 800,000 and the return of 300 sq.mi. of the forest land adjoining Bhutan in west Bengal and Assam. It appeared, however, that India would favour a straightforward request for economic assistance rather than a demand involving the revision of the existing treaty which included the provision that Bhutan’s foreign relations be conducted by India.

DllUldIu

Finance and Foreign Trade.—Estimated annual revenue (1948): 425,000. Estimated exports to India (1948): Rs. 355,000.

Bicycling: see Cycling. Bikini Island: see Atomic

Rs.

Energy.

Dillini'flc Willies, Hoppe and Mosconi, successfully Dillldl Uu> defended their major world billiard championships at Chicago, Ill., in 1948. Hoppe staved off the challenge of Ezequiel Navarra of Argentina for the three-cushion crown and Mosconi easily turned back the veteran Andrew Ponzi for the pocket title in the only defenses made of their respective diadems. Eliminations in the form of national tournaments were held at Chicago to determine the challengers for world honours. Navarra, Argentine champion, swept through a field of six, including Irving Crane and Joe Procita, to gain the top threecushion position with ii victories and no defeats. Ponzi, a former world titleholder, had harder sledding in an all-star group that included Jimmy Caras and Crane, other previous world champions. At the end of the competition, Ponzi and Arthur Cranfield

were tied with nine triumphs and two setbacks each, but first place was awarded to Ponzi on a total-point basis. The world matches found both Hoppe and Mosconi in ex¬ cellent form. Of the challengers, Navarra made the better showing, the South American taking three of the nine games before finishing on the short end of a 450-376 score. Mosconi took all nine games from Ponzi, totalling 1,350 points to 643. Ponzi’s best efforts were in the first and final games, which he dropped, 150 to 144 and 150 to 141, respectively. Other major activity in the billiards field in 1948 was con¬ fined to amateur three-cushion competition. Rene Vingerhoedt of Belgium captured the world title tourney, held at Buenos Aires, Argentina, and Edward Lee of the New York Athletic club again became the national amateur ruler. (P. Br.) RinphomiCtrU

DIUullClIlloll y.

Acids.—^The urinary excretion of amino acids by normal persons on controlled

diets was found to vary from 0.4% of the ingested amount in the case of leucine to 12% for histidine. About half of the amino acids of urine are free; the rest require HCl hydrolysis in order to make them microbiologically available. The fraction which is free varies from 90% in the case of methionine to 10% for glutamic and 1% for aspartic acid. The amino acids of faeces (all bound as protein) amount to about 5% to 10% of those ingested, and since they show no significant variation with marked variations in protein intake, they are thought to have their origin in bacterial protein or digestive secretions. The concentration of amino acids in the foetal blood is one and onehalf to three times greater than that of maternal blood in man, rabbit and guinea pig. The growth rate of rats maintained with the 10 essential amino acids as the sole protein source was found to be slightly inferior (70%-75%) to that of similar animals with 19 amino acids, when the rest of the diet was optimal for maximum growth. Prolonged heating of foods and food proteins (pork, casein, soy meal and soy globulin) at 100° C. to 120° C. was found to decrease markedly (to 30% to 60%) the amounts of amino acids which could be liberated by enzyme hydrolysis, although the effect on the amounts liberated by acid hydrolysis was negligible (less than 10%). The destruction of lysine was com¬ plete when the pure amino acid was heated with sucrose, and the addition of sucrose to soybean protein previous to heating four hours at 121° C., caused a decrease in the lysine which could be liberated by acid hydrolysis from 93% to 44%, and by enzyme hydrolysis from 75% to 31%, of that of the original unheated protein. Increasing use was made of partition paper chromatography for the separation, identification and analysis of minute amounts (0.2 to 15 micrograms) of amino acids, and other compounds of biological importance, purines, pyrimidines, creatine, creati¬ nine, choline, reducing sugars and organic acids. Originally de¬ scribed by R. Consden, A. H. Gordon, and A. J. P. Martin in 1944 {Biochem. J., 38, 224) the method involves the measure¬ ment of Rf values, the ratios of the distance which the com¬ pound moves along the paper to the total distance which the solvent moves. Practically, the method was used for the first preliminary identification of two unusual compounds which occur in minute amounts in a complex mixture: the discovery of the formation of a-amino-adipic acid as a product of lysine metabolism and the presence of pantonine in hydrolysates of Escherichia coli cells. The method was also applied to the rough quantitative estimation of amino acids in hydrolysates of proteins which are available in small quantities like bacterio¬ phage, and to an estimation of the relative proportion of ade¬ nine, guanine, cytosine, uracil and pentose in the hydrolysates of

BIOGRAPHY —BIRTH CONTROL small quantities of highly purified pentose nucleic acid. Vitamins.—Therapeutic tests with crystalline vitamin B12 on humans with pernicious anaemia showed clinical and haematologic improvement without the neurological disturbances which accompany the use of pteroylglutamic acid in these conditions. The haematopoetic effect of B12 given parenterally is much greater than by mouth, and the latter was found to be greatly increased by addition of normal human gastric juice. Apparently the intrinsic factor of gastric juice promotes merely the absorp¬ tion, rather than the formation of B12 from the extrinsic factor which is present in foods; in fact B12 may itself be the ex¬ trinsic factor. Thymidine (the desoxyriboside of thymine) was found to replace B12 as growth factor for several lactic acid bacteria. Since the former is required in greater amounts, it was suggested that the function of B12 may be to permit the conversion of thymine to thymidine, and that lack of this con¬ version may be the chemical defect in pernicious anaemia. The conversion of tryptophane into niacin in rats was found to depend upon the presence of vitamin Be, riboflavin and thia¬ min, since deficiency of any one of these three vitamins caused decreases in the urinary excretion of niacin metabolites (chiefly N-methylnicotinamide) of animals fed tryptophane. The ribo¬ flavin and pyridoxine deficient animals also showed increases in the excretion of xanthurenic acid, kynurenic acid and kynurenine, indicating that these two vitamins are probably concerned with the last stages of the tryptophane to niacin conversion, namely from kynurenine to niacin. Bg deficient rats also failed to show the increase in concentration of pyridine nu-cleotides of erythrocytes which is consistently observed with nonnal rats after intravenous injection of 50 mg. tryptophane; and this re¬ sponse in Be deficient rats was promptly restored by a pre¬ liminary subcutaneous injection of i mg. pyridoxine. Metabolism.—Dimethyl thetin (€113)2 —S — CH2COO", the sulphur ^nalogue of betaine, and dimethyl-/?-propriothetin (CH3)2 —S —CH2 —CH2C00“ were shown to be more effective than betaine or choline as methyl donors for methionine syn¬ thesis from homocysteine, both in the intact rat and in cell free liver extracts. They are also lipotropic and antikidney haemor¬ rhagic. Their great effectiveness suggests their normal bio¬ logical importance, although neither had been previously found in animal tissues. Among the steadily increasing number of papers on the use of isotopic compounds in the study of metabolism, may be men¬ tioned the selective distribution in different tissues of radio¬ activity following the administration of various amino acids labelled with Cu; the enzymatic synthesis of protein from la¬ belled amino acids in liver homogenates, the conversion of fatty acids to glucose, the conversion of glycine to serine, the incor¬ poration of adenine into nucleic acids, the utilization of CO2 in the synthesis of fatty acids. Parenterally administered uranium is localized chiefly in kid¬ ney and bone, americium in the liver and bone, plutonium chiefly in bone, with smaller amounts in liver, kidney and spleen. Uranium is excreted chiefly by the kidney, americium and plu¬ tonium by the intestine. From the soft tissues these elements are gradually eliminated during 30 to 60 days, but in bone no significant loss is noticed in many months, and the half period of retention is estimated to be at least two years. (See also Physiology; Vitamins.) Bibliography.-—Journal of Biological Chemistry, vols. 172—176 (Jan.Dee. 1948); Archives of Biochemistry, vols. 16-19 (Jan.-Dec. 1948); Biochem. J., vol. 42 (1948); Federation Proc., vol. 7 (1948); Science, vols. 107 and 108 (Jan. 2-Dec. 31, 1948). (M. E. H.)

Biography: Biology: see

American Literature; English Literature. Anthropology;

Biology; Physiology; Zoology.

Botany;

Genetics;

Marine

119

The first comprehensive program on re¬ search in human reproduction was begun during 1948. Nine studies were started on factors governing fertility control and problems of infertility in as many institu¬ tions throughout the country. They were recommended by the National Research council’s Committee on Human Reproduc¬ tion to the board of the National Committee on Maternal Health; funds were raised mainly by the Planned Parenthood Federation of America, one of the three collaborating organiza¬ tions. The dearth of scientific work in fertility control resulted in numerous applications for study of fields other than concep¬ tion control. Population.—The International Congress on Population and World Resources in Relation to the Family, held in Cheltenham, England, was an indication of the rising interest among scien¬ tists and the lay public in world population problems. Sir John Orr, former director of the World Food and Agricultural organi¬ zation told the congress, “If we cannot solve the problem of world resources in this century, we are heading for the greatest catastrophe in history . . . hungry people do not die quietly; and why should they?” Representatives from more than 20 countries participated. They were leaders in three fields: scien¬ tific and social inquiry, biological and medical research, and organizational activity in the promotion of planned parenthood. A provisional international committee was established with head¬ quarters in London. Its purpose was “to promote research and education for the furthering of human welfare through planned parenthood and progressive sex education.” Members were the national Planned Parenthood organizations of Great Britain, the Netherlands, Sweden and the United States, the only four na¬ tions where such agencies existed. Magazine Poll.—A poll of more than 3,000,000 women was conducted by Woman’s Home Companion. Three-fifths fa¬ voured making birth-control information available to all adults, and 97% of those polled approved birth-control measures for use by married women. Committee on Clinic Studies.—^A demonstration to evalu¬ ate the practical efficiency of simple existing contraceptive methods was developed in order to broaden the use of con¬ ception control in public health. The need for such a study was indicated by the small percentage (approximately 5%) of pa¬ tients attending pre- and postnatal public health clinics receiving conception-control information. It was found after an investigation by L. E. Kling, federation medical director, of clinics in Florida, Mississippi, North and South Carolina, Virginia, West Virginia, Georgia and Alabama that staffs were too overworked to give time to fitting and in¬ structing patients. Many patients did not know this service was available, since neither the public health nurse nor health edu¬ cator mentioned or encouraged it. A committee on clinic studies was appointed by the federa¬ tion’s Medical Executive committee. It was given the support of private physicians who agreed on the need to encourage practi¬ cal application of planned parenthood in public health. Massachusetts Birth-Control Referendum.—A birth-control referendum on the question of allowing physicians to prescribe contraceptives to married women whose health or life, in the judgment of the physician, required it, was defeated by 200,000 votes in the 1948 Massachusetts election.

Birth Control.

The measure, which aimed to place contraceptive advice in the hands of the medical profession, was endorsed by a majority of resident members of the Massachusetts Medical society and by more than 1,000 Protestant and Jewish clergymen. Four thou¬ sand volunteers in 300 local committees campaigned to repeal the state law. Organization.—The Planned Parenthood federation was in

120

BIRTH STATISTICS

1948 the national agency and clearinghouse for 15 state leagues and 166 local committees. The total number of birth-control clinics stood at 557. These services were in 242 public health clinics, 62 hospital clinics, 210 extramural clinics and 43 referral services. Of the 58 fertility clinics in the U.S. listed with the federation, 13 were under Planned Parenthood direction. (M. Sr.)

Dirth CtofJctinc Dirin wlallSlIbSi

witnessed a marked dedine in the number of births for the United States from the record high of 1947. According to pro¬ visional data for the first nine months, the birth rate showed a drop of 8% compared with the corresponding period of the previous year. For each of the first eight months the birth rate in. 1948 was lower than in 1947, but the estimated birth rate for Sept. 1948 was the second highest recorded for that month since the birth registration area was established in 1915. It was exceeded only by the September rate in the year 1946. The estimated number of births in the United States for the year 1947 amounted to 3,720,000, and the birth rate was 25.8 per 1,000 total population. The 1948 birth rate for Canada also was below that of 1947, according to data for cities of 10,000 or more, which indicated a decrease of about 5% for the first eight months. The total number of births in Canada during 1947 amounted to 358,709, with a rate of 28.6 per 1,000 total population. England and Wales also experienced a decline in the birth rate between 1947 and 1948; data showed a 14.1% decrease for the first ten months in the 126 great towns (including London). The re¬ ported number of births for all of England and Wales during the entire year 1947 was 886,799 with an accompanying birth rate of 20.5 per 1,000 total population. The effective reproduc¬ tion rate corresponding to the births which occurred in 1947 was provisionally assessed (after making allowance for a con¬ tinuing improvement in survivorship conditions) at 1.206, indi¬ cating that the births of 1947 were 21% in excess of those re¬ quired to maintain the population. This is the highest figure in more than a quarter of a century. This figure, however, is probably abnormal in that it includes the considerable tempo¬ rary element of births postponed from the war years. The table presents an international comparison of birth rates for the years 1945-47, with countries ranked according to the per cent change in their rates from 1945 to 1946, with an ac¬ companying comparison of the changes from 1946 to 1947. It will be seen that the rises in the birth rates that had been ex¬ perienced by most of the countries in 1945 to 1946 were not nearly so prevalent in 1946 to 1947, with a good number of countries showing a decline. In fact, many of the countries that had reported large increases in the birth rate in the year 1946 over 1945, suffered decreases in 1946 to 1947, as for example the Netherlands, Italy, Rumania, Norway and Belgium. At the top of the list of increases in birth rates from 1946 to 1947 were Japan, Austria and the United States, with gains of 37.5%, 17.0% and 10.7% respectively. With the exception of Japan, none of the countries showed an increase in 1947 over 1946 of the magnitude so common in the preceding consecutive years. England and Wales showed an increase of 7.3% which was less than half the increase recorded in the previous year. Of the English speaking countries Scotland ranked highest with a gain of 8.4%, Canada showed a rise of 6.3%, New Zealand 4.8% and Australia 1.7%. The birth rate for the white population of South Africa rose by only 0.7% compared mth a gain of 7.4% for the previous year. The slowing of the rates of in¬ crease, together with many additional countries showing a de¬ crease, tends to support the opinion of observers that postwar increases in the birth rate were the temporary effect of the

reunion of families subsequent to demobilization of the armed forces and that once this was over the birth rate would take a downward trend. Of those countries showing decreases in birth rates from 1946 to 1947 the Netherlands showed the greatest decline with a figure of 7.9%, followed by Bulgaria, Rumania and Denmark with losses of 6.2%, 5.9% and 5.6% respectively. Annual Birfh Rates per J ,000 Total Population in Certain Countries in 1945, J 946 and 1947

Country Netherlands. France. Italy.. Rumania. Scotland. Norway. United States. England and Wales * . . » Belgium. Czechoslovakia. Japan . Canada . Austria. Australia. New Zealand (excl. Maoris) . Finland.. South Africa (white) . . . . Bulgaria. Venezuela North Ireland. Eire. Hungory. Denmark. Switzerland . . ^ . Sweden. Chile. Portugal. Mexico .. Spain. Germany (British Zone). . .

1945

21.7 23.2

33.3

25.7 *

1946

1947

Per Cent Change from 1945 to 1946

30.2 20.6 22.5 23.8 20.3 22.5 23.3 19.1 18.3 22.2 25.3 26.9 15.9 23.6 25.2 27.7 26.9 25.6 38.4 22.6 22.9 18.1 23.4 20.0 19.6 32.3 25.0 42.5 21.4 16.2

27.8 21.0 21.7 22.4 22.0 21.6 25.8 20.5 17.8 23.8 34.8 28.6 18.6 24.0 26.4 27.4 27.1 24.0 39.5 23.3 23.1 18.4 22.1 19.3 18.9 33.8 23.9 45.1 21.3 15.7

-1-33.0 -1-27.2 -1-23.5 4-21.4 -1-20.1 -1-19.7 -1-18.9 -1-18.6 -1-16.8 -1-13.8 + 13.2 +11.8 + 9.7 + 8.7 + 8.6 + 7.6 + 7.4 + 6.6 + 4.6 + 2.7 + 1.8 — - 0.4 - 0.5 - 3.0 - 3.0 - 3.9 - 5.3 - 7.0 *

Per Cent Chonge from 1946 to 1947 - 7.9 + 1.9 - 3.6 - 5.9 + 8.4 - 4.0 + 10.7 + 7.3 - 2.7 + 7.2 +37.5 + 6.3 + 17.0 + 1.7 “f* 4,8 - 1.1 + 0.7 - 6.2 + 2.9 + 3.1 + 0.9 + 1.7 - 5.6 - 3.5 - 3.6 + 4.6 — 4.4 + 6.1 — 0.5 - 3.1

*Data not available.

A noteworthy feature of the birth rate in the United States has been the increase in the rate among women past the prime of reproductive life. This clearly represents a reversal of the marked downward trend which had been in evidence for many years. At ages 35 to 39, for example, the birth rate among white women in the United States rose more than one-third between 1939 and 1946, from 42 per 1,000 to 57, after having fallen steadily from about 80 per 1,000 in the period immediately fol¬ lowing World War I. {Statistical Bulletin of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., Oct. 1948). In 1946, the latest year of complete record for the United States available in 1948, the birth rate for the white population was 23.0 per 1,000, while that for the Negro population was 25.3 per 1,000. The proportion of births attended by physicians ranged from 99.4% for white births in cities of 100,000 or more to only 42.3% for Negro births in rural areas. Conversely, the proportion of births attended by midwives was at a minimum of 0.6% for white babies in cities of 25,000 or more, but at a maximum of 56.3% for Negro babies in rural areas. In relation to age of mother, the birth rate in the United States in 1946 was at its highest at ages 20-24 years for white women, the rate being 171 per 1,000 women of those ages; for Negro women the experience was similar, with the peak also at ages 20-24 years, and a corresponding rate of 174 per 1,000 women. Among the white women this represented a shift from 1945 when the peak rate had been recorded in the 25-29 age group, with a rate of 131 births per 1,000 women. {See also Census Data, U.S.) Bibliography.—United State Public Health Service, Vital Statistics— Special Reports (issued irregularly). Monthly Vital Statistics Bulletin and Annual Reports of Vital Statistics; Statistical Office of the United Nations, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics; Population Association of Amer¬ ica, Population Index (issued quarterly); Metropolitan Life Insurance Co., Statistical Bulletin (issued monthly). (A. J. Lo.)

BISMUTH —BOOK-COLLECTING AND BOOK PRICES Ri^milth

production of bismuth was estimated to have

IlidillUUli dropped from 1,870 short tons in 1942 to 1,000 tons in 1946, with recovery to 1,100 tons in 1947. The United States output was not reported, but was believed to amount to about one-half the total, with Peru, Mexico and Canada accounting for most of the remainder. During the years of World War II some bismuth ore was imported into the U.S. for treatment, but later imports were all metal. Imports declined from 422,300 lb. in 1946 to 310,600 lb. in 1947. Consumption was 1,330,300 lb. in 1946, with pharmaceuticals taking nearly two-thirds and al¬ loys one-third; other uses were minor. (G. A. Ro.)

Bizonia: see

European Recovery Program; Germany.

Blackett, Patrick Maynard Stuart

British p h y s icist, was bom on Nov. 18 and was educated at Osborne and Dartmouth Naval colleges. Afterward he went to Magdalene college, Cambridge, and later served with the navy (1914-18). From 1923-37 he held posts at King’s and Birkbeck colleges, London, and from 1937 was Langworthy professor of physics at Manchester. On Nov. 5, 1948, it was announced that he had been awarded the Nobel prize for physics. His main work in this field was the use he made of the cloud chamber invented by C. T. R. Wilson. By this device the tracks of swift atomic particles are made visible by trails of water drops; in 1925 his use of this method confirmed Lord Rutherford’s discovery that the nitrogen nucleus could be transformed by the impact of an alpha particle. His researches into cosmic rays resulted in the appearance of a paper in 1947 in which he contended that every large rotating body must be a magnet. His book The Military and Political Consequences of Atomic Energy was pub¬ lished in Oct. 1948.

Blood Plasma: see Medicine; Blue Cross: see Insurance.

Physiology.

Q_|j •

A land-locked republic in south central South America. Area: 416,040 sq.mi.; pop. (July i, 1947, est.): 3,854,000. The legal capital is Sucre (est. pop. 1946, 32,000); the actual seat of government is La Paz (est. pop., 301,000). Other major cities (with pop. estimates) include Cochabamba (80,000), Oruro (50,000), Potosi (40,000), Santa Cruz (32,800) and Tarija (27,000). Racial distribution is estimated to be 52.34% Indian, 27.5% mestizo, 13.08% white, 0.22% Negro and 6.85% unspecified. Religion is predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1948: Enrique Hertzog. History.—Politics continued on an unstable keel during 1948 as President Hertzog fought a two-front battle: rightist ele¬ ments persisted in abortive attempts to overthrow the govern¬ ment, and sectors of the president’s Socialist Republican party sought to frustrate his plans to maintain a multiparty cabinet. A state of siege was declared on Jan. 27, the government claim¬ ing that it had unearthed a plot to overthrow it. Felix Tavera, a former presidential candidate, was named as the leader of the conspiracy. Cabinet reorganizations occurred on Feb. 18 and on Aug. 10, the president retaining a coalition administration de¬ spite the demands of members of his own party for an all-

DDliVId*

Socialist Republican cabinet. A major crisis was met in October with the proclamation of a new state of siege. The opposition rightist M.N.R. (Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario) party, which had conducted a three-year chaotic despotism before it was bloodily overthrown in 1946, was held responsible for attempts to undermine the regime. Twelve leading M.N.R. members were arrested on Oct. 23 as President Hertzog reiterated his pledge to “maintain a

121

regime of liberty and democracy.” He described the emergency steps as “a warning to agitators that the government and the people will resist any violence they might provoke.” Twenty M.N.R. members accused of plotting a revolt were exiled. Education and Labour—The Institute of Inter-American Affairs an¬ nounced at Washington, D.C., that 36 Bolivians had received study grants in public health from the U.S. between July i, 1944, and Dec. 31, 1947Labour difficulties produced sporadic and widespread strikes in mid-1948, railroad, graphic arts and bus workers spearheading the stoppages. They had largely terminated by the end of September. Finance—The theoretical monetary unit is the gold peso, valued at 20.6 cents, U.S. currency. Most transactions, however, are conducted in bolivianos, worth 2.3 cents, U.S. currency, on April 28, 1948. On the basis of 1939 as 100, the cost-of-living index for 1946 was 275. Trade.—During 1947, U.S. exports to and imports from Bolivia were valued at $28,290,000 and $21,823,000, respectively. Under an agree¬ ment signed in January with the U.S. Reconstruction Finance corporation, Bolivian producers agreed to ship to the U.S. tin concentrates priced for the next two years at 90 cents per pound, representing a 14-cent increase over the 1946-47 figure. The pact covered the total 1948—49 production of all Bolivian companies which had participated in the 1946-47 con¬ tract. The sole exemption covered about 8,000 long tons of tin concen¬ trates to be used to fill outstanding Bolivian commitments to Argentina. Opposition to the policy of fixing the price of tin concentrates on a twoyear basis was expressed in several quarters, the Bolivian government suggesting in April a modus vivendi whereby the price would be subject to reconsideration once every three months. An agreement with the Madrid government signed on March 25 provided for the shipment during the next 30 years of 1,000 long tons of Bolivian rubber annually to Spain, at a price of $i per kilogram. Each country was to establish a noninterest credit of $1,000,000 to cover the shipments, and accounts were to be balanced yearly, the debtor nation exporting specified merchan¬ dise within six months of the accounting. Bolivia contracted in May for an Argentine loan of an estimated $150,480,000 to cover food purchased in Argentina. In June, the finance minister announced an agreement “in principle” with the Foreign Bondholders Protective council, providing for the servicing of Bolivia’s external debt of $134,000,000, of which ap¬ proximately $74,000,000 had been outstanding from 1931. Transportation.—The 240-mi. Corumba-San Jose railroad was inaugu¬ rated in August, giving Bolivia more effective use of the Brazilian At¬ lantic port of Santos. A U.S.-Bolivian air transport pact was announced in September. The Bolivian government placed all railroad and air-line workers under army rule in October, in order to head off a threatened transportation strike. Production.—The 1948 output of tin concentrates was expected to come to 36,000 long tons. The Camiri oil field, which went into production in 1946, was yielding 1,600 bbl. daily by Sept. 1948. The year’s wheat and potato crops were expected to be diminished seriously, because of a locust plague which struck early in the year. The government granted conces¬ sions in March to existing and new industries (excluding mining and petroleum, already covered by special provisions) to increase and diversify industrial production and to strengthen the national economy. The con¬ cessions included exemption from, or freezing or reduction of, import duties; preferential freight rates on national railroads; and credit and exchange facilities. An Industrial Development council was established as a government agency on April 5, and charged with responsibility for planning and co-ordinating industrial development, advising on industrial policy and handling questions dealing with raw materials. The Agricul¬ tural bank was authorized in June to purchase wheat, cotton, malt, hops and silk threads and yarns for national industries. The Bolivian Mining bank advanced in July credits up to an estimated $6,000,000 for the construction of a plant to concentrate tin ores to 60% purity. An International Industrial exposition opened at La Paz in October, com¬ memorating the 400th anniversary of the founding of the city. Total electric power production during 1947 was 84,000,000 kw.hr., or 0.72% of the Latin-American total; and the number of workers employed in manufacturing industries was estimated at 21,000, or 0.79% of the Latin-American aggregate. Bibliography.-—National Foreign Trade Council, Bolivian Business Developments: Conditions at the End of the First Quarter, 1^48 (1948); Foreign Commerce Weekly; Pan American Union, Bulletin (monthly) (G. 1. B.)

Bombing: see

Atomic Energy; Aviation, Military: Muni¬

tions OF War.

Bonaire: see Curasao. Bonds: see Stocks and

Bonds.

Book-Collecting and Book Prices.

called black mar¬ ket money which, through one channel or another reached the U.S. market, there had been practically no European competi¬ tion for literary properties offered for sale in the United States during the years of World War H. With the end of hostilities and the beginning of a more normal trade between the conti¬ nents, European buyers began to purchase in the rare book markets. In 1948, for the first time in almost a decade, literary material started to flow toward Europe rather than toward the United States. This condition was best exemplified in the highly successful sale in New York (Kende galleries, Dec. 7-8, 1948)

BOOK PU BUSHING

122

of the Cortlandt Field Bishop collection of French books and manuscripts; the sale was well-attended by European buyers and realized a total of more than $300,000. No small part of the collection, estimated by some authorities at no less than half, went to private and institutional collections in Europe. Publication of bibliographies and bibliophilic works continued. During the war years such publications were issued almost wholly in the U.S.; similar publications started to appear in Great Britain almost immediately at war’s end. During 1948 the following works, together with others of varying importance, were issued; Stephen Crane; A Bibliography by Ames W. Wil¬ liams and Vincent Starrett; A Bibliography of George Ade by Dorothy Ritter Russo; an extended revision of American Fic¬ tion, lyj^-iSso by Lyle H. Wright; Taste and Technique in Book-Collecting; A Study of Recent Developments in Great Britain and the United States by John Carter; Charles M. Rus¬ sell, The Cowboy Artist; A Bibliography by Karl Yost. The most important single publication was the three-volume Liter¬ ary History of the United States edited by a distinguished corps of scholars and published by the Macmillan company in New York. The third volume, wholly devoted to bibliography, was immediately acclaimed by bookmen. In the area of bibliophilic periodicals, the first number of The New Colophon: A Bookcollectors’ Quarterly was issued in January; and in the same month appeared the first issue of Antiquarian Bookman, published in New York as a weekly magazine for the antiquarian book trade. In November The Franklin D. Roosevelt Collectors’ association issued the first number of its semi-annual journal. The Franklin D. Roosevelt Collector. (J. Bk.)

MDiihliohinir UUIIolMllga

Title production in the United States was numerically higher in 1948 than in 1947, thus continuing a trend begun after World War II. Never¬ theless, there was a slowdown in the rate of increase as com¬ pared with the previous year. In 1948, there was a net increase of 715 titles over 1947 (only 8%), as compared with 1,447 (19%) in 1947 over the 1946 total. Fiction, with 323 fewer titles in 1948 than in 1947, suffered the greatest decrease of the year, while science, followed by medicine and hygiene, showed the greatest increase; publishers’ choices thus showed an in¬ creasing emphasis on factual publications. The five leading pub¬ lishing houses of the year were: Macmillan (with Cambridge University Press) (466); Doubleday (with Blue Ribbon Books, Garden City, Halcyon House, Sun Dial Press and Triangle Books) (369); Harper (with Hoeber) (245); McGraw-Hill (with Whittlesey House) (222); and Grosset and Dunlap (162). Best Sellers.—First on the 1948 list of fictional best sellers I

Publicafion of Books in the U.S., 1948 and 1947 1948

International classiOcation

New books

Agriculture, gardening . « Biography. Business. Domestic economy .... Education. Fiction. Fine Arts. Games, sports . General literature .... Geography, travel .... History. Juvenile. Law. Medicine, hygiene .... Music. Philology. Philosophy, ethics .... Poetry, drama. Religion, theology .... Science. Sociology, economics . . . Technical & military books . Miscellaneous ......

108 460 1 56 131 171 1,102 295 162 411 167 432 844 164 235 86 108 248 504 621 412 388 344 258

Total.

7,807

New editions

1947

Total

67 52 28 541 41 37 62 47 71 85 67 198 18 41 60 59 56 180 73 122 78

162 513 223 183 199 1,643 336 199 473 214 503 929 231 433 104 149 308 563 677 592 461 466 336

2,090

9,897

54 53

New books

New editions

Total

Net chonge

163 158 166 1,307 224 127 348 164 345 834 158 187 77 119 240 463 560 304 331 299 141

24 63 65 43 28 659 25 41 52 32 68 99 56 135 17 37 50 48 70 138 56 94 39

518 228 201 194 1,966 249 168 400 196 413 933 214 322 94 156 290 511 630 442 387 393 180

+65 -5 -5 -18 +5 -323 +87 +31 +73 + 18 +90 -4 + 17 + 111 + 10 -7 + 18 +52 +47 + 150 +74 +73 + 156

7,243

1,939

9,182

+715

73 455

97

was Lloyd C. Douglas’ Biblical novel. The Big Fisherman, with a U.S. bookstore sale of 366,692 copies (plus 21,000 in Canadian bookstores). This was followed by The Naked and the Dead, a war novel by Norman Mailer, which sold 137,185 copies through the bookstores (and an additional 60,000 in book club sales). Next highest on the fiction list, rated by bookstore sales alone, were; The Bishop’s Mantle, by Agnes Sligh Turnbull; Tomor¬ row Will Be Better, by Betty Smith; The Golden Hawk, by Frank G. Yerby; Raintree County, by Ross F. Lockridge; Shan¬ non’s Way, by A. J. Cronin; Pilgrim’s Inn, by Elizabeth Goudge; and The Young Lions, by Irwin Shaw. Three of the above were first novels {The Naked and the Dead, Raintree County and The Young Lions). Dwight D. Eisenhower’s Crusade in Europe was the best¬ selling nonfiction work of the year, although, like The Big Fish¬ erman, it appeared less than two months before the close of 1948; bookstore sales totalled 239,265 copies, and additional large numbers were sold through the book clubs. Second on the nonfiction list was Dale Carnegie’s How to Stop Worrying and Start Living, with a bookstore sale of 235,636; and third was J. L. Liebman’s Peace of Mind (with bookstore sales of 227,705), a best seller for three years running. In fourth place came Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, by A. C. Kinsey, W. B. Pomeroy and C. E. Martin, with bookstore sales of about 225,000. These were followed, in order, by: Wine, Women and Words, by Billy Rose; The Life and Times of the Shmoo, by A1 Capp (paper-bound); The Gathering Storm, by Winston Churchill; Roosevelt and Hopkins, by Robert E. Sherwood; A Guide to Confident Living, by Norman Vincent Peale; and The Plague and I, by Betty MacDonald. Leading best sellers, rated by total sales through all media, rather than bookstore sales alone, were; fiction—The Golden Hawk, Came a Cavalier (Frances Parkinson Keyes) and Yankee Pasha (Edison Marshall); and nonfiction—Crusade in Europe, The Goebbels Diaries and The Gathering Storm. (X.) Great Britain.—For British book publishing 1948 was a year of contradiction and paradox. Official statistics indicated that the volume of business done during the year would prove to be an all-time record, and the demand for certain kinds of books, notably technical and educational books, remained as far in excess of the available supply as it was during the book-famine years of World War H. The general book publisher, on the other hand, began to find, in striking contrast to the situation he had known during the previous few years, that it was easier now to manufacture a book than to sell it. The total sales for 1947 amounted to the record sum of £30,203,763, a figure approximately treble the average prewar an¬ nual total. During the first six months of 1948 the total book sales amounted to £15,412,520, compared with £13,370,661 for the corresponding period of 1947. From 1940 onward every book publisher’s main problem had been the shortage of raw materials, principally of paper. In 1948, however, each book publisher’s paper quota stood at 85% of his pre-1939 consumption. More serious in 1948 was the shortage of strawboards used for binding. It has been stated above that the volume of trade in 1947 was roughly three times what it was in 1939. Sales figures by themselves, however, must not be taken as an unquestionable indication of the trade’s prosperity. They do not take into con¬ sideration two factors which during the year caused grave anx¬ iety to the trade: rising costs and mounting output of titles. Before the war overproduction of new titles was recognized as being the bane of the book trade; and during 1948, when the weekly book list contained about 300 new titles, publishers and booksellers began to wonder whether the old nightmare was to repeat itself. In November the output for 1948 had already

BOOKS —BOTANY

ALFRED C. KINSEY (left), W. B. Pomeroy and C. E. Martin, authors of Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, a survey based on more than 5,000 interviews and a best-seller shortly after its pubiioation in Jan. 194S. The sorting machinery shown was used in tabulating data for the book

passed the 1947 total. During the war years, when a publisher knew before publi¬ cation that he would sell practically every copy of every title he manufactured, he could fix the' price accordingly. The result was that during those years the increase in prices bore no rela¬ tion to the increase in costs. Even in 1948 the price of books generally W'as not more than 50% above prewar levels, whereas costs had risen by at least 100% since 1939. The last published export sales statistics (referring to the trading period ended June 30, 1948) showed an annual export sales rate of nearly £8,500,000, as compared with the 1947 total of a little under £7,500,000 and a prewar figure of something more than £3,000,000. In order of importance the principal book trade export markets were: Australia, South Africa, India, U.S.A., New Zealand, British Africa, Scandinavia, Canada, Eire, the middle east, the Netherlands, central Europe, France, Ma¬ laya, South America, British West Indies, Belgium, Italy, Switz¬ erland, Asia, the Balkans, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Africa (non-British), Central America and Iceland. {See also Ameri¬ can Literature; English Literature; etc.) (E. Se.)

123

The city’s form of government (a strong mayor and a ward council of 22 members), effective from 1926, faced possible change at the close of 1948. Under a legislative act, one of three plans might be placed on the ballot during 1949 by the filing of petitions signed by 10% of the registered voters. Since only one plan may be considered at any election, the plan on which the necessary number of signatures were first certified by the election commissioners would be placed on the ballot. The present form was to continue if the proposed plan was defeated. The three plans were: (i) a mayor, a city council of nine, and a school committee of five, all elected at large with preliminary elections; (2) a city council of nine members, including a mayor elected from its number, a city manager and a school committee of five, with all elective bodies elected at large with preliminary elections and limited voting; (3) same as plan (2) except that elections would be by proportional representation. Five thousand parking meters were installed throughout the city under an authorization granted by the city council in 1947. The housing authority, at a cost of $10,000,000, completed the erection of 1,582 apartments for veterans in one- and twofamily houses. Plans for the erection of 1,618 multiple-dwell¬ ing apartments for veterans and involving the expenditure of another $10,000,000 were under way, and construction was ex¬ pected to start shortly. Under chapter 200, the legislature authorized the state housing board to guarantee the payment of the principal of, and interest on, notes or bonds to a total of $200,000,000 issued by local housing authorities for the construction of homes for veterans. The 1948 tax rate was $53.40 (1947—$46.50) on an assessed valuation (real and personal) of $1,581,994,000, an increase of $23,383,100. Budget: (city and county) $70,936,534.11, an in¬ crease of $9,133,860.29; schools $22,539,807.36, an increase of $2,864,672.37. School enrolment as of Sept. 1948 reflected a slight decrease from 1947. In the period January-October, bank clearings increased 2.6%, bank debits increased 5.6%, department store sales increased 3.4%, manufacturing employ¬ ment decreased 0.3%, manufacturers’ pay rolls increased 6.5%. (C. J. Fx.)

Rntonir ^ number of events of interest to botanists occurred DUldlljfi during 1948. Under the sponsorship of the United

DOSIOIIi

Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization, the International Institute of the Hylean Amazon was formally or¬ ganized with nine American and European nations adhering. The institute provides facilities for botanical and other scientific research dealing with the Hylean Amazon region of South Amer¬ ica. Under the auspices of the International Union of Biological Sciences, an International Department of Microscopic Prepara¬ tions of Cytology was set up in the Carnoy institute, Louvain, Belgium, with a botanist, P. Martens, as administrator. The American Institute of Biological Sciences was formally estab¬ lished in Washington, D.C., in February. It sponsored the an¬ nual meetings of a group of biological societies in Washington in September, including the Botanical Society of America and related botanical societies. Under the presidency of a botanist, E. W. Sinnott, the American Association for the Advancement of Science celebrated its centenary in Washington in September. The incoming president of the association, E. C. Stakman, was also a botanist. The Linnean medal of the Linnean society of London for 1948 was awarded to the eminent English botanist, Agnes Arbor. The eighth International Congress of Genetics, held in Stockholm, Sweden, in July, placed major emphasis

area of 43.9 sq.mi.

upon plant genetics. New techniques made possible rapid advances in botanical knowledge during the year. The use of radioactive isotopes as

Books: see under

Book Publishing;

Children’s Books;

see also

American Literature; English Literature; French

Literature;

etc.

Borneo: see

British Borneo; Netherlands Indies.

Dnrnn Kilinorolo United States output of boron minDUrDll IVIIIIBrdlOi erals made a new record high in 1947,with 501,935 short tons, a 17% advance over the previous record of 430,689 tons made in 1946, but with a sacrifice of 1% in boric acid content. The output includes borax, anhydrous sodium tetraborate, kernite, boric acid and colemanite, and all comes from California. Exports more than doubled after 1943, reach¬ ing 53,303 tons in 1946. Boron compounds are used in com¬ pounding enamels and glasses used in covering steel in refrig¬ erators, washing machines and similar products. (G. A. Ro.) D

♦ n

Boston, the capital of Massachusetts and the ninth city in the United States in population, is located on the Atlantic seaboard at the head of Massachusetts bay. It had a population of 770,816 by the 194° federal census and a land

124

BOWLING — BOXING

tracers greatly increased, thus extending the possibilities of an¬ alysis of the chemical processes occurring during plant metabo¬ lism. The phase contrast microscope began to play an impor¬ tant role in microscopic examination of living cells. The ingen¬ ious development of paper chromatography by R. Consden, A. H. Gordon and A. J. P. Martin was applied during the year to the quantitative determination of certain organic constituents in the various regions of the plant. Thus, new techniques continued to open up new fields of investigation. E. D. Merrill reported the discovery by Chinese scholars of a tree in China {Metasequoia) which had long been known from fossil material and had been considered extinct. Following this discovery, R. W. Chaney made a trip to China to study the genus and reported before the National Academy of Sciences in Washington on the extensive stands which he found there. G. Ledyard Stebbins, from a study of chromosomes and external characters, concluded that Metasequoia was probably ancestral to Sequoia sempervirens (redwood), having crossed with a now extinct species, the hybrid thus produced giving rise to the red¬ wood by a process involving increase in chromosome numbeij. Reports from experiments on the effect of atomic-bomb radiations on plants, carried out in connection with the Bikini test, were published. L. F. Randolph, A. E. Longley and Ching Hsuing-li reported on the effects of atomic radiation on chromo¬ some structure in maize. E. G. Anderson reported on the effect of such radiation on gene mutation rates, also in maize. Both reports indicate that the radiation from the Bikini bomb had an effect on chromosomes and genes comparable with an exposure of about 15,000 roentgens of X-rays. E. C. Stakman, T. M. Daly, M. L. Gattani and I. Wahl found it possible to induce hereditary variations in corn smut and the cultivated mushroom by adding uranium nitrate to the medium in which these fungi were grown. Radiations from the uranium salt were responsible for this increased mutation rate. W. L. Blake showed that the virus producing the destructive phloem necrosis disease in the American elm is carried by a leaf hopper, Scaphoideus luteolus. Otto Warburg reported new measurements of the exchange ratio of carbon dioxide and oxygen during photosynthesis, and determination of the quantum requirement of photosynthesis. He found that the exchange ratio remained constant from the beginning to the end of a long period of illumination. He was also able to confirm previous findings that photosynthesis re¬ quires a minimum of four light quanta per molecule of oxygen evolved. Certain new methods of growing or handling plants were de¬ veloped during the year. F. W. Went and Marcella Carter showed that tomato plants can absorb considerable amounts of sucrose through their leaves and are benefited by being sprinkled with sugar water. This can be done more effectively in the dark than in the light. High temperatures also increase the effect. Harry Humfeld described the successful growth of the mycelium of the common edible mushroom in liquid medium. Such a medium may prove of commercial value as a substitute for com¬ post. Louis G. Nickell was able to graft a plant on an entirely unrelated plant. Clover was successfully grafted on sunflower, tobacco and geranium; cowpeas were grafted on tomatoes, and tomatoes on geranium. The scion is inserted into the pith of the stock, there being no contact between cambium of scion and stock. Vascular tissue then develops in the pith of the stock connecting the graft to its vascular system. A. Gustafsson and J. MacKey applied mustard gas and fast neutrons to barley and found that both were effective in pro¬ ducing mutations. A 0.01% solution of nitrogen mustard ap¬ plied to dormant seeds for 40 min. was equal to 1,200 roentgens of X-rays in ability to produce mutations. Both mustard gas

and neutrons produced effects which differed in some respects from X-rays, thus suggesting that they may be used to advan¬ tage in mutational work with agricultural plants. {See also Biochemistry; Genetics; Palaeontology.)

New journals in 1948: Hydrobiologia, The Hague, the Nether¬ lands; Physiologia Plantarum, Copenhagen, Denmark. New books: Freedom jrom Want, edited by E. E. DeTurck; The Genus Crepis, by E. B. Babcock; William Bartram’s Trav¬ els, edited by Mark Van Doren; Water in the Physiology of Plants, by A. S. Crafts; Growth of Plants, by William Crocker; Plants and Environment, by Rexford Daubenmire; Diseases of Field Crops, by J. G. Diclj:son; Soilless Growth of Plants, by Carleton Ellis and M. W. Swaney; Photosyftthesis, by James Franck; The Study of Plant Communities, by Henry J. Costing. Bibliography.—Nature; Science; American Journal of Botany; Hereditas; Proceedings, National Academy of Sciences; Biological Abstracts. Films.—Growth of Flowers (Coronet Instructional Films).

(R. E. Cd.)

Arboretums and Botanical Gardens.—A 227-ac. estate, known as Hidden Lake garden, at Tipton, Mich., was given to Michigan State college, E. Lansing, by Harry A. Fee for use as an arboretum and possibly also for experimental work. The University of Washington arboretum at Seattle, Wash., was con¬ tinuing in 1948 its extensive rhododendron glen, which, when completed, would hold the most complete living collection of rhododendrons in North America. The Los Angeles State and County arboretum in California was established during 1948. A board of trustees was elected with F. W. Went as chairman, and Frans Verdoorn, formerly editor of Chronica Botanica of Waltham, Mass., was appointed the first director. The city of Denver, Colo., was also taking initial steps pre¬ paratory to the formation of an arboretum. The large Coe estate of Glen Head, L.I., N.Y., was given to the state of New York and was to be eventually operated as an arboretum by that state. {See also Horticulture.) (D. Wn.) RnU/linff Varipapa, trick shot specialist from HempDUWIIIigi stead, N.Y., was voted “bowler of the year” by sports writers for his feats of winning the national match game championship and teaming with Lou Campi, Dumont, N.J., to win the national doubles title. Val Vikiel of Detroit, Mich., w'as acclaimed the nation’s No. i woman bowler. Lincoln Protich of Akron, 0., won the coveted singles of the American Bowling congress with a 256-233-232—721. James Towns and William Sweeney brought Chicago the doubles crown with a 1,361 total. Ned Day of West Allis, Wis., five times match game singles titlist, won his first American Bowling congress championship by taking the all-events with 1,979. Washington Shirts of Chi¬ cago won the team title with 3,007 to 3,002 for Cavoli Res¬ taurant of Cleveland. Knudten Paints of Milwaukee, Wis., won the team Ai-events crown with 9,181. Paul Krumske of Chi¬ cago, scoring 1,130 for five games, won the National Bowling Journal championship held in conjunction with the A.B.C. at Detroit. Women’s international congress champions were: All-events —Virginia Hupfer, Burlington, la.; singles—Shirlee Wernecke, Chicago; doubles, Margaret Cass, Alhambra, Calif., and Merle Matthews, Long Beach, Calif.; team—Kathryn Creme Pact, Chicago. (M. P. W.) RnYinff ^948, boxing felt the pinch of changing times. DUAIIIg. Attendances fell off. There were no $1,000,000 gates. Indeed, one promoter was forced to call off a show because of lack of patronage. Another went through with a promotion al¬ though less than 500 fans were present. A loss of more than

BOXING

MARCEL CERDAN of France (right) and Tony Zale, U.S. title-holder, in their bout for the world middleweight championship at Jersey City, N.J., Sept. 21, 194S. Zale lost by a technical knockout after 11 rounds

$40,000 was reported on a championship bout promotion, while with another, promoters failed to make money on gate receipts grossing more than $300,000. Television was blamed for the drop in attendance. Agitation grew for prohibiting telecasts of bouts or for an increase in charge for the privilege. The New York Boxing Managers’ guild early in the year declared a boycott of Madison Square Garden boxing until contracts were revised to give boxers part of the television income in addition to their regular purses. Con¬ tracts were adjusted accordingly. Television interests merged with the Tournament of Champions, Inc., in New York city, for participation in boxing promotion. A plan was announced for acquisition of a plant with a capacity of between 4,500 and 5,000 spectators where television interests would conduct their own bouts. The Columbia Broadcasting system. Music Corporation of America and Allied Syndicates, Inc., were associated with the Tournament of Champions, Inc., in this enterprise. An alarming number of accidents, an unusual number of ring fatalities and a scarcity of topnotch boxing talent in all eight standard ring divisions contributed to the decline of the sport during 1948. The accidents and fatalities led to a tightening of regulations and supervision. The National Boxing association revised its rules to make it mandatory for a boxer suffering a knockdown to take an eight-second count, regardless of his condition. In his nth year as the most active heavyweight champion in the history of the ring, Joe Louis waded through his 25th de¬ fense of the world heav}wyeight championship. He knocked out

125

Jersey Joe Walcott, Camden, N.J., Negro, in the nth round of a scheduled 15-round bout at the Yankee Stadium, New York city, June 25. This bout enabled Louis to square accounts with Walcott for a bout the preceding December in which the cham¬ pion won a much-criticized decision. Louis pulled victory out of threatened defeat when he knocked out Walcott, for the voting slips of three officials of the bout had Walcott leading on points when the end came. The fight attracted 42,667 fans and re¬ ceipts of $841,739, the year’s high in box-office returns. Louis announced his retirement following the Walcott bout, but subse¬ quently announced he had reconsidered and would defend the title once more if a suitable challenger came along. Titles changed hands in the light-heavyweight, middleweight, featherweight and flyweight divisions. The middleweight title was twice transferred. Tony Zale, Gary, Ind., regained it when he knocked out Rocky Graziano, New York, in the third round at Ruppert Stadium, Newark, N.J., June 10, in a bout under the auspices of the Tournament of Champions, Inc. Zale held the championship only until Sept. 21, when Marcel Cerdan, of Casablanca, French Morocco, defeated him in a bout at Roose¬ velt Stadium, Jersey City, N.J., under Tournament of Cham¬ pions auspices. Zale collapsed as the nth round ended, and in accordance with New Jersey boxing regulations, was counted out in his corner in the 12th round. Busiest of the champions was Ike Williams, Trenton, N.J., Negro, who held the world lightweight title. He boxed seven times, including three successful defenses of his title. He won a 13-round decision over Enrique Bolanos, California challenger, May 25 at Los Angeles, Calif. On July 12, Williams scored a technical knock-out over Beau Jack, Augusta, Ga., a former

126

BOY SCOUTS —BRADLEY, OMAR NELSON

champion, in the sixth round at Shibe park, Philadelphia, Pa. In his third defense. Sept. 23 at Yankee Stadium, New York, Williams knocked out Jesse Flores, California Mexican, in the tenth round. His three title defenses in a year were unprecedented in the ranks of lightweight champions. Ray Robinson, New York Negro, retained his world welter¬ weight title by winning a 15-round decision over Bernard Docusen. New Orleans, La., at Comiskey park, Chicago, June 28. Robinson, incidentally, won a ten-round decision over Kid Gavilan, Cuban, in a nonchampionship co-feature on the Williams-Flores card Sept. 23, but was otherwise a disappointment. Claiming illness, he withdrew from matches in Buffalo, N.Y., and Jersey City, N.J. Gus Lesnevich, Cliffside Park, N.J., retained the world lightheavyweight title March 5 when he knocked out Billy Fox, Philadelphia, in the first round at Madison Square Garden, New York. But the title passed to Freddie Mills, Bournemouth, England, July 26, when the latter won a 15-round decision over Lesnevich to become the first Briton to hold this title ^since 1903. The biggest boxing promotion in London in a decade, the bout drew 46,000 fans and receipts of about $300,000. Willie Pep, Hartford, Conn., lost his world featherweight title in one of the two defenses he undertook. Pep knocked out Humberto Sierra, Cuban, in the tenth round at Miami’s Orange Bowl, Feb. 24. On Oct. 29 in Madison Square Garden, Sandy Saddler, New York Negro, knocked out Pep in the fourth round, to become champion. The result furnished a big upset. It was the first time Pep had been knocked out; indeed, it was only his second defeat in 137 ring engagements. In the bantamweight ranks Manuel Ortiz, El Centro, Calif., made his i8th defense of the world title by knocking out Memo Valero, Mexican champion, in the eighth round at Mexicali, Mex., July 5. On March 23, John Joseph (Rinty) Monaghan, the “Irish Crooner,” knocked out Jackie Paterson, Scotland, in the seventh round at Belfast, Northern Ireland, to become world flyweight champion. In the boxing events of the Olympic Games (q.v.), London, Eng., in the summer of 1948, South Africa won the team title and added two individual crowns when Gerry Dreyer won the lightweight, and George Hunter the light-heavyweight honours. Argentina won two titles: Pascuel Perez the flyweight, and Rafael Iglesias the heavyweight. Hungary was another country to collect- two individual titles, through Tibor Csik, bantam¬ weight, and Laszlo Papp, middleweight. Italy won the feather¬ weight title with Ernesto Formenti, and Czechoslovakia the welterweight title with Julius Torma. New York’s eight-man squad won the team title in the Ama¬ teur Athletic union’s national tournament, a three-night affair in early April which attracted 168 boxers from 29 sections of the United States. Victories by Coley Wallace in the heavyweight, Raymond Bryan in the middleweight, and Bill Morgan in the bantamweight classes brought New York the title. In the Eastern Collegiate championships at Charlottesville, Va., on March 13, the University of Virginia equalled an alltime record of winning six individual championships, and tied the 30-point mark set in 1943 by Syracuse university. A novel feature of Virginia’s triumph was the contribution of three Marigliotta brothers from Charleston, W.Va. Each won a title, Jimmy at 135 lb., Basil at 145 and Joe, the eldest, at 158 lb. The Citadel of Charleston, S.C., won the Southern Conference team title. For the fourth straight year the University of Wis¬ consin’s boxers won the National Collegiate Athletic association team title in the annual championships conducted April 3 at Madison, Wis. (J. P. D.)

RnU ^nniltC

DUy OlfUUlOa

theme for 1948 for the Boy Scouts of America was “The Scout Citizen at Work.”

Scout activities throughout the year centred on this theme. In February during the annual Boy Scout week a dramatic pres¬ entation was made to President Harry S. Truman. This was the “Report to the Nation” on the service of scouts to their communities as recorded throughout the entire country. This service included everything from ushering at charity entertain¬ ments to aiding blood banks, making traffic surveys, planting trees, giving first aid to human beings and to animals and col¬ lecting millions of pounds of food for the hungry. The report was presented to President Truman by 12 eagle scouts repre¬ senting every region. These scouts then presented a report to the United Nations at Lake Success on service to scouting abroad. The 38th annual meeting of the National council was held on May 19 and 20 in Seattle, Wash. The appointment of Dr. Arthur A. Schuck as chief scout executive was announced. Dr. Elbert K. Fretwell, who previously held that office, was elected chief scout. Dr. James E. West, first chief scout executive, who served for 33 years, died on May 15. Throughout the year scout troops conducted more extended camping activities than ever before. At the 127,000-ac. scout ranch Philmont, Cimarron, N.M., three programs were offered for experienced campers, consisting of from five to six days of pioneer treks, horseback adventure and exploration projects. Several hundred scouts from all over the country took part. The realigned requirements for advancement in cub scouting and boy scouting were effective and proved popular. The new editions of the cub scout books profusely illustrated in colour were produced. The fifth edition of the Handbook for Boys, with new text and illustrations based on the new requirements, was issued in May. Before the end of the year 400,000 copies were in use. The National Court of Honor made a total of 87 awards. Of these 16 were gold lifesaving medals; 8 medals of merit for extraordinary conduct were awarded. There was an increase of membership over the previous year. Oct. 31 figures showed the following: total boys, 1,545,916; total leaders, 542,141; grand total membership, 2,119,669; total units, 69,019(L. W. Ba.) Great Britain and Europe.—In the United Kingdom the 1948 census revealed a total active boy scout membership of 446,202, an increase of 31,060 over the previous year. Mem¬ bership was also increasing in the Commonwealth and empire, where 58 different associations were registered with imperial headquarters. The year 1948 marked the 40th anniversary of the movement, founded in 1908 by Robert (later Lord) Baden-Powell. This was celebrated throughout the country by scout weeks, rallies, demonstrations and other events. In accordance with a decision made by all scout countries to try to mobilize the moral strength inherent in the vast body of men who had been scouts, the B.-P. Guild of Old Scouts was formed in Great Britain, with the duke of Edinburgh as its patron. National camps at which scouts from many countries were represented were held in Iceland, Norway, Luxembourg and Switzerland. At the Olympic Games, about 500 scouts per¬ formed a large variety of duties, acting as messengers, markers, standard bearers, ferrymen and signallers. In October the asso¬ ciation held a highly successful national conference at Filey, Yorks., England. (E. G. W. W.)

Bradley, Omar Nelson llfrom „i’cl": Mo., and was graduated in 1915 from the U.S. Military academy

BRANNAN. CHARLES FRANKLIN —BRAZIL at West Point, N.Y. He rose to the rank of major of infantry in World War I, and later was graduated from the Infantry school (1925), the Command and General Staff school (1929) and the Army War college (1934). He taught at West Point until 1938 when he reported to Washington, D.C., for general staff duty. In 1943 he was given command of the 2nd corps in Africa, which he led to victory at Bizerte and later in Sicily, and was subsequently placed in command of the U.S. ground forces for the invasion of Europe. As commander of the 12th U.S. army group, he commanded more than 1,300,000 combat troops—the largest body of U.S. soldiers ever to serve under a single field commander. In the spring of 1945, after his armies had smashed the German winter counteroffensive and broken through the Siegfried line, Bradley was made a full general. By the close of the war in Europe his forces had overrun a large part of Germany. On Aug. 15, 1945, he became administrator of veterans’ affairs, and left that position on Dec. i, 1947, to familiarize himself with army problems before taking on new duties as chief of staff. He succeeded General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower as chief of staff of the army on Feb. 7, 1948.

Brannan, Charles Franklin

tary of agriculture, was born on Aug. 23 in Denver, Colo. He was graduated from the University of Denver law school in 1929, practised law in Den¬ ver until 193s, and in that year became assistant regional attor¬ ney in the Resettlement administration. From 1937 to 1941 he was regional attorney in the department of agriculture’s office of the solicitor, and as such aided in the formation of irrigation districts and other co-operative agricultural projects. From Nov. 1941 to April 1944 he was regional director of the Farm Se¬ curity administration in the states of Colorado, Wyoming and Montana. He was named assistant secretary of agriculture in June 1944. He was agricultural adviser to the U.S. delegation at the San Francisco conference which set up the organization of the United Nations in 1945, and adviser to the U.S. delegate to the U.N. Economic and Social council. He became secretary of agriculture in June 1948, to succeed former Secretary Clin¬ ton P. Anderson, who had resigned. CHILD POLIO VICTIM in Brazil resting on the terrace of the state-supported Hospital das Clinicas at Sao Paulo in 1948. A 300-bed orthopaedic hospital is shown in the background, under construction

T27

A republic in eastern and central South America, ■ Brazil is the largest of the Latin American nations. Language: Portuguese; religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. Capital: Rio de Janeiro (est. pop. 1947, 2,052,672); president in 1948: Gen. Eurico Gaspar Dutra. Brazil’s area of 3,286,170 sq.mi. is second only to that of Canada in the western hemisphere; it covers very nearly half of South America. The population (1940 census: 41,570,341) was estimated at 48,000,000 as of Dec. 31, 1947. Three-fourths of this population is concentrated in an area along the coast, where the principal cities are located. The population as shown by the 1940 census was: Brazilianborn 39,822,487; naturalized 122,735; foreign-born 1,283,833; nationality unknown 7,260. Among the foreign-born residents, the countries of origin and numbers were approximately: 354,000 Portugal, 285,000 Italy, 148,000 Spain, 141,000 Japan, 71,000 Germany, 41,000 Poland and 245,000 of other countries. Among the Brazilian-born population, about one-half was of European stock; the remainder included 8,800,000 mulattoes, 6,000,000 Negroes, 5,500,000 Indians and mestizos and 250,000 Asiatics. Political History.—An interparty accord for co-operation with the legislative program of President Dutra’s administration was signed Jan. 22, 1948, by leaders of the National Democratic union, the Social Democratic party, and the Republican party. This was considered a decisive victory for Pres. Dutra who thus was assured of continued support from the major middle-class and conservative interests. The communist influence in the country suffered another blow when the bill for the annulment of the mandates of communist congressmen became law on Jan. 8. (The Brazilian communist party, reorganized in 1945, had been declared illegal in May 1947). The constitutionality of the new law was upheld two days later by the federal supreme court. At about the same time the police closed once more the offices of the communist paper, Imprensa Popular, in Rio. In April a number of known communist partisans were jailed as responsible for an explosion which occurred in a military depot near the capital and which caused the death of at least 34 persons and the wounding of 200 to 300 persons. As a result, a rising wave of anticommunist feeling was noticed throughout the country. In response to this sentiment. Pres. Dutra sent a special message to the congress

128

BRAZIL

(April 23), strongly urging the immediate passage of laws enabling him to insure the security of the state both internally and externally. A bill for the defense of the state was intro¬ duced and approved by congress despite a storm of protests from those who felt that the new law was similar to the hated security decrees adopted during the Vargas regime. The recurrence of some pro-Vargas sentiment was noticed in certain parts of the country and among certain social groups, as preliminary political skirmishes took place in anticipation of the presidential elections to be held in Sept. 1950. At the end of the year the president expressed unwillingness to stand for reelection. In its foreign policy Brazil showed an increasing tendency to support the western powers, coupled with a rising feeling of growing prestige as a “middle power” within the framework of the United Nations. In inter-American affairs Brazil continued to pursue its traditional policy of co-operation in all efforts to promote the peace and the prosperity of the continent. On Aug. 22 Pres. Dutra met with Pres. Enrique Hertzog of Bolivia, at the frontier between the two countries, to inaugurate a new sec¬ tion of the Corumba railroad, which was being jointly con¬ structed by the two governments under an agreement of Feb. 25, 1938. Another distinguished visitor was Pres. Luis Batlle Berres, of Uruguay. During the latter’s stay in the Brazilian capital (Sept. 2-9) several agreements were signed between the two countries, including a treaty on arbitration and judicial settlement of disputes, a treaty on extradition and a protocol to the convention to encourage tourism signed at Montevideo, Uruguay, on Dec. 20, 1933. The commission appointed to study the question of the change of the capital presented its report to Pres. Dutra on Aug. 12. The commission selected an area of some 30,000 sq.mi. in the southeastern region of the state of Goiaz. Further action was pending in Congress at the close of the year. {See also Inter¬ national Conference of American States.) Education.—According to the 1940 census, 43.6% of the population 18 years of age and over could read and write. In 1946 there were 47,047 primary schools with 99,611 teachers and 3,738,253 registered students. Other schools, according to available information (1944) were: 1,23s secondary schools with 18,133 teachers and 221,199 students; 2,495 professional schools and universities with 16,394 teachers and 159,908 students; and 2,93s other schools with 13,870 teachers and 217,408 stu¬ dents. Finance—The cruzeiro, the monetary unit of the country (expressed as Cr.$i.oo), sold in the official market during 1948 at Cr.$i8.so per U.S. dollar. By government regulation this rate could not oscillate more than 10% without previous approval of the International Monetary fund. In the free market the cruzeiro sold at between Cr.$2 2.6o and Cr.$2S.oo per U.S. dollar. Exchange rate: i cruzeiro=;s.44o6 cents. The struggle against inflation continued as the basis of the government’s economic policy. The federal budget for the year 1948 estimated expenditures at Cr.$14,596,000,000 and the revenues at Cr.$14,597,000,000, anticipating a surplus of about Cr.$t,000,000. At the end of the year it was an¬ nounced that the government planned to issue bonds of more than Cr. $1,000,000,000, representing the unpaid obligations of the last three fiscal years. A bill increasing the salaries of civil service personnel and the armed forces was approved by congress and partially vetoed by the president in November. Another bill increasing the salaries of members of congress was passed by the chamber in December and sent to the senate for consideration. The 1949 budget approved by congress antici¬ pated a deficit of about Cr.$1,130,000,000. A five-year plan was under consideration with a view to promote na¬ tional health, food production, and the development of means of trans¬ portation and power production. The plan called for the expenditure of more than Cr.$17,000,000,000 during the five-year period of 1949-

1953The gold reserves of the country were estimated at Cr.$6,403,ooo,ooo at the end of 1948. Trade—During the first six months of 1948 Brazil exported goods val¬ ued at Cr.$9,736,690,000 and imported goods valued at Cr.$12,057,451,000 which left a deficit of Cr.$2,32o,76i,ooo. The principal export items were: coffee (Cr.$4,o34,75i,ooo), raw cot¬ ton (Cr.$1,358,029,000), vegetable raw materials, including Carnauba wax, fibres, oleaginous fruits, timber, vegetable oils and resins (Cr. $1,288,042,000), manufactured goods (Cr.$472,293,000), rice (Cr.$432,146,000), cocoa beans (Cr.$389,56T,ooo), sugar (Cr.$305,402,ooo) and minerals (Cr.$207,786,000). The volume of coffee exported in¬ creased from 6,550,393 bags of 132 lb. each in 1947, to 7,851,146 bags in 1948. The exports of raw cotton decreased from 158,418 tons in the first six months of 1947 to 111,216 tons in the similar period in 1948.

The United States continued to be the principal customer for Brazilian products and the largest exporter of manufactured goods to that country. Brazil exported to the U.S. in the first six months of 1948, goods valued at Cr.$4,280,342,000 (as against Cr.$3,571,731,000 in the same period in 1947), and imported goods from the U.S. valued at Cr.$6,232,286,000 (as against a total of Cr.$7,335,139,000 in the same period in 1947). Other important customers of Brazil were Great Britain. Argentina, the Benelux countries and Italy. The textile exports which in the first six months of 194 7 reached a total of 8,310 tons valued at Cr.$737,6oo,ooo, declined in the same period of 1948 to 4,343 tons valued at Cr.$363,200,000. The 193s trade agreement with the U.S. was declared inoperative as of July 21, 1948, by proclamation of Pres. Dutra. Communications—There were about 22,000 mi. of railroad track in operation and about 38,000 mi. of surface roads and 124,000 mi. of common roads in 1945. During 1948 some 400 locomotives were pur¬ chased abroad including 103 from France. There were plans for re¬ equipping and expanding all the railways, calling for the expenditure of some Cr.$20,000,000,000. It was estimated that the country had about 290,000 automobiles at the end of 1948, including passenger cars and trucks. In 1945, 12 aviation companies operated about 70,000 mi. of routes. The country had about 100 airports in service. At the end of the year the Export-Import bank announced a loan of $8,278,000 (U.S.) for a power expansion program in Brazil, including 12 subsidiaries of the American and Foreign Power Co. This sum was to supplement another $25,000,000 put up by the companies for the purchase of power and transportation equipment. Agriculture.—The t948 coffee crop was estimated at 15,755,000 bags of 132 Ib., each, the state of Sao Paulo contributing 9,570,000 bags of the total. The 1947 crop had been larger by about 882,000 bags. The disease known as “broca” continued to destroy large numbers of coffee plants. The federal government took steps to combat this disease by financing the purchase of mechanical sprayers and spray drugs to be distributed throughout the coffee-producing states. It was estimated that as much as 14% of the crop was being lost every year due to the disease. Sugar production in 1948 was estimated at about 23,000,000 bags of 132 lb. each. Because of adverse weather conditions the cocoa bean har¬ vest was only 1,150,000 bags. The average annual production had been 2,200,000 bags. The, total value of animal products in 1945 was estimated at Cr. $6,906,459,000. Livestock production continued high in 1948, although scarcity of meats was still being felt in the large cities of the coastal region. Manufacturing—Brazil’s textile industry, which was in a critical con¬ dition during most of 1947, showed evidences of partial recovery during 1948. The export embargo on cotton and rayon textiles was relaxed in April 1947. The three important Sao Paulo rayon-producing companies, Industrias Reunidas Matarazzo, Companhia Nitro-Quimica, and Companhia Brasileira Rhodiaceta, were planning to double their facilities. The Volta Redonda steel mills had been completed and were in full operation. The use of Brazilian coal in the mills had increased from 30% in 1946 to 50% in 1948. The rest was imported. Some steel was exported to Argentina. During the first six months of the year 1948 the total production was 208,242 metric tons valued at Cr.$263,704,200. Mineral Production.—In 1946 the total mineral output of the country was estimated at Cr.$2,285,936,000, including iron ore, manganese, coal, oil and other important minerals such as beryllium, watch jewels, indus¬ trial diamonds, mica, monazite, quartz, tantalite, tungsten, zircon and rutile. It was estimated that alDout 900,000 sq.mi. of Brazilian territory were potentially oil-producing. Exploratory work continued in many areas. A newly discovered field in the state of Bahia produced four good Area and Population of Slates and Territories of Brazil, 7 947 (Latest estimates available as published by the Institute Brasileiro de Geografia e Estatistico) State or territory North Acre (terr.). Amozonos. Rio Branco (terr.). Para. Amapa (terr.). Guapore (terr.). Northeast Maranhao. Piaui. Ceara. Rio Grande do Norte. Paroiba. Pernambuco. Alagoas. Fernando de Noronha (terr.) . . , , , East Sergipe . . *.. Bohia. Minas Gerais.. (Serra dos Aimores)*. Espirito Santo. Rio de Janeiro (state). Distrito Federal. South Sao Paulo. Parana . , Santa Catarina. Rio Grande do Sul. Central-West Goiaz.... Mato Grosso.

Area (sq. mi.)

Pop. (Dec. 31, 1947)

Capital

92,814 492,908 14,010 1,074,062 25,082 24,696

Rio Branco Manaus Boa Vista Belem Macapa Porto Velho

1,437,185 951,322 2,433,027 893,630 1,654,901 3,126,660 1,106,888 1,251

Sao Luis Teresina Fortaleza Natal

631,025 4,558,933 7,838,179 77 0.^1 872,790 2,150,080 2,052,672

Aracaju Salvador Belo Horizonte

8,365,359 1,438,473 1,371,061 3,863,799

Sao Paulo Curitiba Florianopolis Porto Alegre

961,577 489,665

Recife

Niteroi Rio de Janeiro

Goidnio Cuiaba *Area in dispute between the states of Minas Gerais and Espirito Santo.

BREAD AND BAKERY PRODUCTS—BREWING AND BEER wells. Drilling operations in government oil fields in that state amounted to 72,73s ft. in 1947- The government purchased four refineries from France, the U.S. and Czechoslovakia. The largest of these refineries, with a capacity of 45,000 barrels daily, was to be installed at Belem, near the mouth of^ the Amazon river. The others were to be installed in Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo and Bahia. The government also announced negotiations to purchase ten tankers with a total capacity of about 170,000 tons. Coal production was increasing. The total output in 1946 was 1,995,878 tons, mostly in the states of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul. {See also Argentina.) Bibliography. American Chamber of Commerce of Brazil, Brazilian Business Magazine, monthly (Rio de Janeiro); Conjuntura Economica, monthly, pub. by Fundagao Getulio Vargas (Rio de Janeiro); Brazilian Bulletin, monthly, Brazilian Government Trade Bureau; International Reference Service, Office of International Trade, U.S. Department of Commerce. p’p; ^

Bread and Bakery Products. fnltyrttS States, in collaboration with the milling industry and the gov¬ ernment, continued vigorously its program to define and stand¬ ardize bread and its most important ingredient, flour, in order to safeguard the integrity of these basic foods. As a result of public hearings before the Food and Drug administration, the federal standards for flour were modified, with a view to elimi¬ nating the Agene process for the economical, artificial maturing of flour, a subject much discussed within industry circles dur¬ ing the previous year. No evidence was obtained of any kind to indicate any deleterious effects of Agenized flour on human be¬ ings, as a result of intensive feeding experiments which were financed by industry. However, the industries involved requested the government to prohibit the use of nitrogen trichloride (used in the Agene process) as an optional bleaching agent for flour, because of the reports of harmful effects produced in some species of animals when fed for long periods of time large amounts of flour that had been heavily treated with nitrogen trichloride. As a result of this request, which was supported by evidence introduced at the hearings held in Washington, D.C., and attended by observers of the Canadian and British govern¬ ments, the Food and Drug administration issued an order to that effect, so that the public might be assured that bleached flour and products made from it were entirely wholesome and nourishing in every respect. Beginning on Nov. 30, 1948, and continuing into 1949, a pub¬ lic hearing for the consideration of evidence about definitions and standards for bread and related products was also resumed under the auspices of the Food and Drug administration. Considerable scientific interest was expressed by bakers in the United States, Australia, England and other countries about various proposed bread ingredients that had been found to make a softer loaf of bread which remained soft for several days. Studies of a number of these substances by W. B. Bradley anji by R. J. Sumner and J. B. Thompson revealed that none of them had the property of retarding the rate of staling of bread. In the United States the baking industry (which continued to enjoy an appreciable volume of business amounting, according to unofficial estimates, to approximately $3,000,000,000 worth of manufactured products during the year 1948) launched an industry-wide program to make the eating properties, conveni¬ ence, economy and nutritive value of bakery products better known to consumers. During 1948 two states, Massachusetts and Rhode Island, enacted state enrichment legislation, bringing to 23 the number of states of the United States which required the enrichment with vitamins and iron of all family flour, white bread and rolls commercially produced or sold in those states. About 80% of all the flour and bread produced in the United States during 1948 was nutritionally improved by enrichment with thiamin, riboflavin, niacin and iron, according to a statement by the Journal of the American Medical Association. {See also Flour.) Bibliography.—Food and Drug Administration, “Proposals to Amend

129

the Definitions and Standards of Identity for Flour, etc.,” Docket No. FDC-21 (c) (1948); Food and Drug Administration, “A Definition and Standard of Identity for Each of the Following Foods: (A) Bread and Rolls or Buns, etc.,” Docket No. FDC-31 (b) (1948); W. B. Bradley, “Bread Softeners,” Proceedings of the 24th annual meeting, American Society of Bakery Engineers, pp. 53-59 (1948); R. J. Sumner and J. B. Thompson, “The Effect of Various Surface Active Agents upon the Staling of Bread as Measured by Crumb Compressibility and by De¬ velopment of Crumbliness,” Proceedings, 33rd annual meeting, American Association of Cereal Chemists (May 28, 1948); Editorial, “The Nutri¬ tional Contributions, of Wheat,” J.A.M.A., 138:972 (Nov. 27, 1948). (F. C. Bg.)

RrPU/inff Jinrl Rpor

characterized by a tendency toward greater stabiliza¬ tion of the brewing industry in the United States. After 1935, when 756 brewing units were under federal licence, there had been a falling off of the number of plants, although production of beer and ale was on a gradual rise. By 1946, the number had dropped to 471. The number of units during the fiscal year 1948 stood at 469.

DlCWlllg uilU UwCIi

As in other industries, basic costs for the brewers reached an all-time peak during 1948. Taxes remained the biggest factor, averaging $10 per barrel; in Louisiana, where the state tax was raised to $10, the combined federal and state tax was $18 per barrel. Labour costs were about $4 per barrel and raw ingredients about $3.50, making a combined total of about $17.50 per barrel for the three items in the average brewing centre. It was estimated that brewers’ purchases of farm prod¬ ucts totalled more than $300,000,000 for the year. Packaged beer sales reached a new high during fiscal 1948, accounting for 68.4% of all malt beverage sales, and reflecting an expanded consumption of beer or ale in the home. This was a continuance of a trend that had been evident from 1935. In 1934 and before prohibition, draught beer outsold packaged by three to one. On Nov. I, 1947, brewers put into effect a voluntary agree¬ ment to reduce the usage of corn and totally eliminate the usage of wheat and table grade rice in the production of beer and ale. This self-imposed restriction was in co-operation with the president’s food conservation program, designed to free more grain for export to Europe and alleviate the famine situa¬ tion there. On June 30, 1948, the secretary of agriculture, in a telegram to all members of the brewing industry, announced the termination of this agreement. Gains for Legal Sale.—Sale of beer and ale is legal in all states, but under local option some of the counties, towns and townships in many of the states may impose local prohibition. During 1948, there was a definite trend toward legal sale in many areas that were formerly dry. The trend was indicated in mid-September when a number of Maine towns changed from a dry to a legal sale status. This trend was underscored in the November elections, notably by the results in Kansas, where the voters decided to repeal the state’s 68-year-old dry law which, from 1937, had applied only to intoxicating bever¬ ages and not to beer. Antiprohibition sentiment w^as shown in eight other states in the November elections, notably in Wash¬ ington, where a measure that would have restricted beer sales to state liquor stores was defeated three to one, and in South Dakota, where a proposal was defeated to divorce food sales from alcohol beverages sales. By-Products.—The brewing process extracts only a portion of the nutrients in the raw grains. The brewing industry each year returns about 35% of the original grains to the farms in the form of protein-rich feed concentrates. They are highly regarded as an ingredient in cattle feed, particularly dairy cattle, because of the high protein content. Many cattle feed rations contain 400 lbs. of brewers’ grains in a ton of feed. The other important by-product is brewers’ yeast, the richestknown natural source of vitamins of the B complex, containing

130

BRIDGE. CONTRACT—BRIDGES

between 40% and 50% of high-grade protein. This was sup¬ plied in increasing quantity in the years 1942-48 both as a human nutrient and as a protein and vitamin supplementary feed for livestock and poultry to provide a balanced ration. The demand for brewers’ yeast had been steadily and slowly on the increase. Moderation and Law Enforcement.—Close co-operation between brewers, wholesalers and retailers continued to be an integral part of the brewing industry’s self-regulation program, which had its tenth anniversary in June 1948. This program, sponsored by the United States Brewers foundation, whose members produce approximately 90% of the nation’s beer and ale output, is an educational one, designed to promote modera¬ tion and sobriety and to maintain wholesome conditions wher¬ ever malt beverages are sold under licence. The program has a two-fold objective: (i) to educate beer retailers on the prac¬ tical benefits of maintaining wholesome premises and observing all laws; and (2) to educate the public, as well as public offi¬ cials, on the economic and social values of the legal sale of beer. During 1948, Iowa and South Dakota were added to the list of states in which this program was in operation, bringing the total to 19 states. Sales Records.—Following are the sales records in U.S. barrels (31 gal.) by fiscal years ending June 30: 1933 (85 days), 6,277,728; 1934, 32,266,039; 1935, 42,228,831; 1936, 48,759,840; 1937, 55,391,960; 1938, 53,926,018; 1939, 51,816,874; 1940, 53,014,230; 1941, 52,799,181; 1942, 60,856,219; 1943, 68,636,434; 1944, 76,969,764; 1945, 79,590,598; 1946, 81,286,821; 1947, 82,629,441; 1948, 86,992,795. Taxes.—Federal excise and special taxes on beer and ale for the fiscal year 1948 totalled $701,119,310, bringing the cumu¬ lative total since relegalization in 1933 to $6,139,809,992. State and local taxes and licence fees in 1948 were estimated at $200,000,000, raising the cumulative figure for that revenue to about $2,075,000,000. From April 7, 1933, the date of relegalization, the combined public revenue from malt beverages approximated $8,214,000,000. Beer and ale were in 1948 taxed at $8 per barrel, con¬ trasted with the federal tax of $i per barrel from 1902 to 1914. {See also Liquors, Alcoholic.) (E. V. Lh.)

Bridge, Contract: Driflfroe

DllUguO.

see

Contract Bridge.

world’s longest spans of the various types built up to 1949 are listed in the following table: World*s Longest Spans by Type of Bridge

Type Cable Suspension Transporter Bridge Cantilever Steel Arch Eyebar Suspension Concrete Arch Continuous Truss Simple Truss Continuous Girder Vertical Lift Wichert Truss Swing Span Tubular Girder Timber Span Bascule Masonry Arch Single Leaf Bascule Concrete Girder ^Railroad bridge.

Location

Bridge Golden Gate fSky Ride *Quebec Kill van Kull *Floriano polls Sando Dubuque ^Metropolis Cologne *Cape Cod Canal Homestead *Fort Madison *Britannia fWettingen *5ault Ste. Marie Plauen *16th Street Villeneove

San Francisco Chicago Canada New York Brazil Sweden Mississippi river Ohio river Rhine river Massachusetts Pittsburgh Mississippi river Menai straits Switzeriond Michigan Saxony Chicago Seine river

Year Completed 1937 1933 1917 1931 1926 1943 1943 1917 1948 1935 1937 1927 1850 1758 1914 1903 1919 1939

Span 4,200 ft. 1,850 1,800 1,652 1,114 866 845 720 605 544 533'/j 525 460 390 336 295 260 256

fNot standing.

United States.—Plans were announced in 1948 for the pro¬ posed Liberty bridge to span the Narrows at the entrance to New York harbour between Brooklyn and Staten Island with the unpVecedented span length of 4,620 ft. and an under¬ clearance height of 237 ft., at an estimated cost of $75,000,000. The Triborough Bridge authority of New York city filed appli¬

cation with the U.S. department of the army for official ap¬ proval of the plans. Preliminary plans were completed in 1948 for a new suspen¬ sion bridge of 1,700-ft. main span to be built by the New York State Bridge authority across the Hudson river between Kings¬ ton and Rhinecliff, estimated to cost $14,000,000. Plans were authorized in 1948 for the reconstruction and modernization of the suspended structure and the approaches of the famous old Brooklyn bridge (completed 1883), includ¬ ing increase of traffic capacity from the original two lanes to six modern highway lanes, at an estimated cost of $5,100,000. Reconstruction of the Tacoma Narrows bridge near Tacoma, Wash., was finally commenced in 1948 following conclusion of long-pending negotiations to finance the $14,000,000 bond issue. Following the sale of the bonds, the State Toll Bridge authority accepted the prior low bids totalling $11,194,585 for the steel¬ work and cables. The four-lane suspension bridge replaces the two-lane structure which was completed on July i, 1940, and which was destroyed by aerodynamic oscillations on Nov. 7, 1940. The new bridge utilizes the original piers, with a main span of 2,800 ft. Construction was commenced in 1948 on the Delaware River Memorial bridge (suspension type) near Wilmington, Del. Re¬ versing a previous adverse decision, the Delaware state high¬ way department awarded an $11,401,000 contract for the sub¬ structure after accepting a financing offer for the $40,000,000 bridge bonds. A pnique design was adopted in 1948 for the proposed $6,500,000 bridge over the York river at historic Yorktown, Va. Two 500-ft. swing bridges, used in tandem, provide a 450-ft. clear central opening when both spans are swung. The effect is analogous to that of a double-leaf bascule, with horizontal instead of vertical motion and with the balance provided by symmetrical construction instead of counterweights. The Peace River bridge in Alaska, a $4,000,000 suspension bridge completed during World War II (1943) with a main span of 930 ft., required two emergency operations in 1947-48. Canadian army and civilian engineers worked under seven feet of ice during the winter of 1947 to build a steel cofferdam to save the structure. The swift flood waters had undermined one of the 250-ft. towers and caused it to lean 14 in. out of line. The engineers’ race was against both water and ice. If the spring thaw broke the ice before the cofferdam was in place to stop further erosion, the huge blocks of ice threatened to knock the pier off its foundations. The race was won when the last piece of steel was sunk into the river bed a few days before the thaw. To complete the work, 1,000 cu.yd. of concrete were then placed to reinforce the leaning tower. The other repair operation on the Peace River bridge was necessitated by the continued fatigue-breaking of wires result¬ ing from aerodynamic vibrations of the individual strands of the open-type cables. Most of the wire breaks occurred dur¬ ing the winter when temperatures were as low as 20° to 70° below zero. The same condition also developed on the Liard River bridge (543-ft. span) on the Alaska highway. Cable clamps of wood spacer blocks were installed midway between suspenders, eliminating the vibrations and the breaking of the wires. Construction progressed in 1948 on the new $7,000,000 bridge over the Potomac river at the foot of Fourteenth street, Washington, D.C. The crossing consists of 165-ft. plate girder spans and a los-ft. double-leaf bascule span at the main channel. The $14,000,000 freeway linking the U.S. naval installations of Terminal Island with the mainland section of Long Beach, Calif., was completed and dedicated in Jan. 1948. The six-

BRIDGES lane bridge, 700 ft. long, has a 240-ft. vertical lift span with underclearance of 50 ft. when lowered and 175 ft. when raised. The $2,000,000 Harvard Street bridge over the Illinois river at Peoria, Ill., completed in 1948, is a three-span cantilever highway bridge. The $6,500,000 Raymond E. Baldwin bridge carrying U.S. route I across the Connecticut river between Old Lyme and Old Saybrook, Conn., was scheduled for completion in Dec. 1948. It is a high-level structure, 2,450 ft. long. The new bridge over the Chesapeake and Delaware ship canal at Chesapeake City, Md., under construction during 194748, has a 540-ft. span tied steel arch. It was to replace a 260-ft. lift span bridge, completely wrecked by a freighter in 1942, and eliminate a temporary ferry costing $250,000 per year. Construction was commenced in 1948 on the $2,500,000 Ken¬ nebec^ river toll bridge at Augusta, Me. The bridge is 2,092 ft. long, carried on ii spans including 5 deck arch trusses up to 350-ft. long. A multiple-span suspension footbridge constructed in 1947-48 over the Delaware river between Lumberville, Pa., and Raven Rock, N.J., is of a new suspension type, using a wire rope cable system for the stiffening. The bridge consists of four and one-half spans for a total suspended length of 688 ft. The concrete walkway, with reinforcing prestressed in both direc¬ tions, spans the nine-foot width between cables without any supporting floor beams. A concrete highway bridge completed 1948 in Niles Canyon, Calif., is of unusual design, consisting of single columns carry¬ ing a concrete box girder which in turn supports a curved bridge deck 26 ft. wide. The bridge is 1,000 ft. long, with more than half of this length on a curve of 750-ft. radius, which necessi¬ tated an 11% superelevation of the deck. The channel cross¬ ing consists of six 8ii-ft. spans. The total cost of the bridge, including approaches, was only $450,000. With only nine hours interruption of rail traffic, an old bridge was jacked up on rollers and moved aside and a new 162-ft. deck girder span, completely shop-riveted, was swung into position (1948) for the Sheboygan river crossing of the

T31

way traffic. The weight is only 40% of an equivalent steel span. The 140-ft. centre span (weighing 90 tons) of No. 2 war emergency bridge across the Thames, which was never used, was lifted on the incoming tide by means of trestles built on barges and towed ashore to be dismantled for use over a trib¬ utary of the Zambesi river in Africa to carry a new road link¬ ing the capitals of Northern and Southern Rhodesia. The first prestressed concrete cast-in-place highway bridge built in England is the new Nunn’s bridge over Hob Hole drain at Fishtoft near Boston, Lines., completed in 1948. It has a span of 74 ft., with an 8-in. roadway slab on 43-in. concrete deck girder beams. It replaced the old Nunn’s bridge built by John Rennie about 1810 as a three-span brick arch. Germany.—A new world’s record for the longest plate girder span was established in 1948 by the completion of the new highway bridge over the Rhine between Cologne and Deutz. It is a steel plate girder bridge of hollow box-section with three continuous spans of 302.5 ft., 605 ft. and 302.5 ft., erected upon the piers of the war-wrecked suspension bridge of 605-ft. span (built 1915 and demolished in 1945). The arching girder depth is 25 ft. at the piers and 10 ft. at mid-span. The deck girder construction was adopted in order to retain an unob¬ structed view of the famous old cathedral in Cologne. A con¬ tinuous girder bridge of slightly longer main span was scheduled to be built over the Rhine at Bonn. A new Mangfall River bridge was built between 1945 and 1948 over a deep valley in the foothills of the Bavarian Alps.

Chicago and North Western railway at Sheboygan, Wis. The new bridge weighs 140 tons and required five cars for shipment. The new Yazoo River bridge on U.S. highway 61, built by the Mississippi state highway department in 1948, is a con¬ ventional continuous truss with spans of 270 ft., 324 ft. and 270 ft. The $2,000,000 Liberty Bend bridge northeast of Kansas City, Mo., was completed in 1948. It is a two-span continuous truss bridge and approach spans, carrying U.S. highway 71 on a by¬ pass around the city. The bridge was erected over dry land, with plans for a fl^-mi. bend in the Missouri river to be straight¬ ened out in 1949 to cause it to flow beneath the bridge. Canada.—Construction was commenced in 1948 on the world’s first all-aluminum highway bridge, a 504-ft. structure including a deck arch span of 290 ft. carrying a concrete road¬ way 24 ft. wide, over the Saguenay river at Arvida, Que. The bridge is designed to carry a loading of 20-ton trucks. In addi¬ tion to reduced maintenance costs resulting from the noncor¬ rosive character of the metal, the use of aluminum in this bridge was figured to save 400,000 lb. in weight over a com¬ parable steel structure, resulting in lower freight rates, sim¬ plified foundation work and easier erection. The bridge hand railings and the approach pylons are also of aluminum. England.—^The world’s first movable-span bridge of struc¬ tural aluminum was completed in 1948 for a crossing of the River Wear at Sunderland, near Newcastle, England. The bridge is a twin-leaf trunnion bascule of 121-ft. clear span, 18 ft. wide, carrying a standard gauge railway track and high¬

WRECKAGE of the Cologne-Deutz bridge over the Rhine river in Germany was still being removed as new girders replaced them on the same piers. Compieted in 194S, the new bridge was the longest plate girder span in the world

132

BRITISH BORNEO — BRITISH COLUMBIA

It is a continuous truss bridge with spans of 270 ft., 330 ft. and 270 ft. on two hollow reinforced concrete piers 210 ft. high. Because of the shortage of timber and of skilled labour, the bridge floor was made of prefabricated reinforced concrete beams, cast 33 at a time and compacted by a method using 1,500 blows of a pile driver delivered to a rocking platform. From the wreckage of two double-track railroad bridges, aligned 105 ft. apart over the Rhine river at Diisseldorf, Ger¬ many, one bridge was reconstructed (1947-48) in its original state. Each of the bridges consisted of four 335-ft. spandrelbraced two-hinged arch spans. One of the dropped central spans and an undamaged end span of the south bridge were used to replace the two wrecked central spans of the north bridge. The operations involved the lifting and moving of spans weighing 1,000 tons each over falsework 85 ft. high. To meet postwar reconstruction needs, a new type of bridge was developed by German bridge engineers. Characterized as a Mitteltrdgerbrucke or middle support bridge, it uses only a single main carrying member—a truss, an arch rib or a cable— located on the centreline, with the roadways cantilevering out at either side. The advantages claimed are substantial savings in steel and foundations, automatic separation of opposing lanes of traffic and elimination of outer lines of framework obstructing vision. The first middle support bridge (a 330-ft. span with a central truss) was scheduled for construction in 1949 across the Ostertal river in the southwestern part (French zone) of Germany. France.—In France the most significant development in post¬ war bridge construction was the extensive use of prestressed concrete girder bridges. More than 20 of these bridges were under construction in 1947 and 1948. The most important sin¬ gle prestressed concrete bridge was that at Luzancy over the Marne (1947), whose span of 181 ft. set a new record; piano wire reinforcing was used. Another bold bridge in France under construction in 194748 was the Rhone bridge at Vienne. This is a 3S4-ft. barrel arch; its central 207-ft. section has a rise of less than i in 12. Dead-load stresses were induced in this unusual construction by hydraulic jacks inserted in the crown. The Longeray viaduct, carrying a single-track railroad line over the upper Rhone river in France and destroyed by war¬ time demolition, was rebuilt (1947) in spectacular fashion in reinforced concrete. Three concrete girders, 9.5 ft. high and 21 ft. wide, of 189 ft., 224 ft. and 175 ft. lengths, rest on high concrete piers and arches, all of hollow rectangular section. Hungary.—In Budapest, the Arpad bridge over the Danube, begun before World War II, was completed in 1948. It is a series of continuous steel girders, of which the longest span is 340 ft. The deck area (second in size only to the Storstrommen bridge in Denmark) is 90 ft. wide and 3,000 ft. long. Vierendeel cross frames carry the deck and provide the bridge with un¬ usual lateral rigidity. Portugal.—The Portuguese government let a contract in 1948 to Dorman, Long and Co., Ltd., British builders, to bridge the River Tagus, 20 mi. above Lisbon, with a $4,800,000 struc¬ ture comprising five 340-ft., steel arch spans. Italy .—In Italy, the century-old stone and brick viaduct of Desenzano, wrecked during World War II, was rebuilt in 1947 as a series of sixteen 57-ft. span concrete rigid frames resting on the stubs of the old stone piers. The viaduct is 100 ft. high and 900 ft. long. Iraq.—The first railway bridge ever to be built across the Tigris river was under construction in 1948 for the Iraq State railways at Baghdad, to give direct access from Basra to Kirkuk. The total length of the bridge and viaduct is 7,104 ft, and the length of the multispan river crossing is 1,509 ft.

(See also Roads and Highways.) [The author is grateful to the editors of Engineering NewsRecord for much useful information which is incorporated in this article.] (D. B. S.) British territories in Borneo consist of the colonies of North Borneo (including the island of Labuan) and Sarawak, and the protected state of Brunei. Areas; North Borneo, 29,417 sq.mi.; Sarawak c. 50,000 sq.mi.; Brunei 2,226 sq.mi. Populations: North Borneo (1947 est.) 330,000; Sarawak (1947 census) 546,361, including 692 Europeans, 145,119 Chinese and 395,429 indigenous; Brunei (1947 census) 40,670. Chief towns: North Borneo: Jesselton (cap. 26,158) and Sandakan (33,131); Sarawak: Kuching (cap. 37,949). Languages: various, Malay serving as a lingua franca. Religions: Moslem and pagan. North Borneo is administered by a governor, appointed by the British crown, assisted by an executive committee of 5 official and 4 unofficial members (the latter comprising i European, 2 Chinese and i Malay); there is also an advisory council of 3 ex-officio and 18 nominated members. Sarawak is administered by a governor, appointed by the British crown, assisted by a supreme council and a Council Negri (with powers roughly equivalent to those of an executive and a legislative council) the Council Negri consists of 10 official and 30 unofficial members. In Brunei supreme authority is vested in the sultan in council; the council consists of the sultan as president, the British resident and ten other members; the general functions of administration are carried out by the British resident; in 1948 the governor of Sarawak was appointed as high commissioner for Brunei. Governors: North Borneo, E. F. Twining; Sarawak, Sir Charles Arden Clarke. British resident, Brunei: W. J. Peel. History.—All three territories were still engaged during 1948 in the reconstruction work necessary after the Japanese occupa¬ tion, though plans were being made for and the initial steps taken toward fresh developments. North Borneo, which suffered most and has least natural resources, published a Reconstruction and Development plan, 1948-55; emphasis lay on increasing the productivity of the country. The colony’s grant of £625,000 under the Colonial Development and Welfare act was appor¬ tioned as to 24% for communications, 42% for productive serv¬ ices, 26% for social services and 8% for miscellaneous expendi¬ ture. The plan involved the expenditure of a further £2,812,287, which it was proposed to raise by loan and to spend on revenueproducing schemes. In Sarawak a fisheries survey scheme was put into operation: a grant of 408,000 Straits dollars from the Colonial Development and Welfare fund for a new air strip at Kuching was approved. (See also British Empire; Nether¬ lands Indies.) (Jo. A. Hn.)

British Borneo.

Finance anc) Trade.—Currency: Straits dollar, though Sarawak and British North Borneo currencies were still legal tender; Straits $1=25. /^d. =46.99 cents U.S. Revenues; North Borneo (est. 1947), Str. $5,055,762; Sarawak (revised est. 1947), Str. $12,318,383; Brunei (est. 1948), Str. $5,259,650. Expenditure: North Borneo (est. 1947), recurrent Str. $4,893,45s, extraordinary and special Str. $4,267,177; Sarawak (revised est. 1947), Str. $11,312,961; Brunei (est. 1948), Str. $4,741,360. Imports (1947): North Borneo, Str. $20,471,707; Sarawak, Str. $72,254,705; Brunei, Str. $16,229,715. Exports (1947): North Borneo, Str. $16,932,627; Sarawak, Str. $103,138,575; Brunei, Str. $31,079,709. Principal exports; North Borneo—rubber (Str. $11,250,247 in 1947); Sarawak— rubber, crude oil, diesel oil and sago flour; Brunei—crude oil and rubber. The only industry of importance is the oil refinery at Miri in Sarawak, and in assessing Sarawak’s import and export figures it must be borne in mind that all Brunei’s crude oil (to the value of Str. $29,541,206 in 1947) is pumped to this refinery and later re-exported.

Dntlch rnliimhio

westerly of the DllllSn uOIUIiIUIQi nine Canadian provinces, British Co¬

lumbia borders on the Pacific ocean and lies between the 49th and 60th parallels and has an area of some 366,255 sq.mi., including Queen Charlotte and Vancouver Islands, and includ-

133

BRITISH EAST AFRICA ing 6,976 sq.mi. of water. The population, on June i, 1948, was estimated to be 1,082,000 (1941 census, 817,861). At the time of the 1941 census approximately 70% of British Columbia’s population was of British origin. In 1948 approximately 78% of the total popula¬ tion resided in the southwestern corner—the lower Fraser val¬ ley and Vancouver Island regions. The principal ports and chief urban centres are Greater Vancouver (1941 pop., 351,491), Greater Victoria (75,218), the capital, and New Westminster (21,697). It was estimated in 1948 that the population of Greater Vancouver was 500,000, Greater Victoria, 103,000, Greater New Westminster, 45,000. Urban dwellers numbered 443i394 and rural dwellers 374,467 at the time of the 1941 census. History.—Measures passed by the third session of the 21st parliament of British Columbia included: an act to provide for the establishment of hospital insurance and financial aid to hos¬ pitals ; the British Columbia Loan act, enabling the government to borrow $5,000,000 to be used in the construction of high¬ ways, bridges, etc.; and the Social Security and Municipal Aid Tax act, to provide for the imposition and collection of a tax on the purchase and use of tangible personal property to pro¬ vide funds for social security and municipal aid. In January, a five-man permanent labour relations board was appointed to' study labour problems and relations in British Columbia. In April, revisions were made in the benefits to widows and children receiving compensation under the Workmen’s Com¬ pensation act; the widows’ allowances were raised from $40 to $50 per month and dependents’ allowances were raised from $10 to $12.50 per month. In July Premier Byron I. Johnson announced that mothers’ allowances and social allowances would be increased 15%. Approximately 400,000 ac. of land was surveyed by the land utilization and research division of the department of lands. In late May and early June, floods of major proportions took place along the lower Fraser river and also along parts of the Columbia river. Damage was estimated to run as high as $50,000,000. A special flood-emergency session of the legislature was held July 7 to July 9. Collections under the new 3% sales tax commenced on July i. It was estimated that the tax would yield well over $12,000,000 in its first year of operation. Collection of premiums under the new Hospital Insurance plan commenced in October with participants becoming insur¬ able Jan. I, 1949. At the close of 1948, members of the provincial executive council, or cabinet, and their portfolios were: Byron I. John¬ son, premier and president of the executive council; H. Anscomb, finance; G. S. Pearson, provincial secretary, health

Economic Activity in British Columbia, 1946-48 Preliminary Estimates

Unit

1946

1947

$ $ $ $ $ $ $

11 8,588,777 13,926,000 14,722,000 20,1 80,000 34,828,572 28,738,000 6,194,205

1 34,508,400 18,531,000 1 9,890,000 25,588,000 33,652,900 30,488,000 6,358,500

130,000,000

43,817,147 1,348,137

58,764,950 1,527,135

65,000,000 1,315,000

173,471,370 3,193,665 342,754

282,288,388 4,187,816 410,994

350,000,000 4,600,000

71,807,951 23,489,335 21,143,086 6,220,470 4,797,602

1 13,221,254 41,884,977 30,147,039 8,587,380 8,715,455

1 40,000,000

271.9 221.5

314.6 250.6

340.0 280.0

228.2 8,171,456

264.3 9,904,060

295.0 9,905,000

2,820,1 18

3,011,763

3,382,046

61,233 5,367,594 166.6 403,162

59,090 6,564,000 193.7 490,000

80,000 7,000,000 203.4 520,000

AGRICULTURE: Total value of production Livestock. Poultry products . . Dairy products , . . Fruits and vegetables Field crops .... Miscellaneous . . .

19,500,000 20,000,000 25,000,000 32,000,000 28,000,000 5,500,000

FISHERIES: Total value of production Pack of canned salmon

$ cases

FORESTRY: Total value of production Timber scaled . . . Paper production . .

$ M.B.M. ton

MINING: Total value of production Lead • .. Zinc. Coal. Gold.

$ $ $ $ $

INTERNAL TRADE; Index of wholesale sales 1935-39 = 100 Index of retail sales . 1935-39=100 Index of retail department stores. 1935-39 = 100 ton Railway freight loaded Consumption of electric power. 000 kw. hr. Construction, building permits. $000 Bank debits. $000 1926=100 Index of employment . $000 Salaries and wages paid

were surfaced; 9,795 mi. were improved earth; 2,636 mi. were unimproved earth roads. Railway mileage in 1946 amounted to 3,886 mi. of single track. During 1947 approximately 4,876,930 tons of cargo were loaded at British Co¬ lumbia ports for foreign countries while 2,283,806 tons of cargo from foreign countries were unloaded at local ports. In the same year the total number of telephones was 193,092, including 66,197 on automatic switch¬ boards. Manufacturing, Agriculture, Mineral Production.—Preliminary statistics for 1948 indicated that British Columbia’s industries showed increases in the net values of production over the previous all-time highs established during 1947. (G. T. H.)

The term is used to cover Kenya (colony and protectorate), Uganda (protectorate), Tanganyika (under United Kingdom trustee¬ ship), Zanzibar (protectorate) and British Somaliland (pro¬ tectorate). Kenya: area 224,960 sq.mi.; pop. (1948 est.) 4,209,300; capital, Nairobi. .Uganda: area 93,981 sq.mi.; pop. (1948 est.) 4,012,200; capital, Entebbe. Tanganyika: area 362,688 sq.mi.; pop. (1948 est.) 5,656,400; capital, Dar es Salaam. Zanzibar (which includes the islands both of Zanzibar and Pemba): area 1,020 sq.mi. (Zanzibar Island 640 sq.mi.);

British East Africa.

pop. (1947 est.) Zanzibar Island 750,000, Pemba 100,000; cap¬ ital, Zanzibar (town). Somaliland: area 67,936 sq.mi.; pop. (1947 est.) 700,000; capital, Berbera. Many different languages are spoken, but the dialect commonly known as Swahili (a mix¬

and welfare; E. C. Carson, public works;, E. T. Kenney, lands and forests; W. T. Straith, education; F. Putnam, agriculture;

ture of Arabic, Persian and various African tongues) is used to some extent as a lingua franca throughout the whole region.

G. S. Wismer, attorney general and labour; R. C. MacDonald,

Each of the territories, except Zanzibar, is administered by a governor, appointed by the British crown, assisted by an execu¬

mines, municipal affairs; L. H. Eyres, railways, trade and industry, fisheries. Education.—During the school year ending June 30, 1947, 137,837 students were enrolled in the elementary (95,987), junior high (24,318), superior (2,515), and high (15,007) schools of the province. Teaching staffs comprised 3,170 teachers in elementary, 963 in the junior high and 700 teachers in superior and high schools. Higher education is provided by the University of British Columbia, a provincially endowed institution, and two teacher training schools located in Vancouver and Victoria. Finance.—In the third session of the 21st legislative assembly (March 2-April 28, 1948) Herbert Anscomb, minister of finance, reported rev¬ enue collected during the fiscal year ended March 31, 1947, amounted to $56,817,945; expenditures had been $46,315,294; the net debt at Dec. 31, 1947, was $122,406,187, or some $10,242,377 less than at Dec. 31, 1946. Anticipated revenues were $77,616,310 and expenditures $77,449,869 for the fiscal year 1948-49. Communications.—The total highway mileage as of March 31, 1947, ex¬ cluding the Alaska highway, amounted to 22,144 mi., of which 9,713 mi.

tive council. Zanzibar is administered by a British resident, ap¬ pointed by the British crown. Somaliland reverted to civil from military administration on Nov. 15, 1948. The East African high commission, consisting of the officers for the time being administering the governments of Kenya, Uganda and Tangan¬ yika, with a central assembly (consisting of official and unoffi¬ cial members with an unofficial majority) and an executive organization, was established on Jan. i, 1948, to co-ordinate and control the technical services of the three territories. Gover¬ nors: Kenya, Sir Philip Mitchell; Uganda, Sir John Hathorn Hall; Tanganyika, Sir William Battershill; Somaliland, Gerald Reece (appointed 1948); Zanzibar, British resident, Sir Vincent

134

BRITISH EMPIRE

Glenday. History .—The East African central assembly held its first meeting on April 6, 1948, when it was formally opened by Sir Philip Mitchell, and remained in session until April 10. Sir Geoffry Northcote was appointed speaker, but died during the summer; and at the second session, which opened on Aug. 31, Sir Guy Pilling was appointed to replace him. On May i the Kenya and Uganda Railways and Harbours administration and the Tanganyika Railways and Ports services were formed into a single department. Economic developments in East Africa placed a constant strain on both harbours and railways. A new port, to be completed in 1950, was in process of construction at Mto Mtwara in Tanganyika, and a railway was being built from there 200 mi. inland to serve one of the new peanut areas. A 120 mi. branch line was also under con¬ struction from Mparda, where lead mines had been opened, to the Tanganyika main line at Kalina. In Kenya and Uganda developments were restricted to a large program of moderniza¬ tion and improvement. The East African peanut scheme was constantly in the news. A progress report issued early in the year showed that‘diffi¬ culties had proved greater than anticipated; the area (about 7,500 ac.) cleared and planted in the first year was less than planned, and costs had been far greater than anticipated. The whole of the first year’s harvest was to be retained for seed, and the 1948—49 crop would provide the first commercial harvest. Hardly less in importance than the peanut scheme were the plans announced for electricity supply development. The Westlake report of the previous year had advocated nationalization of electricity supplies and the erection of a large power station at the Owen falls on the White Nile near Jinja. The recom¬ mendations were not accepted by Kenya and Tanganyika on the ground that their technical and other resources were fully employed, and already considerable development plans, taxing the administration, were in progress; but they were adopted

unanimously by the Uganda legislative council, and the Uganda government then asked two firms to prepare a technical survey. Their report, published in July, envisaged the eventual erection of two dams and a power station, with eight water-turbine driven alternators rated at 15,000 kw. each, the scheme to cost £7,120,000. But as this would involve consultations with the governments of Egypt and the Sudan over the control of the flow of the Nile, there should be an initial installation of three alternators, this initial development to cost £4,160,000. In April a mission arrived in East Africa to study the possible production of rice and associated crops; in September another mission set out on a tour of Uganda, Tanganyika, Nyasaland and Nigeria to study problems likely to be encountered in the mechanization of African agriculture. Labour troubles were negligible save for a strike of dock labour which started in Zanzibar on Aug. 20 and developed into a general strike on Sept. 2. As the situation had inflammatory possibilities, police reinforcements from Tanganyika and later a force of the King’s African Rifles, were flown in. But the strike gradually died out and by Sept, ii there was a general resumption of work. Finance and Trade—Currency throughout British East Africa is con¬ trolled by the East African currency board in London. The standard coin is the East African shilling divided into 100 cents. Circulation (June 30, 1948) 478,258,000 shillings. Revenue: Kenya (1948 est.) £8,375,417; Uganda (1948 est.) £4,898,321; Tanganyika (1948 est.) £5,042,730; Zanzibar (1947) £746,333. Expenditure: Kenya (1948 est.) £8,297,923; Uganda (1948 est.) £4,898,284; Tanganyika (1948 est.) £5,025,875; Zanzibar (1947) £877,720. Imports (1947): Kenya and Uganda £31,431,397 (retained imports: Kenya £19,097,000; Uganda £6,684,000); Tanganyika £13,723,925; Zanzibar £2,012,432. Exports (1947*): Kenya and Uganda £26,667,016 gross (domestic exports: Kenya £9,617,941; Uganda £11,447,680); Tanganyika £11,580,197 (domestic: £i 1,147,887)Zanzibar £1,467,017. Principal exports: Kenya—coffee, sisal', tea, maize and sodium carbonate; Uganda—cotton (£7,119,000 in 1947), coffee and tobacco; Tanganyika—sisal, coffee, cotton and dia¬ monds; Zanzibar—cloves (£555,106 in 1947) and copra. (Jo A. Hn.)

Rritich Tinnirp

governments of the British empire and the governors and premiers were as follows on Dec. 31, 1948:

DilUdll lIII[JIICi

British Empire

Country Europe Great Britain and N. Ireland .

•

Area Sq. mi. (approx.)

Population (OOO's omitted)

93,371

49,890*

Capital London

J St. Helier

Stotus Kingdom

Port of the United Kingdom

Channel Islands.

75

92*

Eire.

26,602

3,022*

Gibraltar .. Isle of Man. Malta.

221 122

23t 51 * 306t

Gibraltar Douglas Valletta

Republic associated with the Com> monweaith of Nations Colony Port of the United Kingdom Self-governing colony

Aden and Perim. Aden Protectorate. Bahrein Islands. Borneo: North Borneo (with Labuan) * Brunei. Sarowak. Ceylon.

80 112,000 213

81§ 6501 125t

Manama

Colony \ Protectorate j independent Sheikdom

29,417 2,226 50,000 25,332

330t 4111 546] 6,9611

Sandakan Brunei Kuching Colombo

Colony Protectorate Colony Dominion

Cyprus. Hong Kong . India .

3,572 391 1,221,000

460t 1,750t 337,000*

Nicosia Victoria Delhi

Colony Colony Dominion

50,680 282 361,000

4,86711 94111 65,600*

Kuala Lumpur Singapore Karachi

Protectorate Colony Dominion

967,500 11,716 275,000 4,074

7,547* 630t 300t 250t

Khartoum Maseru Mafeking Bathurst

91,843 224,960 807

4,0951 4,3641 430t

Accra Nairobi Port Louis

372,674 47,949

21,009t 2,2301

Condominium Protectorate] Protectorate / Colony Colony and protectorate; Brit* Togoland: trusteeship territory Colony and protectorate Colony Colony and protectorate; Brit. Cameroons: trusteeship territory Protectorate

2

\St. Peter Port Dublin

Asia

Malaya: Federation of Malaya .... Singopore. Pakistan.. Africa

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan .... Basutoland Protectorate .... Bechuanaland Protectorate . • Gambia. Gold Coast, including British Togoland. Kenya * . Mauritius (and Dependencies) Nigerio, including British Cameroons. Nyasaland.

Logos Zomba

Rulers, Governors and Premiers George VI, King Prime Minister of Great Britain: C. R. Attlee Governor of Northern Irelond: Earl Granville Prime Minister of Northern Ireland: Sir Bosil Brooke Jersey: Lt. Gov.; Sir A. E. Grossett Guernsey; Lt, Gov.: Sir Philip Neame President: Sean O'Kelly Prime Minister: John A. Costello Lt. Gen. Sir Kenneth Anderson Lt. Gov.; Sir Geoffrey Bromet Sir Francis Douglas Prime Minister: Paul BofFo Sir Reginald Champion Pollticol agent: A. C. Galloway Edward Twining W. J. Peel (Brit, resident) Sir Charles Arden Clarke Sir Henry Monck-Mason Moore Prime Minister: Don Stephan Senanayake Lord Winster Sir Alexander Grantham Chakrovarti Rajogopaiachari Prime Minister: Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru Commissioner-General for S.E. Asia: Malcolm Macdonald High Commissioner: Sir Henry Gurney Sir Franklin Gimson Khwoja Nazimuddin Prime Minister: Lioquat Ali Khan Sir Robert Howe High Commissioner: Sir Evelyn Baring Sir Andrew Wright Sir Gerald Creasy Sir Philip Mitchell Sir Donald Mackenzie-Kennedy Sir John Stuart Macpherson Geoffrey F. T. Colby

BRITISH GUIANA—BRITISH HONDURAS

135

British Empire {Continued) Area Sq.mi. (approx.)

Country

Population (OOO's omitted)

Capital

1,684t 1,979'*

Lusaka Salisbury

Protectorate Self-governing colony

Jamestown Victoria Freetown Berbera Windhoek Mbabane Dar-eS'Salaam Entebbe Pretoria (seat of government) Cape Town (seat of legislature) Zanzibar

Colony Colony Colony and protectorate Protectorate (See Trusteeship Territories) Protectorate Trusteeship territory Protectorate Dominion

George Andrew Joy Percy Selwyn-Clarke George Beresford Stooke Gerald Reece Administrator: Col. P, 1. Hoogenhout High Commissioner: Sir Evelyn Baring Sir William Baftershill Sir John Hathorn Hall G. B. van Zyl Prime Minister: Daniel F. Malan

Protectorate

British resident: Sir Vincent Glenday

Nassau Bridgetown Hamilton Georgetown Belize Ottawa

Colony Colony Colony Colony Colony Dominion

Sir William Lindsay Murphy Sir Hilary Blood Adm. Sir Ralph Leatham Sir Charles Woolley Ronald Herbert Garvey Field Marshal Viscount Alexander of Tunis Prime Minister: Louis Stephen St. Laurent G. M. Clifford Sir John Huggins Earl Baldwin Sir Gordon Macdonald Sir John Shaw Robert Duncan Harris Arundell

Status

Rulers, Governors and Premiers

Africa (Continued) Rhodesia, Northern. Rhodesia, Southern ..

290,320 150,333

St. Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha. Seychelles.. Sierra Leone. Somaliland Protectorate • . . • South-West Africa. Swaziland. Tanganyika. Uganda . Union of South Africa.

126 156 27,925 67,936 317,725 6,705 362,688 93,981 472,550

700t pot 190} 5,7321 4,0571 11,790*

Zanzibar (and Pemba).

1,020

250t

Bahamas . . . « .. Barbados . Bermuda. British Guiana. British Honduras. Canada .

4,400 166 19 89,480 8,598 3,694,863

81t 199* 36t 376t 59t 12,883*

Falkland Islands. Jamaica.. Leeward Islands. Newfoundland and Labrador . . Trinidad and Tobago. Windward Islands.

7,681 4,765 423 1 52,734 1,980 821

3t l,308t 109§ 328t 565t 252§

Port Stanley Kingston St, John St. John’s Port of Spain St. George's

Colony Colony Colony Colony, constitution suspended Colony Colony

.

2,974,581

7,581 II

Canberra

Dominion

Fiji . New Guinea.* . New Hebrides

7,040 93,000 4,633

Suva Ra haul Vila

Colony Trusteeship territory Condominium

5t 35|l

1,797}

Ma|. Gen. Sir John N. Kennedy Prime Minister: Sir Godfrey M. Huggins

America

Austra/ia and Oceania Commonwealth of Australia

.

Nauru. New Zealand • .. New Zealand Dependencies . . Norfolk Island. Pacific islands (Solomon, Gilbert and Ellice, Tonga, Pitcairn Isis.) Papua . Western Samoa. *E$t. 1948.

tEsf. 1947.

8 103,416519 13 12,997 90,540 1,133 JCensus 1948.

269t 900t 45t

3t 1,840* 21 * It

Trusteeship territory ■j Wellington

Dominion

*

Colonies and protectorate Part of Commonwealth of Australia Trusteeship territory

170t

300} 73*

Port Moresby Apia

§Census 1946,

|

Australian dependency

William John McKell Prime Minister: Joseph B. Chifley Sir Leslie Brian Preeston Administrator: Col. J. K. Murray British High Commissioner: Sir Leslie Brian Freeston; French High Commissioner: Pierr Cournarie Administrator: Mark Ridgway Lt. Gen. Sir Bernard Freyberg Prime Minister: Peter Fraser Administrator: Alexander Wilson High Commissioner: Sir Leslie Brian Freeston Administrator: Col. J. K. Murray Administrator: F. W. Voeicker

[[Census 1947,

Dritlch TiiionQ

British colony on the northeast of the conDrlllSn uUldnfli tment of South America, between Vene¬ zuela, Brazil and Surinam. Area: 89,480 sq.mi.; pop. (mid-1947 est.), .376,000, including c. 6,000 Amerindians in remote dis¬ tricts. Chief towns (1946 census): Georgetown (cap., 73,541); New Amsterdam (9,578). Language: English, but about 50% also speak various East Indian languages. The colony is admin¬ istered by a governor (appointed by the British crown), assisted by an executive council, consisting of three ex-officio members and five unofficial members of the legislative council. The legis¬ lative council consists of the governor, as president, 3 ex-officio, 7 unofficial nominated and 14 elected members. Governor: Sir Charles Woolley (appointed 1946). History.—A strike, which broke out in April 1948 on seven sugar estates, dragged on through the summer and was not set¬ tled until September. Some 6,000 workers were involved, but the strike was not supported by the main unions. For the most part the strikers remained orderly, but on June 16 five people were killed in a conflict between strikers and police. In July the British secretary of state for the colonies an¬ nounced that he decided to appoint an independent commission to investigate conditions in the sugar industry in British Guiana, and later it was stated that J. A. Venn, president of Queens’ college, Cambridge, had been appointed chairman of the com¬

extract 3,000,000 cu.ft. of timber annually (principally greenheart, mora and morabukea); establishment of cocoa planta¬ tions to produce 10,000 tons annually; development of the cat¬ tle industry in the Rupununi savannah country; exploration of the possibility of introducing the buffalo in the coastal region, of developing commercially balatabali (a possible substitute for chicle) and of utilizing the Kaieteur and other falls for the pro¬ duction of electricity. It recommended that development be spread over ten years, and held that the best prospect of set¬ tling British Guiana lay in finance and organization through a large multipurpose concern. It suggested that to finance the many projects a development corporation should be formed under the aegis of the Colonial Development corporation; and, in fact, it was announced before the publication of the report that the Colonial Development corporation, in conjunction with two private firms, had set up a company to investigate the prospects of timber development and had sent out a team of experts to report in detail on the problems of starting largescale extraction. (Jo. A. Hn.)

mission. Toward the end of the year the report was published by the commission which had been investigating the possibilities of resettlement in British Guiana and British Honduras (g.v.). Its detailed recommendations for British Guiana were: estab¬ lishment of a io,ooo-ac. banana plantation on the right bank of the lower Essequibo river, which would employ 4,000 workers and cost £2,000,000; development of the timber industry to

A British colony in Central America bounded by Mexico and Guatemala. Area: 8,598 sq.mi.; pop. (mid-1947 est.), 59,000. Chief towns (1946 census): Belize (cap., 21,886); Stann Creek (3,414). Language: English 80% of population. The colony is admin¬ istered by a governor, appointed by the British crown, assisted by an executive council consisting of three ex-officio and not more than five unofficial members. The legislative council con-

Finance and Trade.—Currency; the monetary unit is fixed at the statutory rate of $4.80 to the £. Budget $17,726,000; expenditure $16,183,000. Foreign trade $41,330,877; exports, domestic $34,331,412, re-exports cipal' exports; sugar, bauxite, rice, rum and diamonds.

British Honduras.

the local dollar, (1947): revenue (1947): imports $171,434. Prin¬

136

BRITISH SOUTH AFRICAN PROTECTORATES

sists of the governor, two ex-officio and ten unofficial (four being nominated and six elected) members. Governor and com¬ mander in chief: R. H. Garvey (appointed in 1948). History .—In Feb. 1948, as the result of rumours of possible intrusions by certain elements in Guatemala, the cruisers “Sheffield” and “Devonshire,” the latter with a battalion of troops on board, were dispatched to Belize. Reports of possible armed intrusions from Guatemala were recurrent throughout the year, though no disturbances took place. The Guatemalan claim to the territory had long been a matter of dispute with the British government and the latter renewed its offer to sub¬ mit the case to the International Court of Justice. Development projects in hand in the colony included the building of a government technical high school, the continua¬ tion of a housing scheme for Belize, and the construction of feeder roads. The long-awaited report of the Settlement com¬ mission appointed to inquire into the possibilities of settlement in British Guiana (q.v.) and British Honduras was published toward the end of the year. Its main recommendations with regard to British Honduras were: the establishment of a sugar plantation and factory to produce 30,000 tons a year arid to absorb 30,000 immigrants, including the wives and families of workers—the cost would be £3,500,000, spread over ten years; establishment of a 300-ac. dairy farm with milk depot and creamery in Cayo district with possible addition later of 50-ac. satellite farms; establishment of ten cocoa plantations which would eventually employ 24,000 immigrants and produce 10,000 tons a year; extension of citrus production; establishment of two io,ooo-ac. banana plantations to absorb 16,000 immigrants. It also suggested various surveys—hydroelectric, soil and eco¬ logical—and an investigation of the largely unexplored Moun¬ tain Pine ridge area; and that experiments should be carried out into the possible production of tobacco, manila hemp, groundnuts, sea-island cotton, sisal, cassava and rice, and into the development of fisheries. Only the Cayo district was re¬ garded as suitable for European settlement, but the develop¬ ment would offer an outlet for migration from the over-popu¬ lated colonies of the West Indies. (Jo. A. Hn.) Finance and Trade.—Currency: dollar, based on the U.S. gold dollar; its division and actual value is the same as that of the U.S. dollar. Budget (1948 est.): revenue $2,200,716; expenditure $2,379,450. Public debt (Dec. 31, 1946): $1,421,743. Foreign trade (1947): imports $8,656,252; exports $6,142,601. Principal export: timber. (See also Guatemala.)

British Malaya: see

Malaya (Federation of) and Singa¬

pore.

British Possessions in the Mediterranean: see

Cyprus;

Gibraltar; Malta.

British Somaliland: see

British East Africa.

British South African Protectorates. Under this heading are grouped the three British protectorates of Basutoland, Bechuanaland and Swaziland, of which certain essential statistics are given in the table. (See British Em¬ pire for population and capital towns.) High Commissioner: Sir Evelyn Baring. (For other territories of British South Africa, see South Africa, The Union of.) History .—The year 1948 was one of steady consolidation of the development schemes which were well under way and made Territory and Imports and Area (in sq.mi.l Exports (in £) themselves felt increasingly in (1945-46) both the educational and eco¬ BASUTOLAND imp. 2,056,182 1 1,716 exp. 485,204 nomic fields. The change of policy in the Union of South BECHUANALAND imp. 911,590 c. 275,000 exp. 720,413 Africa, however, which led to SWAZILAND In customs union the closing down of training 6,705 with South Africa

centres of natives as artisans, brought new fear and uncertainty to Basuto, Bechuana and Swazi peoples. It proved all the more important that representatives of all three territories were en¬ abled to take part in the London conference of members of African native councils, the first of its kind. All three territories seemed to wish for a strengthening of their connection with London and noted with gratification that the judicial committee of the privy council included an appeal from Basutoland in its lists. Bechuanaland.—The final result of the population census of 1946 revealed 245,374 Africans compared with almost 240,000 in 1936. Thus, the population appeared to be stationary in spite of a high birth rate'. The explanation was to be found in the migration of the young men* to work in the union, partic¬ ularly on the Witwatersrand. Half the men of the age groups of the 30s and 40s were abroad. With the destruction of fam¬ ily and tribal life through migration in search of cash wages went a further deterioration of farming; it placed the burden of work on the shoulders of women and youngsters which re¬ sulted in a considerable falling off in the efficiency of crop production. Basutoland.—This protectorate continued to make remark¬ able progress; with a population of about 630,000 it had in 1948 a school population of about 90,000. Grants on a capita¬ tion basis were abolished and a central advisory council and local councils on education, with an African majority, were at work. Three-quarters of all children of school age attended school, and much more than half the population was literate. The demonstration farms, run by Basutos under supervision, found increasing imitation, and more than 13,000 vegetable gardens were under production. The home production of blankets not only provided a new outlet but broke the ring of traders and middlemen who used to buy up wool at ruinous prices and sell blankets at still more ruinous prices. About 45 village units of the Home Industries organization were well established and aimed at the inclusion of pottery, leather and woodwork. While one-third of the development fund was de¬ voted to education, another third was given up to anti-erosion measures which proved increasingly successful; in fact, it proved sufficient to limit grazing on mountain slopes and secure proper rotation to enable the original grassland to reassert it¬ self. Further, dams as well as contour furrows were established in great numbers, and it was found that gangs employed by chiefs could accomplish this work at 40% of the cost of official employees. Swaziland.—Almost two-thirds of Swaziland remained in the hands of whites, many of whom were absentee landlords. Thus, some of the development fund had to be used for the repur¬ chase of land. The tribal Libandla, or general council, con¬ tinued to work smoothly with the dual monarch, the king (or “Lion”) and his recognized mother (or “Lady Elephant”). The reappearance of the tsetse fly necessitated further bush clearing. A trades school for artisans, particularly carpenters and build¬ ers, was expanding. A station for the centralized treatment of hides resulted in substantial gains for the native producer. Additional storage tanks for grain almost succeeded in freeing the country from the need of seasonal food imports. It was expected that the Swazi would quickly take to co-operative British South African Protectorates Road and Rail

Revenue and Expenditure (in £|

(1946) rds. 502 mi. riy. none

(1945-46) rev. 723,934 exp. 672,234

(1946) Notive scholars 90,000 European 89

rds. 2,048 mi. rly. 396 mi.

rev. 521,651 exp. 323,729

Native scholars 20,000

rds. 681 mi. rly. none

rev. 491,903 exp. 462,063

Native scholars 10,683 European 447'

Education Elementory

BRITISH WEST AFRICA —BROMINE production and trading methods which were successfully intro¬ duced into Basutoland. (F. W. Pk.)

Rritich Woct Afrioa

The term includes the four British colonial territories on the west coast of Africa, viz.: Nigeria, colony and protectorate with which are administered the Cameroons under United Kingdom trusteeship; the Gold Coast, including the colony of that name, Ashanti, the Northern Territories and Togoland under United Kingdom trusteeship; Sierra Leone, colony and protectorate; and the Gambia, likewise a colony and protectorate. Areas: Nigeria 372,674 sq.mi.; Gold Coast 91,843 sq.mi.; Sierra Leone 27,925 sq.mi.; Gambia 4,074 sq.mi. Populations: Nigeria (mid1947 est.) 21,009,000; Gold Coast (1948 census) 4,095,276; Sierra Leone (1947 census for colony and estimate for pro¬ tectorate) 117,292 and 1,680,000; Gambia (1947 est.) 250,000. Chief towns in the four territories respectively (1946 est.): Lagos (cap., 126,108), Ibadan (387,133) and Kano (89,162); Accra (cap., 1948 est., 135,456), Kumasi (47,054) and Sekondi (23,847); Freetown (cap., 64,576); and Bathurst (cap., 14,370). The populations are almost entirely African, and mostly pagan, though the bulk of the northern provinces of Nigeria are Mos¬ lem, and Christian missions, both Catholic and Protestant, have made headway. Many different languages are spoken; Hausa is the nearest approach to a lingua franca. Each territory is admin¬ istered by a governor, assisted by an executive council. The constitution of the executive council is primarily official, but each contains unofficial representation. Governors: Nigeria, Sir John Macpherson; Gold Coast, Sir Gerald Creasy; Sierra Leone, George Beresford Stooke; Gambia, Sir Andrew Wright.

UllUull IlCol nIMud*

History .—On Feb. 28 rioting broke out in Accra, Gold Coast, when a parade, organized by the Ex-Servicemen’s union to pre¬ sent a petition, got out of hand. During the next few days riot¬ ing spread to other centres. The disturbances lasted almost three weeks; 29 people were killed and 237 injured. A commission of inquiry was appointed immediately. Its report was published in August. The commission covered a wide field in its efforts to discover the underlying causes of the outbreak, and its rec¬ ommendations advocated constitutional, economic and social changes; some the British government found it impossible to accept and others had been already adopted by the Gold Coast government. Constitutional changes accepted were: an increase in the membership of the legislative council, which should be presided over by a speaker nominated by the governor; reorgan¬ ization of the executive council to consist of nine salaried full¬ time members, four ex officio and five Africans under the presi¬ dency of the governor; with the approval of the legislative council, two African members of the executive council to be given responsibility for groups of departments without waiting for the discussion of the constitution generally; regional councils to be developed in the colony with executive functions and power to make bylaws; local government bodies to be developed from existing native authorities. In September the Gold Coast legislative council met to consider the report. It set up a com¬ mittee on constitutional reform, but refused to nominate two unofficial members for the executive council pending further study of the report. Among the economic causes of the outbreak was the swollenshoot disease which was ravaging the Gold Coast cocoa trees and had obtained a hold in Nigeria, and for which science had so far discovered no cure. It was estimated that 10% of the trees in the Gold Coast were affected, and 1% of the total in Nigeria. Compulsory “cutting-out” was ordered in the Gold Coast, but met with considerable and violent opposition, and, following the riots, had to be abandoned. On Oct. i, the government an¬ nounced a new £9,000,000 scheme—£5,000,000 to be spent on

137

cutting-out and the remainder on retreatment and replanting. In June the Nigerian Cocoa Marketing board announced a re¬ habilitation scheme in the Ibadan division of Oyo province, the only area in which the presence of the disease had yet been detected; producers would be paid is. 6d., in yearly instalments of 6d., for each tree successfully replanted. Finally, accepting one of the recommendations of the Gold Coast Commission of Enquiry, it was announced in October that an international panel of three scientists, nominated by the U.N. Food and Agriculture organization, would proceed immediately to the Gold Coast to study the disease. But in spite of the disease, the price of cocoa on the world market brought increasing temporary prosperity. Contributing to the trouble also was a problem common to all four territories—the continuance of wartime shortages com¬ bined with increased purchasing power as world-market prices rose for West African produce. In Sierra Leone, after much discussion, a new constitution was finally approved. In Nigeria the governor announced that though the constitution should remain in force for nine years, he proposed to set up a select committee in 1949 to study its possible revision. In January a commission arrived to study how far the four territories could help to meet the world shortage of rice; the report of the West African Oilseeds mission, published in June, recommended that, if detailed surveys of soil and water proved satisfactory, mechanized development should proceed in five areas covering 5,000,000 ac. in Nigeria, the Gold Coast and Gambia; in September a commission was appointed to investi¬ gate the livestock industry in Nigeria and the Cameroons. In the Gold Coast gold mining taxation was revised with a view to raising an equal amount of revenue while easing the burden on marginal concerns. In the Cameroons a mining corporation was formed with a capital of £60,000 to carry out mineral prospect¬ ing. A major problem in Nigeria was the difficulty faced by the railway in moving record crops of groundnuts. In the sphere of education the outstanding events were the opening of the two new university colleges. The college at Ibadan, Nigeria, received its first students in January. The Uni¬ versity college of the Gold Coast was opened in October at Achimota, pending its move to its permanent site at Legon. (Jo. A. Hn.) Finance and Trade.—The unit of currency throughout British West Africa is the pound, maintained at par with sterling by the West African Currency board operating in London; total circulation (Dec. 31, 1947): £46.870,217. Budget: revenue: Nigeria (1947-48) £18,239,310, (1948-49 est.) £22,476,830; Gold Coast (1947-48) £10,243,618, (1948-49 est.) £10,311,030; Sierra Leone (1947) £2,109,638; Gambia (1947) £693,774; expenditure: Nigeria (1947-48) £17,908,200, (1948-49 est.) £22,372,360; Gold Coast (1947-48) £8,788,913, (1948-49 est.) £9.633,930; Sierra Leone (1947) £2,119,823; Gambia (1947) £633,273. Foreign trade: imports: Nigeria (1947) £32,463,682; Gold Coast (1947) £20,779,134, (1948, first seven months) £16,182,447; Sierra Leone (1947) £4,386,922; Gambia (1947) £1,261,000; exports: Nigeria (1947) £38,330,030; Gold Coast (1947) £20,826,601, (1948, first seven months) £19,368,343; Sierra Leone (1947) £2,801,727; Gambia (1947) £1,163,294. Principal exports: Nigeria—cocoa, groundnuts, palm oil and kernels and tin; Gold Coast—cocoa, gold, manganese and timber; Sierra Leone—palm kernels and iron ore; Gambia—groundnuts. (In respect to Nigerian and Gold Coast exports it has to be taken into consideration that the values of ex¬ ports of cocoa recorded in the trade statistics are the f.o.b. cost prices to the West African Produce Control board up to Oct. 1947, and from then onward to the Nigeria and Gold Coast Marketing boafds, and they thus exclude the profits realized by the boards on sale to overseas purchasers. The f.o.b. selling prices of cocoa exceeded the f.o.b. cost prices by £17,007,499 for the Gold Coast only in the period from Jan. 1 to July 31, 1948). Films.—Here is the Gold Coast (British Information Services).

British West Indies: see

Bahamas;

Barbados;

Jamaica;

Leeward Islands; Trinidad; Windward Islands.

Drnmino DIUllllllCf

declining from 51,056 short tons in 1944 to 21,310 tons in 1946, bromine production in the United States recovered to 39,089 tons in 1947. The drop after

138

BROOKINGS INSTITUTIO N —BUDGET. NATIONAL

1944 was the first break in the advance in production that had been under way from 1932. About 80% of the output is used in the production of antiknock compounds for gasoline, and this use was chiefly responsible for the expansion of production to existing levels from about 1,000 tons annually in earlier years. (G. A. Ro.)

Brookings Institution: see Societies and Associations. The United States broomcorn crop of 1948 was the second smallest on record, estimated at 29,500 tons of brush compared with 34,400 tons in 1947 and an average of 42,690 tons in 1937-46. The 189,500 ac. harvested in 1948 was only 82% of the 232,500 ac. harvested in 1947 and even lower in relation to the 276,000 ac. (average) harvested during the previous ten years, Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mex¬ ico and Texas were the leading producing states. Yields were about average, somewhat more than 1947. The growing season was favourable except for drought in Texas; the crop in general was of good quality. Prices averaged higher than in 1947. (J. K.‘R.)

Broomcorn.

Brozovich or Broz, Josip (Tito)

goslav prime min¬ ister, was born on May 25 at Kumrovec, Croatia. He served in the Austro-Hungarian army in World War I and in 1915 was captured by the Russians. A prisoner of war until 1917, he joined the Red army and fought with it against anticommunist Russian armies. Returning to Croatia after the war, he became a labour leader and Communist and a Communist party organ¬ izer. In 1937 he became secretary-general of the Yugoslav Communist party. After the Germans overran Yugoslavia in 1941, he organized a leftist guerrilla group, which effectively harried axis occupation forces in the country. In Nov. 1942, using the pseudonym of Tito, he organized the Yugoslav Anti-

Fascist National Liberation council. In the first months of 1945 all Yugoslavia was liberated and on March 7, 1945, Tito, who in the meantime had appointed himself marshal, became offi¬ cially prime minister of Yugoslavia. He visited Moscow offi¬ cially in April 1945. In March 1946 he paid a state visit to Warsaw and Prague, in Nov. 1947 to Sofia and in December to Budapest and Bucharest, signing on each occasion a bilateral treaty of friendship and mutual aid. On June 28, 1948, the Cominform published a statement denouncing Tito for follow¬ ing “an incorrect line in the basic questions of foreign and domestic policy,” and particularly for carrying out “a hateful policy in relation to the U.S.S.R.” But from correspondence between Belgrade and Moscow published later it was possible to learn that the real core of Tito’s heresy was his brand of Yugoslav patriotism. “Even though we love the U.S.S.R. we cannot love our own country less,” wrote Tito to Stalin on April 13, 1948.

Brunei: see British Borneo. Brussels, Treaty of: see Western European Union.

Rrun Mou/r Pnlloira Dljll IVIdWI uUilw^wa

^ graduate and undergraduate college for women at Bryn Mawr, Pa. In 1948 new work added to the curriculum at Bryn Mawr in¬ cluded a course in the development of scientific thought and another in the philosophy of history, both courses which em¬ phasize the interrelationship of several fields of knowledge. Teaching in Russian was extended, and plans were under way for further expansion in this area. A new program for the de¬ gree of master of social service was developed, with possible concentrations in social case work, medical social w’ork, com¬ munity organization and social administration. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (K. E. M.)

Bubonic Plague: see Plague, Bubonic and Pneumonic. The United States buckwheat crop of 1948, the smallest since 1941, was estimated at 6,324,000 bu., compared with 7,334,000 bu. in 1947 and 7,022,000 bu., average 1937-46. Conditions were so favourable for planting other crops that the acreage in buckwheat, a widely used catch crop in unfavourable years, declined to 65% of the area har¬ vested in 1947. Yields for 1948 were high at 18.8 bu. per acre. Conditions were favourable in the major producing areas of New York and Pennsylvania.

Buckwheat.

U.S. Buckwheat Production in Leading States, 1948, 1947 and tO-year Average 1937-46

(In thousands of bushels)

10

State Pennsylvonia New York . Minnesota •

1948 • . . . . •

2,332 1,767 435

-vr. 1947 ‘ overage 1,938 1,526 648

2,284 2,302 414

10

State Michigan • Ohio . . . Wisconsin •

. . .

. . .

1948

1947

-vr. average

351 304 240

741 651 330

400 260 236

Prices, along with those of other feed grains, declined sharply during 1948, from a peak of $2.05 per bushel in January to $1.09 per bushel late in the year. (J. K. R.) United States.—The U.S. budget submitted to the congress by Presi¬ dent Truman on Jan. 10, 1949, recommended expenditures of $41,858,000,000 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1950. This total, a record for peace-time years, was about $1,700,000,000 higher than for fiscal 1949. On the basis of existing law and con¬ tinuing high levels of economic activity, revenues amounting to $40,985,000,000 were expected for fiscal 1950 as compared with estimated revenues of $39,580,000,000 in the previous year.

Budget, National.

“OF ALL THE IMPUDENCE,” a 1948 cartoon by Justus of the Minneapolis Star, which appeared after the Cominform accused Marshal Tito of defection from party line policies in the interests of Yugoslav nationalism

139

BUDGET, NATIONAL Expenditures and revenues for the fiscal year 1950 as pre¬ sented in the budget would result in a deficit of $873,000,000. The president therefore asked for new taxes of $4,000,000,000. Because of the normal lag in tax collections, however, revenues in fiscal 1950 would be increased by considerably less than this amount. The 1950 budget, the president noted, was “dominated by our international and national defense programs.” These were ex¬ pected to account for about $21,000,000,000 (international af¬ fairs and finance $6,709,000,000 and national defense $14,268,000,000), or one-half of all budget expenditures. Two other large items were veterans’ services and benefits and interest on the public debt, each of which amounted to about $3,500,000,000, or 13% of the budget expenditure total of $41,858,000,000. The federal government’s two largest sources of revenue—in¬ come taxes on individuals and on corporations—were expected under existing law to provide revenues of $31,247,000,000 in fiscal year 1950, comprising three-fourths of the estimated total of all budget receipts. Individual income taxes were estimated at $19,135,000,000 for fiscal 1950, as compared with $18,530,000,000 in the preceding year, and corporate income taxes were expected to rise from $11,515,000,000 to $12,112,000,000 over the two years. Excise taxes and miscellaneous receipts, the other major sources of federal revenue, amounted to $9,731,000,000 in the 1950 budget. Excise taxes were expected to rise slightly to a total of $7,900,000,000 in fiscal 1950 and miscellaneous re¬ ceipts to decline to $1,831,000,000 because of a further drop in sales of surplus war property. National Defense.—The estimate of $14,268,000,000 pre¬ sented for outlays on national defense comprised 34% of all federal budget expenditures. This was about $2,500,000,000 more than national defense expenditures in fiscal 1949, and the president noted that such expenditures were likely to be still higher in subsequent years. The increase from fiscal 1949 to fiscal 1950 was accounted for in large degree by a recommended increase of $561,000,000 for procurement of aircraft, provision of $600,000,000 to cover the first-year cost of the proposed universal military training program, and a proposed expansion of $486,000,000 in the procurement of equipment (exclusive of aircraft and ships), supplies and services. Additionally, the 1950 budget called for larger outlays on military reserve programs, naval ship construction and stockpiling of strategic materials. Veterans' Services and Benefits.—Veterans’ services and bene¬ fits were expected to require expenditures of $5,496,000,000 in fiscal 1950, a drop of $1,303,000,000 from the level of the pre¬ ceding year. This drop reflected mainly the virtual completion of certain temporary programs under the Servicemen’s Read¬ justment act providing for unemployment and self-employment allowances and education and training benefits. The president pointed out, however, that the long-run trend of compensation and pension costs and of hospital and medical care was gradu¬ ally upward, so that veterans’ outlays under existing legislation would remain high. The total expenditure did not reflect the initial dividend, estimated at about $2,000,000,000 scheduled for payment from the national service life insurance fund. International Affairs and Finance.—Expenditures for inter¬ national activities in 1949-50 were reported in the budget at $6,709,000,000, about $500,000,000 less than in the preceding year. This figure, however, the president termed “highly tenta¬ tive in view of the present uncertain world situation.” He noted that he expected later to request additional amounts. More than two-thirds of proposed expenditures in the cate¬ gory of international affairs and finance was earmarked for the European Recovery program, or Marshall plan. Expenditures under this program for extending economic aid to the countries of western Europe were placed at $4,500,000,000—$100,000,000

less than estimated outlays in fiscal 1949. For the other major item in this category, foreign relief, the expenditure total amounted to $1,188,000,000. This represented a substantial re¬ duction (about $600,000,000) from the level of the preceding year. It stemmed chiefly from requirement of smaller outlays under the army’s program of government and relief in occupied areas and the Chinese assistance act of 1948. Social Welfare, Health and Security.—In his budget message President Truman made broad recommendations under the gen¬ eral category of social welfare, health, and security. He urged three principal steps “to strengthen and complete the system of social insurance”: (i) extension of old-age and survivors in¬ surance to nearly all the 25,000,000 gainfully employed persons not then covered, together with a sharp increase in the scale of benefits; (2) establishment of a disability insurance program to protect against loss of earnings during temporary disability and to provide continuing annuities in the event of permanent dis¬ ability; and (3) inauguration of a comprehensive national health program, centring in a national system of medical care insurance. The president made several proposals for financing this rec¬ ommended expansion of social insurance. He advocated advanc¬ ing by six months, to July i, 1949, the effective date of the statutory increase from 1% to i\% in the pay roll tax paid by employers and employees under the old-age and survivors in¬ surance system. In addition, the base of tax levy—the first $3,000 of earnings of each employee in any year—would be raised. The tax would be extended to employers and employees not covered by existing legislation and an additional tax would Table I.—Summary of Budget Receipts and Expenditures, United States Fiscal Years 1948 through 1950 Based on existing and proposed legislation Description

Actual, 1948

Budget receipts: Direct taxes on individuols* $21,896,000,000 Direct taxes on corpora■ 10,174,000,000 tionst. 7,402,000,000 Excise taxes. Employment taxes: 2,396,000,000 Existing legislation . . Proposed legislation. . 422,000,000 Customs. .Miscellaneous receipts: 3,809,000,000 Existing legislation . . Proposed legislation . Deduct: Appropriation to fed¬ eral old-age and sur¬ vivors insurance trust fund: 1,616,000,000 Existing legislation . Proposed legislation Appropriation to heolth insurance trust fund: Proposed legislation Refunds of receipts {ex¬ 2,272,000,000 cluding interest) . . 42,211,000,000 Total budget receipts . . . Budget expenditures: National defense. • , Veterans’ services and

Estimate, 1949

Estimote, 1950

$19,327,000,000

$19,788,000,000

11,709,000,000 7,715,000,000

12,252,000,000 7,900,000,000

2,610,000,000

3,324,000,000 1,960,000,000 •407,000,000

407,000,000 2,276,000,000

1,750,000,000 81,000,000

1,754,000,000

2,420,000,000 1,700,000,000

260,000,000 2,709,000,000

2,097,000,000

39,580,000,000

40,985,000,000

14,268,000,000

.

10,924,000,000

11,745,000,000

benefits.

6,567,000,000

6,799,000,000

5,496,000,000

4,782,000,000

7,219,000,000

6,709,000,000

1,853,000,000

1,963,000,000

2,358,000,000

International affairs and

finance. Social welfare, health and security. Housing and community facilities. Education and general re¬ search . ^. Agriculture and agricul¬ tural resources. . . . Natural resources not pri¬ marily agricultural . . Transportation and com¬ munication . Finance, commerce and in¬ dustry . Labour. General government . , Interest on the public debt Reserve for contingencies. Adjustment to daily treas¬ ury statement basis . .

82,000,000

349,000,000

388,000,000

75,000,000

84,000,000

414,000,000

575,000,000

1,805,000,000

1,662,000,000

1,091,000,000

1,616,000,000

1,861,000,000

1,267,000,000

1,757,000,000

1,586,000,000

88,000,000

1 02,000,000

183,000,000 1,504,000,000 5,188,000,000

1 84,000,000 1,187,000,000 5,325,000,000 45,000,000

107,000,000 187,000,000 1,224,000,000 5,450,000,000 150,000,000

40,180,000,000

41,858,000,000

600,000,000

873,000,000

-388,000,000

Total budget expenditures .

33,791,000,000

Excess of budget expendi¬ tures . Excess of budget receipts .

8,419,000,000

*lncludes individual income taxes and estate gift taxes, flncludes corporation income taxes and excess profits taxes.

140

BUDGET. NATIONAL

be levied to support the proposed medical care and disability insurance programs. The increase in taxes resulting from the president’s proposed legislation would amount to nearly $2,000,000,000 in fiscal year 1950, and payments of benefits and admin¬ istrative expenses would be larger by $1,500,000,000. These re¬ ceipts and expenditures would be handled through the social insurance trust accounts and were not reflected in totals pre¬ sented in the budget proper. Budget expenditures for social welfare, health and security were expected to amount to $2,358,000,000, an increase of $395,000,000 over the total for fiscal 1949. The major item of this increase was in the government’s transfer to the railroad retire¬ ment trust account (from $569,000,000 to $716,000,000), re¬ flecting mainly the statutory increase in the pay roll tax rate that became effective Jan. i, 1949. The remainder of the in¬ crease was divided between programs for the promotion of public health and grants to the states for public assistance. Under the terms of proposed legislation, $15,000,000 was in¬ cluded for inauguration of the medical care insurance system and $65,000,000 for increased public assistance grants. Housing and Community Facilities.—The budget message in¬ cluded a number of long-range proposals for expanding the financial assistance (loans and grants) provided by the federal government in the fields of private and public housing. An¬ other of the principal recommendations involved the provision of prompt federal assistance to communities in rebuilding facili¬ ties after floods and other disasters. Budgeted outlays for housing and community facilities amounted to $388,000,000 in the budget as compared with $349,000,000 in fiscal 1949. The total for fiscal 1950 included ex¬ penditures of $226,000,000 under proposed legislation. The major impact of such legislation on budget expenditures, how¬ ever, would not be reflected until succeeding years. Education and General Research.—Under the category of edu¬ cation and general research it was recommended that expendi¬ tures be increased from $84,000,000 to $414,000,000. The 1950 total included an allocation of $36,000,000 for the decennial census of population, but by far the largest part of the increase was accounted for by proposed grants of $290,000,000 to the states “in support of a basic minimum program of elementary and secondary education.” On the basis of other legislation pro¬ posed by the preadent, $2,000,000 was included for the creation of a national science foundation and $1,000,000 for surveys of state and local needs and resources with respect to school build¬ ings and of means of providing assistance to “capable young people who cannot otherwise afford a college or university edu¬

encourage conservation of agricultural land resources and an initial expenditure under the proposed international wheat agree¬ ment. The budget allowed $56,000,000 to cover the probable loss to the Commodity Credit corporation in fiscal 1950 under this agreement. Natural Resources.—The government’s programs to conserve natural resources were estimated to require expenditures of $1,861,000,000 in the fiscal year 1950, an increase of $245,000,000 over the 1949 total. The largest expenditure, $725,000,000, was budgeted for the Atomic Energy commission. Other major items of expenditure included $481,000,000 for flood control by the corps of engineers and $344,000,000 by the bureau of recla¬ mation for development 'of water resources in the west. Transportation and Communication.—Federal expenditures for transportation and communication were expected to decline from $1,757,000,000 in fiscal 1949 to $1,586,000,000 in fiscal 1950. The decline resulted from an estimated reduction in the postal deficit in line with the president’s recommendation for an upward revision of postal rates. Other expenditures in this gen¬ eral category, under programs for providing basic facilities such as highways, airports, waterway improvements and navigation aids, were expected to show a further increase. Finance, Commerce and Industry.—Total federal expenditures for finance, commerce and industry programs were estimated at $107,000,000 in fiscal 1950 as compared with $102,000,000 in 1949. The 1950 expenditure total included $41,000,000 for operation of the government’s proposed stabilization program to prevent further inflation. Labour.—For the fiscal year 1950 expenditures required for administering the government’s labour programs were placed at $187,000,000, or $3,000,000 more than in 1949. About fourfifths of this total was comprised of outlays for public employ¬ ment services and administration of unemployment insurance. The total included estimates to carry out proposed legislation to establish a national commission against discrimination in em¬ ployment and to make grants to states to foster safer working conditions. General Government Expense.—Expenditures for general gov¬ ernment functions in fiscal 1950 were included in the budget at $1,224,000,000. The major changes from expenditures in the preceding year, which totalled $1,187,000,000, were a further sharp drop in outlays on war surplus property disposal and sub¬ stantial increases in the government’s contribution toward its civilian employees’ retirement system and in the amount allo¬ cated to the bureau of internal revenue for tax collection work. Interest on the Public Debt.—Payment of interest on the public debt was expected to require expenditures of $5,450,000,000 in the fiscal year 1950, an increase of $125,000,000 over

cation.” Agriculture and Agricultural Resources.—Expenditures for operating government programs relating to agriculture and agri¬ Table II.—Governmen/ Receipts and Expenditures—Greof Br/>o/n (£ mtlllons) cultural resources were esti¬ Exchequer EstiExchequer Receipts Receipts, mote. Expenditures Issues. Estimate, mated at $1,662,000,000 for 1947-48 1948-49 1947-48 1948-49 1,309 Income tax. Interest and management of national debt fiscal 1950. The decline from 525* 500 Surtax. 90 Payments to North Ireland exchequer . . 24 26 the 1949 figure of $1,805,000,Death duties.^. 160 Other consolidated fund services • • . • 7 8 Stamps. 55 Total.. 556 534 000 reflected the anticipation Profits tax and excess profits tax. 250 Other inland revenue duties. 1 Supply services; that price support outlays Defense votes. 854 693 Special contribution. 50 Civil vote (excluding ministry of supply Total inland revenue. (loans or acquisition of stocks) 1,915 [defense).1,769 1,709 Customs. 821 Customs and excise, inland revenue end bolance by the Commodity Credit cor¬ Excise.. 727 of post office votes. 30 _40 poration could be reduced. Total customs and excise. 1,547 Total supply services.2,653 ^42 Motor vehicle duties .. 50 Total ordinary expenditure. 3,209 2,976 Apart from price support out¬ Total receipts from taxes. 3,512 Surplus. 636 789 lays, agricultural expenditures Sales of surplus wor stores. 102 Total. 3,845 3,765 Surplus receipts from trading services . . • 57 in 1950 were expected to be revenue and expenditure: Broadcast receiving licences . 11 Self-balancing Post office ... 143 150 Crown lands. 1 larger mainly because of the Excess promts tax, postwar refunds (part de> Receipts from sundry loans. 14 ducted for tax) .. 23 16 higher level of loan disburse¬ Miscellaneous. . ... . . 68 Total ordinary revenue 3,765 ments for rural electrification, Detail will not necessarily add to totals because of rounding. increased benefits to farmers to *lncludes sinking fund payments of £22,000,000 met from the permanent debt charge.

BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY the outlay for the fiscal year 1949. This increase was attributed to higher accrual rates on savings bonds outstanding; an in¬ crease in the amount of special issues bearing relatively high rates and held by government trust funds; and the effects of the upward movement of short-term interest rates initiated in July 1947. (See

also

Debt,

National;

Income and Product,

U.S.;

Taxation; United States.)

Great Britain.—The 1948-49 budget of Great Britain showed reductions in both revenue and expenditure. (See Table II.) On the basis of existing taxation, total receipts in the fiscal year 1948-49 were expected to amount to £3,754,000,000, as com¬ pared with £3,845,000,000 in 1947-48. It was estimated that several proposed changes in taxation would yield, on balance, an additional £11,000,000. The anticipated decline in total receipts was concentrated in nontax revenue, with revenues from taxes expected to rise appreciably on the basis of the higher levels of profits and individual earnings. On the expenditure side of the budget, there were further substantial reductions in outlays for national defense and for terminal or temporary services arising out of the war. These were offset in large degree by requirement of £143,000,000 for the new national health service, together with provision for in¬ creased expenditures on education and housing. Including 'the effects of proposed tax changes, a surplus of ordinary receipts over ordinary expenditures amounting to £789,000,000 was shown by the budget for 1948-49. In the pre¬ ceding year there was a budget surplus of £636,000,000. (For other national budgets, see under specific country.) (M. Gt.)

Buhl Foundation: see

Societies and Associations.

Building and Construction Industry

• promised drop

in construction costs did not materialize in 1948, but they seemed to level at year’s end. The U.S. bureau of labour statis¬ tics announced that in February, for the first time in eight months, there was no increase in the average wholesale price of building materials. But the April prices set a new all-time high. Brick and tile, lumber, plumbing and heating, paints and paint materials reached record highs. Lumber rose 2.1% over March. Cement joined the spiral in May and structural steel in July. In September the wholesale price of building material averaged 203.9 (1926 = 100). The July i, 1948, union wage scales in the building trades were the highest on record. They averaged $2.10 per hour for seven basic crafts in 75 cities surveyed by the bureau of labour statistics. This was a 10% increase from July i, 1947, for all trades combined. Union rates had advanced 62% from June 1939, but on the basis of the bureau of labour statistics con¬ sumers’ price index living costs had advanced more than 70%. About 2,400,000 workers were employed by contractors in Sep¬ tember, almost 300,000 more than in Sept. 1947 but slightly under the peak of 2,577,000 employed in the construction in¬ dustry in Aug. 1942. These high costs, as well as volume of construction, con¬ tributed to the new monthly dollar peaks which were established for all major types of peacetime construction. While the department of commerce “assumed” in Nov. 1948 that 1949 construction costs would average about 5% above the average for the entire 1948, home builders found costs levelling off in Dec. 1948, and they were able to contract for 1949 ma¬ terial at 1948 prices. This was the first time since the war that such advance contractural arrangements were made. Although some key building material items (iron and steel) continued in short supply, the period of severe shortage seemed to be at

141

an end. The apparent price levelling was coincident with the sharp drop in house starts and the decline in consumer interest in houses and apartments at 1948 costs. October house starts numbered 22,000 less than Oct. 1947 starts. Builders retrenched further in November and December. In mid-November the department of commerce announced that a trend from a sellers’ to a buyers’ market in lumber was “well under way.” This first announcement of a materials let¬ down was accompanied by a New York Times report of a de¬ crease in lumber production of 2.7% for the week ending Nov. 13 from the like week in 1947. Shipments were down 22.1% and orders 25.8%. A sharp production cut followed. The New York Times reported, for the week ending Dec. 18, lumber production 18.6% below the same week in 1947. The much awaited postwar new materials and new construc¬ tion methods were slow to appear. Republic Steel announced a “one-step” continuous process to cut the cost of steel by at least $3 a ton. It was announced that Durisol, a curtain wall or roofing slab made of wood chips impregnated with Portland cement, would be produced at a plant at Beacon, N.Y. Produc¬ tion in Jan. 1949 was expected to be 250 cu.yd. a day, or enough for ten small houses. Nailable steel framework was used by the New Haven Hous¬ ing authority constructing garden-type apartments. Construc¬ tion featured the Stran-Steel system of joints, studs and sim¬ ilar framing members formed of steel in a manner permitting collateral materials to be attached by usual carpentry methods. Construction was said to have been speeded by the use of nailable steel. Carl Strandlund started volume production on the Lustron house—the first industrialized steel house to go into production at a volume that could be termed mass production. The aim was 4,000 units a month. In December, Lustron corporation was awarded a $599,379 contract by the navy bureau of yards and docks to erect 60 basementless bungalows at Quantico, Va. It was the first time a manufacturer of steel homes had bid against conventional prefabrication firms on a government conSTUDENT and faculty leaders of a building project at Valparaiso univer¬ sity in Indiana, where a new iaboratory was built by volunteer student labour in 194S, enabling the university to offer a full four-year course in engineering

142

BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY

surance company said it would spend $18,000,000 to rebuild Percentage of change to Sept. 1948 ten slum blocks on Chicago’s from— south side, the first private en¬ March March Aug. Sept. Aug. Sept. Aug. Sept. Aug. 1947 1942 1939 1947 1942 1939 1948 1948 1948 terprise project under the Illi¬ 4- 84.5 All building materiolse • • • . 203.9 203.6 183.4 110.5 4-127.6 89.6 4-0.1 4-11.2 90.5 475.6 Brick and tile. 158.9 158.6 145.4 97.1 4-0.2 463.6 4- 9.3 nois Blighted Areas Redevelop¬ Cement. 133.3 132.2 119.1 93.6 91.3 4-11.9 4- 42.4 4- 46.0 4-0.1 Lumber.. • ment law passed in 1947. There 317.1 319.5 286.5 90.1 4-10.7 4-138.2 4-251.9 133.1 - .8 Point and paint moterials • . 159.5 + 58.2 4- 94.3 158.1 157.1 100.8 82.1 4-0.9 4- 1.5 were 1,400 apartments planned Prepared point. 142.9 142.9 99.3 92.9 4- 53.8 143.1 0 - 0.1 4- 43.9 4-151.5 Paint materials. . 180.6 177.6 175.5 104.3 71.8 4- 73.0 4-1.7 4- 2.9 with only 10% land coverage Plumbing and heating . • . 156.8 153.7 + 59.7 4- 97.7 136.0 98.2 79.3 4-15.3 4-2.0 Structural steel. 178.8 4- 66.6 4- 66.6 178.8 143.0 107.3 107.3 4-25.0 0 on the 60 ac. Rents were Other building materials e e 174.8 89.5 4- 68.4 173.4 150.7 103.8 4- 95.3 4-16.0 4- .8 planned from $75 per month Source: Construction, Table 16, Nov. 1948, UeS. Dept, of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. for three and one-half rooms to tract. But in November the Rockefeller-financed Harmon cor¬ $100 for four and one-half rooms. The Chicago Land Clearance poration, builder of steel houses, found the difficulties too great commission figured a $2 per square foot cost to acquire and and closed up. clear the land which would be sold to the New York Life Insur¬ After three years of drafting a uniform building code the ance company at 50 cents per square foot. The $2,500,000 deficit Building Officials Conference of America made ready to publi¬ was to be borne equally by the city and the state. The life insur¬ cize their final draft. Steel industry spokesmen claimed, how¬ ance company was to pay full local taxes. San Francisco, the first ever, that the code writers had discriminated against steel in city to take action under the California 1945 Community Re¬ development act, designated its 2.2 sq.mi. western addition for favour of wood. The Building Officials Conference of America, saying the claim was unjustified, made final preparation fof the redevelopment. Financial and physical details for redevelop¬ code launching. Meanwhile, in March a committee appointed ment were not completed. by the Housing and Home Finance agency reported a proposed March 1948 saw the end of government controls of the build¬ uniform plumbing code for housing which they hoped U.S. cities ing industry instituted in 1941- The only control to remain, rent control on existing buildings, did not apply to new con¬ would adopt. In March 1948, after eight months of negotiations, 32 of struction. But the national security resources board, an agency New York city’s 42 building unions signed a two and one-half set up by the Army-Navy Merger act, was planning how the year wage stabilization agreement. They agreed not to seek industrial and natural resources of the United States could best further wage boosts before June 30, 1950, unless the cost of be mobilized for defense or for war. living rose more than 15% on the bureau of labour statistics Materials plant geographic distribution was spurred by recom¬ index by April 1949. If it did, wage advances covering one-half mendations of the national security resources board for national of the excess over the 15% rise were to be granted. In exchange security and by the U.S. supreme court decision banning the for future stabilization, contractors agreed to 25 cents per hour long-established system of base-point pricing in some materials industries. increases for most trades. Several other unions made Table II.—Expenditures for New Construction Put in Place* similar agreements at later Percentage Expenditures Expenditures dates. On July 28, William G. chonge (in millions) (in millions) PerType of construction 1948 1947 Oct. 1948 first ten Wheeler, secretary of the Build¬ centfro m— months of— oge ing Trades Employees associa¬ Sept. Oct. Aug. Sect. 1947 Oct. Oct. 1948 change 1948 1947 t t t t tion, announced that there had Table I.—Index Numbers and Percentage Changes of Wholesale Prices of Building Materlols by Group (t926»100)

Total new construction!..

been no strikes or labour stop¬ pages in 1948 in the city and that the mediation board had settled 28 major labour dis¬ putes. On a national basis, the build¬ ing trades department of the American Federation of Labor, the associated general contrac¬ tors and various specialty con¬ tractors associations signed an agreement in April setting up joint union and management arbitration boards to settle jur¬ isdictional disputes. The agree¬ ment signed by the principals provided that there should be no stoppages of work in juris¬ dictional disputes and that prin¬ ciples established by joint board decisions should be binding on local jurisdictional boards. Large urban redevelopment projects were announced in Chi¬ cago, Ill., and in San Francisco, Calif. The New York Life In-

•

• $1,704 $1,783 $1,799 $1,497

- 4.4

+ 13.8 $14,721 $11,225

+ 31.1

1,265

1,336

1,354

1,129

- 5.3

-i- 12.0

11,377

8,655

-t- 31.5

Residential building (nonfarm). Nonresidential building (nonfarm)||. Industrial. Commercial. Warehouses, office ond loft buildings. • • Stores, restaurants and garages. Other nonresidential building •••••.. Religious. Educational. Hospital and institutional. Remaining types. Farm construction. Public utilities. Railroad. Telephone and telegraph. Other public utilities.

660 328 114 114 35 79 100 25 25 11 39 39 238 34 55 149

685 334 113 123 35 88 98 25 25 10 38 63 254 36 65 153

695 332 111 127 34 93 94 23 24 10 37 82 245 36 57 152

590 275 137 82 14 68 56 13 17 8 18 50 214 32 59 123

- 3.6 - 1.8 -1.9 - 7.3 0 -10.2 -1- 2.0 0 0 -fio.o -f 2.6 -38.1 - 6.3 - 5.6 -15.4 - 2.6

-f 11.9 -t- 19.3 - 16.8 -f 39.0 -1-150.0 -i- 16.2 -t- 78.6 + 92.3 -i- 47.1 + 37.5 -f-116.7 - 22.0 + 11.2 -+6.3 6.8 + 21.1

5,840 2,968 1,160 1,046 277 769 762 180 194 97 291 465 2,104 288 565 1,251

4,020 2,560 1,432 651 175 476 477 92 130 89 166 410 1,665 260 402 1,003

-f -t-1+ -t-f -1-f-f-t-

45.3 15.9 19.0 60.7 58.3 61.6 59.7 95.7 49.2 9.0 75.3 + 13.4 -f 26.4 -f 10.8 4- 40.5 -j- 24.7

Public construction.

439

447

445

368

1.8

+ 19.3

3,344

2,570

-f 30.1

Residential building. Nonresidential building (other than military or naval facilities). Industrialll.. Educational. Hospital and institutional. All other nonresidential.. Military and naval facilities.. Highways. Sewer and water.. Miscellaneous public-service enterprises? . . . Conservotion and development. All other public6.

4

5

5

9

-20.0

- 55.6

55

166

- 66.9

106

102

96

58 24

56 23 21 13 190 44 10 66 17

53 1 27 9 16 23 178 35 11 45 14

+ 3.9 0 *}“ 3.6 -j- 4.3 + 4.8 0 - 5.3 -t- 6.8 -10.0 - 3.0 - 5.9

-f 100.0 -i-100.0 -f114.8 166.7 -i- 37.5 - 43.5 -f 1.1 -f- 34.3 - 18.2 + 42.2 -j- 14.3

786 17 432 154 183 125 1,294 375 91 494 124

403 25 214 65 99 168 1,049 271 99 319 95

+ 95.0 - 32.0 -flOl.9 -1-136.9 + 84.8 - 25.6 -j- 23.4 4- 38.4 8.1 + 54.9 -i- 30.5

Privote construction..

2

22

13 180 47 9 64 16

2

2 22 52

20 12 200 41 9 65 16

-

*Joinf national esfimotes of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Dept, of Lobor, and the Office of Domestic Commerce, U.S. Dept, of Commerce. Estimated construction expenditures represent the monetary value of the volume of work accomplished during the given period of time. These figures should be differentiated from permit valuation data reported in the section on urban building authorized and the data on value of contract awards in the section on federal construction. tPreliminary. J Revised. §lncludes major additions and alterations. llExcludes nonresidentiol building by privately owned public utilities. ^Excludes expenditures to construct facilities used in atomic energy projects. 9Covers primarily publicly owned electric light and power systems and local transit faalities. ACovers miscellaneous construction items such as airports, monuments, memorials, etc. Source: Construction^ Table 3, Nov. 1948, U.S, Dept, of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.

BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY Public construction activity was expected to reach $4,100,000,000 in 1948, 35% more than in 1947. This was the result of the expansion of peacetime programs for educational, hos¬ pital and institutional building and highway, sewer and water development work. In June, congress enacted army and navy military works pro¬ grams and a two-year program of federal aid for highway con¬ struction, appropriating $450,000,000 to be apportioned among the states on a 50-50 matching basis for each of the two years ending June 30, 1950, and June 30, 1951. It appropriated $511,900,000 to the Atomic Energy commission for the fiscal year 1949 and to meet 1947 and 1948 obligations. Only half of the amounts were for construction; approximately $125,000,000 was for community facilities and housing. Army and navy appropriations included: $5,100,000 for construction of army barracks and quarters; up to $122,200,000 for public works outside continental United States; maximum total appropria¬ tions of $69,800,000 for navy public works authorized for con¬ struction within continental United States and $60,000,000 max¬ imum for navy works outside; and a total of $285,000,000 in several categories for public works in connection with the army, navy and air force programs. Large sums were appropriated for conservation, reclamation, flood control and hospital construction and for the construction of public airports at Anchorage and Fairbanks, Alaska. A $65,000,000 appropriation was authorized to effectuate the loan agreement between the United States and the United Nations for the construction of U.N. headquarters. The National Association of Home Builders promoted “mini¬ mum dwellings” in order to lower costs, and the Producers council sponsored an “industry-engineered” housing program to be applied to apartment houses in an effort to devise savings through standardization and reduction of waste. The plan utilized the “modular” method of standardized parts. T. F. Farrell, chairman of the New York City Housing authority.

143

gave graphic figures showing the rise in apartment house con¬ struction costs. He showed that a $5,000 apartment of 1940 would cost $11,000 in 1948. Whereas $1,000,000 in public housing funds built 200 apartments in 1940, it would build less than half that number in 1948. In private construction it was, of course, the same story, with builders’ profits usually keeping pace with other cost rises. The majority of economists polled by the F. W. Dodge cor¬ poration in October expected private residential and nonresidential work to decline in 1949 and the volume of public construc¬ tion projects to expand. The following construction decreases were forecast for 1949: housing 7%; commercial 9%; and fac¬ tories and religious structures, a somewhat greater percentage. It was predicted that these declines would be offset by a 10% increase in educational building, an 11% increase in hospital construction and a moderate increase in public works and utili¬ ties construction. This was the trend at the end of 1948. (See also Architecture; Business Review; Housing; United States.) (D. Rn.) Great Britain.—For the building industry in Great Britain in 1948, the drive to balance overseas payments meant a reduction of manpower and a further restriction of supplies of certain im¬ portant materials, notably steel. A considerable part of the labour force' of the industry con¬ tinued to be employed on house building. The rate of completing new houses rose to more than 2b,000 per month, but the rate of starting new houses was restricted so as to avoid overloading the industry in the manner which had occurred in the earlier postwar years. It was announced in July that the existing rate of completing houses (180,000 per year) would be maintained although the program for 1949 would not be determined until the rate of importing timber had been decided. The rigid control exercised by the government over all build¬ ing operations continued to be a main source of disputes. The continued insistence of official policy on building houses to let and on reserving, for local authorities, four-fifths of the licences issued was the subject of continuous attack by private builders who said that production of houses would be much accelerated if such restrictions were removed. It was a dispute in which neither side quite answered the arguments of the other. The reallocation of labour between the building industry and industries contributing directly to exports raised certain fears of unemployment, and there was a tendency to ease controls somewhat in order to give greater flexibility of employment. A revision of licensing of maintenance, repair and minor building schemes was announced in March, and in June the sum per year which might be expended without licence was raised to £100. At the same time the ban on factory building was lifted, though it was indicated that licences to build factories would be issued only under closely controlled conditions. The end of 1947 had seen a wages-incentives’ agreement be¬ tween employers and operatives whereby the wages of skilled craftsmen had been increased by 3c?. per hour (to 2s. lOjd.) and the introduction of incentives’ schemes had been permitted. By April 1948, there were complaints from trade unionists that few employers had introduced incentive-payment schemes although favourable reports had been received of the working of schemes which had been introduced. Three months later the leading employers’ organization announced that a promising start had been made with incentives and that further developments would be encouraged. A further improvement in working conditions was achieved with the adoption of a new welfare code for the industry. This not only consolidated the gains made in respect of provision of canteens and other amenities on building sites but also intro¬ duced much more stringent safety regulations applicable to all

BULGARIAN YOUTH at work on a railway project in 1948. Similar youth brigades were building and later operating a number of industrial developments initiated under the nation’s two-year economic plan

situations in which building work was carried out. Films.—Building a Bouse; Making Bricks for Houses (Encyclopaedia Britannica Films Inc.); Country Homes (British Information Services); Farm Homes Beautiful; Prairie Homes (National Film Board of Can¬ ada); Towards a Uniform Plumbing Code (Housing and Home Financing Agency—-Castle Films). (D. A. G. R.)

ij

■

A nation in the eastern part of the Balkan peninsula, bounded north by Rumania, on the west by Yugoslavia, on the south by Greece and on the east by Turkey and the Black sea. Area (including southern Dobruja): 42,796 sq.mi.; pop. (1947 est.), 7,048,000. Languages (1934 census); Bulgarian 88%, Turkish 10%. Religion (1934 census): Greek Orthodox 84%; Moslem 13.5%. Chief towns (pop. 1946): Sofia (cap., 1947 est., 434,888); Plovdiv (125,440); Varna (77,792); Ruuse (53,420); Burgas (43,684). President of the republic, Mincho Neychev; prime minister, Georgi Dimitrov. History.—The dictatorship of the Communist-led Fatherland Front, directed by Georgi Dimitrov, was still further consoli¬ dated during 1948. After the suppression of the Agrarians and execution of Nikola Petkov in the previous autumn there re¬ mained one small opposition group which still had representa¬ tives in the Bulgarian parliament—the Social Democrats led by Kosta Lulchev. Lulchev stated on Jan. 12 that he would vote against the budget as a mark of disapproval of the government’s policy. On Jan. 26, the progovernraent group of Socialists led by Dimiter Neikov announced that they would fuse with the Communist party. On-May 21 it was announced that there would not be a fusion of the two parties, as in the other eastern European countries, but that the Neikov group would simply join the Communist party. The ceremony took place on Aug. II. Meanwhile Lulchev and his followers continued their opposi¬ tion. In the summer Lulchev was arrested, and his trial took place in November. He was sentenced on Nov. 15 to 15 years’ imprisonment. An important step toward the standardization of education for the purpose of Marxist indoctrination was taken by the closure of all foreign schools and religious missions, announced on Sept. I. The drastic law of Dec. 23, 1947, for the nationalization of

DUIgdi Id*

144

all industry and mines, was followed by a second law in Febru¬ ary which, by giving the government power to take over all house property except that loosely described as “working class accommodation,” provided a further strong weapon against po¬ litically unreliable persons. A resolution of the central commit¬ tee of the Communist party, published in December, claimed that industrial output in 1948 was 75% higher than in 1939. Between 1946 and 1948 the number of machine tractor stations had increased from 20 to 70, and of labour co-operative farms (Bulgarian kolkhoz) from 430 to 850. During the same period wholesale trade had passed entirely into public ownership, while retail trade was 70% publicly owned. The same resolution sum¬ marized the aims of the new five-year plan, to cover the period 1949-53. Its most interesting features appeared to be the follow¬ ing: the share of agriculture in national production was to fall from 70% to 55%, that of industry to rise from 30% to 45%; heavy industry (including mining and electricity) was to increase from 26% to 55% of industrial output; labour farms were to produce, by 1953, 60% of the output of agriculture. This was by far the most ambitious plan of collectivization of agriculture yet put forward by any of the soviet satellites. A Bulgarian-soviet trade agreement was signed in Moscow at the end of March. The value of trade was to be $90,000,000. Soviet scholars and specialists were to be sent to assist Bul¬ garian economic construction. The largest single item in Bul¬ garia’s exports to the U.S.S.R. would be 22,000,000 kg. of leaf tobacco. Bulgaria signed treaties of friendship and mutual aid with Rumania (January), Czechoslovakia (April) and Hungary (July). The most important development in Bulgarian foreign policy was the change in its attitude to Yugoslavia following the denunciation of Tito by the Cominform. Whereas until then Yugoslavia had been represented as Bulgaria’s second greatest friend, and the system of regional autonomy granted to Mace¬ donia was treated as satisfactory, by summer 1948 accusations against Belgrade of greater Yugoslav imperialism began to be heard. Bulgarian spokesmen accused the Tito government of planning to annex “Pirin Macedonia” (southwestern Bulgaria) to Yugoslavia. At the congress of the Communist party of Macedonia, held on Dec. 19 in Skoplje, Yugoslav spokesmen indignantly denied this, and accused the Bulgarian regime of per¬ secuting, in a “bourgeois nationalist” manner, the Macedonians living in Bulgaria, for whom Yugoslavia had claimed only “na-

tional rights.” At the end of 1948 it looked as if the ancient quarrel between Serbs and Bulgars for control of Macedonia had been revived in all its old fury. (See also Yugoslavia.) (H. S-W.) Education—(1938-39)

Elementary schools 4,743, teachers 15,865, pupils 596,111; higher elementary schools 1,932, teachers 7,288, pupils 280,356; secondary schools 112, teachers 2,364, scholars 74,430; Uni¬ versity of Sofia: professors and teachers 285, students 6,030. Illiteracy (1934): 20.4% of males, 42.8% of females. Finance and Banking.—Budget (est. in million leva): (1947) revenue 57,200, expenditure 57,200; (1948) revenue 69,000, expenditure 69,000. Note circulation (Dec. 1946, in million leva) 45,300. Deposit money (Nov. 30, 1947, in million leva) 106,260. Monetary unit: lev (pi. leva). All exchange transactions are conducted at the official buying and selling rates of $i U.S.=285-288 leva (£i=:i,148-1,160 leva). Trade and Communications-Foreign trade: (1947, in million leva) im¬ ports 21,420; exports 24,528. Roads (1945) 13,870 mi.; railways (1945) 2,402 mi. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947): cars 4,310, buses and trucks 4,210. Telephones (1947): 52,765. Industrial and Agricultural Production-Production (1947): lignite 4,044,000 metric tons; electricity 480,000,000 kw.hr. Main crops (1947, in metric tons): wheat 912,000, maize 783,000, barley 131,000, rye 95,000, oats 77,000, potatoes 62,000, rice 20,000, cotton 6,000, tobacco 5,000. Livestock: horses (1945) 476,157, cattle (1947 est.) 2,005,000, sheep (1948 est.) 9,000,000, pigs (1948 est.) 825,000. Bibliography.—M. Padev, Dimitrov Wastes no Bullets (London, 1948).

llnlnn nf independent federal republic lying DUrniuy union or* on the eastern side of the Bay of Ben¬ gal, between Pakistan and India on the northwest, Tibet on the north and C]hina, French Indo-China and Siam on the east. The republic comprises Burma proper, the Shan state, the Kachin state, the Chin special division and the Karenni state. Area: 261,749 sq.mi.; pop. (mid-1947 est.); 17,000,000. Racially, the peoples of Burma are Mongoloid. About 90% are Buddhist by religion and about 70% use the Burmese language. Chief towns: Rangoon (capital and main port, pop. 1941, 500,800) ; Mandalay (pop. 1941, 163,537); Moulmein (pop. 1931, 65,506); Bassein (pop. 1941, c. 50,000) and Akyab (pop. 1931, 38,094). Presi¬ dent: Sao Shwe Thaik, the Shan chief of Yawnghwe; prime minister; Thakin Nu. History.—The official birthday of the new republic (hence¬ forth to be known as the Union of Burma) was Jan. 4, 1948, when the last British governor and his staff handed over the cares of office to the first president of one of the world’s young¬ est sovereign states. Burma applied for and was given member¬ ship in the United Nations. March, however, saw the outbreak of formidable communist strikes. On March 25 a meeting of the leaders of the A.F.P.F.L. (Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom league, the government party) gave the P.V.O. (People’s Volunteer organization, the extreme left wing of the A.F.P.F.L.) time to settle the strike, but this was ineffective. On March 28 the government decided that the communists were out to seize power by force. They then broke up the strikes and ordered the arrest of the communist leaders. Immediately there were outbreaks of armed violence. Police posts were attacked, and arms were seized. Whole districts came under the sway of the insurgents, and even in governmentcontrolled areas there was turmoil. Toward the end of May, Prime Minister Thakin Nu avowed his intention to retire from politics on July 20, and devote him¬ self to the formation of a new extragovernmental body that would work for the good of the people. This body was to be frankly and professedly Marxist in character, and a main point in the proposals was the establishment of political and economic relations with the U.S.S.R. and the countries of eastern Europe. By this means he hoped to effect a reconciliation between the A.F.P.F.L. and the P.V.O. This declaration failed of its pur¬ pose. The P.V.O. split; the majority (“White Band”) thought the prime minister was not going far enough, and went into open opposition—forcible opposition in some cases. Only a minority DiiriflO

(“Yellow Band”) stuck by him. On Aug. II a curfew was imposed in Rangoon against a pos-

FLAG RAISING CEREMONY at Rangoon, as the Union of Burma came into existence on Jan. 4, 1948

sible coup d’etat by mutineers of the Burma Rifles, and two days later troops and aircraft went into action against them in Toungoo and Mingalodon. There followed several sharp and deter¬ mined actions in which the rebels had decidedly the worst of it. The mutineers either scattered or surrendered, but the whole country was now in a ferment. Presently a new disturbing factor emerged. The Karens in the east began to bestir themselves, and on Sept. 3 announced the seizure of the port of Moulmein, extending their control later along the east bank of the Sittang. By the middle of the month they controlled most of Tenasserim east of the Sittang, while in the Irrawaddy delta they held Bassein and several other centres. The communists controlled—or at least could chal¬ lenge the government in—a wide strip of territory extending close to the railway line from the very gates of Rangoon for about 250 mi. to the north, together with some areas near the Chindwin river, and practically the whole of Arakan. The gov¬ ernment remained firmly in control of Rangoon, and had re¬ established itself in the area to the northwest of Rangoon by the recapture of Thayetmyo and Prome. It also controlled Mandalay and the greater part of central Burma and had come to terms with the Karens. These people were not in principle opposed to it. They avowedly occupied the areas they now con¬ trolled to keep the communists out, and to safeguard their own sectional interests. Their aim was, apparently, to establish the Karenni state on a wider territorial basis, but to remain part of the Union of Burma, under the Burma federal government. On Sept. 15 the assembly re-elected Thakin Nu as premier; then on Sept. 18 the country was shocked by the murder of U Tin Tut, former foreign minister and a leader of the

145

146

BUSES —BUSINESS REVIEW

taxes, the prospect of increased military expenditures by the government and the Foreign Aid Appropriation act of June 28, \ Education.—(1940) Elementary schools 5,679, pupils 384,060; middle schools 1,018, pupils 139,190; high schools 399, pupils 94,353; technical which appropriated $4,000,000,000 of the $5,300,000,000 au¬ schools 1,172, students 19,190; unrecognized institutions 18,745, pupils thorized by the Foreign Assistance act. By September the gross 212,663; university (Rangoon) 2,365 students; art college (Mandalay) 101. national product had risen to an annual rate of $255,900,000,Finance and Banking—Budget (actual 1947-48): revenue Rs.674,000, an increase of $28,000,000,000 since Sept. 1947. Na¬ 189,700, expenditure Rs.7o8,7i9,5oo; (est. 1948—49) revenue'Rs.520,784,000, expenditure Rs.621,698,000. National debt (Sept. 30, 1948) tional income was at an annual rate of $215,000,000,000 at the Rs.917,605,000. Monetary unit: one rupee (R.r)=ij. 6d. (30.155 cents end of the first quarter and $221,700,000,000 at the end of the U.S.) • second quarter. (See Income and Product, U.S.) Foreign Trade.—(Oct. 1, 1946-Sept. 30, 1947) Imports Rs.458,400,000, exports Rs.455,183,000; (Oct. 1, 1947-March 31, 1948) imports Rs.545,Inflationary forces continued to exert their influence during 211,475, exports Rs.271,016,000. 1948 and were reflected by the sharp rise in prices during the Transport and Communications.—(1948) Roads 8,917 mi. Railways 1,740 mi.; passenger traffic (Oct. 1, 1947-March 31, 1948) 5,429,760; freight second and third quarters of the year. Among these influences traffic 1,175,685 tons. was the rapid rise in consumer and bank credit. On Aug. 16, Agriculture.—Main crops (1947—48) (in long tons); rice 5,343,000; 1948, Pres. Harry S. Truman signed a bill which reinstated con¬ peanuts 153,000; sesamum seed 42,900; cotton 7,000; timber (includ¬ ing wood for charcoal and firewood) 3,652,848. Livestock (June 30, trol over consumer credit, and on Aug. 19, the board of gover¬ 1948): cattle 4,485,630: buffaloes 721,259; horses 11,992; sheep 21,093; pigs 401,692. nors of the federal reserve system issued regulation W on con¬ sumer instalment credit, which became effective on Sept. 20. Buses: see Automobile Industry; Electric Transporta¬ Public law 905 also authorized the Federal Reserve board to tion; Motor Transportation. raise reserve requirements on time and demand deposits. (See also Consumer Credit.) During the fourth quarter of the year there were some peri¬ Rlicinocc Doviou/ characterized in the DUolllCOtf nCVICWe United States by a record business ac¬ ods of business hesitancy caused, in part, by expanding inven¬ tivity, near-capacity utilization of plants and facilities, heavy tories in some lines, declines in prices of farm products and in the volume of retail sales and, in no small part, by the surprise expenditures for new equipment and almost complete employ¬ ment of the total labour force. The high level of personal election of President Truman on Nov. 2. income accompanied by rapidly expanding consumer credit sup¬ Employment.—In June, U.S. employment rose to 61,200,000 ported retail sales and was a main factor underlying the con¬ and in July reached a high of 61,500,000, declining in successive tinued large volume of producers’ goods sales. Other factors months to around 60,000,000 in October and November. Total which tended to accelerate the tempo of business activity, after civilian nonagricultural employment for the year was about 3% a momentary hesitancy during the first quarter reflecting the above 1947 and about 14% above 1944. Unemployment hovered break in farm prices, were the reduction in individual income around 2,000,000 during the first seven months of the year, but in August dropped below that figure as the summer entrants Table I,—Per Cenf Chonges in Selected Business Indicators, United States into the labour force withdrew, Per cent change Per cent change Per cent change; 1948* from: July 1948 Aug.1948 Sept.1948 Oct.1948 Oct. 1948 from: and by October the number of 1939 1944 1947 Business or Economic Indicator from from from from July Aug. Sept. July 1947 Aug. 1947 Sept. 1947 Oct. 1947 1948 unemployed had dropped to the 1948 1948 General business: low figure of 1,600,000. Business activity^. ••••••• -f 50.8 + 3.8 - 0.1 4- 3.2 4- 3.3 45.3 4- 6.5 4- 3.5 4- 0.4 4- 2.1 4- 41.1 Bonk debits^.. • -f200.3 4-13.8 -f-15.8 4-12.0 - 1 .4 4- 9.7 4- 5.3 4- 2.6 4- 6.1 Manufacturing employment - 64.0 4-328.9 Commercial failures^. 4-51.8 4-43.2 4-56.7 4-29.5 4-49.0 4-16.6 4-13.2 4- 4.9 Personal Income: and pay rolls for the year were 4- 13.8 Salaries and wages^ -f 189.6 4-10.4 4-10.5 4-11.8 4- 8.7 4- 9.9 4- 0.4 4- 2.4 4- 0.1 4- 28.6 up 2% and 10%, respectively, -fl91.3 4-10.2 4-12.5 Total^. 4- 8.4 4- 0.5 4- 4.2 4- 7.8 4- 0.3 4- 1.3 4- 14.1 Civilian nonagricultural emp.^ • • • -f- 44.2 - 2.5 4- 5.0 4- 3.0 - 1.9 — 0.2 4- 3.1 4- 4.3 4- 1.8 from 1947. (See also Employ¬ 4-187.1 -15.4 - 9.5 - 4.3 0 - 5.9 -27.3 -15.8 -15.8 Anti-Fascist People’s Freedom league.

Employment and earnings—mfg.®: Number employed. Pay rolls. Per production worker: Weekly earnings. Hourly earnings. Hours per week. Industrial production;^ Durable goods. Steel .. Nondurable goods. Total. Value construction contracts awarded:* Residential. Nonresidenfiai • .. Public works and utilities .... Total. Distribution:^ Department store sales. Chain store soles. Total retail soles. Consumer credit outstanding—totol^ • Wholesale prices: Other than form and food® . • . Prices received by formers’^ . ♦ . Total®. Retail prices: Food® . Total cost of living®. Prices poid by farmers’. Bonkina items of member banks:^ Loons. Investments in U.S. govt, obligations Total investments . .. Money in circulation. Foreign trade (merchondlsc):^ Exports. Imports. Corporate profits after toxes^ . . .

(R. M. MacD.)

-f 60.4 -1-264.4

4-

7.0 5.7

4- 2.0 4-10.0

4- 3.4 4-11.9

4- 2.5 4-13.1

4- 2.7 4-10.5

4- 1.7 4- 9.0

4-

3.0 4- 6.0

4- 0.9 4- 1.8

4- 0.8 — 0.1

-1-122.7 -f 109.5 -f 6.4

4- 15.3 4- 30.1 - 11.3

4- 7.9 4- 8.6 - 0.5

4- 8.1 4- 8.3 0

4-10.0 4- 9.1 4- 0.8

4- 7.4 4- 9.0 - 1.5

4- 7.2 4- 8.7 4- 1.2

4- 3.2 4- 2.6 4- 0.5

4-

1.1 4- 1.3 - 0.2

4- 0.8 4- 0.3 4- 0.5

-t-106.4 + 81.6 -1- 63.3 + 76.1

- 36.3 40.5 4- 4.1 - 18.3

4- 2.3 4- 6.2 4- 3.5 4- 2.7

4- 5.8 4-11.0 4- 3.6 4- 5.1

4- 5.7 -hi 0.1 4- 3.5 4- 4.9

4- 3.2 4- 9.7 4- 3.9 4- 3.1

4- 3.6 4- 8.3 4- 1.7 4- 2.6

4- 5.5 4-10.0 4- 7.0 4- 5.9

4444-

3.6 6.8 2.2 2.1

4- 2.7 4- 3.3 - 1.1 4- 0.5

-f 175.8 -4-292.7 -f 76.6 -f-172.7

4-956.1 4-321.6 -4-196.0 4-385.5

4-16.7 4-39.7 4-16.8 4-24.8

4-45.2 4-55.9 4-31.4 4-45.8

4-

9.3 4- 6.2 - 7.0 4- 3.8

4-

4.1 4-16.7 4-43.2 4-17.3

-15.1 4-13.8 - 0.3 - 1.9

-15.1 -19.9 -24.0 -19.1

-12.1 4- 2.5 -20.4 - 8.8

4- 6.1 4-13.0 -18.3 4- 2.2

-1-184.0 -4-192.3 -f212.8 -f 106.7

44-

61.0 80.2 4- 89.0 4-186.7

4- 5.2 4-10.4 4-11.1 4-22.9

4-10.5 4-17.0 4-13.4 -j-25.2

4- 9.7 4- 7.4 4- 9.1 4-25.3

444-

6.3 9.7 7.9 4-25.1

4-

9.4 -h 8.3 -h 5.8 4-25.1

4-34.6 4-10.7 4- 8.0 4- 6.7

4-26.3 4-14.7 4- 8.5 4- 5.4

4444-

-f 85.2 -1-202.1 -f 114.3

4- 52.9 4- 47.2 4- 58.8

4-11.7 4- 3.2 4- 8.8

4-13.2 4- 9.1 4-12.0

4-12.6 4- 6.2 4-10.4

44-

4-10.9 1.4 7.1

+ 9.4 - 4.2 4- 4.1

4-

1.4 - 8.0 - 2.2

40 - 5.5 - 27

- 0.1 - 4.5 - 2.1

-fl21.7 -f 72.5 -fl 18.2

44-

55.1 36.7 4- 50.0

44-

8.9 7.7 4- 7.3

4-12.3 4- 9.7 4- 9.0

4-10.2 4- 8.9 4- 6.8

444-

5.7 6.5 47

4- 4.9 4- 6.0 4- 3.5

- 2.4 - 0.1 - 1.1

- 2.4 - 0.5 - 1.1

- 1.7 - 0.5 - 0.8

-1-189.4 -4-231.1 -fl83.0 4-297.9

4-113.8 - 11.9 7.4 4- 24.3

4-15.2 -10.5 - 9.1 - 1.3

4-18.3 -11.1 - 9.3 - 1.0

4-14.9 - 9.7 - 8.3 - 1.3

-fl3.8 -12.2 -10.7 - 1.6

4-10.5 -13.2 -11.7 - 1.4

44-

4-

4— 4-

-f289.1 4-196.6 4-191.6

- 14.2 4- 7’5.3 4-125.3

-15.5 4-19.8 4-16.4

-11.5 4-24.2

-13.6 4-49.5 t

-16.6 4-16.0 t

'i

- 9.61 - 6.4t - 0.21 - 6.7| t

2.8 4.1 3.6 0.8

2.4 - 4.4 - 4.0 4- 07

2.5 7.2 4.7 3.2

0.1 2.0 2.1 0.1

*Data for November and December estimated on the basis of October levels tolcing into account the seasonal factor where significant. fOct. 1948 not available. Per cent change; Sept. 1948 from July 1948, and Sept. 1948 from Aug. 1948. ^Corporate profits re¬ ported quarterly. ^New York Times. ^Federal Reserve Board. and Bradstreet, Inc, ^United States Department of Commerce. ^United States De¬ partment of Labor. ®F. W. Dodge Corporation. '^United States Department of Agriculture.

ment.)

Industrial Production.—In¬ dustrial production during the first two months of the year continued to rise slightly from the high level reached during the last quarter of 1947; in Feb. 1948 the Federal Reserve board index reached 194. Dur¬ ing the next seven months, the index of production was less than the February level, rang¬ ing from a low of 188 in April to 192 in May and June, but in October it reached 195. Indus¬ trial production for the year was about 2.7% above that of 1947. Steel production was 6.2% above that for 1947, and opera¬ tions were at the rate of more than 90% of capacity through¬ out the year except in April and July, when the rate fell to 80% and 89%, respectively. In Sep-

BUSINESS REVIEW tember, the steel operating rate rose to 96% of capacity and during the last quarter of the year, the industry was operating at substantial capacity. However, an inadequate supply of steel, particularly in the durable goods and heavy industries, continued to be a bottleneck throughout the year, and exerted a retarding effect on production in major sectors of the economy. (See also articles on separate industries.) Commodity Prices.—The rapid rise in commodity prices, both wholesale and retail, continued through Jan. 1948, but was interrupted temporarily by the sharp break of farm products and food prices in February. The U.S. department of labour index of wholesale prices of farm products dropped from its high of 201.5 in January to 180.9 February; the index of wholesale prices of foods dropped from 181.2 to 173.3 the same period. A smaller drop occurred in retail food prices, from 209.7 in January to 202.3 March. Prices of commodities other than farm products and foods, however, continued to rise throughout the first three quarters of the year. Prices of farm products and foods rose steadily throughout the second quarter after the break in the first quarter, but developed further weak¬ ness during the third quarter. For the year wholesale prices averaged almost 9% higher than in 1947 as did also retail food prices. Wholesale prices of com¬ modities other than farm products and foods averaged almost 12% higher in' 1948 than in 1947, and prices paid by consumers at retail as measured by the cost of living averaged almost 8% above 1947. At the beginning of the fourth quarter there was some evidence of further weakening-in the price structure as the October indexes of both wholesale and retail prices registered declines from the preceding months. (See also Prices.) Retail Trade.—Except for the short-lived decline in Novem¬ ber, retail trade continued to expand throughout 1948 and to reach new high dollar levels. The increase in disposable income and the expansion in consumer credit prior to the reinstatement AUTOMOBILE WORKERS leaving a plant in Detroit, Mich., early in 1948, as a protracted cold wave caused fuel shortages that made more than 200,000 workers idle in the Detroit area and brought growing concern over the lag be¬ tween production and demand in the U.S. oil industry

147

of controls on instalment credit in September maintained effec¬ tive consumer demand in spite of the high level of prices. For the year as a whole, the United States department of commerce estimated that total retail sales would be ii% greater than for 1947. Department store sales for the year were up 5.2% and chain store sales 10.4%. Beginning with July 1948, however, the percentage by which 1948 total retail sales were above 1947 sales dropped progressively in successive months through Octo¬ ber, but October sales were about 8% above July and August sales and about 5% above sales in September. Banking Developments.—Of importance in relation to the U.S. domestic economy in 1948 was the continued large amount of deposits and currency held by individuals. At the beginning of the year, the amount of deposits and currency held by indi¬ viduals was $170,200,000,000. By midyear, the amount had de¬ clined to $167,900,000,000, but the June amount was $6,000,000,000 greater than in June 1945 at the end of the war, and $32,000,000,000 greater than in June 1944, the high war year. One of the major factors underlying the sustained large volume of such deposits and currency by individuals in 1948 was the large volume of bank loans outstanding. Loans of all banks, as reported by the Federal Reserve board, had risen to $45,400,000,000, an increase of $2,400,000,000 from the 1947 high on Dec. 31. Commercial bank loans rose to $40,100,000,000 on July 28, 1948, as compared with $38,000,000,000 outstanding on Dec. 31, 1947. The use of bank credit by business continued to grow throughout the first half of 1948. By midyear the inflationary implications of further expansion in bank credit as well as in consumer credit lead to the enact¬ ment of some mild curbs on bank credit. By joint resolution of congress (public law 905 approved in Aug. 1948, to expire in ten months unless renewed), the board of governors of the fed¬ eral reserve system was given the authority to raise the reserve requirements to new maxima; 7.3% against time deposits, and 30%, 24% and 18% against net demand deposits of member banks in central reserve cities, reserve cities and country cities, respectively. On Sept. 16, 1948, the reserve requirements for

148

BUSINESS REVIEW petroleum products, chemicals, textiles, building materials, iron and steel, automobile parts, electrical and radio equipment and various other metal products—heating and plumbing fixtures, office equipment and household appliances. New Plant and Equipment.—Nonagricultural business ex¬ penditures on plant and equipment in 1948 were estimated by the council of economic advisers for the joint committee on the economic report to amount to $18,600,000,000. Of this total about $8,000,000,000 was for manufacturing, $5,200,000,000 for commercial businesses, $2,500,000,000 for electric and gas utili¬ ties and $2,000,000,000 for railroads and other transportation facilities. Building.—For the first seven months of 1948 the number of new houses started each month was greater than in the corre¬ sponding month of 1947, but in August and September the number fell below the same month of 1947 by 3,800 units in August and 2,800 units in September. The total number of new housing units started in the first three quarters of 1948 was 729,500 according to the report of the council of economic advisers, based on reports of the U.S. department of labour. {See also Housing.) Construction activity in 1948 as measured by the value of contracts, reported by the F. W. Dodge corporation, was 24.8% above 1947. Residential construction was up 16.7%; public works and utilities construction 16.8%; and nonresidential con¬ struction, representing commercial and manufacturing, 39.7%. {See also Building and Construction Industry.)

“ANOTHER TOPSY—JUST CROWED?” a cartoon by Roche which appeared in the Buffalo Courier-Express in Aug. 1948

time deposits of member banks were raised to the new maximum limit, and for net demand deposits of member banks were raised to 26%, 22% and 16% for central reserve city banks, reserve city banks and country banks, respectively. On Sept. 29, 1948, required reserves were $19,900,000,000, and member banks had excess reserves on deposit in their Federal Reserve accounts amounting to $900,000,000. {See also Banking.) Company Earnings.—Corporate profits after taxes, accord¬ ing to estimates of the U.S. department of commerce, continued to rise during the first three quarters of 1948, and to exceed substantially the corresponding quarters of 1947. Corporate profits for the third quarter of the year were at an annual rate of $21,400,000,000, as compared with $19,200,000,000 in the first quarter of the 3^ear, and $17,700,000,000 in the third quar¬ ter of 1947. Only about one-third of corporate profits after taxes, $7,400,000,000, was distributed as dividends to stock¬ holders in the third quarter, which was a smaller proportion of the total than in any quarter of the previous two years, and represented a substantial change in distribution policy from earlier years. In 1939, for example, 76% of corporate profits was distributed as dividends. Undistributed corporate profits in the third quarter of 1948 reached an annual rate of $14,000,000,000. The National City Bank of New York reported the combined net income after taxes, of 400 companies, representative for the most part of the larger manufacturing enterprises, at $985,000,000 for the third quarter of 1948. This compared with $921,000,000 in the second quarter of 1948, and $709,000,000 in the third quarter of 1947. For the first nine months of 1948 the combined net income of these 400 companies totalled $2,700,000,000, compared with $2,100,000,000 in 1947—an increase of 31%. Net income of these companies represented an annual rate of return of 18.7% on aggregate net worth, compared with 16% for the same period in 1947. Substantial increases were reported particularly in the earnings of such groups as refined

Labour Relations.—Labour relations in 1948 were more tran¬ quil than in any other period since the end of World War II despite the continued public controversy over the merits of the Taft-Hartley act. During the first eight months of the year, as reported by the U.S. department of labour, the number of work stoppages was 2,130, a drop of 23% from the same period in 1947. The number of workers involved was only 1,500,000, a decline of 30% from 1947. Man-days lost from strikes for this eight-month period amounted to only about 0.5% of available working time. {See also Labour Unions; Strikes.) U.S. Foreign Trade.—^There was a substantial and continu¬ ous downward trend in the exports of the United States in 1948. Imports, on the other hand, were up 19.8% from 1947. Ex¬ ports during the first seven months of 1948 were valued at slightly more than $1,000,000,000 per month; imports at about $550,000,000 per month. The decline in the export surplus in the latter part of 1947 and during the first three quarters of 1948 may be attributed to several factors: (i) the using up of the credits and loans granted, particularly to England, at the close of the war; (2) import restrictions imposed by importing countries because of loss or decline in liquid reserves; (3) par¬ tial satisfaction of excess demand after the war; (4) restora¬ tion of production in other countries; and (5) the Foreign Aid Appropriation act. The initiation of the European Recovery program was prob¬ ably the most important development of the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, in relation to the foreign trade of the United States, since, in effect, it provided the machinery for financing about $5,300,000,000 of aid to the 16 participating countries during the 15-month period ending June 30, 1949. {See also Debt, National;

European

Recovery Program;

tional Trade; Law; United States.)

Interna¬

(V. B. B.)

British Commonwealth and Europe.—The relative shortage of goods that had been the basic feature of business activity in the postwar period continued to prevail to some extent during 1948. It was not nearly so universal, however, as in 1947. Short¬ ages in many raw materials continued in Europe, but the supply of manufactures succeeded to a larger extent in catching up to the abnormal postwar demand as far as consumers’ goods were

BUSINESS REVIEW Table II.— Wholesale Prices, Various Countries (1937 = 1001

Year and month 1946 .... 1947 .... January . . February . March. . . April . . . May . . . June . . . July .. . August . . September. October. . November . December . 1948 Jonuary . , February . March. . . April . . . May . . . June . . . July , . . August . . September. October. .

CzechoAus¬ Can- slotralia ada vakia 140 128 297 148 153 312 141 135 310 142 140 308 143 142 310 145 146 304 146 149 304 146 151 304 147 153 310 148 155 311 150 158 312 152 165 316 155 168 315 159 170 316

Den¬ mark 176 195 188 189 188 190 192 193 198 198 197 197 201 203

Francet India 648 252 989 2781 874 272 889 274 860 274 847 271 946 270 904 275 888 279 1,004 282 1,096 283 1,129 284 1,211 283 1,217 294

Italy 3,085 5,518 4,017 4,163 4,429 4,850 5,567 5,702 6,184 6,301 6,636 6,431 6,042 5,913

162 163 163 163 165 166 169 174 174 *

203 204 205 208 213 215 217 218 218 218

1,463 1,537 1,536 1,555 1,653 1,691 1,698 1,783 1,791 1,884

5,749 5,727 5,690 5,607 5,547 5,502 6,184 6,150 6,171

174 174 174 176 177 180 180 187 187 *

318 319 319 319 320 323 330 331 332 329

308 320 319 326 343 357 365 358 357 357

>: 1

Neth¬ Jnited er- Switzer King¬ lands land dom 232 193 161 250 201 177 247 196 167 248 197 169 248 198 169 248 199 172 247 199 174 249 200 175 251 200 178 250 201 178 251 202 180 252 207 183 256 208 186 258 209 187 257 257 257 257 257 258 257 258 257 *

211 21 1 211 210 210 210 209 208 207 207

195 199 200 202 203 204 204 203 202 202

*Data not available. fB ase: 1938 = 100. ^Beginning Jon. 1947. Index computed for 78 commodities rother than the 23 commodities used previously. Source: Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, Statistical Office of the United Nations.

concerned. To a large and increasing degree, the sellers’ market in such goods gave way to a buyers’ market both in Europe and in the raw-material producing British dominions and colonies. Demand for s’econdary necessities continued to be fairly strong, but became distinctly more selective. There was a decline even in the demand for raw materials, because of the inadequate supply of foreign exchange reserves of the European countries and British dominions. On the other hand, the demand for capital equipment remained far in excess of the producing ca¬ pacity of heavy industries, and many firms were unable to accept new orders for delivery within several years. In the domestic markets the demand for goods abated some¬ what because of the decline of the consumers’ purchasing power; this was caused in part by the fact that the excessive purchasing power inherited from the war was largely used up as Table III.—Industrial Production, Various Countries (1937=100) Year and month 1947 March .... . April. . May. June. . July.. August .... . September . . . October . . . November. . . December. . . . 1948 January ... . February ... . March .... April. . May. June.. July.. August. September . . .' October . . . .

. . . . . .

Belgium Canada 164 84 164 89 162 85 163 159 80 156 82 162 83 166 165 165

. .

93 92

.

99

. .

86 85

•

165 168 169 170 169 166 162 163 170

Denma rk 108 110 11 1 1 12 116 117 119 120 122 124 123 125 124 124 123 121 120 120 121 123

Germany Nether- Nor- Czecho(bi-zonei* lands way Slovakia 34 91 113 84 39 91 113 88 41 122 91 90 41 122 92 93 42 75 100 79 42 87 83 120 43 100 120 89 112 122 95 46 45 123 99 108 45 115 92 106 47 48 51 54 48 52 62 66 70

105 101 109 111 106 117 115 105 116

1 16 132 128 129 138 133 79 122 130

94 97 99 99 105 99 86 93 102

U.K 89 95 99 103 97 94 104 108 111 104

149

chants and manufacturers in many lines had to carry larger stocks of unsold goods. In some countries, such as Italy and France, deflationary measures made it more difficult to raise money for financing their stocks. In Britain and other coun¬ tries there was a distinct setback in the prices of many types of luxuries. On the other hand, on the continent the turnover in black markets continued to be considerable and profits made through illicit trafficking showed no sign of abatement. Above all, there was no sign anywhere of the much-prophesied postwar slump. A curious situation arose during 1948: the slight abatement of business activity, so far from being accompanied by a fall of prices, was unable to prevent a further rise. Admittedly, the rising trend was not so sharp as during the second half of 1947, but it was very persistent and fairly universal in Europe and in the commonwealth countries. Its main cause was the earlier rise of prices in the United States. The experience of 1947-48 in this respect taught an important lesson; it proved that, con¬ trary to the popular belief, the world was not divided into watertight economic compartments and international trends of prices continued to operate. The governments of most countries endeavoured to check the rise in prices. To that end, the British government decided on drastic reductions in capital expenditure and increased further the amounts spent on food subsidies. The Italian government embarked on a deliberate policy of orthodox currency deflation, even though it brought about a sharp increase of unemployment leading to social and political unrest. France, too, adopted some modest disinflationary measures, which were unable, however, to check the sharp rise in prices caused partly by the devaluation of the franc. Apart altogether from national policies there was a natural trend toward maintaining full employment; indeed the scarcity , of labour that characterized earlier postwar years continued to prevail even though in some special lines local unemployment developed. Shortage of dollars and other currencies continued to act as a grave handicap to business. It necessitated ruthless cuts in certain imports and the adoption and maintenance of various measures of austerity. Great Britain, having used up the last of the proceeds of the dollar loan obtained from the United States in 1946, had to draw upon its dwindling gold reserve and sold out some of its foreign investments. There was a distinct rise in unemployment through inability to import raw materials because of the dollar shortage. This trend was much more pro¬ nounced in France and other countries where output had to be

108 111 108 111 107 112 101 99

♦Base: 1936=100. Source: Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, Statistical Office of the United Nations.

a result of the payment of very high prices for goods whose prices were not subject to control. Moreover, the governments in various countries resorted to disinflationary and even defla¬ tionary measures in order to mop up excessive purchasing power. At the same time, there was an appreciable increase of the supply of goods because of the increase of output and, also, of the partial inability of exporters to sell abroad, in conse¬ quence of which goods originally earmarked for export had to be diverted to the home markets. Business conditions in the countries under review were less universally prosperous than in previous postwar years. Mer¬

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION of U.S. durable and nondurable goods, 1939-48, adjusted for seasonal variation (1935-39=100) (Source: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System)

BUTTER — CABINET MEMBERS

150

Table IV.— fndusfr/a/ Employmenf, Various Countries 11937=1001

South AfricoJ

Australia*

Canada*

1946 . . . 1947 .. . January » Februory . March • • April. . . May. . . June. . . July . . . August . . September October . November December

145 153 146 149 150 150 152 153 154 155 156 156 156 155

163 174 167 169 170 171 171 173 175 177 178 178 179 179

142 148 144 148 149 143 148 149 149 147 146 149 150 i49-

1948 January . February . March . . April. • . May. . . June. . . July . . . August . . September

155 155 155 158 158 159 159 159

175 175 177 177 176 178 181 181 183

149 154 156 154 155 156 156

Yeor and month

t

t t

United Norwaylllf Czecho¬ slovakia Kingdom! 98 106

t t

105

t t 106 106 107 108 108 108 109 109 109 109 108 108 108 108 109 109

111 124 117 121 121 122 123 126 124 125 126 128 128 127

85 94 88 90 91 92 92 92 93 94 95 97 100 100

128 131 131

107 99 99 99 t

t t t t t t

t t t t

§Excluding ^Including salaried employees. ^Including building. fNot available. Northern Ireland. ||lncluding mining. ^Base: 1941 = 100. Source: Monthly Bvlletin of Statistics, Statistical Office of the United Nations.

drastically curtailed for lack of raw materials. As a result of the Marshall plan this trend was checked but even so the im¬ port of tobacco and other goods had to be curtailed. British dominions, too, had to cut down their dollar requirements to a minimum in an effort to avoid having to draw on the British gold reserve. Among European countries only Switzerland and Belgium remained relatively immune to the effects of the scarcity of dollars. The reconstruction of industries in Europe made good prog¬ ress. In 1948 the reconversion of munition industries for peace requirements was completed to such an extent that when, in the second half of the year, several governments decided upon rearmament, the process had to be reversed. The industries established in the British dominions during the war succeeded in consolidating their position as a result of the continued shortage of imported manufactures. In Britain the production of steel, of motor cars and various other goods made satisfactory progress, though it was handicapped by the shortage of raw materials. In many lines of industry the output actually rose above prewar level. This was also the case with many continental industries. Industrial output in Germany rose sharply after the currency reform of June 1948 which stimulated pro¬ duction through restoring confidence in the currency. The progress in production was mainly attributable to tech¬ nical implements and the adoption of more efficient methods rather than to any increased exertions of labour. In most branches the shorter postwar working hours continued to handi¬ cap production, and the man-hour output was either less than Table V.—Retail Trade, Various Countries (1937=1001

Year and month 1947 Morch . . April. . . May. . . June. . . July . . August . . September October . November December 1948 January . February . March . « April. . . May. . . June. . . July . . . August . . September

Australia*

Canada

Denmarkf NetherlandsJ Switzerland

U.K.§

186 213 214 205 210 238 247 242 231 220

214 215 237 223 208 214 231 243 263 314

232 221 247 222 212 215 228 254 241 314

194 215 213 187 220 197 192 242 290 250

209 220 215 201 195 179 199 231 251 315

141 141 147 139 142 136 150 161 171 183

206 229 231 259 254 238 251 260

203 190 234 242 256 258 236 229 248

194 193 232 239 233 227

222 188 230 249 230 238 259 228 224

213 199 240 219 236 214 227 183 206

143 148 162 157 165 165 164 156 167

*Base: July 1936-Jun e 1937=100. tBase: July 1938-Junel 939 = 100. XBase: 1938 = 100. §Base: 1942=100. Source: Monthly Bulletin of Statistics, Statistical Office of the United Nations.

the prewar level or had failed to rise in proportion to the im¬ provement of technical methods. Industrial unrest because of politically inspired subversive activities was partly responsible for the inadequate output, especially in France and Italy. Consumption continued at a high level because of the ex¬ penditure of the remnant of the purchasing power created dur¬ ing the war and the early postwar years, and also because of social security measures. The more equal distribution of in¬ comes compared with prewar continued to stimulate demand for primary necessities and even secondary necessities. Because of the almost continuous full employment throughout the coun¬ tries under review, consumption was not materially restricted by unemployment. Extensive government control remained a characteristic fea¬ ture in business life, especially in Europe. The policy of na¬ tionalization continued in Britain, France and other countries. Taxation in Britain and to a lesser extent in western Europe remained high and gravely impaired the capacity of business firms to accumulate adequate reserves. For the first time a small capital levy was adopted in Britain, foreshadowing the possibility of larger levies of the same kind. In countries be¬ yond the “iron curtain” the gradual elimination of private busi¬ ness continued at an accelerated pace. The process was vir¬ tually completed during 1948 as far as large enterprises were concerned. Business in the raw-material-producing dominions and col¬ onies of European countries was on the whole satisfactory, apart from- the British, French and Dutch possessions in southeast Asia, where political disturbances caused much disorganization of economic activity. (See also Banking; International Trade; Stocks and Bonds; Wages and Hours; and articles on individual countries and industries.) Films.—Consumer Protection; What Is a Contract? (Coronet Instruc¬ tional Films). (P. Eg.)

Diittor

favourite animal fat lost additional ground in dietary competition on a world-wide basis in 1948. Production of butter in the United States in 1948 was esti¬ mated at 1,535,000,000 lb. compared with 1,638,000,000 lb. in 1947 and 2,170,000,000 lb. annually before World War II. Civilian butter consumption amounted to 10.2 lb. per capita, compared with ii.i lb. in 1947 and 16.7 lb. in 1935-39. Per capita butter consumption, translated into milk equivalent, amounted to 207 lb. in 1948 against 226 lb. in 1947. Exports of butter were very small in 1948. The price of 92 score butter at Chicago, Ill., rose to a peak of 82 cents per pound wholesale in July (almost $i per pound retail) before consumer resistance and competition with oleo¬ margarine broke prices to a low of 57 cents per pound in late October; subsequent recovery carried to 64 cents. Storage stocks late in the year were slightly above the low level of 1947, but prewar stocks averaged 60% larger. World butter production during the April to June period of 1948 was only 93% of the comparable 1947 period, Canada, United States, New Zealand and Australia showing declines, whereas South Africa, Netherlands and Eire increased produc¬ tion. (See also Cheese; Dairying; Margarine; Milk.)

DUllCL

(J. K. R.) Monihoi'O

IVIClIlUultf*

following members of President Harry S. Truman’s cabinet held office

on Jan. i, 1949. Post Name State Secretary of State . . . George C. Marshall* . .Pennsylvania Secretary of the Treasury . John W. Snyder . . . .Missouri Attorney General .... Thomas C. Clark . . .Texas Postmaster General . . . Jesse M. Donaldson . .Illinois Secretary of the Interior . . Julius A. Krug . . . .Tennessee ♦Resigned effective Jan. 20, 1949. Succeeded by Dean G. Acheson.

CACAO-—CALIFORNIA Post Secretary Secretary Secretary Secretary

of of of of

Name

Agriculture . Commerce . Labor . Defense .

Charles F. Brannan Charles Sawyer . Maurice J. Tobin James Forrestal .

State •Colorado •Ohio •Massachusetts •New York

. . . .

Great Britain.—On Jan^ i, 1949, the British Labour cabinet was composed as follows; Pott

Name

Prime Minister and First Lord of the Treasury •Clement Richard Attlee Lord President of the Council.Herbert Stanley Morrison Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs . • •Ernest Bevin Chancellor of the Exchequer.Sir Stafford Cripps Minister of Defence ..Albert Victor Alexander Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster . . .Hugh Dalton Lord Pnvy Seal and Paymaster General • • .Viscount Addison Lord Chancellor.Viscount Jowitt secretary of State for the Home Department .James Chuter Ede Secretary of State for the Colonies • • . .Arthur Creech Jones Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations .Philip John Noel-Baker Secretary of State for Scotland.Arthur Woodburn Minister of Labour and National Service . .George Alfred Isaacs Minister of Health.Aneurin Bevan Minister of Agriculture and Fisheries . . .Thomas Williams Minister of Education.George Tomlinson President of the Board of Trade . . , . .James Harold Wilson (See also Government Departments and Bureaus.)

Cacao:

see Cocoa.

P/lrimilini

declining from 5,900 short tons in 1943 to 4,650 tons in 1946, world production of cadmium rose to 5,650 tons in 1947. The United States is the leading producer, but imports part of the raw material, mostly from Mexico. The United States output rose from 3,413 tons in 1946 to 4>307 tons in 1947. Consumption was 3,478 tons in 1946 and 3,901 tons in 1947, leaving a small surplus from production, most of which was exported. Mexico is the largest producer after the United States, but exports the entire output for treat¬ ment, mostly to the United States, in the form of cadmium¬ bearing flue dusts. The Mexican output was 790 tons in 1946 and 860 tons in 1947. Metal production in other countries in short tons was as follows in 1947, the corresponding 1946 data being shown in parentheses: Australia 211 (247); Canada 348 (398); Great Britain 118 (119); Belgium 95 (98). Germany, France, Italy, Norway and Poland were all important prewar producers, but had not by 1947 developed a very large postwar output, (G. A. Ro.)

UilUilllUIII.

Calendar of Events, 1948: PQlifnrnio

see pages 1-16.

most southerly Pacific coast state of the

udIllUl llldi United States, California achieved statehood on Sept. 9, 1850. The “Golden state,” as it is popularly called, has an area of 158,693 sq.mi., of which 1,890 sq.mi. is water. The U.S. bureau of the census estimated the total population, ex¬ cluding armed forces overseas, as of July i, 1948, at 10,031,000, representing an increase of 45.2% from the April 1940 census. The chief cities (with 1947 population estimates, and with 1940 populations in parentheses) were: Los Angeles 1,805,687 (i,504,277); San Francisco 812,400 (634,536); Oakland 426,000 (302,163); San Diego 365,000 (203,341); Long Beach 250,000 (164,271); Sacramento (the state capital) 130,000 (105,958); Pasadena 106,202 (81,864); Berkeley 105,000 (85,547); Glen¬ dale 100,000 (82,582); Richmond 100,000 (23,642). History.— The 1948 political year was marked by the nomi¬ nation of California’s Governor Earl Warren as vice-presidential candidate on the Republican ticket. Nevertheless the 1948 presi¬ dential election followed the national pattern and resulted in the 25 electoral votes of California going to the Democratic party by a slender margin. The total vote of the state was 4,076,981 with registration figures showing 2,892,222 registered Democrats and 1,908,170 Republicans. The results of the presidential con¬ test were: Harry S. Truman and Alben W. Barkley (Dem.)

151

^>9^3AS4', Thomas E. Dewey and Warren (Rep.) 1,895,269; Henry A. Wallace and Glen H. Taylor (Prog.) 190,381. No state officials were elected; the state officers remained: Earl Warren, governor; Goodwin J. Knight, lieutenant gov¬ ernor; Frank M. Jordan, secretary of state; Charles G. Johnson, treasurer; Thomas H. Kuchel, controller; Fred N. Howser, at¬ torney general, and Roy E. Simpson, superintendent of public instruction.

State propositions passed during the November general elec¬ tion provided for an increase in maximum aid to the aged from $60 to $75 a month; increased aid to the blind from $75 to $85 a month; and a reduction in the number of men legally constituting a full crew on freight trains. Defeated at the same time were propositions for reapportionment of the state senate on a basis of population, for local control of intoxicating bever¬ ages, for creation of a state housing authority, for the regula¬ tion of commercial fishing, and for veterans’ tax exemption to be based on assessed valuation. California’s principal problem, water, was accentuated because of late and inadequate rainfall during the winter of 1947-48. As a result the legislature initiated state power-saving time on March 14. It was terminated Jan. i, 1949. The legislature con¬ tinued Governor Warren’s highway program, but defeated his state health insurance plan. The year 1948 was celebrated throughout the state as the centennial of the discovery of gold in California. Coloma, scene of the original find by James Wilson Marshall, relived its past in pageant form and the United States issued a commemorative stamp for the occasion. Education.—Average daily attendance for 1947-48 as estimated for budget purposes was 995,045 in elementary school districts, 386,114 in high school districts, and 52,496 in junior college districts. For the fall semester of 1947 the nine state colleges showed an enrolment of 21,636. For the fall semester of 1948-49 the University of California reported a total of 43,424 full-time students for its 8 schools (1947, 42,637); 23,145 were enrolled at the Berkeley campus (1947, 22,491) and 14,570 at Los Angeles (1947, 14,391). Social

Insurance

and

Assistance,

Public Welfare and

Related

Programs.

—For the first 10 months of 1948 the average monthly assistance to the 193,700 needy aged was $61.25. The average monthly payment to the 7,300 needy blind was $77.38. The average monthly assistance payment for 41,513 needy children was $48.51. During the same period unem¬ ployment insurance payments to a monthly average of 130,700 claimants totalled $117,685,176; a monthly average of 39,086 veterans’ allowances totalled $33,790,000. Total expenditures for the state department of corrections for the year 1947-48 were $12,359,349. There were 9,944 inmates of its six adult institutions (as of Oct. 31, 1948) and 2,228 in its youth authority institutions. Of the latter, 279 were in its two schools for girls, 245 in its four work camps for boys, and 993 in its four schools for boys; the remainder were in other institutions and prisons. Communications.—Final automobile registrations for 1947 totalled 3,113,329. According to the director of public works report of June 1947, there were 13,874 mi. of highway in the state system, and state expendi¬ tures by the division of highways in 1947-48 for major construction were $64,461,806, including $17,932,761 of federal aid (1946-47, $56,109,213 with $17,217,185 federal aid). California, in 1940, had 16,856 railroad miles, of which 2,768 were electrically operated. On Jan. i, 1948, there were 406 airports; these included 188 commercial, 111 municipal and 6t military. California had 2,356 mi. of federal airways. Telephones as of Dec. 1946 numbered 2,665,000. Banking and Finance—Total assets of the 115 state-supervised banks (185 branch offices) on June 30, 1948, were $3,616,136,000 (1946, $3,558,820,000)• One hundred and fifteen banks with 854 branches and offices were members of the federal reserve system. Total bank deposits in California at the end of 1947 amounted to $11,530,540,000 (1946, $11,353,422,000). The net bonded debt of the state on Nov. 30, 1947, was $106,246,440. The total assets of all the state-licensed savings and loan corporations (as of Dec. 31, 1947) were $389,527,195 (1946, $331,210,409). For the fiscal year 1947-48 total tax collections in the state amounted to $4,524,065,803 (1946-47, $4,369,062,128). Total federal taxes paid by Californians for 1947-48 were $3,103,679,127 (1946-47, $3,144,-

385,639). Estimated total state revenue for 1947-48 was $728,603,814 (1946-47, $604,933,827). Estimated total expenditures for 1947-48 were $.739,998,959 (1946-47, $469,680,103). The budget deficit was $11,395,145. Agriculture.—Cash farm income for California farmers in 1947 was about $2,177,709,000 (1% less than in 1946). Returns from livestock and livestock products were 21% higher than in 1946, totalling $751,954,000, but crop returns dropped about 8% from 1946 to $1,412,751,000. Government payments were reduced from $45,729,000 in 1946 to $13,004,000 in 1947. The total acreage of truck crops in California for the year 1947 was 633,840 with a production valued at $302,688,000.

152 Acreage of field crops was 6,175,000 with a production valued at $614,672,000. Fruit and nut crop acreage was 1,515,000 with a production valued at $431,180,000. Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of California, 1947 and 1946 Crop Cotton lint, bales. Hay, tons. Grapes, tons. Oranges, boxes. Lettuce, crates (western) .... Barley, bu.. • Potatoes, bu. Beans (dry), bags (100 lb.) . . . . Peaches, bu. Lemons, boxes.

1947 760,000 6,098,000 2,872,000 52,739,000 22,694,000 43,260,000

1946 458,000 6,108,000 2,918,000 43,458,000 22,720,000 46,066,000

37,260,000 4,363,000 17,860,000 33,336,000 12,700,000

47,010,000 3,587,000 37,086,000 13,800,000

1947 value $118,560,000 114,033,000 101,993,000 96,470,000 78,300,000 69,216,000 65,040,000 61,459,000 57,565,000 48,222,000 38,555,000 37,014,000

Manufacturing.—The total value of all manufactured products in Cali¬ fornia in 1947 was approximately $10,000,000,000 (1946 estimate, $7,500,000,000). Retail sales in California increased 20% over the previous year to $11,050,454,000 (1946, $9,209,637,000). Estimates of new construction were $1,746,900,000, representing an, increase of 22.1% over 1946 and 13.6% of the national total.

Table II.—Annual Average Employment and Wages in California Manufacturing Industries, 1947 and i1946 1947

industry Food and kindred products. Transportation equipment. Iron, steel and products. Machinery (except elect.). Apparel. Stone, clay and glass products. Lumber and timber. Furniture and finished lumber. Printing and publishing. Chemicals and allied products. Petroleum products .. Automobiles and equipment. Electrical machinery and equipment. . .

1946

No. employed Wages No. employed Wages (OOO's omitted) (00(J's omitted) 89,400 ;$224,100 88,500 $203,500 229,400 76,900 214,800 85,400 50,200 139,600 44,200 111,500 36,100 103,400 33,800 90,300 32,400 72,100 30,800 68,300 26,800 72,800 21,600 51,900 24,800 81,000 1 8,500 50,400 20,800 49,800 1 8,000 38,400 20,000 61,900 1 8,000 49,100 17,500 47,800 1 6,600 39,700 15,300 48,000 14,900 41,400 12,800 35,400 11,100 27,700 12,800 35,200 9,900 23,900

An average of 711,600 wage and salary earners was employed in Cali¬ fornia industry during 1947. This represented an increase of 5.1% over the previous year. Total wage and salary pay rolls of manufacturing industries were approximately $2,348,200,000 for 1947 (a 15% in¬ crease). Mineral Production-Mineral production in California during 1947 increased 33.1% over the former al'l-time high of 1946. The total value was $774,731,000. Table III.— Value of Principal Minerals Produced in California, 1947 and 1946 Product Value 1947 Petroleum. $564,531,000 Structural materials. 71,294,000 Natural gas. 45,143,000 Gold. 14,376,000 Other metals .. 12,082,000 Industrial materials. 15,175,000 Salines and others. 22,500,000

Value 1946 $386,812,146 68,068,000 46,905,877 12,488,840 11,407,160 12,500,000 21,268,000

Films.—California’s Golden Beginning (Academy of Motion Picture Arts & Sciences). (D. C. Ck.)

California, University of.

at Berkeley, this state-sup¬ ported coeducational institution had a record enrolment of more than 43,000 students in 1948 on its Berkeley, Davis, La Jolla, Los Angeles, Mt. Hamilton, Riverside, San Francisco and Santa Barbara campuses. Construction under the permanent building program, raised to $109,000,000 by the state legislature, con¬ tinued on all campuses. Plans were formulated to establish an undergraduate division at the Citrus Experiment station. River¬ side, and to enlarge the upper division curricula in the humani¬ ties, social sciences and natural sciences at Davis. The 428-ac. fornier marine base at Goleta, containing more than 100 build¬ ings, was received from the War Assets administration for future use as a new campus for Santa Barbara college. The need for an understanding of the Slavic region of the world, particularly Russia, led to the establishment at Berkeley and Los Angeles of a graduate institute of Slavic studies to co¬ ordinate related studies and to expand research in the field.

PARAPLEGIC VETERAN approaching the library reference desk of the Uni¬ versity of California at Los Angeles, in 194S. Speciai accommodations for the needs of paraplegic students included entrance ramps to all but one of the buildings

CAMBODIA —CAMP FIRE GIRLS Departments of civic planning and engineering design at Berke¬ ley, and of infectious diseases, radiology, biophysics and physi¬ cal chemistry in the medical school being formed at Los Angeles were among new departments inaugurated. An institute of transportation and traffic engineering was established, and a continuing state-wide archaeological survey was begun. The col¬ lege of agriculture opened a school of veterinary medicine on the Davis campus, anticipating the completion of its $3,500,000 building. The new school of forestry moved into its new $1,000,000 building on the Berkeley campus. Its appropriations for agricultural research had been increased $2,500,000 in three years, and the Agricultural Research Study committee, ap¬ pointed by the governor, recommended another increase of $1,500,000 for the year 1949-50. There were 800 research proj¬ ects under way in the agricultural experiment stations to solve problems of California agriculture. In the atomic research pro¬ gram, the most important development was the first laboratory production of mesons, tiny cosmic-ray particles believed to be intimately associated with the force that holds the nucleus to¬ gether. These particles were produced with the giant 184-in. cyclotron, largest in the world. A 32,000,000-ev proton linear accelerator, a type of atom-smasher, was completed, and a 300,000,000-ev synchrotron for accelerating electrons was nearing completion. The Atomic Energy commission authorized the con¬ struction of a' 6,000,000,000-ev “bevatron,” costing $9,000,000. A new state-wide cancer program was inaugurated, a new virus research laboratory was established, and a wildlife conservation research program was undertaken. At the request of the Atomic Energy commission, the operation by the university of the Los Alamos (N.M.) Scientific laboratory, where the atomic bomb was made, was extended for four years. (For statistics of en¬ dowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Univer¬ (R- G. S.)

sities AND Colleges.)

Cfllflbodias see

French Overseas Territories.

Cambridge University.

opened with 5,382 undergradu¬

ates, 897 B.A.’s, and 290 research students in addition to 1,565 M.A.’s. The women’s colleges had 634 undergraduates, and 313 staff and research students. Gonville and Caius college cele¬ brated its sexcentenary, while Christ’s and Queens celebrated their quincentenaries, and Fitzwilliam museum its centenary. The vice-chancellor. Dr. C. E. Raven, sent an open letter to the rector of Charles university, Prague, Czech., refusing an invitation to its sexcentenary celebrations, on the ground that the treatment of professors and students “has, for the time being, destroyed its academic freedom.” The heads of Pembroke and Gonville and Caius reached re¬ tiring age and were succeeded by S. C. Roberts of the Uni¬ versity press and Sir James Chadwick, the nuclear physicist. The professors of philosophy and botany also reached retiring age and were succeeded by G. H. von Wright (Helsinki) and G. E. Briggs (St. John’s). Miss E. M. Hill was appointed to the new chair of Slavonic studies. Fitzwilliam museum, which celebrated on April 22 the cen¬ tenary of its opening in its present building with a special exhi¬ bition, continued to receive generous benefactions, among them an extensive collection of Egyptian jewellery, several 18th-cen¬ tury French prints, and two exceptionally valuable Tompion clocks. On the death of Earl Baldwin (Trinity), Field Marshal J. C. Smuts (Christ’s) was installed as chancellor, nearly 60 years after he had entered the university as a student. He delivered an address, to a very large audience in the senate house, on freedom in civilized life. After the ceremony the chancellor

153

conferred honorary degrees on Winston Churchill, Sir Stafford Cripps, the archbishop of York, the high commissioners of Canada and South Africa, the president of Yale university and others. Bibliography.—Cambridge

University Reporter, vol. 79;

Review, vol. 69.

Cameroons: see

Cambridge (C. Fo.)

British West Africa; French Overseas

Territories; Trustee Territories.

Pqithi Ciro Pirle Building

around the theme “Hello, udinp rllB bins. WorW; Let’s Get Together!”, Camp Fire Girls in the United States extended the hand of friend¬ ship to thousands of young people throughout the world during 1948. Members of the youth agency, numbering more than 360,000 and ranging in age from 7 to 18, continued their prac¬ tice of corresponding with “pen pals” in other lands and sending them food, clothing and useful supplies. In addition, hundreds of Camp Fire groups shipped special party kits to boys and girls in foreign countries. The kits contained the makings of a typical U.S. party—games, songs, prizes, refreshments, gay decorations—and a description of how to use them. By this means. Camp Fire Girls made it possible for their foreign friends to gain some knowledge of United States customs. The U.S. girls received in exchange letters and gifts which helped them understand the habits and thinking of young people in other lands. Camp Fire groups in Great Britain, El Salvador and the Philippine republic also participated in the project. As a culmination of their year of world-friendship activities. Camp Fire Girls “sent Santa overseas.” They stuffed thousands of red net stockings with soap, socks, mittens, candy, games and other gifts so that Saint Nicholas would be sure to visit the children they knew in other lands. These projects were only one phase of the constructive leisure-time program provided by Camp Fire Girls, Inc., for members of its three age divisions: Blue Birds, 7 to 10 years old; Camp Fire Girls, 10 to 15 years old; and Horizon clubs, 15 to 18 years old. Girls of all races and religions found fun, friendship, achievement and high ideals through Camp Fire’s seven crafts—^home, creative arts, outdoors, frontiers (science), business, citizenship and sports and games. Training for citizenship and homemaking, two major aims of the youth-serving agency, were highlighted in Camp Fire Girls election-day baby-sitting project. When the United States held its national elections on Nov. 2, 1948, older Camp Fire Girls and Horizon club members across the country volunteered their services as baby sitters so that all mothers would be able to go to the polls. Camp Fire Girls also participated enthusiastically in their third annual “Better Breakfast” drive. By preparing and serv¬ ing adequate and nutritious breakfasts for their families and in community demonstrations, members of all three age groups acquired sound health education and useful homemaking skills. It was estimated that at least 50,000,000 persons throughout the nation were reached by Camp Fire Girls Better Breakfast message. Outstanding Camp Fire publications in 1948 were: Friends the World Over, a manual on international friendship activities; Poems by Camp Fire Girls, a collection of 45 poems, selected by a committee of noted poets from hundreds of verses written by Camp Fire Girls; Vocationally Yours, a booklet for Horizon club members, written by the ten successful career women who make up the organization’s National Advisory committee. The Camp Fire Girl, the official magazine, published monthly from September through June, had a monthly circulation of 18,500. Officers of the youth agency in 1948 included: Mrs. James C.

154

CANADA, DOMINION OF

Parker of Grand Rapids, Mich., president of the National Coun¬ cil of Camp Fire Girls; Earle W. Brailey of Cleveland, 0., chair¬ man of the board; Glenn 0. Hoffhines of Battle Creek, Mich., treasurer; Mrs. Frank C. Love of Syracuse, N.Y., secretary; Martha F. Allen, national director; President Harry S. Truman, honorary president; and Herbert Hoover, honorary vice-presi¬ dent. National headquarters: i6 E. 48th St., New York, N.Y. (M. Se.)

Canada, Dominion of.

wealth of Nations (Statute of Westminster, 1931) covering all of North America north of the United States except Alaska. Canada is a federal union under the terms of the British North America act (1867). Provinces: Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, Ontario, 1867; Manitoba, 1870; British Columbia, 1871; Prince Edward Island, 1873; Alberta and Saskatchewan, 1905; Newfoundland (see below). Outside the provincial boundaries are the Yukon and the North¬ west Territories, under federal government jurisdiction. Area: 3>737>617 sq.mi. Capital: Ottawa (g.v.). Governor general: Viscount Alexander of Tunis. Population.—(1941) 11,506,655; (1948 est.) 12,883,000. Pop. of Montreal, largest city (Feb. 1948 est.), 1,096,060. During 1948 there was heavy movement of immigrants, ref¬ ugees, displaced persons and military dependents. On March 2 the docking of the “Aquitania” concluded Operation “War Brides,” which saw 43,454 wives of Canadian servicemen and 20,997 children arrive from Britain, Europe and other sections of the world. Federal and provincial (Ontario and Alberta) im¬ migration policies brought 79,336 persons in during the Jan.Aug. 1948 period, compared with 32,808 in the same 1947 period. Of these, 20,350 were British and 8,010 were Dutch, the two largest groups. Estonians, Latvians, French, Poles,

Lithuanians and Belgians, among others, also entered. Politics.— Nine federal by-elections were held during 1948: the Liberals retained Rosthem (Sask.), Algoma East (Ont.), Marquette (Man.), and won Laval-Two-Mountains (Que.) from an independent; the Progressive-Conservatives held Carleton (Ont.) and won Digby, Annapolis-Kings (N.S.) from the Liberals; the Co-operative Commonwealth federation (social¬ istic) won Yale (B.C.) from Progressive-Conservatives and Vancouver Centre (B.C.) and Ontario (Ont.) from Liberals. At the end of the year the Liberals held 124 seats of the 245-seat parliament. One seat was vacant. There were 15 vacancies in the senate. In 1948 Canada changed prime ministers and acquired a new parliamentary opposition leader. At a national convention of the Liberal party, W. L. Mackenzie King (q.v.), prime minister and Liberal leader, gave way to Louis St. Laurent (q.v.). The Pro¬ gressive-Conservative national convention accepted the resigna¬ tion of John Bracken and elected George Drew to leadership, which automatically meant parliamentary opposition leadership. Government.—The 4th session of the 20th parliament, which began on Dec. 5, 1947, reconvened on Jan. 26, 1948, and closed on July I. Of the 78 government bills which became law, 59 were amendments to existing laws. Besides various revisions relating to agriculture, crime, economic controls, external affairs, finance, health, human rights, labour relations, natural resources, taxation, trade, transportation and veterans’ affairs, the follow¬ ing significant legislation was passed: succession duties were lifted on property donations to charitable organizations and on estates of less than $50,000, insurance companies were authorized to invest funds in government-guaranteed real estate mortgages and the bureau of statistics was authorized to use sampling to secure statistics.

External Affairs.—Canada was extremely active within the United Nations during 1948. Canada’s resolution calling for general assembly approval of the majority reports on world atomic control, and its proposal to send the U.N. good-offices committee back to Indonesia to work for a lasting peace, were accepted. After considerable discussion throughout the year, Can¬ ada announced late in December that it would recognize de facto the state of Israel in Palestine. The dominion became the first nation to ratify the convention for a United Nations maritime organization, and participated in the U.N. plan to help broaden the training of key men in war-devastated countries by attach¬ ing a select group of 70 such leaders to Canadian cultural and scientific organizations. Following the 1947 deliberations between Canadians and New¬ foundlanders, and the holding of two plebiscites in Newfound¬ land in July 1948, the island decided by a majority of 6,546 votes to join the dominion. During the latter part of 1948, Canadian-Newfoundland representatives ironed out the details of union, and signed the terms in Ottawa, Ont., on Dec. ii. To Canada was added 152,000 sq.mi. and 320,000 people. The agreement had to be ratified by the Canadian parliament, to take effect on March 31, 1949. The federal government reported in detail to parliament in 1948 that during the 1940-47 period Canada had contributed more than $5,500,000,000 to European countries and members of the British commonwealth in outright gifts, relief, credits and loans. During 1948 Canada took an active role in the Marshall plan.

United States-Canadian Relations.—^U.S. Defense Secre¬

RELEASING BALES of chicken feathers over a Leduc oil field at Edmonton, Alta., Can., to stop the leakage of a well which ran wild in May 1948. Tons of wheat and wood pulp were also used to reduce the danger of fires in the area

tary James Forrestal visited Ottawa in August and discussed plans for Canada’s industrial mobilization, the standardization of U.S. and Canadian arms and the problems of U.S. bases in Newfoundland. During the year, the two nations agreed informally to ex-

CANADA. DOMINION OF

155

change military information on a broad basis; general arrange¬ ments were made to allocate industrial tasks in the event of a war, so as to prevent surpluses of some materials and shortages of others in the separate countries; although the U.S. spent considerable sums on arctic radar, weather, ionosphere and avia¬ tion posts, all works remained under Canadian control; joint naval exercises were conducted off the east coast and in Ha¬ waiian waters. Defense.—Sharp intensification of military preparedness marked 1948. An industrial defense board was established to advise the government on industry’s war potential, undertake stock piling of strategic materials and prepare a blueprint of wartime co-ordination of Canada’s 183 key industries. Parlia¬ mentary defense estimates soared $30,000,000 over those of the year previous. Construction of the dominion’s first military townsites began; selected infantry units were given special air-borne training; re¬ serve force soldiers took training alongside members of the active army; special arctic survival techniques were established; the army’s radio signal system was expanded by five new sta¬ tions; educational standards of recruiting were modified; and all ranks of the active army were given pay increases, as parts of the scheme to increase membership. The aircraft carrier “Magnificent” was commissioned and took a training cruise into the subarctic, accompanied by two destroyers; the navy’s reserve training program was stepped up sharply; and, to encourage recruiting, advancement opportuni¬ ties for lower-deck personnel were "widened. Jet fighters were added to the air force; recruiting, educa¬ tion of trainees and specialization were intensified; the air trans¬ port command for regular-schedule transatlantic flights was revived; a unit of radar interceptor technicians was formed and developed; about 30 specially equipped aircraft took 150,000 separate arctic photos covering 911,000 sq.mi., and discovered two unknown arctic islands, larger than Prince Edward Island, in Foxe bay basin, N.W.Terr. Economic Controls.—During the year the government took measures to improve Canada’s supply of U.S. dollars, to wean Canadian industries from undue dependence on parent plants in the U.S. and to turn the flow of Canada’s export trade from traditional British-European markets to the U.S. The importa¬ tion of many machines for manufacturing, and of various raw materials, was banned, forcing Canadian industries to turn to their own resources for production; many consumer goods were also banned. In Dec. 1948 the government announced Canada’s reserves of gold and U.S. dollars stood at $855,000,000 against $461,000,000 in Dec. 1947. However, the net gain was reduced by a $150,000,000 loan from the Export-Import Bank of Washing¬ ton. In view of the improved position, many foodstuffs and some manufactured products were removed from the banned list, and some formerly prohibited items were put on a quota basis. In addition, although the amount of money Canadians could take to the U.S. remained at $150 yearly, the sum allowed for incidental tax-free purchases, for a 48-hr. visit to the U.S., was increased to $100. Finance.—An anticyclical budget was presented for the 194849 fiscal year. Revenue was estimated at $2,664,000,000 and expenditure at $2,175,000,000. There were few tax concessions since the government aim was twofold: to make payments on the public debt and to assure a favourable balance so that de¬ fense expenditures could be increased at short notice. The surplus for the fiscal year ending March 31, 1948, was reported at $575,000,000, and by the end of November the surplus for the fiscal year ending March 31, 1949, had passed the plannedfor $489,000,000 and stood at $560,000,000. (See also Taxa-

LOUIS ST. LAURENT, Canadian prfme minister, under a battery of newsreel and still cameras in Washington, D.C., as he arrived at Blair House for a lunch¬ eon given him by Pres. Harry S. Truman. St. Laurent succeeded W. L. Mackenzie King as prime minister on Nov. 15, 194S TION.)

Economic Conditions.—Prices remained high, and the costof-living index climbed steadily until it hung at 159.6 on Nov. i. The climb was attributed in part to maintained consumer pres¬ sures, to siphoning off of goods through the Marshall plan, to wage increases and to decontrolling commercial rents which shot up as much as 300%. Nevertheless, business remained at a high level. The 1948 dollar sales were 180% above the 1939 level; retail sales for Jan.-June 1948 were 11% above the same 1947 period. The inflationary index was found in the amount of cur¬ rency in circulation (excluding money in chartered bank tills): Dec. 31, 1938, $238,000,000, or $21.50 per capita; June 30, 1948, $1,110,000,000, or $89 per capita. Checks cashed during the Jan.-Aug. 1948 period totalled $50,502,048,000, compared with $47,769,640,000 for the same 1947 period. Employment.—Jobs were plentiful in 1948, and by Sept, i there were 3,932,000 employed men and 1,110,000 employed women. At that time, only 67,000 people were registered with the unemployment insurance commission, and some of these were merely in the process of changing jobs. Labour income, propelled by the greater employment and the wage increases, amounted to $3,291,000,000 for the first six months of 1948, or $407,000,000 more than the corresponding period of 1947. Nor was the crest in sight at that date. Weekly wages for the eight leading nonagricultural industries hit a record average of $40.88 at Sept. I, which was a 20% increase from Aug. i. It compared with $36.76 for Sept, i, 1947. The general employ¬ ment index for the eight industrial groups, based on 100 for 1926, was 201.2 at Sept, i, 1948. Labour Relations.—The most important development of 1948 was the passage through parliament of the Industrial Rela¬ tions and Disputes Investigation act replacing the wartime la¬ bour relations regulations (P.C. 1003), which had in turn suc¬ ceeded the Industrial Disputes Investigation act of 1907. The revised act was called Canada’s labour code. As its most sig-

156

CANADA, DOMINION OF

nificant provisions, it defined and prohibited unfair labour prac¬ tices on the part of both employers and unions, provided for the certification of trade unions as bargaining agents of employ¬ ees, established procedures for the negotiation of collective agreements and for conciliation, made collective agreements binding on all concerned, made such agreements provide means of settling disputes without stopping work, forbade strikes or lock-outs while agreements were in effect and gave the employee the right to present a grievance to his employer. (See also Strikes.)

Industry.—Production was at a high level from evidence of the Sept. 1948 indexes (1935-39=100) (with Sept. 1947 in brackets); gold 86.5 (72.6); copper 94^9 (84.7); nickel 124.7 (96); coal 128.5 (125.2); meat products 134.i (87.1); dairy products 132.4 (138.5); sugar 220.8 (189.5); alcoholic bev¬ erages 275.7 (260.5); tobacco products 226.6 (224.2); rubber products 243 (243.9); boots and shoes 139.7 (139.7); textiles 164.7 (157.9); clothing 131.5 (128.2); paper products 184.7 (178.4); chemical products 174.3 (169.8); wood products 172.5 (173.7); iron and steel products 223.1 (211.3); transportation equipment 250.2 (257.2); electrical apparatus 278.7 (2^5.5). In other words, except for dairy products, rubber products, wood products and transportation equipment, where a little ground was lost, there were noticeable gains. It was estimated that Canada’s total output of goods and services for the 12-month period ending Oct. 31 came to $15,000,000,000, a 12% increase over the figure for the previous 12 months. Natural Resources.—Removal of the ban on private ex¬ ploitation of uranium ore-bearing bodies (though mined ore had to go to the crown-owned Eldorado Mining and Refining Ltd. at a minimum floor price of $2.75 per pound) sped prospectors armed with Geiger counters into many likely regions: finds were reported at Gold Bridge, B.C., Black Lake, Sask., Snow Lake, Man., Coral Rapids, Pancake Bay, Wilberforce and Bancroft, Ont. Actual mineral production in 1948 hit a record $806,200,000. While increased prices accounted for some of the gain over 1947’s $644,700,000, the quantities of surfaced gold, silver, cop¬ per, lead, zinc and nickel ores were larger than in 1947. Nonmetallic salt, asbestos and gypsum were produced in greater tonnages than in 1947. Coal production at 18,400,000 tons was 500,000 tons short of the 1942 record but the value was 70% higher. Under the emergency Gold Mining Assistance act, the federal government arranged to pay a 1948-50 bonus to mines if 79% of the value of the output were gold. Agriculture.—1948 was an excellent year for farmers: the initial estimate of value of the principal field crops, $1,595,000,000, was about 11% higher than the revised 1947 figure and was the second highest on record (exceeded in 1919). In addi¬ tion to crop sales, receipts from livestock, dairy and other prod¬ ucts boosted the figure. The cash return for all farm products during the first six months of 1948 stood at $974,212,000, com¬ pared with $732,704,000 for the similar 1947 period. The wheat picture was obscured by the fate of the proposed International Wheat agreement, which was designed to establish a five-year, $2-a-bushel ceiling and a sliding-scale floor minimum $i.io-a-bushel world wheat price: parliament ratified the Cana¬ dian government’s wish to participate, but the unexpected Brit¬ ish withdrawal knocked the pact out. At the year’s end there were reports that Canada would undertake the revival of the idea. At the parliamentary session the government amended the Canadian Wheat Board act to make provision for increasing the previous minimum price of $1.35 per bushel to $1.55, payable to producers selling and delivering wheat to the board. Provi¬ sion was also made for extending the board’s control of inter¬ provincial movements of wheat to include; (i) wheat products;

(2) oats and oat products, (3) barley and barley products. The increase payments covered wheat delivered between Aug. i, 1945, and March 15, 1948, and totalled about $158,000,000. Trade.—By the end of September the dominion’s trade was running at a faster rate than in 1947: Jan.-Sept. 1947, total imports-exports, $3,901,115,000; same 1948 period $4,081,493,000. The import-export total for all of 1947 was $5,385,700,000, compared with 1946’s $4,266,400,000. The continuing trade growth resulted in large part directly from the federal govern¬ ment’s efforts. Amendment of the Export Credits Insurance act extended the ability of the Export Credits Insurance corporation to under¬ write external trade transactions; amendment of the Customs act enabled Canada to carry out undertakings embodied in the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades adopted by the pre¬ paratory committee of the United Nations Conference on Trade and. Employment. Transportation.—The highlight of the year was the bitter controversy aroused when the Transport board announced its decision on the railways’ 1947 application for a 30% increase in freight rates; a 21% increase was granted March 30 on most commodities (the first freight rate increase in the 1922-48 period). Although few doubted the need for the increase, be¬ cause railways were operating at a loss, objections from prov¬ inces lying at both ends of the dominion were quick, sharp and persistent. In July rail workers, under pressure of a strike threat, got a 17-cent hourly wage boost, and the railways quickly applied for another freight rate increase. The federal government thereupon turned over the job of finding out what was wrong with Canada’s rail transportation to a royal commission headed by the veteran jurist-diplomat William F. A. Turgeon. During the year, Trans-Canada Air Lines added 5,000 mi. to its regular routes (including the British West Indies), introduced 20 North Star 4-engine craft, which boosted air cargo to 4,667,000 lb. and number of passengers to 568,500, and flew 20,000,000 revenue mi.; the department of transport built instrument landing sys¬ tems on the major airports; the royal Canadian air force in¬ augurated an air transport system to facilitate rapid movement of service freight and personnel between military units; the gov¬ ernment requested the Canadian Pacific Air Lines to undertake transpacific operation over a 14,500-mi. route; and organization steps got under way in August with plans for 1949 inauguration. The government made an extensive overhaul of the Canada Shipping act, including the tightening of various regulations protecting passengers, crews, ships and cargoes. Important In¬ ternational Labor Organization conventions respecting medical examination of seafarers, certification of able seamen and qual¬ ity of food and catering for crews on board ship were accepted by Canada. The government announced a program of extensive modernization of Canada’s merchant shipping fleet, including disposal of outdated vessels and construction of faster, safer and larger ones. Communications.—Expansion of the publicly owned Cana¬ dian Broadcasting corporation services was found in: (i) power increases for CBC stations at Montreal, Que., and Vancouver, B.C.; (2) construction of new stations at Windsor, Ont., and Sydney, N.S., and purchase of the Manitoba-owned station at Winnipeg; (3) purchase of a former hotel building in Montreal to house its international service. The department of transport assigned frequency modulation broadcasting licences to CBC and independently owned stations in eight provinces, as a result of a Canadian-U.S. bilateral agreement regarding allo¬ cation of the 81 FM available channels. The CBC lifted the ban on price-mention in air advertising, and approved a Frenchlanguage station at Edmonton, Alta. The Arctic.—Canada’s arctic was more than a centre of mili-

tary defense interest. A number of scientific excursions were made. Major efforts were made to improve the lot of the Eskimo. A Fisheries Research board scientist flew and dog-sledded to Ungava bay, Que., to study the winter habits of the arctic char, a fish of importance to Eskimo economy. The federal govern¬ ment searched the ranks of migrating displaced persons for Nor¬ wegians, Swedes and Finns with experience in reindeer-herding in an effort to expand the herds on which so many Eskimos de¬ pended. Percy Moore of the department of Indian affairs founded the first of a line of arctic-circle hospitals at Coppermine, N.W.Terr. Tourism.—Income to Canada from the tourist business in 1946 was $215,000,000, in 1947 was $235,000,000 and was esti¬ mated for 1948 at $275,000,000. The 1948 total was a record, and most of the visitors were Americans. At the height of the season, 4,000 Americans wrote daily to the Canadian govern¬ ment for information about hunting, fishing and the like, and the government mailed out about two tons of tourist-beckoning literature daily. Science.—By 1948 Canada had spent about $30,000,000 on its Chalk River, Ontario, atomic energy plant, thought to be the largest in the world outside the U.S., and was running into its first major problem, the lack of trained personnel in industry to use the radioisotopes. To remedy the situation, the govern¬ ment called in 80 representatives of industries big enough to support research laboratories, showed them how the use of iso¬ topes could improve and expand their production, announced a school in Chalk River to teach industrial technicians how to use atomic materials and offered industry a year’s free supply of isotopes. A 5,000,000-v. generator for atom smashing was in¬ stalled at Chalk River, a 70,000,000-v. synchrotron was under construction at Queen’s university, Kingston, Ont., and a 100,000,000-v. synchrotron went into action at McGill university, Montreal. Health .—The federal government announced $30,000,000 annual national health grants to the provinces to cover the 1948-52 period. The money was earmarked for: health surveys, improvement of general public health .services, tuberculosis con¬ trol, venereal disease control, crippled children care, recruitment and training of health personnel, health research, control and treatment of cancer and subsidization for hospital expansion. Communism.—To counter the activity of communist agents in Canada, the government: (i) barred soviet military attaches from military training camps; (2) excluded non-Canadian com¬ munists from the dominion under provisions of the Immigration act; (3) gave loyalty tests to civil servants in the departments of external affairs and national defense, and in the National Research council; and (4) refused to send travel literature about Canada to Russian-dominated countries. Crime.—Important amendments were made to the criminal code, including provision for: (i) the crime of infanticide; (2) a minimum penalty of one year in jail for mail theft; and (3) prevention of fraudulent manipulation of stock-exchange transactions. It was also made a criminal offense to intimidate any person by threats of injury to any relative of that person either in Canada or elsewhere. (This was directed at com¬ munists threatening migrated displaced persons.) It was made mandatory that a person charged with conspiracy to publish in a newspaper defamatory libel be indicted and tried in the prov¬ ince in which he resided or in which such newspaper was pub¬ lished. Sexual crimes were permitted medical as well as criminal interpretation. Sport.—The ,centre of attraction in Canada’s 1948 sporting world was Barbara Ann Scott, who successfully defended her European and world figure-skating championships, won the

VIEW of the atomic research plant completed at Chalk River, Ont., in May 194S and sponsored by the Canadian National Research council. The atomic pile was housed in the tall, square building, centre background

Olympic and the Canadian women’s senior figure-skating cham¬ pionships and won the Police Gazette gold cup as the w’orld’s outstanding woman athlete of the year, the rose bowl of the Canadian Women’s Amateur Athletic federation as Canada’s outstanding woman athlete and the Lou Marsh memorial trophy as Canada’s outstanding athlete (for the second time, the only Canadian to do so). In December Miss Scott turned profes¬ sional. Culture,—While much of Canada’s cultural activity centred around the little theatre movement, a joint parliamentary com¬ mittee was set up to receive representations concerning the pro¬ posed national library, and, at the year’s end, the government established a national library committee of distinguished citizens and instructed it to consider the establishment of such an insti¬ tution. Parliament voted a small increase in National Art gal¬ lery estimates, visitors to the gallery’s showings increased and great interest was stirred in Canadian painting by the discovery in New Zealand of five Canadian scenes by 19th-century Cor¬ nelius Kreighoff. {See also articles on individual Canadian provinces and ter¬ ritories; see also Accidents; Canals and Inland Waterw.ays; Chambers

of

Commerce;

Consumer

Credit;

Education;

Electrical Industries; Electric Transportation; Fisher¬ ies; Forests; Horse Racing; Housing; Industrial Health; Labour Unions; Literary Prizes; Motion Pictures; Motor Transportation; Municipal Government; Newspapers and Magazines;

Post

Office;

Public

Utilities;

Rivers

and

157

CANADIAN LITERATURE

158 Harbours;

Social

Security;

Theatre;

Veterans’ Organi¬

zations; Wildlife Conservation.) Films.—Arctic Borderlands in Winter

PonoHion litorotliro

(Coronet Instructional Films). (C. Cy.)

F'C+'O"—High costs of printing

bdllClUKlII LIlwICllUIC* and binding were reflected in the small number of English-Canadian novels published during 1948 —about half as many as appeared in 1947. It was significant that all but three of the 1948 crop dealt with the Canadian scene. Veteran novelist Morley Callaghan, silent since 1937, appeared with The Varsity Story, a monochrome study of Toronto university as seen through the eyes of a New Zealander. Hugh MacLennan published his third novel, The Precipice, which sombrely contrasted the limitations of life in a small Ontario town with the licences of life in New York city. Olive Knox turned from juvenile historical fiction to adult historical fiction, and in Red River Shadows overlaid the 1818-49 Mani¬ toba scene with suitable romance. Samuel Alexander White brought his published novels almost up to an even score with Flaming Fur Lands, which had blood-and-thunder action in a Labrador setting. Yonder Shining Light, wherein a formed air force padre marries a minister’s daughter and quietly faces the problems of life in the Georgian bay countryside, was Marian Keith’s sequel to As a Watered Garden. The veteran novelists, however, were hard pressed by the quality of the work of several beginners. A. J. Elliott packed much sunny comedy into the wartime meeting of Canadian sol¬ diers with The Aging Nymph in the Italian town of Bonasomi. Ernst Bornemann saucily and successfully mixed music and psychological horror in a New York suburb setting and called it Tremolo. In irony and with pity, Henry Kreisel carried a poor European-Canadian presser from a Toronto clothes factory back to his old home in Hitler-menaced Vienna, where he led his relatives to believe he was The Rich Man and thus climaxed his own life with emotional tragedy. Nonfiction.—Unlike fiction, 1948 English-Canadian nonfic¬ tion showed no falling off. Current affairs books were popular. Igor Gouzenko reported with epic sweep the Russian espionage activities in Canada in This Was My Choice; Vincent Massey discussed the basis of contemporary Canadianism in On Being Canadian; Leslie Roberts visited Europe and described what he saw in Home From the Cold Wars; the titles of Blodwen Davies’ Youth Speaks Its Mind and Tim Buck’s The Communist View¬ point were self-explanatory. An important group of biographies appeared. These included: Claude Laing Fisher, James Cardinal McGuigan; Basil Joseph Mathews, Booker T. Washington; G. V. Ferguson, John W. Dajoe; Marius Barbeau, Cornelius Kreighoff; Walter J. McRaye, Pauline Johnson and Her Friends. Cay Moore’s She Skated Into Our Hearts was the life story of world champion figure skater Barbara Ann Scott; Grant MacEwan’s The Sodbusters was a collection of 37 sketches of prairie pioneers. Best autobiographical books of the year were: The Pickersgill Letters, a posthumous volume of Capt. F. H. D. Pickersgill, Canadian underground worker in France, who was caught and shot by the nazis; When the Steel Went Through, the reminiscences of P. Turner Bone who helped build the Canadian Pacific railway across the prairies and through the mountains; and Green Fields Afar, Jesse E. and Clara R. Middleton’s memories of early days in Calgary and vicinity. A number of writers turned their researches into the past: G. G. Campbell, The History of Nova Scotia; Dorothy Burwash, English Merchant Shipping, 1460-1540; B. Wilkinson, The Constitutional History of England, 1216-15gg. G. J. Reeve and R. O. MacFarlane combined their talents to produce The Canadian Pageant, an interpretive history of the dominion. An-

other successful co-operative venture was Three Centuries of Canadian Nursing by John Murray Gibbon and Mary Mathewson. Margaret McWilliams’ This New Canada, however, not only presented a clear picture of Canada’s past but also de¬ scribed the machinery of Canada’s contemporary life. In like manner M. E. Nichols’ (CP) The Story of the Canadian Press described the founding and development of that dominion-wide news-gathering organization and then reported its role in the contemporary life of the nation. World War II took a share of Canada’s 1948 literary output. Col. C. P. Stacey’s official history. The Canadian Army, igjg45, gave a summary of the dominion’s military operations. Forrest E. LaViolette’s Tlte Canadian Japanese and World War II was a sociological and psychological description of what happened to Canada’s 24,000 persons of Japanese origin. Poetry.—The crop of English-Canadian poetry was not as heavy as usual. The most significant work came from: Earle Birney, The Strait of Anian; A. M. Klein, The Rocking Chair; Robert Finch, The Strength of the Hills; Roy Daniells, Deeper Into the Forest; Audrey Alexandra Brown, All FooFs Day; L. A. MacKay, The Ill-Tempered Lover; George Whalley, No Man An Island; Tom Macinnes, In the Old of My Age. Juvenile.—Books for young English-Canadian readers fell off both in quantity and quality in 1948. However, Roderick HaigBrown’s Saltwater Summer, a novel of a boy’s holiday adventure on a British Columbia fishing boat, was full of marine lore and excellently told. The same was true of Marie McPhedran’s Golden North, a novel of a boy’s adventures with Manitoba prospectors. Two other adventure novels were Jack Hambleton’s Forest Ranger and Morley Callaghan’s Luke Baldwin's Vow. Mabel Dunham, author of two adult books about pioneer¬ ing along the Grand river, very successfully turned to the story of a little Ontario Mennonite in a novel called Kristli’s Trees. Mabel Tinkiss Good graphically told the story of 15 of Canada’s World War II heroes in Men of Valour.. There were two junior histories of importance: J. W. Chafe and A. R. M. Lower co¬ operated to present Canada, a Nation, and How It Came to Be, and Frances Aileen Ross wrote The Land and the People of Canada. French-Canadlan. — Books by French-Canadians (mostly those living in Quebec) were numerous, and of high quality. Unlike their English-Canadian confreres, the French ran more to fiction than to nonfiction. Les Plouffe, by Roger Lemelin, was a striking regional novel, with Quebec City just before World War II as the setting, and with a lively collection of characters trying to solve typically French-Canadian problems. After spending ten months on an Indian Reserve in northeast¬ ern Quebec, Albert Gervais reported, with personal emphasis, his findings in a novel called La Deesse Brune. ‘Neuf Jours de Haine, by Jean-Jules Richard, was a novel with a war setting. La Neige et le Feu, by Pierre Baillargeon, depended for part of its plot on the war, but was largely a psychological and social study of unusual impact. Indeed, a remarkable number of 1948 French-Canadian novels depended upon a psychological approach for their appeal. Well to the fore in the field were Roger Charbonneau’s Desirs et les Jours, Andre Giroux’s Aii Dela des Visages, Adrienne Choquette’s La Coupe Vide, Adrienne Maillet’s De Gre ou de Force. An unusual number of outstanding nonfiction works appeared. In his Ecrasons le Perroquet! Louvigny de Montigny castigated French-Canadians who use anglicisms. Faussaires et Faussetes en Histoire Canadienne, by Gustave Lanctot, described and com¬ mented on a number of forgeries and falsities in Canadian his¬ tory. Canada, Realites d’Hier et d'Aujourd'hui, by Jean Bruchesi, was a study of the dominion’s development. Two critical volumes were published by Roger Duhamel, Moralistes

CANALS AND INLAND WATERWAYS Frangais and Litterature. Collections of poems included: Ballade de la Petite Extrace, Alphonse Piche, Le Chant de la Montee, Rina Lasnier, Rivages de VHomme, Alain Grandbois. (See also Literary Prizes.) (C. Cv.)

Chicago, III. Two Harbors (Agoto Boy), Minn. Cleveland, 0. Buffalo, N.Y. Detroit, Mich. Conneaut, 0. Ashtabulo, 0. Indiana Horbor, Ind.

159 26,691,777 19,023,000 1 8,979,000 18,421,000 17,634,000 1 5,532,000 14,994,000 13,152,000

Films.—Mississippi River—Lower River; Mississippi River—Upper River (Academy Films). (G. Hb.)

Canals and Inland Waterways• 000

mi. of potential

inland waterways in the United States, approximately 30,000 mi. had been improved for navigation by commercial and pleas¬ ure craft by the end of 1948. All operations and maintenance of the system, including 185 harbours and 400 locks, remained the responsibility of the corps of engineers, department of the army. Under the River and Harbor act approved by congress June 25, 1948, $88,488,100 was provided for the construction of 79 authorized projects in 33 states and $71,000,000 was appropri¬ ated for maintenance, operation and care of the nation’s vast network of ports and inland waterways. In addition, the lower Mississippi river and the Sacramento river in California re¬ ceived separate appropriations of $61,500,000 and $1,750,000 respectively, for construction, maintenance and operations. Among the principal projects on which construction was be¬ gun or continped during 1948 were the McNary lock and dam on the Columbia river for navigation, power development, and irrigation; the New York and New Jersey channels; the Gulf Intracoastal watenvay between Corpus Christi, Tex., and the U.S.-Mexican border; the Neches and Angelina rivers,, and the Sabine-Neches waterway, in Te.xas; a lateral canal and lock project on the Mississippi river at Chain of Rocks, near St. Louis, Mo.; open-river regulating works on the Mississippi river between the Ohio and Missouri rivers, and the Missouri between its mouth and Sioux City, la.; Calcasieu river and pass. La.; Delaware river from Philadelphia, Pa., to the sea; St. Mary’s river and Keweenaw waterway, Mich.; Cape Fear river at and below Wilmington, N.C.; and Winyah bay, S.C. (See also Floods and Flood Control; Rivers and Harbours.) According to preliminary estimates, the total net water-borne commerce of the United States, eliminating all known duplica¬ tions of traffic between rivers and ports, reached the record high of 760,756,044 short tons in the calendar year 1947. Ocean traffic, foreign and coastwise, aggregated 310,483,574 tons. United States water-borne commerce on the Great Lakes— busiest inland waterway area in the world—aggregated 112,165,321,000 ton-miles. This was just under the all-time high of 113,639,000,000 ton-miles in 1941, and compared with 96,022,046,000 in 1946. Inland waterway commerce, excluding the Great Lakes, to¬ talled 34,150,967,184 ton-miles, including the deep sea traffic on the Mississippi river below Baton Rouge, La. Of this total, the Mississippi river system accounted for 23,457,499,821 ton-miles, while the Gulf Intra coastal waterway proved to be the second most important segment, with 4,868,969,028 ton-miles. Preliminary figures indicated that the following were the ten leading U.S. ocean ports in 1947: New York, N.Y. . Baltimore, Md. • Philadelphia, Pa. • Houston, Tex. . . New Orleans, La. Norfolk, Va. • . Beaumont, Tex. • Port Arthur, Tex. . Newport News, Va. Boston, Mass., • •

Tons 142,000,000 39,900,000 34,200,000 29,700,000 27,000,000 23,900,000 23,400,000 17,500,000 16,400,000

Indicated net tonnages of the ten leading ports on the Great Lakes in 1947 were: Duluth-Superior Toledo, O. . .

Tons 64,391,000 29,498,000

Canada.—Rising costs of operation were reflected in the 1948 parliamentary vote of $3,886,408 for servicing the domin¬ ion’s 1,844 of canals (1947: $3,577,100). In addition, $579,660 was voted for new construction and improvements. A special appropriation of $3,492,000 was made for deepening and widening the St. Lawrence ship channel. A five-man board of transport engineers reported its survey of Lachine canal and recommended construction of a new $275,000,000, 27-ft.-draft navigation canal with locks conforming to those of the Welland canal. Canadian canal traffic was considerably heavier in 1948 than in 1947. Figures for April-Oct. 1948 (with similar 1947 figures in parentheses) were as follows: Sault Ste. Marie 102,456,000 tons (101,611,000 tons); Welland 11,541,000 tons (9,861,000 tons) ; St. Lawrence 6,534,000 tons (6,174,000 tons). (C. Cy.) Great Britain.—On Jan. i, 1948, 1,640 mi. of canal came under the administration of the Dock and Inland Waterways executive as agents of the Transport commission set up by the Transport act of 1947. The private canals scheduled for trans¬ fer were: Aire and Calder; Sheffield and South Yorkshire; Aire, Calder and Dqn; Birmingham; Calder and Hebble; Coventry; Grand Union; Leeds and Liverpool; Lee conservancy; Trent; Oxford; Severn; Sharpness docks and Gloucester and Birming¬ ham; Staffordshire and Worcestershire; Stourbridge; Weaver; Herefordshire and Gloucestershire, as well as those previously owned by the railway companies. According to the definition in the act, those inland waterways which were navigated by sea¬ going ships were classified as harbours and therefore not in¬ cluded in the above list for compulsory transfer. CLEARANCE WORK on the Corinth canal, financed by U.S. funds allotted for reconstruction work in Greece. The canal was blocked by the nazis during World War II and reopened for service in 1948

160

CANCER

At Anderton in Cheshire, England, on the Weaver navigation canal, uniting the Mersey canals with the Mersey river, lifts re¬ placing locks raised barges of up to loo tons a height of 50 ft. in 10 to 15 min. The Monkhead canal near Glasgow, Scotland, had an inclination of one in ten, and a rise of 90 ft. which re¬ placed the eight locks. Danube.—^At the Danubian conference held in Belgrade in Aug. 1948 the riparian powers led by Russia, which became riparian through the return of Bessarabia in 1940, outvoted the U.S., Great Britain and France on all points, including the pro¬ posed inclusion of Austria, and dissolved the 1921 convention, which had previously promoted free navigation of the river by all nations. The result was that Russia would be able to control the lower Danube and its traffic and determine whether the much-needed river works would be constructed or not. (See also Danube, Conference for Control of.)

Oder-Danube Canal. — Negotiations were completed at Warsaw in April between Poland and Czechoslovakia for the joint construction of a new canal linking the Oder on Poland’s western frontier with the Danube. This $1,000,000,000 scheme was scheduled to commence in 1948 and be completed by 1955. It was stated that as other Danubian countries, namely, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Rumania and Bulgaria, would benefit, they would be asked to contribute to this new water link be¬ tween the Baltic and Black seas. Germany.—On April 20 the soviet authorities obstructed intercommunication between the western and eastern zones of Germany by closing the Elbe at Wittenberge to 19 barges, which were later released when the British had applied temporary counterpressure by freezing all interzonal canal traffic. The ca¬ nals were then closed to traffic, as were rail and road communi¬ cations between the zones. Greece.—The Corinth canal, which had been closed since its destruction by the Germans in 1944, was reopened in July. The clearing of debris of bridges, railway freight cars and loco¬ motives and of 654,000 cu.-yd. of earth and the work of recon¬ struction were carried out by U.S. army engineers through the U.S. mission of aid to Greece. Suez Canal.—The load carried in 1947, 36,500,000 net tons, exceeded that of 1946, 32,750,000 net tons, by 11.2%, most of the increase being ordinary commercial traffic. Of the total north-south traffic in 1947, 61% consisted of oil. Burma.—The Burmese government nationalized the inland waterways in April 1948 and thus took over the British-owned Irrawaddy flotilla, valued at £2,160,000. Proposed New Atlantic-Pacific Canal.—Colombia agreed to the U.S. government’s request in August for a survey for a new canal to link the Atlantic and Pacific, 250 mi. southeast of the Panama canal. The joint U.S.-Colombian land and aerial survey was to be carried out in two groups, the first working inland from Humboldt bay on the Pacific coast along the valley of the Truando river and the second from the Caribbean coast inland along the Atrato river. (See also Aqueducts.) (D. G. Ds.)

PonPQf*

^ greatly increased interest in the methods

UalluClaof microscopic diagnosis, of the classification of tumours based upon microscopic appearance, of the likelihood of wide distribution or metastasis as determined by the nature of the growth, and the wisdom of supplanting surgery in certain types of cancer by radiation treatment. Improved methods of making tissue diagnoses during the progress of an operation were developed. Results as regards capacity to determine the type of tumour were excellent. Only in occasional instances was it now necessary to preserve a portion of the tumour removed and make thin paraffin sections before a diagnosis could be

accomplished. Obviously the percentage of failure was lowest in the highly characteristic simpler types of carcinoma, and highest in those diffuse sarcomata and similar growths which, especially when infected, require very careful microscopic study to decide the exact nature of the process. Among such tumours, for example, are the synovial neoplasms, some of which are highly malignant and others practically benign, and the dif¬ ferentiation was in many instances extremely difficult. In certain types of tumours, such as cancers of the accessible areas (uterus, bronchi, oral cavity and rectum), an attempt was made to make a preliminary diagnosis by removing some cells from the surface of a suspicious area, smearing the fluid on a slide, and staining by a special technique. The making of a positive diagnosis was a far more difficult procedure with such a technique than it was when the cells could be fixed, and their relationships to each other studied, whether any glandular structures were present, and so forth. There was also no question that the Papanicolaou method was only of value in the hands of those with consider¬ able training in this special technique. Rarely was it possible to obtain particles of sufficient size to reveal the architecture of a neoplasm. Occasionally in suspected lung carcinoma it was pos¬ sible with bronchoscopic methods to remove a piece which could be spread on a slide, stained, and the differentiation between a benign and malignant growth be made immediately. But it was always necessary to check such a hasty diagnosis by carefully fixed and sectioned material. In most institutions such slides were preserved as important evidence, not only for future treat¬ ment of patients in case of a recurrence of the tumour, but also from a medicolegal aspect. Suit had not infrequently been brought for an alleged unnecessary operation, but a microscopic slide showing a cancer immediately would throw such a claim out of court, whereas the clinical history might wholly lack the necessary accurate and complete information required for court defense. The same situation could arise with suits brought for tumours produced by injury. Such suits had been not uncom¬ mon and were due to a misunderstanding of the causation of tumours. In such a situation it was important to be able to prove by microscopic examination that the growth had nothing to do with the alleged injury. Statistical study of human and animal tumours had shown that those with an almost identical structure under the micro¬ scope might vary greatly in their capacities to grow and spread throughout the tissues—processes which obviously would deter¬ mine whether the patient would live or die of his tumour. In other words, tumours which are similar when seen under the microscope may be either harmless or highly malignant. In the vast majority of situations the pathologist had sufficient knowl¬ edge by 1948 to advise with some certainty wdth regard to the general biological nature of the tumour under consideration, but this was not always the case, and H. S. N. Greene urged the transplantation of tumours into the anterior chamber of the eye of the guinea pig. Because not all such grafts were success¬ ful, however, and because two or three weeks w’ere necessary for the tissue to reach sufficient size to afford useful information, it was obvious that the method was applicable only under special conditions. For if a tumour had been exposed by the surgeon and handled in the process of the operation, it should be promptly removed because of the possible distribution of tumour particles. This frequently resulted in at least a local recurrence, no matter how carefully the operation might have been con¬ ducted. On the other hand, the biological information which this technique furnished might occasionally enable a definite diag¬ nosis to be made upon a tumour in which the original tissue removed by the surgeon was not characteristic. The only defect in the method was that days or even weeks had to elapse before a sufficient amount of growth was obtained and that not all

malignant tumours grow in the eye. In the vast majority of instances, the rapid method of operating room diagnosis by frozen section sufficed, though in some of the more difficult tumours it might be necessary to compare the picture of the growth in the section with slides or photomicrographs of other similar growths before a definite decision could be made. The United States government issued numerous pamphlets illustrat¬ ing the differences in tumour types, and a number of very use¬ ful atlases were published. By use of these tissue culture meth¬ ods and a careful classification of growths according to their sites of origin and structure, a high capacity to differentiate between benign and malignant tumours by morphology alone would be possible. A new method of obtaining tissue cells for diagnosis was the use of “sponge” biopsy—applicable in accessible lesions. The gelatinous “sponge” was applied to the surface of a growth. After a few minutes the “sponge” was lifted off and the ad¬ herent cells coloured with suitable stains, or the material could be embedded and sections cut and stained by the conventional techniques. The use of these new techniques, however, while of considerable interest, had to await thorough checking before their value could be determined. {See also Biochemistry; Chemotherapy; Medicine; Surgery; X-Ray and Radiology.) Bibliograpuy.—George N. Papanicolaou, “Diagnostic Value of Ex¬ foliated Cells from Cancerous Tissues,” J.A.M.A., 131:372-378 (June i, (1946); “Vaginal and Endometrial Smear as Diagnostic Procedure in Cancer of Uterus,” New York State J. Med., 45:1336-1338 (June 15, 194s); Harry S. N. Greene, “Identification of Malignant Tissues,” J.A.M.A., 137:1364-1366 (Aug. 14, 1948); Sydney A. Gladstone, verbal communication. Films.—Cancer—You, Time and Cancer; Cancer—Traitor Within (American Cancer Society). (F. C. W.)

Sales of candy in the U.S. during 1948 reached the • all-time high of $1,050,000,000 at the wholesale level. (Sales for 1947 were $937,000,000.) The retail volume was well over $2,000,000,000. Expressed in weight, the 1948 confection¬ ery business amounted to approximately 2,800,000,000 lb., slightly higher than the 2,790,000,000 lb. produced and sold in 1947, and within 1% of the record volume set in 1944. The average value at wholesale per pound was 38 cents, compared with 34 cents recorded in 1947. A break in cocoa bean prices became evident toward the end of 1948 when prices were about 30 cents, the lowest in two years. Cocoa bean prices reached an all-time high of 50 cents per pound in 1947. (See Cocoa.) Other major developments were: (i) the entrance on a big scale of two British manufacturers (Cadbury and Rowntree) into the United States candy and chocolate market, with bars and packaged goods; (2) the introduction of new processes and machines which resulted in the greatest equipment buying in the history of the business (electronic controls, new coating machines and a radically different continuous automatic mixer were among the especially outstanding candy equipment); (3) mass marketing of candy by variety chains and supermarkets, with particular emphasis on the multiple bar package; (4) the establishment of a ten-cent price for several leading brands of bars; and (5) the action taken by the American Association of Candy Technologists to sponsor and promote a “candy-as-acareer” program, stressing vocational school and college training of candy makers and others interested in a future in the candy business. For the fifth successive year, bar type candies represented more than half of the industry’s tonnage. Of these, five-cent, six-cent and seven-cent bars (hitherto sold at five cents) amounted to about 85%. More nickel bars were in evidence in 1948 than in 1947, however, but at the same time ten-cent sellers were also more prominently displayed. Chocolate coated candies continued to dominate the consumer demand, but there

DR. S. C. HARVEY of Yale university, appointed in 194S to the first U.S. chair of oncology (the study of tumours). He planned to re-examine all pre¬ vious basic research on cancer for findings which might be applied in current therapy

was a marked demand for hard candy. High-priced packaged goods (selling at retail at $i or more per pound) accounted for 17% of the industry’s tonnage; low-priced packaged goods (65 cents per pound or less), about 5%; bulk candy, 18%, and penny goods, less than 5%. Production of candy in the United States continued to be centred in a region extending from New England westward through Illinois and southward through Virginia. The 18 states (plus the District of Columbia) comprising this section of the country produced 85% of the U.S. candy in 1948. Consumption was also heaviest in this region, amounting to about 55% of the total production. The candy industry employed 65,000 per¬ sons, mostly women. As in previous years, the United States continued to be the greatest candy-producing country in the world, although Great Britain still led the world in per capita consumption. The per capita consumption in the United States during the year was about 19 lb., compared with 17.3 lb. in 1946, whereas the per capita consumption in Great Britain was 22 lb. Both exports and imports of candy in the United States were off during 1948, as compared with the years preceding the war. However, both Great Britain and the Netherlands were begin¬ ning to export large amounts of candy and chocolate to the United States. Italy, Belgium and France were also again pro¬ ducing candy for domestic consumption and for export. At the close of 1948 a combine representing 14 chocolate manufacturers in the Netherlands formed a corporation in New York for the purpose of promoting and selling candy and choco¬ late in the United States. (H. D. G.)

Cane Sugar: see

Sugar,

Panniniv Iniliiptrif

United States and territorial pack UQnnillg inDUSiry* of canned fruits, juices, vegetables,

161

162

CAPE VERDE ISLAM DS —CARTOGRAPHY

fish and milk in 1948 totalled approximately 445,000,000 stand¬ ard cases, compared with 450,000,000 standard cases in 1947. These figures do not include the pack of fruit and vegetable specialties, such as baked beans, soup, spaghetti and baby food, nor the considerable quantities of canned meat, poultry and other specialty products packed by the canning industry. Pre¬ liminary statistics for the 1948 pack compared with 1947 esti¬ mates, in terms of millions of standard cases, were as follows: 1947

1948 Fruits. . . Fruit juices. ♦ • . . . Vegetables • . • . .

75.0 80.0 189.0

72.0 80.0 200.0

Milk. Fish. ....

1948

1947

22.6

76.5 21.9

Supplies of canned foods generally for the marketing season 1948-49 were about the same as they were for the previous season. Canned fruit stocks carried over from the preceding year were slightly larger than they were for the 1947-48 season, and the fruit packs totalled somewhat larger, making a larger total supply. Retail prices of canned fruits and vegetables, according to bureau of labour statistics information, remained closer to pre¬ war levels than other foods, showing an increase from the 1935-39 base years of about 58% against more than 100% for all foods. Educational emphasis was placed not only upon the price advantage furnished by canned foods, but also upon their nutri¬ tional advantages. Special publicity was given to the results of the six-year, $250,000 nutrition program supported by the Na¬ tional Canners association and the Can Manufacturers institute. The purposes of this program were to determine the vitamin and mineral contents of the principal canned products and, through technological studies, to determine ways by which ex¬ isting nutritional advantages might be improved. Despite prospects of steady improvement in world tin pro¬ duction, and because of the stock-piling program, the govern¬ ment recommended that all 1948 allocations remain in force through 1949. Out of a total allocation of 32,000 tons of tin for tinplate in 1948, 24,500 tons were used by can manufac¬ turers. In regard to size specifications, the National Canners associa¬ tion recommended changes in the voluntary program of fruit, vegetable and juice can standardization that would reduce the number of can sizes from a total of 41, as recommended in 1940, to 32. The program was in the form of a simplified prac¬ tice recommendation and was submitted to the industry by the national bureau of standards for individual voluntary accept¬ ance. (E. J. C.)

Cape Verde Islands: see Portuguese Colonial Empire. Increasing demand for carbon black brought output and sales to new record highs in 1947 for the fourth successive year. The salient features of the in¬ dustry in the United States are outlined in the table.

Carbon Black.

Data of Carbon Black Industry in the U.S., 1942-47

(Short tons) 1942 Production . • . Year-end stocks • Total soles . . . Export sales. . Domestic sales • Rubber. • • Ink .... Paint . • • Other uses . Natural gas used* Average yieldf • Average valued •

287,003 121,378 224,966 57,81 8 167,148 147,974 9,616 1,808 7,750 335,533 1.71 3.41

1943 296,711 102,108 314,650 52,456 262,194 236,737 11,765 1,972 11,720 315,562 1.88 3.41

1944 400,930 34,622 468,715 78,496 390,219 369,015 12,239 2,658 6,308 355,770 2.20 3.67

1945 526,399 51,003 510,018 86,887 423,131 402,193 11,412 3,711 5,816 431,830 2,32 4.02

1946 622,21 1 38,1 14 634,870 135,543 499,328 470,732 14,781 4,656 9,159 478,349 2.44 4.82

1947 659,483 37,556 659,880 159,538 500,342 471,790 16,130 4,078 8,354 484,882 2.51 5.35

^Millions of cubic feet, fPounds per thousand cubic feet. ^Cents per pound.

The postwar demand for automobile tires was the chief cause

of the expanded output, and consumption of carbon black in¬ creased so much beyond production that stocks declined to a low level. (G. A. Ro.)

Carnegie Trusts: see Societies and Associations. Caroline Islands: see Trustee Territories. ft . 1 The year 1948 heralded the return to norIfdrlO^rSpny. malcy of cartography as the stimulus of World War II and postwar chaos subsided. Except in the occupied countries, routine surveys had been re-established throughout most of the world and publications which, for many years were curtailed or suspended, had been revived. International.—The eclipse of the sun in May 1948 was of wide cartographic interest. It was hoped that, from data ob¬ tained by expeditions which observed the eclipse at seven points along its path from Burma to the Aleutians, the size and shape of the earth could be computed more correctly. These facts are of vital interest to cartographers, for large-scale maps, especially those covering large areas, are dependent for their accuracy on the precision to which the earth’s shape and size are calculated. The National Geographic society and the army map service in conjunction with several U.S. government agen¬ cies co-operated in the expeditions for observation of the phenomenon. United States.—The U.S. geological survey began reprint¬ ing, for public issue, topographic maps prepared for the army during World War II by a number of federal agencies as a part of a comprehensive military mapping program covering extensive portions of the Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific coastal areas. The maps, originally printed at 1:31,680 scale, were being enlarged to 1:24,000 for public sale. Cuyahoga county, Ohio, initiated a project in 1948 to pro¬ vide a detailed, all-purpose map of the county. The map is topographic in nature but the scale of 1:2,400, with a contour interval of two feet, makes it unique in this field. Based on aerial photographs, the map was to be completed in units as a continuing project. Several important gazetteers were published covering por¬ tions of the United States. A new style was published by the Maryland state planning commission in which all names were keyed to the state plane co-ordinate system. This was the first extensive use made of such a system in nonmilitary name list¬ ing in the United States. About 12,000 names were listed and the name list was accepted for official use by such agencies as the state police and state highway commission. Europe.—During 1948, European cartography regained its prewar pace with numerous familiar publications reappearing. In Sweden, volume IV of Imago Mundi, a classic review of early cartography, was issued (printed 1947), the first volume having appeared in 1935 in Germany with regular publication every two years until its interruption by the war in 1939. The latest volume was edited by Leo Bagrow. In Great Britain the ordnance survey was engaged in the production of a new 1:25,000 map of England. The provi¬ sional sheets being published in 1948 were mainly based on the standard six-inch maps with revision from data collected dur¬ ing World War II. The maps were .published in three styles: a fully coloured topographic edition, a gray monochrome edi¬ tion and an administrative edition. During the war, the war office prepared a series of maps at 1:25,000 from reductions of the six-inch maps. The utility of these temporary maps was such that, with the cessation of hostilities, considerable im¬ petus was given to producing a standard set at the scale. Com¬ pletion of the provisional 1:25,000 series was planned for 1951. Revision of all standard large-scale series covering Great Brit-

163

CATHOLIC ORGANIZATIONS FOR YOUTH ain was resumed after a lapse during the war years. Michelin issued a series of three battlefield maps of France. The maps were of typical Michelin style with an overprint showing military operations, cemeteries and similar data. The maps covered the battle of Normandy and operations in south¬ ern France and northern France. Michelin road maps, pub¬ lished in late 1947 and 1948, carried special information as to areas not cleared of land mines, condition of bridges and fer¬ ries and the load limits of bridges. The Norwegian geographical survey issued the second sheet of the I; 100,000 series of Spitzbergen,. the first having been issued in 1941. The series is based on aerial photography with hypsography shown by contours. The two sheets, the north¬ ernmost large-scale maps published, are excellent examples of cartography of polar areas. German cartography in 1948 emerged on a plane far below that which was normally accredited to it. A number of small, private concerns had been established that had published city plans and road maps, the quality of which did not equal that of the prewar mapping. U.S.S.R.—Early in 1948, at the meeting of the Academy of Science, the Soviet Union announced the completion of a soil map of the U.S.S.R. at a scale of 1:1,000,000. The set, in 200 sheets, classifies the soils into 50 subtypes and phases, with soil names and classification standardized throughout the U.S.S.R. by a consolidation of local terms. The base map is on standard International map lines and was reported to be a new compilation. The map was a result of 30 years work by the Dokuchayev Soil institute. Although official announcement was made of the publication, the maps, as in the case of other soviet cartographic work, were not released to the public. The Arctic institute in Leningrad was reported to have pre¬ pared an atlas of the arctic. The Archiv jiir Polar Forschung, Kiel, Germany, source of the report, indicated that the atlas was to consist of 300 plates dealing with history, archaeology, climate, geology, topography and related subjects. In addition, a r&ume of scientific exploration was to be a part of the atlas. The atlas was expected to be a valuable adjunct to the Great Soviet World Atlas issued ten years before. Asia.—In a pamphlet entitled “Report of Photogrammetrical JAMES DARLEY, chief of the map division of the Nationai Geographic society, and a staff member at work on the first postwar map of Washington, D.C., and environs, published in 194S

Works in Turkey 1934-48” published by the Turkish geodetic survey and circulated at the meeting of the International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, Oslo, Norway, the Turkish govern¬ ment revealed to the public the official details of its mapping. The basic map is a 1:25,000 scale series made from aerial pho¬ tographs using the Zeiss stereoplanigraph, for which 104,550 sq.km, had been covered by aerial photographs since 1934. A similar pamplet describing the geodetic work of the Turkish geodetic survey was distributed, and made known for the first time the outline of triangulation and related surveys in Turkey. Antarctica.—Mapping activity in the antarctic continued at an accelerated pace during the field season of 1947-48. .The Ronne Antarctic expedition (U.S.) surveyed the west side of the Weddell sea coast as far south as 78° by use of trimetrogon photography. About 450,000 sq.mi. were covered in a total of 14,000 photographs. Two parties of the Falkland Islands de¬ pendencies survey (Great Britain) completed a ground control survey along the Weddell coast from 66° 30' to 75° S. and co¬ operated with the Ronne Antarctic expedition in establishing 30 astrofixes for control of trimetrogon photography. In conjunc¬ tion with the ground control survey, a complete photo-pano¬ rama of the Weddell sea coast was accomplished. International Meetings.—The year 1948 saw the resump¬ tion of many international scientific and technical meetings that were suspended during the war. The International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics met in Oslo, Norway, Aug. 17-28. This was the first triennial congress since 1939. The success of the central European triangulation adjustment gave rise to favourable discussions concerning the extension of such work into western Europe. F. Vening-Meinisz of the Netherlands was elected international president, and Brussels was estab¬ lished as the meeting place for 1951. The 6th International Congress and Exhibition of Photogrammetry was held in The Hague, Netherlands, Sept. i-io. The last meeting of the congress was in Rome in 1938. One of the few international meetings that was not curtailed by the war was that of the Commission of Cartography, Pan American Institute of Geography and History. Previous meet¬ ings were held in Washington in 1943, Rio de Janeiro in 1944 and Caracas in 1946. The 1948 meeting was in Buenos Aires, Oct. 15 to Nov. 14 and, in addition to the usual exhibits of maps, an exposition of cartographic instruments and equipment was featured. {See also Coast and Geodetic Survey; Geog¬ raphy; National Geographic Society.) Films.—Impossible Map (National Film Board of Canada); Maps We Live By (Films of The Nations). (W. E. Ds.)

Catastrophes: see Disasters. Catholic Church: see Roman Catholic Church. Catholic Community Service, National: see Societies AND Associations.

Catholic Library Association: see

Societies and Asso¬

ciations.

Catholic Organizations for Youth.

Catholic Youth

council is the single national co-ordinating body officially estab¬ lished by the Catholic bishops of the United States to unify Catholic youth programs of the country. It has two major divisions, one of which embraces diocesan youth groups found during 1948 in the 123 dioceses and more than 20,000 local churches throughout the country. The second division em¬ braces organizations of Catholic college students on a national basis, and comprises the College and University section of the council. The two major members of this section are the Na¬ tional Federation of Catholic College Students, comprising

164

CATHOLIC U N IVE RSITY —CATH OLIC WELFARE

student groups in more than 150 affiliated Catholic colleges, and the Newman Club federation, in which are affiliated 300 Catholic student clubs on public and nonsectarian campuses. The headquarters of the National Catholic Youth council is in the youth department of the National Catholic Welfare con¬ ference, 1312 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington 5, D.C. The N.C.W.C. youth department is charged by the Catholic hierarchy with the development and supervision of the National Catholic Youth council. Its staff functions in the field of com¬ munity and student youth work. The Rev. Joseph E. Schieder was director of the department in 1948. Both the National Federation of Catholic College Students and the Newman Club federation held important national meet¬ ings during 1948. At Philadelphia, Pa., the former held the largest convention in its history, and heard reports on its stu¬ dent relief campaign conducted during the year 1947-48. More than $150,000 was raised in this effort, and benefits went to students in need throughout the world. Distribution of cash and goods in kind, the latter amounting to more than 38,000 lb., was effected by the War Relief services of the National Cath¬ olic Welfare conference through its agencies in Europe. In September, the Newman Club federation held its 34th na¬ tional convention at Minneapolis, Minn. The theme of this meeting was “Catholic Student Social Responsibility” and a program of study and action was adopted along the lines sug¬ gested by that theme. During 1948, regional conferences of diocesan youth direc¬ tors were held in the cities of St. Paul, Minn., Cincinnati, 0., New Orleans, La., Washington, D.C., and Brooklyn, N.Y, These meetings drew clergymen and laymen from their various sec¬ tions to discuss the progress of Catholic youth work in the United States, and to plan for the second National Conference on Catholic Youth Work to be held in 1949. Specific national Catholic youth-serving programs continued to sponsor activities for Catholic young people on local, regional and national levels. The following major national programs for Catholic youth evidenced activity in many areas: the Queen’s Work (Sodality of Our Lady), 3115 S. Grand Blvd., St. Louis, Mo.; the Catholic Student Mission Crusade, Shattuck Ave., Cincinnati, 0.; the Junior Catholic Daughters, 39 Manchester Terrace, Mt. Kisco, N.Y.; the Columbian Squires, 45 Wall St., New Haven, Conn.; the Catholic Committee on Boy Scouts, 2 Park Ave., New York, N.Y.; the Joint Committee for Stu¬ dent Action, 1312 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. On the international level, eight Catholic representatives were selected by the youth department N.C.W.C. to attend the International Youth conference held in London in Aug. 1948. (J. E. Sr.)

Catholic University of America

• Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C., installed a new chancellor, the Most Rev. Patrick A. O’Boyle, D.D., archbishop of Washing¬ ton; and its rector, Rt. Rev. Msgr. Patrick J. McCormick, was reappointed for a term of five years. George D. Rock, professor of physics, was named dean of the graduate school of arts and sciences. Fathers Martin J. Higgins, William J. McDonald and Maurice S. Sheehy, of the faculty, were elevated to the rank of right reverend monsignor by Pope Pius XII. Thirty-nine foreign countries were represented among the student body. Ground was broken for the erection of three buildings which, at a cost of $1,250,000, would provide classrooms for the Na¬ tional Catholic School of Social Service, a dormitory for 100 students and a chapel seating 460 persons. Nine hundred thirtysix degrees were conferred at the 59th annual commencement. Honorary degrees of doctor of laws were conferred on Most

Rev. Emmanuel Saurez of Rome, head of the Dominican order, and upon Sister Mary Agatha Ryan, president of Xavier uni¬ versity, a Catholic college for Negro youth at New Orleans, La. Frank A. Kuntz, a graduate of Catholic university in 1908, was given a master of science degree. Dr. Miriam T. Rooney was the first woman to be named to the law school faculty. The department of library science was fully accredited as a gradu¬ ate library school by the American Library association. The school of nursing education received a grant of $35,800 from the public health service for graduate scholarships in mental hygiene and psychiatric nursing. To help in rehabilitation of European universities. Catholic university sent microfilms of 243 out-of-print doctoral dissertations to the University of Louvain, Louvain, Belg., and the University of Sacred Heart in Milan, Italy. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (P. J. M.)

Catholic Welfare Conference, National. The conference was organized by the bishops of the United States in Sept. 1919 to unify, co-ordinate and organize the Catho¬ lic people of the United States in works of education, social welfare, immigrant aid and other social and religious activities. The conference is conducted by an administrative board of ten archbishops and bishops, who supervise its operation and report annually to the Holy See. The conference does not exercise jurisdiction in the canonical sense, nor is it a synod or council. The annual meeting of the conference was held at Washing¬ ton, D.C., Nov. 17-19, 1948, attended by 146 members of the hierarchy. Members elected or re-elected to the administrative board were: chairman, Archbishop John T. McNicholas, O.P. of Cincinnati, 0.; vice-chairman. Archbishop Francis P. Keough of Baltimore, Md.; treasurer. Bishop John Mark Gannon of Erie, Pa.; secretary. Bishop John F. Noll of Fort Wayne, Ind.; Archbishop Richard J. Cushing of Boston, Mass.; Archbishop Patrick A. O’Boyle of Washington; Bishop Emmet M. Walsh of Charleston, S.C., and Bishop Michael J. Ready of Columbus, O. Msgr. Howard J. Carroll was renamed general-secretary of the N.C.W.C. and Msgr. Paul F. Tanner, assistant general-secretarx'. The general meeting voted to hold the Bishops’ Emergency Relief collection in 1949 on Laetare Sunday. It authorized the issuance of a joint statement on “The Christian in Action,” which laid special emphasis upon the educational situation. Through its New York office on United Nations affairs, the conference performed a vitally important work in connection with the meeting of the Commission on Human Rights, the Sub¬ commission on the Status of Women and the Trusteeship coun¬ cil of the U.N. The newly authorized Bureau of Health and Hospitals began to function on March i. In August, a group of Catholic students, representing the Newman clubs and the Na¬ tional Federation of Catholic College Students, went to London, Eng., as part of the U.S. delegation to meet with students from other nations to form another international organization of stu¬ dents who were determined to be free from communist influ¬ ences. Representatives of the Education department signed a minority report in connection with the President’s-Commission on Higher Education, dealing with federal subsidies for higher education. The department took part in the general conference of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural or¬ ganization in Mexico City and in other meetings. Outstanding work of the Youth department was the effective Student Relief campaign, which raised more than $150,000 in material relief for students throughout the world and collected goods in kind amounting to 38,851 lb. The Social Action department dealt with city economic problems, interracial work, international peace and inter-American social action, communism, family life

165

CATTLE —CENSUS DATA, U.S. —through the Family Life bureau—rural life, health problems, etc. N.C.W.C. forwarded to countries still suffering as a result of World War II a total of 110,487,319 lb. of food, clothing and medicines which had an approximate value of $15,793,000. For displaced persons a vast program centring around diocesan reset¬ tlement committees was set up in the dioceses throughout the country. National headquarters is located at 1312 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. The official publication is the monthly. Catholic Action. (J. LaF.) PoHla

number of all cattle, both beef and dairy, in the United States continued to decline in 1948. At the beginning of the year, there were 78,564,000 head, includ¬ ing calves, on farms compared with 81,207,000 a year earlier, but an average of only 67,488,000 in 1937-41. Nevertheless, the number on farms was almost 7,000,000 head below the 1944 record. Milk cows declined about 900,000 head to 25,165,000 against 26,098,000 a year earlier, but approximately 2,500,000 below the peak of 1945. High prices for all classes of slaughter cattle, the scarcity and high price of feed, plus the possibility of a heavy loss on inventory if prices should decline, led to sharp culling and even liquidation of herds. Even though the high level meat demand of 1948 was especially a demand for beef, and prices to the producer were uncommonly attractive, slaughter provided only an estimated 9,263,000,000 lb. of beef and 1,488,000,000 lb. of veal as compared with 10,429,000,000 lb. and 1,599,000,000 lb. respectively in the pre¬ ceding year. This on a per capita basis was 63.0 lb. of beef and lo.o lb. of veal against 69.1 and 10.7 in the previous year, and 55.2 and 8.1 before World War II, respectively. Cattle being fattened during the autumn of 1948 were only slightly more numerous than the low number on feed a year before, in spite of the superabundance of feed stuffs from 1948 crops. The high price of feeder cattle, $25 to $30 per hundred¬ weight, discouraged all except the more venturesome corn belt feeders from operating at capacity. Cattle imports into the U.S. in 1948 exceeded exports. Cattle made new record high prices in 1948, breaking from

UdlUCa

high levels in January, but fully recovering in the summer, then declining to lower levels during the autumn. Beef cattle averaged $21.50 per hundredweight to the farmer in January, reached a high average of $25.80 in July, but by November had declined to $21.40 per hundredweight. Choice fat steers were of course much higher, at the $42 per hundredweight level during the summer, but also declined during the autumn. The prize steer of the International Livestock show (Chicago) sold for a new record price of $10.75 per pound. The reserve champion of the 1948 Hereford show sold for $33,333.33. The prize feeder cattle sold for $55.50 per hundredweight. World cattle numbers decreased moderately during 1948 mostly because of poor feed crops in 1947 in the U.S. and Europe. Exports of cattle and beef from the Argentine, parti¬ cularly to the United Kingdom, continued large. The United States ban on imports of cattle from Mexico continued because of the foot-and-mouth disease. In August, Canada removed the embargo on cattle exports to the U.S. and about 300,000 head were sent to the U.S. during the remainder of the year. A report late in the year indicated at least 1,000,000 head of cattle died in Australia from drought. {See also Livestock.) (J. K. R.) C.E.D.: see Committee for Economic Development. Celebes Islands: see Netherlands Indies. Cellulose Products: see Plastics Industry; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres.

Pomont compared with a prewar annual total of 112,UwlllvllL 500,000 short tons, world production of cement declined to a low of 55,200,000 tons annually during World War II, but in 1947 had recovered to about 93,000,000 tons. Much of the postwar increase was in the United States, and recovery in Europe was well behind the general average. United States.—The salient features of the cement industry in the United States were reported as follows by the U.S. bureau of mines: Cement Industry in the U.S., 1940-47 (Millions of barrels)

Production • • • • • Portland cement. . Other varieties .• . Shipments. Portland cement. • Other varieties • • Stocks Portlond cement. • Clinker. Other varieties • . Exports. Available supply » •

1940

1941

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947

132.7 130.2 2.5 132.9 130.3 2.5

166.9 164.0 2.9 170.4 167.4 2.9

185.3 182.8 2.6 187.8 185.3 2.5

135.3 133.4 1.8 129.5 127.6 1.8

92.2 90.9 1.2 95.6 94.3 1.3

104.3 102.8 1.5 107.8 106.4 1.5

166.5 164.1 2.5 172.1 169.6 2.5

189.5 186.5 3.0 190.4 187.5 2.9

23.4 4.9 0.3 1.7 131.7

20.0 4.6 0.3 2.6 167.9

17.4 3.5 0.3 1.1 186.7

23.2 6.0 0.2 1.7 127.8

20.0 5.3 0.2 4.0 91.6

16.4 4.5 0.2 6.5 101.4

11.0 3.9 0.1 5.2 166.9

10.0 3.6 ? 6.8 183.7

By 1946 the postwar building boom had wiped out the decline in cement production that occurred after 1942, and in 1947 the output exceeded the 1942 peak, with production still rising. In the first three quarters of 1948 the output of finished portland cement was 150,215,000 bbl., or 11% above the same period of 1947, while shipments were 153,153,000 bbl. (See also Gypsum.) (G. A. Ro.)

PdiICIIC llatfl II Q The population of the U.S. on July I, UwlltfUS Udldf U« Wa 1948, according to preliminary esti¬

CATTLE on a California farm shown feeding on grain stubble being sprayed with a molasses-urea mixture developed in 194S. Use of the grain substitute was expected to save considerable quantities of grain otherwise used for feed

mates, was 146,571,451—an increase of 2,537,909 over the popu¬ lation estimated for July i, 1947. The sources of the increase between 1947 and 1948 may be analyzed as follows: there were during the year ending June 30, 1948, 3,699,859 births, from which may be subtracted 1,458,160 deaths, leaving a natural increase of 2,241,699, which represents the major part of the population increase. The remainder comprised the net civilian immigration, which amounted to 296,210. The rate of increase during the year ending June 30, 1948, was 1.76%, or only a

166

CENSUS DATA. U.S.

little less than the rate of 1.98% attained in fiscal year 1947. The number of immigrants in 1948 was somewhat larger than in 1947 (296,210, net, as compared with 230,082). The natural increase was somewhat smaller by reason of a moderate decrease in births, with the number of deaths remaining about the same. The decrease in the number of births was far less than had been expected by many statisticians working in this field—some of whom had anticipated a sharp decline from the record figures of the second postwar year. A preliminary estimate for Oct. i, 1948, gave the U.S. a total population of 147,280,000, or 709,000 more than on July i. This increase was only a little less than the increase during the corresponding period (July to October) in 1947 (762,000). Two other types of estimates were made—one series repre¬ senting the population actually in continental U.S., excluding the armed forces overseas (sometimes referred to as the de facto population), and a second, the civilian population, excluding all persons in military service. In 1945 there were more than 12,000,000 persons in military service, so that the total popula¬ tion far exceeded the civilian population. In July 1948 the estimated civilian population of the U.S. was 145,306,001:), dif¬ fering from the total population by less than 1,300,000. For the same date the de facto population, including military per¬ sonnel in continental U.S. but excluding that overseas, was 146,116,000. The population estimates for July i and Jan. i of each year from 1940 to 1948 are presented in Table I, which shows also the various elements used in computing the estimates; namely, births, deaths and immigration from outside the U.S. The esti¬ mates are presented to the last digit as computed instead of being rounded, not because they are assumed to be accurate to the last digit, but for convenience in summation. Population Forecasts.—Because the birth rate and the con¬ sequent rate of population increase were maintained through 1948 at a level almost as high as in 1947, higher than those of recent earlier years, and far above expectations based on gen¬ eral trends in population growth, there was wide interest in fore¬ casts of the probable size of the population in future years. Forecasts for dates up to 1975 were computed in great detail (by colour, sex and age, under various assumptions as to the trend of birth and death rates) on the basis of information available at the beginning of 1946 and were published by the census bureau in 1947. The maximum figure shown for 1950 in this series was 147,986,000. Between 1946 and 1948, how¬ ever, the largest numbers of births ever recorded took place and there was a considerable increase in immigration. Revised estimates for 1950 and 1955 were therefore prepared by the census bureau early in 1948, incorporating the unexpected in¬ creases in the birth rate up to that time and making more Table I.—Estimated

Date

July Jan. July Jan. July Jan. July Jon. July

1, 1, I, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1.

1940 . 1941. 1941. 1942 . . . . . 1942 . 1943 . 1943 . 1944 . 1944 .

Table II.— Population of fhe Unifed Slates, Including Military Overseas, July 1, 1948, by Age, with 1940 Census for Comparison July 1, 1948 Age

All ages

Number • • . 146,571,451

Under 5 years • . 5 to 9 years . . . 10 to 14 years . 15 to 19 years . 20 to 24 years . 25 to 29 years . 30 to 34 years . 35 to 39 years . 40 to 44 years . 45 to 49 years 50 to 54 years 55 to 59 years . 60 to 64 years . 65 to 69 years . 70 to 74 years , 75 years and over

15,106,426 12,892,849 10,879,788 10,981,908 12,013,111 11,999,596 11,239,717 10,665,695 9,765,025 8,934,173 8,072,218 7,221,142 5,850,220 4,347308 . 3,145,936 3,456,339

14 years and over 109,745,239 21 and over . • . 94,361,768 Median age . •

Increase, 1940-48*

April 1, 1940

Per cent Number Per cent Number Per cent 11.3 100.0 131,669,275 100.0 14,902,176

4,564,902 43.3 8.0 20.7 2,208,227 8.1 -866,147 -7.4 8.9 9.4 -1,351,615 -1 1.0 3.7 425,276 8.8 8.1 902,958 8.4 9.7 997,329 7.8 1,120,318 11.7 7.2 977,182 6.7 11.1 8.2 678,948 6.3 11.2 5.5 815,372 23.6 4.4 1,377,277 1,121,880 23.7 3.6 540,651 14.2 2.9 576,404 22.4 2.0 30.8 2.0 813,214

10.3 8.8 7.4 7.5 8.2 8.2 7.7 7.3 6.7 6.1 5.5 4.9 4.0 3.0 2.1 2.4

10,541,524 10,684,622 11,745,935 12,333,523 11,587,835 11,096,638 10,242,388 9,545,377 8,787,843 8,255,225 7,256,846 5,843,865 4,728,340 3,806,657 2,569,532 . 2,643,125

74.9 64.4

101,102,924 83,996,629

76.8 63.8

29.0

—

29.8

—

8,642,315 10,365,139 —

8.5 12.3 —

*A minus sign (—) denotes decrease.

generous assumptions with respect to continued large numbers of births. The larger of the two series of estimates presented in this official revision gives 149,886,000 for 1950 and 155,745,000 for 1955. Even these estimates may be considered rather con¬ servative. The estimate for 1950 assumes an average annual increase between July 1948 and, July 1950 of only 1,600,000, as compared with increases of 2,799,000 and 2,538,000, respec¬ tively, in the two years preceding July i, 1948. The situation seemed, then, at the date of writing (Dec. 1948), to justify even larger forecasts, perhaps as high as 151,000,000 for 1950 and 159,000,000 for 1955. Age Distribution.—Important changes in the age distribu¬ tion of the population of the U.S. took place between 1940 and 1948, as indicated in Table II. The most striking changes are those which resulted from the greatly increased numbers of births which took place in the years following 1940. The proportion of the population under 5 years of age in 1948 was 10.3%, as compared with 8.0% in 1940, while the proportion 5 to 9 years increased from 8.1% to 8.8%. The proportion of the population 10 to 14 years old, however, decreased from 8.9% in 1940 to 7.4% in 1948, and the proportion 15 to 19 years decreased even more, from 9.4% to 7.3%. Persons in these two age groups represent roughly the survivors of those born during the low-birth-rate depression years. At the upper end of the age scale, on the other hand, there were considerable increases in the 1948 percentage as compared wnth that of 1940. In actual numbers the population under 10 years of age in¬ creased by 6,773,129, this figure representing 45% of the total increase in the population of all ages. This situation emphasizes still further the outstanding importance of the increase in births as a factor affecting recent population increase. On the other hand, the population between Population of Continental United States, Including Armed Forces Overseas, 10 and 19 years of age was ac¬ July 1, 1940, to July 1, 1948 tually smaller in 1948 than in Change in preceding period 1940 by 2,217,762. On a per¬ Estimated Increase over Excess of Net civilpreceding date total births Ian immicentage basis the population un¬ population Number Per cent Deaths* over deoths Births* gration der 5 years of age increased — _ __ _ _ — 667,709 0.51 1,311,428 692,971 49,252 618,457 during this eight-year period by 564,940 1,316,685 0.43 761,117 555,568 9,372 133,953,225

750,352 711,699 981,045 851,080 871,330 715,070

0.56 0.53 0.73 0.63 0.64 0.52

1,400,533 1,407,467 1,630,967 1,578,210 1,580,383 1,436,179

681,971 733,223 701,054 786,014 761,926 794,451

718,562 674,244 929,913 792,196 818,457 641,728

31,790 37,455 51,132 58,884 52,873 73,342

138,922,634 Jan. 1, 1945 . . . . . 839,185 662,884 July 1, 1945 . 808,153 Jan. 1, 1946 . 840,847 July 1, 1946 . 1,461,237 Jan. 1, 1947 . 1,337,787 July 1, 1947 . 1,400,823 Jan. 1, 1948 . July 1. 1948t. 1,137,086 ""Estimated total, including adjustment for underregistration, t Preliminary figures.

0.61 0.48 0.58 0.60 1.03 0.94 0.97 0.78

1,533,007 1,422,212 1,472,268 1,424,941 2,032,627 1,964,301 1,931,459 1,768,400

786,027 866,036 710,080 729,800 676,239 751,747 704,886 753,274

746,980 556,176 762,188 695,141 1,356,388 1,212,554 1,226,573 1,015,126

92,205 106,708 45,965 145,706 104,849 125,233 174,250 121,960

43-3%) while the population 15 to 19 years of age decreased by 11.0%. In spite of the very heavy increase in the number of persons under 10 years of age, the median age of the en¬ tire population increased from 29.0 in 1940 to 29.8 in 1948. The population 14 years old and over, from which is drawn

167

CENSUS DATA. U.S the labour force of the nation, increased only 8,642,315, or 8.5% (from 101,102,924 in 1940 to 109,745,239 in 1948), while

Table IV.—Illiteracy in the Population of the United States:

the much smaller population under 14 increased 6,259,861, or 16.5%. The population 21 years old and over increased 12.3%, however, or slightly more than the population under 21.

(Number of illiterates in 1947 based on a small sample)

Educational Attainment.—Between 1940 and 1947, in spite of the disturbing effects of World War II, the average educa¬ tional attainment of the population 25 years old and over in¬ creased by about half a year—largely as a result of the dying off of older persons, who had grown up at a time when educa¬ tional facilities were less readily available, and their replacement by younger persons. During this period the actual number of persons who had completed less than five grades of school de¬ creased by about 1,500,000, while the number of college grad¬ uates increased by more than 1,000,000. Persons who had completed less than five years of elementary school (sometimes defined as “functional illiterates”) consti¬ tuted only 10.4% of the population 25 years old and over in 1947, as compared with 13.5% in 1940. During the same period, the percentage of the population 25 years old and over who had graduated from college increased from 4.6 to 5.4, while the proportion who had completed high school (but had not had so much as one year of college) increased from 14.1% to 20.5%. The median number of years of school completed, which would represent the attainment of the person who would stand in the middle of the series if the population were arranged in order according to number of years of school completed, was 9.0 in 1947, as compared with 8.4' in 1940. The results of an inquiry on educational attainment which formed a part of a survey made in April 1947 are summarized in Table III, with 1940 census data for comparison. The 1947 figures refer to the civilian population, while the 1940 data are census figures for the total population, which differed very little in that year from the civilian population. Table III.—Years of School Completed by Persons 25 Years Old and Oyer: 1947 and 1940 (Figures for 1947 based on a small sample) Yeors of school completed

Total population 25 and over • . Elementary school: Less than 5 years*. 5 or 6 years. 7 or 8 years.. • High school: 1 to 3 years.. » 4 years.. • • College: 1 to 3 yeors 4 years or more.. Years of school not reported . . . . Median years of school completed.

April 1940

April 1947 Number

Per cent

82,578,000

100.0

74,775,836

100.0

8,611,000 7,290,000

10.4 8.8 30.3

10,104,612 8,515,111 25,897,953

13.5 11.4 34.6

16.3 20J

11,181,995 10,551,680

15.0 14.1

67

4,075,184 3,407,331 1,041,970 8.4

5.4 4.6 1.4

5,533,000 4,424,000 1,289,000 9.0

5.4 1.6 ..

Number

Per cent

••

•Includes persons reporting no school years completed.

Illiteracy.—The decennial censuses from 1870 to 1930 pro¬ vided information on illiteracy in the population of the United States, an illiterate being defined as a person not able to read and write, either in English or some other language. The ques¬ tion on literacy was replaced in 1940 by a question on number of years of school completed, some of the results of which are presented in Table III. Information on illiteracy was again obtained in a sample survey conducted in Oct. 1947; and for use in connection with these figures the extent of illiteracy in 1940 was estimated. The data on illiteracy, including the earlier census figures and the later estimates, are summarized in Table IV. The 1947 figures in this table refer to the civilian noninstitutional population, while the earlier figures represent the total population. The decrease in the proportion of the population ten years old and over who were returned as illiterate from 20.0% in 1870 to 4.3% in 1930 bears witness to the increasing efficiency of the

1870 to 1947

Age and date Population 10 years old and over: 1870 . 1880 . 1890 . 1900 .. 1910. 1920 .. 1930 . 1 940, estimated . . . Population 14 years old and over: 1930 . 1 940, estimated . . . 1 947, estimated ........ . .

Total

Illiterate Per cent Number

110,443,129

5,658,144 6,239,958 6,324,702 6,180,069 5,516,163 4,931,905 4,283,753 3,249,000

20.0 17.0 13.3 10.7 7.7 6.0 4.3 2.9

101,102,924 106,428,000

4,166,406 3,162,000 2,838,000

4.7 3.1 2.7

educational system, though to some extent this movement was aided by the declining relative importance of the foreign-born element in the population, since illiteracy has always been higher among the foreign born than in the native population. Incidentally, while the percentage of illiteracy was materially higher in 1930 among Negroes than in the foreign-born popula¬ tion, the Negroes’ improvement in this respect was more rapid than that of any other class for which separate figures were available. The percentage illiterate among Negroes in 1870 was 81.4; in 1890, 57.1; in 1910, 30.4; and in 1930, only 16.3—as compared with 9.9 for the foreign-born white, this last figure representing a decline from a maximum of 13.i in 1890 which was repeated in 1920. The percentage of illiteracy in the total population ten years old and over in 1940 was estimated at 2.9, the actual number of illiterates being less by about 1,000,000 than in 1930. Since the 1947 survey covered only the population 14 years old and over, figures for this group, which would normally have a slightly higher percentage of illiteracy, are presented in Table IV for comparative purposes. While the decrease in the num¬ ber of illiterates between 1940 and 1947 as indicated by the estimates was only about 300,000, with a decline in the per¬ centage from 3.1 to 2.7, even this change is significant. Since there is a definite and important relation between il¬ literacy and age, the data for 1947 and 1940 are presented by age in Table V. The proportion of illiterates in both years was decidedly lower in each successively younger age group, ranging in 1947 from 6.7% among persons 65 years of age and over to 1.0% in those 14 to 24 years of age. This pattern reflects mainly the improvement in educational facilities over the past 40 or 50 years, though the very small percentage of persons of foreign birth in the younger age groups was a con¬ tributing factor. A study of the statistics for earlier years, as published in detail in the census reports, indicates that the “spread” between the percentages illiterate at the older age levels and the younger has grown progressively less. Thus, in 1900 the percentage of illiteracy was 19.8 for persons 65 years old and over, as compared with 7.1 for persons 10 to 14 years old—a difference of 12.7. In 1910 the difference was 10.4; in 1920, 9.7; and in 1930, 8.5. In 1940, likewise, the difference between the percentage of illiteracy for the oldest group and the youngest was 6.5 and in 1947, 5.7. In general, the percentage of illiteracy was lower in urban areas than in rural-nonfarm (largely suburban); and in both these areas it was decidedly lower than in the rural-farm popu¬ lation. The respective figures for 1947 were 2.0 for urban, 2.4 for rural-nonfarm and 5.3 for rural-farm. The decidedly higher percentage of illiteracy in the nation-wide data for the ruralfarm population, however, is due in part to the fact that a large fraction of the rural-farm population of the United States is located in the south, where illiteracy levels even among the white population are higher than in the north and west. Further, the urban population of the many northern states contains

CENSUS DATA. U.S.

168

large numbers of foreign born, whose presence tends to increase the urban percentage of illiteracy. In the matter of farmnonfarm relationships, it may be noted that there were a num¬ ber of states in which in 1930 the rural-farm areas showed a lower percentage of illiteracy than either the urban or the rural-nonfarm. In Illinois, for example, the percentages were as follows: urban 3.3; rural-nonfarm 3.2; and rural-farm 1.5; or in Iowa, urban, i.i; rural-nonfarm 1.2; and rural-farm 0.7. Table V.—Itliferacy by Age: 1940 and 1947 (Number of illiterates in 1947 based on a small sample) Civilian population, 1947 Illiterate

Age Total Total 1 4 years old and over • • • 106,428,000 14 to 24 years. 24,257,000 25 to 34 years. 22,481,000 35 to 44 years. 1 9,898,000 16,625,000 45 to 54 years. 55 to 64 years. 12,652,000 65 and over . 10,515,000

Total population, 1940 Illiterate

Number

Per cent

Total

Number

Per cent

2,838,000 232,000 310,000 420,000 506,000 662,000 709,000

2.7 1.0 1.4 2.1 3.0 5.2 6.7

101,102,924 26,327,088 21,339,026 18,333,220 15,512,071 10,572,205 9,019,314

3,162,000 299,000 465,000 504,000 652,000 557,000 680,000

3.1 1.1 2.2 2.7 4.2 5.3 7.5

While it was not possible to work out any combination ^f the 1940 data on years of school completed which would be equiva¬ lent to the classification into literate and illiterate, the 1947 survey did provide interesting information on the relation be¬ tween these two classifications. In Table VI are presented data indicating the percentage of illiteracy in the first five items in the classification by number of years of school completed. In this survey it was assumed that practically all of the illiterates were among those who had completed less than five years of school and that all persons who had completed five years or more were literate. The results of the cross-classification pre¬ sented in Table VI indicate that this assumption was substan¬ tially correct. Among those persons 14 years old and over who had not completed so much as one year of school, 80.1% were illiterate; among those with one year only, 66.6%; those with two years, 46.2%; with three years, 19.2%; and among those with four years, only 4.7%. It seems reasonable to suppose, therefore, that the next higher educational group, those with

Table VI.—Illiteracy by Number of Years of School Completed; Oct. 1947 (Figures based on a small sample. In thousands)

Civilian noninstitutional population 14 years old and over. Total reporting less than 5 years of school completed. None. 1 year only. 2 years. 3 years. 4 years.

. . . ... . . . . . . . . .

,

(Source: U.S. Bureau of the

2.7

2,838

34.6

1,581 311 469 338 139

80.1 66.6 46.2 19.2 4.7

Table VII.—Population by Employment Status, Oct. and Nov. 1948 and Nov. 1947 (Employment figures based on a small sample.

Employment status

Total labour force including armed forces. . Armed forces. Civilian labour force . • « . Employed .. . Unemployed. Not in the labour force . . . .

TRENDS in the labour force, 1940 to 1948 Census)

1,974 467 1,015 1,764 2,977

2,838

five years of school completed, would include only a negligible number of illiterates. Employment and Unemployment.—The civilian labour force, which includes both the employed and unemployed, was estimated at 61,724,000 in Nov. 1948, or about the same as in October. The usual seasonal decline in the labour force be¬ tween October and November did not take place in 1948, chiefly because of an earlier start in the preholiday increase in nonfarm activities. There were 1,508,000 more persons in the civilian labour force in Nov. 1948 than in Nov. 1947. About 900,000 of these additional workers were women and an appreciable fraction of the remainder were veterans of World War II. The total population 14 years old and over increased in this same 12-month period by about 1,000,000. If there had been no change in the rates of labour-force participation this increase would have contributed to the labour force about 155,000 women and 403,000 men. The data on employment status for Oct. and Nov. 1948 and for Nov. 1947 are summarized in Table VII, which shows also the amount of change during the month and the year preceding Nov. 1948.

Numbers in thousands)

Oct. 1948

Nov. 1947

Net change. Oct.-Nov. 1948

108,853

107,839

+95

+ 1,109

61,724 59,893

63,166 1,391 61,775 60,134 1,642

61,510 1,294 60,216 58,595 1,621

-28 -f-23 -51 -241 + 189

+ 1,628 + 120 + 1,508 + 1,298 +210

45,810

45,685

46,330

+ 125

-520

Nov. 1948

Total noninstitutional populatlon 14 years old and over . 108,948 muoNs

Illiterate Per cent Number

Total

Years of school completed

63,138

Net change, Nov. 1947-48

The total labour force, including the armed forces, was esti¬ mated at 63,138,000 in Nov. 1948, being 1,628,000 higher than a year earlier and about 5,500,000 higher than in Nov. 1941, just prior to U.S. entry into the war. The increase in the num¬ ber of women in the labour force since 1941 represented about half the total increase. Since the labour-force participation rate for women is much lower than that for men, this approximately equal division of the increase connotes an appreciable increase in the percentage of women in the labour force. While the per¬ centage of the male population 14 years old and over in the total labour force was about the same in 1948 (84.3 in November) as in 1941, the percentage of the female population in the labour force had increased from 29.5 in Nov. 1941 to 32.4 in Nov. 1948. Even within the year between 1947 and 1948 this per¬ centage increased from 31.2 to 32.4. Or, to state the results of this change more directly: in Nov. 1948, women con¬ stituted about 28^% of those in the civilian labour force or in the armed forces, as compared with 26% in Nov. 1941. During this 7-year period the proportion of the labour force consisting of women in the age group 35 years old and over increased even more, from 11% to 14^%. The estimated number of employed persons in Nov. 1948 was

CENSUS DATA, U.S 59)S93>ooo, or about 240,000 less than in October. This slight change was the net result of a seasonal decline of 666,000 in agricultural employment, partly offset by an increase of 426,000 in nonagricultural. The number of persons employed in nonagricultural industries in Nov. 1948 totalled 51,932,000, exceeding the wartime peak of Dec. 1942 by more than 5,600,000, and exceeding the corre¬ sponding figure for Nov. 1947 by 1,323,000. Women employed in nonagricultural work in Nov. 1948 totalled 15,853,000, or about 1,500,000 less than the wartime peak of female employ¬ ment in the spring of 1945. There were 3,500,000 teen-age persons in nonagricultural employment in November, or about 1,000,000 less than the number at the summer peak in July. Unemployment was estimated at 1,831,000 in Nov. 1948, this figure being roughly 200,000 higher than. the unemployment estimate for Oct. 1948 or for Nov. 1947. The unemployment rate in November—that is, the proportion of those in the ci¬ vilian labour force who were unemployed—was 3.0%, the rate for men being 2.8% and the rate for women 3.3%. The average duration of unemployment for men in November had been about eight weeks, as compared with six weeks for women. The data from the monthly reports on the labour force are presented for selected dates from July 1945 to Nov. 1948 in Table VIII, while the chart on page 168 shows the principal items in graphic form for the entire period from 1940 to Nov. 1948. Hours of Work.—Average hours for those who worked in nonagricultural industries in Oct.-1948 were estimated at 41.9, as compared with 52.1 for agricultural workers. These averages are based on the distribution of persons employed by hours worked during the survey week, which are summarized for se¬ lected dates in 1947 and 1948 in Table IX. The figures in the last column of this table represent persons who had a job or

Table VI!!.—Civilian Employment and Unemployment in the United States: July 1945 to Nov. 1948 (Figures are exclusive of institutional population as well as persons in the armed forces. Employment data based on a small sample. In thousands) Civilian population 14 years old and over

Dote and sex

Total July 1945

.

July 1946

.

July 1947

.

July 1948 . Oct. 1948 . Nov. 1948 . Male July 1945

. . . .

Sept. 1948. Oct. 1948 . Nov. 1948 . Female July 1945

.

July 1946 . Jan. 1947 .

Oct. 1947 .

July 1948

55,350 53,320 60,110 57,790 62,664 59,214 63,842 61,775 61,724

59.3 53.4 58.0 54.9 59.0 55.5 59.5 57.5 57.4

54,400 51,020 57,840 55,390 60,079 57,149 61,615 60,134 59,893

950 2,300 2,270 2,400 2,584 2,065 2,227 1,642 1,831

1.7 4.3 3.8 4.2 4.1 3.5 3.5 2.7 3.0

35,270 37,160 42,710 41,860 42,800 44,861 43,443 43,148 42,846 43,369 45,437 45,215 44,101 43,851 43,782

87.5 80.3 85.6 81.9 83.4 87.0 84.0 83.3 82.5 83.4 87.1 86.7 84.6 84.1 83.9

34,790 35,390 40,950 39,910 40,900 43,071 42,260 41,972 41,273 41,801 43,989 43,889 42,850 42,763 42,551

480 1,770 1,760 1,950 1,900 1,789 1,183 1,176 1,574 1,567 1,448 1,326 1,251 1,088 1,231

1.4 4.8 4.1 4.7 4.4 4.0 2.7 2.7 3.7 3.6 3.2 2.9 2.8 2.5 2.8

20,080 16,160 17,400 15,930 16,320 17,803 17,449 17,068 16,368 17,155 1 8,405 17,971 18,111 17,924 17,942

37.9 30.2 32.4 29.4 30.0 32.6 31.9 31.2 29.9 31.2 33.4 32.6 32.8 32.4 32.4

19,610 15,630 16,890 15,480 15,800 17,008 16,944 16,623 15,876 16,529 17,626 17,356 17,462 17,371 17,342

470 530 510 450 520 795 504 445 491 626 779 615 648 554 600

2.3 3.3 2.9 2.8' 3.2 4.5 2.9 2.6 3.0 3.6 4.2 3.4 3.6 3.1 3.3

Table IX.—Persons Employed in Nonagricultural Industries and in Agriculture, by Hours Worked During Survey Week; Oct. 7 947 to Oct. 1948 (Thousands of civilians 14 years old and over.

Data based1 on a sma II sample) With a job but not at work

Total employed

Worked 35 hr. or more

Worked 15-34 hr.

1948. 1948.

35,340 35,018 36,633 36,016

31,476 30,719 24,344 31,081

2,212 2,414 7,766 3,092

630 610 563 71 1

1,022 1,275 3,962 1,132

Female: Oct. 1947 . Jan. 1 948. July 1948. Oct. 1948.

15,243 15,071 15,819 15,490

11,626 11,523 8,060 11,370

2,322 2,200 4,381 2,655

761 903 831 1,015

534 446 2,546 451

1947. t 948. 1948. 1948.

6,920 6,254 7,356 6,747

5,913 4,505 6,152 5,772

736 1,255 903 738

128 202 145 124

142 292 157 114

Female: Oct. 1947 . Jan. 1 948. July 1948. Oct. 1948.

1,702 806 1,807 1,880

954 224 859 1,039

647 510 864 717

76 48 58 99

25 23 27 26

Class, sex and date

Worked 1-14 hr.

Employed In nonagricultural industries Male: Oct. Jan. July Oct.

1947.

] 948.

Employed in agriculture Male: Oct. Jan. July Oct.

business from which they were absent during the survey week for some temporary reason, such as sickness or vacation, but to which they certainly expected to return shortly—^so that they were not in the market for-other employment. Except for rather large numbers of nonagricultural workers on vacation or working short hours in the July survey week (which happened to include the Fourth of July) the patterns of distribution of nonagricultural workers and agricultural workers, respectively, were in general rather uniform—with decidedly larger proportions of the latter working 35 hr. or more—usually more, according to tabulations showing hours in greater detail. Employment by Age.—The employment data for Oct. 1948 are classified by age and sex in Table X. Of the total civilian male population 14 years old and over, 84.1% were in the labour force in Oct. 1948, this figure being an average of a rather wide range of percentages in different age groups. The individual percentages ranged from 23.6 for males 14 and 15 years of age, in which group the numbers in the labour force comprised mainly boys who were both working and attending school, to 98.1% for men 35 to 44 years of age. The percentages in the labour force were about the same for men 65 years old and over and for boys 16 and 17 years old—48.9% and 48.3%, respectively. Of the total civilian female population in Oct. 1948, 32.4% were in the labour force. Among the age groups the highest perTable X.—Employment Status of the Civilian Noninstitutional Population, by Age and Sex; Ocf. 1948

.

Jan. 1947 . July 1947 Oc'f. 1947 Nov. 1947 Jan. 1948

Civilian Unlabour force employed Per Employed Per cent cent of Number Number of populabour lation force

169

.. .

Sept. 1948. Oct. 1948 . Nov. 1948 .

. .

. .

52,149 52,168

53,000 53,4 80

(Thousands of persons 14 years of age and over. Employment data based on a small sample)

Popula* tion, 14 years old and over

Sex and age

Male 14 16 18 20 25 35 45 55 65

14 16 18 20 25 35 45

Unemployed NumPer ber cent 1,088 2.5

23.6 48.3 72.3 84.9 96.0 98.1 95.9 89.5 48.9

474 967 1,336 4,410 10,143 9,478 7,839 5,671 2,446

15 56

208 195 168 139 134 70

. . . . . .

9,830

. . . .

6,489 5,141

489 1,023 1,438 4,618 10,338 9,646 7,978 5,805 2,516

2.8

1,586 1,095 549 823 430 184 342 683 2,625

Female ...... . .

55,294

17,924

32.4

17,370

554

3.1

37,369

. . . . . .

2,028 2,120 2,222

12.2

8,526 6,508 5,683

243 617 1,054 2,594 3,984 3,759 3,055 1,562 503

5 34 51 109 139 94 73 39

2.0

. . . . . .

248 651 1,105 2,703 4,123 3,853 3,128 1,601 513

1,780 1,469 1,117 3,273 7,757 6,501 5,398 4,906 5,170

and 1 5 years . . . and 17 years . . . and 1 9 years . . . to 24 years. . . . to 34 years. . . . to 44 years.... to 54 yeors. . . . 55 to 64 years. . . . 65 years and over . .

30.7 49.7 45.2 34.7 37.2 36.7 24.6 9.0

102

10

3.1 5.5 7.1 4.5 1.9 1.7 1.7 2.3

Not in labour force 8,316

2,076 2,118 1,988 5,440

and 1 5 years . . . and 17 years . . . and 19 years , . . to 24 years. . . . to 34 yeors. . . . to 44 years. . . . to 54 years.... to 64 years.... years and over . .

. .

In labour force Per Total cent number of Employed population 43,851 84.1 42,763

5.2 4.6 4.0 3.4 2.4 2.3 2.4 1.9

170

CENSUS DATA, U.S.

Table XI.— Employed Workers by Sex and Major Occupation Group; 1948 and 1940 (Figures for 1948 based on a small sample) Oct. 1948 Sex and occupation group

Male

April 1940

(civilian workers) Per Number cent

loll workers)

Per Number

cent

. Total.

42,763,000

100.0

34,027,905

100.0

Professional and semlprofessional .... Farmers and farm managers. Proprietors, managers and officials, except farm. Clerical and kindred workers. Salesmen and saleswomen. Croftsmen, foremen end kindred workers . Operatives and kindred workers .... Domestic service workers. Service workers, except domestic .... Farm labourers and foremen. Labourers, except farm and mine .... Occupation not reported.

2,392,000 4,474,000

5.6 10.5

1,875,387 4,991,715

5.5 14.7

5,510,000 2,968,000 2,334,000 8,0)2,000 8,911,000 141,000 2,485,000 2,117,000 3,41 9,000 —

12.9 6.9 5.5 18.7 20.8 0.3 5.8 5.0 8.0 —

3,325,767 2,236,853 2,123,795 4,949,132 6,205,898 142,231 2,196,695 2,770,005 2,965,693 244,734

9.8 6.6 6.2 14.5 18.2 0.4 6.5 8.1 8.7 0.7

Total. ..

17,371,000

100.0

11,138,178

100.0

Professional and semiprofessional .... Farmers and farm managers ...... Proprietors, managers and officials, except farm. Clerical and kindred workers. Salesmen and saleswomen. Craftsmen, foremen and kindred workers . Operatives and kindred workers .... Domestic service workers. Service workers, except domestic .... Farm labourers and foremen. Labourers, except farm and mine .... Occupation not reported.

1,598,000 321,000

9.2 1.8

1,469,661 151,899

13.2 1.4

910,000 4,491,000 1,345,000 213,000 3,533,000 1,484,000 1,839,000 1,539,000 99,000 —

5.2 25.9 7.7

Female

1.2

20.3 8.5

10.6 8.9 0.6 —

3.8 423,520 21.3 2,375,503 781,479 7.0 1.0 106,590 , 18.4 2,046,379 17.7 1,969,083 1,261,639 11.3 320,005 2.9 98,435 0.9 133,985 1.2

centage, 49.7, was shown for young women 18 and 19 years old, the next highest 45.2% for those 20 to 24 years old, while of the women 65 years old and over, only 9.0% were in the labour force. Occupational Changes.—Male and female employed work¬ ers are classified by major occupation group for 1948 and 1940 in Table XI. Significant changes among male workers include a decrease in the proportion of the total represented by farmers from 14.7% in 1940 to 10.5% in 1948, by farm labourers from 8.1% to 5.0% and by general labourers from 8.7% to 8.0%, with increases for nonfarm proprietors and officials from 9.8% to 12.9%, for craftsmen, etc., from 14.5% to 18.7% and for operatives, etc., from 18.2% to 20.8%. Among female workers the most significant decreases in pro¬ portion were for professional and semiprofessional workers from 13.2% to 9.2%, perhaps reflecting a movement from the teach¬ ing profession to clerical and sales positions; and in domestic service from 17.7% to 8.5%. Significant increases were in clerical workers from 21.3% to 25.9%, in sales persons from 7.0% to 7.7% and in operatives, etc., from 18.4% to 20.3%. The nominal increase in female farm workers reflects mainly the seasonal difference between April and October. Households and Families.—The number of households in the U.S., according to estimates based on a survey made in April 1948, was 40,720,000. This represents an increase of 5,631,000, or 16.0%, over the 35,087,440 households returned in the 1940 census. This increase in the number of households may be compared with an increase of 10.9% in the total popu¬ lation during the same period. The more rapid increase in households than in population carried with it of course a decline in the average population per household from 3.7% in 1940 to 3.5% in 1948. The population living in the 40,000,000 households did not represent quite the entire civilian population of the U.S. in 1948, since 2,858,000 persons were living in institutions, tran¬ sient hotels, large boarding houses, etc., rather than in house¬ holds. Of the whole number of households, 31,834,000 or 78.2%, contained a married couple with the husband classified as head of the household. There were 2,584,000 other households with a male head, and 6,302,000 households with a female head, a

large proportion of the latter being widows. The data on house¬ holds are summarized in Table XII. A household is defined as a group of persons who occupy a house, an apartment or other groups of rooms, or a room that constitutes a dwelling unit. It includes not only the related family members but also the unrelated persons, if any, such as lodgers, servants or hired hands, who share the dwelling unit. A person living alone is counted as a household, and likewise a group of unrelated persons sharing the same living accommo¬ dations. In the censuses of 1940 and earlier the term “family” was used to represent the groups of persons now called “house¬ holds.” The number of households as shown in 1948 reports is therefore comparable with the number of families as shown in the 1940 or 1930 census reports. Mainly because of confusion or difficulty arising from the inclusion of individuals living alone in the count of families as published in earlier reports, a new definition was set up in which a family is defined as a group of two or more related persons living in the same household. The outstanding feature of this new definition is that it excludes the individuals living alone wfio were counted as one-person families in 1940 and earlier. It includes also not only the primary families—that is, the families whose head is the head of the household—but also a small number of secondary families made up of related groups of persons living in the household but not related to the house¬ hold head. In addition to the secondary families living in house¬ holds (468,000), there were in 1948, 138,000 families not in households; that is, groups of related persons living in hotels, apartment houses, institutions, etc. There were also 2,681,000 subfamilies; that is, groups of related persons (husband and wife, parent and child, etc.) living in households, related to the household head but not including the household head. These subfamilies are not included in the total of all families, since each subfamily forms a part of some primary family already counted. The data on families and subfamilies in urban, ruralnonfarm and rural-farm areas are presented in Table XIII. The 36,674,000 primary families comprised 31,834,000 husband-wife families, 1,362,000 parent-child families and 3,478,000 of other types. Of the 468,000 secondary families, 332,000 were husband-wife families, as were also 122,000 of the 138,000 families not in households. Of the 2,681,000 subfamilies, 2,001,000 were classified as husband-wife and 680,000 as parent-child. The civilian population as returned in this survey, including small numbers of military personnel living with their families or off post, was 145,086,000. Of this number 135,547,000 per-

Table XII.— Households in the Civilian Population of the United States: April 1948 and 1940, by Residence (Figures for 1948 based on a small sample) Date and type of fomlly

1948, number All households • • •

Total

Urban

Ruralnonfarm

Ruralfarm

40,720,000

24,846,000

9,034,000

6,841,000

Head having no relatives in household (mainly one-person households).

4,046,000

2,866,000

808,000

372,000

Head with relatives . . . Husband-wife households . . . Parent-child households. Other households . . .

36,674,000 31,834,000 1,362,000 3,478,000

21,979,000 18,584,000 910,000 2,485,000

8,226,000 7,409,000 298,000 520,000

6,469,000 5,841,000 155,000 473,000

16.8

1 948, per cent All households . . .

100.0

61.0

22.2

Head having no relatives in household.

100.0

70.8

20.0

9.2

Head with relatives . . • Husband-wife households . . . Parent-child households. Other households . « .

100.0 100.0 100.0 100.0

59.9 58.4 66.8 71.4

22.4 23.3 21.9 15.0

17.6 18.3 11.4 13.6

35,087,440 100.0

20,749,200 59.1

7,261,340 20.7

7,076,900 20.2

1940 Alt households (families): Number. Per cent ........

CENTENNIALS —CHAMBERS. WHITTAKER Table XIIL—Families of Two Persons or More and Subfam/7/eS/ April 1948, and Primary Fam///es, April 1940, by Residence (Figures for 1948 based on a small sample) RuralDate and type of family Total Urban nonfarm 1 948, number AM families. 37,280,000 22,479,000 8,281,000

Ruralfarm 6,520,000

Primary families (In households) • Husband-wife families . . Parent-child families. Other types.

36,674,000 31,834,000 1,362,000 3,478,000

21,979,000 1 8,584,000 910,000 2,485,000

8,226,000 7,409,000 298,000 520,000

6,469,000 5,841,000 155,000 473,000

Secondary families (in households). Husband-wife families .... Other types.

468,000 332,000 136,000

381,000 281,000 101,000

44,000 27,000 17,000

43,000 24,000 19,000

Families not in households . . . Husband-wife families .... Other types.

138,000 122,000 15,000

119,000 104,000 15,000

10,000 10,000

9,000 9,000

Subfamilies.

2,681,000

1,731,000

529,000

422,000

Husband-wife subfamilies .... Parent-child subfamilies. Other types.

2,001,000 680,000 1,321,000

1,326,000 405,000 921,000

377,000 151,000 226,000

298,000 124,000 174,000

1 948, per cent All families.

100.0

60.3

22.2

17.5

Primary (in households). Secondary (in households). . . . Not in households.

100.0 100.0 100.0

59.9 81.4 86.2

22.4 9.4 7.2

17.6 9.2 6.5

Subfamilies. . • • ..

100.0

64.6

19.7

\57

1940 Primory families:* Number. Per cent.

31,590,240 100.0

18,481,800 58.5

6,467,780 20.5

6,640,660 21.0

*This figure includes only families of two persons or more, omitting the one-person families shown in the census reports for 1940.

sons, or 93:4%, were living in families and 9,539,000 not in families, the latter figure including about 4,000,000 one-person households and about 3,000,000 persons living in households but not related to the household head. These figures are further classified in Table XIV. The total number of persons in what are sometimes termed “quasi households”—that is, not living in households—in 1948 was 2,858,000, comprising 1,197,000 nonfamily persons living in hotels and lodging houses, and 1,341,000 in institutions, together with the 320,000 members of families not in households. Table XIV.—Civilian Population Distributed in Accordance with Family Status: April 1948 (Figures based on a small sample. In thousands) Family status

Number

Per cent

Total civilian population.

145,086

100.0

In families. Primary families (in households). Secondary families (in households). Families not in households.

135,547 134,154 1,073 320

93.4 92.5 0.7 0.2

Not in families. Household heads having no relative in household (mainly oneperson households). Other persons in households. In hotels, lodging houses, etc. Inmates of institutions.

9,539

6.6

4,046 2,955 1,197 1,341

2.8 2.0 0.8 0.9

(See also Aliens; Birth Statistics; Housing; Immigra¬ tion AND Emigration; Marriage and Divorce; Wages and Hours; Wealth and Income, Distribution of.) (L. E. T.)

Centennials: see Calendar, 1949, page xxii. Cereals: see Barley; Corn; Oats; Rice; Rye; Wheat.

Pouinn

llnmininn nf ^ self-governing member of the uCyiUu) UUnliniOn OI. commonwealth of Nations, lying

off the southern extremity of India and approaching to within 6° of the equator. Area; 25,332 sq.mi.; pop. (mid-1947 est.): 6,961,000. Chief towns (pop. 1946 est.): Colombo (cap., 355,374); Jaffna (62,922); Kandy (59,767); Galle (49,038). Lan¬ guages: mainly Sinhalese (c. 69%) and Tamil (c. 21%). Re¬ ligions: Buddhist (61%); Hindu (22%); Christian, mainly Roman Catholic (7%), and Moslem (9%). Governor general: Sir Henry Mopck-Mason Moore; prime minister: Don Stephan Senanayake. History.—On Feb. 4, 1948, the island of Ceylon was admitted

171

to full dominion status, being the first non-European colony in the Commonwealth of Nations to attain that position. The con¬ stitution was to be on the British model, with a parliament of two chambers and a prime minister responsible to it. In the first election the United National party had captured 42 out of the 95 elected seats, the remainder going to the Com¬ munists, Independents and other splinter parties. Prime Minis¬ ter Senanayake, leader of the United National party, subse¬ quently came to an agreement with Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru about the vexing question of the citizen rights of Indians resi¬ dent in Ceylon. Senanayake further strengthened his position by allotting two seats in his cabinet to Tamils and one to a Moslem. Independence day was celebrated on Feb. 10, when the first session of the Ceylon parliament was opened by the duke of Gloucester, representing the king, in Colombo. The celebrations were continued at the historic capital of Kandy, where the lion flag, the standard of the Sinhalese kings, was ceremonially hoisted. Great Britain and Ceylon agreed on measures for mutual de¬ fense against aggression and for the protection of lines of com¬ munication. The dominion of Ceylon granted to the British government the use of air and naval bases and military estab¬ lishments, and agreed to follow the principles and practices of other members of the commonwealth in relation to external affairs. Ceylon had inherited an orderly administration, a sound judi¬ cial system and financial stability. Its leading industries, coco¬ nuts and tea, were prospering, and rubber was recovering. But because of the rapid rise in population it was still necessary to import much of its staple food, rice. (H. G. Rn.) Education.—(1944) Government and assisted elementary schools 5,269, pupils 722,426; English and bilingual schools 416, pupils 101,223; Ceylon Technical college (194s), students 2,090; University of Ceylon (1946), students 1,065. Banking and Finance.—Budget (est. 1947—48): revenue Rs. 519,000,000; expenditure Rs. 440,736,000; (est. 1948—49) revenue Rs. 534,800,000; expenditure Rs. 532,664,000. Public debt (Sept. 30, 1947): Rs. 416,800,000. Note circulation (June 30, 1948): gross Rs. 371,200.000, active Rs. 216,300,000. Deposit money (June 30, 1948); Rs. 804,900,000. Exchange rate: i rupee=I^. 6d., or 30.16 U.S. cents. Trade and Communication.—In 1947: imports Rs. 963,000,000; exports Rs. 889,000,000. In 1948 (six months); imports Rs. 521,000,000; ex¬ ports Rs. 498,000,000. Main roads (1947) 6,304 mi.; railways 913 mi. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947): cars 20,892, buses and trucks 9,464. Shipping (1947, from 100 tons upward); ships 15, gross tonnage 6,725. Wireless licences (1947): 18,714. Production.—In metric tons: rubber (1947) 90,000; rice (1948) 224,000; tea (1947) 135,000.

Chambers, Whittalror llllllluNCl

tor, was bom in Philadelphia, Pa., April I, 1901, entered Columbia university in 1920 and subse¬ quently became editor of a literary magazine. In 1924 he re¬ turned to Columbia and in that year joined the Communist party. From 1926 to 1930 he worked on the Daily Worker, left-wing newspaper in New York, and in 1930 left that paper to write for the magazine New Masses. For a period, according to his own professions later, he worked as a courier for a Com¬ munist underground “apparatus” in Washington, D.C. In 1938 or 1939 he broke with the Communists and in the latter year obtained a position as a writer for Time magazine. In 1948, be¬ fore the house committee to investigate un-American activities, he made startling accusations tending to implicate others in the Communist underground ring he said he had served. He espe¬ cially charged that Alger Hiss (q.v.), the president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and a former state department official, had likewise been a member of the Com¬ munist “apparatus” in Washington before World War H. When Chambers repeated the accusation, publicly and away from the house committee chamber where his words were protected by congressional immunity, Hiss sued him. On Dec. 6 the house

172

CHAMBERS O F COMMERCE

committee released sworn testimony by Chambers that Hiss had provided him (Chambers) with certain secret state depart¬ ment papers for transmission to a soviet agent. Hiss promptly denied the accusation “without qualification.” In a federal grand-jury investigation of the case, both Chambers and Hiss testified, and Hiss was indicted on Dec. 15 on two charges of perjury, specifically charging misstatement when he denied that he had given any documents to Chambers, and when he testified that he did not talk to Chambers after Jan. i, 1937. Arraigned, Hiss pleaded not guilty.

Chambers of Commerce • 1948 was a period of continu¬ ing and expanding public service by the chamber of commerce of the United States. As spokesman for its more than 3,000 member chambers and trade associations as well as more than 19,000 business mem¬ bers, the national chamber played an influential part in national, state and local progress. Policies and action were directed to all phases of the economy: better labour-management relations; closer understanding between farmer and businessman; more practical city planning; dissipation of housing bottlenecks; hus¬ banding of natural resources; furthering of foreign trade and economic co-operation; improvement of transportation and communications; curtailing of public expenditures and expan¬ sion of private investment and development. More than 1,100 local education committees, sparked by the national program, were engaged in surveying local school needs and in finding ways and means to meet these needs. The chamber’s drive against communist infiltration continued unabated. Earlier reports on communist influences in govern¬ ment and labour were further supported by an additional study A Program for the Community—Anti-Communist Action. The chamber’s American opportunity program, designed to promote the United States system of free enterprise, was also geared to meet the increasing need for more enlightened citizen¬ ship. Its program for the dissemination of facts about the oper¬ ation and the benefits of the U.S. system, was broadened and expanded. A network radio program “Let Freedom Ring” and a docu¬ mentary motion picture “America and Sons, Unlimited” met with favour as features of the chamber’s effort to inspire more individual responsibility for a better and more secure America. Re-elected for a second year as president of the national chamber was Earl 0. Shreve of New York city. Ralph Brad¬ ford was executive vice-president, and Arch N. Booth was chamber manager. (E. 0. Se.) United States Junior Chamber of Commerce.—This largest young men’s civic organization in the world continued a steady rate of growth during 1948, and at the end of the year had 1,725 active local organizations of young men 21 through 35 years of age, plus 48 state and territorial organizations. Indi¬ vidual membership was more than 200,000 in the United States. At the end of the year, the national organization was preparing to honour the nation’s ten outstanding young men of 1948 at a banquet to be held in St. Joseph, Mo., Jan. 21, 1949. The national convention was held at Philadelphia, Pa., at which time, Paul D. Bagwell, professor at Michigan State col¬ lege, was elected president. The delegates to the national con¬ vention approved resolutions in favour of the Mundt-Nixon bill, expansion of the “Voice of America” broadcasts, the Inter¬ national Trade organization and the Reciprocal Trade agree¬ ment program, and elimination of the veto power in the United Nations. The prime objective of the year, as outlined by President

Bagwell, was completion of a drive for donations to the Junior Chamber of Commerce War Memorial fund which would be used to erect a permanent national and international head¬ quarters building at 21st and Main streets, Tulsa, Okla. The structure would also constitute a memorial to those young men who served, and especially those who died, in World War II. The official magazine of the national organization is Future. National headquarters are in Tulsa, Okla. (R. E. Rs.) Canada.—In Dec. 1948 the 20-year-old Canadian chamber of commerce had 570 member boards and chambers and 1,760 corporate members, an increase from the previous year. More than 600 delegates attended the annual meeting, considered 91 resolutions dealing with 43 different subjects and formulated 21 declarations of policy. Three briefs’ were presented to the federal government which: (i) urged reduced taxation, and application of surpluses to reduction of the public debt; (2) suggested taxation changes (re inventories, research, assessment) designed to improve the federal tax system; (3) recommended that the privileges and protection of the 1948 federal labour code not be extended to communist-dominated labour organizations. The junior chamber of commerce completed its 12th year with a membership of 145 units (9 more than in 1947). By a policy change there was reduction in the number of nationallevel activities, but tourist promotion, leadership training, youth development and civic beautification were continued and in¬ tensified. Special U.S.A. dollar conservation measures were pro¬ moted. (C. Cy.) Grea’I Britain.—The 100 chambers affiliated with the Asso¬ ciation of British Chambers of Commerce expanded their aggre¬ gate membership to almost 60,000 during 1948. A specially noticeable feature of the work of the organization was the attention it gave to draft legislation. Chambers were aware that some of the new bills presented for consideration by the current parliament might influence the pattern of British industry for many years to come. As they saw it, there rested upon them a responsibility to ensure that government and par¬ liament were made aware of any dangers and anomalies in the various proposals. Through the association they did this metic¬ ulously. In numerous directions the association continued its growing practice of combining wfith other national bodies, particularly the Federation of British Industries and the National Union of Manufacturers, in representations to the government. The most notable subject on which co-operation occurred in 1948 was prices and profits. Against a background of possible further in¬ flation the chancellor of the exchequer called on industry and trade to produce a plan which would ensure a reduction of prices “and to face the consequences of this on the level of profits.” The three organizations combined in submitting pro¬ posals for a voluntary scheme to meet the request; these pro¬ posals were accepted. As matters stood, the only alternative to acceptable voluntary proposals appeared to be restriction by law, the nature of which might have given rise to endless trou¬ bles. Other matters respecting which the association joined with the F.B.I. and the N.U.M. in submission to the government in¬ cluded the simplification of board of trade controls, the rating of site values, the bill to nationalize the gas industry and a scheme, which was accepted, for the voluntary limitation of ad¬ vertising. The association submitted to the chancellor a customary de¬ tailed statement of its views prior to the budget. Later, it ex¬ amined the finance bill and, in negotiations with the treasury and through representations in parliament, helped to achieve cer¬ tain improvements. A general meeting of the association held in April adopted

CHANNEL ISLANDS^CHEMISTRY

173

constructive resolutions, subsequently forwarded to the govern¬ ment and other appropriate recipients, on the following sub¬ jects: the budget; bulk purchasing; census of production; eco¬ nomic outlook; financial assistance to blitzed cities; government forms and returns; government staffs; increase of production; inflation; Japanese competition; redevelopment of war-damaged cities; trade agreements and other matters. (A. R. K.)

Channel Islands: see British Empire; Great Britain & Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of. Charge Account: see Consumer Credit. PhorlflC (Charles Theodore Henri Antoine Meinrad de ulldllCd Saxe-Cobourg, Count OF Flanders) (1903), prince of Belgium, was born in Brussels, Oct. 10, younger brother of King Leopold III. He was appointed regent by a joint vote of the parliamentary chambers on Sept. 20, 1944. On May 8, 1945, King Leopold was freed by Allied troops at Salz¬ burg and four days later he confirmed the choice of the parlia¬ ment, asking his brother to “continue the mission he had as¬ sumed in the interest of the nation.” Considering the acuteness of the “royal question” (see Belgium), the prince regent avoided taking an active part in Belgium’s political life. He was not often seen in public and his role was limited to helping in the formation of successive governments. In 1948, however, at the invitation of the president of the United States and the prime minister of Canada, he paid an official visit to Washington (April 4-15) and Ottawa (April'16-18); he was accompanied by Paul-Henri Spaak, the prime minister, and Paul de Groote, the minister of economic co-operation.

Phaaca

Production of cheese in 1948 was estiullCCoCa mated at 1,100,000,000 lb. as compared with 1,206,000,000 lb. in 1947 and an average of 669,000,000 lb. in 193539. Production per capita was 7.5 lb. in 1948, 8.3 lb. in 1947 and an average of 5.2 lb. in 1935-39, but consumption was estimated at 7 lb. per capita in both 1947 and 1948. Cheese exports of 46,000 long tons accounted for 9.2% of the total distributed during fiscal 1947-48. American cheddar, as in previous years, was the major type produced. Wisconsin continued to hold first place among the states with both standard and specialty types, producing about one-half of the total for the United States. Storage stocks were not much changed from 1947. Prices, after reaching record levels of 46 cents per pound wholesale Chicago in June, broke to about 35 cents. (See also Butter; Dairying; Milk.) (J. K. R.) PhpmiQtrV

Technetium and Prometheum.—Element numappears between molybdenum (42) and ruthenium (44). It is in the same group in the periodic table as manganese and rhenium with which it would be expected to show chemical resemblance. For a time this element was called masurium but a change was made to the name technetium (symbol Tc). It was discovered in 1937 by C. Perrier and E. Segre by irradiation of molybdenum with deuterons. Sherman Fried of Argonne National laboratory, Chicago, Ill., announced the isolation of technetium metal. The ammonium salt, NH4TCO4, was dissolved in hydrochloric acid (pink solution) and the solu tion was reduced by hydrogen sulphide. The brown precipitate of technetium sulphide was treated with hydrogen at 1000° C. leaving a black, cindery mass of the metal. Technetium does not dissolve either in a mixture of hydrogen peroxide and ammonium hydroxide or in hydrogen peroxide alone, thus differing from rhenium. It is insoluble also in hydrochloric acid. Element 61, of the rare earths, was named illinium in 1926 by B. S. Hopkins and co-workers who claimed its discovery on the

UllClllldll ji bgj-

MINIATURE equipment used in petroleum research at the laboratories of the Guif Oii Corp. in 194S. Chemists found that micro-chemical techniques speeded reactions and saved scarce sample materials as well as laboratory space

basis of spectroscopic evidence. Several subsequent workers denied this claim but in 1947 Rajendralal De of the University of Dacca (India) reported the presence of element 61 in Travancore, India, monazite sand. That it was in the rare earth fraction was judged by the absorption spectrum. An unquestioned approach to element 61 using nuclear meth¬ ods was made at the Clinton National laboratory. Oak Ridge, Tenn., by J. A. Marinsky and L. E. Glendenin. The element was prepared both by fission of uranium and by irradiation of neodymium (element 60) with neutrons. They proposed pro¬ metheum (symbol. Pm) as its name. Metallic Titanium and Zirconium.—Titanium is regarded as the fourth most abundant structural metallic element in the earth’s crust, being exceeded only by aluminum, iron and mag¬ nesium. Ilmenite (iron titanate) and rutile (titanium dioxide) are important minerals. The chief zirconium mineral is zircon (zirconium silicate). Although zirconium is less plentiful than titanium, manganese or chromium, reliable estimates place its abundance as surpassing copper, lead and zinc combined. W. H. Waggaman and E. A. Gee, of the U.S. bureau of mines, called attention to these points and outlined experi¬ ments carried out at the bureau toward obtaining these ele¬ ments as metals. Titanium and zirconium ores are treated with carbon and chlorine to obtain the volatile chlorides. The vapour is then passed into a bath of molten magnesium at 900° C. which brings about reduction to the metal: TiCU (or ZrCl4)-f-2Mg

Ti (or Zr)-|-2MgCl2.

Titanium is lighter and stronger than steel and possesses excel¬ lent resistance to corrosion. Zirconium is valuable because of its resistance to corrosion by concentrated mineral acids, being equal or superior to tantalum in this respect. Production cost of

CHEMISTRY

174

titanium metal, unfortunately, is about $4 per pound by this process. Thallous Sulphoxylate.—Interest in thallous sulphide stems from the fact that it is easily oxidized when exposed to air giving rise to material which is photosensitive and used in Thalophide photocells. This application prompted J. Fentress and P. W. Selwood of Northwestern university to study the chemistry of this oxidation. Black thallous sulphide reacts with moderate rapidity with oxygen at room temperature until one mole of it has been absorbed per mole of sulphide: Tl2S + 02^Tl2S02. The resulting olive-brown thallous sulphoxylate (called the alpha form) differs from the previously known greenish-yellow beta isomer, but the change of the alpha form into beta is accom¬ plished by heating to 250° C. in vacuo. X-ray patterns for the two compounds were quite different. Another difference was the greater reactivity of the alpha compound toward sulphur dioxide, forming TI2S2O4, whereas the beta isomer did not react. Organic Compounds of Gold.—Much of the earlier work in this field was performed by C. S. Gibson of England. In 1941, for example, he prepared diethylgold bromide, (C2H5)2AuBr, but no trialkylgold had ever been synthesized in spite of efforts to obtain it. Henry Gilman and L. A. Woods of Iowa State college made such a compound in 1948. They prepared trimethylgold by interaction of gold tribromide and methyllithium in ether so¬ lution at -65° C.: AuBrs-f- 3CH3Li-4- (CH3)3Au + 3LiBr. It proved to be extraordinarily unstable, decomposing at -40° into methane, ethane and metallic gold. Stabilization of the trimethylgold could be achieved by add¬ ing ethylenediamine or benzylamine. The complexes thus pro¬ duced, (CH3)3Au-NH2R, appeared as colourless crystals, melting above room temperature. Trimethylgold or its complexes are cleaved by hydrogen chloride yielding dimethylgold chloride. Cobalt Sulphide Catalysts.—The use of nickel, copper chro¬ mite or platinum catalysts for the hydrogenation of unsaturated organic compounds was responsible for many industrial and research developments in chemistry. These catalysts are tem¬ peramental, however, and are poisoned by traces of sulphur. It is noteworthy, therefore, to record a cobalt sulphide catalyst which is effective for certain hydrogenations in the presence of sulphur. Workers at the du Pont experimental station, notably F. K. Signaigo, M. W. Farlow and W. A. Lazier, reported this achievement. An interesting use of this catalyst was in the conversion of glucose into thiosorbitol by carrying out a high pressure (1,500 lb. per sq.in.) hydrogenation in the presence of sulphur. The thiosorbitol, HOCH2(CHOH)4CH2SH, was a crystalline solid showing the usual reactions of a mercaptan and a polyatomic alcohol. There is a structural similarity between this compound and British anti-lewisite (BAL), HOCH2CHSHCH2SH. Ketene.—Ketene is the product formed by decomposition of acetone at red heat. On reaction with acetic acid, it gives rise to acetic anhydride. This is important commercially. A novel reaction of ketene with hemiacetal chlorides (alpha chloro ethers) was described by A. T. Blomquist of Cornell university. Addition of these compounds to each other occurs in the pres¬ ence of aluminum chloride with the formation of an acyl chloride: CH3OCHRCI -j- CH2CO-^ CH3OCHRCH2COCI. Ordinary alkyl or acyl chlorides do not react with ketene in this manner, but it is interesting to note that Arthur Roe of the University of North Carolina found that arylsulphenyl chlor¬ ides, ArSCl, do add similarly giving rise to arylmercaptoacetyl chloride, ArSCH2COCl. Dimers of alkylketenes were prepared by J. C. Sauer of

du Pont de Nemours and Co. by the simple expedient of allow¬ ing an aliphatic tertiary amine such as triethylamine to react with an acyl halide, e.g., the formation of methylketene dimer in 70% yield from propionyl chloride. Blomquist extended this study to the chlorides of dicarboxylic acids. Thus, suberyl chlor¬ ide C1C0(CH2)6C0C1, gives rise to tetramethylenebiketene, 0 = C = CH —(CH2)4—CH = C = 0, as a transient product. Its self-condensation under conditions of high dilution gives rise to a compound structurally resembling the above dimers from which a cyclic ketone (cycloheptanone) is produced on hydrolysis. Bromosuccinimide as a Brominating Agent.—Six years had elapsed from the time K. Ziegler of Germany announced N-bromosuccinimide as a^ specific reagent for substitution in the alkyl position of an unsaturated compound by bromine. As is well known, bromine itself undergoes addition, not substitu¬ tion, in this reaction. Hypobromous acid does the same. A brominating agent, therefore, which ignores the double bond but substitutes in a position next to it is a rarity that was used by many investigators after its discovery. A. T. Blomquist and F. H. Baldwin used this reagent on diketene. Since the reaction product changed smoothly into ethyl acetylbromoacetate, this may be used in support of 3-buteno-/3-lactone as the structure of diketene. J. T. Fitzpat¬ rick of Carbide and Carbon Chemicals corporation offered additional evidence supporting this structure. He pyrolyzed diketene, absorbed the ketene out of the reaction products and showed that the unabsorbed gas was 54% carbon dioxide and 45% allene. R. A. Barnes of Columbia university adapted N-bromosuccinffnide for use as a dehydrogenating agent in the conversion of hydroaromatic into aromatic compounds (such as tetralin into naphthalene) at a lower temperature than by the usual methods. This was expected to be a useful research procedure. R. Duschinsky and L. A. Dolan of Hoffman-LaRoche, Inc., employed this bromination procedure with heterocyclics, to convert an attached methyl group into bromomethyU -C = C-CH3 ^ -C = C-CHsBr.

A case in point is the preparation of 4-bromomethyl-2-imidazolone from the diacetyl derivative of 4-methyl-2-imidazolone. Reaction conditions merely involved heating the two reagents for a few minutes in solution in carbon tetrachloride. The bromine atom thus introduced became the means for the syn¬ thesis of imidazolones structurally related to biotin. Beta Propiolactone.—This compound was prepared in 1915 from silver /3-iodopropionate. Aside from its hydrolysis with acids and bases, it received no further study until 1948. A practi¬ cal synthesis of this substance from ketene and formaldehyde: CH2O -f CH2 = C =

CH2-CH2-C = o

'-o-'

made possible an extensive study of it by T. L. Gresham, J. E. Jansen and F. W. Shaver of B. F. Goodrich research centre. Polymers of the open-chain polyester type are readily formed by heating the lactone at 130-150° C., or by the action of sul¬ phuric acid, or ferric chloride. Salts such as sodium chloride, sodium acetate, sodium hydrogen sulphide, etc., open the lac¬ tone ring to yield beta substituted propionic salts: CH2CH2CO-l-NaX

'—o—

XCH2CH2COONa.

When alcohols react with beta propiolactone, the course of the reaction if catalyzed by acids is different from that if catalyzed by base. The former gives rise to hydracrylic esters, HOCH2CH2COOR, and the latter yields an alkoxypropionic acid, ROCH2CH2COOH. Vitamin A.—N. Milas and co-workers of Massachusetts In-

CHEMISTRY

175

RESEARCH CHEMISTS at work in a laboratory at the Inyokern Naval Ord¬ nance station, Calif., in 194S, where they experimented with fuels designed to drive rockets and guided missiles

CH2CH2COCH3 (CH3)2C-CH-C = CH2

stitute of Technology reported the synthesis of several biolog¬ ically active compounds related structurally to vitamin A. One of the important steps in the synthesis involved the addition of substituted acetylenes to appropriate aldehydes containing the essential 2,6,6-trimethyl-i-cyclohexene nucleus. Ambergris.—L. Ruzicka of Ziirich, Switz., initiated an in¬ vestigation of the volatile components of ambergris. His method was to extract with hexane (91% eventually dissolved), then to precipitate about a quarter of it (ambrein) by chilling the solu¬ tion at -10° C. About 3% of the remainder was separated by distillation at low pressures. By appropriate methods of puri¬ fication, a small fraction of this (4%) was eventually obtained and characterized as dihydro-7-ionone.

I

\

CH2-CH2-CH2 That ambrein contained material of similar constitution was demonstrated since both materials yielded an identical diketone on reaction with ozone. Amino Acids.—Since amino acids are the building blocks of proteins, there is a continued interest in the development of their chemistry. The work of W. C. Rose and collaborators of the University of Illinois on the nutritional characteristics of pure amino acids was particularly noteworthy. His results showed that ten of the amino acids derivable from proteins are not essential dietary factors, whereas ten others are essential.

176

CHEMISTRY

In the nonessential group are glycine, alanine, serine, proline, hydroxyproline, tyrosine, cystine, citrulline, aspartic and glutamic acids. The essential amino acids include lysine, trypto¬ phan, phenylalanine, leucine, isoleucine, threonine, methi¬ onine, valine, histidine and arginine. Rose’s technique was to feed synthetic diets to rats, such diets being complete except for the one omitted amino acid. Rats thrived on the diets lacking an amino acid from the nonessential list, but failed to grow on a diet lacking one of the essential amino acids. The animals died prematurely unless this dietary factor was supplied. Work with volunteer male students showed that the first eight of the essen¬ tial list for rats are also essential for humans, but that absence of histidine and arginine in human diets seems not to be serious. Important new results were announced also regarding meth¬ ods of synthesis of some of these amino acids. The group from the Sterling-Winthrop Research institute (N. F. Albert¬ son, S. Archer et al.), synthesized aMo-threonine, starting with acetoacetic ester, converting it into ethyl acetamidoacetoacetate and hydrogenating the latter in the presence of Raney nickel catalyst. From the mixture of threonine (2-amino-3-hydroxybutyric acid) and o^?o-threonine which results, aiZo-threonine was easily separated. K. Pfister and others at Merck and'Co. demonstrated how a^Zo-threonine may be isomerized in high yield into threonine. The method consists in benzoylating at the amino nitrogen, esterifying the acid group with diazome¬ thane, and then treating with thionyl chloride. In this last step one may assume inversion of the groups around carbon num¬ ber 3 as the hydroxyl group is replaced by chlorine. Sponta¬ neous ring closure to an oxazoline takes place. This compound is readily hydrolyzed to threonine. Syntheses of methionine was accomplished by R. Gaudry and G. Nadeau of Quebec and by E. Pierson, M. Giella and Max Tishler of Merck and Co. In these operations the important step was to obtain 5-(methylmercaptoethyl)hydantoin, since it, by alkaline cleavage, yielded methionine. B. Hegediis of Basle, Switz., announced a synthesis of the tripeptide glutathione. E. Campaigne and co-workers of Indiana university prepared an amino acid containing the thiophene nucleus, namely, 4-i8-thienyl-2-aminobutyric acid. Synthesis of tryptophan by O. A. Moe and D. T. Warner of General Mills, Inc., and prepa¬ ration of homotryptophan by H. R. Snyder and F. J. Pilgrim of the University of Illinois were other examples of activity in this field. Pterins.—Pterins such as xanthopterin make up the pigment of butterfly wings. In 1944, H. K. Mitchell, E. E. Snell and R. J. Wniiams of the University of Texas obtained a nutrilite from pulverized raw spinach by methods involving aqueous solution and subsequent adsorption on an activated carbon which possessed activity in stimulating the growth of certain strains of bacteria such as Streptococcus lactis R. It was named folic acid because of its abundance in leaves. These investiga¬ tors noted the resemblance of its absorption spectrum to that of xanthopterin. The term folic acid came to mean any material possessing this kind of activity. An extended series of related investigations was reported early in 1948 by B. L. Hutchings, E. L. R. Stokstad and collab¬ orators of the American Cyanamid company. They isolated material from the liver by starting with a solid obtained by precipitation of an aqueous liver extract with ethyl alcohol. This solid was dissolved in water and the active ingredient removed by adsorption on carbon. After appropriate steps in elution and processing, a pure material was obtained which was called the liver Lactobacillus casei factor, or vitamin Be. Its biological activity is evident, since the amount required per cubic centimetre of medium for half maximum growth of L. casei is 0.00007 microgram. Chemical study of this material showed it to contain a pteridine nucleus. This is a bicyclic nucleus similar to that of naphtha¬ lene but differing in that each CH at positions i, 3, 5, 8 is replaced by nitrogen. Thus, since naphthalene is CioHs or C5H4(CH)4, pteridine is C6H4N4. Conclusions based on experi¬

ments which broke up the compound into simpler, recognizable units suggested the following complete formula:

H2N ^C6HN4-CH2NHC6H4C0-NHCHC00H HO

1

CHC2H2COOH Thus, it is seen to be composed essentially of three building blocks: 2-amino-4-hydroxypteridine (at the left of the formula), /)-methylaminobenzoic acid (in the middle and attached at posi¬ tion 6), and glutamic acid (on the right). The compound was named pteroylglutamic acid. Its structure was confirmed by three different syntheses. Another new growth factor for Streptococcus lactis R is named rhizopterin, obtained as an adsorbate on activated carbon derived from the purification of Rhizopus nigricans fumaric acid fermentation liquors. Although highly active for S. lactis R, it is essentially inactive for L. casei. This work was reported by E. L. Rickes and co-workers of Merck and Co. Its structure was established by D. E. Wolf et al., also of the Merck group, to be formylpteroic acid, H2N

)>C6HN4-CH2N-C6H4C00H HO

I CHO

showiqg its close structural similarity to the liver L. casei factor. One synthesis involved merely the formylation of pteroic acid. Optically Active Nitroparaffins.—Since 2-nitrobutane, CH3CH2CH(CH3)N02, possesses a carbon holding four different groups, it is capable of existing in two forms. Any three of the four groups are arranged in clockwise fashion in one modifica¬ tion and counterclockwise in the other. Experimentally, one of this pair of compounds deflects a plane of polarized light to the right and the other deflects it to the left. When a nitroparaffin such as this is treated with alkali, it is changed to a sodium salt, the usual representation being as follows: NaOH + RR'CHNO,

RR'C = N02Na -f H2O.

This representation, however, places a double bond at the car¬ bon which, if present, should cause any optical activity to disappear. In an experiment of this type performed by W. Kuhn in 1927, the optical activity did not disappear and various suggestions were made to explain why it did not. The real reason was put forth in 1948 by N. Kornblum et al. of Purdue university, who demonstrated that, as prepared, the compound in question was impure and contained optically active xec-butyl nitrate. This and other contaminants were removed by extrac¬ tion with cold sulphuric acid, in which the nitroparaffin was insoluble. Thus purified, the optically active 2-nitrobutane dis¬ solved completely in alkali solution and the resulting solution was optically inactive. Cyclization of Nitro Sugars.—Glucose and inositol are both naturally occurring compounds in the carbohydrate series. Glucose is an open chain compound of the formula C6H4206, whereas inositol is carbocyclic but also C6H12O6. The structure of inositol is hexagonal, each corner of the hexagon holding a CFIOH group. Up to the end of 1948 it had not been possible to convert glucose into inositol. J. M. Grosheintz and H. O. L. Fischer of the University of Toronto came close to a solution of this problem during the year, using a modification of the carbohydrate-nitroparaffin reaction discovered by J. C. Sowden and Fischer in 1944. In this modi¬ fication the first step was to convert glucose into isopropylideneglucose by reaction with acetone, thereby protecting the aldehyde group. Cleavage of the number 6 carbon atom at the other end of the molecule by means of lead tetraacetate was

177

CHEMOTHERAPY the next step, which step converted carbon 5 into an aldehyde. At this stage both atoms i and 5 were aldehydic, but atom i was blocked from reaction by the acetone attachment. Hence, alkaline condensation of the number 5 aldehyde position with nitromethane gave rise to 6-nitro-6-desoxyglucose, O2NCH2(CH0H)4CH0, after removal of the isopropylidene group by acid hydrolysis. This compound possessing as it did the aldehyde group at one end of the chain and the nitroparafhn group at the other, was capable of self-condensation and this condensation to nitrodesoxyinositol occurred in almost the theoretical yield by ad¬ ding dilute sodium hydroxide to a water solution of the compound. Mechanism of Reactions.—Chemists have been fairly suc¬ cessful in determining the identity of end products of chemical reactions. The intermediate steps, however, often are shrouded in mystery. One problem reported in 1948 by W. E. Doering, T. I. Taylor and E. F. Schoenewaldt of Columbia university, was that of the change of benzoylformaldehyde, CeHsCOCHO, into mandelic acid, CeHsCHOHCOOH, by the action of alkali. One might argue that the phenyl group (CeHs) is attached to the same carbon atom in the initial and final compounds. On the other hand, one might make just the opposite assumption and with good support from the many rearrangements which are known in organic reactions. The above-named investigators approached the problem using a carbon isotope of atomic weight 13 (ordinary carbon is 12). With it, they prepared heavy benzpic acid, CeHsC^^OOH, and treated it with diazo¬ methane (yielding C6H6C^®OCHN2), and then bromine to form C6H6C^®OCHBr2. Treatment of the latter compound with al¬ kali caused replacement of the two bromine atoms by oxygen and simultaneous conversion of' the heavy benzbylformaldehyde so produced into a mandelic acid which must be either CeHsCi^HOHCOOH or CeHsCHOHCi^OOH. That it was the former could be proved easily by oxidation to benzoic acid, CeHsC^^OOH. The heavy carbon was not detached in the process. Another problem on mechanism was approached by methods of physical chemistry. R. G. Pearson of Northwestern university studied the neutralization of nitroethane with ammonia, methylamine, dimethylamine, and trimethylamine:

CH3CH2NO2 + NR3

CH3CHNO2- + HNR3+,

to see how the rates of neutralization correlated with the base strengths of the several amines. These kinetic studies were followed experimentally by measuring the increase of electrical conductivity of the mixture with time, since the original ingre¬ dients are essentially nonconducting. S. Winstein and collaborators at the University of California (Los Angeles) also employed kinetic methods to arrive at an understanding of mechanisms, in particular for replacement reactions involving neighbouring groups. Naphthoquinone Antimalarials.—Three compounds from the collection of Samuel C. Hooker were tested in 1943 and found to possess antimalarial activity. There were 1,4-naphtho¬ quinones, with a phenolic substituent at position 2 and a hydro¬ carbon side chain at position 3. Previously known drugs which were effective against malaria all contained nitrogen and usually contained a quinoline nucleus. These compounds only contained carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. Because of the great wartime interest in antimalarials this discovery prompted a vigorous research directed toward the modification of the hydrocarbon substit¬ uent at position 3 with the hope of building up the effectiveness of this type of compound against malaria. Collaborators in this study were L. F. Fieser of Harvard university and M. T. Leffler of Abbott laboratories. Synthesis of these compounds might start at naphthalene or i-naphthylamine but a preferred approach was to apply the Diels-Alder reaction. In this approach butadiene was added to benzoquinone (or a substituted analog such as cyclohexylbenzoquinone), thereby forming a dihydronaphthohydroquinone. Dehydrogenation of the latter was effected in two steps: nitrous acid which was specific for conversion of the hydroquinone to the quinone, and chromic acid which completed the oxidation.

giving rise to naphthoquinone. The phenolic hydroxyl was introduced simply by use of acetic anhydride and boron fluoride (which formed the 1,2,4-triacetate) followed by air in the pres¬ ence of sodium methoxide. If the hydrocarbon side chain was not already attached, it was customarily introduced with the help of an acyl peroxide, RCO-O-O-COR. The R group of this peroxide became attached at a reaction temperature of 95° C. Carbon dioxide, the organic acid RCOOH, and other products were formed concurrently. Many of these compounds were tested pharmacologically. When the hydrocarbon group is 2-methyloctyl, the activity against P. lophurae in ducks shows a quinine equivalent of 2, whereas if the group is 3-cyclohexylpropyl, this value drops to 0.5. Toward human malaria, however, the former was worthless, whereas the latter did display antimalarial activity, although of a feeble kind. The beneficial value of the latter was thought to result from the fact that its hydrocarbon group is rapidly oxi¬ dized in the body to an alcohol derivative (the former metabolizes to a carboxylic acid). Hence, compounds with large hydroxylated side chains were next studied. The most promising com¬ pound reported has this side chain on position 3 of the hydroxynaphthoquinone: q-hydroxy-q-pentylitetradecyl or -CH2(CH2)7C(C6Hii)20H. At the close of 1948 this drug was being tested on human patients (P. vivax) with encouraging results. (See also Biochemistry; Electronics; Physics; Vitamins.) Bibliography.—Chemical Abstracts, vol. 42; J. Am. Chem. Soc., vol. 70; Chem. Eng. News, vol. 26; /. Chem. Soc. (1948). (C. D. Hu.) rhomnthorQnif

Among

the

important

discoveries

an-

UllulllUlllvl(l|Jj« nounced during 1948 was one revealing that a substance known as vitamin B12 was effective in the treatment of pernicious anaemia. In earlier years only liver extract had been used for this treatment, but later it was re¬ ported that a substance known as folic acid, also said to be a member of the vitamin B complex, might be effective in con¬ trolling the disease partly, although it had no effect in retarding degenerative changes in the spinal cord in many cases of per¬ nicious anaemia. Vitamin B12, on the other hand, appeared to be effective in the control of the disease and the symptoms, and in preventing the degenerative cord changes. Another report of dramatic proportions was confirmation of the usefulness of the antibiotic aureomycin in the control of infections. Whereas originally this drug was believed to be effective in certain bacterial invasions, it later was shown to be effective against gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria, sev¬ eral rickettsial diseases, and several viral diseases. For example, it appeared to be a specific chemotherapeutic measure for the control of acute undulant fever and primary atypical pneu¬ monia, the latter believed to be caused by a virus. Among other antibiotics of real promise was Chloromycetin, which also was synthesized. On the other hand, polymyxin, which at first was felt to have some therapeutic promise, was later claimed to be too toxic for practical use because of an effect on the kidney, and to be too difficult for commercial manufacture. Still an¬ other substance was aerosporin which, experimentally, was shown to be effective in treating early cases of pertussis, or whooping cough. A new form of streptomycin that was made available was dihydro-streptomycin hydrochloride, presumably with about the same beneficial effects of streptomycin but less toxic. An in¬ teresting observation of the toxic effect of streptomycin was an inflammation of the mouth. The inflammation disappeared ap¬ parently without lasting effects upon discontinuation of the therapy—unlike the situation associated with nerve deafness, which sometimes persisted indefinitely. The control of scabies by drug measures was an important contribution, especially in school hygiene. One of the useful newer substances was gammexane.

178

CHEM URGY

Several new sulfonamides were investigated, and advocated primarily for the treatment of infections in the intestinal and urinary tracts and in the nose and eye. Other important de¬ velopments in this field were concerned with recognition of the limited value of sulfanilamide and sulfathiazole; these were added to the list of the sulfonamides no longer recommended by the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, a drug-evaluating unit of the American Medical association. One of the problems associated with the use of penicillin had been the rapid excretion of this drug from the body. As a result, it formerly was felt that the drug had to be given at frequent intervals to maintain an adequate concentration in the body tissues. A number of preparations were developed to prolong the time that penicillin would be retained in the body. For example, there were developed the Romansky formula, a com¬ bination of penicillin and a chemical known as procaine (pro¬ caine penicillin), and a combination of penicillin and an alumi¬ num salt. By such means it was possible to reduce the number of injections of penicillin. In addition, techniques were pro¬ posed to treat patients by administering the drug by mouth. Investigators also found that in many cases it might not be necessary to maintain a comparatively high level of drug con¬ centration to obtain satisfactory therapeutic results. In some instances, in fact, it might be advisable to let the levels fluctu¬ ate so that the bacteria might be attacked more effectively. As a result of such studies, the use of penicillin was advanced still further; it was even advocated for prevention of venereal-produced blindness in newborn infants. Some idea of the wide use of penicillin could be gained from the fact that 45,022,000,000,000 units were produced during the first six months of 1948. Remedies for instillation in the nose to relieve symptoms associated with colds, hay fever and other conditions were found useful, but such usefulness in turn encouraged misuse through excessive self-medication which in many cases made the con¬ dition actually worse. Another warning in this field of medica¬ tion was issued by a scientist who pointed out that it was pos¬ sible for medication to pass directly from the nose to the cover¬ ing of the brain. A search for a cure for cancer continued unabated, but none was discovered, although a number of chemotherapeutic meas¬ ures were evaluated and found to have some limited usefulness, either in relieving symptoms or in prolonging the life of the sufferer. For example, the estrogens and androgens (commonly, but erroneously, referred to as female and male sex hormones) were known to have some limiting effect on the growth of can¬ cer in a significant number of patients, but they were not cura¬ tive. At best, they merely made the patient feel better, im¬ proved appetite, and caused the tumour to grow more slowly, at the same time relieving, in varying degrees, the pain. Nitrogen mustard also was shown to have some effect on the control of generalized Hodgkin’s disease, advanced lymphosar¬ coma and a certain type of cancer of the lung. The latter com¬ pound had no particular advantage over other methods of treat¬ ment, particularly Roentgen rays, in the early stages of Hodgkin’s disease and for most cases of chronic leucaemia, a dis¬ ease of the blood. On the other hand, urethane proved to have an effect on leucaemia, but, unfortunately, its toxic properties limited its use. Another substance with some apparent useful¬ ness in the control of leucaemia was aminopterin, although it too had harmful possibilities in some individuals. Nitrogen mustard was also found beneficial in the healing of skin ulcers. The search for better pain-relieving substances continued in 1948, but none free of addiction properties had yet been de¬ veloped, with the exception, of course, of the simpler wellknown chemicals such as acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin), acetphenetidin and others of this class.

The treatment of hypertension (high blood pressure) formerly consisted essentially of restriction of diet and activity and of the use of sedatives. Drugs developed later were capable of producing, at times, dramatic falls in blood pressure, although the response was often variable; furthermore, some of the drugs were toxic. Surgical techniques were also developed to sever certain nerves and cause the blood pressure to fall. Still later, new chemical compounds were discovered which were intended in some way to affect the stimulations associated with the nervous system. While these drugs were still largely in the ex¬ perimental stage in 1948, they offered promise that specific chemotherapeutic measures might be developed for control of hypertension. The trend in treatment, meanwhile, seemed to emphasize that a reduction in blood pressure was not always as important as the prolonging of life. In other words, many indi¬ viduals under the newer treatment regimes did not have dra¬ matic falls in blood pressure, but nevertheless lived a much longer period than would be expected without the treatment. A number of antihistaminic compounds were developed, vary¬ ing considerably in chemical structure but little in usefulness. While one compound might have, for example, less tendency to produce drowsiness, another had some other slight advantage. These substances were widely prescribed for asthma, hay fever and other allergic problems, and were used to a great extent for self-medication. However, individuals differed in their response to the drugs, and it was necessary to adjust the drug and the dose to the sufferer. There was still no single chemical sub¬ stance-equally useful for all patients. Some idea of the magnitude of the U.S. drug industry in 1948 could be gained by examining production figures. Penicillin pro¬ duction during the first six months of 1948 has already been noted. Another example was streptomycin production, which in Jan. 1948 reached 1,329,193 g.; by April this had increased to 2,157,747 g. During February there were produced more than 63,000 lb. of ascorbic acid and salts (vitamin C), 103,000 lb. of niacin and niacinamide (members of the vitamin B complex), 15,000 lb. of thiamine hydrochloride (another member of the vitamin B complex), 941,000,000,000 U.S.P. units of irradiated ergosterol (provides vitamin D effects), and more than 440,000 lb. of sulfonamides. (See also Allergy; Cancer; Dentistry; Heart and Heart Diseases; gery; Urology; Vitamins.)

Medicine;

Pneumonia;

Sur¬

(A. E. Sh.)

Phomiirfru

with news of 1948’s record corn crop came the news of a new large-scale use for a product of corn. Estimates indicated that 20,000,000 lb. of dextrose sugar would be consumed annually in a new process

llllulilUI

for making automobile tires. This new “cold” process for making GR-S synthetic rubber already had been accepted by all the major manufacturers. The mileage of tires with “cold” rubber treads promised to be at least 30% greater than with tires made by the former processes. Trial quantities under test during 1948 showed such results that plans for conversion to the new process were hastened by all the principal producers. The eight plants which were under conversion at the year’s end woulcf produce, when fully changed over, about 200,000 tons of the new rubber annually. The standard temperature for processing rubber is 122° F. Cold rubber is made at 41° F. or lower. The cold method, formerly entirely too slow for practical use, had been speeded up to profitable levels. Three other chemicals besides dextrose are required. One pound of dextrose is used for each 20 lb. of rubber. The sugar is washed out, and, so far, not reclaimed. Starch, from which dextrose sugar is derived, had been pro-

179

CHERRIES —CHESS duced from corn (using more than 100,000,000 bu. a year) at 14 large mills. During 1948 the finishing touches were being put on a 15th starch plant, which would use grain sorghum instead of corn as its raw material. Located at Corpus Christi, Tex., the new plant is near the area which produces 70% of the grain sorghum harvest. It was expected that grain sorghum planting would be stimulated further by this new market. Bearing its grain in the tassel instead of on an ear, the crop adapts itself well to areas that are too dry for corn. Average yields are about 15 bu. per acre, and range up to 40 bu. {See Sorghum.) Another new synthetic rubber, called Lactoprene EV, also a derivative of corn, came into production in 1948. It is made from lactic acid, which is produced by fermenting the sugars from starch. This type of rubber is described as having greater resistance to heat than natural or other synthetic rubbers, as being tough, flexible, resistant to damage by oil and oxidation, and as accepting vulcanization without the use of sulphur. No butadiene is required in its manufacture. The Eastern Regional Research laboratory of the department of agriculture developed Lactoprene EV, which is technically classed as an acrylic rubber. The changing economics of paper stimulated efforts to find annual sources of cellulosic materials for papermaking to sup¬ plement the dwindling and expensive wood-pulp resources. Two indications of progress were announced during the latter half of the year. A large Chicago newspaper printed part of a day’s issue on newsprint in which straw had been blended with woodpulp. The paper was manufactured at the newspaper’s mill in Ontario, Canada, utilizing a process developed by the Northern Regional Research laboratory. On Sept. 7 the Kinsley Chemical company of Cleveland, 0., successfully tested its new process for making paper with wheat straw as the only raw material. The test was conducted at Holyoke, Mass., with the standard equipment of a paper-manu¬ facturing company there. Convinced by the test, and by in¬ vestigation of economic factors that wheat-straw paper can be manufactured commercially, sponsors of the experiment an¬ nounced their expectation to proceed at an early date to pre¬ pare facilities, located in the midwest, for regular production. Manufacture of rutin, the new drug for treating abnormal conditions of blood vessels, expanded during 1948 until 15 pharmaceutical companies had become manufacturers. Further tests had established the value of rutin as a treatment for X-ray burns, and had indicated that it might be useful in allaying the injurious effects of atomic radiation. It was announced at the year’s end that the largest sugar mill in Louisiana had produced and sold during 1948, the second season of production, 360,000 lb. of calcium aconitate. This is a product recovered from molasses. High-quality transparent plastics are made from the esters of aconitic acid, which is con¬ verted from calcium aconitate. On the market for the first time in 1948 was a patented de¬ vice for improving motor fuels by injecting grain alcohol into the fuel while vehicles are in use. A 55-octane gasoline, satis¬ factory to operate an engine with normal loads on level ground, can be raised by the injection to performance equivalent to that of high-grade gasoline. It can thus be used on heavy upgrades or when bursts of speed are desired for passing slower traffic. The method was a development by the Northern Regional Re¬ search laboratory. Research upon domestic sources of natural rubber, by intro¬ duction of kok-saghyz, the Russian dandelion plant, and through utilization of the desert-growing guayule, were terminated dur¬ ing the latter part of World War II. Upon the instance of gov¬ ernment officials responsible for the supplies of strategic mate¬ rials, new headquarters for guayule studies were established at

Winter Haven, Tex. May 1948 saw the first commercial production of fibre from the protein of corn, known as zein. The fibre takes acid dyes, and has a dry strength about that of wool; like other synthetic protein fibres, the wet strength is less. The plant capacity is for 2,500,000 lb. of the corn-derived fibre annually. A southern company reported a pilot plant looking to the production of a peanut protein fibre. (W. McM.)

Cherries: see

Fruit.

Hhoee Mikhail Botvinnik, 37-year-old Russian, won the 1948 ullCuOa world chess championship to succeed Alexander A. Alekhine, the Russian-French expert who died in 1946. Bot¬ vinnik scored 14 points in the final, three more than his secondplace countryman, Vassily Smyslov. A tournament of challengers, designed to create an opponent for Botvinnik in 1950, was played near Stockholm, Sweden, after the world championship and was won by D. Bronstein, also of Russia. Laszio Szabo of Budapest, Hungary, won an inter¬ national master’s tournament at Hastings, England, while Erich Eliskases of Austria won a similar event in Argentina. Herman Steiner of Los Angeles, Calif., won the United States championship. Entering the final round in a tie with Isaac I. Kashdan of New York city, Steiner defeated Franklin Howard of East Orange, N.J., while Kashdan was losing to George Kramer of New York city. Weaver W. Adams of Dedham, Mass., captured the U.S. open title with 9^ points, followed by Kashdan and Kramer with 9 points each. N. May Karff of Boston, Mass., won the women’s open and was tied with Gisela Gresser of New York city in the national championship. Arthur Bisquier, Jr., of New York city won the national junior division. R. J. Broadbent, in the men’s, and Edith Price, in the women’s, won the British chess championships. In team play, the United States defeated Havana, Cuba, by cable; England tied Australia, five each, and Amsterdam de¬ feated New York in a stock exchange match by radio. (M. P. W.)

HANS KMOCH (left), Austrian chess master and instructor, shown surveying the board of one of the 20 opponents he played simultaneously in an exhibi¬ tion match at the Manhattan Chess club in Feb. 194S

180

CHIANG KAI-SHEK —CHICAGO

CHIANG KAI-SHEK reviewing troops of the nationalist garrison at Nanking on Jan. 16, 1949, as one of his last official acts before retiring from the presi¬ dency of China on Jan. 21

Phionff l^ol ohol

), former president of China, unlflllg Adlullclv commander in chief of its military forces and director-general of the Kuomintang until Jan. 1949. The unfavourable military situation in China during 1948 overshadowed whatever attempts Chiang made to improve the deteriorating economic and political situation and to lift the morale of the people. However, his measures failed to meet even the demands of the progressive members of the Kuo¬ mintang who insisted in August that the office of party directorgeneral be abolished. In October, some members of the legis¬ lative yuan openly suggested that Chiang should take a vaca¬ tion abroad. Late in December some of his high officials who were in favour of a negotiated peace with the communists urged him to resign. Against all these adversaries Chiang for the time appeared determined to fight on. On Jan. 21, 1949, however, he announced his retirement as president and commander in chief. Chiang was born of a humble family in Feng-hwa, Chekiang province. In 1910 he became a faithful follower of Sun Yat-sen, who sent him to study revolutionary tactics in Russia in 1923. In 1926 Chiang led the northern expedition and subsequently established the national government in Nanking in 1927. In the same year he married Soong Mei-ling. For more than 20 years Chiang held sway over the national government. (See also China.) Bibliogr.aphy.—Chiang Kai-shek, Collected Wartime Messages, 1937— 43, ed. by George Kao, 2 vols. (1946), China’s Destiny, Eng. trans. by Wang Chung-hui (1947), China’s Destiny, and, Chinese Economic Theory, with notes and commentary by Philip Jaffe (1947); R. Berkov, Strong Man of China; Hollington Tong, Chiang Kai-shek. (H. T. Ch.)

nhinQfvn

Second largest U.S. city, a port of entry and the county seat of Cook county. Ill., at the southwest corner of Lake Michigan, Chicago is the largest centre of U.S. rail traffic and long-distance domestic air routes. Mayor in 1948: Martin H. Kennelly. The population of the city proper by the federal census of 1940 was 3,396,808; white population numbered 3,115,379, non¬

ulllbdgU*

white 281,429. The census bureau estimated the population of the entire metropolitan district in 1947 as 4,645,000, compared with 4,499,000 in 1940. Chicago enjoyed near capacity production and employment in 1948. Industrial expansion declined from $181,297,000 in 1947 to $156,279,000, which included 90 new plants and 268 other new projects. Fares on the surface streetcars and buses of the city-owned transit system and on the Chicago Motor Bus company were raised to 13 cents, and on the city-owned elevated and subway lines to 15 cents. To celebrate the looth anniversary of the operation of the first railroad into Chicago, 38 railroads participated in a fair on the lake front. The pageant included operation of historic trains by famous locomotives under their own power. Attendance was 2,500,813 in 76 days. The fair was to be repeated on a larger scale in 1949. (See also Railroads.) Other celebrations marked the centennial of the completion of the Illinois Mich¬ igan canal joining the Great Lakes and Mississippi river system. In the Nov. 2 elections President Harry S. Truman carried Chicago over Governor Thomas E. Dewey 1,077,456 to 761,949 votes, Truman’s plurality being 315,507 votes. Results were even more decisively Democratic in other contests. Former Governor Dwight H. Green lost Chicago to Adlai E. Stevenson by a plurality of 558,111. Former U.S. Senator C. Wayland Brooks lost the city to Paul H. Douglas by a plurality of 484,985. In Chicago the election was a clean sweep for all Democratic candidates for state and county offices, and a solid bloc of 13 municipal court judges were returned by the Demo¬ crats. Under the 1947 apportionment law, Chicago has 13 repre¬ sentatives in the national house. Ten Democrats and three Re¬ publicans were elected, compared with five Democrats and five Republicans in the 80th congress. Crime in Chicago showed a sharp increase in 1948. Despite this increase in individualistic crimes of murder, rape, robbery, burglary, assault and larceny, few of the former typical gang-

CHICAGO, UNIVERSITY OF —CHILD LABOUR ster killings were enacted. Arrests for gambling were up 500% over 1947 because of the strict enforcement policy of the new mayor, Martin H. Kennelly. Chicago had 239 strikes that required police attention in 1948, the lowest since 1945. About 113,584 workers were in¬ volved, including 75,805 in 79 strikes of the C.I.O. and 36,161 in 150 strikes of the A.F. of L. The largest strikes were those of the C.I.O. Packing House Workers and the C.I.O. Farm Equipment Workers. The strike of printers against the major daily newspapers continued throughout 1948. The 1949 budget of the six “governments” which cover Chi¬ cago in whole or in part was as follows: city of Chicago $271,843,478; Cook county $34,214,171; Chicago sanitary district $11,400,000 (to cover eight months only, rest of year dependent on legislative authorization of additional taxes); Chicago park district $16,847,876; Chicago school board $103,146,000; Cook county forest preserves district $1,776,000. Their aggregate net funded debt was $204,568,035. (L. H. L.)

Chicago, University of.

the university conferred 2,794

degrees, an all-time high. Eight hundred and forty bachelor’s degrees were granted by the college of the university, which admits students into its four-year program after the sophomore year of high school. Other degrees granted were: 403 bachelor’s degrees in the divisions and schools, 860 master’s degrees, 181 doctor of philosophy degrees and 510 professional degrees in business administration, divinity, law, medicine, library science and social service. After exclusion of income used for auxiliary enterprises and restricted expendable funds, as well as most of the income re¬ ceived and paid out on numerous contracts with the United States government (all nonprofit undertakings), the estimated regular budget income for the 1948-49 year was $16,732,088, an increase of $1,278,910 over that of the previous year. The total current income for the year 1947-48, before the exclusion mentioned above, was $31,378,604 and the comparable esti¬ mated total current income for 1948-49 was $39,675,024. Gifts for all purposes for the 1947-48 period amounted to $4,003,693, an increase of 71.1%. Endowment funds as of June 30, 1948, were $72,344,407, and the book value of all the university assets was $142,640,280. In 1948 the first unit of the University of Chicago’s $12,000,000 nuclear research building and equipment program, the ion accelerator building, was completed, and parts of the 450,000,000-ev synchrocyclotron were installed. The $2,200,000 synchrocyclotron, scheduled for completion by Jan. 1950, was financed primarily by the United States navy. The main build¬ ing for the university’s three new institutes—the Institute for Nuclear Studies, the Institute of Radiobiology and Biophysics and the Institute for the Study of Metals—was also under con¬ struction during the year. The Argonne National laboratory, operated by the University of Chicago under a contract with the United States Atomic Energy commission, was located 26 mi. southwest of Chicago in Du Page county. All reactor development and research was consolidated at the Argonne under the direction of Walter H. Zinn. Approximately $2,750,000 was raised during the year to be spent over a five-year period for research in the three institutes. Sixteen corporations were helping to finance the program as in¬ dustrial members of the institutes. Of the $1,800,000 contributed in 1947 in the drive for funds for the University of Chicago Cancer Research foundation, the foundation set aside $670,000 for a cyclotron to explore the possibility of treating deep-seated cancer with a proton beam.

181

Other construction in the University of Chicago’s $25,000,000 building program included a $1,500,000 administration building, the first unit in the $2,500,000 faculty housing project, the $2,075,000 cancer research hospital and the $570,000 American Meat institute. The year 1948 marked the 19th anniversary of the inaugura¬ tion of Chancellor Robert M. Hutchins as head administrator of the university. Under his direction, the University of Chi¬ cago organized a two-year project to help re-establish co-opera¬ tion between higher education in Germany and the United States; the project included the sending of Chicago professors to teach at the University of Frankfurt and plans for German professors to teach at the University of Chicago. Financed by a $120,000 grant from the Rockefeller foundation and an equal amount from the University of Chicago, the project proposed to re-establish the interchange of ideas by reopening channels of communication between German and U.S. universities. After a period of two and one-half years, the preliminary draft of a world constitution was completed at the University of Chicago. Members of the ii-man Committee to Frame a World Constitution were; Robert M. Hutchins, G. A. Borgese, Mortimer J. Adler, Stringfellow Barr, Albert Leon Guerard, Harold A. Innis, Erich Kahler, Wilber G. Katz, Charles H. Mcllwain, Robert Redfield and Rexford Guy Tugwell. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library vol¬ umes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.)

Philfl I Qhniir

States.—^Young workers 14 through 17 years of age constituted nearly 4% of the national labour force in Oct. 1948. The high point for the year in child employment was July, when summer jobs brought the total to 3,500,000, according to census bureau estimates. The number of boys and girls 14 through 17 employed full time or part time in Oct. 1948 was'estimated at 2,300,000 (of whom 717,000 were children of 14 or 15), compared with 2,240,000 in Oct. 1947. Child workers under 14 were not included in cen¬ sus labour force estimates. About one-third of the young work¬ ers 14 through 17 were employed in agriculture; two-thirds were employed in other industries such as service trades, com¬ merce and manufacturing. Two states, Kentucky and Virginia, enacted new child-labour laws during 1948, setting 16 years as the minimum age for em¬ ployment during school hours, and in manufacturing or me¬ chanical establishments at any time; this made a total of 20 states and Puerto Rico which had raised the minimum age for general employment to 16 years. The new Kentucky and Vir¬ ginia laws also contained greatly strengthened provisions. Mississippi enacted a Workmen’s Compensation act, which included a provision entitling minors injured while illegally em¬ ployed to double compensation. A full decade of federal child-labour administration under the Fair Labor Standards act (Wage and Hour act) was rounded out by the U.S. department of labour in Oct. 1948. The childlabour provisions of the act set a minimum age of 16 years for general employment, and 18 years in occupations found and de¬ clared to be hazardous for minors, and in establishments pro¬ ducing goods for shipment in interstate or foreign commerce. A Guide to the Child-Labor Provisions of the Fair Labor Stand¬ ards Act, including all orders and regulations issued under these provisions, was published in 1948 by the department of labour. In 43 states, the District of Columbia, Hawaii and Puerto Rico, state employment and age certificates continued to be ac¬ cepted as proof of age under the Fair Labor Standards act. In four states (Idaho, Mississippi, South Carolina, Texas) the is¬ suance of federal certificates was continued. In one state, Wash¬ ington, the issuance of federal instead of state certificates was

ullllU LdUUUla

182

CHILDREN'S BOOKS

begun in April 1948 as the result of a state attorney general’s decision. Findings of a youth employment study, made in Louisville, Ky., in 1947 by the child-labour staff of the U.S. department of labour, indicated that, even at a time of relatively full employ¬ ment, children dropping out of school in a typical city had difficulty in finding suitable jobs. One-third of the 524 out-of¬ school youths 14 through 19 years of age interviewed were un¬ employed; nearly half of the 113 children in the 14- and 15year-old age group had no jobs. Intermittent employment, frequent shifting from job to job and undesirable working condi¬ tions were a common experience of these young people. Great Britain.—Expenditures on education services in Eng¬ land and Wales were £82,861,000 in the fiscal year 1948-49, under the new Education act, compared with £62,313,000 in 1945-46. Progress was made toward the goal of providing sec¬ ondary schools for all children at least to the age of 15, and part-time educational facilities for all young people under 18 not attending school full time, in conformity with the act, which went into operation in April 1947. This was done tl\rough “Local Education Orders” based on plans presented by local education authorities and approved by the ministry of educa¬ tion. In the ministry of education’s report, “Education in 1947,” public education statistics for England and Wales were published for the first time since 1939. Employment of children outside school hours immediately fol¬ lowing their 13th birthday, without waiting for the end of the school term, was authorized by an amendment to the Children and Young Persons act of 1933. Turkey.—Occupations classified as heavy and dangerous were listed and the employment of minors under 18 and of women was prohibited in most of them after the effective date of Feb. 27, 1949, by a decree designed to strengthen Turkey’s basic labour law of 1936 applying to industrial and commercial, min¬ ing and land-transportation undertakings employing ten or more persons. (E. S. J.) Many books, carefully selected and carefully produced, characterized the year 1948. American Children Through Their Books, ijoo— 1835 by Sister Monica Kiefer and From Rollo to Tom Sawyer by Alice Jordan were of significance to the student, while About Books for Children by Dorothy White was a stimulating dis¬ cussion of books enjoyed by New Zealand children. The St. Nicholas Anthology, edited by Henry Commager, aroused nostalgic memories in parents, who shared American Folk Songs for Children in Home, School and Nursery School by Ruth Seeger and A Rocket in My Pocket, compiled by Carl Withers with the entire family. An Inheritance of Poetry by Gladys Adshead and Annis Duff was also a home anthology. Vivid colour was used in picture books by Hardie Gramatky {Creeper’s Jeep), Ingri and Edgar P. d’Aulaire {Nils) and Phyllis McGinley {All Around the Town). Blueberries for Sal by Robert McCloskey intrigued girls and The Big Snow by Berta and Elmer Hader had general appeal, while Dr. Seuss (T. S. Geisel) amused with the posthumous Thidwick, the BigHearted Moose. For the boy beginning to read. Riding the Rails (historical) by Elizabeth Olds and Togo’s Farm Adventure (about soil) by Josephine and Ernest Norling proved popular. Magic, talking animals and sheer fun were characteristics of My Father’s Dragon by Ruth Stiles Gannett, Azor by Maude Crowley and Mick and Mack and Mary Jane by Richard Bennett, while girls enjoyed The Sleeping Giant of Eleanor Estes and The Dolls’ House by Rumer Godden. The more realistically minded read Eleanor Lattimore’s Three Little Chinese Girls and Catherine

Children’s Books.

BY ALVIN T8ESSELT ILLUSTRATED BY ROGER 0UVOISIN

JACKET DESIGN for White Snow Bright Snow, illustrated by Roger Duvoisin, with text by Alvin Tresselt. The book was awarded the 194S Caldecott medal for outstanding illustrations in a children’s book

Woolley’s Ginnie and Geneva, and boys enjoyed the summer ad¬ ventures in Carolyn Haywood’s Penny Goes to Camp. Humorous were Robbut, a Tale of Tails by Robert Lawson and Dr. Dolittle and the Secret Lake by Hugh Lofting. Out¬ standing horse stories were King of the Wind (the forefather of Man 0’ War) by Marguerite Henry and Stolen Pony by Glen Rounds, while Pers Crowell treated of prehistoric man in The First Horseman. Set in Puerto Rico, Ricardo’s White Horse by Alice Kelsey was also enjoyed. Girls of ten years and older read Susan’s Year by Siddie Joe Johnson and The Invisible Island by Dean Marshall, wffiile the problem of adjustment to a new parent was well handled in The Davenports Are at Dinner by Alice Dalgliesh, and Leon Ware’s Shifting Winds told of a boy’s getting reacquainted with his father. California was the locale for My Brother Mike by Doris Gates and for The Palomino Boy by Don and Betty Emblen. Suspense keynoted The Chestry Oak (Hungary) by Kate Seredy and Daughter of the Mountains (Tibet) by Louise Rankin. Two favourite authors reappeared with Great Northern? by Arthur Ransome and The House of the Swan by Elizabeth Coatsworth. Thirteenth century England was the period of Trtimpets at the Crossroads by Nathan Reinherz, while Ethan, the Shepherd Boy by Georgiana Ceder was set in biblical times and The Big Wave by Pearl Buck was laid in Japan. Ten Beaver Road by Isabel McLelland told of Oregon in 1910, while Seabird by Holling C. Holling portrayed four generations of a U.S. seafaring family. U.S. folklore was represented by Grandfather Tales, edited by Richard Chase, New England Bean-Pot by Moritz Jagendorf, Irwin Shapiro’s Joe Magarac and His U.S.A. Citizen Papers and Louis Jones’s Spooks of the Valley. The Five Brothers by Elizabeth Seeger was a significant retelling of the Mahabharata. High Trail (the Sierras) by Vivian Breck, Watch for a Tall White Sail (Alaska) by Margaret Bell and That Girl of Pierre’s (France) by Robert Davis were mature fare for older girls.

CHILD WELFARE Careers were the concern of Clay Fingers by Adele de Leeuw, of Sunny cove (summer theatre) by Amelia Walden and of Opera Ballerina (Metropolitan opera) by Marie Jeanne Pelus, while a family problem was courageously faced in A Cup of Courage by Mina Lewiton. For the older boy, Reed Fulton’s Stevedore, Roderick Haig-Brown’s Saltwater Summer and James Kjelgaard’s Snow Dog proved strong meat. Historical stories also appealed; Seven Beaver Skins (New Amsterdam) by Erick Berry, I Heard of a River (17th century Pennsylvania Mennonites) by Elsie Singmaster and River of the Wolves (French and Indian wars) by Stephen Meader were read, while Scarface by Andre Norton dealt with pirates off the West Indies. Bertie Takes Care by Henry Vicar was modern in setting, while Space Cadet by Robert Heinlein was laid in the year 2075. Biographies for older readers were That Lively Man, Ben Franklin by Jeanette Eaton and Fighting Frontiersman (Daniel Boone) by John Bakeless, while popular treatment was given Doris Shannon Garst’s Buffalo Bill, and Corinne Lowe in The Gentle Warrior told of Dorothea Dix. Nonfiction ranged from Let’s Look Inside Your House by Herman and Nina Schneider, The Story of Sound by James Geralton, a beginner’s geology, Stories in Rocks, by Henry Williams, a discussion of the atomic bomb, etc., in William Crouse’s Understanding Science to Modern Medical Discoveries by Phyllis Ann Carter. Behind the Silver Shield (police) by John Floherty was popular, and Story of the Negro by Arna Bontemps was an excellent treatment of the subject from 1700. Elizabeth Coatsworth’s Summer Green was poetry, and Tina Lee gave explicit instructions in How to Make Dolls and Doll Houses. Boys enjoyed Codes and Secret Writing by Herbert Zim. Holiday needs were satisfied with Juanita (Easter) by Leo Politi and Heigh-Ho for Halloween!, compiled by Elizabeth Sechrist. Two anthologies were Told Under the Christmas Tree, compiled by the Literary committee of the Association for Childhood Education, and The Santa Claus Book by Irene Smith, while Frances Frost’s story Sleigh Bells for Windy Foot ended on Christmas night. New editions of Johnny Blossom by Dikken Zwilgmeyer and The Three Royal Monkeys by Wal¬ ter de la Mare (formerly Three Mulla Mulgars) appeared. Robinson Crusoe was published in the Lippincott Classics and the colour fairy books {Blue Fairy Book, etc.) were reissued. {See also Book Publishing; Literary Prizes.) (E. A. Gs.)

183

and children with the food and clothing still greatly needed. Other voluntary relief agencies, including several sectarian or¬ ganizations, provided some of the flexibility which ERP and even U.N.R.R.A. lacked, and their assistance totalled many millions of dollars. The I.C.E.F. provided supplementary feedings for children, expectant mothers and nursing mothers in 12 European coun¬ tries, China and Palestine, the supplement being conditioned upon provision of part of the diet by authorities in each coun¬ try. In a joint enterprise with the World Health Organization (W.H.O.) the I.C.E.F. took historic steps in combating health hazards, especially those leading to tuberculosis and syphilis. In Europe the campaign against tuberculosis was partly and substantially financed by government or voluntary agencies of the three Scandinavian countries. The year saw the immuniza¬ tion of more than 1,500,000 European children with BacillusCalmette Guerin and provision of the tuberculin test to 3,000,000 children, the BCG vaccine being given only to those who did not react to the tuberculin test. The program called for immunization of 15,000,000 and the testing of 50,000,000. In Bulgaria, Finland, Hungary, Poland and Yugoslavia funds were allocated for an antisyphilis campaign for which large pur¬ chases of penicillin were made. Five other countries in Europe were interested in this program to the extent that surveys were in process or were contemplated, as in China, in preparation for the necessary services. Contributions or pledges to I.C.E.F. from governments to¬ talled about $62,000,000 in 1948. The countries appropriating $1,000,000 or more contributed approximately: United States, $42,100,000; Australia, $6,770,000; Canada, $5,200,000; Switz¬ erland, $1,600,000; Uruguay, $1,000,000; Czechoslovakia, $1,000,000. Voluntary contributions, mostly obtained through the United Nations Appeal for Children (U.N.A.C.), added about $10,000,000 to the amount appropriated by governments. A roll call of the nations whose citizens contributed gives further evi¬ dence of the growing fellowship of the peoples of the world who in 1948, as never before, sought to provide the essentials of life to children wherever they lived. More than half of these funds

Philfl IfllllU iIuIIhIC*

International Services.—Wherever war continued in 1948 the suffering of masses of children was unchecked. It was a year of transition during which the United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation adminis¬ tration was succeeded by other organized efforts for relief in Asia and Europe. The probability of starving in China was increased as inflation exceeded previous records and as the chaos caused by civil war complicated relief. The U.N.R.R.A. services in China ended Dec. 31, 1947, and a Board of Trustees for Rehabilitation Af¬ fairs (B.O.T.R.A.), comprised of ten Chinese and five foreign¬ ers, began in 1948 to carry the principal responsibility for relief in China, inheriting from U.N.R.R.A. more than $50,000,000 in equipment and supplies and $5,000,000 for running expenses. In most other parts of the world the lot of children was noticeably better than in 1947. Many families previously desti¬ tute began to provide their own subsistence. The European Re¬ covery program (ERP) provided assistance needed in several countries and the International Children’s Emergency fund (I.C.E.F.) continued the work it began in 1947. The Coopera¬ tive for American Remittances to Europe, Inc. (CARE) re¬ mained one of the most effective channels for supplying families

BRITISH SOCIAL WORKER supervising a child play centre on the roof of a housing development opened in London’s East End during 1948. The project repiaced former slum tenements and housed 261 families

184

CHILD WELFARE

were contributed from five countries, from each of which the people gave more than $1,000,000. These were Australia, Can¬ ada, New Zealand, Union of South Africa and the United Kingdom. The generosity of the people of Iceland was marked by contributions in excess of $496,000. The results of the U.N.A.C. in the United States were in sharp contrast to the large amount appropriated by the congress, the voluntary con¬ tributions to U.N.A.C. in 1948 being only a little more than those raised in Iceland. The services to displaced children and other displaced per¬ sons were accelerated in 1948. The United States under author¬ ity of the Displaced Persons act of 1948 waived immigration quotas (though with certain much criticized restrictions) to allow admission of more than 200,000 persons by 1950. It thus could account for about one-fourth of those who were in dis¬ placed persons camps in Europe at the beginning of 1948. Coun¬ tries previously committed to reception of displaced persons were Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Israel, various LatinAmerican countries and the United Kingdom. The World Health Organization Fellowship program in ‘1948 provided opportunities for research, observation and study to more than 300 specialists in public health and medicine from Europe and the far east. The Smith-Mundt act passed by the United States congress, which became effective Jan. 27, 1948, authorized a broad program of co-operation and exchange of information between the United States and other nations, facili¬ tating joint projects in Africa, Asia and Europe like those previ¬ ously developed in Pan-American countries. Doctors, nurses, social workers, nutritionists and specialists in other fields would go to the United States, or upon request go from the United States to other countries, under a program co-ordinated by the interdepartmental committee on scientific and cultural co-opera-

ARAB CHILD being treated at the free prenatal and children’s clinic main¬ tained by Jewish doctors and nurses during 1948 in the Arab town of Samakh in Israel

tion of the U.S. department of state. , International conferences on child welfare or at which child welfare was a major concern marked 1948 as a year of activity compared with the years during and immediately following World War II. The Ninth Pan American Child congress at Caracas, Venezuela, Jan. 5-12, was well attended by profes¬ sional leaders from the fields of education, health and welfare. There was critical consideration of the many unmet needs of children in all American countries. The conference placed em¬ phasis upon objectives and the desire for better services. Search for the best known methods and procedures brought workers from the Americas closer together than ever before. The Fourth International Conference of Social Work held at Atlantic City, N.J., April 17-22, and at New York, N.Y., April 24-25, was the first time this body had convened since 1936. Much of the program dealt with problems of war-devastated countries, with gratifying evidence of the efforts within those countries to improve social conditions. Subjects especially im¬ portant for child welfare were housing and family allowances, though nutrition and child health also received specific attention. The Latin American Conference on Nutrition held in Monte¬ video, Uruguay, July 18-28, was under the auspices of the Food and Agriculture organization (F.A.O.) of the United Na¬ tions. The First World Health assembly was held in Geneva, Switzerland, in July. The First International Congress on Mental Health, held in London, England, Aug. 11-21, was attended by more than 2,000 persons from 54 countries. The emotional effects of war on children received special attention, though the findings gave a comprehensive review of mental hygiene, which enriched the thinking and services of child-welfare workers in all parts of the world. An outgrowth of the congress was the establishment of the World Federation for Mental Health. National Developments.—More countries expanded and im¬ proved their services to children. The suffering of children dur¬ ing and immediately after World War II claimed attention in all parts of the world to the extent that child welfare was featured, as never before, in the news and in periodicals. Radio programs on parent education became a part of the cultural diet of most countries. Establishments for the care of neglected children were founded under various auspices, the concept of boys’ towns having received popular support in several countries. To some extent this reflected the difficulties in developing the more adaptable and more economical care of children in foster homes. The cramped quarters in which most families lived made im¬ practicable in most countries the addition of a foster child to the household group. As after previous wars there was danger of separating siblings because of the scarcity of foster homes which could take more than one child and the unnatural separa¬ tion of the sexes when there were institutions which received only boys or only girls. Typical of the national efforts in Latin-American countries was the second Brazilian Conference on Child Care and Pedi¬ atrics held at Curitiba, Parana, in October, and the develop¬ ment of special schools for crippled children in Uruguay. Illustrative of heroic efforts in some of the small countries hit by the war were the efforts of Finland to safeguard the health of mothers and children. Even with hundreds of thou¬ sands of its people homeless, progress had been made and in¬ fant mortality again had begun to approach the favourable rates found in the nearby Scandinavian countries. In spite of heavy war reparations required of the country, a new children’s hos¬ pital with 350 beds was opened and a training centre called the Children’s Castle was established, in which all types of chil¬ dren’s nurses were trained. About 500 trained homemakers v;ere available to assist mothers who were ill or to take their places

FIELD WORKER for the U.N. International Children’s Emergency fund, on the lookout for children showing signs of malnutrition, rickets or tuberculosis. He is shown questioning a five-year-old Austrian child at a kindergarten in Styria during 1948

while they were hospitalized. The British parliament on June 30, 1948, passed the Chil¬ dren bill whereby responsibility for services to children up to the age of i8 deprived of normal home life, administered by local authorities, was vested in the home office, which previously had jurisdiction over juvenile courts and legislation for the pro¬ tection of children. Consent of parents or a court order, and evidence that a parent or guardian could not provide proper accommodation, maintenance and upbringing, determined whether a child was to receive foster care. No longer were the narrower tests of the Poor law the criteria whereby public re¬ sponsibility was fixed. Emphasis on the value of foster home care was included in the Children bill, which also provided for establishment of reception homes with facilities for the observa¬ tion of physical and mental problems. Improvements in insti¬ tutions on the cottage or congregate plan also were contem¬ plated. The bill reflected the findings and recommendations of the Care of Children committee, appointed near the end of the war in response to public indignation at the neglect and conse¬ quent death of a child boarded out by a local authority. All children throughout the United Kingdom on July 5, 1948, be¬ came eligible for medical and dental care and other health services made available to all Britons under the newly enacted health legislation. Children and women receiving maternity care were given priority in the use of dental service, which could mean so much in developing a sturdier generation. The United States initiated plans for the 1950 White House Conference on Children at a meeting of the National Commis¬

sion on Children and Youth held in January. The commission issued a nine point program for children and youth and urged national organizations, state commissions and councils and state and local officials to direct attention to the program and in other ways to anticipate the conference in 1950. The number of children born in 1948 exceeded 3,400,000, but fell short of the 1947 record total of approximately 3,720,000. The increase in births during the past eight years had begun to overtax seriously the country’s school facilities. It was esti¬ mated that unless public school education in the United States was rapidly expanded there soon would be more than 5,000,000 children for whom there would be no teachers, equipment or school buildings. ' The Child Welfare League of America, concerned at the limited adoption facilities under suitable auspices, conducted a study of the policies, procedures and practices prevailing in the adoption of children in the United States. The findings of this study were greatly needed to give direction to this impor¬ tant field of service which affected a large proportion of the children born out of wedlock. The congress and most of the state legislatures expressed negative reactions to child labour legislation. The Louisiana and Mississippi legislatures were exceptions, both enacting laws providing workmen’s compensation to minors, and, in Louisiana, extending this protection to newsboys, a provision made in only one other state, Wisconsin. Census studies indicated a slight decrease in the number of 14- and 15-year-olds employed and an increase in the number of 16- and 17-year-olds employed. (See also Birth Statistics; Child Labour; Crime; Infant Mortality; Juvenile Delinquency; Marriage and Divorce; Social Security.)

186

CHILE- CHINA

Bibliography.—James H. S. Bossard, The Sociology of Child De¬ velopment (1948); Grace Coyle, Group Experience and Democratic Values (1948); Hazel Fredericksen, The Child and His Welfare (1948); Cecelia McGovern, Services to Children in Institutions (1948); Gladys E. Meyer, ed.. Studies of Children (1948); National Social Welfare As¬ sembly, Report of the National Conference on Social Welfare Needs and the Workshop of Citizen’s Groups (1948); Hale F. Shirley, Psychiatry for the Pediatrician (1948); S. R. Slavson, The Practice of Group Therapy; Child Welfare League of America, Child Welfare Bibliography Supplement No. 4 (1948) (original Bibliography published 1944. with annual supplements) and Child Welfare (formerly The Bulletin, monthly, 1948 issues); American International Institute for the Protection of Childhood, Bibliography on Nutrition (Montevideo, Uruguay, 1948); Children’s Bureau, Federal Security Agency, The Child (monthly, 1948 issues). (H. W. Hk.)

A republic occupying the southern Pacific coast of • South America for about 2,600 mi. and having an average width of only no mi. Area 286,323 sq.mi.; pop. (July I, 1947, est.) 5,522,000. The racial composition, largely white, includes mestizos and Indians to the estimated extent of 15% and 5%, respectively, of the population. The major part of the population is concentrated in the central valley, Santiago prov¬ ince alone having (1945 est.) 1,535,969 inhabitants. The city of Santiago (pop., including suburbs, 952,075, 1940 census) is the capital. Other major cities (with pop. according to 1940 cen¬ sus) include Valparaiso (212,072), Concepcion (85,938), Vina del Mar (70,013), Taka (45,462), Antofagasta (50,244), Chil¬ ian (39,909), Temuco (39,217), Iquique (37,713), Talcahuano (30,082), Valdivia (34,600), Lota (1945 est., 34,445), Rancagua (21,621), Punta Arenas (29,883), Osorno (25,075), La Serena (21,383), Puerto Montt (21,552) and Curic6 (19,532). Roman Catholicism is the dominant religion. President in 1948: Gabriel Gonzalez Videla. History.—The communist issue, brought into sharp focus during the preceding year, continued to dominate Chilean na¬ tional politics during 1948. Pres. Gonzalez Videla voiced a pledge to “attack and destroy every communist focus in the public administration” during a speech at Valdivia on Jan. 9. During the same week, the chamber of deputies approved Gon¬ zalez Videla’s request for a six-month extension of the extraordi¬ nary economic and political powers granted him at the time of the coal strike of Aug. 1947. By the end of Jan. 1948, Chile was still holding 25 soviet diplomats as hostages for the release of the Russian wife of Alvaro Cruz Ocampo, son of a former Chilean minister to the Soviet Union. Senora Cruz had been, since Dec. 1946, endeavouring to obtain Moscow’s permission to join her husband in Chile. The Santiago government charged in April that soviet and Yugoslav agents had formed an under¬ ground organization in northern Chile, and that communists had planned to assassinate President Gonzalez Videla and stage a May day revolt. The late 1947 expulsion from the senate of Pablo Neruda, noted Chilean poet and communist leader, produced repercus¬ sions which conditioned much of 1948’s developments. The resignation of Senate President Arturo Alessandri, who had opposed the Neruda ouster, was unanimously rejected by the senators on Jan. 6, and three weeks later the supreme court turned down Neruda’s appeal for a reconsideration of the ex¬ pulsion order. He was directed to stand trial on charges of criticizing the government, and Santiago police reported on Feb. 4 that Neruda was missing. Thirty communist labour leaders were arrested ten days later for allegedly plotting a nation-wide slowdown in production. All communists were ordered removed from positions in the Chilean government in March, The long-fought measure outlawing the Communist party became law on June 22. El Siglo, Santiago’s communist daily, ceased publication in July after an eight-year life, and El Pueblo, a communist weekly, followed suit a month later. Other results of the anticommunist law included the removal from congress of 4 senators and 15 deputies, the ousting of

I senator and 9 deputies from the boards of directors of various organizations, and the loss by an estimated 25,000 voters of their political rights. Gonzalez Videla, seeking a more conservative administration, reorganized his cabinet in July. The new “Government of Na¬ tional Concentration” included Radical, Liberal and Conserva¬ tive ministers. Socialists refusing posts in the cabinet. During the year Chile and Argentina joined forces to contest the United Kingdom’s claims to the Falkland Islands and to Graham Land (Palmer peninsula), the latter in Antarctica. {See also Antarctica; Falkland Islands.) A flurry of naval man¬ oeuvres followed Santiago’s rejection on Jan. 31 of a British diplomatic protest against the establishment of a Chilean base in Graham Land. President Gonzalez Videla landed on Feb. 17 at Sovereignty bay in the Falklands to participate personally in the inauguration of Chilean bases there, and the British foreign office warned Chile and Argentina to cease their acts of “tres¬ pass” in the antarctic. The two South American states on March 4 signed an agreement to act jointly in their territorial disputes with the United Kingdom, and on Aug. 28 the United States dispatched a note to all other governments with antarctic interests, suggesting that they initiate joint discussions of their conflicting claims. An inter-American conference was scheduled to meet at Havana, Cuba, on Sept, i to deal with the general problem of European colonies in the western hemisphere. Chile and Argentina expressed an interest in placing their controversy with the United Kingdom before this body. However, the con¬ ference, which the U.S. indicated it would boycott, and at which Great Britain would not be represented, was postponed. Education.—Education is free and compulsory in Chile between the ages of 7 and 15. There were in 194S about 452,000 pupils enrolled in the public primary schools, about 93,000 in private schools and 55,000 in secondary schools. Official estimates of illiteracy are about 24%. Finance_The monetary unit is the peso, valued on Oct. i, 1948, at $0.0158 U.S. currency, free rate, or $0.0323, official rate. Chile’s 1949 budget, approved on Sept. 30, 1948, came to $281,250,000. The indi¬ vidual average annual income as of June 30 was $134, as compared with $1,2 00 in the United States. The Second Hemispheric Stock Exchange conference was held at Santiago in October. On the basis of 1939 as 100, the cost-of-living index for 1946 was 267. Trade.—Total exports for the first six months of 1948 were valued at 827,700,000 pesos, imports for the same period coming to 720,800,000 pesos. A total of 1,859,857 metric tons of nitrates were exported during the 12-month period ending on June 30, and all chemical exports during the calendar year 1947 were valued at $42,370,000, nitrates and iodine accounting for 89% of this figure. Wine and liquor exports, of which 20% were consigned to the United States, totalled $2,168,102 for 1947. The Glenn L. Martin Co. of the United States delivered in March three 2-0-2 transport planes to the Chilean air line LAN. The 536-mi. SaltaAntofagasta railroad, under construction for 27 years, was completed on Feb. 20. Chile signed a new trade pact with the United Kingdom on July 13. The U.S. Export-Import bank in August granted to Chile two loans totalling $1,850,000 to facilitate purchase in the United States of machinery and equipment. Production.—Total output of nitrates during the year ending on June 30, 1948, came to i,753,579 metric tons, as compared with the previous year’s yield of 1,602,063 metric tons. Coal production in 1948 was ex¬ pected to reach a total of 2,265,188 metric tons. The year’s electric power production came to 1,500,000,000 kw.hr., or 13% of the LatinAmerican total; and 117,000 workers, or 4.4% of Latin America’s total, were employed in manufacturing industries. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development announced on March 25 the granting to Chile of two loans aggregating $16,000,000 for use in hydroelectric and farm development. An estimated $1,225,806 was allotted for high¬ way construction during 1948. A labour law, passed in August for the purpose of curbing worker absenteeism, guaranteed the payment to each employee of seven days’ wages for each week during which he worked at least six days. Bibliography.-—Herman Finer, The Chilean Development Corporation (1947); National Foreign Trade Council, Chilean Business Conditions in the First Quarter 1948 (1948); Pan American Union, Bulletin (monthly) (G. 1. B.)

A republic of eastern Asia. Area: about 3,876,956 • sq.mi., divided into Tibet, a special territory, and 35 provinces including Taiwan (Formosa) and the 9 provinces of Manchuria. The official estimate in the first half of 1948 placed the total population of China at 463,493,418 and the population in the principal large cities as: Nanking (capital) 1,113,972; Shanghai 4,630,385; Peiping 1,721,546; Tientsin 1,772,840; Canton i,-

CH NA 128,165; Hankow 721,598; Tsingtao 850,308; Chungking 985,673; Sian 628,449; Mukden 1,021,057; Dairen, 543,690; Har¬ bin, 760,000; Changchun, more than 500,000. President: Chiang Kai-shek (resigned Jan. 21, 1949). History.—By Nov. 1948 the Chinese communists had gained complete control of Manchuria, about half of Inner Mongolia, which is composed of the provinces of Jehol, Chahar, Suiyuan and Ningsia, lying between Outer Mongolia (Mongolian People’s republic) and the Great wall, and a large portion of the five northern provinces (Hopei, Honan, Shantung, Shansi and Shensi), and of northern Kiangsu and Anhwei—an area totalling more than 1,000,000 sq.mi. and containing nearly 200,000,000 inhabitants. Within the northern border of China’s largest and innermost province of Sinkiang, an Eastern Turkestan republic was established following the Turki revolt in Nov. 1944, and in this little area there were three soviet consulates. With the communist control of Manchuria and eastern Inner Mongolia and with the independence of Outer Mongolia and of the Hi area in Sinkiang, a zone several thousand miles long friendly to the Soviet Union was created on the Sino-soviet border. Roughly, the communist-held territory increased from about one-tenth of all China in early 1946 to about one-third toward the end of 1948. A number of factors contributed to the suc¬ cess of the communists: confused command, poor strategy and low morale in the nationalist army; lack of inspiring leadership and efficient administration in the national government; the apathetic and sometimes hostile attitude of the people toward the government policy of suppression of the communists as a result of serious inflation and heavy taxes. Militarily the nationalist position had worsened in early 1948 to the point where the nationalist army appeared to have lost the initiative on all major fronts and gradually lost its superior¬ ity in numbers, equipment and training. With the nationalist army on the defensive, the government’s strategy was to sta¬ bilize the situation in Manchuria by holding the four isolated areas of Changchun, Kirin, Mukden and Chinhsien largely with airborne supplies, to maintain the nationalist position in the important cities in the north and to prevent communist expan¬ sion in northwest, eastern and central China. Having destroyed or blocked the overland supply lines of the government to its Manchurian posts and major centres in north China, the communists struck at the weakest points. They steadily pushed the nationalist army out of Manchuria and north China. In several instances the communist victory was made easier by defections in the government forces. In Man¬ churia, the communists took Kirin on March 12, Chinhsien on Oct. 15, Changchun on Oct. 20 and Mukden on Oct. 30. With the surrender of many nationalist divisions in Mukden the Manchurian operations virtually came to a close. In north China, Yenan, the old red capital, was captured by the com¬ munists on April 22 and other strategic and urban centres such as Loyang, Tsinan, Chengchow and Kalgan were taken by the communists on April 7, Sept. 25, Oct. 24 and Dec. 26, respec¬ tively. All the seaports of Shantung, with the exception of Tsingtao, were occupied by the communists. By the end of 1948 all the important centres in north China, except Peiping, Tientsin, Taiyuan and Tsingtao, and the strategic area of Suchow in Kiangsu, gateway to Nanking, had come under com¬ munist control. The mighty Yangtze became the government’s last defense line against the communist attack on Nanking and Shanghai. The continuous communist offensive and occupation of im¬ portant areas of natural resources, and the paralysis of com¬ munications and commerce in the war zones intensified the eco¬ nomic and financial crises in the nationalist area. Public morale was further lowered as the government failed to balance the

187

COOLIES hauling sackloads of inflated pay roll funds from a bank in Shanghai early in 1948. On Aug. 19, the yuan was converted to a gold basis at four to the U.S. dollar and the old currency ordered withdrawn by Nov. 20

budget, check inflation, control the constantly soaring living costs, and improve trade and commerce conditions. To halt further price and currency inflation the government adopted on Aug. 19 the following drastic measures: (i) issuance of a man¬ aged gold standard currency called the gold yuan, followed by the withdrawal from circulation of the old currency in Novem¬ ber; (2) surrender of all gold, silver, coins and foreign cur¬ rencies to the government; (3) freezing of all prices at the level of August 19 and imposing tight control of wages and interest rates. Under the direction of Maj. Gen. Chiang Chingkuo, elder son of Pres. Chiang Kai-shek, violators of these regu¬ lations were severely punished. However, the military reverses and the reluctance of merchants to put up enough goods for sale in accordance with the ceiling prices, the falling of real wages for public servants and the constantly rising prices deepened the economic plight of the people. On Oct. 31 the government abandoned the price-control program and announced a new series of economic regulations accepting inflation as a recognized fact. The failure of the government to stop the advance of the communists and to solve the serious economic and financial problems alienated the support of the people in spite of the reorganization of the government under a new constitution. The national assembly, composed of about 3,000 members, finally met on March 29 to elect a president and a vice-president of China. On April 19 Chiang was elected president by 2,430 out of 2,704 votes. There were six candidates for vice-president, and four ballots were cast before Gen. Li Tsung-jen, who ran on a platform of reform and against the desire of Chiang, was elected with 1,438 votes on April 29. On May 20 Chiang and Li were sworn into office. In the meantime about 700 members of the legislative yuan which was elected in January convened on May

CHINESE communist troops studying a probiem in artiilery fire; their political leaders announced the formation of a North China People’s government on Sept. 1, 1948

8 and elected Sun Fo and Chen Li-fu as president and vicepresident of that body. Wong Wen-hao, geologist and scholar, was named as premier to succeed Gen. Chang Chun. On May 24 the legislative yuan confirmed the nomination of Wong whose new cabinet, with only minor changes in personnel, was dedicated to the task of suppressing the communists and im¬ proving economic conditions. As the military and economic situation further deteriorated Wong resigned in October but was pursuaded to remain in office until a new premier could be decided upon. On Nov. 26 Sun Fo was nominated and voted into the post but he did not complete the formation of his cabinet until late December. The policy of Sun’s cabinet was to continue civil “war for peace.” However, the communists proclaimed on Sept. I a North China People’s government as a forerunner of an all-China People’s government and gave no indication of a peace bid. Instead they published on Dec. 25 a list of 45 “war criminals” headed by Chiang Kai-shek. In his New Year’s eve message Chiang indicated his willingness to negotiate an ac¬ ceptable peace. He further said: “If peace can be secured, I am not at all concerned about my own position.” China’s economic plight and the military successes of the Chinese communists affected the U.S. policy of aid to China. By a special message to congress on Feb. 18, 1948, President Harry S. Truman requested $570,000,000 for the China-aid program. On April 3 congress passed the Foreign Assistance act providing $463,000,000 for economic and military aid to China. In June Roger D. Lapham, director of ECA (Economic Co¬ operation administration) for China, visited Nanking. He urged quick aid in view of the critical military and economic position

of nationalist China. On July 3 China and the United States signed an agreement governing the use of $275,000,000 for re¬ construction purposes. The sum of $120,000,000 was designated for purchasing military supplies but actual delivery of supplies bought with a large portion of these funds lagged. As the com¬ munists threatened Nanking, V. K. Wellington Koo, Chinese ambassador to the U.S., requested in early November a state¬ ment of support and increased aid from the United States gov¬ ernment. This was followed by an appeal from Chiang Kaishek to President Truman. In early December Mme. Chiang arrived in Washington, to plead for help in connection with the national government’s request for a $3,000,000,000-aid program for a period of three years. The Chinese communist party de¬ clared on Nov. 21 that U.S. military aid to Chiang would be regarded as an action of armed aggression. In November evacu¬ ation of Americans in China was stepped up. It was reported that Paul G. Hoffman stated in Shanghai on Dec. 13 that ECA’s program on China was to aid the people, and upon his return to Washington Hoffman announced on Dec. 21 the suspension of a long-range reconstruction program for China. The U.S. attitude toward Chiang’s appeal was further clarified by Presi¬ dent Truman’s press statement of Dec. 30 that the question of aiding China would not be considered until April 1949 when the April 1948 program expired. With regard to Japan, the Chinese public was critical of the United States’ policy, and John Leighton Stewart, U.S. Ambassa¬ dor to China, warned China on June 4 that the Chinese student demonstration against the U.S. policy in Japan had produced a “dangerous situation,” particularly when the United States was embarking on a large program to assist China. On June 5 the Chinese government suppressed the general student demonstra¬ tion. However, Foreign Minister Wang Shih-chien declared on

CHINESE TURKESTAN- -CHRISTIAN SCIENCE the same day that China and the United States still held di¬ vergent views on the disposal of war-supporting industries in Japan. He further expressed the conviction that neither would countenance Japanese rearmament. In Korea, China took parallel action with the United States in August by provisionally recognizing the government of the Republic of Korea estab¬ lished in Seoul following the United Nations commission’s ob¬ servation of the May lo elections. Sino-soviet relations showed no signs of improvement. Re¬ viewing China’s relationship with the Soviet Union before the national assembly on April 14, Foreign Minister Wang accused the soviet of having violated the 1945 treaty agreements. A week later the national assembly adopted a resolution demand¬ ing that the soviet government live up to the terms of the SinoSoviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of Aug. 14, 194S, and return all machinery and material removed from Manchuria by the Red army. When the ten-year air-line agreement giving the Russians a virtual monopoly on foreign flights to Sinkiang ex¬ pired in September the Chinese government announced its desire of termination. On Nov. ii, at the first committee of the United Nations general assembly, the Chinese and soviet chief delegates aired their differences in connection with a debate over dis¬ armament proposals. T. F. Tsiang charged the following day that Russia had armed 50,000 Japanese prisoners of war for service with the Chinese communist armies against the Chinese government, while Andrei Y. Vishinsky hailed the victories of the communist forces in north China. Education.—The 1947 official estimate showed more than i Jo,000,000 illiterates in China. There were 790,617 primary schools with 23,813,705 pupils and 5,892 secondary schools with 1,878,523 students in 1947. In 1948 there were about 200 universities and colleges with 148,000 stu¬ dents but scholastic standards failed to keep pace with the numerical increase. Defense—Early 1948 official figures put the strength of the national forces at 5,000,000 men, about half of which were available for combat duty. Heavy losses to the communists reduced the national army to an equal fighting strength with the communists whose regular drmy and militia reached 3,000,000 men. The national government maintained an air force of about 300 planes and a navy of about 200 small and obsolete vessels. The three military branches were under the direction of a single defense ministry. It was estimated that more than 80% of government expenditures were for military purposes. Finance.—The budget was divided into two parts, ordinary and special, and the ordinary budget represented about one-third of the total. About one-fourth of the expenditure was met by revenue and the deficit was met primarily by issuing notes. The expenditure of 1947 was Ch.$42,165,000,000,000, more than four times the original budget estimate of Ch.$9,000,000,000,000. In June the note issue was estimated at Ch.$150,000,000,000,000. The black market rate of exchange of the Chinese dollar' reached Ch.$io,ooo,ooo to $i U.S. before the government on Aug. 19 adopted the gold yuan replacing the old currency. The value was regu¬ lated at 4 gold yuan to $i U.S. and i gold yuan to Ch.$3,ooo,ooo old currency. Toward the end of the year the official rate of exchange was 20 gold yuan to $1 U.S. China’s wartime loans totalled $1,345,080,568 and from V-J day the United States claimed to have provided the national government with $2,000,000,000 worth of supplies. However, the Chinese official sources disputed this figure. Trade and Communication.—The 1947 trade deficit totalled Ch.$4,305,822,277,000 as the 1947 imports and exports amounted to Ch.$io,68i,326,574,000 and Ch.$6,376,504,297,000, respectively. Cotton, machine tools, gasoline, coal and oil topped the list of imports while tung oil, animal products and cotton piece goods led the export list. In 1947 the United States supplied half of China’s imports and received 23% of its exports. The January-June 1948 trade deficit was Ch.$ii,372,436,56o,000, with imports increased to Ch.$i9,949,707,030,000, 49% of which originated in the United States. On May 22 the Chinese-American Gen¬ eral Trade agreement came into force, giving mutual trade concessions. About 8,000 of China’s 18,000 mi. of railway were located in Man¬ churia and by the end of 1948 more than half of the total railway mile¬ age was under communist domination. Because of the civil war, railways were operated on a greatly reduced scale. About half of China’s 100,000 mi. of highways were not usable. In 1948 the domestic air routes amounted to 25,543 miles, while the merchant marine tonnage passed the 1,000,000 mark. In 1947 the national government operated 1,589 tele¬ graph offices, 71,720 mi. of telephone lines with 167,240 telephones and 3 54,749 mi- of all types of mail service. Agriculture, Manufactures, Mineral Production.—Although an agricultural country, China imported, before World War II, an average of about 2,000,000 tons of cereals annually. Floods and civil war dislocations in¬ creased the shortage of food in 1948 and the land tax in kind and the borrowing plans failed to collect 3,000,000 tons of food for the arrny and public servants. Communist control of Manchuria and activities in north China deprived the national government of its most valuable coal and iron production and electrical power. With the communist advance

189

many of the important industries were again moved to the south. The National Resources commission, which controlled most of China’s heavy industries, gave the 1947 important production in metric tons as: coal 5,287,000; coke 109,000; iron ore 18,694; cast iron 5,736; steel ingots 18,517; cast steel products 32,384; tungsten 6,404; antimony 1,909; and gasoline 8,744,000 gal.; natural gas 4,603,000 cu.m.Bibliography.—China Handbook, 1037-43, revised and enlarged sup¬ plement; G. B. Cressey, China’s Geographic Foundations (1934) and Asia’s Land and Peoples (1944); John K. Fairbank, United States and China (1948); H. F. MacNair, ed., China (1946); Robert Payne, For¬ ever China (1945) and The Revolt of Asia (1947); D. N. Rowe, Chhta Among the Powers (1945); Gerald F. Winfield, China: The Land and The People (1948). Periodicals: China Magazine; China Monthly; Far Eastern Survey; Pacific Affairs; Voice of China. Films.—Peiping Family

(International Film Foundation). (H. T. Ch.)

Chinese Turkestan: see China. Chloromycetin: see Chemotherapy;

Phriotion Cnionno unnSUflll uulbllCwa

Medicine.

While the work of the Christian Science Committee on Wartime Activi¬ ties of the Mother Church, the First Church of Christ, Scien¬ tist, in Boston, Mass., was considerably lessened in 1948, it was still being actively carried on. The work was largely divided into two projects: sending aid to Germany in the form of religious books and periodicals, food and clothing, and sending food to war-devastated areas throughout the world. Christian Science branch churches in the United States, Canada, Aus¬ tralia and South Africa participated jointly with the Mother Church in this latter project. Clothing valued at $125,437.90, including shoes, shoe repair kits and blankets, was sent to Germany during the year; also large lots of baby food and specially processed food items de¬ signed for mass feeding. More than 32,000 packages of food were delivered through the CARE (Cooperative for American Remittances to Europe, Inc.) program to 15 countries, at a cost of $322,000. The dollar value of food and clothing contributed by the Mother Church to overseas countries during the 12-mo. period ending June 30, 1948, amounted to $1,122,752.39. In addition to this, books, periodicals and Christian Science litera¬ ture with a value of $73,660.46 were sent to Germany for re¬ habilitation of the churches. Enlisted men and officers at army and navy training stations in the United States and Canada continued to be served by Christian Science workers. These workers were also serving hos¬ pitalized veterans at approximately 190 government institutions in the United States and Canada. Christian Science services were being held in navy chapels at Pearl Harbor, Guam and Okinawa, and at Seoul and Pusan, Korea. The trustees under the will of Mary Baker Eddy announced the publication of the Christian Science textbook. Science and Health with Key to the Scriptures in Swedish, in addition to the French, German and Spanish editions. The textbook is also published in Braille. The Christian Science Monitor, the international daily news¬ paper published by The Christian Science Publishing society, was awarded a citation of merit by the American Society of Journalism for its co-operation with journalism educators. Erwin D. Canham, editor of the Monitor, was elected president of the American Society of Newspaper Editors. He was one of five consultants to the U.S. delegation to the United Nations Conference on Freedom of Information in Geneva, Switz., in March 1948. Transcribed radio programs produced in the Mother Church were broadcast over more than 400 stations throughout the United States (including Alaska, the Canal Zone and Hawaii), and in Cuba, Bermuda, Canada, New Zealand and Australia. It was estimated that these programs were heard by weekly audiences exceeding 6,000,000 people. Broadcasting of the regu¬ lar Sunday morning service of the Mother Church twice a

190

CHRISTIAN UNITY —CHROMITE

month and a 15-min. religious program direct from the church every Sunday morning was continued, as were special programs in the “Church of the Air” series of the Columbia Broadcast¬ ing system, the devotional period of the Canadian Broadcasting corporation, and the “Faith in Our Time” and “Radio Chapel” series of the Mutual Broadcasting system. It was estimated that the weekly radio program “The Christian Science Monitor Views the News” was heard by an average of more than 6,000,000 persons. (W. D. K.) Christian unity movements in 1948 were Christian Unity. virtually limited to Protestant churches and Eastern Orthodox churches outside of the Russian sphere of control. During the year the Roman Catholic Church boy¬ cotted the World Council of Churches {q.v.), while the Moscow Patriarchate formally announced its support of soviet policies and denounced the World Council as a politically inspired or¬ ganization. The movement toward Christian unity, however, registered conspicuous advances in 1948 on the three levels of organized official co-operation, proposals for federal union and corporate union. Co-operative Unity.—After a decade of existence in a pro¬ visional phase, the World Council of Churches was formally es¬ tablished at a meeting of its first assembly in Amsterdam, the Netherlands, on Aug. 23, 1948. Its constitution was accepted by 150 churches of 44 nations. It was to operate through nu¬ merous departments from headquarters in Geneva, Switz., with offices in London and New York, and ultimately in other centres. Its principal authority, the assembly, was to meet every five years, the interim governing body, the Central committee of 90, annually, and the Executive committee twice a year. It was thus expected to keep actual decisions in fully representative rather than administrative hands. In the United States the Federal Council of Churches of Christ {q.v.) celebrated its fortieth anniversary at its biennial session in Cincinnati, 0., in December. It admitted to member¬ ship the Religious Society of Friends of Philadelphia and vi¬ cinity and the Rumanian Orthodox Church of North America. Its emphasis and action closely paralleled those of the World council, but with additions to the declaration of human rights more specifically relating it to the racial situation in the United States. A strong statement demanding that the churches square their practices with their professions was adopted, and pre¬ sented on Dec. 13 to President Harry S. Truman in support of his civil rights program. Federal Union.—Proposals along this line were aggressively pressed during the year, especially by the Association for a United Church for America under the leadership of the noted missionary, E. Stanley Jones. The aim was to unite all evangeli¬ cal Protestant bodies through the delegation of a measure of central authority to a common overhead organization, while allowing each church to retain its separate name, its distinctive beliefs and practices and its particular forms of government. Mass meetings in behalf of this scheme were held during the year in 24 important cities, supplementing a campaign in 30 cities during the previous year. The movement had secured large popular response, and was receiving influential lay sup¬ port and financial resources. Its proponents believed that unity under the federal form as offered would develop beyond the original terms, just as the authority of the central government in the United States had evolved beyond the original conception of its sphere as related to states’ rights. No denomination had taken favourable action on this plan. Corporate Union.—Mergers of existing denominations con¬ tinued in piecemeal fashion. In the United States, the union of

the Congregational Christian and the Evangelical and Reformed Churches was overwhelmingly favoured by the central as¬ semblies of both parties, and promised early culmination. Following overtures to the Federal Council of Churches in 1947, ecclesiastical action approving the calling of a convention to consider corporate union of churches was approved by the Disciples of Christ, Congregational Christian, Evangelical and Reformed, Evangelical United Brethren, Methodist, Presby¬ terian U.S.A., and Community Churches. Four other denomina¬ tions had authorized official observers to share in preliminary conversations. Formal steps looking toward the preliminary drafting of a basis of union were taken by representatives of the churches interested, meeting in Cincinnati in December. Like federal union, this was a theoretically all-inclusive pro¬ posal. The form of corporate union contemplated had not been narrowly defined, but remained to be determined by the types of churches which were found actually to be interested. There seemed to be a possibility for a very large union of U.S. churches, substantially identified with the historical core of the Federal Council of Churches of Christ. Denominations which had not been willing to enter into this looser form of co-opera¬ tive confederation could scarcely be expected to be favourable to actual amalgamation except on their own special terms. All told, the discussions of Christian unity revealed increas¬ ing popular support for it in some form. The evidence showing favour towards a union of churches was probably more signifi¬ cant as backing for the general movement than for the specific federal union scheme. The year was not without movements contrary to unity. The increased mobility of population in the United States had carried sectional churches beyond their native habitats to areas where they were not assimilated to the existing churches, and where they figured as divisive elements. As expressed in the World Council of Churches, the unity movement itself had become less a specialized concern of the churches, and had shown itself more anxious to be part of the deeper movement for evangelization and the renewal of the inner spiritual life. This was counted on to create conditions which would make further unity possible and accelerate its ac¬ tual progress. (H. P. D.) PhrnmitO

output of chromite in the major producing

ulllUlllllua countries and the estimated world total during late years is shown in Table I. Table I.— World Production of Chromite (Thousands of short tons) Cuba .... Greece . . • India • * . . New Caledonia Philippines . . South Africa. . S. Rhodesia . . Turkey .... U.S.S.R. . . . United States . Yugoslavia . . Total

. . .

1940 57.7 32.8 62.2 61.5 221.4 180.4 273.1 187.2 2

3.0 78.3 1,607

1942 315.8 26.8 55.5 74.6 55 372.2 384.0 143.3 440 112.9 110 2,218

1943 390.4 17.1 37.2 51.8 66 179.9 316.9 182.5 358 160.1 72 1,982

1944 211.8 20.2 44.3 60.9 77 98.0 305.4 153.7 2 45.6 2

1,490

1945 190.3 2.6 34.3 45.0 ? 109.2 205.4 161.7 ? 14.0 ?

1946 192.0 9.4 49.9 27.4 63 234.0 166.9 111.4 2 4.1

1,210

1,257

2

1947 175.5 8.8 25 55.7 215.2 41 1.3 170.0 113.4 2 0.9 2 1,820

Note,—Figures without a decimal are estimates.

The five larger producing countries had consistently supplied close to 60% of the world output, but their relative importance shifted greatly during World War II, and in the postwar years was undergoing readjustment. United States.—The production of chromite in the United States is commercially feasible only as a war measure, and the domestic industry was by 1948 practically defunct, with supply dependent on imports, the sources of which are shown in Table II.

I

CHRONOLOGY—CHURCH MEMBERSHIP Table II.—Imports of Chromite into the United States (Thousands of short tonsl Cuba • • « . . U.S.S.R. . . India . • . Philippines . Turkey . , South Africa b- Khodesia New Caledonia . Total .

,

.

.

for the Religious Bodies with More than 50,000 Members

1940

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947

58.2

310.7 99.9

243.5 32.5

204.3 99.0 17.3 30.5 9.0 235.3 99.6

.

349.1 112.3 - . . . . . 98.8 40.4 187.8 34.5

297.8 166.1

36.6 175.4 78.5 126.3 177.9 48.0

137.8 30.1 21.3 30.5 119.5 262.3 277.3 82.7

164.9 265.1 6.9 198.3 62.4 252.1 81.2

.

736.6

981.6

928.6

848.4

914.8

757.4

1,106.2

.

.

..•

2.8

. 90.8

111.6

I 1 70.8 110.4 221.9 34.4

21.0

20.6

The consumption of chromite rose from 734,759 short tons in 1946 to 833,357 tons in 1947, and remained at practically the same level during the first half of 1948. On the other hand, imports advanced sharply to 776,426 tons during the first half of 1948, leaving a wide margin over consumption. The bulk of the 1948 imports was from the U.S.S.R., Turkey, Southern Rhodesia, South Africa and the Philippines. (G. A. Ro.)

Chronology: see Calendar of Events, 1948, pages 1-16. Churches, World Council of; see World Council

of

Churches.

Churchill, Winston Leonard Spencer B^ush statesman, was born at Blenheim palace, Oxfordshire, England, on Nov. 30, the elder son of Lord Randolph Churchill. For his biography and his political career during World Wars I and II, see Encyclopcedia Britannica. After the defeat of his government in the general election of July I, 1945, Churchill led the Conservative opposition in the house of commons. On Feb. 16, 1948, he delivered a broadcast calling upon all parties to rally in a drive for national recovery. He exchanged letters in February and August with the prime minister, Clement Attlee (q.v.), in an unsuccessful endeavour to obtain government support for the work of the Congress of Europe. On May 6 he presided at the Congress of Europe at The Hague, Netherlands. “This is a movement of peoples, not of parties,” he said. “We must endeavour ... to prepare for the day when there will be an effective world government. . . .” He appealed to the European peoples to forget past hatreds and unite in order to face perils which were drawing near. During 1948, he published the first volume of his memoirs. nhiivikli llAMitinKAkin

Cnurcn MGIIlDBrSnip.

191

Table I.—Church Membership in Continental United States, as Reported in 1948,

The latest information concerning church membership in 53 re¬

ligious bodies in the United States, each reporting more than 50,000 members, was that published by the Christian Herald, New York city, in Aug. 1948 {see Table I). The total given for continental U.S. was 75,419,684 persons, mainly for years end¬ ing in 1947, compared with 73,358,971 reported by the same bodies the year previously. Some religious bodies do not com¬ pile and publish figures annually. In a few instances the latest data in the table are for the year 1936, the date of the last census of religious bodies taken by the federal bureau of the census. According to the official reports of the statisticians of the religious bodies, total church membership had been increas¬ ing for many years. Church membership figures published in 1947 and 1948 repre¬ sented the highest proportion of the total population ever re¬ ported in the religious bodies. The Church of Christ, Scientist, is not included because the manual of that body forbids the numbering of the people and the reporting of such statistics for publication. The figures for the Protestant Episcopal Church, the Salvation Army and the Unitarian Churches as given in 1947 represent corrections of those previously published. The figure for the Religious Society of Friends is for all Friends’ denominations and not solely for

Members

1948

Body

Members

1947

Adventists, Seventh Day.

215,545

208,030

Assemblies of God

243,515

241,782

..

Baptist Bodies: Northern Baptist Convention. Southern Baptist Convention. National Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc.. National Baptist Convention of America. American Baptist Association.. Free Will Baptists. National Baptist Evangelicol Life and Soul Saving Assembly of U.S.A.. Primitive Baptists. United American Free Will Baptist Church. Buddhist Churches of America.

1,541,991 6,270,819 4,122,315 2,580,921 245,861 255,127

1,592,349 6,079,305 4,122,315 2,575,621 115,0221 221,317

70,843 69,157 75,000 70,000

. 70,843 69,1571 75,000§ 70,000

Church of the Brethren.

184,584

182,497

Churches of God: Church of God. Church of God (Anderson, Ind.) . , , , ..

90,666 92,604

77,926 95,325

Church of God in Christ.

300,000

300,000

Church of the Nazarene.

209,277

201,487

Churches of Christ.

682,172

Congregational Christian.

1,157,764

1,140,824

309,551 {

Disciples of Christ.

1,718,010

1,889,066

Eastern Orthodox Churches: Greek Orthodox (Hellenic). Russian Orthodox.

300,000 300,000

275,000 300,000

Evangelical and Reformed.

708,382

695,029

Evangelical United Brethren*

712,616

705,102

..

Federated.

88,411

Religious Society of Friends.

112,341

88,4111 113,465

Independent Fundamental Churches of America.

65,000

65,000

Jewish congregations.

4,641,000

4,641,000

Latter Day Saints: Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints. Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints ,

916,789 127,381

911,279

646,700 408,565 720,286

601,839 396,999 661,355

116,888

Lutherans: American Lutheran Conference: American Lutheran. Evangelical Lutheran Augustana Synod of N.A. Evangelical Lutheran Churchf. Lutheran Synodical Conference of N.A.: Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Missouri, Ohio and other states. Evangelical Lutheran Joint Synod of Wisconsin and other states . United Lutheran Church in America.

1,469,213

1,422,513

288,355 1,778,943

259,097§ 1,748,183

Mennonite.

53,338

Methodist Bodies: African Methodist Episcopol. African Methodist Episcopal Zion.. Colored Methodist Episcopal. Methodist.

868,735 520,175 381,000 8,567,772

Polish National Catholic.

250,000

250,000

Presbyterian Bodies: Cumberland Presbyterian. Presbyterian Church in the U.S. Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A. .. United Presbyterian Church of North America.

76,276 613,701 2,234,798 202,605

75,427 596,037 2,174,530 198,815

52,596 868,73511 489,24411 381,000 8,430,1 46

Protestant Episcopal.

2,160,207

2,11 8,980

Reformed Bodies: Christian Reformed.. Reformed Church in America.

1 35,788 178,318

134,608 176,244

Roman Catholic.

25,268,173

24,402,124

. ~.

209,341

205,881

International General Assembly of Spiritualists.

I 50,000

100,000

Unitarian...

69,104

66,027

Salvation Army .

Totals.

75,419,684 73,358,971

Source: "Church Membership" publication—by Christian Herald* *A merger of the Evangelical Church and the United Brethren in Christ, Nov. 1946. fName changed from Norwegian Lutheran Church. tAsofl936. §1944. (11942. 111940.

Five Years’ Meeting. The religious bodies having more than 50,000 members had 97.4% of all the church members in continental United States, according to a compilation of the reports of 256 religious bodies, published in the Yearbook of American Churches (1945). The remaining 2.6% of the members were in more than 200 bodies. Of the total reported church membership in 1945, 32.3% was Roman Catholic, 1.3% Old Catholic, Polish Catholic and East¬ ern Orthodox, 6.4% Jewish and 60% Protestant. In 1945, mainly for the year ending in 1944, there were reported by 256 religious bodies 72,492,669 members, of whom 59,717,181 were 13 years of age and over. The Christian ZferaW estimated total church membership at 77,386,188 persons in 1948. (B. Y. L.)

CHURCH OF ENGLAND

192

Great Britain.—No figures were obtainable from at least i6 churches and sects in Great Britain, including the Catholic Apostolic Church, the Christadelphians and the Christian Sci¬ entists. In the table Roman Catholic figures have been reduced to give only the Catholic population over 13 years of age in Great Britain. For Eire and Northern Ireland they have been accepted without reduction. No common basis of calculation is observed by the churches. Table II.—Church Membership in Great Britain (Religious Bodies with Fewer than 10,000 Members not Included) England and Wales Church of England (effective). „ „ „ (nominal). Church in Wales (estimated). Roman Catholics (estimated adults). Methodists. Congregotionalists (including Welsh Independents) Baptists (Great Britain and Ireland). Presbyterian Church in Wales. Brethren . Presbyterians. Unitarian Free Christians. Society of Friends. Assemblies of God. Churches of Christ (Greot Britain and Ireland) . ♦ Elim Church. Apostolic Church (Missionary movement) . . . .

Members 5,000,000 25,000,000 350,000 1,756,000 750,612 372,370 354,900 166,599 80,000 67,563 24,000 21,812 0 8,250 11,660 11,000 10,000

Scotland

1,259,927 448,000 108,844 35,680 24,838

Church of Scotland. Roman Catholic (estimated adults) Episcopal Church in Scotland . . Congregational Union. United Free Church.

2,773,920 428,290 490,504 121,126 38,820 (A. J. Mac.)

The amalgamation of the Ecclesias¬ tical commissioners (founded 1836) with Queen Anne’s bounty (founded 1703) took effect on April I, 1948, the new body to be called the Church Commissioners for England. This was expected to result in greater efficiency of administration at headquarters and economy in costs. The revision of the canon law of the Church of England was begun by the convocations of Canterbury and York in January. The archbishop of Canterbury outlined the procedure of the re¬ vision; viz., consideration and debate of the proposed new canons by the upper and lower houses of both convocations, by the house of laity of the church assembly, and by consultative committees of the laity to be set up by both provinces. Some of the new canons would require a special measure of the church assembly and one or two an act of parliament; all would require the sanction of the crown, by ancient procedure of the constitution. At the June meeting of the church assembly it was reported that ii87,ooo of the £650,000 appealed for in 1945 for the training of candidates for the ministry had been received. The archbishop said that only £300,000 was now required. The archbishop announced the creation of the Archbishop’s Film council (to replace the Church of England Films council), con¬ sisting of 15 nominated members, 10 by the archbishops and 5 by the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge, with authoritative and advisory powers. On Feb. 9 the society exhibited the first two films officially made for the Church of England. Early in the year the archbishop upheld a judgment of the house of lords dismissing an appeal for a decree of nullity of marriage on the ground that consummation had taken place with the use of contraceptives. While maintaining that the doctrine of the church was, on the contrary, that a marriage had not been consummated if contraceptives were used, none

Church of England.

Church Reunion: see Christian Unity. Cigars and Cigarettes: see Tobacco. Cinnamon: see Spices. C.I.O.: see Congress of Industrial Organizations. City and Town Planning: see Town and Regional

Plan¬

ning.

Ireland Roman Catholic (Eire) . . • „ „ (N. Ireland) Church of Ireland. . • • . Presbyterians. Methodists .......

the less the decision of the lords restricted the causes for which marriages might be dissolved on the ground of nullity. The first Anglo-Catholic congress since 1937 met in London in July. More than 13,000 members were registered. The eighth meeting of the Lambeth conference was held in July and August, attended by 326 bishops from all over the world, and at the end of August the archbishop of Canterbury led a dele¬ gation of English bishops, clergy and laity to the World Council of Churches at Amsterdam, Neth. The Fellowship of Evan¬ gelical Clergy held its first conference in ten years at High Leigh, Hoddesdon, Hertfordshire, in September. At the November session of the church assembly the issue by the bishops of the Shorter Prayer Book (1947) was upheld by the house of bishops and house of laity against the house of clergy who objected to the bishops’ action on the ground that, as the Shorter Prayer Book had not been brought before the convocations, its publication was unconstitutional. The Shorter Prayer Book simplifies the Prayer Book of 1662 and includes some parts of the Deposited Book of 1928. (See also Church Membership.) (A. J. Mac.)

City Manager Plan: see

Municipal Government.

Five important advances in, avia¬ tion marked the year 1948. These were improvement in the air-line safety record, a substantial increase in domestic and international air-freight business, major advances in air naviga¬ tion aids, a significant increase in the amount of industrial flying and a 14% increase in the number of airports. At the same time, aircraft manufacturing and student pilot licensing showed declines. Both international and domestic safety figures for 1948 showed improvement. In 1947 there were 3.2 fatalities per 100,000,000 passenger miles in domestic air travel as against the estimated 1.3 for 1948. In international travel, the rate dropped from i.i to i.o. Ton-miles of express and freight carried by domestic and international scheduled air services increased by 47% in 1948. The figures jumped from 97,568,958 ton-miles to an estimated 143,000,000 ton-miles. The domestic increase was greater than the international, 52% to 37%. Steady progress in the development and installation of air navigation aids was evident throughout the year. Steps to give effect to the report of the special committee of the Radio Tech¬ nical Commission for Aeronautics on the 15-yr. program of new navigation aids were well under way at the end of the year. Chief among these aids for civil and military use w'ere the omnidirectional radio range, the distance-measuring equipment, the parallel course computer and the radio and radar landing aids. The CAA’s program of replacing low-frequency ranges with 409 very high-frequency omnidirectional ranges, much superior in their service to air line and private pilots, was near¬ ing completion. Automatic instrument landing came several steps closer to actual adoption, and the air lines were operating on lower weather minimums at 79 stops through their use of the CAAdeveloped instrument landing system. A new and better system of approach lights, the CAA-developed slope line system, was adopted as standard and installation was to be started before

Civil Aeronautics Administration.

CIVIL LIBERTIES

193

the end of the fiscal year at several major airports. Industrial and agricultural flying, newcomers to the scene dur¬ ing the last few years, showed a healthy advance. In 1948 more than 100 towns, communities and resort areas contracted with airmen for aerial spraying with DDT for con¬ trol of flies and other insects. An estimated 10,000,000 lb. of the weed-killing 2,4-D chem¬ ical was used in 1948, and of that, approximately one-half was applied from aeroplanes. Millions of acres were treated for weed control from the air, using both dust and liquid forms of 2,4-D. Investment of private and government funds in airport de¬ velopment in 1948 increased the nation’s civil airports by 14% from 5,258 on Jan. i to 6,016. Under the CAA-sponsored Federal Aid Airport program, a total of 462 grant offers involving $48,702,276 in federal funds was made for airport construction or development. While the total number of pilots increased from 433,241 in 1947 to an estimated 500,000 in 1948, the rate of issuance of pilot certificates was slower. Issuance of 117,725 student pilot certificates was down 39%, largely because of the curtailment in G.I. flight training; issuance of private licences totalling 86,838 was down 28% and 10% fewer air-line pilot ratings (i,iio) were’issued. Only commercial pilot licences were on the increase, with 8,151 issued in 1948 as against 6,668 the year before. The number of civil aircraft manufactured dropped from 15,617 in 1947 to 7,302 in 1948. Production of two-place planes dropped 55%; of three- four- and five-place planes, 54%. It was significant, however, that production of four-passenger planes of the type used in agriculture and for executive travel comprised a far larger proportion of the total than in previous years, while the 1947 production consisted mainly of two-place training planes. {See also Airports and Flying Fields; Avia¬ tion, Civil.) (D. W. R.)

M

l ikortioo

repercussions of the report of the

LIUCl UCOa president’s committee on civil rights ap¬

peared in 1948. In many communities, patterns of bigotry were reduced by local awareness of the problems. Simulta¬ neously, the president supported the report of his committee by urging national legislation before congress. Despite the split in the Democratic party, it emerged victorious in the presiden¬ tial and congressional elections on a platform which pledged remedial legislation to end discrimination because of race, creed or colour. The house committee on un-American activities raised a con¬ siderable storm because of its rules of procedure which re¬ sulted in lack of protection to witnesses and lack of oppor¬ tunity for people named in the hearings adequately to defend themselves. On the last day of Republican control over the house, the members of this committee proposed permanent formal rules for procedure to eliminate these dangers. The nation wrestled with the grave problem of protecting itself against underground movements without infringing civil rights. The president issued a loyalty order under which the attorney general listed a number of organizations whose failure to make public disclosure of their backers, policies and purposes created a possibility that adherents to such organizations might have a division of loyalty if employed in sensitive areas. The Federal Bureau of Investigation was assigned the duty of ex¬ amining the files of 2,200,000 government employees (not in¬ cluding employees of the departments of state and defense or atomic energy employees). As a result of the investigation all but .3% of the government employees were cleared on the initial reports and only a negligible number severed their em-

.OF WHICH 71.9% WERE MEXICAN-AMERICANS

THOSE CHARGED WITH DISCRIMINATION

BASES OF JOB DISCRIMINATION, a chart reprinted from the report of President Truman’s committee on civil rights which prompted his recom¬ mendations to congress on Feb. 2, 1948 (Source: First report, F.E.P.C., based on 4,081 complaints for fiscal year 1943-44)

ployment in sensitive areas either before charges or after hear¬ ings. The widespread fear that the investigation would be a “witch hunt” proved unjustified. In the courts, a number of advances in the protection of civil rights were made, mainly in the area of racial and religious discrimination. The United States supreme court held that restrictive covenants prohibiting the sale or lease of real prop¬ erty to people of certain racial or religious groups were void and unenforceable. This decision was the first clear enuncia¬ tion of the principle that it is unconstitutional for a state or federal court to aid or abet private citizens in enforcing their contracts if to do so would have the effect of impairing the civil liberties protected by the constitution. Two California laws aimed at restricting ownership of farm¬ lands by persons of Japanese origin and denying them the right to hold commercial fishing licences were found by the supreme court to be unconstitutional. A federal district court ended the segregation of Mexicans in the Texas public schools. In the field of communications, the practice of producer ownership of first-run theatres was found to be in restraint of trade. In this case, the supreme court overruled a decision rendered in the early years of motion pictures which held that movies were purely entertainment and as such not entitled to the protec¬ tion of the first amendment. The court’s holding that this medium is entitled to the same constitutional protection as the press was expected to invite early attack on state and municipal censorship practices. {See also Aliens ; Anti-Semitism ; Birth Control;

Education; Law; Lynching;

Motion Pictures;

Negroes, American; Newspapers and Magazines; Radio.)

(M. L. E.) Other Countries.—Angry debate during 1948 continued be¬ tween supporters of western and eastern democracies. Each side was vociferous in maintaining that only it understood the true

194

CIVIL SERVICE

meaning of liberty. The actual changes which took place in civil liberties in most countries were small. In Greece the civil war continued while a parliamentary committee drew up a revised constitution which was still under discussion. It was understood that basic civil liberties would not be affected by it. The position in Germany was that with the unconditional surrender in 1945 all sovereign rights passed in effect to the military governments. The Germans, in fact, were not living under a constitution in which all laws controlling their lives were subject to immediate democratic surveillance but this was inevitable under the terms of the unconditional surrender. Czechoslovakia adopted a new constitution which, according to the ministry of the interior, contained provisions similar to the habeas corpus acts in Britain and enshrined the principle of equality to all citizens. The constitution also granted the right to work and the right to state social benefits. On Dec. 22, 1947, the constitution of the Italian republic came into force. It began with a declaration of fundamental principles, including the rights of man individually and in social groups, and equality before the law without distinction of sex, race, language, political opinion, or personal or social condition. The state and the Catholic Church were, each in its own order, declared to be independent and sovereign and their relationships continued to be regulated by the Lateran pacts. There was pro¬ vision that personal liberty was inviolable and, except in emergencies, the police were only to detain suspects for 48 hours without judicial authority. Search warrants were pre¬ scribed by law; freedom and secrecy of communication were guaranteed and also the right to travel. Freedom of meeting and freedom of expression were declared. A distraint on the press could be executed by police agents of the courts but charges must, within 24 hours, be presented before the courts. Extradition of political offenders would not be granted and capital punishment was abolished except for military offenses in time of war. Equal pay for equal work was prescribed and the freedom of art and science affirmed. The sentiments in most of these articles were admirable but they were necessarily very general. In the British commonwealth the only law to note was the Industrial Law Amendment act, 1948, passed in Queensland, Australia, in March 1948. The act forbade picketing and any attempts to induce any person to leave his employment and so disobey an order or direction of the industrial court. It was unlawful also to write, print, carry or display posters, in¬ duce people to leave their employment or to take part in an unauthorized strike. The act was repealed in Sept. 1948. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights produced a draft declaration of rights and also a draft covenant to main¬ tain the rights. These documents were still under consideration at the end of 1948. The commission also produced a draft con¬ vention dealing with the crime of genocide or race murder, and, to promote sex equality, it passed seven resolutions on the status of women. One of these resolutions, which was strongly contested by the U.S.S.R., deplored the denial to a woman of the right to leave her country of origin and reside elsewhere with her husband. (R. S. W. P.) In 1948 U.S. federal, state and municipal government civil service regained a state of equilibrium after a prolonged period of postwar readjustment. Employment and pay rolls at all governmental levels rose some¬ what during the year, although held in check by strong forces pressing for economy in public expenditures. The number of federal employees showed a net increase dur¬ ing the year, reversing the steady decline that characterized the

Civil Service.

three preceding years. Two factors largely responsible for this increase were the expanded national defense program and the so-called Marshall plan for extending economic assistance to other countries. By the end of the year, total federal employ¬ ment in the executive branch was in the neighbourhood of 2,100,000, of which approximately half were civilian employees of the national military establishment. State and local govern¬ mental jurisdictions accounted for an additional 3,500,000 em¬ ployees, allowing for seasonal fluctuations. By the end of the year, most war emergency temporary employees had been re¬ placed by employees qualified for permanent tenure under civil service regulations. Pay rates for a substantial majority of federal employees were increased by action of congress in June 1948, when 450,000 postal workers were given an increase of $450 per year and 850,000 additional employees received an increase of $330 a year. At the same time a proposed increase for upper-level federal employees was voted down. Pay rates for state and local government employees were also adjusted in various locali¬ ties to offset substantially increased living costs. Indiana, Min¬ nesota and New York were among the states giving general pay increases during the year. Several cities, including Milwaukee, Wis., and St. Paul, Minn., adjusted pay of their employees on the basis of changes in the consumers’ price index issued by the bureau of labour statistics. During the year a check was made on the loyalty of more than 2,000,000 federal employees and applicants for federal employment. The Federal Bureau of Investigation, in charge of the checkup, gave favourable reports in more than 99% of the cases investigated. While a number of cases were still open at the end of the year, the proportion of actually disloyal em¬ ployees appeared to be somewhat less than 0.5%. A number of those charged with disloyalty were found to be cases of mis¬ taken identity. In Los Angeles, Calif., a city ordinance was passed requiring city employees to take a loyalty oath. (See also Civil Liberties.)

The year saw one state civil service law repealed and another one adopted. In Louisiana, the state legislature voted to repeal the state’s eight-year-old civil service law over vehement oppo¬ sition by civic groups and the press. Arizona voters approved a law establishing a state civil service program effective Jan. i, 1949. The law also authorized the establishment of civil service programs for county employees within the state. In a suit challenging the constitutionality of the federal Vet¬ erans’ Preference Act of 1944, the United States supreme court upheld the so-called superseniority provision requiring non¬ veterans to be laid off ahead of veterans. In New York a court ruling disallowed claims of several thousand veterans for spe¬ cial preference in examinations under provisions of the state constitution. The court held that such veterans must possess actual disabilities recognized as compensable by the U.S. Vet¬ erans’ administration before receiving special preference as dis¬ abled veterans. (J. J. Dn.) Great Britain.—The coming into force of the national in¬ surance and the national health schemes on July 5, 1948, made it necessary to make considerable increases in the staff of the ministry of national insurance. The staffs of the service and supply departments decreased by about 9,000 after Oct. 1947. But when account was taken of the increases in the year in the ministry of national insurance (18,000), of the transfer of staffs from county agricultural executive committees and of other changes, the net result was an increase in total civil service staffs from about 690,000 in Oct. 1947 to about 713,000 in July 1948. The three-year program of recruitment, started in 1945 to fill the vacancies accumulated during World War II, was virtually

CLARK. THOMAS CA MPB ELL —CLEVELAND completed in 1948 and normal recruitment for most classes was reopened during the year. The government announced that no person who was believed to be either a member of the Communist party or of a fascist organization or associated with either the Communist party or a fascist organization in such a way as to raise legitimate doubts about his reliability was to be employed in connection with work the nature of which was vital to the security of the state. In order to protect the interests of the individual it was pro¬ vided that whenever a minister had given a prima facie ruling that a civil servant came within the scope of the government’s decision, the civil servant could ask for his case to be referred to a body of three retired senior civil servants who would advise the minister whether or not his ruling was substantiated.

Clark, Thomas Campbell jS. J bolt

‘“Tin

Dallas, Tex., and studied at Virginia Military institute, Lexing¬ ton, and at the University of Texas in Austin. From 1922 to 1927 he practised law, and from 1927 to 1932 was civil district attorney for Dallas county. In 1937 he joined the U.S. depart¬ ment of justice as special attorney for the bureau of war-risk litigation, then was assigned to the antitrust division in 1938. From 1940 to 1942 he was chief of the west coast offices of the antitrust division, and in 1942 he was named co-ordinator of alien enemy control of the western defense command and chief of civilian staff for Japanese war felocation. He was named assistant attorney general in charge of the antitrust division in March 1943, and in charge of the criminal division from Aug. 1943 to June 30, 1945, when he assumed the office of attorney general. In 1948 Clark’s office instituted a federal grand jury investi¬ gation of lobbying practices, to assure more complete com¬ pliance with the lobbying act of 1946. Clark’s own office became in March the subject of a senate inquiry into the handling of an investigation of vote fraud in Kansas City, Mo. In August he rejected a request from the senate executive expenditures subcommittee for data on the loyalty of persons suspected of being involved in communist activities, Clark contending that disclosure of U.S. methods of handling suspected espionage would be of value to any unfriendly foreign nation. On Sept. 19 Clark again publicly differed with Republican Sen. Homer Ferguson of the senate committee, over the committee’s report that government methods of checking the loyalty of employees was inadequate.

Clay, Lucius DuBignon

oTATnirrMaT;

etta, Ga. He was graduated from the U.S. Military academy at West Point, N.Y., in 1918, and until the end of World War I served as an instructor at an officers’ training school. He was with the engineering troops from 1918 to 1924, and further engi¬ neering assignments followed in Panama, the U.S. and the Philippines. In Oct. 1940 he became assistant to the administra¬ tor of civil aeronautics, in charge of the first national airport program. After the outbreak of World War H, Clay was assigned to [he service of supply, becoming deputy chief of staff in March 1942. The following December he was made a major general. Two years later (Dec. 1944) he was named deputy director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion. In April 1945 he went overseas as deputy to Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower in charge of civil affairs in occupied Germany. He became lieu¬ tenant general in 1945, full general (temporary) in 1947. On Jan. 6, 1947, he succeeded Gen. Joseph T. McNarney as military governor of the U.S. zone in Germany and as com-

195

manding general of the U.S. forces of occupation. Late in 1946 he visited the U.S. to participate in Anglo-American discussions on economic unification of the U.S. and British zones in Ger¬ many, and later attended the Council of Foreign Ministers’ sessions in New York. He again visited the U.S. to report on the tense situation between the Russian occupational forces and the U.S., British and French military governments in the Berlin area in 1948. When the Russians established a land blockade of Berlin in June, and the air lift had been set up to supply and feed the U.S., British and French zones. Clay declared that the U.S. would consider nothing short of actual war as a reason for quitting the city. Data on the production and consumption of the various ■ types of clays used in the United States (except ben¬ tonite and fuller’s earth, which are treated separately) are shown in the table in thousands of short tons, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. 1943 Ball clay. Kaolin. Fire clay. Miscellaneous clays ..... Total.. Sold as raw clay. Used by producer .....

147.8 929.4 7,798.2 n,21 5.3 20,090.7 4,140.4 15,950.3

1944

155.7 873.1 6,344.4 9,080.7 16,453.8 3,520.7 12,933.1

1945

174.5 940.0 6,090.4 10,848.7 1 8,053.6 3,611.9 14,441.7

1946

243.1 1,322.3 7,908.0 20,190.3 29,663.8 4,455.2 25,208.6

1947

269.1 1,425.1 9,038.7 21,129.4 31,862.2 5,131.9 26,730.3

As is indicated by the table, relatively little of the output is marketed, but is used by the producers in making clay products. (See also Bentonite; Fuller’s Earth.) (G. A. Ro.)

PloifolQnri

Sixth largest city in the United States, Cleveland, 0., had a population of 878,336 by the federal census of 1940. Area 73.1 sq.mi. At the election of Nov. 2, 1948, the voters approved six bond issues totalling more than $20,000,000 for hospital, park, street paving, playground, cemetery and street-lighting improvement purposes. The 1948 city budget, $33,457,053, was the largest in its history. Work was started in Jan. 1948 on a five-mile water tunnel for the new Nottingham reservoir, a $17,000,000 city project. The city council, in addition to electing Councilman Michael M. Lucak to his third term as president, voted to increase the pay of councilmen from $3,000 to $4,000 a year effective Jan. I, 1950. After raising fares twice, the municipally owned transit sys¬ tem finished the year 1948 with the highest revenue in its his¬ tory, almost $28,000,000. Agreement was reached between the city and the New York Central and Nickel Plate railroads on a rapid transit right of way and use of Cleveland Union Terminal facilities. The terms included $300,000 a year rental with option to buy at the end of 40 years for $7,500,000. Cleveland was selected by the United States public health service for a long-range study on combating tuberculosis. The Veterans’ administration chose a site in the city for a $15,000,000 general medical and surgical hospital. Capacity crowds filled the municipal stadium to witness the Cleveland Indians capture the American league baseball crown and the 1948 world series. Clearings of Cleveland banks in 1948 were $16,700,000,000, a record high for the second consecutive year. Electrical energy output was 4,800,000,000 kw.hr., surpassing the record of World War H. There were 212,000 persons on factory pay rolls, which averaged $10,800,000 a week. In the Cleveland-Lorain district, steel operations averaged 95% of capacity in 1948. Construction in Cleveland in the year amounted to $105,000,000. The cityowned Cleveland airport had its busiest year with 101,401 aero¬ planes making use of its terminal facilities. (P. By.)

ulbVcIdllUi

196

CLIMATE — COAL

Climate: see Meteorology.

rinthinir Inrilictru

^^48 was one of partial re-

UlUllllllg IllUUdlljfi adjustment and levelling off in the clothing industry. Prices continued at high levels with weak spots indicated by increased clearance sales in retail establish¬ ments. Manufacturers curtailed production to meet lower con¬ sumer demand; nevertheless, profits in the regular woollen clothing trade remained substantial. The cotton garment manu¬ facturers (a vast group comprised of shirt, pajama, underwear, work clothes and special apparel producers) had seven months of great activity but suffered severely during the last five months of the year as sales fell. Many work garment factories operated only two or three days a week. This was caused partly by high labour and textile costs which increased the prices of the finished products. In consequence, manufacturers and retailers fenced to see who would carry the risk of high priced finished garments. Manufacturers were re¬ luctant to carry large inventories of either piece goods or cut garments because of the speculative threat of a possible falling market. Retailers were also carrying limited stocks. Woollen prices remained steady, cotton piece goods prices fell and labour made slight wage advances. Rayon fabrics made substantial gains. In men’s wear, manu¬ facturers moved strongly toward lightweight suitings of rayon, thus cutting deeply into the demand for tropical worsteds. This change was primarily on a price basis. Some technical problems were posed, however, particularly in seaming and pressing. Machinery developments were substantial although sales were lower. Backlogs on all types of equipment neared the vanishing point as deliveries increased and purchases slacked. The most interesting and radical machine improvement was the introduc¬ tion of an automatic thread trimmer and cleaner to increase the speed of trimming and examining. New models of cutting machines appeared, and others were in preparation. Sewing ma¬ chine suppliers offered new models designed to speed up par¬ ticular operations in clothing construction, especially in the blindstitch machine field. The invasion of the U.S. by a Canadian cutting machine or¬ ganization was the first such attempt in the history of the in¬ dustry. British machinery men indicated that they would seek to export to the U.S. improved models of edgebasting, shoul¬ der padding and ticket sewing machines. Several old-time ma¬ chinery firms erected large, modern factories in areas less urban than their previous locations. Style changes were slight. Hollywood affected fancy vests and the ascot tie, conventional tie patterns were bold, sleeve but¬ tons were reduced from four to three and shoulders were wide and square. Sportswear remained as a strong factor with no new variations. Shirt collar design moved toward the short, wideapart Oxford type. Industrial uniform design borrowed the so-called Eisenhower jacket style of a short jacket with self-material band and action sleeves. The U.S. army tested cold weather clothing featuring multilayered glass-insulated construction. The fashionable “new look” of women’s wear was still in ef¬ fect ; sales were high and production was substantial. The most notable changes were in fabrics rather than fashions. Men’s wear factories continued making tailored ladies’ clothes. Large men’s chain stores increased in size and number, and many also offered women’s tailored clothes. A new chain of clothing stores situated in medium and smaller sized communi¬ ties did an increasing amount of business. Labour, apprehensive of cutbacks, eyed the guaranteed 50work-week year as a goal and tested manufacturers for a re¬ action.

Clothing production in countries outside the U.S. and Canada continued to increase as textiles became more available and affairs more settled. The consistent lack of dollar exchange severely hindered the import of machinery and equipment from the U.S. Many countries so limited the availability of exchange as to deprive factories of even the most essential items. Despite these handicaps the interchange of ideas between manufacturers in different lands continued and had a tendency to knit together producers faced with common problems despite geographical boundaries. The joint aim of all manufacturers was to increase the unit production per man-hour, thus reducing costs and making better clothing available to more people. At the end of the year, labour and material prices were high and sales were dropping. One bright spot was that inventories were low; a good consumer buying spurt would cause immedi¬ ate action on the production front. Indications v/ere that pro.ducers would have to forget years of big profits and concentrate on producing a better product at lower cost to obtain a fair share of the consumer’s dollar. (S. L. S.)

Cloves: see Spices. The coal output of the more important producing countries and the estimated world total are shown in Table I. The war gaps have been mostly filled in, and it is now possible again to get an over-all picture of the world industry. •

Table I.—Coo/ Production of the World, 1941-47 {Millions of short tons—all grades)

194)

1945

1946

1947

Canada. United States . . . Belgium. Czechoslovakia . . France. Germany. Hungary. Italy. Netherlands. . . . Poland. Spain. United Kingdom . . U.S.S.R. China. India. South Africa. . . . Australia.

18.23 570.51 29.45 46.91 48.34 527.57 13.89 4.88 14.94 84.15 10.53 231.11 175? 65? 33.00 20.21 21.03

18.86 643.02 27.61 49.55 48.37 547.42 14.30 5.32 13.99 92.56 11.42 229.53 100? 72? 32.97 22.50 22.22

1942

17.86 650.82 26.17 56.49 46.77 456.50 13.97 2.62 14.28 100.70 11.69 222.79 145? 69? 28.66 22.66 21.60

1943

17.03 683.27 14.91 54.31 29.30 403.60 10.42 ? 9.48 96.33 12.88 215.88 130? 69? 29.26 25.34 20.99

1944

16.51 630.93 17.45 29.84 38.65 164.22 4.73 1.46 5.80 30.17 13.32 204.71 160? 18? 32.67 25.96 20.93

17.81 592.51 25.11 37.01 54.34 251.95 7.00 2.98 9.77 53.07 13.33 214.81 178? 17? 32.79 26.05 21.97

15.87 687.81 26.89 42.53 52.16 271.40 9.71 3.41 11.66 70.25 12.95 223.71 193» 22* 30.15 26.26 22?

Total.

2,065

2,090

2,035

1,935

1,500

1,640

1,810

United States.—The salient features of the coal industry of the United States are presented in Table III, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Aside from the midyear holiday period, there was but one major interruption in coal production in 1947. Although opera¬ tions were cut heavily for two weeks at the end of March and three at midyear, the output in the remainder of the year was kept high, and the total for the year exceeded that of the peak

Table 11.—Un/fec/ Sfofes Production of Coal, by States, 1941-47 (Millions of short tons) Alabama. Colorado. Illinois. Indiana. Kentucky. Ohio. Pennsylvania • . . Tennessee • . . , Utah. Virginia. West Virginia . . . Wyoming. Others •••••• Total Bituminous * Anthracite • • . • Grand Total

«

1941 15.5 6.9 54.7 22.5 53.7 29.3 130.2 7.0 4.1 18.4 140.3

1942 19.3

6.6

8.2 5.5 20.1 155.9 8.1

24.8

27.9

1943 17.2 8.3 72.6 25.1 63.2 32.3 141.0 7.2 6.7 20.3 158.8 9.2 28.3

514.1 56.4

582.7 60.3

590.2 60.6

619.6 63.7

570.5

643.0

650.8

683.3

8.1

65.1 25.4 62.2 32.8 144.1

1944 18.8 76.8 28.0 71.4 33.9 146.1 7.3 7.1 19.5 164.7 9.5 28.3

1945 18.2 7.6 73.0 25.2 69.6 32.7 133.0 6.3 6.7 17.2 152.0 9.8 26.2

8.2

1946 16.2 5.9 63.5 21.7

23.5

1947 1 9.0 6.4 67.9 25 4 84.2 37 5 147 1 63 7.4 20 2 176 2 81 24.9

577.6 54.9

533.9 60.5

630.6 57.2

632.6

594.4

687.8

66.6

32.3 125.5 5.6

6.0

1 5.5 144.0 7.6

COAL Table III.— Data of the Coal Industry in the United States, 1942—47

Production, total Anthracite • • Soft coals • • Bituminous • Lignite • . Anthracite Open-cut . . Underground •

lln thousands of 1942 1943 643,021 650,821 60,328 60,644 582,693 590,177 579,762 587,428 2,931 2,749

• • * • •

short tons) 1944 1945 683,278 632,551 63,701 54,934 619,576 577,617 617,022 574,949 2,554 2,668

1946 594,429 60,507 533,922 536,254 2,668

1947 687,814 57,190 630,624 627,750 2,874

. .

9,071 51,257

8,989 51,654

10,953 52,748

10,056 44,878

12,859 47,648

12,603 44,587

Used locally . . Shipped • • . .

6,418 53,910

6,608 54,036

6,061 57,641

6,391 48,542

6,398 54,109

6,138 51,052

Exports . • • . imports • • . . Stocks. Consumption . • Bituminous and lignite Open-cut • . . Underground • •

4,439 140 798 56,500

4,139 166 329 57,100

4,180 12 445 59,400

3,691 0.1 130 51,600

6,507 10 251 53,900

8,510 10 702 48,200

67,203 515,490

79,685 510,492

100,898 518,678

109,987 467,630

11 2,964 420,958

Used locally . . Shipped ....

4,888 577,805

5,252 584,925

5,258 614,318

5,102 572,515

4,415 529,507

139,395 491,229 7 i

Exports .... Imports .... Stocks. Consumption . . Railroads • « Coke ovens • Power utilities Steel mills • • Cement mills • Other industrial Retail dealers

22,943 498 93,022 542,214 115,410 100,850 65,636 10,434 7,570 137,564 104,750

25,836 758 62,359 596,164 130,283 102,460 76,403 11,238 5,851 147,165 1 22,764

26,032 634 63,401 591,830 132,049 105,296 78,887 10,734 3,789 136,169 124,906

27,956 467 50,751 559,567 125,120 95,349 71,603 10,084 4,215 131,391 121,805

41,209 435 52,783 500,352 110,166 82,999 68,739 8,603 6,969 122,290 100,586

68,606 290 57,767 557,243 109,296 104,800 86,009 10,048 7,938 139,989 99,163

year of the war period and made a new record high of 687,814,000 short tons, including 57,190,000 tons of anthracite, 627,750,000 tons of bituminous and 2,874,000 tons of lignite. In 1948 there were the same two work stoppages as in 1947, but extending over more time and cutting more heavily into output. Although the production rate was well maintained during the remainder of the year, output was not kept up to the 1947 level. Bituminous output in 1948 was estimated at 594,000,000 tons and anthracite at 57,000,000 tons, a total of 651,000,000 tons, and 5.4% under 1947. Great Britain.—The coal mining industry of Great Britain, which was nationalized on Jan. i, 1947, continued to suffer from growing pains during 1948. It had appeared for some time that the actual change-over from private to public ownership took place too hurriedly and that sufficient time was not al¬ lowed for drafting, and pondering over, the plans for the Na¬ tional Coal board that was to control and direct such a huge undertaking.' The Coal Industry bill, introduced into parlia¬ ment at the end of 1948, amended the Nationalization act of 1946 and the Coal Mines act of 19 ii and gave effect to recom¬ mendations of the committee of Sir Robert Burrows for the enlargement of the National Coal board. The w'ages agreement which expired in 1948 was extended. The minimum for adult underground workers was now £5 i $s. per week of five days and for surface adults £5. In addition, men paid by the day had their wages raised by 2s. 6d. per shift (underground) and u. 8d. (surface). Men earning less than £6 I ss. per week (underground) or £6 5^. (surface) got the in¬ crease in full or as much of the increase as would bring their earnings to these ceilings. Men earning more than these ceilings were not eligible for the increases. Thus the increases, like the increase in the minimum wage, benefited only the lower paid

197

workers. The wages of youths were also increased. Early in the year the price of inland coal was increased by 2s. 6d. a ton and export coal by about 25^. a ton. In July the price of large coal was increased but that of small coal was re¬ duced, the object being to increase the amount available for export and find a home market for an increasing surplus of low-grade smalls. Generally, there was an improvement in labour relations and there were no major stoppages. Unofficial strikes were still too prevalent in spite of well-organized conciliation machinery, which operated at three levels, pit, district and national. The output target for 1948 was set at 200,000,000 tons of deep-mined and 11,000,000 tons of open cast coal, a total of 211,000,000 tons. Actual production for 1948 was 196,700,000 tons of deep-mined coal and 11,700,000 tons of open cast coal, so that there was a deficit of 2,600,000 tons. For comparison, the output in 1947 (53 weeks) was: deep-mined coal, 189,500,000 tons; open cast coal, 10,300,000 tons; total, 199,800,000 tons. Exports steadily increased and reached 16,000,000 tons by the end of the year. The promise to export to countries taking part in the European Recovery program was fulfilled three months before the specified date. During the year more machinery was introduced into the mines. It was an interesting point that in spite of the steadily increasing amount of machinery introduced into the coal mines the output of coal did not increase proportionately. During 1947, the first year of nationalized mines, the National Coal board had a loss of £23,255,000, including a loss on im¬ ported coal during the fuel crisis of £1,697,000, and interest on loans of £15,000,000. In 1948 a small profit was made; for in¬ stance, during the second quarter of 1948 this amounted to £1,000,000. Canada.—Coal production in Canada declined from 17,811,747 short tons in 1946 to 15,868,866 tons in 1947, but advanced

Table IV.—Data of Coal Production in Europe (Thousands of short tons) Monthly average in 1938

Belgium • • • Czechoslovakia France .... Germany . . . Hungary . . . Netherlands. . Poland .... Spain ....

1945

2,717 1,240" 2,928 2,466 4,368 2,443 32,508 13,685 442 859 1,254 489 3,500 2,315 977 519

Monthly output in Months Total Monthly %of Jan. reptd. tonnage average 1938 Jan. Jan. reptd. 1947 1948 rate 1946 1948 1948 21,460 2,385 88 2,143 2,366 2,474 9 3,204 3,560 3,915 10 37,427 3,743 128 4,372 5,074 5,229 9 41,255 4,584 105 2 ? ? 20,307 21,908 24,768 — 546 783 1,125 9 8,298 922 107 83 969 1,116 10 10,368 1,037 711 3,968 5,013 6,712 10 68,197 6,820 195 935 1,005 8 991 8,658 1,082 209

Total . • . 48,653 24,057 36,242 40,608 46,344 United Kingdom 21,127 17,015 15,277 16,607 18,414 10 •1944. fExcluding Germany.

127t 92,091 19,209

91

TRAILERS FILLED WITH COAL for Berlin lined up at an air base in Frankfurt, Germany, during 194S air lift operations to aid the blockaded city. Each trailer held a ten-ton plane load

198

COAST AND GEODETIC SU RVEY, U.S.—COAST GUARD, U.S. covered sufficiently to carry more than part of the load, thus necessitating the continuance of heavy imports from the United States. (G. A. Ro.; J. A. S. R.)

Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. XrifsurJey

SOFT COAL MINERS near Welsh, W. Va., returning to the pits on April 22, 1948, after a prolonged walkout by U.M.W. members reportedly unauthorized by union president John L. Lewis. The strike began after a dispute with coal operators over pension fund terms for union members

to 16,507,519 tons through Nov. 1948, and at the same time imports increased to 29,767,484 tons, against 28,049,107 tons in the same period of 1947. Australia.—Production through Aug. 1948 was 10,721,000 short tons of bituminous coal and 5,664,000 tons of lignite, a moderate advance over 1947. India .—Production in the first three quarters of 1948 was 22,134,000 short tons, a small advance over 1947 even though Pakistan output was no longer included. Japan.—Production was gradually improving, and totalled 29,194,000 tons in the first three quarters of 1948, as compared with 32,133,000 tons in 1947. South Africa.—Coal sales totalled 17,303,000 short tons through Aug. 1948, compared with 25,414,800 tons in 1947. European Countries.—The coal industry of Continental Europe was very much disorganized at the close of World War II, but was improving gradually. The trend of this progress is summarized in Table IV for the more important producers. Belgium and the Netherlands had not yet regained their prewar output, but all others except Germany had a margin in excess, which, in the case of Poland, was quite material. In Jan. 1948 the continental total was still 15% below the prewar total. Most of this deficit was in Germany, which in 1938 supplied two-thirds of the total. The large German deficit, supplemented by the smaller ones in Belgium and the Netherlands, still cut the fuel supply critically short, and the British output had not re-

ships were engaged in the coastal waters of the United States. Inshore surveys were made along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts and in San Francisco bay, the Columbia river and Puget sound. Surveys were extended in areas of Alaskan waters where the existing charts were wholly inadequate, specifically in the west¬ ern Aleutian Islands, in Prince William sound, in Bristol bay and along the Arctic coast. Aerial photographic coverage of the coast line was obtained and ground parties noted prominent geographic features on the air photographs. Electronic equipment was used for determining the position of the ships on offshore soundings and distances were obtained up to 225 mi. from fixed shore stations. Extensive field tests of the new electronic position indicator were conducted in the Gulf of Mexico. An electrically operated torsion pendulum analyzer was developed and other important improvements in instruments were made. In 1948, 16 new nautical charts and 62 new editions were compiled. Twelve charts of the Gulf Intracoastal waterway were completed. There were published three new charts of the Arctic coast and two Loran charts of the Atlantic coast. A new edition of the Atlantic coast pilot from Sandy Hook to Cape Henry was issued. The annual issue of these nautical coastal charts continued to exceed 1,000,000 copies. The basic geodetic network of horizontal and vertical control was extended during 1948 by the operation of 14 field parties. During the year a program for the reconstitution of the hori¬ zontal control in the Hawaiian Islands was initiated. The collection of tidal information was continued in 100 sea¬ ports and further extension was made of similar observations to other countries under co-operative arrangements. Observations in the Latin American countries was continued with the aid of the Inter-American Geodetic survey. Two new tidal current charts were issued, for Delaware river and Puget sound. Observations of the fluctuation of the magnetic, needle were continued during the year at six observatories operated by the bureau. In the seismic program more than 500 earthquakes were located throughout the world and the operation of strong motion seismographs was continued. A mass analysis was made of 30,000 seismograph records and 2,000 barometric readings in North America, the Atlantic and the Pacific oceans for investi¬ gation of microseismic-meteorologic relations. A seismic sea-wave detector was installed at Honolulu, Hawaii, as part of a general system to warn of any impending seismic sea wave of destruc¬ tive force. Aerial photographs and surveys of no airports were com¬ pleted for the construction of airport charts. Thirteen million aeronautical charts and a new series of instrument landing sys¬ tem charts were published. The bureau continued its participation in the programs of Philippine rehabilitation and co-operation with the American republics for the training of technicians. During 1948 nine hydrographic and geodetic engineers from the Coast and Geo¬ detic survey visited 13 countries in Latin America for the purpose of consulting and advising on surveying and mapping programs. (See also Cartography; Geography; Oceanog¬ raphy.) (L. O. C.)

Pnoet PiiorH II

^

search and rescue operations during

uUdol UUdlUf U.0» 1948, the coast guard added 5,399 more

persons to the long list of those who had been rescued from

COAST GU ARD, U.S. peril throughout the years. Beginning in January when Ocracoke (N.C.) Lifeboat station personnel used the breeches buoy to remove the crew of a fishing vessel aground in heavy surf, rescues under many varying circumstances continued through¬ out the year. In Alaska, the “Clover” brought in six crew mem¬ bers from a shipwrecked cannery tender and the “Cedar” picked up the 15-man crew of a grounded freighter. While other cut¬ ters were towing disabled merchant vessels to safety from hun¬ dreds of miles at sea, the “Mendota” refloated a tanker off Cape Fear (N.C.) and a Miami Air station PBY aircraft located a motorboat 90 mi. at sea, adrift without fuel, and with two men aboard. Many injured persons were taken from vessels at sea and brought to hospitals ashore. One such medical case was taken from a vessel off Miami by a PBM plane. Another was taken from a tanker off Oregon inlet (N.C.) by lifeboat station per¬ sonnel and flown to a Norfolk hospital by helicopter. Many other such cases were recorded, one of the most spectacular being that of a PBY aircraft from Argentia, Newfoundland, which proceeded in instrument weather to where a grounded Greek freighter was afire near Flowers Island lighthouse, Nfd. The pilot landed the plane in the open sea and removed eight seriously injured seamen to Argentia, making a jet-assisted take-off. Large numbers of persons were taken from sinking, burning or grounded craft. The “Tampa” and “Nike” removed all 274 passengers from an army transport aground at South Pass, La. Lifeboat stations rescued the crews of many sunken fishing ves¬ sels off the coasts. The “Maple” removed 60 passengers from a ferryboat aground in Ogdensburg harbour, N.Y. As two cut¬ ters towed a disabled tanker to Holland, Mich., a PBY flew nine of its badly burned crew to Chicago. Nine crewmen were removed from a vessel broken on the rocks off Icy Point, Alaska, and the “Bibb,” making a 360-mi. run in 20 hr., rescued 40 persons from a sinking Portuguese schooner 250 mi. from Cape Race, Nfd., transferring the personnel in heavy seas by means of lifeboats and liferafts. Extensive assistance was rendered flood sufferers in Missis¬ sippi, Ohio and Columbia river floods. Many proposals of a U.S. delegation, headed by the com¬ mandant of the coast guard, to a London conference on safety of life at sea, were adopted by the principal maritime nations of the world. These embodied safety standards for vessels of all nations far in advance of those which were in effect. The icebreaker “Mackinaw,” with the cutter “Acacia,” opened a passage for 12 ice-locked ships at Buffalo, N.Y., on March 17-18. This was the earliest date on record in more than 50 yr. for the movement of shipping from Buffalo at the commence¬ ment of the navigation season. Three other cutters continued breaking ice in the Great Lakes and through the straits of Mackinac, the “Mackinaw’s” helicopter scouting out their courses. Aerial ice observation flights were inaugurated in February by planes based at Argentia in connection with the International Ice patrol. Late in April the “Mendota” began surface patrol, augmented by planes from the Argentia base, being relieved by the “Mocoma.” By July 2, ice no longer menaced the trans¬ atlantic steamer lanes and the patrol was discontinued. The program of scientific studies, carried on before World War II, was re-established during the year with the “Evergreen” as oceanographic vessel. Later the “Ingham,” with aircraft, cov¬ ered the waters of Baffin bay and vicinity, augmented by an oceanographic cruise of the “Evergreen” from Labrador to Greenland. By Public Law 738 of June 22, 1948, congress gave legis¬ lative authority to the coast guard to operate and maintain

199

floating ocean stations for the purpose of providing search and rescue, communication, air navigation facilities and meteoro¬ logical services in ocean areas regularly traversed by aircraft of the United States. Funds were provided to increase the num¬ ber of U.S. ocean stations in the Atlantic from two to seven, with one jointly operated with Canada, and from one to two in the Pacific. Five other such Atlantic ocean stations were main¬ tained by European countries. Seventeen additional vessels were to be manned for this purpose by June 30, 1949, 15 from the navy’s and 2 from the coast guard’s reserve fleets. By midyear the coast guard was maintaining 36,284 aids to navigation. These consisted many different devices, ranging from unlighted wooden spar buoys to light stations, lightships and 36 Loran stations. The latter, in ii chains extending from Greenland around the coasts of the U.S. and into the Pacific as far as Japan, enabled air and surface craft to fix their positions in all conditions of weather. A decrease of 181 aids to navigation during the fiscal year was caused by readjustment to peacetime needs. Public Law 786, approved June 26, 1948, authorized the coast guard to establish, maintain and operate maritime aids for the needs of the armed forces and Loran stations for both the armed forces and maritime and air com¬ merce of the U.S. The Bering Sea patrol, discontinued during World War II, was resumed in May with the icebreaker “Northwind” pro¬ ceeding to the remote Arctic regions of Alaska for the protec¬ tion of life and property; the protection of the seal herds and other wildlife; law enforcement and transportation of a float¬ ing court; and the furnishing of medical and dental assistance to natives. Annual inspections were completed on 7,513 vessels of the United States; 7,361 drydock examinations were held, of which 78 vessels were conversions or new construction completed dur¬ ing the year. There were 2,667 reinspections of vessels, with

MOUNTAIN CRATERS formed by glacier movements in the Baffin bay area of Greeniand, photographed in 1948 at an altitude of 10,000 ft. by a member of the U.S. Coast Guard Aeriai Ice survey, during the annuai iceberg census taken to forecast the extent of the ice menace to North Atlantic shipping

200

COBALT—COINAGE

special surveys on 141 passenger vessels, not classed by a classi¬ fication society; 210 special examinations were made of passen¬ ger vessels and ferries by travelling inspectors; 3,166 marine casualties were investigated, including 130 accidents which re¬ sulted in the loss of 299 lives; 10,184 investigations of merchant marine personnel were made involving negligence, incompetence and misconduct. Investigating units were located in the major ports and five foreign ports. The military personnel on June 30, 1948, consisted of 1,854 commissioned and 668 chief warrant and warrant officers, 261 cadets and 17,080 enlisted men. There were 1,800 salaried civilians, 1,836 wage board employees and 677 lamplighters. At the same time, 160 cutters, 59 patrol boats, 37 lightships, 40 harbour tugs and 9 buoy boats, as well as 171 motor life¬ boats, 1,466 motorboats and 2,357 nonpowered small craft made up the total of 4,299 floating units. There were 9 air stations (with 79 aircraft, including 8 heli¬ copters), 4 air facilities, 10 bases, 172 lifeboat stations, 446 light stations, 73 light attendant stations, 20 radio stations, 41 depots, 2 supply depots and the Coast Guard yard, comprising a total of 778 shore units. U.S. Coast Guard Academy.—The U.S. Coast Guard academy at New London, Conn., founded in 1876, is an institu¬ tion of higher learning for the training of commissioned officers for the Coast Guard. Its present home, overlooking the Thames river, was constructed in 1932, with additions made just prior to World War II. The red brick, Georgian colonial buildings centre around the administrative building, Hamilton hall, named after Alexander Hamilton, first secretary of the treasury and founder of the Coast Guard in 1790. At the end of 1948 there were 403 cadets. Entrance is re¬ stricted to unmarried men between 17 and 22 years of age, and appointments are obtained through competitive examinations. While emphasis is placed on a practical program in which en¬ gineering, navigation, seamanship, tactical signal drills and dam¬ age control drills are featured in a 21-week program, utilizing three training vessels, standard college courses in mathematics, languages and physical education complete a well-rounded cur¬ riculum. The academy confers upon its graduates the bachelor of science degree in engineering and a commission as ensign in the U.S. coast guard. About 100 cadets are graduated each year. • (J. F. Fy.)

Pnholt

production of cobalt, at 5,600 short tons in 1947, was higher than in any of the years of World War II. The Belgian Congo and Northern Rhodesia are the major producers, with the United States, French Morocco and Canada in an intermediate group and a number of others as minor producers. Of the 1947 total, the Belgian Congo supplied 3,860 tons. Northern Rhodesia 463 tons, French Morocco 353 tons and Canada 239 tons. The United States output was 641 tons in 1945, and later production had not been reported at the close of 1948. The bulk of the U.S. supply comes from imports, 1,751 tons in 1946 and 4,148 tons in 1947. Consumption was reported to be 2,039 tons in 1946 and 2,103 tons in 1947, so that the 1947 imports evidently supplied an appreciable surplus for stocks. Cobalt is particularly interesting and important, as much of the development of the high-temperature alloys used in jet propulsion and gas turbine engines depends on the use of cobalt. (G. A. Ro.)

uUUdlla

Cochin-China:

000,000 lb. The African crop, about two-thirds of the total, was estimated at 6% more than a year before, the Gold Coast leading with a 500,000,000-lb. forecast and Nigeria second with 200,000,000 lb. The 1948 allocation by the International Emer¬ gency Food committee of 591,550 tons available for export from the 1947-48 crop (as compared with 621,545 tons from the preceding crop) included 254,000 tons for the United States and 101,000 tons for the United Kingdom. Prices were less than the 49 cents per pound peak of 1947, yet fluctuated around 40 cents during the greater part of the year, far above prewar levels. At the end of the year there were in¬ dications that supply was catching up with demand and that Great Britain, in control of the market, was offering supplies for future delivery at somewhat lower prices. (J. K. R.) . (Copra). Imports of copra into the United States bUCOnUlS in 1948 were sharply lower, less than 70% as njuch as the record high 677,660 tons imported in 1947. But 1948 imports exceeded the 394,696 tons of 1946, and the pre¬ war average of 230,000 tons. Typhoon damage late in 1947 to the coconut resources of the Philippines was a major factor in the decline, and it was thought that full production might not be regained before mid-1949. Coconut oil imports increased more than threefold above the 23,359,000 lb. of 1947. Exports of copra from Ceylon and the Netherlands Indies increased. The Ceylon-United Kingdom Copra Purchase agree¬ ment was revised to provide higher prices in 1949 for a mini¬ mum of 40,000 tons of coconut oil. (J. K. R.) p

n rx Consumption of coffee in the United States in 1948, uUIICui all from imported supplies, was about 18 lb. per capita against 17.4 lb. in the previous year, and 14 lb. as a pre¬ war average (1935-39). Total consumption was estimated at 20,000,000 bags, raw-bean basis. Imports of raw coffee beans into the U.S. totalled about 20,000,000 bags, compared with 18,910,737 bags in 1947, and 20,708,374 bags in 1946. World coffee production for the 1948-49 crop year, accord¬ ing to early season forecasts for the main producing countries, was expected to equal 41,295,000 bags, compared with 39,987,000 bags in 1947-48, and an average of 43,220,000 bags for the period 1935-39. Brazil was expected to produce 23,300,000 bags, compared with 22,062,000 bags in the preceding year, although some estimates ranged considerably below that figure. The Colombian crop was estimated at 6,500,000 bags, only slightly in excess of the preceding year, but about 50% higher than prewar. The African crop was expected to be 200,000 bags smaller than in the previous year. Prospects in the Netherlands Indies, prior to the warfare late in 1948, were favourable for a crop more than 50% larger than that of the previous year. Exportable surpluses of the producing countries were esti¬ mated at 32,207,000 bags, compared i^ith 30,805,000 bags in the preceding year, and 35,915,000 bags prewar. Nevertheless, world consumption apparently had been outrunning supply; prices during 1948 rose to new record levels, some Brazilian types going above 26 cents per pound on the New York spot market and one December future contract reaching 24.85 cents; some types of Colombian coffee sold for as much as 37 cents a pound on the New York exchange. Coffee from Brazil was included under the Economic Cooperation administration program for western Europe. {See also Brazil.) (J. K. R.)

see French Over.seas Territories.

Pfl?n9ffD

Pnnna (Cacao). World production of cacao beans for 1948-49 uUvUd was forecast at 1,413,000,000 lb., compared with 1,352,000,000 lb. in 1947-48 and the 1935-39 average of 1,579,-

three United States coinage mints located at uUllldgUa Philadelphia, Pa., San Francisco, Calif., and Den¬ ver, Colo., manufactured a total of 977,603,729 domestic and foreign coins during the calendar year 1948.

COKE —COLOMBIA United States coin production was valued at $49,848,039.50 and consisted of the following denominations: Pieces 7,095,429 67,922,800 163,31 1,000 145,382,000 571,942,500

Denomination

Half dollars . . Quarter dollars. Dimes. Five-cent pieces. One-cent pieces Total domestic

955,653,729

The composition of the half dollars, quarter dollars and dimes was 90% silver and 10% copper; five-cent coins, 25% nickel and 75% copper; and one-cent coins, 95% copper and 5% zinc and tin in conformity with United States coinage laws. A new design half dollar, the Franklin-Liberty Bell half dol¬ lar, was first issued on April 30, 1948. The old design Liberty half dollar would continue to circulate. The design of a United States coin may not be changed more frequently than once in 25 years except by a special act of congress. Foreign coinage during 1948 totalled 21,950,000 pieces of various denominations and alloys for the governments of Cuba, El Salvador and Syria. In addition to the coinage mints, four other mint service institutions comprising the bureau of the mint were in opera¬ tion in 1948—the assay offices at New York city and Seattle, Wash.; the gold bullion depository at Fort Knox, Ky.; and the silver bullion depository at West Point, New York. The entire mint service is administered by the director of the mint, with offices in Washington, D.C. . The principal functions of the bureau of the mint, other than the manufacture of domestic and foreign coins, include the safeguarding of the government’s holdings of monetary metals, valued at billions of dollars; acquisition of gold and silver bullion; the refining of gold and silver; administration of the' issuance of treasury licences for the acquisition, ownership, possession and use of gold for industrial, professional and ar¬ tistic purposes; the manufacture of medals for the armed serv¬ ices and the manufacture of medals of historic interest for sale to the public. {See also Decorations, Medals and Badges —Military, Naval and Civil.) (N, T. R.) The coke outputs of the major producing countries and the estimated world total during the past several years are shown in Table I.

Coke.

Table I,— World Production of Coke, 1942-47 (Thousands of short tons) 1942

Australia . • • Belgium .... Canada . . * • Czechoslovakia • . . . France .... Germany • . ♦ Great Britain • . India. Italy. Japan. Netherlands • • U.S.S.R. United States. .

4,287

Total * • • •

1943

1944

1945

1946 2

1,188 2,071 3,333 2,095 2,762

1947

1,772 4,862 2,987 4,497 5,500 58,159 16,186 1,740 2,200 5,292 2,385 8,599 71,676

1,562 2,257 3,438 4,991 3,206 58,863 15,771 1,550 4,144 1,737 10,929 74,037

14,300 67,308

58,498

? 5,213 2,973 4,563 6,451 14,593 14,771 ? 1,793 2,030 1,684 ? 73,446

191,500

191,000

130,340

129,870

160,740

9

4,251 2,850 2,480 5,467 1 0,755 15,665

2

15,664

2

2 2 2 2

? 2 2 2

United States .—Table II presents the more important fea¬ tures connected with coke production in the United States, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines.

Production advanced sharply in 1947, falling but little short of the 1944 peak, and the increased rate of operation continued with little change into 1948. Total production in the first three quarters of that year was 54,625,447 tons, of which 50,153,487 tons were by-product and 4,471,960 tons were beehive coke. In addition to the output reported above, there was a small output of gashouse coke, amounting to 753,335 tons in 1946 and 664,576 tons in 1947. Canada.—After a decline to 3,314,000 short tons in 1946, Canadian coke production (including gas retort coke) advanced to 3,501,000 tons in 1947, and 2,586,000 tons in the first eight months of 1948. With increases in local production, imports of coke declined from 909,111 tons in 1946 to 563,305 tons in 1947 and 389,298 tons in the first eight months of 1948, but about three-quarters of the production is made from imported coal. (G. A. Ro.)

Pftifl Pnmmnn

Progress was made during 1948 in the uOlUf bUnilllOn. classification of the obscurely defined, overlapping respiratory diseases. Tests on volunteers showed that persons could be infected with exudates obtained from pa¬ tients. In volunteers infected with the common cold, the incu¬ bation period averaged two days; in those infected with ARD (acute respiratory disease, clinically different from colds) the period was five days. Those who had been given colds could not be reinfected with the same virus, proving that specific im¬ munity had developed, but could be given ARD, showing that the virus and the disease were different. The opposite also happened; those given ARD could not be reinfected with ARD but could acquire the common cold. In the largest experiment ever conducted to investigate the common cold, C. H. Ahdrewes in England had not yet suc¬ ceeded in cultivating the causative agent. Yet in measurement on exudates from patients which contain the virus, the size of the virus was estimated as 0.0001 mm., or about the same as that of the influenza virus. N. H. Topping and L. T. Atlas in Washington, D.C., apparently cultivated a virus from patients and transmitted the disease to volunteers. Unfortunately, the experiments were not conclusive, since colds occurred also in 25% of volunteers exposed to uninfected inoculums. A naval officer described several epidemics of colds on ship¬ board during which 18 cases of what seemed to be appendicitis occurred. Appendectomy was performed in 12 cases and the appendices were acutely inflamed. The question arose as to whether the agent causing the colds also caused inflammation of the appendix. Bibliography.—“Health of the Army,” Statist. Bull., Metropolitan Life Ins. Co. 29:1-2 (Aug. 1948); “Cost of the Common Cold,” ibid., 28:6-7 (Nov. 1947); Commission on Acute Respiratory Disease, “Clin¬ ical Patterns of Undifferentiated and Other Acute Respiratory Diseases in Army Recruits,” Medicine, 26:441-464 (Dec. 1947); “Research on the Common Cold,” Foreign Letters, J.A.M.A., 136:277 (Jan. 24, 1948); N. H. Topping and L. T. Atlas, “The Common Cold: A Note Regarding Isolation of an Agent,” Science, 106:636-637 (Dec. 26, 1947); G. L. Calvy, “Appendicitis and Upper Respiratory Infection: A Report of Eighteen Cases at Sea,” Ann. Int. Med., 28:998-1002 (May 1948). (H. A. Rn.)

Colleges and Universities:

Production. By«product • • . • Beehive. Breeze made • • • • Coal charged . • • • Consumption, totol • • By iron furnoces . .

1943

1944

70,569 62,295 8,274 4,752 100,850 70,107 54,695

71,676 63,743 7,933 4,941 102,460 71,407 56,701

74,038 67,065 6,973 5,116 105,296 72,971 57,072

1945

67,308 62,094 5,214 4,721 95,672 66,074 50,653

^ republic situated in northwestern South America adjoining the Isthmus of Panama. It is the only South American country with both Caribbean and Pacific coast lines. Area: 439,714 sq.mi.; pop. (1947 est): 10,545,000. Approximately 68% of the population is classified as mixed blood, 20% as white, 7% as Indian and 5% as Negro. Most of the inhabitants live in the highlands and mountain valleys of the interior. The capital is Bogota (pop. in 1945,

uUIUIIIUlu*

(In thousands of short tons) 1942

1946

1947

58,498 53,929 4,568 4,308 83,527 57,322 43,098

73,446 66,759 6,687 5,602 105,062 72,611 57,636

see Universities and Col¬

leges.

Pnlnmli!o

Table II.— Coke Production in U.S., 1942—47

201

443>52o). Other principal cities are Barranquilla (206,630), Bucaramanga (66,220), Cali (135,610), Cartagena (101,520), Cucuta (72,440), Ibague (78,970), Manizales (109,820), Medel¬ lin (219,790). Neiva (38,270), Pasto (60,070), Popayan (34,550), Santa Marta (41,310) and Tunja (25,380). Language: Spanish; religion; predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1948: Mariano Ospina Perez. History.—The most important event in Colombia during 1948 was the spectacular outburst of public indignation at the as¬ sassination in April of the popular Liberal leader, Jorge Eliecer Gaitan, which resulted in wholesale destruction of life and property, temporary adjournment of the International Con¬ ference of American States at Bogota, and near ruin for the precariously balanced government. As a prelude to the tragic occurrences, sporadic clashes be¬ tween Liberal and Conservative partisans in the departments of Santander del Norte and Caldas, in January and February, in¬ duced Liberal leaders to end their collaboration with the Con¬ servative administration. On the resignation of the Liberal cab¬ inet members, Pres. Ospina Perez appointed an all-Conseryative ministry, March 22. A political truce between the two parties was reached on March 25, in order to maintain peace during the inter-American conference, but the administration remained under extreme pressure from the predominantly Liberal cham¬ ber of deputies, senate, department legislatures and municipal councils. Further tension was supplied by an unprecedented rise in living costs in Bogota during March. The explosive events were set off April 9 when a person (later identified as Juan Roa Sierra, a chauffeur) shot Gaitan

to death in the streets of Bogota for reasons that were still un¬ determined at the year’s end. News of the atrocity spread spontaneously; the assassin was lynched on the spot; mobs converged on several government buildings; and in a short time the entire city was in pandemonium, with rioters over¬ turning streetcars, raiding armouries, burning buildings and looting shops. Some elements, attempting to convert the riot into a revolution, seized several radio stations and issued a general call to arms against the government, but most of the army remained loyal. After an emergency session with Liberal leaders, the administration formed a new coalition cabinet, April lo, which immediately impoged martial law. Order was gradually restored, the last important centre of resistance in Bogota sur¬ rendering April 13, in response to appeals by the new minister of interior, Dario Echandia, a Liberal. Echandia also obtained a termination of the general strike which labour leaders had declared April 9 in protest against the assassination. Early reports that the revolt was instigated by soviet agents were still without substantiation at the end of the year, al¬ though the country’s 8,000 communists did support the rebellion ohce it was in progress. On April 21 it was estimated that 1,200 had been killed in the capital and 300 elsewhere in the country. Damage in Bogota was estimated to be about 200,000,000 pesos, and about 400,000,000' pesos for the entire country. The inter-American conference, whose work was interrupted April 9, was back in session at new quarters April 14. The de¬ struction of documents concerning about 1,000 cases pending in the courts virtually paralyzed legal procedure after the re¬ volt. (See also International Conference of American States.)

VENGEFUL MOB dragging the body of the assassin of Jorge Gaitan, leader of the Liberal party in Colombia. Gaitan was shot in Bogota on April 9, 1943, precipitating violent disorders in Bogota and other Colombian cities

Funeral services for Gaitan were held belatedly, April 20, in

COLORADO Bogota, about 200,000 mourners attending. Laureano Gomez, the Conservative leader and one of the chief targets of Liberal vituperation during the revolt, left the country and took up residence in Spain. The government announced April 29 that there would be no political persecutions as a result of the riot¬ ing, and from April through December political tension was eased by repeated efforts of the two parties to reach a working agreement. These efforts culminated in a pact guaranteeing, among other things, bipartisan representation on the election boards and juries. In September the Liberals selected Echandia as their 1950 presidential candidate, succeeding Gaitan. Early in May, diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union were severed, and relations with Nicaragua were re-established. In August Colombia ratified the Quito charter, calling for the gradual establishment of a customs union with Venezuela, Ecua¬ dor and Panama. On the economic front, a seven-week strike of 6,000 petro¬ leum workers was settled March i by compromise. The costof-living index for Bogota rose from 263.2 in February (100 in Feb. 1937) to 283.8 in March and 294.6 in July, but de¬ clined to 290.4 in September. On May 13 the government froze all salaries and wages to rates existing the day before the up¬ rising and disallowed labour meetings without previous govern¬ ment permission. In June another decree imposed a 5% to 16% surtax on all 1947 incomes exceeding 24,000 pesos. A new law in July (effective Jan. 1950) granted employees a share in all profits over 12% in enterprises capitalized at more than 100,000 pesos. Also in July the country’s leading electrical power company was nationalized. Education—In 1945, 12,147 primary schools reported enrolments to¬ talling 788,143 pupils with 23,432 teachers; 1,830 secondary and voca¬ tional schools listed 94,669 students and 7,825 teachers (1,421 primary and 606 other schools not reporting). There were six public and two private universities. Approximately 7-4% (i4,733,953 pesos) of the 1945 national budget was allocated to public education. Finance_The monetary unit of Colombia is the peso, officially de¬ valuated in Dec. 1948 from 57.14 to 51.28 cents U.S. The preliminary national budget for 1948 recommended expenditures of 362,604,000 pesos, subsequently increased to approximately 410,000,000. In September the preliminary budget for 1949 estimated expenditures at approximately 343,000,000 pesos. As of June 30, 1948, the Bank of the Republic held deposits and reserves amounting to $115,300,000, while there were 301,599,917 pesos in circulation. By the end of September, unfavourable balance of payments during the year reached $35,451,000. Trade_Exports for 1947 were valued at $253,800,000 ($200,900,000 in 1946), while imports totalled $345,500,000 ($230,000,000 in 1946). The United States took approximately 80% of the exports and supplied 63% of the imports. For the first six months of 1948, exports were $130,000,000 and imports $181,500,000. Most of the imports were ma¬ chinery and finished goods. The chief exports in 1947 were; coffee (5,388,870 bags of 132 lb. each, valued at $196,947,390), bananas (3,500,000 stems), petroleum (19,599,603 bbl'.), gold, silver and platinum. Communications.—There were 2,159 mi. of railways, 9,850 mi. of im¬ proved highways, 4,620 mi. of navigable rivers, 72.5 mi. of aerial cables and 41 airports in 1945. Registered motor vehicles included 15,306 automobiles, 3,738 buses and 10,062 trucks. In 1948 there was a notice¬ able alleviation of the congestion in the maritime ports which had ham¬ pered cargo movement in the early months. Plans were made with the United States for a joint survey of an interoceanic canal using the Atrato and Truando rivers, but without definite commitment for its construction. Funds were authorized for completing Bogota’s rail communication with the coast. Agriculture.—The basic industry in Colombia is agriculture, and coffee (normally 6,500,000 bags) is the main commercial crop. Others (with 1947 production figures) are: corn (25,589,000 bu.), potatoes (17,000,000 bu.), rice (7,500,000 bu.), cotton (25,000 bales), tobacco (39,683,000 lb.), sugar (83,242 tons), cacao beans (24,000,000 lb.). In 1945 livestock estimates included 12,334 cattle, 1,000,000 sheep, 2,500,000 hogs and 630,000 goats. Manufacturing.—The leading manufacturing industries are foodstuff processing, textiles and beverages. In 1945 industrial establishments totalled 7,853, capitalized at 399,940,643 pesos and employing 135,400 persons at pay totalling 641,081,498 pesos. Mineral Production.—The chief extractive industries (with 1947 pro¬ duction figures) are: petroleum (24,980,730 bbl.), gold (383,027 troy oz.), silver (110,829 troy oz.), platinum (in 1945. 34,757 Uoy oz.), salt (121,247 tons) and cement (346,228 tons). Gold mining revived in 1948 under government encouragement after a slump in 1947- In April it was reported that new deposits of radioactive minerals had been discovered in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta mountains. Bibliography.—Pan American Union, The National Economy of Co¬ lombia (1946); J. M. Henao and G. Arrubla, A History of Colombia, Eng. trans. by J. F. Rippy (1938); periodicals: Foreign Commerce Weekly (Washington); Revista del Banco de la Republica (Bogota);

203

Hispano-Americano (Mexico City).

PnlnrOfln

(M. L. M.)

^ Rocky mountain state of the United States, in

uUIUldUUi the west-central part; mean elevation above sea level, 6,800 ft., the highest of any state. Admitted to the union in 1876 as the 38th state and known as the “Centennial state.” Area 104,247 sq.mi., including 280 sq.mi. of water surface. The U.S. owns 34.5% of the total land area and 59.3% is in private ownership, the remainder belonging to state, county and munici¬ pal governments. Population (1940) 1,123,296; 52.6% urban, 47.4% rural; 93.6% native, 6.4% foreign-born; white 98.5%, Negro 1.1%, other .4%; 102.6 males per 100 females. The 1940 census re¬ ported 2,734 Japanese, the largest in number of all races other than white and Negro. On July i, 1948, the bureau of the census estimated the population at 1,165,000, a gain of 3.7% from 1940. Capital, Denver, pop., 1940 census, 322,412. Other cities (with 1940 populations); Pueblo, 52,162; Colorado Springs, 36,789; Greeley, 15,995. History .—An extraordinary session of the Colorado state legislature was called by Gov. William Lee Knous in Oct. 1948, at which time the compensation of elected state and county officials, district judges and supreme court justices was in¬ creased. At the Nov. 2 general election, the popular vote was divided among the presidential candidates as follows: Harry S. Truman 267,288; Thomas E. Dewey 239,714; Henry A. Wallace 6,115. Two amendments to the state constitution were voted, pro¬ viding for creation of a state board of education and for the racing of horses and other animals with pari-mutuel wagering. Two other measures, for local option regarding liquor and for repealing the earmarking in entirety of certain revenue for old-age pensions, were defeated. The Democratic governor, W. L. Knous, was re-elected to office in 1948. Other important state officials were: Walter W. Johnson (Dem.), lieutenant governor; George Baker (Dem.), secretary of state; Myron G. McGinley (Dem.), auditor; Homer F. Bedford (Dem.), treasurer; John Metzger (Dem.), attorney general. The superintendent of public instruction was Nettie Freed (Rep.). Education.—The total state appropriation for public education in 194748 was $8,758,496.52. The state’s average yearly expenditure per pupil in average daily attendance was $48. The 1948 census of school popula¬ tion, including ages of 6 through 21 years, was 296,939. This compares with 295,537 for 1947 and 297,281 for 1946. During the school year 1947-48 approximately 200,000 children attended the public schools. A total of 9,341 teachers and administrators were employed. A new phase of the work of the Colorado state library, a division of the state department of public instruction, was a demonstration book¬ mobile. The state library provided a mobile unit, completely stocked with recommended juvenile and adult books, for demonstration of library work to rural areas interested in adopting similar programs. The bookmobile was loaned for periods ranging from a few months to a year, free of charge. The purpose of this program was to stimulate Interest in rural areas which might wish to purchase their own vehicles. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.— Disbursements from the state public welfare fund in 1947 amounted to $48,110,944.97. Of this amount, $40,854,480.61 was expended for pen¬ sions, including burials and the 1947 bonus; $2,565,634.50 for aid to dependent children; $173,831.14 for aid to the blind for awards, treat¬ ment and burials; $990,398.64 for general assistance; $141,660.30 for tuberculosis hospitalization, plus a salary of $4,457.60 for the director; $74,872.36 for child welfare; $8,717.11 for commodity distribution; and $1,032,929.74 for state office administration expenses and allotments to counties for the state’s share of salaries and travel. There was a transfer to the general fund of $2,263,962.97. Federal participation during 1947 in old-age pensions, aid to dependent children, aid to the blind and child welfare amounted to $15,043,932.95. The average monthly number of recipients by program were as follows: for old-age pension, 42,850 received a mean of $61.41 (the bonus paid in Jan. 1948 was an additional $23.71 for each pensioner on the pay roll for January); 11,298 child recipients of aid to dependent children received an average of $25.82 per child, and 399 aid to the blind award cases received an average of $43.23. Communications.—^Total length of roads in Colorado in 1948 (including federal aid, state, county, local, city street, national forest and toll roads) was 79,542 mi. Of this, 11,840 mi. were improved. Total state funds dis¬ bursed for highways in 1947 amounted to $14,905,470.07. There were 431.643 motor vehicles registered in 1947. In 1948, there were 54 bus

COLORADO. UNIVERSITY OF

204

companies and 21 railroads serving the state. The total railroad mileage within the state was 5,012.68. There were 6 scheduled air lines serving the state; 100 designated airports and landing fields. Telephones in use at the end of June 1948 numbered 356,516. There were 29 standard AM radio stations and 2 FM stations. Banking and Finance.—As of Dec. 1947 there were 77 national banks and 65 state banks. Deposits in all banks reached an all-time high at the close of 1947, amounting to $1,129,286,000. Clearings in Denver, Pueblo and Colorado Springs aggregated $5,083,085,258, an increase of nearly 15-7% over 1946. The cash balance in the state treasury on June 30, 1948, was $45,650,246.78. General revenue in the fiscal year ended June 30, 1948, was $i25>893,506.47. All expenditures, including functional services, debt services and transfers, amounted to $127,607,262.19. Bonded debts totalled $530,000; anticipation warrants $10,690,000; outstanding war¬ rants—cash and general revenue—$3,472,394.63. Investments of $28,417.857.78, plus a cash balance June 30, 1948, of $45,650,246.78 made a total of $74,068,104.56 in liquid assets. Agriculture.—The indicated production for 1948 as of Oct. 1, the actual production during 1947 and the average production during the 10-year period 1937-46 of the leading crops of the state are shown in Table I.

Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Colorado P.roducHon (est.)

Crop

Corn, bu . ..' . Sorghum (groin), bu. Wheat, bu.. Oats, bu. Barley, bu. Sugar beets, tons. Pototoes, bu. Dry beans, bags. Broomcorn, tons. Hay crops, tons. Apples, bu. Peaches, bu. Pears, bu.

1948

. . . .

1,300,000

. . . . . . . .

2,268,000 9,600

. . . .

1,395,000

Production 1947

Average

13,984,000 2,400,000 59,052,000 6,900,000 16,940,000 2,548,000 1 9,240,000 2,568,000 9,300 2,324,000 1,568,000 2,106,000 232,000

1 3,378,000 2,028,000 23,297,000 5,412,000 14,144,000 1,856,000 15,121,000 1,717,000 10,190 2,122,000 1,501,000 1,816,000 179,000

1937-46

Manufacturing.—Colorado ranks high among the states in the manufac¬ ture of many commodities: beet sugar, chemicals, cement, coke, rubber products, mining machinery (in which Colorado is a leader in the world), canned fruits, vegetables, coffee roasting and grinding. The estimate of the over-all value of manufactured products in Colorado in 1947 amounted to $731,000,000. It was estimated that there were more than 1,500 in¬ dustries in the state. Most of them were small industries, only 7 plants out of every 100 employing more than 50 people. Mineral Production—Mining is Colorado’s chief industry. It is a major gold-producing state and in 1946 produced 44% of the world total of

Table II.—Mineral Production of Colorado, 1947 and 1946 Gold. Silver. Leod. Copper. Zinc.

Value 1947

Value 1946

$5,889,765 2,314,676 5,384,448 903,000 8,911,350

$4,991,455 1,810,042 3,713,848 568,296 8,819,868

vanadium. It is also the leading state in production of molybdenum, the 1947 production being estimated at about 10,000,000 lb. The average pro¬ duction of coal in Colorado is about 7,000,000 tons per year. (P. Ae.)

Colorado, University of.

1948 of six new dormitory buildings at a total cost of $3,000,000, housing was provided on the Boulder, Colo., campus for one-third of the student body. Additional construction of a new physics building and chem¬ istry annex was begun, the total cost of the project amounting to $1,225,000. A fund campaign to raise $1,000,000 for con¬ struction of a new student centre as a memorial to Colorado war dead was successfully completed. The university was one of 12 schools selected as a research and development centre in the atomic-energy program by the Atomic Energy commission. Approximately $500,000 was received from outside sources to support research projects. In the engineering experiment sta¬ tion, 18 research projects were conducted on the Boulder cam¬ pus. A new department of biophysics, to conduct research on cellular growth preceding research on cancer, was established at the university medical centre in Denver. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Uni¬ versities AND Colleges.)

(R. L. St.)

An institution of higher learning in New York city. The budget appro¬ priation for the 1947-48 academic year was $17,477,004.29. Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower was installed as 13th president at a notable outdoor ceremony on Oct. 12, 1948. Philip Young in

Columbia University.

Dec. 1947 became dean of the school of business, which was to become a graduate school after July i, 1949. The construction of a 2,500-ton cyclotron at Nevis, Irvington, N.Y., was com¬ pleted during 1948. The first course of lectures upon the newly inaugurated Bampton foundation was given in April 1948 by Arnold Toynbee. Two annual prizes were set up on the Ban¬ croft foundation for books in the field of U.S. history, biog¬ raphy, diplomacy and international relations; the prizes were first awarded to Allan Nevins and Bernard De Voto. In Oct. 1947 Columbia established the Institute for Urban Land Use and Housing Studies in co-operation with the Rockefeller foundation. The trustees,authorized the establishment of two new schools; the school of painting and sculpture and the school of dramatic arts. The school of general studies was set up to succeed university extension in providing education on the college level for adults. (For statistics of endowment, en¬ rolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (M. H. T.) rnllimhniin production of columbium ores in the uOlUinDlUina United States was small even during World War II, and no output was reported in 1946 or 1947. The sup¬ ply is imported, mostly from Nigeria, and amounted to 1,213 short tons in 1946 and 1,418 tons in 1947. (G, A. Ro.)

Comets: see Astronomy. Cominform: see Communism;

Union of Soviet Socialist

Republics.

Commerce: see Business Review; International Trade. Commerce, U.S. Department of: see Government De¬ partments AND Bureaus.

Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government Commission on Organiza¬ tion of the Executive Branch of the Government was created by unanimous vote of congress under the Lodge-Brown act of July 1947. In a five-point statement of policy, congress directed the commission to find ways of: (i) limiting expenditures to the lowest amount consistent with the efficient performance of essential services, activities and functions; (2) eliminating duplication and overlapping of services, activities and func¬ tions; (3) consolidating services, activities and functions of a similar nature; (4) abolishing services, activities and functions not necessary to the efficient conduct of government; and (5) defining and limiting execu¬ tive functions, services and activities.

The need for such a study was plain. The U.S. federal gov¬ ernment, as a result of war, depression, new needs for defense and greater national responsibilities in the foreign field, had become the most gigantic single enterprise on earth. In less than 20 years its total civil employment had risen from 570,000 to more than 2,100,000. Annual expenditures had increased from $3,600,000,000 to more than $42,000,000,000. The number of bureaus, sections, services and units had increased fourfold, to more than 1,800. Such vast expansion was bound to produce administrative chaos, overlapping and waste. In its initial meetings the commission, of which Herbert Hoover was chairman, decided to authorize separate studies of the principal functions of government. Accordingly, “task force” committees were appointed to conduct extensive research in each of 24 major problems of government. Among these were the office of the president, the post office, the defense establishment, and many other functions ranging from personnel administration to statistics and records. The commission was fortunate in obtaining the services of about 300 eminently qualified specialists as “task force” mem¬ bers. The forces worked for periods of 10 to 14 months. In all.

COMMITTEE FOR ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT—COMMUNISM they delivered to the commission about 2,000,000 words of re¬ search material and recommendations. Over a period of months, the commission studied the task force findings in preparing its own report to congress. Beginning on Feb. 7, 1949, the commission delivered to the congress a series of 15 reports. In general, they stressed the need for clear lines of executive authority and responsibility; modern budgeting and accounting methods; co-ordinated ad¬ ministrative services; and up-to-date personnel procedures de¬ signed to reward superior performance, offer new opportunity and thus attract men and women of high calibre to government career service. In the executive office, the Commission found about 60 major departments and agencies, some of them as big as the entire government had been 20 years before, reporting to the presi¬ dent. To relieve the president of this intolerable administrative burden, the commission urged re-enactment without restriction, of the Reorganization act of 1945, permitting the president to reduce to a workable number the total of department heads with direct claims on his time. In the post office, the commission found concrete opportuni¬ ties for annual savings of $140,000,000 through the use of mod¬ em methods and equipment. Examples of other economies, as estimated by the task forces or their chairmen, included: $1,000,000,000 in the national security organization; $256,000,000 in improved personnel administration; $250,000,000 in pur¬ chase of civilian and military supplies; $75,000,000 in veterans’ affairs; and $44,000,000 in the department of agriculture. Many task forces entered no estimate of savings so that an exact forecast of the total was impossible. On the basis of ex¬ perience, however, it would be hard to escape the conclusion that the commission’s program, when fully effectuated, would result in economies totalling more than $3,000,000,000 a year. Greater than the billions saved, however, was the promise of untold billions to be gained in terms of sound, practical, effec¬ tive government. (H. Hr.)

Committee for Economic Deveiopment. The Committee for Economic Development was formed late in 1942 by U.S. businessmen to plan during World War II for quick conversion and the attainment of a new high level of peacetime production and employment after victory. In 1948 all of the activities of C.E.D. were directed toward the central target of a more stable dynamic economy with highlevel employment and production. The objective, which the C.E.D. considers to be practical and obtainable, is a reduction in the cyclical business swings from a maximum of 50% to between 15% and 20%. If achieved, it could bring about a doubling of the average standard of living in the next 25 years. The procedures followed by C.E.D. in its research activities consist of four steps. These are; (i) selecting for study those factors which have important impact upon employment and business stability; (2) designating the economists and business¬ men who are to undertake each study and whose first step is to gather all pertinent facts; (3) sifting the facts by subjecting them to intensive discussion by the economists and business¬ men; and (4) integrating the facts into suggested policies for action and submitting the recommendations to the public. Up to the end of 1948, 14 statements on national policy were produced and distributed by the C.E.D. Research and Policy committee of businessmen, as follows: Postivar Employment and the Settlement of Terminated War Contracts (Oct 1943)* Postwar Employment and the Liquidation of War Production Only 1944); Postwar Federal Tax Plan for High Employ¬ ment (Sept 1944); Postwar Employment and the Removal of WarUme Controls (April 194s); International Trade, Foreign Investment and Domestic Employment (May I94S), The Problem of Changeover Un¬

205

employment (Aug. 1945); Toward More Production, More Jobs and More Freedom (Nov. 1945); Agriculture in an Expanding Economy (Dec. 194s); The End of Price Control—How and When? (April 1946); Fiscal Policy tb Fight Inflation (Sept. 1946); Collective Bargaining: How to Make It More Effective (Feb. 1947); Meeting the Special Prob¬ lems of Small Business (June 1947); Taxes and the Budget: A Program for Prosperity in a Free Economy (Nov. 1947); and An Ameri¬ can Program of European Economic Cooperation (Feb. 1948).

During the same period ii research reports also were com¬ pleted for C.E.D. by independent scholars. Acceptance of C.E.D. and its work by educators continued to grow. C.E.D. policy statements were used in 1948 by more than 350 colleges either as text or reference material. As a result of requests from various colleges that C.E.D. co-operate with them in organizing local groups in which businessmen and educators could meet to explore phases of the economy, 12 institutions had established such programs. These included; Claremont Men’s college. University of Colorado, Emory uni¬ versity, Harvard graduate school of business administration, Iowa State college. New York university. University of Penn¬ sylvania (Wharton school). University of Rochester, Tulane uni¬ versity, University of Washington, University of Wisconsin and Vassar college. In May 1948, the C.E.D. board of trustees voted to place the organization on a permanent basis and to broaden the scope of its research activities. Research studies underway during the latter part of the year included: The Problem of Instability in a Free Society (Fiscal and Monetary Policies to Combat Inflation and Deflation); How to Raise Real Wages (Money Wage Rates vs. Real Labor Income as Related to Productivity) ; Federal Tax Policy for 1949; Foreign Trade and Reciprocal Trade Agreements; How to Keep Our Economic and Individual Freedoms in a Garrison State; and Allocation of Resources in a Defense Economy.

The board of trustees, is the governing body of C.E.D. Paul G. Hoffman, president of the Studebaker corporation of South Bend, Ind., was chairman of the board from the date the com¬ mittee was organized until his resignation in 1948 upon his appointment as economic co-operation administrator. He was succeeded by W. Walter Williams, president of Continental, Inc., of Seattle, Wash. In Aug. 1948, Philip D. Reed, chairman of the board. General Electric Co., was elected chairman of the Research and Policy committee. Sumner Slichter, Lament pro¬ fessor of Harvard university, continued as chairman of the Re¬ search Advisory board. William Chenery, publisher of Collier’s, was chosen as chairman of the National Information committee. Officers of the corporation during 1948 were: executive direc¬ tor, Henry R. Johnston; research director, Theodore O. Yntema, on leave from the University of Chicago; associate research director, Howard B. Myers; director of information, John H. Van Deventer; field director, Robert S. Donaldson; and secre¬ tary, Elizabeth H. Walker. C.E.D. is supported entirely by voluntary contributions from hundreds of business concerns. It has no relation whatever to any agency of government nor to any private business organiza¬ tion. It maintains offices in Washington, D.C., in Chicago, Ill., and in New York city. The address in the latter city is 444 Madison Ave., New York 22, N.Y. (W. W. Ws.)

Commodity Prices: see Business Review; Prices. Commodity Trading: see Agriculture. Commons, House of: see Parliament, Houses of. Commonwealth Fund, The: see Societies and Associa¬ tions.

Pnmmiinipm during 1948 communism showed a strongly uQUiniUlliollL combative spirit, internally against the slightest deviation from the strictly enforced party line in every field of political, economic, cultural or spiritual activity, externally in its identification of democratic nations and statesmen with “warmongering,” accusing them of being imperialist exploiters

206

COMM UNISM

and enemies of peace. Corresponding to the original communist conception as developed by Nicolai Lenin and Joseph Stalin, the world was regarded as divided into two inevitably con¬ flicting camps. This situation, in the opinion of the communists, demanded unceasing watchfulness, total and unquestioning disci¬ pline and submission to their strictly centralized, infallible leadership, and a state of permanent psychological and mate¬ rial readiness. The gist of communist policy in 1948 was summed up in a book on the soviet war economy by Nikolai A. Voznesensky, deputy premier of the Soviet Union and member of its Politburo: to disarm the “aggressor imperialist” nations militarily and economically, and to band together the “anti¬ imperialist democratic” countries. To the communists the United States appeared the chief aggressor imperialist country; at the same time they called the satellite nations of Russia and the Soviet Union itself “anti-imperialist” and “democratic.” In this spirit of combative preparedness, civilian military training, in addition to universal military training, was vastly expanded in 1948 in the Soviet Union. Schools, factories and collective farms were required to organize training clubs^ to build cadres of fliers, parachutists, chauffeurs, rifle specialists, radio experts and naval units. All artists and scientists in com¬ munist countries were exhorted not to toady before western science and culture but to follow exclusively the LeninistStalinist line in every branch of the arts and the sciences. It was emphasized that the communist civilization was the highest of all and had nothing to learn from alien civilizations; on the contrary, all great discoveries were claimed to have originated in Russia. On Feb. 27, 1948, the communist press observed the looth anniversary of the Communist Manifesto by hailing the great communist gains in all parts of the world. Firm optimism about communism’s final triumph and the destruction of capitalism— and the communists understood by capitalism any system de¬ viating in the slightest from the line laid down by Stalin—in all countries of the world was voiced. The membership of com¬ munist parties was estimated at more than 20,000,000, but

“UNEASY PATH,” a 194S cartoon by Fitzpatrick for the St. Louis PostDispatch

confidence was expressed that, “when the hour will come,” tens of millions of nonparty men would lose their timidity and join the millions of party revolutionists in the overthrow of capital¬ ism. As the most definite sign of the approaching success of communism on a world-wide basis, the events in China were cited. In reality, communism made hardly any progress in Europe and North America during 1948. Only in Czechoslovakia did the communists seize power, in February, because of the fact that their representatives held key positions in the administra¬ tion and in the trade-union movement. In all other countries, outside the sphere of direct Russian control, the democratic forces gained ground in 1948. Realizing the mortal danger in¬ volved in any co-operation w’ith the communists—the conse¬ quence of which' the communist coup in Czechoslovakia had clearly revealed—successful efforts were made in several coun¬ tries to eliminate communist influence from government and trade-union movements. The democratic determination to resist communist inroads was also strengthened by the revelation of the character of the Communist Information bureau, the Cominform, which was formed in the fall of 1947 and took the place of the Communist International as a supreme directive and centralizing organ in the world-wide struggle for communist victory. The Russian leadership and the example of Russian procedure from 1917 on became the infallible and unquestion¬ able model for communists in all countries. The Yugoslav com¬ munists under the leadership of Marshal Tito were taken sternly (M. L. M.)

(1891-

), prime minister of Eire,

Costello, John A. was born on June 20. He was educated at University college, Dublin, and was called to the bar in 1914; in 1925 he was called to the inner bar. William Cosgrave appointed him attorney-general in 1926 and he held this post until the defeat of Cosgrave’s government in 1932. With only one short interval he continued a member of the Dail Eireann. He was Irish delegate to the League of Nations on five occasions and attended the imperial conferences in Lon¬ don in 1926, 1929 and 1930. He was concerned in the drafting of the Statute of Westminster. The general election of Feb. 1948 resulted in the failure of Eamon De Valera’s party to gain an absolute majority and a coalition of the opposition parties and independent members was formed with Costello as the new Taoiseach (prime minister). In June he led a trade delegation to London and negotiated a four-year agreement. On Aug. 27, after arriving in New York, he declared that Eire would be willing to enter into agreements with Britain and the U.S. for “strategic purposes to maintain peace.” In Ottawa, Can., on Sept. 7 he said that Eire intended to repeal the Ex¬ ternal Relations act, which in fact it did in December.

Cost of Living:

see Business Review; Prices.

Pnttnn uUllUli*

Cotton Manufacture.—The cotton textile industry experienced a moderate decline during 1948, after having operated at capacity levels in late years and during the early part of 1948. There were some mill layoffs and shut¬ downs. A buyers’ market arrived; prices sohened as much as 30%, even dropping below former OPA ceilings on some prod¬ ucts. In some part, this “recession” after ten years of sus¬ tained activity on a high level was a result of increased com¬ petition with synthetic fibres but to a larger degree it resulted because retail inventories had accumulated and consumer de¬ mands for certain types of goods declined. Exports also de¬ clined. Cotton cloth output of the industry was about 11,000,000,000 sq.yd. in 1948, compared with nearly 14,000,000,000 sq.yd. in 1947, and about 9,000,000,000 sq.yd. before' World War II. The cotton-spinning industry operated late in the year at 111.9% of capacity on a two-shift, 8o-hour week basis, com¬ pared with 120% capacity in the early autumn of 1948, and 121% capacity during Nov. 1947. At the end of the year, total cotton processed was running about 6% less than a year before. Exports in 1948 were approximately 850,000,000 sq.yd. of cotton cloth, whereas in 1947 they were 1,470,000,000 sq.yd. Cotton yarn exports in 1948 were near 28,000,000 lb., com¬ pared with 92,000,000 lb. in 1947. Exchange restrictions, quotas and embargoes, plus increasing competition in Latin America, Europe and the far east, were blamed for the sharp decline. The difficult state of the industry, particularly the New England portion of it, was under congressional inquiry. The

United

Kingdom

continued

to

emphasize

exports

COTTONSEED OIL — CRICKET 20 —

COTTON CROP in the United States. The figure for 194S is the department of agriculture’s estimate

strongly. Japanese production regained a level approximately one-third that of prewar. United States Production .—The cotton surplus and some of its problems returned in 1948. The U.S. cotton crop of 1948 of 14,937,000 bales (of 500-lb. gross weight), though not quite so large as the preliminary estimates, was large in spite of the fact that acreage in cotton was very low compared with the period following World War I. In 1947, 11,857,000 bales were produced, and the crop averaged 12,014,000 bales for the decade i93S~46. The estimated lint yield per harvested acre in 1948 was 311.5 lb., very high compared with 267 lb. in 1947, and the 254-lb. average during 1935-46.. Acreage harvested in 1948 was 23,003,000, or 8% more than in 1947; the planted acreage abandoned amounted to only 1%. Comparable harvested acre¬ ages were 21,269,000 ac. in 1947, and a 22,631,000-ac. average for 1937-46. The excellent yield of 1948 was related to the un¬ commonly favourable weather, which aided development and limited boll-weevil damage. Drought damaged the crop in parts of Texas and Tennessee. Wet November weather was un¬ favourable for harvesting the late crop. Fertilizers were more abundant and their use in larger amounts accounted in part for the high yields. The leading states, as in most recent years, were Texas, Mississippi, Arkansas and Alabama in that order. Mechanization of cotton production proceeded, though not without difficulty in getting the high-cost equipment which is adapted primarily to large-scale use on the large fields of the more level areas. The 1948 crop of American-Egyptian cotton was 3,000 bales, whereas only 1,200 bales were produced in 1947, but the average for 1937-46 was 30,600 bales. Cotton prices during much of the year were rather stable and did not make new record highs. Prices to growers reached a peak of 35.27 cents per pound in May, before the condition and probable size of the 1948 crop were adequately indicated. After midseason they dropped to a general level of 30.5 to 32.0 cents per pound, slightly above the loan level, but approxi¬ mately three times the prewar price level. At the year-end nearly 4,000,000 bales had been placed under government loan or purchase agreement, and some estimates were that as many as 6,000,000 bales might be so placed. The declining trend of the past several years in carry-over of cotton was reversed in 1948, the carry-over at the beginning of

1937-46 tin thousands of 500-lb. bales)

10

10

Texas . . • • Mississippi . . Arkansas . . • Alabama . . . California . . South Carolina Georgia . . • Louisiana < . .

1948

-yr. 1947 Average

3,437 1,569 1,276 931 . 772 960 651 890 651 760 505 760

3,200 2,350

2,000 1,200

2,894 1,700 1,392 971 444 753 864 588

State North Carolina Tennessee . . Missouri . . » Oklahoma . . Arizona . . . New Mexico . Virginia • . ♦ Florida . . . Other states

1948 680 650 505 370 320 240 24 13 15

-yr. 1947 Average 452 520 31 1 330 234 179 18

11 10

the season (August i) being 3,100,000 bales, compared with 2,500,000 bales a year before, 7,520,000 bales in 1946, and 13,000,000 bales in 1937. This carry-over, plus the 1948 crop, provided a total supply of U.S. grown cotton of almost 18,000,000 bales. Domestic consumption was expected to be about 8,500,000 bales to 9,000,000 bales, and exports about 3,500,000 bales to 4,000,000 bales. Hence it was anticipated that the yearend carry-over of stocks on Aug. i, 1949, might approach 6,000,000 bales. It was believed much of that carry-over might be acquired by the government under the loan program. Exports of cotton from the U.S. 1948 crop were estimated as high as 4,000,000 bales, out of a world import requirement of approximately 10,000,000 bales, of which non-U.S. supplies were believed to be available to fill about 6,000,000 of the total. Exports from the U.S. during the previous year were 1,967,970 bales, and the prewar average (1935-39) was 5,300,150 bales. A large fraction of the exports from the 1948 crop would go to countries of the Economic Cooperation administration pro¬ gram and to areas of military occupation. World Cotton Production.—EWorld production of cotton in 1948 exceeded consumption for the first time since the end of the war. The world cotton crop of 1948 was estimated at 29,750,000 bales, a sharp increase over the 25,400,000 bales of 1947, and the less than 22,000,000 bales of 1945 and 1946, but below the prewar average (1935-39) of 31,676,000 bales. The acreage of 1948 of 64,315,000 was comparable with 60,544,000 ac. in 1947, but far below the 81,142,000 ac. of 193539. The increase was largely accounted for by the U.S., though the Egyptian crop increased to 1,722,000 bales (1948) from i,314,000 bales in 1947. The Brazilian crop also increased to 1,400,000 bales in 1948 from 1,200,000 bales in 1947. China, Turkey, Argentina, Uganda and Mexico also harvested larger crops in 1948 than in 1947. Production of cotton in import¬ ing countries was estimated at only 1,000,000 bales. World cotton stocks at the end of July 1948 were estimated at 14,000,000 bales, only two-thirds of the prewar level, and comparable with 17,500,000 bales in 1947. Foreign mills were expected to use 18,200,000 bales during the 1948-49 season, the largest increases, compared with 1947-48, being in Japan, Germany, the United Kingdom and the U.S.S.R., with Belgium, Italy and China showing decreases. Of that amount, nearly 10,000,000 bales would be required as imports, as much as 4,000,000 bales from the U.S. Cottonseed.—Cottonseed, a highly valuable derivative of fibre production, part of which is used as an edible oil base for margarine, was estimated preliminarily at 6,036,000 tons, compared with 4,681,000 tons in 1947 and a ten-year average of 4,747,000 tons. The price of cottonseed to the producer varied widely during 1948, ranging from $95.10 per ton in January to a low of $63.70 in October, though by the yearend there was moderate recovery. (See also Linen and Flax; Rayon

and

Other

Synthetic

Fibres;

Textile

Industry;

Wool.) Films.—Cotton—Picking and Ginning; Cotton Planter (Paul Hoefler Productions). (J. K. R.)

Cottonseed Oil: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats. Countries of the World, Areas and Populations of the: see Areas and Populations of the Countries of the

U.S. Coffon Production by States 1948, 1947 and 10-year Average,

State

219

582 537 365 566 182 118 24 17 17

World.

Courts: see Law. Cranberries: see Fruit. Credit, Consumer: see Prinl/ot ulIbhCL

Consumer Credit.

winter of 1947-48 saw overseas tours by two cricket teams; an All-India side visited Australia,

CRIME

220

and an M.C.C. (Marylebone Cricket club, England) team vis¬ ited the West Indies. The Indian team could not be described as up to Australian test-match standard. Nevertheless, the tour could be rated a success for the team was popular and on occa¬ sion could play excellent and attractive cricket. Australia won four test matches, one being drawn. For its tour of the West Indies the M.C.C. was, for a variety of reasons, unable to command the services of several of the outstanding players of the previous summer. The only two of the four test matches to be finished were won by the West Indies and the M.C.C. failed to win a single first-class fixture on its tour. The side was inordinately unlucky in injuries and illness and at times was hard put to it to field ii men. The young cricketers quite failed to realize the hopes placed in them. The West Indies players on their own grounds proved themselves a strong combination. The failure of the English team had one consequence of major importance: it forced the M.C.C. to face the whole problem of its future tours’ program, and, after mature consideration, to pronounce that it was no longer possible for it to send truly representative sides overseas each winter. The club issued a much-debated stipulation that, with the exception of teams to Australia, it should rest with the club to decide whether any team sent overseas was truly representative and whether the matches were test matches. The visit of the Australian team to England in the summer of 1948 was awaited with the keenest anticipation, and though in the event this enthusiasm was tempered with increasing dis¬ appointment at England’s failures, public interest remained un¬ abated and the attendance surpassed all previous figures. The tour ended with the Australians acclaimed as one of the great¬ est teams ever to visit the home country. Don Bradman, if no longer quite the “murderer” of old, was still a very great player. Yet it was not the Australians’ batting but their out cricket that really dominated the test matches, above all the fast bowling of R. Lindwall, K. R. Miller and W. A. Johnston. This attack was most ably handled by Bradman and supported by superb fielding and wicket keeping of the highest class by 0. Tallon. The English bowling by comparison was barely respectable and in batting there was no real solidity at all. Australia won four test matches, one being drawn. The success of the Australians continued to the end and they left England without ever suffering defeat—a record. The county championship was won by Glamorgan and the public acclaimed this success by one of the smaller counties. The Players just beat the Gentlemen, and Oxford “murdered” Cambridge by an innings. (H. S. A.)

Primo ul IllICa

States .—Rural crime continued to rise in 1948, while the urban level moved lower. The amount and character of the changes are shown in Table I, which pre¬ sents a comparison of the first half of 1948 with the correspond¬ ing portion of 1947.

bracing an additional 34,000,000 inhabitants. While the rural rise stemmed almost entirely from an upsurge in burglaries and miscellaneous larcenies, the urban decline covered three fourths of the reportable offenses. These shifts as between city and country largely offset each other for the nation as a whole. Yet it was clear that a major de¬ cline with respect to certain crimes against the person was in prog¬ ress, and that in urban and rural areas alike the level for mur¬ der, manslaughter, rape and robbery was returning to pre-World War II levels. So far as negligent manslaughter was concerned, the continuing decline merely reflected the drop in postwar acci¬ dents on the highways, while the impressive downward shifts in auto theft probably signalized the end of the motor vehicle shortage that characterized the first postwar years. The total number of all offenses listed in Table I was more than 1,600,000 for the nation as a whole. During the calendar year 1947 the hourly toll of these reportable offenses was 12 crimes against the person (homicide, assault with a deadly weapon and rape), 49 robberies and burglaries, 21 stolen cars and 108 larcenies. Thus larcenies constituted substantially more than one-half the total of these criminal categories. Higher crime rates continued to be recorded in the larger cities, with the lowest rates for property crimes centring in the rural areas. General comparisons based upon the ratio of crimes to number of inhabitants appear in Table II. Table II.— Urban and Rural Crimes per 100,000 Population, 1947 Offense classification

to June, 1947 and 1948 Offense classification

Per Cenf Change In 1948 Cities Rural Areas

Murder and nonnegllgent manslaughter. Negligent manslaughter. Rape. Robbery. Aggravated assault. Burglary. Larceny. Auto theft.

— 2.3 — 5.7 — 0.4 — 5.6 -|- 4.0 — 1.9 4-0.6 — 12.7

Totol.

— 1.8

-\-t.7

—4.8 —9.3 —7.5 -1-0.2 +5.3

-1-8.9 —7.6 -|-3.8

Table I contains a large and representative sample of the nation’s major criminal offenses, since it covers 2,094 cities with a total population in excess of 66,000,000 and a rural area em¬

6.12 4.28 12.62 59.6 72.2 389.8 961.2 182.1

Rurol 6.36 4.52 13.61 19.2 36.6 145.6 199.2 57.3

Postwar inflation was reflected in the steady rise in average value of stolen property per offense. In 1947 the average larceny was $62, compared with $130 for burglaries and $184 for rob¬ beries. During the first six months of 1948 recoveries of stolen prop¬ erty totalled 60.4% of the original loss. But the usual high ratio of recovery of stolen cars (93.6%) greatly influenced this average. For other types of property, the upturn to 24% noted in 1947 dropped to 21% in 1948. Among U.S. cities the highest crime rates continued to be found in certain geographic divisions of the country, while other regions were characterized by distinctively low rates. The wide spread between highest and lowest regional rates is shown in Table III. Reasons for these marked contrasts included vary¬ ing standards of law enforcement, differences in race, nationality, age distribution and local tradition, and the preponderance of large cities. Table HI.— Range in Crime Rates per 100,000 Population Among Cities of Various Geographic Divisions; January—June 1948 Offense classificotion

Table I.— Crime in 1947 and 1948 in U.S. Cities and Rural Areas—January

Urban

Murder and nonnegfigent manslaughter Negligent manslaughter. Rape. Robbery. Aggravated assault. Burglary (breaking or entering) . . . Larceny (theft). Auto theh* * ..

Murder and nonnegligent manslaughter .... Robbery. Aggrovated assault. . . Burglary • .. Larceny • .. Auto theft* ..

Highest Rate .

Lowest Rate .

9.54

. 120.4 . 348.8 .1,010.0 . 164.3

New England • New England • New England . Middle Atlantic Middle Atlantic Middle Atlantic

0.66 8.3 6.6 117.3 237.3 56.7

The scope of the Uniform Crime Reports continued to ex¬ pand, with more than 100,000,000 of the nation’s population included in the areas from which the crime reports were derived. This was a striking illustration of the ability of many thousands of law enforcement agencies to collaborate voluntarily. Tbe nation was indebted to the International Association of Chiefs of Police, and to the Federal Bureau of Investigation, for their continuing aid in stimulating nation-wide reporting on crimes

CRIPPS. SIR (RICHARD) STAFFORD^CUBA committed.

(See also

Federal

Bureau

of

Investigation;

Juvenile Delinquency; Kidnapping; Law; Police; Secret Service, U.S.) Bibliography.—Federal Bureau of Investigation, Uniform Crime Re¬ ports (semiannual bulletins) for 1946 and the first half of 1947; U. S. Bureau of the Census, Judicial Criminal Statistics (194s) and Prisoners (1946).

^

^

_

(Br. S.)

Great Britain.—Figures for 1947, latest available in 1948, showed little change over the previous year. In the metropolitan police area the number of indictable crimes was 127,458 com¬ pared with 127,796 in 1946. The figures maintained the down¬ ward trend from the peak in 1945. Although the monthly totals in 1947 were not very different froth those in 1946 there was again a greater difference between the number of crimes in the summer and the number of crimes in the winter than before World War II. This was particularly noticeable in breaking offenses in which the rise in the winter months was large. There was still more crime in central London than elsewhere in the metropolitan police area, but movements in population caused increases in the outer districts. The value of property stolen during 1947 was estimated at £4,632,000, compared with £4,360,000 in 1946. The value of goods recovered during 1947 was £787,500 (or 17%), compared with £777,840 (or 17.8%) in 1946. Offenses against the person increased by 15.7% compared with 1946, and the total of 2,493 was 48% higher than in 1946. Sixty-four persons lost their lives in 1947 by crimes of violence, four more than in 1946. The increase in the number of sexual offenses was striking; to 1,320 in 1947, compared with 938 in 1946, 785 in 1945 and 659 in 1938. Breakages in 1947 totalled 23,007, a decrease of 923 from 1946. The number of cases of shopbreaking was lower, but in¬ creases took place in burglary and in housebreaking. Burglary and housebreaking together increased in 1947 by 6% more than 1946. Table IV.— Principal Classes of Crimes in 1947, 1946 and 1938 Metropolifan Police Area Crime Group 1947

Number of Crimes in 1946

1938

.

2,493

2,155

1,679

Larcenies, etc. Other indictable crimes . .

. . .

23,007 99,987 1,971

23,930 100,040 1,671

13,438 78,538 1,625

Total indictable crimes

.

127,458

127,796

95,280

Offenses against the person Offenses against property

.

.

In Scotland the total number of crimes in 1947 was 167,738, an increase of 4,298 compared with 1946- Decreases were noticed in the number of crimes against property with violence, and malicious injury to property. (See also Prisons.) (E. T. B. H.)

Cripps, Sir (Richard) Stafford

ish chancellor of the exchequer, was born on April 24. He was educated at Win¬ chester and University college, London, and was admitted to the bar in 1913. He was knighted and appointed solicitor general in the Labour government in 1930, and in 1931 was elected Labour member for East Bristol. On Jan. 25, 1939, Sir Stafford was expelled from the Labour party for attempting to create a popular front. In June 1940 Winston Churchill appointed him ambassador to Moscow, where he completed the Anglo-Soviet pact. He returned to London in Feb. 1942 to become lord privy seal, and in March left for India to work out terms for in¬ dependence. In November he was appointed minister of aircraft production, and on Feb. 28, 1945) readmitted to the Labour party. In the Labour government he was president of the board of trade, July 1945 to Sept. 1947, and minister for economic affairs. Sept. 29 to Nov. 13, when, upon the sudden resignation of Hugh Dalton, he became chancellor of the ex¬

221

chequer though retaining general responsibility for economic affairs. On April 6, 1948, he presented a budget whose most novel feature was a small capital levy. He laid down a counter¬ infiationary policy of restraining wages and profits until pro¬ duction should be substantially increased. Throughout 1948 he kept the country informed of the economic difficulties to be overcome. He visited Paris in January, July and October and Brussels in April for financial discussions, and in September went to Ottawa to establish closer integration of Anglo-Canadian financial and economic policy and also visited Washington, D.C.

Croatia: see Yugoslavia. Crude Oil: see Petroleum. Crushed Stone: see Stone.

Frunlito uljfUlllCa

United States imports of cryolite dropped after the close of World War II, amounting to 11,424 short tons in 1946, but in 1947 came back to 22,008 tons. Ex¬ ports were 1,299 foiis in 1946 and 936 tons in 1947. Greenland is the only source of supply, and exports from the United States are really re-exports. Small amounts go into ceramics, insecti¬ cides and abrasives, but the bulk of the supply is used in the electrolytic furnaces producing aluminum. (G. A. Ro.) An island republic in the Caribbean sea, including the island of Cuba, the Isle of Pines and other minor islands and keys. The area of the main island is 44,217 sq.mi. (Isle of Pines, 1,180 sq.mi.); pop. (Dec. 31, 1947, estimate) 5,130,000, density, 111.04 square mile. Racial distribu¬ tion is officially calculated at 75% white (about one-third of this group is mulatto), 24% Negro and 1% Mongoloid •

CUBAN POLICE using a battering ram on a Havana school building in Feb. 1948 to evict students who had just staged a sympathy demonstration for fellow students in Guantanamo who were on a hunger strike for a new school building

222

CURACAO

( largely Chinese). An estimated 200,000 Spaniards live in Cuba. Havana (pop., 1943 census, 659,883) is the capital and chief port. Other major cities (with 1943 census pop. unless other¬ wise indicated) are Santiago de Cuba (1946 est., 152,000); Marianao (a Havana suburb, 120,163); Camagiiey (1946 est., 87,009); Matanzas (54,844); Cienfuegos (52,910); Guantanamo (42,423); Cardenas (37,059); Holguin (35,865); Manzanillo (36,295); Ciego de Avila (23,802); Santa Clara (53,981); Pinar del Rio (1946 est., 63,461); Regia (23,037); Giiines (22,669); Guanabacoa (30,287); and Placetas (19,693). Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion. Presidents in 1948: Ramon Grau San Martin, until Oct. 10; thereafter, Carlos Prio Socarras. History.—Cuban political developments during 1948 centred largely around the presidential election held on June i. Carlos Prio Socarras, the candidate of the administration’s Autentico party, engaged in a four-cornered presidential race. Rival as¬ pirants for the presidency were Sen. Eduardo Chibas, leader and founder of the Party of the Cuban People; Ricardo Nunez Portuando, supported by former Pres. (1933-44) Fulgencio Batista’s Liberal party; and Sen. Juan Marinello, the com¬ munist candidate. The campaign took a sensational turn on March 30, when Batista announced from his Daytona Beach, Fla., retreat that he would end his four-year political exile and support Nunez Portuando’s candidacy. Communist propaganda efforts during the campaign led the government to confiscate that party’s radio station at Havana on May 6. The balloting on June i gave Prio 857,917 votes, Nunez Portuando 569,042, Chibas 310,925 and Marinello 139,289. The administration’s Autentico party thus retained the presidency and, in the congressional contest, secured a majority of the seats in each of the two legislative chambers. The new presi¬ dent, however, could expect to face powerful political opposi¬ tion. Former President Batista was elected a senator from Las Villas province, and returned to Cuba in November to lead the “loyal opposition.” Francisco Batista, brother and political ally of the former president, was elected to the politically strategic post of governor of Havana province. Pn'o’s inauguration as president on Oct. 10 was accompanied by a government measure affecting a general 10% cut in retail prices, and a promise that the new administration would con¬ tinue to fight inflation. In his inaugural address. President Prio recommended the establishment of a national bank of issue, labour courts and an independent tribunal to oversee govern¬ ment spending. He also called for the creation of a career system of civil service for the island republic. The year 1948 was marked by a number of labour disturb¬ ances. A beef shortage which had cut slaughterhouse employees’ work to three and in some cases two days per week resulted in June in a protest strike by abattoir workers. A strike threatened by sugar workers was averted on June 30 after Ramon Grau San Martin, then president of the republic, accepted their de¬ mands for wages at 1947 levels and 48 hr. pay for 44 hr. work. Less than a month later, the sugar workers launched an industry¬ wide stoppage when mill owners rejected their claims for wages during the six-month “dead season” at rates equal to those paid during the grinding season. On Aug. 10, a new agency was created within the labour ministry to handle employers’ and workmen’s problems. Politically oriented violence and crime continued to claim Cuban national attention during 1948. Jesus Menendez, a com¬ munist congressman, was shot to death at Manzanillo on Jan. 22 when he resisted detention by Cuban troops after he had been charged with inciting “illegal strikes” and “soldiers to re¬ bellion.” Gen. Manolo Castro, the republic’s sports inspector, died on Feb. 23 as a result of a Havana shooting which police

laid to political controversies. Anticommunist labour leader Juan Arevalo y Veitia was killed in a Havana suburb on Sept. I, and three days later Noel Salazar Callico, chief of the educa¬ tion ministry police, was found shot to death near San Antonio de las Vegas. Aracelio Iglesias Dias, Havana waterfront com¬ munist leader, was killed on Oct. 18. Finance.—The monetary unit is the peso, officially pegged at par with the U.S. dollar. The volume of currency in circulation on July 31, 1948, reached a per capita figure of $112.77, an all-time high. Total .salaries paid in industry and commerce during 1947 came to $525,000,000. British investments in Cuba, mostly in railroads, stood at £27,300,000 sterling as of July 31. On May 19, the Cuban government seized the United Rail¬ ways of Cuba, chiefly British-owned, which had refused to grant 5% salary increases. The government in September bought at a public auction the property of the Havana Electric Railway Co. in the capital and its suburbs, pa3dng $3,000,000. The Consolidated Railroads of Cuba and sub¬ sidiaries reported a net income of $5;ooi,76o for the fiscal year ending on June 30, as compared with a net income of $5,082,673 for the previous fiscal year. Trade.—Exports during 1947 were valued at a total of $750,000,000. Cuba’s coffee exports were curbed on Sept, r, 1948, in an atternpt to supply the local demand. The inability of locally produced textiles to compete favourably with those imported from the United States led to considerable agitation. This culminated on July 3 in the seizure of the city halls at Bauta and Calabazar by textile workers protesting the closing of a garment factory and textile mill. The government attempted to meet the situation by ordering on July ii a ban on textile imports from the United States. This measure drew strong objections from U.S. exporters and, later, from Cuban textile workers, and was rescinded on Sept. 14. Early in March, arrangements were completed with the U.S. Atomic Energy commission for the importation by Cuba of radioactive substances. A U.S.-Cuban sugar agreement signed on Aug. 17 provided for (i) pur¬ chase by the U.S. army of 238,000 tons at four cents per pound for use in Europe; (2) Cuban retention until Oct. 15 of 228,000 tons in reserve against the possibility of additional U.S. needs; and (3)3 Cuban guaran¬ tee that 170,000 more tons of sugar would be supplied to the United States during the first half of Jan. 1949, if needed. A separate pact, signed on Aug. 10 by the U.S. Commodity Credit corporation and the Cuban gov¬ ernment, assured U.S. consumers sufficient sugar for all 1948 requirements. The charter of the new International Trade organization was signed at Havana at the end of January. An Anglo-Cuban bilateral civil aviation agreement was announced on March 19. Havana’s agriculture ministry declared in July that no Argentine meat would be imported by Cuba be¬ cause of the danger of hoof-and-mouth disease. The U.S. Economic Co¬ operation administration approved in September a $2,103,830 grant to Austria for purchase of Cuban sugar. Production.—The corn yield in Cuba was expected to reach 380,000,000 lb. for the 1948 husking season. The year’s pineapple production was estimated at 370,000,000 lb., of which it was calculated that the domestic canning industry packed 191,000,000 lb. The damage done by two hurri¬ canes during the year w'as expected to account for an appreciable reduc¬ tion of the 1948 sugar output. The government on Jan. 15 waived $15,000,000 in profits taxes on sugar producers to make up for wage increases paid to planters and mill workers. A government commission was estab¬ lished in July to study and recommend legislation on the relations be¬ tween sugar planters and mill owners. A May decree ordered a five-year suspension of customs, consular and other fees on imports of materials, apparatus, equipment and furnishings destined exclusively for hotel con¬ struction. The year’s electric power production came to 335,000,000 kw.hr., or 3% of the Latin-American total; and 84,000 workers, or 3.15% of Latin America’s total, were employed in manufacturing industries. Bibliography.—Foreign Commerce Weekly; Pan American Union, Bulletin (monthly); Council for Inter-American Cooperation, Noticias (weekly). (G. I. B.)

PlirQP'in

^ Netherlands colony of six West Indian islands off the Venezuelan coast near the mouth of Lake Maracaibo. Area of the islands, 403 sq.mi.; combined pop. (1947 est.), 150,000. In 1943 the pop. included 102,185 Nether¬ lands’ subjects, 4,213 Venezuelans, 7,511 British subjects and 1,916 nationals of the United States, the remainder being prin¬ cipally Portuguese, Dominicans and Colombians. Three of the islands (all pops. 1944 est.)—Curagao (210 sq.mi., pop., 78,587); Bonaire (95 sq.mi., pop., 5,798); and Aruba (69 sq.mh, pop., 39,318)—lie about 40 mi. north of Venezuela. The other three islands, located in the Leeward group, about 500 mi. to the northeast, include the southern portion of St. Martin (17 sq.mi.; pop., 1,877; the remainder of St. Martin is a possession of France); St. Eustatius (7 sq.mi.; pop., 1,092); and Saba (5 sq.mi.; pop., 1,194). The sole important town is Willemstad (1946 est. pop., 38,000), which, situated on Curagao, is the colonial capital. The official language is Dutch, but many of the inhabitants speak a patois called Papiamento, composed of Dutch, English, Spanish, Portuguese, Carib and African words. Governor in 1948: L. A. H. Peters.

uUldUaUt

History.—The colony’s interest in the possibility of achieving

CURLING —CYCLING greater governmental autonomy, largely in consequence of Queen Wilhelmina’s empire speech of Dec. 6, 1942, continued to dominate the political scene during 1948. Local leadership in obtaining for Curasao a “form of government compatible by the Democratic party of Curasao. This organization, im¬ patient with delays in the implementation of Queen Wilhel¬ mina’s speech, addressed a petition on March 4, 1948, to the United Nations and to the Pan American Union for assistance in obtaining for Curagao a “form of government compatible with democratic ideals.” The petition asserted that direct nego¬ tiations with the Hague for implementation of the policy pro¬ mulgated by the queen in 1942 had failed. The Netherlands government, endeavouring to formulate a program for autonomy which would be acceptable to both Curagao and Surinam, au¬ thorized Raymond Pos, Surinam’s representative at the Hague, to conduct discussions with officials in both colonies. Accept¬ ance of a proposal advanced by Pos was announced by Surinam authorities on Dec. 17, but objections to the measure raised by the Staten of Curagao rendered any immediate solution un¬ likely as of the end of the year. {See Surinam.) Education—The number of primary and secondary schools in the colony increased from 52 to 59 during 1948, a total of 22,191 pupils being reported in December. Although 36 of these schools were di¬ rected by the Roman Catholic Church—90% of the permanent popula¬ tion is Catholic—the expenses of all primary and secondary schools were met by the colonial government, which spent approximately $1,610,000 on education in 1947. The language of instruction is Dutch in the three larger islands and English in St. Martin, St. Eustatius and Saba, where the Dutch language is taught as a separate subject. Educa¬ tion is not compulsory in the colony. Finance—The monetary unit is the guilder or florin of

100 , Curagao cents. Curagao currency was separated in 1943 from Netherlands cur¬ rency, a new coinage going into circulation in the colony shortly there¬ after. The Curagao florin was valued on April 28 at 53 cents U.S. cur¬ rency, official rate. Trade and Transportation.—During the first nine months of 1948, Curagao’s exports to the United States were valued at $90,498,000, VACATIONISTS claiming their bicycles at a steamship dock on Gotland Isl., off the east coast of Sweden, during the summer of 1948

223

compared with a valuation of $52,496,000 for the same period in 1947. The colony’s imports from the United States from January to September, inclusive, of 1948, were valued at $61,022,000, as against $51,475,000 for the same period of the previous year. After Oct. 28, importers in Curagao were no longer required to obtain the approval of the colony’s foreign exchange control board prior to placing orders in the so-called “dollar countries” of North, Central and South America for foodstuffs, tobacco, clothing, drugs, books and a number of other enumerated com¬ modities. Royal Dutch Airlines (K.L.M.) inaugurated on Aug. 9 regular passenger flights connecting the islands of Curagao and Aruba with Mara¬ caibo, Venezuela. Production.—Refining of Venezuelan crude oil is the colony’s major industry. The Lago Oil and Transport company refinery on the island of Aruba produced a daily average of 400,000 bbl. during 1948. Bibliography.—Netherlands Newsletter; Netherlands Economic Bulle¬ tin jor the Foreign Press (the Hague); Foreign Commerce Weekly. (G. I. B.)

Piil'Imfr Crosse, Wis., became the first rink outside uUnillga the ranks of the Grand National Curling Club of America to win the Mitchell medal in the Grand National bonspiel. The La Crosse group, skipped by Harry Watkins, defeated Ardsley (N.Y.) No. i, skipped by Addison D. Hastings, 14 to 10, in the final. Caledonia No. i of New York, skipped by Jock MacFarland, won the Allen medal. Utica (N.Y.) No. i, skipped by Ralph Holmgren, won the Gordon medal, 20 to 17, over Ardsley. Utica No. 2, skipped by Kenneth Hurd, defeated Schenectady (N.Y.) No. 2, 22 to 15, for the R. S. Emmet award. Winchester, Mass., won the Mo¬ hawk cup, and Kingston, Ont., captured the Country Club cup. (M. P. W.)

Currency: see Rates.

See

also under various countries.

Cybernetics:

Plfnlinn*

Coinage; Exchange Control and Exchange

see Mathematics.

Louis Saen and Emile Bruneau, both representing lljvllllgi Belgium, captured the international six-day bicycle race in 1948. It was one of the closest finishes the cycling

224

CYCLOTRON —CZECHOSLOVAKIA

classic had ever known, with only a one-lap margin between the winners and the runners-up. Matt Clemens and Lucien Gillen of Luxembourg were second, with Arie Vooren and Gerard Van Boek of the Netherlands, third. On the final day of the event one of the leaders and a popular favourite, Gustav Kilian of Luxembourg, was forced out of the race by a fall which resulted in an injured back. His partner, Mike Abt of Chicago, withdrew because he was unable to find a replacement for Kilian. The Tour de France was won by Gino Bartali of Italy. Other world champions for 1948 were, among professionals, A. Van Vliet, the Netherlands, in sprint; G. B. M. Shulte, the Nether¬ lands, pursuit; Alberic Schotte, Belgium, road race; and J. J. Lamboley, France, motor-paced. Amateur world champions were Mario Ghella, Italy, sprint; G. Messina, Italy, pursuit; Harry Snell, Sweden, road race. U.S. amateur champions were Ted Smith of Buffalo, N.Y., men’s senior; Donald Clausen, Kenosha, Wis., men’s junior; Doris Travani, Detroit, Mich., women’s. (T. J. D.) \

Cyclotron: see Atomic Energy; Physics. C.Y.O.: see Catholic Organizations For Youth. ft

British colony and island in the eastern MediterraUj|JIUo« nean lying south of Asia Minor and west of Syria. Area: 3,584 sq.mi.; pop. (mid-1947 est.) 460,000. Chief towns (1946 census): Nicosia (cap. 34,485); Lamaca (14,772); Limasol (22,799); Famagusta (16,194). Languages: Greek 80%, Turkish 20%; English also is spoken by some 10%. Religions: Greek-Orthodox 80%, Moslem 20%. The colony is administered by a governor, appointed by the British crown, assisted by an executive council of four official and three (one of whom is a Moslem) unofficial members. Governor: Lord Winster. History.—Cyprus had had no representative government above the municipal level since 1931 and efforts were made dur¬ ing 1948 to end the deadlock responsible for this state of affairs. Of the 28 persons invited by the governor in Oct. 1947 to sit on a consultative assembly only 14 accepted, and of these 8 drew up a memorandum demanding complete self-government in internal affairs. This demand was refused by the British gov¬ ernment, which, in May 1948 put forward counterproposals. These suggested a legislature with 22 elected members (18 on the general electoral register and 4 on the Turkish communal register) and 4 official members, and an executive council. The plan was adopted by the consultative assembly by ii votes to 7. But the vote was not representative, those in favour consisting only of four independent Greeks and the seven Turk¬ ish members. The right-wing Greek element boycotted the as¬ sembly, refusing to consider any suggestion less than Enosis (union with Greece); while the left-wing claimed full internal self-government, with a view to future union with a communist Greece. In these circumstances the consultative assembly was dissolved in August, when the governor announced that the gov¬ ernment would continue as heretofore, but that the offer still stood and would be re-examined if at any time responsible and representative leaders wished. Later the left-wing leaders re¬ newed their support for Enosis, which again became the univer¬ sal demand of the Greeks, while the Turkish leaders protested that they wished to see British rule perpetuated. (Jo. A. Hn.) Education.—Elementary schools 700, teachers c. 1,400, pupils c. 60,000; secondary 36 (including four commercial), pupils c. 8,900; technical 2. Finance and Trade.—Currency: the Cyprus pound is equal to the pound sterling and is divided into 180 piastres; circulation (Dec. 31, 1947): £5.730.733- Budget: (1947) revenue £5,121,176, expenditure £4,607,079; (1948 est.) revenue £4,444,466, expenditure £4,016,971. Public debt (Dec. 31, 1947): £3,457.889. Foreign trade (1947): imports £13,584,889; exports £5,140,734. Principal exports are minerals (iron pyrites

and cupreous concentrates [£1,535,111 in 1947] asbestos and chromite) and agricultural products. Railway: 71 mi.; roads: 882 mi. of main (700 mi. asphalted) and 1,716 mi. of secondary.

rTPOhncInUillria

^ people’s republic of central Europe.

uLCwllUolUVdMdi Area: 49,353 sq.mi.; pop.: (mean 1948 est.) 12,338,000; (May 22, 1947, census) 12,164,631. Languages: Czech and Slovak. Religion: mainly Roman Catholic. Chief towns (pop. 1947 census): Prague (cap., 921,416); Brno (272,760); Moravska Ostrava (181,181); Bratislava (172,664); Plzen (118,152). President: Klement Gottwald {q.v.)] prime minister: Antonin Zapotocky. History.—In Feb. i94'8 Czechoslovakia, which since 1945 had been ruled by a coalition of parties representing widely different political views, and which introduced radical social reforms without endangering political liberties, was abruptly transformed into a people’s democracy of the soviet-approved type. In the first weeks of 1948 decisions had to be taken on the date of the elections which were due during the year, and on whether the individual parties should compete with each other, or should adopt a previously agreed common list. There were also seri¬ ous disagreements within the cabinet on the issues of further nationalization, further land reform, the relationship of the Czech lands and Slovakia under the future constitution, and civil servants’ salaries. The crisis came over the question of who was to control the police during the elections. On Feb. 13 a majority at a cabinet meeting adopted a resolution ordering the minister of the in¬ terior (a Communist) to stop the practice of packing the police force with Communists. The minister ignored the instruction, and was backed by the Communist premier, Gottwald. On Feb. 20 the ministers belonging to the Czech People’s, National Socialist and Slovak Democrat parties resigned. The Social Democrat ministers, however, though they had supported the previous resolution on the police, did not resign. The action of the non-Marxist ministers was ineffective. The left wing of the Social Democrats, led by Zdenek Fierlinger, took control of the party headquarters, with gangs of Com¬ munists standing by to help them if required. The ministries held by resigning ministers, and the headquarters of the three parties now in opposition, were seized by armed Communists. Mass demonstrations of Communist-led workers took place, and columns of workers armed with rifles paraded through the streets of Prague. In the capital and in the provinces “action com¬ mittees,” of Communists and of men and women nominated by Communists, were suddenly set up, and the ministry of the in¬ terior gave formal orders to all local authorities (the official national committees in country and town) to contact the action committees and co-operate with them. Pres. Eduard Benes made a pathetic attempt to maintain the old National front. In a letter to Gottwald on Feb. 24 he said: “I insist on parliamentary democracy.” While admitting that socialism was the way of life demanded by the overwhelming majority of the nation, he considered that all parties of the National front were the bearers of political responsibility. But the Communist reply was uncompromising. President Benes yielded, and on Feb. 25 a new government was formed, in which the Communists held the key posts, left-wing Social Demo¬ crats were well represented and the other parties were nominally represented by individual members chosen not by the parties themselves but by the Communists. The new government began with a purge of parliament, the political parties, the press, the universities, the administration and even the football clubs. A central action committee of the National front had been set up Feb. 23 at the initiative of the Trades Union council. The chairman of the committee was to be the head of the trade unions, the Communist Antonin

Left: CZECH CiTiZENS massed at the city square in Prague as Premier Kiement Gottwaid addressed them from a balcony demanding reorganization of the Czech cabinet, on the eve of the bioodless Communist coup of Feb. 23-25, 1948

Above: SWEARiNG-iN ceremonies at Prague on Feb. 27, 1948, for the virtuaiiy ail-Communist cabinet selected by Premier Kiement Gottwaid (right). Pres. Eduard Benes is shown reading a prepared statement of accept¬ ance to the new Czech cabinet; he himself resigned on June 7 and died on Sept. 3

Above: VOLUNTARY EXILES who fled Czechoslovakia after the Communists took control in Feb. 1948 are shown en route to a D.P. camp in the U.S. zone of Germany. One of the siogans scrawied on the train reads: “Totaiitarianism wiil be beaten”

Right: MOURNERS lining the streets of Prague as they awaited the funeral cortege of dan Masaryk, Czech foreign minister, whose death on March 10, 1948, was reported by the communist gov¬ ernment as a suicide

226

DAHOMEY—DAMS

Zapotocky, who became a vice-premier in the new government. The committee’s function was to appoint to the leadership of the rumps of the non-Communist parties individuals acceptable to the Communists. Thus the fiction of a continued National front was rrraintained, while in reality there was not a genuine coalition, but instead a coalition dominated by Communists. The purge extended also to the Social Democrat party. On April 10 Fierlinger announced the party’s intention of fusing with the Communists. A number of prominent non-Communist newspaper editors were dismissed. On March lo Jan Masaryk, foreign minister since 1941, the last male member of the family of the president-liberator, was found dead outside the window of his flat over the ministry. The purged parliament passed on April 28 the new nationali¬ zation laws which affected 90% of the country’s industrial ca¬ pacity. It also prepared the new constitution, which was offi¬ cially promulgated on May 9. It was based on the soviet constitution. On May 30 the new elections took place. The single government list, composed of Communists and of the re¬ mains of the other parties, won 90% of the votes in the Czech regions and 86% in Slovakia. On June 7 Benes resigned the presidency. His farewell letter made it clear that though his health had gravely deteriorated it was political rather than personal motives that prompted his action. On Sept. 3 Benes died. His passing was symbolic of the disappearance of the old democratic Czechoslovakia. Klement Gottwald succeeded Benes as president, and Antonin Zapotocky succeeded Gottwald as premier. On July 10 Czechoslovakia’s trade treaty with Poland was renewed for a year, for a value of $100,000,000. On Oct. 3 it was announced that arrangements had been made in Moscow concerning the second year of the Czechoslovak-soviet trade treaty. Czechoslovakia’s imports from the U.S.S.R., totalling $174,000,000, would consist mainly of iron, grain and cotton, while its exports to the U.S.S.R., totalling $180,000,000, would be chiefly leather goods and footwear, locomotives, rails, heavy machinery, manufactured textiles and rubber goods. In Decem¬ ber a delegation headed by Zapotocky visited Moscow, as a result of which it was announced that soviet-Czechoslovak trade would be increased in volume by 45% and that the U.S.S.R. would make a loan of unstated value to Czechoslovakia. In the same month trade negotiations with Yugoslavia were dropped. {See United Nations.) (H. S-W.) Education.—(1945—46): Elementary schools 13,326, pupils 1.389,012, teachers 48,582; secondary schools 268, pupils 98,091, teachers 5,711;

training colleges 62, pupils, 6,603, teachers 625; professional and tech¬ nical schools 3,781, pupils 299,126, teachers 18,192; universities 4, stu¬ dents 34,432, teachers 1,066; other schools of higher education 6, students 4,403, teachers 145; other colleges 10, students 26,098, teachers 1,767Banking and Finance.—Budget: revenue (1947 actual) Kc.48,400,700,000, (1948 est.) Kc.56,895,500,000; expenditure (i947 actual) Kc.73,305,000,000, (1948 est.) Kc.67,056,300,000. National debt: (end 1947) total Kc.135,425,000,000, of which internal debt was Kc.95,580,000,000; (end June 1948) total Kc.140,642,000,000, of which internal debt was Kc.99,333,000,000. Currency circulation: (end 1947) Kc.69,015,000,000; (end Sept. 1948) Kc.69,707,000,000. Savings and bank deposits: (end 1947) Kc.27,466,000,000; (end Aug. 1948) Kc.30,581,000.000. Monetary unit, koruna ceskoslovenska (crown); official exchange rate from Nov. 1945 Kc.5o.i5 = $i U.S. Foreign Trade.—Imports: (1947) Kc.28,635,000,000, (1948, first half) Kc.21,606,000,000; exports: (1947) Kc.2 8,609,000,000, (1948, first half) Kc.17,230,000,000. Transport and Communications-Roads (end 1947): main 36,674 km.; district 27,030 km.; total 63,704 km. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947): total 205,000 (cars 153,000; commercial vehicles 52,000). Rail¬ ways (1946): 13,168 km. Telephone subscribers (Jan. 1947); 311,810. Radio licences (Juhe 1948): 2,026,000. Agricultural Productions.—(In metric tons) 1947 (1948 harvest in par¬ entheses): wheat 826,000 (1,228,000); rye 905,000 (981,000); bar¬ ley 661,000 (864,000); oats 677,000 (854,000); maize 118,000 (199,000); potatoes 4,416,000; sugar (raw value in long tons) 592,000 (345,000. Livestock, (July 1948): horses 634,000; cattle 3,461,000; poultry 22,383,000; pigs 2,679,000; sheep 498,000; goats 1,052,000. Industrial Production-1947 in metric tons (with first half of 1948 in parentheses): coal including lignite 16,216,000 (8,951,000); pig iron i,422',ooo (816,000); steel ingots and castings 2,286,000 (1,323,000); cot¬ ton yarn 59,160 (34,740); wool yarn 30,240 (16,650); cotton fabrics 44,520 (29,940); woollen fabrics 15,240 (11,930); footwear (pairs) 50,820.000 (32,540,000); tractors (units) 5,579 (4,689); cars (trucks and passenger) (units) 14,604 (12,630).

Dahomey: see French Overseas Territories. Dairy Industry, Bureau of: see Agricultural

Research

Administration. ■%

noirUllIfY

demand for dairy products in the U.S. apparently passed its postwar peak in 1948. The 25,165,000 dairy cows on farms Jan. i were about 900,000 head less than one year before; the prewar average was 24,8‘2 2,000 head. Milk production per cow was at record levels after April, averaging slightly more than 5,000 lb. for the year. Total milk production of 117,000,000,000 lb. was only about 3% less than in 1947 in spite of the reduction in milk cow numbers. Consumption of milk on a per capita basis was about 768 lb. per person, of which 390 lb. were used as fluid milk and cream; only 340 lb. were consumed in that form on the average in the 1935-39 period and 400 lb. in 1947. There was a moderate shift in use of milk from fluid outlets and ice cream to manufactured items and relatively large storage stocks were accumulated, particularly of evaporated milk. Ex¬ ports during 1948, as in 1947, accounted for about 2% of the milk production.

Udlljlllga

The price of dairy products in 1948 rose contraseasonally until July to new record levels on the basis of strong storage demand. Consumer resistance developed, particularly as butter prices approached $i per pound retail, and local surpluses ac¬ cumulated; during the latter half of the season, instead of the usual rise, prices declined. Milk cows meanwhile sold at a rec¬ ord average price of $196 per head compared with $157 a year earlier; the milk-feed price ratio was favourable after harvest of the 1948 crops and farmers were feeding their milk cows at record high rates. {See also Butter; Cheese; Milk.)

(J. K. R.) The efforts of governments throughout the world to • expand public power production facilities resulted in sustained activity during 1948 in the construction of dams for hydroelectric power developments. Highlighting this activity, the World Power conference sponsored the Third International Congress on Large Dams at Stockholm, Sweden, June 10-17, 1948, where more than 350 representatives from more than 26 countries met to discuss technical advances in dams. ITALIAN CARTOON captioned "We’re carrying out the Czech People’s Front program," which appeared in Candida (Milan) in 1948

In the United States, the Pick-Sloan plan for control of the Missouri river, joint program of the U.S. army engineers and

227

DANCE the U.S. reclamation bureau, began to take shape with the dedi¬ cation on May 31, 1948, of Kanopolis dam, on the Smoky Hill river in Kansas, first major unit of the plan to be completed. At Garrison dam, largest unit of the plan, located on the Mis¬ souri river itself, placing of earthfill in the lower portions of the dam proceeded rapidly, utilizing the 6,000,000 cu.yd. of material being excavated for the outlet works. On Sept. 16, 1948, ground was broken to start construction on Oahe dam, the next development downstream from Garrison dam, and second largest unit of the plan. Further downstream, placing of fill continued at Fort Randall dam. The second largest contract in reclamation bureau history, $43,431,000, was awarded in April 1948 for construction of the Hungry Horse dam on the south fork of the Flathead river, a Columbia tributary. It would be the world’s fourth largest concrete dam and the fifth highest dam in the world. Preparation for construction of the main embankment of Davis dam on the Colorado river, 65 mi. below Hoover dam, was completed with the successful diversion of the river June 28, 1948. After a s6-hr. battle, the contractor finally closed the main channel and forced the flow through the diversion channel. When all but a 40-ft. gap of the main channel had been filled with rock dumped from a trestle, the current be¬ came so swift that it swept away the largest stone that could be used, until a framework of scrap steel was prepared against which the rock could be dumped and held. More than onethird of the 29,000 cu.yd. of rock dumped into the channel was estimated to have been swept away by the current. In New South Wales, Australia, construction continued dur¬ ing 1948 on the 4oo-ft.-high Warragamba dam. The 1,300-ft.long concrete gravity dam, containing about 1,500,000 cu.yd. of concrete, when completed would store 1,400,000 ac.ft. of water for Sydney. Despite economic and political difficulties, the National Hydroelectric Engineering bureau of China continued construc¬ tion during 1948 on the upper Tsing Yuan Tung dam on the Lung Chi river in Szechuan province. Built of sandstone blocks entirely by hand labour, the dam was to augment the power supply of the city of Chungking. In the U.S.S.R., a reinforced concrete spillway and earth dam about 8,000 ft. long on the Kama river at Molotov was under construction in 1948 to create a 608 sq.mi reservoir for the second largest hydroelectric development in the country. In France, the main sluice gate of the Genissiat dam, second largest concrete dam in Europe, on the Rhone river, was closed on Jan. 19, 1948, and the first turbine was operated in March 1948. At Chastang dam, on the Dordogne river at Argentat, cableways spanning 1,146 ft. and an aerial tramway nearly 5 mi. long facilitated construction of the 25o-ft.-high arch gravity

THE CASTILLON DAM, under construction in 1948 on the Verdon river in southeastern France, as part of the French equipment and modernization plan, 1946-51. About 10 of the more than 50 pianned hydroelectric projects had been compieted by the close of 1948

concrete dam to create a power supply of 500,000,000 kw.hr. per year, second largest hydroelectric output in France. The table below lists 15 important dams of the world com¬ pleted or under construction during 1948. (See also Aque¬ ducts; Irrigation; Tennessee Valley Authority.)

(B. O. M.)

Honna

United States .—The Ballet society (artistic director,

UdliuCe George Balanchine; musical director, Leon Barzin) presented a full and successful year, including the following pre¬ mieres: Triumph of Bacchus and Ariadne, choreographed by George Balanchine, to music by Vittorio Rieti and decor by Corrado Cagli; Symphony in C, choreographed by George Balanchine to music by Georges Bizet; Capricorn Concerto, choreographed by Todd Bolender, to music by Samuel Barber, and decor by Esteban Frances; Orpheus, choreographed by George Balanchine to music by Igor Stravinsky and decor by Isamu Noguchi. The company was headed by such successful

Chief Dams Completed or Under Construction During 1 948

River

Name of Dam

Place

Type

S-^aximum Height, Ft.

Crest length. Ft.

Volume (Cu.yd.) ■Purpose*

Alvaro Obreaon

Davis. • . . . • Lazaro Cardenas (Ei Palmito) . .

Genissiat . . . Hungry Horse . John Martin .

.

. . .

1,350 1,600

Durango, Mexico South Dakota, U.S. North Dakota, U.S. Ain-Haute-Savoie, France

Earthfill Earthfill Earthfill Concrete gravity

302 160 210 345

1,005 1 0,000 12,000 450

Secretaria de Recurcos Hidraulicos 6,931,900 1, P 30,000,000 F,N,P,W U.S. army engineers 68,51 1,000 l,F,N,P U.S. army engineers 720,000 Compagnie Natlonaie du Rhdne N,P

Montana, U.S. Colorado, U.S.

Concrete arch gravity Earthfill and concrete gravity

520 130

2,1 15 14,000

Kansas, U.S. Scotland New York, U.S. South Dakota, U.S. Washington, U.S. Ontario, Canada

Earthfill Concrete buttress Earthfill Earthfill Concrete arch Concrete gravity

131 165 200 230 540 206

15,400 1,160 2,500 9,300 1,264 1,300

2,900,000 5,915,000 (earth) 220,000 (concrete) 14,668,000 — 6,600,000 78,000,000 — 260,000

. , , . .

Nazas Missouri Missouri Rh6ne Flathead, S. Fork Arkansas

—

F,P F

F P W F,l,N,P P P

Progre

Secretaria de Recurcos Hidraulicos U.S. bureau of reclamation U.S. bureau of reclamation

187 456 138

Sonora, Mexico Yaqui Boise, S. Pork Idaho, U.S. Arizona, U.S.

Smoky Hill Loch Sloy Rondout ' Missouri Skagit Madawaska Stewartville ...»

1 l,F,P P

Earthfill EarthFillt Earth and rocklill

. .

.

11,143,300 9,600,000 4,230,000

Built by

u c

u

c

u u

c

U.S. reclamation bureau U.S. army engineers

u c

U.S. army engineers North of Scotland Hydroelectric board N.Y. board of water supply U.S. army engineers Seattle dept, of lighting Hydroelectric Power Commission of Ontario

c u u u c u

*F—flood control, 1-—irrigation, N—-navigation, P—power, W-—water supply. fC-—completed in 1948, U —under construction. ^Highest earthfill dam in world.

228

DANCE

dancers as Marie Jeanne, Gisella Caccialanza, Maria Tallchief, Tanaquil le Clercq, Nicholas Magallanes, Francisco Moncion, Todd Bolender and Herbert Bliss. Ballet theatre, directed by Lucia Chase and Oliver Smith and featuring Alicia Alonso, Igor Yousekevitch, completed its ninth 3'ear, but unexpectedly cancelled its full season because of “in¬ creased production and operating costs.” An important new presentation was Agnes de Mille’s Fall River Legend set to an original score by Morton Gould with settings by Oliver Smith and costumes by Miles White. Nora Kaye, Alicia Alonso, John Kriza, Muriel Bentley and Diana Adams danced the leading roles. Other presentations included George Balanchine’s Theme and Variations to Peter Tschaikovsky’sS'Mf^eYo.j for orchestra, starring Alicia Alonso and Igor Yousekevitch, and Anthony Tudor’s Shadow of the Wind, a ballet based on Gustav Mahler’s song-cycle Das Lied von der Erde and costumed by Jo Mielziner. Igor Yousekevitch, Alicia Alonso, Nana Gollner, Hugh Laing and Muriel Bentley carried the leading roles. From the Ballet theatre Alicia Alonso organized a ballet troupe headed by herself and Igor Yousekevitch. With an* en¬ semble of 16 dancers the company opened at Havana, Cuba, then successfully toured the Caribbean and South America be¬ fore returning to Havana. The Ballet Russe de Monte Carlo, headed by Alexandra Danilova and Frederic Franklin and reinforced by Nathalie Krassovska, Leon Danielian, Ruthanna Boris and Mary Ellen Moylan, celebrated its tenth anniversary in 1948. During its spring season it presented the premiere of Ruth Page’s Billy Sunday, with music by Remi Gassman, words by Ray Hunt and costumes by Paul du Pont. In its fall season at New York city it presented a greatly augmented company with guest stars including Alicia Markova, Mia Slavenska, Agnes de Mille, Anton Dolin, Roman Jasinski and Jose Torres. Martha Graham had a successful two-week New York season with Night Journey, to William Schuman’s score and Isamu Noguchi’s decor. Jose Limon and company presented Doris Humphrey’s Day on Earth to a sonata by Aaron Copland. Charles Wiedman and his dance theatre company presented Fables of Our Times, a dance interpretation of James Thurber’s work. At the Connecticut college summer dance festival Jose Limon presented Doris Humphrey’s Corybantic, set to Bela Bartok’s concerto. Eric Hawkins gave the premiere of his Strangler to THE BORIS VOLKOFF GROUP of Toronto, Ont., Can., in a scene from Clas¬ sical Symphony, danced at the Ballet Festival held in Winnipeg, Man., in the spring of 1948

the music of Bohuslav Martinu, and Martha Graham gave Wilderness Stair to music by Norman Dello Joio and Noguchi decor. Ballet Ballades, produced by American National Theatre Asso¬ ciation’s Experimental theatre, was choreographed by Katherine Litz, Paul Godkin and Hanya Holm, with music by Jerome Moross and lyrics by John Latouche. In U.S. debuts were Hay dee Morini, Viennese dancer; Deb¬ orah Bertonoff, first dancer of the Habimah theatre in Tql Aviv; Paula Padani from Palestine; and Mariemma, Spain’s leading dancer. Katherine Dunham gave a successful season in New York, toured the United States, Canada and England and opened in Paris. Her new works were Octoroon Ball, to music by Castelnuovo Tedesco, Veracruzana, a new suite of Mexican folk dances, Jazz in Five Movements, to music by Dorothea Freitag, and La False to Maurice Ravel’s music. Dance Theatre opened in May in Los Angeles with the pre¬ sentation of Lester Horton’s Totum Incantation, The Beloved and Salome, and later reopened in Hollywood. New works in¬ cluded Barrel House. The Page-Stone ballet with i6 dancers presented a new ballet to Alfredo Casella’s music and Robert Halsband’s words. Mia Slavenska and George Zorich in Ballet Variant toured the United States, Canada and Mexico. Ballet Winslow, featuring Miriam Winslow, toured South America. Markova and Dolin toured the United States, Hawaii, and appeared as guest artists with the Sadler’s Wells ballet at Covent Garden. Edwin Strawbridge took his new ballet for children. Simple Simon, across country. Civic Ballet.—The civic ballet prospered. Deserving of spe¬ cial mention were the Rochester ballet under Thelma Biracree, the Pittsburgh ballet, directed by Frank Eckle, the New Jersey Civic ballet, directed by George Chaffe, and Young People’s Dance theatre, directed by Emilie Sarle. The Atlanta Civic ballet continued its series of performances, under its director, Dorothy Alexander. Choreographer’s Work Shop and its offshoot. Theatre Dance, Inc. continued to show young choreographers’ works. Washington Civic ballet, under the direction of Lisa Gardiner, produced the three-act ballet, Cinderella, along with its usual repertoire. The University of Chicago Orchesis presented an original ballet to music written by Eugene Wigel. St. Paul Civic Opera association presented ballets by Lorand Andahazy. San Francisco Civic ballet, directed by William Christensen, presented John Taras’ Persephone to Robert Schumann’s Spring

Symphony and with decor by Eugene Lourie. Jocelyn Vollmar and Richard Burgess carried the leading roles. Tamara Toumanova, Paul Petroff, Michael Panaieff and Simon Semenoff were guest artists. A new work by Ted Shawn, set to Richard Malaby’s music and produced with John Christian’s decor, was Minuet for Drums. It featured Shawn, Gerard Leavitt, Edmund La Baez, Myra Kinch and Carol Lynn. England.—The Sadler’s Wells Theatre ballet presented An¬ thony Burke’s Parures, a classical suite to Tschaikovsky’s Suite in G with decor by Vivienne Kernot. At Covent Garden, Fred¬ erick Ashton’s Scenes de Ballet was performed to music by Igor Stravinsky and decor by Andre Beaurepaire. Margot Fonteyn and Michael Somes danced the leading parts. Leonide Massine created The Clock Symphony for the Sadler’s Wells Ballet. The musical setting was a symphony by Franz Joseph Haydn. In the Metropolitan Ballet company, Frank Staff’s new Fancitilla delle Rose to Anton Arensky’s music met with success. Svetlana Beriosova danced the leading role. Ballet International presented Sea Legend, created by three young people from Australia, with choreography by Dorothy Stevenson, music by Esther Rofe and decor by John Bainbridge. Ballet Rambert was hailed in Australia and New Zealand. Masha Arsenieva and John Cranston completed a concert tour of South Africa. Canada.—The Winnipeg ballet, under the direction of Gweneth Lloyd, not only gave a successful home season but accomplished a successful tour of 'five cities of eastern Canada. Ottawa Ballet company presented the classic Giselle and a new ballet. Once Upon a Time, by Nesta Williams Toumine to Johann Strauss’ music. The company was headed by Yolande le Due and Nesta Toumine. France.—The Paris Opera company presented two new bal¬ lets—Zadig, by Serge Lifar, with music by Pierre Petit and set¬ tings by Felix Labisse, featuring Lycette Darsonval and Alex¬ andre Kalioujny; and Escales by Jacques Ibert. Lifar’s new ballet, Lucifer, was premiered not too successfully. Lifar also created a new ballet. Mirages, to Henri Sauquet’s music and with decor by Cassandra. Roland Petit resigned from the Ballet des Champs-Elysees and founded another company which he called Roland Petit’s Ballet de Paris. It scored a great success at its debut with Les Demoiselles de la Ntdt by Petit to music by Nicolas Tcherepnin and featuring Margot Fonteyn in the leading role. Adame Mirroir, another new ballet, was choreographed by Jean Genet to music by Darius Milhaud. Ballet des Champs-Elysees had a long and successful tour of the near east and then toured Europe. Jean Babilee created a new baUet to Ravel’s La Belle et la Bete. Boris Kochno’s Fete Galante was choreographed by Victor Gsovsky to music by Claude Arrieu. The Portrait of Don Quixotte was choreographed by Aurel Milloss, music by Petrossi and decor by Tom Heogh. Treize Dances was choreographed by Roland Petit with decor by Christian Dior and set to Andre Gretry’s music. Later David Lichine and Tatiana Riabouchinska, Youly Algaroff and Jean Guelis were added to the company. Lichine presented his new ballet Creation without music. Oedipe et le Sphinx, also choreo¬ graphed by Lichine, with music by Henri Sauquet and decor by Christian Berard, was a success. Leading roles were danced by Jean Babilee and Leslie Caron. Later a new ballet by Babilee was produced—Eros and His Love, set to Cesar Franck’s Psyche and with decor by Jean Cocteau. The Original Ballet Russe toured Spain, successfully featur¬ ing as principal dancers Olga Morosova, Genevieve Moulin, Tatiana Riabouchinska, Nina Stronganova, Vladimir Dokoudovsky and David Lichine.

ALICIA ALONSO (left) and Muriel Bentley, of the Ballet Theatre, in a scene from Fall River Legend, a 1948 ballet by Agnes de Mille based on the 19th century murder trial of Lizzie Borden

The Grand Ballet de Monte Carlo, directed by the Marquis de Cuevas, featured Rosella Hightower, Marjorie Tallchief, Ethery Pagava, Andre Eglevsky and George Skibine, with Wil¬ liam Dollar as maitre de ballet. William Dollar’s Five Gifts scored a great success. Netherlands.—The Netherlands supported four native com¬ panies, The Scapino ballet. Ballet of the Lowlands, Yvonne Georgi ballet and Ballet of the Dutch opera. Scandinavia.—Managers agreed not to book Danish ballet in an effort to force Copenhagen to rescind its tax on visiting ballet companies. The English Metropolitan ballet had a successful tour. One of the most popular ballets was Design with Strings by John Taras to Tschaikovsky’s music. In Copen¬ hagen The Old Pantomime theatre produced a new pantomime ballet, Figaro, with choreography by Paul Huld. A new Norwegian ballet w^as organized in Oslo by Gerd Kjoelaas and the English dancer, Louise Browne. Among their ballets was a new one by Louise Browne entitled Break-Up, and Eternal Song by Kjoelaas. Finn Ludt’s music was used as a setting for each. In Sweden Ivo Cramer and his wdfe left for the Lisbon State ballet, where he was ballet master and choreographer. The Swedish Cimarro ballet toured Spain and Portugal. At the Royal theatre of Copenhagen, an old Bournonville ballet of 1870 had its 205th performance on Feb. 9. The premiere of George Gue’s Midsummer Night was given, with music by Gunnar de Frumerie, libretto by Rune Lindstroem, and decor by Stellan Moerner.

229

230

DANUBE. CONFEREN

Germany.—The State Opera house in Berlin, controlled by the Russians, produced a full ballet evening about every two weeks with choreography by Tatjana Gzovsky, whose ballets in¬ cluded a new interpretation of Claude Debussy’s Afternoon of a Faun and Goyescas by Enrique Granados. The City opera, controlled by the British and directed by Jens Keith, gave fre¬ quent dance programs. Featured dancers were Liselotte Koster and Jockl Stahl. Italy.—La Scala presented a series of ballet programs in February, March and April, including Leonide Massine’s pro¬ duction of Stravinsky’s Sacre du Printemps. At the Biennele festival in Venice Aurel Milloss’ Marsyas and Stravinsky’s Orfeo were presented. Hungary.—At the state opera houses dancers worked under state subsidy. At Szeged the ballet master, Ch. Zedenyi, staged such classical ballets as Coppelia, and also used Hungarian folk¬ lore and a modern style of dance for productions. At the Buda¬ pest State opera, the young choreographer Jan Cieplinski created an original Petrouchka and The Birthday of the Infanta to music by Miklos Radnai and other ballets to classical and modern Hungarian music. The modern dance was represented by Olga Szentpal, who gave programs in schools and factories. Austria.—At the Vienna State opera Erika Hanka, as ballet mistress and choreographer, established a ballet school of the Staatsoper. Vienna also featured a Festdes Tanges as part of its famous music festival. U.S.S.R.—Vakhtang Chabukiani recovered from a leg injury and danced again to the acclaim of his Russian audiences. The Leningrad theatre revived The Humpbacked Horse. Reinhold Gliere completed The Bronze Horseman, based on Alexander Pushkin’s poem by the same name. Boris Asafyev created a new ballet, called The Family. India .—The Indian Dance theatre produced India Immortal. In New Delhi, India Renaissance Artists presented a dance based on Jawaharlal Nehru’s book. Discovery of India. Israel.—Israel had a National Jewish ballet organized by Rina Nikova; Rahel Nadav and Zurea Gollani were the leading dancers. South America.—The Colon ballet in Buenos Aires, directed by Margarette Wallmann, presented Giselle, Swan Lake, Les Sylphides and The Sleeping Beauty. Prima ballerina was Anna Istomina. In Lima, the Peruvian ballet made its debut at the Teatro Municipal with great success. Films.—Folk

Films).

Dances—American Square Dance (Coronet Instructional (L. Mh.)

Ballroom Dancing.—A style of rumba called El Commando or Mambo Rumba was a ballroom dance favourite of 1948. The music, undoubtedly influenced by U.S. jitterbug rhythm, was syncopated. This unusual, new style of rumba resulted in a staccato foot movement, with accent on the third beat. The most popular rumba tunes of 1948, such as “Tumbaito,” “TivieTavaro” and “Ten-Jabon,” were typically mambo in tempo. The samba, far easier for the novice to learn, also grew in popularity. Tourists returning from South America brought a more authentic version of this dance. Be-bop, a syncopated type of music with a rapid tempo and unusual accent and harmonies, enjoyed a brief popularity. It was popularized by a trumpet player, John (“Dizzy”) Gillespie. An outstanding dance novelty of 1948 was the “Raspa,” a Mexican peasant dance in which the dancers stood apart at arms’ length, holding each other’s hands. (A. Mu.)

Danube, Conference for Control of. Ice ionel: tiate a convention regulating use and control of the Danube river met at Belgrade, Yugoslavia, July 30-Aug. 18, 1948. On Dec. 6, 1946, the four-power Council of Foreign Ministers had

E FOR CONTROL OF

“VERSATILE VOLGA BOATMAN,” a Justus cartoon published in the Min¬ neapolis Star in 1948

agreed to call a conference for this purpose six months after the coming into force of the peace treaties with Hungary, Rumania and Bulgaria. It had also decided that the membership of the conference would include the U.S.S.R., the Ukraine, Rumania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia, Hungary and Czechoslovakia, all riparian states; the United States, Britain and France; and Austria, after conclusion of a treaty re-establishing its independence. The agreed deadline was passed on March 15, 1948. On May 26, U.S. Secretary of State Marshall announced that he had proposed to the British, French and soviet governments that the conference open on July 30, at Belgrade. After proposing May 30 as an opening date the soviet government finally ac¬ cepted the later date. To the U.S. proposal that Austria be admitted as a full-fledged member, the soviet government con¬ ceded only that an Austrian delegation might attend in a con¬ sultative capacity, since the treaty with Austria was still in abeyance. Dominating the conference by its bloc of seven votes against three, the soviet delegation, led by Andrei Vishinsky, set the tone at the opening session by excluding the use of English as an official language. Throughout the conference he gave short shrift to all proposals except his own. In the end the soviet draft convention was adopted. As signatories to the 1921 convention on the Danube the Brit¬ ish and French insisted that their rights under this pact, in their view still valid, could not be abolished or modified without their consent. The soviet delegation denied all validity to previous agreements on the Danube and insisted that new rights could be acquired only by signing the new convention, which was under negotiation. Previously, in deciding the membership of the conference the Council of Foreign Ministers had ignored the rights of Belgium, Greece and Italy, as signatories to the 1921 convention, by excluding them from the new conference. Another dispute arose over the definition of free and nondiscriminatory navigation. While all delegations upheld this prin¬ ciple the vague terms of the soviet draft left effective control

DARTMOUTH COLLEGE —DEAFNESS in the hands of local governments and of soviet-dominated navigation monopolies. The U.S. draft called for concrete guar¬ antees, to be enforced by the future commission. The soviet delegation insisted that membership in the com¬ mission be reserved to riparian states. Although the United States did not propose to become a permanent member, it joined with France and Great Britain in urging the continued inclusion of nonriparian European members among the mem¬ bers of the commission, as a guarantee of the European char¬ acter of the river. The soviet bloc also denied a seat on the com¬ mission to Austria and weakened the role of the commission by placing the mouth of the river under U.S.S.R.-Rumanian con¬ trol and the critical Iron Gates sector under Rumanian-Yugoslav administration. Proposals for appeal to the International Court of Justice in case of dispute over the terms of the con¬ vention, and for periodic reports to the Economic and Social council of the United Nations, were rejected by the soviet delegation. The soviet draft was adopted by the bloc of soviet-led states. The U.S. delegation voted against it, while the British and French representatives protested against the overriding of their rights by refusing to participate in the final vote. On Aug. i8 the convention was signed by representatives of the seven gov¬ ernments of the soviet bloc, which alone recognized it as a legally valid agreement. (P. E. M.)

nortmoiith Pnlloira

^ decrease in the number of G.I. UdnniOUin uOllugU* students at Dartmouth in 1948 was a feature of the enrolment situation in which a total of nearly 3,000 men again taxed facilities of instruction, housing and feed¬ ing. The proportion of war veterans in the student body was about 50% as compared with 60% a year before. In the new DEAF CHILDREN photographed in 1948 at a special school in London, where a specially qualified teacher was using toys to help them to understand speech with their eyes and to speak almost normally

231

freshman class of 724 there were only 71 (about 10%) who had served in the armed forces. Although graduation of many mar¬ ried veterans enabled the restoration of all dormitories to bach¬ elor quarters, there were 248 married students and families to be accommodated in Sachem Village, a college-operated housing project, and Wigwam Circle, an emergency housing project financed by the federal government. Dartmouth’s i8oth year opened with the “Great Issues” course required of all seniors again the centre of attention in postwar curriculum changes. Pres. John Sloan Dickey directed the course in its second year. He stated its purpose as one of bridging the gap between under¬ graduate education and the responsibilities of adult living, through presenting important issues—those of significance in the past, present and future—in the broad fields of the making of peace, the building of a good economic society, and the values by which U.S. culture can live. A public affairs laboratory in Baker library provided materials so that seniors could use and analyze public information. A near-record total for Dartmouth’s annual alumni fund was achieved in 1948 when 13,626 alumni contributed $381,949. The largest of a series of 25th reunion gifts was made by the class of 1923 in turning over $110,000 to the endowment funds of the college. (For statistics of endow¬ ment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universi¬ ties AND Colleges.)

(S. C. Ha.)

Dates: see Fruit. Daughters of the American Revolution, National So¬ ciety of; see Societies and Associations. DDT: see Entomology. H

#

In 1948, hard-of-hearing individuals were rehabilitated by hearing aids, by lip reading and by the fenestration operation. The otologists had perfected the di¬ agnostic procedure, which assured a better selection of cases of

UcdlllwOO*

232

DEATHS —DEATH STATISTICS

deafness which would likely lead to a successful fenestration operation. The improvement obtained by the operation, no matter how well performed, does not re-establish normal hear¬ ing. It was estimated that there were 8,000 fenestration opera¬ tions in the United States as of 1948. Most hard-of-hearing individuals were rehabilitated by means of the hearing aid. A hearing loss of 30-35 decibels in both ears within the speech frequency range was declared as a handi¬ capping loss. The hard-of-hearing person was advised to have his ears examined by a physician before purchasing a hearing aid. It was considered essential to good performance that a comfortable ear mould be made before attempting to select a hearing aid. Several clinics had been established, and were operating under the direction of a physician in several large cities, to assist the hard of hearing in the selection of a hearing aid. Hearing aid bureaus were also available in many local branches of the American Hearing society in about 117 cities. These bureaus helped deafened individuals select hearing aids. To successfully rehabilitate a severely hard-of-hearing per¬ son, the specialists felt that the wearing of an aid and learn¬ ing to read lips were necessary, that the two complemented one another. The hard-of-hearing person must not be confused with the deaf one who is totally incapable of hearing. In 1948 there was no reliable census of the adult deaf in the United States, but a rough estimate indicated that there were about 100,000. Approximately 18,000 deaf children were being educated in 64 public residential schools, 118 public day schools and 20 denominational and private schools in the United States. Mothers of deaf children were advised to seek information about early training, so that their children’s native ability would not necessarily be retarded. The American Hearing society, Washington, D.C., estimated that in 1948 there were 10,000,000-15,000,000 people in the United States who were hard of hearing to some extent in one or both ears, but only 4,000,000 or 5,000,000 adults were believed to have serious handicaps, and at least 3,000,000 required hear¬ ing aids or used lip reading, or both. Probably no more than 900,000 used hearing aids. It was also estimated that there were at least 1,000,000 children in the public schools who were hard of hearing but were not sufficiently handicapped to require hearing aids. A list of acceptable hearing aids and requirements for ac¬ ceptance were obtainable from the Council on Physical Medi¬ cine, American Medical association, 535 N. Dearborn St., Chi¬ cago, Ill. {See also Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of.) Films.—Triumph

Over Deafness

(British Information

Services).

(H. A. C.)

Deaths (of prominent persons in 1948): see IlDQth ^tatictipc

Obituaries.

United States in 1948 was slightly lower than that for 1947 according to provisional reports, and the 1948 figure equalled the all-time low established in 1946. Rates for the months of March, April, May, August and September were lower than the corresponding months of 1947 but for the other four months available the death rate was equal to or greater than in the previous year. For the first nine months as a whole, the death rate in 1948 was 2.0% lower than in 1947. During the entire year 1947, the total number of deaths in the United States was estimated at 1,448,000—a rate of lo.i per 1,000 population. For Canada also there was only a very small indi¬ cated change in the death rate from 1947 to 1948; reports from cities of 10,000 or more showed an increase of 4.5% for the

Uudlll uldllbUlfO.

first eight months of 1948 over the corresponding period of 1947. In Canada there were, altogether, 116,523 deaths during the whole of 1947 with a rate of 9.3 per 1,000 population. England and Wales, on the basis of fragmentary reports, indi¬ cated a drop in the death rate from 1947 to 1948; a comparison based on the first ten months of both years for the 126 great towns aggregate (including London) showed a 12.0% decline in the number of deaths. In 1947 there were 517.613 deaths in all of England and Wales equivalent to a rate of 12.0 per 1,000 population. In the U.S. for the year 1947 the death rates per 100,000 population on a provisional basis for the more important causes of death were: diseases of the heart 318.4; cancer 133.4; cere¬ bral haemorrhage 90.6; total accidents 70.7, of which motor vehicle accidents'accounted for 23.0; nephritis 55.3; pneumonia and influenza 43.2; tuberculosis 33.4; premature birth 28.3 and diabetes 26.1. The provisional maternal mortality rate for 1947 was 1.5 per 1,000 live births as compared with a rate of 1.6 in 1946. The records of the many millions of industrial policyholders insured by the Metropolitan Life Insurance company indicated that 1948 was another year of record low mortality. Reductions were recorded in 1948 when compared with the 1947 death rates from pneumonia and influenza, tuberculosis, syphilis, ap¬ pendicitis, diseases of the puerperal state, scarlet fever, whoop¬ ing cough, diphtheria, suicide and accidents. On the other hand the death rates in 1948 increased over those of 1947 for the principal chronic cardiovascular-renal diseases, cancer, diabetes, measles (1948 was a “measles” year with the incidence of the disease about three times as high as in 1947) and poliomyelitis. A study by Louis I. Dublin and Mortimer Spiegelman of the mortality of medical specialists, based upon records for the period 1938-42, showed that the mortality among specialists at ages 35 to 74 years was only 78% of that for all male physicians at these ages; for general practitioners the corresponding ratio was 110% {Journal of the American Medical Association, Aug. 21, 1948). From these figures it is evident that the mortality of specialists, as a group, is about one-third less than that of non¬ specialists. The advantage of the specialist is somewhat greater before age 55 than after. Several factors undoubtedly con¬ tribute to the favourable experience among specialists. A larger income, with correspondingly greater comforts of life; easier working conditions with few or no night calls; better opportuniAnnua/ Death Rates per 1,000 Total Population

in Certain Countries, 1945—47

Per Cent Change from 1946 1945

Country Jopan. Hungary. Czechoslovakia. . Mexico. Portugal. Germany (British Zone) . Spain. Venezuela . Italy. Denmark. Netherlands. Australia. New Zealand (excluding Maoris). . . . Austrio. Chile. France. Belgium. Bulgaria. Scotland. Canada. Finland .. South Africa (white). Switzerland. United States. Norway .. Northern Ireland .. Sweden .. England and Wales.. Eire.. Rumania. .. *Data nof available.

.

17.8

15.3

U.9 14.9 13.2

12.6

1946

1947

to 1947

17.6 14.5 13.8 18.7 14.7 12.3 12.9 15.0 12.0 10.2 8.5 10.1 9.7 13.4 17.2 13.3 13.6 13.7 13.1 9.4 12.0 8.7 11.3 10.0 9.2 12.5 10.5 11.5 14.0 18.0

14.8 12.3 11.9 16.3 13.3 1 1.3 11.9 13.9 11.3 9.7 8.1 9.7 9.4 13.0 16.7 13.0 13.3 13.4 12.9 9.3 11.9 8.7 11.3 10.1 9.3 12.7 10.8 12.0 14.9 21.1

-15.9 -15.2 -13.8 -12.8 - 9.5 - 8.1 - 7.8 - 7.3 - 5.8 - 4.9 - 4.7 - 4.0 - 3.1 - 3.0 - 2.9 - 2.3 - 2.2 - 2.2 - 1.5 - 1.1 - 0.8 —

_

+ 1.0 + 1.1 -1- 1.6 -i- 2.9 + 4.3 -1- 6.4 + 17.2

DEBT. NATIONAL ties for adequate vacations—all these must contribute to better health. Each of the specialty groups made a better mortality record than the general practitioners, although the margin be¬ tween the two varied with the specific fields of practice. From the beginning of the 20th century, the death rate in the U.S. had dropped more than 40%. In 1900 the rate was 17.2 per 1,000 population; by 1940 it was down to 10.7 per 1,000, and in 1947 about lo.i. The prospects were, moreover, that further improvement would be made in the death rate at every period of life, except the older ages. {Statistical Bulletin of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, May 1948.) A survey of catastrophes involving five or more deaths dur¬ ing the first six months of 1948 {Statistical Bulletin of the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, July 1948) revealed that these disasters cost about 600 lives, compared with a loss of 1,500 lives in the corresponding period of 1947. The decline in the death toll from accidents in the first half of 1948, compared with 1947, was due in part to a reduction in the number of catastrophes, but resulted mainly from the fact that loss of life in any one accident was far below 100, whereas in the early months of 1947 there were three major incidents, each of which claimed more than 100 persons. These three alone accounted for more than 850 deaths, considerably more than the total from all such disasters in the first half of 1948. The average length of life (expectation of life at birth) cor¬ responding to mortality conditions among the general popula¬ tion of the U.S. during 1946, the latest year of record in 1948, was: white males 65.12 years; white females 70.28 years; Negro males 57.49 years; Negro females 61.02 years. In each case the figure set a new high record, and in the case of white females the expectation exceeds the biblical span of “three score and ten” years for the first time in the history of the United States. The table on p. 232 presents an international comparison of death rates for 1945-47, with countries ranked according to the percent decline from 1946 to 1947. {See also Accidents; Cen¬ sus Data, U.S.; Disasters; Infant Mortality; Suicide Statistics.) Bibliography.—United States Public Health Service, Public Health Reports (issued weekly), Vital Statistics—Special Reports (issued irregu¬ larly), Monthly Vital Statistics Bulletin, Current Mortality Analysis (issued monthly) and Annual Reports of Vital Statistics; Statistical Office of the United Nations, Monthly Bulletin of Statistics; Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, Statistical Bulletin (issued monthly); Popula¬ tion Association of America, Population Index (issued quarterly). (A. J. Lo.)

n lit Klntinnol U6Dl| NuTIOlldli

successive year, the U.S. government was able to reduce the gross public debt. At the end of the year, the national debt was $252,800,000,000—$4,100,000,000 less than the total of $256,900,000,000 at the end of Dec. 1947. The reduction occurred in the first half of the year, and there was an actual small increase between June 30 and Dec. 31. In his budget message of Jan. 10, 1949, President Harry S. Truman estimated that in the first half of 1949 the national debt would be re¬ duced about $1,200,000,000 to a level of $251,600,000,000 on June 30. At the end of 1948 the U.S. public debt was $26,400,000,000 below the peak total of $279,214,000,000 reached at the end of Feb. 1946. This sharp reduction in the postwar period marked a reversal of the upward trend apparent from the onset of the depression of the 1930s. The national debt had risen from $16,185,000,000 in 1930 to $42,971,000,000 in 1940, partly because government revenue fell to a low level during the depression but, more importantly, because of the expendi¬ ture policies adopted by the government to combat the depres¬ sion. During the years of rearmament and war the national debt rose by substantially greater amounts to reach the record level of early 1946.

233

Table I.—National Debt of the United States, 1913-49 (Millions of dollars) 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930 1931

(Millions of dollars)

Juno 30

$1,193 1,188 1,191 1,225 2,976 1 2,244 25,482 24,298 23,976 22,964 22,350 21,251 20,516 19,643 18,510 17,604 16,931 16,185 16,801

1932 . 1933 . 1934 . 1935 . 1936 . . . . . 1937 . 1938 . 1939 . 1940 . 1941. 1942 . 1943 . . 1944 . . 1945 . . 1946 . . 1947 . . 1948 . 1949 .

136,696 201,003 258,682 269,422 258,286

Source: Data from 191 3 to 1948 are from U.S. treasury department, daily treasury state¬ ment (revised); 1 949 estimated.

The postwar debt-retirement program of the U.S. treasury involved a gross reduction in marketable interest-bearing securities of $42,300,000,000 between March 1946 and the end of 1948.^ The distribution of this reduction among the various types of securities is shown in Table II. It may be seen that during 1946 and 1947 debt reduction was concentrated in the short-term obligations of the government. In 1948, however, the net reduction in the several types of short-term issues was little more than one-fourth as large as the reduction in long¬ term obligations. Table II,—Decrease in Marketable Interest-Bearing Public Debt,

"

March 1, 1946, to Dec. 31, 194B* (Millions of dollars)

Treasury bills. Certificates of indebtedness . . . Treosury notes. Treosury bonds—bank restricted . Treasury bonds—bank eligible . . Postal savings and other bonds Total marketable interestbearing public debt . • • .

1946 March 1Dec. 31

1947 Jan. 1— Dec. 31

Jan. 1— June 30

1948 July 1Dec. 31

Jan. 1Dec. 31

-1 11,426 9,461 3,791 -1,479 1

1,897 8,767 -1,284 0 1,460 14

1,379 -1,368 0 0 5,400 1

1,533 —3,937 4,244 0 1,023 0

2,912 —5,305 4,244 0 6,423 1

23,197

10,854

5,412

2,864

8,276

^Negative figures denote increases. Source: U.S. treasury department.

Table III furnishes data on the sources of funds for the reduction in the marketable interest-bearing public debt. The funds used to retire aggregate maturities of $23,197,000,000 during the last ten months of 1946 were obtained chiefly from the general fund cash balance accumulated during the Victory Loan drive. As the cash balance was draw^ down to a level commensurate with reduced expenditures following the end of World War II, the source of funds shifted. In 1947 and 1948 funds for reducing the marketable public debt were obtained chiefly from the continued growth of nonmarketable issues and from budgetary surpluses. However, as shown in Table HI, these two factors were of substantially different importance in the first and second halves of 1948. Debt operations in the postwar period resulted in a marked redistribution of the ownership of the national debt. {See Table III.—Sources of Funds for Reduction in Marketable

Interest-Bearing Public Debt, March 1, 1946, to Dec. 31, 1948 (Millions of dollars) 1946

Decrease in Interest-bearing marketable public debt. Sources of funds: Reduction in general fund balance. . Net budgetary surplus. Net receipts in trust accounts, etc. . . Increase In nonmarketable public debt Savings bonds. Special issues. Other debt.. Net decrease in total public debt . . . Source: U.S. treasury department.

1947

March 1— Dec. 31

Jan. 1Dec. 31

23,197

10,854

22,459 -1,714 -681 3,132 1,084 3,688 -1,640 20,065

1948 Jon. 1— July 1June 30 Dec. 31 5,412

2,864

Jan. 1— Dec. 31 8,276

405 -1,835 724 — 1,11 1 2,434 6,885 6,760 125 —590 -318 --1,356 -1,674 8,605 805 3,372 4,177 2,312 2,998 1,221 1,777 4,370 1,256 1,503 2,759 92 -1,580 1,923 -1,672 2,249 4,608 -507 4,100

DEBT. NATIONAL

234

Table V.—Debt of State and Local Governments, U.S.

Table IV,—Esfimafed Ownership of Federal Securities—Pub//c Debt and

Guaranteed Securities

(Millions of dollars)

(Billions of dollars) June 1940 )tal federal securities outstanding .... Total held by bonks . . . .. Commercial bonks. Federal reserve bonks. Total held by nonbank investors . . • « • Individuals. Insurance companies. Mutual savings bonks. Other corporations and associations . . State and local governments. U.S. government agencies and trust funds

48.5 1 8.6 16.1 2.5 29.9 10.3 6.5 3.1 2.5 .4 7.1

School district and

City June 1946 269.9 108.2 84.4 23.8 161.7 64.1 . 25.3 11.5 25.3 6.5 29.1

June 1947

June 1948

Dec. 1948

258.4 91.9 70.0 21.9 166.5 67.1 25.0 12.1 22.3 7.1 32.8

252.4 85.9 64.6 21.4 166.4 67.2 23.2] 12.0^ 21.0j 7.2 35.7

252.9 86.1 62.8 23.3 166.8 67.6 53.9 8.0 37.3

Source: U.S. treasury department. June 1940—June 1948; Dec,*1948 estimated by Council of Economic Advisers.

Table IV.) The total debt held by banks declined from $io8,200,000,000 in June 1946 to $86,100,000,000 in Dec. 1948. In contrast, the total holdings of nonbank investors increased from $161,700,000,000 to $166,800,000,000 over the same period. This shift from bank to nonbank investors stemmed directly from government measures to reduce inflationary pressures. Management of the federal debt in 1948 marked a con¬ tinuation of policies designed to achieve the dual objective of maintaining order and stability in the government bond market and of combating inflation through restraint of mone-. tary and credit expansion. Lending institutions sold substantial amounts of government securities to acquire funds for exten¬ sion of credit to other borrowers. In the absence of other buyers, the federal reserve banks purchased a large portion of the government bonds offered for sale in order to hold their yields at 2^% on the longest-term issues, thereby stabilizing their prices at slightly above par. This support-price program, initiated in Nov. 1947, followed a period extending from the spring of that year in which efforts had been directed toward controlling an incipient boom in the government bond market. Upward pressures on bond prices had been relieved in two ways: (i) funds seeking investment had been absorbed through treasury sales of marketable securities from government trust funds and of a long-term nonmarketable bond to institutional investors; and (2) the treasury and federal reserve had adopted measures permitting some rise in interest rates on short-term government securities in order to increase their attractiveness to banks and other investors and to raise the cost of reserve funds to banks. In the process of alleviating the downward pressure on bond prices in 1948 by support of the government bond market through substantial open-market purchases, the federal reserve system supplied a corresponding amount of reserves to the commercial banking system. Several measures were enacted to prevent these additional reserves from becoming the basis of multiple bank credit expansion and to apply further restraint on such expansion. One of these measures, aimed at restraining bank credit expansion and draining off bank reserves, focused the treasury program of debt retirement on securities held by the federal reserve banks. A supplementary measure of re¬ straint was the further upward adjustment of interest rates on short-term government securities permitted by treasury and fed¬ eral reserve authorities, together with increases in the federal reserve discount rates on advances to member banks. As a third principal measure, the federal reserve system in 1948 raised by approximately $3,000,000,000 the amount of reserves required to be held by member banks. This had the effect of reducing appreciably the supply of bank assets which might provide the basis for further credit expansion. The average interest rate on the federal public debt rose from 2.154% in Jan. 1948 to 2.211% in Oct. 1948. This in¬ crease reflected mainly the upward movement in rates on short¬ term issues noted above. In President Truman’s Jan. 1949 budget message, interest charges on the public debt were esti-

Total

June 30 1929 . 1930 . 1931. 1932 . 1933 . 1934 . 1935 . 1936 . 1937 . 1938 . 1939 . 1940 . 1941. 1942 . 1943 . 1944 . 1945 . 1946 . 1947 ..' 1948 .

.... .... ....

19,662 19,594 19,576

....

20,246

.19,690 .... 18,692 .... 17,471 .... 16,589 .... 15,922 .... 16,825 .... 18,702

State

County

and township

Special district

2,300 2,444 2,666 2,896 3,018 3,201 3,331 3,318 3,276 3,309 3,343 3,526 3,413 3,211 2,909 2,768 2,425 2,358 2,978 3,722

2,270 2,434 2,564 2,565 2,521 2,477 2,433 2,389 2,345 2,282 2,219 2,156 2,046 1,846 1,634 1,694 1,545 1,417 1,481 1,408

9,259 9,929 10,458 10,483 10,577 9,730 9,778 10,058 10,067 9,923 10,215 10,189 10,210 1 0,079 9,784 8,826 8,589 8,267 8,275 9,135

3,405 3,652 3,846 3,860 3,869 3,878 3,887 3,897 3,906 4,062 4,219 4,375 4,557 4,554 4,365 4,183 4,030 3,880 4,091 4,437

Source: U.S. department of commerce.

mated at $5,325,000,000 in fiscal year 1949 and $5,450,000,000 in fiscal 1950. State and Local Government Debt.—Statistics on state and local government debt in the United States are shown in Table V. From June 30, 1947, to June 30, 1948, the aggregate gross debt of state and local governments increased nearly $2,000,000,000—from $16,825,060,000 to $18,702,000,000. This increase reflected, in the main, substantial borrowings to pro¬ vide funds for state bonus payments to veterans of World War II and to finance the construction of highways, schools and other public works. The rise in state and local government debt in 1948, together Table VI.— National Debt of Various Countries Country (Unit of currency)* Argentina (peso). Australia (pound-Aust.). Austria (schilling). Belgium (franc). Bolivia (boliviano). Brazil (cruzeiro). Bulgaria (lev). Canada (dollar-Canadion). . . . Chile (peso). Colombia (peso). Costa Rico (colon). Cuba (peso). Czechoslovakia (koruna). Denmark (krone). Dominican Republic (U.S. dollar). . Ecuador (sucre). Egypt (pound-Egyptian). Eire (pound). Finland (markka) . France (franc). Germany (reichsmark). Greece (drachma). Guatemala (quetzal). Haiti (gourde). Honduras (lempira). Hungary (pengo). . . . . , , India (rupee). Italy (lira). Japan (yen). Mexico (peso). Netherlands (guilder). New Zealand (pound). Nicaragua (cordoba). Norway (krone). Ponoma (balboa). Paraguay (peso). Peru (sol). Poland (zloty). Portugal (escudo). Rumania (leu). Salvador (colon) . Siam (baht). Spain (peseta). Sweden (krona). Switzerland (franc). Turkey (pound-Turkish). Union of South Africa (pound-S.A,). Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (rouble). United Kingdom (pound). United States of America (dollar) . Uruguay (peso). Venezuela (bolivar).

Date

Total debt 1000,000’sl

12/31 /39 6/30/39 12/31 /37 12/31 /39 12/31/39 12/31 /39 12/31 /39 3/31 /39 12/31 /39 12/31 /39 12/31 /39 2/28/39 12/31 /39 3/31 /39 12/31 /37 12/31 /39 4/30/39 3/31 /39 12/31 /39 12/31 /39 3/31 /39 3/31 /39 12/31 /39 9/30/39 6/30/39 6/30/39 3/31 /39 6/30/39 3/31 /39 12/31 /39 12/31 /39 3/31 /39 1 /31/39 6/30/39 12/31 /39 10/31 /39 12/31 /39 3/31 /39 12/31 /39 3/31 /39 12/31 /39 3/31 /39 12/31 /39 6/30/39 12/31 /39 5/31 /39 3/31 /39 12/31 /37 3/31 /39 6/30/39 12/31 /39 6/30/39

5,242 1,295 3,495 59,608 4,192 12,535 22,864 3,708 4,227 182 133 229 38,449 1,244 18 78 95 61 5,636 482,967 30,847 52,138 12 52 19 1,937 12,064 145,795t 17,921 1,500 4,218 304 8 1,528 21 3,340 833 5,318 9,650 107,716 § 38 73 24,127 2,634 3,101 619 279

Date

Total debt 1000,000's)

12/31 /46 6/30/47

13,436 2,7671

12/31/47 12/31 /44 12/31 /46 12/31 /46 3/31 /47 12/31/47 12/31 /46 12/31 /46 6/30/44 12/31 /46 3/31 /47 12/31 /46 12/31 /46 4/30/47 3/31 /46 12/31 '/46 12/31/47 9/30/44 3/31 /41 12/31 /46 9/30/46 6/30/46 12/31 /43 3/31 /46 6/30/47 2/28/47 12/31 /45 12/31 /47 3/31 /47 12/31 /45 6/30/46 12/31 /44 12/31 747 12/31 745 9/30/47 12/31 746 3 731 742 12/31 747 3/31 /46 12/31 747 6/30/47 12/31 /46 9/30 746 3/31 /47

276,996 5,699 37,966 162,049 17,696 7,246 437 256 180 108,758 11,601 t 21 224 125 77 104,7691 2,499,073 323,615 52,996 4 49 14 6,501 22,563 1,321,4651 255,496 1,438 21,586 605 10 7,005 19 9,990 1,596 29,380t 13,567 94,697§ 38 166 53,173 11,420 11,476 1,847 595

28,766t 8,301 3/31 /47 45,890i| 6/30/47 410 12/31 747 3 6/30/47

25,771 258,37611 708 31

*For opproximate value of various currencies see Exchange Control and Exchange Rates, fNot strictly comparable v/ith the 1939 figure. IDomestic debt only. ^Long term domestic debt and foreign debt. Ilincludes guaranteed securities as well os public debt outstanding. Source: United Nations, Department of Economic Affairs.

235

DECORATIONS —DELAWARE with that in the previous year, was a reversal of the down¬ ward movement that characterized the war period. During that period state and local government revenues had increased rapidly with the expansion of national income, while at the same time expenditures had been restricted because of scarcity of labour and materials. The resulting surpluses had enabled state and local governments to reduce their total gross debt from $20,246,000,000 in 1940 to $15,922,000,000 in 1946. Other Countries.—In Table VI are presented data on the national debts of many countries of the world. In so far as the available information permitted, the data are shown for 1946 or 1947 and for 1939, affording a comparison of national debts before and after World War II. In nearly all the coun¬ tries for which data are provided in the table, national in¬ debtedness was substantially higher in the postwar period than in 1939. During the war, debt increases were particularly large in the belligerent countries, but sizeable increases occurred in numerous nonbelligerent countries, which were required to make unusual expenditures. Debt movements after the war were more mixed. However, changes in debt in the postwar period, it should be emphasized, were generally much smaller than those which occurred in the war years. (See also Budget, National; Great Britain.) (M. Gt.)

Decorations, Medals and Badges-Military, M j The U.S. navy occupation service medal, dllu ulVIL

to complement the army of occupation medal, approved in 1947, was designed, approved and manufac¬ tured in 1948. The obverse shows Neptune holding his trident in his right hand, pointing the way to shore with his left, while he is riding his sea horse rising out of the sea—all above the inscription, “Occupation Service.” The reverse is the same as that used on many of the navy campaign medals. The ribbon corresponds to the army design which consists of white and black (German colours) and red and white (Japanese colours). The U.S. army created the reserve officers’ distinguished mili¬ tary student badge, which was approved Feb. 16, 1948. The first awards were made on Army day. A lapel button was fur¬ nished in 1948 to civilians who worked during World War II without compensation for the U.S. war department and who had been awarded a certificate of appreciation. The lapel but¬ ton consists of the coat of arms of the United States in gold encircled with a red enamelled band with the inscription, “Patriotic Civilian Service,” in gold. The U.S. air force created an exceptional civilian service dec¬ oration consisting of the department of the air force coat of arms within a wreath, all gold. The suspension ribbon is blue with three central vertical skip stripes of golden orange threads. The lapel button is a gold replica of the medal pendant. A meritorious service lapel button was also created of the same design in sterling silver. On March 9, 1948, an act of congress specified “That the President is hereby authorized and directed to award, in the name of the Congress, a Medal of Honor to the Unknown American who lost his life while serving overseas in the armed forces of the United States during the Second World War, and who will lie buried in the Memorial Amphitheater of the Na¬ tional Cemetery at Arlington, Virginia, as authorized by the Act of June 24, 1946—Public Law 429—Seventy-ninth Con¬ gress.” A book. The Medal of Honor of the United States Army, which gives the history and lists the recipients of that medal, was published during the year. Patent designs were issued dur¬ ing the year on many of the army service medals. The United States Quartermaster association announced the creation of a

merit award for outstanding reserve officers training corps stu¬ dents studying quartermaster activities. The obverse contained the central design of the Quartermaster association seal and the words “For Merit”; the reverse contained the rayed torch of “Liberty,” the insignia of the R.O.T.C., and across the hori¬ zontal centre a panel for R.O.T.C., the name of the individual and year. It was suspended from a blue and buff ribbon of the association badge. A scholastic key was also created to be awarded to the honour graduate. The design consisted of the central portion of the Quartermaster association seal on a blue enamelled key. On Nov. 10, 1948, the president of the United States approved executive order 10016 prescribing a seal design for the vicepresident of the U.S. It consists of the coat of arms—shield; paleways of 13 pieces argent and gules, a chief azure; upon the breast of an American eagle with wings displayed and inverted holding in his dexter talon an olive branch all proper and in his sinister an arrow or, in his beak a yellow scroll inscribed “E Pluribus Unum” sable; the whole surrounded by 13 blue stars in the form of an annulet with one point of each star out¬ ward on the imaginary radiating centre lines, encircled by the words “Vice President of the United States.” (A. E. Du.) Great Britain and Europe.—No alterations or additions were made to British orders, decorations and medals during 1948, nor were there any noteworthy changes in the awards bestowed by most of the European countries. The Netherlands government issued the mobilization war cross to all military, naval or air personnel who served during World War H between April 1939 and May 1940. The qualifi¬ cation included service in Dutch colonies. In Greece in March 1948 a royal decree created a new decora¬ tion known as the Order of Naval Commandos. The order had one class only, and was awarded to those officers, petty officers and ratings who, on the night of April 22-23, ^944, boarded in Alexandria, Egypt, those ships of the royal Hellenic navy which had mutinied, and brought the crews back to duty. The badge consisted of the royal cipher and two crossed swords surrounded by a wreath and surmounted by a cross. Within the wreath were four smaller crowns in the angles formed by the swords. (H. T. Dg.)

De Gasperi, Alcide: see De Gaulle, Charles: see

Delaware

Gasperi, Alcide de. Gaulle, Charles de.

• middle Atlantic seaboard, one of the original 13 states of the United States, is called the “First state,” hav¬ ing been the first to ratify the federal constitution, Dec. 7, 1787. The “Diamond state” is also a popular name. Area 2,057 sq.mi. (land 1,978; in¬ land water 79). Population (1940) state-wide 266,505, of which 139,432 were urban, 127,073 rural. Native white numbered 215,695; foreign-born 14,913; Negro 35,876. Wilming¬ ELBERT N. CARVEL, Democrat, ton (pop. 1948 est.) 123,000, is elected governor of Delaware on Nov. the one city of more than 7,000. 2, 1948 Dover, 5,517, is the capital. The bureau of the census 1948 estimate for the state was 297,000. History.—Administration of all military affairs in Delaware was transferred from the ist army area with headquarters at

236

DEMOCRACY

Governor’s Island, N.Y., to the 2nd army area with headquar¬ ters at Fort Meade near Baltimore, Md. Fort Delaware with its site. Pea Patch Island in the Delaware river, was officially returned to the state in March 1948. (The island was ceded to the U.S. in 1813.) The 320-ac. site and 65 buildings of Fort du Pont, also returned to the state, were converted into a mod¬ ern state health centre which opened Oct. 28, 1948. A state-wide institute of Delaware history and culture was organized by the University of Delaware, Newark. Rural electrification added 52 mi. serving 652 rural people during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948. The total of new buildings constructed far ex¬ ceeded past records; the housing shortage remained acute. State officers elected in November were; governor, Elbert N. Carvel; lieutenant governor, Alexis du Pont Bayard; auditor, James W. W. Baker; treasurer, Willard D. Boyce. Harris B. McDowell, Jr., was appointed secretary of state. The tax com¬ missioner, Pierre S. du Pont; insurance commissioner, John C. Darby; attorney general, Albert W. James; and adjutant gen¬ eral, Paul R. Rinard, continued in their offices. In the Novem¬ ber election 140,654 persons voted out of a total registration of 187,561. Presidential vote: Thomas E. Dewey 69,588; Harry S. Truman 67,813. Vote for governor; Carvel (D.) 75,389; H. P. George (R.) 65,265. Education..—-The 4-yr. survey of the public school system authorized by the state legislature at a cost of $35,000, was completed by the na¬ tional experts employed. Under the leadership of the Delaware Council for Education, 16 professional and lay organizations completed a number of corresponding studies and prepared a program of legislation that was endorsed by the state board of education. In December 4,403 veterans were receiving institutional education and job-training benefits. During the fiscal year ending June 30, the state board of vocational education placed 347 disabled persons in earning jobs. The 154 elementary schools had an enrolment of 26,079 and a teach¬ ing staff in June of 935. The 46 secondary schools had 17,022 pupils and 862 teachers. Social

Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

Servicemen’s readjustment allowances paid in 1948 totalled $793,886; unemployment compensation, $867,725; active claims in both services in December totalled 3,109. The cost of outside relief for Jhe fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, was $380,748 for an average of 843 cases a month. The cost was shared half and half by the state and the county in which the relief was given. In Dec. 1948, 1,413 persons were receiving old-age pensions, compared with 1,293 in Dec. 1947. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, 958 children were cared for in their own or foster homes at a cost of $194,426; 1,096 dependent children were aided at a cost of $341,343. The total state appropriation for public welfare was $2,014,288. This included Ferris school (correctional for boys) $158,Soo; Kruse school (correctional for Negro girls) $49,508. The New Castle county workhouse, which accommodates some long-term pris¬ oners from the other counties, received 2,232 prisoners during the fiscal year and discharged 2,267; inmates on June 30 numbered 332. Communications.—Mileage of highways and rural roads (all under state control) was 3,900 in 1948. Income of the state highway department for the year ending June 30, 1948, was $5,548,615.49, including federal aid of $1,098,467.29; expenditures $6,756,296.23; deficit paid out of the previous year’s balance, $1,207,680.79. Total motor vehicle accidents during 1948 for the state outside Wilmington were 2,604; fatalities 74. Total motor accidents in Wilmington 1,730; fatalities 8. Railroad mileage was approximately 270.

Business for the calendar year at the port of Wilmington declined slightly in tonnage, 540,133 compared with 573,481 in 1947. Cargoes increased slightly in value, $26,626,509 compared with $26,614,870. Vessels docking were 516 compared with 650 in 1947. Tonnage through the Delaware and Chesapeake canal for the calendar year 1948 was S.S73.230; transits of vessels 13,083. The three air lines maintaining scheduled passenger and freight service from the New Castle county airport reported an increase of passengers and freight carried. The city of Wilmington had four radio broadcasting stations. On Dec. 31 the state had in use 102,019 telephones. Banking and Finance.—There were 28 state banks, mutual savings banks, and trust companies with 6 branch banks and 9 branch offices; 13 national banks, 39 building and loan associations and 19 small loan companies. Total assets of all state banks, Dec. 31, 1948, were $539,758,284 compared with $534,320,894 the same day in 1947; deposits Dec. 31, 1948, were $480,432,450 compared with $476,986,763 the same day in 1947. Assets of the national banks were $43,618,697 Dec. 31, 1948, compared with $44,349,950 the same day in 1947.

Total state revenue for the year ending June 30, 1948, was $23,591,986.72; nonrevenue income $5,892,863; total $29,484,849.72. Expendi¬ tures were $29,474,001.35; balance $10,848.37, added to the balance of $17,897,050.74 at the beginning of the year made a cash surplus of $17,907,899.11. The gross debt (serial bonds for permanent improve¬ ment) was $7,216,000. Total debt service (appropriation) $328,308. Agriculture.—The estimated total cash income from agricultural pro¬ duction in 1948 was $108,000,000, an all-time high. Income from the broiler industry January through October (estimated) was $54,507,000.

The total livestock income for the same period was $76,793,000; total crops $14,776,000. The value of the peach crop nearly doubled in 1948 and that of the apple crop increased from $618,000 to $802,000. Total of acres harvested, including truck crops, was 402,700. Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Delaware, 1948 and 1947

Crop

1948

Corn, bu. Apples, bu. Hay, tons ...... Wheat, bu. Tomatoes, tons .... Strowberries, crates . . lima beans, tons shelled

4,309,000 382,000 96,000 986,000 32,400 47,000 11,770

1947 4,340,000 396,000 102,000 1,326,000 54,000 43,000 9,730

Manufacturing.—Gross receipts of the 823 manufacturers licensed were $349,854,364 for the year ending June 30, 1948. Of this amount, $230,12 1,750 represented the state’s principal industries: chemicals, ship¬ building, leather, foundries, machine shops, tools, fibre textiles, canning and packing. It included in addition, building stone, granite, sand, brick and clay and a few minor specialties. •

The total of ernployees under unemployment compensation July i, 1948, was 95,000. Total wages for the year ending June 30, 1948, were $255,605,612. On Nov. 15, 1948, 562 plants in the Wilmington area reported an employment total of 62,201, compared with 516 plants employing 60,046 Nov. 1947. Turnover for the month ending Nov. 15, 1948 was 1,593 employed, 1,370 laid off. New companies chartered at Dover for the year ending June 30, 1948, were 2,686 compared with 2,955 the previous year. Dissolutions were 695 compared with 620. Mineral Production.—The total value of minerals produced in Delaware during the year 1947 was $613,000; that for 1946 was $491,000. Bibliography.—Books of 1948: Anne Parrish, Clouded Star; C. A. Weslager, Delaware’s Forgotten River; Jeannette Slocomb Edwards, Inward from the Sea. (J. En.)

nomnnronu

^94^ democracy strengthened its posi-

UClIlUwl dUj. tion throughout Europe except in the sphere of direct soviet control. Wherever free elections were held, they bore out this trend, even in countries where the Soviet Union could be considered a factor of decisive influence. The most important of these elections were held in Italy, Finland, Sweden and Berlin. The Italian elections in April marked a turning point in the postwar history of that country. In spite of de¬ feat and widespread misery the communist-controlled Popular Front received only 31% of the votes, while the Christian Democrats under the leadership of Alcide de Gasperi received almost 50% and, with the help of other smaller anticom¬ munist parties, could securely form the Italian government. A similar decline was shown on the part of the communists in the Swedish elections in September; they received only 8 seats as against 15 at the last previous elections in 1944. The anti¬ communist Social Democrats emerged again as the strongest party with 112 seats against 115 in 1944, while the Liberals increased their representation from 26 to 57. Even more impressive were the results of the elections held in Finland at the beginning of July. There the communistcontrolled Popular Democratic Union captured only 38 seats as against 49 at the elections of 1945, while the Social Demo¬ crats increased their representation from 50 to 54, the Agrarians from 49 to 56, and the Conservatives from 28 to 33 seats. The Social Democrats could now form a government without com¬ munist participation, while in the previous Finnish govern¬ ments formed after World War H the communists had held decisive key positions. The new premier, Karl August Fagerholm, declared on Oct. 12 that he would like communist par¬ ticipation in the government but only in minor posts justifiable by the communists’ weakened position in the diet and not the key portfolios upon which they had insisted. This trend toward democracy at the very gates of the Soviet Union was demonstrated also in the municipal elections held in Berlin, Germany, on Dec. 5. The soviet government had for¬ bidden elections to be held in its sector of the city, and the communists appealed to the voters in the other three sectors to boycott the elections. Their appeal was unsuccessful. The voters defied Russian threats, and 86% of the total of pos¬ sible votes was cast, a much higher per cent of participation than in the U.S. presidential election. The procommunists and

DEMOCRATIC

SWISS CITIZENS voting by an open show of hands in 1948, during the tradi¬ tional ceremony of Landsgemeinde or Citizens’ assembly, held annually in the canton of Appenzell

those influenced by fear of the soviets thus counted less than 15% because many of the nonvoters may have stayed away from the polls for entirely nonpolitical reasons. Of the votes cast, the Social Democrats, who had taken a sharp and coura¬ geous anticommunist stand, received nearly two-thirds, more than in 1946 when they polled less than half. Thus the elections in Europe, wherever their freedom was assured, showed that the people were still deeply concerned with human liberty after many years of totalitarian rule or menace. This trend toward democracy manifested itself also in the adoption on Dec. 10 of the universal declaration of human rights by the United Nations general assembly. The vote was unanimous with the nations of the soviet bloc, the Union of South Africa and Saudi Arabia abstaining. The as¬ sembly’s president, Herbert V. Evatt, paid a warm tribute to Mrs. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, first chairman of the Human Rights commission, and to Charles Malik of Lebanon, first rapporteur of the commission, and chairman of the as¬ sembly’s Social, Humanitarian and Cultural committee. An¬ drei Y. Vishinsky, the soviet delegate, made an unsuccessful final effort to avert adoption of the declaration because it seemed to him to support the view that the conception of the sovereignty of governments was outdated. The declaration adopted was to form the first part of an international bill of rights and be supplemented by a treaty embodying in specific detail and in legally binding form the principles of the declara¬ tion, and finally by establishment of an international court of human rights. Democracy gained also new strength through the various steps taken toward a close co-operation and integration of the democratic nations in Europe and in America in the economic, political and military fields. Governments and private organiza¬ tions alike worked toward the goal of strengthening democracy by international co-operation. A Liberal World union founded after World War H by Englishmen and Norwegians showed remarkable growth and held its annual congress in Zurich, Switzerland, and a full meeting of its executive committee in

PARTY

237

Bergen, Norway. Various organizations worked successfully for the establishment of a European federation. In the beginning of May, a congress met for the purpose in The Hague, the Netherlands, where Winston Churchill asked for the formation of a council of Europe “which will comprise the governments and peoples of as many European states as hold our convic¬ tions and accept the broad freedoms of democratic life, estab¬ lished by the freely expressed will of the peoples.” The congress at The Hague represented the nonsocialist liberal and demo¬ cratic forces in the European countries outside the soviet zone. The socialists in these countries also decided at a conference in Paris on April 25 to work toward the creation of a federated Europe. Of even greater importance were the steps taken on govern¬ mental levels. There the Economic Recovery program which the Marshall plan supported for 16 European countries worked in the direction of growing integration of the economic life of these countries and of the United States. On March 17, Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg signed a pact in Brussels, pledging economic and military co¬ operation, and created a consultative council as a permanent and continuously functioning agency. Other states were invited to accede to the treaty, the purpose of which was to preserve and fortify the principles of democracy, personal freedom and political liberty, the constitutional tradition, and the rule of law which are the common heritage of the nations which con¬ cluded the treaty. On April 24, the Consultative council of the western union met in London and was soon supplemented by a permanent military committee. At the beginning of Octo¬ ber, Viscount Montgomery of Alamein was appointed perma¬ nent military chairman of the union’s defense organization, with a French officer as commander in chief of the ground forces, a French vice-admiral as flag officer of western Europe and a British officer as commander in chief of the air forces. These steps represented only the beginning toward a union of the democracies. Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg concluded a customs union and by the end of 1948 negotiations were in progress between France and Italy for ending mutual tariff barriers as a first step toward an economic union on a broader basis, open to any other country wishing to join. The five countries of the Brussels pact decided on Oct. 26 to ap¬ point a committee of representatives of their governments to consider steps for securing a greater measure of unity among the European democracies. In the fall of 1948 negotiations were opened on an official level between the western union, the United States and Canada, on security problems of common interest to the seven nations. The United States acted under the directive of the senate resolution of July ii, 1948, spon¬ sored by Sen. Arthur Vandenberg, supporting the principle of U.S. participation in regional security arrangements under the United Nations. {See also Communism; Education; Elec¬ tions; Fascism; Great Britain; Union of Soviet Socialist Republics; United States; Western European Union.) Bibliography.—Victor Goll'ancz, Our Threatened Values (1947); Clarence Streit, Union Now, postwar ed. (1949); James Bryant Conant, Education in a Divided World (1948); Edgar Ansel Mowrer, The Night¬ mare of American Foreign Policy (1948); Hans Kohn, “Switzerland,” Yale Review (spring 1948). (H. Ko.)

The Democratic party in 1948 as¬ sumed the role of a “popular front” organization and swept back into power in the presidency, congress and in key state capitals throughout the United States. It was a remarkable reversal of the tide which had turned toward the Republican party in the 1946 congressional elections. To stage this comeback, however. President Harry S. Truman and his political advisers had to revive the New Deal of the Roosevelt administration and add new and expansive features

Democratic Party.

238

DEMOCRATIC

“THIS IS GETTING EMBARRASSING!” by Talburt of the Afew York World Telegram. Growing splits in the ranks of the Democratic party in 194S led to a widespread minimizing of party strength, but on Nov 2, Pres. Truman was returned to office by a plurality of more than 2,000,000 votes

of their own. The president, during his campaign, promised so many expansions of the New Deal program that his policies became known as the “Truman New Deal.” As the year closed, business and industry grew nervous over the prospect of how he might proceed to keep those pledges. President Truman showed such sympathy for labour’s de¬ mands that almost every important labour leader save John L. Lewis, president of the United Mine Workers, worked for his re-election. He favoured such generous benefits for farmers that he swept agricultural areas which had been voting Repub¬ lican since the Alfred M. Landon debacle in 1936. He won back previously critical welfare groups by sponsoring measures for federal aid for low-cost housing and slum clearance, educa¬ tion, medical care and health insurance and broadening of Social Security coverage. He appealed to many minorities, racial and religious, by sup¬ port of the Marshall plan, by sharp denunciation of Russia’s oppressive domination in “iron-curtain” countries and by his pro-Zionist stand in the Palestine dispute. He nullified the Henry A. Wallace revolt by outbidding the Iowan with prom¬ ises to end segregation, lynching, the poll tax and other forms of discrimination. He convinced consumers, especially housewives and wageearners, that the Republican congress had been responsible for the high cost of living, and that the burden on their pocketbooks would have been lightened if congress had accepted his proposals for price, rent and material controls. He won the “little fellows” by advancing a straight, $40-a-year income tax reduction for each taxpayer and his dependents, which, he maintained, would have relieved the wage-earners instead of the wealthy and the corporations, as he contended the Re¬ publicans’ 1948 revenue measure did. By virtue of his victory formula, the Democrats, once re¬ garded as a minority party, won their fifth successive presi¬

PARTY

dential election, besides regaining congressional control and governorships in 29 of the 48 states. These victories, however, offered no certain assurance of co-operation between the presi¬ dent and the legislators, for a possible coalition of Republicans and conservative Democrats might still constitute a majority. Truman was politically fortunate, although he showed astute¬ ness in capitalizing on it, in that he was confronted through 1947 and 1948 with overconfident and conservative Republican bodies in the house and the senate. Their leadership had inter¬ preted their 1946 triumphs as a mandate to scrap or weaken New Deal reforms. They whittled down aid to farmers and to the aged, reduced public power and reclamation appropriations and tried to cut the amount of Marshall plan assistance to western Europe. The senate passed bills ’for government financing of housing and school projects, but they were pigeonholed in the house. The president vetoed 75 bills in his feud with the 80th congress (32 vetoes in the first session and 43 in the second), including such major measures as the Taft-Hartley act and taxreduction legislation. Both became law by repassage through a combination of Republicans and conservative Democrats. Despite the administration’s firmer policy toward the Soviet Union, Truman’s official family fought constantly with congres¬ sional committees investigating . charges that certain govern¬ ment employees and former government employees had been members of the Communist party. This defense of the loyalty of federal workers undoubtedly won Truman support among that group of more than 2,000,000 voters. Few chief executives entered or re-entered the White House under more fortunate circumstances from the standpoint of personal or party obligations. Truman owed nothing to state bosses, for they opposed his nomination at the Philadelphia convention. A few cabinet members, expecting his defeat, gave no help in the campaign. Many local office seekers felt that he was a handicap to their success and behaved accordingly. Truman attributed his victory to labour’s efforts, but credit was generally shared among normally Republican farmers and workingmen. Truman was first forced to move to the left in order to counter the Wallace thrust, which originally threatened to win over many labour, racial, religious, welfare and radical ele¬ ments. In making this shift, the president’s sponsorship of a strong civil rights program brought a rebellious southern ticket into the field. It was headed by Governor J. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina with Governor Fielding Wright of Mississippi as his running mate. The Democratic nominee won out on this calculated risk. The returns bore out his belief that, if he carried the populous cities with his varied appeals to urban groups, and also held down the Republican vote in rural areas, he could afford to lose several southern states. Although the Democratic ticket of Truman and Senator Alben W. Barkley of Kentucky rolled up 303 electoral votes to 189 for the Republican ticket of Thomas E. Dewey and Earl Warren and 39 for Thurmond and Wright, the election was no landslide, in view of the closeness of the popular vote and the small size of the Democratic margin in key states. It was estimated that a shift of approximately 40,000 votes in Ohio, Illinois and California could have elected the New YorkCalifornia governor combination. On the other hand, had it not been for the entry of Wallace, who kept New York out of the Democratic column, and for the States’ Rights ticket, with an electoral count of 39—South Carolina, Mississippi, Louisiana, Alabama and Tennessee (i out of 12)—the president’s electoral tally could have been as high as 389 as against 142 for Dewey.

DENFELD, LOUIS EMIL—DENMARK Truman declared a few days after election that he would not run in 1952, when he would be 68 years old. Whereas F. D. Roosevelt’s long, one-man reign had left the Democrats almost bereft of future leaders and candidates, it was felt that the 1948 outcome placed them in a fortunate position in this re¬ spect, and that by 1952 they would boast of numerous possi¬ bilities. The Democrats organized the senate with Senator Scott W. Lucas of Illinois as majority leader, and with Senator Francis J. Myers of Pennsylvania as majority whip. In the house they chose Representative John W. McCormack of Massachusetts as majority leader, and J. Percy Priest of Tennessee as his assistant. (5ee also Elections; United States.) (R. Tu.)

Denfeld, Louis Emil

bom on April 13 in Westboro, Mass., and was graduated from the U.S. Naval academy at Annapolis, Md., in 1912. During World War I he served with a destroyer force in European waters. In the years between the wars his service afloat included duty with submarines, battle¬ ships and destroyers, and ashore with personnel and operations. During March 1941 he was special naval observer at the U.S. embassy in London, and from Jan. 2, 1942, until March 1945 he was assistant to the chief of the bureau of navigation (later naval personnel) in Washington. He was commander of a bat¬ tleship division from March to Sept. 1945, operating in support of the landings at Okinawa and in the shore bombardments of the Japanese home islands. On Sept, ii, 194S, he was named chief of the naval personnel bureau with the rank of viceadmiral, and with additional duty as deputy chief of naval op¬ erations for personnel assigned him on Oct. 10, 1945. In these capacities he directed the demobilization of the wartime navy. In Jan. 1947 he became a full admiral. On Feb. 28, 1947, Adm. Denfeld assumed duty as commander of the Pacific fleet, and on Dec. 15, 1947, he succeeded Fleet Adm. Chester W. Nimitz as chief of naval operations, continuing in that post in 1948. I*

K

A monarchy of north-central Europe. Area: 16,569 sq.mi.; pop. (1945 census): 4,045,232 (mid1947 est., 4,146,000). Capital: Copenhagen (73i>707) or in¬ cluding Frederiksberg and Gentofte 927,404; estimate 1947 976,000). Other principal cities (1945 census): Aarhus (107,393); Odense (92,436); Aalborg (60,880). Religion: Lutheran Christian. Ruler in 1948, King Frederick IX {q.v.)-, prime

Uullllidrii*

minister, Hans Hedtoft. History.—A whole series of trade agreements illustrated Denmark’s economic policies and progress in 1948. With Great Britain an agreement was signed on Sept. 15 to run for four years, with price readjustments possible at the end of each year. Denmark thus allocated 60% of its butter exports and 90% of its bacon exports to the British market. Britain promised to increase its shipments of iron and steel to Den¬ mark, to provide 500,000 tons of coke and to double coal shipments to 1,600,000 tons. Another trade agreement was made with France, providing for an exchange of more than 100,000,000 kr. involving export of dairy products, horses, fish, machines, boats and Greenland’s cryolite, and import of fer¬ tilizers, wines, chemicals, automobiles, clothes, etc. With Bel¬ gium an agreement in the spring for a trade of 240,000,000 kr. was supplemented by a new arrangement for 35,000,000 kr. in the fall. Agreements with Finland and other countries expanded trade still further, and Denmark sent three trucks daily into the U.S. zone of Germany with 60,000 bottles of milk. These agreernents, plus a high rate of employment and a good harvest, enabled Denmark in the fall to ease the rationing of products all the way from bread to coal. Burmeister and

239

Wain launched the largest ship yet built in Scandinavia, the 23,500-ton “whale factory,” the “Thorshovdi,” with a capacity of more than 1,000,000 cu.ft. of whale oil. It was built for Norwegian account. The Danish-American Prospecting com¬ pany was still finding salt rather than oil, but its charter was extended. Marshall plan aid to Denmark totalled $110,000,000 and enabled the country to purchase machinery, coal and fertilizer to keep industry and agriculture at a high level of production. The Danes estimated that this aid enabled them to increase consumption at least $160,000,000 (f.e., to maintain it at about 1947 levels instead of reducing 20%, as otherwise would have been necessary), and to increase investment by a clear $100,000,000. Progress was made toward the solution of at least two of Denmark’s difficult political problems. Most satisfying to Danes was the gradual elimination of the refugees from eastern Germany who had been funnelled into the country in the early months of 1945. Danish hatred and fear of German infiltration led to the isolation of this group of more than 200,000 old men, women and children in special camps. They were well fed, but were not so much as allowed to dig ditches. Neither they nor the occupying powers in Germany seemed eager for their re¬ moval to the south. The Russians repeatedly refused to ac¬ cept them in the eastern zone, from which most of them had come. But the drain on the Danish treasury was severe and Danish persistence succeeded in having one group after another moved into the western zones. By the end of 1948 the number left in Denmark had been reduced to fewer than 20,000. The United States’ wartime protectorate over Greenland, last remnant (not counting the Faeroe Islands) of the old Danish empire, was acceptable to all but the Communist Danes, yet no patriot wanted to relinquish sovereignty over the world’s largest island. Therefore, negotiations were carried on with the United States to gain the gradual withdrawal of the U.S. forces; during 1948 Danes took over more of the meteorological sta¬ tions and discussed the possibility of taking over the large air¬ field at Bluie West I. Governmental administration was sub¬ jected to a searching examination. Evidently the strategic im¬ portance of Greenland and the discovery of new ores made both Greenlanders and Danes dissatisfied with the old pater¬ nalistic trade and government. Therefore the Greenland office in Copenhagen proposed a new system and Prime Minister Hedtoft visited Greenland in the summer to lay the proposals before the Greenland council. Both the man and the new ideas were well received and the way was paved for a more rapid extension of rights to Greenlanders, and an opening of Green¬ land trade to private Danish concerns. {See also Greenland.) Other matters were less propitious. The North Slesvig situa¬ tion remained much the same. Basically the Danes wanted two things: They wanted the thousands of east German refugees removed from Germany’s northward-reaching arm; and they wanted the natives of North Slesvig to have cultural autonomy and a chance to vote, at some future time, whether they wished to be Danish or German. The vote should not be taken until the reconstruction period was over, because many Danes feared that the inhabitants of this area might in this era of distress vote simply for Danish butter, not for Danish culture and the Danish political system. On the major question of Denmark’s diplomatic orientation the year 1948 gave some indicative signs. At Easter time came a defense alert against a rumoured communist coup. The Czechoslovakian coup and the Russian demands on Finland brought a great loss of popular support of the communists. The Marshall program forced at least a partial decision on the question of alignment with the west. And the Danes did not

240

DENTISTRY —DERMATOLOGY

allow themselves to be frightened by the soviet charges that Britain and the United States were building airfields in Den¬ mark. Co-operation economically with the west grew closer; no political or military commitments were made to anyone. Long-standing Danish eagerness for a Scandinavian defense system showed some hope of realization. Prime ministers and ministers of foreign affairs, social affairs, commerce, etc., of the various northern countries held repeated meetings in Copen¬ hagen, Oslo and Stockholm, and a common military defense committee held sessions through the autumn. This committee sought especially to establish agreement on technical questions of such matters as interchangeable arms. Sweden offered to lend guns and ammunition and to supply uniforms for 100,000 of the home defense forces. The old passive policy was being cautiously abandoned. Education.—A spelling reform was passed, to be mandatory with school classes entering after April 1949: aa was to be changed to a, after the Swedish pattern; d was to be dropped from three words (henceforward to be spelled kunne, skulle, ville) in a concession to pronunciation habits; and capital letters for nouns were abolished—hereafter capitals were to be used only for proper nouns and at the beginning of sentences as in English and the other Scandinavian languages. In 1945-46 the 54 folk high schools registered 4,736 students; 25 kgricultural schools registered 2,625 and 27 schools of home economics regis¬ tered 2,330. At the University of Copenhagen were 5,918 students and at the Uij^versity of Aarhus 965. Approximately 10,000 students at¬ tended advanced schools of commerce, dentistry, fine arts, technology, etc. As of Jan. i, 1946, there were 380,099 pupils in regular communal ele¬ mentary schools and 32,320 in other schools. Finance.—The Danish crown (krone) States cents. The national budget: Ordinary account: receipts. expenditures.

was pegged at

20.90

United

1946-47

1947-48

1,172,155,000 Icr, 1,51 2,025,000 kr.

1,712,522,000 kr 1,725,907,000 kr

The net state debt on March 31, 1946, was 1,476,317,000 kr., excluding special institutional accounts. Commercial bank loans as of Sept. 1948 amounted to 3,787,000,000 kr.; commercial bank deposits, 5,492,000,000 kr.; note circulation of the National bank, 1,465,000,000 kr. Trade and Communications—Butter and egg exports were up consider¬ ably over 1947, but meat exports declined. The industrial production index stood at 132 in September, six points above the index of Sept. 1947, industrial exports were also slightly higher. Of the first $87,000,000 allotted to Denmark under the European Re¬ covery program, $25,000,000 was loaned and $62,000,000 was on a grant basis. Chief import items for the 1948-49 program included: Petroleum, oil and lubricants. on cokes. Machines. Pats and vegetable oils. Feeding grain. Tobacco. Row cotton. Iron and steel. Agricultural machinery.

$23,100,000 16,200,000 1 2,600,000 12,200,000 8,000,000 7,400,000 5,800,000 4,600,000 4,500,000

Denmark had 1,630,000 mi. of telephone wires (1947) and 371,000 instruments (1945); 904,610 radio sets (1945); 30,290 motor vehicles (1944); 4,860 km. of railway lines (1944) of which almost exactly onehalf was privately owned and one-half state owned. The Danish merchant fleet was almost back to prewar tonnage. Agriculture—The livestock census for July 1946 showed 3,167,100 cattle, 1,767,600 pigs, 624,600 horses and 17,890,500 chickens. Manufactures.—In 1946 there were: 1,473 food manufacturing plants with 36,333 workers and an output worth 2,000,521,000 kr.; 372 textile plants with 18,949 workers and an output worth 446,247,000 kr.; 912 clothing factories with 18,959 workers and an output worth 478,554,000 kr.; 377 leather-working factories with 8,385 workers and an output worth 210,464,000 kr.; 789 wood-working factories with 13,492 workers and an output worth 218,134,000 kr.; 609 cement, porcelain, glass, tile, etc. factories with 13,519 workers and an output worth 225,180,000 kr.; 1,2 93 iron and metal factories with 60,785 workers and an output worth 1,180,944,000 kr.; 1,360 technical chemical factories with 32,569 workers and an output worth 1,001,140,000 kr. Bibliogkaphy.—Knud Gedde, ed.. This Is Denmark (Copenhagen, 1948); John Danstrup, A History of Denmark (Copenhagen, 1948); Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Denmark (Copenhagen, 1947). (F. D. S.)

nontictru antibiotics in the treatment of dental UglllldUy. infection had increased by leaps and bounds, but in spite of their remarkable record of cures, many reactions to penicillin or to the toxic impurities contained in individual batches of the extract were described in the literature. Among these pruritis, urticaria, vesicular and bullous dermitis, chills, fever, headaches and gastrointestinal disturbances were par¬

ticularly emphasized. Fortunately none of these reactions are of such severity as to jeopardize the life of the patient. One case— apparently the first one—of death following penicillin therapy was reported in Oct. 1948. Three cases were reported of a pain¬ ful stomatitis with swelling of the mucous membranes of the mouth and lesions suggesting aphthae following the use of streptomycin. After the drug was discontinued, the lesions in the mouth healed rapidly. But reappearance of the lesions on resumption of streptomycin indicated that the mouth condition resulted from the antibiotics. A report on an interesting study of toothbrushes in use in U.S. homes revealed that of 8,176 toothbrushes submitted, only 19.3% were found to be m satisfactory condition and 80.7% were in need of replacement. The authors felt that the study provided adequate evidence that only a small percentage of the U.S. public follows the oral hygiene practices which the dental profession believes are important in maintaining dental health. The Council on Dental Therapeutics of the American Dental association raised the question of occupational hazards in den¬ tal practice and concluded that while the dentist is exposed to a variety of minor occupational hazards, the large life insurance companies do not consider that the dental practice entails any unusual occupational risks. Further knowledge of the action of fluorine on teeth came from a study of the dental effects of accidentally fluorinated waters in New Jersey. The fluorination was accomplished acci¬ dentally when the communities changed in 1927 from a fluoridefree water derived from wells approximately 100 to 130 ft. in depth to fluoride-bearing waters (1.2 to 2.2 parts per 1,000,000) derived from wells tapping the Raritan stratum at a depth of 500 to 700 ft. More than 3,100 school children were examined in the area. The author concluded that his findings proved that fluorination (accidental) of a community water supply with 1.2 to 2.2 parts per 1,000,000 of naturally occurring fluoride salts results in a marked reduction in the incidence and prev¬ alence of dental decay in persons born in or migrating to the area where such water is consumed. The findings were based on persons exposed as long as 19 years to the fluoride waters. Bibliography.—Jacob Rabinovitch and Morris C. Snitkoff, “Acute Exfoliative Dermatitis and Death Following Penicillin Therapy,” 7.A.M.A., 138:496-498 (Oct. 16, 1948); Hillel Beham and Herbert Perr, “Sto¬ matitis Due to Streptomycin,” J.A.M.A., 138:495-496 (Oct. 16, 1948); Allen 0. Gruebbel and J. M. Wisan, “A Study of Toothbrushes in Use in American Homes,” J. Am. Dent. A., 37:346-349 (Sept. 1948): “Oc¬ cupational Hazards in Dental Practice: Questions and Answers,” /. Am Dent. A., 36:221-224 (Feb. 1948); Henry Klein, “Dental Effects of Accidentally Fluorinated Water,” J. Am. Dent. A., 36:443-453 (June '‘948). (L. M. S. M.)

Dprill/ltnlnirv

increasing use of penicillin during 1948, many problems arose concern¬ ing the management of patients who showed allergic manifesta¬ tions to this drug. S. M. Peck and his associates, using the cutaneous penicillin test, found that the reaction to the 48-hr. intradermal test with penicillin was of more clinical significance and practical value than the immediate intradermal test. Two main types of reaction to the systemic treatment with penicillin were observed: type i, blisters and wheals and serum sickness¬ like reactions; type 2, eruptions with inflamed blisters which resembled ringworm infections. Type i reactions were found to be the most common allergic reactions to penicillin. The in¬ cidence of positive reaction to the penicillin test was higher in this group than in the group which had never received peni¬ cillin and was shown to be valuable in proving that an eruption was due to penicillin when several medications were being given simultaneously. The type 2 reactions were found in persons who had never received penicillin, and the incidence of positive re¬ actions to the cutaneous test was found to be approximately 5%. The lesions may be generalized, but tend to localize on the

UClIlldlUIUgj.

DETROIT hands and feet and in the groins. Among the penicillin-positive patients in this group, 6o% were found to have a positive re¬ action to ringworm which was about twice the incidence in penicillin-negative patients, and higher than in the group with the urticarial type of reaction. It was thus assumed that this type of reaction may have been induced by a previous active infection of the body with a fungus capable of producing either penicillin or a penicillinlike substance. The cutaneous reactions are prone to be more severe in this type than in type i sensi¬ tivity. Allergic reactions were found to occur at least three times as frequently among men as among women. Desensitiza¬ tion was carried out on eight patients "with good results. Seven patients were desensitized by the subcutaneous method and one by the oral method. Graded increases in dosage kept below the reaction level of the patient’s sensitivity, as guided by the cuta¬ neous reaction, was the method employed for desensitization. Bone marrow preparations were found to be a valuable aid in the diagnosis of suspected cases of acute disseminated lupus erythematosus (a spreading red scaling skin disease) in which the classic dermatologic manifestations were lacking. J. R. Haserick and R. D. Sundberg studied the bone marrow prep¬ arations in ten cases of lupus erythematosus, in three cases of dermatomyositis (inflammation of the skin with muscular pains), and in cases in which leukopenia was a prominent fea¬ ture. Multinucleated white blood cells which had engulfed a round mass were found in four out of five cases of acute dis¬ seminated lupus erythematosus. This type of cell was called the Hargraves “L.E.” cell and. was not found in any of the other preparations studied. It was more prominent in the severe cases of acute disseminated lupus erythematosus. Prior to World War II, 95% of all cases of ringworm of the scalp in such cities as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Pitts¬ burgh and Washington, D.C., were shared more or less equally by the two most prevalent species of fungi causing this disease, Microsporon lanosum and Microsporon audouini. Observers re¬ ported that following the war and during 1948, 80% to 100% of these infections were caused by Microsporon audouini. In a study conducted by F. A. Glass, 40 preserved samples of hair from the same number of patients with ringworm of the scalp, representing a nearly equal number of cases of infection with Microsporon lanosum and Microsporon audouini, were cultured on appropriate mediums. Fifty per cent of the Microsporon audouini samples yielded cultures after intervals ranging from 190 days to 460 days. Only 9% of the Microsporon lanosum samples yielded cultures after intervals ranging from 316 days to 342 days. Conclusions were drawn that the above findings might explain, at least in part, the persistence of the ringworm epidemic. According to a report by N. M. O’Farrell, the “purple X” light was shown to be a valuable adjunct in the differentiation of ringworm of the scalp caused by Microsporon audouini or Microsporon lanosum. The “purple X” light does give fluores¬ cence in infections caused by Microsporon audouini and is con¬ sidered to be adequate in control examination of that infection. In infections caused by Microsporon lanosum there is fluores¬ cence under a Wood light but not under a “purple X” light. This difference in fluorescence aids in the estimate of which treatment method is to be used. J. P. Scully, C. S. Livingood and D. M. Pillsbury observed 60 children with ringworm of the scalp caused by Microsporon audouini, all of whom represented an inflammatory reaction at the site of infection when first seen or at some time later. These 60 patients were the major part of 24.4% of patients with inflammatory reactions attributable to Microsporon audou¬ ini in a total number of 433 cases of ringworm of the scalp caused by this fungus. They were treated with 10% copper

241

undecylenate ointment and 5% salicylanilide ointment. Fiftysix of the 60 patients were discharged as cured after being fol¬ lowed for three months or more—a cure rate of 93.3%. It was the opinion of the authors that 55% or more of all patients with ringworm of the scalp caused by Microsporon audouini could be cured with local therapy in clinic and private practice if certain measures were carried out, thus eliminating the use of X-ray epilation. Excellent results were reported in the treatment of lympho¬ granuloma venereum (a venereal disease causing infected glands) by the intramuscular administration of aureomycin, a new anti¬ biotic substance with virus-killing properties obtained from a Streptomyces. Patients with the large gland in the groin showed a great reduction in the size of the node at the end of four da3^s’ treatment. No elementary or inclusion bodies were seen one week after treatment. Patients with infected, rectums showed great improvement in four to eight days. In several patients, a hypochromic anaemia developed which was easily rectified by the simultaneous administration of a folic acid-iron compound. The use of bismuth compound in the treatment of localized scleroderma (morphea) was investigated by J. E. Flood and J. H. Stokes and showed some promise. “Methanol” and “iodobismitol” were used in their series of cases. All of their patients showed improvement after receiving the bismuth compound, although some required 50 to 75 injections before satisfactory results were obtained. These authors said that the mode of action of the compound was not known, but that there ap¬ peared to be some unknown nonspecific effect. Other investiga¬ tors also suggested its use or added favourable reports of the bismuth compound in the treatment of localized scleroderma. Bismuth subsalicylate was also reported to be effective. {See also Medicine.) Bibliography.—Samuel M. Peck, Sheppard Siegal, Arthur W. Click, Abner Kurtin and Rose Bergamini, “Clinical Problems in Penicillin Sensitivity,” /. A. M. A., 138:631-638 (Oct. 30, 1948); John R. Haserick and R. Dorothy Sundberg, “The Bone Marrow as a Diagnostic Aid in Acute Disseminated Lupus Erythematosus: Report on the Hargraves’ ‘L. E.’ Cell,” J. Invest. Dermat., 11:209-213 (Sept. 1948); Frederic A. Glass, “Viability of Fungus in Hairs from Patients with Tinea Capitis; I. Microsporon Audouini," Arch. Dermat. & Syph., 57:122—124 (Jan. 1948) ; Norman M. O’Farrell, “Differentiation of Microsporon Audouini from Microsporon Lanosum by Fluorescence,” Arch. Dermat. & Syph., 57:919 (May 1948): John P. Scully, Clarence S. Livingood and Donald M. Pills¬ bury, “The Local Treatment of Tinea Capitis Due to M. Audouini: The Importance of Inflammatory Reaction as an Index of Curability,” J. Invest. Dermat., 10:111—118 (March 1948). (H. Fx.)

Ratmit UCUUlU

largest city of the United States in the 1940 census, Detroit is the centre of the large industrial area of southeastern Michigan. Area, 137.9 sq.mi.; pop. (1940) 1,623,452, of whom 320,664 were foreign-born whites, British and Canadian ranking first with 110,698, and Polish second with 52,235. Pop. est. (June 1948), 1,815,000. Assessed value as of June 30, 1948, was $3,745,817,710; gross bonded debt (including notes), $307,294,000; net bonded debt, including utility debt, $279,739,988; net tax supported debt, $195,065,320; gross city appropriations, fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, $282,702,147 including schools and utilities; tax levy, city and school purposes, $114,959,137; combined city and school tax rate, $30.69. Mayor, Eugene I. Van Antwerp, serving a first two-year term. Although employment and industrial indices continued high, the housing shortage had apparently eased slightly, and some informed observers considered the estimate of 1,815,000 popu¬ lation as high. In the face of substantially full employment, the relief load continued to climb, a phenomenon apparent in many large industrial cities, and probably the result of supplementary relief given employed persons. This reflected the impact of the inflationary cost of living on the economy of large families. On the labour front, the only major automotive shutdown

242

DE VALERA,

EAMON—DEWEY, THOMAS EDMUND

was the Chrysler strike in May. The walkout was of brief dura¬ tion, and was settled after General Motors settled the claim for a third round of wage increases without a work cessation. This corporation set a precedent in labour negotiations by bas¬ ing wage raises on the cost of living. In municipal politics, organized labour joined with the Demo¬ cratic party in electing a mayor, who took office at the begin¬ ning of the year, in addition to several councilmen. The most spectacular occurrence in the industrial world was the attempted assassination in April of Walter P. Reuther, presi¬ dent of the United Automobile Workers of the Congress of Industrial Organizations and bitter communist foe. Reuther’s right arm was shattered by a shotgun blast fired by an unknown assailant. The Ford foundation, after long delay in the settlement of the Henry Ford estate, announced the beginnings of its philan¬ thropies by the appointment of a planning committee, consisting of distinguished members in the fields of medicine, education and the social sciences. The amount of the foundation was not announced, since assets consisted primarily of preferred stock of the Ford Motor com¬ pany and the income was dependent upon the earnings of the company. (L. D. U.) (1882), Irish statesman, was born in New York city Oct. 14, and was from Dec. 1937 to Feb. 1948 prime minister and minister for external affairs of Eire. In 1939 he also held the portfolio of education. For his early career see Encyclopcedia Britannica. At the beginning of 1948, 18 months before the termination of his party’s tenure of office, De Valera announced that a general election would take place in February. At the dissolu¬ tion his party, Fianna Fail, held 76 out of the 138 seats and De Valera insisted that anything but another absolute majority would be unacceptable to him. In fact, his party won only 68 seats in the Dail and a coalition took over the reins of office. On March 7 he went to the United States, where he spoke of the danger of war and appealed, on April 4, for a united Ireland. In the following months he visited India and Australia. In October De Valera opened his campaign for a united Ireland at a press conference in Liverpool, England. He stated that only in Antrim and Belfast was there a majority for partition. He spoke later at Glasgow, Scotland, Cardiff, Wales, and at Manchester, Birmingham, Newcastle-upon-Tyne and London, England, on the same theme.

De Valera, Eamon

Dewey, Thomas Edmund vcirwas

T/ch Z

in Owosso, Mich., and was graduated from the University of Michigan in 1923. He attended Columbia university law school, received his law degree in 1925, began to practise law and joined the New York Republican organization. In 1931 he was appointed chief assistant to the U.S. attorney for southern New York, and on his predecessor’s resignation was named U.S. attorney. In 1935 he was named special prosecutor to investi¬ gate gambling and other rackets, and two years later was elected district attorney. He campaigned for governor of New York in 1938, but was defeated. In 1941 he was appointed head of the campaign to raise funds for the wartime United Service organi¬ zations. Dewey was elected governor of New York in 1942. In 1944 he was nominated Republican candidate for the presi¬ dency, but lost to President F. D. Roosevelt, who was running DEMONSTRATION for Gov. Thomas E. Dewey of New York at the 1948 Re¬ publican national convention in Philadelphia, Pa. Gov. Dewey was nominated for the presidency on June 24 by unanimous vote on the third ballot

DIABETES for a fourth term. In 1946 Dewey was re-elected governor of New York. His administration of the state won him a reputa¬ tion for efficiency and economy. He was again nominated Re¬ publican candidate for the presidency at the party’s convention in Philadelphia on June 24, 1948, over several other leading Republican contenders, notably Sen. Robert A. Taft of Ohio and former Gov. Harold E. Stassen of Minnesota. Dewey won the nomination on the third ballot. Gov. Earl Warren of California was nominated the G.O.P. vice-presidential candidate, and in the summer and autumn campaigning it was almost univer¬ sally predicted by the press and by public-opinion polls that the Dewey-Warren ticket could not lose. Dewey conducted a socalled “high-level” campaign, stressing national unity, while Pres. Harry S. Truman, Democratic candidate to succeed him¬ self, campaigned largely on the issue that the 80th congress. Republican-dominated, had shown itself inimical to labour, the farmer and liberal policies in general. In the Nov. 2 election, Dewey and Warren were defeated in what was termed one of the greatest political upsets in U.S. history. ni' ' '

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316

FRANCE

escudo and for gold'. The British government in particular ob¬ jected that this would create a cross rate for sterling different from the official sterling-dollar rate. Sir Stafford Cripps (q.v.) hurried to Paris on Jan. 23 to offer arguments in favour of a devaluation which would simply create a new official rate for the franc. He was told that the situation was much too un¬ stable for it to be possible to fix such a rate, which in any case, if unrelated to the test of supply and demand, would simply provoke black market transactions at a still lower level. On History.—The 12 months from Nov. 1947 to Nov. 1948 began Jan. 25 a new official rate was announced of Fr. 214 (instead and ended in France with large-scale strikes, with the govern¬ of Fr. 119) to the dollar and of Fr. 864 (instead of Fr. 480) to ment asking for special legislation against sabotage, with a coali¬ the pound, but with provisos for other rates of the dollar for tion enjoying only a small regular majority and that majority certain categories of import and export. The Socialist party divided on such questions as socialism and free enterprise, was disquieted both by the divergence from Britain and by the religion in schools and on other issues liable to create dangerous limited official recognition of the speculative market in dollars dissension. Two devaluations had taken place during the year and gold. On the night of Jan. 28 it seemed as if this party —in January and October. Yet the appearance that nothing would withdraw from the coalition, bringing down the govern¬ important had changed was illusory. The strikes of Nov. 1948 ment, but in the small hours of Jan. 29 the government won were more limited in scope and much less violent than those back Socialist support by deciding to withdraw from circulaof 1947. While the government was engaged in Dec. 1947 in passing into law financial measures of essentially provisional , tion all 5,000-franc notes (about one-third of the total bank note circulation) in order (i) to apply a violent deflationist character, designed to prevent financial asphyxia, it was pre¬ brake, (2) to check the black markets where deals were largely paring in Dec. 1948 to pilot a balanced budget (that is to say paid in these notes and (3) to discover tax bilkers who also as far as concerned ordinary expenses as opposed to those of hoarded notes rather than put their tnoney in the bank. On reconstruction and re-equipment) through the assembly. Though prices of many foodstuffs had once again risen in the Feb. 12 repayment was started up to the value of Fr. 15,000. The larger sums were gradually repaid later. The deflationary course of the year by about one-third, those of vegetables had remained almost stable; vegetables themselves were plentiful. effect of the measure helped the government to combat the rise The supply of bread was no longer a grave problem and its in the cost of living which was estimated by the middle of quality had immeasurably improved. Thus, the country had February to have been 14% since the beginning of the year. made very important progress toward stability. This, however, There were few developments of importance in French in¬ had not yet been achieved. The grave internal political problem ternal politics from February until the middle of June, when remained that the nation was divided into three groups, none the violent resistance to the police of strikers entrenched in the of them likely to attract a majority if an immediate election Bourgougnan factory at Clermont-Ferrand warned of new were held, and with ideas too divergent for a coalition to be labour troubles, as prices began to rise once more. This respite possible. Even the middle group, formed of the parliamentary had not been very fruitfully used. The government’s existence republican parties with a precarious majority in the assembly was constantly threatened over minor issues, notably quarrels was so divided that in the course of 12 months, four premiers within the coalition on the question of schools and the church. were constrained to resign—Paul Ramadier on Nov. 19, 1947, Thus neither*tax reform nor the promised legislation on the Robert Schuman on July 19, 1948, Andre Marie on Aug. 28 right to strike could be carried through. and Robert Schuman on Sept. 7. France’s relations with the Soviet Union had been strained Toulouse (264,411); Bordeaux (253,751); Nice (211,165); Nantes (200,265). Languages: French, with some German in Alsace and Celtic in Brittany. Religion: no official church, mainly Roman Catholic with Protestant minority. President: Vincent Auriol (q.v.); premiers (1948): Robert Schuman ig.v.) (resigned July 19), Andre Marie (q.v.) (resigned Aug. 28), Robert Schuman (resigned Sept. 7), Henri Queuille (q.v.).

The Schuman Government.—The government’s two main problems at the beginning of 1948 were to prevent the wage increase it had granted from causing inflation and to abolish the budget deficit. Subsidies to the value of Fr. 67,000,000,000 (for bread, coal and steel) were cut out of the budget with consequent increase of prices and a bill to impose a nonrecurring levy of Fr. 150,000,000,000 on industrialists, the commercial classes, farmers and the liberal professions was introduced into the assembly. The purpose was to reduce the spending power of the nonwage earning classes, so as to offset that of the wage earners which had been increased without corresponding in¬ crease of production. The measure was most unpopular and it was so modified in the assembly as to reduce the yield to about Fr. 80,000,000,000. It was sent back from the council of the republic (the upper house), modified so as to be more satisfactory to the government; in approximately this form (Fr. 110,000,000,000) and accompanied with a promise of the government to reduce administrative expenditure by i 0% in the first six months of the year, the bill was finally approved in the assembly by 308 votes to 272 on Jan. 5, 1948. The government’s next pre-occupation was to re-adjust the exchange rate so as to restore the possibility of export which had disappeared with the rise of prices. It found itself in op¬ position to the International Monetary fund and the British government with regard to the method it chose—namely the re¬ establishment of a partially free market for the dollar, the

after the police raid on the soviet refugee repatriation camp at Beauregard on Nov. 14, 1947. The French government ex¬ pelled a number of soviet citizens and dissolved their organiza¬ tion during the winter. Some French citizens were expelled from the Soviet Union. The soviet government broke off com¬ mercial negotiations and repatriation missions were withdrawn. The February crisis in Prague was felt to be a reminder to France of what it had narrowly escaped. Bidault solemnly de¬ clared in the assembly that France could not dissociate liberty from peace, refused to give up the hope of European unity, in¬ sisted on the necessity for those countries which were free to do so to organize themselves and for Frenchmen to unite. Gen¬ eral Charles de Gaulle (q.v.) used the occasion to preach once more the weakness and inadequacy of the present regime in a situation which called for a strong France to lead a united Europe. When the assembly was asked on June ii by Georges Bidault to approve the London agreement on western Germany it be¬ came evident that neither the threat of Russia nor the friendly relationship to Britain and the United States had led French¬ men to accept an Anglo-Saxon point of view about Germany. Indeed, to France’s fears of a resuscitated Germany were added those of a policy that might provoke the soviet government at a moment when western Europe was quite unable to defend itself. The agreement was approved several days later by 300 votes to 286 but only after the government had accepted a

ANDRE MARIE seated alone on the ministers’ bench at the French national assembly in Paris as his name was proposed for the premiership. The Marie cabinet was formed on July 26, 1948, and went out of office on Aug. 28

whole series of reservations imposing on it the duty to main¬ tain the demand for the internationalization of the Ruhr mines, to oppose the creation of a centralized Germany and not to abandon the hope of a four-power agreernent. The Schuman government’s position (and especially that of Bidault) now weakened fast, not least because of its connection with the London agreement. The Socialist party congress re¬ opened the church and school question in spite of the protest of Leon Blum, shocked at such irresponsibility. Strikes began among civil servants, first among teachers charged with cor¬ recting the papers of the Baccalaureat (school leaving and uni¬ versity entrance examination) then among other categories, including all but the higher ranks in the services of the ministry of finance so that travellers entered and left France for several days without customs control. With all French salaries inter¬ locking in a single grid, a concession made anywhere provoked a demand everywhere; and it had already become apparent that the treasury would have to face grave difficulties in the second half of the year. On July 19 the Socialists left the coali¬ tion over a demand for a further reduction of military credits by Fr. 3,500,000,000 (on a total of Fr. 300,000,000,000) and the government resigned. The striking civil servants, having no one to negotiate with, immediately returned to work. The Marie Government.—Andre Marie, Radical and former minister of justice, was elected premier by 352 votes to 190 and formed a government on July 26 of which the distin¬ guishing mark was that Paul Reynaud, who successfully re¬ stored financial confidence in the winter of 1938-39, took over the ministry of finance, while Leon Blum consented to become

vice-premier so as to reassure the Socialists who remembered Paul Reynaud as the man who had liquidated Socialist experi¬ ments in finance before the war. Paul Reynaud had the draw¬ back and advantage of a reputation as a financial wizard. Speed was necessary for his success. Unfortunately it was only on Aug. 17 that the bill according the government special powers to effect economies and reorganize taxation was passed into law after long and difficult debates. Even then the plan to be put into effect with the help of this law was not ready, and the gov¬ ernment found itself so hopelessly divided over it on the night of Aug. 27-28 that Andre Marie resigned. His government, however, had to its credit three notable achievements; it left to its successor the enabling act for finan¬ cial reform; it had finally passed through the assembly a law laying the bases for a readjustment to an economic level of rents whose artificial cheapness had for 25 years discouraged building and caused some of the least desirable peculiarities of French social evolution. It had also decided to give France’s official support to the proposal for a European consultative assembly put forward by the executive committee of the western European union movement. The Queuille Government.—Seventeen days had to pass be¬ fore tempers became calm enough for a government to be formed (under the Radical, Henri Queuille) that had any hope of survival. The interval was occupied by the attempts of Schuman to form a government. After the greatest difficulties, he had secured the co-operation of the Socialists at the price of giving them the ministry of finance, but this immediately lost him the votes he needed on the right, so that his govern¬ ment was no sooner constituted than it fell, leaving behind it the decision to pay a cost-of-living bonus of Fr. 2,500 for the

317

318

FRANCE

months July and August, thereby committing its successor to a general increase of wages. On the day that Queuille presented his government to the assembly some thousands of workers from a nationalized air¬ craft factory in process of reorganization marched into the centre of Paris to present their grievances and for more than an hour did battle with the police. A whole series of minor strikes was in progress. The treasury was short Fr. 110,000,000,000 for budget expenditure and at least Fr. 150,000,000,000 for reconstruction and equipment. On Sept. 19 the as¬ sembly passed a bill imposing Fr. 80,000,000,000 of new taxes and Fr. 30,000,000,000 of economies. This measure enabled Queuille to negotiate with the U.S. government the progressive release of the franc equivalents, under the European Recovery program, for reconstruction expenses. On Sept. 23 the government decided on a general wage in¬ crease of 15% and Queuille agreed to support the Socialist de¬ mand for the postponement of elections to the conseils generaux (county councils) from October to March so as to give the parties shouldering responsibilities some chance to achieve re¬ sults before appealing to the voter. The Socialist and Catholic trade unions denounced the government’s measures as mere palliatives and called a two-hour general strike all over the country in protest against the cost of living. In addition a 24hr. transport strike was called in the Paris area. Both were effective on Sept. 24—the third day after the United Nations general assembly had met in Paris. The miners’ strike ballot showed 64% in favour of the strike, 8% against, while 27% did not vote—a result which could either be interpreted as eight to one in favour of the strike, or as showing more than a third against it. General de Gaulle, back from a successful tour of the provinces, renewed his attacks on the government in a press conference in Paris. In the midst of these difficulties the government had however the satisfaction that the assembly had at least gone away on a seven weeks’ holiday leaving the government freed from parliamentary worries. The link between international and internal tension became more explicit when the Politbureau of the French Communist party announced on Oct. 31; “The people of France do not agree to become the ally of western Germany in order to make war on the land of socialism. The people of France will never make war on the Soviet Union.” This was only the latest di¬ rective in a long campaign of anti-U.S. and anti-ERP propa¬ ganda that was now crystallizing in a denunciation of any form of association of the Atlantic powers as an attempt to use Frenchmen as U.S. infantrymen in an aggressive war. The formula was insidious. At the same time, however, hope was beginning to emerge that in spite of appearances the French workman would not be so easily swept into a strike as in 1947. The threat of a gas and electricity strike was dissipated by negotiation. The miners’ strike began indeed on Oct. 4 with the pitheads occupied by mine pickets but it was not to prove contagious. After some hesitation assurances were given by the strike committee that the security services would be maintained. Some clashes be¬ tween strikers and police in Lorraine were used as an excuse for suspending the security services of the pits for 24 hr. on Oct. 18. This led the government to intervene to save those pits in which flooding began the moment the pumps stopped. This in turn led to a refusal of the strikers to maintain any security services. At first police action was limited to the smaller basins, but after some casualties, the decision was taken on Oct. 22 to call some reservists to the colours and use troops in support of the police. After a second stiff fight near Ales in the south, government forces were moved forward in such strength that in the big coal basin of the north as well as in the

smaller ones of the south open resistance was abandoned. From the beginning of November the miners began to return to work. On Nov. 28 the strike was formally called off when at most 12% of the miners were still striking. The strike cost France heavily in coal (about 5,000,000 tons) and in damage to mines; but its outcome strengthened the authority of the state. On Oct. 17 the government announced a further devaluation (officially a “realignment”) by which the normal rate for the dollar became Fr. 263 instead of Fr. 214, and for the pound Fr. 1,060 instead of Fr. 864. On Nov. 7 and, in the overseas territories on three later dates, a new council of the republic was chosen. The party figures in the Council of the Republic were now as follows (numbers in the former council are- given in brackets): Com¬ munists 21 (84); Socialists 62 (62); M.R.P. {Mouvement Republicain Populaire) 18 (70); Radicals and U.D.S.R. (Demo¬ cratic and Socialist Union of Resistance) 79 (44); Indepen¬ dents 38 (28); Peasants 16 (5); P.R.L. {Parti Republicain de la Liberte) 12 (ii); R.P.F. {Rassemblement du Peuple Franqais or French People’s Rally [Gaullists]) 56 (o); various 7 (ii). The figure 56 was far from representing the full strength of the Gaullists, who could probably rely on the sup¬ port of at least 70 members of other groups. Because of the indirect system of election the results could not be taken as a reliable guide to those of an election by universal suffrage. Although the victory of the R.P.F. and the decline of the M.R.P. reflected a real change in popular opinion, the weakness of the Communists and the strength of the Socialists were mis¬ leading. The announcement in November of the Anglo-American agreement on the future status of the Ruhr caused anger and depression in France, but some compensation was found later in the invitation to participate in the control of the Ruhr and the recognition that decisions could be overridden by the peace treaty. At the beginning of December the government’s legislative program consisted in the passage by Jan. i, 1949, of the 1949 budget—balanced (after liberation no complete annual budget had been presented to the assembly), reform of the tax system and a stiffening of the penal code especially with regard to sabotage so as to make such acts as the abandonment of the security of the mines criminal in future. {See also French Overseas Territories.) (D. R. Gi). Education—(1946-47): Total infant schools 3,773; pupils 343,600; total elementary schools 80,939; pupils 4,702,284; total secondary schools 983; pupils 418,269; universities 17; students (1946) 123,313. Banking and Finance.—Budget: revenue Fr. 924,000,000,000 (1948 est.); expenditure Fr. 1,039,000,000,000 (1948 est.). Public debt internal Fr. 2,117,597,000,000 (end, 1947); Fr. 2,264,734,000,000 (end, June 1948); external Fr. 381,476,000,000 (end, 1947); Fr. 696,217,000,000 (end, June 1948); total Fr. 2,499,073,000,000 (end, 1947); Fr. 2.960,951,000,000 (end, June 1948). Currency circulation (note circulation, e.xcluding holdings of the Central bank) Fr. 921,000,000,000 (end, 1947); Fr. 791,000,000,000 (end, June 1948). Gold reserve Fr. 65,000,000,000 (end, 1947); Fr. 65,000,000,000 (end, June 1948). Deposit money (end, 1947) Fr. 842,000,000,000; (end, June 1948) Fr. 1,170,000,000,000. Monetary unit i franc=ioo centimes. Exchange rate from Oct. 18, 1948, I franc = .467 U.S. cents. Foreign Trade.—Imports Fr. 346,692,000,000 (1947); Fr. 273,488,000,000 (1948 ist half); exports Fr. 213,420,000,000 (1947); Fr. 174,309.000,000 (1948 1st half). Transport and Communications-Roads (1938) 394,3 75 mi.;- railways (1938) 25,271 mi., of which 2,196 mi. were electrified; freight, net tonkm. 37,056,000,000 (1947); 21,018,000,000 (1948, ist half); navigable waterways (1945) 5,564 mi.; traffic (metric tons) (1945) 15,271,000; ownership of ships of 100 gross tons and more (July 1947), number 1,004; gross tonnage 2,326,864. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947) total 1,650,115 (cars 933,132; commercial vehicles 696,983). Telephone sub¬ scribers 1,997,335 (1947). Radio receiving sets 5,728,000 (1947). Industry and Praduction.—Total for 1947 (1st half 1948 in parentheses): coal (metric tons) 45,228,000 (24,953,000); lignite (metric tons) 2,100,000 (899,000); crude petroleum (metric tons) 50,400 (26,700); electricity 25,284,000,000 kw.hr. (14,005,000,000 kw.hr.); gas 2,448,000,000 cu.m. (1,294,000,000 cu.m.); iron ore (33% metal content) (metric tons) 18,696.000 (11,465,000); pig iron and ferroallovs (excluding ferroalloys made in electric furnaces) (metric tons) 4.884,000 (3,138,000); steel ingots and castings (metric tons) 5,748,000

FRANCO, FRANCISCO- -FRENCH LITERATURE (3,609,000); cement (metric tons) 3,852,000 (2,571,000); nitrogen (metric tons) 150,000; phosphates (in terms of P2O3) (metric tons) 340,000; potash (in terms of K2O) (metric tons) 570,000. Agriculture.—Total for 1948 (metric tons): wheat 7,419,000; rye 612,000; barley 1,248,000: oats 3,360,000; maize 360,000; sugar, raw value 975,000; wine (combined French and North African crops) 60,100,000 hi. Livestock, horses 2,353,728 (1946); cattle 15,099,657 (1946); mules 96,143 (1946); sheep 7,330,000 (1948 preliminary); goats 1,146,399 (1946); pigs 5,656,000 (1948 prelim.). Films.—New France (March of Time).

Freer Gallery of Art: see Smithsonian French Colonial Empire: see French

319 Institution. Overseas

Terri¬

tories.

French India: see French Overseas Territories. French Indo-China: see French Overseas Territories. Triinnh I itArofnro

most significant features of nterary life in France during 1948 was the increasingly active participation of many prominent writers in political life. Louis Aragon, Paul Eluard, Tristan Tzara and Aime Cesaire were enrolled under the communist banner, while Max-Pol Fouchet, Raymond Aron and Jules Monnerot joined Andre Malraux under that of General Charles de Gaulle. Jean-Paul Sartre and David Rousset founded a non¬ communist leftist political party, the Rassemblement Democratique Revolutionnaire, and with the increase of east-west tension, still other writers came forward, this time to plead the cause of peace. “Our voice is without arms,” they wrote, “but it is that of Europe itself, the Europe that lies disarmed and in ruins as a result of having resorted too frequently to arms in the past. Along with the example of our mistakes, may this voice convey to you our distress and our resolve to combat to the utmost the madness which is preparing to destroy the happiness and resources of the world.” (Appeal signed by Andre Gide, Frangois Mauriac, Emmanuel Mounier, David Rousset, Vercors, and addressed to the delegates of the United Nations, in Paris.) The bid for peace through a world government which was made by the former U.S. aviator Garry Davis also rallied an imposing list of writers, among whom were Andre Gide, Albert Camus, Jean-Paul Sartre, Andre Breton, Emmanuel Mounier, Vercors, Jean Paulhan, Raymond Queneau—to men¬ tion only the better known. Most of these same men took part in a Paris mass meeting that included prominent writers from other European countries, met together with their French col¬ leagues to lay the foundations for an internationale of the spirit. It can be said that to a certain extent 1948 marked a break with the immediate postwar period, which had begun with high hopes that the time might be ripe for renewal of many out¬ worn values. However, increasing economic difficulties and a cynicism that attained world proportions swept away many of these hopes. In this connection, the death of the gifted novelist and fearless pamphleteer, Georges Befnanos, left a deep sense of loss, and the return to public favour of a number of writers who in 1944 had been declared unworthy was symptomatic. Meanwhile, a handful of poets and philosophers continued to forge their own vision, one in which a union of their efforts might eventually be realized. Such works as the philosopher Jean Wahl’s Poesie, Pensee, Perception, as the poet Malcolm de Chazal’s Sens Plastique, or Rene Char’s Poeme Pulverise, as Gaston Bachelard’s La Terre et les Reveries de la Volonte, in which this most original of philosophers turned his attention to the poetic imagination, were signs along the road. Although no important new poetic talent emerged during the year, a number of outstanding volumes were published, among which should be mentioned Le Chant des Morts, by Pierre Reverdy;* Fureur et Mystere, by Rene Char; Ode a Fourier, by Andre Breton; Apoemes, by Henri Pichette; Poemes Politiques, by Paul Eluard; Le Nouveau Creve-Coeur, by Louis Aragon; La Haine de la Poesie, by Georges Bataille; Soleil Cou-Coupi, by Aime Cesaire; Ailleurs, by Henri Michaux; Pour en fi^tir avec le jugement de Dieu, by Antonin Artaud (who died in April). A number of love poems . written by Guillaume Apollinaire were made public by the recipient in a volume published in Switzerland under the title of Ombre de mon Amour, but which

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Franpn Frannicpn ). Spanish army officer 11 illIwUi r I CllllflOuU and statesman, was born at El Ferrol, Galicia, on Dec. 4. He graduated from the military academy of Toledo in 1910. (For his early career, see Encyclopedia Britannica.) On the outbreak of civil war in Spain in July 1936, Gen. Franco became leader of the rebels. After a bitter three-year struggle, he emerged as the caudillo y generalisimo of Spain. During World War II, although his sympathies were pro-Ger¬ man and antisoviet, he remained neutral. On June 7, 1947, the cortes passed unanimously the Succession act making Spain a nominal kingdom, confirming Franco in office as head of the state for life, according him the right to nominate his successor, and stipulating that the candidate for the Spanish crown must be at least 30 years old. On Aug. 25, 1948, Franco met Don Juan de Borbon (b. June 20, 1913), the claimant to the Spanish throne, in Franco’s yacht off Arcachon, France. It was unoffi¬ cially reported that Don Juan was asked by Franco to renounce his own claim and to consent to his son, the prince of Asturias (b. 1931), being the next king of Spain and that Juan re¬ fused to consent. In November, Franco advanced a plan for the defense of Europe based on Switzerland, and accused Great Britain of preventing an entente between Spain and the U.S.

Franks, Sir Oliver Shewell

bassador to the ' United States, was born on Feb. 16. He was educated at Bristol gram¬ mar school and Queen’s college, Oxford, Eng. He was fellow and praelector in philosophy (1927-37) and university lecturer in philosophy (1935-37) at Queen’s college and professor of moral philosophy at Glasgow university (1937-45). He was also visiting professor at the University of Chicago in 1935. At the outbreak of World War II he joined the ministry of supply, and in 1945 became its permanent secretary. In April 1946 he returned to Queen’s college, this time as provost, but was again called upon for government service when in July 1947 he led the British delegation to the Paris meetings on the Marshall plan and in October visited Washington for discussions on the plan. In Feb. 1948 Sir Oliver was appointed to succeed Lord Inverchapel as ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary to the United States. He arrived in the United States on May 27 and presented his credentials to President Harry S. Truman on June 3.

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), king of Denmark, son of Christian X and Alexandrine, former duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin. He became crown prince in 1912 on the accession of his father, and king on April 20, 1947, when his

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father died. In 1935 Frederick married Ingrid, daughter of Crown Prince Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden. The king and queen had three daughters, none of whom could succeed to the throne under Danish law. The immense prestige of Christian X had not yet been ac¬ quired by his son, but both Frederick and Ingrid were popular and constitutional monarchy was an almost unquestioned insti¬ tution in socialist Denmark just as in socialist Britain. (F. D. S.)

Freemasonry: see

Societies and AssoaATioNS.

' Published in a de luxe autograph edition, with illuminations by Pablo Picasso.

320

FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES

was generally considered to be unworthy, both in quality and presentation, of the author of Alcools. Paul Eluard and Jean Paulhan brought out anthologies of their own choosing, and Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes prefaced a volume of F. W. Nietzsche’s poems translated by himself. An anthology of French language poets from Madagascar, La Nouvelle Poesie Negre et Malgache, was compiled by Leopold Sedar Senghor, with a preface by Jean-Paul Sartre. Among a rather limited number of philosophical works (in contrast with the two previous years), a study of the modern police-state entitled Humanisme et Terreur, by the Sartrist existentialist philosopher, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, was gen¬ erally discussed, as was Simone de Beauvoir’s Pour une Morale de PAmbiguite, in which this disciple of Jean-Paul Sartre at¬ tempted to construct a system of ethics based on Sartre’s teachings. Under the title Logique formelle et dialectique, the Marxist philosopher, Henri Lefebvre, published the first tome of an eight-volume treatise on the relationship of logic to dialec¬ tics, and Julien Benda, in his Tradition de PExistentialisme, sought to prove that the existentialist mode in philosophy is but the renewal of an ancient tradition that goes back to the' Greek sophists. In La Pesanteur et la Grace, a volume of notes by the late Simone Weil, the problem of evil was approached in a profoundly original manner. The death in May of the Chris¬ tian Russian philosopher, Nicholas Berdyaev, aroused sincere regret among his French colleagues. In a volume entitled Science et Humanisme, the scholarly historian of philosophy, Emile Brehier, designated the Heideggerian and Sartrist hu¬ manists as pseudo humanists. The Catholic existentialist philosopher and dramatist, Gabriel Marcel, received the Academic Frangaise literary award for the summum of his works. Although the illustrious Academic made no award for the best novel of the year, and neither the Prix Goncourt (Les Grandes Families, by Maurice Druon) nor the Prix Renaudot {Voyage aux Horizons, by Pierre Fisson) showed any particular distinction, there were nevertheless a certain number of excel¬ lent novels published. Special mention should be made of Maurice Blanchot’s two subtle, Kafka-like works, Le Tres Haul and UArret de Mort; of Le Plateau de Mazagran, by the poetic Andre Dhotel; of the sardonic, witty Murphy, by the former Dubliner, Samuel Beckett; of Les Pierres Crient, by Agnes Chabrier; of Raymond Queneau’s Saint Glin-Glin (strongly in¬ fluenced by James Joyce’s Finnegans Wake); of Le Noir de la Vigne, by Jean Clot, a strange, very original story of mental alienation. Le Pressoir Mystique, a collection of allegorical short stories by Noel Devaulx, possessed rare literary quality. The most discussed plays of the year were undoubtedly JeanPaul Sartre’s Les Mains Sales, Albert Camus’ L’Etat de Siege and Henry de Montherlant’s Le Maitre de Santiago, all three of which dealt, each in a different manner, with the moral cor¬ ruption attendant upon war and revolution. Akara, the highly fantastic satirical first play of a very young and gifted play¬ wright, Romain Weingarten, also attracted considerable com¬ ment. The first public performance of Paul Claudel’s Partage de Midi, written more than 30 years before, was an event of interest. Other plays of the year were: Le Voyage en Caleche, by Jean Giono; Malatesta, by Henry de Montherlant; Nous irons a Valparaiso, by Marcel Achard; Scheherazade, by Jules Supervielle; L’Archipel Lenoir, by Armand Salacrou; Montser¬ rat, by Emmanuel Robles. In the domain of the critical essay the year was a rich one. Antoine de St. Exupery’s posthumous Citadelle; Georges Buraud’s Les Masques (Prix des Critiques); Louis MartinChauffier’s VHomme et la Bete (Prix de I’Academie Frangaise), and Claude Edmonde Magny’s L’Age du Roman Americain

(Prix Ste. Beuve) were all widely discussed. Julien Gracq made a sympathetic study of the surrealist leader, Andre Breton, and such critics as Maurice Saillet, Maurice Nadeau (the historian of surrealism), Georges Blin, Michel Leiris and Maurice Besset analyzed the work and personality of certain of the writers of an earlier day—Alfred Jarry, the Marquis de Sade, Charles Baudelaire, Novalis—with whom the generation of the mid-2oth century would appear to have much in common. Andre Gide published two volumes of hitherto uncollected es¬ says, Notes sur Chopin and Prefaces, Rencontres. Robert Min¬ der’s Allemagne et Allemands, the first volume of a trilogy that analyzes the history of German culture from the standpoint of modern psychology, elicited much interest. Important works on the subject of musical aesthetics* were published by the “serialist” composer, Rene Leibowitz {Schoenberg et son Ecole), and Boris de Schloezer {Introduction a /. S. Bach, Essai d’Esthetique Musicale). Jean Cocteau, Marcel Jouhandeau, Michel Leiris and Francois Mauriac published their memoirs; and two books of travel— Simone de Beauvoir’s I’Amerique au Jour le Jour, and Mar¬ tinique ■ Charmeuse de Serpents, by Andre Breton and the painter Andre Masson—constituted important contributions to both subjects. The threefold centenary celebration of the 1848 revolution, the Communist Manifesto and the abolition of slav¬ ery brought forth a large number of books on these themes, as did the more immediate problem of Russian v. U.S., civilization. The number of translations from many languages, but especially from the English, the U.S. and the Russian, was never so great. The disappearance of the reviews Fontaine, Poesie *48 and Arche was much regretted, although there remained a consid¬ erable list of good reviews, together with a half-dozen weekly and daily newspapers of high literary quality. Among these should be mentioned: Temps Modernes, Critique, Esprit, La Nef, Psyche, Cahiers du Sud, Dieu Vivant, La Vie Intellectuelle, La Table Ronde, Mercure de France, Europe, Presence Africaine. Transition Forty-Eight (French writing in English trans¬ lation), Les Nouvelles Litteraires, Les Lettres Franqaises, Le Figaro Litteraire, Gazette des Lettres, Arts and Combat. Rare de luxe editions were: Florilege des Amours de Ronsard, illustrated by Henri Matisse, and Andre Malraux’s Les Conquerants, illustrated by Andre Masson. {See also Literary Prizes; Philosophy.)

(M. Jol.)

French Overseas Territories • grouped

the overseas departements, the colonies {territoires d’outremer), the pro¬ tectorates and the trust territories, the total area of which is approximately 4,595,300 sq.mi. and the total population (1947 est.) 77,561,000. Certain essential information on the com¬ ponent parts of the French colonial empire—or France d’outre¬ mer, as it is officially called—is given in the table. The assembly, of the French union, a consultative body cre¬ ated by the French constitution of 1946, was constituted on Dec. 10, 1947. It consists of 75 members representing metro¬ politan France (50 chosen by the national assembly and 25 by the council of the republic) and 75 members elected by the assemblies of the overseas territories. Its opinion must be asked in certain cases of constitutional change in overseas territories and it can raise on its own initiative, and pass resolutions on, current problems; these are transmitted to the overseas terri¬ tories commission of the national assembly. Algeria.—On April 4 the first elections to the Algerian territorial as¬ sembly took place. Of its 120 members 60 were elected by the first electoral college; i.e., the European settlers (nearly 1,000,000) and a small number of Moslems qualified by education or public service, and 60 by the second electoral college; i.e., the remaining 8,000,000 Moslems. The two sections of the Algerian assembly have equal rights, sit to¬ gether and choose a president from the first and second college on

FRENCH OVERSEAS TERRITORIES alternate years. Population,—European 1,048,000 (12.5% of the total). Chief towns (pop. 1947 est.): Algiers (360,700); Oran (252,500); Constantine (121,200). Finance and Banking.—Budget (1946): revenue Fr, 14,269,000,000; expenditure Fr. 14,269,000,000. Monetary unit: metropolitan franc (M.F.). Official rate (1948): i franc=$.oo47 U.S. Foreign Trade.‘—^Imports (1947) Fr. 45,547,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr.'40,043,000,000; exports (1947) Fr. 41,200,000,000, (1948, first half) French Overseas Territories 1948 Country and Area sq. mi. (approx.l AFRICA French Equatorial Africa, 959,983

Population (OOO’s omitted)

.

Gabon, 91,405. Middle Congo, 175,630 . . . . Ubangui-Shari, 238,008 . • . . Chad, 454,940 . Cameroon, 169,436 . Algeria, 851,078 . Morocco, 153,870. .......

Tunisia, 48,300 French West Africa, 1,816,099 . . Senegal, 77,749 .

.....

Mauritania, 433,532

French Guinea, 97,247. Ivory Coast, 184,255 . Dahomey, 43,282 . French Sudan, 480,417. Niger, 499,555.. Dakar and dependencies, 62 • Togoland, approx. 22,000 . • .

. . .

French Somaliland, 8,376 . Madagascar and dependencies,

229,438.

..

Reunion, 970

Capital, Status, Governors, Rulers, etc.

4,128* Brazzaville, High Commissioner: Bertrand Cornut Gentile. 422* Libreville, colony. Governor; Numa Sadoul, 630* Brazzaville, colony, Governor: Jacques Fourneau. 1,064* Bangui, colony. Governor; Jean Mauberna. 2,01 1 * Fort Lamy, colony. Governor: A. Leger. 2,850t Yaounde, trustee territory. High Commis¬ sioner: Rene HofFherr. 8,550t Algiers, three overseas depor/ements. Governor General: Edmond Naegelen. d,600t Rabat, protectorate under the minister of foreign affairs, Sultan: Sidi Mohammed; Resident-General: Gen. Alphonse Juin. 3,270t Tunis, protectorate under the minister of foreign affairs, Bey: Sidi Mohammed el Amin; Resident-Genera/: Jean Mons. 1 6,400t Dakar, High Commissioner: Paul Bechard. l,720t St. Louis, colony. Governor; Laurent Wiltord. 497t St. Louis, colony. Governor; Henri de Mauduit. 2,1251 Conakry, colony. Governor; Roland Pre. 4,0564! Abidjan, colony. Governor; Michel Orselli. l,458j Porto Novo, colony. Governor; Jean Georges Chambon. 3,7971 Koulouba (Bamako), colony. Governor: Al¬ bert Jean Mouragues. 2,1681 Niamey, colony, Governor; J. Gosselin, 1751 Governor General: Jean Soucadoux. 930f Lome, trustee territory, Commissioner: Jean Henry Cedile. 47t Jibuti, colony. Governor; Poul Siriex. 4,450t Antonanarivo, colony. Governor General: Pierre de Chevigne. 245t St. Denis, overseas deporfement, Prefet: Paul Demange.

AMERICA

St. Pierre and Miquelon, 93.

.

.

•

French Guiana, including Inini, 34,740 . Guadeloupe and dependencies, 686 Martinique, 427. AS/A French India, 197. French Indo-China, 285, 814 . . . Annam, 56,974 . Cambodia, 69,886

.

Cochin-China, 24,974 Laos, 89,320

....

.

Tongking, 44,660

•»•«..

OCEAN/A New Caledonia and dependencies, 7,654.

28t Cayenne, overseas depor/ement, Prefet: Robert Vignon. 335t Basse-Terre, overseas depar/emenf, Prefet: Maurice Philipson. 265t Fort-de-France, overseas deporfement, Prefet: Pierre Trouille. 343t Pondicherry, colony. Commissioner) Charies-Fran^ois Barou. 7,000t Saigon, High Commissioner; Leon Pignon. 7,200 § Hue, protectorate. Commissioner; Yves Digo. 3.20011 Pnom penh, protectorate. King: Norodom Sihanouk. 5,600|| Saigon, colony, Commissioner; Pierre Boyer, 1.20011 Vientiane, colony. Commissioner; Alfred Valmary. 9,800 § Hanoi, protectorate. Commissioner; Yves Digo.

60t Noumea, colony. High Commissioners: Pierre Cournarie and Sir Leslie Brian Freeston. 45t Vila, Franco-British condominium. High Commissioners: Pierre Cournarie and Sir Leslie Brian Freeston.

New Hebrides, 4,633

Pacific Islands, including Society Is¬ lands, Tuamotu Islands, Tubual archipelagos, etc., 1,545 • • • . *Pop. est. 1 946. tPop. est. 1947. JPop. est. 1945.

4t St. Pierre, territory!!, Adminisfrotor: Jean Rene Moisset.

56f Popeete, colony. Governor: Pierre Maestracci.

§Pop. est. 1943. llPop- est. 1946. llEach of the two islands is a commune.

Fr. 33,297,000,000. Transport and Communications.—Roads (1947) 21,003 mi-l railways (1939) 2,734 mi. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947): cars 31,450; com¬ mercial vehicles 16,450. Telephone subscribers 34,35i (i939). Agriculture.-—Main crops (i947, in metric tons) wheat 540,000; oats 67,000; barley 334,000; potatoes 104,000; dates (1946) 20,000; tobacco (1946) 17,000; wine (1946, in hi.) 9,000,000; citrus fruit (1945, in metric tons) 93,000; figs 69,000. Livestock (1945): horses 208,855; asses 334,391; mules 241,252; cattle 1,000,000 (1948 est.); sheep 5,375,778; goats 2,638,252; camels 167,315. Mineral Production.—(1947, in metric tons) Phosphate rock 730,000. Morocco.—On May 23 the sultan issued an appeal to his people not to molest Moroccan Jews. He was, he said, in complete sympathy with the Arabs on the Palestine question, but the Moroccan Jews were entirely different from those attempting to set up the new state of Israel. Population.—French (i947 est.) 266,133; other nationals 58,864. Chief

321

towns (pop. 1946 est.): Rabat (cap., 160,800); Casablanca (550,800); Marrakesh (237,800); Fez (200,900); Meknes (159,600). Finance and Banking.—Budget (1947): revenue Fr. 8,393,000,000; expenditure Fr. 8,393,000,000. Monetary unit: M.F. Foreign Trade.—Imports (1947) Fr. 33,319,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. 31,880,000,000; exports (1947) Fr. 18,308,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. 13,867,000,000. , Transport and Communications.—Roads (1945) 5,059. mi.; railways (1946) 995 mi. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947): cars 20,970; com¬ mercial vehicles 8,690. Telephone subscribers (1947) 41,694. Agriculture.—Main crops (1947, in metric tons): wheat 542,000; bar¬ ley 1,132,000; maize 255,000; oats 32,000; linseed 10,000; olive oil 18,000; wine (1945, hi.) 233,000. Livestock (1946): cattle 1,394,000; sheep 6,031,000; horses 155,000; goats 3,892,000; pigs 31,000; mules 141,000; asses 534,000; camels 162,000. Mineral Production.— (1946, in metric tons) Phosphate rock 2,902,000; anthracite 222,000; iron ore 125,000; manganese 55,000; lead 15,000. Tunisia.—Chief towns (1936 census): Tunis (cap., 219,578); Sfax (43,333): Bizerta (28,468); Sousse (28,465). Finance and Banking.-—Budget (1945): revenue Fr. 2,390,000,000; expenditure Fr. 2,390,000,000. Public debt (end 1945): Fr. 894,000,000. Monetary unit: M.F. Foreign Trade.—Imports (1947) Fr. 17,477,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. 10,309,000,000; exports (1947) Fr. 6,476,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. 4,563,000,000. Transport and Communications.—Roads (1945) 5,350 mi.; railways (1945) 1,327 mi. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947): cars 10,355; com¬ mercial vehicles 5,690. Agriculture.—Main crops (1947, metric tons): wheat 299,000; barley 109,000; olive oil 59,000; oats (1946) 12,000; wine (1946, in hi.) 549,000. Livestock (1945): horses 102,500; asses 186,700; mules 59>5oo; cattle (1947) 401,000; camels 153,000; sheep (1947) 2,783,000; pigs (1947) 21,000; goats 1,940,300. Mineral Production.—(metric tons) Phosphate rock (1947) 1,834,000; iron ore (1945) 132,000; lignite (1945) 70,000; lead (1945) 10,000. French West Africa—Chief towns (pop. 1945 est.): Dakar (cap., 140,000); Bamako (70,492); Saint Louis (49,160); Abidjan (33,000); Conakry (32,200); Porto Novo (27,483). Foreign Trade.—Imports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 11,916,000,000, (1948, first hall) Fr. C.F.A. 8,161,000,000; exports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 7,496,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.A. 8,436,000,000. Principal exports (1946, in metric tons): peanuts 170,109; palm kernel 35,369; coffee 36,441; cocoa 28,378; oilseed and cake 38,512; bananas 11,193; gold (kg.) 1,569; diamonds (carat) 94,985. Monetary unit: franc C.F.A. {Colonies Frangaises d’Afrique) =2 M.F. Transport aitd Communications.—(1946) Roads 16,777 rob; railways 2,705 mi.; navigable waterways C. 1,182 mi. Shipping entrances, 2,909 vessels of 3,223,839 tons. Togoland—According to a 1946 estimate there were in Togoland 638 Europeans. Capital: Lome (pop. 27,908). Foreign Trade.-—Imports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 558,000,000, (1948, six months) Fr. C.F.A. 294,000,000; exports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 387,000,000, (1948, six months) Fr, C.F.A. 347,000,000. Monetary unit: franc C.F.A. = 2 M.F. Agriculture.—Main crops (1945, in metric tons)': yams 144,200; millet 97,150; manioc 91,720; maize 56,945; palm-kernel 7,271; cotton 5,575. Exports: coffee 4,085; peanuts 3,265; cocoa 2,880; copra 1,022. French Equatorial Africa.—According to 1946 estimates, there were only 7,808 Europeans in all the four territories of French Equatorial Africa. Chief towns (pop., 1946 est.): Brazzaville (cap., 4,000); Libreville (4,500); Bangui (13,500); Fort Lamy (6,000). Finance.—Budget (1946): revenue Fr. C.F.A. i,ios,ooo,’ooo; expendi¬ ture Fr. C.F.A. 1,105,000,000. Monetary unit: franc C.F.A. = 2 M.F. Foreign Trade.—(1947) Imports Fr. C.F.A. 3,284,000,000; exports Fr. C.F.A. 2,797,000,000. Transport and Communications.—Roads (1946) 36,480 km.; railways (1945) 318 mi. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947, together with French West Africa): cars 7,790; commercial vehicles 12,750. Agriculture.—Main crops (in metric tons): maize (1944) 25,000; cot¬ ton (1945) 20,000; cotton seed (1945) 47,000; dates (1945) 38,000. Cameroun.—The number of Europeans was estimated in 1946 at 3,981 and the population of Yaounde, the capital, at 50,000. Finance.—Budget (1944): revenue Fr. C.F.A. 349,942,000; expendi¬ ture Fr. C.F.A. 288,677,000. Monetary unit: franc C.F.A. = 2 M.F. Foreign Trade.—Imports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 2,197^000,000 (1948 first half) Fr. C.F.A. 1,518,000,000; e.xports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 1,632,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.A. 2,099,000,000. Agriculture.—Main crops (1945, in metric tons): maize 53,000; millet 285,000; manioc 154,000; cacao 38,000; coffee 7,000. French Somaliland. The population of Jibuti, the capital, was estimated in 1944 at 10,421. Foreign Trade.—Imports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 630,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.A. 866,000,000; exports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 289,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.A. 519,000,000. Monetary unit: franc C.F.A. = 2 M.F. Shipping.—(1946) Entrances at Jibuti: vessels 1,276; tonnage 465,800. Madagascar.—The revolt of March 1947 continued to smoulder during most of the year, though by the end of 1948 it became only a scattered guerrilla war, much the greater part of the area of the outbreak being under French control. On Oct. 4 after a trial lasting nearly three months the court of Antananarivo convicted 17 and acquitted 15 persons of having organized the rebellion. Among the condemned were all three deputies and both the councillors of the republic representing the Malagasy popu¬ lation of Madagascar in the Paris parliament. Population.—The number of Europeans was estimated in 1946 at 50,000, including 35,000 French. Chief towns (pop. 1946 est.): Anta¬ nanarivo (Tananarive) (cap.,' 163,079); Tamatave (24,860); Majunga

322

FRENCH PACIFIC ISLANDS-

(24,599); Fianarantsoa (23,936). The population of the Comoro, Mayotte and Nossi-Be Islands (total area 849 sq.mi.) was estimated in 1946 at 158,000. Foreign Trade.—Imports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 3,875,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.A. 2,902,000,000; exports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 4,218,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.A. 2,712,000,000. Monetary unit: franc C.F.A. = 2 M.F. Transport and Communications.—Roads (1947) 16,000 mi.; railways (1947) 534 Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947): cars 6,330; com¬ mercial vehicles 4,560. Shipping: entrances (1946): 5,356 vessels of 1,035,743 tons. Agriculture.~Md.\n crops (1948, in metric tons): rice 742,000; pota¬ toes 60,000; sugar (raw value) 12,000. Mineral Production.—(1946, in metric tons) Graphite 6,315; mica 492. Reunion.—About 97% of the population is French. Chief towns (pop. 1946 est.): Saint Denis (35,982); Saint Paul (25,959); Saint Louis (24,004); Saint Pierre (22,289). Banking and Finance.—Budget (1946): revenue Fr. C.F.A. 289,000,000; expenditure Fr. C.F.A. 289,000,000. Monetary unit: franc C.F.A. = 2 M.F. Foreign Trade.—Imports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 1,375,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.A. 989,000,000; exports (1947) Fr. C.F.A. 1,300,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.A. 744,000,000. Production.—(1945, in hi.) Rum 36,115; industrial alcohol 18,175; sugar (raw value, 1948 est.) 91,000 metric tons. French India.—The French government reached an agreement with the Indian government on June 8 that after municipal elections in the five French territories, each of them should decide by referendum whether it wished to maintain its relations with France or not. Negotiations would then be resumed to give effect to the wishes of the population. Both gov¬ ernments bound themselves to create conditions of liberty for the elections) These occurred on Oct. 24 in Chandernagore, Pondicherry (Pondichery), Yanaon and Karikal, but not in Mahe, which was invaded from Indian territory on the eve of the elections by some thousands of persons who carried off the French administrator, burnt the register of electors and compelled a number of elected officeholders to resign. In Chandernagore (Bengali speaking) there was a majority in favour of attachment to India. In Pondicherry, Yanaon and Karikal (all Tamil speaking) there were strong majorities in favour of maintaining the connection with France. In Mahe (also Tamil speaking) the administrator was liberalized, but elections had not, by the end of 1948, been held. Popidation.—There are five settlements (pop., 1941 est.): Pondicherry 211,468, including town 53,101; Karikal 64,332, including town 19,363; Chandernagore 48,766, including town 38,284; Mahe 14,764, including town 14,092; Yanaon 6,820, including town 5,711. Finance and Banking.—Budget (1947): revenue Rs. 6,981,000; ex¬ penditure Rs. 6,581,000. Monetary unit: rupee. Exchange rate: R. i = 30 cents U.S. French Indo-China.—The Federation of Indo-China comprises: (i) the state of Viet-Nam consisting of Tongking or Tonkin (or Bac-Ky—country of the north), and Annam (or Trung-Ky—country of the middle); (2) the province of Cochin-China (or Nam-Ky—country of the south); (3) the province of Laos; and (4) the kingdom of Cambodia. While Cambodia and Laos were quiet, guerrilla warfare continued throughout the year in the three Annamese speaking areas making up Viet-Nam—Tongking, Annam and Cochin-China. The French occupied all the principal cities, but Pres. Ho Chi-minh’s government maintained itself in the countryside and inflicted heavy casualties from time to time on convoys. The French government throughout the year, in spite of the pressure of the Socialist party, maintained its refusal to negotiate with the Ho Chi-minh government on the ground that it represented a terrorist minor¬ ity. It encouraged the creation of a “central provisional Viet-Namian government” of which Gen. Nguyen Van Xuan was the head, and which recognized the claims of the former emperor Bao Dai of Annam to be rightful sovereign of all Viet-Nam, although in present circumstances he did not exercise his rights. On June 5 an agreement was signed on board the French cruiser “Duguay-Trouin” by the French high commissioner Emile Bollaert, General Xuan and Bao Dai, recognizing the independence of Viet-Nam, while Viet-Nam on its side acceded to the French union as an associated state. On Oct. 20 Leon Pignon was appointed successor to Bollaert as high commissioner. On arriving at Saigon he stated on Nov. 24 that France desired to see the principles of the agreement of June 5 applied as rapidly as possible and he wished only to see a strong and respected Viet-Namian government established, exercising the proper prerogatives; the only gov¬ ernment France recognized was that of General Xuan; it was for Bao Dai to indicate when and how he wished to return to Viet-Nam. On Oct. 20 the delegation of Pres. Ho Chi-minh’s government, which contin¬ ued to exist in Paris though no longer recognized by the French govern¬ ment, applied to the United Nations for the admission of Viet-Nam and to the assembly of the French union to allow its representatives to attend its debates as observers. Population.—Chief towns: Saigon (cap., pop. 1940 est., 189,750); Cholon, seaport of Cochin-China (pop., 1940 est., 207,055); Hanoi (pop. est. 1942, 124,000); Haiphong, seaport of Tongking (pop., 1942 est., 122,000); Pnom-Penh (pop., 1936 census, 102,678); Hue (pop., 1936 census, 28,000); Vientiane or Vien-chan (pop., 1948 est., 10,000). Finance and Banking.—Budget (1947): revenue 681,212,000 piastres; expenditure 681,212,000 piastres. Public debt (Dec. 31, 1945) 217,751,000 piastres. Monetary unit: piastre=i7 M.F. Foreign Trade.—Viet-Nam, Cambodia and Laos: imports (1947) 16,509,000,000 piastres, (1948, first half) 14,903,000,000 piastres; exports (1947) 8,035,000,000 piastres, (1948, first half) 7,319,000,000 piastres. Transport and Communications.—Roads (1942) 12,220 mi.; railways 2,093 mi. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947): cars 8,940; trucks and buses 3,030. Production.—(Metric tons) Coal (1948 est.) c. 300,000; zinc (1944) 1,405; tin (1944) 364; manganese (1944) 3,444; cement (1948 est.)

FRIENDS, RELIGIOUS SOCIETY c. 100,000; rice (1948) 4,210,000; sugar (1948 est.) c. 25,000. New Caledonia.—The population of Noumea, the capital, was estimated in 1946 at 10,466. Dependencies of New Caledonia have a total area of 1,121 sq.mi. with a pop. c. 7,000. Foreign Trade.—Imports (1947) Fr. C.F.P. 540,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.P. 251,000,000; exports (1947) Fr. C.F.P. 196,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.P. 109,000,000. Main exports: nickel ore, chrome. Monetary unit: franc C.F.P. ^Colonies Frangaises du Pacifiqur) = 5.31 M.P. Shipping.—(1946) Entrances: 71 ships of 139,561 tons. French Pacific Islands—This colony comprises eight archipelagos, the most important being the Society Islands, including Tahiti (area: 600 Bq.mi., pop., 1946 est., 24,820), with the town of Papeete (pop. 12,428). Foreign Trade.—Imports (1947) Fr. C.F.P. 369,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.P. 210,000,000; exports: (1947) Fr. C.F.P. 431,000,000, (1948, first half) Fr. C.F.P. 156,000,000. Main exports: phosphate rock, copra. Monetary unit: franc C.F.P. = 5.31 M.F. (D. R. Gi.; X.) French Territory in America.—French holdings in the western hemisphere fall into three regional groups: (1) the islands of St. Pierre and Miquelon at the mouth of the Gulf of St. Lawrence; each has a number of de¬ pendent islets; (2) the French West Indies, consisting of the two islands of Martinique and Guhdeloupe, the latter having five small island de¬ pendencies; and J3) French (luiana, a mainland department in the north¬ eastern part of South America, including French Guiana proper, a narrow coastal strip, and the hinterland area of Inini. The departmental council of Martinique, on May 20, 1948, passed a resolution of protest against a measure adopted by the 9th Conference of American States, which met at Bogota, Colombia. This measure had recommended inter-American action directed toward the eventual inde¬ pendence of the remaining European holdings in the Americas. From Dec. 1 to 14, the international Caribbean commission met at Basse-Terre, the capital of Guadeloupe. The commission was composed of representatives of the governments of the United States, the United Kingdom, France and the Netherlands; the United Nations and the gov¬ ernments of Canada, Haiti, Cuba and the Dominican Republic were repre¬ sented by invited observers. The commission, an advisory body author¬ ized to make recommendations to member and to territorial governments on economic and social matters of common interest to nonsovereign Caribbean territories, considered such West Indian problems as (i) the large percentage of the region’s population in low income groups; (2) insufficient production of food; (3) lack of industrial development; (4) inadequate housing; (5) limited shipping facilities; and (6) the scarcity of productive employment. Finance.—The monetary unit is the franc, valued on April 28 at $0.0047 U.S. currency, official rate. Trade.—The valuations placed on the imports and exports during 1946 of the French holdings in America were as follows: Guadeloupe: exports $12,600,000, imports $9,400,000; Martinique: exports $13,100,000, im¬ ports $13,300,000; French Guiana: exports $800,000, imports $2,100,000; and St. Pierre and Miquelon: exports $800,000, imports $1,300,000. (G. I. B.)

French Pacific Islands: see French Overseas Territories. Frequency Modulation: see Federal Communications Commission; Radio.

Friends, Religious Society of. eg"fefto1i.r6rV.t sembly of the World Council of Churches (g.v.) at Amsterdam, the Netherlands, attended a Quaker meeting for worship. A printed statement, distributed in advance, explained that Quaker worship is entirely without human direction or supervision: “A group of devout persons come together and sit down quietly with no prearrangement, each seeking to have an immediate sense of divine leading and to know at first hand the presence of the living Christ.” Messages and prayers were spoken in sev¬ eral languages by churchmen of widely divergent theological positions. Thus, through its manner of worship as well as in its rejection of outward sacraments, its emphasis on lay religion and its testimony against all war, the Society of Friends ex¬ pressed its distinctive contribution to the ecumenical Christian Church. Representatives were present from the Five Years Meeting of Friends in America, the Friends General conference, the Philadelphia Yearly Meeting (Orthodox), the Canada Yearly Meetings and the Friends World Committee for Consultation. The first session of the newly constituted South Africa Yearly Meeting was held at Stellenbosch, Cape of Good Hope, in Janu¬ ary; it focused its concern upon the problem of race relations in South Africa. An international young Friends retreat was held in July at Eerde school, Ommen, the Netherlands; the 65 young Friends who assembled from 12 countries considered the question: “Does God speak to us any more?” Convening be¬ yond the borders of England and Wales for the first time in its

323

FRUIT history, the London Yearly Meeting met in August in Edin¬ burgh, Scotland, in commemoration of the 300th anniversary of the birth of Robert Barclay, foremost Quaker theologian and author of An Apology for the True Christian Divinity. The long and tragic aftermath of World War II and the per¬ sistence of actual fighting in many parts of the world made it necessary for the service agencies of the Society of Friends to continue their programs of relief, reconstruction and recon¬ ciliation. In May the British Quakers officially terminated their wartime relief organization. Friends Relief Service, which had collected and spent £630,000 from 1940; many of its operations in Poland, France, Austria, Germany, India, China and the near east were, however, carried on by the Friends Service council. The Friends Ambulance Unit Postwar Service was still working on the continent of Europe, and the Friends Service unit, successor to the Friends Ambulance unit in Asia, was active in both communist and nationalist China, carrying on village co-operatives, medical clinics and building projects. British and American Friends co-operated in this program as well as in the maintenance of neighbourhood centres in Germany and Poland and international centres in many capital cities. The American Friends Service committee sent a gift of 3,000 five-gram vials of streptomycin to the U.S.S.R. to be distributed by the Russian Red Cross and Red Crescent. Coming in the midst of a rising current of hostility between the United States and the Soviet Union, this gesture of friendship across the socalled “iron curtain” evoked a favourable reaction in large sec¬ tions of the U.S. press. During the period of greatest tension between east and west, a seminar on international relations was held in Berlin, Germany, under the auspices of the committee. Thirty-nine students from eight countries were flown into the blockaded city, where they discussed the problems of peace under the leadership of professors from Germany, England and the United States. In the United States 10 international serv¬ ice seminars were held, attended by 270 students representing 41 countries and nationalities. The committee also conducted summer work camps in the United States and Europe, offered young people opportunities to serve as attendants in state mental hospitals and correctional institutions and sponsored institutes of international relations as part of its program* of peace edu¬ cation. English Friends continued to maintain their testimony against military conscription. In the United States the passage of the Selective Service Act of 1948 led to a reaffirmation of the tradi¬ tional Quaker testimony against war and military service. A broadly representative meeting of American Friends held at Richmond, Ind., in July, reaffirmed the declaration against “all outward wars and fightings” made by George Fox, founder of the Society of Friends, and others in 1660. The meeting called upon Friends to adhere faithfully to this testimony “and in no way to unite with any warlike measure ... to the end that we may convincingly demonstrate a more excellent way of set¬ tling conflicts.” In particular. Friends were urged to support young men of draft age who expressed their opposition to con¬ scription either by nonregistration or by registration as con¬ scientious objectors. {See also Church Membership.) (F. Ts.) p *. Total world fruit prorrlllL duction in 1948 was estimated to be somewhat less than the previous year. Apples were estimated at 394,000,000 bu., or 17% below 1947 and 23% below the prewar average. The pear crop of 132,000,000

bu. was 15% lower than 1947, but practically the same as the prewar average. Peach production was down about 18%, apri¬ cots up 4% and cherries about 3% lower than in 1947. Raisin production was larger, and world pinea,pple production had in¬ creased 10% in 1947 as compared with 1946. Citrus fruit production continued its recent upward trend. Apples.—The U.S. 1948 apple crop totalled 90,288,000 bu., or only 80% as much as the 1947 crop of 113,041,000 bu. and a ten-year average of 115,058,000 bu. The reduction was rather evenly distributed over the country. There was some damage in the northeast from dry weather. In general, McIntosh, Cort¬ land and Wealthy crops were about the same as in 1947. York Imperial turned out very well. Gravensteins, the most impor¬ tant California variety, were especially short. The leading vari¬ eties in 1948 in order of crop size were: Delicious, Winesap, McIntosh, Jonathan, Rome Beauty and York Imperial; they comprised more than 60% of the commercial production. U.S. consumption of commercial apples per capita was estimated at 24.5 lb., only 81% of the prewar level. Prices of apples during 1948 varied sharply with the season and variety, but averaged about $2 per bushel to the producer early in the year, and reached a low for the 1948 crop of $2.20 per bushel in October. On Dec. i, there were 22,097,000 bu. in cold storage, compared with 35,790,000 bu. at the same date in 1947. Future trading in apples was inaugurated on the Chi¬ cago market during 1948. Apricots.—The 1948 crop in California, Washington and Utah, the states with commercial production, was 249,000 tons, 24% more than the 202,000 tons of 1947 and somewhat larger than the 240,000-ton average for the previous decade. Cali¬ fornia with 219,000 tons produced 30% more than in 1947. Frost damage in Washington, small sizes and weak processing demand characterized the U.S. crop. World production was estimated at 473,530 short tons, 4% more than in 1947. Most of the increase was in the U.S., Spain and Italy. European production of 132,000 tons was 24% be¬ low 1947. Avocados.—U.S. production in 1948-49 was estimated at 15,100 tons, whereas production in 1947-48 was 16,900 tons. Production in the leading state, California, declined, while that in Florida increased about 40%. Bananas.—The U.S. supply, all imported, amounted to about 20 lb. per capita in 1948, exceeding 1947 and prewar. Cherries.—The 1948 U.S. commercial cherry crop was a big one of 216,980 tons, 25% more than 1947 and 28% more than average. Sour cherries, commercially produced mostly in Mich¬ igan and Wisconsin, were a record crop of 136,080 tons, 45% more than 1947 and 59% above average. Sweet cherries, mostly produced in Washington, Oregon and California, were 80,900 tons, 2% above 1947 but 7% below average. Cranberries.—The U.S. crop was a record high one of 922,500 bbl. in 1948, 17% more than 1947 and 37% more than average. Massachusetts produced 575,000 bbl., more than half the total crop. The Wisconsin crop was a large one of 225,000 bbl., more than twice the average for the previous decade. Con¬ siderably more than one-half the crop was processed. Prices had declined after reaching a peak in 1946.

Table I.— U.S. Commercial Apple Production in Leading States, 1948, 1947 and I O-Veor Average, 7 937-46 (in thousands of bushels)

1948

State

Washington. New York. ...... Virginia. California.- . Michigan. Pennsylvania. West Virginia . . . Oregoh. • . . Illinois.

....

11,750

....

3,036

1947

10-Yr. Average

33,480 15,045 5,072 11,082 6,400 6,612 2,820 2,864 4,187

27,607 1 5,059 10,698 7,780 7,233 8,031 4,242 2,925 3,136

State

Massachusetts. Ohio. Idaho .. Colorado. New Jersey. Indiana. North Carolina ......... Maine. Maryland.

1948

1947

2,194 1,936 1,584 1,395 1,364 1,018 976 949 928

2,864 3,038 2,075 1,568 1,935 1,489 768 930 938

10-Yr. Average

2,489 4,360 2,307 1,501 2,899 1,452 1,065 686 1,737

FRUIT

324

Orangss. — The indicated U.S. crop for 1948-49 was 114,10-Yr. 10-Yr. 900,000 boxes, compared with 1948 1947 Average Stote 1947 Average 1948 State 110,380,000 boxes in 1947 and 2,600 3,090 Iowa. 55,360 60,000 New York. 2,600 1,870 33,820 Georgia. 42,500 Michigan. 89,727,000 boxes, average 1,900 2,350 13,150 Kansas. 21,400 Washington. 1,810 Virginia. 1,800 18,100 16,330 Pennsylvania. 1937-46. 2,400 2,500 Indiana. 12,600 8,570 Arkansas. New Jersey. 1,900 2,250 15,400 17,190 Ohio. Tangerines.—The 1948 Flor¬ Oregon . , 1,500 1,850 5,300 5,600 North Carolina.... West Virginia .... 900 1,325 5,570 3,800 Missouri. ida crop was estimated at 4,South Carolina . . . . . 1,100 1,160 3,700 3,200 Illinois • .. 000,000 boxes, the same as 1947 10-Yr. and comparable with the 3,360,California. 1948 1947 Average 000-box average >(1937-46). Wine vorieties .. 601^000 517,000 575,100 Table varieties 583,000 620,000 482,200 Peaches.—The U.S. 1948 Raisin varieties.1,629,000 1,687,000 1,452,100 peach crop was estimated at Total. 2,81 3,000 2,824,000 2,509,400 65,749,000 bu., 20% less than Dates.—The California date crop of 1948 was estimated at the 82,270,000 bu. of 1947 but only 1% less than the average 12,200 tons, compared with 10,180 tons in 1947 and only 7,697 of 66,725,000 bu. The crop was particularly short in the early tons, average 1937-46. Expanded production plus increasing southern states. The California clingstone crop for canning was imports left the industry with marketing problems as the year 24% above average. ended. Table V.—U.S. Peach Production in Leading States, 1948, 1947 and Figs .—The 1948 fig crop of California and Texas was a small 1 0-Year Average, 1937-46 one. California produced 29,500 tons, compared with 38,0001 ' (In thousands of bushels) tons in 1947; standard grades amounted to 22,500 tons in 1948 10-Yr. 10-Yr. against 30,600 tons in 1947. Texas figs for preserving were esti¬ Stole 1948 1947 Average State 1948 1947 Average California. . . 30,086 33,003 27,373 New Jersey « . 1,175 1,617 1,349 mated at 560 tons in 1948 and 760 in 1947. Michigan . • . 3,528 4,300 3,319 Texas . . . . 1,140 1,696 1,698 South Carolina. 3,320 6,630 3,151 New York. . , 1,114 1,440 1,377 Grapefruit.—The 1948-49 grapefruit crop was indicated at Georgia . . . 2,812 5,810 5,037 Mississippi . . 840 854 856 56,250,000 boxes, compared with 61,630,000 boxes in 1947-48 Arkansas . • . 2,482 2,220 2,190 Utah. 821 933 650 Washington . 2,210 2,817 2,081 Ohio. 780 1,020 875 and an average for 1937-46 of 47,478,000 boxes. The price Pennsylvania. . 2,182 V,920 1,960 Missouri . . . 752 1,288 676 Colorado . . • 1,922 2,106 1,816 Oregon . . . 595 851 547 to producers of fruit on the tree in Nov. 1948 averaged 34 cents North Corolina. 1,646 2,905 2,131 Indiana. . . . 559 725 385 Illinois ... 7 1,428 2,413 1,494 Maryland. , . 425 533 539 per box, compared with 65 cents a year earlier. Alabama . . . 1,525 Table II.—U.S. Crape Production in Leading States, 1948, 1947 and 10-Year Average, 1937-46 (In tons)

Virginia. . . .

1,298 1,209

1,680

1,388 1,480

West Virginia . Kentucky . . .

530 462

388 783

514 707

Table III. — U.S. Grapefruit Production by States, 1948, 1947 and

Plums and Prunes.—The 1948 plum crop was estimated at

10-Yr. Average, 1937-46 (In thousonds of boxes) Stote Florida Seedless • Other . , Texas • . •

1948

1947

10-Yr. Average

14,500 16,500 19,000

14,800 18,200 23,200

9,640 14,280 17,488

State Arizona. . .. California Desert. ,, Other . .

1948 3,600

10-Yr. 1947 Average 3,000 3,301

1,150 1,500

960 1,470

1,158 1,612

about 10% below 1947 and 11% below average. Commercial dried prune production of 171,450 tons was 13% below 1947 and 17% below average. Very few prunes were canned in 1948; marketing for fresh consumption was 3% above average. Table VI.—U.S. Production of Plums and Prunes by States, 1948, 1947 and

Grapes.—The 1948 grape crop of 2,998,100 tons was slightly less than 1947, but 11% above average. The California crop, 2,813,000 tons of the total, was 12% above average, whereas production in the Great Lakes area was less than average. Because of low prices, raisin production declined sharply; that of wine and brandy increased. Lemons.—The indicated 1948-49 California crop of 13,100,000 boxes (12,870,000 boxes in 1947-48 and 12,808,000 boxes, average 1937-46) appeared to be meeting with indifferent de¬ mand. Limes.—The 1948-49 Florida crop of 200,000 boxes was large compared with 170,000 boxes in 1947 and 148,000 boxes, av¬ erage for 1937-46. Olives.—California in 1948 produced 62,000 tons, compared with 40,000 tons in 1947 and 45,400 tons, average 1937-46.

10-Yr. Average, 1937-46 (In tons, fresh basis) State 1948 19-47 California. 67,000 74,000 Michigan. 3,500 4,000 Oregon Eastern. 19,700 18,900 Western. 29,100 15,500 Idaho . 22,300 37,000 Washington Eastern. 19,100 19,100 Western. 2,300 4,000 California*.. 177,000 198,000 *Dry basis—the drying ratio is about 2’/^ lb. of fresh fruit to 1 lb. dried.

1 0-Year Average, 1937-46 (In thousands of bushels)

lln thousands of boxes*) 1948

1947

10-Yr. Average

15,500 29,200

1 8,900 26,800

18,846 30,056

31,000 27,400 4,000

20,005 16,485 3,360

3,100 2,100

1,931 1,310

480 300 300

372 423 298

. . .

2,900

. . .

600

15,870 8,710 206,100

Pears.—The 1948 pear crop of the U.S. was estimated at 26,399,000 bu., 25% less than 1947 and 13% less than average (1937-46). The Pacific coast states produced 15,135,000 bu. of Bartletts, 26% less than in 1947 and 9% less than average.

10-Yr. Average, 1937-46

. . . . . .

14,880 69,910 19,380

Table VII. — U.S. Pear Production in Leading States, 1948, 1947 and

Table IV. — U.S. Orange Production by States, 1948, 1947 and

State California Navels and miscellaneous . . . Valencias. Florida Early and midseason. Valencias. Tangerines. Texas Early and midseason. . . ; . Valencias. Arizona Navels. Valencias. Louisiana.

10-Yr. Average 75,100 4,290

*Boxes hold 77 lb. in California and Arizona; 90 lb. in other states.

State California Bartlett. Other . Washington Bartlett. Other . Oregon Bartlett. Other .

1948

1947

10-Yr. Average

. . 9,168 . . 1,250

12,334 2,042

9,663 1,375

. . 4,158 . . 1,775

6,156 2,149

5,156 1,900

• . 1,809 . . 2,932

1,975 3,749

1,775 2,539

State 1948 Georgia. . . . 385 New York . . . . 384 Mississippi . . . . 360 Michigan . . . 336 Illinois .... 330 Alabama . . * 288 Pennsylvania . . 255 Virginia .... 252 Louisiana. . . . 240

10-Yr. 1947 Averoge 385 379 960 946 350 342 650 916 402 431 288 306 262 415 280 327 207 187

Pineapples.—Florida pineapple production in 1948 was 7,000 crates, compared with 4,000 crates in 1947 and an average of 11,000 crates (1937-46). A large part of U.S. consumption was

FUEL BRIQUETTES —FURS imported, mostly from the Hawaiian Islands. Strawberries.—The U.S. commercial crop of strawberries in 1948 amounted to 9,992,000 crates, compared with 8,895,000 crates in 1947 and an average for the previous decade of 9,329,000 crates. Oregon was the leading producer with 1,650,000 crates. The average price was $8.07 per crate of 24 qts. (See also Agriculture; Horticulture.) (J. K. R.)

TiidI DnnilQttoc

production of fuel briquettes is of lUCl DriljUwlluOi the order of 85,000,000 short tons per year, mostly in European countries where lignite or brown coal forms an appreciable portion of the fuel supply. This is par¬ ticularly true in Germany, which has in the past produced something like 85% of the total output, while only 2% of the output is produced outside of Europe. United States .—The growth of the fuel briquetting industry in the United States is indicated by the data in the following table, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines: Data on U.S. Fuel Briquetting Industry

1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947

lln thousands of short tons) Production Exports 1,051 23 1,299 40 1,748 104 2,164 175 2,465 164 2,762 174 3,004 163 3,172 249

Consumption 1,028 1,259 1,644 1,989 2,302 2,589 2,841 2,923

Fuels Used 1,003 1,228 1,652 2,076 2,331 2,603 2,829 2,974

In the United States the production of briquettes is largely confined to the utilization of coals too fine to be used satis¬ factorily as they are. In addition to the briquette output reported above, there is a small production of a special type of briquettes known as pack¬ aged fuel, consisting of several cubical briquettes wrapped to¬ gether in heavy paper and sealed with gummed tape. Produc¬ tion of packaged fuel was 190,919 short tons in 1946 and 182,881 short tons in 1947. (G. A. Ro.) Production of fuller’s earth in the United States increased from 298,752 short tons in 1946 to 329,100 short tons in 1947, only a few thousand tons under the record output of 1930. More than two-thirds of the output is used in the filtering and clarification of mineral and vegetable oils; other important uses are as an absorbent, in drilling mud for oil wells and in insecticides. (G. A. Ro.)

Fuller’s Earth.

During 1948 the 4,200 factories in the United States turning out wooden and upholstered furniture produced a total dollar volume estimated by the industry at $1,550,000,000, an increase of 8% over 1947, and the greatest in the history of the industry. At retail prices this output sold for nearly $3,000,000,000. In units, this production probably amounted to an average of two pieces for each of the 35,000,000 homes in the country, but still was only one-third greater than the $660,000,000 output in 1941, furniture prices having since risen approximately 78%. The increase in production was primarily the result of new production techniques, new equipment and better-trained work¬ men, who numbered 150,000 in 1948, an increase of 3% over 1947 and about 18% more than in 1941. For producing $1,550,000,000 worth of merchandise, the 150,000 employees received a total wage of $400,000,000 (estimated) or approximately 25% of the total value they produced. The 1948 wage rate was $1.21 an hour, or $51.50 per week, compared with 64 cents per hour in 1941 and $1,145 in 1947. As 1948 ended, the furniture industry faced the future with uncertainty because the price of furniture and the higher cost

Furniture Industry.

325

of housing had begun to slow up sales that for three years had exceeded all expectations. The first branch to achieve capacity production, early in 1948, was the upholstering group, com¬ prising about 1,200 factories. The novelty branch (small tables, etc.) by midyear had filled its backlogs and its 1,500 manufac¬ turers were eager for business. At year’s end, only the case-goods factories, numbering 1,500, making bedroom and dining room furniture and large occasional pieces, had more than 60 days’ business on their books. Modern design dominated the 1948 furniture demand, ac¬ counting for approximately 40% of all production. Traditional 18th-century furniture dropped to about 25% of factory sales, while early American in maple, French provincial, Victorian, unstyled “borax” and lacquered Chinese furniture accounted for the remaining 35% of total output. During 1948 more new dual-purpose furniture was introduced because of the growing popularity of one- and two-room apart¬ ments created by the housing shortage. Most popular of these pieces were the “butler’s buffet” and the “Mr. and Mrs. dresser,” suitable for the living room, dining room or bedroom, and hold¬ ing an extraordinary amount of clothing or linens and china. Imposition of credit controls on retail furniture sales during the last quarter of 1948 slowed up volume for both dealers and manufacturers about 15% during that period, but the industry expected to encourage heavier buying in 1949 with “promotional furniture,” which the public calls “popular-priced.” For seven years most manufacturers had been concentrating on the “top of their lines,” producing about one-third of the patterns they offered in 1941. But those days were plainly over. U.S. furniture factories shipped practically no goods outside the country in 1948 except a small amount to Canada and Mexico, but the influx of English, Swedish, Italian and Finnish furniture gave foresighted manufacturers a hint that another year might make export trade seem more desirable. In Canada the 623 factories manufacturing furniture were facing the same problems as U.S. producers: high material and labour costs and a falling market. England was more interested in dollar exchange than in its own bombed-out home market and was exporting much of the output of its approximately 1,000 furniture plants. (See also Interior Decoration.) (J. A. G.) Tiirck United States’ fur industry, during 1948, passed rUltfa through a period of rapid deflation. A mild fall and in¬ creased consumer interest in cloth garments, fur trimmed or fur lined, curtailed sales of fur apparel. Styles, excessive cost of production and the federal fur tax also hurt the fur coat business. Manufacturers and retailers were compelled during the fall to try to liquidate stocks by slashing prices from 25% to 50%. Cold weather and cut prices stimulated demand in December. The popular furs were mink, muskrat, Persian lamb, squirrel, beaver and mouton. Long-haired furs remained neglected. Limited quantities of silver, platinum, blue and white fox, skunk and wolf were used for trimmings. Other trimming furs were mink, muskrat, Jap mink, squirrel, marmot, fitch, kolin¬ sky and Persian lamb. Jackets, capes, scarfs and stoles were popular and sold throughout the spring and fall months. Their principal appeal was price. Standard and mutation ranch mink sold freely at established prices during the first half of the year. Mink prices broke sharply in the fall. There was a large carry-over. The new mink crop opened 20% to 25% below 1947-48 prices. Other wanted pelts such as wild mink, muskrat and beaver also were from 25% to 30% lower in price. Persian lamb continued to be the most popular fur. The U.S. imported more than 5,000,000 Persian lambskins from the

326

FWA—GAULLE, CHARLES DE

U.S.S.R., Afghanistan and South-West Africa. Most skin imports came from the U.S.S.R. Large quantities of furs from central Europe were diverted to Moscow. Civil war curtailed Chinese fur shipments. Japanese furs were again sold through government agencies. Early in 1948 the U.S. re¬ ceived quantities of Indian lambskins and kidskins but internal strife later brought the fur business in India to a standstill. Trade in furs with South American countries was curtailed be¬ cause of the exchange situation. Large quantities of lambskins were imported from Argentina and adjacent countries for mouton. Argentina retained most of its nutria. Trade with Canada was restricted because of dominion embargo of imports of processed and manufactured furs. Canada was the second largest U.S. source of foreign furs. The fur business in Europe remained adversely affected by economic and political conditions. The London, England, mar¬ ket made strong efforts to bring about revival, but purchasing power in Europe remained very limited. There was a strong market in London for Persian lamb, mostly because of specula¬ tion in exchange. A large proportion of the skins sold eventually went to the U.S. In the Scandinavian countries there was an active demand for skins at inflated prices because of exchange manipulations. The French fur trade was curtailed by government regula¬ tions; Paris styles were still copied by many U.S. firms. The Italian fur trade made steady progress and recovery was re¬ ported, especially in processing of peltries. The U.S. extended credits to some German firms located in the western sector and steady progress was reported. Raw fur imports in the U.S. for the first ten months of 1948 amounted to approximately $137,400,000, compared with $100,500,000 in 1947. Exports for nine months were approxi¬ mately $21,000,000, compared with approximately $31,000,000 in 1947. Increasing consumer resistance to the federal fur tax de¬ veloped. All branches of the industry co-ordinated efforts to seek tax relief. The government collected $49,313,403 from the 20% fur tax in ten months, a decrease of more than $8,000,000 as compared with the same period in 1947. Late in the year clever manipulation of inexpensive peltries and high priced linings enabled manufacturers to produce fur garments that were classed nontaxable by the U.S. treasury department. Insolvencies numbered 64 from Dec. 1, 1947, to Oct. 22, 1948, according to the American Fur Merchants association, and involved $3,460,104. Unofficially, there were many addi¬ tional failures by the close of the year. The Associated Manu¬ facturers in New York and the International Fur Workers’ union clashed early in the year, and workers were locked out for many weeks. There was much unemployment by Dec. 1948. Congress granted fur farmers a government loan of $8,000,000, but only one rancher qualified for aid during 1948. (W. J. Bt.) FWA: see Federal Works Agency. Galapagos Islands: see Ecuador. Gambia: see British West Africa. Gambling: see Betting and Gambling. Garnet: see Abrasives.

Klntiirol QdO| IldlUldL

salient data on the production and consumption of natural gas in the United States are shown in the accompanying table in thousands of millions of cubic feet, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Public utility companies play a large part in the distribution of natural gas, their sales having amounted to 2,195,000,000,000 cu.ft. in 1946, 2,506,000,000,000 in 1947 and 1,469,000,000,000 in the first half of 1948.

Production and Consumption of Natural Gas in the U.S. (In thousands of millions of cubic feet)

1947* 1946* 1945 1942 1943 1944 2 2 4,453.9 4,942.6 5,614.2 5,902.2 Gross production • 2 t 896.2 684.1 1,010.3 626.8 Loss and waste 2 i 843.8 892.9 1,087.3 771.6 Returned to ground t • 4,444.7 3,053.5 3,414.7 3,711.0 3,918.7 4,095.0 Marketed. . . 18.1 17.7 18.2 14.6 8.7 11.2 Exports. . « 2 3,044.8 3,403.5 3,696.5 3,900.5 4,077.3 Consumption. . • 802.2 607.4 650.0 529.4 562.2 498.5 Domestic . • . 285.2 237.3 230.1 1 83.6 204.8 220.7 Commercial . . 933.8 960.0 917.0 721.1 855.2 781.0 Field use . . . 484.9 478.3 335.5 315.6 355.8 431.8 Carbon black . 363.9 338.5 355.0 Oil refineries . 201.7 243.6 315.3 60.5 57.7 64.5 35.6 38.3 Cement plants . 51.7 1,496.1 Other industrial 1,039.8 1,277.4 1,351.7 1,337.4 1,339.0 326.2 306.9 373.0 305.6 359.7 239.7 Public utilitiest* 2 2 990.5 1,029.8 815.7 920.0 Interstate traffic . *Preliminary. fMostly for repressuring oil fields; small amounts of surplus gas are returned to the ground for storage. {Includes manufactured gas, and not included in the consumption total.

Other Countries.—Natural gas is utilized more extensively in the United States than in any other country. World pro¬ duction data are lacking, but the table below gives the outputs as far as available in 1948, in thousands of millions of cubic feet: 1946

1947

Canada . 47.900 China . 2.157 France. 3.899 Mexico. 27.121 Polond. 5.255 Hungary. 3.221

(See also

Federal Power Commission.)

Gasoline: see

First half, 1948

55.415 1.928 5.170 35.258 5.212 3.560

32.229 .785 2.871 18.134 2.896 1.568

(G. A. Ro.)

Petroleum.

Cacnpri Alririp rip

), Italian prime minister, was born on April 3 at Pieve Tesino, Trentino, then in Austria-Hungary. After studying at the Uni¬ versity of Vienna, he became editor of II Nuovo Trentino and later was elected to the Austrian parliament as an Italian minor¬ ity representative. After the union of his native province with Italy, he was elected deputy to the Italian parliament in 1921. He opposed Mussolini’s dictatorship and in 1926 was sentenced to four years’ imprisonment for antifascist activities. During World War H De Gasperi took part in the resistance movement in Rome and on June 9, 1944, joined the first Ivanoe Bonomi cabinet as minister without portfolio. Minister of foreign affairs of the second Bonomi (Dec. 10, 1944) and Ferruccio Parri (June 19, 1945) cabinets, he was elected leader of the recon¬ structed Christian Democratic party (Democrazia Cristiana) and on Dec. 9, 1945, became prime minister. His first, second (July 12, 1946) and third (Feb. i, 1947) cabinets were coalition governments with Socialist and Communist participation. On June I, 1947, he formed a cabinet composed mainly of Christian Democrats, for the first time without Communists. After the election of April 18-19, 1948, in which he led his own party to victory (see Italy), De Gasperi on May 23, formed his sixth cabinet, which was mainly a coalition of Christian Demo¬ crats, moderate Socialists and Republicans. In the fall of 1948 he discussed with the prime ministers of Belgium and France the inclusion of Italy in the western Euro¬ pean union (q.v.) and the North Atlantic pact.

UudpCII, niulUC UC

CsIIIIIp PhPrIpQ rip

). French army officer and

UdUIICf UllflIICO UC statesman, was born Nov. 22 in Lille,

France. He was graduated from Saint-Cyr military college in 1913. He was captured by the Germans at Verdun in March 1916. Following World War I, he served in Poland as member of the French military mission, in France on the staff of Mar¬ shal Henri Petain, then inspector general of the French army, and in the Rhineland as commander of the. 19th battalion of the chasseurs a pied. From 1929 to 1932 he was charge de mission in Iraq, Iran and Egypt and, on his return, was appointed sec¬ retary-general of the Superior Council of National Defense. In 1934 he published Vers I’armee de metier, in which, condemn-

GEM STONES’—GENETICS

-m

327

emeralds of unstated origin; these stones ran much better in quality than the imports of 1946, but were still relatively low, at $34.94 and $20.02 per carat, respectively. Imports of natural pearls were valued at $360,963 and cultured pearls ran up to $737,753, but both types were much lower than in 1946. Other types of natural precious and semiprecious stones included in the imports were valued at $298,393 in rough form, and $3,962,557 in cut form. There was a growing demand for imitation and synthetic gems, such imports being valued at $8,314,423. Im¬ ports of all types of gem stones, including gem diamonds, but excluding industrial diamonds, were valued as follows: 1938 .$28,304,956 1939 . 40,488,136 1940 . 37,769,135 1941 33,777,215 1942 . 28,520,070

1943 1944 1945 1946 1947

$72,109,788 77,529,806 114,435,231 189,017,646 110,537,647

The United States has a small output of semiprecious and ornamental stones of a wide variety. While production of such materials practically ceased during World War H, it later re¬ vived on a considerable scale. Crude output valued at an esti¬ mated $40,000 in 1945 increased to $325,000 in 1946 and $570,000 in 1947. After cutting or otherwise preparing for the mar¬ ket, these values would be several times larger. {See also MinEROLOGY.) (G. A. Ro.)

Ponotipp eighth international genetics congress met in UClIuUbu. Stockholm, July 7 to 14, 1948, with almost 600

CHARLES DE GAULLE, leader of the R.P.F. (Rassemblement da Peuple Frangais), speaking at Compiegne, France, in March 1948. During the year, De Gaulle made repeated demands for a general election which he claimed would place his party in power

ing the doctrine of defense behind a fortified line, he advocated the creation of a mechanized and armoured army for a war of movement. In May 1940 he commanded the 4th armoured divi¬ sion which fought the Germans successfully at Laon and Abbe¬ ville. On June 6 he was appointed undersecretary of state for national defense in the Reynaud government. To protest against the opening of the armistice negotiations with Germany by the Petain government, De Gaulle went to London where, on June 18, he launched his Fighting France movement. On Sept. lo, 1944, he was back in Paris as head of the French provisional government and commander in chief of the French forces. On Nov. 13, 1945, the first constituent assembly unanimously elected him head of the new government, but on Jan. 20, 1946, he resigned, finding himself unable to preside over a coalition government with communist participation. In Sept. 1946 he appealed to his countrymen to reject the new constitution, but on Oct. 13 it was adopted by a small majority. De Gaulle con¬ tinued his attacks on the communists and the constitution and on April 14, 1947, announced that he would head the R.P.F. {Rassemblement du Peuple Frangais). The new party showed strength in the Oct. 1947 municipal elections, gaining nearly 40% of the entire vote. Consequently, on Oct. 27, De Gaulle called for the dissolution of the national assembly and new elec¬ tions. He continued his propaganda to this end throughout 1948. He also strongly opposed the renovation of German heavy in¬ dustry in the Ruhr. {See also France.) A A. Except for diamonds {q.v.), there was in UCIII ulUnCOa 1948 little information concerning the other gem stones of the world. Imports of gem stones into the United States in 1947 in¬ cluded 7,385 carats of rough emeralds and 4,133 carats of cut

geneticists from 37 countries in attendance. At the opening ses¬ sion H. J. Muller delivered the presidential address on “Genetics in the Scheme of Things.” About 200 papers were read and discussed. Notably absent were delegates from the U.S.S.R. During the year the Human Genetics Society of America was organized. In both Great Britain and the United States confer¬ ences were held on hereditary factors in cancer. F. B. Hutt and colleagues reported haemophilia, a sex-linked recessive, in dogs. The case was of particular interest because of the extreme rarity of sex-linked mutants in lower mammals. The discovery of this condition in dogs made possible an exten¬ sive experimental study of this disease. An inherited antigenantibody mechanism in horses, quite similar to the Rh factor in man, was reported by D. W. Bruner and colleagues. The anti¬ body, however, was carried to the foal through the mother’s milk. L. W. Law published a comprehensive summary of the status of mouse genetics, reporting a total of 69 mutant loci in 12 chromosomes. Radiation and Mutation.—E. G. Anderson tested the prog¬ eny from corn seed exposed at Bikini to atomic bomb radiations equivalent to 15,000 r-units of X-rays. As a control L. F. Ran¬ dolph made similar tests on corn seeds exposed in the laboratory to a comparable X-ray dosage. It was found that a very large number of chromosome abnormalities and visible and lethal mutations were produced in the corn exposed at Bikini. W. P. Spencer and C. Stern studied the effect of low dosage X-radiation in the production of lethal and visible mutations in the X-chromosome of the fruit fly. Drosophila melanogaster. In a large-scale experiment involving more than 200,000 test cultures it was found that the mutation rate was proportional to the dosage for doses as low as 25 and 50 r-units. The radia¬ tion was applied over a short time period. E. Caspari and C. Stern subjected Drosophila sperm to a total dosage of 50 r-units from radium, with the total dosage distributed evenly over three weeks. They found no apparent increase in mutation rate over that in controls. On the basis of this work it would seem that there was a threshold dosage per unit time even for total dosages of 50 r-units. From a study of mutations at one locus in com following

328

GENOCIDE, CONVENTION ON —GEOGRAPHY

SET-UP for a 360-yr. research on the genetics and longevity of seeds, begun at the California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, in 1948. Twenty sets of dried seeds, each set containing 120 seed varieties, were packed in glass tubes to be opened at specified intervals between 1948 and A.D. 2307

irradiation with X-rays L. J. Stadler and H. Roman concluded that X-ray mutations were chromosome deficiencies and not gene mutations of the type observed in nature. 0. Wyss, J. B. Clark, F. Haas, and W. S. Stone discovered that hydrogen peroxide added to nutrient broth increased mutation rate of the bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, in the same manner as irradiation of broth by ultra-violet light. M. Demerec subjected males of D. melanogaster to the cancer-inducing agent diben¬ zanthracene in the form of a fine aerosol spray and induced mutations in large numbers. Other carcinogens were being studied in the same way. Cytogenetics.—C. L. Huskins and colleagues studied endopolyploidy, the increase in chromosome numbers in some cells and tissues, in plants. Through treating growing plant tissues with indole-3-acetic acid they were able to induce many cell divisions over a short time period. This technique facilitated the study of differences in chromosome numbers from cell to cell. By increasing the concentration of sodium nucleate, nor¬ mally present in minute quantity in cells, they claimed to have demonstrated reduction divisions in body cells. This work should throw new light on the mechanism of chromosome re¬ duction in the formation of germ cells. L. N. H. Barter crossed the commercial banana, a triploid, to various wild diploids of two species to secure a fertile hybrid with the characters of the commercial type. Most of the prog¬ eny were partially fertile tetraploids from which the new favour¬ able type might eventually be produced. J. L. Fennell reported marked progress in the synthesis of superior tropical grape varieties through the formation of complex hybrids built up from wild tropical species. S. G. Stephens showed that two very closely linked genes in Asiatic cotton acted respectively on similar but not identical substrates in producing pigments. It

appeared that the two gene loci had arisen by duplication from a common ancestral locus. (See also Union of Soviet Social¬ ist Republics.) Bibliography.—Genetics, vol. 33 (1948); J. Genet., vol. 49 (1948); J. Hered., vol. 39 (1948). (W. P. S.)

Genocide,

Convention

on; see International Law;

United Nations.

Ponrrronhif

demand for geographers continued to inUCUgldpiiy* crease during 1948, both in education and government service. In the universities many new courses were added and Yale and Rutgers established new departments. In government, expansion was great in census work, in planning organizations and in climatological and cartographic research. The task of the geographic profession is the more burden¬ some because it ranges from instruction on the elementary level to consultation on the most delicate of political, economic and military problems. To meet these demands, there were in 1948 probably not many more than 1,000 professionally trained geographers in the United States, and the relative number of geographers in other parts of the Anglo-Saxon world was not much greater. Hence it was no wonder that the English-speak¬ ing world was geographically semiliterate. The training of geographers is difficult because of the unusual breadth and depth of knowledge required by their field. A life¬ time would be required to master the allied physical and social sciences relevant to a complete regional study. Yet limitation of his study to a narrower field prevents the geographer from synthesizing the diverse features of the world into an under¬ standable picture. Overspecialization either transfers his alle¬ giance to an allied science or converts him into a provincially minded expert on a very small area. To avoid these alternatives, geographic training emphasizes the major facts and principles in the entire field while superficiality is avoided by concentration

GEOLOGY either in a specific region or topical specialty such as urban geography. But even such specialization may be dangerous and the resulting inaccuracies in geographic portrayal must be avoided by consultation with others with complementary specialties. Scientific Organizations.—The year 1948 saw great progress in the marshalling of geographers into effective working or¬ ganizations. In December at Madison, Wis., the Association of American Geographers (founded in 1904) merged with the younger and larger American Society for Professional Geogra¬ phers. The new organization retained the name and scholarly activities of the senior organization but would continue the regional divisions and various other activities of the junior organization. The division of geology and geography of the National Re¬ search council had nine geographic committees dealing with: cartography; techniques of research; economic geography; rural and urban settlement; historical geography; physical geography; regional geography; political geography, and social geography. Geographers were active also on the research and development board and other government agencies. In Great Britain the members of the Royal Geographical society were equally active in governmental work as well as in private scientific research and exploration. Interest continued in the planning of national atlases both in the United States and Great Britain. Meanwhile postwar maps and atlases of good quality were received from Italy, Germany and Japan. Large-scale wall maps of best quality continued to be scarce although some commendable maps were produced in Japan, Scandinavia and Switzerland as well as by better-known publishers in Great Britain and the United States. The American Geographical society reconsidered its objectives and broadened its program to assist teaching and to expand its fields of research. Jacques M. May, a French surgeon with broad colonial experience, assumed direction of its studies in medical geography. The society participated in expeditions in Antarctica, Venezuela, Canada and Alaska and co-operated with the Arctic Institute of North America on Alaskan research. Progress In Education.—The Sept. 1948 number of Educa¬ tion was devoted to geography especially as related to elemen¬ tary and secondary education. The long-established Journal of Geography, published by the National Council of Geography Teachers, gave more specific help to teachers. Many ideas, first presented in its articles, were gathered together in a yearbook entitled Geographic Approaches to Social Education, which was prepared by the National Council of Geography Teachers for publication by the National Council for the Social Studies. Progress in educational methods was reflected in several new series of grammar school textbooks which by use of coloured illustrations and simple vocabularies make geography compre¬ hensible to the beginning student. Interesting projects in field work as a part of teaching were organized. The leading American and British university depart¬ ments either maintain field camps each summer or organize field trips under competent supervision. The most extensive of the latter was the “Marshall Plan in Action” sponsored by the University of Vermont which included geographic instruction in its summer tour of England, France, the Low Countries and the Rhineland. The National Education association also spon¬ sored summer tours, many of which were conducted by geog¬ raphers. The field trips in connection with the Lisbon congress of the International Geographical union were postponed along with the congress from Sept. 1948 to April 1949. Progress in Research.—In scholarly work increasing em¬ phasis was given to social-science aspects of geography. The outstanding publication was the Historical Geography of the

329

United States by Ralph H. Brown. Studies in political, urban, economic and regional geography tried new techniques. Most of them were exploratory in nature with little attempt to for¬ mulate cause-to-effect relationships. Contributions to physical geography were not lacking but most were concerned with applications and techniques rather than purely physical problems. For example, C. W. Thomthwaite in climatology and A. W. Kuchler in biogeography at¬ tempted to express the data of allied sciences in geographically significant terms. Much of the scholarly effort of geographers still remained tied up in the files of government agencies or was being devoted to such long-range projects as the Centennial Studies program of the Association of American Geographers. {See also Cartography; National Geographic Society; So¬ cieties AND Associations.) (0. P. S.) A I The eighteenth session of the International GeoUvUIUgy> logical congress was held in London in Aug. 1948. At the sectional meetings, which covered all important branches of the science, more than 200 papers were presented and dis¬ cussed. The Russian language was added to the pre-existing official languages of the congress (English, French, German, Italian and Spanish). The invitation of Algiers, Algeria, to act as host for the next congress in 1952 was accepted. The organization of the American Geological institute, with A. I. Levorsen as president, was completed and its objectives defined. This is a parent organization of geological and affiliated societies of the United States. General Geology.—The third edition of the widely adopted Physical Geology by C. R. Longwell and others appeared during 1948. Other late U.S. texts designed for beginning students in geology were Geology and Man by K. K. Landes and R. C. Hussey and Physical Geology and Man by K. K. Landes. A new advanced French text was Leon Moret’s Precis de geologic. There also appeared an informative nontechnical book entitled Causes of Catastrophe by L. D. Leet. Submarine Geology.—Notable among the publications on submarine geology was F. P. Shepard’s book Submarine Geol¬ ogy. This was expected to be invaluable to petroleum geologists in connection with the development of the oil resources of the continental shelves and to engineering geologists. In the July 1948 Bulletin of the Geological Society of America, there ap¬ peared a valuable “Annotated Bibliography of Marine Geo¬ physical and Geological Surveys” by R. A. Geyer. Sedimentation.—A new rock-colour chart, prepared by a group representing several geological organizations serving as a subcommittee of the committee on symposium on sedimentation, division of geology and geography of the National Research council, became available from this division. The March 1948 issue of the Journal of Geology presented three articles of fundamental importance on the classification of sedimentary rocks by F. J. Pettijohn, R. R. Shrock and P. D. Krynine, respectively. Stratigraphy.—The entire issue of the Journal of Geology of July 1948 was devoted to a symposium on the Mississippian system edited by J. Marvin Weller, which represented an out¬ growth of the work of the Mississippian subcommittee of the National Research council committee on stratigraphy. The “Pleistocene of the Great Plains” was the subject of a sym¬ posium involving nine articles which appeared in the June Bulle¬ tin of the Geological Society of America. Structural Geology.—Sequence in Layered Rocks by R. R. Shrock was the title of a new book which presented “a study of features and structures useful for determining top and bottom or order of succession in bedded and tabular rock bodies.” The subject of “The Geosynclinal Theory” received further

330

GEORGE VI — GEORGIA

consideration by Adolph Knopf in his presidential address be¬ fore the Geological Society of America, published in the July Bulletin of the society. Regional Geology.—Interest in arctic geology was stimu¬ lated by the appearance of a paper on “Ancient Arctica” by A. J. Eardley in the September issue of the Journal of Geology. Topics considered include possible land connections through that area in earlier geologic time and the petroleum possibilities of the far north. Petrology and Petrography.—Two memoirs of the Geo¬ logical Society of America of special interest were published in 1948: memoir 28, the results of a conference with James Gilluly, chairman, on the Origin of Granite, and memoir 30, Mineralogical and Structural Evolution of the Metamorphic Rocks by F. J. Turner. A new and enlarged edition of Eruptive Rocks, Their Genesis, Composition, Classification and Their Re¬ lation to Ore-Deposits by S. J. Shand appeared. Applied Geology.—The many possible practical applica¬ tions of geology were brought out by I. H. Cram in a brief article “Geology Is Useful,” published in the Jan. 1948 Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists. A new periodical entitled Geotechnique, published by the Geotechnical Society of London, which appeared in June, promised to be of considerable interest to engineering geologists. The need for more effective conservation practices was brought out by Fairfield Osborn in a book entitled Our Plun¬ dered Planet. The staffs of the U.S. bureau of mines and the geological survey co-operated in issuing the first over-all appraisal of “the Nation’s mineral wealth—its magnitude and degree of accuracy,” entitled Mineral Resources of the United States. In Vienna, Austria, there also appeared a more comprehensive work en¬ titled Vorraete und Verteilung der mineralischen Rohstoffe (“Supplies and Distribution of Mineral Raw Materials”) by Felix Machatschki, which, though not completely up to date, contained much valuable information. In mining geology, the chief interest was in geochemical methods of prospecting, the application of hydrothermal alter¬ ation effects in exploration, and in the stimulation of further prospecting for new uranium and thorium deposits as sources of atomic energy. The new text and reference book by H. E. McKinstry on Mining Geology was well received. In the book Ore Genesis, J. S. Brown proposes a metallurgical interpretation as an alternate to the hydrothermal theory. In the realm of petroleum geology, the chief interest was in the appraisal of possible substitutes for petroleum, particularly oil reserves in oil shales and coal, and in the petroleum poten¬ tialities of the continental shelves. The third volume of the symposia on Structure of Typical American Oil Fields, stressing the relation of oil accumulation to structure, was issued by the American Association of Petro¬ leum Geologists under the editorship of J. V. Howell. The annual Review of Petroleum Geology in igqy by F. M. Van Tuyl, W. S. Levings and L. W. LeRoy appeared as the July 1948 Quarterly of the Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colo. {See also Mineralogy; Palaeontology; Seismology.) (B. H. P.; F. M. V. T.) PnnrirA 1/1 Great Britain, Ireland and uCUIgw ll the British dominions, was born at York cottage, Sandringham, on Dec. 14; for his early career see Encyclopcedia Britannica. By the Indian Independence act King George ceased from Aug. 15, 1947, to be emperor of India but became instead king of each of the new dominions of India and Pakistan. A Canadian act of parliament also named him king of Canada. In the spring of 1947 the king, accompanied by the queen and

KING GEORGE VI and Queen Elizabeth in the royal procession from Windsor castle at Berkshire, Eng., during the ceremonies marking the 600th anniver¬ sary of the Most Noble Order of the Garter in April 1948

the princesses Elizabeth and Margaret, made a two months’ tour of his South African territories. In Jan. and Feb. 1948 King George sent messages to Burma and Ceylon on their inde¬ pendence. In March he entertained former King Michael and his mother. Queen Helen, of Rumania. On March 17 he attended the funeral of Princess Helena Victoria. On April 4 he enter¬ tained Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt at Windsor castle and on April 12 attended the unveiling of the memorial to Franklin D. Roose¬ velt in Grosvenor square, London. In the same month he lent paintings for the “British Life in Paris” exhibitions, held in Paris. On April 26 King George and Queen Elizabeth celebrated their silver wedding anniversary and attended a thanksgiving service in St. Paul’s cathedral. They received congratulatory addresses from both houses of parliament and similar messages and trib¬ utes from all parts of the commonwealth. In the evening both the king and queen broadcast. The king said, “It has been an unforgettable experience to realize how many thousands of peo¬ ple there are in the world who wish to join in the thankfulness we feel for the 25 years of supremely happy married life which have been granted to us.” The king twice opened parliament, on Sept. 14 for special session and on Oct. 26. In October he received the delegates to the Commonwealth Prime Ministers’ conference, the African conference and the Commonwealth Par¬ liamentary conference. During the year plans were announced for a royal tour of Australia and New Zealand in April, May and June 1949 by the king, accompanied by the queen and Prin¬ cess Margaret. On Nov. 23, however, it was announced from Buckingham palace that the king was suffering from obstruction to the circulation of the right leg and that on medical advice he had had to cancel this visit. On Christmas day he delivered a broadcast to the empire, from Buckingham palace, for the first time in his reign.

Panrffio

original states of the union, located in UCUIgIdi the south Atlantic region, with an area of 58,876 sq.mi., Georgia is popularly called the “empire state of the south.” Its population, excluding armed forces overseas, was 3,128,000 on July I, 1948, an increase of only .16% more than the 1940 census of 3,123,723 (34.4% urban, 65.6% rural, 64.9% native white, 34.7% Negro and .4% foreign-bom). The bureau

331

GEORGIA of the census estimated the population of the Atlanta metro¬ politan district to be 498,000 on April i, 1948. Leading cities and their populations in 1940 were: Atlanta, the capital, 302,288; Savannah, 95,996; Augusta, 65,919; Macon, 57,865; Co¬ lumbus, 53,280.

benefits averaging $15.33; averaging $39.52.

History.—When in 1947 the state supreme court overruled the election whereby the general assembly made Herman Talmadge governor of Georgia following the death of his father. Governor-elect Eugene Talmadge, young Talmadge announced that in the next election he would appeal to the people. The vote in the Democratic primary of Sept. 8, 1948, gave Talmadge a majority vote in 130 of Georgia’s 159 counties, and a countyunit vote (decisive under Georgia law) of 312 to 98 unit votes for Melvin E. Thompson, who had served as acting governor under the mandate of the Supreme Court. The popular vote was: Talmadge, 357,865; Thompson, 312,035. Talmadge was inaugurated at a special session of the legislature on Nov. 17, 1948. Georgia’s delegates to the Democratic national convention in July refused to join other southern states in plans to support Governor Ben Laney of Arkansas for president as a protest against President Harry S. Truman’s civil rights proposals. Other southern delegates joined Georgia and cast their 263 con¬ vention votes for Sen. Richard B. Russell, of Georgia, a forth¬ right critic of Truman’s proposals. While permitting his name to be used before the Democratic national convention. Senator Russell soon afterward announced that he would not accept nomination for president from' the States’ Rights Democrats formed in Birmingham, Ala., following Truman’s nomination by the Democratic party. President Truman’s proposals aimed at uprooting racial segregation were resented bitterly in Georgia. The state Democratic executive committee, headed by James S. Peters, named pro-Truman candidates for the electoral college, but gave them no active support; nonetheless, in the November election they were elected, thus ensuring Truman of Georgia’s 12 electoral votes. The popular vote for the various parties in the presidential election was: Democrats, 254,646; States’ Rights Democrats, 85,055; Re¬ publicans, 76,691; Progressives, 1,636; Prohibition party, 732. The principal state officers at the end of the year were: gov¬ ernor, Herman Talmadge; lieu¬ tenant governor, Marvin Grif¬ fin; secretary of state, Ben W. Fortson, Jr.; superintendent of schools, M. D. Collins; attor¬ ney general, Eugene Cook; state auditor, B. E. Thrasher, Jr.; treasurer, George B. Hamilton; comptroller general, Zack D. Cravey.

The department of public health received $2,228,000 from state funds and $2,002,237 from federal grants during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948. Chief items Of expenditures were: venereal disease, $700,844; tuberculosis, $263,317; maternity and child health, $203,993; cancer, $200,000. On July I, 1948, there were 1,273 patients in the state tuber¬ culosis sanatorium (Batty hospital).

Education.—For the school year ending in June 1948, there were 3,608 elementary schools (1,167 for white children and 2,441 for Negroes) with an enrolment of 587,361 pupils (367,595 white and 219,766 Negro) and a teaching staff of 15,778 (10,119 white and 5,659 Negro). High schools numbered 691 (485 white and 206 Negro) with a student enrolment of 155,840 (120,360 white and 35,480 Negro) and a teaching staff of 6,361 (5,018 white and 1,343 Negro). State expenditures for elementary and high schools during the year were $37,248,000. In the fall quarter, 1948, a total of 25,033 students were enrolled in the 16 units of the university system of Georgia, all under the administra¬ tion of a single board of regents. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, benefit payments by the state board of public, welfare for public assistance were as follows: old age, $16,784,441; blind, $570,078; dependent children, $3,082,511.50. In Nov. 1948, a total of 87,826 individuals received old-age assistance with an average individual allowance of $20.28 per month; 2,407 blind persons received benefits averaging $23.90; 25,814 dependent children received

and 9,905 needy families received benefits

For the same year, there were approximately 45,000 beneficiaries under the state’s unemployment insurance program, and approximately 36,000 veterans who received one or more unemployment payments. The average weekly payment for unemployment insurance claimants was $13.43, while the veterans generally drew the maximum amount of $20.

The daily population of the Milledgeville State hospital (for insane) was 9,t52 in t948, as compared with 8,896 in 1947. Operating costs, including outlays, rose from $2,829,796 in 1947 to $3,382,197 in 1948. On June 30, 1948, there were 5,872 prisoners in the various state and county institutions under the control of the state board of corrections. Net expenditures by this board for the fiscal year were $832,205. Communications..—The State highway department gave the road mileage in Georgia as of Sept, i, 1948, as follows: total of state, county, and city systems, 94,714 mi.; state roads, 14,386 mi. (10,102 mi. paved and 4,284 mi. unpaved); county roads, 76,718 mi. (1,379 nii. paved and 75,339 mi. unpaved); urban streets, 3,610 mi. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, total receipts of the highway department were $38,223,176 from the following sources: state treasury, $30,815,730; federal govern¬ ment, $7,388,176; miscellaneous, $19,270. In 1946 there were 6,442 mi. of main-line railroad track in Georgia. A survey of 1945 showed that Georgia had 958 mi. of developed river channels. In Nov. 1947, there were 135 airports in Georgia. The Georgia Public Service commission estimated the total number of telephones in Georgia to be 424,092 in Sept. 1947Banking and Finance—On June 30, 1948, there were in Georgia 278 state banks and 7 branches with total assets of $712,762,339, a net decrease of $39,956,549 under the assets of June 30, 1947. On Novem¬ ber II, 1948, the II national banks in the state had total deposits of $937,867,000 and total assets of $998,465,000. On Nov. 23, 1948, there were 67 savings and loan, or building and loan, associations operating in Georgia. Total resources of associations of this type on June 30, 1948, were approximately $160,000,000, compared with $135,000,000 a year earlier. For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, the total state receipts were $108,299,859.94, the largest of all time. Chief expenditures by the state were: education, $47,363,023; highways, $32,322,626; public welfare, $11,451,316; and public health, $4,118,789. The state treasury had a net surplus of $4,533,336 on June 30, 1948. Agriculture.—On Dec. 22, 1948, the bureau of agricultural economics of the University of Georgia, Athens, Ga., estimated the value of field crops produced in Georgia during 1948 at $439,301,000, a decrease of 4% from the previous year, but still the third highest in the history of the state—the all-time record being $578,000,000 in 1919. Table I.— Leading Agricultural Products of Georgia, 1948 and 1947

Crop . Cotton, bales » . . . Cottonseed, tons . . . Corn, bu. Peanuts, lb. Tobacco, ib. Peaches, bu. Pecans, Ib. Commercial truck crops Oats, bu. Hoy, tons. Velvet beans, tons . . Wheat, bu. . . • • • Sugarcane syrup, gal. Sweet potatoes, bu. .

1948 760,000 303,000 49,182,000 798,750,000 96,993,000 2,812,000 39,600,000

1947 651,000 253,000 48,075,000 781,180,000 127,142,000 5,810,000 27,685,000

13,728,000 799,000 227,000 2,984,000 3,600,000 4,930,000

16,100,000 669,000 272,000 3,360,000 4,070,000 6,035,000

«...

Value, 1948 $118,940,000 20,301,000 73,773,000 84,668,000 47,644,000 8,717,000 5,079,000 11,258,000 15,101,000 15,341,000 7,264,000 6,565,000 3,420,000 11,339,000

The total acreage of all crops harvested in Georgia in 1948 was 7,756,000, compared with 8,057,000 in 1947. Manufacturing.—According to the Oct. 1948 issue of Georgia Business, a monthly review by the college of business administration of the Uni¬ versity of Georgia: “In 1939 the manufacturing wages and salaries paid were $145,000,000 and the total agricultural income was $166,000,000. During World War II, manufacturing industries in the state expanded at a phenomenal rate. While cash farm receipts, for example, went up from $159,000,000 in 1939 to $521,000,000 in 1947, total manufacturing wages and salaries increased to approximately $600,000,000.” Nonagricultural employment was estimated by the Georgia department of labour at 744,900 in Sept. 1948. Textiles and lumber employed more than half of all manufacturing workers in Georgia; and if four more groups were included—apparel, food processing, furniture, and chemicals—80% of all manufacturing employment was accounted for. Minerals—The mineral production of Georgia was valued at $37,137,000 in 1947 compared with $30,449,000 in 1946. The value of the

Table II.—Leading Mineral Products of Georgia, 1947 Mineral

Quantity

Clay, raw, short tons. 1,918,546 Stone, short tons. 2,960,520 Cloy products, heavy. .... Iron ore, long tons. 295,992 Talc, short tons. 49,441

Value In 1947

$13,436,317 9,977,938 5,667,000 693,485 673,251

principal minerals produced, except cement and fuller’s earth, is shown in Table II. (A. B. S.)

332 Pormon I ItorQtiii’a

GERMAN LITERATURE —GERM AN Y

Expectations that after the fall of the uCinidn LllcrdlUlCa nazl regime the “hidden emigration,” those writers who despite their opposition to the ruling oli¬ garchy remained in Germany after 1933, would surprise the reading public with fiction depicting, if not analyzing, the stage set by Adolf Hitler, had not been fulfilled by 1948. Young Wolfgang Borchert, who could have been regarded as showing great promise, died too early and left too little that could have created, though only posthumously, a community of followers who would rise to his implicit appeal against the decay of Ger¬ many. Borchert came in with the tide of a new expressionism whereas others of his generation, like Walter Freiburger and Helmut Belke, were, in language as well as in the technique of plot-development, pupils rather of Franz Kafka. The mental situation of Kafka’s work could be felt also, though it was probably subconsciously produced, in Hermann Kasack’s novel The City Behind the River. (Kasack, who started out as a poet, belonged to the generation over fifty.) But existentialism of this sort was not all-pervading, perhaps because this par¬ ticular brand of “ism,” certainly potentially attractive to Ger¬ mans, was in the minds of contemporary German writers too strongly connected with the philosophy of Martin Heidegger; and the books of Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus, though much discussed, were available in a sufficient number of copies in the French zone only. Contemporary German prose, however, did not merely oscil¬ late between the two poles, on the one hand of expressionism, with its often misunderstood mass-appeal, on the other hand of sheer Kafka-ism. There were writers who kept to the stand¬ ards set by Thomas Mann: Herbert Burgmueller’s Journey into the Autumn made delightful reading and the anything but heroic hero of the tale, a librarian who is unable to make up his mind, might be regarded as the model after which German prewar intellectuals were mentally formed. To the other ex¬ treme, especially in the use of the written word, went Hans Henny Jahnn whose drama Poverty, Wealth, Man and Beast as well as his novels Perrudja and River Without Banks were overflowing with words, so much so that they become difficult to understand and the poetic Peer Gynt-like characters grow hazy. The language inherited from naziism was harassing German writers. The Heidelberg monthly Die Wandlung (“Transforma¬ tion”) published a series From the Fiend’s Dictionary in which the attempt was made to go to the roots of the ideology of the third reich by investigating its vocabulary. Professor Victor Klemperer, who taught Romance languages in Dresden, was working on similar lines in his Notebook of a Philologist: LTI ( = lingua tertii imperii).

authority of the four Allied Powers—the United States, Great Britain, the U.S.S.R. and France—and divided into four zones. Area; British zone c. 38,000 sq.mi.; French zone c. 16,500 sq.mi.; soviet zone (excluding Konigsberg area) c. 41,500 sq.mi.; U.S. zone c. 41,300 sq.mi.; Berlin {q.v.) 341 sq.mi.; total 137,641 sq.mi. (Jan. i, 1938: 181,742 sq.mi.). Population (Oct. 29, 1946, census): British zone 22,345,000; French zone 5,940,000; soviet zone 17,314,000; U.S. zone 17,174,000; Berlin (cap.) 3,180,000; total 65,953,000 (1939 census for same area: 59,595,000; May 17, 1939, census for entire prewar area: 69,317,000). The British, soviet and U.S. zones contained larger populations than in 1938; the zonal increases were: British zone 12.9%, soviet 14.4%, U.S. 20.5%. The additional inhabitants were mainly Germans evacuated or transferred from Poland and Czechoslovakia. Only the population of the French zone was less (3.5%) than in 1938. Throughout 1947-48 considerable movements of population continued; in addition to the influx of refugees, returning evacuees continued to move from one zone to another. Chief cities (first figure, 1939 census; second figure, 1946 census); Hamburg (1,711,877; 1,406,158); Munich (829,318; 738,018); Cologne (772,221; 489,812); Leipzig (707,365; 608,111); Essen (666,743; 520,592); Dresden (630,216; 463,032); Frankfurt on Main (553,464; 389,097); Duesseldorf (541,410; 421,506); Dortmund (542,261; 436,198); Hanover (470,950; 347,040). Language (1946 est.): German with some admixture of Lusatian (260,000), Polish (150,000, mainly in Westphalia) and Danish (17,000). Religion (1938 est.): Prot¬ estant 62.7%; Roman Catholic 32.5%; Jewish 0.7%; others 4.1%. Military governors and commanders in chief: British zone, Gen. Sir Brian Hubert Robertson {q.v.); French zone, Gen. Joseph Marie Pierre Koenig; soviet zone. Marshal Vasili D. Sokolovski {q.v.)] U.S. zone, Gen. Lucius D. Clay {q.v.). History.—The events of 1948 in Germany led on directly from the breakdown of the London conference of the four powers in Dec. 1947. The three western powers, on the one side, and the Soviet Union, on the other, began in their different fashions to consolidate their separate areas of occupation. In the west the first move was to strengthen and enlarge the insti¬ tution created in 1947^ the German Economic council for the

Only the poets were comparatively free from the infiltration of nazi language. Some, like Elisabeth Langgasser, attempted a development of the Rilke line, others tried their hand at sur¬ realism and associative images. To the latter belonged Erich Fried, who, after his booTrs Deutschland and Osterreich, left the political field and began, with some success, to explore the subconscious. An outstanding theatrical success was achieved by the emigre Carl Zuckmayer with his play The Devil’s General (the story of Ernst Udet, whom Hitler was believed to have had murdered “by accident,” after the flier had proved to be “unreliable”). (J. Kr.) A country of central Europe bounded on the north UCriiluIiyi by the North sea, Denmark and the Baltic sea, on the east by Poland, on the south by Czechoslovakia, Austria and Switzerland, and on the west by France, Luxembourg, Bel¬ gium and the Netherlands. According to a declaration signed in Berlin on June 5, 1945, the countr>^ was under the supreme

p

“ACTORS AND PUPPETS,” a cartoon by Beyer which appeared in the German newspaper Wespennest (Stuttgart) in 1948

combined British and U.S. zones Bizonia).

(described as bizone or

Western Germany.—At a meeting in Frankfurt on Jan. 7 between the British and U.S. military governors and the Ger¬ man prime ministers it was decided to expand the Economic council from 52 to 104 members, to increase its powers and to set up a second chamber, consisting of a Ldnderrat (states coun¬ cil) with two representatives from each state. The Landtage (state assemblies) nominated the new members of the Economic council. In the enlarged body the S.P.D. (Social Democratic party) and the C.D.U. (Christian Democratic union, called C.S.U. or Christian Social union in the U.S. zone) each held 40 seats. The balance was held by the middle parties (Free Democratic party. Lower Saxon State party and Catholic Centre party), which aggregated 18 seats. The Economic council had the task of appointing the chief director of the Verwaltungsrat (Administrative council). The chief director then nominated the five directors composing the Verwaltungsrat. The chief di¬ rector was Hermann Piinder (C.D.U.). On March 20 a high court for the bizone, consisting of ten judges nominated by the military governors, was established with its seat in Cologne. On Feb. 14 a bank of the German states {Bank Deiitscher Lander) was set up for the issue of notes, the control of credit and as a clearing house for imports and exports. In February and March preparatory talks on Germany took place in London between British, French, U.S. and Benelux representatives. Decisions reached in principle were; (i) a Ruhr control authority would be set up but the Ruhr area would not be politically separated from Germany; (2) the three western zones would qualify for Marshall aid; (3) the economic admin¬ istration of the French zone would be co-ordinated with those of the bizone. Meanwhile the soviet occupation authorities re¬ acted sharply. Upon being refused information regarding the London conference, they instituted on April i a stringent con¬ trol of western military trains and barge traffic into the eastern zone {see Berlin; United Nations). The western powers’ next step was to convene a full-scale London conference of Britain, France, the U.S. and the Benelux countries, which met in London on April 21 to decide on the political future of the three western zones. In its communique of June 7 the conference agreed: (i) that a German constitu¬ tion-making body for the three western zones would start work by Sept, i, 1948; (2) that the German prime minister and the three western military governors should decide on certain recti¬ fications of frontiers between the German states {Lander); (3) that the members of the constitution-making body should be either directly elected or nominated by the state assemblies {Landtage); (4) that the constitution should be confirmed by plebiscites in each state; (5) that a Ruhr control authority should be set up with three British, three French and three U.S. representatives and one member from each Benelux country; (6) that the French zone would be amalgamated with the bizone as soon as a western German government came into being. The French made reservations regarding the powers of the Ruhr control authority, which in their opinion were not extensive enough. The French National assembly eventually ratified the agreement. On Sept. I, the constitution-making body consisting of 65 representatives nominated by the Landtage of all three western zones started work in Bonn. Simultaneously the three western military governors worked on the formulation of an occupation statute {Besatzungsstatut), which was to lay down the exact limits of the competence of the occupation authorities and the rights of the Germans vis-a-vis the occupying powers. Economic.—In June 1948 came the long-projected currency

CONSTRUCTION work on an addition to a war-damaged power station in the British sector of Berlin during 194S. When completed, the enlarged plant was expected to supply almost all the electric power needed in western Berlin

reforms which marked an economic turning point for postwar Germany. At first it seemed as if they would be carried through under four-power control, but an insuperable deadlock pre¬ vented this, the western powers disagreeing with the soviet stipulation that Leipzig should be the place of printing and control and insisting upon Berlin. On June 20 the new deutschemark replaced the reichsmark in the three western zones. The reform was favourable to salary and wage earners, who hence¬ forth were paid in sound currency. It was hard on pensioners and rentiers who lost 932% of their savings. Simultaneously the Economic Administrative office abolished price controls on 400 articles, including paper, glass, furniture, household utensils, motor cars, bicycles, etc. On June 22 the bizone military gov¬ ernors reduced the income, wage, and tobacco taxes by 33^% and the coffee tax by 75% in order to stimulate trade. A pro¬ fusion of goods of all kinds, which had been hoarded in antici¬ pation of the currency reform, immediately appeared in the shops. Black market prices dropped to 10% or less of their previous levels. The soviet occupation authorities carried through a currency reform in the eastern zone on June 24. The soviet zone reform was lenient to small savings accounts; those up to Rm.ioo were revalued at their full rate, those up to Rm.1,000 at 20%, and insurance policies at 33^%. Deliveries of grain from the farms during the autumn were most unsatisfactory and amounted by October, despite a harvest 33% better than that of 1947, to only 88% of those during the corresponding period of 1947. Vast quantities of foodstuffs flowed into the black market. On Nov. i, sharp warnings against decontrolling food products were issued to the German authori¬ ties in Frankfurt by the British-U.S. Bipartite Control board,

333

GERMANY

334

SWEDEN^ XSOVIETy^.

y/ADMiNisTRATIONi

Konigsberg;

MILES

DANZIl Rostock

ROUSH I llllll ADMINISTRATION

lEm'denj Stettin

POLISH

SOVIET BERLIN

::::■. Joint Administration

ZONE: ZONE ■Oiisseldorf

ADMINISTRATION ■Weimar Dresden,

BEL^ GIUMi rWi M bad en^^^Fran kf u rf

mPRENQHm

AMERICAN

iffAR] Saarbriicken;

Stuttgafb

I

FRANCE

-TUbingenM

ZONE! .^iFreiburg;

PROPOSED STATE OF WESTERN GERMANY Proposed State (American, British and French Occupation Zones)

§ Pre-World War II ^ boundaries

^ Boundaries between A American, British and “ French Occupation Zones T De facto boundaries between Poland and -11 U.S.S.R. areas The Saar is economically a part of France and probably will not be part of the proposed State. Soviet Occupation Zone

switzereand; ENCYClOPAEDiA' 6RifANNiCA; i'nci

which pointed out that Britain and the U.S. were financing the import of $900,000,000 worth of food into the bizone annually and were, therefore, resolved to ensure a socially just distribu¬ tion of food supplies. Solid benefits were, however, brought to western Germany by the currency reform of June 20. The volume of industrial pro¬ duction in the bizone, which in May 1948 had been running at 47% of the 1936 level, rose in July to 62% and by October it had reached 73%. In September, 572,000 metric tons of steel ingots were produced compared with 324,000 tons in May and 271,000 tons in Sept. 1947. The whole problem of production and prices in western Ger¬ many was closely linked with efforts to step up exports, so as to achieve increased imports. On Sept, ii the council of O.E.E.C. (Organization for European Economic Cooperation) in Paris allocated $414,000,000 as the bizone share of the first year of ERP (European Recovery program) (q.v.). The bizone, on its side, w'as to contribute $10,000,000 to inter-European aid. The French zone was to receive $100,000,000. On Oct. 18, in implementation of the London conference decision of March, the Oficomex, the French authority controlling the foreign trade of the French zone, was amalgamated with J.E.I.A. (Joint Ex¬ port Import agency of the bizone). This was followed at once by a trade agreement between France and the three western zones under which the western zones would by June 30, 1949, export $300,000,000 of goods to France and receive imports to the same value from France. Twenty-one other trade treaties covering trade to a value of about $867,000,000 were concluded

by the bizone during the year. The principal of these were with Belgium, the Netherlands, Sweden and Italy. The 1948 foreign trade figures for the bizone showed a considerable im¬ provement over those of the preceding year. Between Jan. and Aug. 1948 $335,000,000 worth of exports were delivered and $924,000,000 worth of imports were received. The correspond¬ ing figures for the whole year 1947 were $222,000,000 and $727,000,000. The year was noteworthy because of increasing U.S. inter¬ vention to modify the British and French policy of implement¬ ing the Potsdam agreements with regard to German industry. On Nov. 10 a new interim plan for the Ruhr heavy industries was announced by the British and U.S. military governors. Six steel concerns, four electricity concerns and 14 coal firms were to be liquidated as “undesirable concentrations of power.” Out of their component parts about 12 new vertical amalgamations were to be constructed. These new firms were to be placed under a German board of trustees until such time as the Ger¬ man people through their representatives could decide on the future of the Ruhr heavy industries. France reacted sharply against this British-U.S. interim plan for the Ruhr by an official protest at the opening session of the conference, which met in London on Nov. 12 to implement the midsummer decision to set up an international Ruhr control authority. The French main¬ tained that management as well as distribution of the Ruhr heavy industries should fall within the competence of the pro¬ jected control authority and that the interim plan envisaged the creation of a fait accompli.

GERMANY The second subject over which disagreement among the west¬ ern Allies manifested itself in 1948 was that of industrial dis¬ mantling for disarmament and reparations. Dismantling of the 317 armament plants in the bizone was completed. Out of 364 nonarmament plants scheduled for dismantling under the list of Oct. 17, 1947, however, only 71 had been dismantled by Sept. 1948. As culmination to a vigorous German publicity campaign against completion of the dismantling program, Piinder, chief director of the Frankfurt Administrative council, appealed in August to Paul G. Hoffman, the Economic Cooperation admin¬ istrator, to have further dismantling halted under paragraph 115 of the Foreign Aid Appropriation act. On Sept. 2, Hoffman declared himself in favour of the revision of dismantling, for the sake of European reconstruction and appealed to the British, French and U.S. governments to review their dismantling policy. The three powers agreed on Oct. 27 that a U.S. commission should investigate the problem and recommend plants to be ex¬ cluded from the dismantling list for the sake of European re¬ construction. (See also Reparations.) Soviet Zone of Germany.—The year was marked by strenu¬ ous efforts on the part of the S.E.D. (Sozialistische Einheitspartei Deutschlands), or Socialist Unity party, supported by the soviet authorities, to tighten its grip on the whole political and eco¬ nomic life of the zone. On Miy 23 the People’s council (Volksrat) of the soviet zone carried out a referendum throughout the zone and in Berlin, except in the U.S. and French sectors where it was forbidden. The referendum was conducted on the issue of the unity of MASS DEMONSTRATION at Nuernberg, Germany, where an estimated 70,000 workers struck in protest over food shortages on Jan. 21, 19'4g. The sign in the foreground reads: “We demand the unity of Germany”

335

Germany. Soviet-licensed newspapers claimed that 6o% to 75% of the voters in the eastern zone registered an affirmative vote. Noncommunist observers were more sceptical. On Aug. 24 the soviet occupation authorities ordered that the elections sched¬ uled to take place in the eastern zone in October must be post¬ poned. The view was widely expressed in the press of the west¬ ern zones that this move resulted from a fear on the part of the Russians that the soviet-sponsored S.E.D. was likely to lose the elections. Economic.—The most important economic event was the proclamation in June by the German Economic commission, set up in June 1947, of a two-year plan for 1949-50, the aim of which was to bring production in the zone up to 80% of 1936. Raw steel production was to be doubled to 875,000 tons (the estimated requirements of the zone were 3,000,000 tons). The area of land under cultivation was to be increased by 30%. On July 26, as a countermeasure to the soviet blockade of the western sectors of Berlin, the British and U.S. military gov¬ ernors stopped all railway traffic between the soviet zone and the bizone. On Sept. 17, as a further countermeasure all other traffic between the soviet zone and the bizone was stopped. These measures had a serious effect upon the economy of the soviet zone, which had in the previous two years imported large quantities of goods from western Germany, particularly the Ruhr. Miscellaneous.—German prisoners of war continued to re¬ turn to their homeland. On July 12 the last German prisoners from Britain returned and on Oct. 4 the last group came back from the middle east. During the first ten months of the year 260,000 German prisoners returned from France and 250,000

336

G.l.

BILL OF RIGHTS —GIRL SCOUTS

from the U.S.S.R. Between August and November about 3,000 came back from Czechoslovakia. By November 15,000 had re¬ turned from Poland and on Nov. i began the repatriation of the 53,000 German prisoners in Yugoslavia. In Dec. 1948 the following numbers of German prisoners were still in captivity: U.S.S.R., officially 410,000, unofficially 1,977,000; France 35,000; Yugoslavia 40,000; Poland 20,000; Czechoslovakia 3,000. (See also Fascism; War Crimes.) (D. A. Sn.) Education.—Universities and institutions of higher education (1947): U.S. zone 14, students 49,500; British zone 12, students 31,900; French zone 3, students 12,700; soviet zone 9, students 12,900; Berlin 2, stu¬ dents 3,000; total Germany, universities 40, students c. 110,000. Banking and Finance.-—Budget estimates (bizone, April I, 1948-March 31, 1949): revenue Rm.307,789,000, expenditure Rm.307,789,000. On June 20, 1948, the deutschemark (Dm.) replaced the reichsmark in the three western zones, and four days later the so-called ostmark replaced the reichsmark in the soviet zone. Currency circulation in the western zones (Dec. 1948): approximately Dm.9,500,000,000. Exchange rate: Dm.i = ii. 6d. = 30 U.S. cents; Dm.i was paid in Berlin (Dec. 1948) for 4 ostmarks. Foreign Trade—(In U.S. dollars.) Imports (1947) $727,000,000, (1948) $1,411,000,000; exports (1947) $222,000,000, (1948) $653,000,000. Agriculture—Main crops (bizone, in long tons): bread grains 2,930,000, barley 570,000, oats 1,513,000, potatoes 12,815,000, sugar beets 2,645.000. Livestock (bizone, June 1948): horses 1,493,700, cattle 8,850,700, sheep 2,630,600, pigs 4,384,400. Industry.—(In metric tons, 1947; 1948, six months, in parentheses.) Coal: British zone 71,125,000 (40,374,000); U.S. zone 1,411,000 (661,000); French zone (Saar) 10,483,000 (3,841,000); soviet zone 2,754,000; total for 1947, 85,773,000 (1936 with Silesia, i59,7S7,ooo). Brown coal: British zone 58,870,000 (28,959,000); U.S. zone 3,933,000 (1,956,000); soviet zone 101,794,000; total for 1947, 164,597,000 (1936, 161,426,000). Pig iron (bizone only, 1947; 1948 in parentheses) 2,952,000 (4,619,000; 1936, with Silesia, 13,302,000); steel ingots 2,952,000 (5,370,000; 1936, 18,590,000). Index of industrial production (bizone, 1936=100): (1946) 34, (Oct. 1948) 74-

G. I. Bill of Rights: see

Education; Veterans’ Adminis¬

tration.

p-i i. A British fortress colony, situated on a narrow ululfllldr* peninsula covering the western outlet of the Mediterranean sea and running S.W. from the southwest coast of Spain; the territory consists of a long high mountain known as “The Rock,” with a flat sandy plain, raised only a few feet above the level of the sea. Area: 2.12 sq.mi. (including recent reclamation); pop. (Dec. 31, 1947): civil 22,532, service 4,823. Language: Spanish (50% also speak English). Religion (civil population): mainly Roman Catholic. The colony is admin¬ istered by a governor, assisted by an executive council consist¬ ing of four ex-officio and not more than three unofficial mem¬ bers. Governor: Lieut. Gen. Sir Kenneth Anderson. History.—The governor visited London in July 1948 for dis¬ cussions on constitutional changes. On his return he announced that the United Kingdom government had come to the decision that the colony’s long-awaited legislative council, in addition to the existing city council, in a place the size of Gibraltar might result in “over-government.” Local representative bodies expressed great disapproval that the government had failed to implement the promise made three years previously to grant a legislative council, and demanded its institution without delay. In May it was announced that telephone communication with Spain by land-line, which had been interrupted for some years, was to be reopened. The process of repatriating the war¬ time evacuees made steady progress, and by Oct. 1948, the total number left in the United Kingdom awaiting repatriation was reduced to between 600 and 700. (Jo. A. Hn.) Education—(1947-48); Elementary schools 14, pupils 1,684; secondary schools 5, pupils 785; I technical school with 35 pupils. Finance and Trade.—Currency: pound sterling, with United Kingdom coinage and local government notes; note circulation (Dec. 31, 1947): £816,515. Revenue (revised est. 1947): ^i,384,871, including return by Great Britain of interest-free loan of £850,000; (est. 1948): £564,710. Expenditure (revised est. 1947); ^£945,603; (est. 1948): £710,279. Im¬ ports and exports: since Gibraltar is a free port with practically no do¬ mestic exports, statistics are not maintained.

Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony: see

Pacific Islands,

British.

Ginger: see Spices.

P'rl Cnniito

Scouts of the U.S.A. particiuiri wuuUlo* pated in a world conference and two interna¬ tional conferences, introduced a new uniform, celebrated the release of the Juliette Low commemorative stamp and observed their 36th anniversary on March 12 and Girl Scout week Oct. 31-N0V. 6. From Aug. 13 to 23, Brazil, Canada and the United States were hostesses at the 12th world conference of the World Asso¬ ciation of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts, which was held in Cooperstown, N.Y. Delegates and visitors from 27 countries were present at the conference, at which plans for extending guiding and scouting throughout the world were discussed. On Aug. 29 the new Mainbocher-designed uniforms were re¬ leased to be sold at Girl Scout equipment agencies throughout the country. This was the first completely new uniform since 1928. A new commemorative stamp honouring Juliette Gordon Low, the founder of the Girl Scouts in the United States, was issued in Savannah, Ga., where the first troop was formed, and first-day ceremonies were held on Oct. 29. Two international conferences were also held at Edith Macy Training school, the Girl Scout national training centre in Pleasantville, N.Y. Attending each conference were 12 delegates from foreign countries holding Juliette Low World Friendship Fund scholarships, and 12 Girl Scout volunteers from the United States. The purpose of these meetings was to further interna¬ tional and intercultural understanding and to discuss the leader’s part in serving youth throughout the world. At their national convention in 1947 the Girl Scouts of the U.S.A. adopted “Clothes for Friendship” as a special year-long project for 1948. The Girl Scouts were pledged to send 100,000 complete wardrobes of new or reconditioned clothes to the underprivileged children in Europe and Asia. On Sept. 30, 1948, there were 399,721 Brownie Scouts, 23,522 Brownie troops; 614,035 Intermediate Scouts, 33,706 Inter¬ mediate troops; 58,739 Senior Scouts and 4,499 Senior troops. Men and women serving as leaders, board members, council and committee members and in other volunteer jobs numbered 312,369. The total girl membership was 1,072,495 and the total Girl Scout and adult membership was 1,384,864. Head¬ quarters of Girl Scouts of the U.S.A.: 155 E. 44th St., New York 17, N.Y. (C. M. R.) Girl Guides.—Empire Ranger week was celebrated through¬ out the British empire from July 18 to 25, when land, sea and air rangers camped together, demonstrated ranger activities to the general public and took part in the special rededication and Empire Ranger week service. Links between Great Britain and other parts of the common¬ wealth were further increased by the hundreds of food parcels sent by Girl Guides in the dominions to those in Great Britain. England welcomed back Lady Baden-Powell, the world chief guide, after her ii-months’ tour of Australia and New Zealand, where she visited guides and scouts. There were again a large number of visits between guides of all nations, many of whom camped together at the Guides’ Chalet, the international Girl Guides’ centre at Adelboden, Switzerland, and at various camps ranging from large international gatherings to small company camps. Permission was given for guide companies to start in the British zone in Germany, and German youth leaders attended guides’ training courses in Great Britain and several European countries. Teams of guide relief workers continued their work

GLANDS — GOLD in the displaced persons’ camps in Germany.

Glands:

(M. A. S.)

see Endocrinology.

Production of container glass in the United States de• dined in volume during 1948, for the first time in several years. However, more than 100,000,000 gross of bottles and jars were made—about 14% fewer than in 1947. The con¬ tainer industry consumed about one-fifth of the soda ash pro¬ duced. The supply was nearly adequate, partly because of re¬ duced tonnage of container glass, and partly because of some expansion in soda-ash manufacture. Flat-glass factories produced at a record rate, to keep pace with automobile manufacture, again in full stride, and with 'building. Plate-glass production reached a new high volume of 260,000,000 sq.ft., while window glass exceeded the 1,000,000,000 sq.ft, made in 1947. The antimonopoly suit filed in 1945 by the U.S. against the leading producers of flat glass was settled by consent decree, Oct. 30, 1948. The defendant companies, while avoiding the “atomization” or sale of plants originally urged by the govern¬ ment, accepted certain restrictions. The National Glass Dis¬ tributors association was dissolved; no expansion of plants could be made for a term of years; no agreement might be made with manufacturers of other countries affecting U.S. markets; pat¬ ents had to be opened for general use; more distributing outlets had to be provided. The intent of the decree was to insure true competition in the sale of plate and window glass.. The total value of products made in 1948 by the U.S. glass industry exceeded $750,000,000. This figure did not include values added by further processing, as in making mirrors and other items from fabricated glass. The industry employed about 120,000 persons, and paid more than $200,000,000 in wages. Demand slackened, however, in certain lines such as household glassware. Raw materials became somewhat easier to obtain, but paper and lumber for cartons and boxes remained relatively scarce and expensive, and the eastern manufacturers began to antici¬ pate reliance upon coal as a fuel instead of the dwindling sup¬ plies of natural gas and oil. Slag became more popular as a source of lime. Lead oxide soared to high prices, creating a handicap for makers of luxury glassware. In Europe, Germans gradually began resumption of research activities, and technical journals were active in France and Bel¬ gium, while Great Britain regained the prewar rate of advance¬ ment in glass. In the U.S. several interesting developments were made in flat glass, including semitransparent mirrors, electricity-conducting glass for easily defrosted windshields, and improved techniques for making curved safety glass for auto¬ mobiles. (S. R. S.)

337

wherein only distance flights counted for the competition. A total of 10,320 mi. were flown. Twenty-four flights were be¬ tween 100 and 150 mi.; seven flights were between 150 and 200 mi. and one flight was 222 mi. Paul B. MacCready, Jr., flying the Orlik, earned the title of national soaring champion. In France, on June 4, 1948, M. Vaulot, flying a Nord 2000, set a new French altitude record of 24,800 ft. On this same day Mrs. M. Lafargue reached an altitude of 23,124 ft. in a Meise which it was thought might be accredited as a woman’s world altitude record. A new source of atmospheric energy for soaring, atmospheric waves which develop on the lee side of a ridge, was successfully exploited during the year by soaring pilots in England and the United States. August Raspet of Aerophysics institute of Locust Valley, N.Y., did intensive research work in 1948 in exploring this meteorological phenomenon. The results of this study were published in a report, “The Air Flow over an Extended Ridge.” (B. Sk.) A comparatively low rate of production and a further • concentration of existing stocks in the hands of the United States were the chief characteristics of the situation in gold during 1948. Gold miners, the price of whose product is officially fixed at the equivalent of $35 an ounce, found themselves again squeezed between that price and the high costs of materials and labour. In the United States, production, largely in consequence of this, remained at approximately the same low level of the preceding year, namely, $75,800,000. This compares with annual domestic production in the years just preceding World War II ranging from approximately $132,000,000 in 1936 to $170,000,000 in 1940. World production continued to suffer similarly, although not to quite the same extent. In Canada, where gold represents an important consideration in the country’s balance of pay¬ ments with the rest of the world, government subsidies went into effect on June 15. In its efforts to stimulate gold pro¬ duction the dominion undertook to assist mine owners to the extent of 50% of production costs over and above $18 an ounce. Because of the fact that the bulk of its exports in 1944 and 1945 were made under lend-lease, while most imports repre¬ sented straight exchange transactions, the United States suf¬ fered a net loss of gold in both of these years. The tide swung back in 1946, however, that year showing a surplus of imports over exports of $311,500,000. The following year the figure jumped to $1,866,300,000, and the year’s addition to U.S. gold stocks reached $2,224,900,000. In 1948 there was some falling off in the rate at which U.S. stocks were augmented, but not enough to prevent them from establishing a new all-time high. By mid-December the country’s gold holdings stood at $24,230,000,000 and represented an estimated three-fifths of total world holdings. Ownership of the remaining two-fifths was

pijjj

Gliding in 1948 was marked by an intensive, wellullUlllg« attended international gliding competition at Samedan, Switzerland, July 20 to July 30. Ten countries were repre¬ sented l Czechoslovakia, Egypt, Finland, France, Great Britain, Italy, Poland, Spain, Sweden and Switzerland. First place and the title of world champion was earned by P. A. Persson of Sweden flying a Weihe. Second place went to M. Schachenmann of Switzerland flying an Air 100. Two of the British entrants, Donald F. Greig and Christopher Nicholson, were killed on July 28 on attempted goal flights. During this contest Schachenmann established a new Swiss goal flight record of 157 mi. on July 28, 1948. The Soaring Society of America held its 15th annual soaring contest at Elmira, N.Y., June 30 through July ii. Twenty-eight pilots flew contest flights under a new set of contest rules

.5'---'--------'-'-'-'-»9U '19 '21 '23 ’2S '27 '29 '31 '33 '35 '37 '39 '41 '43 '45 '47 '49

GOLD PRODUCTION: world total and output of the principal producing coun¬ tries, as compiled by The Mineral Industry

GOLD COAST —GOLF

338

Table I.—Analysis of Changes in Gold Stock of United States

lln millions of dollarsl Gold stock ol end of period

Period

Increase in gold stock

1936 . *11,258 1,132.5 1937 . *12,760 1,502.5 1938 . 14,512 1,751.5 1939 . 17,644 3,132.0 1940 . 21,995 4,351.2 1941 . 22,737 741.8 1942 . 22,726 —10.3 1943 . 21,938 —788.5 1944 . 20,619 —1,319.0 1945 . 20,065 —553.9 1946 . 20,529 464.0 1947 . 22,754 t2,224.9 1948—Jonuary. 22,935 180.7 Februory. 23,036 101.5 Morch. 23,137 100.4 April. 23,169 32.2 Moy. 23,304 135.2 June. 23,532 228.5 July. 23,679 146.4 August. 23,725 46.2 September. 23,872 147.2 October. 24,004 131.9 November. {24,165 {161.1 1948 Jan.-Nov..

{24,165

EarNet marked gold gold: deimport crease or export or inI—) crease!—I

1,116.6 1,585.5 1,973.6 3,574.2 4,744.5 982.4 315.7 68.9 —845.4 —106.3 311.5 1,866.3 235.0 159.4 99.9 234.2 151.3 177.7 266.7 39.1 53.3 tl21.6 §

{1,41 1.3 111,538.2

Domestic gold pro¬ duetion

— 85.9 —200.4 —333.5 —534.4 —644.7 —407.7 —458.4 —803.6 —459.8 —356.7 465.4 210.0 —14.9 —72.2 —63.4 -11 1.5 -2.8 81.7 -188.4 59.5 98.1 1.0 |199.7

131.6 143.9 148.6 161.7 170.2 169.1 125.4 48.3 35.8 32.0 51.2 75.8 6.0 5.5 6.4 5.7 6.1 5.7 6.2 7.7 7.4 6.5 §

—1 13.2

1163.2

•Includes gold in the Inactive Account amounting to $27,000,000 on Dec. 31, 1 936, iind $1,228,000,000 on Dec. 31, 1937. tincludes transfer of $687,500,000 gold subscription to the International Monetary fund. {Preliminary. |Not yet available. IIGold held under earmark at the federal reserve banks for foreign account, including gold held for the account of international institutions, amounted to $3,371,700,000 on Nov. 30, 1 948. Gold under earmark is not included in the gold stock of the United States. 11 0-mo. total.

widely scattered, with the U.S.S.R. believed to hold the second largest stock. (This, however, was placed at only about onetenth that of the United States.) Among the countries losing the largest amounts of gold to the United States during 1948 were Great Britain, South Africa, Canada, Argentina, the Netherlands, Mexico and Brazil. That U.S. imports of gold showed some tendency to shrink by comparison with the high level of 1947 is attributable in part to the recovery shown by Europe during 1948 under the Marshall plan, in part to a closer balance between U.S. merchan¬ dise exports and imports, and in part to steps taken by a num¬ ber of countries in 1947 and 1948 to set up trade or exchange restrictions in an effort to protect their dwindling supplies of gold and dollars. (See also Federal Reserve System.) Table I shows the significant changes that took place in the gold position of the United States in 1948 and the principal influences responsible for them. (E. H. Co.) World Production.—Production figures are lacking for so many countries that world totals can be no more than rough estimates, but Table II shows outputs of all the major coun¬ tries for which data were available at the end of 1948. The countries listed account for only 70% to 80% of the total output, with the U.S.S.R. the most important country missing. United States.—Mine production of gold in the United States advanced from 1,575,000 oz. in 1946 to 2,109,000 oz. in 1947. The total for the first ten months of 1948 was 1,683,000 oz., a small reduction from the 1947 average rate, and seasonal declines in the remainder of the year were expected to cut it still more. Canada.—The Canadian output increased from 2,832,554 oz. Table II.— World Production of Cold (Refinery Production)

(Thousands of fine ounces) 1943

1944

1946

1947

United States . . . Canada . Mexico. Central America . • South America . . • India. Belgian Congo. . • Gold Coast .... Southern Rhodesia . South Africa. . . . Australia.

4,832 5,345 800 302 1,747 286 561 885 790 14,407 1,497

3,583 4,841 801 324 1,604 260 500 784 760 14,127 1,154

1,381 3,651 632 280 1,442 252 439 565 657 12,804 751

1,022 2,923 509 271 1,354 188 364 534 593 12,280 657

929 2,697 419 244 1,259 168 341 475 568 12,225 657

1,462 2,833 421 218 1,202 132 331 587 545 11,927 824

2,165 3,070 465 250 1,100 175 308 560 520 11,200 938

Total (est.) . . .

40,160

36,300

29,160

26,700

26,300

27,800

?

1941

1942

1945

in 1946 to 3,070,221 oz. in 1947 and 3,495,403 oz. in 1948. South Africa.—Gold output dropped from 11,927,165 oz. in 1946 to 11,200,281 oz. in 1947, but recovered somewhat in 1948, with a total of 7,781,929 oz. in the first eight months. (See also Exchange Control and Exchange Rates; Min¬ eral AND Metal Production and Prices.) (G. A. Ro.)

Gold Coast: see

British West Africa.

Goldsborough, T(iioina$) Alan

jurist, was born Sept. 16 in Greensboro, Md., and was educated at Washington col¬ lege, Chestertown, Md., and at the University of Maryland, Baltimore, Md., beginning the practice of law at Denton, Md., in 1901. He was state’s attorney of Caroline county, Md., 190408, and was elected to congress in 1921, serving until 1939, when he resigned to accept an appointment as U.S. district judge in the District of Columbia. In 1946, when the government cited John L. Lewis and the United Mine Workers of America for contempt for abrogating a work contract through a strike called while the mines were operating under government control, the case was brought before Judge Goldsborough. Lewis was per¬ sonally fined $10,000 and the union fined $3,500,000, the latter penalty later being reduced to $700,000 by the U.S. supreme court. In 1948 a similar case came before Judge Goldsborough, when Atty. Gen. Tom C. Clark requested a contempt citation against both Lewis and the union for a work stoppage that de¬ veloped after a dispute between Lewis and the mine operators over the terms of a miners’ pension fund. On April 19 Judge Goldsborough again entered a finding of guilty on charges of criminal contempt, and the ne.xt day assessed fines of $1,400,000 against the union and $20,000 against Lewis. William Benjamin Hogan, 36-year-oId Fort Worth • (Tex.) 140-pounder, was the outstanding figure in 1948 golf. Hogan dominated the competitive side of the sport as no other competitor had since Bobby Jones scored his grand slam in 1930. Joining him in the sport’s leading foursome were Willie Turnesa of New York, winner of the United States Golf association’s amateur title for the second time in ten years; Grace Lenezyk of Connecticut, victor in the U.S.G.A. women’s amateur, the Canadian amateur, and national women’s intercol¬ legiate; and Frank Stranahan of Ohio, who repeated in the Cana¬ dian men’s amateur and replaced Turnesa as British men’s ama¬ teur titleholder. Hogan completed the greatest professional sweep in the game’s history when he won the U.S.G.A. open over the Riviera course, in Los Angeles, Calif., where he previously had taken two Los Angeles opens; the Professional Golfers’ association champion¬ ship (for the second time) at St. Louis, Mo., and the Western open at Buffalo, N.Y. Some of Hogan’s elders, notably Walter Hagen and Gene Sarazen, had won all three of these important championships, but never all in one season. The little Texan also won the Vardon trophy for low-scoring with an average of 69.30 strokes for 76 rounds. He headed the official P.G.A. money winning list with earnings of $32,112, although Lloyd Mangrum of Chicago, III, was the actual top cash collector of the 1948 season. Mangrum’s total of $45,898.32 accrued from a number of non-P.G.A. sponsored events and included several bonuses from his employer, George S. May, for his victory in the All-American and world’s championships at Chicago’s Tam 0’ Shanter club. Hogan also ran off with the Ryder cup point total prize, de¬ signed to fashion the international team which would oppose the British professionals in Ganton, Eng., in 1949. Hogan’s aggregate was 916 points. Mangrum was second with 692;

Jimmy Demaret of Ojai, Calif., third with 615, and Stewart (Skip) Alexander of Mid-Pines, N.C., fourth with 401. Willie Turnesa, making a great try at defending his British amateur crown by going to the semifinals of that event, came through in the U.S.G.A. amateur at Memphis, Tenn., with a 2 and I victory over Ray Billows, from Poughkeepsie, N.Y., who had been runner-up for the title three times in 12 years. Grace Lenczyk, the Connecticut Yankee who had been tabbed as a comer in her ’teens, fulfilled advance prophecies by de¬ feating Helen Sigel of Philadelphia, Pa., 4 and 3, in the wom¬ en’s national final at the Pebble Beach, Calif., course. Stranahan, the Toledo, 0., strong boy who sought to bring off another grand slam such as Jones did, won the British and Canadian amateurs, and was en route to a U.S. amateur final before Billows knocked him out at Memphis, 7 and 5. Over the year, Stranahan was generally rated the game’s outstanding amateur, and climaxed his 1948 campaign by winning the Miami open in December from a select group of professionals. In international golf, the only title England was able to salvage was the British open, won by Henry Cotton. The 41year-old precisionist took his third title with a 284 at Muirfield, Scotland. Aside from Stranahan’s British amateur victory, the United States retained the Curtis cup, international amateur trophy, and little Louise Suggs duplicated Mildred Didrikson Zaharias’ feat in winning the British women’s championship. Then she, like Mrs. Zaharias, turned professional. The championships of the western golf associations (men’s and women’s) provided much of the better competition of the season. These organizations, second to the U.S.G.A. only in age, proved the quality of their tournaments in their open events. Hogan’s sensational 64 at Buffalo was required to beat Ed (Porky) Oliver. In the Women’s Western open at Chicago’s Skycrest club, Patty Berg, 4 down to Mrs. Zaharias after 30 holes, fought back to win a i up decision on the 37th. In college golf, San Jose state, San Jose, Calif., swept the boards. It took the team championship in the National Colle¬ giate Athletic association meet at Stanford, brought out the individual champion in Bobby Harris, and produced a co-med¬ alist in Morgan Fottrell. Highlight of 1948 golf was the emphasis placed on junior golf and the development of youngsters in competitive play. The Men’s Western association had been foremost in this type of golf, having conducted junior events from 1914. The Women’s Western, which suspended junior play from the beginning of World War II, was to resume it in 1949, due to Patty Berg, who turned over her prize money of $500 for winning the W.W.G.A. open title to the association, with the suggestion that its officers devote it to promoting golf among younger girls. The United States Golf association reported a highly successful inaugural of its first national junior tournament, won by Dean Lind of Rockford, Ill., over the University of Michigan course. The Golf Writers’ Association of America, during the closing months of 1948, established the game’s first Hall of Fame at the Evans Caddy Scholars’ house on the Northwestern university campus, Evanston, Ill., with the co-operation of the Western Golf association. Automatically installed as the first foursome were the four men originally named in 1940, when a Hall of Fame was first projected. They were Bobby Jones, Walter Hagen, Gene Sarazen and Francis Ouimet. The Golf Writers’ association planned to conduct annual polls to select new candi¬ dates for the Hall of Fame. (C. Bt.)

Gonorrhoea:

see Venereal Diseases.

Gonwald, Klement

(1896), president of Czechoslo¬ vakia, was born at Dedice, Moravia,

BEN HOGAN putting on the last hole during his title match against Mike Turnesa for the Professional Golfers’ association championship at St. Louis, Mo., May 25, 1948. It was Hogan’s victory, 7 and 6

Nov. 23. He served during World War I in the Austro-Hun¬ garian army, deserted to the Russians and returned after the war to Czechoslovakia as a communist. In 1921 he edited a communist paper in Bratislava, in 1925 was elected member of the central committee of the Czechoslovak Communist party, and in 1927 became its secretary-general. A year before, at the fourth congress of the Comintern, he was elected to its execu¬ tive committee. From 1929 onward he was a member of the Czechoslovak chamber of deputies. After Munich he went to Moscow, where, on May 22, 1943, he signed with others the official order dissolving the Comintern. He became vice-premier in the Zdenek Fierlinger cabinet appointed by President Eduard Benes in Kosice on April 7, 1945. On July 2, 1946, he became prime minister. In the same month he paid a state visit to Moscow and in March 1947 to Warsaw. On June 14, 1948, after the resignation of Benes, Gottwald was elected president of the republic by a show of hands of the 296 deputies present.

Government Departments and Bureaus. The following are the leading officers of the more important government departments and bureaus of the United States. The date for the information is Dec. 31, 1948. Name

Department or Bureau

Post

Department of State.. *Marshall, George C.^ *Lovett, Robert A.^ Bohlen, Charles E. Alien, George V. Thorp, Willard L. Norton, Garrison Saltzmon, Charles E. Peurifoy, John E.

Secretary Under-Sec’y Counselor Asst. Sec’y Asst. Sec'y Asst. Sec’y Asst. Sec'y Asst. Sec'y

•Snyder, John W. Foley, Edward H., Jr.

Secretary Under-Sec'y

Department of the Treosury

.

. . .

Bureau of the Comptroller of the Currency. , Treasurer of the U.S. Bureau of Customs. Bureau of Internal Revenue ... . Bureau of Narcotics. . Bureau of the Mint. . U.S. Savings Bonds Division . . . . *U.S. Coast Guard. .

Delano, Preston Julian, William A. Dow, Frank Schoeneman, George J. Anslinger, Harry J. Ross, Mrs. Nellie Tayloe Clark, Vernon L. Farley, Joseph F., Adm.

Comptroller Treasurer Acting Commissioner Commissioner Commissioner Director Nat'l Director Commandant

Sec'y of Defense National Military Establishment. . . . *Forrestal, James Joint Chiefs of Staff. , Leahy, Wm. D., Fleet Adm. •Bradley, Omar N., Gen. •Denfeld, Louis E., Adm. •Vandenberg, Hoyt S., Gen. Chairman . *ForrestaI, James War Council. Choirmon Munitions Board. . Carpenter, Donald F, Chairman Reseorch and Development Board • Compton, Karl T.

339

MENTS AND

340 Department or Bureou

Women’s Army Corps . . . Department of the Navy . .. Chief of Naval Operotions . Women's Division, U.S. Navy *U.S. Marine Corps. Women Marines. Department of the Air Force. .

*Federal Bureau of Investigation.

Name

Secretary Under-Sec’y Director Secretary Under-Sec’y Chief Director Commandant Director Secretary Under-Sec’y

’Clork, Tom C. Perlman, Philip B. Hoover, J. Edgar Bennett, James V.

Att’y-Gen. Solic. Gen. Director Director

Federal Housing Administration. • Public Housing Administration. . . Indian Claims Commission. ’Interstate Commerce Commission . . Library of Congress. National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics • . .. ’National Archives.. Notional Copital Park and Planning Commission. ’National Labor Relations Board . . ’National Mediotion Board .... Railroad Retirement Board .... ’Reconstruction Finance Corporation • Federol National Mortgage Association. ’Securities and Exchange Commission. Selective Service System.

Immigration and Naturalization

Bureau of Land Management.

Miller, Watson B.

Commissioner

Donaldson, Jesse M.

Postmaster Gen.

’Krug, Julius A. Clowson, Marion Zimmerman, William, Jr. Wrather, William E. Day, Albert M. Straus, Michael W. Drury, Newton B. Boyd, James

Secretary Director Acting Commissioner Director Director Commissioner Director Director

Division of Territories and Island Davis, James P. ’Brannon, Charles F. Loveland, Albert J. *AgricuItural Research Administration , Cardon, Philip V. Simms, Bennett T. Bureau of Animol Industry. . . . Bureau of Agricultural and Indus¬ trial Chemistry. Hilbert, G. E. Bureau of Dairy Industry .... Reed, 6. E. Bureau of Entomology ond Plant Quarantine. Annand, P. N. Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils and Agricultural Engineering. . . . Salter, Robert M. Bureau of Human Nutrition ond Home Economics. Stiebeling, Hazel K. Office of Experiment Stations • • Trullinger, R. W. Bureau of Agricultural Economics • • Wells, O. V. Wilson, M. L. Extension Service. *Farm Credit Administration .... Duggan, Ivy W. Lasseter, Dillard B. *Farmers Home Administration • • • Watts, Lyle F. Forest Service. Office of Foreign Agricultural Rela¬ tions .. FitzGerald, D. A. Production and Marketing Adminis¬ Trigg, Ralph S. tration . Commodity Credit Corporation. • Trigg, Ralph S. Federal Crop Insurance Corpora¬ tion . Geissler, Gus F. Rural Electrification Administration. . Wickard, Claude R. Soil Conservation Service. Bennett, Hugh H.

Department of Agriculture.

Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Com¬ merce .. *Notlonal Bureau of Standards . . ♦ *Coast and Geodetic Survey . . • Inland Waterways Corporation . . *Civil Aeronautics Administration . • *Patent Office. Weather Bureau. Department of Labor. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Bureau of Apprenticeship. Women's Bureau. Division of Labor Standards. . . . Wage and Hour and Public Contracts Divisions.

’Sawyer, Chorles Vacancy Capt, James C.

Director Secretary Under-Sec’y Administrator Chief Chief Chief Chief Chief

U.S. Toriff Commission. ’Veterans’ Administration. Executive Office of the President Bureau of the Budget. Council of Economic Advisers. . . . National Security Council ..... Central Intelligence Agency . . .

Emergency Agencies Office for Emergency Manogement (in Office of Defense Transportation Philippine Alien Property Administration .. Office of Housing Expediter. . . . Philippine War Damage Commission War Assets Administration .... Quasi-Official Agencies ’American National Red Cross •

Director

Public International Organizations Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations ’International Bank for Reconstruction & Development ’International Labor Organization International Refugee Organization

Administrator President Manager Administrator Chief Secretary Under-Sec’y Director

Acting Director Director Director Chairmon of the Board Rentzel, Delos W. Administrator Ktngsland, Lawrence C. Commissioner Reichelderfer, Froncis W. Chief ’Tobin, Maurice J. Secretary Vacancy Under-Sec’y Clague, Ewan Commissioner Patterson, William F. Director Miller, Frieda S. Director Connolly, William L. Director Administrator

*Federal Security Agency. U.S. Office of Education ..... U.S. Public Health Service. Social Security Administration . . . Food and Drug Administration . . . ^Office of Vocational Rehabilitation . Bureou of Employees’ Compensation. U.S. Employment Service.

Ewing, Oscar R. Grigsby, Rail 1. Scheele, Leonard A. Altmeyer, Arthur J. Dunbar, Paul B. Shortley, Michael J. McCauley, William Goodwin, Robert C.

Administrator Acting Commissioner Surgeon General Commissioner Commissioner Director Director Director

*Federal Works Agency.

Fleming, Philip B., Maj. Gen. Reynolds, W. E. MacDonald, Thomas H. Field, George H.

.

Organization of American States ’United Nations

Chairman Director Chairman Chairman Chairman Comptroller General Public Printer Administrator Chairman

Chairman Archivist

Grant, U. S., Ill, .Maj. Gen. Herzog, Paul M. Douglass, Frank P. Kennedy, William J. Hise, Harley

Chairman Chairman Chairman Chairman Chairman Chairman Chairman Director Secretary Presiding Judge Chairman President Chairman Chairman Administrator Director Chairman Exec. Sec'y Director Acting Chairman

Executive Office of the President) Johnson, J. M. Director Henderson, James Mcl. Woods, Tighe E. Waring, Frank A. Larson, Jesse

Administrator Housing Expediter Chairman Administrator

O’Connor, Basil

President

Richards, Alfred N,

President, National Academy of Sciences Chairman, National Research Council

Dodd, Norris E.

Director General

McCloy, John J. Phelan, Edward J. Tuck, W. Haltam

President Director General Exec. Sec’y Preporatory Commission Sec’y Gen. Sec’y Gen.

Lleras, Alberto ’Lie, Trygve

’See separate article. tSee Societies and Associations. ^Resigned effective Jan. 20, 1949. Succeeded by Dean Acheson.* ^Resigned effective Jan, 20, 1949. Succeeded by James E. Webb. ^Resigned effective Dec. 31, 1948; Lowell Mason, subsequently acting chairman. '‘Succeeded by Charles D. Mohaffie, effective Jon. 1, 1949. ^Succeeded by Frank Pace, Jr., effective Jan. 20, 1949.

Great Britain.—His majesty’s chief officers of state and the permanent officials of the more important of the government departments of Great Britain at the close of 1948 were these: Ministry or Department

Name

Post

Admiralty, Board of.Hall, Viscount Lang, Sir John G.

First Lord Permanent Secretary

Agriculture and Fisheries, Ministry of .

Williams, Thomas Vandepeer, Sir Donald

Minister Permanent Secretary

Air Ministry..

Henderson, Arthur Barnes, Sir James H.

Secretary of State Perm'nt Under-Sec’y

’Bank of England.Catto, Lord Nevill, W. H. Cabinet Office.Brook, Sir Norman

Governor Secretary Perm’nt Sec'y ond Sec’y of the Cabinet

Eve, Sir Malcolm Trustram

Chairman

Pakenham, Lord Overton, Sir Arnold

Minister Permanent Secretary

Civil Service Commission

Waterfield, Sir Percival

First Commissioner

Colonial Office

Jones, Arthur Creech Lloyd, Sir Thomas Calder, Sir John Alex.l Downie, Harold /

Secretary of State Perm'nt Onder-Sec’y

Commonweolth Relations Office.

Noel-Baker, Philip Carter, Sir Archibald 1 Leisching, Sir Percivalej

Secretary of State

Customs and Excise, Board of.

Croft, Sir William

Chairman

Defence, Ministry of.

Alexander, Albert V. Parker, Sir Harold

Minister Permanent Secretary

Duchy of Lancaster, Office of the

Dalton, Hugh

Chancellor

Education, Ministry of.

Tomlinson, George Maud, Sir John

Minister Permanent Secretary

Food, Ministry of

Stracliey, John Lee, F. G.

Minister Permanent Secretary

Civil Aviation, Ministry of

....

Chairman Chairman Chairman President Chairman

Hunsaker, Jerome C. Grover, Wayne C.

Bronk, Detlev W.

Central land Board and War Dan age Commission. Administrator Commissioner Commissioner Commissioner

.

fNational Academy of Sciences and National Research Council . . .

Commissioner Commissioner Chief Commissioner Chairman Librarian

Webb, James E.® Nourse, Edwin G. Souers, Sidney W. Hillenkoetter, Roscoe H., Rear Adm. Steelman, John R.

National Security Resources Board .

Chief Chief Chief Director Governor Administrator Chief

Blaisdell, Thomos C., Jr. Condon, E. U. Colbert, Leo O. Trimble, South, Jr.

Independent Offices Atomic Energy Commission .... ’Lilienthal, David E. Civil Aeronautics Board. O’Connell, Joseph J., Jr. *Commission on Organization of the Ex¬ Hoover, Herbert ecutive Branch of the Government *Export-lmport Bank of Washington . Martin, Wm. McC., Jr. ’Federal Communications Commission. Coy, Wayne ’Federal Deposit insurance Corpora¬ tion... Harl, Maple T. ’Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service. Ching, Cyrus S. ’Federal Powe. Commission .... Smith, Nelson Lee ’Federal Reserve System, Board of Governors of the. McCabe, Thomas B. ’Federal Trade Commission • . » • Freer, Robert E.® General Accounting Office .... Warren, Lindsay C. Deviny, John J. ’Government Printing Office .... Housing and Home Finance Agency» Foley, Raymond M. Home Loan Bank Board • • * . • Divers, William K.

’Smithsonion Institution.. Tax Court of the United States. . . ’Tennessee Valley Authority .... U.S. Civil Service Commission . . . U.S. Maritime Commission.

Post

Richards, Fronk in D. Egan, John Taylor Witt, Edgar E. Lee, William E.^ Evans, Luther H,

Hise, Harley Hanrahan, Edmond M. Hershey, Lewis B,, Maj. Gen. Wetmore, Alexander Turner, Bolon B. Clapp, Gordon R. Mitchell, Harry B. Smith, Wm. W., Vice-Adm. Ryder, Oscar B. Gray, Carl R., Jr.

^

McComb, William R.

Public Buildings Administration . . . Public Roads Administration .... Bureau of Community Facilities. • .

Name

Department or Bureau

Post

’Royall, Kenneth C, Draper, William H., Jr. Hallaren, Mary A., Col. ’Sullivan, John L. Kenney, W, John ’Denfeld, Louis E., Adm. Hancock, Joy B., Capt. Cates, Clifton B., Gen. Towle, Katherine A., Col. ’Symington, W. Stuart Barrows, Arthur S.

BUREAUS

Foreign Office.

.

•

’Bevin, Ernest Sargent, Sir Orme

Crown Agents

Perm’nt Under-Sec’ys

Secretary of State Perm’nt Under-Sec’y

GOVERNMENT Ministry or Department

PRINTING OFFICE—GREAT BRITAIN

Name

Forestry Commissfon.Robinson, Lord

Chairmen

Fuel and Power, Ministry of

Gaitskell, Hugh T. N, Fergusson, Sir Donald

Minister Secretary

Sevan, Aneurin Douglas, Sir William

Minister Secretary

....

Health, Ministry of..

Gravel: see Sand and Gravel. Great Books: see Education;

Post

Home Office.Ede, James Chuter Newsam, Sir Frank

Secretary of State Perm’nt Under-Sec’y

Information, Central Office of

Director General

.

.

.

Fraser, Robert

Inland Revenue, Board of.Bamford, Sir Eric

Chairman

Labour and National Service, Ministry of Isaacs, George Ince, Sir Godfrey

Minister Permanent Secretary

Law Officers’ Department.Shawcross, Sir Hartley Soskice, Sir Frank

Attorney-General Solicitor-General

Lord High Chancellor's Department

Lord High Chancellor Permanent Secretary

.

Jowitt, Viscount Napier, Sir Albert

Lord Privy Seal.Addison, Viscount National Assistance Board.Buchanan, George King, Sir Geoffrey

Chairman Secretary

National Insurance, Ministry of .

Minister Permanent Secretary

.

.

Griffiths, James Phillips, Sir Thomas

Paymaster-General.Addison, Viscount Pensions, Ministry of.Marquand, Hilary A, Wilson, Sir Arton *Post Office.

Minister Permanent Secretary

Paling, Wilfred Birchall, Sir Raymond

Privy Council Office. Scientific and Industrial Research, Department of.

Postmaster General Director General

*Morrison, Herbert Leadbitter, Sir Eric C. E.

Lord President Clerk of the Council

*Morrison, Herbert Appleton, Sir Edward

Pres, of the Committee of Council Secretary

Scottish Office.

Wood burn, Arthur Milne, Sir David

Secretary of State Perm’nt Under-Sec'y

Stationery Office

.

•

Scorgie, Sir Norman

Controller

Supply, Ministry of ...

•

•

.

Strauss, George Russell Rowlands, Sir Archibald

Minister Permanent Secretary

Town and Country Planning, Ministry of.

Silkin, Lewis Minister Sheepshanks, Sir Thomas Permanent Secretary

Trade, Board of.

Wilson, James Woods, Sir John H,

President Permanent Secretary

Transport, Ministry of .

.

Barnes, Alfred Jenkins, Sir Gilmour

Minister Permonent Secretary

Treasury .

*Attlee, Clement *Cripps, Sir Stafford

.

Bridges, Sir Edward

First Lord Chancellor of the Exchequer Permanent Secretary

War Works Commission

Eve, Sir Malcolm Trustram

Chairman

War Office,

Shinwell, Emanuel Speed, Sir Eric B. 6.

Secretary of State Perm'nt Under-Sec'y

Key, Charles Emmerson, Sir Harold

Minister Permanent Secretary

.

.

.

Works, Ministry of . '^See separate article.

Government Printing Office: see

Printing Office,

341

Libraries.

Great Britain & Northern Ireiand, IIhUmJ l/InwJAiM An independent kingdom in northUnitsd Kingdom of. western Europe, the United King¬ dom comprises the main island of Great Britain, with numerous smaller islands off the English and Scottish coasts, and the six northeastern counties of Ireland. It is a constitutional mon¬ archy, with a king and parliament of two houses, the house of lords consisting of about 800 hereditary peers, 24 spiritual peers, 16 Scottish representative peers, a number of Irish representa¬ tive peers (in 1948, 8; vacancies no longer filled) and a few life peers who have held high judicial office; and the house of com¬ mons, numbering 640 members, elected by universal suffrage. Area: 93,371 sq.mi. (excluding Channel Islands, 75 sq.mi.; Isle of Man, 221 sq.mi.). Pop. (est. June 30, 1948, including Chan¬ nel Islands and Isle of Man): 50,033,000; England and Wales, 43,502,000; Scotland, 5,169,000; Northern Ireland, 1,362,000. Cap.: London (pop. est. June 30, 1948): city and metropolitan police districts, 8,367,000; city and metropolitan boroughs only, 3,402,400. Chief towns (est. June 30, 1948, except where noted): Glasgow (est. Dec. 31, 1947), 1,106,000; Birmingham, 1,099,850; Liverpool, 767,990; Manchester, 697,540; Sheffield, 512,iio; Leeds, 497,340; Edinburgh (est. Dec. 31, 1947), 487,300; Belfast (Jan. i, 1939), 443,Soo; Bristol, 435,510; Not¬ tingham, 297,310; Hull, 294,070; Newcastle-on-Tyne, 293,890; Leicester, 280,550. Language: English is almost universally spoken, but in Wales (according to the 1931 census) 3% of the population spoke Welsh only and 31% spoke both languages; in Scotland 0.15% spoke Gaelic only and 2.7% spoke both languages; in the Isle of Man 528 spoke English and Manx. Religion: National Episcopal established church in England, Presbyterian established church in Scotland. King: George VI iq.v.) ; prime minister: Clement R. Attlee {q.v.).

U.S.

Government.

Governors and Premiers, British: see British Empire. Grain: see Barley; Corn; Oats; Rice; Rye; Wheat. Granite: see Stone. Grapefruit: see Fruit. Grapes: see Fruit.

Pronhito uldpllllC*

World production of graphite reached a maximum of 315,000 short tons in 1943, and declined stead¬ ily to 95,000 tons in 1946. Production is widely scattered, with many small producers but few large ones, of which the main ones are Austria, Ceylon, Czechoslovakia, Germany, Korea and

m>HTH

mi46~

iYoys emm hAfEi' koTKTKHi IS

im • pm.m \

m fm

Mexico. United States.—The salient features of the graphite indus¬ try in the United States were reported by the U.S. bureau of mines as follows, in short tons: 1942

1943

7,120 7,253 43,752 6,031 4,152 33,569

9,939 9,597 28,713 5,311

Mexico. 23,933 Ceylon.13,209 Madagascar. 5,850 Canada. 636 Exports. 4,095

21,679 480 5,655 592 3,010

Production. Shipments. Imports. Flake. Lump, chip, dust . . • . . Amorphous .......

1,012 22,390

1946

1947

5,408 5,768 26,053 6,191 1,568 18,294

4,888 5,334 36,132 2,883 5,207 28,042

5,575 4,844 33,140 3,337 56 29,743

4,387 5,207 43,659 2,730 198 40,703

17,269

25,879 2,166 6,665 1,279 1,308

24,389 3,730 3,200 1,526 2,313

34,857 3,933 2,388 1,961 1,546

1944

1,688 6,271 825 2,230

1945

Production' of graphite in the U.S. was never a healthy in¬ dustry, and even in the years of World War II operated only under considerable difficulty. (G. A. Ro.)

BRITISH MOTHERS leaving a mobile clinic at Isiington, Eng., after having had their children immunized against diphtheria. Under the National Health Services act, effective July 5, 194S, free medical attention became available in England to all those who chose to accept it

342

GREAT

History.—The year 1948 was overshadowed by the same two major anxieties as had darkened 1947; abroad, the increasingly irreconcilable division between the western world and the Rus¬ sian bloc—the “cold war”—and at home the problem of eco¬ nomic solvency. Against this background of stringency and danger, Clement Attlee’s Labour government pushed forward its policy of socialization into new and increasingly controversial fields. In this policy it was fortified by an unprecedented run of by-election successes, losing only one seat (Camlachie, Glas¬ gow), and that one in the face of a split Socialist candidature. (See Political Parties, British.) Comparative optimism marked the beginning of the year, as production rose, the drain on gold and dollar reserves began to respond to the austerity measures of 1947 and, above all, the prospects of the European Recovery program gave promise of relief and of an opportunity for co-operative European recon¬ struction. It soon became clear, however, that the remaining part of the task of reconstruction would prove the harder, and the year closed in a mood of soberness and concern. On Nov. 14 general rejoicing greeted the birth of a son, sec¬ ond in direct succession to the throne, to Princess Elizabeth (q.v.) and the Duke of Edinburgh. During the last two months of the year public interest was focused upon the judicial tribunal set up, under the chairman¬ ship of Justice Sir George Justin Lynskey, to inquire into allega¬ tions of corrupt practices involving several ministers and public servants, and centring on the activities of a stateless alien, Sydney Stanley. After giving evidence before the tribunal, John Belcher, parliamentary secretary to the board of trade, and George Gibson, a director of the Bank of England, resigned these respective positions. The tribunal’s report had not yet been published when the year ended. Foreign Affairs.—European co-operation for recovery was initiated in January by Anglo-French economic talks, and in the same month the foreign secretary, Ernest Bevin (q.v.), speak¬ ing in the house of commons, committed Britain to the support of a union of western Europe for mutual security and prosperity. The government took a lead in successive conferences of the ERP nations and signed, on March 17, the Brussels treaty pro¬ viding for mutual defense arrangements between Britain, France and the three Benelux countries. Under this treaty a joint gen¬ eral staff, the Western Union Commanders-in-Chief committee, was set up on Oct. 4, with Field Marshal Viscount Montgomery of Alamein (q.v.), as its permanent military chairman. ERP began to operate in April, and allocation of ERP funds between the participating countries, together with a system of interEuropean credits, was settled for the coming year by a confer¬ ence of experts held in Paris in September. This agreement pro¬ vided for sterling credits by Great Britain of $282,000,000 out of its total ERP allocation of $1,263,000,000. (See European Recovery Program; Western European Union.)

Meanwhile western European consolidation was accompanied by troubles elsewhere which added to Great Britain’s preoccupa¬ tions and burdens. Most acute of these was the Russian blockade of Berlin (q.v.), met by the successful device of the air lift. In October, after protracted and fruitless negotiations in Mos¬ cow and in Berlin itself, the situation was referred to the Se¬ curity council of the United Nations as a threat to peace. Efforts at mediation by six neutral powers having come to nothing in the face of the U.S.S.R.’s intransigence, the dispute remained on the agenda. An insurrection by Chinese communists in Malaya was checked before the damage had become serious. Fighting continued intermittently in Palestine, despite a nom¬ inal truce under United Nations authority; although direct British responsibility had ended with the winding up of the mandate, this constituted a threat to the vital British interest

BRITAIN in middle eastern stability, already compromised by the repudia¬ tion in Iraq, on Jan. 21, of an Anglo-Iraqi treaty of defense and mutual aid, signed at Portsmouth on Jan. 15. These disturbances and threats to peace, coupled with the increasingly hostile atti¬ tude of the Soviet Union, led late in 1948 to the halting of de¬ mobilization, to the extension of the period of national service from I year to 18 months and to a certain amount of re-armament and revival of civil defense measures. (See Iraq; Pales¬ tine.)

Less prominent and irresolvable than the east-west tension, but still important, was the persistence of differences between British, French and U.S. policies concerning western Germany and particularly the Ruhr. These differences were sufficiently overridden for agreement to be reached at a six-power confer¬ ence on Germany held in London in June by the U.S., Great Britain, France, Belgium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg. This laid the foundations of a future new federal constitution for Germany and provided for the setting up of an international authority, representing the six powers and Germany itself, to allocate the output of Ruhr heavy industry. This compromise was only unwillingly accepted in the first instance by the French, and in November proposals to hand over more control to Ger¬ man hands roused keen French opposition. Commonwealth Relationships.—The year was marked by im¬ portant developments in the internal relationships of the empire and commonwealth. Eire, by the repeal of the External Rela¬ tions act, proposed technically to sever itself from the common¬ wealth; and India, committed to the style of a “sovereign repub¬ lic,” sought a formula which would make it possible for that country to retain the substance of the commonwealth connection in a form compatible with its national ambitions. The enact¬ ment of the British Nationality act on July 30 established a new principle of citizenship, setting up, in parallel to the status of “British subject,” a citizen status relating to the separate commonwealth countries and to the United Kingdom and colonies. The conference of commonwealth prime ministers, held in London from Oct. ii to 22, did not produce any single formal agreement, but gave promise of a far closer, more posi¬ tive and constructive collaboration by the new “non-British” commonwealth countries than had been expected. From Sept. 29 to Oct. 9 the first conference of delegates from the legislative councils of all British African colonies was held in London, under the presidency of Arthur Creech Jones, the colonial sec¬ retary, primarily to consider economic and social problems com¬ mon to all territories. On Oct. 19 Attlee opened a week-long conference of the Empire Parliamentary association, representa¬ tive of the parliaments and legislatures of the commonwealth, at Westminster. (See British Empire and separate countries.) Economic Policy.—In February the government issued two white papers, disclosing that Britain had overspent its income by £675,000,000 during 1947, that at the existing rate of over¬ spending its remaining gold and dollar reserves would be ex¬ hausted in a few months and that personal money incomes had increased far more than had production. The government appealed to all sections of the nation to co-operate in checking this inflation. In April the chancellor of the exchequer. Sir Stafford Cripps (q.v.), introduced a budget combining a large surplus (£300,000,000) with some relief to earned incomes, married women’s earnings and the small taxpayer generally, and incorporating a “special contribution” dn unearned income which, taken in con¬ junction with existing income tax and surtax, constituted in effect a capital levy. The effect of this budget was designedly deflationary, and the pressure of surplus money eased per¬ ceptibly in the ensuing months; but the campaign to cut costs, was less effective.

NED GREENSLADE (left), named champion coal miner In an incentive cam¬ paign sponsored by the British Ministry of Information for his record output of 120 tons in one w/eek at a mine in Blaen-garw, Wales

The twin economic problems of raising productivity in eco¬ nomic life in general and of diverting resources from less essen¬ tial to more essential industries remained obstinate. Coal achieved some gain in manpower, but not nearly as much as the plan demanded; absenteeism increased and production remained consistently below the level needed to meet the minimum objec¬ tives, including Britain’s export commitments. The first annual report of the National Coal board showed a loss of £23,000,000, but higher prices were expected to turn this into a small profit in the ensuing year. (See Coal.) Agriculture suffered during the year from the repatriation of the last remaining German prisoners of war (of whom, however, a sm.all number elected to remain as civilians). What appeared likely, at the end of July, to be a record harvest was severely affected by a month of storms. Total yields were, however, well above average. (See Agriculture.) The steel industry achieved successive production records and its official objective was raised from 14,500,000 tons to 15,500,000 tons a year. Vehicle production also rose steeply and vehicle exports provided a large credit item in the balance of trade. The shipbuilding industry also worked “at high speed.” (See Iron and Steel.) Production and the export trade were both hampered by a succession of dock strikes in the port of London and elsewhere. The most important of these strikes, which paralyzed the port of London for a fortnight in June and necessitated the use of troops to unload perishable cargoes, was ended only by the per¬ sonal intervention of the prime minister. In other industries the record of industrial disputes remained good. (See Strikes; Labour Unions.)

On the initiative of Sir Stafford Cripps there was set up in August a British-American Council of Productivity, designed to give British industry the benefit of U.S. experience. The first report of this council, published in November, indicated that the chief cause of the divergence between British and U.S. pro¬ ductive standards was the smaller amount of equipment avail¬

able to British workers, but that more efficient management could, even with existing equipment, achieve considerable gains. New Legislation.—On July 5, 1948, the National Health act and the National Insurance act came into force These embodied between them the policy, developed under the coalition govern¬ ment, of nationally insured security for the individual, on the one hand against the actual expenses of illness and on the other against destitution arising from illness, disablement, unemploy¬ ment, old age or the death of the family breadwinner. The National Health act in its original form aroused strong opposi¬ tion among doctors and dentists, who saw in its provisions a threat to their professional liberty; but some weeks of con¬ troversy between the British Medical association and the min¬ ister of health, Aneurin Bevan, produced an acceptable com¬ promise and the great majority of both professions duly en¬ rolled. (See Law; Public Health Services.) In June the Criminal Justice bill, embodying an amendment abolishing the death penalty, was rejected by the house of lords, which also refused to accept a compromise amiendment intro¬ duced when the bill was reconsidered by the commons. The government, which had not actively backed the no-hanging clause, dropped it from the bill, and, after a practical suspension lasting for several months, the death penalty was once more brought into use. The Town and Country Planning act came into force on July i, its most controversial provision being the nationalization of “development value,” which obliged any property owner alter¬ ing the use to which his land was put to pay a development charge representing the full difference in land value between the old use and the new. The end of the year found debate running high on the two most controversial measures introduced by the government—the Parliament bill and the Iron and Steel Nationalization bill. The Parliament bill, modifying the Parliament act of 1911, reduced the delaying powers of the house of lords from two years to one; this reduction appeared particularly significant in that under this provision the government would be able to nationalize iron and steel, even over the lords’ veto, within the lifetime of

343

344

GREAT LAKES TRAFFIC—GREECE

the existing parliament. A compromise solution was attempted in February by an all-parties committee; this aimed at combin¬ ing a lesser modification of the upper house’s powers with a far-reaching reform of its composition. But the committee failed by a narrow margin to reach agreement. A special short session was held in October to introduce the bill and secure its passage under existing constitutional law before the election year 1950. The Iron and Steel Nationalization bill, under whose terms 90% of Britain’s iron and steel capacity was to pass under public ownership, though preserving existing trade names and organiza¬ tion, received its first and second readings in November. Standard of Living.—The limited improvement in the eco¬ nomic position brought a limited rise in living standards and relaxation of individual controls. Bread was derationed on July 24; improvement in sugar stocks brought, at the end of the year, a larger ration and the freeing of preserves; other food¬ stuffs remained virtually unchanged. Higher clothing prices and some improvement in production brought supply and demand so nearly into balance as to make possible considerable coupon concessions and the entire freeing of footwear from rationing. It was announced in November that the newsprint cuts of 1947, which had reduced British newspapers to four pages, would be restored in the new year; and it was found possible, by drastic measures against the black market in gasoline, to restore limited private motoring. Restrictions on private building were also loosened. Bevan was able to announce in October that 750,000 family housing units had been provided, by new building, con¬ version and repair of war damage, after the end of the war. The shortage, however, remained acute and building produc¬ tivity exceptionally low. {See also International Court of Justice; Ireland, Northern; Scotland; Wales.) (H. M. Ce.) Education.—Great Britain

(1947-48); primary schools 23,811, pupils 3,832,138, teachers 132,341; secondary schools 4.592, pupils 1,543,576, teachers 68,659; special schools 537, pupils 33,061, teachers 2,044; uni¬ versities: England, universities 12, university colleges 6, students 56,315, professors 1,018; Scotland, universities 4, university college i, students 15,79s: Wales, university i, students 4,654. Northern Ireland (1944-45): primary schools 1,662, pupils 187,383; secondary schools 76, pupils 21,021; technical schools 69, other centres 60, students 29,335; uni¬ versity (1946-47) 1, students 2,839, professors 158. Finance and Banking.—Budget (actual, 1947-48): revenue £3,844,859,041; expenditure £3,187,104,303. Notes in circulation (Nov. 1948) £1,233,934,734Gross national debt (Nov. 1948) £25,727,000,000. Exchange rate (1948) £i=$4.03. Foreign Trade.—Imports

(1947) £1,787,470,975, (1948) £2,079,500,000; exports including re-exports (1947) :£i,196,250,569, (1948) £1,647,800,000. Transport and Communications.—Length of roads 194,000 mi.; licensed motor vehicles: cars (1947) i,944,ooo, (May 1948) 1,670,000; public conveyances (1947) 120,300, (May 1948) 129,200; goods vehicles (1947) 638,700, (May 1948) 671,200; agricultural vehicles (1947) 218.800, (May 1948) 246,200; total rnotor vehicles licensed (1947) 2.921.800, (May 1948) 2,716,600. Railways: total mileage (1947) 19,200 mi.; passenger traffic volume (1947) 1,139,843,000, (1948, 9 mo.) 674,248,000; freight traffic volume (1947) 257,340,000 long tons, (1948, 9 mo.) 183,440,000 long tons. Shipping (merchant vessels 100 tons or more, July 1947): steamers 4,781, gross tonnage 12,623,273; motor ships 1,280, gross tonnage 5,224,624; sailing vessels and barges 286, gross tonnage 100,942; total 6,347; total gross tonnage 17,948,839. Number of telephones (March 31, 1948) 4,652,704; number of wireless licences (Oct. 1948) 11,329,400; number of television licences (Oct. 1948) 73,800. Air transport: miles flown (1947) 39,525,000, (1948, 6 mo.) 21,292,000; passengers flown (194?) 586,800, (1948, 6 mo.) 290,300; cargo carried (1947) 5,051 tons, (1948, 6 mo.) 3,434 tons; air mail carried (1947) 3,002 tons, (1948, 6 mo.) 1,783 tons. Agriculture and Fisheries.—(thousand long tons): wheat (1947) 1,667, (1948) 2,281; barley (1947) 1,619, (1948) 2,009; oats 6947) 2,508, (1948) 2,884; potatoes (1947) 7,760, (1948) 12,083; sugar beets (1947) 2,960, (1948) 4,106. Livestock (thousand): cattle (Dec. 1947) 9,218, (June 1948) 9,803; sheep (Dec. 1947) i3,359, (June 1948) 18,154; pigs (Dec. 1947) 1,793, (June 1948) 2,150; poultry (Dec. 1947) 52,386, (June 1948) 85,323. Fisheries (cwt.): total catch (1947) 19,875,291, (1948, 9 mo.) 15,118,534; total catch value (1947) £41,513,559, (1948, 9 mo.) £34,107,526. Industry.—(April 1948): Number of industrial establishments with more than 10 employees 51,040; number of persons employed 6,510,000. Fuel and power: coal (1948) 208,418,500 long tons; gas (million cu.ft.) (1947) 432,640, (1948, 9 mo.) 329,830; electricity (million kw.hr.) (1947) 42,576, (1948, 9 mo.) 33,429. Raw materials (thousand Tong tons): iron ore (1947) 10,868, (1948, 9 mo.) 9,693; pig iron (1947)

Estimated Revenue and Expenditure 1948-49

'

Revenue

£ Income tax. Surtax. Death duties . .. Stamps .. Profit tax and excess profits tax. Other Inland revenue duties. Special contribution. Total inland revenue. Customs Excise. Total customs and excise. Motor vehicle duties. Sale of surplus war stores. Surplus receipts from certain trading services . • . • Wireless licences. Crown lands.'. Receipts from sundry loans. Miscellaneous. Total revenue.

.•

1,309,150,000 90,000,000 160,000,000 55,000,000 250,000,000 1,000,000 50,000,000 820,600,000 726,550,000

1,915,150,000 1,547,150,000

50,000,000 102,000,000 57,000,000 1 1,000,000 1,000,000 1 4,000,000 68,000,000

3,765,300,000

.

Expenditure Interest and management of national debt. Payment to Northern Ireland exchequer. Miscellaneous'consolidated fund services. Total. Supply services Army votes. Navy votes. Air votes. I Ministry of Supply (defense). [Ministry of Defense. Total. Civil Central government end finance. Foreign and Imperial. Home department, low and justice. Education and broadcasting. Health, housing, town planning, labour and national insurance.. Trade, industry and transport. Works, stationery, etc. Pensions. Contribution to local revenues. Supply, food end miscellaneous services .... Total ... . Post office vote (excess over revenue). Tax collection, customs and excise and inland revenue votes.

(

Total expenditure.. Surplus.

500,000,000 26,000,000 8,000,000 305,000,000 153,000,000 173,000,000 61,000,000 632,000

534,000,000

692,632,000

11,415,000 38,459,000 40,546,000 214,896,000 540,697,000 168,315,000 78,324,000 94,128,000 56,717,000 465,116,000 10,877,000

1,708,613,000

29.557,000 2,975,679,000 789,621,000 3,765,300,000

7)644,

(1948, 9 mo.) 6,921; steel ingots and castings (1947) 12,480, (1948, 9 mo.) 11,065; virgin aluminum (1947) 28.92, (1948, 9 mo.) 22.48; magnesium (1947) 2.52, (1948, 9 mo.) 2.12. Timber (thousand standards): softwood (1947) 66.48, (1948, 9 mo.) 50.25; hardwood (1947) 37.32, (1948, 9 mo.) 30.81. Textiles: raw wool (actual weight, million lb.) (1947) 70.8, (1948, 9 mo.), 49.9; woven wool fabrics (mil¬ lion linear yd.) (1947) 231.60, (1948, 9 mo.) 196.10. Films.—A Day With English Children (Coronet Instructional Films); John Bull’s Own Island (Film Publishers).

Great Lakes Traffic: see Prpppp

Canals and Inland W.aterways.

^ kingdom in the southern part of the Balkan

UIbCliC. peninsula. Area (with Dodecanese Islands): 51,182 sq.mi. (41,328 mainland); pop. (Oct. 1940): 7,344,860; (est. Dec. 1948): 7,840,000. Chief towns (1940 census): Athens (cap., 481,225); Piraeus (205,404); Salonika or Thessalonike (226,147); Patras (79.57°); Volo (54,919)- Languages (1940 census): Greek 7,071,145; Turkish 122,400; others 269,370. Religions (1940 census): Greek Orthodox 7,095,809; Roman Catholic 29,232; Moslem 129,138. King: Paul I; prime min¬ ister: Themistocles Sophoulis (q.v.). History.—The year 1948 dawned for Greece under dramatic circumstances. Following their announcement of the formation of a “provisional democratic government of Greece” on Dec. 24, 1947, under Markos Vafiades (q.v.), the rebels launched a vig¬ orous attack on the town of Konitsa in the Epirus province close to the Albanian frontier and succeeded in holding the town until government troops relieved it on New Year’s day. This operation was obviously aimed at securing a seat for the rebel government on Greek territory. With the allocation toward military expenditure of a further

Top: FORCED LABOUR conscripted by guerrilla forces in Greece. These Greek villagers are shown widening a road somewhere in guerrilla-occupied territory Above; MORTAR TEAM of Greek army commandos on the lookout for guerrillas at a mountain post in central Greece during 1948. They wore British berets, and American trou¬ sers and fur-collared jackets Left: CHILDREN taken from their homes in northern Greece for evacuation to the island of Rhodes in 1948. Shown with them, as they boarded a transport vessel, is Timotheos, Metropolitan of the Orthodox Church at Rhodes Below: POLITICAL TRIAL at Salonika in 1948, for prison¬ ers charged with aiding E.L.A.S. forces in the Greek leftist revolt of 1944; 213 such prisoners died in mass executions during May 4-6

346

GRE ECE

$15,000,000 from United States aid funds, the Greek army was enabled to increase its numbers and improve its arms and equip¬ ment sufficiently to carry out large-scale offensive operations against rebel forces concentrated in the Roumeli region of cen¬ tral Greece, the Mt. Olympus area and the Grammos massif on the Greco-Albanian frontier. These operations inflicted heavy casualties on the rebels and broke up their military organiza¬ tion, but they did not succeed in liquidating the guerrilla forces or putting an end to the operations of marauding bands. The Greek government laid the responsibility for this on the aid and facilities furnished to the rebels by Albania, Bulgaria and Yugo¬ slavia, and the United Nations Special Committee on the Balkans (U.N.S.C.O.B.) confirmed the existence of this aid. A new feature in the activities of the guerrillas was the re¬ moval of large numbers of young children from their homes in Greece to various countries of the soviet bloc. U.N.S.C.O.B.’s investigations into the general situation on the Greek frontier were presented in the form of a main report covering the period from U.N.S.C.O.B.’s arrival in Athens on, Nov. 25, 1947, to June 30, 1948, and two supplementary reports covering the intervening period to Oct. 22, 1948. These reports formed the basis of the discussions on the Greek question by the political committee of the U.N. general assembly in Paris during Oct. and Nov. 1948. U.N.S.C.O.B.’s findings were that the Greek guerrillas were receiving war material and other sup¬ plies from Albania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia and that these countries allowed the rebels to use their territory as a refuge and for tactical purposes and facilitated their return to Greece after rest or medical treatment. U.N.S.C.O.B. also found that moral support was being given to the Greek guerrilla movement through the state-controlled radio stations of these three coun¬ tries and the systematic organization of committees for aid to the guerrillas, and that this assistance was on such a scale that it could not have been given without the knowledge of the three governments concerned. U.N.S.C.O.B. finally stated that it was of the opinion that “so long as events along the northern borders of Greece show that support is being given to the Greek guerrillas from Albania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia, the Special Committee (U.N.S.C.O.B.) is convinced that a threat to the political independence and territorial integrity of Greece will exist and international peace and security in the Balkans be endangered.” The discussion centred on a joint resolution sponsored by the U.S., Great Britain, France and China which generally reflected the conclusions of U.N.S.C.O.B. and called upon Albania, Bul¬ garia and Yugoslavia to cease giving any support or assistance to the Greek guerrillas. This resolution was finally approved at the plenary session of the U.N. general assembly on Nov. 27, by 47 votes to 6, while a further resolution, adopted unanimously, urged that a meeting of the representatives of the governments of Greece, Albania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia should be con¬ vened in Paris by the president of the general assembly, the secretary-general of U.N. and the chairman and rapporteur of the political committee “to explore the possibilities of reaching agreement among themselves as to the method and procedure to be adopted with a view to solving present difficulties between them.” A third resolution, also carried unanimously, called for the repatriation of Greek children where the parents or guardians so desired. On Dec. 13 H. Evatt, president of the U.N. general assembly, announced that these mediation talks had broken down over a formal request that Greece should agree to treat the existing boundaries between Albania and Greece as definitive. Although it was pointed out that the existing boundaries between the two countries were recognized de facto and that it was obvious that . no party would seek to alter them contrary to the principles

and purposes of the charter, Greece declared its inability to undertake a commitment that would amount to the formal renunciation of its claims on northern Epirus. Home security suffered a further deterioration, which neces¬ sitated placing the whole of the country under martial law at the end of October. Exhortations from the rebel radio for a stepping-up of sabotage and antigovernment activities within the towns found echo in the assassination of the Liberal min¬ ister of justice, Christos Ladas, by a young Communist on May I. Guerrilla depredations in the frontier regions brought the number of refugees from these areas to nearly 700,000, their upkeep being an additional burden to the state. In addition to the intensification of forcible recruiting by the rebels, there was also widespread sabotage aimed primarily at public works and communications. Despite these activities, however, U.S. aid began to show tangible results during the year. The Corinth canal, blocked by the Germans during their retreat from the Balkans, was completely cleared, so that shipping was once again able to use the short cut from the Ionian to the Aegean seas instead of having to go around the Peloponnese; and the railway and road bridges over the canal, also destroyed by the Germans, were rebuilt. Great progress was made toward restor¬ ing railway communications between Athens and Salonika by repairing the Gorgopotamos viaduct, which was blown up by an Anglo-Greek sabotage group during the occupation to disrupt the German supply route to North Africa; and the main AthensSalonika highway, completely relaid throughout its length, was reopened to traffic in November, though guerrilla activities still made it necessary for traffic on this road to travel in convoys protected by troops. Shipping facilities were improved by the completion of repairs to the main quay in the port of Piraeus and similar repairs to the harbour of Salonika and other ports. On March 7, amid scenes of popular rejoicing, the Dodecanese group of islands, restored to Greece by the Italian peace treaty, were formally incorporated into the kingdom of Greece in the presence of King Paul. As regards domestic politics, the Liberal-Populist coalition government formed on Sept. 7, 1947, was obliged to resign on Nov. 12 following the announcement by Sophocles Veniselos, deputy leader of the Liberal party, that he and a number of Liberal deputies were withdrawing their support of the govern¬ ment. Efforts to form a government of different complexion did not succeed, and the new government which was sworn in on Nov. 18 was little different from its predecessor, being once again a Liberal-Populist coalition in equal numbers, with the Liberal leader, Themistocles Sophoulis, as prime minister and the Populist leader, Konstantinos Tsaldaris, as deputy premier and minister of foreign affairs. It obtained a vote of confidence by a majority of i vote (168 for, 167 against) on Nov. 21 in the chamber of deputies, which then adjourned till Feb. i, 1949. (See also United Nations.) (A. A. P.) Education.—(1947-48) Elementary schools 8,701, pupils 985,000; sec¬ ondary schools 373, pupils 134,671; technical schools 40, students 3,738; universities 2, students 7,600. Illiteracy (1940) 38%. Finance and Banking.—Budget (1947-48, 15 months, actual) revenue Dr.3,28s,600,000,000 (including Dr.1,068,000,000,000 from U.S. aid); expenditure Dr.3,412,200,000,000; (1948-49, 12 months, est.) revenue Dr.3,250,000,000,000 (including Dr.500,000,000,000 under ERP); ex¬ penditure Dr.3,450,000,000,000. Currency circulation (Aug. 31, 1948) Dr.1,048,603,000,000. Gold and foreign exchange reserve (Aug. 31, 1948) Dr.640,859,000.000. Exchange rate (official, 1948) Dr.s,ooo = $i. Foreign Trade.—In long tons (1947); imports 1,375,000, value Dr.900,303,000,000; exports 191,995; value Dr.386,621,000,000. Transport and Communications.—Roads (1946) 9,679 mi.; motor ve¬ hicles 18,100. Railways (June 1948) 1,372 mi.; rolling-stock units (June 1948) 3,590. Shipping (1948): merchant vessels 302; total net registered tonnage 1,328,046. Agriculture—Main crops in long tons (1947): wheat, barley and rye (total) 1,374,000; potatoes 280,000; maize 272,000; tobacco 45,000; cotton 34,000. Industry—Number of persons employed (June 30, 1948) 399,500.

GREEN. WILLIAM-.GUAM rroan U/illiam UrCblli Wlllldlll

), U.S. labour leader, was born March 3 in Coshocton, O., spent much of his youth as a miner, and at the age of 27 was a subdistrict president of the United Mine Workers of America. He was elected president of the American Federation of Labor, 1924. Under Green’s administration, thb A.F. of L. remained pre¬ dominantly a crafts union. When the Committee for Industrial Organization (later known as the Congress of Industrial Or¬ ganizations), a group of ten unions affiliated with the A.F. of L., opened its campaign to establish industrial unions, Green re¬ fused to sanction the move, and the C.I.O., then led by John L. Lewis, broke away from the parent body in 1937. During World War II Green abided by a pledge to observe labour peace for the duration of hostilities. After the war he led in criticism of the Case strike-control bill in 1946 and of the Taft-Hartley labour act of 1947, calling on all U.S. labour to defeat, in the 1948 elections, candidates who had favoured such legislation. “ In 1948 Green took a public stand against communism, lent his support to efforts to revive free trade unions in Europe, and urged labour’s support of the European Recovery plan, be¬ sides continuing his efforts to marshal labour against the TaftHartley act and similar antilabour legislation. He was instru¬ mental in convening the conference held in Lima, Peru, at which was formed the Inter-American federation, with the ob¬ jective of securing joint effort among the nations of the Amer¬ icas for the improvement of living and working conditions.

Proonlonfl

world’s largest island (840,000 sq.mi., about

347

doctors; a broad educational program of lectures and films for adults for economic, cultural and moral betterment. Trade and Finance.—Greenland’s most important export is cryolite, which is used in the manufacture of aluminum; the world’s only large commercial mine is in southern Greenland (62,231 short tons exported in 1939). There were in 1948 16,000 sheep and a meat factory. One wooden ship was in service between Greenland and Denmark, and a steel ship was being built, to be ready in 1949. Local transportation and fish¬ ing was dependent on about 1,100 kayaks and 800 wooden boats. The Greenland administration was allowed 5,000,000 kr. in the tentative Danish budget for 1948-49. (i krone= 20.90 U.S. cents in 1948.) Bibliography.—-V. Borum, “Greenland,” Danish Foreign Office Jour¬ nal, No. 1-2, 1948. (F. D. S.)

Grenada:

see Windward Islands.

PriffithQ lamPQ

), British government official,

ulllllllldy udIIICO was bom at Ammanford, Carmarthen,

Wales, was educated at an elementary school till 13 years of age when he became a coal miner and later a trade union and Labour party organizer. From 1934 to 1936 he was an official In the Miners’ Federation of Great Britain and was president of the South Wales Miners’ federation. From 1936 onward he was Labour member of parliament for the Llanelly division of the county of Carmarthen, and from 1939 was a member of the national executive of the Labour party. In 1945 he became minister of national Insurance. On May 19, 1948, he was elected chairman of the Labour party for the coming year. He visited Paris In June to sign an Anglo-French convention for reciprocal social security rights. On July 5, as minister of national Insurance, he took charge of all social security In Great Britain.

uICCIIIdllU. 705,000 sq.mi. covered by an ice cap), in the North Atlantic ocean, northwest of Iceland. A Danish posses¬ sion, it came under temporary United States protection in 1941. Capital, Godthaab. A population of 21,384 (Oct. i, 1945) is scattered in small settlements mostly on the west and southwest coast; 569 in all are listed as Europeans (largely Danes) and the rest are native Greenlanders. Seats of the governors are God¬ thaab in the south and Godhavn in the north. History.—The Danes made it clear in 1948 that they had no intention of selling Greenland to the United States, and that they viewed with concern the continuation of U.S. air bases and weather stations on the island. But still in force w'as the Green¬ land agreement of 1941, whereby the United States assumed a protectorate for the duration of the crisis and guaranteed Danish sovereignty, and, obviously, United States authorities considered a foothold in Greenland essential to U.S. defense. Danish Communists persisted in attempts to force complete U.S. withdrawal. In the folketing in November, a majority of 107 to 7 approved the government’s policy of negotiation and gradualness. The whole position was dramatized by reports of unknown planes flying over Angmagssalik in April, and by the plight of a U.S. air crew downed on the island ice in December. Denmark’s positive action in Greenland came in the form of a new economic and social policy drawn up in Copenhagen and presented to the Greenland council in Godthaab in the summer. Prime Minister Hans Hedtoft visited the island and was warmly received. The revolutionary program provided for: abandon¬ ment of the state monopoly over Greenland’s exports and im¬ ports, and establishment of a privately financed and managed company, with government representatives;' opening of Green¬ land to Danish fishing and other interests, under government control in order to assure an equal share of work and compensa¬ tion to Greenlanders; scientific expeditions to investigate devel¬ opment of minerals, water power, agriculture, etc.; strengthen¬ ing of cultural ties with Denmark through widened teaching of Danish, improved library facilities, Greenland representation in the Danish rigsdag, etc.; a health program aided by Danish

Grindstones: Prnmiil/n

see Abrasives.

Anriroi A

*^^09-

), soviet diplomat, was

UrDlliyKUy nllUrci n. bom on July 5 in Starye Gromyki, Byelorussia. He graduated from the Minsk Institute of Agri¬ cultural Economics in 1934. In 1938 he was taken into the com¬ missariat for foreign affairs, and after one year’s training was sent to Washington, D.C. In Aug. 1943 he succeeded Maxim Litvinov as ambassador to the U.S. and also to Cuba. He headed the soviet delegation at the Dumbarton Oaks conference in 1944, attended the San Francisco conference in 1945 and was ap¬ pointed chief soviet representative to the United Nations. On April 10, 1946, he was freed from his duties as ambassador to become permanent soviet delegate to the U.N. Security council. On Dec. 29, 1947, it was announced that he had been promoted to deputy foreign minister. In July 1948, being replaced at the Security council by Jacob Malik, Gromyko left New York for Moscow. In November he was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour for outstanding service in the diplomatic field.

Guadeloupe:

see French Overseas Territories.

Guam is the largest and southernmost island of the ■ Marianas, lying in the Pacific at 13° 26' N. lat. and 144° 39' E. long., about 5,100 mi. from San Francisco and 1,500 mi. from Manila. Area, 206 sq.mi. Population, March 31, 1948, consisted of 25,168 Guamanians and 64,961 U.S. military and civil service personnel. Agana is the principal city and capital. Other important towns are Sinajana and Inarajan. Guam is administered by the U.S. navy. The governor is a naval officer appointed by the president of the U.S. Rear Admiral Charles A. Pownall was governor in 1948. The Guam congress, composed of a house of council and a house of assem¬ bly, is a popularly elected legislature. On Aug. 7, 1947, the Guam congress received legislative power in pla^ of its former

348

GUATEMALA — GYMNASTICS

advisory power. The congress can also override the governor’s veto. Each of the island’s 15 municipalities is headed by a Guamanian commissioner appointed by the governor. The Guamanians are Chamorros and their religion is pre¬ dominantly Roman Catholic.

eased by the withdrawal of the British cruiser on March 14, but the issue of sovereignty remained unsettled. On Dec. 18, Guate¬ mala recognized the new governing junta in El Salvador, but throughout the year withheld recognition of the governments of Nicaragua, the Dominican Republic and Spain.

Education.—In 1948 there were 21 elementary and junior high schools and I high school with 8,461 pupils and 214 teachers and principals. Instruction is given in English. Finance.—During the first nine months of the 1948 fiscal year, revenues amounted to $1,291,016 and U.S. appropriations totalled $1,177,500; ex¬ penditures were $1,573,787. The Bank, of Guam, an island government institution, had total resources of $34,877,299 as of Nov. 4, 1947. Industry and Trade—The island is poor in natural resources and only one-fourth of the total land area is arable. One of Guam’s important re¬ sources before World War II was its coconut trees, most of which, how¬ ever, were destroyed during the war. Most of the population is supported directly or indirectly by wages paid by the U.S. government. As of Dec. 31, 1947, 40% of the employable Guamanians were employed by the U.S., with a total annual pay roll of $2,700,000. The important food crops are maize, sweet potatoes, taro and cassava. Imports in 1947 amounted to $6,803,445; there were no exports. Bibliography.—U.S. Navy Department, Guam: Injormation Trans¬ mitted by the U.S. to the Secretary-General of the United Nations Pur¬ suant to Article 73 (e) of the Charter (June 1947): ibid. (June 1948); Laura Thompson, Guam And Its People (1947). (S. Nr.)

Education.—The government’s program of expanding educational facil¬ ities (2,784 schools enrolled 152,274 students in 1943) and to erase illiteracy by 1970 (70% illiterate in 1948) continued through the year. The national university had 1,620 students under 250 professors in 1945The national budget allocated $6,300,000 for public education during the fiscal year 1948-49. Finance.—The monetary unit is the quetzal, maintained at par with the U.S. dollar. The national budget for 1947-48 was raised frorn $34,476,046.49 to $47,368,709.35, and that for 1948-49 was set provisionally at $44,646,000. In May 1948, the total public debt was $3,845,695Foreign exchange holdings in the banks were reduced from a peak of $52,103,000 in February to $49,417,000 on June 30. In July, currency in circulation was approximately $56,000,000. Trade and Resources—Exports for 1947, excluding monetary metals, totalled $52,032,891 ($36,679,134 in 1946), and imports were valued at $57,319,281 ($36,203,577 in 1946). The U.S. supplied 75% of the imports and took 86% of the exports. Leading shipments were coffee (889,000 bags of 132 lb. each), bananas (14,884,000 stems), cabinet woods (4,970,090 sq.ft.), lumber (3,658,983 sq.ft.), cinchona bark (888,201 lb.), cattle hides (975,959 lb.), essential oils (300,421 lb.) and rice (1,134,596 lb.). Coffee production for the 1948-49 season was estimated at 1,130,000 bags. In 1947 there were 2,172,917 head of live¬ stock, about half of which were cattle. Communications.—Railroad lines, mostly public, totalled 723 mi. in 1945, and of the 4,800 mi. of highways, 2,400 mi. were improved. There were about 8,500 automobiles and trucks in the country in 1948 (an increase of 100% in two and one-half years). There were 4,079 rni. of telegraph lines, 2,327 telephones, and 17 radio broadcasting stations which served approximately 5,000 receiving sets. During 1948 an addi¬ tional 3,000-unit automatic dial telephone system was installed in Guatemala City. {See also British Honduras.) Bibliography.—Pan American Union, The National Economy of Guatemala (1947); Chester Lloyd Jones, Guatemala Past and Present (1940); U.S. Dept, of Commerce, Foreign Commerce Weekly; HispanoAmericano (Mexico City). Films.—Guatemala Story; Riches of Guatemala (Simmel-Meservey). (M. L. M.)

p

i_ A Central American republic bounded by MexUUdlcfnBItt* ico, British Honduras, Honduras and El Salva¬ dor. Area: 45,452 sq.mi.; pop. (Dec. 1947 est.), 3,678,000, of whom more than half were Indians, the remainder largely of mixed blood. Capital, Guatemala City (1946 est. pop., 225,000). Other urban centres (1940 census) are: Antigua Guatemala (12,601), Chiquimula (10,868), Comalapa (10,461), Mazatenango (14,227), Puerto Barrios (15,784), Quezaltenango (33,538) and Zacapa (14,443). Language: Spanish; religion: pre¬ dominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1948: Juan Jose Arevalo. History.—Pres. Arevalo’s left-wing administration continued its drive for social and economic reform during 1948, but not without the impairment of political liberties. Throughout the year the rightist opposition kept the government on the alert for reactionary movements. The president’s attempt to suspend the constitutional guar¬ antee of freedom of the press for 30 days, on Feb. 23, was vetoed by the congress, but all personal liberties were suspended from Nov. 30 to Dec. 29, following the government’s discovery of a clandestine grenade factory in the capital city and an armed movement intending to capture the important harbour city of Puerto Barrios. Col. Marciano Casado and the rightist party leader, Manuel Orellana Cardona, were arrested and charged with conspiracy. In July the labour code was amended to allow farm workers to organize unions, and legislation was introduced in congress to enact for the first time an income-tax law and measures for the control of housing construction and rent. In January the government decreed that lands along the two coasts for a distance of r.5 km. (almost i mi.) inland were public property, subject to expropriation by the state with com¬ pensation to the titleholders. To redress the nation’s unfavour¬ able balance of trade, the government doubled the duties on imports from countries with which Guatemala had extremely unfavourable trade relations. In May and June locust swarms destroyed, among other crops, 6,000 ac. of corn. The govern¬ ment set aside as reserves in November the petroleum deposits in the departments of Peten and Alta Verapaz. On the international front, the diplomatic impasse between Guatemala and Great Britain regarding sovereignty over British Honduras, or Belize, reached a near crisis in February, when a British cruiser with troops aboard arrived off the coast of the disputed province. Guatemala protested the presence of the warship before the United Nations organization, the Pan Ameri¬ can union, and each American republic individually, and on March 8 closed its border with the province. The situation was

Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, John Simon: see Societies and Associations.

Guiana, Guiana, Guiana, Guinea:

British: see British Guiana. Dutch: see Surinam. French: see French Overseas see

French

Overseas

Territories.

Territories;

Portuguese

Colonial Empire; Spanish Colonial Empire.

Olictoiflic U )> Sweden, of whom a bioUUoldVUo I graphical account will be found in the Encyclopcedia Britannica, ascended the throne in 1907 and long before 1948 had attained the rank of Europe’s oldest living monarch. In June he celebrated his 90th birthday, wdth heartfelt expres¬ sions of devotion from the people of the country. In March, while the grand old monarch was on his way to the Riviera, a report spread that he had died on the train. Stockholm was stunned and in mourning for about two hours before the king sent word that the rumour was exaggerated; actually it was completely unfounded. Gustavus continued in fair health until an attack of grippe in the autumn. Increasingly, however. Crown Prince Gustavus Adolphus, himself 66, made the necessary public appearances, even taking over at the dis¬ tribution of the Nobel prizes, where the king had functioned for years. Next in line for the throne after the crown prince was his grandson, two-year-old Carl Gustav. (F. D. S.)

PumnootlOC

^

contingent of champions arose on the

UjllllldollUo. U.S. gymnastic horizon during 1948. In the 16th annual Amateur Athletic union men’s tournament, com¬ bined as the final Olympic games tryouts, not a champion of the year before was able to repeat. Edward Scrobe, 25-year-old New York city bank clerk rep¬ resenting the D. A. Turners, won the all-around title over Wil¬ liam Bonsall, Pennsylvania State college, who was second, and Frank Cumiskey, Swiss Gymnastic society of Union City, N.J.,

GYNAECOLOGY AND who was third. Cumiskey, the defending all-around titleholder, won his third Olympic berth. Pennsylvania State college won the team title, with Los Angeles City college second and the Swiss Gymnastic society of Union City, N.J., defending cham¬ pion, third. Helen Schifano of Elizabeth, N.J., was returned as all-around champion in the women’s tournament, but Clara Schroth of Philadelphia, Pa., topped the Olympic tests. {See also Olympic Games.)

(M. P. W.)

Gynaecology and Obstetrics. increasing dosage scale, was recommended in 1948 for the treat¬ ment of threatened abortion and as a preventive measure in habitual abortion. The drug was also used to prevent late preg¬ nancy “accidents” in diabetics. That it can be well tolerated during pregnancy was demonstrated, but its effectiveness in pre¬ venting abortion was not fully settled. The most effective treat¬ ment of habitual abortion was still the activation of the patient’s thyroid and the administration of thyroid extract. The controversy over whether or not to interfere in cases of septic abortion approached settlement in 1948. On the basis of cultures taken prior to and following gentle removal of the septic pregnancy products, early interference was more generally ac¬ cepted as proper treatment provided the patient was safeguarded by the use of antibiotics. Statistics showed that recovery was more rapid and that there was no greater danger when the prod¬ ucts were removed than when a noninterference policy was followed. Numerous reports were made showing favourable results with the use of thiouracil for hyperthyroid cases complicated by pregnancy. This drug produced no apparent deleterious effect on the thyroid of the baby. The work was far from conclusive and many authorities were withdrawing thiouracil several weeks before term to allow any possible change in the baby’s thyroid to return to normal before delivery. The earliest-known diagnosis of quadruplet pregnancy was made with X-ray by J. W. Hartman, Jr., et al., at the 17th week of gestation. The babies were delivered by Caesarean section, after an unsuccessful trial of labour, and all survived. Great hope was given the profession by the preliminary report on the use of Rh hapten developed by Bettina B. Carter to counteract the danger of Rh incompatibility. Proof of its true value, however, awaited further clinical trial. Dr. Edith Potter of Chicago, Ill., raised a question about the likelihood of addi¬ tional and serious sensitization of women given antepartum injections. The matter of replacement transfusions for infants with erythroblastosis was still unsettled, and opinion was about equally divided for and against the procedure. Additional support was given by G. T. C. Way to the theory that the underlying mechanism of eclampsia is a vasospasm of the smaller arterioles with subsequent vessel-wall damage if the spasm lasts long enough. A less radical view was accepted in the management of placenta praevia. Since it was rare for the initial haemorrhage from placenta praevia to be fatal, conservative measures were replacing early Caesarean section. This policy resulted in a lower foetal mortality by prolonging the period of intrauterine life and thereby reducing the degree of prematurity. In cases of lateral placenta praevia, normal delivery ensued, especially after the membranes had ruptured, allowing the head to reduce bleeding by a tamponade action. Caesarean section held its place in the management of central and partial placenta praevia. Most obstetricians continued to favour expressing the placenta by moderate pressure above the uterus. In the case of retained

OBSTETRICS—GYPSUM

349

placenta, it was now concluded that with modern antibiotics manual removal could be resorted to with greater safety than before, and was preferable to the original Crede method, which consisted of manual separation of the placenta followed by its expression by suprafundal pressure. A few authorities objected to any operative interference in cases of retained placenta even due to placenta accreta, main¬ taining that to wait for a period of a few days to a week or more would result in cleavage and separation of the placenta and its subsequent expulsion from the uterus. However, inter¬ ference was still necessary in cases of partial separation and uterine haemorrhage, and this later and ultraconservative view was not generally accepted. Grantly Dick Read’s method of “natural childbirth” acquired a growing number of followers. He believed that childbirth, being a natural function, is not naturally painful and that the pains so frequently experienced are based on fear and panic. Beginning early in pregnancy, a series of lectures and demon¬ strations are given the prospective mother. Thus by the time labour ensues, knowledge and confidence have replaced appre¬ hension and fear and the uterine contractions are experienced only as pressure, not pain. While reports were favourable, a much larger series would be needed to convince a large group of sceptical doctors. “Rooming in,” a plan where the newborn infant’s bassinet was left in the same room with the mother during her hospital stay, was tried in several hospitals over the country. In gynaecology, evidence accumulated to indicate that the vaginal smear test has great value as a quick and painless screen¬ ing method for the detection of early cancer. However, it was agreed that no form of definitive therapy for cancer should be started on the basis of the smear alone. The test should merely determine the patient for whom a biopsy or diagnostic curettage should be done. The controversy over the use of radical surgery for cervical cancer continued during 1948. Large groups of statistics were published by authorities both for and against surgery. It was definitely established, however, that immediate surgical mortality following the radical operation had been markedly reduced from its previous unduly high levels. Since at least five years must elapse before a cure for cancer can be accepted, the answer to the argument awaited the passage of time. Testosterone was generally recognized as being effective to control menopausal symptoms in those cases in which the use of estrogen is undesirable because of the tendency of the latter to cause bleeding. Bibliography.—Bernard Zondek and Y. M. Bromberg, “Infectious Hepatitis in Pregnancy,” /. Mt. Sinai Hasp., 14:222-243 (Sept. 1947); Hugh Stirling and R. A. Tennent, “Treatment of Placenta Praevia,” Edinburgh M. 154:504-521 (Sept. 1947); G. T. C. Way, “Fatal Eclampsia,” Am. J. Obst. and Gynec., 54:928-947 (Dec. 1947); M. J. Whitelaw, “Thiouracil in the Treatment of Hyperthyroidism Complicat¬ ing Pregnancy and Its Effect on the Human Fetal Thyroid,” J. Clin. Endocrinol., 7:767-773 (Nov. 1947); Lamar Bain, “Propylthiouracil in Pregnancy: Report of a Case,” South. M. /., 40:1020-21 (Dec. 1947): O. Watkins Smith, “Diethylstilbestrol in the Prevention and Treatment of Complications of Pregnancy,” Am. J. Obst. and Gynec., 56:821-834 (Nov. 1948): Joseph Loughrey and Bettina B. Carter, “The Treatment of Erythroblastosis Fetalis with Rh Hapten,” Am. J. Obst. and Gynec., 55:1051-52 (June 1948); F. W. Goodrich and Herbert Thoms, “A Clinical Study of Natural Childbirth,” Am. J. Obst. and Gynec., 56: 875-883 (Nov. 1948): J. Wiley Hartman, Jr., Frank Feightner and Paul Titus, “Quadruplet Pregnancy: Diagnosis at Seventeen Weeks of Gestation,” Am. J. Obst. and Gynec. (1949), to be published. (P. T.)

runciim

United States accounts for about one-half of

Ujf|JoUllla the world production of gypsum, and Great Britain and Canada for one-third, out of a total which grew from a low of 8,900,000 short tons in 1945 to 14,900,000 tons in 1947, as compared with a prewar peak of 14,300,000 tons in 1929. United States.—The basic data of the gypsum industry of the United States are shown in the table, as reported by the

HAAKON VII —HARRIMAN,

350

Data of Gypsum Industry in the U.S., 1941—47 IThousands of short tons)

Mine output • • • . Imports.. Supply. Soles. Crude. Industrial .... Building ....

1941 4,789 1,348 6,136 5,760 1,321 152 4,287

1942 4,698 394 5,092 4,953 1,458 145 3,360

1943 3,878 231 4,109 4,1 86 1,234 164 2,788

1944 3,761 342 4,104 3,838 1,056 200 2,582

1945 3,812 509 4,320 3,987 1,148 158 2,681

1946 5,629 1,457 7,087 6,381 1,641 207 4,532

1947 6,208 2,157 8,365 7,616 1,950 207 5,459

U.S. bureau of mines. Mine output increased by two-thirds and imports went up to record levels from the low of the war years, giving a more than doubled supply. Canada.—The United States demand had been drawing heavily on the Canadian production, which increased from 1,810,937 short tons in 1946 to 2,390,157 tons in 1947, and 1,944,907 tons in the first 8 months of 1948. (G. A. Ro.) llAnLpn Vll

(^^72), king of Norway, of whom a biographical account will be found in the Encyclopcedia Britannica, was born Prince Charles of Denmark, second son of Frederick VIII (and brother of Christian X). Upon th‘e separation of Norway from Sweden he was elected king by the Norwegian storting (Nov. 18, 1905) and took the old Norse name of Haakon, and that of Olav for his son, the crown prince. Haakon married Maud (1869-1938), youngest daughter of King Edward VH of England. During World War II King Haakon played an active part: in the crisis of May 1940 he maintained a calm courage and, after being driven from Oslo by the German invaders, remained with the government until, by June 7, 1940, further resistance within Norway had become impossible. He and the government then sailed for England and set up in London one of the most effec¬ tive of all the exile governments. On June 7, 1945, exactly five years from the day he had left Norway, King Haakon sailed in on the “Heimdal,” the royal yacht on which he had come to Norway four decades before. King Haakon continued to hold himself in the background during 1948, but to serve as a symbol of unity, a rallying point for Norwegians of all parties and from all corners of the world. (5ee also Norway.) (F. D. S.; X.)

nduMJIi VII

IjQit! West Indian republic located on the western third of ndlll. the island of Haiti or Hispaniola. Area, 10,748 sq.mi.; pop. (mid-1947 est.), 3,550,000. The population is estimated to be 95% Negro, the remainder being almost exclusively mulatto. About 1,600 foreigners, of whom 575 were North Americans, resided in the republic in 1946. Port-au-Prince (pop. est., 125,000) is the capital; other cities include Gonaives (20,000), Les Cayes (15,000), Cap Haitien (15,000), Jacmel (10,000), St. Marc (10,000) and Jeremie (8,000). An estimated 90% of the total population of the republic is rural. French is the official language, although a patois called creole, which has not been reduced to writing, is widely spoken. Roman Catholicism is the official religion, with voodooism being practised on a large scale in rural areas. President in 1948: Dumarsais Estime. History.—During 1948, the Estime administration scored notable achievements in the fields of social and financial legis¬ lation and public works. The minimum wage was raised on Jan. 6 from 40 cents to 70 cents daily, and approximately $800,000 was made available in March for the construction of a hydroelectric plant at Onde Verte and the irrigation of about 16,000 hectares of land in Antibonite valley. A state tobacco monopoly was established in April. During the same month, the Estime government sent a group of specialists to Puerto Rico to study agricultural techniques on that island with a view to applying some of them to Haitian agricultural problems. Three

WILLIAM

AVERELL

United Nations organizations, the Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization (U.N.E.S.C.O.), the World Health or¬ ganization and the Food and Agriculture organization, agreed in June on a series of projects to improve a wide range of social, economic and educational conditions in Haiti, and a 12-man mission representing these agencies arrived at Port-au-Prince in October. Haiti’s first income-tax law went into effect in mid-November. Other tax legislation placed in force at that time included a 5% sales tax on all commodities not declared to be of prime neces¬ sity; a 10% luxury tax on such items as automobiles, radios and wines; a 10% tax on all^meals served in restaurants; a spe¬ cial levy on air and sea transportation tickets; increased realestate taxes; and a new “civic contribution” levy. A $600,000 project to transform a cluster of thatched huts at Belladere, near the Dominican frontier, into a modern village neared com¬ pletion in November, when the government began to study plans for two similar projects elsewhere in the republic. A num¬ ber of agricultural co-operatives were organized in connection with the Belladere project, each family who would work its land being given 16 ac. Although the Estime administration appeared to remain firmly in power, indications of organized opposition continued during 1948. Two Socialist newspapers, L’Action and La Nation, which had been severely critical of the governments of both Haiti and the United States, were suppressed in November. Finonce—The monetary unit is the gourde, by law valued at 20 cents U.S. currency. The country’s budget for 1949 reached $13,000,000, rep¬ resenting tlie highest budget figure in the republic’s history. Five per cent internal loan bonds in the amount of $410,040, due in 1957, were redeemed at par plus interest on Jan. 15. Trade.—Exports during 1947 totalled 21,507,129 kg., of which 6,708,391 kg. were consigned to the United States. During that year U.S. exports to Haiti were valued at $25,228,000, the value of the island republic’s exports to the U.S. being placed at $30,228,000. Total Haitian coffee exports in 1947 came to 21,507 metric tons, of which the U.S. received 6,708 metric tons. Haiti’s lint cotton exports during the crop year 1947-48 reached a total of 3,349,469 kg. Agriculture and Production.—The republic’s first cotton mill began oper¬ ating in February. It was expected that, when in full production, it would cut Haitian cotton goods imports by one-third and cotton^exports by three-fourths. An extensive planting program was launched in June for the purpose of reducing food shortages. The project called for the plant¬ ing of 3,500 ac. of corn, 1,900 ac. of red beans and 3,500 ac. of millet. The 1948 coffee crop was expected to total 350,000 to 400,000 bags. Bibliography.—Selden Rodman, Renaissance in Haiti (1948); Pan American Union, Bulletin (Washington, monthly); Foreign Commerce Weekly (Washington). (G. I. B.)

Hammer Throw;

see Track and Field Sports.

Uonil hall

Town club of Chicago, Ill., was the host in 1948 to the competitors of the annual national A.A.U. four-wall championship. The group of younger stars continued their domination in this field, and in the singles event, the winner, runner-up and third place victor were exactly the

ndllU'udlL

No^/ono/ Four-Wall Rankings for 1948 Singles

Doubles

1. Gus Lewis, Hollywood, Calif. 2. Robert Brody, San Francisco, Calif. 3. Walter Plekan, Buffalo, N.Y.

1. Frank Gluckler and D. Pahl, New York, N.Y. 2. J. Robertson and J. Gordon, Brooklyn, N.Y. 3. William Baier and George Di Re, Chicago, III.

Nof/ono/ One-Wo// Rankings for 1948 1. Victor Herschkowitz, Brooklyn, N.Y. 2. Irving Kirzner, Brooklyn, N.Y. 3. A. Schneider, New York, N.Y.

1. V. Herschkowitz and A. Wolfe, Brooklyn, N.Y. 2. M. Alexander and R. Banks, New York, N.Y. 3. H. Goldstein and C. Daniiczyk, New York, N.Y,

same as in the previous year, Gus Lewis of the Hollywood, Calif., Athletic club carrying off top honours. Frank Gluckler and D. Pahl of New York won the doubles event. (Fr. Ro.)

Harbours: see Rivers Harness Racing: see

and Harbours. Horse Racing.

Harriman, William Averell

(1891), U.S. govern¬ ment official, was born on

HARVARD

UNIVERSITY —HAWAII

Nov. 15. After graduating from Yale university, New Haven, Conn., in 1913 he became a director and later vice-president of the Union Pacific Railroad company, becoming chairman of its board of directors in 1932. He also became a director of the Illinois Central Railroad company in 1915 and chairman of its executive committee in 1931. He organized a shipbuilding and operating company during World War I, and in 1920 organized W. A. Harriman and Company, investment bankers, a firm that became Brown Brothers Harriman and Company in 1931. He served as administrative officer in the National Recovery admin¬ istration, and was a member of the business advisory council of the department of commerce from its establishment in 1933. He served with the National Defense Advisory commission in 1940 and with its successor, the Office of Production Management, for. a short time in 1941. In March 1941 President F. D. Roosevelt named Harriman special representative in Great Britain to fa¬ cilitate lend-lease aid, and in Aug. 1941 he was put in charge of material aid to the Soviet Union as well. From Oct. 1943 to Feb. 1946 he was U.S. ambassador to the U.S.S.R. He attended every major allied conference during World War II. On April I, 1946, President Harry S. Truman named him ambassador to Great Britain, where he remained until summoned back to the U.S. to become secretary of commerce, Oct. 7, 1946. In April 1948 he tvas named special U.S. representative abroad, with the rank of ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary, to assist Economic Cooperation Administrator Paul G. Hoffman in super¬ vising the distribution of U.S. recovery funds to western Europe.

Han/arri llniuprcitv

bounded in 1636, Harvard university in Cambridge, Mass., is the old¬ est institution of higher learning in the United States. In Harvard college, emphasis was placed during 1948 on the concept of “balance in the college,” first suggested by Provost Paul H. Buck in 1946. This was a restatement of an ideal old to Harvard: a student body drawn from all economic levels, all geographical areas, all backgrounds, with emphasis not solely on scholarship but on the well-rounded man—the potential leader in a democracy. Despite the large call for admission to the college, efforts were being made to seek out promising young men in all parts of the country. The experiment in general education, to prepare such men for citizenship, continued suc¬ cessfully on an expanded basis. Among the graduate schools, interest centred on plans to build a graduate centre in Cambridge to provide housing for a total of 1,050 students and meals for an equal number. With

IlflltlllU UllltCItfllJi

AIR VIEW of the 1,500-bed Tripler General hospital, dedicated at Honolulu, T.H., on Sept. 10, 1948, for use by the public health services of Hawaii and by U.S. military personnel in the Pacific ocean area

351

adequate living quarters already provided for undergraduates and for graduate students of business and medicine, this centre would bring the university close to its ideal of a community of scholars and students sharing their ideas and experiences in¬ formally in their social life as well as formally in the classroom. Two new members joined the Harvard corporation during the year. William L. Marbury, Baltimore, Md., lawyer, became a fellow, succeeding Henry James. Paul C. Cabot of Boston, Mass., became treasurer, succeeding William H. Claflin, Jr., who resigned. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (W. M. Pn.) ij The territory of Hawaii consists of a group of eight ndWdlL large islands and numerous islets in the Pacific ocean between latitudes 18° 55' and 22° 15' N. and between 154° 50' and 160° 30' W. longitude. The total area is 6,433 sq.mi. From southeast to northwest, the islands are Hawaii, Kahoolawe, Maui, Lanai, Molokai, Oahu, Kauai and Niihau. In addition, stretching northwestward beyond Niihau more than 1,100 mi. is an archipelago of rocks, reefs and shoals which includes Midway (longitude 177° 22' W.). Likewise, 960 mi. south of Honolulu and included as a part of the city and county of Honolulu lies Palmyra, a coral atoll consisting of 55 islets, 5 mi. long and 2^ mi. wide. The largest island in the territory is Hawaii, with an area of 4,021 sq.mi. The capital of the territory is Honolulu, situated on the island of Oahu. It is a completely modem city with a population (1948 est.) of 277,129, exclusive of military and naval personnel. The population of the territory in 1940 was 423,330. By June 1948 this had increased to 540,500, exclusive of military and naval personnel. Of the total population 86.3% is native born. The largest single racial group is the Caucasian with 33.4% of the total. Citizens and residents of Japanese descent are the second largest group with 32.6%, and the Hawaiians and part-Hawaiians are third with 13.9%. Other important groups in origin are Filipino, Chinese, Puerto Rican and Korean. Ingram M. Stainback became governor on Aug. 24, 1942, and was reappointed July 13, 1946. Joseph R. Farrington was re¬ elected delegate to congress in 1948 for a fourth term. History.—Since the organization of the territory on April 30, 1900, the people have been keenly interested in securing state¬ hood. Through their elected representatives they have repeat¬ edly petitioned congress for statehood, and in a plebiscite in 1940 they voted in favour of statehood by a majority of more than two to one. In the 80th congress a bill which would have granted immediate statehood passed the house of representa¬ tives on June 30, 1948, by a vote of 196 to 133, but the bill

352

HAY—HELIUM

never came to a vote before the senate. Plans were immediately made for reintroducing the bill at the opening of the 8ist con¬ gress in Jan. 1949. Banking and Finance.—Financial operations of the territory for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1948, showed total revenue receipts of $9i>132,929.09, nonrevenue receipts of $22,832,932.05, governmental cost payments of $87,599,236.75, nongovernmental cost payments of $15,200,116.49, available cash at the beginning of the year amounted to $32,555,952.04 and available cash at the end of the year was $44,364,654.09. Territorial tax collections (excluding all non-tax revenues and county collections) amounted to $61,433,503. This was an increase of $16,445,838 over the preceding year. Outstanding bonds totalled $9,425,000, compared with $10,996,000 on June 30, 1947. Sinking fund assets totalled $1,431,383.75, leaving a net bonded indebtedness of $8,933,616.25. The volume of business transacted during the year was $1,281,499,195, an increase of $189,418,872 over the previous year. Bank clearings for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1948, were $1,800,651,085, a slight increase over the preceding year. Bank deposits for the same period were $417,536,046.30, a slight decline as compared with the preceding year. Trade and Commerce.—The latest figures for trade with the mainland U.S. showed that merchandise valued at $340,446,264 was received in 1947 and products valued at $181,330,471 were shipped to the U.S. The unbalanced trade situation resulted from heavy shipments to Hawaii of commodities for the armed forces. Production.—Hawaii’s three principal crops are sugar, pineapples and coffee. For the calendar year 1948, 835,300 tons of sugar were pro¬ duced with a sales value of $92,952,184. For the 12-month period en^ding May 31, 1948, a total of 11,429,144 cases of canned pineapple and 8,893,631 cases of pineapple juice were produced, or a total of 20,322,775 cases. The estimated sales value was $74,400,000. Approximately 1,250,000 lb. of green coffee were produced with an estimated value of $1,892,000. In addition to export crops, truck crops, field crops and miscellaneous fruits and nuts valued at $6,809,000 were marketed locally. Livestock and poultry products had a value of $18,500,000. The total catch of fish during the year amounted to 6,244 tons valued at $4,001,423. (I. M. S.)

Hay was not a record crop in 1948, but it was neverthe* less larger than any hay crop prior to 1942. Total U.S. production was estimated at 99,864,000 tons, as compared with 102,465,000 tons in 1947, and an average (1937-46) of 97,563,000 tons. That crop, plus a rather large carry-over of 15,000,000 tons, was considered entirely adequate in view of the smaller number of livestock on farms. Acreage of crops devoted to hay was 73,666,000, or about 98% of the 1947 acreage harvested, and slightly larger than the average for 1937-46. Winter kill of stands, particularly of clover, over part of the corn belt ac¬ counted for some of the decrease. Yields per acre averaged 1.35 tons, approximately the same as in 1947 and the average for the previous decade. Approximately one-third of the total production was alfalfa and another one-third was mixed clover and timothy. Approxi¬ mately 15,000,000 ac. of alfalfa, slightly more than in 1947, were harvested; clover-timothy acreage of nearly 22,000,000 was 6.6% below 1947. Some of the early crop was damaged by untimely and protracted rainy periods. New York, California, Wisconsin and Minnesota, in that order, were the ranking states in production of all hay, whereas South Dakota and Nebraska were the leading states in wild hay harvested. New methods of harvesting, involving the field chopper, followed by making ensilage or by barn dehydration, were more widely used. The average price of all hay at the farm reached record levels of $19.70 per ton in March 1948, and then declined to $17.80 in August. Prices varied widely depending on area and type of hay. Hayseed.—The production of the six major hayseed crops (alfalfa, red clover, alsike clover, sweet clover, lespedeza and timothy) was estimated in 1948 at 481,000,000 lb., 6% larger than the small crop of 1947, and 1% above the average crop of 1937-46. The harvested acreage of 3,879,100 in 1948 was nearly the same as in 1947, but 300,000 ac. smaller than average. The alfalfa seed crop of 990,000 bu. was the smallest after 1942 and only 58% of the near record crop of 1947. Red clover seed crop, on the other hand, was the largest in late years, 1,774,000 bu., and 41% larger than the 1,194,800 bu. of 1947. {See also Alfalfa; Soybeans.) (J. K. R.)

Hay Fever:.yee

Allergy;

Ear,

Nose

and

Throat,

Dis¬

eases OF.

Health, Industrial: see Industrial Hearing Aids: see Deafness.

Health.

Heart and Heart Diseases. eases of the heart and blood vessels during 1948 was the estab¬ lishment of the National Heart institute and National Advisory Heart council under the United States public health service. The surgeon general, Leonard Scheele, appointed C. J. Van Slyke as director of the National Heart institute at the Na¬ tional Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Md., where ground was broken for the construction of a 500-bed hospital to be de¬ voted to research in the fields of heart disease, cancer, infec¬ tions and dental disease. Sixteen members were appointed to the National Advisory Heart council, including the surgeon general and cardiovascular representatives from the army, navy and Veterans’ administration, respectively, six physicians ex¬ perienced in the study and treatment of cardiovascular disease from various parts of the country (C. A. Elvejhem of Wiscon¬ sin, Tinsley Harrison of Texas [president of the American Heart association], T. Duckett Jones of New York, Irvine H. Page of Cleveland, O., B. 0. Raulston of California and Paul D. White of Boston, Mass.) and six laymen especially prominent in busi¬ ness and in the field of public health (James S. Adams of New York, Maurice Goldblatt of Chicago, Mrs. Mary Lasker of New York, Ernst Mahler of Wisconsin, E. B. McNaughton of Port¬ land, Ore., and Albert J. Wolff of New Orleans, La.). White was appointed chief adviser of the institute and executive direc¬ tor of the council. The first meeting of the council was held at Bethesda in September. The chief function of the National Heart institute was set forth as the support and initiation of cardiovascular research— at Bethesda and throughout the country in hospitals, research institutes and medical schools—by the allocation of research grants, research fellowships and construction grants for research facilities. A secondary function was to be the support and initiation of cardiovascular teaching, postgraduate and under¬ graduate and lay, by teaching grants, traineeships and an infor¬ mation centre (probably with lay publications in conjunction with the American Heart association). A third function was to be the recording and correlation of cardiovascular researches in progress throughout the world, and co-operation in international research. Major attention of the National Heart institute was to be directed to study and eventual prevention of the three chief causes of heart disease—rheumatic fever, high blood pressure and sclerosis of the coronary arteries of the heart, which to¬ gether make up at least 90% of all heart disease. The basic sciences of physics and chemistry as they affect biological proc¬ esses would be enrolled in these studies, and experts in such subjects as anthropology, geography and diet would be consulted. Meanwhile, the practical clinical fields of diagnosis and treat¬ ment would also be cultivated, and utilization would be made of the skill and ingenuity of the newly developed specialty of cardiovascular surgery to repair defects in heart and blood ves¬ sels. {See also Chemotherapy; Medicine.) (P. D. W.)

Helicopter: see UDlilim

Aviation, Civil.

I^^ta on the production of helium in the United States during World War II became available in 1948. Helium was one war material for which production kept pace with demand. Production is maintained as a government monopoly, as a defense measure, with operations directed by the U.S. bureau of mines. This agency reported production as

nClIUlIu

HEMP —HOCKEY follows, in thousands of cubic feet: 1921-1928 1929-1941 1942 . . 1943 . .

46,088.8 131.887.4 33,252.6 116.307.4

1944 126,933.1 1945 94,733.7 1946 58,236.4 1947 .. . 70,297.7

The total volume accounted for is 677,737,145 cu.ft., of which 371,326,893 cu.ft., or 55%, was produced during 1942-45. When the war broke, the only recovery plant of importance was the one which had been in operation for several years at Amarillo, Tex. This plant was expanded to a capacity of 36,000,000 cu.ft. per year, and to this nucleus there were added in quick succession a 60,000,000-cu.ft. plant at Exell, Tex.; a 48,000,000-cu.ft. plant at Otis, Kan.; another of the same size at Shiprock, N.M.; and a smaller plant at Cunningham, Kan. This last plant was closed and dismantled at the close of the war, as were also two small privately built plants, at Thatcher, Colo., and Dexter, Kan., which had been taken over when helium production was made a government monopoly. As demand declined, only the Exell plant was kept in opera¬ tion; those at Amarillo, Shiprock and Otis were kept in stand-by condition. A major reason for this selection was that the Exell plant did not draw gas from a government-owned gas field, as did the others, but was fed from a commercial field, from which gas was being sold and used. Hence, if the helium content were not removed before the gas was used, it would be dissipated and lost. The gas sold from this field supplied all of the helium re¬ quired for postwar use, with a considerable surplus. Since the cost of operating a recovery plant is not greatly reduced if working only at part capacity, it was considered more important to save the helium than to cut the operating costs. Surplus helium over that needed for sale was piped to the Amarillo plant, 35 mi. away, and pumped into the ground to enrich the gas supply at that point, where it would be available for recovery. Helium thus put back into the ground totalled 62,200,000 cu.ft. from the time the war demand began to taper off. Increased production cut the price to $ii to $13 per 1,000 cu.ft. for medical use, and $13 to $15 for scientific and com¬ mercial use. Prices are f.o.b. plant, and vary according to the method of packing and delivery. (G. A. Ro.) Wisconsin, the only state producing hemp for fibre, harvested 2,772,000 lb. from 2,800 ac. during 1948, a yield of 990 lb. per acre, whereas in 1947, 4,655,000 lb. were harvested from 4,900 ac. The 1937-46 average production was 7,868,000 lb. or 940 lb. per acre. Kentucky harvested about 400 ac. of hemp for seed, com¬ pared with 600 ac. in 1947. Yield of seed per acre was 440 lb. in 1948, compared with 485 lb. in 1947. The average hemp seed crop of the World War H period was much larger; 8,262 harvested acres yielded 2,950,000 lb. (average, 1938-46). (J. K. R.)

Hemp.

Herbs: see Spices. Highways: see Roads and Highways. y (1901), emperor of Japan, was born April 29, nirOnilU the son of Emperor Yoshihito. For his early career, see Encyclopcedia Britannica. He proclaimed the state of war between Japan and Great Britain and the U.S. at the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Dec. 7, 1941, but through¬ out much of World War H remained in semiseclusion. After the atomic bombings of their homeland, the Japanese indicated their willingness to end the conflict provided the emperor re¬ tained his prerogatives, and President Harry S. Truman an¬ swered (Aug. II, 1945) that Hirohito could retain his throne, subject to the authority of the supreme Allied commander. Thus Plirohito on Aug. 15 (Tokyo time), 1945, broadcast to his people a message of capitulation. On Jan. i, 1946, he publicly declared

353

false the “conception that the emperor is divine and that the Japanese people are superior to other races and fated to rule the world.” In 1947 he was absolved of war guilt by Allied investigators. Hirohito had earlier blamed wartime Premier Hideki Tojo of misusing his war powers, but in 1948, at the time Tojo and other Japanese leaders were declared guilty of war crimes, it was openly speculated in Japan that Hirohito might be con¬ strained to abdicate. This speculation considered the tradition that the emperor is responsible for the faults of his subordinates, and that Hirohito had the power to forestall the Japanese war leaders. However, when Tojo and the others were executed, reports from Japan were that the emperor’s point of view was that he could do more to amend for his share of the responsi¬ bility in starting the war by remaining on the throne and con¬ tributing to reconstruction.

Hispaniola: see Dominican Republic; Haiti. Ujo* A10-01* ^^904), U.S. lawyer, was born in BaltinioOf nigCl more, Md., Nov. ii, attended Baltimore city college and Powder Point academy, and was graduated from Johns Hopkins university in 1926. He attended Harvard law school and in 1930 entered private practice, transferring to gov¬ ernment service in 1933. He served in a law capacity in the department of agriculture (1933 to 1935) and during 1934-35 was also a legal assistant attached to the staff of a special senate committee investigating the munitions industry. He was a spe¬ cial attorney for the department of justice until 1936 when he joined the department of state as assistant to the assistant secretary of state. He held several high administrative positions in the state department, joining the office of special political affairs May i, 1944. From August to October, 1944, Hiss at¬ tended the Dumbarton Oaks international conference as execu¬ tive secretary. As deputy director of the office of special politi¬ cal affairs, he supervised planning for the United States’ affilia¬ tion with the United Nations organization. In Feb. 1945, he attended the Yalta international conference as one of President F. D. Roosevelt’s advisers; was named temporary secretarygeneral of the United Nations San Francisco conference, and in June 1945 flew the United Nations Charter from San Francisco to Washington for ratification by the U.S. senate. From January to March, 1946, he served as a principal adviser to the U.S. delegation to the general assembly of the United Nations in London. In Dec. 1945 he was elected president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. In 1948 Whittaker Chambers, a self-professed former courier for a communist underground “apparatus” in Washington, D.C., accused Hiss of having been a member of the same “ap¬ paratus” before World War H. Hiss denied the charge, which was originally made before the house committee to investigate un-American activities. When Chambers repeated the charge publicly, away from the house committee chamber where his words were protected by congressional immunity. Hiss sued him. On Dec. 6 the house committee released sworn testimony by Chambers that Hiss had provided him (Chambers) with certain classified state department papers for transmission to a soviet agent. Hiss promptly denied the accusation “without qualifica¬ tion.” In a federal grand-jury investigation of the case, both Chambers and Hiss testified, and Hiss was indicted on Dec. 15 on two charges of perjury, specifically charging that Hiss lied when he denied that he had given any documents to Chambers, and when he testified that he did not talk to Chambers after Jan. I, 1937. Arraigned, Hiss pleaded not guilty.

Hockey: see Ice Hockey.

354

HOFFMAN.

PAUL GRAY—HOME ECONOMICS

Hnffman Paul firav

“dustriaiist and nUIIIIInlli rdUl Uldj Economic Cooperation administra¬ tor, was born in Chicago, III., April 26 and studied at the University of Chicago (1908-09). In 1911 he became a sales¬ man for the Studebaker dealer in Los Angeles, Calif., becoming sales manager of the company’s Los Angeles retail branch in 1915 and district branch manager in 1917. During World War I he served as a lieutenant of field artillery, and in 1919 he re¬ turned to Los Angeles to purchase the Studebaker retail branch there. In 1925 he moved to South Bend, Ind., as vice-president of the company. In 1933 the company went into receivership and Hoffman and another vice-president, Harold Vance, as re¬ ceivers, worked out a successful plan of reorganization. From 193s to 1948 Hoffman was president of the Studebaker cor¬ poration. He was an organizer for, and served as chairman of the board of trustees of, the Committee for Economic Development from 1942 to 1948. He resigned from the Studebaker corporation on his appoint¬ ment (April 5, 1948) by President Harry S. Truman as Ecqnomic Cooperation administrator, in charge of the European Recovery program. His announced policy was that the U.S. could not save the 16 nations of western Europe that were beneficiaries of this plan, but that he would seek to administer U.S. recovery funds in such a way as to stimulate these nations to bring about their own economic rehabilitation.

Uniro

number of hogs on farms in the United States as nUgO* of Jan. I, 1948, was 55,000,000 head as compared with 56,900,000 in the previous year and 83,700,000 in 1944. The spring pig crop was 51,400,000 as compared with 52,800,000 the previous spring. The fall pig crop was estimated at 32,000,000 head, much less than the government’s goal of 34,400,000 head. The decline is largely to be explained as the delayed effect of the small corn crop of 1947. The hog slaughter for 1948 was preliminarily estimated at 69,500,000 head as compared with 74,733,000 head in 1947 and a 1937-41 average of 65,642,000 head. This provided 9,827,000,000 lb. of pork (excluding lard), less than the 10,605,000,000 lb. of 1947. Per capita pork consumption by U.S. civilians was 67 lb. in 1948 and 69.8 lb. in 1947. Prices of hogs to producers during 1948 reached record levels of 26.70 in January, broke sharply in February, went to 27.30 in September (approximately $31 per hundredweight, Chicago basis) and then went to considerably lower levels. The Novem¬ ber price was the lowest for that month in three years and

U.S. HOG-CORN PRICE RATIOS, 1946r-4g, and average ratio, 1937-46. Hogcorn ratios represent the price of 100 lb. of hog divided by the price of 1 bu. of corn and serve as a guide to farmers’ probable actions. The high ratio from mid-1947 to mid-194S accounted for the relatively small hog crop in 1948 (Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture)

approximately 25% below the September level. Nevertheless, in spite of abundant feed, farmers continued to send their hogs to market at weights little heavier than in 1947The department of agriculture asked for 60,000,000 spring pigs to be farrowed in the early part of 1949, an increase of 17% above that of 1948. Indications were that the goal would probably not be achieved in spite of the abundant corn. World hog production and slaughter in 1948 was about 4% below 1947; the decreases were largely in the U.S. and portions of western Europe. {See also Meat.) (J. K. R.)

HOLC (Home Owners' Loon Corporation): see

Hous¬

ing.

Holland: see Netherlands. Home Building, Federal: see llnmn rnnnnmino

nOIIIC LbUIIUlillbu*

Housing.

membership of the ;\merican Home Economics association numbered 47,325

in 1948. The program for the year, adopted at the annual national meeting in June 1948, included: 1. Intensive study of problems of the family and institution groups. 2. Improvement and extension of homemaking instruction. 3. Further improvement of professional education and stimulation of continued professional growth. 4. Encouragement of investigations and research for the development of functioning programs in home economics and for the contribution of new knowledge in all areas of home economics. 5. Interpretation of home economics to members of the association, to administrators, potential recruits, parents, other organizations and agencies and to the general public. 6. Interpretation of consumer needs to education, business, civic and governmental agencies and, in turn, interpretation of the work of these groups to the consumer. 7. Support and promotion of legislation to improve family welfare on local, state, national and international levels. 8. Development of an active program of recruitment of workers to include effective vocational guidance. 9. Improvement in the professional standards and status of home economics. 10. Study of better ways and means of interpreting home economics to visitors, students and professional workers from foreign countries.

The program of international exchange of information and personnel was supported, six scholarships being awarded foreign students to study in the United States. Legislation for the im¬ provement of food standards, nutrition and standards and costs of consumer goods was supported. The association joined other national groups in behalf of appropriations for the bureau of human nutrition and home economics, children’s bureau and women’s bureau. Projects continuing under the sponsorship of the association were: apprentice training for graduate home economists plan¬ ning to enter business; consumer interests; criteria for evalu¬ ating college programs of home economics; organizations of junior and senior high-school girls in home economics. Added to the list was a program of public relations for the purpose of educating laymen in the broad purposes of home economics. Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home Economics.—Re¬ search in the bureau of human nutrition and home economics completed experiments on vitamin and mineral retention. Stud¬ ies related to certain foods after various methods of cooking, surveys of which were carried out in co-operation with the agri¬ cultural experiment stations. Working with the Production and Marketing administration, the bureau developed new recipes for using surplus foods in school lunch programs. Housing specialists designed and exhibited a step-saving Ushaped kitchen. Equipment research concentrated on pressure saucepans, their construction and performance. In clothing, buttonhole techniques were compared; also, vari¬ ables in machine stitching. Under the Research and Marketing act of 1946, two studies of food consumption among urban families were started to

HOME

LOAN

BAN K BOARD —HONEY

show where potential market outlets for food exist. Home Economics Extension Service.—More than 3,000,000 women improved one or more of their homemaking practices through contact with home-demonstration teaching, while 1,655,258 women completed food-preservation projects. A similar number improved practices in food preparation, diet planning, child feeding and school lunches. Others received assistance in financial planning, personal and home buying methods, and re¬ modelling and building of homes. In meeting community prob¬ lems, 2,750 nutrition and health clinics were organized through home-demonstration efforts. More than 187,181 women and 26,434 participated in a study program in child develop¬ ment. Directing these projects were 3,500 home economists, of whom 3,300 were county home-demonstration agents. Experiment Stations.—Home economics research at the agri¬ cultural experiment stations was carried forward under the Re¬ search and Marketing act of 1946. The program provided for expanded research to improve agriculture and rural living. Proj¬ ects included studies of: nutritional requirements of different population groups; space and facility requirements of farm¬ houses; food consumption and food habits in typical selected communities. Further studies were directed toward improving consumer acceptance and marketability of various goods. Most of the research was conducted by the bureau of agricultural economics and the Production and Marketing administration in the department of agriculture. Land-Grant Colleges.—Land-grant institutions carried for¬ ward research programs in foods, human nutrition and home economics. A list of published and processed reports of re¬ searches in economics, equipment, family living, methodology, commercial manufactures and technology was compiled for dis¬ tribution. Directors of research developed a plan for regional organization parallel to that of experiment stations. Methods of fostering research in land-grant colleges were outlined and criteria for judging projects were developed. A program of resi¬ dent instruction emphasized effective in-service training for staff needs. Home Economics in Public Schools and Colleges.—Ap¬ proximately 1,500,000 pupils studied home economics in 1948 under 21,500 teachers in 18,500 U.S. high schools. About half these high schools received some money from federal funds for part payment of salaries for home economics teachers. Total enrolment in home economics reported by 388 colleges and uni¬ versities was 67,516. Of the total enrolment at college level 1,141 were men. Degrees granted to home economics majors in these institutions during the year totalled 7,565. The home economics education service of the U.S. office of education carries on a research program, co-operates with or¬ ganizations, agencies and committees dealing with materials and ideas related to home economics school programs, and works with state supervisors, teacher trainers and home economics personnel in teacher-training institutions. The Future Homemakers of America is a national organiza¬ tion of pupils studying homemaking in junior and senior high schools of the United States and territories. The New Home¬ makers of America is a national organization of Negro pupils studying homemaking in junior and senior high schools in the states having separate schools for Negroes. These two groups had in 1948 a combined membership of 272,000. {See also Food Research.) Bibliography.—Publications of the Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home Economics, all published by the U.S. Department of Agriculture: Report of the Chief of the Bureau of Human Nutrition and Home Economics (1948): I949 Outlook OhortSf Rural Faniily Living^ Rwal Family Living, Research Administration (Annual Outlook Issue, Oct. 1948); Vitamin and Mineral Content of Certain Foods as Affected by Home’Preparation, Misc. Pub. 628; Your Farmhouse—Planning the Bath¬ room, Misc. Pub. 638; A Step-Saving U-Kitchen, Misc. Pub. 646; How Families Use Their Incomes, Misc. Pub. 653-

355

Extension and experiment station reports: Important Recent Achieve¬ ments of Department of Agriculture Scientists, rev., Office of Informa¬ tion, U.S. Dept, of Agriculture (Jan. i, 1948); “How Far Have We Come?” Extension Service Review (April-May 1948); A Program for Home Economics Teacher-Retailer Co-operation, National ConsumerRetailer Council, Inc. Publications in land-grant colleges: Research in Foods, Human Nutri¬ tion and Home Economics at the Land-Grant Institutions, U.S. Dept, of Agriculture. Publications of the American Home Economics Association: Your Career in Home Economics Research; Your Career as a County Home Demonstration Agent; For You—A Career in Home Economics; Journal of Home Economics; Consumer Education Service. See also Homemaking Education in Secondary Schools of the United States (1947). Films.—Research for Better Living (U.S. Department of Agriculture —Castle Films). (K. Gr.)

Home Loan Bank Board: see Housing. Home Owners' Loan Corporation: see

Housing.

Unnifliroe ^ republic of Central America bounded by nUIIUUIdda Guatemala, El Salvador and Nicaragua. Area: 59,160 sq.mi.; pop. (1945 census), 1,200,542, including approxi¬ mately 35,000 tribal Indians; (1947 est. pop.) 1,240,000. The capital is Tegucigalpa (pop. 55,715 in 1945). Other principal cities are San Pedro Sula (22,116) and La Ceiba (12,185); smaller urban centres are Puerto Cortes (approx. 8,000), Choluteca (5,000), Santa Rosa (6,000) and Tela (9,000). Religion: Roman Catholic. Language: Spanish. President in 1948: Gen. Tiburcio Carias Andino. History.—In the presidential election in 1948, the adminis¬ tration’s candidate, Juan Manuel Galvez, was opposed chiefly by Angel Zuniga Huete, a Liberal who had been in exile from 1932. President Carias Andino announced that full protection would be accorded all parties, but some days before the elec¬ tion the Liberals, charging the government with failure to en¬ force basic liberties, declared they would abstain from voting. Their cause was further weakened by a split in their party and the nomination of a third candidate, Diaz Chavez. In the elec¬ tion, Oct. 10, Galvez received approximately 255,000 of the 300,000 votes cast and was declared elected. He assumed office Jan. I, 1949, at which time the 16-year tenure of Carias Andino ended. Recovery from a business recession occurred immediately after the election, and agricultural production, damaged in the spring by locusts, was encouraged by the authorization, March 12, of demonstration farms to provide free training in scientific methods, free livestock insemination and low-cost seeds, plants, thoroughbred stock and veterinary supplies. During the year the government was authorized to borrow from abroad up to $2,000,000 for a hydroelectric development on the Rio Lindo. Education.—In 1946, 60,574 Students received instruction from 2,116 teachers. The 26 secondary schools enrolled 5,226 and the national uni¬ versity 433. Finance—The monetary unit is the lempira, officially valued at 49.02 cents U.S. on Nov. i, 1948. For the 1947-48 fiscal year, government expenditures amounted to 28,002,648.49 lempiras; receipts 25,955,451.87 lempiras. A surplus of 1,185,484.25 lempiras was carried over from the previous year. On Aug. 31, 1948, 5,678,819.90 lempiras and $4,447,517 in U.S. currency were in circulation. As of June 30, 1947, the national debt was $1,140,000 external, and somewhat under $5,000,000 internal. Trade and Resources.—Exports during the fiscal year 1947-48 were valued at $19,128,342.45 and imports $34,905,933.08, but there was no great shortage of foreign exchange, because of the inflow of “invisible trade.” Most of the commerce was with the United States. The main shipments in 1947 were bananas (15,211,305 stems), with gold and silver next in importance. In the first half of 1948, banana exports were down 17.3%. Communications.—In 194 7 the banana area of the north was served by 922 mi. of railroad; the main towns by 1,201 mi. of highway and 63 airfields. Public telephone lines measured 2,646 mi.; telegraph lines 16,497 mi. public, and 1,542 mi. private. There were five commercial radio stations. Bibliography.—Pan American Union, The National Economy of Honduras (1946); U.S. Dept, of Commerce, Foreign Commerce Weekly. (M. L. M.)

Honduras, British: see Honey: see Beekeeping.

British Honduras.

356

HONG

Hong Kong: see British Empire. Hoover Commission, Report of the:

KONG — HORSE RACING Santa Anita Handicap, netting Richard N. Ryan’s Talon $102,see Commission

ON Organization of the Executive Branch of the. Govern¬ ment.

Unno

United States production of hops was estimated nUpOt at 49,819,000 lb. in 1948, compared with 50,098,000 lb. in 1947 and a ten-year average (1937-46) of 43,532,000 lb. From 40,000 ac. the average yield was 1,252 lb. per acre, some¬ what less than the 1,262 lb. per acre of 1947, but more than the 1,240 lb. per acre average for 1937-46. U.S. Hop Production by States, 1948, 1947, 1946 and 10-Year Average (In thousands of pounds) Average State Washington . . . . Oregon. Californio.

1948

1947

1946

1937-46

22,704 15,753 1 1,362

20,358 16,150 13,590

19,720 18,800 14,651

13,929 17,947 11,656

The Washington crop (nearly half the total) was 12% above that of 1947 and two-thirds more than the ten-year averages The California crop declined sharply below preliminary expec¬ tations and was 16% below that of 1947. Prices of hops aver¬ aged 87 cents per pound to growers early in the year. World production in 1948 in countries producing 90% of the total amounted to 117,329,000 lb., compared with 111,137,000 lb. in 1947 and 120,881,000 lb. average, 1934-38. (J. K. R.)

Hormones:

see Endocrinology.

Unrpo Donmir

Citation’s harvest of $709,470 for a

nUlbC lidulllgi new single-year high in the annals of horse racing. Calumet Farm stables again dominated the 1948 turf season. Another slight decline marked the mutuel handle for the year, but the “tote” total of $1,553,756,534, wagered by an estimated 24,399,465 racegoers, compared favourably with the banner years of 1946 and 1947. Citation easily gained unanimous acclaim as the horse of the year, and many considered the Calumet Farm colt as equal to Man 0’ War. Citation became the eighth horse to win the triple crown, Kentucky Derby, Preakness and Belmont Stakes, and finished the year with 19 victories in 20 starts. Coupled with his 1947 winnings. Citation finished 1948 with a purse total of $865,150. He became the second highest money-win¬ ning horse of the world, led only by Stymie. Citation was only $46,185 short of Stymie’s all-time high of $911,335, and figured to become the first millionaire horse in 1949. Calumet Farm, owned by Warren Wright of Chicago, Ill., was the leading money-winning stable for the sixth time in the past eight years. The Calumet entries won $1,269,710. A record $54,436,063 was paid out in purses during 1948. Next to Citation, the most impressive performances of 1948 were registered by Shannon II, Blue Peter and Myrtle Charm. Shannon II set an Australian mile record of i min. 34^ sec., and then came to the United States to equal the world mark of I min. 59f sec. for the mile and a quarter. Blue Peter, owned by Joseph M. Roebling of New Jersey, won the two-year-old crown with total earnings of $189,185. Johnny Longden repeated his performance as the leading jockey of the year, scoring victories with 319 mounts. Thus, he joined Johnny Adams as one of the two riders in turf history who had headed the jockey’s list for three years. Longden won similar titles in 1947 and 1938. Longden also became the first U.S. rider to pass the 3,000-victory mark. Of the nine $100,000 races in 1948, Citation won five—the Kentucky Derby, Preakness, Belmont Stakes, Empire Gold Cup and Jockey Club Gold Cup. Richest event of the year was the

500 as victor in the mile-and-a-quarter test. Citation started his great year with four straight victories at Hialeah, Fla., including a conquest of Armed in the Seminole Handicap. Then, at Havre de Grace, Md., Citation met his only defeat of the year when beaten by Saggy by a length. After avenging the defeat with a triumph over Saggy in the Chesa¬ peake Stakes, he was shipped to Louisville, Ky., where he pre¬ pared for the Derby with a triumph in the Derby Trials. In the 74th running of the Kentucky Derby, witnessed by more than 100,000 fans. Citation finished three-and-one-half lengths in front of his stablem-ate, Coaltown. Immediately there¬ after he won the Preakness and Belmont Stakes for the triple crown. Citation won the Stars and Stripes Handicap at Arling¬ ton park, Arlington Heights, Ill., but a pulled muscle kept him out of competition for more than a month. He returned to win an allowance sprint at Washington park, Homewood, Ill., and went on to capture the American Derby before returning to the east. There he won four important events, and then was shipped to California for an easy triumph in the Tanforan Handicap. Other top money winners were: King Ranch’s Better Self $197,010; William Helis’ Salmagundi $151,100; B. F. Whitaker’s My Request $138,000; B. F. Whitaker’s Miss Request $123,505; Robert W. Mcllvain’s Billings $119,600; Calumet Farm’s Coaltown $104,650. Jockey Eddie Arcaro, who was up on Citation in all but his first four races, set an all-time record in money won by horses under his guidance with a total of $1,686,230 during 1948. The total was $256,281 more than Douglas Dodson established the previous season. Of Arcaro’s total, $1,082,385 was won in stake and feature races. Buddie Bones, an unheralded five-year-old stallion, paid off the biggest price of the season, returning $385.20 to $2 bettors in winning at Rockingham park, Salem Depot, N.H. The largest daily-double pay-off was $3,306.70 at Oaklawn park. Hot Springs, Ark. (M. P. W.) Harness Racing.—Harness racing continued its rapid devel¬ opment as one of the fastest growing commercialized sports in the United States during 1948. Four new tracks, operating with pari-mutuel betting, opened during the year. In the 12 states where pari-mutuels on harness racing were legal, attendance rose to 6,530,417, an increase of 64% over the previous high, achieved in 1947. A total of $193,781,300 was handled in bets, an increase of 41%. A four-year-old trotter, Rodney, owned by R. H. Johnston, raced to eight consecutive victories in major stake engagements and was voted horse of the year. Three times during the year, Rodney trotted a mile in i min. 58 sec., the fastest mile time recorded in 1948 by any harness racer. In addition, Rodney established four world’s records—2 min. 9I sec. for iJ^ mi.; 2 min. 3if sec. for i^ mi.; i min. 58I sec. for the third mile of a three-heat race; and 27^ sec. for the final quarter of a onemile race. Knight Dream, a three-year-old colt owned by Percy and Jere Gray and Robert Armstrong, turned in the year’s fastest pacing mile, i min. 59 sec. Knight Dream also won the Little Brown Jug Stake at Delaware, 0., the premier stake event of the season for three-year-old pacers. The Hambletonian Stake, outstanding event of the year for three-year-old trotters, was won by Demon Hanover, owned, trained and driven by Harrison Hoyt. Levi Hamer and Harry Burright tied for first place among the nation’s drivers, each winning 127 races. (J. S. Ks.) Canada.—During 349 days’ horse racing at 34 meetings held by 28 Canadian racing associations in 1948, a total of $56,178,491 was wagered through the pari-mutuels; this was 17% more

CITATION (right), ahead on the last turn at Belmont park. Long Island, N.Y., on June 12, 1948. Victory in this race brought him the year’s triple crown for winning the Kentucky Derby and the Preakness and Belmont Stakes

than in

1947.

$2,323,675).

Prize money for

1948

totalled $2,755,400 (1947: (C. Cy.)

Great Britain.—The Cheltenham Gold Cup was won in 1948 by F. L. Vickerman’s nine-year-old gelding, Cottage Rake. The Grand National was won by J. Proctor’s Sheila’s Cottage, trained by N. Crump at Middleham, Yorkshire, and ridden by A. P. Thompson. The Champion Hurdle Cup at Cheltenham was won for the second year in succession by National Spirit. The Two Thousand Guineas was won by My Babu, a Frenchbred colt owned by the maharaja of Baroda and ridden by C. Smirke. In the Derby at Epsom on June 5, My Love won by oneand-one-half lengths. My Love was ridden by W. Johnstone, who on the following day won the Prix du Jockey Club at Chan¬ tilly, France, on Bey. Three weeks later My Love became the first horse for many years to win both the Epsom Derby and the Grand Prix de Paris. In the space of a month Johnstone performed the remarkable feat of riding the winner of the Derby, the Prix du Jockey Club, the Grand Prix de Paris and the Irish Derby (on the Aga Khan’s Nathoo). The St. Leger at Doncaster was won by William Woodward’s Black Tarquin ridden by E. Britt with Lord Derby’s Alycidon second. At the beginning of October Migoli, a four-year-old owned by the Aga Khan, went to France and easily beat a strong field in the Prix de I’Arc de Triomphe. Six days later Alycidon cantered home in the King George VI Stakes at Ascot from Djeddah, Flush Royal and Rigolo. The fillies throughout Europe were well behind the colts over a distance of ground. On her day the best filly in Europe up to 1} mi. was the Aga Khan’s Masaka, who won the Oaks at Epsom in a canter. The valuable long-distance events for older horses were con¬ tested by representatives of many nations. The Ascot Gold Cup was won by M. Boussac’s Arbar. His next race was in the Goodwood Cup but in the meantime there had arrived in Eng¬ land a challenger of the highest class. This was F. Tesio’s Italian colt Tenerani, who early in July beat the younger Black Tarquin by a head at Ascot and then won convincingly from Arbar over 2^ mi. at Goodwood. For the second year in suc¬ cession, Royal Tara won the Jubilee, and Master Vote the Royal Hunt Cup. A record field of 58 contested the Lincolnshire, which was won by Commissar. (M. A. Md.) II The horse as motive power in U.S. agriculture connUiuwOi tinued to lose ground to the tractor and the truck in 1948, the number declining to 6,607,000 head on Jan. i, 1948, compared with 7,249,000 in 1947 and 10,721,000 as a prewar

1937-41 average. Even more indicative of the trend was the fact that the colt crop of 1947 was the smallest in more than a century and not high enough to slow up the decline; of the horses on farms, only 186,000 at the beginning of 1948 were colts under one year of age, compared with 207,000 in 1947 and 647,000 before World War H. About 300,000 head of horses were slaughtered in packing plants under federal inspection during 1948, compared with 276,291 head during 1947. For the most part these animals were past their prime for draught pur¬ poses and their relative cheapness made them a favoured source of feedstuffs for fur farms and zoos. Some horse meat was ex¬ ported. Meanwhile the horse continued to decline in value, to a level less than one-third that of a milch cow; the average price received by farmers in Jan. 1948 was $51.40, compared with $55.40 a year earlier and $88.50 per head prewar. Exports were estimated at less than 2,500 head for the year. The total number of horses in the world also declined, but at a much slower rate than in the U.S., where mechanization of the better agricultural areas had proceeded with increasing rapidity over three decades. The world total appeared to be about 74,000,000, compared with more than 90,000,000 prewar. Mules.—The total number of mules on farms in the U.S. as of Jan. I, 1948, was 2,544,000, compared with 2,772,000 in 1947 and 4,163,000 as an average for 1937-46. Only 40,000 of these animals were under one year of age. Even the cotton and tobacco areas, where the mule continued to be the main source of agricultural power, were becoming increasingly mechanized, hence mule numbers and prices continued to decline, though not so rapidly as prices of horses. The average price received by farmers for a mule in Jan. 1948 was $99.10, nearly double the $51.40 average per horse, but slightly below the 1947 and prewar average of $106 per mule. Exports, estimated on the basis of the out-movement during the first half of the year, amounted to about 11,500 head. (See also Shows, Animal.) (J. K. R.) Horse Shows: see Shows, Animal.

Unrtinilltliro World production of apples and pears in 1948 nUI liwUllUl wi was 15% under the previous year. Apple and pear crops in the U.S. were substantially less than the 10year average. Europe’s apple crop was very short, 25% below 1947, because of frost and insect damage, although Austria and Norway were exceptions, with large crops of both apples and pears. Canadian production, normal as to apples, was less than in 1947 in pears. Cherry production in the U.S. was ahead of even the previous year’s large crop, although it was down 3% for the world as a whole. Canada, like the U.S., had a bounti¬ ful crop—45% above the lo-year average. In the U.S., which produces 70% of the world’s peaches, the crop was 18% below

357

358

HOSPITALIZATION

IN SU RANGE —HOSPITALS

the previous year, but 12% above the prewar average. The U.S. grape crop was down a little. Plum and prune yields were less than the average, except in Oregon. Cranberries broke records, with very large increases in Massachusetts and Wis¬ consin, where there was a large investment in new bogs. The use of new machinery, and especially the practice of spraying bogs from planes, encouraged cranberry growing, but the growers complained that the public was buying more processed than whole fruit. Orange crops were good. The grape yield was down slightly from the previous year. Nut production was substantially increased. South Africa improved its citrus position and shipped 3,000,000 cases of citrus fruits to the United Kingdom. Pineapple production in South Africa continued to grow. New Zealand reported a very large citrus crop, with a glut in lemons. The Australian government tried with some success to divert more fruit from wine making and into the production of dried fruits. Bananas yielded so heavily in New South Wales and Queens¬ land that overproduction was feared. South America reported increased coffee bean prices caused by currency inflation. Th'e amount used in the U.S. increased to 20,000,000 bags, as against 13,000,000 bags before World War II. Floods in the northwest U.S. in June did great damage. The overflowing Columbia river washed out acres of flowers being grown commercially for cutting, while bulb fields were 12 ft. under water. Greenhouses were washed away or flooded, with resulting heavy losses. Western U.S. bulb growers continued in active competition with those of the Netherlands, which coun¬ try’s exports increased. Bulb quotas from the Netherlands to England were raised by 1,250 metric tons to 12,250 tons. There was little change in prices, except for narcissi, which were in short supply. Announcement was made that England would permit imports of Dutch rose plants in 1949 only be¬ tween Jan. I and Feb. 15. Seed production in Europe continued to increase, sharply reducing imports from the U.S. Czechoslovakia was reported buying seeds from the Netherlands and Denmark. Germany appeared to have sufficient seeds for vegetable planting. Aus¬ tralia also reported being well supplied by domestic crops. How¬ ever, 200,000 members of garden clubs in the U.S. contributed enough money to purchase 980,000 packets of vegetable seeds for distribution in Europe to home garden makers. California’s output of flower and vegetable seed was normal, the crops being saved by late rains, although the acreage showed a decrease. Demand for vegetable seeds by amateur gardeners continued heavy. In the all-America competition for new vegetable varieties, to be distributed in 1949, the highest award, a silver medal, went to the new bush lima bean Tri¬ umph, originated by the U.S. department of agriculture at Beltsville, Md. The all-America prize roses were announced as Fortyniner, a bicolour without thorns, and Tallyho, also a bicolour variety. Announcement was made of a new device for the protection of crops from frost which was expected to benefit many branches of horticulture. It was developed at the Michigan State college. East Lansing, following a $20,000,000 loss to peach growers in that state in one night. The device was adapted from the helicopter by Prof. Arthur Farrell and as¬ sistants and distributes infra-red rays to replace radiation from the earth on cold nights. When used in groups, each machine will protect about an acre. The annual loss from frost to grow¬ ers of various crops throughout the U.S. amounts to about $300,000,000. Among the insecticides coming into use, chlordane gave special promise, because of its effectiveness in controlling nearly all ant species. It was found to be effective also in

destroying Japanese beetle grubs in lawns and in freeing garden soil of wire worms, previously difficult to control. A newly formed National Tulip society elected Mrs. J. J. Nicholson of Atlanta, Ga., president. The American Horticultural council, meeting in Ithaca, N.Y., in October, elected Robert Pyle of West Grove, Pa., president. (See also Botany; Vegetables.) (E. I. F.)

Hospitalization Insurance: see UncnitQlc

Hospitals; Insurance.

marked the 50th anniversary of

nUo|JllalOa the American ^Hospital association. Waiting lists for care in general hospitals were much reduced in 1948, even though relatively few new hospital beds were added. Shortages of professional and nonprofessional personnel continued to plague hospital administrators, but production of materials and equipment used in hospitals increased and such materials were more easily obtained. Hospital rates continued to rise in accord with other general price increases. The average charge for the most common priced private room accommodations in general hospitals reached an all-time high of $9.49 per day, which amount represented an increase of $0.92 per day over the average charge in 1947. Shortage of nursing personnel continued during 1948. A spe¬ cial recruitment effort of hospitals conducted in co-operation with the Advertising Council, Inc., resulted in the enrolment of the largest number of student nurses on record. More than 43,000 students entered training in the fall of 1948. State plans for hospital construction in the U.S. submitted under the federal Hospital Survey and Construction act showed that the U.S. and territories (exclusive of the state of Nevada, which had not yet submitted a plan) had a total of 1,024,286 hospital beds. Of these 879,377 were considered acceptable by the state agencies. The remainder were considered unacceptable because of obsolescence, unsuitable design or hazardous condi¬ tions. On the basis of standards set up by the federal act, the states estimated that an additional 898,132 beds were needed. A total of 439 hospitals in the U.S. had made application for federal funds under the Hospital Survey and Construction act by Nov. 1948. The estimated total cost of these projects was $222,000,000. Of this amount $65,000,000 was submitted for federal participation. Most of these applications represented construction of general hospital beds. The outstanding hospital development in Canada during the year was the inclusion of a hospital construction grant in the federal health program. Among other grants for public health and numerous specific objectives, about $13,000,000 a year was made available for hospital construction. This amount was allocated to construction approved by the provinces at the rate of $1,000 a bed for active treatment beds and $1,500 a bed for the chronically ill and special patients. These grants, to be matched by a corresponding provincial grant, were made for five years and could be continued at a lower level, the amount being the equivalent of approximately $i per capita. Two other developments of significance in Canada were (i) a compulsory contributory hospital care insurance plan in British Columbia, effective Jan. i, 1949, and (2) the establishment of a Canadian arthritis and rheumatism society to promote measures and facilities for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of these conditions and the creation of a fund to assist in per¬ sonnel training and to promote public education. Prepayment plans for hospital care continued to hold public interest. The total enrolment in hospital-sponsored Blue Cross prepayment plans for hospital care exceeded 32,000,000 persons at the end of 1948. Enrolment during the year was the second largest since the inauguration of the program. More than 20%

HOTELS

359

small number of hospitals, founded by the religious denomina¬ tions or catering for special classes of patients, were disclaimed by the ministry and continued to operate as independent in¬ stitutions.

THE SLOAN-KETTERING Institute for Cancer Research (left), dedicated on April 16, 194S, as a new division of the Memorial Hospital Center for Can¬ cer and Allied Diseases in New York city

of all the residents of the United States and Canada were en¬ rolled in these plans at the year’s end. In addition to Blue Cross plans, other organizations, including fraternal groups, industrial units and commercial insurance com¬ panies, continued to cover individuals and families for hospital expenses. The total number of such persons protected was not determined definitely, but the interest and need for such benefits were translated into a sizable coverage. (See also Insurance.) In 1948 the program for greater development of co-ordination among hospitals continued to be regarded with great interest. It was recognized that savings to patients could be effected through the growth of co-ordinated effort of hospitals within trading areas. Programs of this type were receiving greater at¬ tention than ever before and it was expected that additional group effort would be developed in the future. (See also Vet¬ erans’ Administration.) Bibliography.—“Box Score on the 80th Congress,” Trustee, i:io-ir (Aug. 1948); Problems of Hospital Administration and The College Cur¬ riculum in Hospital Administration, Physicians’ Record Company, Joint Commission on Education (1948); A. C. Bachmeyer and Gerhard Hart¬ man, Hospital Trends and Developments, 1940—1946, The Common¬ wealth Fund (1948); Esther Lucile Brown, Nilrsing for the Future, The Russell Sage Foundation (1948). (Ge. Bu.)

Great Britain.—On July 5, 1948, the great majority of the voluntary and local hospitals in England and Wales passed into the ownership of the government under the minister of health, and in Scotland into the ownership of the government under the secretary of state, about 20 months after the passing of the Na¬ tional Health Service act. The new arrangements for the hospital service included the payment out of national funds of salaries or sessional fees to all medical men on the staffs of the hospitals who had in the voluntary hospitals formerly given their services in an honorary capacity. The ministry assumed responsibility for financing the hospitals, though the hospitals remained free to receive and use any gifts that might be made to them for purposes outside the official provision. No accurate estimate of the total probable cost of the service likely to fall upon the national exchequer was available. Each hospital was told that it would be expected to prepare a budget for the year as from Oct. 1948. A relatively

The pressure on hospital accommodation in Great Britain continued to be very heavy, especially in the hospitals for tuberculosis and for the chronic sick. About 30,000 beds went unused because of the higher ratios of nursing staff required in all hospitals, and the shorter hours worked by the staff. Despite the continuous shortage of beds the total number of admissions to hospitals and the total volume of hospital cases treated was probably greater than in any previous year. Other Countries.—A survey of medical services in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Great Britain, Denmark, Finland, France, Holland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, South Africa and the United States was completed during the year for the Rockefeller foundation. The survey showed that everyw’here the hospital services were undergoing rapid changes and that everywhere the key problem was the training of medical, nursing and many other grades of personnel to keep pace with new conceptions of the place of the hospital in the community. In Sweden there were in 1948 approximately 13 beds per 1,000 inhabitants, and it was planned to extend the hospital system during the next 10 to 15 years by no less than 40%. The Swedish authorities decided that from 1950 all fees hitherto paid by patients in the public wards would be abolished. The cost per patient amounted in Sweden in 1948 to at least 20 kroner per day. An international conference was held in Brussels in the early summer of 1948 and steps were taken to establish an Inter¬ national Hospital federation in place of the International Hos¬ pital association of prewar days. (A. G. L. I.) Untolo 194^! '"'ith corporate profits in the United States nUlCitfi at an all-time high, hotel occupancy continued its re¬ cession, with resultant decline in food and beverage receipts in many areas. This drop in business varied from 2% to 9%, and cabaret tax collections from hotel night clubs were down nearly 50% from 1946. During the year, fourth and fifth rounds of wage increases were granted in many localities to meet the rise in the cost of living. In some cities, hotel realty taxes went up as much as 20%. Fuel costs and other operating expenses were higher. Caught between these millstones, hotel profits dwindled, in spite of further increases in transient room rates. The much-debated “break even” point was still an uncertain figure. Many large metropolitan hotels derived their net gain entirely from shop rentals and revenues from concessions, and thus the major part of their cubic area did not provide a satis¬ factory return, even on a depreciated investment. Laggard in the march toward greater operating efficiency, the multibillion-dollar hotel industry continued to function without knowing its unit labour and material costs, without adequate ■controls and without the necessary information or determina¬ tion to eliminate traditional, expensive and superfluous pro¬ cedures. The national hotel accounting firms began slowly to develop methods of analyses and checks on restaurant policies in hotels. Elimination of unprofitable and unpopular dishes and reduction of the number of menu items were the first recommendations. In a matter of months, savings of three percentage points in food costs were achieved, without reaching the core of the prob¬ lem, which was to control production and eliminate waste and spoilage at its beginning: in the storeroom, at the butcher’s station and on the cooking ranges. Because of the great complexity and variety of menu items in hotels, breakdown of labour cost by units was not even at-

360

HOUSING

tempted during this preliminary approach to present-day in¬ dustrial methods. Outside restaurants, more shrewdly directed, were far ahead of their hotel competitors. There were large hotels in which the guests did not eat, on the average, one meal a day, including breakfast. “The public makes our menus, not our chefs,” said the head of a famous and successful restaurant chain. An interesting devefopment during the year was the abandon¬ ment because of statute, and legal decision in some cities, of the Jim Crow policy in a few metropolitan centres. A spokes¬ man for the American Hotel association cautiously referred to “new business which might be available.” It was estimated that the larger hotels in urban districts north of the Mason and Dixon line could increase their gross revenues by 2% to 3% if the colour line were dropped. New hotel construction, except in resort areas like Miami Beach, Fla., in which there was a special situation not applica¬ ble to the industry, was limited. The Penthouse hotel in Cin¬ cinnati, 0., extremely advanced in design, was completed and opened; a large hotel in Houston, Tex., to cost a reputed $20,000,000, was nearing completion, and work had begun on a large hotel in the Los Angeles, Calif., area. To many observers, progress in research and in cost control, in labour and mechanized efficiency, and other measures to meet declining revenues was still unsatisfactory in the year 1948. (E. By.)

UnilcinfY

United States, the year 1948 started and nUUolilg* ended with anticipation of congressional action which would solve the housing problem. In January the report of the joint congressional committee on housing—due March 31—was awaited with bated breath. In March the committee members squabbled; Republican liberals differed sharply with Republican conservatives. The liberals won in committee and in the senate but their bill (which included provisions for public housing and urban redevelopment) was stifled in committee in the house. The regular session of the 80th congress adjourned without a major housing bill. When Pres. Harry S. Truman called congress back in special session in July, an emasculated bill was passed. Public housing and urban redevelopment pro¬ visions were among those dropped. President Truman made housing a major issue of the election campaign.

(3,500 units) decline in starts from May to June (May starts 97,000 new dwellings, June starts 93,500), there was a 21% rise in starts (16,300 units) over June 1947. However, housing starts dropped sharply in August and fell below the 1947 mark when builders started only 83,000 new nonfarm dwelling units. This was the first month in 1948 with less than 90,000 starts,, and it was 3,300 units under the number started in Aug. 1947. The volume of starts for the first eight months of 1948 was 24% above the volume for the corresponding eight months of 1947. The 646,000 new permanent units started in those eight months exceeded the total for the same period of 1947 by 123,400 units. But 1947 ended on an upswing of starts while 1948 ended on a downswing of starts. Starts in Oct. 1948 were 22,000 less than Oct. 1947. Total starts for the first ten months were only 800,000, just 89,500 more than the 710,500 started in the first ten months of 1947. There was some increase in the number of rental units started. During the months January through May 1948 one out of every five dwellings started was a rental unit whereas in the same months in 1947 only one in ten was a rental unit. The trend toward suburban living was evidenced by the fact that only 57% of the new nonfarm homes started during 1947 were located in urban places whereas there was an average of 80% built in urban places in the 1920s. This trend was spurred by the higher cost of units in central neighbourhoods. In March the 80th congress extended rent controls, including veterans’ preference provision, to April i, 1949, but decontrolled nonhousekeeping furnished rooms in private homes where there were no more than two paying guests, as well as tourist cabins and other transient accommodations (hotels). It also put a wedge into control by permitting voluntary rent increases up to 15% of the maximum in effect March 30, 1948, if a lease was signed to run at least through Dec. 31, 1949. It removed the last control on new construction by removing the necessity of getting permits for construction of buildings and facilities to be used for amusement.

Meanwhile, housing costs showed no signs of declining. In fact, rises continued through the year. The bureau of labour statistics estimated the average prices for the year to be from 10% to 15% above 1947. The dollar volume was expected to exceed the 1947 dollar volume by $4,000,000,000 (29%) but the physical volume was expected to be only 15% above 1947. High 1948 housing costs were further dramatized by a com¬ parison with 1939 figures. The bureau of labour statistics stated “the purchasing power of the construction dollar has declined until the amount of work estimated to cost $18,000,000,000 to¬ day could have been done in 1939 for around $8,500,000,000.” The building spurt, started in the latter part of 1947, con¬ tinued and increased in the first five months of 1948, but started tapering in June when both the buying and renting public be¬ came price shy. Explanation of the decline centred upon the claim that the cream of the market had been skimmed and the bulk of the remaining market could not afford to buy or rent at 1948 prices. Builders tapered their construction programs, made further trims on size and equipment in order to trim prices and courted co-operative schemes which would lessen their financial responsibility. There was a new scare of “being caught holding the bag.” In spite of the decline in starts in the latter half of the year, 1948 was a banner home-building year. It was estimated that 940,000 units were built in 1948. Although there was a 4%

“YESTERDAY—AND TODAY,” editorial comment on the continued housing shortage in 1948, by Manning of the Arizona Republic (Phoenix)

HOUSING

SUBURBAN street near San Juan, P.R., showing a finished row of houses built as part of a $50,000,000 low-cost housing project under way in 194S

The residential rent index of July 15, 1948, showed rents 7.4% above June 1947 and 12.4% above Sept. 1939. Rents advanced more rapidly during the second quarter of 1948 than during the first quarter. Building operations were retarded by congressional slowness in renewing Title VI of the National Housing act. Builders had leaned heavily upon the favourable financial provisions of Title VI during the war and postwar periods. It was due to expire March 31, 1948, and new operations based upon its provisions were not planned because of its uncertain future. But congress was embroiled in a bitter intraparty dispute over the recom¬ mendations of the joint congressional committee on housing and Title VI was used as a football in that debate. At the nth hour, the act was extended for one month—until April 30, 1948, making an additional $400,000,000 available. The value formula was substituted for necessary current cost bases in appraisals. On June 19, at the close of the regular session, congress en¬ acted S. 2790. It was not a broad housing measure but was limited to provision of a government source of secondary credit for G.I. home loans and to insuring 95% of loans for nonprofit veterans’ co-operative housing projects. There were no provisions for subsidy for homes for families of low income. This was a particularly pertinent omission in face of the fact that housing costs were steadily rising, fur¬ ther removing the possibility of families of moderate and low income to find homes. Emphasis upon lower-cost units was made even more perti¬ nent by the waning higher-cost market during the latter half of the year. S. 2790 made no provisions for continuing the Federal Housing administration Title VI mortgage insurance program. Following the Republican and Democratic conventions, both of which promised a comprehensive housing program. President Truman recalled congress, urging enactment of housing and other legislation promised in the platforms. Congress pulled and hauled over a housing measure, trying to reconcile the views of conservatives and liberals. The conservatives won; in an effort to achieve pre-election party unity, Sen. Robert A. Taft, sponsor of the Taft-Ellender-Wagner bill, voted against his own bill. It was defeated. On Aug. 7 congress passed the Housing act of 1948 (public law 901). In signing the bill “with great regret” on Aug. 10, President Truman said: “The Congress has . , . passed an emasculated housing bill, which fails to include several of the most important provisions of the Taft-EllenderWagner bill. . . . The new bill fails to make any provisions for low-rent public housing. It fails to make any provision for slum clearance and urban redevelopment. It fails to include any provisions for special aids for farm housing. It includes

361

only limited provision for research to bring down building costs.” The act revived Title VI mortgage insurance for large-scale rental housing, extending it from April 30, 1948, to March 31, 1949, and authorized FHA to insure an additional $800,000,000 worth of mortgage loans on large-scale rental housing units under this section where the cost per family unit was not more than $8,100 (former limitation $1,500 to $1,800 per room). Of this additional authorization, $400,000,000 was to be available immediately. The mortgagor and the purchaser for him had to certify that he would not discriminate against any tenant family with children. Various other amendments were made to Title VI and to FHA’s Title I and H programs. It authorized 4^% (in¬ stead of 4%) interest rate on G.I. home loans at the discretion of the Veterans’ administration and with the approval of the secretary of the treasury. (Rising interest rates had discour¬ aged lending at 4%. Failure to get mortgage money had slowed down the Veterans’ administration loan program.) The act authorized the Reconstruction Finance corporation to make loans up to $50,000,000 for production of prefabricated houses or components or for large-scale site construction up to 75% of the purchase price of equipment, plant or machinery. It ex¬ panded the secondary market powers of the Federal National Mortgage association and created a new research program under the Housing and Home Finance agency. It directed the Public Housing administration to oust high-income families from public housing projects and authorized the conversion of certain stateaided veterans’ housing projects to federal-aided housing under the United States Housing act of 1937. It raised the salary of the Housing and Home Finance administrator from $10,000 to $16,500 and of the Federal Housing agency and the Public Housing administration commissioners from $10,000 to $15,000 each. It contained one new provision, one discussed for many years: it provided a $1,000,000,000 revolving fund for yield insurance for equity investments in projects where units had been approved by FHA for moderate-income families; 90% of the total investment and a 2|% return (plus 2% amortization) were guaranteed. Annual return was limited to 5%. Many questioned the attractiveness of this provision to investors and particularly to large financial institutions for which it was con¬ ceived. The financial institutions showed no enthusiasm. Build¬ ers were greatly interested in the amendment to FHA Title H, 207 which permitted 90% guaranteed loans (95% for veterans) for 40-year mortgages at 4% interest to co-operatives. Besides the favourable financial terms, it provided a way for outside equity which would leave the builder comparatively footloose financially. After election. President Truman, on Nov. 16, reiterated the objectives that he had set forth on Sept. 6, 1945, and stated that he hoped to further their accomplishment when the 8ist congress met. The housing objective was “comprehensive legis-

H O U SING

362

lation to aid private enterprise in the construction of 10,000,000 to 15,000,000 homes in ten years; government aid for slum clearance; resumption of pre-war program for low-rent housing; speed-up measures for rural housing programs.” These extensions of government-backed credit again raised the question of the part which easy government-backed credit played in boosting house prices. Those favouring extension of easy credit believed that its evils were preferable to those which would result from a crack in the building boom which would come if easy credits were abandoned. In spite of easy govern¬ ment backing, credit did tighten because 4% loans were no longer attractive to financial institutions. Scarcity of 4% mort¬ gage money was one of the causes of the building decline which started in June and gathered momentum through the fall. Several states and cities initiated and augmented their own programs for subsidized homes for low-income and moderateincome families. Massachusetts enacted chapter 200 providing guarantees by the commonwealth of bonds and notes of local housing authorities to the amount of $200,000,000 and annual subsidies of $5,000,000 a year for each of 25 years. The projects were to be sold at the end of 25 years. The city of Milwaukee, Wis., authorized two projects costing $6,900,000 ($2,300,000 outright grant and $4,600,000 from Housing authority first mortgage revenue bonds). Providence, R.I., broke ground on a city-financed project with an outright grant of $1,250,000 and a $1,600,000 noninterest¬ bearing loan to the authority. New York city started a $200,000,000 program to provide 17,000 apartments for middle-in¬ come families. (This was an addition to its low-income pro¬ gram.) This program was city financed but not subsidized except for tax exemption on the new buildings. It was designed to meet the needs of veterans with incomes ranging from $2,900 to $4,500, or too high for public low-rent housing and too low for the $25 per room rentals charged in private housing. The New York state legislature authorized municipalities to con¬ demn property for veterans’ co-operative housing projects. The state division of housing sponsored the development of co¬ operatives and it was expected that the cities would grant tax . exemption on the improvement. Because of the financial limitations of most cities and states, those interested in housing families of low income still looked to the federal government for a subsidized housing program. Builders who watched their market start to dwindle tried further structural cuts to bring down costs and some toyed with new kinds of subsidy schemes which might permit them to build for families of low income. The general housing shortage had eased in many areas and the sale prices of old houses had softened, but there was continued shortage of houses, particularly in big metropolitan centres, at a price which families of low and mod¬ erate income could afford. (See also Architecture; Building AND Construction Industry; Business Review; Municipal Government.)

(D.

Rn.)

Bibliography.—Bureau

of Labor Statistics, Department of Labor; Department of Commerce; Architectural Forum; F. W. Dodge Reports; Journal o) Housing; Reports of Housing and Home Finance Adminis¬ tration.

Residential Mortgage Credit.—Residential mortgage lend¬ ing continued at a high volume during 1948. In the first nine months of 1948, recordings of mortgages in amounts of $20,000 or less totalled $8,769,000,000. There was some abatement in these recordings during the third quarter of the year. Home loans to veterans closed under the Veterans’ Loan Guaranty program during the first nine months of 1948 were 31% lower in number and 37% lower in amount than in the corresponding period of 1947. Home loans to veterans closed under this program in the first nine months of 1948 totalled $1,555,000,000. Despite these moderating developments, FHA mortgage in-

surance written under Titles II and VI of the National Housing act in the first nine months of 1948 was 163% above that written in the corresponding months of 1947, amounting to $1,970,000,000. This insurance was written under legal authority as it existed at the beginning of the year. Substantial changes were made in August in the nature and scope of this authority in the amendments to the National Housing act. Administration of Federal Housing Functions.—The Hous¬ ing and Home Finance agency, established under authority of Reorganization Plan No. 3 of 1947, continued to be responsible for the co-ordinated administration of the major housing and related functions of the federal government. HHFA consists of the office of the administrator and three constituent agencies; the Home Loan Bank board (which directs operations of the Federal Home Loan Bank system and the Federal Savings and Loan Insurance corporation and the liquidation of the Home Owners’ Loan corporation, and charters and supervises federal savings and loan associations), the Federal Housing administra¬ tion (which administers the programs of housing credit insur¬ ance and rental housing yield insurance authorized under the National Housing act) and the Public Housing administration (which is responsible for administration of the program of fed¬ eral aid to locally sponsored low-rent housing projects author¬ ized under the U.S. Housing act, and is responsible for the man¬ agement and disposition of war housing, “greenbelt” towns and subsistence homesteads in accordance with policies established by the HHFA administrator). The administrator of the HHFA serves as chairman of the National Housing council, which provides for consultation and co-ordination on a broad basis at the federal level. Member¬ ship of the council includes the chairman of the Home Loan Bank board, the commissioners of the Federal Housing adminis¬ tration and the Public Housing administration and the following officials or their designees: the secretary of agriculture, the sec¬ retary of commerce, the administrator of veterans’ affairs, and the chairman of the board of the Reconstruction Finance cor¬ poration. (See also Law.) (R. M. Fy.) Canada.—Despite problems of rising costs, continuing short¬ ages of materials and but slowly improving skilled labour sup¬ plies, the year hit many records; with a carry-over of 42,000 housing units from 1947, there were 97,000 starts in 1948, which ended with 55,000 carry-overs, indicating a total of 84,000 com¬ pletions (compared with 74,000 units in 1947, the previous high). Measured on a per capita basis, Canada built houses 17% faster than the U.S., and was second only to Sweden. But Canada’s construction rate did not keep up with demand; by the end of 1948 an estimated 150,000 Canadians wanted new homes. According to the crown-owned Central Mortgage and Housing corporation, in Sept. 1948 about 800,000 household groups in Canada were sharing housing accommodation; on a national average, 17% of the dominion’s houses were shared by more than one family. • Housing construction costs continued to rise, going up 4.9% during the first half of 1948 to stand at 188% above 1939 costs. In July 1947 the house-building-materials index was 165.5 and average weekly construction wages were $36.98; in July 1948 the corresponding figures were 195.4 and $40.84. Neverthe¬ less, 79% of polled real estate agents reported new houses were invariably sold before being finished. Rental ceilings which were held until late in the year, fol¬ lowed by only a 10% to 15% boost depending upon services supplied, appeared to curtail rental-housing construction. Higher assessments and taxes added to higher building costs discour¬ aged risk capital. Accordingly, the federal government amended the National Housing act by empowering the Central Mortgage and Housing corporation to: (i) make loans to assist in rental-

HOUSING ADMINISTRATI ON, FEDERAL—HUNGARY housing construction and (2) guarantee builders and subsequent owners a revenue return of rentals from such projects. How¬ ever, the federal government resisted both political and eco¬ nomic pressure to subsidize housing directly. The most significant provincial housing development was On¬ tario’s four-point housing-aid law, which provided $10,000,000 for guaranteeing lending institutions $1,000 per home to reduce down payments by home builders, $2,000,000 for financing housing using new methods of construction, $15,000,000 for par¬ ticipating with municipalities in slum-clearance programs and $3,000,000 for purchasing half of the land and services when a municipality undertook a federal low-cost housing project. (C. Cy.) Great Britain.—In Great Britain, in order to secure more labour for coal mining and for increased food production, prior¬ ity was given to the supply of houses for miners and agricul¬ tural workers, and a measure of priority was also accorded to key workers in industry in certain areas. Apart from these cate¬ gories, most local authorities assessed the relative need of appli¬ cants for housing on a points basis in which due weight was given to such factors as the family’s present housing condi¬ tions, size of family, service with the armed forces, length of residence in the locality, place of employment, etc. The number of men employed in the building and civilengineering industries remained consistently more than 1,100,000 during the first half of 1948; but, nevertheless, the de¬ mands made by contractors upon the ministry of labour em¬ ployment exchanges showed that greater numbers could, in fact, have been employed. The supply of materials for housebuilding after World War II presented many difficulties, mainly resulting from the problems of re-establishing certain producing industries, the economic crisis and the fuel shortage of 1947. The use of structural steel for housing had to be restricted because of the prior claims of the export drive, and the shortage of softwood timber con¬ tinued to be one of the greatest limiting factors in the housing program. The amount of timber used in each house was about one-half of the quantity used in an equivalent house erected in 1939-

The financing of municipal housing schemes was usually ar¬ ranged by means of loans made to local authorities by the Public Works Loan board. Interest was charged at a low rate and the loan repayments were spread over a period of 60 years. Building costs generally were much higher than in 1939, and a report published on the subject of housing costs gave the fol¬ lowing comparative average figures for a working-class house: 1938-39, £380; 1947, £1,242. It should be borne in mind, how¬ ever, that these figures are not strictly comparable since local authority houses before the war averaged only 800 superficial ft., while those built in 1948 averaged 1,029 superficial ft. (includ¬ ing outbuildings). To ensure that the rents charged were within the means of tenants, all postwar houses built by local authorities were eligible for a government subsidy payable over a period of 60 years, which was calculated on the basis of the general rise in costs after the war. The rate of exchequer subsidy was larger in the case of houses built for renting to farm workers. By the end of 1948 the number of dwellings provided after the war numbered 887,957. Of this total, 425,720 were new houses or rebuilt war-destroyed houses. Temporary houses accounted for 157,161 units and the balance comprised conver¬ sions of existing premises, requisitioned properties, temporary huts and the adaptation of service camps for housing purposes. Throughout the first eight months of 1948 the rate of comple¬ tion for new houses was 17,000 per month. Europe.—The general housing situation in Europe during

363

1948 showed little change from 1947. Those countries which were most heavily affected by air attack and by military opera¬ tions had a difficult task in catching up with the replacement and repair of war-damaged properties, in addition to the under¬ taking of new building, which was, however, proceeding at a slowly increasing rate in most European countries. In 1948 the housing problems of Europe were under the con¬ sideration of a housing subcommittee of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. The subcommittee met at intervals at Geneva, Switzerland. In the meantime its work was carried on by working parties which examined various aspects of housing at the direction of the subcommittee. (J. H. S.)

Housing Administration, Federal: see Housing. Housing Agency, National: see Housing. Housing and Home Finance Agency: see Housing. Housing Authority, U.S.: see Housing. Human Nutrition and Home Economics, Bureau of: see Agricultural Research Administration; Home Eco¬ nomics.

Human Rights, Universal Declaration of:

see Inter¬

national Law; United Nations.

Ulinirorif

^ people’s republic of southeastern Europe nUlIgdIj* bounded on the west by Austria, on the north by Czechoslovakia, on the east by Rumania and on the south by Yugoslavia. Area: 35,912 sq.mi.; pop.: (1941 census) 9,316,613; (mid-1947 est.) 9,383,000. Languages: Hungarian with some German, Slovak, Serbo-Croat, Slovene and Rumanian. Re¬ ligions: Roman Catholic, Greek Catholic, Calvinist, Lutheran, Greek Orthodox, Jewish. Chiefs towns (1941 census): Buda¬ pest (cap., 1,164,963; pop. 1947 est., 1,073,444); Szeged (136,752); Debrecen (125,933); Miskolc (109,433); Kecskemet (87,269); Pecs (78,512). Presidents in 1948: Zoltan Tildy and, after Aug. 3, Arpad Szakasits; prime minister: Lajos Dinnyes until December, then Istvan Dobi. History .—The most important political event of 1948 in Hungary was the absorption by the Communists of the only important political organization which remained independent, the Social Democratic party. The Socialists’ real right wing, rep¬ resented by the party’s prewar leader Charles Peyer, had, in fact, already left the party during 1947. What the Communists novy meant by right wingers were all Socialists who, however radical their views about social policy and economic organization, still wished to preserve separate the 50-year-old Socialist party and trade-union organization. The Communists possessed a strong fifth column within the Socialist party, and their control of the state machine and the police, backed by the knowledge that the soviet government was behind them, overawed the vacillating leader of the So¬ cialists, Vice-Premier Arpad Szakasits. The Socialist party con¬ gress decided, March 8, on fusion with the Communist party. This took place at the congress of unification, on June 12-14. The new party took the title Hungarian Workers’ party. Having thus removed their only remaining rival, the Commu¬ nist leaders proceeded to consolidate their hold over the work¬ ing class. From Sept. 6, 1948, to March 6, 1949, entries into the Workers’ party were suspended, and a revision of membership was undertaken. Though the Communist Mihaly Farkas stated on Sept. 17 that this purge was not aimed either at former So¬ cial Democrats or at the intelligentsia as such, it was fairly clear that its purpose was to ensure that all key positions in the party should be held only by reliable Communists. A less important political event was the resignation on July 30 of Pres. Zoltan Tildy, as a result of the implication of his son-in-law, Victor Csornoky, in an espionage plot. Tildy was /

364

HUNGARY

succeeded by Szakasits. In December, as a result of the flight abroad of the minister of finance, Miklos Nyaradi, the prime minister, Lajos Dinnyes, resigned, and was succeeded by Istvan Dobi, like him and the fugitive finance minister, a member of the rump Smallholders’ party. In the spring open conflict broke out between state and church on the question of education. The government made an agreement with the Calvinist Church (only after the resignation of its former head, Bishop Laszlo Ravasz), which left a few schools under its control. The Catholic primate Joseph Cardinal Mindszenty was, however, against all compromise. On June i6 the law for the nationalization of all schools was carried by 230 votes to 63, against the votes of the Democratic People’s party of Istvan Barankovics. The law affected 17,000 teachers formerly employed in church schools. The government under¬ took to maintain them and to continue compulsory religious edu¬ cation. But those teachers who were priests were ordered by the “VOICE OF AMERICA” broadcasts caricatured as a Donald Duck blaring false stories about Hungary; this was one of the floats drawn through the streets of Budapest on May day in 1948

primate to leave their posts. According to governmental sources there were 2,500 of these, and by the autumn two-thirds had been replaced. {See also Roman Catholic Church.) A series of laws w'as passed during the year which created an entirely uniform system of education for all pupils up to the age of 14. Measures were also taken to enable children, who in the past three years had completed their elementary education under the old system, to continue their studies in secondary schools under the new, and to enable workers between the ages of 17 and 32 to take courses in technical colleges of university status. On Dec. 26 Cardinal Mindszenty was arrested on a charge of trea¬ son, including “espionage on behalf of the imperialists.” On March 23 a law was passed which nationalized all indus¬ trial enterprises employing more than 100 persons. A reorgani¬ zation of the banks under national ownership established sim¬ pler conditions and lower interest rates for loans to industry. In agriculture the emphasis throughout the year was on the fight against the kulaks, encouragement to small peasants to join co-operatives, and increased mechanization. Hungary’s most important trade agreement was with the Soviet Union, signed in Moscow on Oct. 2. It provided for an exchange of goods of value $150,000,000 up to Dec. 31, 1949. Hungary was to import principally coke, iron and cotton and to export machinery, manufactured textiles and some foodstuffs. There was also a further soviet order for $150,000,000 of Hun¬ garian machinery, to be delivered between 1950 and 1954. The result would be that the soviet share in Hungary’s exports would rise from 15% in 1947 to 24% in 1948, and in Hungary’s im¬ ports from 12% to 27%. In July a reduction of half of Hun¬ gary’s remaining reparations debt to the U.S.S.R. was an¬ nounced. A trade agreement to the value of $20,000,000 w^as signed with Rumania in June, and agreements signed in 1947 with Switzerland and Sweden were in Oct. 1948 prolonged for another year. Hungary signed treaties of mutual assistance with Rumania (January), the Soviet Union (February), Poland (June) and Bulgaria (July). In October an agreement was announced with Czechoslovakia on the treatment of the Hungarian minority in the latter country, which had been the cause of friction between the two countries from the end of World War II. In the TitoCominform dispute Hungarian Communists strongly denounced Tito. (H. S-W.) Education.—(1946-47): Elementary schools 2,904, pupils 218,637, teachers 4,533; general schools 4,114, pupils 813,596, teachers 24,563; higher elementary schools 364, pupils 45,057, teachers 3,664; middle schools 175, pupils 51,217, teachers 3,515; teachers’ training colleges 62, students 12,366, teachers 902; agricultural, technical and commer¬ cial schools 135, students 24,175, teachers 2,346; universities 6, students 21,392; other higher educational institutions 15, students 3,595. Banking and Finance.—Budget: revenue (1946-47, actual) 5,806,000,000 forints, (1947-48, actual) 9,401,000,000 forints; expenditure (194647, actual) 5,761,000,000 forints, (1947-48, actual) 9,108,000,000 forints. Currency circulation: notes in circulation, e.xcluding holdings of central bank (end 1947) 1,992,000,000 forints, (end June 1948) 2,070,000,000 forints; gold reserve (end 1947) 402,120,000 forints, (end June 1948) 402,120,000 forints; deposit money (Budapest commercial and savings banks, including deposits of provincial banks with these banks) (end 1947) 615,000,000 forints, (end June 1948) 593,000,000 forints. Monetary unit: i forint (florin)=ioo filler. Exchange rate: 11.827 forints = $1 U.S. Foreign Trade.—Imports: (1947) 1,459,200,000 forints, (1948, first half) 1,004,000,000 forints; exports: (1947) 1,045,200,000 forints, (1948, first half) 792,100,000 forints. Transport and Communications.—Road mileage (1946) 18,508; railway mileage (1946) 5,416; motor vehicles in use (1947) total 23,273 (cars 11,374, commercial vehicles 11,899); telephone subscribers (1947) 79,010; radio receiving sets (June 1947) 336,000. Agriculture.— (In metric tons): wheat (1947) 1,062,000, (1948) 1,430,000; rye (1947) 430,000; barley (1947) 432,000; oats (1947) 189,000; potatoes (1947) 1,630,000; maize (1947) 1,854,000; linseed (1947) 2,000; sugar (raw value) (1947) 157,000, (1948 est.) 224,000. Livestock: horses (1947) 490,128; cattle (1947) 1,406,000; pigs (1947) 2,106,000; sheep (1948) 525,000. Production.—Fuel (in metric tons): coal (1947) 1,056,000, (1948, first half) 605,000; lignite (1947) 7,7S2,ooo, (1948, first half) 4,438,000. Crude petroleum (in metric tons): (1947) 570,000, (1948, first half) 243,000. Raw materials and manufactures: iron ore (35% metal

HUNTING —ICE HOCKEY content, in metric tons) (1947) 244,000, (1948, first half) 133,000; pig iron and ferroalloys (in metric tons) (1947) 304,000, (1948, first half) 179,000; steel ingots and castings (in metric tons) (1947) 596.000, (1948, first half) 371,000; aluminum (in long tons) (1946) 1,970,000; woven cotton fabrics (in metres) (1947) 125,000,000, (1948, first half) 79,000,000; cotton yarn (in metric tons) (1947) 21,000, (1948, first half) 13,000; wool yarn (in metric tons) (1947) 6,000, (1948, first half) 4,000. {See also Rumania.)

Hunting: see Wildlife Conservation. Hurdling: see Olympic Games; Track and

Field Sports.

HiKQPini Up! Amin

pI miOOClIlif ndj nlllMI cl

), Arab religious and political leader, was educated at the El Azhar university in Cairo, Egypt. After the Balfour declaration, he joined a movement opposing the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine. He participated in the first anti-Jewish disturbances at Jerusalem in 1920, and fled to Trans-Jordan to avoid a prison sentence. Returning under amnesty he was later appointed grand mufti of Jerusalem by the British. He again took part in and encouraged the Arab attacks on Jews in 1937. He was arrested but escaped and fled to the Lebanon. Again, after the outbreak of World War II, when the French were about to arrest him, he fled to Iraq, where he played a prominent role in engineering the pro-German revolt of 1941. After the collapse of this rebellion he fled to Rome and later to Berlin. He arrived in Switzerland on May 7, 194s, and was deported to France, thenceforward living under French police supervision. On May 29, 1946, carrying a Syrian passport in an assumed name, he travelled to Cairo. It was believed that he was closely concerned with the Palestinian Arab government formed at Gaza in Oct. 1948.

Hutchins, Robert Maynard

bornT jaa”."'

in Brooklyn, N.Y. His father, William James Hutchins (1871), minister and theologian, was subsequently president of Berea college in Berea, Ky. Hutchins left Oberlin college, Oberlin, 0., in 1917 to enlist in the U.S. ambulance corps, winning the Croce di Guerra in action with the Italian army. Entering Yale university. New Haven, Conn., in 1919, he received his A.B. in 1921 and his LL.B. (magna cum laude) in 1925. In 1923 he was appointed secretary of Yale university and in 1927 dean of its law school. In 1929, at the age of 30, he became the fifth president (and, in 1945, the first chancellor) of the University of Chicago, where his reforms and proposals for reform made him one of the best-known and most controversial figures in the history of U.S. education. With the university operating on a $31,000,000 annual budget in 1948, Hutchins’ administrative duties were heavy. In addi¬ tion to the mounting financial pressure of higher price levels, which all private universities felt, the underwriting of the ex¬ tensive program in nuclear research, which grew out of the university’s central role in the development of the atomic bomb, required that Hutchins devote a considerable part of his time to obtaining new support for the university. The Committee to Frame a World Constitution, which Hutchins organized in 1946, issued generally in April 1948 a draft of a world constitution, as a proposal for study and con¬ sideration rather than as a blueprint for world government. In May, Hutchins attended at the University of Frankfurt, Ger¬ many, the centennial celebration of the German revolution of 1848 and the establishment of the popular national assembly, at which time he made two addresses and received the honorary degree of doctor of politics and economics. During 1948, Hutchins began his 20th year of service as administrative head of the University of Chicago. He had been head of the university longer than any of his four predecessors and also was senior in tenure to any president in the Association

365

of American Universities. In addition to reiterating, in his speeches and writing, the necessity of reform in U.S. education and the importance of establishing a true liberal education in the colleges, Hutchins opposed, with educational and other leaders, the adoption of universal military training. He likewise continued to stress the necessity of world government to avoid the catastrophe of atomic and biologic warfare. In a speech to the National Conference of Editorial Writers, in November, he repeated the suggestion made in the report (1947) of the Commission on the Freedom of the Press, of which he was chairman, for the establishment of an impartial agency to appraise the performance of the press in discharging its responsibility for public enlightenment. The speech led to a proposal by Editor & Publisher, newspaper trade journal, for a semiannual discussion of the press by news¬ paper and public representatives. {See also Chicago, Univer¬ sity OF.) (W. V. M.) (c. 1880), king of Saudi Arabia, was born about 1880 in Riyadh, the son of ‘Abd-al-Rahman, leader of the Wahhabi sect of Arabs. (For his early career, see Encyclopcedia Britannica.) After being defeated by IbnRashid in 1891, ‘Abd-al-Rahman and his family went into exile in Kuwait. In 1901 Ibn-Sa‘ud launched a campaign to regain his father’s throne, captured Riyadh and proclaimed himself sultan of Nejd. At the conclusion of World War I he undertook a campaign of conquest. He invaded the Hejaz in 1924, defeated King Husain and entered Mecca. On Jan. 8, 1926, he proclaimed himself king of the Hejaz and a year later assumed the title king of the Hejaz and Nejd and its dependen¬ cies. In Sept. 1932 his country was renamed the kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and the eldest of his 32 sons, Emir Sa'ud (b. 1905), was formally declared heir apparent. During World War II Ibn-Sa‘ud was neutral, although his sympathies lay with the Allies. In Feb. 1945, near Cairo, he met Franklin D. Roosevelt and Winston Churchill. In 1948, in solidarity with other Arab rulers, he opposed the creation of the state of Israel in Palestine.

Ibn-Sa‘ud

ICC: see I

Interstate Commerce Commission.

Proom

United States production of ice cream was estimated preliminarily at 560,000,000 gal., about 11% less than in 1947, and still further below the record production of 740,000,000 gal. in 1946, but well above the re¬ stricted production of the war period. Milk, cream and other materials used in production were available in abundance and quality was improved, but public demand slackened as retail prices increased. States of highest production were the more populous ones. New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, California and Illinois.

luC ul CdllL

(J. K. R.)

Ino Unnl/Olf

Toronto, Canada, Maple Leafs scored an IwC nUu^Cjfi impressive “double” in major hockey compe¬ tition during the 1947-48 season. The Leafs not only won the National league championship in a bitter finish with the Detroit Red Wings, but went on to repeat as holders of the Stanley cup. In the play-offs for the coveted cup, the Maple Leafs defeated the Boston Bruins, four games to one, in the semifinals and swept over the Red Wings, four straight, in the finals. The National Hockey league bubbled with off-ice activity. The game witnessed its biggest trade when Chicago sent Max Bentley and rookie Cy Thomas to Toronto for defensemen Bob Goldham and Ernie Dickens, centre Gus Bodnar and wingers Bud Poile and Gaye Stewart. William “Billy” Taylor, a player with the New York Rangers, was expelled from hockey for life by President Clarence S. Campbell of the National

ICELAND —1 :e skating

366 Hockey league.

Taylor was charged with betting $500 on a

Chicago-Boston game. Herbert William “Buddy” O’Connor, lightest player in the league, was voted its “most valuable” on his play with the New York Rangers. O’Connor finished second to Elmer Each of Montreal as the league’s leading scorer. Each had 61 to O’Con¬ nor’s 60. O’Connor also won the Eady Byng trophy as the most gentlemanly player in the league. The Vezina trophy as the league’s outstanding goalie was won by Walter “Turk” Broda of Toronto. James McFadden, Detroit centre, captured the Calder Memorial trophy as the foremost rookie of the league. The Detroit Red Wings placed three men on the National league’s all-star team, selected by league coaches. The team included: Ted Eindsay, Detroit, left wing; Maurice Richard, Montreal, right wing; Elmer Each, Montreal, centre; Jack Stewart, Detroit, defense; Bill Quackenbush, Detroit, defense; and “Turk” Broda, Toronto, goal. The Cleveland, 0., Barons dominated the American Hockey league, winning the western division and play-off titles. The Cleveland team defeated Buffalo, N.Y., four games to none, in the play-off finals. Houston, Tex., topped the United States Hockey league by winning the southern division crown as well as the play-off. Houston defeated Minneapolis, Minn., second to Kansas City, Mo., in the northern division race, in the final play-offs, three games to two. Vancouver, B.C., captured the Pacific Coast Hockey league play-offs after Seattle, Wash., and Eos Angeles, Calif., had won the northern and southern titles, respectively. The Pacific Coast league decided to turn professional in 1948-49. The University of Toronto, Canada, won the intercollegiate title with a 5 to 0 victory over Dartmouth college, Hanover, N.H. The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, won the na¬ tional collegiate crown with an 8 to 4 triumph over Dartmouth. Colgate university, Hamilton, N.Y., defeated Holling Press, Inc., of Buffalo 7 to 4 in the National Amateur Athletic union final. (See also Olympic Games.) (M. P. W.) I

I nil

An island republic of the North Atlantic. Area:

to continue for the duration of U.S. obligations in Germany. Co-operation with the Scandinavian countries appeared better than ever before. Representatives of central banks and ad¬ ministration for Denmark, Norway and Sweden met in Iceland during the summer. In winter and spring the prime minister and the minister of commerce attended meetings of their colleagues in Stockholm, Sweden, and Oslo, Norway. A trade agreement was signed with Sweden in May. And the visit of Hans Hedtoft, prime minister of Denmark, was a gala event in the summer. Finance.—Monetary unit; kr6na=is.4 U.S. cents. Notes in circulation (Sept. 30, 1948) 168,307,000 kr.; gold reserve (Sept. 30, 1948) 5,733,000 kr. Bank deposits were 586,729,000 kr. in Sept. 1948. Savings banks increased their activities from 17,852,000 kr. in 1939 to 125,850,000 kr. in 1947. The government budget of 1939 had balanced at about 19,000,000 kr. In 1945 expenditure, was 143,000,000 kr. and rev¬ enues 165,000,000 kr., giving a surplus of 22,000,000 kr. For 1947 the estimates were; expenditures 146,000,000 kr., revenues 136,000,000 kr. Trade and Communication-In 1947 exports totalled 290,482,000 kr. and imports 519,078,000 kr. In the period Jan. to Sept. 1948 exports totalled 297,379,000 kr. and imports 325,487,000 kr. Great Britain took 93,400,000 kr. of the 1948 exports and supplied 106,074,000 kr. of the imports; the U.S.S.R. took 6,142,000 kr. of the exports, far down from the 39,227,000 kr. that country bought in the corresponding period of 1947, and furnished only 403,000 kr. of the imports; the United States took 21,927,000 kr. of the exports and sent 61,265,000 kr. of the imports. Export? were almost entirely fish and fish products with some wool, hides and mutton. Imports consisted chiefly of fuels and lubricants, metal and mineral products, machinery and appliances, textile products, food prod¬ ucts and tobacco. In 1946 and 1947 trade had shifted to the U.S.S.R. because of the inability of Britain and the United States to use Iceland’s fish at a good price. Iceland has no railroads, but in 1944 highways totalled 3,107 mi. In 1947 there were 5,762 passenger cars, 262 buses, 4,372 trucks and 570 motorcycles. Also in 1944 there were 11,500 telephones and 27,339 radio sets in Iceland. Only one Icelandic aeroplane made a regular flight to Europe, but in August Loftleidir opened service to New York. American Overseas air¬ lines and lines from Copenhagen, Denmark, and Oslo maintained good connections. Internally two air lines competed for traffic. Agriculture.—For 1944 the chief crops were; field hay 140,000 metric tons, meadow hay 80,000 metric tons and potatoes 8,000 metric tons. Of the population, 30.6% was engaged in agriculture. The planted and seeded area covered 135,000 ac. Livestock (1944) numbered; sheep 610,000, cattle 40,000, horses 60,000, goats 2,000, hogs 1,000, poultry 75,000 and fur bearers (fox and mink) 5,000. Fisheries—Of the population 15.9% was engaged in fisheries, and the total product was 461,314 metric tons (1944). Bibliography.—Thorstein Thorsteinsson, ed., Iceland, 11)46 (Reyk¬ javik, 1947); Hilmar Foss, ed., Directory of Iceland for the Year 1948 (Reykjavik, 1947); Bjorn Thordarson, Iceland Past and Present, trans. by Sir William Craigie, second ed. (Oxford, 1945); Stefan Einarsson, History of Icelandic Prose Writers, 1800-11)40 (1948).. (F. D. S.)

ICBIflllU' 39,768 sq.mi.; pop. (census 1940): 121,474; (est. 1948) 135,935. Capital: Reykjavik, the only large town (pop. 1945; 46,578; est. 1948: 53,800). Religion: Eutheran Christian. President: Sveinn Bjornsson. Prime Minister: Stefan Johann Stefansson. History.—Inflation, chief bugbear of postwar Iceland, ap¬ peared to be coming under control. During 1947 note circula¬ tion declined from 166,700,000 kr. to 107,000,000 kr. Eegislation attempted to check the price index at 300 (1939 = 100) and succeeded in bringing agricultural prices downward; at the beginning of the year 1948, however, the general cost-of-living index in Reykjavik was 319. Iceland and Portugal alone reg¬ istered decreases in cost of living for the first six months of 1948. Iceland did not think it needed Marshall plan aid ex¬ cept to help it get machinery for processing fish products to sell to Europe. The people contributed $400,000 for the United Nations Children’s fund—$3 per capita. The important summer herring fishing was a failure for the fourth successive season. Whaling increased in importance to compensate for part of the loss. Iceland also found itself with a magnificently up-to-date fishing fleet, purchased with war¬ time dollars: its prewar fleet of 38 steam trawlers was aug¬ mented by 50 motor fishing boats from Sweden, and a number more built in Denmark and in Iceland itself. The transport fleet added several refrigeration ships for frozen fish. Discussion over Keflavik airport died down somewhat; the United States continued to staff the air field, and proposed a $10,000,000 expansion, all under the 1946 agreement which was

IpO Qlotinir North America completely domluC 06dllll5> inated the figure-skating championships during 1948, while Europeans, particularly those from Norway, were predominant in speed skating. Barbara Ann Scott, 19, of Ottawa, Ont., and Richard Button, 18, of Englewood, N.J., together made a sensational sweep of three major figure-skating championships—the Olympic games, world’s and European. Button also won the United States title, while Miss Scott annexed the Canadian championship. Gretchen Merrill of Boston, Mass., won the women’s U.S. title. Odd Eundberg of Norway won the world’s speed-skating title at Helsinki, Finland, while Reidar Eiaklev, also of Norway, won the European championship. John Werket of Minneapolis, Minn., finished second in the world’s championship and won the 1,500-m. event. The United States’ best showing in the European speed-skating championships came in the 500-m., in which Bob Fitzgerald of Minneapolis and Del Eamb of Mil¬ waukee, Wis., were tied for first. Werket won an international meet at Oslo, Norway, while Hiyo Chang Eee of Korea topped the international trials at St. Moritz, Switzerland. In North America, George Fischer of Chicago, Ill., and the University of Illinois cornered most of the speed-skating cham¬ pionships for men. He won the U.S. title with 150 points, fol¬ lowed by Donald E. Johnson of Minneapolis with 70 points. He also won the North American, tri-state and western open speed titles. Eoraine Sabbe of Detroit, Mich., won the women’s na¬ tional with no points to 100 for Bernice Melewski of West

in Nov. 1948 were Bert Miller (Democrat), U.S. senator (whose election necessitated resignation from his seat on the Idaho supreme court bench); Compton I. White, Democrat, first dis¬ trict representative; and John Sanborn, Republican, incumbent, re-elected as second district representative. Glen Taylor, Demo¬ crat, was elected to the senate in 1944 for a six-year term. Elected to the state legislature in the first political split be¬ tween the upper and lower houses since Idaho gained statehood were 35 Republicans and 24 Democrats in the house of repre¬ sentatives, and 20 Republicans and 24 Democrats in the senate. There were 214,816 votes cast in Idaho for the various candi¬ dates for president, with the Democratic candidate receiving a plurality of 5,856. Votes for presidential electors in the follow¬ ing parties were: Democrat 107,370; Republican 101,514; So¬ cialist 332; Progressive 4,972; Prohibitionist 628.

BARBARA ANN SCOTT performing at St. Moritz, Switz., during the women’s figure-skating event of the winter Olympic games on Feb. 6, 1948. Miss Scott took the women’s title on 163.077 points

Allis, Wis. Betty Mitchell of Winnipeg, Man., repeated as North American women’s winner, and also won the ten thou¬ sand lakes title. Other speed winners were: national intermediate boys—Don Hamer of Minneapolis; national intermediate girls—Dona Wang, Minneapolis, and Aldrina Lebel, Lake Placid, N.Y., tied; men’s ten thousand lakes—Ken Bartholomew of Minneapolis; middle Atlantic—Robert Jahn of Bogota, N.J.; women’s tri-state— Luetta Du Mez of Chicago; eastern states—Anthony Callipare of Rochester, N.Y. In the eastern figure-skating championships, Carleton Hoffner, Jr., of Washington, D.C., won the men’s and Katheryn Ehlers of New York city the women’s. (See also Olympic Games.) (M. P. W.)

Iflohn ^northwestern states of the U.S., belongluullUa ing to the group regionally designated as the Pacific northwest and part of the original Oregon territory, Idaho is the 12th largest state, with an area of 83,557 sq.mi. It was admitted as a territory by Pres. Abraham Lincoln in 1863 and became a state on July 3, 1890. Idaho is popularly known as the “Gem state.” Pop. (1940) 524,873 of which 66.3% was rural, 33.7% urban; ^est. 1948) 530,000. The estimated popu¬ lation in leading cities for 1948 was Boise (capital) 35,000; Pocatello 25,000; Idaho Falls 22,000; Nampa 18,000; Twin Falls 17,500. There were 3,537 Indians in the state in 1940. History .—On Jan. 3, 1949, state elective officials began the third year of the first four-year term in Idaho’s history. All, elected in 1946 and admitted to office on Jan. 6, 1947, were Re¬ publican. Gov. C. A. Robins was the first chief executive ever to be elected from the northern panhandle section of Idaho. Other officials were lieutenant-governor, Donald S. Whitehead; secretary of state, J. D. Price; attorney general, R. E. Smylie; auditor, N. P. Neilson; treasurer, Lela D. Painter; superin¬ tendent of public instruction, Alton Jones. Elected to congress

Education.—During the operation of Idaho’s school district reorganiza¬ tion program, which was adopted by the 1947 legislature, 560 school dis¬ tricts of the 1,110 districts in existence in 1947 had been eliminated. Twenty-one of the 44 counties in the state had school propams com¬ pletely reorganized. Of these 21 counties, 12 were reorganized into county¬ wide units, i.e., one school district in the entire county. Constitutional amendments passed by the voters in the Nov. 1948 election made the state superintendent of public instruction and the county superintendent of schools appointive instead of elective. Total school population in elemen¬ tary, high school, colleges and universities, in both, public and parochial schools, totalled 132,707 in 1948 in comparison with 121,904 in 1947. A substantial increase was shown in enrolments with 85,629 in elementary schools with 2,928 teachers; 38,471 in high schools with 1,253 teachers. The eight colleges and universities and two junior colleges had a com¬ bined enrolment of 8,607. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.-— Idaho has two institutions for the mentally ill—one at Orofino and one at Blackfoot; a home for the feeble-minded at Nampa; a school for the deaf and blind at Gooding; a state industrial training school' at St. An¬ thony; a tuberculosis hospital at Gooding. The prison, located at Boise, had an average of 356 inmates during the year 1948, with a capacity of 400. Communications.—During the calendar year of 1947, the Idaho highway department expended $7,351,221.74 for construction of highways and $2,673,485.49 for maintaining highways. It was estimated that the de¬ partment would expend $6,567,000 for construction during the calendar year of 1948, and $3,125,452 for maintenance. Agriculture.—The main sources of income in southern Idaho are pota¬ toes, sugar beets, beans, fruit, hay and dairying. Table I. — Principal AgricuHural Crop Production for Idaho Crop Wheat, bo. Corn, bu. Oats, bu. Barley, bu. Sugar beets, short tons Dry beans, cwt. - . Dry peas, cwt. . . . All hoy, tons .... Potatoes, bu. . . . Onions," 50-lb. sacks Apples, bu.

Est. 1948

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

36,026,000 1,150,000 7,267,000 12,460,000 1,262,000 2,448,000 957,000 2,444,000 42,000,000 1,562,000 1,584,000

1947 37,935,000 1,125,000 7,568,000 11,625,000 1,761,000 2,341,000 1,980,000 2,394,000 28,600,000 1,672,000 2,075,000

Average 1937-46 28,449,000 1,781,000 7,175,000 9,687,000 911,000 1,941,000 1,529,000 2,392,000 35,113,000 . 2,307,000

Manufacturing.—Idaho is not a highly developed industrial state. In 1941 less than 10,000 employers paid workmen’s compensation taxes for slightly less than 78,000 employees, on an annual pay roll of $85,600,000. In the last quarter of 1947, about 12,600 employers had 92,374 employees and an annual pay roll of $203,100,000. One manufacturing classification which was showing a steady growth was that of iron and steel products; with 114 employees in 1941 and a pay roll of $i93,373, this industry expanded to 600 men at work in 1947 with an annual pay roll of $1,800,000. Mineral Production.—Figures for 1948.

1947 were made- available in Sept.

Table II.—Mineral Production in Idaho, 1947 Metal Production Antimony, lb. 10,378,365 Cadmium, lb. 613,276 Copper, lb. 3,280,000 Gold, troy oz. 64,982 lead, lb. 157,888,000 Mercury, flasks . 886 Phosphate rock, tons. 905,214 Silver, troy or. 1 0,345,779 Tungsten, units of WO;f. 8,905 Zinc, lb. 166,138,000 Total.

Value $2,159,228 1,012,171 688,800 2,274,370 22,735,872 74,194 4,922,829 9,362,930 260,864 20,102,698 $63,593,956

(C. A. Rs.)

iji" • A north central state of the United States, admitted IllinUlOe to the union in i8i8, nicknamed the “Sucker state,” sometimes called the “Prairie state.” Total area 56,400 sq.mi., of which 55,947 sq.mi. are land. Pop. (1940) 7,897,241, includ¬ ing 3,957,149 males and 3,940,092 females; 7,504,202 white,

368

ILLINOIS. UNIVERSITY OF

393>039 nonwhite. Population classed as urban in 1940 was 5,809,650, rural not on farms 1,119,488, rural farm 968,103. Chicago (3,396,808) is the larg¬ est Illinois city, followed by Peoria (105,087); Rockford (84,637); East St. Louis (75,609); Springfield, the state cap¬ ital (75,503). The bureau of the census estimated Illinois popu¬ lation to be 8,670,000 as of July I, 1948. History .—In the 1948 presi¬ dential election. Pres. Harry S. Truman carried Illinois by a ADLAI E. STEVENSON, Democrat, vote of 1,994,715 to 1,961,103 elected governor of Illinois Nov. 2, 194S for Gov. Thomas E. Dewey. Adlai E. Stevenson, Democrat, was elected governor, displacing incumbent Dwight H. Green, Republican. A full slate of Democratic state officers was elected. , Education.—Illinois public grade and high schools enrolled 1,194,000 pupils for the fall term in 1948 according to Vernon L. Nickell, state school superintendent. Elementary enrolment gained 33,000 over the year before. Consolidation of local school districts wiped out about 500 dis¬ tricts in 1948, bringing the total to about 7,000. For the biennium ex¬ piring June 30, 1949, $66,000,000 was appropriated for the common school fund. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.— There were 127,111 recipients of old-age pensions in Illinois in Sept. 1948. Maximum payment was $50, plus medical expenses, the actual average being $44.26. In Oct. 1948 the federal government for the first time assumed more than half the cost of old-age pensions and special assistance to the blind. Old-age pensioners represented 23% of the population over 65, compared with 27% in 1942. The reduction was attributed to insistence by au¬ thorities that children support aged parents. Exclusive of veterans and recipients of unemployment payments, 270,748 persons were receiving one or more forms of stat§ assistance in Sept. 1948. Total state appropriations for aid during the 1947-49 fiscal period were $212,637,870. At the end of 1948, there were state unem¬ ployment payments being made to 69,408 persons. Communications.—The state highway commission set a new record of building and rebuilding in 1948. Construction costing $42,500,000 was completed with no county or city construction included. Contracts for $18,000,000 were carried over into 1949 with plans for letting $35,000,000 of new contracts. The state received $20,461,106 in federal highway aid grants for work to be undertaken after July i, 1949, which included $7,812,450 for primary roads, $4,198,769 for secondary roads and $8,449,887 for urban highways. The state had 124,185 mi. of all types of roads in 1948. Of this total, primary highways constituted 9.7% of the mileage but carried 45% of the traffic. Illinois had 11,760 mi. of railroad serving 80%, of the com¬ munities in the state. Banking and Finance.—Active State banks in Illinois on Dec. 31, 1947, numbered 505, with deposits of $3,304,671,000. National banks num¬ bered 378 with deposits of $8,647,116,000. The grand total of legislative appropriations in the session of 1947 was $1,008,427,622 for all purposes for the two years ending June 30, 1949. Payment of the World War II soldiers’ bonus was virtually completed at the end of 1948. State tax collections increased in 1948. The 2% sales tax brought in $167,580,545 during 1948, a gain of $15,000,000 over 1947; the cigarette tax fetched $28,412,181; the motor-fuel tax $58,889,328. The cash balance in the general fund from which the state pays most current bills was $165,594,885. Total funds in the state treasury were $908,934,462, of which about $740,000,000 was earmarked for unpaid soldiers’ bonuses, uncompleted contracts, old-age pensions and other funds held in trust, mainly for social welfare obligations of the state. The funded debt of Illinois as of Oct. 31, 1948, was $469,122,500, of which $2,600,000 matured and was paid Dec. 15. Of the total, $385,000,000 consisted of Wprld War II soldier bonus bonds. Agriculture..—Principal crops harvested in Illinois in 1948, compared with 1947 production, are shown in Table I.

Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Illinois, 1948, 1947 and 1937-46 Average Crop Corn, bu. Soybeans, bo. Oats, bu. Wheat, bo. *Estimaled.

1948* 551,684,000 77,160,000 175,306,000 40,600,000

1947 343,492,000 65,196,000 117,005,000 28,524,000

1937-46 Average 409,031,000 55,996,000 135,760,000 29,754,000

Manufacturing—The value of products manufactured in Illinois in 1939, according to the last manufacturing census, was $4,794,860,733; the number employed was 688,800; total wages and salaries were $988,453,881. The principal industries and their value were: meat packing $479,501,224; steelworks and rolling mills $207,301,815; petroleum re¬ fining $122,933,528; tractors $121,550,621.

Table II.—Production of Coal and Petroleum in Illinois, 1946, 1945 and 1944 1946 Bituminous coal, net tons. Petroleum, bbl.

62,554,000 75,297,000

1945 73,011,192 75,094,000

1944 76,791,449 77,413,000

Mineral Production.—Drilling of oil wells in Illinois reached high figures in 1948. Completions for the first six months of 1948 were 14% ahead of the previous year. Production in the last months of the year was in excess of 180,000 bbl. per day. Coal production was at a high rate but tapered off because of slack demand and mild weather toward the end of the year. (L. H. L.)

IIIShmU

Enrolment in the fall of 1948 showed a sHght decrease from the all-time peak registration of a year earlier. An outstanding feature, however, was the continuing growth of the graduate college.

Illinois, Univorsity of.

The business management service was established by the college of commerce and business administration as an e.xtension service, to help Illinois businessmen, especially those with small businesses, by providing publications, conferences, exten¬ sion courses, library service and management counselling. It was the first service of its kind in the United States to give to businessmen the same assistance which extension services in agriculture had for many years given farmers. An annual Festival of Contemporary Arts inaugurated on the Urbana-Champaign campus received wide notice. It in¬ cluded art, music, drama and literature. Especially outstanding was the University of Illinois Competitive Exhibition of Con¬ temporary American Art in which purchase prizes totalled $7,500. A 22,ooo,ooo-volt betatron was ordered for cancer research at the university’s research and educational hospitals in Chi¬ cago. It was expected to be in operation in 1949. At Urbana-Champaign, the 75,000,000-volt “pilot” model of the 3oo,ooo,ooo-volt betatron for cosmic-ray research was put into operation, and construction of the large instrument was pushed for completion in 1949. Operation of the model suc¬ cessfully solved major problems involved in the larger instru¬ ment. In 1948 the university’s plant and equipment reached a value of $61,858,041. A new electrical engineering building was oc¬ cupied. To be completed in 1949 were buildings for chemistry and chemical engineering, mechanical engineering, women’s residence halls for 498 students, staff apartments providing 106 units, and a power plant addition, all at Urbana-Champaign; and at the Chicago professional units, a physical environment study addition to the research and educational hospitals. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) IllitPrflPV United Nations Educational, Scientific and IlillCiabj. Cultural organization’s program for 1948 gave high priority to fundamental education, which is defined as a functional mass movement in education to reduce illiteracy and to raise standards of living among the illiterate majority of the world’s population. In 1948 U.N.E.S.C.O. was serving as a cosponsor, with individual states, of a series of pilot proj¬ ects and had formed a world fundamental education movement through a selected number of U.N.E.S.C.O. associated projects. In the Marbial valley region of Haiti, where U.N.E.S.C.O. was sponsoring one of its pilot projects, remarkable progress was reported in the illiteracy campaign. In east Africa, Buwalasi college, Uganda, reported an ex¬ periment in spreading a mass literacy movement through the clans. Successful literacy training methods were also reported from Northern Rhodesia. In Nyasaland, where nearly 75% of the people are illiterate, U.N.E.S.C.O. sponsored one of

369

I.L.O. —IMMIGRATION AND EMIGRATION its pilot projects in fundamental education. Brazil reported great success for the first year of its AntiIlliteracy campaign. Venezuela continued in 1948 an experi¬ ment designed to teach, during a four-month period, 10,000 adult Venezuelan illiterates to read. Although the other South .\merican countries were at different stages in their educational programs, they followed a pattern somewhat like Brazil’s in their campaigns against illiteracy. Mexico and other Central American countries also continued their national literacy campaigns during 1948. In the United States, a project for adult education of Ne¬ groes, sponsored by the United States office of education, com¬ pleted its initial two-year experiment in training teachers, de¬ veloping instructional materials and stimulating interest in adult literacy education as a means of spearheading a drive to eradi¬ cate illiteracy in the United States. It was nominated as an asso¬ ciated project of U.N.E.S.C.O. Many cities and states con¬ tinued to include literacy education for adults as part of their programs of education in the public schools. Some privately supported agencies also provided classes for literacy training. The office of Indian affairs emphasized literacy education in its work in the Navaho field and other jurisdictions where public schools or other school facilities were not available. As evi¬ dence of the national interest in illiteracy, a bill to attack the problem was introduced in the 80th congress. In the middle east, the Cultural committee of the Arab league worked to unify efforts to reduce illiteracy in the coun¬ tries comprising the league. The People’s university in Cairo, Egypt, reported a successful program of teaching literacy throi:igh decentralized classes on a year-round basis in all the major cities, small towns and villages of that country. In the far east, where the majority of people are still illit¬ erate, India began a 40-year program of universal education. The goal was to achieve universal adult literacy within five years, during which period every literate man was expected to BOAT DRILL aboard an immigrant ship bringing British priority settlers to South Africa early in 1948. All the men were skilled workers, and many of the women were joining husbands who had already immigrated

put in a period of national service as a teacher. Pakistan also included the liquidation of illiteracy in plan¬ ning for reorganization of its educational program. U.N.E.S.C.O. urged James Yen, leader of the significant Mass Education movement in China, to expand his work to the world field. (See also Census Data, U.S.) Bibliography.—“You and U.N.E.S.C.O.,” U.N.E.S.C.O. Publication 200 (1948); “Venezuela Tries Intensive Literacy Experiment,” School and Society (Jan. 24, 1948); “Educational Planning in India,” N.E.A. Journal (Oct. 1948); “Fundamental Education: Common Ground for All Peoples,” Report of Special Committee to the Preparatory Commis¬ sion of U.N.E.S.C.O. (1947). (E. W. Gn.)

I.L.O.: see

International Labour Organization.

Immigration and Emigration. sretsTportrof°em?^ in the United States passed on the admissibility of more than 81,000,000 persons. Ninety-six percent of these persons, how¬ ever, were alien and citizen border crossers, many of whom made frequent crossings. Arrivals and departures during 1947 and 1948, exclusive of Mexican agricultural labourers, border crossers and crewmen, were as reported in the accompanying table. Arrivals and Departures of Aliens and Citizens ^

During Fiscal Years Ended June 30, 1948 and 1947 1948

1947

Arrivals: Aliens admitted. Immigrant. Nonimmigrant. U.S. citizens. Aliens debarred.

646,576 170,570 476,006 542,932 4,905

513,597 147,292 366,305 437,690 4,771

Departures: Allens departed. Emigrant. Nonemigrant. U.S. citizens.

448,218 20,875 427,343 478,988

323,422 22,501 300,921 451,845

During the fiscal year 1947-48, 170,570 immigrants were admitted to the United States for permanent residence. This represented a 16% increase over the 147,292 immigrants ad¬ mitted in 1946-47. The principal countries from which these

IMPORTS —INCOME AND PRODUCT. U.S.

370

immigrants came were: Canada (24,788); England (21,257); Germany (19,368); and Italy (16,075). There were 92,526 quota immigrants who used more than three-fifths of the estab¬ lished quota of 153,929, and 78,044 nonquota immigrants. Wives of citizens and natives of nonquota countries, chiefly Canada and Mexico, were the principal groups admitted. Numbered among the immigrants were 20,755 displaced persons who were admitted under the president’s directive of Dec. 22, 1945, and 21,954 war brides. Aliens admitted for temporary stay and resi¬ dent aliens returning from a brief sojourn abroad totalled 476,006. The year witnessed a marked rise in alien visitors to the United States for vacations or business. There were 448,218 aliens (exclusive of border crossers, Mex¬ ican agricultural labourers and crewmen) who departed during the fiscal year 1947-48. Only 20,875 were emigrants or aliens who left a permanent residence in the United States for resi¬ dence of a year or more elsewhere. The principal countries to which emigrants went were: China (2,287); England (2,262); Italy (1,498); and Canada (1,055). The remaining 427,343 aliens who departed were nonemigrants who left a temporary residence in the United States or resident aliens who planned to return to the United States after a temporary stay abroad. (See also Aliens; Census Data, U.S.; Refugees.) (W. B. Mi.) British Empire.—The intake of permanent settlers in the United Kingdom through naturalization of qualified aliens con¬ tinued throughout 1948. Of the 80,000 refugees from Germany, Austria and Czechoslovakia who were in the country at the end of World War II only 2^% afterward elected to return to their own countries. Several thousands of the near relatives of the refugees had also been admitted. About 111,000 Poles had been allowed to remain also. The influx of displaced persons, mainly Balts, brought in for labour in agriculture, textile manufacture, mining and domestic service, together with an intake through the policy of allowing German prisoners of war who married British women to remain instead of being repatriated, and be¬ tween 500 and 600 new refugees from Czechoslovakia, brought the figure of total immigration to about 250,000 persons; of this total, however, some 100,000 might not be permanent. A rough estimate of the number of British nationals waiting to emigrate gave a figure of about 500,000 in 1948. In the early part of the year the outward movement was speeded up by some easement in the transport situation, but later in the year changes of policy in some of the dominions slowed down emi¬ gration considerably. Southern Rhodesia, which was receiving immigrants at the rate of 1,500 a month, placed a ban on immigration in the late summer. Australia planned to receive 70,000 immigrants in the year, of whom 50,000 were British, and 20,000 mainly from the U.S. and the Baltic states with some farmers from the Netherlands. Australia’s manpower shortages were mainly in the coal, steel and textile industries and in cane- and timber-cutting; large power projects and plans for water-conservation together with the drive to build up new secondary industries created a long¬ term demand for labour. Canada’s immigration target for 1948 was 100,000, of which one-half were to be British. In June the total reached was 32,492 persons from 30 different countries: of these 15,000 were from the United Kingdom; 2,000 from the U.S.; and 5,000 were Poles, Ruthenians and Ukrainians. New Zealand immigration was on a much smaller scale, the number for the year being 3,000. (B. L. B.)

Imports: see

International Trade; Tariffs.

various countries.

See

also under

Income, Distribution of: see

Wealth and Income, Dis¬

tribution OF.

Income and Product, U.S.

estimates, the U.S. national

income rose to $224,000,000,000 in 1948, compared with $202,500,000,000 a year earlier, and the gross national product ex¬ panded from $231,600,000,000 in 1947 to the record total of $253,000,000,000 in 1948. Higher prices, stemming from a continuation of postwar infla¬ tionary pressures, were the primary influence accounting for the 1947-48 increases in both these measures of over-all business activity. The extent to which the physical volume of produc¬ tion could expand from 1947 to 1948 was limited by the fact that in the earlier year unemployment and unused industrial capacity were virtually at a minimum. It is apparent that the increase in the volume of production was moderate. Meaning of National Income and Gross National Prod¬ uct.—National income, as measured by the U.S. department of commerce, represents a summation of the net earnings of the various factors of production derived from their participation in current economic production. Both money income and income in kind are included, so long as they are derived from current production. Such income receipts as relief, unemployment ben¬ efits, pensions, gifts, capital gains or losses and gains from illegal activities are excluded from the national income since they do not represent earnings derived from current productive activ¬ ity. The incomes included in the compilation are net incomes; that is, in the case of business enterprises the incomes are counted after deduction of costs of doing business and after allowance for depreciation and indirect business taxes. The esti¬ mates are limited to those incomes which are ordinarily derived from the market economy. Gross national product or expenditure is a measure of the market value of goods and services produced by the nation’s economy. It represents the summation of four major com¬ ponents: (i) the value of goods and services flowing to con¬ sumers; (2) the value of the gross output of capital goods re¬ tained by private business; (3) the value of goods and services produced or purchased by federal and state and local govern¬ ments; and (4) net foreign investment. Gross national product differs mainly from national income in that no allowance is made for depreciation (which constitutes an expense in the com¬ putation of business net incomes) or for indirect taxes paid by business. Table I.— Nof/ona/ Income by Distributive Shares (In 000,000,000s of dollars)* Item National income. Compensation of employees. Wages and salaries. Private. Military. Government civilian. Supplements to wages and salaries. . . Employer contributions for social insuronce. Other labour Income. Income of unincorporated enterprises and inventory valuotion adjustment . . . Business and professional. Income of unincorporated enterprises . Inventory valuation adjustment .... Farm. Rental income of persons. Corporate profits and inventory valuation adjustment. Corporate profits before tax. Corporate profits tax liability .... Corporate profits after tax. Dividends. Undistributed profits. Inventory valuation adjustment. Net interest.

1939

1945

1947

72.5

181.7

202.5

224.0

47.8 45.7 37.5 .4 7.8 2.1

122.9 117.6 82.0 22.5 13.0 5.4

127.5 122.2 104.7 3.9 13.6 5.3

137.8 132.9 1 14.2 3.7 15.1 5.0

1.5 .5

3.8 1.5

3.5 1.8

3.0 2.0

11.3 6.8 6.9 —.2 4.5 3.5

29.1 16.8 16.9 —.1 12.3 7.0

38.9 23.2 24.4 — 1.2 15.7 7.1

43.2 25.2 t

5.8 6.5 1.5 5.0 3.8 1.2 —.7 4.2

19.8 20.4 11.6 8.7 4.7 4.0 —.6 3.0

24.7 29.8 11.7 18.1 6.9 11.2 —5.1 4.3

30.7 34.0 13.2 20.8 7.6 13.2 —3.3 4.7

^Detail will not necessarily add to totals because of rounding. fPirst three quarters actual; last quarter estimated. tNot available. Source: Department of commerce.

1948t

t 18.0 7.6

ODUCT,

Taken together, the national income and national product estimates provide a comprehensive picture of the current eco¬ nomic activity of the United States. The two sets of estimates represent the receipts (national income) and expenditures (na¬ tional product) sides of a consolidated national account show¬ ing the major transactions that occurred during the year rela¬ tive to the current production of goods and services. Distributive Shares of the National Income.—The expan¬ sion of national income in 1948 followed a pattern generally similar to that in 1947. Wages and salaries totalled $133,000,000,000 in 1948, nearly $11,000,000,000 more than in 1947. (See Table I.) With the average length of the work week changed little and the volume of employment increased only moderately, the main factor in the expansion of aggregate wages and salaries —as it had been in 1947—^was higher basic rates of pay. The increases in pay rates in 1948 were widely diffused throughout the economy. All categories of business income recorded marked increases in 1948, with higher prices of goods and services and larger out¬ put more than offsetting the effects of the coritinued inflationary rise of labour and other costs. Corporate profits rose substan¬ tially from 1947 to 1948. Profits before taxes advanced from $29,800,000,000 to $34,000,000,000, while after allowance for tax liability the estimated rise was from $18,100,000,000 to $20,800,000,000. The aggregate net income of unincorporated non¬ farm businesses and professional persons moved up to the new high level of $25,200,000,000 in 1948, an increase of $2,000,000,000 over the total for the preceding year. The net income of farm operators advanced from $15,700,000,000 in 1947 to the record total of $18,000,000,000 in 1948. This over-all increase of one-sixth stemmed mainly from higher livestock prices and larger crop output, with increased production expenses a limit¬ ing factor. National Income by Industrial Origin.—Estimates of na¬ tional income by industries are shown in Table II. National in¬ come classified by industrial origin furnishes a measure of the net value added by each industrial segment to the net national output. Viewed from a different standpoint, “income originat¬ ing” measures the earnings of the economic resources utilized in each industry. Table II.— Naf/ona/ /ncome by tndusfrial Origin (In 000,000,000s of dollars)* Industry

Mining

1929

1939

1945

1947

1948t

87.4

72.5

181.7

202.5

224.0

8.0 2.1

6.1 1.6

15.3

22.0

3.7

2.3 17.9

4.2 51.9 26.6 14.0 10.5 4.3 14.6 37.4

19.3 4.0 8.7 61.7 37.5 16.5 11.4 5.4 18.8 18.7 .4

22.0 13.1 13.1

12.1 8.2

2.9

4.5 2.9

6.6

10.2 5.1

.6

8.1 8.6 .2

2.8

.2

4.8

10.1

69.5 41.3 17.7

12.6 6.2

19.8 19.5 .5

♦Detail will not necessarily add to totals because of rounding. fFirst three quarters actual; last quarter estimated. iConsists chiefly of net property income receipts from abrood. Source: Department of commerce.

The data in Table II reveal marked shifts in the industrial structure of the economy over the past two decades. The rela¬ tive contribution to the national income of the two biggest indus¬ trial divisions, manufacturing and trade, was much larger in 1948 than in 1929, while that of contract construction was slightly larger. The percentage of the national income accounted for by each of the other private nonagricultural industrial divi¬ sions was markedly reduced over this 20-yr. span. Gross National Product.—The changes in the gross national product from 1947 to 1948 reveal new economic developments altering the character of the postwar boom. Although the expan¬

U.S.

371

Table III.—Gross National Product or Expenditure lln 000,000,000s of dollars)* Item 1947 1939 1945 ross national product. 90.4 213.4 231.6 Personal consumption expenditures • . . • Durable goods. Nondurable goods. Services. Gross private domestic investment . • . . New construction. Producers* durable equipment. Change in business inventories. Net foreign investment .. Government purchases of goods and services Federal. War. Nonwor. Less: Government sales. State and local.

67.5 6.7 35.3 25.5 9.0 4.0 4.6 .4 .9 13.1 5.2 1.3 3.9 .0 7.9

122.8 8.3 75.4 39.2 9.2 3.3 7.3 — 1.3 — 1.4 82.8 74.8 75.91 1.0/ 2.2

8.0

1948t 253.0

164.8 21.0 96.5 47.3 30.0 11.7 17.8 .6 8.9 28.0 15.6

176.8 22.7 102.7 51.3 38.8 14.5 21.2 3.2 2.1 35.3 20.3

16.9

20.9

1.3 12.3

.6 15.1

♦Detail will not necessarily add to totals because of rounding. fFirst three quarters actual; last quarter estimated. Source: Department of commerce.

sion in the dollar value of the nation’s output in 1948 reflected mainly a continuation of inflationary forces and, as in the two preceding postwar years, economic activity was characterized by sustained high levels of employment and output, there were sig¬ nificant shifts among the major sectors of demand. These shifts had the general significance of pointing in increasing degree to the government sector for any further expansion of aggregate demand. In 1948 there was a reversal of the downward postwar move¬ ment of federal purchases of goods and services. For the year 1948 as a whole, federal expenditures for goods and services amounted to $20,300,000,000 compared with $15,600,000,000 in 1947. The expansion resulted largely from increased amounts of government grants for foreign aid. The purchases of goods and services by state and local governments rose from $12,300,000,000 to $15,100,000,000 from 1947 to 1948. This increase was accounted for by rising expenditures for wages and salaries and construction. Net foreign investment, which measures the net export of goods and services commercially financed, expanded sharply in the early postwar period because of the heavy demand for U.S. goods by foreign countries whose economies were disrupted by the war. From a negative $1,400,000,000 in 1945 net foreign investment rose to a peak rate of $10,200,000,000 in the second quarter of 1947. It declined sharply thereafter to a level of less than $1,000,000,000 in the second half of 1948, with the total for the year amounting to $2,100,000,000. The decline was attributable mainly to the growing exhaustion of foreign dollar and gold resources. An additional factor was simply that the U.S. government assumed responsibility for providing the more essential requirements of western Europe, first in the form of an interim aid program authorized in Dec. 1947 and later the Euro¬ pean Recovery program authorized under the Foreign Assistance act approved in April 1948. Exports financed by U.S. govern¬ ment grants, as already indicated, are counted as federal gov¬ ernment purchases in the gross national product. In addition to the shift from foreign investment to govern¬ ment expenditures, a significant change in postwar economic activity occurring in 1948 centred in the somewhat lessened role of the consumer sector of demand. The increase in personal con¬ sumption expenditures from 1947 to 1948—from $164,800,000,000 to $176,800,000,000—was the smallest of the three postwar years. Moreover, in 1948 consumer expenditures increased less than consumer incomes. This contrasted with the situation in 1946 and 1947, when the rise of consumer expenditures far out¬ paced that of consumer incomes and the tendency to spend an increasing proportion of income was a principal inflationary force. By the latter half of 1948 it was evident that the up¬ ward drift in the propensity to spend had for the most part ceased and that the role of consumers was a more “normal” and passive one.

372

INCOME TAX —INDIA. DOMINION OF

The further expansion and sustained high level of private in¬ vestment demand was a dominant element in the economic situa¬ tion during 1948. Gross private domestic investment, which had surged from $9,200,000,000 in 1945 to $30,000,000,000 in 1947, expanded to a total of $38,800,000,000 in 1948. The rise from 1947 to 1948 was accounted for by higher values of all types of investment—new private construction (both residential and other), producers’ durable equipment and the accumulation of business inventories. Important to note, however, is the fact that the dollar volume of private domestic investment tended to level off in 1948. The extraordinarily high level of such investment in 1948 was reached early in the year and sustained at an approximately stable rate. Use of Consumer Income.—Data on personal income and its disposition are shown in Table IV. It may be noted from the table that personal tax payments, because of the reduction Table IV,—Personal Income and Disposition of Income (In 000,000,000s of dollars)* Item

1939

1945

1947

Personal Income.

72.6

170.3

195.2

1948t 211.5

Wage and solary receipts. Total employer disbursements. Less: Employees' contributions for social insurance. Other labour income. Proprietors' and rental income. Dividends. Personal interest income. Transfer payments. less: Personal tax and nontax payments . . . Federal. State and local. Equals: Disposable personal Income. Less: Personal consumption expenditures . . . Equals: Personal saving.

45.1 45.7

115.2 117.5

120.1 122.2

lOO.S 132.9

.6 .5 14.7 3.8 5.4 3.0 2.4 1.2 1.2 70.2 67.5

2.3 1.5 36.0 4.7 6.7 6.2 20.9 19.4 1.5 149.4 122.8 26.6

2.1 1.8 46.0 6.9 8.7 11.7 21.6 19.7 2.0 173.6 164.8 8.8

2.1 2.0 50.7 7.6 9.4 10.9 21.2 19.1 2.1 190.4 176.8 13.6

2J

about a better spirit in Calcutta, transferred his attentions to the Indian capital and on Jan. 13 he commenced the last of his many fasts. It had a marked effect, and five days later the leaders of the two communities made a pledge to keep the peace. This had a tragic aftermath. Gandhi’s efforts to bring about an understanding, and especially his efforts to abolish untouchability, had earned him the bitter hatred of the orthodox Hin¬ dus; on Jan. 30, while leaving his prayer meeting, he was shot dead by a Brahmin from Poonch. This terrible crime had, how¬ ever, one good effect, for it filled all classes with a sense of shame, and the result was a marked diminution of communal discord and violence. In February, the draft constitution of India, prepared by the drafting committee of the constituent assembly under the chair¬ manship of B. R. Ambedkar, the depressed classes leader, was published. Unlike Pakistan, India was to be a secular state, and guaranteed to all its members liberty of thought, speech and religion. Untouchability, which denied access to wells, schools, railways and places of public resort, was to be abolished, and all were to be equal in the eyes of the law. Politically, the country was to be organized on federal lines. It was to consist of a union of states under a president chosen for a period of five years by an electoral college consisting of members of both houses of parliament and elected members of the legislatures of the component states. The president would be assisted by a prime minister appointed by himself and a council of ministers

*DetaM will not necessarily add to totals because of rounding. fFirst three quarters actual; last quarter estimated. Source: Department of commerce.

of federal tax rates, were of about the same amount in 1948 as in the preceding year despite the sizable increase in personal incomes. Disposable personal income (the income remaining to persons after payment of personal taxes) therefore showed ap¬ proximately the same advance as personal income. The rise of $12,000,000,000 in consumer expenditures from 1947 to 1948 was markedly less than the expansion of nearly $17,000,000,000 in disposable personal income and, for the first time in the post¬ war period, personal saving increased. After dropping from a peak of $34,200,000,000 in 1944 to $8,800,000,000 in 1947, the volume of personal saving rose to an estimated total of $13,600,000,000 in 1948. (See also Budget, National; Business Re¬ view; Debt, National; Wealth and Income, Distribution

(M. Gt.)

OF.)

Income Tax; see InHio

Taxation.

nnmmmn nf

^ self-governing member of the commonwealth of Nations, occu¬ pying, with Pakistan (q.v.) a subcontinent projecting from the mainland of Asia. Area: c. 1,221,000 sq.mi.; pop. (1948 est.): c. 337,000,000. Capital: Delhi. Chief cities (1941 census): Delhi (521,849); Calcutta (2,108,891); Bombay (1,489,883); Madras (777,481); Hyderabad (739,159); Ahmedabad (591,257). Languages: mainly Hindi, Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi (north and centre); Tamil, Telugu, Kanarese (south). Gover¬ nor general; Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (q.v.)] prime min¬ ister: Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru (q.v.).

IllUlaf UOniiniUn Ol,

History.—Communal bitterness in those districts of India which were not directly affected by the mass migrations which followed the declaration of independence in 1947 was dying down by the beginning of 1948, but the feeling was still intense in the Punjab and the United Provinces, and especially in Delhi. Mohandas Gandhi, who had laboured with success to bring

SPECTATORS lining balconies and roofs in Bombay to watch the last British troops ieave India on Feb. 28, 1948

INDIA, DOMINION OF

INDIANS in the funeral cortege of Mohandas K. Gandhi to the sacred Jumna river for Hindu cremation rites. Gandhi was assassinated at New Delhi on Jan. 30, 194S

chosen on the advice of the prime minister. The union legisla¬ ture would consist of two houses, an upper house or council of state, and a lower house or house of the people. The constituent states were to have constitutions modelled on that of the centre, the governors being appointed by the president. It was laid down that India would be “a sovereign democratic republic”; the question whether it was to remain within the Common¬ wealth of Nations, and if so, on what terms, was left open for future determination. In June, Earl Mountbatten of Burma, the last British governor general, relinquished charge. He was succeeded by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari. (See also Pakistan, Dominion of.)

T/ie Indian States.—In British India there had been about 600 princely states, ranging in size from an area as large as France to that of a village, in all stages of political development and constituting about 45% of the total extent and 27% of the population. By 1948 all except three of these had acceded to the Indian union; the smaller and nonviable units were absorbed into the provinces in which they were situated, and the re¬ mainder were grouped under the aegis of a Rajpramukh or pre¬ siding prince into 30 homogeneous groups, the rulers retaining their titles, dignities and personal estates, though they were re¬ quired to surrender to the union control of defense, external affairs and communications, and to introduce responsible gov¬ ernment. Trouble arose in three states, in all of which the ruler differed in race and religion from the majority of his subjects. These were Junagadh in Kathiawar and Hyderabad in the Deccan, where the ruler was a Moslem and the vast majority of his subjects Hindus; and Kashmir, where the reverse was the case. In the state of Junagadh little difficulty was encoun¬ tered. After an almost unanimous plebiscite, the ruler retired with his possessions to Karachi, and his prime minister took charge of the administration until the details of accession were settled. In the case of Hyderabad and Kashmir, however, serious difficulties arose. Hyderabad had a population of 16,500,000. of whom 86.5%

373

were Hindus. The government was almost entirely in the hands of the Moslem aristocracy. The nizam had declared his inten¬ tion of acceding for the time being to neither dominion; in¬ stead, he signed a “standstill agreement” with the Indian union on Nov. 29, 1947, for the period of one year. The government of India implemented its part of the agreement by withdrawing its troops. Soon, however, differences began to arise. The nizam’s council raised difficulties about contributions to defense, banned Indian currency and attempted to negotiate a loan with Pakistan. No steps were being taken to introduce responsible government or to replace the Moslem personnel of the adminis¬ tration by Hindus, and it was held that the standstill agreement was being used to gain time. The most serious allegation was, however, over the Razakars, a quasi-military organization under a leader named Kazim Razvi, pledged “to fight to the last for the supremacy of the Moslem power in the Deccan.” Abortive attempts to reach a compromise were made. The Indian govern¬ ment insisted on accession as an essential preliminary; the nizam was adamant in his refusal. Matters having reached a complete deadlock, on Sept. 14 Indian columns under the command of Lieutenant General Sir Maharaj Shri Rajendrasinhji marched in. The Razakars were dispersed after a brief resistance and their leader was captured. Three days later, the nizam an¬ nounced that he had taken the government into his own hands and capitulated. The Razakars were banned, and a new ministry was installed. Pandit Nehru announced that as soon as order was restored, a constituent assembly would be elected to de¬ termine the constitutional structure of the state according to the wishes of the people. In Kashmir the position was complicated by power politics, for both dominions were anxious to dominate the great border state of 84,500 sq.mi. which controlled the passes leading into central Asia. The position was that a small Hindu aristocracy was governing a large illiterate Moslem population, and its rule was unpopular. The origin of the outbreak was obscure, but apparently the Dogras in Jammu, incited by Sikh exiles driven out of the western Punjab, attacked the Moslems. This pro¬ vided an excuse for the tribesmen of the northwest frontier, no

374

INDIAKA

longer held in check by the British garrison, to pour into Kash¬ mir, on the pretext of helping their coreligionists, where they started looting and massacring and abducting women. In Oct. 1947, when an attack on Srinagar, the capital, seemed imminent, Maharaja Sir Hari Singh acceded to the Indian union and ap¬ pealed for help. Soon after, he retired to Jammu, leaving the government in the hands of Sheikh Mohammed Abdullah, a local Moslem with strong Indian sympathies. Opposed to him were the so-called Azad (free) Kashmiris, under Sardar Mo¬ hammed Ibrahim, who desired to see Kashmir united to Pak¬ istan. At first the Indian columns, about 15,000 strong, and greatly superior in transport and equipment, swept all before them, and Srinagar was relieved. But as winter approached and the passes began to be blocked with snow, the advance was slowed down and ended in a stalemate. There was no doubt that the Azad Kashmiris and their allies, the tribesmen, were receiving considerable support from Pakistani sympathizers, and this led the Indian union to lodge a complaint before the United Nations Security council in Jan. 1948. The Security council recommended the appointment of a commission of five who would supervise the withdrawal of the invading tribesmen, after which the Indian government would be called upon to reduce its army of occupation. This done, the basis of the government would be broadened and machinery set up for conducting a plebiscite under the supervision of an officer appointed by the United Nations. Neither side agreed to this. India was unwill¬ ing to sacrifice the gains it had won at such great cost, and Pakistan had no real authority over the tribes, who proposed to regard the incursion as a Jihad or holy war, and would return to the mountains only when they had finished plundering. The Security council, however, decided to proceed with its plan, though it was July before the members of the commission reached India. They remained until mid-September, when they prepared to return to Europe to report on the facts to the Se¬ curity council. Meanwhile, they appealed to the contending parties to abide by the “cease-fire” resolution of Aug. 13. At midnight on Dec. 31, it was announced that the resolution was implemented and a cease-fire order in Kashmir was issued by the governments of India and Pakistan. (H. G. Rn.) Banking ond Finance-Budget (India only, 1948-49 est.): revenue Rs. 2,305,000,000; expenditure Rs.2,573,000,000. Currency circulation (June 30, including Pakistan): Rs.13,800,000,000. Deposit money (June 30, 1948, including Pakistan): Rs.8,700,000,000. Gold reserve (June 30, 1948, including Pakistan): £68,500,000. Monetary unit: rup.ee. Ex¬ change rate (Oct. 1948): Rs.i=;30.i7 U.S. cents. Foreign Trade.—(April to June 1948): imports Rs.1,087,000,000; ex¬ ports Rs.1,369,000,000. Transport and Communications.—Shipping (July 1947, including Pakis¬ tan): vessels of 100 gross tons and over 146, total tonnage 272,774. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947, including Pakistan) cars 132,300, com¬ mercial vehicles 60,330. Agriculture—Main crops (1947—48 est., in metric tons): rice 20,000,000; millet 6,000,000; wheat 4,200,000; cotton (1945-46): 1,858,000 bales (of 400 lb.); tea (1945-46) 501,661,000 lb. Industry.—Fuel and power: (Aug. i, 1947-July 31, 1948) coal 26,756,000 metric tons; electricity 3,715,000,000 kw.hr. Raw materials (in metric tons): pig iron and ferroalloys (Sept, i, 1947—April 30, 1948) l, 030,000; steel ingots and castings (Sept, i, 1947-April 30, 1948) 831,000; cement (Sept, i, 1947-June 30, 1948) 1,353,000. Manufactured goods (Sept. I, 1947-May 31, 1948); woven cotton fabrics 2,576,000,000 m. ; cotton yarn 455,900 metric tons.

|_j|_An east north central state of the United States

IllUldllda with the popular name of “Hoosier,” Indiana was admitted to the union Dec. ii, i8i6, as the 19th state. Total area of the state is 36,325 sq.mi., including*3i4 sq.mi. of inland lakes and rivers. It ranks as the 37th state in size and nth in population (1948 est.) with 3,909,000. The 1940 official census showed the population to be 55.1% urban and 44.9% rural; 93.2% native white, 3.2% foreign-born white and 3.6% Negro. Capital: Indianapolis (pop. 1940, 386,972), the largest city. Other cities: Fort Wayne (118,410); Gary (111,719); South Bend (101,268); Evansville (97,062); Hammond (70,184); Terre Haute (62,693); East Chicago (54,637); Muncie

(49,720); Anderson (41,572). Political History.—The gen¬ eral assembly did not meet in 1948. Primary conventions of both parties met in June and nominated candidates for state offices. Former Governor Henry F. Schricker was nominated for that office by the Democrats, to oppose Republican Hobart Creighton, speaker of the house of representatives. The incum¬ bent governor is ineligible to seek re-election. At the polls in November the state voted for Thomas E. Dewey for president HENRY F. SCHRICKER, Democrat, (821,079 votes, against 807,833 elected governor of Indiana Nov. 2, 1948 for President Harry S. Tru¬ man), but elected Schricker governor along with other Demo¬ cratic state officers. The house would contain a majority of Democrats, but the senate would remain Republican. The people also approved payment of a bonus to veterans of World War II. Officers of the state during the year remained almost the same as in 1947: Ralph F. Gates, governor; Richard T. James re¬ signed as lieutenant governor April 14, succeeded by Rue J. Alexander; Thomas E. Bath, Jr., secretary of state; Frank T. Minis, treasurer; Alvan V. Burch, auditor; Cleon H. Faust, at¬ torney general; Ben H. Watt, superintendent of public instruc¬ tion. All were Republicans. Education—The number of public schools in the state in 1948 was 2,507. Enrolment in the elementary or common schools was 467,841, with 12,567 teachers. Enrolment in the high schools (grades 9—12) was 166,431, with 10,713 teachers. Parochial schools had an enrolment of 51,355 in the elementary grades and 9,603 in high school. For the year 1947-48, the state added $48,883,872 to the $58,261,600 spent by local units of government for the support of schools. The state provided $11,001,456 for the four state colleges. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

In 1947-48 the state’s welfare program cost $28,757,682, of which $14,859,165 was furnished by federal funds, $8,381,484 by state funds and $5,517,033 by county funds. Old-age assistance cost $20,921,822, blind assistance $834,654, aid to dependent children $4,846,936 and child welfare $4,173,664. Receipts of the state for unemployment insurance for the year ending June 30, 1948, were $15,467,753. Benefits paid out were $8,830,497, not including federal payments to war veterans. In 1948 the state maintained nine institutions for mental patients, including an epileptic village; seven homes, hospitals and schools; three university hospitals and six penal and correctional institutions. As of June 30, 1948, inmates of mental institutions totalled 12,986 and inmates of correctional institutions 5,447. Communications.—Total mileage of state highways at the beginning of 1948 was 10,422 out of a total of 76,700 mi. of roads in the state. Expenditures of the state highway commission on roads in the fiscal year 1947-48 amounted to $33,102,934. There were 6,600 mi. of steam rail¬ roads (first main tracks) and 341 mi. of electric railroads. The estimated number of telephones in the state on Nov. i, 1948, was 1,030,000. There were 165 commercial airports, 2 seaplane bases and 57 personal landing fields. Banking and Finance—On June 30, 1948, there were 367 state banks and trust companies with total resources of $1,501,355,315 and total deposits of $1,394,587,352- There were 125 national banks with total resources of $1,664,714,000 and total deposits of $1,569,948,000. State savings and loan companies numbered 170 as of Dec. 31, 1947, with as¬ sets of $173,410,930. The assets of the 69 federal savings and loan companies as of the same date were $233,499,793. On June 30, 1947, the state had a balance of $128,264,156. During the fiscal year the state treasurer received $433,550,231 and disbursed Leading Agricultural Products of Indiana, 1948 and 1947 Crop Corn, bu. Wheat, bu. Oats, bu. Soybeans, bu. Rye, bu. White potatoes, bu. Barley, bu. All tame hay, tons. Tobacco, lb. Mint for oil, lb. Apples, bu. Peaches, bu. Watermelons, melons. Tomatoes for processing, tons . ’Estimated.

1948*

1947

279,780,000 38,506,000 59,469,000 31,196,000 928,000 4,140,000 648,000 2,277,000 12,890,000 942,000 1,018,000 559,000 3,230,000 520,400

189,157,000 36,133,000 35,160,000 27,806,000 840,000 3,750,000 546,000 2,318,000 10,198,000 897,000 1,489,000 725,000 3,250,000 389,400

INDIANA UNIVERSITY—INDUSTRIAL HEALTH $418,417,119, leaving a balance on'hand June 30, 1948, of $143,397,268. Since the state constitution strictly limits borrowing, there was no state debt in 1948. Agriculture.—In 1948 there was the largest corn crop in the history of the state with a record-breaking yield of 60 bu. per acre. Wheat and oats production were the largest since 1931, and soybean production the greatest on record. The hay crop declined, because of the recent reduc¬ tion in numbers of horses and sheep. Manufacturing.—During World War II, Indiana received government contracts for war supplies amounting to $9,000,000,000 and ranked seventh in the U.S. in war production. The year 1947 saw resumption of prewar production in automobiles and automotive bodies and parts, steel, electrical machinerj^, furniture, glass and farm implements. Much meat packing, flour milling, food canning' and drug compounding were also done in the state. Mineral Productian.—For the year 1948 approximately 10,800,000 tons of coal were taken from 70 shaft mines. About 13,800,000 tons were taken from strip mines. Approximately 7>797>i9i bbl. of oil were pumped from 2,954 wells in 1948. (H. H. P.)

InriidllQ llniuorcitlf IllUldlld UllIVcfbliy*

enrolment in Indiana university, Bloomington, not only increased during 1948, but it also became more concentrated in the junior and senior years and in the graduate and professional study fields. Sixty per cent of the full-time students were enrolled in the upper-division levels as contrasted with 41% in 1946. Staffs of several departments were strengthened during the year, especially at the upperclass and graduate levels. The graduate curriculum and research facilities were expanded in medicine, dentistry, German, French, chemistry and geology. The program of Russian studies also was expanded through establishment of a major in that field and courses in Czech and Slovak languages and literatures were added. Faculty research and publications increased. The bibliography of publications by the faculty included nearly 800 items, com¬ pared with 465 the preceding year. In addition to funds for re¬ search from the university budget and many grants-in-aid of re¬ search made by foundations, organizations and industrial con¬ cerns, governmental agencies provided $361,800 during the year. The university established a new adult education centre at Gary, Ind., through the merger of Gary junior college with the university. Additions to the physical plant included authoriza¬ tions for construction of a radiology and cancer clinic unit and a children’s disease research headquarters at the medical centre in Indianapolis, purchase in Indianapolis of an office building to be used as an adult education centre and development of botany research gardens. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (H. B Ws.) During 1948 the supreme court of Arizona unanimously overruled a 20year-old decision of the same court which had prohibited In¬ dians of that state from voting. The state, however, still im¬ posed a literacy test upon all voters which would prevent many non-English-speaking and illiterate Indians from voting. A federal district court in New Mexico (the only other state which had not removed voting restrictions on Indians) declared unconstitutional a provision in the state constitution denying the vote to “Indians not taxed.” It was held that this was dis¬ criminatory and in conflict with the federal constitution in that similar restrictions were not imposed on non-Indians. During the year the application of restrictive covenants for¬ bidding the sale or rental of land to Indians was challenged in the courts. Since the United States supreme court ruled against such restrictive covenants in another case, declaring that the courts might not be used as a means of enforcing such restric¬ tions, the Indian case was dismissed. The serious economic plight of the Navaho and Hopi Indians in reservation areas of northern Arizona and New Mexico was called dramatically to the attention of the U.S. public by maga¬ zines and newspapers. Secretary of the Interior Julius Krug

Indians, American.

375

submitted to congress a ten-year plan for economic rehabilita¬ tion, and increased school and health services, but the congres¬ sional session closed without any positive action having been taken. Further congressional curtailment of funds for educational and health services to Indians resulted in the reduction of In¬ dian school enrolments by about 2,000 children, many of whom had no place else to go to school. Two Indian hospitals were closed during 1948, and field health services were greatly curtailed. The validity of including coastal fishing waters within the reservation for Karluk Indians of Alaska was challenged in the courts by commercial fishing interests. The lower courts de¬ cided against the Indians and the case was appealed to the supreme court. In another case concerning the right of Indians to continue fishing in their usual places along the Columbia river, the trial court decided in favour of the Indians. The building of the Garrison dam in North Dakota was op¬ posed by the Fort Berthold Indians, whose fertile farm lands were to be entirely flooded by the dam’s reservoir. An agree¬ ment was finally signed between the Indians and the army en¬ gineers for a cash reimbursement to the Indians. This agree¬ ment had still to be ratified by congress. Several other reser¬ voirs to be built under the Missouri river development plan would also flood large areas of other Indian reservations in North and South Dakota. Commissioner of Indian Affairs William A. Brophy resigned on June 5, 1948, after more than a year of serious illness. The year closed without appointment of a successor. Films.—The Great Spirit of the Plains

Church).

(Board of Missions, Methodist (W. W. B.)

Indo-China, French: see French Overseas Territories. Indonesian Republic: see Netherlands Indies. The National Health assembly con• ducted in Washington, D.C., during May 1948 had no panel on industrial health, but many of the discussions had direct bearing on the health and welfare of workers. Medical care and hospitalization received greatest attention, particularly by consumer groups in which labour unions were prominently represented. A subcommittee on work¬ ing environment in the panel on environmental sanitation made pointed reference to the health and well-being of workers as important factors in the social and economic security of the nation and laid down a series of proposals for improvement cov¬ ering professional training, research, correlation of industrial and community health services and the amount and character of support from industry and government. The first Inter-American Conference on Rehabilitation of the Crippled and Disabled, sponsored by the International Society for the Welfare of Cripples, took place in Mexico City in July under the general auspices of the Mexican government. This meeting, in addition to reaffirming the major purposes of the sponsoring society, also undertook to initiate and promote re¬ habilitation services in Latin America on a scale and accord¬ ing to standards found successful elsewhere. Progress was made in the development of health programs for federal employees in the United States. At the end of the year 21 agencies in Washington were conducting health services, and investigations were in progress in Denver, Colo., Kansas City, Mo., Chicago, Ill., New Orleans, La., Boston, Mass., and Minneapolis, Minn., all of which contained sizable concentra¬ tions of federal government workers. As contemplated in public law 658, emergency medical care, preplacement and periodic physical examinations, health counselling and control over work¬ ing environment would be provided.

376

INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION—INFANTILE PARALYSIS

Considerable attention was given to the health and produc¬ tivity of workers as a result of actions taken by the National Security Resources board and, more particularly, by the Office of Civil Defense. Plans were carried forward calling for a defini¬ tion of the newer functions in industrial health as they might relate to any acute emergency, to integrate these functions with other measures designed to protect the community and to assign to industrial health a measure of authority in administration commensurate with its responsibility. These responsibilities were regarded as having to do with the classification of the la¬ bour force according to physical capacity, the special health requirements of substandard employee groups, the training of physicians and hygienists about new weapons and materials and the problem of nutrition in relation to fatigue. The adoption by Mississippi of a workmen’s compensation law completed the roster of states having this form of legisla¬ tion. In other areas there were efforts to liberalize benefits under the existing laws, mainly to bring them into adjustment with rising costs of living. The experiences of Rhode Island, Cali¬ fornia and New Jersey respecting compensation for unemploy¬ ment resulting from sickness were under close scrutiny, aAd legislation of this or similar type was being studied in a number of jurisdictions. There was a growing appreciation of the basic medical nature of most problems of workmen’s compensation, and several projects were launched to improve medical pro¬ cedure and relations in this field. The International Association of Industrial Accident Boards and Commissions issued a com¬ prehensive documentation of medical-administrative problems, and assigned to its medical committee a general investigation of medical care for injured workers. The American Academy of Compensation Medicine took form and conducted its first meet¬ ing, expressing in this way its intention to accelerate progress. The Council on Industrial Health of the American Medical asso¬ ciation took steps to appoint consultants representative of the legal, administrative and technical phases of workmen’s com¬ pensation, having in mind the need for better interchange of experiences and information. Interest in atmospheric pollution by industrial plants was sharply intensified by the “smog” disaster at Donora, Pa., to which 20 deaths were attributed. Several investigations were launched to learn the exact nature of the exposure and to pre¬ vent its recurrence. In furtherance of this objective, the divi¬ sion of industrial hygiene of the public health service dispatched a team of investigators to study the clinical, environmental and meteorological conditions which led up to the catastrophe. (C. M. Pn.) Canada.—With the number of gainfully employed workers passing the 5,000,000 mark, the facilities of plant medical serv¬ ices and of voluntary and governmental industrial health agen¬ cies continued to expand. Divisions of industrial hygiene in Nova Scotia, Quebec, Ontario, Saskatchewan, Manitoba and Alberta extended their medical and environmental control serv¬ ices to more industries in their provinces. The industrial health division of the federal department of national health and welfare provided supplementary profes¬ sional, technical and laboratory facilities to provincial agencies and assisted in several provincial field surveys. In co-operation with the industrial hygiene division of Ontario, the division pre¬ pared a manual on the diagnosis of occupational diseases, which became a reference guide for general medical practitioners. The division made a survey of the silicosis hazard in foundries and stone-cutting establishments of New Brunswick and examined the health facilities in industries in that province. During the year ended June i, 1948, the division distributed to industry more than 150,000 posters and pamphlets dealing with various aspects of industrial health. A 25,000-copy edition of the pam¬

phlet “Skin Diseases in Industry” was issued. The Canadian Manufacturers’ association continued its stud¬ ies of industrial health. In the 1948 annual meeting it received reports that industrial hospitalization facilities were increasing among Canadian corporations employing more than 500 workers, that health insurance and group hospitalization were expanding in industry, that two-thirds of Canadian workers involved in accidents suffered from physical or mental or emotional upset, that 86% of absenteeism resulted from sickness and that pre¬ ventable illness played a big part in raising production costs (reduced efficiency, spoilage of materials and excessive labour turnover). (C. Cy.) Great Britain.—The most outstanding event in the world of industrial medicine during 1948 was the ninth International Con¬ gress on Industrial Medicine which was held in London from Sept. 13-17. The last congress was held in Frankfurt, Germany, in 1938, and although the original members of the International congress decided to hold sessions every four years, two world wars interrupted the regular incidence of its gatherings. The congress covered such diverse subjects in industrial medi¬ cine as the broad field of toxicology, the training of industrial nurses and doctors, the organization of industrial medical serv¬ ices in various parts of the world, the law relating to industrial medicine, the problems of work aqd skill and the physical and chemical environment as it affects the health, happiness and welfare of the industrial worker. Among the other subjects of significance was that of archi¬ tecture as applied to facilities for welfare and environment for coal miners and those who work in factories. Special subjects, such as dermatology and colour vision, also received attention. Particular attention was drawn to the pathological effects of the newer metals. Reference was made particularly to the toxic effects of beryllium, which as used in industry is capable of causing a peculiar, and often fatal, tumour of the lungs and, if accidentally introduced into the skin through an abrasion or a cut, produces a similar pathological change in the skin. Much research work was being carried out on this problem. The congress was attended by representatives from about 50 countries, nearly 900 delegates taking part. (See also Acci¬ dents; Medicine.) (A. J. Ar.)

Industrial Production: see

Business Review.

Almost 27,000 cases of infantile paralysis (poliomyelitis) were re¬ ported in the United States during 1948. This total was ex¬ ceeded only by that of 1916, when 27,363 cases were reported, and came only two years after the great outbreak in 1946, when 25,698 cases occurred. The year 1948 was the sixth con¬ secutive year in which the national incidence exceeded the aver¬ age for the period of time over which statistics had been avail¬ able.

Infantile Paralysis.

Most of the states experienced above-nonual incidence of the disease during 1948, but the major outbreaks occurred in Cali¬ fornia, Iowa, Nebraska, North Carolina, South Dakota and Texas. The disease differed little from that of previous years, with the possible e.xception of a greater number of cases with respiratory difficulty. Moderately severe outbreaks were also reported in Bavaria, Germany, Singapore, Malaya, and Tamaulipas, Mexico. During July 1948, the First International Poliomyelitis con¬ ference was held in New York city, and scientists from all over the world discussed the many ideas and experiences relating to the control of this disease. Studies on associates of patients with infantile paralysis re¬ vealed that when one member of a household acquires the dis-

PARENTS visiting their smali son as he convaiesced from poiio at an emer¬ gency hospital set up by residents of Guilford county, N.C., to meet the needs of a severe epidemic in the summer of 1948

ease, it is very probable that every child in the household, and only slightly less probable that every adult in the same house¬ hold, is harbouring the virus in his or her digestive tract. The percentage of persons harbouring the virus was shown to be much less among the patient’s nonhousehold contacts and still less among the general population of the community. These observations could mean: (i) intimate association of the type common to the home affords a good mechanism for rapid trans¬ mission of the virus from one to another, or (2) the virus enters the home by some means that provides it ready access to alt members of the household. At the end of 1948 it was impossible to say which of the alternatives was correct. Considerable evidence was accumulated to indicate, but not conclusively prove, that if an individual harbouring the virus becomes exhausted, suffers sudden chilling or is subject to an unusual stress, he runs a considerably greater risk of developing the paralytic disease. It would seem wise to recommend that exhaustion, sudden chilling and any unusual stress be avoided by all members of a household in which one or more persons have acquired infantile paralysis. There was a growing appreciation of the fact that infantile paralysis is not a single disease caused by one virus, but rather a family of diseases caused by a number of different viruses. By 1948, two such groups had been identified. Progress was also made in designing better equipment for the treatment of cases with respiratory paralysis. Automatic de¬ vices were designed to warn of mechanical failure, to minimize the risk of negligence and error on the part of the attendant, to deliver more accurately any mixture of gases required, to carry out respiration by positive pressure and to measure more accu¬ rately the quantity of oxygen in circulating blood. The use of these mechanical aids, together with a better understanding of the disease process and of the treatment required by these pa¬ tients, saved many lives. Efforts to find a preventive or curative drug or serum for in¬ fantile paralysis continued unabated during 1948, but neither a preventive nor a cure had yet been found. Although the virus of infantile paralysis may be obtained from flies trapped in an epidemic area, it was found impossible to halt an epidemic of

the disease by spraying the stricken area with insecticides. It was not determined whether an epidemic could be prevented or minimized if insects were prevented from ever coming into the area. That this is unlikely was indicated by the findings that the greatest reservoir of the virus is in the digestive canals of human beings and that the disease would seem to be most eas¬ ily and commonly transmitted by intimate contact between susceptible persons and some one harbouring the virus. There was important progress toward developing a vaccine against infantile paralysis during 1948. For the first time mon¬ keys were successfully vaccinated against the experimental dis¬ ease with a vaccine that appeared to be entirely inactive and totally incapable of causing the disease. While this report was encouraging, much work remained to be done before a vaccine could be used against the human disease. (See also Epidemics; Medicine; Nervous System; Public Health Services.) (H. M. Wr.)

Infant IlnrtQlitlf

infant mortality rate in the Linited states m 1948 was slightly lower than the 1947 figure, according to provisional data covering the first nine months of both years. For each of the first four months of 1948 the rate was well below the corresponding months of 1947, the period as a whole showing a decline amounting to 2.2%. For all of 1947, the estimated number of infant deaths (deaths under one year of age) amounted to 119,000 and the infant mortality rate 33.0 per 1,000 live births. Indication of the great improvement in infant mortality conditions is seen in the 20% decline in the rate in a period of only five years. In 1946, the latest year of complete record for the United States, the infant mortality rate for the white population was 31.8 per 1,000 live births; for the nonwhite population, 49.5 per 1,000. The distribution of infant mortality by age (in months), race and sex, in 1946, was typical of that recorded for earlier years. Its outstanding characteristics were the rapid decrease in mortality with age, and the higher mortality among nonwhite than among white infants and among male (37.8) than among female infants (29.5). The monthly mortality rate for infants less than i month of age was 24.0, more than ten times greater than the next highest monthly rate of 2.2 for the i-month age

iniulll IVlOriulliy>

377

INFLATION- -INSURANCE

378

Annual Infant Mortality Rates per 1,000 Live Births in Certain Countries in 1945, 1946 and 1947 Percent Change from 1946 1945

Country

Austria. Belgium. Bulgaria. Czechoslovakia. Denmark. England & Wales. Finland .. France. Germany (British Zone). Hungary.. . . . Italy. Netherlands. Norway.. Portugal.' . . . Rumania. Sweden. Switzerland. United States. *Data not available.

108 . . . .

99 80 115

. .

30

. .

38

1946

1947

to 1947

81 75 124 109 46 43 56 73 105 114 84 39 * 121 164 26 39 34

76 75 * * ♦ 41 59 66

- 6.2 -

- 4.7 -L 5.4 - 9.6

111 82 34 ♦

- 2.6 - 2.4 -12.8 *

25 39 33

- 3.8 — - 2.9

*

group and strikingly higher than the rate of (0.3 for the II -months age group. While the race differential is relatively greater after the first few days of life than in the period immediately follow¬ ing birth, the sex differential is relatively greater in earlier than in later infancy. The five leading causes of infant mortality were premature birth, congenital malformations, pneumonia and influenza, in¬ jury at birth and diarrhoea and enteritis. Together, these causes accounted for 76% of the total infant mortality for the year 1946. Nearly all the deaths from premature birth and in¬ jury at birth, and two-thirds of the deaths from congenital mal¬ formations, occurred within the first month of life. The age distribution of mortality from pneumonia and influenza and from diarrhoea and enteritis, as from other communicable dis¬ eases, is quite different. Of the deaths from these two groups of causes 75% occurred among infants one month of age and over. Provisional data for England and Wales indicated a sharp decline in the infant mortality rate in 1948 from 1947; there was a decrease of 31% in the rate for the 126 great towns ag¬ gregate (including London) when the first ten months of the two years were compared. For the whole of 1947 there were 36,849 deaths under one year of age in all of England and Wales, with a corresponding infant mortality rate of 41.4 per 1,000 live births. For Canada, where the latest available data were for 1947, the number of deaths under one year of age was 16,076—a rate of 44.8. The table presents an international comparison of infant mor¬ tality rates for the years 1945, 1946 and 1947, with the per¬ centage change in their rates from 1946 to 1947. (See also Death Statistics.) Bibliography.-—U.S. Public Health Service, Vital Statistics—Special Reports (issued irregularly), Monthly Vital Statistics Bulletin, Current Mortality Analysis (issued monthly) and Annual Reports of Vital Sta¬ tistics; Statistical Office of the United Nations, Monthly Bulletin of Sta¬ tistics; Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, Statistical Bulletin (issued monthly); Population Association of America, Population Index (issued quarterly). (A. J. Lo.)

Inflation: see Business Review; Consumer Credit; Prices. See also under various countries. Influenza: see Pneumonia. Inland Waterways: see Canals and Inland Waterways. Inner Mongolia: see China. Insects and Insecticides: see Entomology. Instalment Buying and Selling: see Consumer Credit.

nil/i Thnmoo

Institutum Divi Thomae UIVI inUniflCa is the graduate school of sci¬ ence of the Athenaeum of Ohio, Cincinnati. In the training of its students emphasis is placed upon research and the necessary fundamental studies. Affiliated with the Institutum are 15 units,

research laboratories maintained in colleges and hospitals throughout the United States. The research activities of these units are planned as part of the over-all research program of the Institutum. The newest unit, at Nazareth college in Louis¬ ville, Ky., became affiliated in 1948. The activities during 1948 were summarized in more than 60 reports presented at the Ninth Annual Research conference of the Institutum Divi Thomae and its affiliated units in Sept. 1948. Cancer research was reported, involving further clinical studies of the use of deproteinized tissue extracts in the treat¬ ment of skin tumours and the cautious extension to other types of human tumours. Studies were reported on the mode of action of the extracts in terms of effects on normal and tumour tissue metabolism and on mitosis, on the concentration of the active materials, on the induction of resistance to transplanted tumours in animals and on the enzyme patterns in tumour-bearing ani¬ mals. Further positive results were obtained in the use of antibac¬ terial substances present in animal tissues, particularly brain, and there were investigations of the nature of the active mate¬ rials and their mode of action, and their trial in additional types of infections. Analogous studies were made of substances con¬ tained in deproteinized extracts of Streptococcus pyogenes, Shi¬ gella dysenteriae and Azotobacter chroococcum. The action of organic mercury compounds and of other in¬ hibitors was studied on a series of enzymes, including cyto¬ chrome oxidase, catalase, peroxidase and a number of dehydro¬ genases. In extending these studies to intact cellular systems, such as onion roots, it was observed that the mercurial com¬ pounds exerted colchicinelike effects. Other investigations conducted during the year included some biological effects of X-rays and of slow electron bombardment, the development of tension fields in tissue cultures, the utiliza¬ tion of amino acid nitrogen by algae and the correlation of ultra-violet absorption and molecular structure in heterocyclic nitrogen compounds. (E. S. C.)

Insulin: see

InciiranoD

Diabetes.

Insurance.—At the end of 1948, the legal

llluUI dlluCa reserve life insurance companies of the United States and Canada provided $220,000,000,000 of life insurance protection for some 82,000,000 policyholders. This was about $16,000,000,000 more than at the end of the previous year. The insurance in force at the end of 1948 was only about equal to the combined income of the United States and Canadian peo¬ ples. Each insured family averaged about $6,000 insurance pro¬ tection. New life insurance issued in 1948 exceeded $25,000,000,000, but did not quite equal the all-time high of 1947. Ordinary and industrial life insurance issued was off a little from 1947, but group insurance issued was up slightly. Premiums paid by pol¬ icyholders for life insurance and annuities totalled around $7,000,000,000, or a little more than 3% of the people’s income. Payments made to policyholders or their beneficiaries by United States and Canadian companies in 1948 reached a new peak of $3,500,000,000. Adding to this sum the increased re¬ serves set aside for future benefit payments, nearly $7,000,000,000 was paid or credited to United States and Canadian fami¬ lies during the year. Assets of United States and Canadian companies, held to guarantee fulfilment of future claims, amounted to $59,500,000,000 at the end of 194-8. About 95% of this was in United States companies. Over the past five or six years, the growth in the assets of life insurance companies had been slower than that for other principal types of personal savings.

INSURANCE Insurance companies continued to invest in the productive economies of the United States and Canada, helping to meet the need of corporations and individuals for funds to build new factories, utilities, homes, etc. During 1948, the corporate bonds held by United States companies increased by more than $4,000,000,000. Of this, $2,300,000,000 represented an increase in the holdings of industrial bonds and $1,700,000,000 in utility bonds. Their railroad bond portfolio remained practically unchanged. The mortgage portfolio increased by more than $2,000,000,000. At the end of the year, United States companies held nearly $rg,ooo,ooo,ooo corporate bonds which ranked first among their assets, being followed by federal government securities. Some of the latter were sold in 1948 to meet the increased demand for private capital. Because of such sales and maturities, their hold¬ ings of federal government securities decreased from $20,000,000,000 at the end of 1947 to $17,000,000,000 at the end of 1948. Mortgage portfolios of the companies rose to, nearly $11,000,000,000 by the end of 1948. The increased proportion of corporate bonds and mortgages in company portfolios as well as generally improved yields (particularly on corporate bonds) had a favourable effect on interest earnings. As a result, the interest rate earned on United States companies’ assets increased a little for the first time in many years and was estimated at about 3% for 1948. (L. A. L.) Casualty Insurance. — This classification, in the United States, includes workmen’s compensation, accident and health, plate glass, burglary and theft, steam boiler, machinery break¬ down, automobile collision; and all forms of third-party lia¬ bility insurance, such as automobile bodily injury and property damage; owners’, landlords’ and tenants’ liability; elevator; and business and personal liability. This business, for all classes combined, resulted in an increase in volume and a profit to the insurance companies in 1948, although the outgo for losses, taxes and expenses for some of these classes left no margin of premiums with the carriers. Automobile liability insurance, covering against claims for bodily injury and damage to the property of others, which is the largest premium-producing class for most casualty com¬ panies, showed a substantial increase in volume in 1948, with a modest profit to the insurance companies, on their nation-wide experience on bodily injury liability. Automobile property dam¬ age continued to show a loss, as it had for some years. The increase in premium writings was partly the result of rate in¬ creases in some territories, justified by the high loss ratios in late years, and partly because of the increase in the number of automobiles insured. Workmen’s compensation insurance, another large premiumproducing class, showed an increase in premium writings in 1948, and the class continued to produce a profit, despite gen¬ erally lowered rate levels. During the year 47 rate revisions were made in 37 states, the District of Columbia and the terri¬ tory of Hawaii, prompted by changes in workmen’s compensa¬ tion laws and improved loss experience. Miscellaneous liability lines, which had been profitable to the insurance carriers for a number of years, continued to be so, but in diminishing degree. Those insurances in which the meas¬ ure of exposure and premium charge reflect the increase in busi¬ ness and wages produced a profit on an increased volume, but where the premium is based upon street frontage or area of risk the class continued to be unprofitable. Boiler and machinery insurance produced about the same amount of premiums in 1948 as it had in 1947, when this class showed a loss, because of inadequate rates. A general upward revision of rates, particularly for boiler insurance, became effec¬ tive late in 1948, but it would not be fully reflected in under¬

379

writing results until all three-year policies had been renewed at the higher rate levels. Accident and health insurance statistics for 1948 were not yet available by the end of the year to disclose the exact results of the class for all companies, but it could be stated that such business increased in volume over the previous year, and that the loss experience was satisfactory. Canada.—The volume of premiums written for casualty in¬ surance in Canada exceeded that written in the previous year, and the business was generally profitable to the companies. Automobile insurance, covering bodily injury, property damage and collision, which is not included in the casualty classifica¬ tion in Canada, was unprofitable, losses and expenses accounting for more than earned premiums. Rates for these kinds of insur¬ ance were revised upward, effective Jan. i, 1949. An increased consciousness of the value of casualty insurance was evident in Canada, and the volume of casualty insurance premiums was increasing. Government entry into the business in the provinces of British Columbia and Saskatchewan would, however, absorb some of the business which would otherwise be written by pri¬ vate companies. {See also Fires and Fire Losses; Social Se¬ curity; Veterans’ Administration.) (L. E. F.) Hospital, Medical and Surgical.—The year 1948 was noted for the increased attention paid by the public and by special interest groups to the question of how best to prepay the costs of illness. In May a national health assembly was held in Washington, D.C., at the call of Oscar R. Ewing, Federal Se¬ curity administrator, to consider a ten-year health program for the U.S. The assembly took no action on proposals for a national, compulsory system of health insurance. Earlier, the Brookings institution published an independent report terming such a system “impractical and unnecessary.” In September, Ewing made a report to the president, advocating its establish¬ ment. Voluntary plans, meanwhile, continued to expand membership and increase services. Nonprofit Blue Cross hospital service plans reached 33,000,000 members by the end of the year, while Blue Shield medical-surgical plans reached 10,000,000. Blue Cross plans passed the $1,000,000,000 mark in total benefit pay¬ ments. Proposals for establishment of a nation-wide organiza¬ tion to facilitate enrolment of national accounts were approved by Blue Cross and the American Hospital association, but re¬ jected by the American Medical association, thus blocking Blue Shield participation. Blue Cross plans voted to proceed alone, and in December the Blue Cross association was incorporated to perform this function. Estimates varied as to the extent of coverage by commercial insurance carriers, but the U.S. chamber of commerce reported nearly 20,000,000 insured against hospital expense, 15,000,000 against surgical expense and 1,900,000 against medical expense, all forms ranging between wide extremes of benefits. Another 2,000,000 persons held membership in co-operative or industrial programs. A provincial hospital prepayment system was approved in British Columbia, effective Jan. i, 1949, and nationalized pro¬ grams were set up in Japan and Australia. (A. G. S.) Great Britain.—An analysis of the accounts showed that in 1947 the total premium income from fire and accident insurance combined, for 24 representative British offices, rose by £45,050,000 to £217,102,000, and produced an underwriting surplus of £3,115,000, equivalent to 1.4% of the premiums. Marine pre¬ miums were higher by £8,695,000, at £28,052,500, and trading results continued favourable. The effects of the steep decline in gross interest rates, and the even steeper decline in net returns, combined with the kindred problem of investment and reinvestment of moneys, continued

380

INSURANCE, OLD AGE — INTERIOR DECORATION

to weigh heavily upon life office managements. It was normal for adjustments of life assurance rates to lag behind changes in the effective rate of interest, and, despite the somewhat more favourable interest outlook during 1948, the year witnessed reluctant premium increases by individual offices. Not all the factors that helped to produce a new insurance business record of approximately £500,000,000 ordinary life sums assured in 1947 were as pronounced in 1948, and some slackening in the rate of expansion was anticipated. The full extent to which the work of industrial assurance companies would be influenced by the coming into operation of the National Insurance act in 1948 would only become known gradually, but workmen’s compensation insurance as such ceased on July 5. As the national scheme provided for a death grant, the powers of the industrial assurance offices to issue policies covering funeral expenses were withdrawn by the Industrial Assurance and Friendly Societies act. Funeral benefits consti¬ tuted only a small part of the business of industrial assurance companies and the limitation imposed was unlikely to have a permanently adverse effect upon the industry. New sums as¬ sured written by 8 leading industrial companies during 1947 totalled £216,866,000, compared with £206,732,000 in 1946, while the industrial premium income was £7,210,000 higher, at £86,999,000. The average sum assured per policy was about £30. The National Insurance (Industrial Injuries) act relieved employers of their liability under the Workmen’s Compensation acts, and workmen’s compensation, previously treated as part of the law of employer’s liability, became a social service. Heavy common law liabilities still attached to employers and insurance cover was available at reduced rates. Private motor car insurance rates in the United Kingdom were increased by 25% as from June i, the higher premiums being subject to a 40% discount for cars licensed at a reduced rate. Property owners’ and general third-party liability; plate glass insurance; fidelity guarantees; the insurance of boilers and ma¬ chinery; and personal liability cover, all showed a resilient premium income. There was a general movement in Great Britain and in Europe to bring fire insurance values into closer relationship with cur¬ rent values of goods, but a considerable amount of “under¬ insurance” remained, the increase in sums insured being insuffi¬ cient to offset the full decline in the value of money. Marine premium income was well maintained. Hull values continued to rise, and new tonnage was built. Losses in the cargo market were dominated by the heavy incidence of claims for theft and pilferage and caused underwriters the greatest concern. , (P. Ss.)

Insurance, Old Age: see Social Security. Inter-American Highway: see Roads and Highways. Inferior, U.S. Department of: see Government Depart¬ ments AND Bureaus.

Illtorinr nornntinn

decoration for the year 1948

llllClIUI UifuUIdUUII* was notable primarily for its static or “marking time” position and for its dearth of new and revolu¬ tionary ideas, processes or items. There was little or no actual change in the home-fumishings picture. The cause could prob¬ ably be traced to a “measure of the times,” to the uncertain factors evident throughout most industry, to the watching-andwaiting atmosphere apparent in the national and international social and economic scene. Widespread use of metals, long promised as a postwar achieve¬ ment, was limited to a barely perceptible trend, as shortages, particularly in steel, continued throughout the nation. And the

first award winners for the designs of woven upholstery fabric, wallpaper and chair, chosen in the annual competitidn of the American Institute of Design as announced on Feb. 12, 1948

world-wide aura of uncertainty was clearly reflected in the manufacturer’s hesitancy to expand and experiment. Such new products as reached the consumer market were, in general, those developed during and immediately after the war, and at long last just reaching the production stage. But the great ma¬ jority of manufacturers seemed content to continue with proven designs and patterns. At the same time, and perhaps because of the lack of new and startling innovations, the year 1948 seemed to show a maturing and “settling down” of design in all phases, a tendency to dis¬ card the merely sensational for the worthwhile and enduringly practical, a definite tendency on the part of the buying public to measure good decoration in terms of its beauty, usefulness and durability. As a result, there were refinements in all design, and especially in the contemporary field. Also evident in interior design, in furnishings and in acces¬ sories was the deliberate striving for a look of spaciousness, for a more open feeling and for the elimination of the unnecessary wherever possible. Lines, as applied to outline and structure, were noticeably lighter, with less and less emphasis on bulky or solid effects. Open staircases, designed to show fine structural qualities, made a noteworthy impression on interior design. Win¬ dows showed more generous proportions to wall space, and woods, fabrics and floor coverings were all less heavy-looking in appearance, with no sacrifice of use and suitability. A limited but prophetic success was achieved in the increased use of metals in combination with woods in furniture, a com¬ bination designed to meet the need for lightness and durability with no loss of warmth and livability. This trend, not to be confused with the use of metals with woods for merely struc¬ tural purposes, took decorative form in tapered metal legs on chests, cabinets or chairs, in metal supports for arms, for spin¬ dles in the backs of chairs or for decoration and trim on cabinets and chests. Throughout the furniture field, use, utility and practicality gained increased recognition as intrinsic measures of worth and beauty. More and more were functional design and multiplepurpose design evident in traditional as well as contemporary forms, and the deliberate scaling down of furniture to fit a room or a particular use was still another step in the search for more

INTERNATI ONAL BANK space for living. In floor coverings, the trend toward carved and three-dimen¬ sional effects increased its scope, to appear in medium and lowpriced products. The use of nontarnishable metal threads in floor coverings was still confined to the custom-made field, and an all-nylon carpeting made its bow early in the year in this same limited category. Plastics, in hard-surface floor covering and in wall coverings, showed new interpretations and warranted much public enthusiasm for their long-wearing qualities. Textured fabrics, both for upholstery and for draperies, were even more generally accepted in 1948. Here too, the use of nontarnishable metals to add lustre and light increased in scope, although still confined to special rather than general usage, and most often evident in custom-made or hand-woven fabrics. Patterned fabrics were deserving of special attention, as the en¬ tire field felt its way slowly but surely toward new importance, judged on suitability of use rather than pattern just for pat¬ tern’s sake. Curtains won a new place in the decorating picture, as they, too, followed the trend toward creating spaciousness, rather than a closed-in look. New presentations were increasingly light, simple and semitransparent. Hand-woven, textured and case¬ ment-cloth types, designed to let in as much light as possible, were high on the decorator lists, but had not yet reached the general public in any quantity. Of all factors, the use of colour seemed to show the greatest reflection of more mature taste and discriminating use on the part of the general public. No single colour, colour combination or tone value, soft or sharp, could be said to dominate the field. Instead, the use of colour progressed to the place where suit¬ ability was the guide—a suitability to fit the place or person. Acclaimed throughout the entire field as a definite sign of greater and more widespread education in interior decoration, this newly won maturity held hopeful portent for the future in the entire field of interior decoration. In lighting there was no such clearly defined direction, and the field continued to divide its allegiance between contempo¬ rary and traditional forms. The theory proposing the use of light itself as a decorative accent continued to have its small group of ardent disciples. Fluorescent lighting gave evidence of the general trend to lighter, less bulky looking fixtures, and was presented in more finely scaled editions. The circular fluorescent bulb gained greater acceptance. Accessories, in china, pottery, metals and other materials, showed the same broad tendencies as did the field of colour; tendencies to seek importance on the basis of suitability to per¬ son and place rather than as isolated additions to a decorative scheme. Especially noticeable was the increase in hand potters throughout the country, making their wares available to the public and spreading general knowledge and interests in free form design. (G. M. J.)

International Bank for Reconstruction and R I . During 1948 the International Bank for UbVcIOpillcIlla Reconstruction and Development embarked on two new types of lending operations, broadened the base of its borrowing operations and as the year ended was conducting active discussions concerning further loans for productive proj¬ ects in more than 20 of its member countries in Europe, Latin America, the middle and far east. With regard to lending operations, the bank in March ap¬ proved its first credits for development purposes in two loans to instrumentalities of the Chilean government. One of these loans, for $13,500,000, was for the purpose of financing the importation of equipment to develop hydroelectric power. It

381

was for a term of 20 yr. and carried an interest rate of 3^%. The other, for $2,500,000, was for the purchase of modern agricultural machinery. It was for a term of 6j yr. and carried an interest rate of 2-|%. The bank also charged its usual com¬ mission of 1% annually to be set aside in its special reserve fund. Both loans were to be guaranteed by the government of Chile. The second new type of lending operation was employed in July when the bank made its first loans to private enterprises and also made use for the first time of its guarantee powers. It granted credits totalling $12,000,000 to four leading Dutch shipping companies for the purchase of six merchant vessels. These loans were in the form of 2^% one to ten year serial mortgage notes guaranteed by the Netherlands government. Subsequently a group of private banks in the United States purchased $8,100,000 of the notes, guaranteed as to principal and interest by the International bank. The Dutch shipping companies were also to pay annually to the International bank the usual commission of 1% and a service charge of ☆%. The year’s lending operations brought the total loans ap¬ proved by the bank, from the time it began operations to Dec. 1948, to $525,000,000 as follows: $250,000,000 to France; $195,000,000 to the Netherlands; $40,000,000 to Denmark; $12,000,000 to Luxembourg; $16,000,000 in two loans to Chile, and $12,000,000 in six loans to the Dutch shipping companies. With regard to borrowing operations, the bank during the year consummated the sale of its first nondollar bonds. In June it sold an issue of 2^% Swiss franc serial bonds amount¬ ing to 17,000,000 francs (approximately $4,000,000) which was purchased in its entirety by the Bank for International Settle¬ ments at Basle, Switz. The bank borrows in order to increase its supply of loanable funds. While the amount of the Swiss issue was relatively small, it illustrated the bank’s desire to supplement its borrowing in the United States by tapping other sources of capital. Since the bank in 1947 had sold bond issues totalling $250,000,000 on the United States market, total bor¬ rowing operations at the end of 1948 amounted to the equiva¬ lent of approximately $254,000,000. Membership in the bank was increased during the year to 47 countries with the admission of Austria and Finland. In addition, applications for membership from Siam and Liberia were approved by the bank’s board of governors, and these two countries normally had until March 31, 1949, to sign the Articles of Agreement. The bank’s total subscribed capital, by Dec. 1948, amounted to the equivalent of $8,336,000,000. Only 2% of the subscribed capital is paid in gold or United States dollars and is immediately available for lending; 18% is paid in the currencies of the various member countries and may be used for loans only with the consent of the respective member. The remaining 80% is in the nature of a guarantee fund and can be called only to meet the bank’s obligations. The bank’s available lending funds, as of Dec. i, 1948, amounted to ap¬ proximately $480,000,000. The bank’s financial statements as of June 30, 1948, showed an excess of income over expenses of approximately $4,000,000 for the fiscal year. This was sufficient to eliminate the deficit existing on June 30, 1947, and provide a net profit of approxi¬ mately $3,000,000 as of June 30, 1948. At the third annual meeting of the bank’s board of governors in Sept. 1948, nine executive directors were elected to the regu¬ lar two-year term. In addition, five executive directors are ap¬ pointed by the five member countries having the largest num¬ ber of shares of the bank’s capital stock (United States, United Kingdom, China, France and India). During the year the bank established close working relation¬ ships with the United States Economic Cooperation adminis-

382

INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF AMERICAN STATES

t ration and the Organization for European Economic Coopera¬ tion. The bank’s third annual report, presented to the board of governors in September, pointed out that financial assistance under the European Recovery program {q.v.) would greatly e.\ceed for the time being any amounts w'hich the bank might lend to the participating nations. It was clear, however, that since ERP funds would not be sufficient to meet all of western Europe’s investment requirements, there would be a real need for bank financing in this area in addition to the emergency assistance made available through ERP. The bank intended, therefore, to supplement ERP to the extent that its resources and the credit standing of ERP countries would permit, pri¬ marily by financing projects which involved permanent addi¬ tions to Europe’s productive capacity. The bank’s third annual report also recognized that the num¬ ber of sound, productive investment opportunities in under¬ developed countries thus far presented to the bank was smaller than was originally expected. It was recognized that, along with its own financing operations, it would be an increasingly important function of the bank to ensure that adequate tech¬ nical assistance was available to its member countries to help them to overcome existing difficulties and to define the shape of sound, over-all development programs. {See also Banking.) (J. J. McC.)

International Children's Emergency Fund: see

Child

Welfare.

International College of Surgeons: see

Societies and

Associations.

International Conference of American States. The International Conference of American States, held at Bogota, Colombia, March 30 to May 2, 1948, was the ninth of a series of such conferences commencing in 1889-90. The 20 Latin American countries and the United States were repre¬ sented by plenipotentiary delegates; the director general of the Pan American Union and the assistant secretary general of the United Nations also participated but without vote. Foreign Minister Laureano Gomez of Colombia presided over the con¬ ference during its initial stage, being replaced after the revolu¬ tion of April 9 by the new foreign minister Eduardo Zuleta Angel. On April 9, the conference was interrupted by the violent dis¬ orders which broke out following the assassination of the Colombian political leader Jorge E. Gaitan. {See Colombia.) For several days the delegates, who determined nevertheless to carry on the conference, met in private residences and in a school building on the outskirts of the city, until the restoration of order and repair of property damage permitted them to re¬ sume sessions in the Colombian capitol which had been re¬ modelled for conference use. Summary of Work.—Five general topics appeared on the agenda: reorganization of the inter-American system; peaceful settlement of inter-American disputes; economic matters; juridico-political matters; and social matters. The conference drafted a constitutional document for the inter-American re¬ gional system, a treaty of peaceful settlement, an agreement on economic co-operation, 2 conventions on women’s rights and 46 resolutions which comprise the final act. Reorgainiza+ion of the Inter-American System.—The prin¬ cipal document produced by the conference was the charter of the Organization of American States in which the regional sys¬ tem of the Americas, started in 1889, was given its first com¬ prehensive constitution. The charter proclaims the sovereign equality of the member states and bans intervention by any

state in the affairs of another. It declares the solidarity of the American states against aggression, and emphasizes their de¬ sire to co-operate for the achievement of higher economic, social and cultural standards for their people. Part II of the charter outlines the structure of the Organi¬ zation of American States. Three representative bodies were created: the Inter-American conference, which was to meet every five years, as the supreme authority of the organization; the Meeting of Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs, which might be convoked to deal with important emergency problems, especially acts or threats of aggression; and the Council of the Organization, a permanent body meeting in Washington, D.C. The council was to execute tasks assigned to it by the Inter-American conference or Meeting of Foreign Ministers, and to supervise the Pan American Union. It was to be assisted by three technical organs: an economic and social council, a cultural council and a council of jurists. The central permanent agency and general secretariat of the organization was to be the Pan American Union {q.v.), in Washington, D.C., headed by the secretary general of the or¬ ganization. Aside from its duties as a general secretariat, the Pan American Union was charged with promoting the co-opera¬ tion of the American states in the fields of economic, social, cultural and juridical affairs. Other principal elements in the Organization of American States were to be the specialized conferences, and the interAmerican speciali;^ed agencies, which were to facilitate techni¬ cal co-operation in economic, social and cultural fields. Peaceful Settlement of Disputes.—The task of consoli¬ dating into one comprehensive document all the previous interAmerican treaties on procedures of peaceful settlement of inter¬ national disputes was assigned to the Bogota conference. Al¬ though consideration of this detailed and technical task was handicapped by the physical interruption of the conference deliberations, the delegates produced and signed a treaty known as the Pact of Bogota. In addition to general principles, the pact sets forth the procedures of good offices and mediation, investigation and conciliation, adjudication, and arbitration. The jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice {q.v.) is recognized as compulsory for a wide variety of cases, and arbi¬ tration is obligatory for such cases, with certain exceptions, if the court declares itself to be without jurisdiction. Significant reservations to these provisions of the treaty were attached by delegations of several countries. Economic Matters.—The main achievement of the confer¬ ence in economic matters was the drafting of an agreement on economic co-operation. Its 13 chapters set forth the bases on which the American republics should conduct their economic relations. Pointing to the need for expanding international trade, and for general economic development as a means of raising living standards, the agreement emphasizes the need for expanding co-operation in fields of technical knowledge, and assigns certain responsibilities in this respect to the InterAmerican Economic and Social council. The agreement re¬ affirms the principles of the International Bank for Recon¬ struction and Development and of the International Monetary fund {qq.v.) as important vehicles for financial co-operation, and supports the extension in appropriate cases of medium- and long-term loans from one government to another. An important chapter of the agreement deals with private investments which some delegations, particularly the United States, considered to be of major importance to the develop¬ ment of the resources of the American republics. The agree¬ ment recognizes the importance of private capital, and states that foreign capital shall receive equitable treatment on a nondiscriminatory basis, provided foreign investors observe na-

Americas should be recognized automatically regardless of their political complexion were resolved in a declaration (XXXV) emphasizing that the continuity of relations among the Amer¬ ican republics was desirable, and that establishment or main¬ tenance of relations with a given government implied no judg¬ ment upon its domestic policy. The conference also requested the Inter-American Juridical committee to give further study to the subject. Social Matters.—Several comprehensive declarations on so¬ cial matters were adopted by the conference. The Charter of Social Guarantees sets forth in detail the social rights of work¬ ers which the conference held to be desirable. Virtually a code of social principles, the charter had, however, no binding legal effect, being in the nature of a declaration of objectives. A similar character pertained to the Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man adopted by the conference, which details civil rights, such as freedom of speech, religion, and press, and the right to participate in government, and sets forth certain duties to the community and state.

DELEGATES at the frst session of the Ninth International Conference of American States listening to the opening address by Pres. Mariano Ospina Perez of Colombia at Bogota on March 30, 194S

tional laws and refrain from intervening in the political affairs of a country. Of special significance is the declaration that any expropriation by a government shall be accompanied by pay¬ ment of fair compensation in a prompt, adequate and effective manner. Attention is given in the agreement to problems of industrial development, particularly the question of access to sources of capital goods and equipment. Other subjects referred to in¬ clude the improvement of social conditions, maritime trans¬ portation, stimulation of inter-American travel, and methods for adjusting economic disputes among governments. Although signed by all 21 delegations, the economic agree¬ ment was weakened by the attachment of numerous reserva¬ tions by several governments, leaving its validity and effective¬ ness in some doubt. Further attention was to be given to these reservations at the Inter-American Economic conference which, it was agreed at Bogota, was to be held in Buenos Aires, Argen¬ tina, not later than the first quarter of 1949. Juridico-Political Matters.—Under the title of “Preserva¬ tion and Defense of Democracy in America,” the conference adopted a resolution (XXXII) strongly condemning interna¬ tional communism and all other forms of totalitarianism as be¬ ing incompatible with inter-American principles. The confer¬ ence reaffirmed the desire of the American republics to strengthen their democracy, and recommended that the govern¬ ments exchange information regarding subversive activities of totalitarian groups. The subject of European colonies in the Americas was placed on the agenda by Guatemala. Although action on this subject by the conference was opposed by some delegations, including those of Brazil, Dominican Republic and the United States, the conference adopted a resolution (XXXIII) expressing the hope that the occupation of American territories by extracontinental countries might come to an end, and establishing the American Committee on Dependent Territories in Havana, Cuba, for the purpose of studying the problem and recommending solutions thereto. Recognition of de facto governments received significant at¬ tention at Bogota. Contrasting viewpoints on the question of whether governments established by forceful means in the

In the social field, the conference also approved an organic statute establishing the Inter-American Commission of Women on a permanent basis. Conventions were signed granting political and civil rights to women. Resolutions were adopted encourag¬ ing an expansion of social services by the governments, and recommending programs of work to be undertaken by the InterAmerican Economic and Social council and the Inter-American Cultural council. Bibliography.—The following publications of the Pan American Union; Final Act of Ninth International Conference of American States; Economic Agreement of Bogota; Charter of Organization of American States; Amer¬ ican Treaty on Pacific Settlement; Report of the Secretary General of the Organization of American States on the Ninth International Conference. Also Report of the United States Delegation to the Ninth International Conference of American States, Department of State (Washington, D.C.). (J. C. Dr.)

International Court of Justice, Court of Justice dealt with two important matters, as follows: The Corfu Channel Case.—This case, between Great Britain and Albania, related to an incident that occurred in the Corfu channel, Oct. 22, 1946, when two British destroyers struck mines in Albanian territorial waters, the explosion of which caused damage to the vessels and heavy loss of life among their crews. Great Britain charged Albania, in the Security council of the United Nations, with international responsibility. Albania de¬ nied the charge and made countercharges. The council, by reso¬ lution of April 9, 1947, recommended that the dispute be taken to the court. On May 22, 1947, the United Kingdom filed with the court an application setting forth its complaint. In a letter to the court dated July 2 the Albanian government stated: (i) that since it had not accepted compulsory jurisdiction of the court the British government was not entitled to refer the dispute by unilateral application; (2) that before bringing the case to the court that government should have reached an agreement with Albania regarding conditions under which the two parties should proceed; and (3) that, while making reservations regarding these irregularities, it was prepared to appear before the court. The president of the court fixed Oct. i, 1947, for the filing of a memorial by the British, and Dec. 10 for the filing of a countermemorial by Albania. The memorial was duly filed, but Albania, instead of filing a countermemorial, submitted a “preliminary objection” to the British application. It again attacked the procedure followed by the United Kingdom and asked the court to declare the ap¬ plication inadmissible. There being no judge on the court of Albanian nationality, Albania designated a Czechoslovakian jurist as judge ad hoc.

383

INTERNATIONAL LAB OUR ORGANIZATION

384

The court heard oral arguments in late February and early March 1948, and at a public sitting on March 25, 1948, gave its decision, 15 votes against i, the ad hoc judge dissenting, re¬ jecting the preliminary objection and holding that the letter of July 2, 1947, constituted voluntary acceptance of the court’s jurisdiction. It fixed time limits for the subsequent pleadings; namely, countermemorial by Albania, reply by Great Britain and rejoinder by Albania. The two parties immediately announced in open court the signing on that day of a special agreement for submitting the case. By this agreement they asked the court to decide the following questions: (1) Is Albania responsible under international law for the explosions which occurred on the 22 nd October 1946 in Albanian waters and for the damage and loss of human life which resulted from them and is there any duty to pay compensation? (2) Has the United Kingdom under international law violated sovereignty of the Albanian People’s Republic by reason of acts of the Royal Navy in Albanian waters on the 2 2.nd October on the i2th and 13th November 1946 and is there any duty to satisfaction?

the the and give

The two last-mentioned dates are those on which British ships swept the channel and discovered what were claimed to be freshly sown mines. The last of the written pleadings was filed on Sept. 20, 1948, and oral arguments began Nov. 5. By the end of the year the decision on the merits had not been announced. The Advisory Opinion.—By a resolution of Nov. 17, 1947, the general assembly of the United Nations requested an ad¬ visory opinion on the following question: Is a Member of the United Nations which is called upon, in virtue of Article 4 of the Charter, to pronounce itself by its vote, either in the Security Council or in the General Assembly, on the admission of a State to membership in the United Nations, juridically entitled to make its consent to the admission dependent on conditions not expressly pro¬ vided by paragraph i of the said Article? In particular, can such a Member, while it recognizes the conditions set forth in that provision to be fulfilled by the State concerned, subject its affirmative vote to the additional condition that other States be admitted to membership in the United Nations together with that State?

The resolution referred to an exchange of views that had taken place in the Security council relating to the admission of certain states. Article 4 of the charter states that; 1. Membership ... is open to all . . . peace-loving states which accept the obligations contained in the present Charter and, in the judg¬ ment of the Organization, are able and willing to carry out these obligations. 2. The admission of any such state to membership . . . will be effected by a decision of the General Assembly upon the recommenda¬ tion of the Security Council.

On May 28, 1948, the court, by 9 votes to 6, held that a member of the United Nations is not juridically entitled to make its consent to the admission of an applicant state de¬ pendent on conditions not expressly provided by paragraph i of article 4; and that, in particular, a member of the organization cannot, while recognizing the conditions set forth in that pro¬ vision to be fulfilled by the state concerned, subject its affirm¬ ative vote to the additional condition that other states be ad¬ mitted together with that state. {See also International Law; United Nations.)

(G. H. H.) f

International

Emergency

Food

Council: see

Food

Supply of the World.

International labour Organization. tional Labour conference met in San Francisco, Calif., June 17July 10, 1948, with 438 delegates and accredited advisers pres-

ent from 51 states. Delegates numbered 167 (173 at the 1947 conference), from 51 (48) of the 59 (53) members, 38 (40) of whom sent complete delegations. The increase in membership came from the admission of Pakistan and Syria in 1947, Burma in May 1948, and the Republic of the Philippines, El Salvador and Ceylon during the conference. Four conventions and one recommendation were adopted, also an instrument for amend¬ ment of the schedule to the Labour Standards (nonmetropolitan territories) convention, 1947, and 25 resolutions. Conventions No. 87 concerning freedom of association and the protection of the right to organize, and No. 88 concerning the organization of the employment service, were new; conventions No. 89 con¬ cerning night work of women in industry and No. 90 concern¬ ing night work of young persons In-industry were revisions of earlier conventions. The budget of $5,215,539 for 1949 (adopted by 124 affirma¬ tive, 0 negative votes, 2 abstentions) was about 12% higher than that for 1948 which was 18% higher than for 1947. The brief discussion on the last day of the conference brought out the alarming increase in expenditures and the fact that five na¬ tions already in arrears more than two years in the payment of their contributions might lose their right to vote, and suggested that budget discussion should begin on the first day of the con¬ ference and financial conditions be reviewed in the director’s report. The ratification of conventions w’as considered unsatisfactory because many states which ratified did not bring their legisla¬ tion and enforcement up to the standards of the ratified con¬ ventions. Total ratifications to October numbered 992, with 23 credited to 1948. The amended constitution which came into force April 20, 1948, clarified and increased the obligations of members with respect to conventions and recommendations, and provided an improved procedure for their application. The governing body held its usual four sessions; the 104th session in Geneva, Switz., March 15-20, 1948, gave effect to the resolutions of the Preparatory Asian Regional conference (New Delhi, India, Oct.-Nov. 1947) and to those of the regional meeting for the near and middle east at Istanbul, Turk., also late in 1947. Both conferences were successful in increasing interest and effectiveness of I.L.O. work in those areas. A tech¬ nical conference on the organization of labour inspection was authorized and met at Kandy, Ceylon, Nov. 15-20, 1948, with delegates and observers from 15 countries present. The findings were referred to the Asian Regional conference, scheduled to meet in China in 1949. The 105th and io6th sessions met in San Francisco, June 12-22, and July 8, when the new governing body, elected at the conference, took office. The 105th session appointed a new director-general, David A. Morse, at the time U.S. acting secre¬ tary of labour, to succeed Edward Phelan, who had reached the retiring age. Morse thus became the fifth director and estab¬ lished headquarters in Geneva in August. A new tripartite com¬ mittee on international organizations was set up to deal with questions of relations with other international governmental organizations, and action to implement the work of various in¬ dustrial committees was authorized. The 107th session (Geneva, Nov. 29-Dec. 4) considered the European regional manpower proposals, and a new departure, suggested by the new director, that the I.L.O. organize and administer courses in the training of supervisors in industry to increase production, so success¬ fully done in the U.S.A. during World War II. I.L.O. publications issued in 1948 averaged 100 printed pages per day, and included in addition to the regular serials—Inter¬ national Labour Review (with Industrial and Labour Informa¬ tion, which was again to be published separately, beginning with the Jan. 1949 issue). Legislative Series, Industrial Safety Sur-

INTERNATIONAL LAW vey, Official Bulletin, etc.—25 conference documents, 5 reports for the Preparatory Asian Regional conference, 3 reports for the Sixth International Conference of Labour Statisticians and 18 monographs for the industrial committees, including 4 for iron and steel, 4 for metal trades, 3 for textiles, 4 for petro¬ leum and I each for inland transport, permanent migration and coal mines. Historically important were: the Second Re¬ port of the I.L.O. to the United Nations; and a volume en¬ titled International Social Policy, containing extracts from speeches, reports and articles by Albert Thomas, 1920-32, edited by Marius Viple. {See also Child Welfare.) Films.—I.L.O. (National Film Board of Canada).

(S. McC. L.)

International law underwent impor¬ tant changes after 1918—changes that became generally accepted after World War II. Judge Alejandro Alvarez in a concurring opinion in the International Court of Justice referred to “the great principles of the new international law” of which he thought the court must take cognizance, including: (i) recognition of the illegality of ag¬ gressive war; (2) recognition of the individual as a subject of international law; (3) recognition of certain interests of the world community as a whole; and (4) recognition of the im¬ portance of world public opinion when suitably evidenced as an indication of international justice and a source of interna¬ tional law. These changes implied modification of the rules of war and neutrality, of the concept of sovereignty, of the legal consequences of military occupations and many other aspects of traditional international law. During the year 1948, the practice and pronouncements of official bodies, national and international, applying international law and settling international controversies, as well as many formulations of jurists, gave new support to these changes which had already been emphasized in the declaration of the United Nations, the charter of the United Nations, and the charter of the tribunal for the trial of major war criminals. Before giving attention to these new tendencies of interna¬ tional law, it must be noticed that soviet statesmen and jurists continued to manifest opposition to this trend and vigorously reaffirmed the absoluteness of state sovereignty, the subordina¬ tion of the individual to the state and the exclusiveness of formal international agreements as a source of state obligation. Thus the leading soviet international jurist, Eugene A. Korovin, characterized as “quite removed from reality” the “tendencies to abolish this very conception [sovereignty] that have been expressed not only in theoretical studies but also in utterances by prominent foreign statesmen” {American Journal of Inter¬ national Law, Oct. 1946, p. 747). Soviet representatives on the United Nations Committee on the Progressive Development of International Law and Its Codification insisted that no progress could be made in this field except through “the express con¬ sent of the sovereign states” (Yuen-li Liang, American Journal of International Law, Jan. 1948, p. 74). In the general assembly of the United Nations, Andrei Vishinsky and others deplored the attack on state sovereignty which they detected in proposals for the control of atomic energy and the modification of the veto in the voting procedure of the Security council. {See

International Law.

Atomic Energy.)

Juristic Ideas.—In contrast to this position was that taken by many western jurists, who during the year explored the founda¬ tions of international law. Typical was the treatise on A Modern Law of Nations by Philip Jessup, professor of inter¬ national law at Columbia university and deputy representative of the United States in the United Nations. This volume was developed upon the two hypotheses: (i) that “international law does apply directly to the individual, that it does and can

385

bind him as well as states directly,” and (2) that “the principle is accepted of community interest in the prevention of breaches of international law.” Implicit in both of these hypotheses, Jessup said, is a “questioning of the arch-fiction of international law—absolute state sovereignty” (pp. 10, 12). (Fr. P. C. Jessup, A Modern Law of Nations. Copyright, 1946, 1947 and 1948 by The Macmillan Company and used with their permission.) Similar hypotheses underlay the report presented to the con¬ ference of the International Law association at Brussels in the spring of 1948 by H. Lauterpacht of Cambridge university on human rights and the discussions by many U.S. jurists at the annual meeting of the American Society of International Law in April 1948. The latter discussions centred about the con¬ cept of aggression, the role of public opinion in developing in¬ ternational law and the role of national courts in applying it. In the international law journals the problems of human rights, international crimes, sanctions against war and international legislation figured heavily. C. G. Fenwick, U.S. member of the Inter-American Juridical committee, pointed out that the tradi¬ tional rule that states cannot be bound by a new rule of law without their consent does not prevent groups of states from adopting rules which bind themselves, from giving effect to resolutions of international bodies, and from acting collectively to enforce rules generally accepted by custom or agreement {American Journal of International Law, April 1948, p. 399; International Law, 3rd ed., 1948, p. 77-79). Arthur Nussbaum pointed out in his Concise History of the Law of Nations (1947) that the 20th century had been characterized by a questioning of 19th century positivism and a reversion to a new naturalism opening the way for changes of law with de¬ veloping world opinion. Even some of the positivists like Hans Kelsen took the position that international law distinguishes between just and unjust war and that state sovereignty con¬ sists merely of the capacity of the state to make and enforce law within the orbit permitted it by international law {Law and Peace, 1942). The eminent Brazilian jurist Jorge Americano in New Foundations of International Law (1947) believed that the principles of the Atlantic charter, the United Nations charter and the resolutions of the Inter-American conferences provided the legal foundations for world government. From these principles he deduced that the world community, which should be organized “on the same lines” as national communi¬ ties, is in law prior to national sovereignties and has a primary duty to “guarantee the dignity of man” and to punish war as a crime against world security. The British jurists James Brierly of Oxford and H. A. Smith of London wrote, respec¬ tively, on The Outlook for International Law and The Crisis in the Law of Nations, with less optimism but with full realiza¬ tion of the need of international law to adjust itself to the new material and moral conditions of the world. The international jurists produced voluminously during 1948 and refused to thresh old straw. They faced the fact that a rapidly changing world needed a dynamic international law to regulate it. The idea, prevalent among jurists during the inter¬ war period, that 19th century international law could return was widely repudiated in these writings. Some of the jurists turned to i6th and 17th century classics which, in a similar period of transition, recognized that natural law, a name for prevailing opinions concerning the requirements of justice, should be utilized as a source for a dynamic law of nations. Such investigations were facilitated by the publication of the Classics of International Law by the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. This series, which had been in process of publication for a generation, was brought to an end during 1948, after publication of about 40 vols. International Law and International Relations.—The

386

INTERNATI ONAL LAW

statesmen of the western nations engaged in practices and sub¬ scribed to interpretations which suggested principles even in advance of those expressed by the jurists. While the split be¬ tween the western and soviet halves of the world increased, both politically and juridically, the organs of the United Na¬ tions developed projects and asserted principles resting upon the assumption that there is one world, of which individuals as well as states are members, with a law which can be en¬ forced. They recognized, however, that during the transition both the expression of the law and its enforcement should be largely in the hands of political rather than juridical organs. The major problem in the effort to bridge the gap between this new international law and its realization in actual interna¬ tional relations lay in developing methods to increase the ef¬ fectiveness of the United Nations as an instrument to maintain international peace and security, to increase the effectiveness of international economic and social agencies as instruments of human welfare and to increase the effectiveness of educational effort designed to spread understanding that economic and social progress depends upon the functioning of international institutions and that values which are universal must be given priority over values limited to particular political, national, racial, class or other groups. Activities of this kind were basic in the effort to create a world in which international law could function, but they are not dealt with in this article. Here attention will be given to the efforts to deal, not with the political, economic and social environment of international law, but with the rules of inter¬ national law themselves, the sources of that law and the insti¬ tutions directly concerned with its development, application and enforcement. Human Rights.—During 1948, the United Nations Human Rights commission produced a draft declaration on human rights, a draft covenant on human rights and a report on the maintenance of human rights. Only the first of these instru¬ ments was considered by the general assembly at its third ses¬ sion in the autumn of 1948. After detailed debate in the third committee, the general assembly approved the declaration, which included both civil liberties and economic and social goals. The soviet group opposed many points, but on the final vote it simply abstained, and the “Universal Declaration of Human Rights” passed unanimously. It had significance as a moral pronouncement and as an interpretation of the phrase “human rights and fundamental freedoms,” which appears many times in the charter. The supreme court of the United States in holding that racial restrictive covenants could not be judicially enforced relied primarily upon the Bill of Rights of the United States consti¬ tution, although it referred to the argument which had been presented to it that such an enforcement would violate the pledge to achieve human rights and fundamental freedoms made by the United States and the other members of the United Nations in signing the charter. The solemn pronouncements in this treaty, it was suggested, manifested the public policy of the parties. Chief Justice Frederick M. Vinson said; “The power of the federal courts to enforce the terms of private agreements is at all times exercised subject to the restrictions and limitations of the public policy of the United States as manifested in the Constitution, treaties, federal statutes, and applicable legal precedents. Where the enforcement of private agreements would be violative of that policy, it is the obliga¬ tion of courts to refrain from such exertions of judicial power.” {Hurd V. Hodge, 68 S. Ct. 847, 853.) International Crimes.—The opinion of the Tokyo tribunal for the trial of major Japanese war criminals was handed down in November. This and several opinions of the tribunals set

up in Nuernberg by the United States under the authority of the Four Power Control council reaffirmed the principle, stated by the original Nuernberg tribunal, that individuals could not defend themselves from the charge of war crimes by showing that they acted under the authority of, or in behalf of, a state, if the state itself was prohibited by international law from authorizing the act. The same principle was applied by the supreme court of New York in refusing to permit confiscations of property by a bank, which alleged that it operated under the authority of the Haitian government. “It is well settled,” said the court, “that one cannot successfully assert as a defense to an action for wrongfully dealing with property that he acted pursuant to governmental drders, if such orders were invalid or ineffective. . . . Confiscation in-ostensible compliance with foreign edicts which are void in this State, have sometimes been compared, in its legal effect, to action by thieves or marauders.” {Plesch v. Banque Nationale de la Reptiblique d’Haiti, 77 N.Y.S. [2nd] 41, 43.) The U.N. general assembly in the autumn of 1948 approved a draft convention on the crime of genocide open to ratification by states. This “crime under international law” was defined as an act “committed with the intention to destroy in whole or in part a national, ethnical, racial, religious, or political group” by killing or causing bodily or mental harm to members of such a group, by deliberate infliction of conditions of life calculated to destroy the group, by measures to prevent births within the group or by forced transfer of children to another group. The concept of genocide was introduced by Raphael Lemkin {Axis Rule in Occupied Europe, 1944, p. 19), was mentioned by the Nuernberg tribunal and was the subject of long discussion and study in the Economic and Social council of the United Nations. {See also War Crimes.) Status of States and Regional Arrangements.—No new states were admitted to the United Nations during 1948. The applications of Italy, Austria, Eire, Portugal, Trans-Jordan, Israel, Ceylon, Finland, Bulgaria, Rumania, Hungary, Albania and Mongolia continued deadlocked in the Security council. Israel was recognized as a state by the United States, the U.S.S.R. and several other members of the United Nations. A government of Korea was established by election, but this was not permitted in the soviet zone. The two halves of Korea remained divided, but proposals were under discussion for the withdrawal of both soviet and United States troops from the country. The status of the princely states of India came up for consideration after the Nizam of Hyderabad had claimed independence. Hyderabad, however, was occupied by Indian troops and absorbed into that dominion. The progress of the Indonesian dispute during the year diminished the status of the Indonesian republic. The Brussels convention of March 1948, signed by Great Britain, France, Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, pro¬ vided for mutual defense and for economic and cultural co¬ operation. Article 51 of the charter was referred to as the justification for thus organizing measures of “collective self defense.” A permanent organization of representatives of the five states was established. The group constituted a regional arrangement under the United Nations similar to that estab¬ lished among the American countries by the Rio de Janeiro treaty of 1947 and among certain middle eastern states by the Arab League agreement of 1944. The status of Germany and Japan did not change during the year, and there was little progress in the making of treaties of peace concerning these two countries. Sources of International Law.—There was much activity in making the sources of international law more easily available. Full'publication of the opinions in the war criminal trials at.

JUDGES sitting at The Hague, Netheriands, in Feb. 1948, to hear testimony on the first case submitted to the U.N. Internationai Court of Justice—that of the Corfu channei dispute between England and Albania

Nuernberg was to be undertaken by the United States depart¬ ment of the army, and the United Nations War Crimes com¬ mission, which came to an end in May 1948, provided for the publication of the series of reports on other war crimes trials. The American Journal of International Law undertook to pub¬ lish a comprehensive digest of current opinions of United States courts on international law. Organizations in other countries, including Canada, undertook similar publication of national court decisions in this field. These publications would make more rapidly available materials which eventually were to ap¬ pear in the Annual Digest of Public International Law, edited in England by H. Lauterpacht. The United Nations International Law commission was in¬ structed to study “ways and means of making the evidence of customary international law more readily available by the com¬ pilation of digests of state practice and by the collection and publication of the decisions of national and international courts on international law questions.” This commission was also charged with the codification of international law. Treaties continued to be published in the United Nations Treaty Series, and the International Court of Justice published its materials in the same form as did its predecessor, the Permanent Court of International Justice. Principles of International Law.—Examination of the wealth of judicial material bearing on international law suggested that national courts had tended increasingly to rely on the decisions of political organs of the government when confronted by questions of international law. U.S. courts, particularly, were less willing to consult the practice of states, the opinions of jurists and the judgments of foreign and international tribunals than they were in the days of John Marshall and Joseph Story. Manley O. Hudson, former judge of the Permanent Court of International Justice, pointed out that; There is a new attitude of the Supreme Court of the United States. ... It was formulated by Mr. Chief Justice Stone a few years ago. He opens one of his opinions ... by saying, in effect, “Of course, any prop¬ erty in this country is subject to the court’s jurisdiction, unless the State Department should find that taking jurisdiction would in some way inter¬ fere with the policies of the government of the United States undesirably.” ... I assume we have some international law on that question. . . . But that international law is going to be applied by the Department of State. . . . We have previously proceeded for generations on the theory that jurisdiction should not be taken by national courts in certain cases because it might vex the peace of nations. . . . The Supreme Court now says that it is not for it to say what is to vex the peace of nations, only the Department of State can say that. The immunity must be obtained through the Department of State. The problem is not tried in our courts any longer. {Proceedings, American Society of International Law, 1948, PP.

75-76.)

To similar effect. Justice Robert H. Jackson, speaking for the supreme court of the United States, said, “The very nature of executive decisions as to foreign policy is political, not judicial. Such decisions are wholly confided by our Constitution to the political departments of the government. Executive and Legis¬ lative.” {Chicago and Southern Airlines v. Waterman S.S. Corp., 68 S. Ct. 431.) There were numerous cases in U.S. courts during the year bearing upon matters such as the immunity of the officials of international organizations and of foreign states and corporations and the status of persons claiming U.S. or other nationality, which were decided by reference to, or interpretation of, na¬ tional legislation, national judicial precedents, treaties or execu¬ tive decisions. United States courts, however, considered broader sources of international law in holding that diplomatic officers en route to another state were entitled to immunity in U.S. territory; that the term war referred to in certain con¬ tracts means actual hostilities and should be considered to have begun, in the case of U.S. participation in World War II, with the actual attack on Pearl Harbor and to have ended with the surrender of Japan; that Pacific islands did not become U.S. territory in law by occupation or by being placed under U.S. trusteeship; that the influence of foreign governmental acts on property in the United States was determined by local law or public policy and not by political recognition; that naturaliza¬ tion did not automatically expatriate persons from previous allegiance in the case of countries, such as Greece, which con¬ tinued to maintain the doctrine of permanent allegiance and that such a country need not extradite its nationals and could itself try them for offenses committed abroad. Such trial, if on its face genuine, was held to preclude a later trial for the same offense by the state where the offense was committed. {See Trustee Territories.) International political agencies tended to interpret interna¬ tional law and the charter of the United Nations by political methods and to refuse to seek judicial determination of such questions. The International Court of Justice, on the other hand, in the few cases before it, had not hesitated to deal with questions of a political character by the application of judicial methods. Among official acts dealing with questions of general international law mention should be made of the “Convention on Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations,” the “United Nations Headquarters Agreement” between the United States and the United Nations, and the United States “Inter¬ national Organization Immunities Act” determining the status of the United Nations and other international bodies and of

387

388

INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND

their officials. The United States had not ratified the first of these instruments by the end of 1948. Activities of Institutions of International Law.—The United Nations International Law commission was established by the second general assembly of the United Nations in the autumn of 1947 and actually came into being through election of its 15 members by the third general assembly on Nov. 3, 1948. Those elected were eminent international jurists from China, France, the U.S.S.R., United Kingdom, United States, Czechoslovakia, Greece, Netherlands, Sweden, Syria, India, Mexico, Panama, Brazil and Colombia. Manley 0. Hudson was elected U.S. member. The commission was charged with advis¬ ing the general assembly as to means for “encouraging the progressive development of international law and its codifica¬ tion,” referred to in article 13 of the charter. It was specifically instructed to consider proposals for a code of international criminal law, including the principles of the Nuernberg charter and trial, and a convention on the rights and duties of states, a proposal for which was introduced by Panama. The methods to be used by the commission were the subject of controversy in the Committee on the Progressive Development of International Law and Its Codification set up by the first general assembly. Representatives of the western powers, while recognizing that “development” could only proceed by official conference and formal treaty, generally expressed the belief that “codification” implied a scientific effort to state existing law and could best proceed through the unofficial activity of organizations and private jurists encouraged by the United Na¬ tions. The results of the efforts of such bodies might be recom¬ mended by resolutions of the general assembly. Representa¬ tives of the Soviet Union, on the other hand, expressed the opinion that no distinction should be made between the proc¬ esses of “development” and “codification,” and that official conferences and formal treaties should be the sole methods for achieving these purposes. The International Court of Justice developed its work during the year. Switzerland, not a member of the United Nations, became a party to the statute on July 28, 1948, by accepting conditions set forth by the general assembly in a resolution of Dec. 1946. Several additional states became parties to the optional clause of the statute, increasing to 30 the total num¬ ber thus bound to accept the court’s jurisdiction in legal con¬ troversies. The court gave its first opinion during the year. This dealt with the plea of Albania to the court’s jurisdiction in the Corfu channel case. The majority considered it unnecessary to con¬ sider the British claim that the “recommendation” of the Se¬ curity council that the parties submit the case to the court was obligatory under article 25 of the charter, because Albania had in fact voluntarily accepted the jurisdiction of the court. Seven concurring judges wished expressly to reject the British contention. They refused to find any “more or less surrepti¬ tious” introduction of compulsory jurisdiction by the words of the charter. The Albanian specially appointed judge dis¬ sented, agreeing with the concurring judges that a recommenda¬ tion of the Security council was not a “decision” giving the court jurisdiction and concluding in addition that the note, by which Albania was alleged to have accepted the jurisdiction, had not in fact done so in respect to the merits of the con¬ troversy. The court began hearing the merits of the case on Nov. 10, 1948. The court also gave an advisory opinion on the interpreta¬ tion of the article of the charter (iv) providing for admission of new members. It held that members of the Security council could not base a vote against admission of an applicant on grounds other than those stated in the charter, thus implying

that certain vetoes of such applicants by the Soviet Union had been improper. Six judges dissented, holding that voting on applicants for membership was a political function and the reasons for such voting were not subject to legal limitation. The Interim committee of the general assembly devoted it¬ self to a number of legal problems, including interpretation of the procedure of the United Nations for the peaceful settle¬ ment of disputes. Belgium introduced a proposal for the re¬ activation of the General act of 1928. (See also Civil Liber¬ ties;

International Court of Justice;

United Nations.)

(Q. W.)

International Monetary Fund • which the International Monetary fund continued to deal during 1948 were exchange rates, exchange restrictions and multiple currency practices, gold production subsidies, external gold transactions at pre¬ mium prices, the establishment of par values for certain coun¬ tries, admission of new members and the revision of quotas of certain members. The aim of the fund continued to be the establishment of a pattern of exchange rates and the adoption and maintenance of exchange practices and policies which would lead to a minimum of restraint and discrimination in international trade. To this end, the fund engaged in certain exchange transactions, in the formulation of policies for the use of the fund’s resources, and in advising and consulting with many of its members with regard to their monetary and finan¬ cial problems and policies. Exchange operations of the fund are summarized in the accompanying table. Exchange Operations of the International Monetary Fund (In millions) 1948 U.S. Belgian Dollars Francs

Country

United Kingdom. France. Netherlands. India. Belgium. Union of South Africo. Mexico. Denmark. Chile. Czechoslovakia. Norway. Turkey. Costa Rica. Nicaraguo. Ethiopia.

60.0

Total..

196.6

16.5 68.3 22.0 1 0.0

300

1947 U.S. Pounds Dollars Sterling

240.0 125.0 46.0

22.5 3.4 8.8

6.8 6.0 5.0

1.5

11.0

200 5.0

1.2 0.5 0.3 500

461.7

1.5

Membership of the fund increased to 47 with the admission of Finland and Austria. Aggregate quotas of members of the fund as of Dec. 31, 1948, totalled $8,034,000,000, compared with $7,921,500,000 as of Dec. 31, 1947. In April 1948 it was decided that, in examining all requests for exchange, the fund would have to take into account the United States government’s European Recovery program and that during its first year member countries participating in that program should request the purchase of U.S. dollars from the fund only in exceptional or unforeseen circumstances. During 1948 the fund established par values for the curren¬ cies of the Dominican Republic and Brazil. The par values were those proposed by the respective countries and were based upon the following rates for the U.S. dollar: Country

Currency

Date Established

U.S. Cents per Currency Unit

Dominican Republic. Brazil.

Peso Cruzeiro

April 23, 1948 July 14, 1948

100 5.4

Certain member countries had not yet established par values because it was felt that domestic conditions did not warrant their adoption. These member countries were Austria, China, Finland, Greece, Italy, Poland, Uruguay and Yugoslavia. In

389

INTERNATIONAL TRADE July 1948 the Bank of Mexico suspended dealings in foreign exchange at the rate of 4.85 pesos to the dollar and the Mexi¬ can government began consultations with the fund regarding establishment of a new par value. France, for reasons explained below, had no agreed par value after Jan. 1948, but remained in continuous consultation with the fund. The fund did not in any way discourage its members from altering their par values as a means of overcoming difficulties of balance of payments. In Dec. 1948 Colombia proposed a change of the par value of its currency from approximately r.75 pesos to the U.S. dollar to approximately 1.95 pesos; the fund concurred. This change was accompanied by certain modifications in the country’s mul¬ tiple currency system, designed to curb imports and lessen the drain on foreign exchange reserves. The fund continued to regard achievement of a code of fair practices in the international monetary field as one of its pri¬ mary objectives. In Jan. 1948 the fund found itself in disagreement with a proposal by the government of France to devalue the franc and institute a discriminatory currency arrangement involving a premium market for dollars and certain other currencies. The fund did not object to a devaluation of the franc, but regarded the introduction of a premium market as undesirable and potentially harmful both to France and to other member coun¬ tries. Despite the opinion of the fund, France proceeded with the proposed arrangement and thereafter no longer had a par value agreed upon with the fund. In Oct. 1948, France elimi¬ nated the premium market for dollars with respect to trade transactions. The fund welcomed this step as evidence of the desire of the French government to restore an orderly system of exchange rates. Also in accord with its objective of promoting exchange sta¬ bility, the fund continued in 1948 its efforts to stop external gold transactions at premium prices. It called for the more vigorous enforcement of the gold regulations of certain coun¬ tries, especially importing countries. It also studied various gold production subsidies and, in the case of subsidies initiated by Southern Rhodesia, it indicated its objections to the meas¬ ures taken. Following the fund’s comments, the United King¬ dom notified the fund that the Southern Rhodesian government undertook to introduce legislation at the next session of the Southern Rhodesian parliament to bring its practices into con¬ formity with the fund’s principles. In Jan. 1948 the fund began publication of its first monthly bulletin. International Financial Statistics, and in July 1948 its weekly bulletin, entitled International Financial News Survey, first appeared. {See also Banking; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates; International Trade.) (A. N. 0.)

International Refngee Organization: see

•

Refugees.

In 1948 international trade continned to be characterized by an

unbalanced flow of goods geographically. There was some im¬ provement, however, as exports from many European and some far eastern countries increased, and as most countries reduced their excessive trade deficits with the United States by restrict¬ ing imports and increasing exports to that country. Neverthe¬ less, dependence upon the United States remained unusually heavy. The volume and direction of the flow of international trade continued to be conditioned by the lack of full economic recover)^ in some of the war-torn areas, the consequent limited availabilities of customary exports and the continued need of abnormally heavy imports into those areas; by acute exchange difficulties—shortage of hard currencies, particularly dollars, and inconvertibility of currencies; by bilateral trade arrange¬

ments which, because of exchange problems, continued to be utilized as expedients to permit the movement of trade; and by political disturbances and uncertainties. The total value of world trade in 1948 was believed to be slightly greater than the total of $48,000,000,000 attained in 1947. However, if allowances are made for price rises, the volume was probably a little smaller than in the preceding year, when it about equalled prewar volume. The increased volume of exports from Europe and parts of the far east was not large enough to compensate for the marked decline in United States exports, which set in as foreign gold and dollar resources diminished. Recognizing the desirability of freer international trade on a multilateral basis, 54 countries signed the Final act of the United Nations Conference on International Trade and Em¬ ployment. The conference, which adjourned March 24, 1948, drew up the Havana charter for the International Trade organ¬ ization to be submitted to the various governments for accep¬ tance. Also, by July 31, 1948, 22 of the 23 countries which had participated in the tariff negotiations in Geneva, Switz., dur¬ ing the previous year had put the Geneva agreement on tariffs and trade provisionally into effect. {See Tariffs.) In the following discussions by major areas, values are stated in terms of prices prevailing during the periods indicated. It was estimated that world export prices averaged 205% of 1938 prices during the first half of 1947, rose to an average of 220% during the second half of the year, and 229% during the first quarter of 1948. UnHed States.—U.S. exports continued to decline in 1948 from the all-time high of $4,200,000,000 in the second quarter of 1947. Total value, including re-exports, for the first ten months of 1948, amounted to $10,500,000,000, 19% less than the total value of goods exported during the corresponding period of 1947. The full extent of the decline in goods exported was partially obscured by a rise of about 11% in prices. The volume of goods exported was actually 27% smaller during the first ten months of 1948 than during the first ten months of 1947-

Exports declined to all major areas. The decline generally re¬ flected diminished purchasing power abroad rather than satis¬ faction of demand, but it also indicated some diversion of the import trade of foreign countries to soft currency areas to lessen the abnormal degree of dependence upon the United States. Table I.— Geographic Distribution of United States Foreign Trade Destination or origin

Value (in millions of dollars) 1936—38 1947 1948 Average Jan.-Oct.

Percent of total 1936—38 1947 1948 Average Jan.-Ocf.

Exports* to Canada. Latin American republics. . Europe. United Kingdom .... U.S.S.R. Other European countries ERP countriest. Africa. Asia. Oceania. Other countries.

453.7 484.6 1,242.8 499.2 48.7 694.9 1,128.7 128.2 498.5 90.6 68.1

2,074.0 3,858.0 5,683.0 1,103.2 149.2 4,430.6 5,292.6 821.5 2,329.8 320.3 251.5

1,578.1 2,636.1 3,574.7 539.8 27.2 3,007.7 3,493.9 660.1 1,754.3 118.0 192.8

15.3 16.3 41.9 16.8 1.7 23.4 38.0 4.3 16.8 3.1 2.3

13.5 25.1 37.1 7.2 1.0 28.9 34.5 5.4 15.2 2.1 1.6

15.0 25.1 34.0 5.1 .3 28.6 33.2 6.3 16.7 1.1 1.8

Total.

2,966.5

15,338.1

10,514.1

100.0

100.0

100.0

Imports! from Conoda. Latin Americon republics. . Europe. United Kingdom .... U.S.S.R. Other European countries ERP countries!. Africa. Asia. Oceania. Other countries.

344.8 542.4 709.4 173.8 25.1 510.5 606.5 66.1 748.2 40.2 37.8

1,095.1 2,149.9 820.1 204.9 77.1 538.1 695.4 327.3 1,050.0 155.8 135.2

1,241.7 1,931.4 896.8 235.7 65.2 595.9 777.3 348.6 1,081.9 139.8 158.8

13.8 21.8 28.5 7.0 1.0 20.5 24.4 2.7 30.1 1.6 1.5

19.1 37.5 14.3 3.6 1.3 9.4 12.1 5.7 18.3 2.7 2.4

21.4 33.3 15.5 4.1 1.1 10.3 13.4 6.0 18.7 2.4 2.7

Total.

2,488.9

5,733.4

5,799.0

100.0

100.0

100.0

‘Including re exports. tincluding Austria, Belgium-Luxembourg, Denmark, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Sweden, Switzerland, Trieste, Turkey ond United Kingdom. tGeneral imports.

INTERNATIONAL TRADE

390

U.S. imports meanwhile increased substantially, amounting to $5,800,000,000 during the first ten months of 1948, 24% greater than the value during the corresponding period of the preceding year. Because prices were up by 11%, only a little more than half of the increase in the value of imports was due to increased volume of goods imported. Although increases were registered in imports from almost all of the major areas, those from Europe and Asia were still relatively low, primarily because of limited availabilities of goods from these areas. Table II.— Value

of Principal Commodities in United States Foreign Trade

(In millions of dollars) 1936-38 Averoge

Commodity Exports* Agricultural exports, total. Meat products and edible fats. . Dairy products and eggs. Wheat including wheat flour. Fruits and vegetables. Tobacco, unmanufactured. Cotton, raw. Nonagricultural exports, total. Rubber manufacture, including synthetic. . . Textiles and textile manufactures. Coal. Petroleum and products. Iron and steei-mili products. Machinery. Automobiles, parts and accessories .... Chemicals and related products. Importst Agricultural imports, total. Fruits, edible nuts and vegetables. Coffee.. Cane sugar. Crude rubber. Vegetable oils (expressed) & oil seeds . . Tobacco, unmanufactured •••».... Wool, unmanufactured. Raw silk. Nonagricultural imports, total. Fish, including shellfish. Undressed furs. Paper and poper materials. Petroleum and products. . Diamonds, gems: cut, unset. Nonferrous ores and metals. Chemicols and related products.

1947

1948 Jan.-Oct,

778.2 43.3 5.7 61.5 98.1 142.5 312.7 2,146.9 25.5 87.2 56.2 344.3 198.7 433.6 285.8 127.0

3,910.8 263.3 366.7 1,293.6 347.9 270.9 420.0 11,249.1 211.2 1,417.6 619.9 641.7 824.8 2,353.6 1,102.6 849.6

2,773.6 108.6 210.4 1,222.4 224.8 177.6 337.3 7,639.9 109.4 702.4 414.1 557.7 543.8 1,897.2 762.9 644.4

1,259.5 80.6 140.8 151.5 178.6

2,754.2 188.7 601.3 410.5 316.7 248.5 90.7 208.9 15.7 2,889.2 83.0

2,605.4 182.2 551.0 278.7 248.9 191.7

t

32.6 57.4 99.3 1,201.7 30.9 65.1

121.6

221.1

656.7 250.4 53.5 452.4 105.2

41.5 23.2 156.1 86.9

66.2 12.8

272.7 3,170.1 90.2 138.2 627.0 329.8 48.3 506.3 95.1

Table IV.— Foreign

^United States merchandise, timports for consumption. ^Not available.

Trade of Selected Latin American Republics

(In thousands of U.S. dollars)

The decrease in U.S. exports and the increase in imports re¬ sulted in a decline of 43% in the United States export balance. Nevertheless, the balance was still abnormally large, and con¬ tinued assistance from the United States in the form of loans and grants was necessary to make possible the flow of essential supplies to foreign countries. The Foreign Assistance act of 1948, authorizing aid to countries participating in the European Recovery program and aid to China was enacted in April, and the program was in full operation by midsummer, (See European Recovery Program.)

Canada.—Canadian foreign trade in 1948 was highlighted by intensive efforts to balance imports and exports with the United States. Total trade with all countries was expected to Table III.— Geographic Origin or destination

reach a record high; for the first ten months imports totalled $2,167,000,000 and exports $2,465,000,000, The extent and variety of Canadian trade in 1948 was sharply influenced by the existence of import controls designed to con¬ serve Canadian holdings of U.S. dollars. As a result, imports from the United States for the first ten months amounted to $1,486,000,000, a reduction of more than $174,000,000 from the same period in 1947. Likewise, the percentage of Canadian imports from the United States as compared with imports from all sources was reduced from 77% in the first ten months of 1947 to 69% for the same period in 1948. Import restrictions and an export promotion program enabled the dominion to increase its bfficial reserves of gold and U.S. dollars from $500,000,000 on Nov. 13, 1947, to $854,900,000 at the end of Sept. 1948. Canadian imports from the United Kingdom were maintained in 1948 at a considerably higher level than in 1947 largely be¬ cause of Canada’s intentional diversion of its purchases from dollar to sterling areas and because of the United Kingdom’s increased productivity and ability to supply Canadian needs. On the export side, the United Kingdom continued to be an im¬ portant customer but on a smaller scale. Latin America.—On the basis of available statistics, imports into the Latin American republics during 1948 were estimated to be somewhat less than the record level of $5,670,000,000 attained in 1947. Indications were that Latin American exports during 1948 probably exceeded the previous high total of $5,640,000,000, reached in 1947. There was a great reduction in the Latin American import balance in the trade with the United States. Traditionally the Latin American republics had had an export surplus in their trade with the United States, and the accumulation on mer-

Distribution of Canadian Foreign Trade*

Jonuory-October Value (in millions of Canadian dollars) Percent of total 1938 1947 1948 1938 1947 1948

Importst from United Kingdom .... Other British countries . . United States. Latin American republics. Europe (except British). . Other countries ....

101.2 55.7 358.1 13.8 32.6 8.5

151.3 135.2 1,660.0 133.4 49.3 21.5

246.6 168.8 1,486.0 187.8 50.8 26.7

17.8 9.8 62.8 2.4 5.7 1.5

7.0 6.3 77.2 6.2 2.3 1.0

11.4 7.8 68.6 8.7 2.3 1.2

Total.

569.9

2,1 50.7

2,166.8

100.0

100.0

100.0

Exports t to United Kingdom .... Other British countries . . United States. Latin American republics . Europe (except British). . Other countries «...

278.4 85.6 218.9 14.6 60.5 24.7

609.4 340.6 841.0 103.2 286.5 74.9

581.7 263.6 1,195.8 99.3 260.6 64.2

40.8 12.5 32.1 2.1 8.9 3.6

27.0 15.1 37.3 4.6 12.7 3.3

23.6 10.7 48.5 4.0 10.6 2.6

100.0

100.0

100.0

Total. 682.7 2,255.6 2,465.1 ^Excluding gold. flmports for consumption. ^Domestic merchandise. Note.—Figures may not odd to totals due to rounding.

1947 Exports from: Argentina. . . . Brazil. Chile. Colombia. . . . Cuba. Mexico. Peru. Uruguay . • • .

1,639,359 1,145,806 280,043 254,400 746,592 443,093 154,253 162,503

Imports into: Argentina. . . Brazil. Chile. Colombia.... Cuba. Mexico. Peru. Uruguay ....

1,307,708 1,216,948 269,965 362,600 519,890 665,441 167,999 215,262

Total 1948 Jan.—June 938,815 526,755 153,050 130,300

t

260,819 75,255 103,292 740,859 643,868 124,870 181,500

t

273,979 87,497 88,442

Trade with United Stotes 1947 1948 162,986 444,376 1 24,574 210,643* 497,706 340,998 45,137 46,473

85,111 231,567 86,041

594,380 746,273 117,843 259,622* 436,448 588,392 97,888 82,355

351,053 332,804 51,456

t t

183,901 19,019 36,157

t t

241,303 44,809 31,206

*Estimated. fNot Avoilable.

chandise trade account was greatly increased during World War II when Latin American exports were in great demand and imports were difficult to obtain. As consumer goods and capital equipment became increasingly available from the United States, buying from that source increased and the Latin American export balance changed to an import balance which became very heavy in 1947. About 40% of Latin American exports in 1947 went to the United States, as compared with 32% in 1936-38 and 50% in 1943 and 1944. The United States share of Latin American imports in 1947 was at the record ratio of 63%, as against 33% in 1936-38 and about 60% during the war years. Indications were that the United States share in Latin American imports declined during 1948, owing to the depletion of dollar reserves in the Latin American area. United Kingdom.—Although the United Kingdom’s position

INTERNATK NAL TRADE on merchandise trade account showed definite signs of improve¬ ment during the first ii months of 1948, there was still a large gap between imports and exports, part of which was met by expanding returns from invisible items such as shipping and investment. The remainder was made up by grants and loans made available to Britain under the European Recovery program. The relatively large reduction in Britain’s deficit in its overseas merchandise trade during 1948 greatly improved its adverse balance-of-payments position. The official export target for the end of 1948 was set at 150% of tho 1938 export rate. As of Nov. 1948 the volume Table V.—Value of Trade of the United Kingdom with Principal Countries (In millions of pounds) Jan.-Oct.

Country Imports* from; Eire. Sweden. Denmark. France. British West Africa. India, Pakistan, etc. Ceylon. Australia. New Zealond.. . Canada . United States. Argentina. Other countries.

1938

Jan-Oct.

1947

1947

1948

35.2 41.1 27.0 31.4 52.9 94.4 22.6 97.1 89.6 230.3 294.9 130.7 153.8

27.1 33.0 24.6 26.5 45.6 77.8 18.7 76.0 79.4 193.1 254.6 108.4 532.6

32.6 42.6 35.9 35.5 65.8 86.5 23.2 132.8 93.4 185.5 158.4 96.3 735.4

Total.

1,301.0

1,497.4

1,723.9

Exports t to: ' Eire. Denmark. Netherlands. Belgium. France. Union of South Africa .... India, Pakistan, etc. Australia .. New Zealand. Canada . United Stotes. Argentina. Other countries.

55.9 25.0 30.8 33.6 23.6 91.8 91.6 71.8 43.1 43.4 47.9 34.7 543.9

43.7 21.5 24.9 26.7 19.8 76.4 77.4 56.1 32.8 34.5 38.6 29.4 443.6

62.8 23.3 36.5 31.5 29.6 97.9 88.2 119.0 42.2 55.8 55.0 41.2 607.4

1,137.1

925.4

1,290.4

... . . .

9.2 49.9

. . .

118.0

... .

385.2

...

13.1

... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . . .

■ 39.5 33.8 38.2 19.2 22.5 20.4 19.3 205.4

Total. . . . 470.8 *General imports. fUnited Kingdom produce and manufactures.

index of exports (1938 = 100) stood at 148 (provisional). The value of exports plus re-exports during the first ii months of 1948 increased by 38% over the corresponding period of 1947. Total exports, including re-exports, to the United States during Jan.-Oct. 1948 were up by 13% over the corresponding period of the preceding year; the increase in exports of British goods to the United States was 43%. The value of imports into the United Kingdom increased by 16%, comparing the first ii months of 1948 with the corres¬ ponding period in 1947. However, imports from the United States dropped by 38%—from a total of £255,000,000 in Jan.Oct. 1947, to £158,000,000 during the same period in 1948. In an effort to save dollars, the British government tried, wherever possible, to shift purchases from hard to soft currency coun¬ tries. Britain’s postwar trade position with Europe represented a substantial reversal of the prewar situation. In 1938 Britain had an import balance of £101,000,000 in its trade with the European continent; in 1947, the trade resulted in a British export balance of £10,800,000 and statistics for the period Jan.-Oct. 1948 showed a British import balance of only £2,300,000. Under the Intra-European Payments plan for 1948-49 Britain agreed to release sterling balances of European coun¬ tries participating in the European Recovery program in the amount of £52,000,000 and to give £70,000,000 net drawing rights to France, Austria, Italy, Greece, Bizonia and the French zone of Germany to help finance their anticipated deficits for this period with the sterling area. Continental Europe.—Indications during the first half of 1948 were that the European economy was gradually moving

391

Table VI,—Value of Foreign Trade of BRP Countries (In millions of U.S. dollars) Imports Country

1938

1947*

Exports

1948*

1938

1947*

Austria • . . . Belgium-Luxembourg Denmark . . . Eire. France , • . . Germany! . . Greece. • • , Iceland. • . . Italy. Netherlands. . Norway . . . Portugal . . . Sweden . . . Switzerland . . Turkey . , . . United Kingdom

272.81 779.2 354.6 202.5 1,325.7 2,188.6 132.2

11.1

592.9 778.2 293.0

101.8

524.8 367.4 118.9 4,495.8

185.0 1,951.4 643.2 527.1 2,910.5 896.9 274.6 79.9 1,516.8{ 1,602.9 767.9 380.3 1,437.1 1,125.9 244.6 7,203.511

180.5 22 8.41 1,007.0 732.0 311.3 334.9 302.5 116.7 1,709.81 880.4 718.9 2,111.4 116.2 90.9 32.1 12.9 764.31 552.1 886.4 571.6 333.2 193.2 188.6 50.4 682.2 464.5 656.6 301.1 126.4 115.0 4,133.711 2,301.7

Total. • . . 12,539.5 21,747.6 12,149.7 9,057.2 *Preliminary. t1 937 data. jProvisional. §Flgure$ for 1947 and 1948 refer to western Germany. llExcludes re-exports. fGeneral imports.

1948* Jan.-June

Jan.—June

80.5 84.2 816.7 1,405.7 268.4 482.6 79.4 156.3 969.01 1,787.7 291.4 303.5 27.4 56.8 30.6 44.7 746.41 429.81 700.8 444.0 204.5 365.0 173.1 81.1 894.2 490.1 372.0 763.3 72.6 223.3 4,582.411 2,996.411 1 2,770.0

7,653.9

toward recovery and stability. The total value of exports from ERP countries during the first half of 1948 rose about 30% and the value of imports about 20% more than the 1947 level for the area. Even after allowance for price increases, a sub¬ stantially greater volume of trade was indicated. The unfavour¬ able balance of trade, though smaller in 1948, was still ab¬ normally large and was accompanied by difficult payment prob¬ lems and dollar shortages. Of special importance was the changing pattern of European imports and exports. In 1938, 11% of the value of imports into the ERP countries came from the United States; in 1947, 26.4%. This proportion fell to 19.6% for the first six months of 1948. The trend of European trade volume and distribution during 1948 showed a rising volume of trade within Europe, both CONVEYOR at the Austin Motor Co. plant in Birmingham, Eng. As a 1948 export target, British cars found substantial markets abroad during 1948, with production limited mainly by a shortage of steel

392

INTERSTATE COMMERCE COMMISSION

within the ERP area and between east and west, as well as with the outside world. At the same time it demonstrated a trend away from the marked dependence on the United States which characterized the early postwar period. Payment problems and trade controls continued to retard European trade. A major 1948 development was the IntraEuropean Payments plan, designed to mitigate the exchange difficulties and facilitate the flow of trade within Europe. (See p. 391.) Near East.—In most countries of the near east there was a trade deficit in 1948 as exports tended to decline and imports remained at a relatively high level. A record import surplus was indicated in Turkey, and large unfavourable balances for Iraq, Lebanon and Syria. Disturbances in Palestine, normally an important market for adjacent countries, had serious reper¬ cussions on the trade of Iraq, Lebanon and Syria, and necessi¬ tated tightening of trade and exchange controls. The situation in Egypt was more favourable, with the turnover exceeding that of 1947 and a possible export surplus indicated as con¬ trasted with an import balance in the previous year. In Iran data for the first half of the year showed an improvement in commercial exports. A gradual expansion in the trading orbit of most of the coun¬ tries was evident in 1948, with imports from the United States restricted by the limited supply of dollars. Southern Asia.—The trade of India, Pakistan, Ceylon and Afghanistan was maintained at high levels in 1948 in spite of difficulties arising from the partition of India, inadequacy of transportation and exchange problems. Pakistan reported a net export surplus of 533,900,000 rupees (approximately U.S. $160,000,000) for its total sea-borne trade for the year ended Aug. 31, 1948. Through Sept. 1948, Ceylon had exported 743,228,000 rupees’ (approximately U.S. $224,000,000) worth of goods and im¬ ported goods valued at 752,184,000 rupees (approximately U.S. $227,000,000). The value of Afghanistan trade was not known. Southern Asiatic countries contributed to the United States imports an average amount of $98,000,000 a quarter for the first three quarters of 1948. The area received U.S. merchan¬ dise valued at an average of $83,000,000 a quarter for the first three quarters of 1948. An increasing concern for favourable prices for exports was noted in the area, and a number of bilateral trading arrange¬ ments were concluded. A food shortage in the area made large imports of grain imperative, and a large portion of total im¬ ports were accounted for in this way. A shortage of dollars plagued India in particular, and although Pakistan, Afghanistan and Ceylon were relatively well supplied, their supply was in¬ adequate to meet their needs. Far East.—Foreign trade in the far east continued in 1948 to be characterized by; (i) a shortage of hard currencies; (2) im¬ port and exchange controls; (3) continuing inflation; and (4) disruption of the intraregional trade pattern. In China, Man¬ churia, Indo-China, Indonesia and Burma, continuation of civil strife greatly contributed to the paralysis of industrial recovery and directly interfered with indigenous production for domestic and foreign consumption. Governments in the area continued to enforce stringent trade control measures in order to preserve the rapidly dissipating hard currency assets. As a result, foreign trade was taken out of private hands and became largely a governmental function. Japan, Korea, China and the Philippines, principal benefi¬ ciaries of United States aid programs, were partially relieved from the dollar famine. U.S. expenditures, however, were not sufficient to offset a deficit in foreign trade with hard currency

Table VII.— Value of Foreign Trade of Far Eastern Countries iln millions of U.S. dollars) Imports Country

)947

1948 Jan.-June

Exports 1948 Jan.-June 971 141* 100 231 39 56 176 306 161 129 77 174 t t 379 609 174 266 95 87 § 3 9 1947

Burma. 160* t 139 China. 650 74 French Indo-China. 127 247 Hong Kong. 390 197 Indonesia. 285 348 Japan. 526 Korea. t t 426 Malaya and Singapore. 643 303 Philippines, Republic of the. ... 511 67 § Siam. 113 4 French Oceania. 7 Note: Figures are preliminary and subject to revision; figures for the first half yeor should not be used as a basis for projection of trade for whole year, since political and economic conditions In many of the countries deteriorated more rapidly in the last six months of 1 948. ' *Oct. 1 946~Sept. 1 947. fNot available. lEstimates from port of Rangoon only. §Trade through port of Bangkok only, trade through provinces not available*

areas. Additional factors hampering the recovery of the far east in 1948 were the world-wide shortage of capital equipment re¬ quired for reconstruction and the disruption of the intraregional trade pattern. The former interdependence of the economies of the far eastern countries, particularly southeast Asia and in¬ dustrial Japan, was evident in the intra-area trade. Southern British Dominions.—Australian foreign trade reached record proportions for the year ended June 30, 1948, with merchandise imports valued at £A.338,ooo,ooo and mer¬ chandise exports at £A.4o7,000,000. Higher prices accounted for a large part of the increase. New Zealand’s foreign trade for the first half of 1948 also reached record proportions. Exports for the period were valued at £NZ.9t,500,000, an increase of 23% more than the cor¬ responding period of 1947, and imports at £NZ.7i,200,000, an increase of 34%. Here again, a large part of the increase was due to increased prices, but there was an increase of 5% in export volume and 18% in import volume, comparing the Jan.June period of 1948 with the Jan.-June period of 1947. Both Australia and New Zealand exercised more rigid control over their imports, primarily to conserve limited dollar exchange resources. Merchandise imports into the Union of South Africa during Jan.-July 1948 were estimated at approximately £SA.i93,4oo,000 and merchandise exports at £SA.7o,7oo,ooo, compared with £SA. 178,000,000 and £SA.51,500,000, respectively, during the corresponding period of 1947. Exports of gold bullion during the first seven months of 1948 amounted to £SA.83,300,000, compared with £SAm 01,300,000 during the first seven months of 1947. Imports from hard currency areas, particularly the United States, remained at a very high level. On Nov. 5, 1948, the Union of South Africa reimposed a comprehensive system of import control. (See

also Business Review; Exchange Control and Ex¬

change Rates;

International Bank for Reconstruction

AND Development;

International Monetary Fund;

Tar¬

iffs.) Films.—Round Trip (Twentieth Century Fund).

International Trade Organization: see

(G. L. Bl.)

Tariffs.

Interstate Commerce Commission, "we^oi Interstate Commerce commission are set forth in the Interstate Commerce act, originally approved Feb. 4, 1887, as the Act to Regulate Commerce and later amended in many important par¬ ticulars. The act is divided into four parts and deals with the regulation of rail, motor and water carriers and freight for¬ warders. The regulatory powers of the commission extend, among other things, to the charges made by these carriers for

INTESTINAL DISORDERS—I NTOXICATION. ALCOHOLIC transportation services; to questions involving the valuation and financial reorganization of railroads; to the issuance of securi¬ ties; to the acquisition or control of these various carriers by other carriers or persons; to their accounting practices and the abandonment of lines of railway; and to matters involving the determination of whether public convenience and necessity re¬ quire the institution of new services by motor and water car¬ riers or by freight forwarders, or for the construction and operation of lines of railway. There was no change in the membership of the ii commis¬ sioners during 1948. Commissioner J. Monroe Johnson con¬ tinued to serve as director of the Office of Defense Transpor¬ tation. Commissioner William E. Lee served as chairman dur¬ ing 1948. Commissioner Charles D. Mahaffie was named chair¬ man for the year 1949. Section 5a of the act, commonly known as the Reed-Bulwinkle act, was enacted June 17, 1948. It authorized carriers as defined therein to apply to the commission for approval of any agreements between or among two or more such carriers relating to rates and other matters coming within the language of that section, upon such terms and conditions as the com¬ mission might prescribe. The carriers subject to the commission’s jurisdiction con¬ tinued to be confronted during the year with mounting costs of labour and materials. In response to their petitions for in¬ creased revenues to meet the higher transportation costs, the commission, after hearings on Dec. 29, 1947, authorized a tem¬ porary increase of 20%, generally speaking, of all basic freight rates and charges. This was superseded by authority on April 13, 1948, for increases of 30% within eastern territory, 25% within southern territory and 20% within western territory, generally speaking, but with important exceptions. The com¬ mission’s final report in this proceeding. Ex Parte No. 166, was issued on July 27, 1948, which modified in certain respects the increases which had been previously authorized. With these in¬ creases the rail freight rates averaged about 44% higher than the general level of rates in effect in 1939. On Oct. I, 1948, the rail carriers requested further authority to increase their freight rates and charges an additional 8%, with certain exceptions, which was subsequently modified by amended petition seeking authority to make the general in¬ crease 13%, with certain exceptions. The carriers at the same time sought authority for an interim increase of 8%. The commission thereupon instituted an investigation. Ex Parte No. 168, Increased Freight Rates, ig48. The investigation and peti¬ tion were assigned for hearing. There were also pending before the commission 20 complaints filed by the Reconstruction Finance corporation, and by the attorney general in the name of the United States of America, assailing the rates charged by the rail carriers for transporta¬ tion of freight for the federal government as unreasonable. Large amounts of reparation were sought. Hearings therein were postponed on the request of the government. (W. E. Le.)

Intestinal Disorders: see

Alimentary System, Disorders

OF.

Intoxication, Aicolioiic. alcoholism is a medicosocial issue having health and welfare implications. The membership of “Alcoholics Anonymous,” an organization which could be considered as a social reform move¬ ment dealing with this specific phase of social order, publicized its experiences with alcoholics and called attention to the need for communities to accept the problem as a social welfare and health responsibility.

393

Citizens’ committees were also organized in many U.S. cities to survey the alcohol problem locally, and several states estab¬ lished machinery to study or ameliorate the problem. The provisional agenda of the first World Health assembly, held in Geneva, Switz., in June 1948, called for discussions and an international study of alcoholism. This proposal had for its object the correlation of laboratory and clinical research on the effects of alcohol upon the human organism; the promotion of training for those expected to deal with the problem; the dis¬ semination of information to the general public; and the ex¬ change of information on technical and administrative aspects of the program. The year witnessed the formal inauguration of a research and clinical centre by the Yale Institute of Alcohol Studies in co-operation with the Texas Christian university at Fort Worth, Tex. The Research Council on Problems of Alcohol gave an initial grant to the biochemical institute of the University of Texas medical school at Galveston for research on individual patterns of metabolism of alcohol; and a grant-in-aid for the support of a five-year program of study at Cornell university medical college. New York. Although alcoholism was still regarded in some quarters as a moral and revenue issue, it had nevertheless become more and more apparent that solution or amelioration of the problem of chronic alcoholism involved effective application of a program embracing education, research and treatment. It was conceded by many that the latter was in large measure a public responsi¬ bility to be met by providing community clinics and hospital services and facilities for therapy. Publications on the subject in 1948 continued to emphasize that the requisites for successful treatment of chronic alcohol¬ ism must be a sincere desire to recover, average or better intelli¬ gence, maturity, and undamaged mental equipment. The use of spinal drainage in the treatment of delirium tre¬ mens was advocated in some quarters, but such a procedure had long since been abandoned by the most informed. Favourable results were reported, however, from the use of phenobarbital and sodium dilantin combined with the intravenous administra¬ tion of 1,000 to 2,000 c.c. of a 10% dextrose solution in normal saline, to which is added 100,000 to 200,000 units of thiamin hydrochloride and 25 units of insulin. Favourable results were also reported from the intravenous and intramuscular adminis¬ tration of calcium preparations combined with vitamin B, ascor¬ bic acid and cardiac stimulants. Claims that the intravenous use of alcohol had value in the treatment of delirium tremens were repudiated by the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry of the American Medical association. ^ Research conducted during 1948 substantiated previous ob¬ servations that methionine as a supplement to dietary treatment of cirrhosis of the liver has significant value; that alcohol has no effect in the production of atherosclerosis but appears to play a role in producing pancreatitis; and that the indiscriminate use of amphetamine may tend to increase the need for further anaesthesia among those who drink because of anxiety. The National Safety council expanded the activities of the committee on tests for intoxication by inaugurating studies of the comparable values and accuracy of different, methods for the analysis of body fluids for alcohol, by establishing a system for certifying technicians qualified to make such chemical tests and unifying the methods of collecting and disseminating informa¬ tion on the results of such tests. Courts of law continued to render favourable opinions on the admissibility as evidence of chemical tests showing the amount of alcohol in the blood of motor vehicle traffic violators. There were, however, no enact¬ ments of state laws providing for the admissibility of such evidence. {See also Liquors, Alcoholic.)

INVENTIONS —IOWA

394

Bibliography.—Raymond G. McCarthy and Edgar M. Douglass, “In.struction on Alcohol Problems in the Public Schools,” Quart. J. Stud, on Alcohol, 8:609-635 (March 1948); Oscar \V. Ritchie, “Sociohistorical Survey of Alcoholics Anonymous,” Quart. J. Stud, on Alcohol, 9:119-156 (June 1948); L. Erwin Wexberg, “Outpatient Treatment of Alcoholics,” Am. J. Psychiat., 104:569-572 (March 1948); Benjamin Karpman, The .ilcoholic Woman (1948); “Alcohol-Dextrose and Dextrose-Vitamin So¬ lutions for Intravenous Infusion Not Acceptable for N. N. R.,” report of the Council on Pharmacy and Chemistry, J. A. M. A., 137:462-463 (May 29, 1948); Z. Klimo, “Importance of Calcium in Treatment of Delirium Tremens,” Praxis, 37:135 (Feb. 19, 1948); “Hepatic Cirrhosis Treated with Methionine,” editorial, J. A. M. A., 136:934-935 (April 3, 1948); C. A. Domzalski and B. M. Wedge, “Elevated Serum Amylase in Alcoholics,” Am. J. Clin. Path., 18:43-47 (Jan. 1948); “Epilepsy and •Vutomobile Accidents: The Drunken Driver,” report of the Bureau of Legal Medicine and Legislation, J. A. M. A., 137:168-169 (May 8, 1948). (W. L. T.)

Inventions: see

Electronics;

Patents;

Standards,

Na¬

tional Bureau of.

Investment Banking: see Banking. Investments, Foreign, in the U.S.: see

Foreign Invest¬

ments.

I J*

_

Iodine production in the United States is not re-

lUUIIIC* ported, but is believed to cover an appreciable per¬ centage of the domestic consumption. Import figures have little significance, as large stocks of Chilean iodine are maintained in the U.S., and imports are brought in not as needed for con¬ sumption, but only ■when needed to replenish stocks. Imports increased from 220,526 lb. in 1945 to 886,578 lb. in 1946, and 2,260,506 lb. in 1947, but over a period of 15 years, imports averaged about 1,000,000 lb. a year. (G. A. Ro.)

IniifO Iowa, popularly known I0W3* as the“Hawkeye state,” was admitted to the union in 1846. Located in the north cen¬ tral region, it comprises 56,280 sq.mi., of which 294 sq.mi. are water. Population in 1940 was 2,538,268, 42.7% classed as urban and 57.3% as rural. Of this number, 99.3% were white and 94.7% were native-born. The U.S. bureau of the census estimated the population at 2,625,000 on July I, 1948. The capital and largest city is Des Moines, with a 1940 population WILLIAM S. BEARDSLEY, Republi¬ of 159,819. Other chief cities can, elected governor of Iowa on are Sioux City, 82,364; Daven¬ Nov. 2, 1948 port, 66,039; Cedar Rapids, 62,120; Waterloo, 31,743; Du¬ buque, 43,892; and Council Bluffs, 41,439. History.—The Iowa legislature did not meet during 1948. The outstanding political event of the year was the presidential election, in which Iowa gave Harry S. Truman 522,380 votes, Thomas E. Dewey 494,018 votes and Henry Wallace 12,125 votes. In the race for United States senator, the incumbent George Wilson (Rep.) was defeated by Guy M. Gillette (Dem.). The following Republican state officers were elected in the Nov. 2, 1948, election: governor, William S. Beardsley; lieu¬ tenant governor,*Kenneth A. Evans; secretary of state, Melvin D. Synhorst; attorney general, Robert L. Larson; auditor, Chet B. Akers; treasurer, John M. Grimes; secretary of agriculture, Harry D. Linn; superintendent of public instruction, Jessie M. Parker. Education.—During the year 1946-47, Iowa had 7,494 public elemen¬ tary schools, 860 public high schools and (1947-48) 23 public junior colleges, with a total of 22,787 teachers and superintendents. Total en¬ rolment in the elementary schools for 1946-47 was 627,650; in the high schools, 114,252; and in the junior colleges, 24,103. In addition, there were 7 private junior colleges, 6 of which rejiorted an enrolment of 1,459 for 1947-48.

Iowa has 26 colleges and universities with an enrolment of 44,952 for the year 1948, an increase of 1,195 over 1947. The state supported three institutions of higher learning: the State University of Iowa, at Iowa City; the Iowa State College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, at Ames; and the State Teachers college, at Cedar Falls. The number of veterans enrolled in Iowa colleges for the year 1948 was 19,056, a decrease of 2,669 from the total for 1947. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.— The 1947-48 state appropriation for old-age assistance was $12,000,000; for aid to dependent children, $375,000; and for aid to the blind, $300,000. The total old-age assistance payments of the state for the year ending June 30, 1948, amounted to $24,332,996.99, of which $12,638,200 was contributed by the federal government. Contributions to the state unemployment insurance fund, as of June 30, 1948, totalled $10,051,142.62. During the fiscal year 1947-48, $2,415,096.96 was paid out of this fund in benefit payments, leaving a balance in the reserve fund of $80,707,025.11. The state penal and correctional institutions, as of Oct. 1948, had the following inmates: men’s reformatory, Anamosa, 741; training school for boys, Eldora, 160; Iowa state penitentiary, Fort Madison, 1,141; training school for girls, Mitchellville, 82; women’s reformatory, Rockwell City, 77. The state has four hospitals for the insane, with a total of 6,482 inmates in 1948. There were 3,524 patients in the two state schools for the feeble-minded. Communications.—Iowa had 102,425 mi. of roads in 1948, 9,709 mi. being state primary roads, 13,788 mi. county trunk roads and 78,928 mi. county local roads. There were 6,450 mi. of paved highway, 922 mi. of bituminous surfaced roads and 2,307 mi. of gravel roads. The state is served by 12 major railroads, with a total track mileage of 10,144.71 in 1948. These roads carried, in 1947, 9,542,508 passengers and 97,949,860 tons of freight. There were 37 radio stations in 22 cities in the state, most of the larger cities having at least 2. Eighty-seven per cent of Iowa’s farms and 76.6% of the families in the state had telephones; the total number in use was about 745,000. Banking and Finance-There were 96 national banks, as of June 30, 1948, with total resources of $793,677,000 and total deposits of $750.997,000. The state-chartered banks numbered 558 on June 30, 1948, with total assets of $1,570,523,009 and deposits of $1,478,567,677. The estimated revenue from all ta.xes in Iowa for 1948 was $145,800,000. The 2% general sales tax and the 2% use tax, the latter on articles purchased outside the state, accounted for about 37% of the total. Other large sources of tax revenue were: motor vehicle fuels. 17.3%; motor vehicle and operators’ licences, 11.8%; individual income, 11.4%; and pay-roll taxes, 7.3%. Iowa has no state debt. The net appropriable balance in the state treasury on June 30, 1948, was $72,096,033.30. Appropriations for the fiscal year beginning July i, 1948, were $71,961,682. Agriculture.—There were 204,208 farms in Iowa on Jan. i, 1948, com¬ pared with 213,318 in 1940. Of the total, 48.3% were owner-operated and 51.7% were tenant-operated. In 1940, 47% of the farms in Iowa were tenant-operated. The total cash income of Iowa farmers in 1947 was $2,410,111,000, of which $1,948,017,000 was from livestock, $449,970,000 from crops and $12,124,000 from government payments. The total was more than $600,000,000 higher than in 1946, and almost double the farm income of 1942. On Jan. 1, 1948, there were 26,944 auto trucks, 200,043 trac¬ tors and 62,907 mechanical corn pickers.

Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Iowa, 1948 and 1947, and 10-year Average, 1937—46 Average Crop

Corn, bu. Oats, bu. Wheat, bu. Soybeans (grain), bu. Potatoes, bu. Popcorn, lb. Hay, tons.

1948 lest.)

1947

1937-46

656,909,000 273,375,000 5,970,000 31,972,000 1,344,000 62,500,000 4,066,000

331,360,000 180,609,000 3,252,000 26,310,000 975,000 14,400,000 5,154,000

525,879,000 194,406,000 5,653,000 23,406,000 4,457 000 5,536,000

On Jan. i, 1948, there were on Iowa farms 9,941,000 hogs, 4,722,000 cattle and 785,000 sheep. During 1947, 13,614,918 hogs, 3,153,004 cattle and 1,660,952 sheep were marketed. Manufacturing.—In 1947 there were 3,936 manufacturing plants in Iowa, employing a total of 152,000 persons. The pay rolls of these plants totalled $364,000,000, the average yearly wage being $2,400. The value of the products produced was $1,650,000,000. In 1947 there were 66,492 retail establishments, employing 96,331 people and doing a volume of business which totalled $2,552,390,000. The wholesale establishments of the state numbered 5,802 for 1947, with 40,947 employees and a volume of business of $2,054,894,000.

Table li.—Principal Mineral Products of Iowa, 1946 and 1945 1946

Mineral Cement Clay Coal Gypsum Stone . Sand and gravel

Production 3,527,838 bbl. 455,1 86 tons 2,045,600 tons 430,843 tons 4,026,460 tons 6,030,531 tons

1945

Value $6,220,991 3,980,069 7,178,228 569,964 5,306,299 2,091,391

Production 6,145,324bbl. 696,704 tons 1,554,000 tons 560,094 tons 5,162,540 tons 7,938,572 tons

Value $11,312,627 7,715,916 5,579,000 1,172,500 6,646,273 3,059,792

Mineral Production.—Iowa ranked 29th among the states in the value of mineral products. (M. Te.J

IOWA, STATE UNIVERSITY OF—IRAN

Iowa, State University of. year had its greatest enrolment in 1948, almost 11,000 students, of which about one-half were veterans. The university con¬ ferred its first doctor of philosophy degrees in mass communi¬ cation. Plans for the new communications centre involving all mass communication media were well advanced. New develop¬ ments included the Iowa Hospital school for severely handi¬ capped children. It offers treatment and care, educational opportunities for severely handicapped children and a teacher¬ training program emphasizing instruction techniques for train¬ ing handicapped children. The state-wide atomic education program, the “Marengo Experiment,” sponsored by the uni¬ versity, with other state schools and the state department of public instruction, was the first project of its kind in the nation. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.)

Inw/Q Pnllorro lUWd uldlC uUllwgB.

this land-grant college celebrated its 90th anniversary in ceremonies on the campus March 22, 1948. Although enrolment reached an all-time high during the 1948 fall quarter, there were fewer World War II veterans and fewer women in the student body than at the same time the previous year. Three buildings for the Iowa State College Institute of Atomic Research were under construction in 1948. The first was a $1,000,000 metallurgy building, the second was a $700,000 synchrotron building, and the third a $400,000 office building which linked the physics and chemistry buildings. A fourth building in the group was planned as a laboratory. Construction was also started on a $1,000,000 electrical engineering building. A food processing laboratory was also built. The college was designated as the primary unit in a 12-state regional plant introduction and testing program covering the north central states. Work was placed under the direction of the agricultural experiment station. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) I Known before 1935 as Persia, an independent kingdom irall* of western Asia, bounded on the E. by Pakistan and Afghanistan, on the N. by the U.S.S.R., on the W. by Turkey and Iraq and on the S. by the Persian gulf and Arabian sea. Area: 634,413 sq.mi.; pop. (no census ever taken, mid-1947 est.): 17,000,000. Chief towns (1948 est.): Tehran (cap., 850,000); Meshed (250,000); Tabriz (214,000); Isfahan (205,000); Abadan (150,000); Shiraz (129,000); Resht (122,000); Hamadan (104,000). Language: mainly Persian, but some Turki and Armenian in the N., Kurd in the W., Arabic in the S. and Pashtu in the E. Religion: mainly Shiah Moslem but the Kurds are Sunni; the^e are also c. 50,000 Gregorian Armenians and a few thousand Catholic Armenians, 40,000 Nestorians and 50,000 Jews. Ruler: Shah Mohammed Riza Pahlavi; prime ministers in 1948: Ibrahim Hakimi (Dec. 23, 1947-June 12, 1948), Abdul Hussein Hajir (June i3-Nov.,8, 1948), Moham¬ med Said Maraghei (after Nov. 9). History.—On Jan. 31, 1948, the soviet government pre¬ sented a note to the Iranian government protesting against the terms of the Iranian-American agreement of Oct. 6, 1947, by which the United States agreed to place a military mission at the disposal of Iran for the training of Iran’s armed forces. On Feb. 5, the Iranian government replied to the soviet note rejecting soviet charges and refuting soviet allegations. It also accused the Soviet Union of having protected “adventurous traitors” in Azerbaijan, of giving refuge to Barzani Kurds, and

395

stated that Iranian political refugees were forming military units for the purpose of attacking Iran and were operating a secret radio. On Feb. 17 a bill for the purchase of $10,000,000 worth of arms and equipment for the Iranian army from the U.S. was passed by the Majlis by 79 votes to 6. On March 28 the soviet government sent a second note to the Iranian government. The note described as “an injurious fairy tale” Iran’s allegation that the U.S.S.R. had taken part in the affairs of Azerbaijan. It rejected Iran’s charges that the Soviet Union was giving refuge to antigovernment Iranians and described as “provocative fabrication” the charge that Iranian political refugees were forming military units for the purpose of attacking Iran and were operating a secret radio. On April i the Iranian government replied to the second soviet note, accusing the Moscow government of “purposely denying ascertained and confirmed facts” about soviet inter¬ vention in the internal affairs of Iran. The Iranian note reiter¬ ated previous charges of interference in Iran’s internal affairs. In April it became evident that the majority of deputies in the Majlis were not favourably disposed toward Hakimi’s gov¬ ernment, and early in June that government, having received a vote of no confidence, resigned, and on June 13 Abdul Hussein Hajir was elected prime minister. Hajir’s cabinet from its in¬ ception had only lukewarm support in the Majlis and press, and was inundated with interpolations from deputies, each one re¬ sulting in a weakening of his position as premier. Various bills submitted by him to the Majlis were either blocked or ignored. On Nov. 8 Hajir resigned. The next day Mohammed Said Maraghei, wartime prime minister, who in 1944 rejected the soviet oil concession proposal, was elected premier. On Nov. 16 Said presented his cabinet to the shah, and declared that he wished to maintain friendly relations with the Soviet Union. In accordance with the prevailing mood of the people, Said’s cabinet was mainly formed of politicians not necessarily known for their prosoviet tendencies and policies. On Aug. 28, the Iranian government sent notes to Great Britain and the U.S. asserting that the islands of Bahrein in the Persian gulf were inseparable parts of Iran. The note em¬ phasized that all pacts, agreements and understandings concern¬ ing Bahrein’s resources were invalid if not negotiated with the Iranian government. The question of Palestine roused passions in Iran, and mass demonstrations were held in Tehran condemning Jewish action in Palestine and sympathizing with the Arab cause. The distribution of the waters of the Helmand river on the Iranian-Afghan frontier, which normally irrigates the province of Sistan (southeast Iran), had been a bone of contention be¬ tween Iran and Afghanistan for many years. In 1948 the Iranian government reproached Afghanistan with hindering the flow of Helmand waters to Sistan and threatened to refer the dispute to the United Nations, but the U.S. government offered mediation for a friendly settlement. Education.—(1938) 8,381 schools, 457,236 pupils, 13,078 teachers, i university at Tehran (opened in 1934). Illiteracy: c. 80%. Finance.—Budget (1946-47 est.): revenue 5,559,068,000 rials (with stocks in hand 7,799,068,531); expenditure 7,762,443,000 rials. Currency circulation (Dec. 1947): 6,815,058,800 rials; gold reserve (Dec. 1947): 4,117,573,423 rials. Official exchange rate: £1=130 rials, or i rial=3.077 U.S. cents; “free market” rate (May 1948): £1=260 rials. In converting the Iranian foreign trade statistics, a rate of £1=200 rials was used. Foreign Trade.—Iranian statistics are kept in two parts, the first re¬ lating to “commercial” imports and exports, the second to goods which are imported or exported free of duty (by, e.g., Anglo-Iranian Oil Co., Societe Mahie, diplomatic corps, etc.). (March 21, 1946-March 20, 1947) Im¬ ports: “commercial” £27,433,000. “noncommercial” £8,608,000; exports: “commercial” £17,133,000, “noncommercial” £62,976,000; “commercial” trade balance: -£10,300,000; “noncommercial” trade balance: -|-£54,368,000. Transport and Communications.—Roads (1948 est.): C. 17,000 mi., about one-fifth asphalted and badly in need of repair. Railways open to traffic

IRAQ.iron and steel

396

(1948): 1,748 mi.; rolling stock.: locomotives 226, freight cars and coaches 4,139. Telephones (1947): subscribers 16,000. Agriculture.—Main crops (1947 est., in metric tons): wheat 2,500,000, barley 1,500,000; rice 420,000; tea 4,000; tobacco 12,000; cotton 14,000. Livestock (1945 est.): horses 2,038,250; cattle 2,661,200; donkeys 1,150,700; sheep 15,451,500; goats 6,954,000; camels 75,400. Industry.—Production (1948 est., in metric tons): crude oil (AngloIranian Oil Co.) 20,000.000; coal 150,000; copper ore 1,000; sulphur 600; cement 35,000; cotton yarn 10,800; sugar 34,000. Bibliography.—N. S. Roberts, Iran: Economic and Commercial Con¬ ditions (London, 1948).

Ii'on independent Arab kingdom of Mesopotamia, bounded lldlja by Syria, Turkey, Iran, the Persian gulf, Saudi Arabia and Trans-Jordan. Area: c. 116,600 sq.mi.; pop. (1947 census, preliminary est.): 4,794,449. Chief towns (pop. est. 1946): Baghdad (cap., 832,927), Mosul (279,361), Basra (181,814). Languages: Arabic and Kurdish. Religions: Moslem (93%); Jews, Christians and others (7%). Ruler: King Feisal II; regent: Crown Prince Abdul-Ilah; prime ministers in 1948: Saleh Jabur; (from Jan. 29) Mohammed el-Sadr; and (from June 26) Muzahim al-Pachachi. History.—Early in Jan. 1948 the prime minister, Saleh Jabur, went to London to negotiate a new treaty to replace the AngloIraqi treaty of 1930. The treaty was signed at Portsmouth, Eng., on Jan. 15. It was for a period of 20 years and pro¬ vided for the continued use by Britain of the air bases at Shaiba and Habbaniya until peace treaties had entered into force with all former enemy countries. After that Iraq might invite British units to use the bases on the advice of an AngloIraqi joint defense board, which was to be set up under the treaty to co-ordinate defense matters. The announcement of the treaty was met with rioting in Baghdad, where on Jan. 21 it was announced that the regent and political leaders had met and unanimously decided that the new treaty did not realize the country’s aspirations. The prime minister on his return broadcast his conviction that it did do so, but next day there was more serious rioting and in the evening the regent announced the resignation of the government. A new government was formed by Mohammed el-Sadr, who stated on Feb. 4 that they had decided to repudiate the treaty of Ports¬ mouth because it did not realize Iraq’s national aims and did not establish a solid Anglo-Iraqi friendship. The main task of the Sadr cabinet was to hold a new election. The previous chamber of deputies, elected in Feb. 1947, was replaced by a new one, elected on June ii; 120 of the 138 deputies returned were Independent. On June 22 Sadr resigned, and four days later Muzahim al-Pachachi formed a new cabinet. Iraq was among the most vigorous of the Arab countries in support of the Palestine Arabs, and many Iraqis fought in the Arab National Liberation army in Palestine. Detachments of the Iraqi armed forces took part in the intervention on May 15, and the Iraqi delegate to the Arab league on July 18 voted (with Syria) against acceptance of the United Nations Security coun¬ cil’s second cease-fire resolution {see Palestine). A law was passed on July 15 making Zionist activity in Iraq illegal and liable to the same penalties as communism. (C. He.) Education.—Nursery schools (1944-45) S6, pupils 7,891; elementary schools (1945-46) 944, pupils 97,453; intermediate schools (1945-46) 54, pupils 9,480; secondary schools (1945-46) 24, pupils 3,131; adult elementary schools (1944-45) 99, pupils 3,788. Teachers’ training col¬ leges (1945-46): elementary (male) 4, students 969; (female) 2, stu¬ dents 269; higher (mixed) i, students 347. Other colleges (1945-46) 14, students 2,750. Finance.—Revenue, ordinary (est. 1946-47) 19,881,000 Iraq dinars; expenditure, ordinary (est. 1946-47) 20,448,000 dinars. Gold reserve (Dec. 1946) 44,700,000 dinars. Exchange rate (1948): i dinar = £i sterling = 402.7 U.S. cents.

trade, 1945 (merchandise): im¬ ports (excluding British army stores) 15,010,000 dinars; e.xports (ex¬ cluding crude petroleum) 8,029,500 dinars. Exports (1945) in short tons: grain, pulse and flour, 281,420; dates, 169,038; wool (raw), 3,026; hides and skins, 6,041; intestines (casings), 1,659,295; livestock (number), 119,369: earth, stones and cement, 41,974; ceramic products, 71,041. Trade

and

Communications.—Foreign

Communications; roads (1947) c. 5,000 mi.; railways (1947) i,5SS nii. Vehicles registered (1945): cars 3,771, trucks 2,017, motorcycles 127. River craft (1945): steam and motor 168, net tonnage 10,872. Shipping (1944-45): entered 1,341, net tonnage 5,719,040. Agriculture and Minerals—Production: crude petroleum (1947), 34,000,000 bbl.; (in short tons) rice (1945), 279,900; tobacco (1944-45): leaf 7,322, crushed 4,409; wheat (1938-39), 860,000; barley (1938-39), 1,251,400; wool (1938), 9,100; cotton (1940-41), 3,960; cottonseed (1940-41), 9,350.

Ireland: see

Eire.

Irolonrl Mni'thorn Northern Ireland comprises the six ircISnQ} liOrinBrn. counties of Antrim, Armagh, Down, Fermanagh, Londonderry and Tyrone; it forms part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, but (from 1920) has its own parliament and executive (with lim¬ ited powers for lo'cal purposes) although it is represented in the imperial parliament by 13 members. Area: 5,238 sq.mi.; pop. (June 30, 1948, est.): 1,362,000. Chief cities (pop. est. 1948): Belfast (cap., 450,000); Londonderry (49,000); Bangor (19,000). Language: English. Religions: Roman Catholic 33.75%; Presbyterian 31.4%; Episcopalian 27% (approx.). Governor: Earl Granville; prime minister: Sir Basil Brooke. History.—Northern Ireland made steady progress in almost all directions in 1948, particularly in its various efforts to im¬ prove the balance of its economy.' The advantages provided by the New Industries act enabled the ministry of commerce to facilitate the introduction of several new industries. A notable feature was the revival of cotton spinning after a lapse of 100 years, at Armagh. The government and private interests carried out geological surveys; up to £50,000 was to be spent on boring for coal and other minerals in east Tyrone. In the shipbuilding yards of Harland & Wolff, several im¬ portant vessels were launched, among them Britain’s latest light fleet carrier, H.M.S. “Bulwark.” The 28,500-ton liner “Pretoria Castle” and the oil tanker “British Security” were completed. Education.—Public elementary schools (Dec. 1947) 1,642, teachers 5,352, pupils 185,418; secondary schools (Nov. 1947) 77, teachers 1,370,

pupils 21,973; technical schools (July 1947) 113, teachers 1,123, pupils 29,829. Finance and Banking—Central government budget: (1947-48) revenue £49,274,499, expenditure £28,662,483; (1948-49 est.) revenue £54,053,000, expenditure £33,377,000. The given figures of expenditure exclude Northern Ireland’s contribution toward imperial expenditure, estimated at £20,000,000 for 1947-48 and £21,500,000 for 1948—49. Public debt (March 31, 1948): £28,430,652. Savings deposits: c. £205,000,000 in¬ vested in United Kingdom securities from 1939 to 1948. Ulster savings certificates (June 30, 1948) £31,345,324, trustee savings banks (deposits, Aug. 20, 1948) £42,770,227, bank deposits (June 30, 1948) £101,107,000. Exchange rate; £1=402.7 U.S. cents. Foreign

Trade.—Foreign

countries (1947):

imports £30,295,000;

ex¬

ports £13,013,000. Transport and Communication.—Roads 13,192 mi.; licensed motor ve¬ hicles (1948): cars 39,903, omnibuses and hackneys 2,471, trucks 14,411. Railways: broad gauge 619 mi., narrow gauge 53 mi. Shipping move¬ ment in ports, entered with cargo: (1947) 10,589; cleared 4,618. Tele¬ phone (Dec. 31, 1947): 37,067 subscribers. Wireless (Dec. 31, 1947): 173.505 licences. Agriculture and Fisheries.—Areas under crops (June, 1948): oats 390,254 ac., flax 20,634 ac., potatoes 209,169 ac.; hay: rotation grass 246,564 ac., permanent grass 183,390 ac. Livestock (June i, 1948): cattle 965.008; sheep 574,732; pigs 334,636; horses 63,282; poultry 24,217,543. About 25,000,000 dozen eggs, 12,000.000 lb. of poultry, 160,000 fat cattle and sheep, 150,000 tons of seed potatoes, 60,000 tons of ware potatoes, 12,000 tons of rye-grass seed, 3,300,000 gal. of liquid milk and 13,000,000 gal. evaporated milk and milk powder were shipped to Great Britain. Fisheries: total catch (1947) 11,000 long tons valued at £600,000. (E. P. No.)

Irish Free State: see

Eire.

For convenience in coverage, this sub¬ ject is subdi'vided and handled under the three major headings—iron ore, pig iron and steel. Gaps in the data during the war years have been largely filled in, and most of the war period estimates have been replaced by official figures

Iron and Steel.

IRON AND STEEL Table I.—World Production of Iron Ore, 1942-47

397

100%

(In thousands of short tons)

United States . • Canada .... Newfoundland. . Brazil. Chile. Austria. Czechoslovakia . France ..... Great Britain , . Italy ...... Luxembourg. . . Spain*. Sweden .... India. Japan. Korea. Algeria. Australia ....

. .

1942 118,190

. .

1,336

. .

2,249

. .

22,294

. .

5,633

1943 1 13,398 641 608 356 330 3,515 2,143 18,606 20,713 553 5,790 2,353 11,927 2,974 3,370 2,600

2

2,682

3,211 2,424 7,995 2,647 4,815 3,734 864 2,443

262,000

227,000

202

Total. ^Includes Spanish Morocco.

1944 105,412 553 520 862 744 3,323 1,746 10,332 17,328

1945 98,982 1,135 i;io3 789 1,042 357 304 8,779 15,819 54 1,550 2,134 4,332 2,536 1,495

2

1,326 1,750 176,000

1946 1947 79,344 104,438 1,581 1,919 r,6i7 i;393 1,102 1,022 1,491 1,773 520 976 1,230 1,502 17,873 20,612 1 3,670 12,169 145 249 2,477 2,196 2,628 2,473 9,805 7,570 2 1,655 624 550 83 103 1,842 1,715 2,100 2,500 161,000

Iron Ore.—The iron ore outputs of countries producing more than 1,000,000 tons a year and the estimated world total are shown in Table I, so far as data were available in 1948. United States.—The trend of the iron ore industry in the United States is presented in Table II, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Table M.—Producfton of /ron Ore in the United States, 1942-47 (In thousands of short tons)

1942

1943

Crude ore Production. Open-pit. Underground . . . Shipments. To consumers . . To concentrators .

141,710 104,042 37,669 142,010 92,074 49,936

134,036 97,272 36,764 132,857 87,834 45,024

124,343 92,281 32,061 125,522 83,150 42,372

1 19,070 88,407 30,663 119,324 76,153 43,170

94,298 71,522 22,776 94,064 60,377 33,686

127,649 95,900 32,870 127,589 79,813 47.775

Usable ore Production. Shipped direct. . Beneftciated. . . Shipments. Imports. Exports. Consumption.

118,189 113,398 91,551 89,414 26,638 23,984 11 8,708 110,676 819 447 2,817 2,716 1 16,542* 112,512

105,412 82,051 23,360 106,512 519 2,417 111,936

98,982 75,901 23,080 98,713 1,337 2,311 96,498

79,344 60,496 18,848 78,501 3,159 1,687 80,836

103,644 79,813 23,977 103,790 5,480 2 103,821

1945

1946

60%

40%

20%

0% O

^

«

STEEL PRODUCTION in the United States, 1929—48; monthly average per¬ centage of capacity (figures compiled by American Iron and Steel Institute)

201,000

or by estimates revised in the light of more complete infor¬ mation.

1944

eo%

1947

and 9,564,000 tons in the first three quarters of 1948. Pig Iron.—The production of pig iron and ferroalloys in countries having outputs in excess of 1,000,000 tons a year is shown in Table III, along with the estimated world totals, so far as data were available in 1948. Table III,— World Production of Pig Iron, 1942—47 (In thousands of short tons)

Australia . . . . Belgium. Canada . China. Czechoslovakia . . France. Germany . . » • Great Britain . . . India. Italy.. Japan. Luxembourg . . .

. .

1942 1,745

. .

2,184

. .

1,759

. .

17,021

. .

1,862

United States. . . . .

60,976

Total.

1943 1,557 1,797 1,955 2,059 1,878 2,407 17,606 8,049 1,959 802 4,524 2,524 2 62,798

1944 1,462 792 2,024 2,339 1,746 1,242 14,738 7,545 1,602 341 2,331 1,486 2 62,897

1945 1,257 803 1,965 544 635 1,321 2 7,960 1,562 83 1,285 348 2 54,956

1947 1946 979 1,268 3,109 2,393 1,521 2,152 1 ? 1,059 1,569 3,860 5,383 2,560 2,469 8,692 8,457 1,485 ? 226 425 204 391 1,504 2,004 16,750? 18,000? 46,323 60,141

122,000

110,000

100,000

90,000 110,000

United States.—The salient data on pig iron and ferroalloys in the United States are presented in Table IV, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Table IV.—Data on Pig Iron and Ferroalloys in the U.S,, 1942—47

•Consumption for pig iron only.

(In thousands of short tons)

1942

Unhampered by strikes as in 1946, the 1947 crude ore output advanced 35% beyond that of 1946, while output of usable ore rose 31%. While ore shipped direct to consumers increased 32% above 1946, that shipped to concentrating plants increased 42%. This difference marked the trend toward heavier use of lower grade ores. Crude ore shipped to concentrators in 1947 was only 4% less than in 1942, when direct shipments were 15% greater.. Demand was still further stepped up in 1948, with an output of 99,873,252 tons through October, and imports of 5,683,520 tons, or more than in the full year 1947. Canada.—With the Steep Rock deposit building up larger shipments each year, another boost was in prospect for the Canadian output from newly discovered deposits on the QuebecLabrador boundary. Great Britain.—British ore production declined steadily from 21,251,000 short tons in 1941 to 12,169,000 tons in 1947, but re¬ covered to 13,248,000 tons in the first ii months of 1948. France.—After dropping from a war period high of 18,606,000 short tons in 1943 to a low of 8,779,000 tons in 1945, French ore production came back to 19,955,000 tons in the first ten months of 1948. Germany.—While no information was available from the Rus¬ sian zone, iron ore output in other zones was slowly improving. Production advanced from 4,621,000 short tons in 1947 to 5,664,000 tops in the first three quarters of 1948. Sweden.—Production increased from 7,570,000 short tons in 1946 to 9,805,000 in 1947; exports were 9,315,000 tons in 1947

Pig Iron Production. Shipments. Imports. Exports. Consumption. Castings. Open-hearth . . . . Bessemer. Electric.

1943

1944

1945

60,765 60,787 144 60,315 6,517 47,108 6,258 394

61,004 60,996 6 162 60,952 6,818 48,281 5,583 240

53,224 53,265 21 91 53,1 87 6,567 41,683 4,751 163

44,842 45,076 14 96 45,072 6,611 34,608 3,723 113

58,327 58,368 33 40 58,291 8,096 45,338 4,712 127

2,033 1,995 723 150 806 316

1,894 1,861 715 155 687 304

1,732 1,662 610 158 616 278

1,481 1,551 492 112 614

1,814 1,842 615 124 766 336

1

. . . . .

110 59,043 7,230 45,539 6,131 93

Ferroalloys Production. Shipments. . . Ferromanganese . . . . . Spiegeleisen . . . . Ferrosilicon. . . Others .......

1,869 659

. . . . .

708

1946

333

1947

Blast furnace production in 1947 was the largest of any year outside of the war period, and continued at a slightly increased rate during 1948. Output through November was 55,253,792 tons, including 54,610,659 tons of pig iron and 643,133 tons of ferroalloys, to which was still to be added the electric furnace production of ferroalloys. Canada.—Pig iron production increased to 1,779,905 short tons in the first ten months of 1948, and ferroalloys to 147,009 tons, a total of 1,927,004 tons. Great Britain.—British blast furnace production advanced from 8,457,000 short tons in 1947 to 9,402,000 tons in the first II months of 1948. France.—French blast furnace output rose from 5,383,000 short tons in 1947 to 6,503,000 tons in the first ii months of 1948. Germany.—Blast furnace production in the U.S., British and French zones expanded from 2,469,000 short tons in 1947 to

398

IRON AND STEEL INSTITUT . AMERICAN —IRRIGATION

almost 5,010,000 tons in the first ten months of 1948. Czechoslovakia.—Pig iron output had regained its prewar level, with 1,671,000 short tons in the first ii months of 1948, com¬ pared with 1,569,000 tons in 1947 and 1,772,000 tons in 1939. Luxembourg.—The prewar rate of output was surpassed in 1948, with 2,350,000 short tons in the first ii months of the year, compared with 2,004,000 tons in 1947. Steel.—The steel production of countries having an output in excess of 1,000,000 tons a year is presented in Table V, along with estimated world totals, so far as data were available in 1948. Table V.— World Production of Steel, 1942-47 (In thousands of short tonsi 1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947

Australia. Belgium. Canada. Czechoslovakia • . . France. Germany. Great Britain .... India. Italy. Japan. Luxembourg. Poland. Sweden. U.S.S.R. (est.) .... United State.

1,905 1,526 3,110 2,619 4,947 31,600 14,207 1,455 2,100 7,765 1,720 264 1,354 12,000 86,032

1,825 1,839 3,004 2,831 5,648 33,600 14,617 1,521 1,100 8,624 2,368 286 1,338 13,000 88,836

1,706 701 3,016 2,778 3,413 28,400 13,572 1,468 1,100 6,521 1,389 187 1,320 15,500 89,642

1,508 807 2,881 1,045 1,825 5,500 13,241 1,429 440 1,177 291 595 1,323 20,000 79,702

1,177 2,513 2,335 1,839 4,855 3,300 14,207 1,376 1,430 608 1,429 1,349 1,336 21,500 66,603

1,376 3,187 2,902 2,520 6,338 3,290 14,246 1,349 1,874 1,041 1,888 1,731 1,311 22,600 84,894

Total.

176,000

183,000

173,000

134,000

128,000

153,000

United States.—The salient statistics of the steel industry in the United States are shown in Table VI, as reported by the American Iron and Steel institute. Table VI.—Steel Industry in the U.S., 1942-47 (In thousands of short tonsi

Capacity. Production.. Basic open-hearth .... Acid open-hearth. .... Bessemer. Electric. Shipments.

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947

90,293 86,032 75,183 1,319 5,553 3,975 60,591

90,636 88,836 77,208 1,414 5,626 4,589 62,210

93,565 89,642 79,168 1,196 5,040 4,238 63,251

95,505 79,702 71,070 870 4,305 3,557 56,602

91,891 66,603 60,112 600 3,328 2,563 48,776

91,241 84,894 76,209 665 4,233 3,788 63,057

Steel production in 1947 exceeded that of any previous year outside of the years 1942-44, and continued at an increasing rate in 1948. Output for ii months totalled 80,737,848 tons, with prospects for a year’s total close to the war-period record. Canada.—The 1948 production rate was a little ahead of 1947, with 2,643,253 short tons in ten months. Great Britain.—British steel production made a sharp advance in 1948, with 15,081,000 short tons in the first ii months of the year, compared with 14,246,000 tons in 1947. France.—Steel output rose from 6,338,000 short tons in 1947 to 7,193,000 tons in the first ii months of 1948. Germany.—The recovery of steel production in the U.S., British and French zones brought output up from 3,290,000 short tons in 1947 to 4,702,000 tons in the first ten months of 1948. Czechoslovakia.—The Czech steel output was by 1948 well above the prewar level, with 2,673,000 short tons in the first II months of the year, compared with 2,520,000 tons in 1947 and 2,526,000 tons in 1939. Luxembourg.—Steel production rose from 1,888,000 short tons in 1947 to 2,189,000 tons in the first ii months of 1948. Postwar Recovery and Readjustments.—The iron and steel industry of the world is largely concentrated in Europe and the United States, but the shifts brought about by World War II reversed the positions. After the heavy decline in output at the close of the war, world output had come back to about the pre¬ war level, but where Europe formerly supplied half or more of the total outputs of ore, pig iron and steel, and the United States less than 40%, by the year 1948 Europe produced about 40% and the United States more than 50%. Of the three com-

modities, Europe lost the least in pig iron and the most in steel, while the United States gains were the greatest in steel and the least in ore, so far as could be determined from the incomplete data available at the close of 1948. (5ee also Business Re¬ view; Metallurgy.) (G. A. Ro.)

Iron and Sfeel Institute, American: see

Societies and

Associations.

I ■ _ To relieve water and power shortages and irrigullOn* acWeve a future program of full western re¬ source development, the U.S. bureau of reclamation during 1948 accelerated its construction work in the west, including such large irrigation and multiple-purpose developments as the Columbia basin' in the state of Washington, the seven-state Missouri river basin project and the Central valley in Cali¬ fornia. Its schedule, depending on authorizations and appropria¬ tions, was designed to add more than 125,000 ac. during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1949, to the 5,000,000 ac. already served by bureau facilities. This program would also make available more than 260,000 additional kilowatts of hydroelec¬ tric generating capacity. The total installed hydroelectric capacity of plants operated on the bureau’s irrigation projects in 1948 was approximately 2,638,000 kw. In 1947, farmers on reclamation projects produced a total of almost 14,000,000 tons of food and forage crops, the value of which was in excess of $555,000,000. Electric energy pro¬ duction from reclamation projects in 1948 was estimated to total nearly 17,000,000,000 kw.hr. Revenue from power for 1948 totalled approximately $27,000,000. At the close of the fiscal year 1947-48, the bureau of reclama¬ tion had in operation, under construction or authorized 74 irrigation and multiple-purpose projects, including the Missouri river basin project with 70 units. Sixty projects were produc¬ ing food supplies and electric energy, and furnishing municipalindustrial water. Newest of the large dams and power plants to go under construction was Hungry Horse on the South Fork of the Flathead river, near Kalispell, Mont.; its height of 520 ft. would make it the fourth highest dam in the world. During the crop season of 1948 the Turlock Irrigation dis¬ trict in California irrigated 157,693 ac., of which 21,107 were double cropped. The district diverted into its canal system 460,000 ac.ft. of irrigation water, and in its conveyance from the dams to the farms electric energy developed by this water served 13,200 customers in the area. Egypt.—The area of cultivated land under irrigation in Egypt at the beginning of 1948 was 6,100,000 feddans (6,331,800 ac.). This total irrigated area is made up of 2,460,000 feddans (2,553,480 ac.) in Upper Egypt and 3,640,000 feddans (3,778,320 ac.) in Lower Egypt. It was estimated that 7,100,000 fed¬ dans (7,369,800 ac.) could be irrigated with existing practices, including 650,000 feddans (674,700 ac.) of rice. Iraq.—In Iraq 6,070,000 ac. were under irrigation at the close of 1948. From the Euphrates river was irrigated about 1,400,000 ac. by flow, 875,000 ac. by lift and 125,000 ac. of rice. From the Tigris and its tributaries 1,450,000 ac. were irrigated by flow, 2,070,000 ac. by lift and 100,000 ac. of rice. From the Shatt-al-Arab 50,000 ac. were irrigated by lift. Various schemes for irrigating large areas and controlling floods on the main rivers were under study. Lebanon.—In Lebanon 44,000 ha. (108,724 ac.) were irri¬ gated in 1947-48. The Qaamiye and Ras el Ain project to ir¬ rigate 5,000 ha. (12,355 ac.) was about 70% completed, and the Yammouch project to irrigate 13,000 ha. (32,123 ac.) about 45%. Surveys were made for development of the Bequa Sud project of 15,000 ha. (37,065 ac.) and the Akkar el Minieh

te;: ...

Aleppo to irrigate 200,000 ha. (494,200 ac.) and develop 50,000 kw. of hydroelectric power. (See also Dams; Meteorology; Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation.) Bibliography.—Arthur A. Young, “Evaporation from Water Surfaces in California,” Bui. 54A, Department of Public Works, Division of Water Resources (1948); Carl Rohwer and O. V. P. Stout, “Seepage Losses in Irrigation Canals,” Technical Bui. 38, Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station, A. & M. College (March 1948); F. J. Veihmeyer, “Sprinkling for Irrigation,” Circular 388, Agricultural Experiment Station, College of Agriculture, University of California (1948). (A. T. M.)

Iclom almost all the Moslem countries there continued to lolalll. develop, during 1948, strong ideological movements

RECLAIMED FARMLAND under cultivation in Israel where the desert was being pushed back in 1948 by washing, the earth with large quantities of fresh water to reduce the salt content of the ground

project of 13,500 ha. (33,358-5 ac.). French Morocco.—French Morocco in 1948 had an area of 11,000,000 ac. of cultivated land with an average area of 550,000 ac. irrigated annually; 470,000 ac. are irrigated by gravity and 80,000 ac. by pumping. French Moroccan dams impounded approximately 200,000 ac.ft. of water. Dams under construction would provide an additional volume of 1,000,000 ac.ft. impounded by the result¬ ing reservoirs. The average irrigated area would likewise be increased by 400,000 ac. Average area of the principal crops irrigated in French Morocco included 150,000 ac. of barley, 130,000 ac. of corn, 50,000 ac. of wheat, 50,000 ac. of citrus fruit and 70,000 ac. of vegetables. The average volume of water applied in irrigation per acre was 2.3 ac.ft., which compared favourably with good practice in the United States. Siam.—About 1,725,000 ac. of land were under irrigation in 1948, of which 1,255,000 ac. were in government projects and about 500,000 ac. in so-called “peoples’ projects,” located pri¬ marily in northern Siam and constructed and maintained by farmers. There were 15 projects under construction, to provide about 1,900,000 ac. of irrigable land. The largest proposed irrigation project was the Chao Phraya, including the Chainat Barrage. This project, with a diversion dam on the Chao Phraya river at the north end of the Central plains, a large canal down the east and west side of the plains and a series of internal canals, would allow for the control of all water within the flood plain. Syria.—Several small projects were under construction in 1948. On the Khabur river 5,000 ha. (12,355 ac.) and YarmoukMzerib system 3,000 ha. (7,413 ac.), construction was nearly completed. There was considerable interest in pumping water from the Euphrates to irrigate adjacent valley land, but scarcity of pumps, engines and fuel oil prevented development. Surveys had been made for the Homs-Hama system on the Orontes river for the development of 22,000 ha. (54,362 ac.). Other surveys were in progress for a project on the Euphrates river east of

which, it was hoped, were the precursors of the social reform so necessary in some of them. Unfortunately these movements had not led to the practical results expected, nor had they as yet taken on well-defined theoretical forms. Moslem thinkers ap¬ peared to vacillate between Marxism in its soviet form and different European political currents, without having found a for¬ mula which would be in tune with the principles of Islam. Mos¬ lem reactionary circles did not appear to display a great under¬ standing of this point, and the work of soviet propaganda was facilitated. Nevertheless, to counteract this, the literature is¬ sued by various prominent religious organizations—to mention but two, the Ikhwan ul Muslimin (Moslem Brothers) of Cairo, Egypt, and the Islamic Propaganda centre in Tehran, Iran— laid emphasis on the call, “Back to the Koran! Back to the Prophet!” The most momentous political-cultural development that still affected the mind and thought of the people of Islam all over the world in 1948 was the birth of the new Moslem state of Pakistan (q.v.). This fact infused new life into the ideology of the Moslem world. Most favourable prospects for the regenera¬ tion of Islam began to develop, for the people of Pakistan had never known any other law than that of the Koran. (A. Md.)

Isle of Man: see British Empire; Great Britain & North¬ ern Ireland, United Kingdom of. Isotopes: see Atomic Energy; X-Ray and Radiology. On May 14, 1948, at the termination of the British mandate over Palestine, the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine, to be called Israel, was proclaimed by the Jewish National council in Pales¬ tine. The proclamation appealed to the natural and historic rights of the Jewish people and to the recommendation, adopted by the general assembly of the United Nations on Nov. 29, 1947, as the basis for the establishment of the new state. The resolution of the general assembly had recommended the parti¬ tion of Palestine into two independent states, Arab and Jewish, united in an economic union, and the internationalization of Jerusalem and the surrounding territory. The Arab nations and the Arab inhabitants of Palestine re¬ jected the recommendation of the general assembly and refused to recognize the establishment of the state of Israel. To me¬ diate the struggle between Arabs and Israeli, the five great powers of the Security council of the United Nations unan¬ imously named Count Folke Bernadotte. He was assassinated by Zionist terrorists on Sept. 17, and his proposals for peace in Palestine were not acted upon by the United Nations gen¬ eral assembly, which instead appointed on Dec. ii a Palestine conciliation commission of three members, an American, a Frenchman and a Turk, who were to try to bring permanent peace to the Holy Land. Until that was achieved, the frontiers of the state of Israel would remain undefined. In the course of the war which was marked by almost con¬ tinuous Israeli successes against the various Arab armies, the Israeli forces occupied various territories not assigned to the

Israel, State of.

399

400

ITALIAN COLONIAL EMPIRE—ITALIAN LITERATURE

Jewish state in the recommendation of the United Nations. Among these territories were the Arab cities of Jaffa, Lydda, Ramie, western Galilee and the modern parts of the city of Jerusalem and a corridor connecting Jerusalem with the coastal plain. All these territories were put under Israeli administra¬ tion. The overwhelming majority'of the Arab population living in the Israeli-controlled territories fled from their homes and fields. The number of these refugees was estimated at nearly 650,000. Thus, the population of Israel became overwhelmingly Jewish. It was estimated at 800,000. The state of Israel established a government headed by David Ben-Gurion {q.v.) as prime minister and minister of security and Moshe Shertok as minister of foreign affairs. Chaim Weizmann {q.v.) was named president of the new state. At the end of the year a constitution of a democratic character had been drawn up for the new state and elections were planned for the early part of 1949. By the end of 1948 the new adminis¬ trative apparatus of Israel was functioning well in all fields of state activity. The state had established its own currency and its own postal system, had entered into diplomatic relations with a number of other states and absorbed on the average every month 10,000 Jewish immigrants. Its admission to mem¬ bership in the United Nations, however, was postponed, at the end of 1948, until the establishment of peace in Palestine and definite frontiers for the new state. {See also Egypt; Pales¬ tine.) (H. Ko.)

•Italian Colonial Empire.

(except Fezzan) remained un¬ der British military administration throughout 1948. On July 20, the four foreign ministers’ deputies began several weeks’ joint discussion behind closed doors of the “final disposal” of Italy’s former colonies. The report on Italian Somaliland showed virtual agreement in favour of placing it under Italian trusteeship for the United Nations. The problem of Eritrea was a great deal more complicated. Both Egypt and Ethiopia put forward claims to the whole of it. It seemed that while the British favoured an Ethiopian administration and the Russians an Italian one, the French and U.S. governments advocated Italian trusteeship except for the Danakil coast which they thought should go to Ethiopia. The problem of Libya presented the most critical issues. Its inhabitants desired unity, yet dif¬ fered in their choice of master. In Nov. 1947 Mohammed el Idris Senussi returned to Cyrenaica after many years’ exile in Egypt; some months later the British installed him in the palace

of the former Italian governor at Bengasi. Meanwhile, Mediterranean strategy became an issue of grow¬ ing importance. The U.S. came to consider its air base at Mellaha in Tripolitania as indispensable, and it favoured the British retention of the bases of Bengasi and Tobruk. After their evacuation of Palestine the British transferred troops and stores to Cyrenaica and obviously hoped to be able to continue to use at least a part of it. The French showed every intention of remaining in southwest Libya as long as they could. Thus, while the Russians supported an Italian trusteeship for the whole of Libya, the other three powers responsible desired to post¬ pone the final decision for a year, the U.S. and Britain favour¬ ing British trusteeship in Cyrenaica. Abruptly on Sept. 7 the soviet government pointed out that if the disposal of the Italian colonies had not been decided by Sept. 15, the first anniversary of the signature of the peace treaty with Italy, the decision would have to be left to the general assembly of the U.N.; the U.S.S.R. therefore proposed an immediate Four-Power foreign ministers’ conference to try to forestall a surrender to such delay. On Sept. 13 a FourPower conference did indeed assemble in Paris for this purpose, but the western powers were too sceptical of soviet intentions to arrange for full participation of their foreign ministers at such short notice: A. Y. Vishinsky on behalf of the U.S.S.R. protested on this account and on Sept. 14 he unexpectedly an¬ nounced that the U.S.S.R. advocated U.N. trusteeship with Italian advisory participation over Libya and Eritrea for ten years, and over Italian Somaliland for an indefinite period. However, by zero hour on Sept. 15 no decision was reached. Automatically, therefore, the whole problem was referred to the general assembly of the U.N., where a two-thirds majority would be required for a decision to be made. (E. Wi.)

ItoHon I itDratlira

widespread complaint on the

lldlldil LllCldlUlCi part of Italian writers, publishers and book sellers about the unsatisfactory returns of writing and pub¬ lishing, the literary year 1948 nevertheless revealed the sur¬ prising fact that a number of good new writers had appeared on the scene, young novelists at their first or second works had consolidated their reputations, and the output of established authors had continued unabated. The find of the year was Elsa Morante, Alberto Moravia’s wife, whose Menzogna e sortilegio tells, in an inspired, terse and exquisitely chiselled style, the story of a decayed Sicilian noble family. Rated one of the best postwar novels, it was

Italian Colonial Empire* Country and Area square miles lopprox.)

Population 119471

Capital and Status

Principal Products,1947 (in short tons!

Imports and Exports, 1947 (in £)

Road, Rail and Shipping, 1946

Revenue and Expenditure 1 Actual 1945-461 (in j£l

AFRICA Italian provinces of LIBYAt 213,821

1,120,000 (including Libyan Sahara)

Tripoli; included (1939) in the national ter* ritory of Italy; under British military occu* pation

LIBYAN SAHARA 465,362

[see above)

Homs; colony; under British militory authorityl

barley wheat other cereals dates

46,000

c. 860,000 (inclucfing 26,499 Italians)

Asmara; colony; under British military occupa¬ tion

five cereals beans

SOMALILAND, ITAL¬ IAN 194,000

c. 915,000 (including 5,000 Italians)

Mogadishu; colony; under British military oc¬ cupation

maize (bags) rice sugar alcohol (gal.)

ERITREAJ

87,584 13,782 11,100 16,434

116,163 6,068

70,000 495 3,832 78,328

imp. 2,360,395 exp. 3,197,236

rds. 2,990 mi. ry. c. 1 50 ml. shpg.: tonnage en¬ tered at Bengasi and Tripoli 284,607

Rev.: 4,690,223 Exp.i 4,872,470

imp. 3.534.232 exp. 2,296,504

rds. ry.

780 mi, 192 mi.

Rev.: 2,611,026 Exp.: 2,792,985

imp. exp.

rds. ry.

5,540 mi. nil

Rev.: 1,043,085 Exp.: 1,251,219

983,041 441,955

’The political units listed here were, in 1948, under British trusteeship pending ultimate decision by the United Nations assembly concerning disposal of the prewar Italian Colonial Empire. tUnder British military administration Libya was divided into two provinces; Tripolitania (pop. 803,915) and Cyrenaica (pop. 294,871). In 1947 there were 40,536 Italians in the former, but only 77 in the latter. JThe areas given here ore those before the annexotion of Ethiopia by Italy. A royal decree of June 1, 1936, established the colony of Italian East Africa comprising Ethiopia, Eritrea and Italian Somaliland. The greater Eritreo (86,166 sq.mi.) included three northern provinces of Ethiopia and the Ethiopian Ogaden was assigned to the greater Somalilond (270,972 sq.mi.). These new Italian colonies ceased to exist with the liberation of Ethiopia in 1941, but until Aug. 1948 Ogaden remained under British military administration. The number of Italions in Eritrea and Somaliland are 1947 estimates. §With the exception of the Saharan oases of the Fezzan which were under French military occupation.

ITAUIAN POSSESSION S IN AFRICA —ITALY awarded half of the coveted Viareggio prize. The other half went to Aldo Palazzeschi’s long-awaited / fratelli Cuccoli, a vast gallery of amusing fin du siecle portraits and scenes dominated by an eccentric bachelor and his four adopted sons. Giovanni Papini returned to the scene with Passato remoto i885-igi4, his most significant work in 30 years. A clear, sober, “depapinized” version oi Un uomo finito, it provides a key to the story of his intellectual life up to the outbreak of World War I. Moravia, with Disubbidienza dealt once again and more conclu¬ sively with the hydra-headed problem of adolescence. In his best short stories to date. La presenza del male, Bonaventura Tecchi explored the conflict between life and morality, ma¬ terialism and spiritualism. Ailing Vincenzo Cardarelli, in a swan song of memories and impressions. Villa Tarantola, contributed some of the finest pages of contemporary Italian prose. Consid¬ erable interest surrounded the first appearance in book form of Elio Vittorini’s II garofana rosso, a startling literary and political document suppressed by the dictatorship for its incisive analysis of adolescent blood lust and its outlet in the terrorism of fas¬ cist “squadrismo.” The “neo-realistic” trend which, though indebted to Vittorini, stems in the main from contemporary American novelists, gained further ground. The Einaudi press put forth Franco Fortini’s Agonia di Natale, a vigorous expression of the bewilder¬ ment of man at grips with the freakishness of nature and the perplexities of an “incomplete” world; Angelo del Boca’s L’anno del Giubileo, the odyssey of an illegitimate son; and Silvio Micheli’s Paradiso maligno, a taut handling of the rise, fall and redemption of a poor girl during the U.S. occupation. Closely akin though not consciously related to this neo-realistic trend were Carlo Coccioli’s La piccola valle di Dio, a story of love and magic among the simple folk of a typical Italian farm dis¬ trict, and G. Berto’s L’opere di Dio, the powerful fatalistic drama of a peasant family during World War II. Straightfor¬ ward realism marked Luigi Bartolini’s Ladri di biciclette, a fastmoving picaresque documentary about the Roman black market. Characteristic of the neo-spiritual school was a Catholic novel. La caritd by Giorgio Petrocchi, centring on three theological students tom by “anguish” in the face of the world and “choice.” Encouraging evidences of a revival in the theatre were noted for the first time since Luigi Pirandello’s death. Gian Paolo Galligari’s Cristo ha ucciso, Turi Vasile’s L’acqua, Ugo Betti’s Favola di Natale, Vittorio Calvino’s La torre sul pollaio and Nicola Manzari’s religious play, II miracolo, for the most part serious works, found favour with the critics and the intelligent playgoer but met with resistance on the part of the general public that goes to the theatre to be amused. No great new voice was heard in the field of poetry notwith¬ standing the many substantial prizes awarded and the many poetical works published. Worthy of consideration, however, were L’esperienza, a slim collection by Nelo Risi, a young fol¬ lower of E. Montale; C. Betocchi’s Notizie di prosa e poesia, C. Alessandrini’s Murmuri di conchiglie and Luciano Banff’s Parola che vive. (M. F. C.)

Italian Possessions in Africa: see

Italian Colonial Em¬

pire.

A republic of southern Europe, bounded on land by • France to the northwest, by Switzerland and Austria to the north, and by Yugoslavia to the northeast. The country in¬ cludes not only the whole of the Apennine peninsula, but also the large Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia as well as a number of, smaller islands. Area: (excluding Venezia Giulia and Zara) 116,235 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Jan. i, 1948): 46,110,000. Religion: mainly Roman Catholic. Chief towns (pop. est. Jan.

401

“APRIL IS, 1948,” a Canadian cartoon by Jacques which appeared in the Toronto Saturday Night on the eve of the Italian elections which were to indicate the direction of Italy’s political future

1948): Rome (cap., 1,597,000); Milan (1,268,000); Naples (1,015,000); Turin (707,000); Genoa (663,000); Palermo (465,000). President: Luigi Einaudi (q.v.); prime minister: Alcide de Gasperi (q.v.). History.—The republic of Italy was engaged during the open¬ ing months of 1948 in preparing itself for the first general elec¬ tions, to both chamber of deputies and senate. The date chosen for both elections was April 18. As this day approached it be¬ came increasingly clear that the Italian electoral struggle was a fight of great bitterness between the Catholic Church on the one hand and the Communist-controlled Fronte Democratico Popolare on the other. It had become plain during 1947 that the forces which could be marshalled on the right were more powerful than those which might be mustered to oppose them. During the electoral cam¬ paign, however, the Communist leaders assumed so convincing an optimism that they persuaded their followers, who included a large proportion of the Italian working-classes, that an elec¬ toral success of the Fronte Democratico Popolare was in sight. They persuaded a great many of their opponents and a con¬ siderable portion of world opinion of the same thing. Thus the Italian elections became a political battle, some said of decisive importance, between the worlds of western and of eastern ideas. On March 20, therefore, the governments of the United States, of Great Britain and of France announced that they wished to propose to the governments of the U.S.S.R. and of Italy an ad¬ ditional protocol to the peace treaty with Italy to provide for the restoration of Italian sovereignty over Trieste {q.v.). This move undoubtedly fortified the already winning side. It was ineffectually denounced by the orators of the Fronte, just as the U.S. aid had been, as unscrupulous bribery. Despite the violent pre-election campaign by both sides, the elections were carried through peacefully on April 18-19, and the new constitutional machine worked smoothly. The results of the voting were as follows: To the chamber of deputies were elected: 307 Christian Democrats, 182 members of the Fronte (of which some 40 were left-wing socialists and the rest members of the Communist party), 33 members of the Socialist Unity bloc (right-wing socialists), 18 members of the Blocco Nazionale (a coalition of rightist groups whose core was the former Liberal party), 14 Monarchists, 9 Republicans, 6 members of the Movimento Sociale Italiano (a fascist party), 3 representatives of the South Tirol, one member of the Peasant party, and one of the Sar¬ I,

dinian party. The elected senators were reinforced by a certain number of

402

ITALY

persons who were automatically promoted to their rank because they had been prime ministers or speakers in the past, or be¬ cause the fascist special tribunal had condemned them to at least five years’ imprisonment. The composition of the senate finally resulted in the following figures: Christian Democrats 149, Popular Front 117, Socialist Unity 24, Blocco Nazionale 28, Monarchists 8, Republicans 9, independents 8. According to the constitution the powers of the two cham¬ bers were the same. On May 8 they met together as a national assembly to elect the first formal president of the Italian re¬ public. It was not until three days later, on May ii, after three ballots had been held, that Luigi Einaudi was chosen by 518 votes (to 320 for V. E. Orlando). Once the state had a constitutional head, the former prime minister, Alicide de Gasperi, resigned his office. Since, how¬ ever, his party had increased its strength at the elections it was naturally De Gasperi who was asked by President Einaudi to form the new cabinet. The ministry appointed differed scarcely at all from that with which De Gasperi had worked from Dec. 1947; it was again a Christian Democrat government with^ a few right-wing socialist ministers such as Giuseppe Saragat and Ivan Matteo Lombardo in important economic posts, and with the Republican party leader, Randolfo Pacciardi, as minister of defense. The practical change in the Italian political situation was that the government could now show majority support for its legislation without the necessity of bargaining with other parties. It is noteworthy that, although political divisions had been made harder and clearer by the elections of April 18-19, an an¬ alysis of the voting showed that the electors had proved rela¬ tively faithful to their local traditions of half a century’s stand¬ ing; there were, for instance, only four fewer nominally Marxist deputies than in the preceding constituent assembly. The Chris¬ tian Democrats had in fact made their most important gains from the right and were felt by people on the left to be too ready to accept ex-fascist support. The number of Communist deputies had actually increased. As part of the regionalism introduced by the new constitution, elections were also held on Nov. 28 for a regional chamber in the former South Tirol; it was a strongly Catholic area and out of 46 seats 30 went to the Christian Democrats and the equiva¬ lent German-speaking party. There were fairly serious strikes in June, and in July the battle in parliament was joined over the European Recovery program, denounced by the left as a capitalist bribe. On July 14 in Rome, a youth called Antonio Pallante fired shots which seriously wounded the Communist leader, Palmiro Togliatti. Immediately labour demonstrations of a violent kind occurred in Milan, Turin and Genoa, and serious sabotage affected the railways. After days of severe tension the government emerged as unchallengeable master of the situation. The disturbances during the second half of July brought to a head the simmering quarrel between Communist and non-Communist trade union leaders. Many of the latter were associated with A.C.L.I., the Catholic workers’ organization, and were de¬ termined to defend the rights of labour without being drawn into the Cominform game. On July 26 the C.G.I.L., or main Confederation of Labour, decided to expel the dissidents and two months later, on Sept. 19, the Catholic labour leaders founded their own free Confederation of Labour, or L.C.G.I.L.; they insisted on its independence from both the church and the Christian Democrat party. By September, however, the attitude of the C.G.I.L. had been modified and its leaders thenceforw’ard accepted the participation of representatives of the new con¬ federation in labour disputes. From the economic point of view the year 1948 saw a certain

improvement on the financial side. In the spring of 1947 the national deficit had become catastrophic, but by Sept. 15, 1948, the minister for the treasury, Giuseppe Pella, was able to make a reassuring statement. The deficit for the financial year 194748 was, he said, a little less than had been allowed for, and for the year 1948-49 a deficit only half as big was expected (still L.374,000,000,000, however); further the treasury had suc¬ ceeded in repaying L.92,000,000,000 to the Bank of Italy. From the public’s point of view it was the question of prices which was the most alarming, the continual rise for years past having made wages and salaries insufficient in spite of bonuses intended to redress the balance. During the last months of 1947 prices had at last fallen and in February and March 1948 (before the elections) they may be said to have become stabilized for about six months.' But, then, toward the end of the summer public opinion was agitated by fresh increases in the cost of living. On Aug. i the final abolition of the bread subsidy (to¬ gether with the rationing of bread) raised the price by about 33%; gas and electricity as well as postal charges of various kinds went up. The fall of internal prices had approximately coincided with a slowing down of industrial production toward the end of 1947; in this respect 1948 witnessed no great improvement. Because of ERP, raw materials were no longer short and re¬ construction continued to make progress. The 1948 essential harvests—grain, olive oil and wine—were satisfactory. The pro¬ duction of electric power, so necessary to Italy, exceeded the record 1941 figure, but the coal supply was still insufficient to ensure uninterrupted use of electricity through the winter of 1948-49. But the problem of Italian industry continued to be that its excessive production charges inhibited export. This was largely because of the ban still imposed upon the dismissal of superfluous labour. Overpopulation, with chronic unemploy¬ ment, continued to be the basic problem of Italy; some 5,000,000 Italians were estimated to be out of work if the total were to include those officially unemployed, those on part-time work, the redundant hands carried on factory pay rolls and the idle members of peasant families. The net ERP allocation to Italy for the year July i, 1948June 30, 1949, was $580,700,000, mostly payable in kind. Italy thus received only less than France and Great Britain. The foreign policy of Italy during 1948 was intricately associated with the whole matter of Marshall aid. Both its economic needs and the continued soviet veto upon Italy’s entry into U.N. tended to emphasize its naturally western orientation. From the right as well as from the left, nevertheless, came protests against a too close identification with the policy of the U.S.; many Italians wished their country to aim at neutrality in a possible U.S.-soviet war. A good deal of interest was aroused by the Franco-Italian customs union, agreed to in principle in Feb. 1948. Italian foreign policy was also concerned with the fate of the former Italian colonies. (E. Wi.) Education.—(1947) Elementary schools 37,i3i, pupils 4,703,228, teachers 144,815; secondary schools (including technical) 5,573, pupils 888,993. teachers 80,073; art schools 140, pupils 12,211, teachers 1,918, universities and institutions of higher education 22, students 189,665, professors and teachers 3,576. Finance and Banking—Budget; (1946-47 actual) revenue L.686,760.000,000; expenditure L.i,235,320,000,000; (1947-48 actual) revenue L.825,650,000,000, expenditure L.1,548,000,000,000; (1948-49 est.) revenue L.801,000,000,000, expenditure L.1,252,000,000,000. National debt (July 1, 1948) L.1,712,000,000,000. Currency circulation (July i. 1948) L.823,068,000,000. Gold reserve (July 1948) L.2,298,000.000. Savings and bank deposits (June 30, 1948) L.i,562,000,000,000. Mone¬ tary unit: lira, official exchange rate (Nov. 30, 1948) $i=L.575.

i,

Foreign Trade.—Imports: (i947) L.930,549,000,000, (1948, six months) L.415,326,000,000; exports: (1947) L.339,532,000,000, (1948, six months) L.227,394,000,000. Transport and Communications.—Roads (1947) C. 110,700 mi.; licensed motor vehicles (1947); trucks and buses 125,154. Railways (1947): steam 7,063 mi., electric 2,846 mi. Shipping (Jan. 1, 1948)number of merchant vessels 688, total tonnage 1,852,917 net registered

I

Above: "DEATH TO HUNGER” read this Communist slogan being chalked on a wall in Rome, Italy, prior to the elections of April 18-19, 1948; Communists and Socialists together polled only an approximate 31% of the popular vote Above: HUGE CROWD assembled in Naples shortly before the April elec¬ tions in 1948 to hear Father Riccardo Lombardi, leading Catholic opponent of communism in Italy. In the foreground are girls from a nearby parochial school Below: ITALIAN INFANTRY and motorized units massed before the monument to Victor Emmanuel II in Rome, as the second anniversary of the Italian republic was celebrated in June 1948

Above: ENTRANCE to one of the hillside cave communities in Naples, Italy, where groups of families left homeless by World War II were still finding shelter in 1948. Each cave had a "chief” to supervise garbage disposal, etc.

IVORY COAST—JAPAN

404 tons. Telephones (Dec. (Dec. 1947) 1,976,118.

1947):

subscribers 574,000.

Wireless licences

Agriculture and Fisheries.—Main crops (1948, in metric tons): wheat 6,047,000; maize 2,124,000; barley 257,000; oats 529,000; rice 616,600; potatoes 2,804,600; sugar beets 2,231,200; vegetables 3,200,000; fruit 7,950,000. Livestock (June 1947 est.): horses 691,000; donkeys 558,000; cattle 7,263,000; sheep 6,336,000; pigs 3,891,000; poultry 55,750,000. Fisheries: total catch (1947) 121,580 metric tons. Industry.—(Jan. 1948) Industrial establishments (excluding handi¬ craft) c. 260,000; persons employed c. 3,500,000. Fuel and power (i947 production): coal 1,356,000 metric tons; gas 592,473,000 cu.m.; elec¬ tricity 17,868,000,000 kw.hr.; crude oil 10,461 metric tons. Raw ma¬ terials (1947 production in metric tons): steel ingots and castings 1,704,000; zinc 24,077; lead 17,543; timber 3,693,110 cu.m. Manufactured goods: motor vehicles: (1947) 47,728, (1948, six months) 27,780. {See also European Recovery Program; Fascism; Italian Colo¬ nial Empire.)

Vyltas.—Artisans of Florence; Bread and Wine; Italy Rebuilds (Inter¬ national Film Foundation).

Ivory Coast: see

French Overseas Territories.

lomoiOQ ^ British colony consisting of the largest of the udilldibdi British West Indian islands. Area: 4,765 sq.mi.; pop. (est. mid-1947): 1,308,000, mainly of African descent. The colony has two dependencies: Cayman Islands (92 sq.rpi.; pop. [census 1943] 6,670) and Turks and Caicos Islands (201 sq.mi.; pop. [census 1943] 6,138), which both have local legislatures and a large degree of internal autonomy. Language: English. Chief towns: Kingston (cap., census 1943, 109,056); Spanish Town (12,028), Montego Bay (11,500). The constitu¬ tion of 1944 provides for a governor, appointed by the British crown; a privy council to advise the governor on the exercise of the royal prerogative and the discipline of the civil service; an executive council constituting the principal instrument of policy and consisting of the governor, 3 official and 2 nomi¬ nated members (who must be members of the legislative coun¬ cil) and 5 elected members (these last are members of the house of representatives, elected to the council by that house); and a legislature of two houses—a legislative council of 3 exofficio, not more than 2 official nor less than 10 nominated un¬ official members and a house of representatives with 32 mem¬ bers elected by universal suffrage. Governor: Sir John Huggins. History.—The greatest problem of the island in 1948 was to find employment and space for the ever-increasing population. Efforts were made to find permanent or temporary employment for the surplus in the U.S., British Guiana, British Honduras and Liberia, while large numbers emigrated to Britain in search of work. In February the final draft of the colony’s ten-yeardevelopment plan—to cost £21,731,000—was submitted to the house of representatives, which in July was asked to provide £127,000 for the re-equipment of the railways. In August fresh hope came to the banana industry, of which the exports had fallen from the prewar figure of 200,000 tons to only 60,000 tons as a result of the ravages of leaf spot and Panama dis¬ ease, when the British ministry of food stated that it was pre¬ pared to import the Lacatan variety of banana, which is resistant to Panama disease though not to leaf spot. In February and March both houses of the legislature de¬ bated and adopted the resolutions on closer association passed at Montego Bay the previous September. The University college of the West Indies opened in October with 33 students taking the premedical subjects in the faculty of medicine. The government of Jamaica presented the site of approximately 673 ac., at Mona, free of cost, while the British government contributed £1,500,000 to meet the capital cost of building and equipment. (Jo. A. Hn.) Finance and Trade—Currency: pound sterling: circulation (March 31, 1948): £2,927,000. Revenue (1946-47): £8,363,000; (revised est. 1947-48): £9,032,000; (est. 1948-49): £9,256,000. Expenditure (194647): £8,315,000; (revised est. 1947-48) £8,746,000; (est. 1948-49) £9.538,000. Foreign trade (1947): imports £18,942,877; exports £10,171,038. Principal exports: sugar, rum, bananas and cigars; sugar pro¬ duction in 1948 totalled 192,853 tons. The dependencies maintain their

own budget and trade statistics; the principal exports are turtles and turtle shell from the Cayman Islands and salt from the Turks Islands. Jamaica communications: roads, main, 2,457 mi., secondary, 2,137 mi.; railways, 212 mi.

An island nation in the western Pacific, under Allied ■ military occupation following its defeat and surrender in 1945. In accordance with the Cairo and Potsdam declara¬ tions, Japan was stripped of its former overseas possessions and reduced to the four main islands of Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku and Hokkaido (total area 146,690 sq.mi.) and minor adjacent islands. Chief cities (1940 pop.): Tokyo (capital) (6,778,804); Osaka (3,252,340); Nagoya (1,328,084); Kyoto (1,089,726); Yokohama (968,091); Kobe (967,234). Emperor: Hirohito {q.v.). Prime minister (after Sept. 14, 1948): Shigeru Yoshida. Principal religions: Buddhism, Shintoism. The total population was estimated at 80,170,815 on June 30, 1948, a gain of 7,761,804 over Oct. i, 194S. Net repatriation to Japan contributed 5,934,928 of the increase; natural growth the remainder. Still to be repatriated, according to official Japanese records, were about 630,201 former soldiers and civilians, 90% of them last reported in soviet territory. None of the latter were repatriated from Jan. to April 1948, leading to sharp accu¬ sations by the supreme commander for the Allied Powers that the U.S.S.R. was violating its obligations under the Potsdam declaration and its subsequent agreement to repatriate 50,000 a month. Inter-Allied Policies.—^The drafting of a peace treaty for Japan remained in abeyance during 1948 as a result of a con¬ tinued inter-Allied deadlock over procedure. The Allied occupa¬ tion of Japan therefore continued in force, with Gen. Douglas MacArthur as the supreme commander in Tokyo, an ii-power Far Eastern commission as the policy-making body in Wash¬ ington, D.C., and a 4-power Allied council in an advisory role in Japan. The total disarmament of Japan for the period of the occu¬ pation, a policy laid down in the F.E.C.’s basic postsurrender policy (June 19, 1947), was made more explicit in a decision adopted by the commission Feb. 12, 1948. This prohibited the manufacture of arms, aircraft and combatant ships in Japan; forbade the possession of any arms by Japanese except civil police; required the destruction of all remaining military equip¬ ment except as authorized; banned all military or paramilitary organization and instruction; and excluded former officers of the army, navy and gendarmerie from employment in govern¬ ment or education except as authorized by the supreme com¬ mander. Already the Japanese army had been totally disbanded and in October the U.S. navy announced the destruction of the navy to be 98% complete. Thus, the only military force in Japan consisted of U.S. occupation troops and a token British commonwealth detachment. Rumours circulated that U.S. au¬ thorities contemplated a reinforcement of U.S. troops in Japan as a result of the disturbed situation in the far east. The de¬ partment of state, however, categorically denied soviet charges that the U.S. was violating inter-Allied directives to disarm and demilitarize Japan. The future of Japan’s industrial disarmament remained clouded with uncertainty over the total amounts of Japanese plant and equipment to be removed as reparations. Here the F.E.C. reached no final agreement in 1948 beyond the interim decisions of previous years. Meanwhile, under a unilateral U.S. directive, limited advance transfers of metalworking machinery from Japanese arsenals were made to China, the Philippines, the Netherlands and the United Kingdom (the latter two in behalf of their far eastern territories). Significantly, two survey mis¬ sions of engineers and businessmen dispatched to Japan by the U.S. department of the army recommended drastic reductions in the reparations proposals of the earlier Pauley mission as

necessary to a viable Japanese economy. These recommenda¬ tions, together with the evident emphasis in U.S. policy on Japanese economic recovery, aroused public criticism in China, the Philippines, the U.S.S.R. and elsewhere. Accusations were made that the U.S. was putting aid to Japan ahead of helping its far eastern allies and threatened to recreate the basis for renewed economic and military imperialism on the part of Japan. (See also Reparations.) On Nov. 12 the International Military tribunal in Tokyo ren¬ dered its long-awaited verdict in the trial of Japan’s wartime military and civilian leaders on charges of planning and bringthe Philippines, the U.S.S.R. and elsewhere. Accusations were sentenced to be hanged, including Gen. Hideki Tojo, wartime premier, Koki Hirota, former civilian premier, and Gen. Kenji Dohihara, of Manchurian fame. Sixteen generals, admirals and civil leaders were given life imprisonment; two others received terms of 7 and 20 years. These sentences were immediately upheld by General MacArthur, and on Dec. 20 the U.S. supreme court denied appeal on the grounds that it lacked jurisdiction. The death sentences were carried out on Dec. 23. (See also War Crimes.)

Politics.—Japanese government and politics in the second year under the new constitution continued to be characterized by a fluid multiparty system, operating through unstable coali¬ tion governments. The only decisive authority remained lodged in Allied headquarters. Of 466 seats in the lower house, the Social Democrats, a centrist-leftist party, held iii in Aug. 1948; the Democrats, a centrist-rightist’ party, 88; and the Democratic Liberals, the conservative party formed in March through a merger of dissident Democrats with the old Liberal party, 131. In February Tetsu Katayama, head of the Social Democrats, was succeeded as premier by Hitoshi Ashida, the Democratic president. Like his predecessor, Ashida had to form a coalition cabinet of the Democratic, Socialist and People’s Cooperative parties. With only a slender majority, and weakened by inter¬ necine quarrels, this coalition of centre groups was unable to put forward a vigorous reconstruction program on its own re¬ sponsibility. Its death knell was sounded in October when two prominent ministers were arrested for taking bribes from indus¬ trialists. On Oct. 14 Shigeru Yoshida, head of the DemocraticLiberal party, was elected premier “to stabilize the political situation” pending the next general election. A former career diplomat, Yoshida was the outstanding conservative leader, strongly anticommunist. His return to the premiership reflected the growing strength of conservative groups influential in pre¬ war Japan. Observers predicted that the relatively affluent Liberals would increase their diet plurality in the next general election, per¬ haps even win a majority. The Democrats received a crippling blow in November when a warrant was issued for the arrest of Ashida on charges of accepting a bribe from a building con¬ tractor. Their new president, Ken Inukai, seemed receptive at the year’s end to invitations from the Liberals to form a single, conservative coalition, but held out for a pledge of capitalist reforms. Social Democrats were tom with right-left dissension. If a two-party system materialized it seemed likely to split them in half. The Communists, always vocal and well organized, were influential chiefly among urban labour groups. In politics they had yet to win more than 4% of the electorate; they held only four seats in the lower house; and they faced the open disapproval of the supreme commander. If the middle political groups continued to disintegrate, however, and the conservatives gained legislative supremacy, the Communist party hoped to win fresh adherents and co-operation from among disillusioned moderates. In government the third occupation year saw numerous legal

TOKYO POLICE signing pledges of allegiance to the new Japanese police system established in 1948. Supreme police authority was vested in the people, with local autonomy for large urban centres and a centralized rural administration

and administrative changes. Among them were new codes of civil and criminal procedure; a habeas corpus act; the decen¬ tralization of the police system; the removal of the courts from ministerial control; and the abolition of the home ministry, long the stronghold of bureaucracy. Another major piece of legislation adopted at the behest of the occupation authorities was a national public service law, designed to break the hold of the entrenched bureaucracy on the civil service and introduce the merit system. Efforts continued to democratize and improve educational methods in the school system, radio broadcasting and other educational media. About 19,000,000 students were enrolled in 50,000 educational institutions staffed by 563,000 teachers. Economic Recovery and Reform.—U.S. policy in Japan dur¬ ing 1948 veered toward increasing emphasis on economic recov¬ ery, the lack of which had been costing the U.S. taxpayer nearly $400,000,000 a year. Some progress was recorded. Food distri¬ bution improved; the basis was laid for a revival of foreign trade; and the index of industrial production rose above 50% of the 1930-34 level for the first time after the war. Basic difficulties persisted, however. The shortage of imported raw materials remained critical, and the U.S. was compelled to con¬ tinue large relief shipments of food. It was estimated that 1947 exports would have to be multiplied eight or nine times before Japan would be self-sustaining at a minimum standard of liv¬ ing. This seemed impossible of attainment until the far east, the biggest potential market for Japanese exports, became more stabilized. Within Japan the governments in power during 1948 failed to put forward vigorous programs to curb inflation and to

405

use the country’s available resources to the best advantage. This reflected the weak political basis of these governments, itself in part a product of Allied occupation, plus the reluctance of powerful groups to accept retrenchment and effective con¬ trols. As the year progressed, Allied authorities displayed an in¬ creasing tendency to intervene directly to force the passage of desired legislation. In December the U.S. state and army de¬ partments directed General MacArthur to require the Japanese government promptly to balance its budget and impose the stringent controls necessary to stabilize prices and maximize production for export. The Allied-sponsored program to purchase agricultural land for redistribution to landless tenants moved ahead rapidly in 1948. A parallel reform in industry designed to break up exces¬ sive concentrations of control proceeded more slowly, and with less drasti^c application than had been foreshadowed when the statute was enacted in Dec. 1947. About 325 companies were designated in February as excessive concentrations. Subse¬ quently, 194 were informed that they need not undergo struc¬ tural reorganization, and the remainder were directed to institute changes to remove monopolistic and other objectionable fea¬ tures. Meanwhile, the sale of former Zaibatsu-he\A securities to new owners continued, and a fair trade commission was organ¬ ized to administer the new Antitrust act. In the field of labour, new protective legislation went into force, including factory in¬ spection and unemployment and workmen’s compensation. By June 30 there were 6,636,710 workers enrolled in 33,940 local unions. As wages lagged behind the rising cost of living, labour unrest raised critical issues of public policy. With the approval of the supreme commander, the Japanese government in July issued an ordinance banning strikes and collective bargaining in government agencies and publicly owned industries. This averted a threat of crippling stoppages but aroused a storm of protest in labour circles. Abroad it was cited by critics as evidence that U.S. enthusiasm for democratic reforms in Japan had weakened where such reforms opened the door to radical agitation and threatened to handicap economic recovery. Financ«.—Prices continued to rise in 1948, reflecting the shortage of goods and the inflationary gap between government receipts and expendi¬ tures. In June the urban cost of living was 81% above June 1947. A new price level adopted in July for stabilization purposes was no times the 1934-36 level. The Bank of Japan’s note issue reached 254,209,000,000 yen on Aug. 31, and the national debt 379,303,000,000 yen, up 69% and 24% respectively from Aug. 1947. The national budget passed in July balanced revenue and expenditure at 414,000,000,000 yen in the fiscal year 1948—49. This compared with 214,256,000,000 yen in 194748. Occupation authorities prodded the government to tighten the money market, raise new revenues and cut expenses. However, inflation neces¬ sitated further increases in government payrolls, economic subsidies and occupation costs. In November the budget was tentatively increased by 62,500,000,000 yen. The value of the yen in export trade was unofficially estimated to average about 350 yen to the dollar at the end of 1948, but business continued to be conducted on the basis of multiple rates desig¬ nated by the authorities. Trade and Communications.—During 1947 Japan’s imports totalled $526,130,000; exports $173,568,000. Export shipments of cotton goods, silk, metals, machinery, etc., thus fell far short of paying for import requirements of food, fertilizer, cotton, petroleum and other raw ma¬ terials. Trade was handled largely by governmental authorities, either on a dollar or barter basis. Approximately 7S% of imports were relief goods paid for with U.S.-appropriated funds. These conditions carried over into 1948. During the first half year imports reached $348,490,626 and ex¬ ports only $77,367,179- The U.S. still furnished 70% of Japan’s im¬ ports, while 74% of Japan’s exports were sold elsewhere, mostly in Asia. The cumulative deficit in Japanese postwar trade had climbed to $825,786,447 by the end of June. However, progress was being made in re¬ opening trade on a private basis and extending it to wider areas. Already in June 40% of new contracts negotiated were private dealings. After August Allied headquarters retained control only over prices, the alloca¬ tion of critical materials and foreign exchange. New arrangements con¬ cluded with the sterling area and other regions promised to expand multi¬ lateral trade in nondollar currencies during the ensuing year. In Novem¬ ber, for example, a one-year agreement was signed with five countries of the British commonwealth, providing for the sale of £27,000,000 of Japanese goods in exchange for purchases of needed raw materials. It was anticipated that Japan’s total exports in 1948 would reach about $260,000,000. Government railways (length 32,000 km.) carried 10,068,000 tons of freight and 309,314,000 passengers in July 1948, an increase of 5.8% and 4% over July 1947. Freighted water-borne cargoes totalled 3,608.519 tons; motor vehicle freight 17,000,000 tons. In ocean-going vessel's

406

DRYING SALT in the sun at a plant in Tokyo. Salt could be sold only to the Japanese government in 194S, at a price of about I'/a yen per pound, al¬ though the same quantity sold on the black market for as much as 30 yen

of more than 1,000 tons Japan possessed little more than 1,150,000 gross tons of serviceable or repairable ships, compared with 5,750,000 tons be¬ fore the war. At the end of July there were 1,236,986 telephones in service; 6,858.814 radio receiver licencees; and 219,094 registered motor vehicles, of which about 70% were operable. Food and Agriculture.—The collection and distribution of staple foods improved somewhat in 1948. Target quotas for collections during the 1947-48 crop year in metric tons of rice equivalents, and percentages actually collected (in parentheses) were as follows: rice 4,583,000 (100.2%); sweet potatoes 2,164,000 (104.6%); wheat and barleys, 752,000 (108.8%); white potatoes 894,000 (110.9%). From May 1947 to May 1948, daily food consumption per capita rose from 1.792 to 1,961 cal. in Tokyo, and in other major cities from 1,822 to 1,937 cal. This was made possible only by continuing relief shipments of food, financed by the U.S. During the 1947-48 crop year 446,038 tons of imported cereals and 59,285 tons of imported sugar were distributed in Japan. The chemical fertilizer shortage continued to handicap food pro¬ duction. January-June allocations to farmers were the following per¬ centages of estimated requirements: ammonium sulphate 70%; phosphate 59%: potash 1%. The program to reduce tenantry by purchasing land from landlords and reselling it to former tenants proceeded rapidly. By Sept. 30, 3,709,687 ac. had been resold to eligible purchasers, or more than two-thirds of the planned total. Manufacturing and Mining-Industrial production climbed slowly up¬ ward, reaching 52.9% of its 1930-34 level in July 1948. This was a gain of 32% over the previous July. For various components the index was as follows: mining 96.8; manufacturing 48.6; metals 62.7; ma¬ chinery 71.7; chemicals 79.9; food and tobacco 68.3; textiles 23.3; cement 47.0; lumber 137.1. Coal output recovered to 2,731,300 tons in July, a 23% gain over the preceding year. July production of other leading commodities was as follows in metric tons: pig iron 69,818; steel ingot 83,776; refined copper 5,253; cement 144,734; ammonium sul¬ phate, 85,315; caustic soda 10,693; cotton yarn 10,451; rayon filament yarn 1,529. Crude oil output was 16,065 kb; cotton cloth 77,864.000 sq.yd.; raw silk 11,691 bales; electric power (public utility generation) 2,843,000,000 kw.hr. Bibliography.—Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers, Summa¬ tion of Non-Military Activities in Japan, monthly (Sept. 1945-Aug. 1948); Japanese Economic StatfiUci, monthly (Sept. 1946- ); U.S. Dept, of State, Occupation of Japan—Policy and Progress (1946); Far Eastern Commission, Activities of the Far Eastern Commission (1947): E. M. Martin, The Allied Occupation of Japan (1948). (W. W. ll)

Java: see Netherlands Indies. Javelin Throw: see Track and

M

Pl>An|||n|Mn

Field Sports.

The year 1948 saw several noteworthy achievements in the development of newtype reaction power plants both in the United States and else¬ where. These included the announcement that Capt. Charles Yeager and other pilots had flown the Bell-NACA-U.S.A.F. X-i rocket-powered research aircraft beyond the speed of sound

n U|JUIolUII.

JET PROPULSION (Mach i.oo) on several occasions. In England John Derry also exceeded Mach i.oo by flying the Goblin-powered D.H. io8 tailless research aircraft in a high-speed dive. Test pilot John Cunningham achieved the world’s altitude record for heavierthan-air craft, reaching 59,492 ft. in a Ghost-powered Vampire. A new international high-speed record of 670.981 m.p.h. was established at Muroc, Calif., by Major Richard L. Johnson in a North American F-86A Silver Charger, powered by a General Electric TG-190 (J47A) turbojet. A Northrop YB-49 jet Flying Wing (eight GE-Allison J3S units) made an unofficial long¬ distance record for jet aircraft in a nonstop flight of 3,458 mi. Six D.H. Vampires made the first east-west North Atlantic crossing, via Iceland and Greenland, and a few days later 16 Shooting Stars of the 57th Fighter group (U.S.A.F.) reached an R.A.F. base in Scotland to complete the first west-east crossing. Two turbojet engines received official approval for use in civil aircraft—the Allison Model 400 (similar to the military J33) in the U.S., and the De Havilland Ghost in Great Britain. The world’s first experimental jet air liners were test flown—the twin-engine Nene-Viking and the Tudor VIII (four Nenes in two nacelles). The first turboprop-powered aircraft—two threeplace trainers, the Balliol and Athena, both powered by a Mamba propeller-turbine, and the Vickers Viscount air liner, with four Rolls-Royce Darts, also took to the air. Three British gas turbines—the Goblin turbojet and Mamba and Theseus turboprops—passed exacting 500-hr. endurance tests. The world’s most powerful turboprop engine, the Wright T35 Ty¬ phoon, was test-flown as the fifth power plant in the nose of a modified B-17. Flight tests were also made of two Marquardt ramjet engines, of 20- and 30-in. diameters. Turbojets.—In the U.S. two new turbojet engines were an¬ nounced during 1948—the General Electric TG-190 (J47A) and the Pratt and Whitney Aircraft JT-6B Turbo-Wasp (J42), based on the Rolls-Royce Nene. Both engines were rated at 5,000 lb. of thrust, the J42 having passed the official 150-hr. qualification test early in December. Turbo-Wasps were being delivered to the U.S. navy for Grumman F9F-2 Panther carrier fighters, and J47S to the air force for North American F-86A Silver Chargers and B-45C attack bombers. Allison’s 4,600-lb. thrust J33-A-23 powered the F-80C Shoot¬ ing Star, the TF-80 two-place jet trainer, and was reported as the power plant for 160 F-94S, an all-weather fighter version of the TF-80. The F9F-3 Panthers were powered by the J33-A-8, which thus became the first fighter aircraft with interchangeable power plants, J42 or J33. The GE-Allison axial-flow J35-A-13 (or-15) was the power plant of the Republic F-84C and F-84D Thunderjet, Northrop F-89 all-weather fighter and X-4 trans-sonic speed research air¬ craft (all U.S.A.F.), and the navy’s North American FJ-i Fury. It also powered an entire series of air force multi-jet bombers, the North American B-45 and Convair XB-46 (four units), Boeing B-47 Stratojet and Martin XB-48 (six units), and Northrop’s YB-49 jet Flying Wing (eight units). Successful flights of all these gave the U.S. a substantial lead in the jet bomber field. The British had two or three under development, to be powered by the Rolls-Royce Avon, and the Russians were reported to have at least one or two in the works. The Westinghouse 24C (J34) of 3,000 (plus) lb. of thrust was the power plant of the U.S. navy’s McDonnell F2H Banshee (two units). Chance Vought F6U Pirate and XF7U-1 Cutlass twin-jet tailless experimental fighter (both of these with Solar afterburner), the Douglas XF3D-1 Skyknight all-weather fighter (two units) and 558-2 Skyrocket (with rocket engine tailbooster). The J34 also powered the air force’s XF-85 “para¬ site” fighter for the long range B-36, and the McDonnell XF-88

407

twin-jet penetration fighter. A second production line of J34S was set up by Westinghouse at the navy’s former Pratt and Whitney factory in Kansas City, Mo. A larger and much more powerful Westinghouse jet engine was also under development. British turbojets reported in 1948 included the Rolls-Royce AJ/65 Avon, an axial-flow unit with a design thrust of 6,500 lb.; at the Farnborough exhibition of the Society of British Aircraft Constructors a modified Lancastrian, with two Avons and two Merlins, was seen flying. Others in this power class included the Metropolitan-Vickers Sapphire and the De Havilland H-4, but no details were available; the Rolls-Royce RTa-i Tay was also mentioned. The 5,000-lb. thrust Nene II powered the Nene-Viking (two units), the Tudor VIII (four), and the A.W. 52 tailless research aircraft (two); also four single-jet prototype fighters—the Supermarine Attacker, Gloster Ace, Hawker Zephyr (naval version N7/46 Sea Fang) and the E38/46. Long-range, ground attack and carrier versions of the Goblin-powered Vampire, a jet fighter found in the service of Britain, Canada, Australia, France, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden and Denmark, appeared. The D.H. Ghost (5,000 lb. thrust) underwent high altitude tests in a modified Vampire, and was scheduled as the power plant (four units) of the D.H. 106 Comet air liner. In Canada the Avro Chinook, ^n axial-flow unit of 2,750 lb. of thrust, was bench-tested, and a more powerful engine was under development. Sweden was preparing to build D.H. Goblins and possibly Ghosts, and also had two original turbojet engines un¬ der development—one with a two-stage centrifugal compressor, the other an axial-flow design. France continued development of the Rateau 65 and the TGAR-1008, both axial-flow turbo¬ jets, the latter containing many features resulting from the cap¬ ture of German Jumo 004 units in the late summer of 1944. From eastern European countries some knowledge of Russian developments was obtained. Russian engineers, with large num¬ bers of German technicians, were working on the Jumo 004H, the BMW 003D, the Rolls-Royce Derwent and Nene and sev¬ eral original designs, some of which embodied techniques com¬ parable to those employed in the west. Turboprops.—In the U.S. the General Electric TG-iooB (T31), a propeller-turbine engine of 2,200 equivalent brake horsepower, underwent further development. Except for this and the small Boeing unit (200 e.b.h.p.), practically all U.S. developments were in the 5,000 to io,ooo-h.p. class for military

NORTH AMERICAN F-S6A, jet fighter with swept-back wings, which estab¬ lished a world speed record at Muroc Air Force base, Calif., on Sept. 15, 194S, flying at 670.9S1 m.p.h.

408

JEWISH REL IGIOUS LIFE

applications. The Wright T3S Typhoon was test-flown in a B-17, and the Flader XT-33, Northrop XT-37 Turbodyne and Allison XT-40 were run on test stands. Other turboprop units by Pratt and Whitney Aircraft and Ranger were under develop¬ ment. The Allison XT-40 was reported as a 5,000-h.p. turbo¬ prop developed from a coupling of two axial-flow units, geared for propeller, with first installation to be the navy’s Convair XPsY-r high-speed, long-range flying boat. At the Society of British Aircraft Constructors’ flying display and exhibition at Farnborough in September no fewer than six propeller-turbine engines (mostly for commercial use) were on display—the Armstrong-Siddeley Mamba and Python, the Bris¬ tol Theseus and Proteus, the Napier Naiad and Rolls-Royce Dart. All but the two large units (Python, 4,000 e.b.h.p. and Proteus 3,500 e.b.h.p.) were seen in the air. Four Darts (1,225 e.b.h.p.) powered the Vicker Viscount 32-passenger air liner in a fine demonstration of quiet, vibrationless speed. The Mamba I (1,300 e.b.h.p.) was seen in the two three-place trainers, Boulton Paul Balliol and Avro Athena; four Mambas were in¬ stalled in the Marathon and the Armstrong-Whitworth ApoUo air liners, scheduled to fly in 1949. The Naiad (1,600 e.b.h.p.) was flown in the nose of an Avro Lincoln flying test-bed, and was due for installations in the Viscount and Ambassador. The Theseus-Lincoln (two Theseus •turboprops, 2,400 e.b.h.p., and two Merlins), in service on the middle east run for some months, was also seen; fuel consumption of the Theseus was reported as the lowest of any gas turbine developed through 1948. Four coupled Proteus installations (6,400 e.b.h.p. each) were scheduled as power plants of the Saunders-Roe 45 flying boat and the Bristol Brabazon I type (Mk 2 version) trans¬ atlantic landplane. The Python was test flown in the outboard nacelles of a modified Lincoln bomber, and the ArmstrongSiddeley company had an even more powerful turboprop, the Cobra, under development. Ramjets, Pulsejets and Rocket Engines.—Among nonturbine jet engines, the ramjet emerged as the all-important power plant for long-range pilotless aircraft and guided missiles. It had a six to one advantage over rocket engines in fuel consumption. A rocket-launched navy supersonic ramjet exceeded 1,400 m.p.h. (Mach 1.84), and a ramjet-powered NACA missile was dropped from a B-29 at 30,000 ft. and attained a speed of more than 1,500 m.p.h. (Mach 2.00 plus). Scientists at the navy’s applied physics laboratory of Johns Hopkins university had a goal for ramjets of 2,800 m.p.h. (Mach 4.25) at 60,000 ft. Two sub¬ sonic ramjet engines, the Marquardt 20- and 30-in. units, were flight-tested in various ways, the former on wingtips of an F-51, in a Bell XF-83, beneath an F-61 Black Widow and as the power plant of a Martin-built Gorgon IV guided missile; both 20- and 30-in. units were flight-tested on the wingtips of an F-80. Aerojet Engineering corporation reported that it had tested pulsejet engines far superior in efficiency and endurance to that used in the German V-i buzz-bomb. In the rocket engine field, 1948 saw the X-i, powered by Reaction Motors 6000C4, exceed the speed of sound several times, and also the first flights of the Douglas 558-2 Skyrocket, with a J34 and RMI 6000C4. The Lockheed XF-90 and Re¬ public XF-91, U.S.A.F. jet-and-rocket experimental fighters, were completed and flown. A promising development affecting all the reaction-type power plants was the use of “ceramels”—heat-resistant metals and al¬ loys coated with ceramic materials. {See also Aviation, Mili¬ tary; Munitions of War.) (N. F. S.)

Jewish Religious Life, duri/westl' Eu'pf wt managed to escape the butcheries of the nazis were striving

hard to lay the foundations for a revived religious life and communal structure. Though their numbers were decimated and their resources limited, they contributed to the restoration of razed synagogues and the establishment of improvised houses of prayer where even the foundations had been obliterated. Elementary religious instruction and talmudic studies were re¬ introduced. Rabbis and other synagogue functionaries were re¬ called or brought in from other countries. The Jews of the Netherlands had to import their spiritual leaders from Switzer¬ land and Hungary. The religious life of those communities was still handicapped by the lack of texts and other teaching material. The impedi¬ ment, however, was gradually being eased by importations from Tel Aviv and Jerusalem and allocations to them of the un¬ claimed Judaica and Hebraica confiscated by the nazis. The election of Rabbi Israel Brodie of Melbourne, Australia, as the chief rabbi of the British empire was the outstanding event in the religious life of English Jewry during 1948. In the United States religious organizations were active and articulate but their growth nevertheless was moderate. The synagogues affiliated with the reform movement were increased during 1948 from 344 to 359. Among the conservatives the number grew from 250 to 317, while those who identified them¬ selves with the national association of (modern) orthodox synagogues did not exceed 500. All schools of religious thought manifested a realization of the need to abide by Jewish law, the difference being the ex¬ tent of the adherence and also the authorities to which one was to look for a necessary modification or revision of old regula¬ tions. A proposal was made by a leader of orthodoxy that American Jews acknowledge the chief rabbinate in Palestine as the central authority on Jewish law. This evinced opposi¬ tion not only from the conservative and reform groups but also from some of the orthodox. Progress was made on all levels in Jewish education. The inadequacy of the Sunday school was acknowledged and efforts were made to extend its scope. Week day religious instruction after school hours was continuing to show progress. The most amazing phenomenon was the multiplication of all day schools (yeshivoth ketanoth) where Jewish studies were integrated with secular subjects. The schools for higher education expanded their programs and established extension units in distant cities and sections. The merger of the Hebrew Union college and the Jewish Insti¬ tute of Religion indicated to some the consolidation of the religious forces of American Jewry. The religious orientation of Jewish life in the United States was becoming more widely accepted. That a proposal for mak¬ ing the synagogue and its philosophy central and dominant should be espoused by an organ like the Menorah Journal was significant. This fact coupled with the statement of principles adopted by the Jewish Welfare board in May 1948, where emphasis on Jewish knowledge and values was stressed in all centre programs, indicated the trend toward the orientation. {See also Anti-Semitism.) (B. H.)

Jewish Welfare Board, National, wftne'j's'ed’l marked intensification (J.W.B.) services.

of

National

Jewish

Welfare

board

J.W.B. set up a permanent, streamline peacetime program of service to the armed forces and to veterans’ hospitals. This pro¬ gram, staffed by 20 area fieldworkers and 150 Jewish full-time and part-time chaplains, was integrated into the new U.S.O. (United Service Organizations, Inc.) set up at the year’s end. J.W.B. was a member of the new U.S.O.

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY J.W.B. s national convention adopted the “statement of prin¬ ciples recommended by an independent survey commission, which in 1946 and 1947 studied its programs and services. The statement, by defining and emphasizing the “Jewish purpose” of the Jewish centre movement, provided greater clarification and unity in the centre movement and a vitalization of J.W.B. leadership therein and on behalf of Jewish youth. Results were manifest in the service to 200 Jewish Youth councils and in the calling of the first National Jewish Youth conference by J.W.B.’s National Jewish Youth Planning commission. In this area must also be mentioned the mission of Louis Kraft, general secretary of J.W.B.’s National council, to Pal¬ estine for the purpose of conferring with leaders there on the setting up of a Young Men’s Hebrew association (Y.M.H.A.) in Jerusalem. J.W.B., as the American national association of Jewish community centres. Young Men’s Hebrew associations and Young Women’s Hebrew associations, provides field service, creative program materials and technical services, and trains and recruits professional personnel. Jewish cultural activity was intensified in 1948, in Jewish centres and the Jewish community in the U.S. and other coun¬ tries, through the efforts of the J.W.B.-sponsored Book and Music councils, which organized Jewish book month and the Jewish music festival the world over. In co-operation with the World Federation of Y.M.H.A.’s and Jewish community cen¬ tres (of which J.W.B. is a member), Jewish book month and the Jewish music festival were observed in the U.S., South Africa, South America and Europe. J.W.B. also became sponsor of the 54-year-old American Jewish Historical society. Program needs of centres and communities in the area of Jewish culture were met by J.W.B.’s lecture bureau, which booked hundreds of programs (forums, lectures, musicals, etc.) dealing with Jew¬ ish and other themes. Officers in 1948: Frank L. Weil was elected J.W.B. president for his ninth term; Mrs. Felix M. Warburg, honorary vicepresident; Mrs. Alfred R. Bachrach, Lloyd W. Dinkelspiel, Irving Edison, Mrs. Samuel R. Glogower, Carl M. Loeb, Jr., David de Sola Pool, Mrs. Walter E. Heller, Philip M. Klutznick and Milton Weill, vice-presidents; Joseph H. Cohen, treasurer; Robert K. Raisler, assistant treasurer; Joseph Rosenzweig, sec¬ retary; and Ralph K. Guinzburg, assistant secretary. S. D. Gershovitz was executive director. (F. L. W.)

Johns Hopkins University.

is a privately endowed in¬ stitution of higher learning located in Baltimore, Md. It con¬ sists of: three undergraduate schools (i) arts and sciences, (2) engineering (mechanical, civil, electrical, aeronautical, sanitary, industrial) and (3) business; McCoy college (afternoon and evening); the faculty of philosophy (graduate); the school of medicine; the school of hygiene and public health; and the Hopkins applied physics laboratory. For the year 1948-49, 2 new buildings and 87 new faculty members were added. Of undergraduate students, 25% were veterans. Undergraduates study under a group plan, while graduate students study under the jurisdiction of department heads. There is no separate faculty for the graduate school, faculty members teaching both graduate and undergraduate students. The following degrees are offered: A.B., M.A., B.S., doctorates in philosophy, hygiene, public health, engineering, history of medicine and education. President, Detlev Wulf Bronk. President emeritus, Isaiah Bow¬ man. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (I. Bo.)

John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation: see Societies and Associations.

Judaism: see Jewish Religious Jugoslavia: see Yugoslavia.

Illllana uUlldlld'

409 Life.

(Louise Emma Marie Wilhelmina of Orange-

(1909), queen of the Netherlands, was bom at The Hague, April 30, the daughter of Queen Wil¬ helmina and Prince Consort Henry. On Jan. 7, 1937, she mar¬ ried Prince Bernhard zu Lippe-Biesterfeld. Four children, all daughters, were born of this marriage: Princess Beatrix Wil¬ helmina Armgard (b. Jan. 31, 1938), Princess Irene Emma Elisabeth (b. Aug. 6, 1939), Princess Margriet Francisca (b. Jan. 19, 1943) and Princess Maria Christina (b. Feb. 18, 1947). After the German occupation of the Netherlands in 1940, Prin¬ cess Juliana went to Canada; from Sept. 1944 she stayed with her mother in England. Prince Bernhard served with the Nether¬ lands’ forces and on Sept. 3, 1944, was appointed commander in chief of the Dutch forces of the interior. After the liberation Princess Juliana returned to the Netherlands and lived at Soestdijk. She acted twice as princess regent (Oct. 14 to Dec. I, 1947, and May 14 to Aug. 30, 1948). On Sept. 6, 1948, two days after the abdication of her mother, she was enthroned as queen of the Netherlands at the historic Nieuwe Kerk of Am¬ sterdam. From that day onward her husband was to be known as prince of the Netherlands. Nassau)

Julius Rosenwald Fund: see Societies and Associations. Jumping: see Olympic Games; Track and Field Sports. Junior Colleges: see Universities and Colleges. Justice, U.S. Department of: see Government Depart¬ ments AND Bureaus.

World production of 1,575,000 metric tons of jute in • 1947-48 was 5% below prewar, but a 50% increase over the previous year. A subnormal flow of raw jute from east Pakistan to Indian mills occurred late in 1948; U.S. and Scot¬ tish mills were also short. U.S. imports were 49,363 tons in the first six months of 1948, a rate well above that of 1947. (J. K. R.)

Iiiupnilo nolinniipnpv

^

dUVGlIIIC UCIIIII|UGIIbj. in the improvement of methods in Massachusetts for the treatment and prevention of juvenile delinquency. A youth service board was established whereby an expert board of three takes control of children under 17 as soon as the juvenile courts have made adjudication. A child diagnostic centre was established at the Girls’ Industrial school, Lancaster, Mass. Upon diagnosis the youth service board has continuous control over all institutional or probationary treat¬ ment. Prevention of delinquency by giving aid to local com¬ munity programs is the responsibility of the board. In Toledo, O., the Children’s institute was set up on similar lines. Psychiatric social work reinforced the probation pro¬ gram. Councillors to the juvenile court were provided in order to enable parents to seek expert advice without formal court procedure. In many parts of the U.S. laws were being strengthened to safeguard juvenile court records. In Connecticut it is illegal to use a child’s record in any other court proceeding. This protection to the child is assured in California and in some parts of Minnesota, Michigan and Ohio. Thus the child in the United States at long last was being given the privacy long accorded to certain types of commitment of drug addicts and alcoholics. A preliminary survey of the federal bureau of prisons’ census issued by the department of justice in 1948 indicated a signi¬ ficant decrease in juvenile offenders committed through federal courts in various parts of the United States, notably in Vir-

KANSAS —KENTUCKY

410

ginia, Wisconsin and Pennsylvania. In New York state the 42 juvenile courts dealing with minors reported a decrease of 10% of cases committed as compared with 1947. The trend seemed definitely downward for the country as a whole. It was believed that strong community movements for prevention were responsible. (See also Child Welfare; Crime.) . (M. V. W.) Kansas was admitted to the union as the 34th Ixdllodo* state on Jan. 29, 1861. It is frequently called the “Sunflower state.” The total area is 82,276 sq.mi., of which 82,113 sq.mi. are land. Kansas is located in the geographical centre of the continental United States and is the geodetic cen¬ tre of the North American continent, from which all geodetic surveys are made. The population was estimated by the U.S. census bureau at 1,968,000 as of July i, 1948. The 1940 census revealed that only 3% of the people were foreign born, and that the population was about equally divided between urban and rural. Capital: Topeka, population (1948) 87,001, a gain over 1947 of 1,884 (194O) 67,833). The two larger cities in 1948 were Wichita, 170,765 (1940, 114,966) and Kansas City, 147,103 (1940, 121,458). History.—The principal state officials in 1948, following the. general election in November, were: Frank Carlson, governor; F. L. Hagaman, lieutenant governor; Larry Ryan, secretary of state; George Robb, auditor; R. T. Fadely, treasurer; E. F. Arn, attorney general; Adel Throckmorton, superintendent of public instruction. With the exception of the secretary of state and the superintendent of public instruction, all offices were filled by re-election of the officials. Gov. Frank Carlson was re-elected to a second term by a majority of 125,911, receiv¬ ing 433,396 votes, the highest number of votes received in the state by a candidate, state or national. Kansas voted to repeal the 68-year-old liquor prohibitory amendment by a majority of 63,984. The problem of liquor control was to be decided by the 1949 legislature. All of the six Republican members of the national house were returned to congress. Kansas cast a total of 788,819 votes for the five presidential candidates, including 423,039 for Thomas E. Dewey and 351,902 for Harry S. Truman. Education.—In 1948 there were 2,448 one-teacher schools in operation (i,i8i having been closed), with an enrolment of 43,824. The enrolment (1947) in elementary and secondary schools was 316,942, of which 89,318 were in secondary schools. A total number of 14,144 teachers were em¬ ployed in the state. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

The populations of the state institutions for 1948 were as follows: in¬ dustrial school for boys 117; industrial school for girls 74; state hospital for epileptics 715; state orphanage 108; state hospital for tuberculars 400; state hospital for the deaf 227; state hospital for the blind 75; state hospital for imbeciles 1,340; Kansas vocational school (Negro) 130; hospital for insane 5,062; state penitentiary 1,091; industrial farm for women 46; industrial reformatory for boys 288. Communications.-—In 1948 the state had 9,390 mi. of rural highways and 507 mi. of urban highways, under state control. There were 8,448 mi. of railroads; there were 184 airports, 86 being municipal, 95 pri¬ vately owned and 3 Civil Aviation administration. Banking and Finance.—The budget for the biennium 1947-49 totalled $37,213-933, an increase of $11,157,063 over the previous budget. Sales tax (2%) collected for 1948 fiscal year totalled $35,639,802.39, an in¬ crease of $6,831,780.39 over the previous year. The bonded indebtedness totalled $6,250,000. In 1948 the state collected $12,857,127.37 in income tax. As of Oct. I, 1948, there were 174 national banks and 433 state banks and 4 trust companies in the state. Of the state banks 280 were insured under the provisions of the Federal Deposit Insurance corporation. Agriculture.—The year 1948 was one of the most favourable in history for Kansas agricultural production. Development of winter wheat was

delayed by lack of moisture at seeding time but the crop made a remark¬ able spring recovery to net the third largest production in the history of the state. Corn yields were the highest in 59 years while sorghum and soybean yields were the highest in history. Hay production was the highest in 20 years and the second highest on record. As of Jan. i, 1948, there were 3,396,000 cattle and calves; 1,094,000 hogs and 724,000 sheep and lambs on farms in the state. The cash net farm income for the year was $1,275,500,000. Manufactures and Mineral Production.—In 1947 the value of the petro¬ leum production of Kansas was $200,000,000 and for natural gas $55,000,000. Kansas is also recognized for the production of zinc, cement, lead, coal and salt. In 1948 there were nearly 3,000 manufacturing and processing plants engaged in the production of more than 1,000 items. (F. Cn.)

I# ■ An east south central state of the United States, IxCilluliKya admitted to tfle union on June i, 1792, Kentucky is popularly known as the “Blue Grass state.” Area, 40,395 sq.mi. of which 286 sq.mi. are water (chiefly the Ohio river). The estimated population (U.S. census bureau) on July i, 1948, was 2,819,000, a decrease of 0.9% from the 1940 population of 2,845,627. Capital, Frankfort (pop. 16,100); largest city, Louis¬ ville (372,500). Other cities are Covington (67,800); Lexington (60,600); Paducah (37,100); Ashland (35,200); Newport (34,100); Owensboro (33,500); Henderson (21,600); Bowling Green (20,800); Hopkinsville (15,500). History.—On Nov. 2, 1948, in the presidential election Presi¬ dent Harry S. Truman received 466,756 votes; Thomas E. Dewey 341,210; J. Strom Thurmond 10,411; Henry A. Wallace 1,567. The Republicans carried the 3rd and 9th districts. Virgil Chapman (D.) defeated U.S. Senator John S. Cooper (R.). The general assembly imposed a tax of 3% on race-track wagers; created a state police force and a board to attract new indus¬ tries; and adopted a local option law under which cities of four classes may vote by precincts. Under this act three cities had voted wet, two dry, and one (Catlettsburg) was divided. The principal state officers in 1948 were: Earle C. Clements, governor; Lawrence W. Wetherby, lieutenant governor; George G. Hatcher, secretary of state; A. E. Funk, attorney general; Harry N. Jones, auditor; Edward F. Seiller, treasurer. Boswell B. Hodgkin was superintendent of education. Education—Elementary schools numbered 5,015 with 12,733 teachers and 458,660 pupils in 1948. In 112 high schools were 4,953 teachers and 88,859 pupils. The state distributed $21,500,000 from the school fund, or $33.05 per capita. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs__

The unemployment commission paid $435,909 in Oct. 1948, an average benefit of $14.65; unemployed veterans received $302,000, and selfemployed veterans received $250,000; old-age assistance to 52,852 persons amounted to $1,094,000—the highest on record; aid to dependent chilffien (37,464) amounted to $568,000; the needy blind (1,912) received $42,200 in the same month. Inmates of correctional institutions (Sept. 30, 1948) were reported as follows; reformatory 1,784 (1,388 white, 396 Negro); penitentiary, 1,048 (663 white, 385 Negro); houses of reform, 376; women’s prison, 62. At the close of 1948, 92 counties remained dry. Communications—The highway department maintained 10,639 mi. of roads during 1948. Receipts in the fiscal year ending April 1, 1948, were $36,544,000, while expenditures were $37,172,000. The gasoline tax was increased by the general assembly from five to seven cents. The Cairo-Wickliffe bridge was opened Nov. ii. There remained seven private toll bridges in the state. Banking and Finance—On June 30, 1948, Kentucky had 92 national banks with assets of $617,354,000; 295 state banks and trust com¬ panies with resources of $932,808,000. The state treasury received $87,275,923 during the fiscal year, of which sum $51,622,000 went into the general fund, $33,250,000 to roads and $2,403,000 to other purposes. The two largest drafts against the general fund were for education ($33,533,700) and welfare ($10,820,000). Receipts were classified as follows: $44,280,859 from consumer taxes; $14,875,718.37 from licence and privilege taxes; $15,286,144.98 from income taxes; $9,657,160.99 from property taxes; $2,427,466.39 from inheritance taxes; and $748,573.88 from miscellaneous sources. The surplus (June 30) was $24,460,040. There was no state debt. Agriculture.—The

Leading Agricultural Products of Kansas, 1948 and 1947 and 10-Year Average lln Thousands) Average, Crop Wheat, bu. Corn, bo. Sorghum (grain), bo. Oats, bu. Soybeans, bu. Hay, tons. Borley, bu.

Est. 1948 215,688 80,780 25,628 32,508 2,715 3,659 7,980

1947 286,702 40,443 10,933 40,455 1,887 3,116 6,380

1937-46 167,792 60,072 19,310 36,022 1,285 2,252 12,153

leading crops of

1948

appear as

reported in

the

table. Leading Agricultural Products of Kentucky, 1948 and 1947 Crop Wheat, bu. Corn, bu. Oats, bu. Hay; all types, tons.. Tobacco, ail types, lb. Potatoes, Irish, bu. Soybeans, bu. . , .. Barley, bu.

1948 5,560,000 100,040,000 2,754,000 2,194,000 413,390,000 2,542,000 2,299,000 1,348,000

1947 5,184,000 76,265,000 2,415,000 2,704,000 385,073,000 3,366,000 1,750,000 1,325,000

KENYA — KOREA coal mines yielded 88,695,527 tons and employed 75,197 miners with a loss of 146 lives. The output of petroleum in 1947 was 9,371,185 bbl. Natural gas was estimated at 90,000,000,000 cu.ft. (E. T.) Mineral

Products—During

Kenya: see

411

1947

British East Africa.

Kiriniinninfr Kidnappings in 1948 followed much the same l\IUIICl|J|Jlllgi pattern as in 1947. There were the same over¬ tones of political influences, chiefly with respect to the rise of kidnappings as instruments of national policy. The govern¬ ment and allies of the Soviet Union played important roles in all of these. In March the Greek government complained to the United Nations that Albania, Bulgaria and Yugoslavia were plotting wholesale seizures of Greek children and their de¬ portation to points within the “iron curtain” where they could be trained as communists. The Balkan governments made re¬ joinder that the deportations were necessary as a humanitarian measure in the war zone of northern Greece. As a defensive measure the Greek government thereupon ordered the evacua¬ tion of all children in the war zone to unaffected areas such as Rhodes. A different type of political kidnapping was represented by the seizure of U.S. officials and policemen in the western zone of occupied Germany by soviet troops assigned to border patrol duty. Repeated incidents of this character contributed to the steady deterioration of east-west relations. A third type arose in New York city, where Mrs. 0. S. Kosenkina, a teacher of Russian children whose parents were connected with the soviet foreign service in New York city, declared in an interview at the Russian consulate in New York city that she had been kidnapped by White Russians and rescued by soviet representatives. At the same time, M. I. Samarian, a Russian citizen, asked for U.S. protection and de¬ clared that Mrs. Kosenkina was being detained against her will at the soviet consulate. While the issue was being pressed by the U.S. department of state in Washington, D.C., Mrs. Kosen¬ kina jumped from an upper window of the consulate, and on being removed to a New York hospital by city police, an¬ nounced that she had taken this means of escaping from her soviet captors and avoiding possible return to Russia. Still a fourth type of political kidnapping arose in the state of Georgia, when members of the presidential campaign staff of Henry A. Wallace were alleged to have been seized as a means of hampering the election program of the Progressive party in that state. An investigation by the state government tended to confirm the charges. A widely publicized occurrence in Tel Aviv, Pal., involved the kidnapping of Mrs. M. M. Black on Feb. 7, 1948. She was released on the following day. In the United States there were more than a score of kid¬ nappings in connection with armed robberies. Prominent in this category was the Ward-Ferrari case in New York city, wherein William Ward was robbed of a pay roll, kidnapped and shot by his friend Anthony Ferrari late in Oct. 1948. Ferrari was indicted on Nov. 18. That the hesitant arm of the law is sometimes very long was demonstrated when Liberate Parrino was arrested in New York upon the charge that he had kidnapped and tortured two sea¬ men in 1934. In the United States there was also evidence of a return to prewar frequency in kidnappings, when the Federal Bureau of Investigation announced in July that during the preceding 12 months it had handled 33 kidnapping cases as compared with 26 cases in fiscal year 1946-47 and only 13 cases in 1945-46. All of these 72 cases were solved. (Br. S.)

King, William Lyon Mackenzie dian

statesman, was

bom Dec. 17 at Berlin (now Kitchener), Ont. (see Encyclo¬ pedia Britannica for his early career). He concluded a long and distinguished political career in 1948. On April 20 he matched the hitherto unsurpassed record of Sir Robert Walpole in being prime minister of a country within the British com¬ monwealth for 20 years, 10 months, 9 days; on Aug. 7 at the third national convention of the Liberal party he stepped down from party leadership, which he had accepted on Aug. 7, 1919; on Nov. 15 he resigned the prime ministership after 21 years, 5 months and 5 days in office. He continued to hold his parlia¬ mentary seat of Glengarry as a private member. After conducting a busy 1948 parliamentary session and visit¬ ing U.S. President Harry S. Truman for private talks. King proceeded to Paris, France, to represent Canada at the Septem¬ ber meetings of the United Nations assembly. After leaving the United Nations session, he proceeded to London, England, for the Commonwealth Prime Ministers’ conference, but took ill and was confined to bed throughout deliberations. After more than a month of convalescence, he returned to Canada on Nov. 6 and soon thereafter completed resignation arrangements with the governor general. He was succeeded as leader of the Liberal party and as prime minister by Louis St. Laurent (q.v.). (See also Canada.) (C. Cy.)

Kiwanis International: see Societies and Associations. Knights of Columbus: see Societies and Associations. I* A peninsula extending from Manchuria southward 600 IxUlCda mi. between the Yellow sea and the Sea of Japan; for II mi. it borders the U.S.S.R., the rest of the boundary is with Manchuria. Area: 85,225 sq.mi. The 38th parallel north, chosen to separate soviet and U.S. forces accepting the surrender of Japanese troops, remained during 1948 as the artificial division between Korean governments organized in each zone. The south had 44% of the area, but its population of 20,041,000 (Jan. 1948 est.) was more than twice that of the north. The largest city is Kyongsong (Seoul); pop., 1,243,000 (Jan. i, 1948); 1940 pop., 935,464. Other cities with 1940 populations are Pusan 249,734, Taegu 178,923 and Inch’on 171,165. In the north is P’yongyang 285,965, the northern capital, and Ch’ongjin 197,918. Religions: Buddhism, Confucianism and a unique eclectic religion Chun-dyo-ko. In 1938 there were 500,000 Korean Christians. History.—The fundamental development during 1948 was the formation of the two Korean republics. The regime in the south was set up under the auspices of the United Nations. The U.N. Temporary Commission on Korea (U.N.T.C.O.K.) arrived in Korea in early January. Being refused permission to visit Russian-held North Korea, its subsequent activities were re¬ stricted to the U.S.-occupied area south of 38° N. On May 10, under observation by U.N.T.C.O.K., 8,000,000 South Koreans, 80% of the eligible voters, took part in an election for a na¬ tional assembly. On May 20 the Korean interim legislative as¬ sembly, created in 1946 by the U.S. military government, was dissolved. The newly dected national assembly formally met on May 31 and elected Rhee Syngman as chairman. The assembly quickly adopted a lengthy constitution for the Republic of Korea. On July 20 Rhee Syngman was elected president, being inaugurated on July 24. On Aug. 15, the third anniversary of Japanese surrender, Gen. Douglas MacArthur attended cere¬ monies where power was turned over to the new regime by the U.S. military government in Korea. Shortly after this Lieut. Gen. John R. Hodge, commander of the U.S. forces, left Korea. In the succeeding weeks an interim agreement was signed call-

412

KRUG, JULIUS ALBERT

ing for the continuance of some U.S. troops in Korea until South Korean military forces could be well organized. On Dec. 12, the U.N. general assembly passed by a vote of 48-6 a resolution de¬ claring the Republic of Korea “a lawful government having ef¬ fective control and jurisdiction” over South Korea and es¬ tablishing a U.N. commission in Korea to aid and observe fur¬ ther developments. A revolt which had been smouldering in Cheju (Quelpart) Island off the southwest coast flared up. A detachment of Korean constabulary being dispatched there re¬ volted on Oct. 20 at Yosu, the port of embarkation, and seized that town and the nearby city of Sunchon; however, they were quickly suppressed. While the U.N.-approved government was being set up in South Korea, another government was organized in the north. The Soviet Union maintained its negative attitude to U.N. T.C.O.K. and operated without U.N. approval. In February a constitution for a People’s Democratic Republic of Korea with jurisdiction over all Korea was presented to the North Korean People’s committee, the organization through which the Rus¬ sians governed their zone. This constitution was approved on May I, and formally adopted on July 10. Single-slate “elec¬ tions” for the Supreme People’s assembly were held on Aug. 25. The assembly with extraordinary dispatch considering the diffi¬ culties of travel in North Korea convened at P’yongyang on Sept. 2 and quickly ratified the constitution. The assembly ap¬ pealed to both soviet and U.S. governments to withdraw their troops. The praesidium of the supreme soviet of the U.S.S.R. on Sept. 19 acknowledged the request, and it was reported that soviet troops were withdrawn to the adjacent Russian territory by Dec. 25. Education—During the year a group of U.S. educators worked with Korean teachers in South Korea in revising the rigid system which had been established by the Japanese. By the close of 1948 only about 42% of children of school age were attending schools. The mass teaching of onmun, the native syllabary, was being continued and consequently the literacy rate was rapidly increasing. Defense.—Native defense forces were organized in both occupation zones. Estimates of trained military forces in the north ran from 100,000 to 200,000. In the south the Korean constabulary numbered about 60,000 men. Finance.—Financial data were available during 1948 only for South

KOREANS voting at Naech’on on May 10, 1948, in the first democratic elec¬ tion in Korean history. Officials shown below were supervising the balioting in accordance with U.N. instructions

Korea. The value of the won dropped sharply during the year; the official rate of exchange established by the new government was 450 won to $i U.S.; black-market rates ranged from 750 to 2,000 won to $i occupation scrip or paper. Measures against inflation were on the whole ineffective; official prices were 150% to 200% above 1937 figures, black-market prices were 300% to 400% higher. Won in circulation increased from 5,000,000,000 in 194s to more than 40,000,000,000 at the close of 1948. The new government was inaugurated without a national debt and with financial aid promised from the United States Economic Cooperation administration. Trade.—Trade was on a government-to-government basis with the U.S. military government arranging for essential imports of foodstuffs, con¬ sumer goods, coal, petroleum and fertilizers from the U.S. and Japan. Imports had exceeded exports by a margin of 30,000,000 to 40,000,000 won yearly during 1946-48. Agriculture.—Rice is the most important product; 1948 production in the south was estimated at 2,500,000 metric tons. Other products were (1948 estimate): barley 352,393' tons; naked barley 212,780 tons; wheat 89,912 tons; and rye 18,896 tons. In the.spring of 1948 the U.S. military government deeded to landless Korean farmers on a 15-year purchase plan the former Japanese-owned land, which comprised 15.3% of the farm lands of the south. Manufacturing—Production goals for 1948 announced for manufactur¬ ing in the north were: pig iron 9,000,000 tons; chemical fertilizers 332,000 tons; salt 158,000 tons; cotton 1,400 tons; rayon yarn 1,440 tons; data on achievement of these goals were unknown. The soviet decision in May to cut off the power supply from the north to the south seriously curtailed manufacturing in the south, since 80% of its electrical power was derived from the north. Steps were taken to install power barges at Pusan and Inch’on. Mineral Production—The major mineral resources are found in the north where iron, coal, gold and many other ore deposits were exploited by the Japanese. In the south anthracite coal production is limited and had a setback with the power shutoff; plans called for an increase in production from 60,000 tons a month to 90,000 tons by the end of the year. In 1944 South Korea was the world’s leading graphite producer (103,000 metric tons); production in 1948 was one-fourth that amount. Bibliography.—U.S. War Dept., Army Military Government Activities in Korea, Summation; Korea 1945 to 1948, U.S. Dept, of State Publica¬ tion 3305, Far Eastern Series 28 (Oct. 1948); series of articles in Soviet Press Translations, Far Eastern Institute, Univ. of Wash., 3:19 (Nov. i, 1948); The Voice of Korea, Korean Affairs Institute, 5:98-6:120 (1948); George M. McCune,'“The Korean Situation,” Far Eastern Sur¬ vey, 17:17 (Sept. 8, 1948). (See also United Nations.) (S. McC.)

Krwa liiliiiQ Alhprt

^

l\lllgy UmiUO niUwl l government official, was born on Nov. 23 in Madison, Wis., and received an M.A. degree from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, in 1930. He served as a power engineer and consultant for several federal agencies from 1936 to 1941. In 1943 he held an executive position with the War Production board, then joined the navy as a lieutenant commander in 1944, returning .to WPB as its chairman in the

KUWAIT — LABOUR UNIONS fall of 1944. Krug resigned in Oct. 1945, and on Feb. 26, 1946, was appointed secretary of the interior by Pres. Harry S. Truman. In 1948 Krug was assigned to work out priorities, allocations and inventory control of coal, coke, petroleum and gas, in a precautionary program aimed at establishing voluntary indus¬ trial anti-inflation agreements. He later issued repeated warn¬ ings of a critical petroleum supply situation, and called on the nation to reduce gasoline, fuel oil and gas consumption by 15%. Before a congressional committee he testified that U.S. petroleum reserves were down to 21,000,000,000 bbl. and would be exhausted in ten years, and urged government financing of experiments to extract oil from lignite and oil shale. He also testified that the U.S. needed a $9,000,000,000, five-to-ten year program to build up the synthetic oil industry. As a wit¬ ness before the senate foreign affairs committee, he testified on the effect the European Recovery program would have on U.S. natural resources, and suggested that in the second winter under the plan there might be need for rationing fuel oil unless production were increased.

Kuwait: see

Arabia.

I^VSinitP Minprpic

includes the closely asso-

IxjdililC IVIIIICldlua elated minerals kyanite, andalusite,

dumortierite, and sillimanite. Kyanite.—The U.S. production is not reported, but reached a record high in 1946, with some decline in 1947. The chief sources of imports are India and Kenya, which supplied 10,782 short tons in 1946 and 11,019 tons in 1947, out of a total con¬ sumption estimated at 11,500 tons in 1946 and 13,800 tons in 1947. Andalusite and Dumortierite.—Past production was at three mines, dumortierite in Pershing county, Nev., and andalusite in Mono county, Calif., and Mineral county, Nev. All three mines changed hands in 1947, but only one of them was operated. Sillimanite.—No production of sillimanite was reported in the United States in 1947, but demand increased, and imports ad¬ vanced from 592 tons in 1946 to 1,163 tons in 1947, all from Australia. The extensive deposits in the south Atlantic states were under investigation, and a pilot plant was frying to make a refractory brick that would pass federal and navy ispecifications for thermal shock. (G. A. Ro.)

Labor, U.S. Department ot; see

Government Depart¬

ments AND Bureaus.

Labour: see

Agriculture; American Federation of Labor;

Child Labour;

Child Welfare;

Congress of Industrial

Organizations; Employment; Federal Mediation and Con¬ ciliation

Service;

International

Labour Unions; Law; National

Mediation

Labour

Organization;

National Labor Relations Board; Board;

Negroes,

American;

Radio;

Shipbuilding; Strikes; United States; Wages and Hours.

See also under various states.

Labour Party, Great Britain: see

Political

Parties,

British.

I ohniir llninne ^94^ labour unions in the United States LdUUUI UIIIUIIui added extensive and organized political ac¬ tivity to their major undertakings. Both the Congress of Indus¬ trial Organizations and the American Federation of Labor, as well as their constituent unions, devoted much of their energy and resources to demonstrating the political power of organized labour. The principal goal of their campaign was drastic revi¬ sion or outright repeal of the Taft-Hartley act and return to the National Labor Relations act (Wagner act), preferably in its

413

original and unamended form. Although the majority of unions were lukewarm toward the nomination of Pres. Harry S. Tru¬ man, he won their vigorous support once he was nominated. At the same time, unions devoted themselves to defeating members of the national house of representatives and the senate who had voted for the Taft-Hartley act. President Truman’s unexpected victory, the loss by the Republicans of control of both the house and senate and the defeat of leading supporters of the TaftHartley act were accepted as evidence of labour’s political influ¬ ence and became the signal for the movement to revise the country’s basic labour law. Most unions continued to add to their membership in 1948. The requirement of the Taft-Hartley law that officials of unions, seeking to invoke the law for their benefit, sign the so-called anticommunist affidavits, a requirement which at the outset was strongly condemned by nearly all unions, became in time one of the law’s more popular provisions. This was so because of the increasing number of organizations which in 1948 were fighting the communists within their ranks. In the case of strikes of the coal miners and printers, the United Mine Workers and the International Typographical union resented the issuance of in¬ junctions against them. But both of these unions had consist¬ ently defied the law and consequently exposed themselves to its more extreme penalties. All unions, however, were irked by the restrictions upon their freedom of action which distinguished the Taft-Hartley act from the Wagner act. Particularly after the November elections, they were determined to free them¬ selves from existing legislative curbs. Time lost through strikes was no greater in 1948 than in 1947, and amounted to something more than 34,000,000 man-days. The most serious strikes were in coal mining and on the news¬ papers, though there were also prolonged stoppages in the ship¬ ping industry on the east and west coasts, in meat packing and in trucking. The Typographical union waged through the whole of 1948 a strike against the Chicago newspapers in its attempt to win the closed shop. The miners struck to force the payment of old-age pensions from the industry’s retirement fund. As a result of the strike John L. Lewis (q.v.) and the United Mine Workers were fined for contempt of court but the miners were awarded pensions of $100 a month. The continuance through 1948 of the postwar business boom kept employment at maximum levels and raised wages still fur¬ ther. In the spring of the year several large companies, notably United States Steel and General Electric, sought to prevent the third round of wage increases, because they regarded them as inflationary and because there were a few signs of a possible halt in the advance of business. The anticipated decline in activity failed to materialize. In May General Motors settled with the United Automobile Workers for an increase of ii cents an hour, in a contract tying wages to the cost of living. With this settle¬ ment the other large companies fell into line and by the end of the year factory wages had risen roughly 12 cents an hour. To this increase in wages, there were added valuable benefits through the liberalization of pension and insurance benefits. The fight against communism in the C.I.O. was the foremost issue in the internal affairs of that organization. Early in the year the executive board endorsed the European Recovery pro¬ gram (q.v.) over communist opposition. Philip Murray, presi¬ dent of the C.I.O., took every occasion to denounce the com¬ munists and their policies. It remained for the annual conven¬ tion, held in Portland, Ore., in November, to take the steps to reduce the influence of the communists. Murray publicly at¬ tacked the unions of farm equipment workers, wholesale and retail employees and government employees. The United Farni Equipment and Metal Workers were ordered to merge with the right-wing United Automobile Workers and later the Amalga-

LABOUR UNIONS

414

mated Clothing Workers were reques-ted to organize retail clerks, thus superseding the existing union in that field. Ties between the C.I.O. and the World Federation of Trade Unions were likewise loosened as it became clear that the latter organization was predominantly an instrument of the soviet gov¬ ernment. The C.I.O., together with the A.F. of L., became more and more active in the international policies and affairs of the United States government. Many of their representatives were appointed to prominent positions in the Economic Cooperation administration and played a large role in making the policy of the Marshall plan. Little progress was made during the year in unifying the A.F. of L. and the C.I.O. They both pursued the same objectives in the national elections of 1948, but otherwise they came no closer together. The announced campaign of the C.I.O. to unionize white-collar workers threatened, indeed, to precipitate new jurisdictional conflicts between these organizations. (See also American Federation of Labor; Business Review; Con¬ gress OF Industrial Organizations; Law; National Labor Relations Unions.)

Board;

Strikes;

World

Federation

of

Trade

(L. Wo.)

Canada.—Controversies within union federations and be¬ tween unions marked the year 1948, and there were prolonged discussions over the role of communism in Canadian unions. The eighth annual convention of the Canadian Congress of Labour in Toronto in October upheld by a large majority the executive council’s suspension of the communist-tinged Inter¬ national Union of Mine, Mill and Smelter Workers (reinstated in November), declared the United Electrical Workers were communist-led and that expulsion from the congress would fol¬ low unless their “tactics and philosophies” were changed, and branded the Woodworkers’ Industrial Union of British Colum¬ bia, a 1948-formed communist rump of the International Wood¬ workers of America, a traitor to the real cause of labour. The Trades and Labour congress in its October annual con¬ vention in Victoria took a less definite stand on communism than the Canadian Congress of Labour, being content with a resolution “deploring” the actions of “some communists” in Canadian unions, but it suffered no less than the latter from internal strife. The strongly anticommunist Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks helped affiliate the Canadian Lake Seaman’s union with the Seafarers’ International Union of North America, a combination which was in bloody summer-long collision with the reputedly communist-dominated Canadian Seaman’s union. Because the Trades and Labour congress fa¬ voured the Canadian Seaman’s union, the Brotherhood of Rail¬ way and Steamship Clerks was temporarily suspended from the Trades and Labour congress. The Brotherhood of Railway and Steamship Clerks two months later federated 32 international unions within the Trades and Labour congress into the Canadian Association of International Union Representatives, dedicated to throwing all communistic factions out of the congress (by 1948 it was estimated that 100,000 Canadian workers in the electrical, chemical, mining, logging and shipping industries, out of a total of 912,000 union members, were communist-dom¬ inated). (C. Cy.) Great Britain.—In Great Britain the Trades Union congress held at Margate in Sept. 1948 represented 7,791,000 organized workers—an increase of more than 250,000 over the total for the previous year. The principal developments of 1948 arose out of the appeal issued by the government in February for a national effort to stabilize wages and incomes. This involved asking the trade unions, for fear of inflationary consequences, not to use the strong bargaining position arising out of the shortage of labour as a means of pressing for advances in money wages, except in

JACK PALEY, C.I.O. official, being ejected from a house labour subcommittee hearing held in New York in July 194S, to investigate reported communist infiltration in New York unions

connection with increased output. This necessity was accepted at a special conference of trade-union executives convened in March 1948 by the general council, the acceptance, however, being made conditional on the government’s taking effective action to stabilize prices and to limit profit distributions; the government, in pursuance of this policy, maintained the essential food subsidies and price controls and also made a special appeal to businesses not to increase the rate of dividends above the level of distribution in 1947. The wage-stabilization policy was reaffirmed at the Trades Union congress of Sept. 1948, There was much talk about the desirability of legal compul¬ sion upon all firms above a certain size to establish and main¬ tain regular machinery for joint labour-management consulta¬ tion, but most of the trade-union leaders preferred a voluntary approach, and the government limited itself to urging employers and trade unions in each industry to work out systems of con¬ sultation suitable to their special conditions. The government’s efforts to promote the establishment of statutory development councils under the Industrial Organization and Development act of 1947 met with little success outside the cotton industry. Em¬ ployers in most industries showed growing opposition to the establishment of statutory bodies, including trade-union repre¬ sentatives, armed with powers of economic regulation; the gov¬ ernment had to apply pressure to induce employers to reopen negotiations which had failed to lead to any agreement. In July the president of the board of trade reiterated his disap¬ pointment at the lack of progress and hinted that, unless the employers’ organizations showed a more accommodating spirit, it might become necessary to invoke compulsory powers. There were signs of a growing demand in the trade-union ranks for some form of increased participation in the control of socialized industries, if not by changing the composition of the managing boards, at any rate by the development of a much more complete and influential provision for joint consultation at every level. Unofficial strikes, which were numerous though neither large nor prolonged in 1947, were a good deal less frequent in 1948, since the understanding of Great Britain’s economic crisis had become deeper and more widespread. At the September Trades

415

LABRADOR —LATVIA Union congress, the communist candidates for the general coun¬ cil were defeated, and there were clear signs that communist influence in the trade unions had grown weaker as a result of the new line adopted by the western Communist parties after the institution of the Cominform in 1947. There was growing tension between the British T.U.C. and its partners in the World Federation of Trade Unions, and the British threatened to secede unless the communist officers of the W.F.T.U. ceased to issue in its name manifestoes inconsistent with British support of the European Recovery program (q.v.) and of west European unity. Later in the year the general council recommended that the W.F.T.U. should suspend its activities for the time being, and announced its decision to secede unless this were done. In conjunction with the Belgian and Dutch trade unions, the T.U.C. called in March 1948 an independent conference of the trade unions favourable to the Marshall plan; this conference was attended by representatives of both wings of the U.S. tradeunion movement, as well as by unions from 13 European coun¬ tries. The delegates set up an E.R.P. Trade Union Advisory committee to watch developments and to keep in touch with the intergovernmental agencies established to administer the Euro¬ pean Recovery program. A further conference, representing 26 national trade-union centres, was held in London in July 1948 and adopted a declaration supporting the program and demand¬ ing effective trade-union representation on the bodies entrusted with its execution and with the promotion of closer union among the countries concerned. (G. D. H. C.)

Labrador: see Newfoundland Labuan: see British Borneo.

and Labrador.

I onrncpa

feature of the ancient North American sport LdurUoOw* of lacrosse in 1948 was the showing of the Rens¬ selaer Polytechnic institute team. This team toured England during the summer, playing a total of nine games, and returned home unbeaten, although tied once. The tie came in the final game played against the all-England team, the U.S. team coming from behind within one minute of the end of the game to gain a 5-5 score. In the seventh annual North and South All-Star game, the North All-Stars beat the South All-Stars 11-6. The game was played in Baltimore. At Garden City, the U.S. la¬ crosse team beat the U.S. reserves 7-2 in the annual tourna¬ ment of the U.S. Women’s Lacrosse association. Army domi¬ nated the all-American lacrosse team with three men on the squad. The team chosen by the United States Intercollegiate Lacrosse association included two players each from Princeton and Johns Hopkins and one each from Navy, Duke and Rens¬ selaer Polytechnic institute. The U.S. Intercollegiate Lacrosse association closed the year with 32 members, a gain of two during 1948. (T. J. D.)

Lamb: see Meat. Laos: see French

Overseas Territories.

I

Production of lard in the United States in 1948, about 2,300,000,000 lb., was approximately the same as in 1947. Peak production (1943) was 3,267,000,000 lb., but the 1937-41 average was only 2,091,000,000 lb. U.S. civilian con¬ sumption in 1948 was estimated at 12.1 lb. per capita, at 12.5

LdlUi

lb. in 1947 and at only an ii-lb. average for 1935-39Stocks were comparatively low at the beginning of the year and did not build up much. Lard continued to move overseas from the U.S. in fairly large amounts, particularly to western Europe; 197,500,000 lb. were exported during the first half of 1948, compared with 228,200,000 lb. during the same period of 1947, and 415,600,000 lb. during all of 1947- Lard prices de¬

clined by more than one-third after Jan. 1948; the average retail price for the year ending Sept. 1948 was 31 cents per pound compared with 32.4 cents per pound in the preceding year, and 12.6 cents per pound prewar (1937-41), but lard futures were selling below 17 cents per pound late in the year. World lard production during 1948 was slightly larger than in the previous year, mostly because of the expansion of hog production and slaughter in Europe. (See also Hogs; Meat; Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats.) (J. K. R.)

Latin America: see

Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; British

Guiana; British Honduras; Chile; Colombia; Costarica; Ecuador; French Overseas Territories; Guatemala; Hon¬ duras;

Nicaragua;

Panama;

Paraguay;

Peru;

Salvador,

El; Surinam; Uruguay; Venezuela.

Latter Day Saints: see

I QtiMQ

Mormons.

Baltic states of northeastern Europe, north of Lithuania, south of Estonia; an independent republic, 1920-40, a republic of the U.S.S.R., 1940-41, part of the German “Ostland,” 1941-44, reintegrated into the U.S.S.R. after the reconquest of 1944-45. Area: 2.5,395 sq.mi.; popula¬ tion; (census 1935) 1,950,502, (est. 1940) 1,994,506. Capital: Riga (393,211 in 1939); the other principal city is Liepaja (57,098 in 1935). Language: Latvian. Religion: Christian (Protestant 56%; Roman Catholic 24.5%; Greek Catholic 9%; Greek Orthodox 5.5%). Chairman of the council of ministers: Vilis Lacis. History.—Ascertainable facts concerning Latvia in 1948 had to be sifted from the denunciations of refugees who fled that country at the risk of their lives, or from the propaganda of the soviet press and radio. Labour policy appeared to involve a considerable amount of “statute labour,” a compulsory system applied both individually and collectively. The worker was required to fill certain precise quotas—to cut so much timber, cart so much produce, clear so much land or build a certain length of road. The farmer had to deliver specified quantities of produce to the state. Reports indicated that collectivization was being pushed vig¬ orously by the communist officials. This was being done partly by indirection: the land was parcelled into farms of about 26 ac., and about 70,000 of these units established. Such a farm was too small to support a family in Latvia, hence, the holder was to be forced to join with seven or more others in establish¬ ing a kolkhoz or collective farm. As a collective farmer a man would be taxed only about one-fourth as much as was the in¬ dividual operator. Furthermore, fertilizer was available only for the collective farms. In the groups of Baltic refugees sailing small boats across the Atlantic, there were usually a few Latvians, though Estonians predominated. In Nov. 1948 a boatload of 29 Lat¬ vians arrived in Boston, Mass., having sailed the Atlantic in a 60-ft. ketch. Many more Latvians were involved in the mi¬ gration of displaced persons from Germany to Canada and the U.S., permitted under special legislation of 1948. These were part of the remnant of the thousands taken by the Germans as political prisoners or as forced labourers during World War II, and of others who fled to Germany when the Russians re¬ turned. Latvians were in the majority both of students and faculty at the Baltic university in Hamburg. Thousands more were deported into the Russian interior (132,000 Balts in the first year of reoccupation, according to a former member of the Latvian parliament, and 300,000 by 1948). Thousands of Russian officials and managers and farmers went into Latvia and the other Baltic states to take the places of the exiles and to direct the sovietization of the economic

LdlVIua

416 and political life. (See also

LAW Estonia; Lithuania.)

liiiiLiOGKAPHY.-—Alfreds

Berzinsh, I Saw Vishinsky Bohhevize Latvia The Baltic Review; Albert Kalme, Soviets Blodsddd i Baltikum (Stockholm, 1948). (F. D. S.) I 1948):

Reverberations of World War II were still heard in the • United States courts and in congress during 1948. The supreme court ruled that it had no power to interfere with death sentences imposed upon former Japanese leaders by an 11-nation international tribunal. General Hideki To jo and six other war lords were subsequently hanged. In several cases the high court reminded litigants that war powers do not necessarily end when the bombing stops. It ruled that the wartime authority of the attorney general, as proxy for the president, to deport enemy aliens continues until congress officially declares the war to be over. The court also indicated that there is a postwar twilight during which such emergency powers as rent control may be lawfully exercised to remedy evils arising out of the war and continuing after hos¬ tilities have ceased. As a final step in the process of cleaning up the legal tag ends of world conflict, congress created a war claims commis¬ sion to adjudicate the claims of employees of war contractors, civilian U.S. citizens who had been interned by the Japanese, U.S. servicemen who had been prisoners of war, and the de¬ pendents of the latter two groups. Congress also sought to lessen the threat of future wars through measures intended to improve U.S. relations with non¬ communist nations. The Foreign Assistance act of 1948 allo¬ cated more than $6,000,000,000 to be expended, if necessary, over a 12-month period in support of a European Recovery program under the direction of an Economic Cooperation ad¬ ministration. Appended to the same statute were the Inter¬ national Children’s Emergency Fund Assistance act, the GreekTurkish Assistance act, and the China Aid act, appropriating funds for the purposes implied by those titles. As a further means of winning good will for the United States, the secretary of state was authorized under the Foreign Informational and Educational Exchange act to disseminate information about the American way of life and to provide for the exchange of stu¬ dents, teachers and other specialists with foreign countries. Another enactment extended the president’s authority to make trade agreements with foreign countries to June 30, 1949. At the same time congress prepared for war by adopting the second peacetime conscription act in U.S. history. In spite of the extraordinary expenditures authorized for foreign aid, congress reduced tax rates on individual incomes and lightened the load on married couples in noncommunityproperty law states by extending to them the right to split in¬ comes between husbands and wives for tax purposes. Rising living costs brought a pay raise for post office workers with a consequent increase in money order and postage rates, except for first class mail. The postal service was expanded to provide air parcel post. Congress also approved new federal judicial and criminal codes. Court rulings of greatest interest to the public generally were the supreme court’s decisions on civil rights, especially those barring the enforcement of racial restrictive covenants and declaring the “released time” system for religious instruc¬ tion in public schools to be unconstitutional. Only the more important legal developments of general in¬ terest are reported in this article. Administrative Law.—A fraud order issued by the post¬ master general prohibiting the delivery of mail and the pay¬ ment of money orders to the publisher and editor of a maga¬ zine in connection with a puzzle contest was upheld by the supreme court. The evidence supported the postmaster’s find¬

ings that the magazine had misled contestants as to entry fees and that the scheme was really not a puzzle contest (Donald¬ son V. Read Magazine, 333 U.S. 178). Two decisions of the same court approved cease and desist orders of the Federal Trade commission directed at antitrust law violations. In one case the court recognized the possibility that “both a commis¬ sion proceeding and a Sherman act suit based largely on the same alleged misconduct” might be carried on separately with¬ out excluding either agency from jurisdiction. The court in this case also reiterated its view that administrative agencies are not bound by rigid rules of evidence. It was therefore proper for the commissipn to consider evidence of a “con¬ tinuous course of concerted efforts” occurring before but lead¬ ing to the particular unlawful conduct charged in the proceed¬ ings (FTC V. Cement Institute, 333 U.S. 683). In the second case the justices divided sharply over the trade commission’s construction of supreme court rulings, but the majority affirmed the agency’s findings on the ground that a “reasonable possi¬ bility” of reducing competition is all that the government has to show to establish violations of the Robinson-Patman act (FTC V. Morton Salt Co., 334 U.S. 37). Orders of the Civil Aeronautics board granting or denying applications of citizens to operate overseas air lines are not subject to judicial review, the supreme court said. Since con¬ gress has specified that such orders are subject to approval by the president, this impliedly removes them from consideration by the courts (C & S Air Lines v. Waterman S. S. Corp., 333 U.S. 103). The power delegated to war agencies to redetermine profits under the Renegotiation act was confirmed in a high court ruling that subcontractors must exhaust their statutory remedy of review by the tax court of agency findings as to excess profits before resorting to the district courts. The court also rejected attacks on the constitutionality of the Renegotiation act, holding that it did not unlawfully delegate legislative power by omitting to prescribe standards for the determination of excessive profits. Nor did the renegotiation process take private property without due process of law (Lichter v. V.S.,

“VICIOUS CIRCLE,” a Bishop cartoon published in 194S in the St. Louis Star-Times

LAW 334 U.S. 742j. Aliens and Citizenship.—The efforts of a former nazi party member, Kurt G. W. Ludecke, author of / Knew Hitler, to block his deportation were thwarted by the supreme court in a 5 to 4 decision. The president’s wartime powers under the Alien Enemy act of 1798 to direct the attorney general to de¬ port potentially dangerous enemy aliens continue until congress declares that war is ended. The courts have no power to re¬ view such an order. The dissenting justices, however, strongly disapproved “the peacetime banishment of any person” on the unreviewable say-so of the attorney general {Ludecke v. Watkins, 335 U.S. 160). In two decisions the supreme court awarded relief against California laws prejudicial to the Japanese. It knocked out provisions of that state’s Alien Land law which declared con¬ veyances of farm lands made to citizens to be invalid when the consideration had been paid by an alien ineligible for citi¬ zenship. The California courts had declared that lands deeded to a child of Japanese parents, who was a U.S. citizen by birth, must escheat to the state because his father, who could not qualify for citizenship, had paid the purchase price. But the supreme court ruled that the statute was void since it discrim¬ inated against the son because of his parents’ country of origin. {Oyama v. California, 332 U.S. 633). In the second case the supreme court ruled that a statute denying fishing licences to “aliens ineligible to citizenship” was unconstitutional as applied to Japanese aliens because it deprived them of the equal pro¬ tection of the laws, free from discrimination on account of race or colour, and it was obviously not a conservation measure {Takahishi v. Fish and Game Commission, 334 U.S. 410). Further amends were made to persons of Japanese ancestry for the drastic treatment accorded them in wartime when lower federal courts cancelled the renunciations of citizenship of Japanese-American internees who had been held at reloca¬ tion centres. Their surrender of citizen status was not volun¬ tary but had been induced by coercive pressures. Congress pro¬ vided the means for settling the claims of the same group for losses up to $2,500 each arising out of the evacuation of west coast areas as well as Hawaii and Alaska during World War II; and the attorney general was authorized to suspend the depor¬ tation of Japanese aliens in cases of hardship to the same ex¬ tent as for other aliens. The Immigration act of 1917 was further amended by provisions permitting certain aliens to ob¬ tain re-entry permits enabling them to resume their status after leaving the U.S. on a visit. By statute approved June 25 congress authorized the admis¬ sion to the U.S. of 205,000 displaced persons during the next two years and authorized the attorney general to grant “the status of permanent residence” to certain displaced persons who entered the U.S. prior to April i, 1948, in a total number not to exceed 15,000. Of such immigrants 30% must be farm workers and 40% must come from countries occupied by Russia. Armed Forces.—The 1948 Selective Service act, effective June 24, in general followed the pattern of the 1940 law. It required men between 18 and 26 to register. Those between 19 and 26 became subject to 21 months’ service. Eighteenyear-olds were given the opportunity to enlist for one year and thereby become exempt from the draft. Men who were mem¬ bers of the national guard and certain reserve corps before the act went into effect were exempted from call as long as they continued in such groups. Draftees were not given the benefits of the G.I. Bill of Rights, but were granted re-employment rights. Exemption from combatant training and service was narrowed down to those conscientious objectors who express a belief “in a relation to a Supreme Being involving duties su¬ perior to those arising from any human relation.” Objections

417

based on “political, sociological, or philosophical views, or a merely personal moral code” were excluded from consideration. Title II of the new draft law guaranteed broader legal pro¬ tection for all members of the armed forces through drastic revisions of the articles of war. The amendments included a requirement for a thorough and impartial investigation before referring charges to a general court-martial, permission for the accused to be represented by counsel at such investigation, adoption of the civilian criminal law rules against self-incrimi¬ nation and coerced confessions, and provisions giving accused enlisted men the right to demand that at least one-third of the membership of the court-martial by which they are tried shall be composed of enlisted men. Miscellaneous enactments provided uniform rules for pro¬ curement procedures; authorized the detailing of army and air force personnel to educational institutions, industrial plants and hospitals as students, observers and investigators; and amended statutes relating to medical care and benefits for reservists, longevity pay for certain members of the armed forces, and administrative procedures. Business Regulation.—The government’s ceaseless war against antitrust law violations resulted in a series of impres¬ sive victories. After a three years’ hearing, recorded in 49,000 pages of testimony and 50,000 exhibits, the Federal Trade com¬ mission ordered 74 cement producers to abandon a price-fixing scheme by which sellers in specified basing point areas quoted identical prices to all customers regardless of differences in production costs and freight charges. This arrangement illegally curbed competition, said the commission, in findings which were approved by the supreme court. The “multiple basing point delivered price system” was thus tossed into the same discard as the single basing point system known as “Pittsburgh Plus” (FTC V. Cement Institute, 333 U.S. 683). Another FTC order directing a salt company to discontinue quantity dis¬ counts was sustained by the supreme court even though the effect on competition was relatively slight (FTC v. Morton Salt Co., 334 U.S. 37). Two decisions of the supreme court somewhat limited the extent to which patent monopolies may be used for price-fixing. A majority of five justices held that the owners of interlocking patents violated the antitrust laws by cross-licensing each other under an agreement by which one of them retained the right to grant sublicences to other manufacturers on condition that they would abide by a price schedule fixed by the licensor. This amounted to an unlawful combination or conspiracy, said Jus¬ tice Stanley F. Reed, who thus distinguished the situation from that in the General Electric case where it was held that a patentee may fix the prices to be charged by licencees for the sale of patented products {U.S. v. Line Material Co., 333 U.S. 287). The high court was unanimous, however, in ruling that the U.S. Gypsum Co. exceeded the legal limits of a patent monopoly by entering into identical patent-licensing agreements with all manufacturers of gypsum wallboard and plasterboard under which the licensor controlled the prices and distribution not only of patented but also of unpatented articles (U.S. v. U.S. Gypsum Co., 333 U.S. 364). For similar reasons the supreme court banned the use of the legalized copyright monopoly in fixing motion-picture admis¬ sion prices. A nation-wide arrangement by which producers and distributors licensed the exhibition of copyrighted films on condition that exhibitors would maintain minimum admis¬ sion prices was an unlawful restraint of trade. A lower court injunction forbidding eight motion-picture companies to con¬ tinue this and other illegal practices, including theatre pooling agreements, block booking, formula deals and other forms of discrimination between exhibitors, was affirmed (U.S. v. Para-

418

LAW

mount Pictures, 334 U.S. 131). In a second case the high court directed a district court to enter a decree against afSliated motion-picture exhibitors to restrain them from pooling their bargaining power to secure competitive advantages such as “first-runs” which they would not have been otherwise able to obtain {U.S. v. Griffith, 334 U.S. 100). A third decision struck at similar unlawful bargaining powers achieved by a theatre chain. The supreme court sustained a district court order re¬ quiring the controlling company to divest itself of enough theatres to break its monopoly (Schine Chain Theatres v. U.S., 334 U.S. no). The government also used the Sherman act successfully to terminate an agreement between California beet sugar refiners which unfairly fixed the method of determining prices to be paid to beet growers. To the argument that the arrangement was a purely intrastate affair, the supreme court said that a local conspiracy to control a local market was nevertheless sub¬ ject to the Sherman act since the sugar was sold in interstate commerce {M. I. Farms v. American Crystal Sugar Co., 334 U.S. 219). But the government lost another west coast case when the supreme court approved the purchase by the ll.S. Steel Co. of the largest independent steel fabricating company west of the Rocky mountains. The decision rested on the ground that the record failed to show that assimilation of the smaller company would lessen competition. On behalf of four dissenters, Justice William O. Douglas chided the majority of the court for muffing the most important antitrust case in years. “Here we have the pattern of the evolution of the great trusts,” he said. “Little, independent units are gobbled up by bigger ones.” The court’s decision would “allow U.S. Steel to wrap its tentacles tighter around the steel industry of the west” {U.S. V. Columbia Steel Co., 334 U.S. 495). A less significant concession to the “curse of bigness” was the high court’s lib¬ eration of the Ford company from the terms of a ten-year-old consent decree which had kept it from establishing its own company to finance the sale of cars. It was unfair to continue such a restriction since none existed against General Motors {Ford Motor Co. v. U.S., 17 L.W. 4009). Congress passed the Reed-Bulwinkle act over the president’s veto, thus giving the Interstate Commerce commission au¬ thority to exempt certain rate-fixing agreements between inter¬ state carriers from the operation of the antitrust laws. Con¬ gress also renewed controls on instalment buying; raised the reserve requirements for member banks in the federal reserve system; extended the Second Decontrol act of 1947 to June 30, 1949; renewed the life of the Reconstruction Finance Corpora¬ tion; approved a new Renegotiation act; provided controls for rubber production under the Rubber act of 1948; expanded the powers of the Civil Aeronautics administrator to acquire land¬ ing areas and in other respects; and authorized the acquisition and maintenance by certain agencies of airport properties on foreign soil. Civil Rights .—Six justices of the supreme court in two unani¬ mous rulings nullified the effects of racial restrictive covenants throughout the United States. Three justices refrained from taking part in either case. In one decision the court held that the equal protection clause of the 14th amendment forbids state courts from enforcing covenants which purport to limit the use and occupancy of real estate to members of the white race {Shelley v. Kraemer, 334 U.S. i). In the companion case the court held that a covenant against Negro ownership or oc¬ cupancy of property in the District of Columbia violated the Federal Civil Rights act and that public policy would not per¬ mit action in the federal courts upon a covenant unenforceable in the state courts {Hurd v. Hodge, 334 U.S. 24). On application of a young Negro woman the supreme court

curtly told the state of Oklahoma to provide legal education for students of her race in conformity with the 14th amend¬ ment. She had previously been denied admission to the Uni¬ versity of Oklahoma school of law solely for racial reasons {Sipuel V. Board of Regents, 332 U.S. 631). The same young woman later returned to the supreme court with a protest that Oklahoma’s subsequent creation of a segregated law school for Negroes did not fulfil the constitutional requirements. But the supreme court declined to consider whether the new school offered equal facilities before the state courts had passed on that point {Ada Sipuel Fisher v. Hurst, 333 U.S. 147). An¬ other young Negro woman won a fight against racial discrimi¬ nation when the high court affirmed the conviction of the op¬ erator of a steamship line for violating the Michigan Civil Rights act by refusing to accept her as a passenger. The com¬ merce clause does not bar a state from requiring a carrier in interstate and foreign commerce to render equal service to all without discrimination {Bob-Lo Excursion Co. v. Michigan, 333 U.S. 28). Reservation Indians were given the right to vote under an Arizona supreme court ruling that provisions of the state consti¬ tution denying the franchise to persons “under guardianship of the federal government” did not apply t(5 them. Along similar lines, a three-judge federal court ruled that a clause of the New Mexico constitution denying Indians the right to vote violated the 15th amendment of the federal constitution which guarantees a ballot to all persons of voting age regardless of race, creed or colour. In an 8 to I decision, which aroused violent reactions pro and con, the supreme court upheld the contentions of Mrs. Vashti McCollum that public schools may not be used for the so-called “released time” system of religious instruction. An Illinois local board of education had approved a program by which religious instruction was given in a school building dur¬ ing school hours by teachers furnished by a religious council of various sects to pupils whose parents consented. Pupils who did not attend such classes were not released from their regular studies. This arrangement violated the principle of separation of church and state as expressed in the first amendment and made applicable to the states by the 14th amendment. The court said, “Here not only are the state’s tax-supported public school buildings used for the dissemination of religious doc¬ trines. The state also affords sectarian groups an invaluable aid in that it helps to provide pupils for their religious classes through use of the state’s compulsory public school machinery” {McCollum V. Board of Education, 333 U.S. 203). Members of Jehovah’s Witnesses were again responsible for a supreme court opinion over which the justices divided 5 to 4, with some show of irritation on the part of the minority. The court reversed the conviction of a minister who had preached over a loud speaker on a sound truck on Sunday in a Lockport, N.Y., park without permission from the chief of police. The licensing ordinance violated the constitutional guarantee of free speech, the court said, because it failed to set up any standards for the exercise of discretion by the police chief. The court, however, indicated that the loudness of the noise and the hours and places where sound trucks could be used might be controlled by law {Saia v. New York, 334 U.S. 558). The supreme court also knocked out a New York statute making it a misdemeanour “to possess with intent to sell” any publication devoted principally to criminal news and pictures and stories of bloodshed, lust or crime. Here again the law¬ makers had failed to set up any definite standard for determin¬ ing what acts should be punished {Winters v. New York, 333 U.S. 507).

The publishers of Edmund Wilson’s Memoirs of Hecate

County did not fare so well. By a 4 to 4 vote the supreme court affirmed a $1,000 fine levied against them for violating a New York statute forbidding the sale of obscene literature. On the other hand, Forever Amber was held by the Massachu¬ setts supreme court to be comparatively innocuous. It upheld a lower court opinion, in which the judge had exonerated the book from obscenity charges and called it a “soporific rather than an aphrodisiac” {Attorney General v. Forever Amber, 81 N.E. 2d 663). {See also Civil Liberties.) Criminal Law.—In four opinions the supreme court con¬ demned illegal searches and seizures. Federal agents, who had operated after the fashion of cinema sleuths, were told by the court that they could not use evidence seized without a search warrant where no emergency existed. In one case an agent of the alcohol tax unit of the bureau of internal revenue had joined a gang of moonshiners as a “mash man,” keeping them under surveillance for several months. At the appropriate mo¬ ment, he tipped off his fellow agents by radio and they raided the gang’s hide-out, entering a building, seizing a still and equip¬ ment, and arresting the man in charge. Although the arrest was lawful, the seized apparatus could not be used in evidence. There had been ample opportunity to obtain a search warrant {Trupiano v. US., 334 U.S. 699). In another case federal narcotic agents entered a room from which the odour of burning opium was wafted, arrested the woman occupant, and without a warrant seized a pipe contain¬ ing the incriminating drug, still hot and smoking. This evidence should have been suppressed, said the supreme court in a 5 to 4 vote, since it was not a justifiable incident of the legal arrest {Johnson v. U.S., 333 U.S. 10). The same sort of searches and seizures frustrated govern¬ ment efforts to convict gamblers operating a lottery known as the “numbers game” in the District of Columbia. Police of¬ ficers entered a house and peeped through a transom to watch the gamblers at work in one of the rooms. The officers then broke in and seized the men and their gambling equipment without a search warrant. The supreme court pointed out that in this, as in the other cases, the defendants were not fleeing or trying to escape. In fact, the gamblers had been under police observation for several months. The seizure was unlaw¬ ful {McDonald v. U.S., 17 L.W. 4045). Passengers in automobiles are equally immune to search without a warrant, the high court said. The broad powers to search cars under the National Prohibition act did not establish a doctrine that cars are peculiarly subject to searches which would be otherwise illegal. The court reversed the conviction of a defendant for possessing counterfeit gasoline ration cou¬ pons because the evidence had been obtained through an un¬ lawful search and seizure. Officers had taken him from a parked car to the police station where they searched him without a warrant and found the coupons hidden inside his shirt. Said the court: “a search is not to be made legal by what it turns up. In law it is good or bad when it starts and does not change character from its success” {U.S. v. DiRe, 332 U.S. 581). A retail dealer, who had been convicted of violating the Emergency Price Control act, got little sympathy from the supreme court when he complained that government attorneys had used his own books to incriminate him. The privilege against self-incrimination does not attach to records required by law to be kept for the information of government agencies, the court said. They are public records {Shapiro v. U.S., 335 U.S. i). The supreme court sent several cases back to state courts for retrial where it found that the petitioners had been convicted without due process of law. The justices were unanimous in set¬ ting aside the burglary conviction of a 17-year-old boy who had

CATHOLIC PRIESTS (holding prayer books) on trial for resisting the na¬ tionalization of all Hungarian schools, including church schools, which became law on June 16, 1948

pleaded guilty without being told he had the right to the advice of a lawyer. In this case Justice Reed explained that some members of the court think that in every case where a serious offense is charged the accused is guaranteed the advice of coun¬ sel under the 14th amendment unless he refuses counsel with an understanding of his rights. Other justices, however, hold that when noncapital crimes are involved each case should be decided on its facts. If the youth and inexperience of the de¬ fendant and the attitudes of the court and prosecutor render a trial without counsel fundamentally unfair, then the accused should be given legal help whether or not he pleads guilty or asks for counsel {Usveges v. U.S., 17 L.W. 4049). The right to counsel stems directly from the 14th amendment and not from state statutes, the court said, in granting a second chance to another inexperienced youth {Wade v. Mayo, 334 U.S. 672). The split among the justices over the weight to be given to the age and experience of the accused was shown in two noncapital cases in which the court, by votes of 5 to 4, declined to disturb convictions although the defendants had been without counsel. In one case the petitioner was a fourth offender and in the other a 57-year-old man charged with taking indecent liberties. The advice of FBI agents is not equivalent to that of a law¬ yer, especially when it leads to a plea of guilty. A former Ger¬ man countess, convicted in 1944 of espionage on behalf of the nazis, was given a right to further hearing by the supreme court on her claim that she had pleaded guilty in reliance upon mis¬ taken advice given her by government agents {Von Moltke v. Gillies, 332 U.S. 708). The high court applied the 1943 ruling in the McNabb case to reverse a grand larceny conviction based on a confession made during a 30-hr. period while the defendant was held with¬ out a warrant. Four dissenting justices pointed out that the

419

420

LAW

McNabb ruling had later been limited in 1944 by the court’s decision in the Mitchell case. They believed that confessions should be thrown out only when there has been “purposeful, unlawful detention illegally to extract evidence.” It should be left to the jury to decide in each case whether improper pres¬ sure was used {Upshaw v. U.S., 17 L.W. 4053). In another case five justices joined in condemning the questioning of a 15-yearold Negro boy carried on by relays of police from midnight until daybreak without a friend or lawyer to take his part. The resulting confession was improperly used to convict him of murder. Four justices, however, said that the high court should not (upon mere conjecture) disturb the conclusion of the trial judge and jury that the confession had been voluntary {Haley V. Ohio, 332 U.S. 596). In a 5 to 4 decision the supreme court stood by its previous ruling that the system of selecting special or “blue ribbon” juries is not necessarily a denial of equal protection and due process of law. Conviction of Negroes in New York by an allwhite jury chosen from a special panel of veniremen was affirmed in the absence of proof that special juries are more in¬ clined to vote guilty than ordinary ones or that Negroes were intentionally kept off the panel. {Moore v. N.Y., 334 U.S. 849). The supreme court rebuked a Michigan judge who had com¬ mitted a witness for contempt while sitting as a “one-man grand jury.” During a secret session the judge-grand jury told a wit¬ ness that his story didn’t “jell,” charged him with contempt and sentenced him immediately to 60 days in jail. This was a gross denial of due process, the court said, and Justice Wiley B. Rut¬ ledge added his dictum that he believed the entire one-man grand jury system was unconstitutional {In re Oliver, 333 U.S. 257)-

Family Relations.—A new concept called “divisible divorce” was recognized by the supreme court in ruling that a valid di¬ vorce obtained by a husband in Nevada did not cut off the right of his former wife to collect alimony under a prior decree for separate maintenance in New York. The high court approved the position taken by the New York courts that they must give full faith and credit to the out-of-state dissolution of marriage but that this did not end every other legal incidence of mar¬ riage. The right to alimony was an intangible property interest which the Nevada court could not wipe out since it had no per¬ sonal jurisdiction over the former wife. Thus the chain of matrimony was broken but the ball of alimony still dragged at the husband’s heels by legal remote control {Estin v. Estin, 334 U.S. 451). In two other cases, disposed of in one opinion, the supreme court ruled that divorced couples cannot blow hot and cold on the validity of out-of-state decrees. The court reversed two Massachusetts decisions purporting to invalidate Florida and Nevada divorces. In each case the defendant, after taking part'in the divorce proceedings without contesting jurisdiction, returned to Massachusetts and attacked the divorce on the ground that the plaintiff had not acquired bona fide residence in the state where the decree was granted. The finding of the Flor¬ ida and Nevada courts that they had jurisdiction was a final adjudication of the question and entitled to full recognition in all other states {Sherrer v. Sherrer, 334 U.S. 343). Efforts of the Alabama legislature to attract divorce business to that state were thwarted by the state supreme court in a de¬ cision wiping out a 1945 law which waived all residence require¬ ments in divorce cases where both husband and wife appeared voluntarily. A court has no jurisdiction of the marital status of a couple when neither the man nor wife is a resident of the state. No statute can confer such jurisdiction {Jennings v. Jen¬ nings, 36 So. 2d 236). The California supreme court in a 4 to 3 ruling nullified a century-old statute prohibiting interracial marriages. The court

directed a county clerk to issue a marriage licence to a Negro man and a Caucasian woman, holding that the state law against miscegenetic marriages violated the antidiscrimination and civil rights guarantees of the U.S. constitution {Perez v. Lippold, 198 P. 2d 17). A Florida statute outlawing “heart balm” suits was approved by that state’s supreme court, which said that when actions for alienation of affections have become “an instrument of extor¬ tion and blackmail the legislature has the power to, and may, limit or abolish them” {Rotwein v. Gersten, 36 So. 2d 419). Housing and Rent.—Through the Housing act of 1948 con¬ gress increased the funds available for FHA (Federal Housing Administration) loans; set up a schedule for a guarantee sys¬ tem ranging from 80% for loans *on housing costing between $6,000 and $11,000 to 95% for loans on housing costing less than $6,000; expanded the secondary market for home loans; liberalized provisions for loans to makers of prefabricated hous¬ ing; guaranteed a yield not to exceed 2.75% on certain rental housing investments; and created a new government unit to promote the standardization of building codes and materials. The supreme court approved of rent control under the Hous¬ ing and Rent act of 1947 as a constitutional exercise of the war power even though it was enacted after the shooting stopped; and congress extended federal rent controls through March 31, 1949. Labour.—The C.I.O. (Congress of Industrial Organizations) and its president, Philip Murray, were cleared by the supreme court of charges that they had violated section 304 of the Labor Management Relations act, which amends the Corrupt Prac¬ tices act by forbidding contributions by labour unions to the campaign expenses of candidates for federal office. The court ruled unanimously that publication in The C.I.O. News of an appeal urging support of a certain candidate for congress did not infringe the statutory ban. The cost of publishing a union periodical containing partisan views could not be considered a political contribution. Four of the justices, though concurring in the results, thought that the court should have squarely ruled this restriction of the Taft-Hartley law to be in conflict with the first amendment of the constitution {U.S. v. C.I.O., 335 U.S. 106). Another supreme court decision established a formula of great importance both to management and labour in determin¬ ing overtime pay, The decision, which became known as the Bay Ridge rule, held that declarations in a contract between a longshoremen’s union and employers as to what is the “regular rate” of pay are not conclusive in computing overtime pay under the Fair Labor Standards act. The “regular rate” should be determined by dividing the total- weekly compensation re¬ ceived, less the amount of any actual overtime premium, by the number of hours worked. A “contract overtime rate” paid for work during undesirable hours {e.g., before 8 a.m. or after 5 p.M.) or on Sundays and holidays is not an overtime premium. The amount of such rates must be included in computing the regular rate under the statute {Bay Ridge Co. v. Aaron, 334 U.S. 446). Four women, who complained to the supreme court that pro¬ visions of Michigan’s liquor control law forbidding females to act as barmaids deprived them of equal protection of the laws, were told that the state legislature was well within its powers in drawing a line between the sexes in this occupation. Nor did the fact that the statute permitted women to serve liquor in bar¬ rooms owned by their fathers or husbands constitute unfair dis¬ crimination against other women {Goesart v. Cleary, 17 L.W. 4077).

The anti-closed shop or “right-to-work” amendment to the Arizona constitution was upheld by the supreme court, which

LAW also approved the constitutionality of similar enactments in Nebraska and North Carolina, in decisions announced shortly after the year’s end. Such laws do not abridge freedom of speech or of assembly, impair the obligation of contracts, deny unions the equal protection of the laws, or deprive workers of liberty without due process of law {A.F.L. v. American S. & D. Co. and other cases, 17 L.W. 4090 ff.). Social Security and Health.—Over the president’s veto, congress adopted amendments to the Social Security act which excluded from the coverage of the old-age and survivors’ insur¬ ance and unemployment insurance systems all persons who have the status of independent contractors under the usual common law rules. The new law thus nullified supreme court decisions which had held that the common law rules were not applicable in determining the status of employees under the Social Security act. Congress also transferred the U.S. employment service from the department of labour to the Federal Security agency in spite of President Harry S. Truman’s protest that its functions were more closely related to the activities of the labour depart¬ ment in fostering the welfare of wage earners than to the FSA. The policy of subsidizing special government agencies to at¬ tack particular health problems was continued by congress through the creation of a national heart institute to conduct research and training in diseases of the heart and circulation; an institute of dental health to stimulate research as to the cause, diagnosis and treatment of dental diseases; and federal aid for research in the control of water pollution. Taxation.—For many U.S. citizens the year’s most impor¬ tant legal event was the passage of the Revenue act of 1948 which lightened the individual income-tax load. This was ac¬ complished by reducing the tentative normal tax and surtax; increasing the personal exemption to $600; granting exemptions of $600 (in addition to the personal exemption) to persons who had passed their 65th birthday and to the blind; increasing the standard deduction for single persons and on joint returns of husband and wife; increasing the maximum deductions for medical expenses on returns where more than two exemptions are claimed; and a provision for the splitting of incomes be¬ tween husbands and wives. Under the latter feature of the new tax law married couples in common law states were given the same benefit of dividing their combined income for tax pur¬ poses as was previously available only to couples living in com¬ munity property law states. Now every married couple may split their combined net income by filing a joint return. The tax computed on this basis gets them into a lower tax bracket than they might otherwise enjoy. Similar advantages were also ex¬ tended to residents of common law states in connection with estate and gift taxes. The new law allows a marital deduction on the value of the gross estate passing from a decedent to his surviving spouse, limited to an amount not to exceed 50% of the adjusted gross estate'. Similarly only one-half of the value of a gift from one spouse to another is subject to a gift tax under the new law. Congress also abolished the Dobson rule previously laid down by the supreme court under which a finding of fact by the tax court could not be reviewed on appeal. Under the new enact¬ ment courts of appeal were given the same power to review tax court decisions as they have had to review district court deci¬ sions in trials without a jury. (See also Taxation.) Veterans.—The supreme court settled the disputed question as to the relative rights of veterans and nonveterans to hang on to government jobs at a time when slackness of work re¬ quires some to be laid off. The court approved the superseniority rule by which veterans are given absolute priority over nonveterans in retaining their jobs regardless of efficiency or

421

seniority. Statutory directions to the civil service commission to give due effect to efficiency ratings and length of service in de¬ termining retention preferences were intended merely to apply in assigning priorities between employees within the respective groups of veterans and nonveterans. This decision, the court said, did not disturb its prior ruling that the super-seniority rule does not apply in private employment (Hilton v. Sullivan, 334 U.S. 323). Various enactments by congress exempted hospitalized veter¬ ans and servicemen from the payment of admission taxes; es¬ tablished internships in the medical department of the Veterans’ administration; extended the benefits of the Civil Service Re¬ tirement act of 1930 to include any member of congress who entered the military service during his term of office and re¬ turned to congress thereafter; provided grants-in-aid to the Republic of the Philippines to help pay for medical care for Philippine veterans who served with the U.S. forces; extended the rights of veterans to file homestead entries for government lands; increased G.I. subsistence allowances; permitted the sale of certain permanent war housing to veterans at a price not in excess of cost of construction or long-term mortgage value; authorized assistance for disabled veterans in acquiring housing especially adapted for use for persons with particular types of disability; and extended veteran preference in federal employ¬ ment to the widowed mothers of veterans who had died in ac¬ tive duty in any war, campaign or expedition. (See also Drug Administration, U.S.; Education; United States.) Films.—State Legislature (Academy Films).

(M. Dn.)

Great Britain.—The year was remarkable in Great Britain both for the large number of new laws and for the importance of the changes, often fundamental, effected by them. Sixty-five acts of parliament were passed, 24 in the month of July alone, and in addition 2,500 statutory instruments were published by ministers of the crown, each of which was a laying down of new law in detail under a wide general provision of some act. There was also a determination to break with the traditional system of introducing and passing new legislation. Nationalization was a large cause of legislation, which effected the transfer to ministries (or to public corporations appointed by them) of the capital assets and undertakings of industries and public utilities, such as the railways, electricity and gas. The Town and Country Planning act, and the Agriculture act, with a mass of subordinate legislation, became effective during the year. With the single exception that a citizen could continue to use any land, house or building he might own for thf same purpose after July 5 as he did before, and could make minor alterations (on a specified list) in actual layout and use, it became illegal for anyone to use his land or buildings in any other ways except by permission and after payment of develop¬ ment charge. Agricultural legislation resulted in greater security of tenure of farmers who became irremovable from their holdings during good behaviour. In criminal legislation a curious situation arose over a clause abolishing the death penalty. This clause was originally inserted by a free vote of the house of commons, but in the house of lords, the clause, in spite of government backing, was rejected. Abolition was then dropped by the government in response to public opinion, and so no alteration in the death penalty for murder was made. Important reforms of the civil law were effected by the Com¬ panies, Education, Factories, Law Reform (Personal Injuries), Local Government, National Assistance (Industrial Injuries), River Boards and Water acts: in particular the doctrine of “common employment,” under which one of two fellow work¬ men could not normally recover damages for the default of the

422

LAWN TENNIS —LEATHER

other, was abolished. The Representation of the People act made alterations in electoral law and franchise and abolished the university vote and the right of universities to send members to the house of commons; but the house of lords remained unaltered in consti¬ tution, although the Parliament bill, by which it was intended to reduce the powers of the house of lords, was twice passed by the house of commons, and rejected by the lords. The tremendous amount of new statutory and regulational law brought with it two other developments: first, under the constantly increasing and ever-changing enacted or published laws, decisions in individual cases became of less permanent effect and so case law became less important; second, this mass legislation was beyond the powers of mental digestion of many and resulted in a marked increase in legal literature of all kinds and in many courses and lectures for busy magis¬ trates, lawyers, bankers, accountants, surveyors, land agents and other long-qualified professional men, who needed to as¬ similate quickly the essential elements of each new group of legislation as it came into operation. Commonwealth.—Legal interest was focused on develop¬ ments (all in the direction of self-government) and problems of constitutional law. In Australia the federal court held that a federal law na¬ tionalizing banks was ultra vires and could not take effect, since such legislation was within the powers of the governments of the states only, and was not a proper subject of federal legis¬ lation. Provisions were made for inhabitants of Burma (an inde¬ pendent state formerly within the commonwealth) to apply for and, in appropriate circumstances, retain British nationality. In Canada a number of conflicts arose between the federal government and that of the province of Saskatchewan. Farm security was held to be a subject of legislation on which a province could not validly legislate, while the setting up of a Labour Relations board was within provincial powers. It was also decided that provinces could not interfere with the condi¬ tions of employment of federal servants, such as post office employees, within the provinces. The dominion also became a party to the Warsaw convention concerning carriage by air. The government of Eire introduced legislation to repeal the Executive Authority (External Relations) act, 1936, under which Eire remained to some extent attached to the common¬ wealth. The bill, called the Republic of Ireland bill, was given a first reading in the Dail on Nov. 17, 1948, passed virtually unopposed through the Dail and Seanad and was signed by^the president during the latter part of December. This step opened up considerable problems relating to the status and treatment of subjects of Eire in the United Kingdom and also in the com¬ monwealth. Their status had been one between that of an alien and a normal British subject but with all the practical advan¬ tages of the latter. The Palestine act terminated the jurisdiction of British courts in or over that country as a corollary to the relinquishment of the mandate when Palestine became independent. The British Nationality act divided British nationality into two categories (i) citizenship of the United Kingdom and the colonies and (2) citizenship of any dominion or of Southern Rhodesia. Both categories were also to be known either as “British subjects” or as “commonwealth citizens.” Citizens of Eire came under special provisions. Europe.—There was a sharp distinction between the west and the east, not only in the methods of legislating and of enforcing law, but also in the difference in availability of information. An example of eastern European legislation was the Czechoslovak law, passed in October, by which negligence in duty arising from

any sort of “public” employment (which in a communist state included all employment) became punishable as sabotage by long terms of imprisonment. Another new offense was that of insulting the president, a piece of legislation reminiscent of the 19th century laws of lese-majeste. The Netherlands was the scene of a legally rare event, the abdication of a reigning sovereign, voluntarily and in peacetime, and from no motive other than a desire to retire, in favour of a daughter of her own of full age. {See also Agriculture; Banking;

Business Review; Con¬

sumer Credit; International Court of Justice; Interna¬ tional Law; Patents; Public Utilities; Relief; Taxation; War Crimes.) Bibliography.—Year Book of the International Court of Justice (Ley¬ den, 1948); John Burke, Current Law Year Book (London, 1949); T. A. Blanco White, “Private Rights and Ministerial Action,” Journal of Planning Law, vols. I-IV and VI (London, 1948); J. H. Morgan, The Great Assize (London, 1948); A. R. Hewitt, “Public International Law,” The International Law Quarterly, vol. 2, No. i (London, 1948). (A. L. C.)

Lawn Tennis: see

lead

Tennis.

The lead output of the major producing countries and the estimated world total are shown in Table I. 1941 -47

Table I.— World Smelter Production of Lead, (Thousands of short tonsi Argentina Australia Belgium . Canada . France . Germany Italy . . Japan. . Mexico . Peru . . Spain . . U.S.S.R. . U.S. . .

1941

1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947

19.9 239.1 9.8 228.0 25.6 190.5 37.5 28.3 166.7 36.2 51.7

22.9 231.8 17.9 243.3 13.7 154.4 32.0 29.7 212.7 41.8 45.4 110 548.9

26.2 202.3 8.8 223.9 13.7 173.3 13.7 35.8 234.2 47.6 40.5 139 469.5

21.1 173.1 8.5 142.6 2.1 154.2

23.3 174.6 8.0 162.5 3.0

17.8 154.0 26.2 165.8 38.3 31.9 15.4 5.4 151.8 40.2 35.6 55 338.1

22.0 177.6 44.6 162.0 38.1 26.8 19.3 9.6 240.1 36.1 37.9 66 440.5

2

544.7 2

Total .

1,855

1,720

2

2

8.8 196.5 42.9 34.1 120 464.7 1,480

0.9 13.9 221.7 44.1 35.1 45 443.5 1,230

1,140

1,415

Postwar production had not expanded to meet the increasing demand, and the supply was short, especially in the United States. United States.—The more important features of the lead in¬ dustry in the United States are shown in Table II, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Table II.—Data of Lead Industry in the U.S.,

1941-47

(Thousands of short tonsi

Mine output . . Refinery output . Domestic ores Foreign ores . Imports .... Exports .... Secondary . . . Consumption . . Stocks, year-end Producers . . Consumers . .

1941

1942

1946

1947

461.4 571.0 470.5 100.5 381.2 14.4 397.4 1,050

496.2 566.8 467.4 99.5 492.5 5.8 323.0 1,043

453.3 469.6 406.5 63.1 319.1 13.3 342.1 1,113

416.9 464.8 394.4 70.3 319.7 15.5 331.4 1,119

390.8 443.6 356.5 87.1 300.3 1.8 363.0 1,052

335.5 338.2 293.3 44.9 159.2 0.7 392.8 956.5

384.2 440.7 380.8 59.9 227.8 1.5 ? 1,170

100.1 101.0

117.2 81.7

129.5 115.2

125.1 86.9

161.8 102.9

188.8 41.9

129.9 48.8

1943

1944

1945

Mine production improved in the first half of 1948, but was pulled down in the third quarter by a strike. The total for the three quarters was 276,468 tons, which was below the 1947 average rate. Refinery output in the first ten months of 1948 was about 445,000 tons. (See also Mineral and Metal Pro¬ duction AND Prices.) (G. A. Ro.)

League of Women Voters of the United States: see Societies and Associations.

I OOthoi* production in 1948 was slightly lower LCdlllol. than in 1947, but well above prewar levels. Prices declined only moderately, and inventories of finished leather in

LEBANON tanners’ hands remained low. Because of the low inventories and a strong demand for leather, tanners held production close to the levels of the preceding year and as high as raw stock sup¬ plies would permit. In spite of production difficulties, constant pressure of rising costs, inability to secure raw material from abroad and a frequently discouraging market situation, aver¬ age monthly production of principal types of leathers compared favourably with preceding years, as shown in Table I. Table I.—Average U,S. Monthly Leather Production

1948

1947

1946

1945

1944

inclusive

All cattle hides (including kips for side leather). 2,183 2,402 2,253 2,297 2,179 1,628 Calf and whole kip. 850 1,039 907 970 911 1,070 Goat and kid. 3,162 3,099 2,011 2,002 2,888 4,000 All sheep and lamb. 2,818 2,594 3,998 4,370 4,608 2,800 1948 figures are based on an average of ten months' production. Compiled from doto of the Tanners Council of America and the U.S. Bureau of the Census.

The industry experienced some pressure for lower leather prices during 1948, but this trend was largely offset by strong demand. Inroads of substitute materials continued to increase in the leather industry’s major market—the Tshoe industry—and in other leather manufactures. Promotion of substitutes was aided by high leather prices and high shoe production require¬ ments. Table II.— U.S. Leather Output per Man-hour and Output per

Production Worker

Year

Production index

193^.100.0

Production workers

Man-hours

100.0

100.0

Output per Production * Worker Man-hour

1940 . 93.8 95.4 92.7 1941 . 122.4 107.5 111.1 1942 . 132.3 104.0 110.2 1943 . 117.1 92.9 102.5 1944 . 114.3 83.0 96.9 1945 . .. 113.4 83.3 97.5 1946 . 111.9 90.6 96.0 1947 .117.0 92.4 97.4 Compiled from data of U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and the America.

100.0

100.0

98.3 101.2 113.9 110.2 127.2 120.1 126.0 114.2 137.7 118.0 136.1 116.3 123.5 116.6 126.6 120.1 Tanners Council of

In the field of scientific progress, the U.S. industry reported far-reaching developments in chemical tanning methods. These appeared to offer some solution to continued shortages, or un¬ certain supplies, of major tanning materials, and also to offer benefits in improved quality or production economies. One of the processes introduced in 1948 involved the use of a dialdehyde, such as glyoxal, as the primary tanning agent. This was followed by formation of a plastic resin in the leather using urea formaldehyde, phenol formaldehyde. In the manu¬ facture of leather, these materials were not permitted to come to a permanent set as in the manufacture of some plastic ma¬ terials. The process was developed by A. H. Winheim and E. E. Doherty and was used in making pilot-scale lots of leather. It was reported that leathers equal to vegetable tanned sole leather were made at a cost lower than that of natural vegetable tanned leather. Another process involved the use of sulfonyl chlorides and was said to produce very satisfactory white and light-coloured leath¬ ers. It is also reported capable of making chamois-type leathers. Garment leathers tanned by this process were said to be unaf¬ fected by washing or dry cleaning. This was a further develop¬ ment of work done in Germany and taken to the United States by the quartermaster general. The work of developing suitable sulfonyl chlorides in the U.S. was done by J. B. Brown in co¬ operation with the Tanners Council Research laboratory. Canada.—During 1948, Canadian shoe manufacturers and tanners were vigorously protesting government controls affect¬ ing interchange of raw stocks, finished leather and footwear be¬ tween the U.S. and Canada. The resentment arose from the Canadian government’s desire to acquire U.S. dollars. In¬

423

creased exports of Canadian raw hides and skins to the U.S. tanning industry—hungry for raw materials—was vigorously fostered by dominion authorities in 1948. As a result, Canadian tanning operations were limited by restricted stock of raw ma¬ terials. Late in the year the government began to encourage increased imports of finished leather from the U.S., which gave some relief to the shoe industry, but increased the gloom of the tanners. International footwear trade was also a factor in the controversy. Canadian shoe manufacturers alleged that unre¬ stricted footwear imports encouraged dumping by U.S. manu¬ facturers, while U.S. barriers closed the markets of that country to dominion manufacturers. There was little change in the leather situation throughout the rest of the world. British production was reported fair. There was no apparent gain in the war-created tanning indus¬ tries of Argentina, Brazil and Mexico. News from the soviet industry was incomplete and often of doubtful reliability. In other countries that formerly were large producers of finished leather, the industry continued to struggle under economic and productive maladjustments. (See also Shoe Industry.) (R. B. B.)

I ohonnn independent republic formerly under French LuUdllUlla mandate, situated on the eastern Mediterranean, bounded by Syria and Palestine. Area: 3,470 sq.mi.; pop. (mid1947 est.) 1,186,000. Capital: Beirut (247,000). Languages: Ar¬ abic (c. 90%), French, Armenian, Greek. Religions: Christian 31.9%, Moslem 46.4%, others 1.7%. President: Sheikh Bishara al-Khuri; prime minister: Riad bey al-Sulh. History.—On Feb. 3 the government announced that it had thwarted a conspiracy by Amir Nihad Arslan. An attempt had been made to seize the town of Ayn Sofar and set up a rebel government. On May 27 President Bishara al-Khuri was re¬ elected for six years “in recognition of his services to the coun¬ try,” though his original mandate had been due to terminate in Oct. 1949. On July 27 the cabinet resigned because of criticism of the conduct of the Palestine operations, in which the Lebanese troops failed to make any impression on the Zionist defenses. On Aug. 3 the new government received a vote of confidence in the chamber of deputies after a debate on Pales¬ tine, by 37 votes to 5, with 13 absentees. Following the devaluation of the French franc, a new FrancoLebanese monetary agreement was negotiated and signed on Feb. 6. The main feature was that France was to guarantee for 10 years against devaluation 16,000,000,000 of Lebanon’s 24,000,000,000 of French franc holdings, thus providing cover for the greater part of the Lebanese currency circulation. The government of Syria (g.v.) refused to enter this agreement, and in protest took measures tending to break off economic relations with Lebanon. Since both countries had interchangeable cur¬ rencies with a common backing and bank of issue, and an eco¬ nomic and customs union, grave disorganization followed. As a result of mediation by the Arab league and Egypt, and with the help of Paul van Zeeland, a former Belgian prime minister, who was engaged as financial consultant by the Lebanese gov¬ ernment, matters were patched up and by a succession of tem¬ porary agreements a partial return to the economic status quo was achieved. (C. He.) Education.—(1946-47) State schools 682, pupils 56,000; private schools 892, of which 56 were secondary, pupils 65,469; foreign schools 311, pupils 50,013. American University of Beirut 2,355 students; French university 3,526 students. Illiteracy: 9%. Finance.—Est. revenue and expenditure for 1948 balanced at £L.63,000,000. Notes in circulation (1947): £L.160,500,000. Monetary unit: Lebanese pound (£L.) divided into 100 piastres. Official exchange rate (July 1948) £L.i=43.6 cents U.S. Trade and Communications—Syro-Lebanese Customs union (1946): imports £S.L.266,654,000; exports £S.L.85,562,000. Surfaced roads (1945): 1,371 mi. Railways (1948): 130 mi. Motor vehicles (1944): cars 5,401; buses 210; trucks 1,867. Shipping tonnage (1945): entered 522,515; cleared with cargo 146,181.

LEEWARD ISLANDS —LEPROSY

424

Agriculture—Production (1946, in short tons): wheat 50,400; barley 26,600; sorghum 9,900; olives 31,000; grapes 80,000; maize 12,800; potatoes 35,000; onions 37,500; citrus 69,000.

I PPU/arri khnri^ ^

British colony, with a total area of

LCCWdlU loldllUOi 423 sq.mi., consisting of a group of

islands forming the northern part of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. Politically it is divided into four presidencies: Antigua (with Barbuda); St. Christopher-Nevis (or St. KittsNevis) (with Anguilla); Montserrat; and the Virgin Islands. Pop. (1946 census): Antigua 41,757; St. Christopher-Nevis 46,243; Montserrat 14,333; and the Virgin Islands 6,505. Chief towns: St. Johns (Antigua) is the capital with a pop. of 10,962; Basseterre (St. Christopher) is the only other town of any size (pop. 12,201). The colony is administered by a governor ap¬ pointed by the British crown, assisted by an executive council and a legislative council consisting of the governor, seven offi¬ cial and eight elected members, while the governor has power to nominate one extra official and one unofficial member from the Virgin Islands. In each presidency there is either an ad¬ ministrator or a commissioner and an executive council; while all but the Virgin Islands also possess an island council with an unofficial, partly elected majority. Governor: Earl Baldwin of Bewdley (appointed 1948). History .—The three presidencies having island councils all approved the resolutions passed at the conference on “closer association” of the British West Indian colonies at Montego Bay the previous September; but the Antigua council took the op¬ portunity to press for general constitutional reforms. There were labour disturbances in the sugar industry in both Antigua and St. Christopher-Nevis, in the latter a three-month strike. The secretary of state for the colonies appointed a com¬ mission under the chairmanship of Lord Soulbury to investigate the sugar industry in Trinidad, St. Christopher-Nevis and An¬ tigua; for the Leeward Islands its terms of reference were: to examine and report on the organization of the sugar industry, including means of production, profits and their distribution, wages and conditions of work and other relevant matters. The commission visited the islands during the summer. (Jo. A. Hn.) Finance and Trade.—Currency: the colony adopted in 1948 the use of the West Indian dollar. £i =$4.80 = 403 cents U.S. Revenue: St. Christo¬ pher-Nevis (1946) £330,177; Antigua (1947 est.) £425,124; Montserrat (1947 est.) $410,612; Virgin Islands (1947 est.) £17,433. Expenditure; St. Christopher-Nevis (1946) £287,231; Antigua (1947 est.) £427,656; Montserrat (1947 est.) $467,664; Virgin Islands (1947 est.) £26,199. Imports: (1947) Antigua £1,026,320; Montserrat £154,999; Virgin Islands £48,972; (1946) St. Christopher-Nevis £635,291. Exports: (1947) Antigua £224,282; Montserrat £49,136; Virgin Islands £30,979; (1946) St. Christopher-Nevis £711,733. The chief products of the islands are sugar and cotton. In Montserrat the cultivation of sugar, once the staple industry of the island, had been reduced to small dimensions.

Legislation: see Business Review; Law. Leland Stanford Junior University: see

Stanford Uni¬

versity.

Lemons: see

I Aiirneif

Fruit.

major event of 1948 was the fifth International LcpiUbja Leprosy congress, held in Havana, Cuba, and at¬ tended by 226 scientists from 40 countries and territories. In the decade following the Cairo congress of 1938, the most im¬ portant development in leprosy had been the increasing interest in the sulfone drugs and the diminishing enthusiasm for chaulmoogra oil treatment. The Havana congress formally took certain actions among which it: (i) classified leprosy into two principal types, “lepromatous” and “tuberculoid.” Cases not falling completely into either of these types were called “indeterminate.” (2) Recog¬ nized the derivatives of diaminodiphenylsulfone as the cur-

MEMBER of the Japanese leper colony on Naga Island shown reading a letter from home, at the foot of the colony shrine in May 194S. Colonists were largely self-sufficient, raising their own produce and livestock

rent drugs for the treatment of leprosy. The sulfone derivatives mentioned specifically were promin, diasone and sulfetrone. (3) Condemned the use of the word “leper” and requested that “leprosy patient” be used in referring to persons with the dis¬ ease. In a paper presented to the Havana congress, it was dis¬ closed that promin had been synthesized by research workers in the dye industry of Germany as early as 1908. Not until 1937 was it tried in bacterial diseases. In 1941 it was made available for experimental work at Carville, La. The earlier results of the use of sulfone drugs by workers at Carville appeared to have been confirmed by other leprologists. In a report from Brazil dealing with the effects obtained by using sulfone drugs over a period of 4 years and 5 months on a total of 1,287 patients, the results indicated that the disease, regardless of type or degree, ceased to progress after a treat¬ ment period of 3 months to 6 months; improvement did not begin until 3 months to 6 months after treatment had been given; the drugs were especially useful in treating leprosy of the eye, nose, mouth, pharynx and larjmx. Although none of the cases of lepromatous leprosy in the foregoing series was made worse and 96% was thought to show various degrees of clinical improvement, the skin per¬ sistently remained positive for the leprosy bacillus {Mycobac¬ terium leprae). In 88%, however, it was reported that the or¬ ganism could no longer be found in scrapings from the mucous membrane of the nose. The disadvantages of the sulfone treatment were emphasized by a leprologist from India. He stated that unless patients were carefully supervised, many could not be depended on to take a large number of tablets daily for months or years. The cost of the newer drugs was considered prohibitive. Chaulmoogra oil as therapy for leprosy was not discarded by

425

LETTUCE —LIBERIA all. From Argentina came a report of an experiment set up to compare the results obtained with chaulmoogra oil with those obtained with promin. The observations and treatment periods were approximately one and one-half years. Forty patients re¬ ceived chaulmoogra oil and i8 received promin. Equally favour¬ able results were obtained in each group. It was emphasized that the evaluation of the results of the sulfone therapy was on the basis of obtaining improvement which in the experience of the observer usually would not be expected for a patient with advanced lepromatous leprosy. No study had been reported using under identical circumstances carefully selected control patients to whom no special treatment was given. Bibliography.—“Editorials,” Internat. J. Leprosy, 16:179—184 (April—June 1948); “Leprosy News and Notes,” ibid., 16:201-244 (April-June 1948); E. A. Sharp and E. H. Payne, “The Present Status of the Sulfones in Therapy,” ibid., 16:157—172 (April-June 1948); Lauro de Souza Lima and the clinical staff of the sanatorium, “Present Status of Sulfone Therapy at the Padre Bento Sanatorium,” ibid., 16:127137 (April-June 1948); R. G. Cochrane, “A Comparison of Sulphone and Hydnocarpus Therapy of Leprosy,” ibid., 16:139-144 (April-June 1948); Salomon Schujman, “Comparative Study of Chaulmoogra in High Doses and Promin in the Treatment of Leprosy,” ibid., 16:145-146 (April-June 1948); Robert A. Hingson, et al., “Preliminary Study of the Hypospray for Parenteral Therapy in Its Relation to the Manage¬ ment of Leprosy,” ibid., 16:173-178 (April-June 1948); Oscar W. Richards and H. VV. Wade, “Application of Phase Microscopy to the Examination of the Leprosy Bacillus,” abstracted, ibid., 16:297-298 (April-June 1948). (C. H. Bd.)

I ottllPfi

moderately

LCllUuui smaller than the record crop of 1947, but 36%

above the 1937-46 average. California, as usual, was the lead¬ ing producer, followed by Arizona. U.S. Lettuce Production 1948, 1947 and lO-yr. Average 1937-46 (In thousands of crates) Crop

10-yr. overage

)948

1947

Winter. Early spring. Late spring. Summer. Foil . ;.

9,871 7,451 1,201 8,069 7,258

8,853 8,960 1,288 7,615 7,454

6,210 6,769 952 5,438 5,449

Total.

33,850

34,170

24,818

Prices for the winter and spring crops were higher than in 1947, but prices declined during the latter half of the year, the average for the year being $3.14 per crate, compared with $3.19 in 1947, and a $2.16 average for 1937-46. (See also Vegetables.) (J. K. R.)

Leucaemia: see

Despite a court order for Lewis to “instruct forthwith” strik¬ ing miners to return to work, they did not. On April 7 a re¬ quest for contempt action against Lewis and the U.M.W.A. was filed by Atty. Gen. Thomas C. Clark before Justice T. Alan Goldsborough, who had imposed the earlier contempt fines upon Lewis and the union. On April 10 Sen. Styles Bridges of New Hampshire was accepted as the neutral member of a three-man board to administer the pension fund (Lewis was the second and Ezra Van Horn, representing the mine operators, the third), and Lewis called upon Clark to move for discharge of the court action on the grounds that the dispute was settled. Clark de¬ clared, however, that thousands of miners still were not working, and on April 19 Judge Goldsborough again entered a finding of guilty on charges of criminal contempt, assessing fines of $1,400,000 and $20,000 respectively on the U.M.W.A. and Lewis. On April 28, over Van Horn’s objection, Lewis and Bridges voted to take steps at once to pay $ioo-a-month pensions to all eligible miners with 20 years’ service who reached the age of 62 on or after May 29, 1946. On Aug. 21 Lewis announced that pension payments would begin in about a month. During the presidential campaigns Lewis expressed criticism of both Presi¬ dent Truman and Thomas E. Dewey. On Oct. 7 he served notice on the soft coal industry that the U.M.W.A. would tell its members how many days they should work if a surplus in coal production threatened unemployment and wage cuts.

Chemotherapy.

lewis, John Llewellyn (See Encyclopedia Britannica for his early career.) As a result of a strike called in 1946 during government operation of the nation’s coal mines, Lewis and the United Mine Workers of America had been fined a total of $3,510,000 for contempt of court. The $10,000 fine against Lewis was upheld by the U.S. supreme court on March 6, 1947, though the union’s penalty was reduced to $700,000. A threat of a new coal strike arose early in 1948 when Lewis pushed a demand for miners’ pensions. Despite government warnings that it would intervene, by March 19 about 90% of the soft-coal miners had quit the pits. On March 20 the soft-coal operators petitioned the federal district court in Washington, D.C., to appoint an impartial umpire for the miners’ pension fund. On March 22 the opera¬ tors accepted, though Lewis declined, a government formula calling for the miners to return to work while a three-member fact-finding board investigated the pension issues. President Harry S. Truman appointed such a board, and it subsequently found that the work stoppage had been “induced” by communi¬ cations from Lewis.

lianilQt Ali l^han

), Pakistani government of-

LldljUdl nil IVIIdll ficial, was born in East Punjab, and

was educated at the Aligarh Moslem university, from which he graduated in 1918, and at Exeter college, Oxford, where he read law and took his degree in 1921. He was called to the bar at the Inner Temple in the following year and then returned to India, where he soon became immersed in politics. From 1926 to 1940 he was a member of the United Provinces legislative council, be¬ coming its deputy president and the leader of the Democratic party. His close association with Mohammed Ali Jinnah began in 1936 when he was appointed secretary of the Moslem league, and four years later, having been elected to the central legis¬ lative assembly, he became the deputy leader of the Moslem League party under Jinnah. In 1946 he was appointed to the Viceroy’s executive council and was leader of the Moslem League party and finance minister in the Interim National government. On Aug. 15, 1947, when Pakistan was made a separate state, Liaquat Ali Khan became the first prime minister. During the first half of 1948, he was much concerned with the disputes over Kashmir (see India). In Oct. 1948 he attended the Common¬ wealth Prime Ministers’ conference in London.

Liberal Party: see

I iharia LIUClId*

Political Parties, British.

republic of Liberia is situated on the west coast of Africa at the curve of the continental bulge; it faces the Atlantic narrows at that point where Africa most nearly approaches South America. It is approximately 43,000 sq.mi. in area. On the northwest, Liberia is bordered by the British colony of Sierra Leone; on the north and northeast by the French colonies of Guinea and the Ivory Coast. The mid1947 population estimate was 1,600,000 (all Negroes), of which approximately 12,000 persons were direct descendants of the original settlers from the United States. The remaining majority was composed of indigenous Africans. Many of these have be¬ come detribalized and have adopted the customs of the more advanced section of the population, but the larger part live un¬ der tribal conditions. English is the official language; the tribal languages are divided into about 26 dialects, which stem from Arabic, Bantu and Nilotic language bases. Monrovia (pop. ap-

426

LIBRARIES

prox. 10,000) is the capital city. Liberia has a constitution modelled after that of the United States; its government functions through executive, legislative and judiciary branches. The president is elected for a term of eight years; William V. S. Tubman was inaugurated in Jan. 1944. Liberia has granted suffrage to women and given political representation in the house of representatives to the tribal peoples. Liberia grants religious freedom to all denominations. Nearly all U.S. church organizations have maintained missions in Liberia for many years. History.—The opening in 1947 of the new port at Monrovia brought remarkable improvement in transportation facilities; by 1948 shipping services from Europe and the United States were calling regularly at this port. The vehicular road from Monrovia across the Western province, which connects with the road sys¬ tems of French Guinea and the Ivory Coast, permitted cross¬ country trucking to be established. Liberian International Air¬ ways, a Liberian national air line, commenced service in 1948 between Roberts field (near Monrovia) and Dakar, Senegal. It was equipped with DC-3 aeroplanes. Extensive cacao plantations were being established in 1948 and the government had authorized large plantings of rice. Geo¬ graphical surveys were being continued by the Liberia company looking to the development of mineral resources. The bridge across the St. Paul river which was to connect the new port at Monrovia with the Western province was expected to be com¬ pleted in the early summer of 1949. The Liberian government was organizing a National Bank of Liberia in 1948. The legislature approved an organic corporation code, a maritime code and a trust company charter. A much needed hotel and cottage project had been organized; a new brick plant was in operation; and a cold storage plant was being erected at Monrovia. A large lumber operation had also been organized, and sawmill equipment had been ordered. Education.—In 1948, there were 84 government schools, 81 mission schools, a number of rural schools supported directly by the tribes and 25 private schools. The most important were Liberia college. College of West Africa and Booker T. Washington Industrial and Agricultural institute. These schools and colleges received partial support from the government. The U.S. government makes a yearly grant to the Booker T. Washington institute. Substantial sums for education are expended yearly in Liberia by the Protestant Episcopal Church, American Lutheran Church, American Baptist Church South and the African Methodist Episcopal Church; the American Zion Churches, the Seventh Day Ad¬ ventists and the Roman Catholic Church maintain schools. Education for children from 6 to 16 is by law compulsory and free, although facilities are inadequate and many children are unable for that reason to attend a school. The Liberian government steadily increased its annual appropriations for education. Liberian students continued to enrol in U.S. educational institutions on government scholarships. Finance.-—Revenue receipts for the year 1948 were reported at $3,062,000, a decrease of approximately $150,000 from 1947. Not all reports from the interior were available, however, and it was anticipated that collections would closely approximate those of 1947. Liberia’s external debt as of Sept, i, 1948, was reported at $619,000. There was no in¬ ternal debt. Trade and Agriculture.—For the 12 months ending Aug. 31, 1948, im¬ ports were reported to the value of $9,104,878. E.xports for the same period were $14,195,920. The United States remained the principal source of imports, supplying approximately 78% of the total. The number of vessels calling at Liberian ports during the fiscal year was approximately the same as in 1947, or 201, but, in addition, there was inaugurated in 1948 a coastwise shipping service with vessels under the Liberian flag. The largest U.S. institution in Liberia is the Firestone Plantation company, a subsidiary of the Firestone Tire and Rubber company. Liberian rubber exports are estimated to average approximately 20,000 tons of crude rubber annually. The company employs between 22,000 and 30,000 Liberians and has a foreign staff in excess of 100. The second most important export is gold, for which the average annual export is about 22,000 troy oz. Piassava fibre, palm oil, palm kernels, kola nuts, cacao and coffee also are exported. Liberia imports from the U. S. petroleum products, textiles, canned foodstuffs, flour, hardware, automobiles, machinery, steel, construction material, clothing, shoes and radio equipment.

The Liberia company announced a comprehensive plan for development during the fiscal year 1948-49 of agriculture, manufacturing, mining, timber projects and public works. This program was designed to broaden the dangerously narrow economic base of Liberian economy, which in the past had depended largely on the export of one commodity—rubber—for its primary money income. (S. de i.a R.)

I ’ll

librarians visited Japan to help draft a national library law and establish a diet library and study the effectiveness of the army’s information centres. They surveyed German libraries in the U.S. zone, went to Mexico, Peru, Cuba and Argentina on advisory missions, participated in the first United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization-international Federation of Library Associations international summer school for librarians in England, and served on the monuments, fine arts and archives section of the military government in Germany which had repatriated by the end of the year more than 3,000,000 volumes looted from Euro¬ pean libraries and cultural institutions. They participated in the meeting of the first advisory library committee- of the United Nations (Carl H. Milam was th'e new director) which made recommendations for establishing “a library service of the most advanced type,” in view of moving to the mid-town New York site in the summer of 1950. Librarians were optimistic about the $25,000,000 Library Demonstration bill which had passed the senate of the 8oth congress, but had failed in the house. And they continued to discuss the national plan which proposed dividing libraries into 1,200 geographic units with concentrated specialized services and book stocks, and called for expenditures of $500,000,000 for new buildings and $175,000,000 for book stock, with costs apportioned at 60% local, 25% state and 15% federal. The American Library association’s International Relations office merged on Dec. 31 with the Federal Relations office to become the A.L.A. Washington office. Errett W. McDiarmid, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, was 1948-49 president of the association, and John M. Cory succeeded Carl H. Milam, who had served 28 years, as executive secretary. In Washington, D.C., a special committee representing national library associa¬ tions began study of the functions of the Library of Congress, which had been challenged by the congressional library com¬ mittee. Libraries of the Federal Security agency and the state department were consolidated. College and Reference Libraries.—The Farmington plan, providing for at least one copy of every foreign publication in some U.S. library, was producing results, with books flowing from Sweden, France and Switzerland; six other countries were being approached. The outstanding gift of 1948 was the famed Coe collection of Americana to Yale university. New Haven, Conn. Appointments and promotions to headships included Hennan H. Fussier, University of Chicago; Alfred H. Rawlinson. University of South Carolina, Columbia; Raynard C. Swank, Stanford university, Stanford, Calif.; Eugene P. Willging. Catholic University of America, Washington, D.C.; and Donald E. Strout, University of Denver, Denver, Colo.

LIDldllcS*

Reference library news included establishment of a reim¬ bursable industrial reference service by the John Crerar library, Chicago, Ill., and launching of a campaign for funds by the New York Public library for its reference department (main¬ tained by endowments). Appointments to headships included Frederick B. Adams to the J. Pierpont Morgan library. New York, N.Y. (succeeding Belle da Costa Greene), and Louis B. Wright to the Folger Shakespeare library, Washington, D.C. Princeton’s $6,000,000 Harvey S. Firestone Memorial library at Princeton, N.J., was occupied, as was a new building at Rice institute, Houston, Tex. Among other new buildings announced or commenced were those at the University of Mississippi, Uni¬ versity, Miss.; Kenyon college. Gambler, O.; New York State College of Agriculture (Cornell university), Ithaca, N.Y.; Women’s College of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, N.C., and Pasadena City college, Pasadena, Calif, (one of several California junior colleges to have separate library buddings). Ohio State university, Columbus, 0., announced a

LIBRARIES

427

$2,500,000 library addition, and the University of California at Los Angeles opened its new $1,185,000 east wing. Public Libraries.—Figures on growth between 1945 and 1947 in cities of more than 100,000 population, released by the U.S. office of education, showed volumes up 5.63%, borrowers up 7-20%, circulation up 4.20% and expenditures (exclusive of cap¬ ital outlay) up 25.59%. The District of Columbia Public library had successfully fought being placed under a board of educa¬ tion. Libraries observing anniversaries included Chelsea, Mass., Dayton, O., and New York, N.Y., looth; Chicago, Ill., and Concord, Mass., 75th; Erie, Pa., Ridgewood, N.J., and Royersford. Pa., 50th. Retirements included those of Carl B. Roden, Chicago, announced but not yet effective; Hiller C. Wellman, Springfield, Mass., succeeded by John A. Humphry; Milton J. Ferguson, Brooklyn, N.Y., effective March 1949, to be succeeded by Francis R. John. Regional and State.—The TVA regional survey of libraries of seven southeastern states was completed but not yet pub¬ lished. The Mountain-Plains Library association had a planning committee representing Colorado, Kansas, Nebraska, Utah and Wyoming. Legislation of 1947 largely implemented in 1948 in¬ cluded enabling acts in anticipation of federal aid passed by Arkansas, Connecticut, Louisiana, Mississippi, New Mexico and Rhode Island. State extension services were originated or ex¬ tended in Maine, Maryland, Michigan, New York, Tennessee, Texas and Virginia, in addition to the 14 states in which they had already been well established. Colorado passed permissive legislation, Indiana recodified its .library laws, and Ohio legis¬ lated against small units. Iowa extended free service to rural areas surrounding its public libraries. Washington (state) began establishing intercounty districts, California evolved its own regional plan, and New York had established a regional system centred in its state library. Indiana proposed a state depository for little-used materials, and California established depository libraries for state documents. Missouri had 17 new county units. About 324 bookmobiles were on the road, mainly in rural areas. The Hawaii Library association observed its 25th anniversary. Alaska had only three or four municipally supported libraries, most of the others being dependent for financial support on subscriptions and a “territorial refund,” enacted in 1933, which could not exceed an annual $150. Library Salaries.—An upward trend in salaries was reported by John B. Kaiser of Newark Public library late in 1948. A survey of 288 institutions reported in School and Society, Sept. 25, showed a median increase since 1941 of 36.7% to 39.2%, with estimated additional increases of 7% to 8% during 1948-49. Tables of salary schedules for most of the important changes appeared during the year in Library Journal. About 50 public and college libraries now had satisfactory classification and pay plans, the latest being that of the New York Public library. Library unions in the U.S. and Canada numbered 16. Training.—Library schools were making their courses more attractive; a master’s degree was offered for the fifth year’s work, and graduate professional courses were enriched by elimi¬ nation of the technical training which could be taken in an undergraduate preprofessional curriculum. Various institutes were held throughout the country both on recruiting and train¬ ing. Willard 0. Mishoff reported in “Professional Education for Librarianship: Trends and Problems,” in Higher Education, vol. V, pp. 13-18, Sept. 15, 1948, that 32,537 students had gradu¬ ated from library schools as of July i, 1947. Adult Education.—The Carnegie Corporation of New York felt that public libraries had come of age as adult-education agencies. The report of the Public Library Inquiry, scheduled for completion in 1949, would present findings in six areas: personnel, government, processes, use, finance and library mate-

BASEMENT STACKS of the Firestone Memorial library at Princeton university, Princeton, N.J., as students shelved books being transferred from the old university library in July 1948. The new building was completed on June 8

rials (both print and audiovisual). More than 200 cities in 19 states had more than 50,000 enrollees in the Great Books pro¬ grams, (in which many libraries participated), and A.L.A.’s Four Year Goals included a Great Issues program covering inflation, world government, management-labour, U.S.-Russia, and civil rights. A.L.A. had taken up the cudgels against censorship, par¬ ticularly in Los Angeles county, Calif., where a confused issue over county library employees’ signing the loyalty pledge had led to threats of the county supervisor’s controlling book selec¬ tion. Georgia had had a successful Freedom Train, and New York (state) was to put one on the rails early in 1949. Toledo, 0., and Brooklyn, N.Y., led in setting up book collections and services for the influx of displaced persons to the U.S. Audiovisual.—About 171 public libraries had well-developed collections of records (mainly to loan), averaging between 200 and 300 disks. About 40 had film libraries, many of them circu¬ lating. The Carnegie Corporation of New York provided funds for a full-time films adviser at A.L.A. headquarters, $15,000 and $25,000, respectively, to Missouri and Ohio for demonstration programs in 19 libraries and a grant to the Film Council of America for studies of needs for and use of films. Worcester, Mass., commenced lending framed pictures on borrowers’ cards —a practice not new but not prevalent. School Libraries.—More attention was paid to the develop¬ ment of elementary school libraries, of which there were less than 2,000 in the country’s 30,000 schools; high school libraries numbered more than 10,000, though many were small. Twentytwo states had school library supervisors; a new one in Texas

428

LIBYA —LI E, TRYGVE

would aid Negro school libraries. Special Libraries.—Salaries in special libraries, according to a Special Libraries association report not yet published, were generally higher than in comparable public and college libraries, as were budgets—both probably because of the necessary spe¬ cialization of personnel and collections. A survey of special categories showed that the Veterans’ ad¬ ministration had 126 hospitals with staff and patients’ libraries employing staffs from one to ten. The American Association of Law Libraries represented about 675 law libraries in the U.S. and Canada, employing 955 persons. The Medical Library asso¬ ciation reported 287 medical libraries in the U.S., 17 in Canada, with about three or four employees in each; the association continued to operate a duplicate exchange and in 1948 sponsored scholarships for foreign students, underwritten by the Rocke¬ feller foundation. The American Theological association had more than 150 personal and institutional memberships. Vital aid was being given the blind; the Library of Congress reported that 28 of the 55 state lending agencies had placed about 30,000 talking book machines as of Nov. 28, and the American Founda¬ tion for the Blind had commenced a program to provide residing as well as handicraft materials for the European blind. (See also American Library Association; Societies and Associations.) Bibliography.—For further information about U.S. libraries consult Bulletin of the American Library Association; Library Journal; College and Research Libraries; Library Quarterly; Library of Congress Infor¬ mation Bulletin. Important contributions to library literature were: A.L.A. Committee on Post-war Planning, National Plan for Public Library Service (1948); American Institute of Architects, Library Building (1948); A.L.A. Board on Personnel Administration, Classification and Pay Plans for Libraries in Institutions of Higher Education, 3 vols., 2nd ed. (1948); Dorothy E. Cole, ed.. Library Literature, 1Q46-1947, 2 vols. (1947-48); American Library Directory, 1948 (1948); D. E. Bean and R. E. Ellsworth, Modular Planning for College and Small University Libraries (1948); M. M. Herdman, Classification (of books), 2nd ed. (1947); F. G. Nunmaker, Library Broadcasts (1948). Films.—Books and People (American Library the Information (Coronet Instructional Films).

Association); Find (K., Bn.)

British Commonwealth and Europe.—There was much ac¬ tivity in the general reconstruction of library services of all kinds in Great Britain and Europe. In Great Britain the in¬ creased use of libraries—greater than ever before—called for an expansion of services, particularly new buildings or extensions of existing buildings. In Europe there was a similar need, mainly because of the destruction caused by World War II and its general retarding effect upon libraries. In all countries there was a greater recognition of the value of libraries in the mod¬ ern community. Unfortunately, it proved impossible to build new permanent libraries because of the urgent need for labour and materials for other reconstruction work. In Great Britain the position was relieved in a small way by the adaptation, for library purposes, of other premises, including large houses un¬ suitable for residential purposes, chapels, shops, air-raid shelters and rooms used as clubs for the services in wartime, and also by a limited number of prefabricated buildings. In the provision of books, however, the situation improved. More than £1,500,000, or approximately id. per head of popu¬ lation, was spent on books for public libraries in Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and the total expenditure on the service was about £6,500,000 or 25. num (Th.)

Country

Anti¬ mony ah.)

Algeria. Angola. Australia. Austria. Belgian Congo.

_ — — 3.6 —

P P —

Belgium. Bolivia. Brazil.

— — —

— 7? —

Canada .

269.4

Chile. China. Colombia. Czechoslovakia .... France .

— — 1.55 — 53.2

Germany. Gold Coast. Greece . Guiana, Brit. Guiana, Neth.

— — — — —

Hungary. India. indO'China. Italy. Japan.

2.0 2.4 — 23.3 0.6

Luxembourg. Malaya. Mexico. Morocco, Fr. Neth. Indies.

— — — — —

—

0.36

Asbes¬ tos ah.)

— 4.15 — — P

— P P P P -w 7.2? 0.37 — _ — 1? — —

— 0.65 P 10.4 3.7 _ — — P _ — — — —

— 29.4 518.7 86.35 — 1.04

P

P

4.8 — —

21.8 —

P

P

P

49.1 — 27.3

0.3?

256.

Lead ah.)

Mag¬ nesite. Th.)*

Algeria. Angola. Australia. Austria . Belgian Congo.

— 161.1 3.6 —

.. — 23.55 222.7 —

Luxembourg.

40.5

—

— — 147.0

—

340.3 7.66 P 164.2 — _ 72.44 — — p — — — —

_ 6.2 -

1.8

14.4

2.70

206.1

180.4

1.8 P 0.9 38.5 47.3

— 0.1 _ 4.14 5.85

414.5 0.9

399.4 0.9

P

13.6

246.2 — 0.1 _ —

13.24 — _

17.5

18.3 _

87.3

Manga¬ nese Ore ah.) — — P

— — P — 204 — 13.7 — — .. 45.46 — p —

_ 217.8 —

P 598.7 — — 33.5 350 P 15.45 33.2 — P 31.4 109.5 P

50.5 — — 195.2 —

_ — 0.2 P 63.7

_ 5.8 — — —

— — — — —

1.234.8 475

_ 106.7 3,859.2 P —

P

—

6,483

5,123

Mercury (Flasks)

348 — P P

Nickel ah.)

— — — —

— —

.. — P

7

106.8

— P

195.8 P

3.1 11 8 15.0 — —

Phos¬ phate Rock (Th.)

Plati¬ num ah. 02.)

706.9 — P 11.5 —

10.1 — 768.9 1606 — 22.74 2,210

—

P

_ P —

U.S.S.R. Yugoslavia.

P

341.1 P 3.0 P

World Total ......

1.280

1,800

119.4 1,800 — P 3,700

23,244

7 — P 144,000

138

168 _ 383 346 _

852.5

58

2,820

P

927

481

388

2,168

1.1

1,835

1,952

1,608 100

_

2.632 _

?

_

1,363 18,551

1.423 4,883

2,286 5,750

4,192

2,240

2,985

_ _ —

__

307 1,560

596 1,224

47® 50 17 585 716

560

_

_

_

5 24.7

_ — — —

30 5 175 p 36« p 465 p

—

—

—

_

_

786

174.86

244 2,4096

328^ 54

_ —

226 498

386 355

1,700 944

_ _

1,992

1,818 —

1,713

_ _ 26

332 154

—

_

_ —

322 —

3 — — — — — — _ 605 6 1.204.7

_ 200 60 — _ _ 520 p 11,200

180.7

P

— — —

— _ —

28.35

—

—

294

p

_ _

— _

80 __ 1,0986 165 p

P

—

— — 2,100? 6,000? 37? -

_ 1,765 5,589 _ -

—

9.737

27.8®

13,500

5085

— — — 61.6 —

_ 544

— _ — 856 _

p 650 1,162 _

.... 636

1,498 8,985 — 404

500 724.6 _ —

100

50

— 305.3 — —

146 11,269 94,586 21,0006 — P 182,000

— 1,570

_

_ 7.672 54.538 16,300? — — 100,000

600 _ 527 1,191 — 12,924 77,015 20,500? — 139,700

— _ — — —

— — 2.440 -15,136

— 2,415 — 3,646

_ 1,000? — — 3976

— — 70.5 ...

P P P 7.63

18.0= — 10.46 — —

— — — — 198.3

_ — — — —

— — P — P

_ — 6096 ? 661

— 1.5 — —

— 33,793 122 610 325

12,253 — 120 — 325

— 2,635 1,328 1.346« 435

133.0 — — — 161.7

— — 40.5 — —

P P — — 466.7

— — — 8.06 196.2

59® 2.267 121 9 1,700

0.98 P 0.11 0.606 0.30®

— 4.070 — — —

_ 3,660 — —

P 6,900 — •— 391

__

205.5®

1.541 — 51 —

P 0.056 — —

— P — 617.2 832.8

~ 2,215 148* 7096 170

P P P P 1.91

— — — — —

122 64 12

— — 12.76 — P

— — — 2,234.6 244 — — — — ““

58.5

— —.

.6.23 0.02 P 11.77

15.26 — — — 10.6 — P —

— — 145.0 28.7

— 58.84 0.115 —

— — 7.1® -—

Tungsten Conc.$

20.8 — —

— — — 244 610

“ — — 122 610

— P P P 19

— — 5.64 26.0 14.8

— 27,460 174 — 16,170

— 29,788 244 — —

— 50 97 P P

— — 56.7 — —

— — —

— P 383 —

— 34.6 1.1 — 71.8 21.5

— 19.8 P —

— 0.20 11.39 P

— — P —

— — 122 —

_ — — P 82.1

-

380 — 17.1 — 15.4

P — —

— — — —

200 — 123

244

1244

0.07 0.09 — 1.15

493

611

630® — 26 — 91

— 115.8 — —

— 1,296.9 280.26 — P

11 773 — 78® 61®

0.67 1.29 — P

4.0« — —

149 308 — 1,423

— 244 — —

11 461 4906 486

— — — —

2.2 21.7 50.76 — 1,759.2

— — — —

—

—

1,856.11 187.46 434.88

9,233.0 2,0002 — —

18.4 150 —

3,022

14,400

491

757.1 P — ““ ?

P 10.96 955.7 P P 8,000

—

279 3,297 14,640 — 36 —

40,300

P — 2.0 46

— — — — —

-— 57 — 347

— — —

—

— — _

— 587 1 — — P

— — — — 27.3®

Zinc, (Smelter) ah.)

100 —

— — — —

— — — —

— P 25 —

—

3,060

_ 5.05

P — 9.53 P 4.06

P

2.3 399.7 607

2,891

_

82 — 158 188 P

— — _ —

35,420 P — —

_ _

36 134

35.3 — 109.34 6 —

— — — — P — — — —

p 34.4 11.0 — 12.6

1,248 357

— — P — —

— — 56.28 P 8.02

So -West Africa .... Spain.

1,150 278

-

— — P —

_ — — 6.29 —

— — —

P

—

—

22.74

2,220 885

1,556 2.16

Tin

— l.l — — —

-

275

308

170 15 P

Tin in Ore

— — — P

— —

5,474.5 _

—

2,230

Steel (Th.)

Sulphur (Th,)t

— P P — P

3.3 P

938 _

_

10.1 — 857.0 1606

Pig Iron ah.)

Silver (Mi. Oz.)

4.33 1.86 — P 1.26

P 1.24

31

Iron Ore (Th.):

799.2

— — 58.5

7.9 18.2 — —

Ilmen Ite (Th.)

Salt (Th.)

— — — P P

—

P 36.8

Gypsum (Th.)

Pyrite (Th.)

— — 53,984 1,619 —

Gold (Th. Oz.)

Potash (Th.)t

1,925.5 — — — “

9,700 —

6.4 —

_ 195.8 — — 29.0

— 0.81 P

—

_ —

_

29.3

146

“

7.9 17.8 — —

0.215

0.32 13.40 66.63 136 —

5 _

13.6 26.6 2.5 —

— — — ““

—

4.6

2.75

_ 64.8 0.3 P _

P — — —

8.4

P

P P P

—

P 21.9

403 — — —

-

Turkey . United Kingdom ....

_ — —

0.3 5.5

P —• — —

South Africa.

P

P 1.414 p 1.63 1.84

—

1,639

Petro¬ leum (Mi. Bbl.)

—

— _ ~

P — — —

P —

— —

P 3.2 202,9 624.0 175 P P

Diamonds (Th. carats)

_

P 25.88 P P

— —

Tunisia.

— 102.9 P 0.9 3253 — P

Copper (Smelter) (Th.)

_

15.26 — — — 241.16

— — —

_

11.7 0.4 —

Copper in Ore (Th.)

_ — — — —

5.9« — —

22.4 12.6® —

_ — P

0.5 — 1.5 — 23.8

Coke (Mi.)

827« 290 — 768 —

— 5.3

5.4

154.2 18.0 373.1

1.650

_ 15.9 —

—

2.3

8.8 27.4 0.2 3.2 28.1

50.3 1.3 — 71.0

Rhodesia, So.

288.2

23.0 P

—

p 32.8 — —

Portugal.

—

—

— — — — —

Peru. Philippines. Poland.

8.0

— 0.2 1.1 0.2 0.3

— — — 3.4 —

....

_ _ — —

_

— 1.26 — — 3.8

New Caledonia

—

778.0

—

_

19.4 20 — — —

38.4 8.7

—

16.9

142.1 P

— —

P

1.56

P

—

_

—

4.73 _ 0.2

— — —

P

.. Neth. Indies.

_

—

Country

Italy. Japan.

24.4 _ 2.0

— — —

Turkey . United Kingdom .... United States. U.S.S.R. Venezuela. Yugoslavia.

p 17.5 8.7

P

p

P

p

_

-

209.1* — — _ —

— —

Hungary. India.

86.3 _

1233 82.3 23.5 1,318.2 1,809.8

P —

P

24.4 — 1.0 — —

19.6 0.5 150.8

— 677.4

— —

Germany. Gold Coast. Greece . Guiana, Brit. Guiana, Neth.

_

13.3 0.3 150.8

_ — _ — 43.0

_

4.7 34.6

_ 1.086 0.32 —

— —

_ 1.06 3.66 — —

0.8

0.2 _ 20 3.0 0.1

P P — —

So.-West Africa .... Spain. Sweden. Thailand (Siam) .... Tunisia.

ChHe. China. Colombia. Czechoslovakia .... France .

— _

— — — P P _ ....

Portugal . . Rhodesia, No. Rhodesia, So. Sierra Leone. South Africa.

Canada .

_ _ 191.6 — 26.0

315.7

_ — — - . —

Belgium. Bolivia. Brazil.

— — 17.0

Coal (Mi.)

-

16.70 — -—

1,073

— — 4.0 P

Chro¬ mite (Th.)

Cadmium

600.4

New Caledonia .... Norway . Peru. Philippines. Poland.

World Total.

Bauxite (Th.)

— **

“ P

0 02 38.59 — “

4,441.2 — —

913 — —

27,986 33,814 — —

_

157

68 2,807 — — _

4,800

115,300

125,500

26.000

69.4 728.0 P — P 1,580

Notes- Each item of data previous to 1947 is followed by a reference superscript indicating the year to which the figure belongs—« for 1946, down to ‘for 1941. A figure followed by ? or with less decimals than others In the column is an estimate The letter "p” Indicates a small production unknown in amount or less than the minimum base of the table: "P" indicates a larger but unknown production. ♦Crude magnesite tK20 equivalent of salts produced. {Mainly crude sulphur, but includes some ore and some sulphur recovered from roaster gases. §60% WOs basis

MINERALOGY

468

Table II.—Mineral and Metal Prices in 1948

London market as reported by the Metal Bulletin

Now York market os reported by E. & M. J. Metof and Mineral Markets

15.00 4.425 36.03 6.00 $ 20.50 $ 2.00 $ 1.75 $ 39.00 92 16.10 $ 1.65 21.20 21.425 $ 35.00 $ 2.25 $ 82.50 s 5.55 $195.65 15.00 20.50 27.50 66.00 30 $145.00 $ 47.00 $ 80.00 45 $ 2.80 95 33.75 $ 24.00 $ 75.00 $ 66.00 $125.00 $ 2.00 16.75 8.80 11.20 74.625 $ 2.25 $143.00 1.75 $ 94.00 1.35 $ $ 19.50 9 $ 30.00 $ 30.00 $ 2.30 $ 3.10 27.50 $ 3.00 $ 70.35 10.50

17.00 5.10 41.67 6.00 $ 24.50 $ 2.00 $ 2.00 $ 38.50 $ 1.02 19.55 $ 1.65 23.20 23.45 $ 35.00 $ 2.25 $112.50 $ 6.20 $292.17 21.50 20.50 27.50 71.60 30 $160.00 $ 62.00 $ 91.50 45 $ 2.80 95 40.00 $ 24.00 $ 58.50 $ 93.00 $125.00 $ 2.00 16.75 11.3 13.5 70.00 $ 2.375 $143.00 $ 1.75 $ 1.03 $ 1.40 $ 19.00 7 $ 28.50 $ 24.50 $ 2.30 $ 2.90 27.50 $ 3.00 $110.00 17.50 $

$

<
65%.

Pound Long ton Ounce Unit . Pound Pound Long ton Long ton

87

80 180 43 6

108

.

5 10 11 12 17 5 M 10 10 172 * 12 10 (e) M

7 30

. .

,,

6 10

,,

,, ..

139 140 3 6

.,

(e) (e)

112

,,

6

Ha 5

.

., ,,

6 ,,

6 45

98-99% W . 18-20% V2O5

Pound Unit .

52% R/C . . G.O.B., foreign

Long ton

(e) 10 70 M fe)

'49 35

21 27 113 .. .,

5 15 10 10 7 fe) fe)

8 ..

8 24

., ..

..

••

.

13 106

, . . .

, . . .

6 9 •. ..

15 •. .. ..

6 .. ..

42'/i .,

569

,,

10

3 6

.. .. .,

(e)

,, ,, ,,

1 .. ..

(e) (e)

9

3

9 6 ,,

2 6 8 5'/t

11 15 ,, ..

.. .. ..

1 1 2 1

(e)

..

136

,, ..

,,

(e)

.

(e) 15

,,

15

10

.,

5 10 10 12 4 5 (e) 10 10

25 ., ,,

9 9

17 M 2 10 10 7 (e) (e)

..

172 12

,,

’50 35 (e)

Unit .

70

,,

..

6

25

.,

200 43 8

2 6 7 S'A

8 437

6

1 1 1 1 M M

^

13 15

d.

s.

£

d.

s.

116

9 •. .. .. ..

3

fe) 9 70 fe) 5

(o) Per pound of base metal contained, (b) Per pound of M0S2 contained, (c) Per pound of V2O5 contained, (d) Plus Is. 6d. per pound of alloy, (e) Not quoted, (f) Dec. 15, 1947. (g) Dec. 15, 1948.

first quarter of 1948, having reached 152.48 in Dec. 1947 and 155.63 in March 1948. This period of relatively low activity was followed by another bulge which, by successive monthly advances, had brought the index up to 185.26 in Nov. 1948, with little prospect for relief in the face of the cumulative agi¬ tation for a fourth round of wage increases in 1949. Table III shows the trend of the dollar value of mineral pro¬ duction in the United States, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. The effect of the postwar price advances distorts the pic¬ ture greatly, as the tonnage output did not advance at all in pro¬ portion to the values shown. To correct for the price variation, and reduce the values to the level of 1939 prices, an adjusted value was obtained as follows. Using the 1939 value as a base, this value was assumed to increase in proportion to the increased physical volume of the output as indicated by the federal re¬ serve board index of mineral production, after converting the index from its original base of 1935-39 = 100 to a base of 1939 = 100, to make it conform to the 1939 values. These adjusted totals, while not strictly accurate, present the trend of mineral Table III.—Value of Mineral Products of the United States (Millions of dollars) Year 1939 . . . . 1940 . . . . 1941 . . . . 1942 .... 1943 . . . . 1944 .... 1945 ... . 1946 . . . . 1947 . . . . 1948(est.). .

Metallics 1,291.7 1,678.6 2,132.0 2,363.9 2,488.0 2,340.0 1,974.0 1,823.0 2,915.0 3,690.0

Fuels 2,834.3 3,116.5 3,708.1 4,103.4 4,608.3 5,178.0 5,212.0 5,725.0 7,843.0 10,180.0

Nonmetallics 788.2 812.8 1,037.9 1,109.0 974.7 901.0 954.0 1,311.0 1,635.0 1,750.0

Total 4,914.2 5,61 3.9 6,878.0 7,576.3 8,071.0 8,419.0 8,140.0 8,859.0 1 2,393.0 15,620.0

Adjusted Total 4,914 ' 5,406 5,799 5,995 6,143 6,487 6,339 6,192 6,880 7,175

Prod. Index 100 110 118 122 125 132 129 126 140 146

production values much more nearly in their true perspective. The adjusted totals show a continued increase year after year up to a maximum in 1944, but with a decreasing trend in the size of the successive increases. As war demand tapered off there was a decline in adjusted value in 1945 and 1946, with sharp advances in 1947 and 1948. (See also the articles on the various metals and minerals.) ( G. A. Ro.)

MinDrolniru

important articles, M. J. Buerger discussed mlllcrdiUgy. “The Role of Temperature in Mineralogy” (American Mineralogist, vol. 33, pp. 101-121); E. W. Heinrich described important pegmatite mineral deposits of Colorado (ibid., vol. 33, pp. 64-75, 420-448, 550-587); V. T. Allen and J. J. Fahey reported the new arsenate mineral, mansfieldite, AI2O3, AS2O5, 4H2O, from Hobart butte. Lane county. Ore. (ibid., vol. 33, pp. 122-134), and Edward Gubelin in “Gemstone Inclu¬ sions,” with 79 illustrations, classified the various types of in¬ clusions and discussed their use in distinguishing natural and synthetic stones (Journal of Gemmology, vol. i, no. 7, pp. 7-39). “The Structure of Gemstones,” by M. D. S. Lewis, appeared in seven instalments in the Feb. to Aug. 1948 numbers of the Gemmologist (London). In this article of high technical assist¬ ance to students of gems, the crystallization, hardness, cleavage, isomorphous replacement, symmetry and temperature, optical properties, polishing, Beilby layer, abrasion, adhesion, drop tests, thermal and electrical conductivity, glassy state and feel are all clearly and amply discussed. During the year, the synthesis of rutile, titanium dioxide, was

MINING —MINNESOTA. UNIVERSITY OF achieved by the Linde Air Products company and the Titanium division of the National Lead company. The characteristics of this synthetic product were described by R. T. Liddicoat, Jr. (Gems and Gemology, vol. v, pp. 485 and 504). The optical properties are such that the transparent synthetic material, when cut and polished, has greater brilliance and more fire than the diamond. Even though its hardness is less than that of quartz, synthetic rutile might become important as a gem. The 13 th edition of Friedrich Klockmann’s well-known and widely used Lehrbuch der Mineralogie (Stuttgart, Germany), revised by Paul Ramdohr, was issued. Upon the occasion of his 60th birthday (June 26, 1948), Paul Niggli, University of Zurich, Switzerland, was presented with a “Festschrift” con¬ taining contributions by 47 of his former students, collaborators and colleagues at the Swiss institutions of higher education. The articles dealt with various phases of mineralogy, petrography and gemmology. Gem Cutting, by J. Daniel Willems, and Popu¬ lar Gemology, by R. M. Pearl, were also published. The revised list of “Gemstone Nomenclature” recently adopted by the Gemmological Association of Great Britain appeared in the April 1948 number of the Journal of Gemmology. Although this list of approved names of gemstones was primarily for use in Great Britain, it was thought it. might prove helpful to gemmological associations in other countries with similar lists in agreeing upon the uniforhi usage of terms and descriptions. The Washington A. Roebling medal was awarded to Sir Lawrence Bragg of the Cavendish laboratory, Cambridge uni¬ versity, England, at the meeting of the Mineralogical Society of America, held in New York city, Nov. 12, 1948. Sir Law¬ rence, jointly with his father. Sir William Bragg, received the Nobel prize for physics in 1915 for epoch-making discoveries in the application of X-rays to the study of crystal structure. The International Union of Crystallography, which had been projected for some time, was formally organized at Harvard university, Cambridge, Mass., during the meetings of the first general assembly, July 29 to Aug. 3, 1948. Max von Laue, of Gottingen, Germany, was elected honorary president, and Sir Lawrence Bragg, of Cambridge, England, president. Under the auspices of the union, the first number of Acta Crystallographica was published with articles in English, French and German. (See also Mineral and Metal Production and Prices.) (E. H. Kr.) Mining: see Mineral and Metal Production and Prices. See also under separate minerals. Ilj i A north central state of the United States, IVIinn6S0l3a popularly known as the “Gopher” or “North Star” state. Area, 84,068 sq.mi., of which 4,059 sq.mi. are water. Pop. of 2,940,000 on July i, 1948, estimated by U.S. bureau of census, showed a 5.3% increase over the 1940 popu¬ lation of 2,792,300. Approximately 50% of the population is urban. The capital city is St. Paul (pop. 1940 census, 287,736). Other principal cities and their 1940 pop. include Minneapolis (492,370) and Duluth (101,065). There were in 1940 2,474,078 native-born and 294,904 foreign-born whites and 9,928 Negroes in the state. History.—Principal elective officials of the state in 1948 were: governor, Luther W. Youngdahl; secretary of state, Mike Holm; treasurer, Julius A. Schmahl; auditor, Stafford King; and at¬ torney general, J. A. A. Burnquist. Early in 1948, Governor Youngdahl appointed a centennial committee, the duties of which included the development of a complete program for the celebration of Minnesota’s looth birthday as ^ territory on March 3, 1949. The presidential election of Nov. 2, 1948, showed the follow¬ ing total Minnesota votes by political parties: Democratic-

469

Farmer-Labor, 692,966; Republican, 483,617; Progressive, 27,866; Socialist, 4,646; Industrial Government, 2,525; and So¬ cialist Workers, 606. The total presidential vote cast in the state was 1,212,226. Education.—The contribution of the state to local schools, including income from trust funds and fixed income tax allotments, was expected to amount to $66,705,660 for the biennium that began July i, 1947. Total public school expenditures for the 1947-48 school year were about $91,791,740, compared with $79,358,035 for the 1946-47 school year. In 1947-48 Minnesota had 8,038 elementary schools, 646 secondary schools, 5 public state teachers colleges and ii junior colleges. Enrolment was 335,563 with 11,899 teachers in elementary grades; 166,335 with 8,098 teachers in the secondary grades; 2,885 with 192 teachers in junior colleges; 13,940 with 237 teachers in adult education classes; and 267 with 19 teachers in teacher-training departments. Dean M. Schweickhard was commissioner of education. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

The aid to dependent children average grant per case rose 1.8% from Nov. 1947 to Nov. 1948, while old-age assistance and aid to the blind average grants per recipient rose 9.8% and 11.8%, respectively, during the same period. During the year ending June 30, 1948, $3,164,125 was spent on general relief, the number of cases averaging 6,388; on old-age assistance, $27,741,842, the number of recipients averaging 55,330. A total of $5,241,950 was spent on aid to dependent children, the number of families aided averaging 6,396 and number of children helped aver¬ aging 16,363. An average of 1,019 persons shared in the total allowance of $600,131 in aid to the blind. The number of workers covered by unemployment insurance during 1947 was 800,000. Estimated benefit payments under the Unemployment Compensation law were $5,485,000 in 1948. Payments under the Service¬ men’s Readjustment Allowance program for unemployment in 1948 to¬ talled $8,226,000. Communications.—On Jan. I, 1948, Minnesota had a total of 120,921 mi. of highway including 11,222 mi. of state trunk highways, 101,780 mi. of other highways and 7,920 mi. of city streets. Expenditures of the state highway department during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, were $26,201,762 as compared with $25,123,768 for the year ending June 30, 1947. Main line railway mileage at the end of 1947 was 8,388. There were 65 licensed municipal airports, 60 privately owned public airports and 155 privately owned landing strips for private use. Banking and Finance.—Resources of Minnesota banks, on July i, 1948, were approximately 5% higher than on July i, 1947. The 499 state banks, i mutual savings bank and 4 trust companies had deposits of $974,678,000 and resources of $1,039,019,000, compared with deposits of $919,954,000 and resources of $978,319,000 on July i, 1947. The 178 national banks had deposits of $1,929,925,000 and resources of $2,064,939,000 on July 1, 1948, compared with deposits of $1,844,515,000 and resources of $1,976,464,000 on July 1, 1947. The state had 41 state building and loan associations on July i, 1948, with resources of $77,718,000 as compared with resources of $69,445,000 on July 1, 1947. The 30 federal savings and loan associations had resources of $198,608,000 on July 1, 1948, compared with resources of $175,943,000 on July 1, 1947. Total operating disbursements of the state government (exclusive of public debt redemption, stores for resale, annuities and pensions, land and interest in land) amounted to $245,522,456 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1948, as compared with $196,616,775 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1947. The state’s total indebtedness in bonds and certificates of indebtedness on June 30, 1948, was $58,816,081, a reduction of $391,260 from June 30, 1947. The four principal trust funds of the state, income of which is devoted largely to schools, reached $166,543,223 on June 30, 1948. Agriculture.—Butter production in 1947 was 243,064,000 lb. For the calendar year 1947, cash receipts from farm marketings totalled $1,344,108,000, with $952,927,000 from livestock and livestock products and $391,181,000 from crops. Leading Agricultural Products of Minnesota,

Corn, all, bo. Oats, bo. . . Barley, bo. . Wheat, all, bu. Potataes, bu. Flaxseed, bu. Hay, all, tons

1948 and 1947 Crop . . . . . . .

1948 272,055,000 206,338,000 34,132,000 18,509,000 16,740,000 19,102,000 5,145,000

1947 191,041,000 163,332,000 25,838,000 20,633,000 16,940,000 15,103,000 5,687,000

Manufacturing—Employment in manufacturing industries totalled 200,820 in Nov. 1948, 0.2% below Nov. 1947. The department of busi¬ ness research and development estimated there were 6,300 manufacturing establishments in 1948 compared with 4,008 reported in the 1939 census of manufacturers. Mineral Production.—An estimated 69,000,000 gross tons of iron ore were shipped from Minnesota mines in 1948, as compared with 63,517,190 gross tons in 1947. Tonnage shipped in 1948 was the largest for any peacetime year. (L. W. Mh.)

Minnesota, University of. The collegiate enrolment continued to decline slowly during 1948, as did veteran enrolment. The proportion of women stu¬ dents likewise continued to drop, reaching a new low of 22.4%. Three major administrative posts were filled: Maynard E. Pirsig, dean of the law school; Athelstan F. Spilhaus, dean of

470

MINT. UNITED ST AT ES —M IS SIS SI P PI

the Institute of Technology; and Edwin L. Haislet, director of alumni relations. A large new winter sports building had been erected and rapid progress was being made in the completion of the new Mechanical-Aeronautical Engineering building. Cul¬ tural activities continued to be featured on the university campus. The Minneapolis Symphony orchestra offered its reg¬ ular season of i8 concerts in Northrop Memorial auditorium, where also the Metropolitan Opera company appeared. The Artists course, the Master Piano series, weekly convocation programs and organ recitals were also heard, as well as the programs presented by the vocal and instrumental groups trained in the department of music. The University theatre presented during the year an impressive program of dramatic productions, including some for children. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Uni¬ versities AND Colleges.) (J. L. Ml.)

vance of the Christian forces continued. For Protestants the constitution of the World Council of Churches {q.v.) gave im¬ petus to their share in the world-wide Christian mission. (K. S. L.)

Micclccmni

IVIISSISSIPPI.

^ southern state of the U.S., admitted to the union in 1817, popularly known as the “Mag¬

nolia state”; area, 47,716 sq.mi. (47,420 sq.mi. land and 296 sq.mi. water); pop. (1940), 2,183,796; capital, Jackson (62,107). Other cities: Biloxi (17,475); Greenville (20,892); Gulf¬ port (15,195); Hattiesburg (21,026); Laurel (20,598); Merid¬ ian (35,481); Natchez (15,296); Vicksburg (24,460). Of the state’s population in 1940,'432,882, or 19.8%, were urban. In 1940 there were 1,106,327 whites; 1,074,578 Negroes; 2,177,324 native-born; 6,472 foreign-born. On July i, 1948, the bu¬ reau of the census estimated the civilian population of the state at 2,121,000.

Mint, United States: see Coinage. Miquelon: see French Overseas Territories.

Missions, Foreign (Religious). ing political and economic situation had profound effects on for¬ eign missions throughout the world. In western Europe and the British Isles adverse economic conditions still proved a handi¬ cap to the reinforcement and support of missionary staffs. The United States, with its prosperity and international prominence, remained the chief source of personnel and funds for Protestant missions and had a mounting share in Roman Catholic mission¬ ary activities. In Japan the disestablishment of Shinto and the bewilderment and spiritual groping which were the accompani¬ ment of defeat and occupation continued to make for openness of mind toward the Christian faith. The demand for Bibles was insatiable and large audiences gathered to hear addresses on Christianity. Both Catholics and Protestants augmented their missionary staffs and a number of Catholic societies and orders entered the country for the first time. In the Russian zone in Korea restrictions on the churches were tightened. The communist advance in China brought hardship to churches and missionaries. Since Catholics were especially strong in the regions occupied by the communists and since the an¬ tagonism of Rome to communism was well known. Catholics suffered greatly and many, including several missionaries, were killed. Protestants also were adversely affected, but since they were not so numerous in the north of China and in Manchuria as were Catholics, the blow to them was not so severe as to the latter. For both Catholics and Protestants the continuation of organized religious life in communist territory became extremely difficult and in many places impossible. Catholics also suffered greatly in Viet-Nam areas in IndoChina. The political unrest in Burma retarded the restoration of church life and missionary activities in that land. In the new dominions of India and Pakistan the churches and missions did not suffer so much as had earlier been feared. At least one sub¬ division of India enacted legislation which was designed to pre¬ vent a change of religion and so militated against conversion to Christianity. Some Christian communities in Pakistan experi¬ enced inconveniences. Yet in the vast shifts in population and the attendant suffering which followed the creation of domi¬ nantly Moslem Pakistan and prevailing Hindu India^ Christians as religious neutrals gave extensive relief to refugees and thereby won much public approval. The resurgence of pro-Moslem sentiment in connection with Arab nationalism still embarrassed Christians, especially in Egypt. In Africa south of the Sahara, quiet unspectacular ad¬

History.—For 1948-52 the chief elected officers of the state were: governor. Fielding L. Wright; lieutenant governor, Sam Lumpkin; secretary of state, Heber A. Ladner; attorney gen¬ eral, Greek L. Rice; state tax collector, Mrs. Thomas L. Bailey; state treasurer, Robert W. May; state auditor, Carl N. Craig; state superintendent of public education, J. M. Tubb. In the Nov. 1948 presidential election, the Mississippi popu¬ lar vote went overwhelmingly to the States’ Rights candidate, J. Strom Thurmond, whose running mate was Mississippi’s gov¬ ernor, Fielding L. Wright. The total vote was 192,190, dis¬ tributed as follows: Thurmond and Wright 167,538; Harry S. Truman and Alben W. Barkley 19,384; Thomas E. Dewey and Earl Warren 5,043; Henry A. Wallace and Glen H. Taylor 225. Education—In 1947—48 there were 1,189 white elementary schools in Mississippi and 3,308 Negro elementary schools, a total of 4,497- The enrolment in elementary schools was 463,394, of whom 214,865 were whites and 248,529 Negroes. The state had 546 white high schools and 118 approved Negro high schools. The enrolment of these approved high schools plus enrolments in nonaccredited schools gave a total enrolment of 77,257 in 1947-48. There were 8,784 white elementary and high school teachers (including superintendents and principals) and 6,421 Negro elementary and high school teachers (including superintendents and principals), a total of 15,205 teachers. The total enrolment in white elementary and high schools was 274,998; in Negro elementary and high schools, 265,653. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs_

From July i, 1947, to June 30, 1948, the state department of public welfare paid $7,855,480 to 43,468 recipients of old-age assistance; $607,852 to 2,361 recipients of aid to the blind; and $1,401,921 for aid to 6,306 families for 19,113 dependent children. Special child-welfare workers were assigned to 15 county departments of public welfare, to the State Industrial and Training school and to the Negro Juvenile re¬ formatory. A state-county program of foster boarding care for children was inaugurated. Through its division for the blind, the department maintained a statefinanced program of sight conservation, restoration and services and con¬ tinued its program of training adult blind persons to work on factorytype sewing machines. This division continued to serve as the channel for federal funds for vocational rehabilitation of blind civilians. Communications.—In 1948 the state maintained 6,742.6 mi. of highways. In 1948 the counties maintained approximately 53,983 mi. In 1948 state maintenance expenditures were estimated at $3,082,623.43; in 1946, $2,156,904.64. In 1946 county expenditures for main¬ tenance costs amounted to $10,156,908.27. The total mileage of railroads in the state on Dec. 31, 1947, was 3,924.02. Banking and Finance—On June 30, 1948, there were 181 state banks in Mississippi, with 22 branch banks and 33 branch offices. There were 23 national banks in Mississippi. The resources of the state banks were $561,132,191.03 and the total deposits were $524,741,331.97; the re¬ sources of the national banks were $221,385,691.04 and the total deposits were $209,063,319.62. The balance in the general fund account as of Jan. 1, 1946, was $23,156,889.38; on Jan. 1, 1947, it was $27,199,589.24, and on Dec. 31, 1948, it was $25,280,354.43. The special fmd account as of Jan. i, 1946, was $8,131,891.17; on Jan. I, 1947, it was $21,097,504.67, and on Dec. 31, 1948, it was $16,790,558.23. _ On Dec. 31, i947, the full faith and credit debt of the state of Mis¬ sissippi was $15,326,000; on Dec. 31, 1948, it was $12,079,000; out¬ standing highway bonds (payable from gasoline tax) amounted to $56,478,000 on Dec. 31, 1947, and on Dec. 31, 1948, it amounted to $63,890.000, making a total debt of $71,804,000 on Dec. 31, 1947, and a total debt of $75,969,000 on Dec. 31, 1948. Agriculture.—The 1945 census reported 265,528 farms, with 19,616,523 ac. in farms. In 1947, cropland harvested was 6,229,000 ac. The 1947 receipts from marketings were $489,203,000, of which $372,532,000

471

MISSOURI —MOHAMMEDANISM were from crops and $116,671,000 from livestock and livestock products; the value of farm products consumed in farm households was $1^4074,000. Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Mississippi, 1947 and 1946

Crop Cotton (500-lb. boles) . Cottonseed, tons .... Corn, bu. Oats, bu. Hoy, tons. Sweet potatoes, bu. . . Sugar-cane syrup, gal. . Sorghum syrup, gal. . . Pecans, lb. Soybeans, bu..

1947 1,555,000 644,000 37,191,000 1 2,480,000 1,182,000 1,460,000 2,600,000 1,875,000 2,900,000 1,330,000

1946 1,047,000 425,000 36,465,000 10,571,000 980,000 2,160,000 3,500,000 1,400,000 4,350,000 1,050,000

Manufacturing.—The value of all manufactured products in Mississippi for the year 1946 was $555,727,000. The amount of wages paid in 1947 to persons employed in all industries employing eight or more persons amounted to $310,320,000 as against $234,000,000 for 1944, and $94,000,000 in 1939. Mineral Production—The total value of mineral production in 1946, including natural gas, sand and gravel and other mineral products, was $35,266,000, and in 1947 it was $66,906,606.40.

of 19 Democrats and 15 Republicans. The popular vote for president was Harry S. Truman 917,315, Thomas E. Dewey 655,039, Henry A. Wallace 3,998, Norman Thomas 2,222. The congressmen elected were 12 Democrats and i Repub¬ lican. Truman was the first Missourian to be elected president of the United States. Education.—For the school year ending June 30, 1948, the public school system consisted of 7,167 elementary schools, with 457,061 pupils and 16.975 teachers; 748 secondary schools, with 145,417 pupils and 6,390 teachers; 9 junior colleges, with 6,121 students and 267 teachers; 3 state colleges and 2 state teachers’ colleges, with 12,325 students and 454 teachers; Lincoln university (Negro), University of Missouri, (Rolla) School of Mines and Metallurgy, schools for the deaf and blind and a Negro vocational school. Hubert Wheeler was state commissioner of education. Under the G.I. Bill of Rights and the Vocational Rehabilitation act for disabled veterans, 112,827 veterans of World War II were enrolled in schools and colleges in the state, 50,823 were receiving farm training and 37,231 job training on Nov. 30, 1948. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

Table II.—Principal Mineral Products of Mississippi, 1947 and 1946

Mineral Natural gas. Sand and gravel .... Petroleum. Other mineral products . .

Value, 1947 $ 1,889,718 2,493,175 61,962,098 561,614

Value, 1946 $ 1,656,000 1,533,631 30,400,000 1,676,369

On Dec. 31, 1948, there were approximately 1,355 producing oil wells in the state. Value of petroleum for the year 1948 was estimated to be in excess of $100,000,000. (A. B. Bu.)

A west north cen¬ tral state of the U.S.A., admitted to the union in 1821; popularly known as the “Show Me state.” Area 69,674 sq.mi. of which 404 are water.

Missouri.

Pop. (1940) 3,784,664 (51.8% urban, 48.2% rural); 3,425,062 (90.5%) native white, 114,125 (3%) foreign-born white and 244,386 (6.5%) Negro. The bureau of the census estimated that on July i, 1948, the popu¬ lation of the state was 3,947,000. Capital, Jefferson City (1940 census) (24,268). Larg¬ FORREST SMITH, Democrat, elected est cities: St. Louis (816,048), governor of Missouri Nov. 2, 194S Kansas City (399,178), St. Joseph (75,711), Springfield (61,238). History.—The 1948 session of the 64th general assembly (Jan. 7-April 2), with Republicans in control of both houses, enacted legislation providing for the consolidation of rural school districts, the collection of an “earnings tax” by the city of St. Louis and the restriction of unemployment compensation payments. On election day, Nov. 2, 1948, Forrest Smith (Dem.) de¬ feated Murray Thompson (Rep.) by a plurality of 223,028 votes for the office of governor (Smith 893,092, Thompson 670,064). The other state officers elected were also Democrats: James T. Blair, Jr., lieutenant governor; Walter H. Toberman, secre¬ tary of state; W. H. Holmes, auditor; M. E. Morris, treas¬ urer; J. E. Taylor, attorney general. The voters approved (542,414 to 480,507) an amendment to the state constitution authorizing the legislature to permit cities of more than 40,000 population to pension employees, and widows and minor chil¬ dren of deceased employees. As a result of the election both houses of the state legislature were Democratic, the house of representatives consisting of 93 Democrats and 59 Republicans (with two vacancies), the senate

In Nov. 1948, about 20,000 persons received unemployment insurance. For the year ending June 30, 1948, unemployment insurance totalled $14,494,250, and the government employment services made 95,900 placements. For the same period old-age assistance amounted to $48,367,344, aid to dependent children $9,770,235, general relief $3,839,362 and blind pensions $1,073,263; in June 1948, 116,626 persons received old-age assistance, 20,511 families (52,920 children) aid to dependent children, 12,272 families or individuals general relief, and 2,751 persons blind pensions. During the year ending June 30, 1948, the state peni¬ tentiary had an average of 2,857 inmates per day, the reformatory 310 and the industrial training school's 440. In the same period expenditures for the penitentiary and reformatory amounted to $1,614,490 and for the industrial training schools $730,278. Communications.—On Dec. 31, 1947 Missouri had 16,990 mi. of state highways and 99,410 mi. of rural roads. During 1947 the state highway department spent $38,260,063 (state and federal funds), of which $15,770,487 was for construction and $10,071,220 was for maintenance. In 1946 railroad mileage totalled 6,832 mi. There were 1,048,858 telephones in use in Nov, 1948. Banking and Finance.—On June 30, 1948, Missouri had 489 state banks, with deposits of $2,032,439,000 and resources (loans and investments) of $1,884,634,000; 79 national banks, with deposits of $1,212,507,000 and resources (loans and investments) of $1,164,257,000; 166 building and loan associations, with resources of $245,258,060. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, the receipts of the state treasury totalled $198,556,696; disbursements $187,154,314. The state debt on July i, 1947, was $53,000,000 and on June 30, 1948, $49,000,000. Agriculture.—During 1947 cash income from crops and livestock was $1,082,925,000, and cash income from government payments was $13,568,000; during 1948 cash income from crops and livestock was $1,185,000,000. The value of Missouri’s 1947 crops was $502,834,000 and the value of the 1948 crops, harvested from 13,885,000 ac., was estimated at $638,703,000. The 1948 cotton and soybean crops set new records, and the yield of corn was 45.5 bu. per acre, or 6)4 bu. above the previous record. Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Missouri, 1948 and 1947

Crop Corn, bu. Winter wheat, bu. All hay, tons. Cotton, boles. Oats, bu. Soybeans, bo.

1948 (est.l 201,110,000 39,270,000 4,803,000 505,000 48,592,000 15,900,000

1947 98,441,000 24,438,000 4,393,000 311,000 30,107,000 9,900,000

Value, 1948 $271,498,000 80,504,000 79,250,000 76,508,000 38,874,000 37,365,000

Manufacturing.—The number of persons employed in the manufacturing industries in Oct. 1948 was 349,800, or 2,100 less than in Oct. 1947. In 1939 Missouri’s industries manufactured products valued at $1,388,056,267, employed 178,538 wage earners and 24,275 salaried persons and paid $190,735,851 in wages and $58,937,137 in salaries. Mineral Production—In 1947 the value of Missouri’s mineral produc¬ tion was $107,021,000, an increase of 21% over 1946. The quantity

Table II.—Principal Mineral Products of Missouri, 1947 and 1946

Mlnerol Lead. Cement. Bituminous coal. Stone (exclusive of sandstone) . . Clay (raw and heovy clay products) Lime . Zinc.

Volue, 1947 $38,086,848 15,066,390 1 4,093,736 11,195,993 8,174,157 7,006,426 4,131,908

Value, 1946 $30,326,416 12,142,018 10,432,591 8,996,440 7,220,687 5,931,485 5,425,096

of lead and zinc produced in 1947 was less than in 1946, but the 1947 production of other minerals, especially silica sand, limestone, cement and barite, was greater than in 1946. (R. P. Br.)

Mohammedanism:

see Islam.

472

MOLOTOV, VYACHESLAV— MONGOLIAN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC

Molotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich viet foreign min¬

187 francs (i franc = 0.467 U.S. cents).

ister and vice-premier, was born at Kukarka (later Sovetsk), in the Vyatka (later Kirov) province, March 9. He was educated at St. Petersburg Polytechnic institute and began his political activity as an organizer of bolshevist student groups. In March 1917 he was appointed a member of the Petrograd (later Lenin¬ grad) soviet executive committee. After the Communist coup d’etat in Nov. 1917 he held different party posts in Petrograd, Nizhni Novgorod (Gorki) and the Donets basin. In 1921 he was appointed member of the organizing and political bureaus of the All-Union Communist party and seven years later was elected a member of the presidium of the executive committee of the Comintern. In 1930 he was chosen by Joseph Stalin to preside over the council of people’s commissars. On May 3, 1939, he succeeded Maxim Litvinov as commissar for foreign affairs and two years later, when Stalin assumed the premiership, Molotov, retaining the portfolio of foreign affairs, was made vice-premier. During and after World War II he acted as Stalin’s right hand in diplomatic negotiations. He headed the soviet delegation at the San Francisco constituent assembly of the United Nations and also at the four meetings of the Council of Foreign Min¬ isters (Paris, 1946; New York, 1946; Moscow, 1947; London, 1947), which failed to reach agreement on German and Austrian peace treaties. Speaking in Moscow on Nov. 6, 1947, on the occasion of the 30th anniversary of the Russian Revolution, he attacked U.S. and British policy as being responsible for the continuation of world unrest. In Aug. and Sept. 1948 he took a leading part in the unsuccessful negotiations with the three western envoys, the purpose of which was to find a solution to the Berlin blockade.

Monazite has not been mined in the United States for several decades, as more plentiful and cheaper supplies could be obtained from India and Brazil. Im¬ ports varied widely, from 4,980 short tons in 1943 to 384 tons in 1944, and 3,686 tons in 1946, declining to 2,397 tons in 1947. Brazil was the chief source of supply after 1945. Con¬ sumption was reported at 2,655 in 1946 and 2,494 tons in 1947. (G. A. Ro.)

llAlifhflonilin molybdenum production of the United MUiyuUcnUnii states, wWch usually represents 8o%-9o% of the world total, is shown in the table, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Mefal Content of Molybdenum Concentrates, 1940-47

(In mill ions of pounds) 1940 34.31 25.33

1941 40.36 38.38 16.9t

Production • • • • • Shipments*. • • • • 2 Consumption . • • • ? 21.22 Stocks, industry . . • ^Including exports. fSecond half only.

1942 56.94 66.44 56.39 12.54

1943 61.67 53.96 49.89 17.99

1944 38.68 39.42 31.52 19.34

1945 30.80 33.68 32.70 16.90

1946 18.22 16.79 14.99 19.29

1947 27.05 22.19

20.22 23.68

The postwar decline in output was reversed in 1947, and con¬ tinued in 1948, when production rose to 14,403,000 lb. of con¬ tained metal in concentrates. This was only a small advance, and consumption improved even less. Canada.—The gross weight of Canadian concentrates dropped from 736,400 lb. in 1946 to 729,609 lb. in 1947. (G. A. Ro.) A sovereign principality on the Mediterranean mUllduU* coast, 9 mi. E. of Nice, bounded on all land sides by the French department of Alpes Maritimes. Area; 0.6 sq.mi.; pop. (1946 census): 19,242; (mid-1948 est.) 21,000. Chief towns (pop. 1939): Monaco (1,940); La Condamine (11,341); Monte Carlo (10,683). Language: French. Ruler: Prince Louis II. History .—In 1948 Monaco, with its hotels, its Societe des Bains de Mer and its Cercle des Etrangers (or casino) was still waiting for postwar recovery. Travel difficulties and currency regulations adversely affected the tourist trade which dominates Monacan economic life. On Aug. 20, 1948, it was announced that Monaco had been admitted to membership of the World Health organization. On Nov. 13 was celebrated the centenary of the birth of Prince Albert I. The budget for 1947-48 was as follows: revenue 519,539,983 francs; expenditures 496,877,-

(K. Sm.)

Monazite.

Monetary Units: see

Exchange Control and Exchange

Rates.

Mongolian People’s Republic

(formerly

Outer

A vast tableland bounded north by Siberia, east by the Mongol-popu¬ lated fringes of the Manchurian provinces of China, west by Sinkiang (part of the frontier being in dispute), south by the Mongol-populated fringes of the Chinese provinces of Ninghsia, Suiyuan, Chahar and Jehol. Area; 580,158 sq.mi. Pop., accord¬ ing to soviet figures published in 1948, but cited from data of 1941: 850,000. The chief industry is grazing. Religion; LamaBuddhism, followed by the majority of the population, though the properties of the great temples and monasteries, formerly untaxed, have been appropriated by the state, and the “rein¬ carnation” of “Living Buddhas” has been forbidden. Revolting against the Manchu empire. Outer Mongolia achieved a limited autonomy in 1911. Full independence, as a People’s republic, was declared in 1924, but not recognized by China until 1946, as the result of a treaty with the U.S.S.R. in 1945, followed by a plebiscite. In Feb. 1946 treaties were con¬ cluded with China and the U.S.S.R. In 1947 there were skir¬ mishes between Chinese and Mongol forces in the Baitik Bogda (Peitashan) region of the Sinkiang frontier. Mongolia).

Government.—The country is divided into 18 aimaks or provinces. The constitution proclaimed in 1940 established a government closely modelled on the soviet system of the U.S.S.R. The supreme organ of the state is the Great Hural (council), elected by the hurals of the provinces and the hural of Ulan Bator, the capital. The Great Hural must meet at least once in three years. It elects a Little Hural, which is the su¬ preme organ of government when the Great Hural is not in session; and the Little Hural elects a presidium of seven mem¬ bers which functions in its place when it is not in session. Ordi¬ nary administration is headed by a council of the ten ministers who are heads of government departments. Local government is vested in hurals of the provinces and the metropolis of Ulan Bator. All men and women 18 years of age and over have the right to vote. The application of the Mongolian People’s Republic for United Nations membership was rejected in 1946 and 1947. The U.S.S.R. supported both applications. China supported the first application but opposed the second because of the Sinkiang frontier quarrel. The United Kingdom and the United States opposed admission on the ground that insufficient information was available and Mongol independence had not been proved. Economic and Social Data.—All land (formerly owned col¬ lectively by tribes or monasteries) was nationalized, but after an unsuccessful attempt at collectivization, private property in livestock was restored. All new activities, formerly unknown to the nomadic economy, were conducted either by state combines or by co-operatives. Coal mining began in 1915. There is a short rail line, not connected with any other railway, from Ulan Bator to the coal mines. The only other railway is a spur line from the Trans-Siberian, in the U.S.S.R., into northeastern

MONTANA Mongolia near the Manchurian frontier. Other industries in¬ clude processing of wool, leather and food. State combines pro¬ duced goods valued at 64,000,000 tughriks in 1941, and in 1940 handicraft co-operative production was valued at 19,000,000 tughriks (i tughrik = 51.46 U.S. cents). Soviet sources reported 80,000 hectares of cultivation, most of it irrigated, because of the short growing season. In 1941, livestock numbered 27,500,000 (including 15,900,000 sheep), or 32 per head of population; but because of the severe climate, losses by storm and disease are very heavy, totalling nearly 2,000,000 head in 1938 and more than 1,200,000 head in 1939. Security against such losses was being sought in 1948 by a program of increasing the hay har¬ vest and the building of shelter corrals, which tends to diminish nomadism and make residence more permanent. There is a national university, and in 1944 there were 285 primary schools, 36 secondary schools, 8 technical schools and 190 nomad schools. In 1947 there were 90 hospitals, 52 dispen¬ saries and 234 medical centres. Bibliography.—Committee on the Admission of New Members, Re¬ port, United Nations Security Council' official rec., 2nd yr., special sup. No. 3 (1947); Gerard M. Friters, The International Position oj Outer Mongolia (to be published in 1949); “Constitution of the Mongol People’s Republic,” Soviet Press Translations, Far Eastern Institute, Univ. of Wash. (.Tan. i, 1948); John N. Hazard, “The Constitution of the Mongol People’s Republic and Soviet Influences,” Pacific A ffairs, 21:2 (June 1948); Eleanor Lattimore, “Report on Outer Mongolia,” Far Eastern Survey (Nov. 6, 1946); Owen Lattimore, “The Outer Mongolian Horizon,” Foreign Affairs (July 1946). The most recent sources in Rus¬ sian are: E. M. Murzaev, The Mongolian People’s Republic, Land, People, Economy (1947) and The Mongolian People’s Republic, A Physical Geographic Description (1948). (O. Le.)

A northwestern state of the United States, popularly known as the “Treasure state.” Land area 146,316 sq.mi.; water area 822 sq.mi.; pop. (1940): 559,456 (1948 est., 511,000); prin¬ cipal cities (1947 pop. est.): Helena, the capital (18,000); Butte (39,000); Great Falls (38,000); Billings (32,000); Missoula (22,000); Anaconda (13,600); Bozeman (12,500); Kalispell (14,000). Of the total population in 1940, there were 540,468 whites, of whom 484,826 were native-born and 55,- JOHN W. BONNER, Democrat, elected governor of Montana Nov. 2, 1948 642 were foreign-bom. The urban population was 211,535 or 37.8%. The Indian population numbered 16,841. History.—With a few exceptions, the quadrennial election of 1948 was a sweeping victory for the Democrats after eight years of Republican ascendancy in the state government. John W. Bonner (Dem.) was elected governor with a Republican senate and a Democratic house of representatives. Other officers elected were Paul Cannon (Dem.), lieutenant governor; Sam W. Mitchell (Dem.), secretary of state; Arnold H. Olsen (Dem.), attorney general; Neil Fisher (Dem.), treasurer; John J. Holmes (Dem.), auditor; Mary M. Condon (Dem.), super¬ intendent of public instruction; and Austin B. Middleton (Dem.), railroad and public service commissioner. Mike Mans¬ field (Dem.), and Wesley D’Ewart (Rep.), were re-elected representatives in congress. Senator James E. Murray (Dem.), was chosen for a third term in the United States senate. R. V. Bottomly and Harry J. Freebourn were elected associate justices to the supreme court on a nonpartisan ticket. President Harry S. Truman carried the state with a vote of 119,071 against 96,770 for Thomas E. Dewey; 7,313 for Henry Wallace; 695 for Norman Thomas, and 429 for Claude A. Watson.

473

Education—There were 1,360 elementary schools in Montana in 1948,

with an enrolment of 69,357 and a teaching staff of 3,406. There were 184 high schools with 25,661 students and 1,338 teachers. The net amount spent on the operation of these schools was $18,705,000. A care¬ ful state-wide study of public elementary and secondary schools was made in 1948 by the Montana Citizens Committee on Education for the pur¬ pose of recommending to the 1949 legislative session definite changes in school district reorganization, transportation and school financing. Ref¬ erendum measures numbers 51 and 52, permitting the raising of the tax for the support of the University of Montana from 3j4 to 6 mills and providing for a bond issue of $5,000,000 for new university buildings, were approved in the 1948 general election by substantial majorities. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

Approximately 20,560 persons received public assistance in 1948. Grants totalling $8,257,149 were distributed as follows (figures in parentheses indicate the average number of recipients per month): old-age assistance (10,867) $5,343,078; aid to dependent children (4,951) $1,611,229; aid to needy blind (446) $228,139; subsistence (1,393) $454,3591 medical care (485) $89,965; hospitalization (481) $492,447; burials (35) $37,932. Unemployment benefits of $1,279,878 were paid to 9,255 per¬ sons, an average of $15.71 per week for 105/2 weeks, or $164.83 per claimant. Correctional institutions with their average populations and total expenditures in 1948 were: Montana state prison, 430 inmates, $318,948; state industrial .school, 77 inmates, $111,086; vocational school for girls, 33 inmates, $71,717. Communicatians.—In 1948, the state highway commission maintained 8,809 mi. of highways, of which 1,194 mi. were unsurfaced. State high¬ way expenditures in 1948 were $14,200,053, including federal aid. There were 79 regular airports and 21 U.S. forest service and CAA (Civil Aeronautics administration) emergency landing fields. The railway mile¬ age was 5,238 mi. The number of telephones was 110,879. Banking and Finance—^There were 112 banks in the state in 1948. The 39 national banks had total deposits of $257,952,000, and their total assets were $270,871,000. State banks had total deposits of $253,377.730, and their total assets were $264,939,235. There were 16 build¬ ing and loan associations with assets of $20,664,200. For the fiscal year i947~June 30, 1948, the net state revenue, all sources, was $60,118,325, and the expenditures were $48,592,501. The gross debt of the state on July I, 1948, was $8,601,500 and the net debt, $7,540,715. Agriculture..—Increased agricultural production largely offset reduced prices and held the total value of crops harvested in 1948 at the high level of $283,000,000, which was 2 54 times the average value for the preceding decade. All wheat, with a value of $174,756,000, accounted for 62% of the aggregate crop value, followed by hay with 17% and barley with 8%. Crops were removed from 8,858,000 ac., an increase of 246,000 ac. more than the land under cultivation in 1947. The value of all livestock in Montana was estimated at $289,381,000 on Jan. i, 1948, as compared with $248,836,000 one year earlier. Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Montana, 1948 and 1947

Crop Wheat, bu. Hay, tons. Barley, bu. Oats, bu. Sugar beets, tons. . . . Corn, bu. Flaxseed, bu. Potatoes, bu. Dry beans, 100-lb. bags Alfalfa seed, bu. . . . Mustard seed, lb. . . . Seed peas, 100-lb. bags

1948 90,547,000 2,932,000 24,304,000 11,826,000 672,000 3,781,000 1,071,000 2,400,000 362,000 87,000 17,100,000 112,000

1947 65,346,000 2,773,000 1 8,706,000 10,478,000 899,000 2,988,000 1,008,000 1,885,000 338,000 112,000 1 8,900,000 244,000

Manufactures.-—The total value of manufactures (1939 census) was $151,885,026. Total employment in 1939 was 10,898, and wages and salaries paid, $15,832,241. There were no official figures on the value of manufactures in Montana after 1939, but reports of the state unemploy¬ ment compensation commission show that an average of 17,900 persons (wage and salary earners) were employed in manufacturing in Montana in 1948 with total wages of about $52,898,000. For the year 1948, electrical power to a total of 2,924,704,115 kw.hr. was generated in the state.

Table II.—Industrial Products in Montana, 1947 and 1946

Products Cheese, lb. Butter, lb. Ice cream, gal. Beet sugar, tons. Flour, socks. Beer, bbl. Gasoline, gal. Electric power generated, kw.hr.

1947 3,731,781 9,177,000 2,690,000 ? ?

253,762 172,464,941 2,779,116,000

1946 3,470,000 9,453,000 2,797,000 117,000 4,121,000 271,469 177,463,481 2,460,660,000

Mineral Production.—Increased production of zinc, silver and lead with further advances in the average prices of copper, lead and zinc, pushed the value of the five principal metals of Montana to an over-all gain of 11% more than 1947 and the highest figure after 1942. Lead rose 32%

Table III.—Principal Mineral Products of Montana, 1948 and 1947

Mineral Copper Zinc . Silver Lead , Gold . Total value

Value, 1948 $25,239,750 14,437,150 6,132,280 6,107,500 2,585,000

Value, 1947 $24,318,000 11,054,318 5,725,202 4,639,104 3,154,340

$54,501,680

$48,890,964

474

MONTENEGRO^MORRISON, HERBERT STANLEY

in value, zinc nearly 31%, silver 7%, and copper about 4%. The value of gold dropped 18%. Crude oil production in Montana in 1948 reached an all-time peak of 9.376,624 bbl. as compared with 8,705.607 bbl. in 1947. The coal tonnage produced was 2,905,245 in 1948 and 3,131,625 in 1947. Natural gas deliveries to pipe lines at wells in RIontana fields were approximately 32,500,000,000 cu.ft. in 1948. (E. E. B.)

Montenegro: see

Yugoslavia.

Montgomery of Alamein, Bernard Law Mnntffnmprv

viscount, of hindhead (1887-

),

lilUillgUIIICI jt British army officer, was born in London on Nov. 17, and was educated at St. Paul’s school. He served in France in World War I, and in World War II led the 8th army from Egypt to Tunis, and in Sicily and Italy until Dec. 1943. He was later in command of the 21st army group in the opera¬ tions in northwest Europe. In 1946 he succeeded Field Marshal Viscount Alanbrooke as chief of the imperial general staff. His main duties were to adapt imperial defense to the conditions of reduced British forces. In 1947 he visited the U.S.S.R. and also many parts of the commonwealth. In 1948 he visited Gerirtany in January and, after a visit to Belgium on which he received the freedom of Ostend, again in April, for discussions with the western zones’ commanders. On April 30 he attended a con¬ ference of defense ministers and chiefs of staff of the powers of the western European union (q.v.) to handle common secu¬ rity problems and to create a permanent military committee with headquarters in London. On Oct. 4 it was announced that he had been appointed permanent military chairman of the commanders-in-chief committee of the Western Union Defense council. Following this, he resigned office as chief of the im¬ perial general staff on Nov. i.

ililnnti*OQl ^

province of Quebec, Canada, first iVIUllirbdl> called Ville Marie, founded in 1642 on the site of the Indian village of Hochelaga, Montreal is on an island at the confluence of the Ottawa and St. Lawrence rivers, approxi¬ mately 1,000 mi. from the Atlantic ocean and 2,760 mi. from Liverpool. It is at the head of ocean navigation and is the terminus for vessels from the Great Lakes. It is served by three canal systems—the St. Lawrence canals (1,230 mi. to the Great Lakes), the eastern United States canals, via the Richelieu river and Lake Champlain (length 127 mi.) and the Ottawa river canals (length 119 mi.). The population of the city proper, as estimated by Lovell’s Directory (1948), was 1,401,013 and of greater Montreal 1,625,365. The port of Montreal is the largest in Canada. Deep sea vessel arrivals in 1948 (commercial) numbered 1,027, with a net tonnage of 3,885,478. The number of coastal or inland vessel arrivals (commercial) in 1948 was 2,519, with a net tonnage of 2,717,093. In addition there were noncommercial vessels (such as warships, pleasure boats, yachts, etc.) number¬ ing 120, with a net tonnage of 17,733. The assessed value of real estate, as of April 30, 1948, was $1,327,178,647, of which $978,389,806 was taxable and $348,788,841 was exempt from taxation. In 1948 building permits were issued for 4,967 new buildings, having a value of $61,130,045 and for 2,673 repairs, having a value of $12,106,147. Bank clearings for 1948 were $13,628,593,947. (J. A. Ma.)

Montreal, University of.

t

comprised in 1948 the following divisions: faculties of theology, philosophy, law, medicine, literature, pure science, dental sur¬

gery, pharmacy, social science, economics and politics, arts, hygiene and music; the affiliated schools of agriculture, veteri¬ nary art, commerce and engineering; and several annexed schools. The year 1948 was remarkable for many interesting events of outstanding importance, chief among which was the close of the campaign launched for funds in Oct. 1947 with an objective of $11,000,000, and which yielded $12,800,000 by Feb. 1948. The blueprints were brought out of the vaults and carefully reconsidered; plans were proposed for the construction of a students’ union, a 500-bed hospital and a medical centre with a nurses’ home, gymnasium, swimming pool, tennis courts and an arena for winter sports. Projects of roads and land¬ scaping were in preparation for the extensive campus. A por¬ tion of the funds subscribed was'set apart to provide security for university professors when they reach superannuation. (0. M.) Montserrat: see Leeward Islands.

Mnrmnno lilUI IllUlIdp

Lhe year 1948 new officers were installed in the two great youth organizations of the church —the Young Women’s Mutual Improvement association and the Young Men’s Mutual Improvement association. This was in accordance with the practice of the church to call to service, at not too long intervals, those, not theretofore enjoying the opportunity of guiding the work of the church in fields not strictly concerned with priesthood activities. The young men’s association had about 69,000 members and the young women’s about 82,000 members in 1948. The welfare plan was expanded with the addition of more projects (farms, small manufacturing units, ranches for stock raising, dairies, poultry farms, small repair factories and distri¬ bution centres). The relief extended to needy persons, princi¬ pally to worthy members of the church, increased about 30% during the year. It was larger than for any other year since the plan was set up in 1936. The shipment of foodstuffs and clothing continued to the war-stricken areas of Europe. Although because of increased building costs, the building program had not been vigorously pushed forward in the stakes of the church, yet by the end of 1948 there were 187 meeting¬ houses under construction in the United States. In the church missions, however, the building activity to provide meeting places in the branches for the accommodation of church mem¬ bers and to purchase headquarters for the various missions was the greatest in the history of the church. {See also Church Membership.)

Morocco: see

(J. R. Cl.) French Overseas Territories; Spanish

Co¬

lonial Empire.

Morrison, Herbert Stanley 'mLi csd “wS bom on Jan. 3. He was educated at an elementary school, and worked as errand boy, shop assistant, telephone operator and as deputy newspaper circulation manager. In 1920-21 he was mayor of Hackney. From 1915 to 1940 he was secretary of the London Labour party. He sat in parliament as Labour mem¬ ber for South Hackney in 1923-24 and in 1929-31, when he became minister of transport, and was returned again in 1935. In 1928-29 he was chairman of the Labour party. In 1940 he was appointed minister of supply and then home secretary and minister of home security, and was a member of the war cabi¬ net from 1942 to 1945. In the Labour government which came to power in July 1945 he was made lord president of the coun¬ cil and leader of the house of commons. On May 17, 1948, he addressed the Labour party conference at Scarborough, Eng¬ land, and warned that time was needed to consolidate the na-

MORTGAGES^MOTION PICTURES tionalized industries. He was acting prime minister for a short time from the end of July, while Clement Attlee was in Eire. His hastening of the government’s program of legislation through parliament frequently aroused Conservative opposition.

Mortgages, Farm: see

Agriculture; Farm Credit Admin¬

istration; Farmers Home Administration.

Mortgages. Home: see

Housing.

II

During 1948 the development of the soviet capital IVlUawUWa city of Moscow at the expense of Leningrad con¬ tinued. The Academy of Sciences moved more of its faculties to its majestic new home, still building, on the Bolshaya Kaluzhskaya, and this, together with the growing concentration of artistic talent (encouraged by the fact that Moscow was the headquarters of the various professional unions as well as the great publishing houses), took from Leningrad almost its last justification for considering itself the cultural capital, as opposed to Moscow, the political capital. Moscow continued to grow physically, though not fast enough to provide adequate housing for its legitimate population, to say nothing of the numbers that swarmed from the rest of the U.S.S.R. and, having no per¬ mit to live in Moscow, paid exorbitant premiums for shares in a citizen’s apartment. The ten-year rebuilding program got into its stride, the underground railway was considerably extended, and, in addition to the new boulevards designed to cut outward through the city from the centre, work was started on the im¬ provement of existing radial thoroughfares. Apart from the usual celebrations, the chief events of the year in Moscow were the Orthodox Church congress in July, in con¬ nection with which the Communist party, speaking through Pravda, made it quite clear that the citizens of Moscow were not to think that the imposing assemblage of prelates in their midst indicated that their government had changed its mind about religion; the August conference of the Lenin Institute of Agricultural Science, at which T. D. Lysenko read his celebrated address on the new soviet genetics; the feting in December of the Czech premier, Antonin Zapotocky, and his delegation while they discussed ways and means of integrating Czech and soviet industry and financing the purchase of raw materials for the former with soviet gold; and the celebrations of the jubilee of the Moscow Arts theatre in October. (W. E. Cw.)

Untlnn Dintlirac

income of the U.S. motionMOIlOn rlulUrcS* picture industry from both foreign and domestic markets continued to decline. Some authorities re¬ garded the trend as a “return to normal”; that is, to condi¬ tions as they were before the lush years of World War H. It was estimated that 1947 was the third best financial year in the industry’s history. Financial statements of the major film-pro¬ ducing companies generally continued to show profits in 1948. The condition of the British market continued to engage the serious attention of the U.S. industry. In 1947 the British gov¬ ernment placed a tax of 75% on foreign film earnings. The U.S. industry countered by stopping film shipments to Great Britain. On March ii, 1948, negotiations conducted by Eric Johnston resulted in a four-year agreement which included dropping the 75% tax and allowing U.S. companies to take each year from Great Britain a maximum of $17,000,000 plus the equivalent of amounts earned by British pictures in the U.S. This agreement went into effect on June 14, 1948. At that time, however, the British government announced that British exhibitors would have to give at least 45% of their playing time to British pictures, effective Oct. i. The U.S. industry took the position that it did not want the number of its films curtailed for British exhibition, preferring an unhampered market even

475

if a percentage of the earnings were frozen. The U.S. industr>’ refused to allow its product to be double-billed with British pictures, lest it be placed in a secondary position with regard to rentals. The U.S. industry continued to export its product to Great Britain under the remittance and quota limitations. In France, exhibitors were required to give French pictures 5 weeks’ playing time out of every 13 weeks. Several U.S. companies scheduled productions to be made in England, as one way of utilizing frozen funds. In Dec. 1948 the U.S. department of commerce estimated that foreign markets would bring in $100,000,000 in 1948, com¬ pared with $138,000,000 in 1946 and $124,000,000 in 1947. In¬ dustry authorities considered the estimate high, and predicted that foreign income would drop to about $50,000,000 in 1949, when the full force of British restrictions would be felt. A considerable contribution to clarifying the foreign situa¬ tion was made by the European trip of Eric Johnston, president of the Motion Picture Association of America. Among the countries he visited were the U.S.S.R., Yugoslavia and Spain, where he conferred, respectively, with Foreign Minister Vya¬ cheslav Molotov, Marshal Tito and Generalissimo Francisco Franco. Russia and Yugoslavia were the only countries not exhibiting U.S. films. Johnston’s negotiations resulted in arrangements whereby a limited number of U.S. pictures would be shown in both countries. In Spain, U.S. pictures had been showing, but under unusually difficult circumstances. Johnston dealt with censorship problems in addition to economic matters. During 1948, economies in motion-picture production in the U.S. were intensified. There were further reductions of person¬ nel. There were more and more rehearsals, to eliminate the necessity for numerous “takes” of the same scene. Studio employment in 1948 was off about 25%. Even pub¬ licity and exploitation, long regarded as essential to the in¬ dustry, were dealt with ruthlessly. It was estimated that onehalf the members of the Screen Publicists guild were unem¬ ployed. As a result of the investigation of the house of representa¬ tives committee on un-American activities, two Hollywood writers, John Howard Lawson and Dalton Trumbo, went to trial in the federal district court at Washington, D.C. They were two of the group of ten writers, directors and producers who had been cited for contempt of congress for refusing to answer questions concerning communist affiliations, maintain¬ ing that such questions violated their constitutional rights. Both Lawson and Trumbo were found guilty, and each was fined $1,000 and sentenced to a year’s imprisonment. Both appealed. By agreement, action of the remaining eight cases was deferred pending the outcome of the appeals. The congressional investigation of communism in 1947 had caused the studios to discharge or suspend the employees who had been cited for contempt. This action affected five com¬ mittee witnesses who were employed at the time. All took legal action against their respective studios. The first of these cases, that of Lester Cole, a writer, against Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios, went to trial in federal district court at Los Angeles, Calif., in Dec. 1948. Cole sued for the amount which would have been paid him under his contract had his employment not been terminated. He won the suit for reinstatement and back salary. Early in 1948 the U.S. supreme court ruled on the appeals from the findings of the federal court of the district of south¬ ern New York in the government’s antitrust action against a number of motion-picture companies. The supreme court re¬ ferred the issue of divorcement of exhibition from productiondistribution interests back to the trial court for further con-

476

MOTION PICTURES

sideration. The trial court’s decision in favour of partial di¬ vorcement had failed to satisfy the government. Later in the year, RKO entered into a consent decree with the government which provided for separation of theatre interests. This left four major companies, Loew’s (Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer), Para¬ mount, 2oth Century-Fox and Warner Brothers, still involved in the theatre divestiture issue. The principal change in studio ownership structure in 1948 was the passing of control of RKO to Howard Hughes. The change in control at RKO resulted in Dore Schary, one of the principal figures in the industry, leaving that organization for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, to take charge of production under Louis B. Mayer, the studio head. At the close of 1948, both Eagle Lion and Warner Brothers studios were shut down, but were expected to reopen early in 1949. A feature of 1948 was the rapid increase in drive-in theatres, where open-air screens are viewed by patrons from inside their automobiles. Many such theatres appeared on the outskirts of cities and in thinly settled areas. A survey showed 743 drive-in theatres, with 137 operating on an all-year-around basis. Marked development was shown by the Children’s Film library, started in 1946 by the Motion Picture Association of America to make available suitable films to children aged 8 to 12 at special Saturday showings. With the co-operation of 17 national organizations, children’s programs were given in more than 2,500 theatres in 1948. In December, Ellis G. Arnall, former governor of Georgia, was elected president of the Society of Independent Motion Picture Producers, the post left vacant by the resignation of Donald M. Nelson. In 1948, the Production Code administration approved 394 U.S. features and 41 foreign, a total of 435. In 1947, 365 U.S. features and 37 foreign features, a total of 402, went through the Johnston office. The best among the foreign pictures of 1948 were the Britishmade Hamlet, starring Sir Laurence Olivier; Paisan, an Italian picture; Symphonie Pastorale, made in France; Beauty and the Beast, also made in France, and To Live in Peace, Italian made. Warner Brothers’ Treasure of Sierra Madre was voted the best picture of 1948 by the New York film critics. Paisan was named the best foreign-language picture of the year. Olivia de Havilland was their unanimous choice as the best actress. Sir Laurence Olivier won the award as the best actor, and John Huston, who directed Treasure of Sierra Madre, was selected as the best director. Among the newcomers to attract the most attention in 1948 were: Montgomery Clift in The Search; Farley Granger in The Rope; Richard Basehart in He Walks by Night. The outstanding U.S. films for 1948 were; Treasure of Sierra Madre, I Remember Mama, The Snake Pit, Johnny Belinda, Apartment for Peggy, Sitting Pretty, Joan of Arc, Portrait of Jenny, A Foreign Affair, Sorry, Wrong Number, Easter Parade and Red River. The Motion Picture Herald’s annual poll showed the follow¬ ing stars as the leading box-office attractions in 1948: Bing Crosby, for the fifth year, headed the list of top money makers. The others were Betty GraUle, Bud Abbott and Lou Costello, Gary Cooper, Bob Hope, Humphrey Bogart, Clark Gable, Cary Grant, Spencer Tracy and Ingrid Bergman {see also Law; Photography.)

Radio; supporting actor, Edmund Gwenn in Miracle on 34th Street, 20th Century-Fox; supporting actress. Celeste Holm in Gentleman s Agree¬ ment; best direction, Elia Kazan for Gentleman’s Agreement; best written screen play, George Seaton for Miracle on 34lb Street, best original screen play, Sidney Sheldon for The Bachelor and the Bobby-Soxer, RKO Radio; best original motion-picture story. Valentine Davies for Miracle on 34th Street; best art direction—black and white—John Bryan for Great Expectations, Cineguild-J. Arthur Rank, Universal-International; colour, Alfred Junge for Black Narcissus, The Archers-J. Arthur Rank, Universal-International; best cinematography—black and white-^Guy Green for Great Expectations; colour. Jack Cardiff for Black Narcissus; best sound recording, Gordon Sawyer for The Bishop’s Wife, Samuel Goldwyn, RKO Radio; short subjects—cartoon, Tweetie Pie, Warner Bros. (Edward Selzer, producer); one-reeler, Goodbye Miss Turlock, M-G-M (Herbert Moulton, producer); two-reeler. Climbing the Matter¬ horn, Monogram (Irving Allen, producer); best film editing, Francis Lyon and Robert Parrish for Body and Soul, Enterprise, United Artists; best scoring of a musical picture, Alfred Newman for Mother Wore Tights, 20th Century-Fox; best scoring of a dramatic or comedy picture, Miklos Rozsa for A Double Life; best original song. “Zip-a-dee Doo-dah” from Song of the South, Walt Disney, RKO Radio (music by Allie Wrubel, lyrics by Ray Gilbert); best special effects—visual—A. Arnold Gillespie and Warren Newcombe for Green Dolphin Street, M-G-M; audible, Doug¬ las Shearer and Michael Steinore for Green Dolphin Street; best interior decoration—black and white—Wilfred Shingleton for Great Expectations; best documentaries—short subject—First Steps, United Nations Division of Films and Visual Information; feature. Design for Death, RKO Radio (Sid Rogell, executive producer); special awards to James Baskett for his performance in Song of the South; to Ken Murray for his production of Bill and Coo, Republic; to Shoe Shine, Loper Films (Italian) for all around excellence and “high achievement under especially difficult condi¬ tions”; special industry pioneer award to Thomas Armat, William N. Selig, Albert E. Smith, George K. Spoor; for scientific and technical achievements to C. C. Davis, ERPI-Westinghouse Electric Co.; Charles C. Daley, Paramount Film Laboratories; Nathan Levinson, Warner Brothers. (L. O. P.; X.)

Educational Motion Pictures.—Advances on the interna¬ tional as well as the national front were recorded by educa¬ tional motion pictures during 1948. The most significant de¬ velopments internationally were related to the work of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organiza¬ tion. United States audiovisual experts attended conferences in Paris during the summer of 1948 to work with representatives from U.N.E.S.C.O. member nations on plans for international distribution and exchange of educational motion pictures, co¬ operation in the production of educational films furthering international objectives and the training of audiovisual per¬ sonnel in war-devastated and undeveloped countries. In the United States, the film panel of the national commission for U.N.E.S.C.O. began co-operative work with the international body. In 1948 research occupied a larger place in the educational film field than it had for some years. Several projects of im¬ portance were launched or moved into full-scale operation. Among these were the Nebraska project, which was in its sec¬ ond year of study on how educational films can enrich the programs of rural schools. The Nebraska study was financed by grants from the Carnegie corporation and Teaching Film Custodians. The University of Nebraska, Lincoln, the Nebraska state de¬ partment of education and the four Nebraska state teachers’ colleges were co-operating in the study. The Pennsylvania State college study of educational films, sponsored by a grant from the United States navy, had 26 indi¬ vidual research projects under way. These projects ranged from studies of film commentaries to measurements of the effectiveness of three-dimensional motion pictures. The report of the president’s commission on higher educa¬ tion issued late in 1947 received much attention from collegiate educators in 1948. Its recommendations with respect to the wider use of educational motion pictures and other audiovisual aids on the college level were enthusiastically received. Other developments in the field of higher educatiofl in 1948 included a great expansion of the number of courses offered in educa¬

The Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences announced in March 1948 the following awards for 1947:

tional motion pictures and audiovisual aids and an increasing

Best picture, Gentleman’s Agreement, 20th Century-Fox; performances: actor, Ronald Colman in A Double Life, Kanin Productions, UniversalInternational; actress, Loretta Young in The Farmer’s Daughter, RKO

visual service centres to supply motion pictures and other aids

tendency on the part of colleges and universities to set up audio¬ as well as to engage in the production of education films.

Above: JANE WYMAN and Lew Ayres in Johnny Belinda. Miss Wyman’s performance as the deaf mute in the film won her the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences’ award as the best actress of 1948

Above: SCENE from Treasure of Sierra Madre featuring Humphrey Bogart (left), Walter Huston and Tim Holt. Walter Huston was chosen the best supporting actor of 1948 by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, and John Huston’s direction and screenplay were named the best cf the year

Above: SIR LAURENCE OLIVIER in the title role of Hamlet, chosen the best picture of 1948 by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences. Olivier was named the best actor of the year and the film won three other awards for best art direction, best set decoration and best costume design, in black and white

Above: CLAIRE TREVOR (centre), who was chosen as the best supporting actress of 1948 by the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences for her role in Key Largo

Below: BALLET SCENE from The Red Shoes; this film won the 1948 Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences’ awards for the best art direction in Technicolor and the best musical score written for a dramatic motion picture during the year

Below: IVAN JANDL (left), winner of a special Academy award for the best juvenile performance of 1948, based on his role in The Search

478

MOTION PICTURES In general, the producers who responded with reports indi¬ cated a banner year in 1948. The British Information Services changed its distribution policies slightly in order to establish more sources. Special terms were offered to commercial or edu¬ cational film libraries, and public libraries with film services might obtain a limited number of prints on long lease. B.I.S., however, still retained its own film rental services. In addition. United World Films had the exclusive sales rights on two new child-psychology films made by the British ministry of educa¬ tion—Children Learning by Experience and Children Growing up with Others. The new catalogue of B.I.S. also listed new Technicolor films such as Colour and Colour in Clay. B.I.S. films were being seen regularly on television programs, and 34 commercial and educational film libraries in the United States had at least 100 prints of these films. Another new development of 1948 was the release of 36 filmstrips on Britain. Coronet Instructional Films reported that it had 182 subjects available for delivery as of Dec. 31, 1948, with a production schedule of 5 new films each month. All late productions were available in colour or black and white. In 1948 approximately 25% of all prints sold were in colour. During 1948 Encyclopaedia Britannica Films Inc., leading producer of educational films, experienced a marked expansion in the scope of its operations. To its regular and continuing program of production of i6-mm. sound films for the schools, E.B.F. added offerings in a variety of new areas. Earlier experi¬ mental production of filmstrips was put on a permanent basis, with the total offerings numbering 46 and with further addi¬ tions scheduled. Drawing on both new productions and adaptations from an existing library of more than 500 subjects, E.B.F. made its entry into the home field with i6-mm. and 8-mm. silent versions as well as with i6-mm. sound. A marked increase took place in the use of E.B.F. film subjects for television purposes with the result that the organization looked to a sizable expansion of its role in this field. McGraw-Hill Book company reported excellent reception in 1948 of its four series of films and filmstrips correlated directly with its textbooks. Based on this reception, McGraw-Hill launched a new program of two more series of six motion pic¬ tures and six filmstrips each correlated with books. In addition, McGraw-Hill expanded its production to include a series of filmstrips on etiquette for secondary schools and had produc¬ tion plans which included ten additional filmstrip series of ten titles each.

One of the major meetings of the 1948 convention of the American Association of School Administrators at Atlantic City, N.J., was devoted to a demonstration of the use of an educa¬ tional film with a class of children. The Department of AudioVisual Instruction of the National Education association re¬ ported that in 1948 state-wide and regional audiovisual organiza¬ tions from II states were affiliated, with several additional affilia¬ tions pending. Standing committees of the department were: publication, production, television, film transportation, radio and research. The central office of the department increased its services to the field through a program of centralized in¬ formation and co-ordination with other departments of the National Education association. The Educational Film Library association reported that in 1948 it had increased its membership 25% over 1947 and that it had doubled its output of film evaluations each month. The Film Council of America, a national nonprofit educa¬ tional organization established in 1946, launched an expanded program of activities in 1948. It received a grant of funds in 1948 from the Carnegie Corporation of New York to cover the salary and administrative expenses of a full-time executive director for the next two years. Shortly thereafter Glen Burch, then acting director of the American Association for Adult Education, was appointed to the post. Among the Film Council of America’s activities during 1948 was the publication of a series of “How-to-do-it” pamphlets designed to assist the more than 100 local film councils in 34 states. These local film councils conducted community surveys of film resources and needs, established local film information centres, set up film workshops and inaugurated film festivals. On a national basis, the Film Council of America surveyed the film activities of more than 300 national organizations to obtain information for use in setting up film institutes for program planners in these organizations. . The Department of Secondary Teachers of the National Edu¬ cation association established 55 audiovisual demonstration cen¬ tres in the 48 states, the District of Columbia and Alaska in Oct. 1948. The selected schools were chosen by a national com¬ mittee and, in recognition of their outstanding work in the audiovisual field, were awarded about $40,000 worth of audio¬ visual equipment and materials. Among other activities of the Department of Secondary Teachers, the most notable was prob¬ ably the television broadcast on Oct. 22, 1948, of a class of stu¬ dents from Brooklyn’s Midwood high school viewing and dis¬ cussing the film One World or None. The interest in this broad¬ cast led to the establishment of a committee on the educational uses of television by the department. Spokesmen for industrial users and producers of educational films noted several new trends during 1948. Business and indus¬ try began the full-scale development of integrated training pro¬ grams using both printed and audiovisual materials on a com¬ bined, planned basis. There was a tendency to produce com¬ plete series of films and filmstrips to further training and public-relations objectives in place of a single motion picture highlighting some specific idea. It was also noted that there was a gradual awakening on the part of business toward its social responsibilities, as evidenced in its production of motion pictures. Noteworthy along this line were Miracle in Paradise Valley and the Robert Flaherty documentary, Louisiana Story.

United World Films, Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary of Uni¬ versal-International Pictures, brought out the first 6 of its series of 36 two-reel films. The Earth and Its Peoples. These were produced by Louis de Rochemont. During 1948 several addi.tions were made to the biological science series, and numerous titles were made available in the fields of art and child behaviour.

The organization of the first professional group of film execu¬ tives within industry itself took place in 1948. The Industrial Audio-Visual association claimed membership from nearly 50 United States corporations. Membership was limited to com¬ panies which sponsored films and did not include representatives of producers or equipment manufacturers.

Young America Films reported a total of 62 sound films and 68 filmstrips available at the end of 1948. Of these, 45 were exclusively Young America productions; 17 were productions of other companies, released through Young America Films. The company announced a production schedule of 25 films for the school year 1948-49.

In Jan. 1948, RKO Radio Pictures published a 52-page cata¬ logue of specially selected and rated features made available to nontheatrical users and was planning to add to this list at the rate of 20 films a year. This list of feature films included Walt Disney’s classics as well as historical and biographical films. In mid-year, RKO announced its entrance into the educational film field with more than 150 films of educational value selected from its library of short subjects.

MOTION PICTURES Bibliography.—William Exton, Jr., Audiovisual Aids to Instruction; Anna ,Curtis Chandler and Irene Cypher, Audio-Visual Techniques for Enrichment of the Curriculum; Charles F. Hoban, Jr., consultant, and Sara Malcolm Krentzman, co-ordinator. The Audio-Visual Way; L. Harry Strauss and J. R. Kidd, Look, Listen and Learn; Department of Ele¬ mentary School Principals, National Education Association of the U.S., The Principal and Audio-Visual Education, (Ed. D.)

Technical Developments.—Standards.—During 1948, 30 existing U.S. standards on motion pictures were proposed for international standardization by the secretariat to the Interna¬ tional Organization for Standardization. The British Standards institute submitted for consideration proposals on specifications for cinematographic projection lenses and magnetic sound tracks on film. Compact Source Lamp.—The mercury-cadmium arc lamp was placed in use in English studios during 1948. In all cases it was used in conjunction with other light sources of either the incandescent or the carbon arc type. In the United States, both the General Electric company and Westinghouse Electric and. Manufacturing company continued their development work on this light source and demonstrated samples in Hollywood. It was expected that these lamps would be available by the middle of 1949 for production photography in Hollywood. This lamp is a vapour arc, enclosed in a quartz envelope. The light comes from the arc itself, which is composed of mercury, cad¬ mium and in some cases zinc. The lamp operates at a pressure of from 10 to 30 atm. and at high temperature. Under these conditions and with the metallic elements employed, the light emitted, while not continuous throughout the spectrum, con¬ tains sufficient lines in proper relative amplitude and at satis¬ factory wave lengths, for photography in both black-and-white and with existing colour systems. A compact source lamp at 70 amp. is approximately equivalent to a carbon arc at 120 amp. Carbon Arc Lamp.—The Mole Richardson company in Holly¬ wood introduced in 1947 a new and larger high-intensity carbon arc lamp. Type 450, commonly called the “Brute,” which came into general commercial use in 1948. This lamp operates at 225 amp., compared with their Type 170, which operates at 150 amp. The Type 450 delivers a light flux approximately twice that of the Type 170. This lamp was also being introduced in England. Sound.—Western Electric demonstrated in 1948 a direct posi¬ tive, variable density, photographic sound-recording system, particularly adaptable to i6-mm. recording. RCA introduced a new single-ribbon, unidirectional microphone, significant in that it employed only a single ribbon element and w’as reduced in size and weight as compared with the conventional micro¬ phones formerly used in the motion-picture industry. It was reported that a small condenser microphone having a cardioid directional pattern had been developed in Europe. Magnetic Recording.—Development work on magnetic record¬ ing equipment for motion-picture purposes continued during the year. In the United States several companies demonstrated equipment designed specifically for motion-picture work and using a recording medium comprising a magnetic coating on a 35-mm. safety-film base. Colour.—No new colour processes or major improvements were announced or placed in operation during the year. The slow, laborious process of development and improvement of colour processes continued. In the United States the Ansco process was used for a feature picture entitled Sixteen Fathoms Deep. Begun in 1947, this feature was finished and successfully released during 1948. Latensification.—The word “latensification” was coined by research men of the du Pont laboratories to describe a process for intensifying the latent image on an exposed photographic film. After photographing the desired scene, the film is re¬ exposed for a relatively long time (10-30 min.) to a very low

479

intensity light. If this process is properly handled, an increase in speed approximately equal to two full stops in lens opening can be secured, at a minor sacrifice of graininess. Latensifica¬ tion was being commercially used in the United States during 1948, for certain special applications in still photography, in black-and-white motion-picture photography and also in colour motion-picture photography. ■ Its application permits satisfac¬ tory photography with lower light intensity. This not only ensures acceptable pictures under some adverse conditions, but also in some cases permits colour photography with incan¬ descent lamps where otherwise arc lamps would be required. {American Cinematographer, Nov., Dec. 1948.) Fifty-Millimetre Film.—It was previously reported that, in 1946 and 1947, the 20th Century-Fox film corporation and sev¬ eral equipment and film-manufacturing companies of the United States were developing a new system of motion-picture enter¬ tainment, involving a film of 50-mm. width with stereophonic sound recorded and reproduced from three program sound tracks and a control track. By 1948, activity on this project had ceased. Whether or not it would be revived was not known. Television.—The development of theatre television equipment continued and plans were known to be ready for the installation of such equipment in theatres in both England and the United States. There were several demonstrations and commercial showings of theatre television in the United States, but none of them were on a regular commercial basis. {S.M.P.E. Journal, July, Aug. 1948.) Safety Film.—Slow-burning, or so-called safety, film had been in use for i6-mm. film for the last 25 years. It was not until 1948 that a satisfactory film base of this type became available for 35-mm. work, although the earlier safety film was used in the 3S-mm. size for certain special purposes. The Eastman Kodak company announced release of this film in May 1948. Safety film was being introduced in almost every one of the Hollywood studios for studio print purposes, both sound and picture. (S.M.P.E. Journal, Oct. 1948.) (W. V. W.) Canada.—The National Film Board of Canada completed 150 films of varying lengths during 1948, the most outstanding being IF/20 Will Teach Your Child?, dealing with problems of education; Inside the Atom, on the peaceful use of atomic energy; Maps We Live by, describing the international value of cartography; Drug Addict, a documentary on narcotics; and Arctic Jungle, on authentic Eskimo folklore. In 1947, Canadians spent $78,685,000 on 220,858,000 admis¬ sions to 1,693 theatres, a 3% decline from 1946 motion-picture admissions but a 5% increase in receipts. To decrease the annual flow of about $10,000,000 in film royalties to Hollywood, steps were taken to have Hollywood produce short subjects in Canada of Canadian material for dis¬ tribution in the United States and throughout the world, use more Canadian background for location sequences for fulllength features, and film more full-length completely Canadian titles. Canadian production, other than by the National Film board, was limited. Quebec Productions, with the co-operation of the Canadian Film Productions, produced Sins of the Fathers, a frank treatment of venereal disease; Renaissance Films began production of the French-Canadian classic Un Homme et son peche (“A Man and His Sin”). Under the sponsorship of the National Film society, the Na¬ tional Industrial Film Council was organized to develop wider use of the available 4,500 Canadian industrial films. With the help of Canadian authorities. Paramount Pictures produced a 14-min. newsreel. Neighbor to the North, dealing with Canada’s dollar shortage. (C. Cy.) Other Countries.—The United Nations Educational, Scien-

480

MOTION PICTURES

tific and Cultural organization followed up its comprehensive survey of the needs in film equipment of the devastated coun¬ tries of Europe, which was published in Paris in 1947, with an attempt during 1947-48 to launch a scheme for the international production of films in more than 20 countries, including most of the film-producing centres in Europe; under this scheme each country would voluntarily contribute to a common pool of in¬ structional and general documentary films certain productions on selected subjects for which it had special qualifications and facilities. U.N.E.S.C.O. possessed no powers to sponsor films itself; it had powers only to co-ordinate what was to be pro¬ duced and to act as a clearinghouse for what were considered useful films. During 1948 it sought especially to clarify the complicated issue of freeing educational films from customs duty, with a view to establishing a completely free interchange between the nations of films of cultural importance, including the older classic examples of the art of the film held by the chief national film archives. The archives had their own fed¬ eration, which met in Sept. 1948 in Copenhagen, Denmark. As a result of this meeting it was agreed to establish at the federa¬ tion’s headquarters in Paris a library pool of films on which each member library would be able to draw. The two most important film festivals of 1948 were those held in the summer at Venice, Italy, and Edinburgh, Scotland, the latter specializing in documentary films only. It was at these festivals that the most important productions of the year from all over the world were to be seen. At Edinburgh more than 100 films were shown from 25 different countries. The wartime and immediate postwar boom in British motionpicture attendance had slackened by 1948. Simultaneously, the quality of British films did not generally improve, the 1947-48 season being particularly weak numerically in outstanding films. The greatest successes of 1948 included Spring in Park Lane (Herbert Wilcox), The Red Shoes (Michael Powell and Emeric Pressburger), The Winslow Boy (Anthony Asquith), Oliver Twist (David Lean), Brighton Rock and The Guinea Pig (John and Roy Boulting), Hamlet (Sir Laurence Olivier), The Fallen Idol (Carol Reed) and Scott of the Antarctic (Charles Frend). Although most of these films were both artistically and finan¬ cially important, they were insufficient in themselves to main¬ tain a high reputation for British production in the face of the much lower standard of the bulk of the product. On the other hand, Britain ranked high at the Venice festival where Hamlet won the Grand Prix International, Jean Simmons the Prix International for the best actress for her performance as Ophelia, John Bryan that for the best decor for his work in Oliver Twist, Desmond Dickinson that for the best photog¬ raphy for his work in Hamlet and Graham Greene that for the best subject and scenario for his work in The Fallen Idol. Not all British documentary film production was government sponsored. The Rank organization continued to sponsor its im¬ portant magazine series. The Modern Age, and Gaumont-British Instructional produced Atomic Physics among its instructional films and was also responsible through Mary Field for the pro¬ duction of entertainment films for children. The outstanding documentaries of the year included Day and Night, Precise Measurement for Engineers and Polio (representative of various kinds of instructional films). Steps of the Ballet, Your Children and You, Waverley Steps and Three Dawns to Sydney, the lat¬ ter sponsored by British Overseas Airways corporation. The Halas-Batchelor cartoons continued to explain government measures to the public with adroit humour, while David Hand’s first entertainment cartoons for Rank appeared in 1948. During the year the British Film institute was reconstituted following a government enquiry into its work, British Docu¬ mentary was formed to represent all workers in this field, and

the British Film academy, founded late in 1947, completed its first year’s activities as a cultural organization representing the chief film makers of Great Britain. The year 1948 was the 50th anniversary of the now nation¬ alized Czech film industry. Achievement in documentary, car¬ toon and puppet films continued to be the main contribution of Czechoslovakia to European motion pictures since the excellent war films made immediately after the Czech liberation. Czech and Slovak documentary films covered a wide range of social and descriptive subjects. Two Czech feature films might be mentioned, Krakatit, based on a prophetic and fantastic novel by Karel Capek dealing with the problem of atomic energy, and The Bridge, which dealt with contemporary social problems. The various announcements of films made in 1948 in the U.S.S.R. showed three main trends: interest in purely entertain¬ ment films, a stress on regional film production in the more re¬ mote republics and the considerable production of popular and technical films on science. I. Pyreyv’s film Tale of the Siberian Land was an application of the theory of socialist realism to what in Hollywood would be a romantic musical. Of the regional type film developments, Alisher Navoi was typical. It was the story of a 15th-century central Asian poet who fought for his people against feudal tyranny. On the scientific side, a film was made of the Filatov eye operation {Sight Lost and Regained) and many photomicrographic films like The Functions of the Cell (which showed, with accelerated speed, enlargements of the complex activities within an organism). Director A. Dovzhenko completed Life in Blossom on the career of the distinguished botanist Ivan Vladimir Michurin. In France production of feature films remained at the level of about 70 a year, while there was a lavish output of independ¬ ently sponsored documentaries. The more important feature films of 1948 chosen to represent France at the various festivals were La Chartreuse de parme (Christian-Jaque), La Vie en rose (Jean Faurez), Guillemette Babin (Guillaume Radot), VAigle a deux tetes (Jean Cocteau), Dedee d’Anvers (Yves Allegret), Pay sans noirs (Georges Regnier) and the Franco-Norwegian film The Battle of Heavy Water (Jean Dreville) {see below). Important documentaries included Paris 1900, Nicole Vedres’s witty feature-length compilation from early French primitives giving a portrait of French life at the end of the 19th century, and Les Gomeons (Yannick Bellon). Of the Scandinavian countries, Sweden and Denmark were the established film producers. Norway, however, with French techrrical assistance, made an excellent documentary account of the destruction of the heavy water plant at Vemork during the war, called The Battle of Heavy Water and shown both at the Edinburgh and Venice festivals. The documentary film movement in Denmark was organized after the British model, working under a system of state spon¬ sorship planned by Dansk Kulturfilm (established 1938) and the government film committee. These two organizations be¬ tween them had produced more than 100 documentaries and instructional films, most of them after World War II, on agri¬ culture, industry, education and the social services. Sweden, on the other hand, like France, left documentary to independent sponsorship. Two outstanding films produced in Sweden were A Divided World (Arne Sucksdorff) and The Sacrifice (Gbsta Werner). The Danish feature film existed only on a small scale. The best film lately produced was Astrid and Bjame Henning-Jensen’s picture Those Blasted Kids, a story of children living in the slums of Copenhagen. Very inexpensively made, it illus¬ trated what the smaller countries could produce without the* in¬ flated costs of the industries of Britain and France. Swedish production of feature films continued at the rate of

MOTOR-BOAT RACING —MOTOR TRANSPORTATION about 50 a year. Outstanding among these were: Rallare (fea¬ turing Victor Sjostrom) and Gustav Molander’s Woman with¬ out a Face. During 1947-48 Italy became the liveliest film-production centre in Europe. Led by Roberto Rossellini, the realistic school of film making seemed firmly established, working on a com¬ paratively low cost basis. On the other hand, Italian producers still favoured the spectacular costume film of the kind which first made an international reputation for Italian films about 1912. Alessandro Blassetti’s film Fabbiola was a film of this kind set in Roman times, while Marcel I’Herbier was to follow this with another version of The Last Days of Pompeii. These films also revealed the Italian policy of using foreign stars and technicians. More important than these were such films as Amove (Ro¬ berto Rossellini), Roman Sunshine (Renato Castellani), La Terra Trema (Luchino Visconti), Proibito Rubare (Luigi Comencini) and Senza Pieta (Alberto Lattuada). In Australia a National Film board was founded in 1945, with Canadian and British advice and assistance. Films were produced for exhibition both in and out of the motion-picture theatres, and the volume of production was growing as technical staff became trained. Through documentary films, Australian life began to show itself to the outside world. British feature film production in Australia was also an important influence; Harry Watt made The Overlanders and Eureka Stockade in Australia for the British Ealing Studios Ltd. New Zealand was also producing films officially on a small scale. It is relevant to mention here the growing work of the British officially sponsored Colonial Film unit, which concentrated on producing films in the African colonies to assist in the develop¬ ment of native health, welfare and agriculture. A large number of these films had now been completed and they were shown throughout the British African colonial territories. The revival of Germany as a film-producing country possess¬ ing the seeds of a new artistic importance became a factor in European motion pictures during 1947-48. Each zone had its licensed film industry. In the Russian zone the principal films produced were Marriage in the Shadows (Kurt Maetzig) and Strassenbekanntschaft; in the British zone Film without Title was the leading production; and Long Is the Road, the best film produced in the U.S. zone. Germany Year Zero was a French-sponsored production made with Russian co-operation. Documentary production also began in the U.S. and British zones.

(R-

481

Crust.” Arena did one lap at 81.6 m.p.h., a heat at 77.856 m.p.h., and the v'hole race at 73.54 m.p.h., all new marks. Smaller hydroplanes provided more consistent competition and also set some new records. In the Salton sea (Calif.) regatta, ii new marks were established, the most spectacular of which was a 225-cu.in. mile trial straightaway of 92.54 m.p.h. by L. 0. Turner, driving “Green Hornet.” The U.S. National Outboard championships produced the following new class titleholders: M hydros, division I, Don Whitfield, division H, Ethel Altman; A hydros, division I, Roy Pedersen, division H, Doug Creech; B hydros, division I, Hank Combs, division II, Mabry Edwards; C hydros, division I, J. H. Sharp, division II, Paul Wearly; F hydros, division I, Don Frazier, division II, Jimmy Broaddus; C service runabouts, division I, Ted Benda, division II, Clyde Wiseman; C service hydros, division I, Hal Winzeler, division II, Harold Abrams. (W. H. Tr.) More than 5,282,000 automobUes, trucks and buses were pro¬ duced by the automotive industry in 1948. It was the second time in history that more than 5,000,000 units were built in a single year. The year’s total was 10% above 1947, and only 76,000 units short of the all-time record high of 1929. Truck producers set new marks in production, registrations and wholesale value. As for buses, the industry produced 12,720, of which 11,143 went to carriers in the United States and Canada and 1,577 were exported. During the year, 7,344 fewer buses were produced than the record of 20,064 in 1947, but the 1948 figure was still the third largest in the history of the bus industry. In 1948 trolley bus production reached 1,499, an increase of nearly 50% over the 1,008 produced in 1947. In 1948 production of commercial units, trucks and buses reached 1,371,000, the third time in history that output topped the 1,000,000 mark. It exceeded the 1947 previous high mark by nearly 11%, and 1941 by nearly 30%. For the first time in history, a single year’s registration of new trucks and buses exceeded the 1,000,000 mark. Wholesale value of the industry’s truck and bus production was $2,139,000,000 in 1948. That was 25% higher than 1947 and just about double the 1941 output value. It almost equalled the combined wholesale value of both passenger car and truck production in 1939. City and Intercity Bus Operations.—During 1947 and 1948 the bus industry, both city and intercity, like all other in-

Motor Trdnsportstion.

Man.)

Q • The year 1948 was one of ups and ndulllgi downs for the big hydroplanes that race for the Gold cup and other major trophies. Availability of surplus aircraft engines, especially Allisons, encouraged the building of new boats and repowering of old ones and promised new speed records. But when the big test came in the Gold cup race at Detroit, Mich., it proved a fiasco. Of 22 entries, 15 boats started and just i, Albin Fallon’s “Miss Great Lakes,” driven by Daniel Foster, hung together long enough to win points in all three heats and take the cup, and even she sank after the finish. The Gold cup boats entered for the national sweepstakes at Red Bank, N.J., likewise either balked before the start or broke down afterward, leaving the little 225-cu.in. class “Aljo V,” owned and driven by Joe Van Blerck, Jr., to win the cup. In other events the big boats did better. Harold Wilson drove his “Miss Cariada III” to victory in the Silver cup race at Detroit and hung up new i-lap and 30-mi.-heat records which were broken a few weeks later by Dan Arena in winning the President’s cup at Washington, D.C., with Jack Shafer’s “Such

THE FORD F-S, a three-ton model truck first placed on the market in 1948. It had a 195-in. wheelbase and was the largest unit being built by the Ford Motor Co.

482

MOTOR TRAN SPORTATION

dustries felt the impact of the increased cost of doing business. Labour costs advanced materially as did the cost of materials and supplies. It was expected that the volume of riding would be below the wartime peak. That was the case. On the whole, however, patronage held up well and the industry was able to make readjustments in service in line with the changes in traffic demand. Passenger-carrying vehicles of all kinds owned by the transit industry, operating in the city and the city-suburban fields, were estimated at the end of 1948 to be 91,700 compared with 92,407 in 1947, accounted for by replacement of less service¬ able equipment with newer, more efficient and generally larger vehicles. New buses put in service in 1948 numbered 7,000, while 500 streetcars and 1,390 trolley coaches were added to the nation’s transit fleet during the same period. In the city field, after Dec. 31, 1944, the number of streetcars in operation dropped from 27,180 to 21,607 as of Dec. 31, 1947, because of replacements by motor buses or trolley buses. In 1948 fares on transit lines were on the upswing overjmost of the country. A ten-cent or higher cash fare was reached in 1948 in 71% of cities with more than 25,000 population. This population group, numbering 412 communities, had only 43-8% with a ten-cent cash fare in 1945. During 1948 basic cash fares were raised in 205 cities of more than 25,000 resi¬ dents, and in many of these communities the latest increase was the third or fourth since 1945, when the upward trend began. In 1945 one-third of the 412 cities with populations of 25,000 and over had a nickel fare, while in 1949 less than one in ten still offered service for that price. Outstanding among 1948 fare increases was the 100% increase in New York city, where the five-cent fare on city-owned subway lines be¬ came ten cents with a combination fare of 12 cents for a ride on the surface bus or streetcar lines with a transfer to the rapid transit lines. At the end of the year there was only one small group of cities in the United States offering service at five cents a ride. Each of the' cities in this group had a popula¬ tion of fewer than 85,000. So far as the transit industry was concerned, it carried a weekly average of about 65,000,000 riders, a decline of more than 5% from the 22,000,000,000 passenger total for 1947 on local buses, streetcars, trolley coaches, subways and elevated lines. The 1948 load, however, was nearly 9,000,000,000 riders above the last prewar year of 1940. Net revenue for the entire tran¬ sit industry showed a $1,060,000 decrease from the postwar low level reached in 1947. Declining net operating revenues were attributed to increased cost of labour and supplies. Truck Facts.—Before World War II motor trucks did about one-quarter of the volume of business done by the railroads. In 1948 trucks were carrying more than 35%. While freight car loadings were down about 3% in 1948, shipments by truck were up about 20% over 1947. In 1947 the Class I motor carriers did a $2,500,000,000 business, about 35% as much as the railroads’ $7,000,000,000. Through increased traffic and higher charges the railroads doubled their freight revenues in this eight-year period, while the truckers, who also received higher rates, nearly tripled their earnings. School Bus Service.—In 1948 buses used to transport chil¬ dren to school numbered 90,400, an increase of 4,500 or 5.24% over 1947. Another significant change was the decrease of 4345% or 7,300 in the number of automobiles used in school transportation. The number of children carried daily increased 9-37% and the average cost per pupil per year increased from $26.39 to $26.81. The number of schools served by school buses increased from 43,000 to 46,400 or 7.91%, and the number of children carried daily increased 9.37%. Road Building.—Despite the hampering effects of shortages.

the states in 1947 managed to undertake a record-breaking ex¬ penditure of approximately $1,250,000,000 on state highway construction and maintenance, and still end the year with huge balances in their highway funds. Road building authorities esti¬ mated that total expenditures for road construction alone in the United States in 1948 would reach $1,750,000,000, exceed¬ ing construction records for all previous years. Substitution of Service.—Several cities and at least two states discontinued the use of streetcars completely during the year. Columbus, 0.; Roanoke, Va.; Norfolk, Va.; Providence, R.I.; and Louisville, Ky., among others, went all-bus or all-bus and trolley bus during 1948. West Virginia and North Carolina became all-bus states. On the last day of the year one of the few remaining interurban electric railways of its kind, the Texas Electric railway, abandoned its 174-mi. interurban sys¬ tem operating between Dallas and Denison and between Dallas and Waco. The company began operating 22 motor buses over the same routes the following day. (See also Automobile Industry.) (C. W. S.) Canada.—The year 1948 opened with transport workers re¬ ceiving their highest average weekly pay, or $45.07, a position still held in September with $49.73, but there was no break¬ down to show where motor transport workers stood within the general category. Controversy arose between the Canadian In¬ dustrial Traffic league, national organization of shippers, and the Canadian Automotive Transportation association, national organization of truckers, over rate boosts, first of which was a 20% increase in March between points in Ontario and Que¬ bec, followed by an October increase of 15% on all Ontario provincial less-than-truck-load hauls. The A.T.A. claimed that the hourly cost of trucking had gone up 88% between 1939 and 1948. While Alberta and Quebec quickly followed suit, some provincial transport control bodies were cautious about sanc¬ tioning applied-for increases: Saskatchewan granted 5% in¬ terim; British Columbia, 9% on local cartage rates in large municipalities. Expansion of the Canadian Pacific transport (subsidiary of Canadian Pacific railway) was countered by a Canadian Na¬ tional railways contract with a trucking firm to move Canadian National freight over British Columbia highways, creating a new phase of the railway-highway transportation battle. Work continued to progress on the $12,000,000 John Hart highway between Vancouver, B.C., and Alaska, via Peace River, Alta., started in 1946. Work was completed on the Edmonton-Yellowknife all-weather road and construction began on the Pas-Flin Flon road through Manitoba and progressed on the Nipawin-Flin Flon road through Saskatchewan.

(C. Cy.) Great Britain.—Under the Transport act of 1947, which went into force on Jan. i, 1948, the Transport commission’s most difficult task was the integration of road and rail trans¬ port, and it was not expected at the beginning of the year that motor transport would be greatly affected for the time being, except insofar as the commission acquired road transport under¬ takings formerly owned by the railway companies. The act, besides laying down that only long distance haulage carriers (i.e., those operating over a radius of more than 25 mi. from their bases) would be acquired, also left the acquisition of such undertakings until the period Oct. i, 1948-Jan. i, 1950. British motor carriers were confident that the bulk of the notices of acquisition would be served in the latter part of the period, and, in fact, by the end of 1948 only a few concerns had been transferred to public ownership, although these did include one of the biggest in the country—Tillings Motor Services—whose assets, it was announced in September, were to be bought for £24,800,000. Special types of trucks, such as milk and gasoline

MOTOR VEHICLES—MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT tankers and lumber carriers, did not fall within the scope of the' Road Transport executive. In dealing with passenger transport the commission had only the power to make plans for bus services in given areas and to submit such plans to the minister of transport for his ap¬ proval. Such recommendations could cut across the boundaries of municipal or private ownership, but they did not involve ac¬ quisition by the commission except where the bus company came into its hands as part of the assets of a railway company. The government had a more direct influence on the life of the nation in its legislation on private motoring. The dollar crisis of Aug. 1947 led to the abolition of the basic gasoline ration, a measure that was expected to save the country $50,000,000 a year by releasing larger quantities of gasoline for export to hard currency countries. In response to repeated questions in parliament, deputations from various groups and associations and a continuous outcry in the press, Hugh Gaitskell, the minister of fuel and power, promised that he would review the whole situation. Meanwhile the Russell Vick committee was appointed to look into the problem of the black market in gasoline. The committee re¬ ported in April that its estimate of the gasoline consumed by the black market in 1947 was 47,000,000 gal. (3% of the total consumed in the country and 10% of the consumption in motor cars). Most of this fuel came from commercial users. The committee also made recommendations for the safeguards which might be used if a new gasoline allowance were made to private motorists. Acting on this recommendation the minister issued a new standard ration effective June i. The gasoline re¬ quired for the new ration, 90 mi. a month instead of 270 mi. for about 800,000 cars, was to be provided from the amount saved from the black market (100,000 tons) and from the 10% cut in the rations of “essential” users (20,000 tons). There was much criticism in parliament and the country of the severe penalties which were to be imposed if commercial gasoline (now coloured pink and containing an irremovable chemical) were found in the tank of a private car. In general the domestic demand for commercial vehicles took second place to the needs of the export market, though de¬ liveries were greater, because of higher production, than in 1947. In ten months of 1948, 4,603 public service vehicles and trolley buses and 65,071 trucks were exported while 6,419 and 64,440, respectively, were retained in Britain. In spite of the comparatively small number of new vehicles which were retained for use in Britain, there was a fleet of vehicles in the country half as big again as that in 1938; a reliable estimate of its size was 666,400 of which 185,700 were postwar, 154,000 wartime, 60,000 government surplus and 266,700 of prewar vintage. {See also Accidents; Railroads.)

Motor Vehicles: see

Accidents;

Electric Transportation;

Automobile Industry;

Federal Bureau of Investiga¬

tion ; Motor Transportation.

483

campaign against the Japanese that culminated in the recapture of Burma. In Dec. 1946 it was announced that he had been appointed rear admiral commanding the ist cruiser squadron, Mediterranean fleet. In the house of commons on Feb. 20, 1947, Clement Attlee stated that the king approved his appointment as viceroy of India to succeed Viscount Wavell. The transfer of power to the two new dominions of India and Pakistan took place on Aug. 15, and Viscount Mountbatten of Burma became governor general of the dominion of India. On June 21, 1948, he left Delhi and was succeeded as governor general by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari (q.v.). In Oct. 1948, he became flag officer commanding, ist cruiser squadron. For his service in World War II he was created a viscount in 1946; and in Aug. 1947 was created an earl in recognition of his viceroyalty. He was known as Prince Louis Francis of Battenberg until 1917, when his father relinquished his title and assumed the surname of Mountbatten.

Mount Holyoke College.

education of" women in liberal arts, founded in 1837 by Mary Lyon, is situated at South Had¬ ley, Mass. It offers a four-year undergraduate course leading to the A.B. degree, and graduate work for the A.M. and A.M. in Education. The campus covers more than 600 ac., with more than 70 buildings. In 1948 the productive funds of the college amounted to $6,549,680; the income for the year was $2,065,184; the value of the plant was $6,392,496. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Uni¬ versities AND Colleges.)

Mozambique: see

(^^99* ), Swiss chemist and Nobel prize winner, entered the firm of Geigy, Basle, Switz., in 1925 and his first work was connected with the ex¬ traction of dyes out of wood. Mueller became concerned with the protection of plants against insects. Here the problem was to find a chemical which would destroy pests without damaging vegetation or poisoning livestock. Mueller started to experiment with dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane, a compound discovered in 1874 by the Strasbourg chemist Othmar Zeidler. Its prop¬ erties remained unsuspected until Mueller started large-scale experiments, first with flies, later with wasps and Colorado bee¬ tles. In March 1940 the success of his experiments persuaded him to take out a patent. The next year more extensive research was undertaken at the instigation of the Swiss government, which placed a part of the Oerlihon works at his disposal. The result was that in 1942 a finished product called Neocid (later more commonly known as DDT) was placed at the disposal of the British and U.S. governments. The latter immediately rec¬ ognized its value and DDT, manufactured on a large scale, helped to save many lives in the eastern campaign. It became one of the dominant insecticides, and in 1948 Mueller was award¬ ed the Nobel prize in medicine for his work in developing it. M

II

•>

Portuguese Colonial Empire.

Da

I

mliclicry fdUl

MountbaHen of Burma, Louis (Francis Aibert Mules: see Victor Nicholas) Mountbatten, Municipal Gnvernment officer, was bom at Frogmore House, Windsor, on June 25. He Horses.

was the second son of Admiral of the Fleet the Marquess of Mil¬ ford Haven. He was educated at Osborne, Dartmouth and Christ’s college, Cambridge. He entered the royal navy in 1913, and at the outbreak of World War II commanded the 5th destroyer flotilla. Appointed captain of H.M.S. “Illustrious,” 1941, chief of combined operations, 1942, and supreme allied commander, southeast Asia, 1943, he successfully conducted the

There were no striking changes on the U.S. municipal scene in 1948. In the eyes of the city officials, finance continued to pro¬ vide the major problem. But from the citizens’ viewpoint traffic difficulties, inadequate housing, dirt and unsightliness were the worst problems, with little relief in sight in spite of vigorous agitation. Politics. —Nevertheless, on certain fronts there were sub¬ stantial political gains to report. To the decline of big-city

484

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT

political machines such as Tammany Hall in New York (since the early ’30s) and the Kelly machine in Chicago (since 1944) was added the defeat of Tennessee’s Boss E. H. Crump in the 1948 primary elections, and of Truman-supported candidates of the old Pendergast machine in Missouri. A committee of 15 appointed by city officials of Philadelphia, Pa., to investigate the subject of pay increases for city personnel found that increases could be provided without increasing the tax burden simply by the adoption of better tax collection methods. Discovery of looseness in the control over city funds led to further investi¬ gations and the revelation of a wholesale series of embezzle¬ ments in certain departments. Children's Comics.—A relatively new development in 1948 was the rapid spread of the movement for municipal control over the sale and distribution of comic books. As the result of demands by civic groups and newspaper campaigns, 50 cities took action to restrict the sale of objectionable types of comic books. In many instances—as in Indianapolis and Hammond, Ind.; Hillsdale, Mich.; Columbus, Wis.; Peoria, Ill.; and Wash¬ ington, D.C.—this was done through the voluntary co-operation of distributors with city officials. In other instances—notably, Los Angeles county, Calif.; and Terre Haute, Ind.—sale of the books was banned by local ordinances. Traffic Commissions.—New York city was preparing to fol¬ low the example of Pittsburgh, Pa., and a number of other cities in endeavouring to solve the increasingly serious traffic and parking problem by giving broad powers over traffic to a new agency, directly under the mayor, known as the traffic authority or commission. This commission would have authority to issue directives to the police and other city departments. Intergovernmental Relations.—Two federal enactments of major interest to municipalities in 1948 were: (i) an antistream-pollution measure authorizing a five-year program of grants and loans to be channelled through the states to munici¬ palities and other local governments for planning and building sewage-treatment plants; and (2) extension until June 30, 1951, of the period available for expenditure of funds, including fed¬ eral urban funds, under the original three-year Federal-aid High¬ way act of 1944, as well as authorization of additional funds for a two-year period ending June 30, 1951, plus a two-year grace period—making a total federal-aid highway program of $2,400,000,000 extending over an eight-year period to June 30, 1953. Twenty-five per cent of the allotments authorized under this program were for projects on the federal-aid highway sys¬ tem in urban areas. The extensions of time were necessitated by shortages of materials, equipment and labour. The federal-aid airport program continued without alterations adverse to the municipalities. But the failure of congress in 1948 to authorize any funds for slum clearance and urban re¬ development or to increase federal contributions for payments in lieu of taxes on existing low-rent housing projects was a major disappointment. In the field of intergovernmental fiscal relations, meetings of a joint conference of representatives of congress and of the governors’ conferences were continued in 1948. Also, a con¬ gressional committee issued a brief report specifically recom¬ mending that the joint committee on the legislative budget meet with representatives of the states and localities prior to report¬ ing to congress annually its recommendation on the maximum amount to be appropriated for expenditures. The American Municipal association, consisting of 42 state leagues of municipalities representing 9,500 cities, towns and villages, departed from previous practice in confining its annual meeting exclusively to the development of a national municipal policy on matters affecting municipal government, including

specifically municipal finance, recognition and respect for public employees, payments in lieu of taxes, home rule, civilian defense and housing. Finance.—The search for additional local revenues continued to dominate all other local fiscal problems. City budgets, based on inflationary prices, enhanced wage and salary schedules and new or increased governmental services, continued to expand, but with indications here and there of the beginning of re¬ sistance to a hitherto unopposed upward trend. The effects of inflation on city budgets was graphically por¬ trayed in a study by the Governmental Research institute of Hartford, Conn., which found that in spite of large increases in the dollar value of the budget after 1940, actual expenditures when adjusted to the purchasing power of the dollar on the average of 1935-39 were $2,000,000 less in 1949 than in 1940. Most city budgets throughout the country were up a further 10% to 20%, though in a few cases, as in Los Angeles, the mayor’s program was drastically cut by the local legislative body. Such action was indicative of a trend in the direction of retarding the mounting costs of city government, discernible also in the indications that New York city’s expense budget for 1949-50 was to be kept “within” or not “much more” than its record $1,000,000,000 budget for 1948-49. Preliminary census bureau figures for the 397 cities with populations of more than 25,000—available in Oct. 1948— showed that revenues in 1947 increased 13% over 1946; gen¬ eral expenditures increased about 18%; and operating expenses increased 16.6%. The largest rate of expenditure increase was for public welfare, which rose 31.5% over 1946. Capital outlay increased more than 86%. Outstanding gross debt increased but 1.2%. Final census bureau figures for the 37 largest cities (with populations of more than 250,000) for 1947—issued in Nov. 1948—showed similar results. Aid from other governments, mostly state, increased 21.5% in 1947 for the 37 largest cities and 17.3% for all cities of more than 25,000. The state legislatures which met in 1948 continued the trend of the preceding year toward increased fiscal aid to municipali¬ ties, in the form either of larger shares of state-collected taxes or additional grants-in-aid, or of an extension of local taxing powers. California, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, South Carolina, Virginia and Tennessee allocated new or increased shared taxes. California, Massachusetts, New Jersey, New York and Tennessee increased their state aid to schools. Kentucky and New York assumed maintenance costs of state arterial high¬ ways in cities; New Jersey doubled its state aid for highway construction; while Rhode Island continued its aid to cities on the basis of ad valorem tax levies. Massachusetts made avail¬ able substantial amounts to local housing authorities for vet¬ erans’ housing. Kentucky authorized the levy of several newtype nonproperty taxes by cities. Missouri gave a two-year authorization to St. Louis to levy a pay-roll tax. The New York taxing powers granted in 1947 to cities and counties of more than 100,000 population were extended in 1948 to all cities of more than 25,000 population. Practically all the states except Florida, Kentucky, Texas and Vermont were sharing taxes with their cities and towns. Special interest centred on the Pennsylvania Act 481, adopted in 1947, which granted unprecedented taxing powers to the local governmental units, excepting counties and second-class town¬ ships. By the close of 1948, many more than 300 municipalities and school districts had adopted one or more new taxes under the act. The number of local jurisdictions adopting pay-roll taxes, mostly cities and school districts, increased from 3 on Jan. i, 1948, to at least 86. These included 78 cities, boroughs and

MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT school districts in Pennsylvania (under Act 481); Philadelphia (in 1939); St. Louis, Mo.; Toledo, Columbus, Youngstown, Springfield and Portsmouth, 0.; and Louisville, Ky. Relief expenditures, which were a major prewar problem but which declined rapidly in the period 1940-45, rose steadily in the period 1945-48 in spite of high levels of business conditions and employment. Assessed Valuations.—A survey of 46 assessment jurisdic¬ tions with populations of more than 100,000 showed that the total assessed valuations in 1948 averaged 6.35% higher than in 1947, with new construction accounting for 63% of the in¬ crease and higher values for 37%. A similar survey for the previous year showed a gain of 8.51%. The highest percentage increases were in Texas cities, Houston showing a 48% rise. Fort Worth 45% and San Antonio 44%. The largest dollar in¬ crease was in New York city ($646,000,000), a percentage in¬ crease of but 3.8%, however. Debt .—The gross debt of all local governments was esti¬ mated at $15,000,000,000 on June 30, 1948, an increase of 8% over 1947. City governments, which accounted for $8,900,000,000 or 59% of the foregoing sum, increased their debt mate¬ rially in 1948. Outstanding city debt for five years was as fol¬ lows: 1944, $8,600,000; 1945, $8,400,000; 1946, $8,100,000; 1947, $8,006,000; and 1948, $8,800,000. Personnel.—The number of nonschool city employees in the United States reached. 1,067,000 in July 1948, compared with 1,046,000 for July 1947 and 968,000 for July 1946. The monthly pay roll for city employees in July 1948 totalled $202,200,000, contrasted with $177,200,000 for July 1947 and $153,600,000 for July 1946. The total for 1948 was nearly double the prewar total of $108,200,000 (July 1940). All levels of government continued to grant pay increases in 1948. Of 97 representative cities of more than 5,000 population, 59 increased the pay of some or all their employees during the first half of 1948, while most of the remainder had made similar increases during 1947. City Manager Charters.—During 1948, 68 U.S. cities and 4 counties adopted the manager form of organization, bringing the total list of manager governments to 876 at the close of the vear. Seven cities dropped the manager plan during the year. (A. M. Ds.; L. Gu.) Canada.—Four Ontario municipal organizations sponsored a provincial-municipal conference in October and suggested finan¬ cial changes to: (i) relieve municipalities of justice administra¬ tion, hospital, child welfare, relief costs; (2) give municipalities a more adequate share of gasoline tax and car licence fees; (3) determine what properties exempt from taxation should become properly liable; and (4) set up a commission on provincialmunicipal relations. In British Columbia a 3% sales-tax law was passed, with pro¬ vision that municipalities receive one-third of all receipts (esti¬ mated total of $12,000,000 yearly) to be used as desired. Mani¬ toba demanded that municipalities call a halt to accumulation of liabilities ($3,000,000 in the 194S-48 period). Quebec turned down a Quebec Union of Municipalities proposal for a provin¬ cial arbitration board to settle municipal labour disputes and suggested independent unions for municipal employees. It also rejected a Q.U.M. proposal of obligatory insurance for motor vehicle owners and advised the Quebec County Councils’ union to press for amendment to the federal criminal code to permit Quebec provincial lotteries. Nova Scotia made three major concessions to municipalities: granted each urban and rural municipality a per capita amount equal to 150% of the highest per capita tax levied by such municipality; assumed full re¬ sponsibility for the mentally ill; and discontinued the highways tax on urban municipalities. (C. Cv.)

485

Great Britain.—In March, the Local Government Boundary commission issued its report for the year 1947. The commission had found difficulty in carrying out its function of forming, by means of alterations in boundaries and status, effective and convenient units of local government in England and Wales. The opinion of the commission was that its powers were not sufficient to achieve the purpose, and that the best way to bring into existence units of improved efficiency was to rearrange the functions of local government by the creation of a new range of authorities. The commission proposed single-tier “all-purpose” authorities, referred to as “one-tier counties” (akin to county boroughs), and “two-tier counties” containing “new county boroughs,” county districts and parishes, each having, with the county, its appropriate elected council. About 60 county bor¬ oughs and 30 counties were dealt with at length in the report. The year ended without any indication as to when legislation to implement the report might be forthcoming. On March 24 the Local Government act, 1948, passed into law making provision: (i) for the replacement of the block grants formerly payable with a new system of financial assist¬ ance from the central government to local authorities, by means of “exchequer equalization grants” to those authorities with areas of low ratable value; (2) for the transfer, from local government authorities to officers of the commissioners of in¬ land revenue, of the work of making valuations for rating; (3) for the valuation of certain classes of dwelling houses for rating purposes by reference to the cost of construction (instead of by reference to the rent); (4) for payments in lieu of rates by the nationalized electricity and railway undertakings; (5) for the payment to members of local authorities of travelling and sub¬ sistence expenses and “financial loss allowances”; (6) for the insurance of members of local authorities; and (7) for the pro¬ vision by local authorities of entertainment and information centres and for other matters. The Children act, 1948, which became law on June 30, im¬ posed new functions on the councils of counties and county boroughs by requiring them to receive into their care, bring up and assist children under 17 deprived of a normal home life, and to appoint children’s officers specially charged with the duty of providing for the welfare of children. On July I, the two Town and Country Planning acts for England and Scotland came into operation. These acts inaugu¬ rated a new system of planning control, set up the Central Land board to purchase the development rights in all land in the country and instituted new methods of dealing with compen¬ sation by planning authorities and the payment of development charges by private owners. On July 5 the National Health Service act, 1946, the National Health Service (Scotland) act, 1947, and the National Assist¬ ance act, 1948, came into force. On that date all hospitals, voluntary and municipal, were transferred to the central gov¬ ernment for administration by regional boards. Under the lastmentioned act, the poor law was abolished, and most of the re¬ sponsibility for assistance of persons in need was transferred from the councils of counties and county boroughs to the Na¬ tional Assistance board. The Representation of the People act, 1948, made consider¬ able amendments in the law relating to elections both for the house of commons and for local councils: the franchises for both types of election were made identical; the dates of elec¬ tions of county councillors were altered from March to April, for borough councillors from November to May and for district and parish councillors from April to May and March to May, respectively; corresponding alterations were made in the dates of retirement of councillors. (See also Housing; Town and Regional Planning.) (W. E. J.)

MUNITIONS OF WAR

486 ,

U.S. Army.—During 1948, the de■ partments of the army and the navy set up an armed forces special weapons project to train special personnel, to participate in military operations in development of atomic weapons of all types and to develop radiological safety measures of all types. Secretary James Forrestal ordered the Research and De¬ velopment board to submit a new master plan for military re¬ search at least once a year. Brief discussions of the year’s interesting munitions items follow: Arctic Clothing.—Operation “Windchill” during the year was set up to test the reactions of soldiers when transported from Florida to extreme arctic cold within 24 hours. New arctic cloth¬ ing was designed to set up a “vapour barrier” and keep wind out. Bomb.—^At Muroc air base, Muroc Dry Lake, Calif., a 42,000-lb. bomb was tested by dropping. Clutch.—The national bureau of standards developed a new magnetic fluid clutch for military vehicles. Firing Chamber.—A stratospheric facility, the world’s largest firing chamber, was developed by the ordnance department. It simulated great changes in temperature and air pressure and was used in firing tests on guns mounted in extremely high-speed aircraft, under conditions most likely to be met in combat. Greases.—In Operation “Greaseball,” 12 2^-ton U.S. army trucks were driven 20,000 mi. through blistering heat in Cali¬ fornia and bitter cold in Alaska to test 6 new lubricating greases under extreme weather conditions. Mica.—Synthetic mica, with alt the desirable characteristics of natural mica, was developed for the first time through the joint efforts of the Office of Naval Research, the army signal corps and the navy bureau of ships. Motors.—General Electric company built three “inside out” motors for use in testing aerodynamics of spinning missiles at Aberdeen proving ground. They were if in. in diameter, 6 in. long, rated Jg. horsepower and developed 80,000 r.p.m. Powder.—A new type of powder was developed for rifles, using TNT and PETN. In process of manufacture the new high explosive was pulverized and each of its grams (about .003 in. in diameter) embedded in a pellet of conventional smokeless powder. This mixture set off, upon firing, thousands of bursts of high energy behind the bullet without generating uneven or dangerously high pressures in the weapon’s bore. Radar and Radio.—Bell Telephone laboratories were engaged in perfecting a new type of metal lens to focus radio waves in radio relay systems. A new type of communication was devised utilizing radio waves, infra-red rays, or sound waves too highpitched for the human ear. Advances in radar had now made it possible to chart the speed of a bullet while still in the barrel of a gun. Rifle.—A new 30-calibre rifle fully automatic and much lighter than the Garand, was in process of development. Rubber.—The engineer corps established a project for the de¬ velopment of new types of synthetic rubber resistant to the effects of extreme cold and still retaining all the desirable char¬ acteristics of synthetic and natural rubbers. It was produced at 0° F. and was found to have 30% better wearing quality than natural rubber. Snow.—Signal corps engineer laboratories at Fort Monmouth, N.J., manufactured blizzards to order. Previously, refrigerating machines produced snowflakes, but the new apparatus, in a chamber slightly larger than a four-room house, produced a three- to four-inch snowfall. Tanks.—During 1948, the M-26 tank was thoroughly modern¬ ized and a new light tank, T-37, was developed with a highly efficient and modern fire-control system. Production of the

“General Patton” tank was begun; this giant was equipped with a compact new air-cooled, 12-cylinder engine giving it 62% more power than the M-26. In road speed this meant an in¬ crease of from 20 to 30 mi. an hour. It had a newly developed control system wherein a single “wobble-stick” combined the gear-shifting and steering functions. Improved traction was secured through newly designed tank treads; a water-proofed electrical system made it possible for this new M-46 to ford streams deep enough to submerge the engine; and, with the hull winterized, it was possible to operate in temperatures as low as — 65° F. Its principal armament was a 90-mm. gun firing highvelocity, armour-piercing shells. The ordnance department tested a new heavy tank trans¬ porter, T-80, powered by two 500-horsepower engines. It could negotiate a 30% grade while fully loaded, and could cruise at 35 mi. per hour. The 6-ft. tires of this carrier permitted it to go through 30 in. of mud and run over a 36-in. wall. Vacuum Tube.—^The Amperex Electronic corporation, under sponsorship of the air materiel command of the U.S. air force, perfected a new tube designed for use on high voltages at alti¬ tudes up to 60,000 ft., especially valuable in control circuits for guided missiles. Wire Laying.—At Fort Dix, N.J., the U.S. signal corps proved that it was practical to lay lightweight field telephone wire over inaccessible terrain by use of rockets. Apparatus required was simple and transportable. One man equipped with a wire dis¬ penser, a small field telephone and rocket could establish wire communication for relatively short distances over lakes, rivers, ravines, cliffs and other formidable obstacles. (R. S. T.) U.S. Navy .—Production of new U.S. navy ordnance, weapons and equipment in 1948 continued to be limited to prototype or experimental models, and to small quantities for installation in the ships and planes of the active fleet. Research in new and improved weapons, including guided missiles, was pursued under programs co-ordinated by the Research and Development board of the national military establishment. Three-inch, 50-calibre antiaircraft rapid-fire twin gun mounts, developed after V-J day, were delivered to the fleet. Other fully automatic antiaircraft guns, with even greater muzzle velocities and rates of fire, were under development. Automatic control of antiaircraft guns in fleet installations was improved by mod¬ ernization of existing computers and fire-control systems and by production of two new types of fire-control systems. Emphasis was placed on development of automatic processes for coping with air targets, from initial contact to their final destruction. In recognition of the potential threat of submarines, weapons for undersea warfare, both offensive and defensive, received increased attention. Progress was made in the development of new torpedoes, and in related fire-control equipment to provide rapid solutions for various types of submarine and antisubmarine weapons for use against submarine targets. Progress was made in the field of guided missiles, including devices for their launching, with the navy continuing to receive effective co-operation from science and industry. The Aerobee, a liquid-fueled rocket, was launched successfully and reached an altitude of approximately 78 mi. In addition to its value for upper atmosphere research, the Aerobee was expected to pro¬ duce data on rocket flight applicable to guided missiles projects. Another highly successful test was that of a large ramjet model, which attained a speed far into the supersonic range. Two major navy research centres were completed during the year—the Michelson laboratory at the Naval Ordnance Test sta¬ tion, Inyokern, Calif., for research, development and testing of rockets and guided missiles; and the Naval Ordnance laboratory, White Oak, Md., where an improved version of the famous

Above: CLOSEUP of a schnorkel tube, a breathing device invented by the Dutch and adapted by the Germans, which enabled submarines to remain underwater without shutting off their Diesel engines. Many U.S. navy submarines were being equipped with schnorkel tubes in 1948 Below: RAMJET which flew at velocities far exceeding the speed of sound, as announced by U.S. naval authorities on Jan. 31, 1948; it is shown ready for first launching at the Inyokern Naval Ordnance Test station in California

Above: FULL SCALE DUMMY TORPEDO being fired in 1948 at a U.S, naval testing station set up in southern California to study hydrodynamic problems

Below: COMPILING MEASUREMENTS in the wind tunnel for testing guided missiles at the Aberdeen Proving Grounds, Md.

> >f>>

MURRAY. PHILIP —MUSEUMS

488

German-built Kochel wind tunnel and other advanced devices for research, development and test of weapons were housed. (A. G. Ne.) Air.—At the end of 1948 only three nations in the world could be regarded as having made substantial progress in the field of guided missiles—the United States, Great Britain and Russia. In the United States a large number of laboratories, universities and independent research workers were collaborating in what had become a vast, high-priority industry in itself— the development of (i) a long-range winged missile for inter¬ continental attack and (2) a short-range ground-to-air inter¬ ceptor which would eventually replace piloted fighter aircraft. In Great Britain progress seemed slower, although announce¬ ments of new developments were probably withheld for reasons of security. Plans for the long-range rocket test range in Aus¬ tralia went forward. The U.S.S.R. had been first to use air-to-ground rocket pro¬ jectiles operationally, and when the Germans penetrated to the Crimea during World War II they discovered a huge store of rocket bombs of about ten hitherto unknown types. Their experts were impressed by the state of development exhibited by these missiles. Following the war, the Soviet Union secured the services of many German experts and large amounts of equipment, plans and blueprints of many guided missiles and other nazi weapons. That the U.S.S.R. had greatly improved versions of the V-i buzz-bomb was known, as was the fact that an immense amount of effort was going into the development of long-range rockets. Control—The simplest method of automatic control for ac¬ celeration of supersonic missiles was the preset type, employ¬ ing gyroscopes to actuate flight controls, like the automatic pilot. Accuracy in 1948 was about 4% of the range. Ultimately there would have to be two types of guidance systems—first, a midcourse control to bring the missile to the general vicinity of the target, and second, a terminal guidance scheme to sense the target and guide the missiles to it. Automatic homing to targets emitting heat, light or radio waves was possible but limited in accuracy by the element of human judgment in target selection. Some details of two radar control systems for antiaircraft guided missiles were released during 1948. The “command guidance” system employed two radar sets—one tracking the target (enemy plane or missile) and the other the missile itself. Both fed data to a computer, and the computer transmitted steering orders to the missile. The “beam-rider” system em¬ ployed a radar set to track the target, and control equipment in the missile guided it along the radar beam. A homing device such as a proximity fuse would be included in the missile to control the end of the flight. These systems required microwave radar sets operating on optical line of sight. {See also Aviation, Military; Jet Propulsion; Navies of the World.)

(N. F. S.)

Dhilin

(1886), U.S. labour leader, was born in Blantyre, Scotland, on May 25 and emi¬ grated to the United States in 1902. Naturalized in 1911, he became a member of the international executive board of the United Mine Workers of America in 1912, president of the union’s fifth district in 1916 and international vice-president in 1920, being re-elected to that position every two years until 1942. He became chairman of the C.I.O. Steel Workers Or¬ ganizing committee after its formation in 1936, and continued as president of this body after it became the United Steel¬ workers of America in 1942. Murray succeeded John L. Lewis as president of the Congress of Industrial Organizations (C.I.O.) I I

lllll|J

on Nov. 22, 1940. Immediately after the Pearl Harbor attack, Murray pledged

the C.I.O. to a no-strike policy for the duration of World War II. In 194 s and 1946 the steelworkers led in postwar rounds of wage increases. In 1947 Murray strongly opposed the TaftHartley labour act and publicly violated one portion of that law by printing in The C.I.O. News a strong endorsement of a Dem¬ ocratic candidate for congress. He and the C.I.O. were indicted under that portion of the law forbidding the expenditure of union funds for political purposes. The indictment was con¬ sidered a test case. Murray’s defense held that the pertinent section of the act violated the right of free speech, and on June 21, 1948, the supreme court dismissed the indictment against Murray and the C.I.O., refusing at the same time, however, to rule on the constitutionality of that portion of the law under dispute. During 1948 Murray devoted much time to securing labour support for the European Recovery program and also came out publicly in opposition to the Progressive party of Henry A. Wallace. ■■ During 1948 museums throughout the United mUScUniS* States renovated their buildings, erected addi¬ tional wings or moved into larger quarters. An impressive num¬ ber of new museums was opened, including two art museums— the Des Moines Art centre and the William A. Farnsworth Library and Art museum in Rockland, Me.—each with resources of nearly $1,500,000. The building for the Des Moines museum exemplified modern museum design. Two new museums were concerned with Indians. The U.S. office of Indian affairs opened its museum of the southern plains Indians at Anadarko, Okla., and a museum of the Cherokee Indian was established on the Qualla reservation in North Carolina. The Detroit Historical museum began installation of a Marine museum in a Great Lakes schooner permanently moored at Belle Isle. Several museums increased their facilities for public service. The American Museum of Natural History, New York city, opened the Lerner Marine laboratory, a research centre in the Bahamas. The Edward C. Blum laboratory was under construc¬ tion by the Brooklyn museum to aid industrial designers. Colonial Williamsburg, Va., erected an experimental reception centre to orient visitors for their tour of the historic community. The central African expedition of the American Museum of Natural History not only collected specimens and scientific data, but also tested experimental military equipment. The museum worked in Australia, New Zealand and Panama as well. The Chicago Natural History museum sent research parties into a dozen countries. The Sanford Hall of the Biology of Birds in the American Museum of Natural History used modern display techniques to make complex facts and ideas clear and attractive. It was rep¬ resentative of new exhibit installations which included the Mineral hall of the Carnegie museum in Pittsburgh, Pa., the 19th-century galleries of the Joslyn Memorial Art museum in Omaha, Neb., the Hearst Hall of Ancient Art and the Hall of Birds and Small Mammals in the Los Angeles County museum, the Fashion and Textile wing of the Philadelphia Museum of Art, the classical collections of the Museum of Art in the Rhode Island School of Design, Providence, and the near eastern col¬ lection of the Walters Art gallery in Baltimore, Md. Opportunities for professional training in museum work were provided by a new museum methods course at the University museum in Philadelphia, and by the New York State Historical association’s seminar on history in museums. A book. The Edu¬ cational Philosophy and Practice of Art Museums in the United States, by Theodore L. Low, contributed useful information and ideas for continued growth in this phase of museum activity. {See also Smithsonian Institution.) (R. H. Ls.) Accessions +0 Art Galleries and Art Museums.—The

489

MUSIC Cloisters of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York city, acquired the major items in the Joseph Brummer collection of mediaeval liturgical objects. Eight paintings from the Ralph and Mary Booth collection of Detroit were given to the National gallery in Washington, D.C. Included in the gift were a “Ma¬ donna” by Giovanni Bellini and portraits of the prince and princess of Saxony by Lucas Cranach. Cornelius Vanderbilt Whitney presented to the National gallery a noted Van Dyck, the portrait of Henry II of Lorraine, due de Guise. In Boston, Mass., the Museum of Fine Arts had a notable year. It received as a gift the Mr. and Mrs. Maxim Karolik collection of 225 American paintings of the period 1815-65. These were to be shown as a unit as soon as a new wing was built in which to display them. The Boston museum received by will John Taylor Spaulding’s great collection of 19th-century French paintings. This includes Paul Cezanne’s “Turn in the Road,” Paul Gauguin’s “Woman and White Horse,” Edgar Degas’s portrait of his father listening to Pagans, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec’s “Woman in a Studio” and Vincent van Gogh’s “Berceuse.” “Madame Cezanne in a Yellow Chair,” a notable Cezanne portrait of 1888-90, was purchased by the Art Institute of Chi¬ cago. Two fine portraits, Mr. and Mrs. Daniel Hubbard, painted by John Singleton Copley in 1763, also entered this collection. The Art institute was further enriched by 325 old master prints, 15th century and i6th century, from the Potter Palmer collec¬ tion. These included 6 of the 7 known engravings by Andrea Mantegna, 80 prints by Martin Schongauer and 2,8 by Albrecht Durer. The Cleveland Museum of Art acquired three items of great distinction: an Italian bronze of Adam made in Siena, Italy, about 1480 under the influence of Donatello, and “Lady in a Ruff,” a characteristic portrait by Frans Hals signed and dated 1638. This was purchased from Baron Alphonse de Rothschild. Its third notable acquisition was a late 14th-century Spanish altarpiece, “The Coronation of the Virgin,” attributed to Nicolau de Albentosa. A fine Rubens, a study for the Cardinal Infante Ferdinand at the battle of Nordlingen, 1634, went to the Detroit Institute of Arts, and the California palace of the Legion of Honor acquired Rembrandt van Rijn’s “Portrait of a Rabbi” from the Williams fund. (See also Art Exhibitions; Art Sales.) (F. A. Sw.) Great Britain and Europe.—Of the 160 museums in Great Britain which closed their doors for one reason or another dur¬ ing the war years, only a score had been reopened by 1948. .\mong those still closed were the London museum, the Walker Art gallery at Liverpool and others such as those at Birming¬ ham (art gallery), Bristol, Hull and Liverpool, which were “blitzed” in 1941. The British museum, which was reduced to a single gallery open to the public, had reopened its front en¬ trance, the northern (Egyptian) exhibition rooms and two of its main libraries, but the rest of the museum galleries were still closed to the public. The Natural History museum reopened its geological and mineralogical galleries. The Standing Com¬ mission on National Museums and Galleries in its report issued in Oct. 1948 estimated that these national institutions suffered war damage amounting to £1,294,000 and urged immediate re¬ construction and extension. The situation in regard to the provincial museums and gal¬ leries was described in the introduction to the new Directory of Museums and Art Galleries in the British Isles, by Maj. S. F. Markham, former president of the Museums association, pub¬ lished by that, association in 1948. Little had been done to bring many of them up to prewar standards. The most striking developments were perhaps the opening of the Welsh Folk museum at St. Fagan’s Castle, Glamorgan, and the reopening of

the York City Art gallery. In Paris, the Louvre underwent a complete transformation, and was fully open to the public once again, but the important museums in the Palais de Chaillot (Musee des Monuments Frangais, Musee des Arts et Traditions Populaires, Musee de la Marine and Musee de I’Homme) were closed after Aug. 1948 because the palais was required for the deliberations of the United Nations. The Musee de Cluny was still closed, but other museums in Paris were once more open to the public. In Germany, Austria, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Greece the great damage done during World War H had been only temporarily patched up where this was possible, but there was little hope of permanent repair or building in most of these countries for many years. A Record of the Work Done by the Military Authorities for the Protection of the Treasures of Art and History in War Areas (H.M. Stationery Office, 1947) gave the situation in each of these countries as it was in June of that year, and there was little to report from then until the end of 1948. In Scandinavia, Norway and Denmark regained their prewar standards, while Sweden presented an outstanding series of museums and art galleries. The new museum opened in 1948 at Norrkoping, Sweden, together with those opened a year or so earlier, showed definite advances in museum construction. The International Council of Museums (founded in 1946) held its first biennial conference in Paris in the summer of 1948 under the presidency of Georges Salles, director of the French museums, when 27 countries were represented. Among its deci¬ sions were: that an international centre of museum documenta¬ tion should be set up in Paris, that the United Nations Educa¬ tional, Scientific and Cultural organization should negotiate with the appropriate governments to ensure that the restoration of damaged museums and art galleries should be given a high pri¬ ority and that admission fees to museums and art galleries should be abolished. In June 1948 the museums section of U.N.E.S.C.O. produced the first number of a new periodical. Museum, which received a world-wide welcome. Films.-—The Living Gallery (National Film Board of Canada); Your National Gallery (United World Films, Inc.). (S. F. Mm.)

■■

•

Television provided a major contribution to the field of music in 1948. March 20 was the date of its musical premiere in the U.S., a televised performance of the Sergei Rachmaninoff D Minor Symphony (the Philadelphia orchestra, conducted by Eugene Ormandy), followed almost im¬ mediately by a Richard Wagner program (the NBC S>’mphony orchestra, conducted by Arturo Toscanini). On Nov. 29, the opening performance of the Metropolitan (New York city) Opera company was televised. Quantitatively, music showed an upward swing in 1948. Festi¬ vals were more intensive and extensive. Noteworthy examples were the second Llangollen International Musical Eisteddfod (Wales), the second International Festival of Music and Drama (Edinburgh, Scotland), the third annual Festival of Contem¬ porary British Music (Cheltenham, England) and the first Northern Music festival (Oslo, Norway). Other festivals in¬ cluded those at Bath, Aldeburgh and Glyndebourne, all in Eng¬ land; festivals in the Italian centres of Venice, Siena, Perugia and Florence; the Salzburg festival, which showed indications of returning to prewar standards; and the 1948 festival of the International Society for Contemporary Music, held at Amster¬ dam, the Netherlands. In the United States festivals were widely spread, both geographically and as to content. The Bach festival at Bethlehem, Pa., was staged for the 41st time, the nth Berkshire Music festival (Massachusetts) continued its

IVIUolu>

MUSIC

490

excellent work in both education and performance. Further indications of increasing musical activity included reports of a newly founded Icelandic Symphony, and of the continuation of the Municipal Orchestra of the City of Manila in the Philippines, an organization founded in 1947. Economic restrictions continued to challenge and stimulate musical production in the British Isles and on the continent. In general, a realistic attitude developed a continuation of two solutions, neither of which was particularly new; government subsidy was widespread and, where practicable and necessary, productions were tailored to fit existing staging and monetary restrictions. The successful chamber operas of 1947, Benjamin Britten’s Peter Grimes and Gian-Carlo Menotti’s two works. The Telephone and The Medium, were given many perform¬ ances and continued to remind both producers and the public that opera could combine limited staging with interesting music and good theatre. Representative compositions introduced in 1948 included the

following: Composer

Country of Residence

Antheil, George

U.S.

Atterberg, Kurt Benjamin, Arthur Brant, Henry Britten, Benjamin

Sweden England U.S. England

Castro, Juan Jose Diamond, David Erkin, UIvi Kernel Hanson, Howard Henkeman, Hans Jacobi, Frederick Malipiero, G. Francisco Martenot, Maurice Martin, Frank Martinu, Bohustav

Brozil U.S. Turkey U.S. Netherlands U.S. Italy France Switzerland U.S.

Milhaud, Darius Porter, Quincy Rawsthorne, Alan Rey, Kemal Resit Riegger, Wallingford Rogers, Bernard Schoenberg, Arnold Stravinsky, Igor Sutermeister, Heinrich Vaughan Williams, Ralph Vycpalek, Ladislav

France and U.S. U.S. England Turkey U.S. U.S. U.S.

U.S.

Switzerland England Czechoslovakia

Type and/or Name of Composition Second Violin Sonoto; Fourth Piano Sonata; Fifth Symphony The Tempest (opera) First Symphony The Promised Land: A Symphony of Palestine Saint Nicholas (cantata); Beggar's Opera (new version) Martin Fierre (cantata) Violin Concerto No. 1; Fourth Symphony Violin Concerto Piono Concerto No. 1 Sonata for Two Pianos Symphony in C Fourth Symphony Concerto pour Ondes Martenot et Orchestre Le Vin Herbe (opera) Seventh String Quartet; Quartet for Oboe, Violin, 'Cello and Piano Symphony No. 4; Opus Americanum No. 2 Concerto for Viola Violin Concerto Symphony Symphony No. 3; String Quartet No. 2 Symphony No. 4 Survivor from V/arsaw (cantata) Moss Raskolnikoff (opera) Symphony in E Minor Death and Redemption (orotorio)

Belgium’s Robert Herbergs was reported as nearing comple¬ tion of his phenomenal L’Agneau Mystique, a commissioned vocal-instrumental composition. The work would require more than three hours for performance and was being scored for openair presentation. Canada reported a performance by the Toronto Symphony orchestra under Sir Ernest MacMillan of what was claimed to be the first all-Canadian program to be played by a symphony orchestra in the dominion. The Vancouver Symphony intro¬ duced David Diamond’s Second Violin Concerto. In Czechoslovakia, Ladislav Vycpalek was given that coun¬ try’s state award for the best 1948 composition, an oratorio. Death and Redemption. Czechoslovakian composer Pavel Borkovec’s String Quartet, earlier commissioned by the League of Composers, New York city, was performed by that organiza¬ tion in April. In France the music scene was less colourful than in the pre¬ ceding year. Composers found a good outlet for contemporary music in Orchestre National, the official French radio orchestra, but major orchestra programs, chamber music productions and recitals relied heavily on traditional repertoire. The Paris Con¬ servatoire announced a broader policy, including classes that ranged in subject matter from kettledrumming and operetta singing to fencing and instruction on the Ondes Martenot, an instrument (similar to Theremih but controlled by a keyboard) invented by Maurice Martenot, who himself wrote a Concerto pour Ondes Martenot et Orchestre. Darius Milhaud, who an¬ nounced he would divide his time between France and the U.S., completed his Fourth Symphony in Paris. The symphony was

commissioned by the French government in commemoration of the 1848 revolution. Germany’s musical season reflected economic fluctuations. Shortage of coal led to unheated concert halls. Currency re¬ forms and restrictions provided further discouragement to man¬ agement and to some artists. Nevertheless, German opera per¬ severed, in general forsaking large and elaborate performances and accepting the challenge of limited staging facilities. In Hamburg a new small theatre was created by salvaging mate¬ rial from assorted ruins. New music suffered somewhat. Vienna reported that only Philharmonic concerts arid a few other standard attractions were consistently sold out. Outstanding productions in the Salzburg festival included Christoph Gluck’s Orpheus and Eurydice, Ludwig von Beetho¬ ven’s Fidelio, and Le Vin Herbe (previously performed in Vienna in cantata form) by the Swiss composer Frank Martin. Holland’s Netherland Opera observed its third season with performances in Amsterdam, The Hague, Rotterdam and Utrecht. The Dutch broadcasting system gave a first perform¬ ance of Jurriaan Andriessen’s Concerto for Piano and Orchestra. Amsterdam was host to the 22nd annual festival of the Inter¬ national Society for Contemporary Music, members of which voted “unanimously” (Czechoslovakian and Polish delegates withheld their votes) to admit Germany to the society. Palermo, Italy, was selected as host city for the 1949 festival. The 1948 festival, while generally successful, was faced, because of finan¬ cial and technical troubles, with some cancellations of promised performances, such as that scheduled for Roberto Gerhardt’s opera La Duenna. Israel’s musical season saw members of the Israel Philhar¬ monic orchestra travelling to concerts in Haifa in armoured buses. Conductor-composer-pianist Leonard Bernstein centred his activities with that organization and, with his colleagues, brought music to formal audiences and to informal encamp¬ ments. Israeli composers contributed considerably to the reper¬ toire of the year, a representative listing including works by Ben-Haim, Buschel, Jacoby, Kaminski, Lavry, K. Salomon, Sternberg and Wohl. In Italy, performances at festivals held in Venice, Siena and Perugia included the ballet Marsia (written 1942) by Luigi Dallapiccola, Riccardo Nielsen’s one-act monodrama VIncubo and Milhaud’s new Opus Americanum No. 2. As in France, radio presented some of the most interesting performances. Interest in choral music and in chamber music was relatively small. Works of modern Italian composers were performed comparatively little, though occasional performances were given of works by Alfredo Casella, Dallapiccola, Giorgio Ghedini, G. Francesco Malipiero, Goffredo Petrassi and Ildebrando Pizzetti. The International Music festival, which took place in Venice in September, marked a resumption of an activity which had been interrupted for the preceding six years. An interesting Italian export was Ferrucio Burco, eight-year old Italian con¬ ductor, whose appearance at New York city’s Carnegie Hall brought good reviews. At conferences in Mexico, plans were made by U.N.E.S.C.O. for the preparation of a catalogue of world music, listing mate¬ rial already available in recorded form and music which should be recorded to supplement existing material. The government established the Opera de Bellas Artes, aimed at fostering Mexican musical culture. In addition, it commis¬ sioned several Mexican composers to write operas on Mexican subjects. Composers living in Mexico who were represented on programs included Jesus Bal y Gay, Carlos Chavez, Bias Galindo, Jose Pablo Moncayo and Maria Teresa Prieto. Norway continued to stress publication of large orchestral

OPENING SCENE from Peter Grimes, an opera by the contemporary British composer, Benjamin Britten, which had its New York premiere at the Metro¬ politan Opera house on Feb. 12, 1948

scores by native composers, among whom were Harald Saeverud, Klaus Egge, Furtein Valen and Eivind Groven. Groven’s New Norwegian Symphony was given an American premiere in New York city during May. Nonvay’s first Northern Music festival, held at Oslo, stressed performances of contemporary works. Portugal, which had been without a major symphony orches¬ tra for 30 years, settled some minor disputes and organized the Associagao de Orchestra Sinfonica do Conservatorio de musica do Porto. Russia’s Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union indicted seven soviet composers in a resolution which accused the composers of neglecting and forgetting their duties of writing for the people. Vano Muradeli’s opera Great Friendship specifically provoked the resolution. Composers in¬ cluded in the committee’s report were Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich, Aram Khachaturian, Vissarion Shebalin, Nikolai Miaskovsky, Muradeli and Gabriel Popov. Izvestia and Pravda, reviewing Shostakovich’s music for the film Young Guard, re¬ leased in October, gave indication that he, at least, had again found the correct path. By November it was reported that the composers had pledged to recognize the unsuitability of formal¬ istic and nationally alienated music. In South America, Rio de Janeiro’s opera season was can¬ celled because the usual municipal subsidy was not granted. As a result, other concerts, normally confined to pre- and post¬ opera seasons were scattered over the entire year. A new can¬ tata., Martin Fierre, by Juan Jose Castro, was conducted by the composer in a concert by the Buenos Aires Philharmonic or¬ chestra. In Bogota, Colombia, an active season included performances by Orquesta Sinfonica Nacional and La Sociedad de Los Amigos de la Musica. Guest artists and groups included Andre Asselin, Canadian pianist, and a ballet group from the Paris Op6ra. At Cartagena, Colombia, a 20-day festival was held, with the Bogota Symphony orchestra being supplemented by musicians from Mexico and Guatemala. San Salvador’s first opera season in 19 j^ears was observed in August when a company organized by Daniel Duno pre¬ sented four operas at Teatro Nacional.

In Sweden, the lysth anniversary of the founding of Stock¬ holm opera was celebrated on Jan. i8. Two world premieres lent special significance to the season, those of Kurt Atterberg’s (Sweden) opera The Tempest and Heinrich Sutermeister’s (Switzerland) opera Raskolnikoff. In the near east, Ankara, Turkey, dedicated a new opera house with an all-Turkish program, which included a scene from Ahmen Adnan Saygun’s opera Kerem, a Ballad by Necil Kazim Akses, as well as works by Kemal Resit Rey and Ulvi Kemal Erkin tabulated on p. 490. Also indicative of renewed musical activity was an English-Turkish music festival given by the Turkish Symphony conducted by George Weldon. Activity in the United States was characterized by a combi¬ nation of expansion and unrest. The New York PhilharmonicSymphony announced their new conductors as Dimitri Mitropoulos and Leopold Stokowski. Antal Dorati was scheduled to conduct the Minneapolis Symphony. Chicago, having announced consideration of Wilhelm Furtwaengler as its conductor, recon¬ sidered and settled for guest conductors, a policy followed by a rather impressive array of other orchestras. Opera continued to expand. Stanford university, Stanford, Calif., announced an opera workshop, thus joining the ranks of several other educational institutions. Chicago, having faced a barren operatic year, undertook consideration of a co-operative plan with the New York City Opera company and its own Civic Institute of Opera. To considerable extent, universities and colleges sponsored performances of rare and contemporary works. The Tanglewood festivals in the Berkshire Hills brought together an im¬ pressive group of talent. The west coast continued to be active, showing increased participation in composition, in opera and symphony performance. Premieres not already noted in the table on p. 490 included Burrill Phillips’ Partita for Violin, Viola, ’Cello, and Piano; Norman Dello Join’s Concerto Piece; Lukas Foss’s String Quartet No. i; Kurt Weill’s one-act folk opera Down in the Valley; Alexei Haieff’s Violin Concerto in One Movement; Paul Creston’s Fantasy for Trombone and Orchestra; and Isadore Freed’s opera The Princess and the Vagabond. Oddities of the year included a new promotional activity publicized by the Buffalo (N.Y.) Philharmonic orchestra, which

491

492

MUSIC LIBRARY ASSOCIATION —NARCOTICS

offered to provide baby sitters for purchasers of season tickets. (F. B. C.) Films.—/ Pagliacci (.Amalgamated Pictures Inc.); Liszt Concert (Post Pictures Corporation); Music and Architecture'through the Ages (United World Films, Inc.).

Popular Music.—The three outstanding popular tunes of 1948 were “Buttons and Bows,” “Now Is the Hour” and “Nature Boy.” In the scramble to create a backlog of popular recorded ma¬ terial before the dispute between the American Federation of Musicians and the National Associations of Broadcasters had stopped the making of new recordings at the beginning of 1948, there were some lucky guesses to offset a considerable waste of effort. The surprise success was a King Cole recording of the song called “Nature Boy,” written by eden ahbez. Although it broke almost every rule of Tin Pan Alley, “Nature Boy” leaped immediately to the top of the Hit Parade. It eventually dropped out of sight with equal celerity. “Now Is the Hour” topped the year’s best-sellers in sheet music, according to Variety’s poll, and this was a real triumph for the Australian Dorothy Stewart, who adapted it from a melody in which Maewa Kaihau and Clement Scott shared credit. The same tune was said to have been used for a hymn, “Cleanse Me.” The success of Miss Stewart’s version was largely the result of the patness of the words for almost any farewell occasion, with considerable help from the recordings of Gracie Fields, Bing Crosby and other interpreters. “Buttons and Bows” was probably the best popular song of the year. It was written by Ray Evans and Jay Livingston for a motion picture. The Paleface, in which Bob Hope sang it casually to his own pretended concertina accompaniment. Be¬ fore the picture could be released, “Buttons and Bows” had won national favour, largely through the records of Dinah Shore, Betty Garrett and others. Billy Reid’s “A Tree in the Meadow,” an English importa¬ tion, finished second in the sheet music list, followed by “My Happiness” (Betty Peterson and Borney Bergantine) and “You Can’t Be True, Dear,” adapted by Hal Cotton and Ken Griffin from the German waltz “Du Kannst Nicht Treu Sein.” Next came a surprising revival, “I’m Looking over a Four Leaf Clover,” which Harry Woods and Mort Dixon had created in 1927. Then there was the rather reminiscent “You Call.Every¬ body Darling,” with credit divided among Ben Trace, Sam Martin and Clem Watts, followed by the annual Sammy CahnJule Styne hit, this time called “It’s Magic.” Two successful novelties of the year, closely related in sub¬ ject matter, were “The Dickey Bird Song,” by the unusual partnership of Sammy Fain and Howard Dietz, and a distress¬ ingly insistent “Woody Woodpecker Song,” in which George Tibbies and Ramey Idriss imitated the “sign-off” pattern used by most dance bands at the finish of a set. The popular singer Peggy Lee teamed with her husband, Dave Barbour, to produce another novelty, “Manana,” and Frank Loesser had two hits, “On a Slow Boat to China” and “My Darling, My Darling,” the latter featured in the musical version of Charley’s Aunt {Where’s Charley?). Other new songs which made an impression were “Beg Your Pardon,” by Francis Craig and Beasley Smith, Sunny Skylar’s “Hair of Gold, Eyes of Blue,” and the Arthur Beul-Vaughn Horton “Toolie Oolie Doolie.” The 1926 “Baby Face” of Benny Davis and Harry Akst came back strongly, while Joan Whitney and Alex Kramer took their “Love Somebody” right out of America’s folk music. (It is in Carl Sandburg’s American Songbag.) Irving Berlin’s “White Christmas” continued to be a holiday favourite, with some com¬ petition from Don Gardner’s nonsensical baby-talk novelty, “All I Want for Christmas Is My Two Front Teeth.”

An unusual feature of the year was the seriousness with which a large and predominantly youthful public took the socalled “be-bop,” an attempt to distort the conventions of music beyond the wildest exaggerations of jazz and swing. (S. Sp.) Bibliography.—Sigmund

Spaeth,

A

History

of

Popular Music

in

America.

Music in Industry.—Industrial management during 1948 ef¬ fectively employed the psychological and physiological impact of functionally designed music to stimulate employee efficiency by relieving on-the-job fatigue and boredom. The productive benefits of music became increasingly apparent as more and more factories were wired for the specialized music programs available from studios in important industrial centres. As industry-wide projects toward work simplification and straight-line production were completed, work routines became unavoidably repetitive. To counteract the boring monotony of such simplified tasks, functional music was successfully utilized. With music the work became less tedious, the time passed more quickly, job attitudes improved and the quality and quantity of output were upgraded. During 1948 there was a widespread extension of music to offices, banks, insurance companies, utilities, stores and other business organizations. This significant trend was partly due to the tremendously increased use of business machines with the resultant mechanization of office routines which formerly were manual. Here again, functional music effectively relieved the drudgery and the pent-up tensions of mechanized work and favourably influenced office efficiency and job interest. Restaurant operators and retail merchants, recognizing the value of music to atmosphere psychology, continued to make effective use of music to create a pleasant, distinctive environ¬ ment for their patrons. {See also Radio.) (X.) Recordings—The market for European recordings was increased during the major part of 1948 by the iij4-month dispute between the National Associations of Broadcasters and the American Federation of Musicians. Recordings of new works came rather generally to a halt in the United States and most releases of pressings offered in that country were taken from accumulated stock. Considerable success was attained in the marketing of records to be played at speeds other than the standard 78 r.p.m. By the end of the year two new types had been announced. One type stressed long-play and attained its goal by use of a light tone-arm in conjunction with consider¬ ably finer grooving and a speed of ssVs r.p.m. The second type, also employing finer grooving and a lighter tone-arm, stressed use of records of smaller physical size and a performing speed of 45 r.p.m. Both meth¬ ods promised great improvement in faithfulness of reproduction. As the year ended, it became apparent that makers of record players faced prob¬ lems of discovering means of incorporating the various speeds of revolu¬ tion in a single instrument. (F. B. C.)

Music Library Association: see

Societies and Associa¬

tions.

Mustard Seed: see Mutton: see Meat.

Spices.

Narcotics and Narcotic Traffic.

—The Commission on Narcotic Drugs of the United Nations at its third session in May 1948 took the following actions: It adopted a protocol to bring under international control synthetic drugs capable of producing addiction. This protocol was approved by the Economic and Social council at its August meeting in Geneva and was referred to the United Nations general assembly in Paris in September, where it was unani¬ mously adopted. The commission also decided on unification of numerous existing international agreements relating to the limi¬ tation of manufacture of dangerous drugs, regulation of their, distribution and suppression of the illicit traffic, by replacing these agreements with one convention and amalgamating exist¬ ing control bodies. This proposed single convention should also include provisions for the limitation of production of narcotic raw materials, thus placing all international controls in one

agreement. The commission also called for an inquiry into the possibility of holding a conference of opium producing countries and principal manufacturing countries with the object of reach¬ ing an interim commodity agreement limiting the production and export of opium to medical and scientific needs pending adoption of the convention on limitation of raw materials. The commission also decided that narcotic drugs had con¬ stituted and might constitute in the future a powerful instru¬ ment of genocide, and requested the Economic and Social coun¬ cil to insure that the use of drugs as an instrument of genocide be covered in the proposed convention to outlaw genocide in international law. The commission asked the secretary-general to call for an official explanation from the Siamese government of reported illicit traffic involving considerable quantities of opium moving between Siam and China. It was also informed that illicit traffic was prevalent in Germany and asked the representatives from the four occupying powers to call on their governments to estab¬ lish close liaison with the police of countries bordering Germany in an effort to halt this traffic. The situation regarding opium smoking, according to the com¬ mission, had shown little irnprovement in some parts of the far east. Suppression measures by the authorities concerned and special yearly reports were requested by the commission, which also asked that authorizations for opium exports be barred to countries where opium smoking remained prevalent. Continuing its promotion of the scientific study of the three major types of narcotic raw materials—opium poppy, coca leaf and Indian hemp {Cannabis saliva) or marijuana plant—the commission asked for the establishment of an international joint-research program to seek an analytical test for determining the source country of raw opium seized in the illicit traffic. The commission authorized the secretariat to continue its researches on Indian hemp and to add an expert on the subject to its staff. It studied reports on the effects of the coca leaf chewing habit from several Latin-American countries where the habit con¬ tinued to be prevalent. United States.—Metopon.—Prior to July 1948 the new anal¬ gesic drug Metopon had been available only through direct sale by a licensed distributor to a qualified practitioner, for oral administration in cancer cases for chronic pain relief. In July, however, Metopon was made available, subject to the usual con¬ ditions of transfer of narcotics, to qualified wholesale dealers, hospitals, druggists and practitioners, for purchase from any wholesale distributors. The drug could now be prescribed for, and dispensed to, a patient for oral use in chronic pain, includ¬ ing the pain incident to cancer, generally of such severity as medically to require an opiate. Committee on Drug Addiction and Narcotics of the National Research Council.—The committee at its May meeting con¬ sidered three proposals for research projects: (i) a study of the mechanisms of analgesia, (2) clinical evaluation of synthetic analgesics in human parturition and (3) action of drugs in ob¬ stetric analgesia. After discussion, the committee decided these projects were meritorious and should be given approval. The committee also considered a policy regarding the study of new drugs, and tentatively decided that in selecting new drugs for study it should require as complete data as possible on (i) tol¬ erance, (2) analgesia, (3) sedation and (4) general toxicity and side reactions. The committee received a summarized version of the public health research results on the new drug K-4710, . which was found to have habituating qualities, and which was later covered under the Federal narcotic laws as Keto-bemidone. The committee decided that Keto-bemidone was unsatisfactory for medical use because of its dangerous and intense habit¬ forming properties. The manufacturer agreed not to place it on

REFUGEES arriving at Pakch’on, Korea, in 1948, are shown arranging their belongings for inspection by U.S. and Korean police who were required to watch for narcotics, firearms or illegal currency

the market for distribution.

{See

also Drug Administration,

U.S.) Bibliography.—“Traffic in Opium and Other Dangerous Drugs for the Year Ended December 31, 1947,” United States Treasury Department, Bureau of Narcotics (1947): United Nations Report on the Third Ses¬ sion of the Commission on Narcotic Drugs to the Economic and Social Council, Document No. E/799 (May 28, 1948). (H. J. A.)

National Academy of Sciences: see

Societies and Asso¬

ciations.

National Archives: see

Archives, National.

National Association of Evangelicals. jnterchurch organization which represents conservative Protestant denomi¬ nations and organizations of the United States. During 1948, 5 additional denominations were admitted, bringing the total num¬ ber to 34. About 60 additional single churches of other de¬ nominations were also received, bringing the total of such churches to 410. There were several subsidiary corporations of the association, operating in specialized fields. These included Evangelical Foreign Missions, which served 74 mission boards; the National Religious Broadcasters, serving more than 100 religious broadcasting organizations; the National Sunday School association; the National Association of Christian Schools and Evangelical Youth. During 1948 the national offices were relocated at 542 S. Dearborn St., Chicago, Ill. The principal officers during the year were Stephen W. Paine, Houghton, N.Y., president; Fred¬ erick C. Fowler, Pittsburgh, Pa., first vice-president; Don H. Householder, Los Angeles, Calif., second vice-president; George R. Warner, Chicago, secretary; Robert C. Van Kampen, Chi¬ cago, treasurer; R. L. Decker, Kansas City, Mo., executive sec¬ retary; J. Elwin Wright, Boston, Mass., secretary for inter¬ national co-operation. The National Association of Evangelicals sponsored an inter¬ national conference of evangelicals in Clarens, Switz., in August, attended by executives from 14 countries, at which plans were advanced for a world congress of evangelicals to be held in Toronto, Ont., Canada, in 1949. (J. E. Wt.)

493

494

NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC SOCIETY

National Association of Manufacturers: see

Societies

AND Associations.

National Association of State Libraries: see

Societies

AND Associations.

National Budget: see Budget, National. National Catholic Community Service: see

Societies

AND Associations.

National Catholic Welfare Conference: see

Catholic

Welfare Conference, National.

National Congress of Parents and Teachers: see

Par¬

ents AND Teachers, National Congress of.

National Debt: see

Debt, National.

National Education Association. of the United States held its 86th annual meeting and its 27th representative assembly at Cleveland, 0., July 5-9, 1948. The assembly, with 2,554 delegates, was the largest in the associa¬ tion’s history. The association was in the third year of its Vic¬ tory Action Program (1946-51). Its work was carried on through 25 commissions, councils and committees, 29 depart¬ ments and 15 headquarters divisions. In the international field it worked through the World Organization of the Teaching Pro¬ fession, which held its second meeting in London during July 1948. The Overseas Teacher-Relief fund, which the association sponsored in 1947, brought in more than $276,000, which was used to aid teachers in war-devastated countries. The fund was being continued during 1948. The association made much prog¬ ress in its campaign for federal aid during the year. Senate bill S. 472 passed with a 58-22 vote, but the companion bill H.R. 2953 was held up in the house of representatives. “Strengthening the Foundation of Freedom” was the theme for American Education week, Nov. 7-13, 1948. It was esti¬ mated that 10,000,000 citizens visited the schools during this week. The association was organized in Philadelphia, Pa., in 1857. It had in 1948 a membership of 441,127 and its affiliated state associations had a membership of 802,773. N.E.A. dues were increased beginning in 1948-49 from $3 to $5. There were 2,369 affiliated local associations in 1948 as compared with 1,970 in 1947. The official organ is the NEA Journal, which is issued to all members monthly except during June, July and August. The president for 1948-49 was Mabel Studebaker, Erie, Pa.; executive secretary was Willard E. Givens. {See also Edu¬ cation.) (J. E. Mo.)

National Gallery of Art: see

Smithsonian Institution.

National Geographic Society.

Geographic society, in co-operation with the U.S. army, navy, air force, the national bureau of standards, the U.S. coast and geodetic survey and the state department, studied the solar eclipse of May 8-9. Seven stations were established along a 5,320-mi. arc from Burma through Siam, China, Korea and Japan to the Aleutian Islands. Data obtained during the eclipse were expected to be useful in determining the shape and size of the earth with greater pre¬ cision than was formerly possible. Joining with the Smithsonian institution and the Australian government in a study of Arnhem Land, Australia, the society reported the discovery of the cattle egret, hitherto unknown in Australia, and the rock pigeon, previously feared to be extinct. The expedition identified new species of plants and fishes. Cave paintings resembling those of prehistoric man in Spain and of the African bushmen were discovered. Nutritional practices and sacred ceremonies of the Australian aborigines were also studied.

members of the National Geographic society expedition which filmed the 194S solar eclipse at Adak in the Aleutian Islands being visited by the U.S. navy and air commanders (left) on the island. This was one of seven groups studying the eclipse along a 5,320-mi. path from Burma to Adak

The National Geographic-Woods Hole Oceanographic institution-Columbia university expedition, which in 1947 surveyed 10,000 sq.mi. of the great undersea mountain chain known as the Mid-Atlantic ridge, further explored the ridge in 1948. Maurice Ewing again served as expedition leader. Continuing joint archaeological investigations of the society and the Smithsonian institution, a 1948 expedition reported two notable discoveries in Panama; the first urn burials ever un¬ covered between Ecuador and southeastern United States and the first group of man-made mounds found in the country. Matthew W. Stirling, expedition leader, reported also that one of the field parties, working in southern Mexico, unearthed crude artifacts which might prove the existence of an earlier culture than had previously been known to exist in the region. A century-old ornithological mystery was solved during the summer by an expedition headed by Arthur A. Allen. The society, with Cornell university, Ithaca, N.Y., and the Arctic Institute of North America, sent Allen to Alaska, where the nesting place of the bristle-thighed curlew was found and photo¬ graphed. This was the only North American bird the breeding grounds of which had never been discovered. Studies of the aurora were continued by Carl W. Gartlein in a joint project of the society and Cornell university. Late in 1948 the society, the Smithsonian institution and Yale university sent an expedition to Nepal where it was hoped the line would be found which separates the widely differing animal and bird species in the western and eastern Himalayas. Dillon Ripley led the group. In addition to making the Nepalese col¬ lections, the party planned a survey of near-by areas in India for the Indian government. A national park to preserve the great Indian rhinoceros was projected. The society’s cartographic division in 1948 designed, drew and published four ten-colour wall maps which were issued as sup¬ plements to the National Geographic Magazine. In all, 7,989,284 copies of the maps were distributed to the society’s members.

NATIONAL GUARD—NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD 495 Two of the maps issued were units in the series covering the regions of the United States on a scale larger than is practical for a single map of the country. The new sectional maps were for north central and southwestern areas; a map of the north¬ west was to complete the series. The detail and accuracy of the society’s 1948 map of Australia were made possible by wartime mapping and surveying projects of little-known areas of the southern continent. A double map of Washington, D.C., and its environs was the most comprehensive chart of the nation’s capital ever published. A series of paintings made especially for reproduction in the National Geographic Magazine showed Indians of the far west by W. Langdon Kihn. Included in the 830 studies in natural colour photography published during the year were reproductions of American mas¬ ters in the National gallery in Washington and of paintings from the German Kaiser Friedrich museum art collection which were exhibited in a number of U.S. cities. Both series were made available in reprints. Membership of the National Geographic society in 1948 was 1,800,000. Its headquarters are at 1146 Sixteenth St., N.W., Washington 6, D.C. Officers in 1948: president and editor, Gil¬ bert Grosvenor; vice-president and associate editor, John Oliver La Gorce; secretary, Thomas W. McKnew; treasurer, Robert V. Fleming. The society’s research committee; chairman, Ly¬ man J. Briggs; vice-chairman, Alexander Wetmore. (G. Gr.)

llAtinriQl Cimril

guard reached its greatest strength in history during 1948. On Dec. i, 1948, the strength was 303,655 officers and men, composing 4,824 units in the 48 states, the District of Columbia and the territories of Hawaii and Puerto Rico; this was an in¬ crease of 93,460 officers and men since Jan. i, 1948. Well ahead of plans toward an ultimate strength of 683,000 men in 6,194 units by 1952, army units of the guard had 270,385 men and 4,363 organized units. The goal of 683,000 officers and men called for 25 infantry and 2 armoured divisions, 21 regi¬ mental combat teams, 14 anti-aircraft artillery brigades, 12 air wings, 27 air groups, 72 fighter squadrons, 12 light bombard¬ ment squadrons and the necessary supporting units. The air national guard numbered 33,270 men and 461 units in 1948. An important factor in the growth of the national guard dur¬ ing 1948 was the passage of the Selective Service act, which provided that men in the guard before presidential approval of the bill would be draft-exempt as long as they continued to serve satisfactorily. Between the passage of the act and the signing more than 66,000 men joined the guard. The Selective Service act continued to influence enlistments in the guard by providing shorter active duty service to men electing to join the guard or other active reserve components of the armed forces. It also provided for proclamations by staffi governors permitting young men 17 to i8-j years of age to join the guard with exemption from the draft as long as they serve

Il2u0n3l uUarU*

satisfactorily. One of the major developments in the national guard during 1948 was the new three-year training program. Specifically designed for the new national guard, the program was designed to train a guardsman completely during his origi¬ nal three-year enlistment period. The program stressed training of noncommissioned officers and specialists. The air national guard equipped 5 of its 67 organized fighter squadrons with the new jet-propelled F-80 Shooting Stars in 1948. Eventually all fighter squadrons using the F-47 and F-51 conventional-model planes were to be converted to jet-propelled planes. The Career Guidance plan for enlisted men, put into effect

in 1948, made it possible for them to advance in accordance with their ability and ambition. Opportunities for earning com¬ missions were also expanded for enlisted men of all grades. The guard likewise offered eligible enlisted men the opportunity to attend the U.S. Military academy at West Point, and the Air Force university at Maxwell field, Ala. The inactive national guard was reconstituted. Officers and men who otherwise might be permanently lost to the guard and to the military defense of the nation could continue their mili¬ tary affiliation through membership in the inactive guard. Full-time administrative assistants were provided to unit commanders for the first time in guard history, thus permitting commanding officers to devote a great portion of their time to the training of guardsmen for combat missions. Unit reorganization from division level down, based on les¬ sons learned in World War II, was begun in Oct. 1948 and was expected to be completed early in 1949. It provided greater mobility, firepower and combat efficiency. (K. F. C.)

National Housing Agency: see Housing. National Income and National Product: see

Income

AND Product, U.S.

National Insurance: see Relief; Social Security. Nationalization of Industries: see Coal; Public Health Services; Public Utilities; Railroads.

National labor Relations Board,

tth congre”;

over presidential veto, passed into law the Labor Management Relations act, popularly known as the Taft-Hartley act. The new statute greatly amended the National Labor Relations act of 1935 and enlarged its scope of activities. During the following fiscal year the National Labor Relations board was reorganized in accordance with the requirements of the amendments to the National Labor Relations act. A new set of rules and regulations was adopted. Numerous changes were made in procedure and organization structure. In essence, the new law reaffirmed the right of employees to self-organization and to bargain collectively through representa¬ tives of their own choosing. Also, it retained the unfair labour practices under the Wagner act which proscribe employer inter¬ ference, domination, discrimination and refusal to bargain col¬ lectively. To these unfair practices were added six new union unfair labour practices which regulate union policies and activi¬ ties such as secondary boycott, featherbedding, excessive dues, etc. In addition, the new law separated the prosecuting from the judicial functions by vesting final authority for investigation and prosecution of all unfair labour practice cases in the general counsel; enlarged the former board from three to five members; provided the board with injunctive powers; and added four new types of elections to be conducted by the board in addition to Wagner act collective-bargaining polls. From Aug. 22, 1947, the effective date of the new act, through Aug. 22, 1948, more than 43,000 cases were filed with the Na¬ tional Labor Relations board. Of these, 31,023 were petitions for union-shop authorization polls, 8,024 represented petitions for various types of representation elections, 3,070 involved charges of unfair labour practices filed against employers, and 926 concerned charges of unfair labour practices filed against unions. To use the board’s facilities in any type of case, a labour or¬ ganization, whether a formally organized union or an informal committee, must file noncommunist affidavits for all of its offi¬ cers, and the union itself must file financial and other data about its operations. As of Oct. 31, 1948, a total of 98,256

496

NATIONAL LAWYERS GUILD — NATIONAL MEDIATION BOARD

union officials had filed the required noncommunist affidavits. As of that date, 174 national unions and 10,331 locals were in full compliance with both the affidavit and financial report re¬ quirements of the law. During the year the greater percentage of board work was in the field of union-shop elections. In all, it conducted a total of 23,752 such polls in the 12-month period. In 98% of these elec¬ tions employees voted “yes” to the question: “Do you wish to authorize (name of union) to negotiate with your employer for a contract requiring membership in the (name of union) as a condition of employment?” At the same time, board officials conducted 3,677 representa¬ tion polls to determine employee choice of bargaining represen¬ tatives. Of these, labour organizations won 2,700 and lost 977. The board also held 129 decertification elections—polls to determine whether or not groups of employees wished to unseat a labour organization which had been representing them. In 44 of these elections the union was retained; it was rejected in the remaining 85 ballotings. Of the 3,070 charges filed against employers, 1,797 were filed by unions and 1,273 were filed by individuals. Employers filed 535 of the 926 charges against unions, individuals filed 339 of them and other unions 52. The most common charge filed against unions was that of illegal secondary boycott. This charge was made in 290 out of the 926 total. During the 12-month period the five-man board decided a total of 2,626 cases. As a natural result of the long investigation and litigation of unfair labour practices, the bulk of board rulings was made in representation cases. In all, it issued 1,696 decisions on representation questions as against 217 rulings on unfair labour practices. Other decisions, numbering 713, con¬ cerned union-shop election petitions. During the year the general counsel petitioned federal dis¬ trict courts for 22 injunctions under the mandatory provisions of the law. In 13 of these, injunctive relief was granted; in 4 cases it was denied; 3 were withdrawn and 2 were pending. All but one were based upon charges of secondary boycott. The remaining one was based upon a charge that a union continued picketing a store after another union had been certified as bar¬ gaining agent there. In addition, the general counsel sought six injunctions under the act’s discretionary provisions. Of these, three were granted, two were denied and one was withdrawn because the alleged illegal conduct had ceased. A total of 3,933 Wagner act cases were pending on the board’s docket as of Aug. 22, 1947, the effective date of the Taft-Hartley act. During the following year, more than 43,000 new cases were filed with the agency. By the end of Aug. 1948, one year later, the board had disposed of more than 36,000 of these cases, leaving a remainder of 10,292 pending disposition at vari¬ ous procedural levels. Of these 10,292 pending cases, 726, or 7%, were filed before Aug. 22, 1947. Of these 726 Wagner act cases, 594 involved charges of unfair labour practices and 132 involved petitions for collective-bargaining elections. Of the 9,566 pending cases filed after Aug. 22, 1947, charges of unfair labour practices accounted for 1,804 and petitions for various types of elections 7,762 cases. Of the 7,762 election cases pending on Aug. 31, 5,166 involved petitions for unionshop polls; 2,457 were petitions for collective-bargaining elec¬ tions; and 139 were petitions to decertify labour organizations. With certain exclusions the Taft-Hartley act covers the same area the Wagner act did—employees of employers whose opera¬ tions affect interstate commerce. As regards employees, ex¬ cluded are supervisors, agricultural labourers, persons having the status of independent contractors and employees subject to the Railway Labor act. Employer groups excluded are federal

reserve banks, wholly owned government corporations and non¬ profit hospitals. The board has its headquarters in Washington, D.C., and maintains 28 regional offices, each of which services a particular area. (5ee also Labour Unions; Law; Strikes.) (P. M. Hg.)

National Lawyers Guild: ,,

see Societies and Associations.

j, ..

The

National

Mediation

NStiOndl MCOIBtlOn BOdrO*

board was created in 1934 under authority of the Railway Labor act as an independent agency of the United States government. The board administers procedures of the law designed to facilitate the peaceful settle¬ ment of labour disputes on the railroads and commercial air lines for the purpose of preventing interruptions to service re¬ sulting from work stoppages. The act authorizes the board to investigate disputes among employees over representation for collective bargaining. In disputes between carrier management and employees over changes in rates of pay, rules or working conditions the act requires the board to endeavour to settle such disputes by mediation. If no settlement can be achieved through this pro¬ cedure, the board must use its best efforts to induce the parties to accept arbitration as a means of effecting a peaceful settle¬ ment of their dispute. During 1948 a total of 203 representation disputes and 259 mediation disputes were disposed of by the board. Both of these totals represented substantial gains over the number of cases disposed of in 1947. The era of unsettled labour conditions which plagued most of U.S. industry during the postwar period did not spare the railroads and air lines. Employees caught in the bind of higher living costs sought to preserve their purchasing power by secur¬ ing wage increases. Both rail and air carriers are regulated industries to the extent that the government fixes rates from which their revenue is derived. As a consequence there is de¬ termined employer resistance to employee demands which dur¬ ing 1948 resulted in some of the most bitterly contested dis¬ putes in the history of the Railway Labor act. Although threatened strikes were almost a daily problem of the board during 1948, there were relatively few instances where pro¬ cedures of the law were ineffective in settling the disputes and avoiding work stoppages. This statement should not be interpreted to minimize the seriousness of the few instances where the law failed to pre¬ vent interruptions to service. Thus, during the spring of 1948, in the nation-wide dispute over wages involving railroad engine and yard service employees, all procedures of the law were utilized without a settlement’s being made. To prevent a tieup in the nation’s rail transport system, operation of the railroads was taken over by the secretary of the army under an executive order. This action did not result in the strike threat’s being lifted and thus it finally became necessary on May 10, 1948, for the government to secure a restraining order from the United States district court of the District of Columbia. Al¬ though the above procedures were effective in preventing the strike, they did not settle the dispute and, as so often happens, it remained for this to be accomplished eventually through mediation. In many cases where procedures of the law were used initially without success, mediation was resumed by the mediation board or by emergency boards in bringing the parties to agreement. In other disputes during 194S involving railroad and air-line employees where strikes were called, the public welfare was not so vitally affected as in the national railroad case. However, to place the strike record of 1948 on the railroads and air lines

NATIONAL MILITARY ESTABLISH MENT —NAVAL ACADEMY, U.S.497 in its proper perspective it should be pointed out that it was overshadowed by 172 peaceful settlements effected through mediation and arbitration under provisions of the Railway Labor act. (See also Railroads.) (T. E. S.)

National Military Establishment: see

Government

De¬

partments AND Bureaus; United States.

National Museum: see

Smithsonian Institution.

National Parks and Monuments• edented public use of the U.S. national parks during 1948. An estimated 29,600,000 persons visited the scenic, scientific, historic and recreational areas administered by the national park service during the travel year that ended Sept. 30. Rocky Mountain, Yellowstone and Great Smoky Mountains National parks, the Blue Ridge park¬ way and the Lincoln memorial had more than i ,000,000 visitors each. Lake Texoma Recreational area in Texas and Oklahoma reported more than 2,000,000 visitors and Lake Mead Recrea¬ tional area in Arizona and Nevada reported nearly 1,500,000. Three historical areas were added to the national park system in 1948—Saratoga National Historical park, N.Y., site of one of the major engagements of the Revolutionary War; Fort Sumter in Charleston harbour, S.C.; and Hampton National Historic site, located near Towson, Md., a fine Georgian mansion illustrating an early phase of architectural and cultural develop¬ ment in the United States. Establishment of this site followed the purchase of Hampton by the federal government with funds donated by the Avalon foundation. During the year, congress enacted legislation authorizing the establishment of three important historical areas: Independence National Historical park in the old part of the city of Philadel¬ phia, Pa., famed as the nation’s birthplace; DeSoto National memorial in Tampa bay, Fla., commemorating the explorations and discoveries of that great Spaniard; and Fort Vancouver National monument in the state of Washington, the commercial and political headquarters in the Pacific northwest of the Hud¬ son’s Bay company. In the fall of 1948, two historic areas, Atlanta Campaign National Historic site and New Echota Marker National me¬ morial, previously maintained by the national park service, were taken over by the Georgia department of state parks. An agree¬ ment, likewise, was entered into with the forest service of the U.S. department of agriculture whereby that service assumed protection of the Devil Postpile National monument, Calif., an area of approximately 800 ac. situated in the Sierra National forest. A major land acquisition in 1948 was the purchase of approx¬ imately 135,000 ac. for Everglades National park, located near the southern extremity of the Florida peninsula and containing extensive watercourses, vast mangrove forests and saw-grass prairies, where there are great concentrations of waterfowl and other forms of native wildlife. The purchase was the third to be made from the $2,000,000 fund which the state of Florida tendered to the federal government for land acquisition when the park was officially established in June 1947. In October the travel division of the national park service published the first copy of Travel USA, a monthly illustrated magazine, to acquaint the peoples of the world with the travel attractions of the United States. Films.—Glacier Park—Canadian Rockies (Paul Hoefler Productions); Glacier Park Studies (Simmel-Meservey); Grand Canyon (Dudley Pic¬ tures Corp.).

Great Britain.—The Forestry commission continued its pol¬ icy of making the forests open to the public by establishing national forest parks. Six parks were open in 1948; the Forest of Dean and Hardknott forest in England; Snowdonia, in Wales;

and in Scotland, Argyll, Glen Trool in Galloway and Queen’s Forest of Glen More in Inverness-shire. This last forest park was first made available to the public in 1947, and was opened officially in the early summer of 1948. The six forest parks covered a total area of nearly 240,000 ac. Two monuments were erected in London in 1948 to Franklin Delano Roosevelt. On April 12, Mrs. Roosevelt unveiled a statue by Sir William Reid Dick in Grosvenor square. The peo¬ ple of Britain had subscribed to a public fund for the erection of the monument. A memorial plaque to President Roosevelt was unveiled in Westminster abbey on Nov. 12 by Clement Attlee and Winston Churchill. This was the first time a foreign president had been honoured in the abbey. On the anniversary of the battle of Trafalgar, Oct. 21, the Duke of Gloucester unveiled two memorial busts to Earl Jellicoe (1859-1935) and Earl Beatty (1871-1936) in a redesigned Trafalgar square, London. The memorials were by Charles Wheeler and William McMillan. Memorials to World War H were unveiled on June 6, the anniversary of “D-Day,” at the church at Portsmouth where in 1944 a short service had been held for senior officers before they sailed for France, and also on the beaches in Normandy. O+her Countries.—A new national park was opened in the province of New Brunswick, Can. An area of approximately 79 sq.mi. between the Goose and Upper Salmon (Alma) rivers and extending northward from the Bay of Fundy for a distance of about nine miles was developed by the provision of facilities for tourists. A new game reserve was established at James bay, the southern extension of Hudson bay. The new reserve, about 250 mi. long and 100 mi. wide, was set up as a native hunting and trapping reserve under the game regulations of the Northwest Territories. National parks existed in the British colonies of Kenya, Tanganyika and the Federation of Malaya. The government of Uganda was considering a proposal for the establishment of a national park, and the possibility of extending the area already set aside in Kenya was being examined. Bibliography.—Report of the National Parks Committee (.England and Wales) (H.M.S.O., London, 1947): separate articles on each of the Canadian national parks were published in Canada’s Weekly (London, 1948); Twenty-Eighth Annual Report of the Forestry Commissioners (H.M.S.O., London, 1948).

National Wealth: see

Wealth

and

Income,

Distribu¬

tion OF.

Natural Gas: see Gas, Natural. Nauru: see Pacific Islands under

Trusteeship; Trustee

Territories.

MAnoflomif nCdOcinyy

II 0 United States Naval acadUaUa emy, located at Annapolis, Md., was founded in 1845, and is maintained by the government, under the immediate supervision of the bureau of naval per¬ sonnel of the navy department, for the education and training of young men for the naval service. The Naval academy during 1948 continued emphasis on its traditional role as an undergraduate institution, stressing funda¬ mentals and leaving to postgraduate or special schools of the navy such branches of study as are not basic and properly undergraduate. Postwar curricular studies, which stressed the concept that the Naval academy was but one link in the chain of naval education, were further developed with a consistent view of the academy’s undergraduate function. The faculty held its second annual symposium on education, under the di¬ rection of A. John Bartky, dean of the school of education, Stanford university. “Camid HI,” an amphibious operation participated in by 740 midshipmen of the Naval academy and 645 cadets of the

498

NAVIES OF THE WORLD

U.S. Military academy, was held in the Chesapeake capes area in Aug. 1948. Exchange of faculty members on a yearly basis and students of the first class on a week-end basis between the Naval and Military academies were other typical aspects of the close co-operation of the service academies in the accomplish¬ ment of mutual objectives. The first, second and third classes of midshipmen, together with designated N.R.O.T.C. midshipmen, were sent on practice cruises in southern European waters aboard the carrier “Coral Sea,” the battleship “Missouri,” the cruisers “Columbus” and “Macon,” the destroyers “MacKenzie,” “Small,” “Power,” “Vesole,” “Bordelon,” “Leary,” “Glenn” and “Dyess” and the landing ship dock “Donner.” Included in this operation was a short period of indoctrination aboard submarines for first classmen.. The joint cruises for academy midshipmen and those of the 52 universities having N.R.O.T.C. units was one of the steps taken for further integration of naval reserve and acad¬ emy sources of officer personnel under the Holloway plan. Rear Admiral James L. Holloway, Jr., U.S. navy, continued his duties as superintendent of the Naval academy. Entrance requirements were modified by congress to provide for the admission of a limited number of candidates from the dominion of Canada and the Republic of the Philippines. A more comprehensive aptitude test, constructed by the educa¬ tional testing service, was made part of the entrance exami¬ nations. Curricular aims were being increasingly focused upon prep¬ aration for the broader aspects of a naval career with decreas¬ ing emphasis on the purely junior officer qualifications of grad¬ uates. (For statistics of enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (W. G. Cr.) At the end of 1948 the relative strengths of the world’s navies were as shown in the table. Only two fleets could be reckoned as first class, those of the United States and of the British com¬ monwealth. The U.S.S.R., France and Italy might be reckoned as second class, and the remaining maritime powers in categories below that. Many of the smaller countries renewed their strength by the purchase of surplus war-built vessels to replace obsolete tonnage. Since the end of World War II many battleships of the two principal navies had been scrapped, and most of the remainder relegated to the reserve. Partly as a result of the desire to economize in personnel, the development of naval aviation tended to enhance the importance of the aircraft carrier’s role in a modern fleet, to the detriment of that of the battleship. The torpedo-bomber had virtually superseded the long-range gun for most purposes. Improvement of submarine design was also engaging close attention, the immediate object being to perfect certain special¬ ized types for particular duties. In the royal navy during 1947-48 a series of experiments was carried out in small high-speed craft with the gas turbine method of propulsion, more than one system being under trial. Results were sufficiently encouraging to justify further tests with vessels of larger size with engines of modified design. In both the U.S. and royal navies the progress of demobiliza¬ tion reduced the available trained personnel to a very low level during the early part of 1948. As a result steps were taken to increase the effective strength, so as to enable more ships to be manned in emergency than would otherwise have been possible. Development of naval weapons in the three postwar years was largely concerned with the adaptation of aircraft carriers to operate heavier and more powerful aeroplanes; the testing of guided missiles of more than one type for discharge from ships

Navies of the World.

of varying categories; trials of submarines equipped to navigate for long periods entirely submerged; and the production of improved antisubmarine devices. Because of the higher underwater speeds attainable by sub¬ marines of the latest type, it became evident that faster escort vessels would become a necessity. Of the various designs evolved during World War H, the corvette outlived its usefulness as far as antisubmarine duties were concerned. Reliance was in¬ stead placed on the destroyer-escorts of the U.S. navy and the faster of the British frigates. Both the U.S. and royal navies were especially concerned with the possibilities of navigation in high latitudes, and ships of various types, including submarines, made experimental cruises in polar waters. , Dec. ?948*

United States British Empire U.S.5.R. . France . . Italy . . Argentina. Brazil . . Chile. . . Turkey . . Spain . . Sweden . Netherlands Peru. . China . Greece. Norwoy Portugal Poland. Rumania Dominican Rep. Colombia. Denmark . Yugoslavia Siam. • .

Battle-

Battle

Fleet Aircraft

15 5

2 —

35 14

3 2 2 2 2 1 —

Escort Aircroft

Coast Defense Cruisers Ships

—

66 32 13 1 1 4 3

1 2 2 1 _ 2

—

I

_

—

— —

—

1

66

1

1 2 6 4 2 2 1

1 _ _

5

1 _ _

_

__ — —

— — — . _

_

—

Destroy¬ ers Fleet Escort

343 144 60 28 4 11 5 6 8 16 15 7 2 4 2 6 5 2 2 2 2

Submarines

227 45 20 6 16

169 68 260 12

— 8

3 4 7 14 5 25 8 4

_ _

_

6 _ —

7 8 7

_ — — —

_

10

—

10

—

6 5 6 4

1 — _ 3 7 4

*Ships allotted to the soviet and Yugoslav navies under the Italian peace treaty have not been Included above, pending delivery. Other navies, comprising only minor war vessels, are those of Belgium, Bulgaria, Cuba, Ecuador, Egypt, Finland, Mexico, Iran, Uruguay and Venezuela.

U.S. Naval Strength.—Late in 1948 only one of the 15 U.S. battleships was maintained in full commission, the “Missouri.” Two large ships laid down during World War II, the battleship “Kentucky” and the battle cruiser “Hawaii,” had still to be completed, though work on the former was resumed in 1948. Completion of the 27,100-ton aircraft carrier “Oriskany” was also deferred in order that her design might be altered to enable bigger aircraft to be operated. Other ships of the same class were modified on similar lines. Excluding the “Oriskany,” there were in service 35 fleet aircraft carriers and 66 of the escort type, the majority of the latter being laid up in reserve. A very large carrier of 65,000 tons was under construction for delivery in 1951. There were 2 battle cruisers; 23 heavy and 43 light cruisers, with 2 more of each category building; i former battle¬ ship employed for gunnery training, and still of value for coast defense purposes; 343 destroyers, with 12 under construction; 227 escort destroyers; 169 submarines, with 15 more building; besides numerous minelayers, minesweepers, patrol vessels and auxiliaries. Total strength of personnel on duty in 1948 was 395,000 in the navy and 83,700 in the marine corps. Strength of the coast guard was about 19,000. British Naval Strength .—Disposal of surplus or obsolete ton¬ nage continued during 1948, eight battleships and a battle cruiser being among the ships removed from the effective list. This brought the number of battleships down to five, of which only one was expected to remain in commission in 1949. There were 14 fleet aircraft carriers, including one transferred to the royal Australian navy and another to the royal Canadian navy, but excluding one on loan to the French navy. Only a single escort carrier remained. The fleet carriers were in various stages of construction. Cruisers were reduced to 32 as the result of scrap-

U.S. NAVY crash crew being trained to rescue personnel from a burning plane in 2 min., as part of a fire-fighting research program. The fire truck at left could envelop a plane with cooiing fog in less than 1 min.

ping, and at least 4 more were expected to be disposed of. No further progress was made with three cruisers begun during the war, but not completed. Destroyers numbered 144, a figure expected to be reduced further by the scrapping of some of the older units. Eight new destroyers were on order. There were also 45 escort destroyers, recently reclassified as frigates, but these would not all be retained. Submarines numbered 68. Other vessels included 3 fast minelayers; 168 frigates, including a number of ships formerly classed as sloops or corvettes; 153 fleet minesweepers; 2 monitors, and a great many auxiliaries. In the above figures are incorporated the naval forces of the dominions. British naval personnel in 1948 amounted to 167,000, exclusive of dominion forces. U.S.S.R.—Though no official information was available con¬ cerning the soviet navy, it was known that great efforts were made to add to its strength, especially in submarines, of which the U.S.S.R. already possessed more than any other nation. Under the Italian peace treaty the Soviet Union became entitled to one battleship, one cruiser, six destroyers, two submarines and some minor war vessels; at the end of rg48 these ships were about to be delivered. When they were received, the soviet government would be obliged to return to the United States and royal navies various ships that had been on loan since 1944, including a battleship and a cruiser. From surrendered Japanese tonnage there were transferred to the Soviet Union six destroy¬ ers and a number of other vessels. A considerable amount of former German tonnage also fell into Russian hands, including the incomplete aircraft carrier “Graf Zeppelin.” Total available strength in 1948 was 3 battleships; 13 cruisers; 2 coast defense ships; 60 destroyers; 20 escort destroyers; 260 submarines; and numerous minelayers, minesweepers, patrol vessels and aux¬ iliaries. France.—Financial stringency hindered the renewal of French naval strength, which in 1948 amounted to 2 battleships; i fleet carrier (on loan from the royal navy) and i of escort type; II cruisers; i old battleship useful only for coast defense; 28 destroyers with 6 others of escort type; 12 submarines (4 more under construction); 4 sloops; 33 frigates, patrol vessels, etc.; and numerous auxiliaries. It was hoped to begin the construc¬

tion of a new fleet carrier as soon as funds were available. Per¬ sonnel numbered 58,000. Italy .—The fleet left to Italy after execution of the terms of the peace treaty included 2 battleships; 4 cruisers; 20 destroy¬ ers (of which 16 were of the escort type); 20 corvettes and a considerable number of minesweepers and auxiliaries. The total tonnage was thus well within the limits prescribed by treaty, as also was the personnel. Other European Countries.—In the Netherlands navy were I fleet aircraft carrier; 2 cruisers (2 more building); 7 destroy¬ ers (6 more building); 8 submarines; 4 sloops and frigates; 12 fleet minesweepers; and sundry minor war vessels and auxiliaries. Personnel: 28,800. In the Norwegian navy were 6 destroyers, with 7 more of the escort type; 5 submarines; 3 corvettes; 2 fleet minesweepers; and various minor vessels. Personnel numbered slightly more than 4,000. Denmark possessed 10 destroyers of escort type, with 3 more building; 3 submarines; 2 frigates; i corvette; i minelayer, and various minor vessels. Personnel: about 4,000. Sweden had 4 cruisers; 5 coast defense ships; 21 destroyers, of which 6 were of escort type; 25 submarines; 2 minelayers, and numerous minesweepers, patrol craft, etc. Personnel was 13.500.

Finland, having surrendered its single coast defense ship and 5 submarines to the soviet navy, was left with nothing but minesweepers and other small craft. Poland had 2 destroyers (i of which needed re-engining); 4 submarines and some minesweepers and coastal craft. Spain possessed 6 cruisers; 16 destroyers (20 more building or on order); 5 submarines; 7 sloops (4 more building); 6 minelayers and 7 fleet minesweepers, besides minor vessels and auxiliaries. Personnel exceeded 22,000. Portugal had 5 destroyers, under reconstruction and mod¬ ernization; 6 submarines; and 6 sloops, with various ancillary vessels. Turkey had i old battle cruiser; 2 obsolete cruisers used for training; 8 destroyers; 14 submarines and sundry smaller ships. In the Greek navy were i cruiser; 10 destroyers; 6 sub¬ marines; 4 corvettes; 3 fleet minesweepers and numerous smaller craft.

500

NAZIMUDDIN. KHWAJA

FLAG-RAISING ceremony in London for India’s first cruiser, as H.M.S. “Achilles” was transferred from the British admiralty to the royal Indian navy and renamed H.M.I.S. “Delhi” on July 5, 1948

Rumania had 2 destroyers; i submarine; i minelayer and various craft of minor importance. Bulgaria had a few coastal craft. In the Yugoslav navy were 7 submarines; two corvettes and various vessels of lesser note. South and Central America.—In the Argentine navy at the end of 1948 were 2 old battleships; 3 cruisers; ii destroyers; 3 submarines; 2 coast defense ships; 4 frigates and a number of minesweepers, patrol vessels and auxiliaries. No progress had been made toward implementing the new program of construc¬ tion, which was to have included i aircraft carrier, i cruiser, 4 destroyers, 3 submarines and some other craft. Brazil had 2 old battleships (i of them relegated to harbour service); i obsolete cruiser; 13 destroyers; 4 submarines; 6 corvettes and sundry smaller craft. Four destroyers were under construction at Rio de Janeiro. Chile possessed i battleship; i cruiser; 6 destroyers; 7 sub¬ marines; 3 frigates; 3 corvettes and various other vessels. Other South and Central American states maintained navies of less importance. Mexico had 4 sloops and 4 frigates; Peru, 2 old cruisers, 2 obsolete destroyers, 4 submarines and 3 frigates; Colombia, 2 destroyers and i frigate; Cuba, 2 sloops and 3 frigates; Uruguay, i sloop; the Dominican Republic, 2 destroy¬ ers, 2 frigates and 5 corvettes; Ecuador, i frigate; Costa Rica, Honduras, Panama and Haiti, i or 2 small craft each. Asia.—China acquired former Japanese ships and purchased others from the United States and from Britain. Strength in 1948 was I cruiser; ii destroyers; and numerous minesweepers, gunboats and sloops, mostly engaged on river service. The Siamese navy included 10 small destroyers; 4 subma¬ rines; 2 sloops; 2 corvettes; i fleet minesweeper and some smaller craft. Types of Warships.—The principal types of warships in the world’s navies had the following characteristics: Battleships.—U.S.S. “Iowa,” built 1942-44; displacement, 45,000 tons; armament, nine i6-in., twenty 5-in. guns; speed, 33 knots with 200,000 h.p. U.S.S. “South Dakota,” built 1941-42,35,000 tons; armament, nine i6-in., twenty 5-in.; speed, 30 knots with 130,000 h.p. H.M.S. “Van¬ guard,” built 1944, 42,500 tons; armament, eight 15-in., sixteen 5.25-in.; speed, 29 knots with 130,000 h.p. H.M.S. “King George V,” built 1939-40, 35.000 tons; armament, ten 14-in., sixteen 5.25-in.; speed, 27 knots with 110,000 h.p. French “Richelieu,” built 1939-40, 38,500 tons; armament, eight 15-in., nine 6-in., twelve 3-9-in.; speed, 30 knots with 150,000 h.p.

Battle Cruisers.—U.S.S. “Alaska,” built 1943, 27,500 tons; armament, nine 12-in., twelve s-in.; speed, 33 knots with 150,000 h.p. Aircraft Carriers.-—U.S.S. “Midway,” built 1945—46, 45,000 tons; armament, eighteen 5-in.; aircraft, 137; speed, 33 knots with 200,000 h.p. U.S.S. “Essex,” built 1942-45, 27,100 tons; armament, ten or twelve 5-in.; aircraft, 82; speed, 33 knots with 150,000 h.p. U.S.S. “Saipan,” built 1945, 14,500 tons; armament, light guns only; aircraft, 48; speed, 33 knots with 120,000 h.p. U.S.S. “Independence,” built 1942- 43, 11,000 tons; armament, light guns only; aircraft, 45; speed, 33 knots with 100,000 h.p. H.M.S. “Glory” and “Majestic” types, built 1943- 45, 13,190 to 14,000 tons; armament, light guns only; aircraft, 39 to 44; speed, 25 knots with 40,000 h.p. H.M.S. “Implacable,” “Indom¬ itable” and “Illustrious” types, built 1939-42, 23,000 tons; armament, sixteen 4.s-in.; aircraft, more than 60; speed, 31 to 32 knots, with 110,000 to 148,000 h.p. French “Arromanches” and Netherlands “Karel Doorman” are of the same type as British “Glory.” Cruisers.—U.S.S. “Des Moines,” built 1946-47, 17,000 tons; arma¬ ment, nine 8-in., twelve s-in., all automatic; speed, 32 knots with 130,000 h.p. U.S.S. “Albany” and “Baltimore” types, built 1942-45, 13,600 to 13,700 tons; armament, nine 8-in., twelve s-in.; speed, 33 knots with 120,000 h.p. U.S.S. “Worcester,” built 1947, 14,700 tons; armament, twelve 6-in., twelve 5-in.; speed, 32 knots with 120,000 h.p. U.S.S. “Fargo” and “Cleveland” types, built 1941-45, 10,000 tons; armament, twelve 6-in., twelve s-in.; speed, 33 knots with 100,000 h.p. U.S.S. “San Diego,” built 1941-45, 6,000 tons; armament, twelve s-in.; speed, 33 knots with 75,000 h.p. H.M.S. “Superb,” “Uganda” and “Fiji” types, built 1939-43, 8,000 tons; armament, nine 6-in., ten 4-in.; speed, .31.5 knots with 72,500 h.p. H.M.S. “Dido” type, built 1939-42, 5,450 to 5,900 tons; armament, eight 5.25-in.; speed, 32 knots with 62,000 h.p. Soviet “Petropavlovsk” (former German), built 1939, 15,200 tons; ar¬ mament, ten 7.1-in., twelve 4-in.; speed, 33 knots with 135,000 h.p. Soviet “Kaganovich” and “Kirov” types, built 1936-45, 8,545 to 8,800 tons; armament, nine 7.1-in., eight 4-in.; speed, 33 knots with 113,000 h.p. French “Gloire,” built 1935-36, 7,600 tons; armament, nine 6-in., eight 3.5-in.; speed, 31 knots with 84,000 h.p. Italian “Garibaldi,” built 1936, 8,134 to 8,605 tons; armament, ten 6-in., ten 3.9-in.; speed, 32 knots with 100,000 h.p. Swedish “Tre Kronor,” built 1944-45, 7,400 tons; armament, seven 6-in.; speed, 33 knots with 100,000 h.p. Destroyers.—U.S.S. “Gearing,” built 1944-46, 2,400 tons; armament, six 5-in.; speed, 35 knots with 60,000 h.p. U.S.S. “Sumner,” built 1943-44, 2,200 tons; armament, six 5-in.; speed, 36 knots with 60,000 h.p. British “Weapon” type, built 1945-46, 1,980 tons; armament, four 4-in.; speed, 34 knots with 40,000 h.p. British “Battle” type, built 1943-46, 2,315 tons; armament, four to five 4.5-in.; speed, 34 knots with 50,000 h.p. H.M.S. “Caesar” and allied types, built 1942-44, 1,710 tons; armament, four 4.5-in.; speed, 34 knots with 40,000 h.p. Soviet “Opytny” type, built 1939-45, 1,686 tons; armament, four 5.1-in.; speed, 36 knots with 55,000 h.p. Soviet former Japanese type, built 1943, 2,100 tons; armament, six 4-7-in.; speed, 35 knots with 55,000 h.p. French “Hoche” (former German), built 1940—41, 2,660 tons; armament, four 6-in.; speed, 36.5 knots with 70,000 h.p. (Destroyers of similar type, taken over from the Germans, were also to be found in the soviet navy.) Swedish “Gland,” built 1945-46, 1,800 tons; arma¬ ment, eight 4.7-in.; speed, 35 knots with 40,000 h.p. Submarines. U.S.S. “Corsair,” built 1945—46, 1,570 tons; armament, two 5-in., ten torpedo tubes; speed not reported since these vessels were being subjected to various modifications. U.S.S. “Balao,” built 1942-47, 1,526 tons; armament, two 5-in., ten torpedo tubes; speed, 21 knots on surface with 6,500 h.p. H.M.S. “Amphion.” built 1944-47, 1,120 tons; ^mament, one 4-in., ten torpedo tubes; speed, 18 knots with 4,300 h.p. H.M.S. “Tactician,” built 1942-45, 1,090 tons; armament, one 4-in., 11 torpedo tubes; speed, 15 knots with 2,500 h.p. Soviet former German type, built 1944—45, 1,600 tons; armament, light guns and six torpedo tubes; speed, 15 knots with 4,800 h.p. A number of other types of Ger¬ man design, more modern than this, were also in soviet hands. French submarines included a number of former German units of the above and other types. Turkish submarines included four of the U.S. “Balao” type Netherlands submarines included four of British construction, similar to the Tactician type. Submarines of other nations were mostly of older and smaller designs, details of which need not be given here (See also Munitions of War.) (p. E. McMf)

Navy, U.S. Department of; see Government Depart¬ ments AND Bureaus.

Nazimuddin, Khwaja

SlTa„. wLraTdTAt

India, and at Dunstable grammar school and Trinity hall, Cam¬ bridge, England. A member of the Nawab family of Dacca which for many years was influential in East Bengal, India, he entered state politics in Bengal in 1929. After holding the post of minister of education from 1929 to 1934 and of home min¬ ister from 1937 to 1941, he became premier of Bengal from 1943 to 1945. He was closely associated with Mohammed Ali Jinnah in the revival of the Moslem league in 1937. After the partition of India in 1947, he was made premier of East Bengal. On the death of Jinnah, Khwaja Nazimuddin was sworn in as governor-general of Pakistan at Karachi on Sept. 14, 1948.

Nazis: see

War Crimes.

N.E.A.— NEGROES, AMERICAN N.E.A.: see National Education Association.

Ilahrocl^o nCUlddlxda

states formed from the territory of the Louisiana Purchase, Nebraska lies in the lower Missouri valley in the west north central part of the U.S.; admitted to the union in 1867; land area 76,653 sq.mi.; water area 584 sq.mi.; pop. (1940) 1,315,834; estimated 1,301,000 by the bureau of the census on July i, 1948; capital, Lincoln (81,984), estimated 100,000 (1948); largest city, Omaha (223,844), estimated 270,000 (1948). In 1940, 39% of the population was urban. About 1% of the total population is Negro and about 8% foreign-born, principally German and Scandinavian. History.—State officers for the 1949-51 period: governor, Val Peterson (Rep.); lieutenant governor, Charles J. Warner (Rep.); attorney general, James H. Anderson (Rep.); auditor, Ray C. Johnson (Rep.); secretary of state, Frank Marsh (Rep.); treasurer, Edward Gillette (Rep.); state superin¬ tendent of public instruction, Wayne 0. Reed (nonpartisan); chief justice, Robert G. Simmons (nonpartisan). The total popular vote in the Nov. 1948 election was as follows: Thomas E. Dewey-Earl Warren 264,774; Harry S. Truman-Alben W. Barkley 224,165. The state’s six electoral votes were cast for the Dewey-Warren ticket on Dec. 13, 1948, at the meeting of the electors at Lincoln. In Jan. 1949 the legislative council, composed of 16 legisla¬ tors, reported to the legislature as directed by the 1947 session on the following: incorporation of religious societies, laws relat¬ ing to children, revision of the school code, apprenticeship, state budgetary procedures, agricultural associations, allocation of proceeds of the gasoline tax, administrative centralization of schools of higher learning, highway financing, public assistance and the completion of panels and murals in the state capitol building. Education.—Elementary and secondary education is generally directed by local school districts, of which there were nearly 6,960 in 1948, with some supervision from the state superintendent and with slightly more than $1,000,000 annual state aid. The total enrolment in elementary and secondary schools in 1947 was 225,692 and the teaching staffs numbered 12,416. Expenditures for 1946-47 were $32,244,163. Higher education is directed by the state university at Lincoln, the college of medicine at Omaha and four state teachers colleges. Social

Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs-

The state appropriation for public assistance for the 1947-49 period was $36,406,284, of which $18,402,019 were federal funds. In Oct. 1948 the number of persons receiving general relief was i,397, and each received a monthly average of $31.12. At the same time 7,510 dependent children received an average of $3 5-3 7 monthly aid; 525 blind persons received a monthly average of $47.95; 23,820 persons received a monthly average of $41.48 for old-age assistance. The state maintained five correctional and penal institutions with a population of 1,214 as of July i, 1948, and 12 other institutions for children, mentally ill, and other dependents, with a population of 6,787. These institutions were under the supervision of a board of control to which the state appropriated $13,921,213 for 1947-49. Communications.—The total highway mileage of the state in 1948 was 100,666. Of this, 4,060 mi. were pavement, 4,910 mi. gravel. State ap¬ propriations for highway purposes for 1947—49 were $16,500,000 plus $11,500,000 in federal funds. In 1948 there were 138 airports in the statk Total railway mileage in 1948 was 5,862. Seventeen radio stations operated, seven of which were located in Omaha and Lincoln. Banking and Finance.—State banks numbered 283 in 1948 with total assets of $418,242,899. There were also 43 building and loan associations with assets of $87,873,956. There were 131 credit associations and credit unions with resources of $13,678,495. The assets of seven trust com¬ panies amounted to $17,993,261. National banks numbered 126 in 1948 with resources of $911,551,000. Receipts for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, were $58,190,387 and expenditures amounted to $56,241,866. Total appropriations for 1947—49 were $117,631,050, including unex¬ pended balances and $35,892,230 federal aid. The state had no bonded debt, although the debt of local subdivisions was $36,591,849, as of June 30, 1948.

Leading Agricultural ProducU of Nebraska, 1948 and 1947

Crop Corn, .. Winter wheat, bu. Spring wheat, bu. Oats, bu. Barley, bu.. Potatoes, bu. Sugar beets, tons. .... Alfalfa hay, tons. Wild hay, tons. •Estimated Nov. 12, 1948.

1948*

1947

256,320,000 77,552,000

143,130,000 89,292,000 1,008,000 62,672,000 10,274,000 8,060,000 805,000 2,058,000 2,252,000

1,012,000 73,388,000 10,469,000 10,400,000 588,000 2,161,000

2,012,000

501

Agriculture.—The total acreage harvested in 1948 for the crops listed in the table was 18,593,000. The total' farm income for the year for principal crops only, and this exclusive of any federal payments, was esti¬ mated to be about $637,308,000, as compared with $736,182,000 for 1947Manufacturing.—Most establishments were engaged in the processing of farm products. However, it was estimated that 690 concerns employed about 46,533 persons (monthly average) with an annual payroll of $121,876,229. Employment by concerns covered by the unemployment compensation laws totalled 156,266 in 1948. Mineral Production.—Aside from clay, sand, gravel and building stone, most of which is consumed locally, the state has no mineral wealth of consequence. There are minor deposits of petroleum which in 1946 pro¬ duced 265,000 bbl. (A. C. Be.)

Necrology: see Obituaries. NpffrnPC Amprippn Subsequent to the forthright recoml1CglUCO| niilulludlli mendations of the president’s com¬ mittee on civil rights and the commission on higher education, civil rights issues became crucial during 1948 in politics, legis¬ lation, court litigation and educational administration. The Negro situation carried the main burden of the controversy, although other minorities were involved. The U.S. supreme court rendered far-reaching decisions dur¬ ing the year. On Jan. 12 it reversed the Oklahoma supreme court and ordered the state to provide immediately equal legal training for the Negro appellant (Sipuel v. Oklahoma). On April 12 it declared unconstitutional the “private club” inter¬ pretation of the South Carolina racially restricted primaries, and on May 12, it declared unenforceable by law restrictive real estate covenants designed to bar the sale of real estate to mem¬ bers of specified races and groups. The latter decision, sup¬ ported by a department of justice brief, was regarded as out¬ lawing residential ghettoes. President Harry S. Truman on July 26 issued two executive orders: one, a declaration of policy to liquidate gradually segre¬ gation practices in the armed services; the other, to set up a fair employment policy in federal bureaus, holding department heads responsible for its execution. Federal committees were appointed to recommend machinery for implementing these orders, and in a special message to congress President Truman asked legislation for a federal fair employment practice law, an antilynching law and civil rights legislation. The latter, preced¬ ing the November election, provoked protest and organized op¬ position from the Southern Governors’ conference and eventual¬ ly a convention bolt and an opposition ticket of the States’ Rights partisans. But the incorporation of the liberal Truman program in the official Democratic platform and its subsequent endorsement by the electorate, with heavy support by the Negro vote, especially in three pivotal states, California, Illinois and Ohio, raised this program to the level of a major political issue before the incoming 8ist congress. A South Carolina court ordered the voting registration period extended so that Negroes might register, and about 30,000 voted there for the first time in 70 years. The southern Negro vote, although curtailed in Alabama by the Boswell amendment, was unusually large; the Negro vote reached an estimated 150,000 each for Georgia and Texas, and 70,000 each for Florida, North Carolina, Virginia and Tennessee. Winston-Salem, N.C., and Richmond, Va., elected Negro councilmen for the first time. In New Jersey, segregation in the national guard and in schools was outlawed by the new state constitution and 22 communities had already integrated their public schools. The California su¬ preme court declared the state intermarriage ban, in force since 1850, unconstitutional. Many private organizations, motivated by public opinion and the civil rights report, declared for full civil rights and antisegregation and nondiscriminatory practices, notably the C.I.O., the Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America, the United Council of Churchwomen, the Na¬ tional Student association, the American Nurses association, etc.

502

NEHRU, JAWAHARLAL

In addition to fair employment practice in government civil service by presidential order, the program made wide gains throughout the country. In 1948 it was in effect in New Jersey, had been passed by 6 states, proposed in 15 and adopted by several important municipalities, Philadelphia, Pa., being the latest. The Truman program had the official support of both A.F. of L. and C.I.O., and the Brotherhood of Railway Firemen abandoned its fight against the promotion of Negro firemen. The employment of Negroes in business, especially in banks and insurance companies, made considerable gains. Educational and Cultural Progress.—New York state set a momentous precedent with a fair educational practice law, the Quinn-Olliffe bill, providing citation, investigation and penalties for discriminatory practices in admitting students “on grounds of race, religion, color, or national origin.” Negro schoolteachers were granted pay equalization in Oklahoma, in Atlanta, Ga., and New Orleans, La. Following a federal court ruling, the Univer¬ sity of Oklahoma admitted a Negro law student on a segregated basis, with the original applicant, Ada Sipuel, seeking a manda¬ mus for nonsegregated admission, supported by a petition of 1,000 white students. Washington university of St. Louis, Mo., admitted Negro students to its medical school and three Negro teachers to its faculty; the University of Arkansas accepted a Negro woman medical student; Johns Hopkins university and the University of Delaware admitted a few Negro students, as did Loyola college at Baltimore, Md. Meanwhile, however, the Southern Governors’ conference proposed a regional plan of schools for the advanced collegiate and professional training of Negroes, as a substitute for direct admission to simitar facilities in the several states. Congress did not endorse the plan, and federal aid funds were involved, but the proponents persisted in spite of considerable liberal white and Negro opposition. The Crisis reported a total college registration of 88,557 Ne¬ gro students, 70,644 of whom were enrolled in Negro institu¬ tions, with 5,770 bachelor degree graduates in 1948, 451 master’s degrees, 9 doctors of philosophy and 366 medical graduates. OLIVER HILL (standing), the first Negro councilman to hold office in Rich¬ mond, Va., shown with other members of a newly elected city council being sworn in on Sept. 7, 1948

The Amherst chapter of Phi Kappa Psi initiated a Negro mem¬ ber and incurred suspension by the national fraternity; the Na¬ tional Student association elected a Negro president. The American College of Surgeons admitted ten Negro surgeons, but the American Medical association decided to allow its local chapters discretion as to the admission of members. Actors Equity continued its ban on the National theatre in Washing¬ ton, D.C., for racial discrimination of patrons, but several Washington motion-picture theatres successfully adopted nondiscriminatory admission. An expose of discrimination in the national capital was published. Ralph J. Bunche succeeded Count Folke Bernadotte as U.N. mediator in Palestine after the latter’s assassination; E. Franklin Fazier became president of the American Sociological society. William T. Coleman of Philadelphia was appointed law clerk to Justice Felix Frankfurter, and Bruce Robinson of Boston, Mass., justice of the juvenile court. Dean Dixon, the conductor, won the Ditson award for distinguished service to American music, and Ulysses Kay won.a series of national prizes for musical composition. In athletics, the integration of Negroes into major sports gained ground with the participation of Harrison Dillard, Herb McKenley and others on the U.S. Olympic team in London, England; and with the successes of Larry Doby, centre fielder of the Cleveland Indians baseball team, “Satchel” Paige, as re¬ lief pitcher on the same team, and Roy Campanella, catcher, and Jackie Robinson, second baseman, on the Brooklyn Dodgers. Levi Jackson was elected captain of the Yale football team. {See also Civil Liberties; Education; Law; Lynching.) Bibliography.—Arna Bontemps, The Story of the, Negro; Hugh M. Gloster, Negro Voices in American Fiction; The Negro Yearbook, 1941— 46; Arnold Rose, The Negro in America; Walter White, A Man Named White; Basil Mathews, Booker T. Washington; Henry L. Moon, Balance of Power: the Negro Vote. (A. LeR. L.)

Nphrii

hu/ahprhl

p"™® minister, was bom at Allahabad, Nov. 14. He was one of the leaders of the Indian independence movement. (For his early career see Encyclopcedia Britannica.) When, on Aug. 8, 1942, the Congress party issued a mass call for a large-

IlClIlUf udWalldMul

NEPAL —NETHERLANDS scale civil disobedience movement, Nehru and other leaders of the party were arrested by the British authorities. On June 14, 1945) he was released and took a leading part in negotiations with the British cabinet mission in New Delhi in March 1946. The following May he was elected president of the Congress party and later head of the first all-Indian executive council (the “caretaker government”). On Aug. 15, 1947, when the Indian subcontinent was partitioned into Moslem and Hindu states, he became prime minister, minister for external affairs and minister for scientific research of the new dominion of India. With the assassination of Mohandas Gandhi on Jan. 30, 1948, Nehru, as Gandhi’s disciple, assumed formal leadership of the Hindus. A liberal, he stood for a mildly socialistic program, re¬ ligious toleration and abandonment of the caste system. Oppos¬ ing him was a group led by Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, standing for the economic status quo and “India for the Hindus.” Nehru moved quickly after Gandhi’s death to avert civil strife by outlawing all communal organiza¬ tions and private armies. In October he attended the conference of commonwealth prime ministers in London. On Nov. 12 he drew attention to the slender bands connecting India to the commonwealth and added that by virtue of a historical process India could not stop short of full national sovereignty.

Klonol nC|JdL

independent state lying between Tibet and India. Area, c. 54,000 sq.mi.; pop. (1948 est.), 7,000,000. Religions: Buddhism and Hinduism. Capital: Kathmandu (pop. c. 110,000). Ruler: Maharajadhiraja Tribhubana Bir Bikram Jung Bahadur; prime minister: General Sir Mohan Shumshere Jung Bahadur. History.—Maharaja General Sir Padma Shumshere Jung Bahadur Rana, prime minister from Nov. 1945, resigned after the announcement of far-reaching constitutional and social re¬ forms on Feb. 9, 1948. Reasons for the rhaharaja’s retirement were not revealed, but it was believed that a palace revolution took place. He was succeeded by Maharaja General Sir Mohan Shumshere Jung Bahadur, commander in chief of the Nepalese army. Agreement was reached with the Indian government on a project for building dams on the Gogra and Rapti rivers. On May 28 the prime minister announced a five-year plan for the development of Nepal, including industrialization, improve¬ ment of education by setting up a Sanskrit college and improve¬ ment of transport facilities including air lines. Finance and Foreign Trade.—Revenue, obtained chiefly from land rent, forests and customs, was estimated in 1947 at more than Rs. 13,300,000. Exports to India amounted in 1947 to Rs. 53,200,000; imports from India—Rs. 26,000,000. Nepal exports mainly rice and other grain, hides, cattle, jute and timber; it imports mainly cotton goods, sugar, salt, spices and metals.

Ilaniniic Cuctam

N6rV01IS wysicill.

problems in nervous and mental diseases that received an un¬

usual amount of study in 1948 was the operation known as leucotomy or lobotomy (in some instances called topectomy). All of the procedures were discussed as part of psychosurgery. The operation is essentially resection, removal or destruction of a portion of the fore part of each frontal lobe of the brain. This part is known as the thalamo-frontal fibres and has to do with the emotional state of the human being. In March 1948 a group of specialists from Columbia uni¬ versity, New York, Greystone Park State hospital. New Jersey, the New Jersey department of institutions and agencies and the Veterans’ administration of Lyons, N.J., performed psychosurgical procedures (topectomy) on 24 mentally ill patients who could not be cured with ordinary treatment. They resected various areas of the fore part of the frontal cortex on both sides. Seventeen of their patients were suffering from schizo¬

503

phrenia, four were manic-depressives and three were afflicted with involutional psychoses. The results of this procedure were such that four months after the operation 20 patients were recommended for parole from the mental hospitals. These specialists felt that the operation relieved the patient from emotional pressure, tension, anxiety, apprehension and feelings of guilt. W. T. Peyton, H. H. Moran and E. W. Miller reported the effects of their operation upon the anterior part of each frontal lobe. They called it lobectomy and reported moderate to marked improvement in 85.7% of their 14 cases. W. Freeman and J. W. Watts of Georgetown university, Washington, D.C., were the first Americans to do this operation in the U.S. They reported the following conclusions: the frontal lobes of the brain are im¬ portant structures for the evaluation of the sensations and its significance in terms of the self and the future; with leucotomy they relieved the apprehension of patients in regard to pain. They performed this operation on patients who had a painful stump, phantom limb, atypical facial neuralgia, arthritic pains, mucous colitis, neuralgia following shingles, locomotor ataxia and pain in cancer. {See also Psychosomatic Medicine.) Bibliography.—Report of the Columbia-Greystone association. New York Academy of Medicine (March i8, 1948); W. T. Peyton, H. H. Moran and E. W. Miller, “Prefrontal Lobectomy,” Am. J. Psychiat., 104:513-523 (Feb. 1948); W. Freeman and J. W. Watts, “Pain Mech¬ anisms and the Frontal Lobe,” Ann. Int. Med., 28:747—754 (April, 1948); Egas Moniz and Almeida Lima, “First Attempts at Psychosurgery Using Leukotome,” Lisboa med., 13:152—161 (March 1936). (T. T. S.)

Mnthnflnnflo

^ kingdom of northwest Europe, bounded

nCUIul IdllUtf* on the north and west by the North sea, on the east by Germany and on the south by Belgium. Area: 12,868 sq.mi. (not including the waterways and sheets of water larger than 185 ac.); pop. (July i, 1948, est.): 9,794,799. Language: Dutch. Religion (Dec. 1930): Dutch Reformed 34.43%, Re¬ formed Churches 8.04%, Roman Catholic 36.42%, Jewish 1.41%. Chief towns (July i, 1948, est.): Amsterdam (cap., 820,642); Rotterdam (660,309) ; The Hague (546,676); Utrecht (188,591); Haarlem (159,871); Eindhoven (137,205). Rulers in 1948: Queen Wilhelmina {q.v.) and, from Sept. 4, Queen Juliana {q.v.) \ prime ministers in 1948: Dr. Louis Joseph Maria Beel and, from Aug. 5, Willem Drees. History.—When Queen Wilhelmina broadcast to the Dutch people on May 14, 1948, that sovereign authority was again being delegated to Princess Juliana, as it had in October and November 1947, she announced at the same time that she would resume the royal functions only once more, and then only for five days: for the celebrations for her 68th birthday and the 50th anniversary of her effective reign, from Aug. 30 to Sept. 4. On that date, said the Queen, she would abdicate formally, and Princess Juliana would ascend the throne. Less spectacular than the Queen’s retirement into private life at the very summit of her popularity, but more important politically, was the general election held on July 7. In 1946 the proposals before the electorate, to change the constitution in such a way as to allow the overseas territories to become co¬ equal partners in a remodelled Netherlands realm, had been expressed in general, and necessarily vague, terms. In 1948 they were concise, and their far-reaching effects could be realized. The election thus became the first nation-wide opportunity for the people of Holland to express approval or disapproval of the government’s Indonesian policy. {See Netherlands Indies.) The Catholic People’s party again emerged as the largest sin¬ gle political unit, and the Labour party as the second; the num¬ ber of seats held by Communists in the lower chamber was reduced from ten to eight, but they maintained the four they had held in the old upper chamber. In the absence of any party in possession of a majority over

horses (May 1947) 367,220; cattle (May 1948) 2,313,257; sheep (May 1947) 460,305; pigs (May 1948) 870,846; poultry (May, 1947) 14,210,253. Fisheries: total catch (1947) 252,000 long tons valued at 82,727,000 guilders. Industry.—(1946) Industrial establishments 120,000; persons employed 968,000. Fuel and power (1947): coal 10,094,621 metric tons; gas 41,811,000,000 cu.ft.; electricity 3,399,000,000 kw.hr. Raw materials (i947> in long tons): pig iron 283,000, (1948, six months) 213,000. Manufac¬ tured goods (1947, in long tons): cement 511,000; cotton yarn 40,726, woollen yarn 22,373. (See also CusAgAo; Surinam.) (F. H. Aw.)

Netherlands Antilles: see CuRAgAo; Netherlands. Netherlands Colonial Empire: see Curaqac; Nether¬ lands Indies; Surinam.

I

■■

InDIcS

JULIANA of Orange and Nassau, Prince Bernhard (right) and three of the royal princesses, on the palace balcony in Annsterdam after Juliana's investi¬ ture as queen of the Netherlands, Sept. 6, 194S

possible combinations against it, a coalition government once again became necessary. Dr. L. J. M. Beel, the outgoing prime minister and a prominent man in the Catholic People’s party, failed to secure a collaborating team, and Willem Drees, of the Labour party, became prime minister. The new lower chamber passed the revision of the constitu¬ tion on Aug. IQ by a vote of 76 against 22, with two absten¬ tions; and the upper chamber passed it on Sept. 3 by 37 votes against 11, also with two abstentions. On Sept. 6, Queen Juliana was solemnly installed as queen of the Netherlands in the Nieuwe Kerk in Amsterdam, in the pres¬ ence of the members of the two chambers of the states-general and of a large number of official and private guests. The Netherlands allocation of Marshall aid, announced on April 20, for the period April i, 1948, to March 31, 1949, was $377,960,000. The Netherlands became a signatory of the Brussels FivePower pact concluded on March 17, and ratified by the statesgeneral on June 24, with only the communists and one other member voting against it. (See Western European Union.) In preparation for the formal creation of the United States of Indonesia, which was intended to come into being at the begin¬ ning of 1949, the government instituted a provisional federal government of Indonesia on March 9; and on Sept. 20 the names of the overseas territories were formally changed to “Indonesia,” “Surinam” and the “Netherlands Antilles” respectively. Education.—(1947-48) Elementary schools 7.936, pupils 1,293,269, teachers 39,048; secondary schools 318, pupils 86,490, teachers 5,826; technical schools (1946-47) 797, pupils 194,837, teachers 8,318; uni¬ versities and institutions of higher education 10, students 25,036, pro¬ fessors and teachers c. 900.

(Indonesia). The Netherlands Indies stretch 3,000 mi. from east to

west and 1,300 mi. from north to south, between 6° N. and 11° S. and from 95° to 141° E. They include the islands of Sumatra, Java, the Celebes and Borneo (whose northern part is under British rule) and many smaller islands, together with the western half of New Guinea and the western half of Timor. Total area; c. 735,000 sq.mi.; total pop. (mid-1947 est.) 76,360,000, all but about 2.6% of them being indigenous (Java, Madoera and Sumatra 61,000,000, East Indonesia 12,460,000, Dutch Borneo 2,900,000). Chief towns (1930 census, all in Java): Batavia (cap., 435,184); Soerabaja (341,675); Semarang (217,796); Bandoeng (166,815); Soerakarta (165,484), Djokjakarta (136,649). Languages: Malay is to a certain ex¬ tent a language of intercommunication between different popu¬ lation groups speaking 25 main languages and 250 dialects; Dutch is also spoken by educated Indonesians. Religions: Mos¬ lem c. 90%, Christian 3.4%, Hindu 1.4%. Lieutenant governor general (until Nov. i, 1948): Hubertus Johannes van Mook; high commissioner of the crown (from Oct. 29, 1948): Louis Joseph Maria Beel. History.—The transition of the former Netherlands Indies to sovereign status as the United States of Indonesia, based on the twin principles of federalism and voluntary association with the kingdom of the Netherlands, continued during 1948. This was preceded by the formation of the state of East Indonesia (cap., Makassar) and an autonomous federation of provinces on the island of Borneo, both recognized in 1947. Popular movements among the Indonesian peoples inhabiting various parts of the archipelago led to the formation of the following federal states; Sumatera Timur (East Sumatra, cap., Medan); Madoera (cap., Pamekasan); Pasundan (West Java, cap., Bandoeng); Djawa Timur (East Java, cap., Soerabaja); Sumatera Selatan (South Sumatra, cap., Palembang). The islands Bangka, Billiton and the Riouw archipelago, situated near Singapore, formed an autonomous federation. Upon their recognition by the Netherlands government, regional adminis¬ trative power and the public services in the sphere of all these states were transferred to their governments.

Transport and Communlcaflons.—Roads (Jan. 1948) 7,690 mi.; licensed motor vehicles (Aug. 1, 1947); cars 68,304, trucks and buses 66,011, motorcycles 75,891. Railways (Jan. 1948): 2,032 mi. Telephones (Jan. 1948); subscribers 398,000. Radio sets (Jan. 1948) 939,252.

To prepare a similar transfer of power to Indonesian hands in the centre (i.e., from the lieutenant governor general to a future Indonesian federal government), a preliminary’ federal council was established at Batavia on Jan. 13, 1948, consisting of eight prominent Indonesian leaders representing the prov¬ inces of their origin for purposes of joint deliberation with the Netherlands Indies government. Soon afterward, on March 9, this council was merged with the lieutenant governor general’s cabinet'; the members of the council were appointed secretaries of state, heads of a number of departments, and together with their remaining Dutch colleagues they formed the preliminary federal government presided over by the lieutenant governor general.

Agriculture and Fisheries.—Main crops (1947, in long tons): wheat 190,984; barley 176,051; oats 333.032; rye 312,595; potatoes 4.537.003; sugar beets 1,552,228; mangolds and fodder beets 2,877,699. Livestock:

Relations between the Netherlands government and the Indo¬ nesian republic (cap., Djokjakarta), wffiose leaders were holding

Finance and Banking.—(Guilders) budget: (1947) revenue 2,598,977,000, expenditure 4,391,083,000; (1948 estimates) revenue 5,841,943,000, expenditure 6,990,375,000. National debt (Jan. i, 1948) 21,585.829,000. Currency circulation: (Aug. 16, '1948) 3,003,618,500. Gold reserve (Aug. r6, 1948) 481,703,757. Savings and bank deposits (July 31, 1948): 5,049,900,000. Monetary unit: guilder with an official ex¬ change rate (Oct. 1948) of 37.6 U.S. cents. Foreign Trade—(Guilders) imports: (1947) 4,277,531,000, (1948, six months) 2,374,681,000; exports: (1947) 1,891,810,000, (1948, six months) 1,201,577,000.

NEUTRONS ^NEVADA sway in central Java and parts of Sumatra, were not good. On Jan. 17, 1948, the Netherlands and republican delegations, nego¬ tiating on board the U.S. naval vessel “Renville” in Batavia harbour, under the auspices of the United Nations’ Good Offices commission, signed a new truce agreement. (See United Na¬ tions.) Netherlands sovereignty was to be recognized during the interim period over the whole of Indonesia including the territories occupied by the republic until the United States of Indonesia would be established. The republic was to take its place as a component state in the federal system; the acceptance of the political points by both parties this time was to be “complete and unconditional.” The republic, however, continued to maintain its own army and entered into external relations of a diplomatic character with various countries abroad. On May 26 these were extended to the U.S.S.R. and a consular agreement was concluded be¬ tween the republic and the Soviet Union, followed on June 12 by formal recognition of the republic by the other sovietdominated countries. The Netherlands delegation protested that the treaty with the U.S.S.R. violated the “Renville” agreement and, after requesting an explanation, broke off the negotiations on June 16. The Australian and U.S. members of the Good Offices com¬ mission vainly tried to bring about a resumption by a compro¬ mise proposal of their own. For some time, however, talks about nonpolitical subjects continued. The delegations agreed on draft regulations concerning the controls exercised by Dutch naval patrols on sea-borne traffic to and from ports in republi¬ can territory. These controls were directed against the trade in products from plantations in the interior which were being bar¬ tered abroad for arms and ammunition. The republic, however, rejected the proposed regulations and protested against the Dutch blockade. On Aug. 17, the federal Indonesian states, meeting in con¬ ference at Bandoeng (West Java), came forward with a reso¬ lution which called for the speedy establishment of an all-Indo¬ nesian interim government—with or without the republic—to take over authority from the lieutenant governor general and his cabinet. These proposals found a favourable reception with the Netherlands cabinet and a conference with the federalists was arranged at The Hague in September, at which agreement was reached on a plan to establish an all-Indonesian interim govern¬ ment before the end of the year. Meanwhile, within the republic, on Sept. 18 a communist faction started open revolt by seizing the city of Madioen and some other places in central Java. The government of the re¬ public quickly moved to suppress the communist action, which was synchronized with similar occurrences in Malay and Burma, and the rebels abandoned Madioen on Sept. 30. D. U. Stikker, Netherlands minister for foreign affairs, trav¬ elled to Indonesia and on to Djokjakarta early in November to explore the remaining possibilities of political agreement with the republic of Indonesia. He was followed by a delegation of the Netherlands cabinet, but on Dec. 5 the ministers returned to the Netherlands without definite results having been achieved. An official statement issued on Dec. ii at The Hague announced that negotiations with the Indonesian republic had broken down and that an interim federal government without the republicans would be set up. On Dec. 18, the Netherlands government moved troops into the republican areas in Java and Sumatra. Republican forces were scattered and the strategic centres seized; the president and cabinet of the republic and the commander in chief were captured and interned. The U.N. Security council condemned the Netherlands’ action as being in violation of the “Renville” agreement, and on Dec.

505

24 the council called upon the Netherlands to withdraw its forces to their original positions and to release its political prisoners. The Netherlands, however, continued with its “police” action. (W. G. P.; X.) (All the following figures cover the federal part of Indonesia only; there were no reliable figures concerning the republic of Indonesia.) Education—(1948) Elementary schools 12,000, pupils 3,000,000; secondary schools 47, pupils 6,500; one university. Illiteracy (1940)

58.7%. Finance and Banking.—Budget: (1947 est.) revenue 1,034,000,000 guilders, expenditure 2,929,000,000 guilders. National debt (Dec. 1947) 3,970,000,000 guilders. Currency circulation (Dec. 1947) 1,445,000,000 guilders. Monetary unit: Dutch guilder with an official exchange rate (Oct. 1948) of 37.6 U.S. cents. Foreign Trade.—Imports: (1947) 7,539,000 guilders, (1948, six months) 522,700 guilders; exports: .(1947) 343,000 guilders, (1948, six months) 426,000 guilders. Transport and Communications.—Roads (1947) 53,200 km. (metalled 12,600 km.); licensed motor vehicles (1947): cars 12,500, trucks 12,100, motorcycles 2,450. Railways: 1,900 km. Shipping regularly serving Indonesia (1947): number of merchant vessels 154, total gross registered tonnage 757,000. Agriculture and Fisheries—Main crops (1947, in metric tons, Java and Madoera only): rice (paddy) 6,600,000; maize 1,300,000; cassava 5,600,000; sweet potatoes 1,200,000; peanuts 130,000; soybeans 180,000. Livestock (1947): horses 620,000; cattle 3,590,000; sheep 1,640,000; goats 5,112,000; pigs 1,162,000; buffaloes 2,675,000, Fisheries: total catch (1947) 28,000 metric tons. Industry.—(1947 production in metric tons) tin 21,700.

Coal

299,000;

crude oil

768,000;

Films.—Dutch Empire (March of Time).

Neutrons: see

Physics.

MoirOflo

^ mountain state of the United States, popularly known as the “Sagebrush state.” Nevada was ad¬ mitted to the union on Oct. 31, 1864, as the 36th state. Land area 109,802 sq.mi.; water area 738 sq.mi.; it ranks sixth in size among the states. Population (1940): 110,247; on July i, 1948, the U.S. bureau of the census estimated the population at 142,000. The principal cities with 1940 pop. and 1948 pop. in parentheses were: Carson City, the capital, 2,478 (3,250); Reno 21,317 (32,000); Las Vegas 8,422 (27,000); Sparks 5,318 (8,000); Ely 4,140 (5,000); Elko 4,094 (5,800). History.—The high light of the year 1948 was the November election. President Harry S. Truman receiving 31,291 votes in Nevada; Thomas E. Dewey 29,357; Henry A. Wallace 1,469. As a result of the election, the 1949 legislature would be divided, the senate being controlled by the Republicans with 10 members to 7 Democrats, the assembly being controlled by the Democrats, 25 to 18. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, the proceeds of the 2% gambling tax netted the state $1,403,746. On Jan. i, 1949, state officers were; governor, Vail M. Pitt¬ man; lieutenant governor, Clifford Jones; secretary of state, John Koontz; controller, J. P. Donovan; treasurer, Dan W. Franks; superintendent of public instruction, Mildred Bray; attorney general, Alan H. Bible; chief justice of the supreme court, Charles Lee Horsey.

liCVaUQ*

Education—On Jan. i, 1949, Nevada had 199 elementary schools with a total enrolment of 21,428; teachers numbered 749; high schools totalled 37 with enrolment of 6,392, staffed by 290 teachers. Enrolment was 1,670 in 12 kindergartens, with 20 teachers; average daily attendance in the elementary schools was 16,553; in the high schools 5,370; and in the kindergartens 1,169. The average yearly salary paid Nevada’s teachers was $3,018 during 1948. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs_

The amount spent for social security was $1,909,167.64 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948. Aid to the deaf, dumb and blind expense was $4,230.07; Nevada spent $1,593,168.88 for unemployment security benefits during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948. On Jan. i, 1949, the state prison had 249 men and 5 women inmates; total expenditures for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, were $213,900.21. The state industrial home, on Jan. i, 1949, had 33 boys and i girl in residence, and 15 boys and i girl on parole; total expenditures for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, were $28,642.42. The state hospital for mental diseases had 346 inmates on Jan. i, 1949; expenditures for the 1948 fiscal year were $247,045.68. The orphans’ home had 52 boy and 37 girl inmates on Jan. i, 1949, and cost to the state for the 1948 fiscal year was $77,284.52. An educational venereal disease program was carried on during 1948

NEW BRUNSWICK —NEW GUINEA

506

throughout Nevada. Communications.—During 1948 a total of 39.08 mi. of gravel-surfaced highways and 174 mi. of oil-asphaltic surfaced roads were constructed in Nevada. Expenditures for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, were $3,711,175.45. High material and labour costs reduced the program materially. Railroad mileage in Nevada in 1948 totalled 1,669.52. Airports totalled 61 on Jan. i, 1949Bonking and Finance—On June 30, 1948, there were 8 main office banks with 17 branches, a total of 25 bank units serving Nevada; the total resources of these banks were $175,512,422.33; deposits were $165,410,476.79. Total resources of Nevada banks decreased $55,541.95 during 1948. One building and loan association, the American Loan Society of Reno, had resources of $201,134.85. Small loan licencees operating as of June 30, 1948, numbered ten, with $173,344-33 in out¬ standing loans. During 1948 no banks were in liquidation and none were closed. Of state funds on July i, 1948, cash on hand was $5,318,782.08. Total cash received, including the cash balance on July i, 1947, of $5,607,592.19, was $21,509,554.65; cash disbursements during the fiscal year were $16,190,772.57. The state debt on Jan. i, 1949, was $385,000. Total securities held by the state treasury on Jan. i, 1949, totalled $25,000,000. Nevada’s postwar reserve fund had a balance of $1,280,000 in U.S. bonds and $7,000 cash. Actual cash balance in the state treasury on Jan. i, 1949, was $4,146,273.25. Agriculture.—The 1948 agricultural production increased slightly over that of 1947, according to estimates of the U.S. department of agricul¬ ture; both acreage and yield varied little, however, from the 1945 cfensus statistics. Total cash receipts from crops marketed in Nevada were $32,356,000 in 1946. Leading Agriculfural Producfs of Nevada, 1948, 1947 and Average 1937-46 Crop

Barley, bu. Potatoes, bu. Wheat, bu. Hoy, tons. Oats, bo. Corn, bu.

1948 est.

1947

Average 1937-46

814,000 262,000 640,000 613,000 360,000 62,000

740,000 483,000 612,000 666,000 328,000 64,000

633,000 502,000 460,000 587,000 268,000 87,000

-

Mineral Production.—Important developments in Nevada during 1948 included the deep mines operation of the Newmont company at Goldfield and the completion of the Fad shaft of the Eureka corppration at Eureka. Encouraged by high prices of copper, lead and zinc, the total produc¬ tion in 1948 of gold, silver, copper, lead and zinc was expected to equal that produced in 1947. On Dec. 31, 1948, there were 3,860 men em¬ ployed by the state as compared with 11,425 employed in the year 1943. (E. C. D. M.)

>1

Q

• •

Largest of the three maritime provinces of Canada, New Brunswick entered the union in 1867; area, 27,985 sq.mi.; pop. (1941) 457,401, (1947 est.) 503,000; Fredericton, capital and third largest city, cele¬ brated its centennial on July 26, 1948. History.—During the 4th session of the 42nd legislature, the Liberals, who gained power in 1935, announced a $6,347,800 sur¬ plus ($4,000,000 greater than 1946, and the 8th successive sur¬ plus). Besides dominion-provincial tax co-operation, the prov¬ ince signed up for the five-year federal physical fitness and rec¬ reational plan (and stated work would centre on community recreation), and reported a ten-year, $9,000,000 dominion-pro¬ vincial marshlands-reclamation scheme involving about 80,000 ac. (some of which lay in Nova Scotia). With a social security and public investment program, the Liberals went to the country on June 28 (holding 36 of 48 seats) and won 47 of 52 seats (1946 redistribution increased the size of the legislature). The five remaining seats went to Progressive-Conservatives; the Co-operative Commonwealth federation (socialistic) won no seats and had its popular vote cut by 50% from 1944 returns.

N6W brUnSWiCKi

Agriculture..—The general position was firm to favourable throughout 1948 on the province’s 31,900 farms, which contributed about 22% of the production of the province and employed 27.7% of the labour force. The potato crop was so large (16,410,000 bu.) it presented a problem, and federal floor-price legislation was called upon to aid growers. Value of production for 1947: grains and field crops $18,452,000, of which potatoes accounted for $9,123,000; livestock and products $19,231,000, of which dairy products brought $6,878,000, cattle and calves $3,650,000, hogs $3,569,000; eggs $2,132,000: poultry $1,126,000. Fisheries.—Efforts to expand the province’s normally $20.ooo,ooo-peryear fish business went forward with increased use of modern draggers, some of which took 120,000 lb. of fish weekly. A Jan.-Oct. survey showed that the 1948 catch was higher than 1947; haddock 84.4%; pollock 33-5%: hake 33.7%: cod 18.3%; and herring 3.6%. Forestry—Although production of lumber dropped, the gross value of

1948 forest production was estimated to be $25,000,000 more than the 1947 figure of $43,000,000. This was chiefly the result of notable expansion in pulp and paper fields. One large new mill went into opera¬ tion and foundations went down for a $65,000,000 co-operative plant with a 400,000-ton yearly capacity. The lumber cut for 1948 was estimated to be 290,000,000 bd.ft. Production.—Values for 1946 (1945 in parentheses); gross $301,398,100 ($258,227,300); net $161,947,200 ($139,435,400), which was 2.5% (2.29%) of the dominion’s net total, or $337 ($298) per capita. Minerals.—Coal production in 1948 was somewhat more than the 326,590 tons of 1947, but the other main minerals held at roughly year-previous levels, which were: gypsum 81,000 tons; lime 122,273 tons; and peat 2,730 tons. (See also Canada, Dominion of.)

New Caledonia:

(C. Cy.)

see French Overseas Territories.

Newfounillanil and Labrador.

North' "America, with suspended constitution. Area: Newfoundland 42,734 sq.mi., Labrador c. 110,000 sq.mi.; pop.: Newfoundland (1945 census) 315,643, (1947 est.) 321,897; Labrador (1947 est.) 5,639. Cap¬ ital: St. John’s (pop. 1947, 57,849). Governor: Sir Gordon Macdonald. History .—Since the suspension in 1934 of the dominion status, established under the Statute of Westminster in 1931, Newfoundland was administered by a governor assisted by a governing commission consisting of three representatives of the island and three of the United Kingdom, responsible to the Lon¬ don government. A national convention, elected in 1946 to con¬ sider the future form of government, ended their deliberations in Jan. 1948 with a recommendation for a plebiscite. A ballot taken on June 3 enabled the people to vote for: (i) return to the former type of responsible government; (2) confederation with Canada, and (3) retention of government by commission for a further period of five years. The result was approximately 44% for (i), 41% for (2), and 13% for (3). As no one choice had an overriding majority over the other two combined, a fur¬ ther vote was taken on July 22 to decide between (i) and (2). The result favoured confederation with Canada by approxi¬ mately 52% to 48%. On Dec. ii, at Ottawa, the terms of agreement for bringing Newfoundland into confederation with Canada were signed by representatives of the Canadian government and the Newfound¬ land delegation. The agreement for union would come into force on March 31, 1949, but only if its terms were approved by the Canadian parliament and the Newfoundland government. New¬ foundland would become the tenth Canadian province and would be represented at Ottawa by six senators and seven members of the house of commons. (W. F. Rl.) Education.—(1947) Schools 1,207, pupils 71,920, teachers 2,299. Finance and Banking.—Budget (1947—48, in Canadian dollars): revenue

$40,682,214, expenditure $40,994,646; (1948—49 est.) revenue $39,416,900, expenditure $38,544,400. Currency circulation (March 31, 1948): $2,857,986. National debt (March 31. 1948): £18,673,460 and $6,485,647. Savings and bank deposits (Dec. 31, 1947): $93,653,793 plus government deposits of $17,064,911. Exchange rate: Canadian and U.S. dollar at par. Transport and Communications.—Roads, main and secondary 5,200 mi.; motor vehicles (licensed) 6,509 cars, 3,789 trucks, 219 motorcycles. Railways 750 mi. Telephone subscribers 10,000. Wireless licences 30,978. Gander airport, Newfoundland, and Goose Bay airport, Labrador, were important stages between Europe and America for air lines of several countries on both sides of the Atlantic. Foreign Trade.—(1947-48) Imports $105,054,921; exports $80,467,927. Exports consist mainly of codfish, herring, newsprint, iron ore, whale oil, cod oil and seal oil. Agriculture.—In Newfoundland about 124,953 ac. of land were under cultivation, mainly hay, potatoes, turnips and cabbages for home use. Livestock (1946): horses 14,511, cattle 22,744, sheep 84,025, pigs 11,611, goats 11,544, poultry 343,000. Industry.—Fishing industries employed 30,000 persons, paper and pulp mills and saw mills 16,000, mining 3,000, farming 3,000. A total of 1,466 industrial establishments employed 56,379 persons. Mineral Production—Exports 1947 (in long tons); iron ore 1,443,410: copper 16,137; zinc 70,402-: lead 34,216; fluorspar 25,743; limestone 312,155.

New Guinea: see

Netherlands Indies;

UNDER Trusteeship ; Trustee Territories.

Pacific Islands

NEW HAMPSHIRE —NEW JERSEY

New Hampshire. theNew England states of the United States and one of the original group of 13, popularly known as the “Granite state”; area, 9,304 sq.mi., including 280 sq.mi. of inland water. Popula¬ tion (1940) was 491,524, of which 57.6% was urban and 42.4% rural. Estimated popu¬ lation, July I, 1948, excluding armed forces overseas, was 548,000. In 1940 there were 490,989 whites, including 422,693 native-born and 68,296 for¬ eign-born. Capital, Concord, with estimated population (1943) of 27,495. Other cities: Manchester, 78,436; Nashua, 33,914; Portsmouth, 20,530; Ber¬ lin, 16,480; and Dover, 16,393, of 1943. History.—The general court was not in session during 1948. Town meetings were held on March 9, which date was also marked by the election of delegates to a state constitutional convention authorized by the general court in 1947, and by the choice of delegates to the national party conventions. A state constitutional convention was held from May 12 to June 4, and six proposed amendments were submitted, to be voted upon by the electorate on Nov. 2. Of the six, the only one to be approved was an amendment authorizing the legis¬ lature to recess for five days over weekends instead of the two days which had been allowed in the past. Three proposed amendments which would have increased the power of the state legislature with respect to taxation, were decisively defeated in November, thus leaving unsolved the problem of securing ade¬ quate state revenue. At the general election of Nov. 2, Thomas E. Dewey and Earl Warren received 121,299 popular votes, compared with 107,995 for Harry S. Truman and Alben W. Barkley. Sherman Adams (Republican) was elected governor, and H. Styles Bridges (Republican) was re-elected U.S. senator. The election for members of the general court (to convene in Jan. 1949) resulted in the choice of 17 Republicans and 7 Democrats as state senators and 254 Republicans and 145 Democrats as mem¬ bers of the house of representatives. State officers in 1948 were: governor, Charles M. Dale; secre¬ tary of state, Enoch D. Fuller; state treasurer, F. Gordon Kim¬ ball; commissary general and adjutant general, Charles F. Bowen; attorney general, Ernest R. d’Amours; commissioner of education, Edgar Fuller, who resigned on July i, being suc¬ ceeded by Hilton C. Buley. U.S. senators were H. Styles Bridges

507

On Jan. i, 1945, there were 210 persons in prisons and reformatories in New Hampshire. The net appropriation for the operation of the state prison at Concord for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, was $206,602; and for the Industrial School for Committed Minors at Manchester, $161,744. Communicafions.-—At the end of 1945 there were 12,491 mi. of rural roads in New Hampshire, including highways under state, local and federal control. Disbursements from state highway funds for the calendar year 1946 amounted to $7,993,000. In 1948 the state began work on a new express toll road to extend from the Massachusetts line to the Maine state toll road. In 1946 there were 951 mi. of steam railways owned in the state. At the close of the same year there were 32,210 business and 93.529 residential telephones in operation. Banking and Finance.—^As of June 30, 1948, there were in New Hamp¬ shire 51 national banks with deposits of $174,645,000 and resources of $194,540,000, compared with 51 banks with deposits and resources, respec¬ tively, on June 30, 1947, of $171,745,000 and $191,264,000. Fifty-seven state-chartered banks had deposits of $355,929,925 and resources of $399,607,430 compared with 56 institutions reporting deposits and resources, respectively, of $350,113,398 and $390,743,788, on June 30, 1947There were 25 state-chartered building and loan associations with re¬ sources of $22,265,918 compared with $19,937,724 for the previous year. State-chartered savings banks and savings departments of trust companies reported deposits of $340,938,666 as of June 30, 1948, an increase of $5,633,004 over the total for June 30, 1947, thus continuing the upward trend of the past six years but to a considerably lesser degree. The Laconia Federal Savings and Loan association reported assets of $1,976,622 and members’ share accounts of $1,403,260 on June 30, 1948, while the Manchester Federal Savings and Loan association re¬ ported assets of $16,073,857 and total private shares of $12,678,869, as of June 30. Time deposits in savings departments of the 51 national banks within the state amounted to approximately $42,400,000. Cash receipts of the state treasury department for the fiscal year end¬ ing June 30, 1948, were $51,162,229.55; cash disbursements $51,382,887.49; cash balance was $5,719,024.11. Gross fixed bond and note debt, June 30, 1948, $12,380,000; net bonded debt, $9,302,383.76. Agriculture.—In 1945 there were 18^786 farms in New Hampshire with a total acreage of 2,017,049 ac. Estimated acreage from which crops were harvested or hay cut, or which was planted in orchards, amounted to 435,602 ac. The total value of farm lands and buildings in 1945 was approximately $80,394,869. Cash income from crops in 1947 was $15,409,000; from livestock $48,555,000; and from government pay¬ ments $528,000, the total amounting to $64,492,000. In addition an estimated valuation of $8,931,000 was placed upon products consumed by farm households. The value of maj'or items aside from harvested crops included eggs $18,312,000; poultry $8,166,000; milk $17,228,000; and cattle and calves $3,297,000. Lumber production in 1947 amounted to 417,993,000 bd.ft., including 53,636,000 bd.ft. of hardwood and 364,357,000 bd.ft. of softwood. White pine alone accounted for 297,654,000 bd.ft.

Leading Agricultural Products of New Hampshire, 1948 and 1947 Crop

Corn, bu. Oats, bu. Hoy, tons. Potatoes, bu. Apples, bu. (commercial) Maple syrup, gol. . . . Maple sugar, lb. . . .

1948 (esi.l

1947

429,000 304,000 446,000 964,000 612,000 ? ?

528,000 224,000 473,000 893,000 838,000 51,000

10,000

Manufacturing.—It was estimated that the value of products manu¬ factured in New Hampshire in 1947 was at least $550,000,000, com¬ pared with $237,396,000 in 1939. The most important manufactured items were textiles, leather and leather goods, paper and allied products, machinery, and lumber and wood products. Printing and publishing were also important industries. The average number of employees engaged in manufacturing in 1947 was estimated at 81,735, their gross earnings amounting to $194,104,663. Concern over the situation in the textile industry was heightened in 1948 by the proposal to close down the mills owned in Nashua by Textron, Inc., and vigorous efforts were made to save for New Hamp¬ shire a part of the business of the concern. Mineral Production.—Principal miperal resources were feldspar, mica, building stone (chiefly granite), brick clays, and sand and gravel. Value of mineral products in 1947 was $1,574,000. (W. E. Ss.)

and Charles W. Tobey, both Republican. Education.—In 1947-1948 there were 133 one-room public elementaryschools with 2,914 pupils and 133 teachers; 398 (approximately) classi¬ fied public elementary schools with 48,497 pupils and 1,763 teachers; and 82 public high schools with 18,344 pupils and 1,024 teachers. Estimated expenditures, including capital expenditures, for public schools in 1947-1948 were $12,900,000, compared with $8,750,000 for 19461947. In 194s, private and parochial elementary and secondary schools had an estimated enrolment of 23,436. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Prograrns.

In June 1948 there were 2,685 cases on general relief with an expenditure of $109,761, compared with 2,517 cases in June 1947 with an outlay of $90,151. Expenditures for public assistance under the Social Security act were $421,355, compared with $374,401 for June i947- The total for June 1948 included $300,847 for old-age assistance; $105,805 for aid to dependent children; and $14,703 for aid to needy blind. During the calendar year 1947, gross receipts for unernployment compensation were $4,145,113 while $2,653,369 was disbursed in benefits to the unem¬ ployed compared with $791,000 paid in 1946. The unemployment fund as of Jan. i, 1948, amounted to $27.028,343.. Veterans’ readjustment allowances for 1947 amounted to $2,34i’9i7» while benefits paid to nonveteran Jobless workers were almost $2,700,000.

New Hebrides: see

French Overseas Territories; Pacific

Islands, British.

Mnim loreoii Jersey was the third state to enter the nCW IlClwCjfa union. It is situated on the middle Atlantic coast between New York city and Philadelphia, Pa. Its 1940 population of 4,160,165 ranked it ninth among the states. The 1948 federal census estimated its population at 4,729,000. New Jersey covers 7,836 sq.mi., including 314 sq.mi. of water. Capi¬ tal: Trenton (1940, 124,697). The two largest cities are New¬ ark (429,760) and Jersey City (301,173). History. —The outstanding development in New Jersey dur¬ ing 1948 was the reorganization of the state government under the newly adopted constitution of 1947. The reorganization,

508

NEW MEXICO —NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES

like the constitutional revision movement, enjoyed the leader¬ ship and support of Gov. Alfred E. Driscoll. The 1947 consti¬ tution went into effect Jan. i, 1948, except for the judiciary article, which became effective Sept. 15, 1948. At the legislative session, which began in Jan. 1948, a series of bills was introduced which had as its purpose the reorgani¬ zation of the more than 80 departments and agencies of the state government into 14 functional departments. The reor¬ ganization was completed, except for the education department, by the close of the session in August. A special session of the legislature in late August and Sep¬ tember passed laws implementing the judicial provisions of the constitution. The legislative session featured a whole series of bills to carry out various provisions of the new constitution, either amending existing legislation or enacting new statutory pro¬ visions. Additional state aid was extended to education and for local roads. A disability benefits law was passed, providing for accident or sickness benefits for employees not compensable under the Workmen’s Compensation law. The banking laws of the state were completely revised, and a cigarette tax levied. The minimum salary of teachers was raised to $2,000 per academic year. In the general election of Nov. 2, Thomas E. Dewey received 981,124 presidential votes, to 895,455 for Harry S. Truman. Education—Pupil enrolment (1948): elementary schools 446,491; junior high 25,497; high 167,058; special schools 6,914. Day school teachers numbered 26,342. One-room schools numbered 136. Colleges numbered 8, junior colleges 11, universities 4, total full-time students 27.337; state teachers colleges 6, enrolment 4,482; professional and technological schools ii, enrolment 7,396. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

The average monthly grant for aid to dependent children for the year ending June 30, 1948, was $82.23 per family, an increase over the previous year of $3.74. The related program covering guardianship of children averaged $45-23 a month per capita cost in the same period. The average monthly grant for old-age assistance to 23,165 recipients during the month of June 1948 was $42.92. The gross expenditure for assistance and burial costs during the fiscal year amounted to $11,820,717.94, representing an increase over the preceding fiscal period of $1,136,703.45. The average monthly grant for assistance to the blind was $44.97 as of June 30, 1948. The New Jersey law requires the registration of all blind people. The state commission for the blind had on its register, as of June 30, 1948, a total of 5,050 clients. Banking and Finance.—Deposits in the 153 State banks, trust companies and savings banks totalled $2,720,750,000 on June 30, 1948, an increase of $99,555,000 from June 30, 1947- Government deposits increased $16,899,000 during the period. Of the 129 commercial banks, 77, with 75-7% of total deposits, were members of the federal reserve system. Government securities made up 50.5% of the total assets ($2,955,892,000) of all the banks, compared with 53-8% the year before, while cash represented 13.3% of the total as compared with 13.6%. There was a further reduction in the total real estate owned of $153,000, a drop of 20.6% from June 30, 1947. Agriculture.—In 1948 there were in New Jersey 27,000 farms of a total of 1,900,000 ac., of which 1,000,000 ac. were under cultivation. The estimated 1948 production, the 1947 production and the lo-year average production of the leading crops are shown in the table.

Leading Agricultural Products of New Jersey, 1948, 1947, and 1 0-year Average 1948 est. 1947 1937-46 Corn, bu. 9,264,000 7,740,000 7,441,000 Wheat, bu. 1,804,000 1,875,000 1,272,000 Oats, bu. 1,208,000 1,000,000 1,349,000 Barley, bu. 434,000 396,000 203,000 Hay, tons.. 463,000 430,000 413,000 Sweet potatoes, bu. . . . , 2,240,000 2,160,000 2,094,000 Potatoes, bu.. 12,597,000 13,140,000 10,473,000 Apples, bu. 1,364,000 1,935,000 2,899,000 Peaches, bu. 1,175,000 1,617,000 1,349,000 Grapes, tons. 1,800 1,900 2,250 Cranberries, bbl. 67,000 82,000 86,100 Manufacturing—The year 1948 saw relatively little labour disturbance; there were no large-scale work stoppages. New Jersey industry con¬ tinued full speed ahead toward maximum peacetime production. The state was represented in 90% of all industries, with more than 10,500 factories and shops employing approximately 757,000 production workers. There was considerable plant expansion during the year. (S. Gn.)

(121,511 sq.mi. land, 155 sq.mi. water); pop. (1940) 531,818; rural 355,417; urban 176,401; native white 477,065; Negro 4,672; foreign-born 15,247. On July i, 1948, the bureau of the census estimated the population of the state at 571,000. History. —The administration, legislature and congressional representation were Democratic in 1948. The chief officers of the state elected in the 1948 elections were: governor, Thomas J. Mabry; lieutenant governor, Joe M. Montoya; secretary of state, Mrs. M. A. Romero; auditor, E. D. Trujillo; treasurer, H. R. (Ray) Rodgers; attorney general, Joe L. Martinez; superintendent of public instruction, Charles L. Rose; commis¬ sioner of public lands, Guy Shepard. Three constitutional amendments were adopted: the governor shall call a special ses¬ sion of the legislature upon request of three-fifths of the legis¬ lators; the legislature may fix the compensation of its own em¬ ployees; the lieutenant governor-elect becomes governor when the governor-elect dies before taking office. The popular vote for president in the Nov. 2 election was 105,464 for Harry S. Truman and 80,303 for Thomas E. Dewey. Education.—For the school year 1947—48 the rural schools enrolled 45,253 pupils, employed 1,465 teachers, average salary $2,287.02; total expenditures were $7,274,686.58. Municipal schools enrolled 90,844 pupils, employed 2,753 teachers, average salary $2,854; total expendi¬ tures were $15,666,271.59. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

During the calendar year 1948, $710,018.95 was paid out for civilian unemployment benefits; for unemployed veterans, $2,130,804; and for self-employed veterans, $450,212. On June 30, 1948, $845,000 had been spent for old-age and survivors insurance, and $6,858,400 for public assistance. The penitentiary appropriation was $189,500 for 594 inmates (Sept, i); insane asylum, $696,000, 1,041 inmates (Nov. 15); Los Lunas Mental hospital (the new .name for the School for Mental Defectives), $75,000, 95 inmates; Industrial school, $97,500, 60 inmates (Novem¬ ber); Girls’ Welfare home $105,000, 121 inmates (December). Communications.—New Mexico had an estimated 53,997 mi, of un¬ surfaced and 9,154.2 mi. of surfaced roads in 1948. The state highway department expended $14,791,850.93. Steam railway companies oper¬ ated 2,495 mi. of main track (1947)- There were 116 airports and approximately 832 mi. of airways operated by four scheduled air car¬ riers. There were about 86,800 telephones. Banking and Finance—On June 30, 1948, there were 24 national banks with deposits of $202,009,000; loans $65,623,000; investments $88,379,000; and 24 state banks with deposits of $73,569,000; loans $25,783,000; investments $31,502,000. Total resources of ii building and loan associations in 1947 were $7,876,099.32 and of 7 federal savings and loan associations $10,461,755.51. The total of all state receipts for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, was $64,537,264.48; expenditures $61,220,989.68. The gross and net debt were respectively $22,903,000 and $22,704,895.75. Agriculture.—The total value of agricultural production in 1948 was $84,371,000 (est.); acreage harvested 1,658,000 (est.). Livestock was valued at $147,631,000, Jan. 1, 1948.

Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of New Mexico, 1948 and 1947 Crop

Tame hay, tons , , Grain sorghums, bu. Winter wheat, bu. . Corn, bu. Beans, bags . . . Cotton, bales . . . Cottonseed, tons . . Forage sorghum, tons

1948 (est.)

499,000 3,738,000 3,231,000 1,890,000 440,000 240,000 96,000 168,000

1947

506,000 1,488,000 9,1 20,000 1,904,000 273,000 1 60,000 64,000 84,000

Manufacturing.—Manufactured products were valued at $25,123,641 in 1939; an average of 3,250 employees received $2,912,993 in wages.

Table II.—Pr/nc/pa/ Mineral Products of New Mexico, 1948 and 1947 Mineral Copper . . Potash . . . Cool . . . Zinc . . . . Lead . . . Silver . . . Molybdenum Gold . . .

Value, Year ending June 30, 1948 $29,875,899 42,738,880 6,71 2,043 8,880,821 2,273,684 441,951 493,111 114,735

Value, Year ending June 30, 1947 $20,404,405 39,296,180 6,011,227 6,928,805 1,270,576 335,206 417,051 109,010

Mineral Production. Potash was New Mexico’s chief mineral in 1948 For the year ending Dec. 31, 1946, 36,714,473 bbl. of oil, valued at $55,071,709.50, were produced. In 1947 there were 40,926,163 bbl. of oil produced in New Mexico. (f_ d R.)

Fourth largest state in the southwestern

New Mexico. United States, popularly known as the “Sun¬ Newspapers and Magazines. shine state”; admitted to the union in 1912. Area 121,666 sq.mi.

and an election campaign full of surprises, against a background

NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES of foreign news focused on the United Nations and the “cold war” with Russia, highlighted the year 1948 for U.S. newspapers. Within their own offices, many strikes and legal manoeuvrings of the International Typographical union added to the other problems of rising costs and financial difficulties. The trend of the news of the year was indicated by the ten biggest news stories of 1948, selected by the news executives of the United Press: (i) election of Pres. Truman; (2) the Ber¬ lin air lift and the “cold war” in Europe; (3) the high cost of living; (4) Mrs. Oksana Kosenkina’s escape from the Russian consulate in New York city; (5) Gandhi’s assassination; (6) death of “Babe” Ruth; (7) the Chinese civil war; (8) U.S. spy investigations; (9) the founding of Israel and Count Folke Bernadotte’s assassination; and (10) Princess Elizabeth’s baby. For the fifth time, a majority of the daily newspapers backed the losing presidential candidate with their editorial pages. The most thorough survey showed: 65.17% of the dailies with 78.55% of the circulation backed Republican Thomas E. Dewey; 15-38% of the dailies with 10.03% of the circulation backed Harry S. Truman, Democrat; 3.8% of the dailies with 1.31% of the circulation backed J. Strom Thurmond of the States’ Rights Democrats; and three small dailies supported Henry A. Wallace of the Progressive party. In the election pollsters and newspapers alike went far astray in predicting Dewey’s election. Although 6,000 printers of the International Typographical union called strikes in 44 newspapers in 27 cities, all of these newspapers continued to publish without printers, through the use of photographed typewritten copy. In Chicago, Ill., the strike of printers on all five daily newspapers which had been launched on Nov. 24, 1947, was not settled by the end of 1948. Most of the strikes were not for wages but were a part of the I.T.U. campaign against the Taft-Hartley labour law and its ban on the closed shop—a campaign which was started in Aug. 1947. Meanwhile Varitype and other imitations of printed copy, with new devices for photoengraving headlines, advertisements and want ads attained such perfection in Chicago that all news¬ papers studied the process as a possible permanent substitute. Among large newspapers, Marshall Field’s Chicago Sun and the Chicago Times were combined on Feb 2 into the tabloid Sun-Times. In New York city. Field on April 28 sold the liberal PM, started in 1940 by Ralph Ingersoll as an adless daily, to Bartley Crum and Joseph Barnes; on June 23 it was renamed the New York Star, redesigned and converted into a 48-page tabloid newspaper. In Los Angeles, Calif., on Oct. ii the Los Angeles Mirror, a new tabloid daily, was launched by Virgil Pinkley, formerly of the United Press—the first new newspaper on the west coast in 25 years. In New York city in March Dorothy and Theodore Olin Thackrey combined the New York Post and the Bronx Home News. On May 2 the Wall Street Journal of New York city started a southwest edition in Dallas, Tex. To reduce costs rival newspapers in several cities merged their mechanical and business departments while retaining edi¬ torial identity; among these were: the News and the Star in Indianapolis on Aug. 28; the Independent and the Marine Jour¬ nal of San Rafael, Calif., in December; the Chronicle and the Herald of Augusta, Ga., in December; the Record and the En¬ terprise of Chico, Calif., in December; the Wisconsin State Journal and the Capital Times of Madison, Wis., on Nov. 15; in most cases one newspaper entered the morning field. Costly new newspaper plants were built in many cities and much new equipment was installed elsewhere; notable were new buildings for the New York Times, the Seattle Post-Intelligencer, the Los Angeles Eotaminer, the Gannett newspapers at Portland, Me., the Louisville Courier-Journal and the Louisville Times, the St. Louis Star-Times, the Oregon Journal of Portland, the Fort Worth Star-Telegram, the Baltimore Sun papers, the Milwaukee

509

Sentinel and the Nashville Tennessean. Because of interest in the United Nations and the con¬ tinuing cold war with the U.S.S.R., the U.S. press continued to maintain a large corps of correspondents in other countries. Centres of news interest were the Berlin blockade and the Allied air lift, the turbulent situation in Palestine, the continued strug¬ gle in Greece, gains of the communist army in China and war¬ like activities in several South American countries. From Janu¬ ary to April, a subcommission of the United Nations, meeting at Lake Success, debated the problem of free speech and free press, with the Soviet Union opposing western ideas, and finally drafted a covenant stressing freedom from government control and refuting the Russian charge of warmongering. On March 23 a United Nations Conference on Freedom of Information con¬ vened in Geneva, Switzerland, with 29 delegates, mainly news¬ papermen, representing the United States. The conclusions of both these groups were returned to the Commission on Human Rights before going to the U.N. general assembly. Meanwhile U.S. newspapermen watched the inquiry carried on by the British Royal Commission on the Press. Much interest in new printing inventions was expressed at all newspaper meetings, and the American Newspaper Publishers association voted $280,000 to encourage research. One new process using the Fairchild camera made plastic picture cuts by electronics without zinc or chemicals; another called xerography printed with a dry powder instead of ink on a high speed press; the Chicago Tribune developed a magnetic method of assembling want ads; a Vogel-Reel typewriter solved the problem of align¬ ing both sides of the column on first typing. Facsimile editions were issued by several newspapers, including the New York Times, Philadelphia Inquirer and Chicago Tribune. At least five newspapers were licensed to operate two-way mobile radio units for their reporters. Costs and income continued to soar in 1948. After reaching an all-time high of 51,673,276 daily sales in 1947—about 25% higher than in 1940—circulation totals went up about 1.5% in 1948. But the penny paper was gone; 3 cents was a common price, and by February 1,395 dailies were selling for 5 cents; 68% of the Sunday newspapers went to 15 cents, and small dailies raised carrier rates to 25 cents a week. About 363 dailies dropped their Saturday issues. After a record gain of nearly 20% in advertising linage in 1947, monthly totals continued to rise—12.8% in January, 17.1% in April, 14.8% in May, 13.5% in September and 11.9% in October, more than the same months in 1947. But mechanical and other costs outstripped increased income, rising from 15% to 20%. One study reported costs up 95% and income up 74% in five years. U.S. Magazines.—The most discussed news in the magazine world in 1948 was the 5% reduction in advertising rates an¬ nounced in October by the Ladies’ Home Journal, because cir¬ culation had dropped below the 4,500,000 base and from 4,720,000 in 1947. This news signalized the industry-wide belief that the wartime boom was over and the trend would be downward. In 1947, 5,000,000,000 magazines had been sold—35 for each person in the country—as compared with 3,000,000,000 in 1939. In 1948, 48 magazines had circulations ranging from 1,000,000 to 8,000,000 each, while in 1930, 28 had circulations of “up¬ wards of a million.” In 1948, almost 90% were sold on news¬ stands as compared with 40% to 50% before World War II. In 1948 the total amount expended for advertising in magazines was estimated at $475,000,000, compared with $442,000,000 in 1947. Wartime circulations began falling off early in 1948, and by July advertising showed the same trend—down 9% in the women’s group and 3% in the weeklies. The paper situation was easier but prices were higher, up to $165 a ton. In spite of higher sales prices, profits narrowed for

510

NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES

NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES

511

iBi

^'News Pictures of the Year^' ★

CONTEST WINNERS Shown on these pages are the prize photographs from the sixth annual “News Pictures of the Year” competition, jointly sponsored by the Brifannica Book of the Year and the University of Missouri School of Journalism

Opposite page, above; first prize, NEWS, “He Who Laughed Last,” by Al Muto, International News Photos. Be¬ low, left: first prize, SPORTS, “Farewell to No. 3,” by Harry Harris, Associated Press. Babe Ruth’s final appearance in uniform, at Yankee Stadium, in New York city, on June 13, 1948, ten years after his retirement from major-league baseball. Below, right: first prize, FEATURE, “My Baby Brother,” by James Mooney, Chattanooga News-Free Press

Barney Cowherd of the Louisyille Courier-Journal was awarded the title of “News Pho¬ tographer of the Year" in the competition, for his prize-winning PORTFOLIO of ten pic¬ tures. This print, entitled “Rain,” was one of the pictures in his portfolio. It was also awarded second prize in the feature category

Esther Bubley of the Standard Oil Company of New Jersey won first prize in the PICTURESEQUENCE category in the competition, with ten candid shots entitled “Bus Station,” of which two are shown here. The prize pictures and more than 100 other outstanding prints from the competition were reproduced in The Great Pictures—1949, issued by Greenberg: Publisher

512

NEWSPAPERS AND MAGAZINES

most publishers. Advertising was affected by a vigorous cam¬ paign waged by newspapers. Great growth in teen-age and college-age magazines was evi¬ dent as well as for the io-to-i6years age-group, but 50 cities adopted ordinances affecting comic books, which had in¬ creased to 300 titles. Circula¬ tion of U.S. magazines in Eu¬ rope was stimulated by a $10,000,000 guarantee by the Eco¬ nomic Cooperation administra¬ tion. Many smaller periodicals changed hands but there were BARNEY COWHERD of the Louis¬ no large sales. David Lawrence ville Courier-Journal, “News Pho¬ tographer of the Year” for 1948 merged the new World Report with his U.S. News. Reader’s Digest launched its isth and i6th overseas issues—one to Germany and one to Italy. New weekly supplements were launched by several newspapers. (G. M. Hy.) Canada.—Expanding newsprint supplies were reflected in larger editions of all metropolitan dailies; and a number of weeklies which had suspended during World War II reappeared. Several new publications were founded. The world’s first co¬ operatively backed daily, Winnipeg Citizen (Man.), with 14,000 shareholders, began publication on March i, giving editorial support to labour; but before the end of the year a shift in financial backing brought a modification of its labour policies. A new Catholic weekly was founded in Kingston, Ont., by Rob¬ ert W. Keyserlingk, who combined the regional Catholic Record (London, Ont.), Canadian Register (Kingston, Ont.), North¬ west Review (Winnipeg, Man.) into the national Ensign. The biggest publishing changes of the year occurred in To¬ ronto, Ont. J. E. Atkinson, owner of the Toronto Star, daily and weekly, died and willed his newspaper estate to the Atkin¬ son Charitable foundation, to be run by seven trustees, the ma¬ jority employees of the two papers, with all profits distributed to Ontario religious, charitable and educational objects. The Toronto Telegram, operated by trustees of founder James Ross Robertson, who died in 1918, was sold to C- George McCullagh (publisher of the Toronto Globe and Mail) for $3,610,000. In Nova Scotia, the Conservative-dominated Halifax Herald (morning) and its associate, the Halifax Mail (evening), founded in 1876, absorbed the Halifax Chronicle (morning) and its asso¬ ciate, the Halifax Star (evening), founded in 1824, to form an independent Halifax Chronicle-Herald (morning) and an asso¬ ciate Halifax Mail-Star (evening). Rising production costs were the reason. The illustrated monthly New World was bought by and amalgamated with the weekly New Liberty, which had previ¬ ously converted to monthly publication. (C. Cy.) Great Britain.—Lack of newsprint made 1948 another poor year for the press in Great Britain. British newspapers, with their four pages, became almost the smallest in the world, and, although the demand for newspapers had increased by more than 50% since 1939, circulations were everywhere restricted. A ten-day strike in Aug. 1948 prevented publication of the Manchester editions of the national newspapers. The saving of newsprint during this period was considerable and the news¬ papers affected were allowed 24 weeks in which to use the news¬ print they had saved. In consequence the net sale of the Daily Express in September rose above the permitted limit to 3,923,362, which was claimed to be the highest monthly averaged figure ever achieved by any morning newspaper in the world. The Royal Commission on the Press, set up in 1947, continued

to take evidence during 1948. The cost of the commission up to Aug. 31, 1948, was stated to be £10,900. A new service was inaugurated which delivered The Times (London) and certain other British newspapers in New York on the day of publication. The files of The Times from 1785 had already been microfilmed: the Rockefeller foundation now offered to defray the cost of apparatus to microfilm the Man¬ chester Guardian, which was established in 1821. Among the new publications of 1948 were the Socialist Out¬ look, published by a left-wing group of the Labour party; Target, a government-sponsored journal intended to be circu¬ lated in the factories; and United Nations World, devoted to United Nations activities and edited by Francis Noel-Baker. New editors appointed in 1948 included W. F. Casey, The Times; David Astor, the Observer (London), who followed Ivor Brown; R. J. Cruikshank, News Chronicle (London); and Lord Altrincham, the National Review, in succession to Lady Milner, who had edited this right-wing monthly since 1929. E. V. Knox, editor of Punch, was to be succeeded by C. K. Bird (“Fou¬ gasse”), who had been art editor. Australia.—A public company was formed to take over con¬ trol of the Melbourne Age, which had been published as a morn¬ ing newspaper since 1856. Disagreement over the allocation of newsprint caused some newspapers to withdraw from the Aus¬ tralian Newspaper Proprietors’ association and form a new association. South Africa.—A proposal to appoint a select committee to inquire into the press was refused by the minister of the inte¬ rior on the ground that no restraint of “honest news” had been proved. A controlling interest in the previously African-owned Nigerian Daily Times was bought by the Daily Mirror of London. India.—By agreement with Reuters the Indian newspapers formed their own news agency, the Press Trust of India, Ltd. The trust, a co-operative nonprofit organization, would become a partner with the newspapers of other dominions in the owner¬ ship of Reuters. Continental Europe.—The European press was to some ex¬ tent affected by the general shortage of newsprint, which made necessary a 15% cut in France in April, but it was still more affected by the ideological warfare between east and west. Both considerations were present when, during the Italian elections, the left-wing press in Italy received gifts of newsprint from their counterparts in Czechoslovakia. The change in February to a Communist regime in Czecho¬ slovakia had its immediate effect on the press. The Journalists’ association was taken over by an action committee. The circu¬ lation of certain British and other foreign newspapers was pro¬ hibited and foreign correspondents were cautioned against socalled “untrue reporting.” Several foreign correspondents were expelled. The first clandestine newspaper was reported in April. In the British and U.S. zones of Germany there were several cases of the temporary suspension of Communist-affiliated news¬ papers for publishing abusive articles. The British Control com¬ mission set up a new information service division for the better presentation of the British case to the Germans. In June the distribution of all newspapers and periodicals in the soviet zone was put into the hands of a centrally controlled agency. The effect of this was to institute a close supervision of the sales of newspapers from the other zones. Later in the year, when the Russians attempted to extend this control to Berlin, certain western-licensed newspapers refused to be handled in this way and were confiscated or banned by the Russians. The westernlicensed newspapers imposed a retaliatory boycott of sovietlicensed newspapers. It was announced that distribution in Poland of the 80 Polish-

NEW YORK language newspapers published in Britain, the United States and France would be allowed only with approval of the censorship authorities. Editors and many members of the staffs of Catholic newspapers in Warsaw and Cracow were arrested. A new evening paper, La Tarde, made its appearance in Madrid. There were now eight dailies in Madrid, of which five were published in the afternoon. Nova Borba, a pro-Cominform and anti-Tito weekly, designed to be distributed secretly in Yugoslavia, began publication in Prague in October. In Aus¬ tria, Die Presse of Vienna, successor of the Neue Freie Presse, which was closed down by the Germans in 1938, resumed pub¬ lication as a daily newspaper. {See also Advertising.) (D. Hn.) jjjj...

Oris of the original 13 states of the United

liwW IUII\« States, popularly known as the “Empire state,” New York covers an area of 49,576 sq.mi., of which 1,647 water. With a population of 13,479,142 (federal census, 1940) and an estimated population of 14,386,000 (U.S. bureau of the census, July i, 1948), it is the most populous state. The for¬ eign-born population in 1940 was 2,853,530. The urban popu¬ lation was 11,165,893. The 1948 population of principal cities, estimated by the state health department, and their percentage increase from 1940 included: Albany (state capital), 143,586 (up 10%); New York city, 7,887,748 (up 5.8%); Buffalo, 614,589 (up 6.7%); Rochester, 343,901 (up 5.8%); Syracuse, 222,860 (up 8,2%); Yonkers, 144,046 (up 1%); Utica, 100,848 (up 0.3%); Schenectady, 97,826 (up 11.7%); Niagara Falls, 90,791 (up 16.4%); Binghamton, 86,153 (up 10%). History .—Governor Thomas E. Dewey approved 876 bills passed by the 1948 session of the legislature. Measures affect¬ ing unemployment insurance raised the benefits, decreased the reserve requirements of the unemployment insurance fund and increased payments to workmen’s compensation claimants. The Triborough Bridge and Tunnel authority was authorized to construct a combined convention hall, sports arena and park¬ ing garage in New York city at an estimated cost of $25,000,000. Expenses of the project would eventually be liquidated from the proceeds derived from operation of the facilities, and the title to the property and building would ultimately revert to the city of New York. New laws were enacted creating a state university. These followed closely the recommendations of the Young Commis¬ sion on a State University appointed by the governor to study the problems of higher education in New York state. The legislation also provided for the creation of community col¬ leges which would be established by local initiative, either by counties or cities. They would receive one-half of their capital costs and one-third of their operating costs as state aid. The legislature approved a proposed amendment to the United States constitution limiting presidential tenure in office to two terms. Other bills approved by the governor included: extending to March i, 1949, laws permitting cities to undertake emergency housing for veterans; continuing to June 30, 1949, the state commission created to regulate rents in dwellings if and when federal control should cease; liberalizing regulations permitting more veterans and their families to occupy subsidized housing; continuing for another year the 50% reduction in state per¬ sonal income taxes, and extending to July i, 1949, the period in which real-property mortgages could not be foreclosed except under certain conditions. As a result of the election of Nov. 2, 1948, Governor Thomas E. Dewey, Republican nominee for president, carried New York state by a margin of 60,959 votes over Harry S. Truman, Demo¬ crat. Dewey received 2,841,163 votes, Truman 2,780,204 votes.

513

and Henry Wallace 509,559 votes. Chief officers of the state during 1948 were: Thomas E. Dewey, governor; Joe R. Hanley, lieutenant governor; Frank C. Moore, comptroller; Nathaniel L. Goldstein, attorney gen¬ eral; Thomas J. Curran, secretary of state; Francis T. Spauld¬ ing, commissioner of education. Education.—In 1947 there were in New York state 5,688 elementary schools with 1,283,601 pupils; 992 public high schools with 582,059 stu¬ dents; and III colleges, universities, and other institutions of higher learning. During the year ending June 30, 1947, the approximate cost of maintaining public schools (including salaries of 72,686 teachers) was $425,614,877. Approximately 200,000 veterans of World War II were attending schools and colleges in the state. The number of War Service scholarships, pch having a value of $350 a year for tuition and fees for 4 years, was increased in 1948 from 4,800 to 6,000, on the recommendation of Gov. Dewey. Veterans largely made up the enrolment in the Associated Colleges of Upper New York State (Sampson at Sampson, Champlain at Plattsburg and Mohawk at Utica). The Mohawk unit, at Utica, was closed after June 1948. An appropriation of $3,000,000 was made to give state aid to New York city colleges, the first time this had ever been done. The appropria¬ tion for state aid to education for the year 1947-48 was $182,000,000. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

During 1947 approximately 3,760,000 men, women and children received health and welfare services through 1,520 local public and private volun¬ tary agencies and institutions under the supervision of the state depart¬ ment of social welfare, at a total cost of about $420,000,000. Of this sum, $269,000,000 came from public funds and $151,000,000 from pri¬ vate voluntary funds. During 1947 expenditures for aid to dependent children totalled $49,655,721; for old age assistance, $65,921,113; for aid to the blind, $2,250,808, and for home relief and veteran assistance, $48,644,248. During 1948 the state operated 18 hospitals for the mentally ill, 7 schools for mental defectives, a psychiatric research centre, a hospital for temporary observation and study, a colony for epileptics and 2 hospitals for the criminally insane. There were 7 maximum security prisons, a medium security prison and a prison for women; 2 reformatories for males and i for females; 2 insti¬ tutions for male defective delinquents and i for females. State expendi¬ tures for prisons, reformatories, etc., for the fiscal year ending March 31, 1948, were $18,627,800; the average daily population was 15,933; the average daily cost per inmate, $3.19; per year, $1,169.13. The number of inmates at the end of the fiscal year, March 31, 1948, was 16,283; on May 31, 1948, the number was 16,485. Communications.—New York state had 83,766 miles of roads on Jan. i, 1948, of which 14,297 were state highways (exclusive of city and village streets) and 70,940 county and town roads. Hard-surfaced roads totalled 63,900 mi. The 40 railroads in the state operated 7,639 mi. of tracks. The state maintains a system of more than 500 mi. of canals, including the Erie, 340 mi.; the Champlain, 63 mi.; the Cayuga-Seneca, 92, and the Oswego, 24. Including the rivers and lakes which are part of the New York State Barge Canal system, the total length is more than 800 mi. Although no tolls are charged, the canals and waterways yielded a rev¬ enue of $549,154.09 in 1947 from the use of terminals, the sale of elec¬ tric power, the operation of grain elevators, fees for registration and in¬ spection of vessels, use of canal lands and use of canal waters for other than navigation purposes. The New York state department of commerce reported on June i, 1948, a total of 303 airports in the state, including 47 municipal, 246 private, 6 military, i army surplus, i glider centre, and 2 CAA intermediate fields. More than 30 mi. of the New York State Thruway system had been graded preparatory to the laying of pavement, and several bridges were completed during 1948. The over-all length of this superhighway, when completed, would be 486 mi. Banking and Finance.—As of Dec. 31, 1947, 114 State banks had total resources of $479,735,484 and deposits of $442,251,271; 141 trust com¬ panies had total resources of $20,197,291,524 and deposits of $18,278,336,417; 5 private banks had total resources of $268,359,796 and de¬ posits of $228,699,718; 13 industrial banks had total resources of $178.564.201 and deposits of $155,998,262. As of June 30, 1947, 131 saving banks had total assets of $10,629,941,202 and deposits of $9,583,259,401. As of Jan. i, 1947, 172 savings and loan associations had total resources of $433,525,286 and due to shareholders, $381,926,104. New York state’s financial status on March 31, 1948, was as follows; total revenue, $708,656,475.47; total expenditures, $704,739,178.02; sur¬ plus for the year, $3,917,297.45; state debt, $768,367,503. As of April I, 1948, a $623,000,000 surplus in the state’s treasury had been allocated to state hospital and highway construction and other state obligations, as well as to state tax stabilization reserves, which in 1948 Table I.—Leading Agriculfura/ Products of New York

Crop Corn, bu. ..... Wheat, bu. Oats, bu. Barley, bu. Buckwheat, bu. • • . All hay, tons .... Beans, dry (100-lb. be gs) Tobacco, lb. Potatoes, bu. . • . Apples, bu. Peaches, bu. Pears, bu. . • • . . Grapes, tons . . .

Fst. 1948 27,360,000 12,205,000 26,400,000 3,072,000 1,887,000 6,192,000 1,888,000 810,000 36,310,000 11,750,000 1,114,000 384,000 62,400

1947 20,215,000 9,272,000 13,338,000 2,184,000 1,526,000 6,300,000 1,375,000 1,080,000 33,090,000 15,045,000 1,440,000 960,000 60,000

Average 1937-46 24,427,000 7,262,000 24,351,000 3,178,000 2,302,000 5,720,000 1,248,000 1,215,000 30,109,000 15,059,000 1,377,000 946,000 55,360

totalled $111,000,000. The state budget in 1948 was $812,000,000, of which $361,000,000 was for state purposes and $451,000,000 was re¬ turned to the communities in state aid. Agriculture_In 1947, the estimated production of dairy products in the state amounted to $355,558,000. Sales of all farm crops for that year were $251,586,000. Government payments were $7,918,000. The grand total of farm cash receipts was $822,582,000. On Jan. i, 1948, there were 1,439,000 milk cows in the state. Total cattle numbered 2,139,000 head. Manufacturing.—In 1947 the manufacturing firms in New York state produced goods with an estimated value of $21,000,000,000. In Sept. 1948 the number of business firms operating in the state reached a record level of 560,000. Estimated total employment in Feb. 1948, exclusive of agricultural workers, proprietors, domestic workers and personnel of the armed forces, was 5,375,000. Average weekly earnings in factories were $56.86, an increase of $4.22 from the average in Feb. 1947Table II,—Estimated Value of Product and Number of Employees in Ten

leading Manufacturing Industries, New York State, 1947 Industry

Apparel and other finished products made from fabrics and similar materials. Food and kindred products. Printing, publishing and allied industries. Chemicals and allied products. Machinery (except electrical). Iron and steel and products. Electrical machinery. Nonferrous metals and products . Textile-mill products. Paper and allied products..

Value of product* Number lOOO's omitted) employedf

$5,793,000 2,863,000 2,419,000 1,826,000 1,481,000 1,372,000 1,328,000 1,263,000 997,000 973,000

316,418 147,057 153,749 94,102 161,347 118,485 132,295 68,924 98,925 68,975

’Estimates by the New York state department of commerce. fEstimates by the New York state department of labour, division of placement and unem¬ ployment insurance. Mining.—-In 1947, there were 7,000,000 long tons of iron ore produced in the state. The principal mineral products and the value of their produc¬ tion in 1946 were: cement $17,547,319; clay products $7,289,000; coke $44,316,777; ferro-alloys $45,255,465; gypsum $1,961,157; pig iron $63,937,403; natural gas $6,030,000; petroleum $18,650,000; salt $10,'53,274; sand and gravel $8,907,100; stone $12,086,748; zinc $7,933,660.

Unofficial estimates by the department of placed the population of New York city in 1948 at 7,887,748. The third year of Mayor Wil¬ liam O’Dwyer’s four-year term of office saw the New York city expense budget reach $1,150,685,089. This budget was second in size only to that of the federal government. The year 1948 was the 50th anniversary of the date when the city of Brooklyn, all of Staten Island and what is now Queens county became part of New York city. This golden anniversary was celebrated throughout the year. On June 12, 1948, Mayor O’Dwyer headed a “New York at Work” parade of 50,000 marchers in a six-hour procession on Fifth avenue. All city de¬ partments were represented in the parade. The first public demonstration of atomic fission, the actual explosion of uranium atoms, took place at the Columbia university exhibit of the Golden Anniversary exposition in Grand Central Palace, which opened on Aug. 23 and closed Sept. 19, 1948. More housing projects were started in 1948 than in any other year and more than in the city’s entire prewar public housing program. The public housing program was expanded 40% dur¬ ing 1948, with construction starting on 15 out of 16 new proj¬ ects to provide homes for 16,661 families. The Housing author¬ ity’s over-all program grew from 36 to 52 permanent projects averaging more than 1,000 apartments each. Sixty-five hundred families moved into public housing developments during the year. In conjunction with the golden anniversary. President Harry S. Truman and Mayor O’Dwyer opened the 4,900 ac. Idlewild airport, the world’s largest, on July 31, 1948. More than 900 planes staged a parade of American air might at that ceremony. Because of increased operating costs and mounting annual transit deficits, the fare on the New York city subways was increased to ten cents on July i. This was the first change in the fare since Oct. 27, 1904, when it was fixed by law at five

New York City. health

cents. Ground was broken on Sept. 14, 1948, for the opening of the

REAR COURTYARD of the soviet consulate in New York city, seconds after Mrs. Oksana Stepanovna Kosenkina jumped from a third-story consulate window on Aug. 12, 1&4S, to avoid having to return to the Soviet Union

United Nations permanent headquarters. In an attempt to provide for the increasing school population, construction was started on eight new school buildings to cost $12,530,000 and accommodate 8,325 pupils. The city’s labour relations bureau settled 70 disputes in 1948, 40 of which were major. On Dec. 19, 1948, the city rapidly cleared its 3,000 mi. of streets from the effects of the third heaviest snow storm in its history, a 19.6 in. fall, surpassed only by the blizzard of 1888 and the great snow of 1947. (See also Municipal Govern¬ ment.)

Uniii VavI# IlnlwAKAUif

A coeducational institution offermg instruction, through 14 separate divisions and at 7 principal centres in New York city, in about 34 fields of study embracing the liberal and fine arts, business, dentistry, education, law, medicine and public administration. Although bearing the name of both the state and the city in which it is located, it is a privately controlled and endowed institution with no religious or other affiliations. In 1947-48 its operating revenue was $19,322,037, derived from student fees, endowments and gifts. The latter exceeded $3,922,134, of which approximately $1,086,000 was for specialized training and research. During 1948 the university was engaged in two major fund-raising campaigns, the first for the $3,000,000 law centre, for which the site had been acquired on Washington square, and the second for the projected $32,000,000 medical centre to be erected in conjunction with the proposed rebuild-

N6W

York Univorsity.

NEW ZEALAND. DOMINION OF—NICARAGUA ing of Bellevue hospital by the city of New York. Following the substantial returns from the initial public solicitation, and with the site acquired, the medical centre was formally or¬ ganized and by the end of the year had already developed such important phases of its over-all program as the Institute of Re¬ habilitation and Physical Medicine, the Institute of Industrial Medicine and the post-graduate medical school. Educational developments in other divisions of the university during the year included the graduate legal study embraced by the new Inter-American Law institute, the co-operative studies in public administration offered at Albany, N.Y., in conjunction with Syracuse university and under the sponsorship of the state of New York, the comprehensive offerings of the newly inaugurated graduate program of studies in the United Nations and world affairs, and the co-ordinative programs on various educational levels administered by the new Institute of Labor Relations and Social Security. Degrees and certificates were awarded at the regular June 1948 commencement exercises to 7,927 candidates. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library vol¬ umes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (H. 0. V.)

New Zealand, Dominion of. nations. It consists of two large and several small islands in the South Pacific. Area: dominion proper 103,416 sq.mi.; other islands 519 sq.mi.; pop. dominion proper (est. June 1948): 1,840,182 including 109,811 Maoris. Cook and other Pacific islands 19,167; Tokelau Islands (1945 census) 1,388. Western Samoa, a trusteeship, has an area of 1,133 sq.mi. and a pop. (est. mid-1948) of 73,000. Chief cities (est. April 1948): Wellington (cap., 186,000); Auckland (289,000); Christchurch (164,000); Dunedin (88,800). Language: English. Religion: mainly Chris¬ tian (Anglican 37.5%, Presbyterian 23.4%, Roman Catholic i3 S%)- Ruler: King George VI; governor-general: LieutenantGeneral Sir Bernard Freyberg; prime minister: Peter Fraser. History.—New Zealand’s support for the broad lines of Brit¬ ish foreign policy in the more threatening international situation that developed during 1948 was declared by the prime minister, Peter Fraser, on various occasions during the year. In July the minister of defense indicated that, in addition to its plans for sea and air defense and a small regular military force, the gov¬ ernment had plans for a territorial force in which, every year, 8,000 men of the i8-year-old age group would be given 14 weeks’ training. There were three serious industrial disputes during the year. The first (Jan.-March) arose from a go-slow policy inaugurated by the Carpenters’ union in order to secure an increase of i^d. an hour over their award rate; the second (March-April) was a strike on the hydroelectric scheme at Mangakine in the Waikate, occasioned by the transfer of the local trades union secretary who was considered by the authorities to be causing dissension on the job; and the third (June-July) occurred on the Auckland waterfront because the Watersiders’ union held it was dangerous to lift by hand the hatches of certain ships. The first two of these disputes were, in the view of govern¬ ment spokesmen, communist-inspired and since the workers in each case received some measure of support from the Federation of Labour (the national organization of trades unions) there were fears in the early part of the year of a split between politi¬ cal and industrial labour. These fears were allayed by the na¬ tional conference of the federation in April. The left-wing opponents of the government proved to be in a small minority and, among other things, the conference pledged itself to a con¬ tinued support of the policy of wage stabilization. The lifting of meat rationing on Sept. 27 left butter and gaso¬ line as the only commodities rationed in New Zealand. The

515

housing shortage continued to cause hardship to many people despite the fact that the record number of 9,612 houses com¬ pleted in the previous year was exceeded by 3,122 for the year ended March 1948. New agreements reached in July for the sale of New Zea¬ land’s meat and dairy produce to the United Kingdom pro¬ vided for higher prices for the coming season and renewed the bulk purchase agreements that had been first entered into at the beginning of World War II. Except in the case of pig meat the new agreements were for seven years, and provided for an annual review of prices with a maximum variation of 7.5% on the price for the preceding season. As the year progressed it seemed that it would be difficult to avoid a general increase in wages unless something could be done to bring down the cost of living. The decision to adjust the exchange rate of the New Zealand pound so as to bring it to parity with the pound sterling came as a surprise, however, when it was announced, on Aug. 19. (H. Wd.) Education.—Pupils (1946): primary 264,631; postprimary 49,401; technical (part-time) 16,857; universities 12,449. Finance and Banking.—Budget (consolidated fund only, excluding social security and war expenses accounts): revenue (1947—48) £117,116,000, (1948-49 est.) £114,867,000; expenditure (1947-48) £115,330,000, (1948-49 est.) £114,867,000. National debt (March 1948): £598,875,000. Note circulation (May 1948): £40,330,000. Gold reserve (con¬ stant): £2,800,000. Savings and bank deposits (March 1948): £382,000,000. Monetary unit: from Aug. 19, 1948, £NZ.i=£i sterling = 402.7 U.S. cents. Aggregate private income (1947-48): £455,000,000; aggre¬ gate state taxation (1947-48): £122,300,000. Foreign Trade-(1947): imports £128,700,000, exports £129,400,000; (1948, six months); imports £71,200,000, exports £91,500,000. Transport and Communication—Roads 76.401 mi. Motor vehicles (li¬ censed in 1948): cars 226,407; trucks 69,267; motorcycles 19,701. Rail¬ ways: 3,504 mi.; passenger traffic (year ended March 1948) 25,900,000 journeys; freight traffic 9,524,000 long tons. Shipping: merchant vessels (Dec. 1945) 451; total net tonnage 83,929; shipping movements in ports (net tonnage): entered with cargo (1947) 1,813,000, (1948, six months) 892,000; cleared with cargo (1947) 1,285,000, (1948, six months) 739,000. Telephones: • subscribers 252,626. Wireless: licences 421,000. Air transport (year ended March 1948): miles flown 3,556,000: passen¬ gers flown 157,000; cargo carried 574,900 long tons; mail carried, 97,300 long tons. Agriculture.—(Year ended March 1947): wool 1,060,000 bales; butter 146,000 long tons; cheese 92,000 long tons; meat 555,000 long tons; wheat 5,368,000 bu.; barley 2,027,000 bu.; oats 2,686,000 bu.; timber (year ended March 1948), 428,700,000 superficial feet. Value of farm production (year ended March 1947) £135.000,000. Livestock (Jan. 1947): cattle 4,634,000; sheep 32,682,000; pigs 546,000. Industry.—Industrial establishments (March 1946) 6,990; factory em¬ ployees (March 1948) 162,800. Value of factory production (year ended March 1947) £60,000,000. Fuel and power production (year ended March 1947): coal, 2,752,000 long tons; gas, 4,637,000 cu.ft.; electric power, 2,528,000,000 units. Minerals: gold production (1945) 128,364 oz.

Uj

A republic in Central America, situated between

niudl dgUda Honduras on the north and Costa Rica on the south. Area: 57,143 sq.mi., of which 3,475 sq.mi. is water. Pop. (off. est., Dec. 31, 1947) 1,148,000. Capital, Managua (1945 pop., 132,154); other urban centres: Chinandega (24,413), Granada (36,953), Jinotega (37,934), Le6n (48,862), Masaya (35,065) and Matagalpa (50,072). Language: Spanish. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1948: Victor M. Roman Reyes. History.—^The political scene in Nicaragua was comparatively quiet in 1948 after the hectic previous year. President Roman Reyes, supported by General Anastasio Somoza, the country’s “strong man,” solidified his position in February through a pact of conciliation between his Nationalist Liberal party and the Conservatives. The agreement guaranteed that future elections would be free of military intervention, that the press censorship would be lifted, and that past political offenders would be ac¬ corded complete amnesty. Press restrictions (in effect from May 1947) were lifted on Aug. i. The Independent Liberal party remained the chief core of opposition to the government. Abroad, the Roman Reyes government was virtually assured legal status when the United States and Colombia resumed diplomatic relations with Nicaragua in May. In August the ministry of foreign relations announced it had opened negotia-

516

NICKEL —NORTH ATLANTIC ALLIANCE

tions with the other Central American republics for a confer¬ ence designed to cement peace among those nations, and in December President Roman Reyes received an invitation from El Salvador to attend a meeting of the chief executives of Cen¬ tral America to discuss a basis for future confederation. Revolts in Costa Rica and El Salvador, however, prevented further action in this regard. In both April and December, Nicaragua was accused of intervening with troops in Costa Rica’s civil strife, but the accusations were denied, and counter-charges filed that Costa Rican warplanes had violated the territorial sov¬ ereignty of Nicaragua. On the economic front, an unfavourable balance of trade caused a heavy drain on the country’s foreign exchange holdings in spite of government controls. In December the government announced it had negotiated a loan of $500,000 in the U.S. to reinforce the gold value of the cordoba. Rent controls were ex¬ tended by the government in spite of a record-breaking build¬ ing program, as home construction failed to keep pace with the increasing urban population. In the rural areas serious 7S4 railroad officers and employees, 1.8% less than the year before. The slight decrease was mainly in train, yard and station employees and was due primarily to the somewhat smaller volume of traffic. Late in 1947 the wage rates applying to all unionized em¬ ployees except engineers, firemen and a few yardmen had been increased 15^ cents per hour. The increase for the nonoperating unions was based on the award of an arbitration board. The increase to conductors, trainmen and 90% of the yardmen was the result of collective bargaining, but the boost in the hourly rate agreed upon was the same (15^ cents) as that given earlier to the nonoperating employees. With the rate boost went cer¬ tain changes, favourable to the employees, in rules affecting employment and compensation. The engineers and firemen, with a few yardmen, refused to settle on the terms accepted by the conductors and trainmen. Negotiations between the dissident unions and the management broke down and a strike vote was taken. The services of the National Mediation board brought no results and to avert a strike Pres. Harry S. Truman, on Jan. 27, 1948, appointed an Emergency Fact Finding board. The board began hearings on Feb. 2 and made its report one month later. It recommended that the wage increase should be 15^ cents per hour, the amount that the conductors and trainmen had accepted earlier, and in addition the board recom¬ mended some rule changes favourable to the engineers and fire¬ men. The railroad accepted the board’s recommendations but they were rejected by the engineers and firemen. Direct nego¬ tiations with the railroads were resumed on April 14 but an agreement was not reached. The unions, thereupon, set May II as the date on which they would strike. Intervention by federal mediators was fruitless, as were the efforts of John R. Steelman, assistant to the president. To forestall a strike. President Truman exercised his power to take over the railroads on May 10 and assigned the task of operating them to the sec¬ retary of the army, whose first action was to obtain a federal court injunction restraining the employees from striking. There¬ upon the strike order was cancelled by the union leaders. On May 18 further negotiations between management and the unions failed to break the deadlock, and Steelman was no more

RAILROADS

HIGH ELEVATION LIGHTS (seen diffusely at right), installed at a railroad yard in London, Eng., to provide even, glare-free light for night shunting, an improvement suggested by luftwaffe flares dropped during World War II

successful after three days of conference. The railroads would not go outside the framework of the board’s recommendations; the unions insisted on better terms. The matter dragged on until July 8, when a compromise suggested by Steelman was accepted by both sides. The unions agreed to accept the 15^ cents per hour and the railroads agreed to revise certain rules to the advantage of the employees. Army control of the rail¬ roads lasted 61 days. During this drawn-out controversy the other railroad unions became dissatisfied with the Sept. 1947 wage agreement. New wage demands were presented, first by the conductors and train¬ men and next by the large nonoperating group. In July 1948, the conductors and trainmen asked for a further increase of 25% and, through across-the-table negotiations, soon reached an agreement. On Oct. 16 a wage increase of 10 cents per hour became effective. It was applied also to engineers, firemen and all yardmen. The 16 nonoperating unions, on Sept. 8, began negotiating with the railroads and asked that the work-week be reduced from 48 to 40 hr. without loss of pay, and that in addition the basic rate be increased by 25 cents per hour. The negotiations bogged down and the efforts of the National Media¬ tion board brought no result. A strike vote was taken but be¬ fore a date for the strike was set President Truman appointed an Emergency Fact Finding board. Its hearings were concluded on Nov. 27 and its report and recommendations were released on Dec. 17. The recommendations were that the work week should be reduced without loss of pay from 48 to 40 hr. and that an increase of 7 cents per hour in the basic pay should be granted. The reduction in the work week would be equiva¬ lent to an increase of 20% in the hourly rate, to which the 7 cents would be added, boosting the average hourly rate about 30 cents. This was less than the unions were willing to accept and at the end of the year they were still negotiating with the railroads. An estimate by J. H. Parmelee for the Association of Amer¬ ican Railroads (Railway Age, Jan. 8, 1949) gave the total pay¬ roll cost in 1948 as $4,743,000,000, the highest on record. It w'as $393,000,000 more than in 1947 (with a slightly larger volume of traffic) and nearly two and one-half times the figure

609

for 1940. The average annual compensation for all railroad employees in 1948 was $3,573. The comparable figures for 1947 and 1940 were $3,218 and $1,913 respectively. Including the increases granted in the latter part of 1948 the compensa¬ tion per employee on Dec. 31 was at the annual rate of $3,750. Unfavourable Factors.—The situation at the close of 1948 contained three factors which were causes for apprehension on the part of railroads. (1) The degree of competition from other forms of transpor¬ tation had become more intense. Trucks were increasing their proportion of the total of commercial transportation. The air lines were taking more long-distance passengers, and improve¬ ments in bus service were attracting more short-distance pas¬ sengers. Water transportation in coastal and intercoastal serv¬ ice was reviving. (2) The April 1948 decision of the United States supreme court upholding the legality of an order of the Federal Trade commission in the “Cement case” might have an important bearing on railroads. The commission had ordered the cement producers to discontinue the practice of absorbing freight charges so that the producer distant from a market could quote a price uniform with that of a producer located nearer to that market. This practice tended to lengthen the average haul of the railroads because the products of the more distant mills were moved into the market in competition with the products of mills nearer to the market. If the principle in the FTC order were applied generally to other products the effect on the railroads might become serious, because each market would be supplied by the nearby producer. (3) Under the accounting rules of the Interstate Commerce commission the railroads were required to accrue depreciation charges on their equipment and structures and to include such charges in operating expenses at rates prescribed by the com¬ mission. Inasmuch as the prescribed rates were applied to the first cost of the equipment and inasmuch further as the re¬ placement cost of most of the equipment and structures was now double the original cost, the charges for depreciation were quite inadequate, and the net income of railroads was over¬ stated by the amount in which the depreciation charges were understated. (See also Disasters; Interstate Commerce Commission; National Mediation Board; United States.)

610

RAILROADS

PAGEANT commemorating the completion of the first east-west rail line in the U.S., as re-enacted at the railroad fair which opened in Chicago, III., on July 20, 1948

’Fii.us.—Transportation in the U.S. (March of Time).

(W. J. C.)

Chicago Railroad Fair.—The Chicago Railroad fair of 1948, sponsored jointly by the nation’s leading railways, was the most extensive exposition ever undertaken by a single U.S. industry. It was conceived in Jan. 1948 to celebrate the centennial of railroading from Chicago westward. A nonprofit corporation was formed in February and ground was broken April 13 for an exposition of 50 ac. stretching along the shores of Lake Michigan in Chicago. The fair opened July 20, setting a new pattern for speed in an exhibition of such size. The feature attraction was “Wheels a-Rolling,” an elaborate outdoor pageant tracing overland transportation progress from 1673 to 1948, and employing 220 professional performers, 800 period costumes and transportation equipment of all ages, in¬ cluding old and modern railroad locomotives and trains in full operation on a 450 ft. stage. Exhibits were strung out over the fair’s 50 ac., and there were five track miles of locomotives and cars of all types and ages. When it closed Oct. 3, 1948 (a month later than the original schedule), the Railroad fair had drawn a total paid attendance of 2,500,813 in its 76-day run; 1,167,867 persons had wit¬ nessed “Wheels a-Rolling”; and 925,479 visitors had ridden on the fair’s quaint “Deadwood Central” narrow-gauge railroad which travelled the length of the grounds. Because of the fair’s success, its sponsors decided to reopen it in June 1949. (L. R. L.) Great Britain.—The Transport act which provided for the nationalization of the British railways had received royal as¬ sent in Aug. 1947. It established a Transport commission with a chairman and four to eight members, appointed by the min¬ ister of transport. Agents of the commission were a series of executives, five in number in 1948, covering respectively, rail¬ ways, docks and inland waterways, road transport, London transport and hotels. The railway executive was by far the most important, since

it was responsible for the management and working of the rail¬ way mileage previously consisting of the London Midland and Scottish, the London and North Eastern, the Great Western and the Southern railways. No figures were yet published as to capital involved in the various executives, but the railway exec¬ utive employed about 660,000 persons, operated 20,000 locomo¬ tives, 55,000 passenger coaches and 1,200,000 freight cars. The Transport act provided for the acquisition of about 550,000 privately-owned freight cars, which were a legacy from the earliest railway days; they were placed in the common pool. Tank and other special cars remained privately owned. In place of the four former railways, six regions were estab¬ lished, each the responsibility of a chief regional officer. They were the western region (ex-G.W.R.), the southern region (exS.R.), the London midland region (ex-L.M.S.R. lines in Eng¬ land and Wales), the eastern region (ex-L.N.E.R. southern area), the northeastern region (ex-L.N.E.R. northeastern area) and the Scottish region (ex-L.M.S.R. and ex-L.N.E.R. lines in Scotland). Certain joint facilities, for example the Cheshire Lines committee, and a few small local lines were merged in the various regions and there was some rearrangement of boundaries as between the different regions. The railway executive could not be considered without ref¬ erence to the other executives. Of these, the docks and inland waterways executive took charge not only of the canals, pre¬ viously owned by the railways, but also owned and managed the other inland waterways nationalized by the Transport act —these included most of Britain’s inland waterways, an ex¬ ception being the Manchester ship canal for ocean vessels. It took over responsibility for working such former railway ports as Cardiff, Newport, Swansea and Hull; but the purely packet harbours, such as Dover, Folkestone, Parkeston and Heysham, remained with the railway executive, as did the 73 cross¬ channel vessels, as well as 62 smaller lake or coastal vessels. The London transport executive was responsible for the management and working of the services of the London Pas¬ senger Transport board, consisting of electric railways includ¬ ing the London underground, buses, streetcars and trolley¬ buses, totalling more than 10,000 vehicles with a staff of more than 100,000. The hotels executive, last of the series to be set up, became responsible for the management and working of the hotels previously owned by the four railways and the catering services on the trains and at the stations. In Northern Ireland the Ulster Transport authority was set up to operate and manage, as a nationalized concern, the rail and road services in the six counties, excluding the Great Northern railway, which also served Eire, and the Belfast muni¬ cipal trams and buses. The far-reaching changes resulting from legislation over¬ shadowed the technical developments on the British and Irish railways, but specific mention may be made of the opening, in October, by the British railways of the £250,000 steam locomotive testing station at Rugby, the inauguration of main¬ line diesel locomotives in the London midland region, and the inauguration of new Pullman trains, the “Thanet Belle” to the Kent coast, and the “Tees-Tyne Pullman” from London to Newcastle. Other new or reinstated expresses were the “South Yorkshireman,” the “Queen of Scots Pullman,” the “Master Cutler” to Sheffield and the “Norfolkman” to Norwich. Prog¬ ress was effected with the extension of London underground railways westward to Ruislip and eastward to Loughton. Europe.—The energy with which the railway systems of western Europe restored their devastated facilities was probably not exceeded in any other industry. The French national rail¬ ways reconstructed virtually all their prewar physical facilities.

RAILROADS one of the last major works to be completed being the great bridge at Saumur over the Loire. Rolling stock, however, was still in short supply, both passenger coaches and freight cars, and arrears of track maintenance were heavy. Electrification was continued, and the conversion of the great Paris-Lyon ar¬ tery was in hand. Shortage of coal limited train mileage, but the use of over 600 oil-burning 2-8-2 R type locomotives, built in the United States, eased the position and the great Genissiat dam on the Rhone, opened in Jan. 1948, would yield badly needed electric power. Eighty per cent of the French national railways used hydroelectric power. Among other notable achievements were the construction, as at Avignon, of a num¬ ber of roundhouses of unique reinforced concrete design, trials of rubber-tired coaches for a Strasbourg streamliner and the reorganization of the entire railway parcels collection and de¬ livery services in the Paris area. The Belgian national railways restored their system almost to its pre-1939 standard, although certain temporary bridges had still to be replaced by permanent structures and track re¬ newals were in arrears. No serious shortage of motive power or cars existed, and steady progress was made with electrifica¬ tion of the Brussels-Charleroi line. Work continued on the junction line under Brussels, linking the Nord and Midi ter¬ minals with a central station. In the Netherlands the railway system, entirely devastated in 1944, was restored; track was strengthened, and much progress made with electrification. Re¬ electrification and reconstruction were carried out also by the Italian state railways. The long viaduct at Recco on the RomeGenoa line was rebuilt and facilities were improved at Genoa itself by new, costly cutoffs, which made chords across the arcs of the previous track curves. The Naples-Foggia line had priority in the electrification program. The Swiss federal rail¬ ways completed the doubling of the Gotthard route except for a short section at Chiasso, and a revised system of fares was introduced. On the mountain lines much new lightweight rolling stock of advanced design was put into use. Austrian reconstruction was slower, but electrification was in hand on the Villach-Spittal and Attnang-Linz sections. In Germany the Hohenzollern bridge at Cologne was reopened as a temporary structure in May. Severance of rail services be¬ tween the western zones and the Russian zone became a serious international problem, but the railway system in the bizonal area directed from Frankfurt, was co-ordinated and aided in the recovery of industry and production. Links were added to the Spanish national network, notably on the Madrid-Valencia line. In October the centennial celebrations of the Spanish railways occurred and the great effort toward technical re¬ covery and rehabilitation was stressed. Czechoslovakia had railway construction in hand from Lucenec westward and Yugoslavia opened new mileage, near Presba lake and the Al¬ banian frontier, of which the first important line, DurresPekinye, built in Albania, had been inaugurated in 1947. New railway construction was recorded in Rumania between Faurei and Tecuci, also at Livazeni and at Cluj, but the complete nationalization of all public transport was the striking feature of Rumanian policy. About 175 mi. of new railway were being built in northern Finland; Finnish state railways being already 2,920 mi. in extent. There was little definite information about the U.S.S.R. Further European international services were re¬ stored in 1948, but the Wagon-Lits company withdrew from the internal services of Yugoslavia and Rumania. >^sla.—The Palestine railways and their services suffered grievously from sabotage and warfare; in May 1948, when the British mandate was relinquished, their future administration was undetermined. By contrast Iraq registered much progress with an extension of the metre-gauge Baghdad-Kirkuk line to

611

Erbil and another addition to ‘Amara. A bridge over the Tigris at Baghdad was under construction, replacing a freight ferry; plans for a central station at Baghdad costing £1,500,000 were completed. The Burmese railways, approaching the final period of postwar reconstruction, were handicapped by a shortage of skilled staff. In Malaya, despite unsettled conditions, restora¬ tion proceeded steadily and the arrival of new motive power, as in Burma, assisted the production and transport of key raw materials urgently required. Restoration of the east coast line proved especially difficult. The situation in China remained in¬ distinct. By 1948 the Pukow line to Tientsin had been reopened to Tsinan, 372 mi.; reconstruction of the 720-mi. ChekiangKiangsi line was reported complete, due in large part to U.N.R.R.A. aid. The partitioning of the railway system of the Indian sub¬ continent between India and Pakistan in 1947 created problems of great complexity; for example, certain systems, such as the North Western and the Bengal-Assam, were dismembered and some of their sections were consequently left devoid of repair shops; out of such dismemberment the Eastern Punjab railway was formed in India. At the close of British administration in 1947 route mileage was over 40,000 and there were 6,000 broad-gauge and over 2,600 metre-gauge locomotives. Africa.—Control of the Rhodesian railways was transferred from London to Bulawayo when the government took over that system; under the new regime the Rhodesian Transport com¬ mission would probably cease to exist. The fusion of the Kenya and Uganda railways with those of Tanganyika to form the East African railways occurred in May 1948. The East African railways were now a relatively large network with a route mile¬ age of 2,980 mi., but were still small in comparison with the largest and growing African system—the South African Rail¬ ways and Harbours administration. Among the latter’s 1948 activities were the opening of the fine residential staff college at Esselen park, near Pretoria, and the output from its shops at Salt river of the first steam locomotives to be built in South Africa. Large-scale improvement schemes were being carried out at a cost of more than £16,000,000 in the Transvaal and the large Prospect freight station scheme at Johannesburg was nearing completion. The S.A.R. handled a record tonnage in 1947-48 of nearly 53,000,000 tons. South America.—Argentina, Brazil and Uruguay were the chief countries concerned with nationalization. Although the taking over of the Anglo-Argentine railways, together with cer¬ tain French-owned lines, dated back to July 1946, the official date for handing them over to the republic was March i, 1948. The financial side of the transfer was complex, being connected with the trading agreements between Argentina and Britain; a round sum of £150,000,000 was paid as purchase price for the Anglo-Argentine railways. Progress continued on the Argentine-Bolivia rail link, Yacuiba to Santa Cruz de la Sierra, and the metre-gauge North¬ ern Transandine railway between Salta (Argentina) and Anto¬ fagasta (Chile) through the Socompa pass was inaugurated in February. In Brazil the main line of the Sao Paulo railways, from Santos to Jundiai, had been taken over by the state in Oct. 1946, and the northern section, which connected with the electrified Paulista railway, was being electrified on the over¬ head system. Negotiations continued in 1948 for the sale of the British-owned Leopoldina railway to the Brazilian govern¬ ment, the amount involved being estimated at nearly £10,000,000; but no official pronouncement was made. The Central Uruguay railway and its associated lines were nationalized; the payment by Uruguay involved about £7,000,000. In Chile the Nitrate railways sold their railway undertakings to the Tarapaca and Antofagasta Nitrate company.

612

RAINFALL —RAYON AND OTHER SYNTHETIC FIBRES

Canada.—Steeply rising costs, and inability to raise the level of charges to meet these increases, provided a problem of some gravity for both the Canadian National and Canadian Pacific systems. A 21% increase in freight rates, the first for many years, was permitted during April, after extended hear¬ ings, but rates on grain were excluded, thus reducing the aver¬ age increase to 13%, and a request for further increases brought no more relief. “Dieselization” continued, particularly on the Canadian National in Prince Edward Island and on the Cana¬ dian Pacific in Vancouver Island. The Canadian National in¬ stalled two 3-unit 4,500 h.p. main-line diesels and the use of diesel shunters grew. Passenger services of the two large sys¬ tems reattained the prewar standard, and improved sleeping cars and day coaches were introduced on many trains. Australia.—No railway developments of great importance occurred in Australia. Negotiations were pressed forward be¬ tween the states, and preparatory work undertaken, concern¬ ing the vast plan for the standardization of railway gauges. In Western Australia the new “Australind” express was inau¬ gurated in Nov. 1947 on the Perth-Bunbury route. The Queens¬ land railway system was paralyzed by a strike in February. {See Electric Transportation.) Bibliography.-—Railway Gazette (London, weekly); Engineer (Lon¬ don, weekly); Engineering (London, weekly); Railway Age (Philadel¬ phia); Revue Generale des Chemins de jer (Paris); International Union of Railways and International Railway Congress Association, Bulletins. (C. E. R. S.)

Rainfall: see Meteorology. Raisins: see Fruit.

Rajagopalachari, Chakravarti

nor-general of India, was born at Hosur, Madras Presidency, India. He was edu¬ cated at Central college, Bangalore, and at the Presidency and Law colleges, Madras. He was called to the bar in 1900 and practised law for a time in Salem. In 1919 he was an active collaborator with Gandhi in the satyagraha campaign and later in the non-co-operation movement. From 192J to 1922 he was general secretary of the Congress party and then for 25 years a member of the working committee. In 1937 he became prime minister and minister of the interior and finance in the Madras provincial government. His attitude at the beginning of World War H differed from that of Gandhi and some of the other Congress leaders, for he was in favour of making a peaceful settlement with Britain. As a result of his differences he re¬ signed from the party. In Aug. 1946, however, he was made minister of industries and supplies in the interim national gov¬ ernment and, later, minister of education and arts. In Dec. 1946 he again acquired the portfolio of industries and supplies and, in July 1947, that of finance also. One month later, when India and Pakistan had gained full independence, he became governor of West Bengal. On June 21, 1948, he succeeded Earl Mountbatten of Burma as governor-general of the Dominion of India.

Ramjets: see Jet Propulsion. Rapid Transit: see Electric Transportation. Rates of Exchange: see Exchange Control and

United States produced 56.6% of the total, or 69.9% of the filament, and 33.5% of the staple. In 194O) produced 19.1% of the total.

United States

Table I.—United States Rayon Production in Millions of Pounds Rayon filament yarn Rayon staple fibre .

1943

1944

1945

502 162

555 168

624 168

1946 677 177

1947

1948

747 228

856.1 268.2

United States rayon filament yarn used for hosiery showed a continued decrease from the wartime peak in 1943 of 49,200,000 lb. to 15,700,000 lb. in 1948. For circular knitted fabric, the consumption rose to 39,100,000 lb., from 35,600,000 lb. in 1947. This exceeded the highest consumption figure recorded, that of 1940 at 38,200,000 lb. In the warp knitted fabric, the consumption figure for 1948 was 46,400,000 lb. Woven goods took a total of 465,200,000 lb., or 74,700,000 lb. more than in 1947. The tire cord industry consumed a new high of 249,500,000 lb., an increase of 22,000,000 lb. over 1947. Exports of U.S. rayon yarn in 1948 decreased slightly to 16,200,000 lb., from 16,800,000 lb. in 1947. The highest U.S. export figure on record was 20,000,000 lb. in 1945. The resumption of foreign activity was reflected in United States imports during 1948 of rayon filament and staple. Fila¬ ment yarn imports reached 9,753,440 lb. in ii months of 1948, and staple imports reached 34,598,359 lb. In 1947, these figures were, respectively, 291,897 lb. and 36,053,541 lb. Average prices of rayon yarn in the United States increased from 67 cents per pound in 1947 to 75 cents in 1948, but a com¬ parison of textile fibre and yarn prices over a 30-year period shows that rayon had the greatest percentage of decline through the years. The United Kingdom’s production of rayon filament yarn, including a small amount of nylon, totalled 108,000,000 lb. for nine months of 1948. The average monthly production of 12,000,000 lb. was about 25% more than the 1947 monthly aver¬ age of 9,800,000 lb. France produced a total of 48,100,000 lb. of rayon filament in the first six months of 1948, or a monthly average of 8,000,000 lb. In 1947, the average monthly production was 6,800,000 lb. During the first six months of 1948, production in the bizone area of Germany was rising significantly. Combined production of filament yarn in the U.S. and British zones during the period was 24,000,000 lb., compared with 8,800,000 lb. in the same period of 1947. Japan, meanwhile, despite plans announced in 1947, found it difficult to expand on the scale anticipated because of raw material shortages. Production increased 140% in the first half of 1948, however, compared with the same period of 1947. But, based on those figures, the annual rate of 29,800,000 lb. was still only about one-tenth of the 1939 output. Rayon Fabrics.—As was the case with rayon yarns, rayon fabrics also made new gains in production during 1948. In tbe United States, each quarter’s total exceeded any previous quarter during the past ten years. Based on records for the first nine months, the year’s total would be 2,294,800,000 yd., compared with 1,903,000,000 yd. in 1947.

Exchange

Rates.

Table II.— U. S. Production of Rayon Broad Woven Fabrics (Except Tire Fabrics) (In millions of linear yarcis)

Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres, yarn for 1948 was estimated to be 2,450,000,000 lb., of which 1,570,000,000 lb. were filament yarn and 880,000,000 lb. were staple. Of this total, the United States produced 45.9%, or 54.5% of the filament and 30.5% of the staple. In 1945, the

All-filament

All-spun rayon

1939 . 1944 . 1945 . 1946 . 1947 . 1948* .... *Nine months octual, three months estimated.

176.8 156.1 , 161.9 190.9 294.4 385.2

Comb, filament and spun rayon

All other rayon mixtures

22.8

97.2

154.6 159.1 172.3 182.2 251.9

159.6 170.4 253.0 170.0 180.7

RECEIPTS, GOVERNMENT—-RECONSTRUCTION FINANCE CORP. 613 Ten years of production of the principal types of fabric are shown in Table II. In the spring of 1948, the trend in fabric types changed from the soft drapery fabrics to the stiffer, formal fabrics. Fabric mills which had been concentrating on the production of crepes found suddenly that buyers wanted taffetas, satins, brocades and corded materials. This was a reflection of the so-called “new look” fashion trend. This change in type of product coincided with a general slow-down of activity in the principal buying market—women’s dresses. From June to the end of the year, the trend was toward greater selectivity in buying fabrics, both as to quantity and quality. By Dec. 1948 the converters (dis¬ tributors of rayon fabrics to the garment manufacturers and retail stores) were faced with the problem of disposing of their large inventories at prices that would recover their costs. Prices of rayon fabrics were chiefly characterized by a sharp decrease in the resale prices of gray, or unfinished, goods. When the demand for rayon fabrics was heavy, mill prices on advance contracts of three or more months had been lower than the prices secured for goods immediately available, sold by custom¬ ers of the mills to other buyers not having the advance con¬ tracts. During 1948, this situation reversed itself, and the resale prices were either the same as mill prices, or lower, by the end of the year. Nylon and Other Synthetic Fibres.—Nylon celebrated its tenth birthday in 1948. While it had long since captured the market for women’s hosiery, its use in woven and knitted cloth for undergarments and outerwear made the greatest advance during 1948 of its history. For the first time, women’s underwear of woven nylon was offered in quantity, and its quick-drying properties, which made laundering easier, as well as its superior tensile strength cap¬ tured the consumer market without difficulty. Knitted nylon fabric, known as warp knit or tricot, shared the popularity of the woven fabrics, also for underwear. Mills could not meet the demand, and the makers of the same type of fabrics from acetate rayon were reported to be planning a market survey to determine their potential place in the buyer’s market. Production of all-nylon women’s hosiery, for ii months of 1948, was 41,000,000 dozen pairs, compared with 33,000,000 dozen pairs in 1947 during the same period. New uses for nylon were shown in December at Wilmington, Del., where its makers, E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co., Inc., held an exhibit of nylon articles for hotel use. Blankets,'towels, curtains, draperies and carpeting were fea¬ tured. The du Pont company also introduced Orion, the only new fibre of 1948. Plans were laid for commercial distribution dur¬ ing 1949. This was considered an “industrial fibre of the first order,” of which the chief attributes were high strength, warm, dry, silklike hand, excellent bulking and covering power, easy launderability, durability in laundering, resistance to moths and mildew, dimensional stability in washing and wearing, sunlight resistance, and resistance to smoke, soot and atmospheric gases. The plant for production was being erected at Camden, S.C. Combinations of nylon with other fibres were also featured, such as a nylon and acetate rayon men’s suiting and a blend of nylon and wool for military use in flags and uniforms, in which nylon offered a hedge against the shrinking properties of wool. Velon, Vicara, Fiberglas, Vinyon and several other fibres were offered for. new uses. Technical men in the textile industrjq at a seminar held in May 1948, warned that efficient use of new fibres would be the most challenging aspect of successful textile operations of the future. (I. L. Bl.)

Receipts, Government: see Budget, National. Reclamation: see Forests; Irrigation; Soil Erosion

and

Soil Conservation.

Reconstruction Finance Corporation. On Feb. 2, 1948, the Reconstruction Finance corporation had completed 16 years of operations. When congress established the corporation Jan. 22, 1932, its succession was fixed at 10 years, subsequently extended to 15 years, and on June 30, 1947, it was continued for an additional year. Under the provisions of public law 548, 80th congress, 2nd session, approved May 23, 1948, the corporation was given succession through June 30, 1956.

The management of RFC is vested in a bipartisan board of five directors appointed by the president with the advice and consent of the senate. The board consisted in 1948 of Harley Hise, chairman, Henry T. Bodman, Harvey J. Gunderson, Henry A. Mulligan and William Edward Willett. Their term was to expire June 30, 1950. The capital stock of the corporation, originally fixed at $500,000,000, was reduced to an outstanding amount of $100,000,000 through retirement of $175,000,000 in 1941 and $225,000,000 in 1948. The proceeds of the stock, retired at par, were paid into the United States treasury. Lending Activities.—Banks participated in more than half of the number of all business loans authorized by the corpora¬ tion during the fiscal year 1948, approximately 90% of which were for $100,000 or less. In this period 4,725 business loans in the aggregate amount of $277,000,000 were authorized by the corporation, in which banks participated to the extent of $53,000,000, involving 2,622 loans. Business loans outstanding as of June 30, 1948, totalled $303,417,000. During the 1948 fiscal year, the corporation authorized loans and purchases of obligations approved in connection with proj¬ ects authorized under federal, state or municipal law in a total amount of $24,342,000. Over the same period, the corporation authorized catastrophe loans to assist in the rehabilitation of property damaged by floods and other disasters in the total amount of $1,814,000 and approved the purchase of home loans made pursuant to the National Housing act, as amended, amounting to $286,000,000. Total loans and investments out¬ standing at the close of the 1948 fiscal year aggregated $1,178,000,000. Pursuant to public laws 864 and 901, 80th congress, 2nd ses¬ sion, approved July i, 1948, and Aug. 10, 1948, respectively. Federal National Mortgage association, an RFC subsidiary, was authorized: (i) to purchase mortgages insured after April 30, 1948, under sections 203, 207, 603 and 608 of the National Housing act, as amended; and (2) to purchase real estate mort¬ gages on homes and farms guaranteed after April 30, 1948, under sections 501, 502 or 505(a) of the Servicemen’s Read¬ justment act of 1944, as amended. The objective of the legisla¬ tion was to establish a secondary market for such mortgages in order to encourage the extension of credit to assist in financing the purchase of homes and the construction of rental housing. To be eligible for purchase by the association, the mortgages must meet certain requirements. No mortgage may be pur¬ chased by the association, the original principal amount of which exceeds or exceeded $10,000 for each family residence or dwell¬ ing unit, and the purchase price may not be in excess of the unpaid principal plus accrued interest. No mortgage shall be offered to the association for purchase by other than the original mortgagee prior to any other sale thereof, and the mortgagee must certify that the housing with respect to which the mort¬ gage was made meets the construction standards prescribed for

614

RED CROSS

insurance of mortgages on the same class of housing under the National Housing act, as amended. Any one mortgagee shall not offer such a mortgage to the association for purchase (i) unless the mortgage is secured by property used or designed to be used for residential purposes and (2) if the unpaid balance thereof when added to the aggregate amount of all mortgages purchased by the association from such mortgagee, pursuant to the authority contained in the legislation, exceeds 50% of the original principal amount of all mortgages made by the mort¬ gagee which meet the requirements of the act. While the foregoing legislation did not become effective until July I, 1948, the association had purchased as of June 30, 1948, under authority existing at that time. Federal Housing adminis¬ tration insured mortgages amounting to $319,007,800 and as of the same date, the association had commitments outstanding to purchase FHA insured mortgages in the aggregate total of $234,436,700. Liquidation Activities.—The net profits from operations of the war damage insurance program amounting to $209,827,810 were paid into the United States treasury in Aug. 1947, ,and by June 30, 1948, liquidation of the affairs of RFC’s subsidiary. War Damage corporation, had been virtually completed. In Dec. 1947 the two remaining programs of U.S. Commer¬ cial company, an RFC subsidiary, namely the Pacific ocean operations and trade with occupied and liberated countries, were taken over by the department of the navy and the depart¬ ment of the army, respectively, and the company was to be dissolved at an early date. Pursuant to an executive order issued in Dec. 194S, plants and equipment formerly owned by Smaller War Plants corporation were transferred to RFC for liquidation purposes. The remain¬ ing plants and equipment were carried at a book value of $4,349,000 on June 30, 1947, and through sales, surplus declara¬ tions and disposals otherwise, the lands, structures and equip¬ ment held by the corporation at the close of the 1948 fiscal year had been reduced to a book value of $1,407,000. Liquidation of the vast quantities of strategic minerals and metals and other critical supplies acquired by the corporation during the national defense and war periods had been carried on continuously after the close of the war. In the fiscal year 1948 such materials and supplies in the aggregate amount of approximately $470,000,000 were either sold or transferred to the national stock pile and the book value of remaining inven¬ tories as of June 30, 1948, amounted to $35,295,000. Nonlending Activities.—The tin smelter at Texas City, Tex., built by the RFC as a defense and war measure, represented an investment of approximately $8,650,000. The corporation was authorized to continue to buy, sell and transport tin, tin ores and concentrates; to improve, develop, maintain and operate by lease or otherwise this government-owned tin smelter; and, to finance research in tin smelting and processing until June 30, 1951. (Public law 125, 80th congress, ist session, June 28, 1947; public law 824, 80th congress, 2nd session, June 29, 1948.) The smelter was operated for the account of RFC from its completion in 1942. From June 28, 1940, to June 28, 1948, approximately $583,650,000 had been expended for the pur¬ chase and refining of tin, tin ores and concentrates, and sales of tin over the same period of time amounted to $456,375,000. During the 1948 fiscal year the corporation’s sales of tin totalled $118,591,000. Prior to World War II there was no commercial production of synthetic rubber in the United States and as a national de¬ fense measure a synthetic rubber program was undertaken by the government in 1940. The Reconstruction Finance corpora¬ tion constructed 51 plants and related facilities for synthetic rubber production at a cost of approximately $672,000,000.

After the war certain of these facilities were placed in stand-by condition, a few were sold and others were continued in opera¬ tion for RFC’s account. During the fiscal year 1948, 22 of these plants were in production and the corporation’s sales of synthetic rubber for the same period amounted to approxi¬ mately $197,720,000. Public law 469, 80th congress, 2nd session, approved March 31, 1948, and executive order 9942, April i, 1948, authorized RFC to continue the production and sale of synthetic rubber and the component materials thereof until June 30, 1950. The legislation, known as the Rubber act of 1948, required that a study be made with the objective of determining and formu¬ lating a program for disposal of the government-owned rubberproducing facilities to private industry by sale or lease. The act provided that on or before Jan. 15, 1950, the president should recommend to congress legislation with respect to the disposal of such facilities. More than 2,000 industrial plants and other facilities were constructed or acquired by RFC for use in the war effort. The aggregate cost and related expenses applicable to land, plants, machinery and equipment, and other such facilities amounted to approximately $7,800,000,000. The book value of the re¬ maining plants and facilities amounted to $1,245,000,000 as of June 30, 1947, exclusive of the synthetic rubber plants, the Texas City tin smelter and the fibre plantations in Central America, Panama and Haiti. After giving effect to sales, dec¬ larations of surplus to War Assets administration and transfers to other government agencies during the 1948 fiscal year, such plants and facilities were held by the corporation at a book value of $141,500,000 as of June 30, 1948. (Har. H.) DdH PrnCC

United States.—The American Red Cross was comprised in 1948 of approximately 37,000,000 members, 3,751 chapters and about 1,471,200 volun¬ teers. In accordance with its congressional charter, it carries out the following major programs: disaster preparedness and relief; services to veterans; services to the armed forces; the promotion of health through its national blood program and various safety services; international activities; Junior Red Cross; and college activities. The year 1947-48 in terms of expenditure, scope of disaster operations, and number of disaster personnel and volunteers assisting occasioned the greatest disaster relief effort of the Red Cross since the record 1937 Ohio-Mississippi floods. During the year the Red Cross assisted 312,355 persons in 303 disaster operations. It was a heavy disaster period with hurricanes, forest fires, tornadoes and floods accounting for most of a death toll which ran into many hundreds and for a property loss figure reckoned in hundreds of millions of dol¬ lars. By the end of the 1947-48 fiscal year Red Cross expendi¬ tures for relief and rehabilitation stood at more than $12,170,000. In addition to providing the basic immediate needs of shelter, food, clothing and medical and nursing care to many thousands of families. Red Cross rehabilitation aid included long-time medical care; repair or rebuilding of homes; pur¬ chase of furniture, livestock for farmers and tools for work¬ men; and other forms of assistance. The new Red Cross blood program, launched at Rochester, N.Y., early in 1948, had for its long-range objective the nation¬ wide provision of blood and its derivatives, without charge for the products, to meet civilian and military needs. Under super¬ vision of national and local medical authorities the program was being expanded gradually and by June 30, 1949, was ex¬ pected to have 34 regional centres with 39 associated mobile units in operation. The Red Cross bears the entire cost of col¬ lecting, processing and distributing blood and its derivatives.

Hull ulUoOi

REFORESTATION —REFORMED CHURCH

615

(8) Social Welfare Aide Service; and (9) Staff Aide Service. (H. Bm.) World .—^The 17th International Red Cross conference, the first held after 1938, met in Aug. 1948 in Stockholm, Sweden. Normally, the conference, which is composed of representa¬ tives of the International Committee of the Red Cross, the League of Red Cross Societies, national Red Cross societies and governments signatory of the Geneva convention, meets every four years. The 1938 meeting was held in London, England.

KOREAN ORPHANS preparing to entertain convalescents at a U.S. army hos¬ pital in Seoul during a program arranged by American Red Cross hospital workers in 1948

During the year, the Home Service handled approximately 1,782,000 cases for veterans and their dependents, and provided financial assistance amounting to almost $5,624,000. The Vet¬ erans Claims Service held power of attorney to act in 1,100,000 cases. The Service in Veterans Hospitals maintained a staff of field directors in 117 Veterans’ administration hospitals, with a monthly average of 13,000 volunteers assisting in the medical, diversional and welfare phases of the hospital program. Military Welfare Red Cross workers serving under the Serv¬ ices to the Armed Forces banner in the United States, Europe, the far east and other parts of the world handled 708,300 cases concerning servicemen and their families during the year and gave nearly $2,351,000 in financial aid. The Home Service handled almost 768,000 cases involving servicemen and their families and provided $3,029,000 in financial assistance. The Service in Military Hospitals, performed by almost 1,000 per¬ sonnel, professional and clerical, with the help of an average number of 10,000 volunteers per month, aided approximately 142,600 persons. The International Activities program of the American Red Cross is designed to assist in easing human suffering wherever it exists, to strengthen national and international Red Cross organizations throughout the world and to create international fellowship and unity among peoples. During 1948 it provided material assistance of $6,000,000 worth of clothing, medical supplies, hospital equipment, cars, ambulances and powdered milk to sister societies abroad and appropriated $100,000 to purchase and ship supplies in eight foreign disasters. In its Safety Services programs, the Red Cross issued 636,224 certificates in water safety and 481,066 in first aid and accident prevention. Home nursing certificates totalled 124,639. In 1948, more than 19,400,000 children were enrolled in the Junior Red Cross through public, private and parochial schools. During the year, they sent 544,500 gift boxes of health and school supplies to children in war-devastated countries. The gift boxes supplied through the National Children’s fund were valued at considerably more than $1,000,000. An army of 264,700 volunteers were enrolled in the follow¬ ing Red Cross services during 1948; (i) Arts and Skills Serv¬ ice; (2) Canteen Service; (3) Entertainment and Instruction Service; (4) Gray Lady Service; (5) Motor Service; (6) Nurse’s Aide Service; (7) Production and Supply Service;

The 1948 meeting, presided over by Count Folke Bernadotte, president of the Swedish Red Cross, was attended by repre¬ sentatives of 53 national Red Cross societies, 46 governments, 27 international organizations, the International Committee of the Red Cross and the League of Red Cross Societies. The most important work of the conference was concerned with the preparation of a Convention for the Protection of Civilians in Time of War and revisions of the Geneva Prisoner of War convention of 1929, the Hague convention of 1899 (naval warfare) and the Geneva convention of 1906 (sick and wounded of armies in the field). These proposed and revised conventions were to go to a diplomatic conference called to meet in Geneva, Switz., in March 1949. Other work of the Stockholm conference included the strengthening of the national and international structure of the Red Cross and the planning of activities in the fields of peace, youth, relief, health, nursing and social assistance. At its closing session, the conference accepted the invitation of the American National Red Cross to meet in the United States in 1952. The executive committee and the board of governors of the League of Red Cross Societies, meeting in Stockholm at the same time under the chairmanship of Basil O’Connor, president of the American National Red Cross, admitted two new mem¬ bers, the Pakistan and the Lebanese Red Cross societies, bring¬ ing the total membership of the league to 66 national Red Cross and Red Crescent societies. New bylaws, regulations for the admission of new Red Cross societies to membership in the league, regulations for the holding of regional Red Cross con¬ ferences, regulations for a Junior Red Cross advisory commit¬ tee and regulations for a health advisory committee were adopted. The year also was marked by an increasingly close collabora¬ tion in the humanitarian field between the national Red Cross societies through their international federation, the League of Red Cross Societies, and the United Nations and its specialized agencies. Working with the International Children’s Emergency fund, the Scandinavian Red Cross societies were conducting the largest antituberculosis campaign in history among children in Europe. In collaboration with the World Health organization, the League of Red Cross Societies and its members contributed materially in combating malaria in Albania, Rumania, Bul¬ garia, Italy, Greece, Turkey, China and Indonesia. The Inter¬ national Refugee organization was assisted in its resettlement program for displaced persons. In November, following a decision of the general assembly of the United Nations to raise $29,500,000 for relief supplies for victims of the Palestine conflict, the League of Red Cross Societies and the International Committee of the Red Cross agreed to undertake distribution of these supplies over a period of nine months to refugees in Palestine, Syria, Iraq, Lebanon, Trans-Jordan and Egypt. (H. W. Dg.)

Reforestation: see Forests. Reformed Church: see Presbyterian

Church.

616

REFUGEES

Doflirrooc international effort to reduce the problem KulU^CuS* of refugees and displaced persons in central Europe reached a new stage in 1948 with the activation of the International Refugee organization. The constitution of the I.R.O., adopted by the general assembly of the United Nations at its meeting in New York in Dec. 1946, provided that the organization would come into being when 15 nations had ratified the constitution, whose allocated contributions constituted 75% of the provisional operational budget of $150,000,000. This re¬ quirement was fulfilled on Aug. 20, 1948, when Denmark rati¬ fied the constitution as the 15th nation to take this action. By Dec. 1948 the following 16 nations had ratified the constitution; Australia, Belgium, Canada, China, Denmark, the Dominican Republic, France, Guatemala, Iceland, Luxembourg, the Nether¬ lands, New Zealand, Norway, the United Kingdom, the United States and Venezuela. In the preceding period (July 1947-Aug. 1948) the preparatory commission for the I.R.O., consisting of 20 governments which had either ratified the constitution or sig¬ nified their intention to do so, had assumed operating responsi¬ bility for the problem, accepting the functions of United Na¬ tions Relief and Rehabilitation administration and the Inter¬ governmental Committee on Refugees, which terminated their activities on behalf of refugees on July i, 1947. In attacking the problem of refugees and displaced persons, the preparatory commission and subsequently the I.R.O. pro¬ ceeded on two lines set down in the constitution of the I.R.O.: repatriation and resettlement. However, repatriation possibili¬ ties were small since the 1,000,000 displaced persons who re¬ mained in Germany, Austria and Italy—after the repatriation of 7,000,000 by western military authorities and the U.N.R.R.A. —belonged in overwhelming majority to the category of nonrepatriable refugees. They were considered to have valid objec¬ tions to repatriation to their former countries, such as fear based on reasonable grounds, or persecution because of race, religion, nationality or political opinions. From July i, 1947, to Sept. 30, 1948, the preparatory commission and subsequently the I.R.O. repatriated only 49,345 displaced persons (32,433 to Poland). The rate of repatriation slowed down from month to month. Resettlement in other countries, therefore, constituted the main resource for reducing the refugee problem. However, the preparatory commission was handicapped in its efforts until March 1948 by inadequate funds, of which a substantial portion had to be expended on the care and maintenance of refugees

RESETTLEMENT OF DISPLACED PERSONS after the close of World War II, as recorded in the JVew York Times for May 23, 194S; an additional 7,000,000 D.P.’s had gone back or were repatriated to their native countries

in camps in Germany, Austria and Italy. The formal establish¬ ment of the organization expanded its operational possibilities. As a full-fledged agency, the contributions of its members were on a contractual basis. Although during the preparatory phase most member nations advanced contributions voluntarily, the change in status gave the organization an assured income for the first time. The total of refugees resettled in the period July i, 1947, to Sept. 30, 1948, was, according to I.R.O. reports, 255,779, of whom 177,847 were assisted in transportation by the organiza¬ tion. The largest group was received by the United Kingdom (76,630). Other European countries which reduced their man¬ power requirements by accepting displaced persons were, in par¬ ticular, France (21,249) and Belgium (20,701). The overseas countries accepting the largest numbers of refugees were Canada (37,731), United States (17,762) and Argentina (16,642). The total of displaced persons resettled during the year 1948 ex¬ ceeded 240,000. Increased resettlement possibilities for displaced persons de¬ veloped in 1948 through two expanded outlets, namely, the movements to the United States and to Palestine. In the United States various organizations joined in the drive to secure the admission of substantial numbers of displaced persons in excess of the existing quotas. After heated debates in the United States congress a compromise Displaced Persons act was passed and signed by President Harry S. Truman on June 25, 1948. The act provided for the admission during the two fiscal years following its passage of 200,000 displaced per¬ sons who entered Germany, Austria or Italy on or before Dec. 22, 1945, and 2,000 natives of Czechoslovakia who fled as a direct result of persecution or fear of persecution from that country after Jan. i, 1948. The 202,000 persons to be admitted under the act were to be charged against future quotas of their countries of birth at the rate of 50% of the respective quota annually, but 3,000 displaced full orphans under the age of 16 might be admitted as nonquota immigrants, and 15,000 dis¬ placed persons temporarily admitted to the United States prior to April I, 1948, might be granted the status of permanent resi¬ dents. The act provided that 40% of the visas should be avail¬ able exclusively to displaced persons whose place of origin or country of nationality had been annexed de facto by a foreign power, chiefly the Baltic countries and eastern Poland; 30% of the persons admitted under the act must have been previously engaged in agriculture. In addition, priority was given to house¬ hold, construction and clothing workers, as well as to persons pjossessing special scientific or professional qualifications; and to relatives of U.S. citizens and residents. To be eligible for ad¬ mission a refugee must have assurance of a job and housing without displacing a U.S. citizen. The other event in 1948 which was expected to lead eventu¬ ally to a substantial reduction of the displaced persons popula¬ tion of central Europe was the establishment of the state of Israel. Immigration to Palestine increased substantially during the year 1948. I.R.O. statistics list but 14,106 refugees who left for Palestine between July i, 1947, and Sept. 30, 1948. How¬ ever, the actual number was much higher. The majority of more than 7,000 Jewish refugees who went to France on temporary visas travelled on to Palestine. Furthermore, the activities of voluntary agencies which assisted the movement to Palestine were not fully reflected in I.R.O. reports. The total of Jewish refugees who went to Palestine in the course of the year 1948 was estimated at more than 40,000. The integration into the German economy of approximately 9,500,000 members of the German minorities of Poland, Czecho¬ slovakia and Hungary, whose transfer to Germany took place under the Potsdam agreement, proceeded slowly during 1948.

RELAY RACING —RELIEF

POLISH JEWS who were among the D.P.’s evacuated from Berlin to the U.S. zone of Germany in 1948 to reduce the city’s food needs. They are shown aboard a C-54 which had just delivered a plane load of coal from Frankfurt

However, the western zones of Germany received a steady in¬ flux of German refugees from the soviet zone, the monthly aver¬ age during the last part of 1948 having been estimated at 25,000 to 40,000. A great burden was also imposed on the Austrian economy by the presence of 250,000 Volksdeutsche, who at the end of World War II fled into Austria from Yugo¬ slavia, Hungary, Rumania and Czechoslovakia. A small outlet for the Volksdeutsche in Germany and Austria was provided in section 12 of the United States Displaced Persons act of 1948, under which during the two fiscal years following the passage of the act 50% of the German and Austrian quotas were made available exclusively to Volksdeutsche from Poland, Czechoslo¬ vakia, Hungary, Rumania and Yugoslavia who had moved to Germany or Austria by June 25, 1948. New groups of people were uprooted by guerrilla fighting in Greece. Early in 1948 the number of refugees who had fled their homes, farms and villages because of the guerrilla warfare had reached approximately 420,000. This number increased dur¬ ing the subsequent guerrilla fighting in northern and central Greece, and at the end of the year the total of Greek refugees was estimated at 700,000. (See Greece.) In the middle east a great refugee movement was precipi¬ tated by the fighting in Palestine. (See Palestine.) In Aug. 1948 the Arab refugees from Israeli-controlled areas were esti¬ mated at 330,000. By December their number rose to 500,000, dispersed in Arab-held Palestine and the neighbouring Arab countries. Furthermore, there were about 7,000 Jewish refugees within Israel’s borders. Because of financial limitations, the I.R.O. council decided that no substantial aid could be given to the Palestinian refugees. In Dec. 1948 the United Nations appealed to the governments to provide $32,500,000 for emer¬

617

gency relief to cover the period until the harvest of 1949. In the far east repatriation of overseas Chinese who had fled to China during the war continued slowly. Between July i, 1947, and Sept. 30, 1948, the I.R.O. repatriated 7,772 Chinese to their prewar country of residence, mainly to Burma, Malaya and Indonesia. In view of the advance of communist forces in China, the I.R.O. was engaged in emergency action at the end of the year to evacuate about 13,000 White Russian and cen¬ tral European refugees from that country. (See also Estonia; Jewish Religious Life; Latvia; Prisoners of War.)

(G. L. W.)

Relay Racing: see

Track and Field Sports.

DoliDf outstanding event of 1948 in the English-speaknCIICIa ing world, insofar as relief activities were concerned, was passage of the act creating the National Assistance board by the British parliament, rounding out England’s provision for social security. The total provision called for social insurance against old age, unemployment, illness and invalidity, and the latest section took care of needs not covered by the social in¬ surances. It abolished the old local poor law and substituted a national provision, centrally administered. The new board was delegated to perform all the functions of the previous Assistance board—aid to the unemployed not eligible for insurance, to the aged, to dependent children, to pensioners whose pensions were inadequate, and to civilian sufferers from World War II, as well as the miscellaneous tasks of local poor officials, such as care of transients. It also authorized assistance to institutions for the blind and for the care of the tuberculous in sanatoria. And finally, as a covering clause, the act provided (as did the inclusive New Zealand act) that the National Assistance board was empowered to aid any in need who did not come under any of the specific provisions of the act.

618

RELIGtON

The new act did not abolish the means test, but defined eligibility specifically as the possession of no more than a cer¬ tain maximum of assets, rather than the presence of need; and an appeal from the decision of the National Assistance board could be made to an independent local tribunal. The care of the aged in institutions remained a local func¬ tion, but localities were encouraged to provide such care on a basis of a fee charged each inmate: a fee to be met by the National Assistance board in case of the inmate’s inability to pay. During the year Britain entered into an agreement with France whereby social security benefits and obligations were extended to nationals of either country residing in the other. Britain also began negotiating similar treaties with other coun¬ tries, including members of the commonwealth. Canada revised its law on family allowances (child endow¬ ment) creating a better integrated administrative structure. In the fiscal 3"ear 1947-48 the parents of 1,671,906 children re¬ ceived allowances totalling $264,073,281, the amount per child varying with the age of the child and number of children in a family from $8 monthly per child as the maximum to $2 per child as a minimum, the minimum applicable to the eighth or subsequent child in a family. In New Zealand’s all-inclusive social security law, rates of benefits were increased from 12% to 25% during the fiscal year 1947-48 to meet rising prices. During the same period benefits of more than $132,000,000 were paid 19 classes of beneficiaries, w’hile the income to the fund amounted to more than $141,000,000. New Zealand and Australia also set up reciprocal agree¬ ments by which the citizen of one country would come under the obligations and benefits of the other in case of his removal into it. In 1948 Australia experienced the first full year of benefits gained by the national consolidation of its welfare laws. The cost of the national services and assistance was met by a spe¬ cially laid, graduated income tax; the revenue so raised in the fiscal year 1947-48 amounted to $225,000,000. Eligibility for any of these benefits was guarded by strict Australian residence requirements and qualifications of character. In the United States the only national response to the rising cost of living, in the field of public assistance, was to raise the amount of federal grant to states by $5 a month in the cate¬ gories of old-age assistance and aid to the blind, and $3 or $4 a month per child in the allowances under the aid to dependent children. All recommendations of the president to enlarge the number and classes of persons under the Social Security act were rejected by the congress. On the other hand the congress CHRISTIANS IN JERUSALEM kneeling at the fourth station as they made the Way of the Cross to Calvary during observances of Holy Week in 1948. Arab riflemen are shown standing by

passed over the president’s veto a bill excluding certain workers, such as newspaper carriers and salesmen, who had been declared eligible by the supreme court in June 1947. The number of beneficiaries under the insurance provision for old age in the Social Security act continued to increase rapidly, nearly reaching the number receiving old-age assistance—2,202,000, as compared with 2,429,078. But the inadequacy of the provision for old age during the first decades of its operation w'as showm by the fact that the average old-age benefit under the insurance plan was only $25.21 per person; whereas under the old-age assistance feature of the act, where grants were made under a need basis, the average throughout the country was $39.37 per person, and considerably higher in those states which administered the law liberally, such as California at $57.21 per month, Massachusetts at $54.77 and New York at $49.45. The National Social Welfare assembly released certain figures in December which threw light on trends in public and private giving in the U.S. In 1924 the public spent $4.01 on welfare services and assistance per capita; in 1946, $17.59. Private contributions in the same period increased only from $2.54 per capita to $3.32. (See also Child Welfare; Community Chest; Municipal Government; Red Cross; Social Security.) Bibliography.—Social Security Bulletin; Social Service Review; offi¬ cial reports of the welfare boards of the respective nations. (F. J. B.J

DDlifflnn

shifting circumstances of the historical scene 1948 gave high visibility to the role of religion in international affairs. Judaism and Islam in the near east, Islam in the orient and Eastern Orthodoxy in the realm of Russian influence were deeply implicated in the clash of events. Archbishop Spyrou Athenagoras of New York, long a U.S. citizen, was elected patriarch of the Greek Orthodox Church with more than 100,000,000 adherents. Centring in Istanbul, this established at the chief seat of Eastern Orthodoxy a sphere of sympathy for western ideals as a counterbalance to the soviet domination of the Russian Orthodox Church. On the other hand, the Uniate Church of Rumania, united with Rome since 1697, transferred its allegiance from the pope to the Eastern Orthodox Church in 1948. This shift of 1,725 churches, representing 1,250,000 people, from one faith to an¬ other directly reflected the extension of the Russian zone of political control to church affairs.

llbliglUlla in

Contrasting with these evidences of the divisive role of religion was a conference held in June at New York city which undertook to align the spiritual forces of the world’s faiths in behalf of international peace and order. Subsequently the American council of the World Alliance for International Friendship through the churches changed its name to read Alliance for International Friendship through Religion. This

RELIGIOUS DENOM I NATIONS — REPARATIONS movement proposed to cultivate good relations between peoples by showing mutual respect for their cultures and stressing the common elements of their religions. The completion in August of the organization of the World Council of Churches, representing 150 Protestant and Eastern Orthodox Churches in 44 countries, firmly established impor¬ tant international ties and means of intercommunication and mutual aid on a world scale between these groups. Debate on the social order was the most widely publicized episode of the deliberations of the World Council of Churches. A resolution of the World council declared that “the Christian churches should reject the ideologies of both communism and laissez-faire capitalism and should seek to draw men out from the false assumption that these extremes are the only alterna¬ tives. ... It is the responsibility of Christians to seek new creative solutions which will never allow either justice or free¬ dom to destroy the other.” This resolution was the subject of wide, and sometimes bitter, secular criticism. The World Council of Churches approved the Declaration of the Commission on Human Rights, then in draft form but later adopted by the assembly of the United Nations. The council declared, however, that the sanctions appealed to in the declaration were inadequate. The rights of men “derive directly from their status as children of God. ... It is pre¬ sumptuous for the state to assume that it can grant or deny fundamental rights. It is for the state to embody these rights in its own legal system and to insure their observance in prac¬ tice.” Representatives of the World council, with supporting action by the Federal Council of Churches in the United States and of many other religious bodies, subsequently pressed for the im¬ plementation of these ideals through the adoption by the United Nations of a legally binding covenant, and of measures for carrying out its provisions. The Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America sharpened its approval of United Nations action with special reference of its own to the Negro situation, and communicated its views to President Harry S. Truman in support of his civil rights proposals. With specific reference to freedom of religion and conscience, the World council, and the western churches generally, ap¬ proved the section of the declaration asserting “the rights of all men to hold and change their faith, to express it in worship and practice, to teach and persuade others, and to decide on the religious education of their children.” The increasing number of far-eastern nations freed from western domination and the extension of communism in nonChristian countries during 1948 caused especially deep concern in the Christian churches with respect to the future of their missions in these areas. An amendment to the Declaration of Human Rights, proposed by Saudi Arabia but defeated in the commission, would have deleted the provision giving a person the right to change his religion in a Moslem country. A dis¬ tinct break in the Moslem front, however, was indicated in an address to the commission by the delegate from Pakistan, who asserted that Mohammedanism is also a missionary religion and that it must grant others the rights which it intends to claim. Concerning war, the world mind of the Protestant and Eastern Orthodox Churches, as registered in the World Council of Churches, admitted as among the tenable views which Chris¬ tians held that in the absence of an impartial supernational society of nations with acknowledged authority to adjust dif¬ ferences and control action, war might become the only im¬ mediate sanction of the rule of law. In contrast with the traditionally hopeful Roman Catholic attitude and the confidence of modern liberalism in reason and

619

the native goodness of mankind, Protestant theology was greatly conditioned by a disillusioned and fearful appraisal of the actual state and prospects of humanity. A belief had taken root in influential quarters that there was a genuine possibility that the human order might not be saved, but might go out in obliterating catastrophe ending civilization, order and cul¬ ture, or even, indeed, the whole human chapter of earthly his¬ tory. Otherwise sophisticated modern Christian thinkers increas¬ ingly regarded such views as at least philosophically tenable, and as probably more profound than the uncritical and baseless assumption of an indefinite continuity of secular history and a cosmic program of business as usual. The sole hope for mankind was found in personal relations with God, which might survive even such a final catastrophe, and in the possibility that while He holds destruction over the world as a righteous judgment. He might yet graciously avert it. The effect upon religion of such a mood and temper ought logically to be depressing. But it was modified by other more hopeful interpretations of human prospects, and by a probably illogical common purpose of religious people of all theological convictions to go forward as far and as long as possible in the direction pointed by hope, in practical efforts for the deepening of the spiritual life of people, and the righting of human ills. In the actual practice of religion, even by its most baleful prophets, a chastened but undefeated resolve upon active ef¬ fort was undoubtedly dominant during 1948. {See also Chris¬ tian Unity; Church Membership; also under separate de¬ nominations.) (H. P. D.)

Religious Denominations: see Church Religious Education: see Law; Sunday Don^r^tinnC

Membership. Schools.

Germany.—The most important developrnent in the German reparations picture dur¬ ing 1948 was the reluctant agreement of Great Britain and France to consider the possible retention in Germany of individ¬ ual plants earmarked for reparations, if such retention would contribute more to total European recovery than would ship¬ ment to claimant nations. The agreement was obtained by Economic Cooperation Ad¬ ministrator Paul Hoffman under terms of the Foreign Assistance act of 1948. As made public on Oct. 27, it provided, in effect, that dismantling was to continue in the British and French zones, without prejudice to the possible retention in Germany of individual plants, upon acceptance by Great Britain or France of recommendations to that effect by an Economic Cooperation administration industrial advisory committee. The latter committee, headed by George M. Humphrey, was appointed by Hoffman on Oct. 15. It proceeded at once to Europe, where it worked in close co-operation with British and French authorities. Its consulting engineers spent several weeks in Germany gathering information and surveying about 300 plants. The committee’s report had not been made public by the end of the year, but it was said to have recommended the retention in Germany of a substantial number of plants orig¬ inally earmarked for reparations. As a result of four-power dissension, no plant allocations to the Inter-Allied Reparations agency (I.A.R.A.) had been made by the Allied Control council since late in 1946. The soviet boy¬ cott of the council in March 1948 precluded further action by that body. However, on July 7, equipment from an additional 140 plants in the western zones (43 U.S., 62 British and 35 French) was made available by the three zonal commanders to I.A.R.A. for suballocation among its 19 members (Pakistan was admitted in Feb. 1948). At the same time, other plant units were earmarked for the Soviet Union, but inasmuch as all nCpdl QllUliO*

620

REPRESENTATIVES, HOUSE OF—REPUBLICAN PARTY

reparations deliveries to that nation had ceased because of the Berlin blockade, it was made clear that consideration could not be given to actual deliveries until the blockade was lifted. Additional suballocations were made by I.A.R.A. during the year. The last one, on Dec. 22, consisting of 68 plants, raised the total number which had been suballocated to 367, valued at Rm.435,000,000 (1938 values). The dismantling program proceeded apace, in the face of vig¬ orous opposition in Germany and some quarters in other nations. By the end of October only 8 out of 196 plant units in the U.S. zone had not been dismantled. Dismantling at that time was said to be at a standstill, however. Progress was slower in the U.K. zone. Out of S39 plant units, 204 had been completely dismantled, 220 were in progress, and work had not been started on 115. The value of all plant and shipping delivered to I.A.R.A. members by the end of September was estimated at about Rm.470,000,000, of which Rm.116,000,000 was taken by Great Britain and Rm.io8,ooo,ooo by France. The first reciprocal deliveries from the soviet zone to the western zones under the Potsdam agreement were begun in Feb¬ ruary . and continued over a three-month period. They were valued at about Rm.4,000,000 and included wheat, gasoline, diesel oil and timber. Delivery of the second consignment, sched¬ uled to begin in mid-1948, was held up indefinitely by “trans¬ portation difficulties” arising out of the Berlin blockade. Japan.—There were no significant developments in repara¬ tions policy for Japan in 1948. The end of the year found the Allies still divided on the total amount of reparations to be exacted, the division of the total among the claimants and the procedure of removals. Gen. Douglas MacArthur proceeded, however, to implement a U.S. directive issued in April 1947, providing for the distribu¬ tion of 30% of certain industrial capacity in Japanese munitions and war-supporting industries declared to be surplus by the Far Eastern commission in 1946. Of the 30%, 15% was to go to China, and 5% each to Great Britain (for Burma and Malaya), the Netherlands (for Indonesia) and the Philippines. The program in 1948 was divided into three segments: (i) machine tools and miscellaneous metal-working equipment from 17 former army and navy arsenals; (2) miscellaneous laboratory equipment centralized from 94 arsenals; and (3) integrated facil¬ ities and residue from 18 arsenals. The first deliveries were made in January and by Oct. 31, 16,854 items valued at 94,838,649 yen had been delivered from segments i and 2, making that part of the program virtually complete. Allocation and delivery from segment 3 was in progress at the end of the year, but by then it was apparent that the program had been ineffectual as a pressure move to force Allied agreement on an over-all level. During the year two investigating groups recommended largescale reductions in the level of reparations removals previously projected by the Pauley report and by an agreement of the state-war-navy co-ordinating committee, apparently reached in April 1948 but not made public. The report of Overseas Con¬ sultants, Inc., released on March 2, concluded that to ensure a Japan which would be self-supporting at the 1930-34 level in 1953, all primary war facilities, valued at 1,475,887,000 yen (1939 value) could be removed but that removal of other facili¬ ties should be limited to those valued at 172,269,000 yen, as opposed to the figure of 990,033,000 yen tentatively fixed by the state-war-navy group. The first part of the 175-page report designated those plants to be retained and those to be removed if the state-war-navy level were adopted. An even lower level of removal was fixed by the Johnston committee in a report made public on May 19 which recom¬ mended limiting removals of primary war facilities to 662,247,000 yen, and removals of other facilities to 102,247,000 yen.

Bibliography.—Inter-Allied Reparations Agency (Brussels), Second Annual Report of the Secretary General (1947): Office of Military Government for Germany (U.S.), Quarterly and Annual Reports on Reparations and Restitution; Overseas Consultants, Inc., Report on Industrial Reparations Survey of Japan (1948). (J. W. Mw.)

Representatives, House of:

see Congress, United States;

Elections.

The Republican party lost its fifth successive presidential contest in 1948, thereby establishing a post-Civil War record for sustained defeats by either major political organization. It also became a minority party in both houses of congress. Despite contrary pre-election polls and expectations. Presi¬ dent Harry S. Truman’s plurality over Governor Thomas E. Dewey of New York, the Republican nominee, in the elections on Nov. 2, was 2,136,525 out of 48,833,680 ballots cast in the presidential contest. Truman had 24,105,695 votes to 21,969,170 for Dewey. The electoral vote was 323 for Truman, 189 for Dewey and 39 for Governor J. Strom Thurmond of South Caro¬ lina, candidate of the States’ Rights Democrats. The Republicans lost 72 seats in the house and 9 in the senate. Before the Nov. 2 election, they had 243 house mem¬ bers and 51 in the senate. After the tally, they had only 171 house members and 42 senators. Their total of 24 governor¬ ships was reduced to 19. There was no expectation of defeat in the minds of leading Republican presidential candidates when the primary season opened in March. Fully expecting that the Democratic cycle was about to end, numerous hopefuls tossed their hats into the ring. These included Governor Dewey, the 1944 nominee. Sena¬ tor Robert A. Taft of Ohio, former Governor Harold E. Stassen of Minnesota, Governor Earl Warren of California, General Douglas A. MacArthur of Wisconsin and House Speaker Joseph W. Martin, Jr., of Massachusetts. Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg was promoted by Michigan politicians, but he never showed any real interest in the nomination. The most active combatant was Stassen, who announced early in 1948 that he wanted and would campaign strenuously for the prize. He amassed such popular strength, according to the polls, among veterans, liberals and first-voters that the nomination struggle developed into a fight of Stassen against the field, or vice versa. The Minnesotan and Governor Dewey first clashed in New Hampshire’s March primary. Although Dewey picked up six delegates to two for Stassen, the Albany man’s margin in the popular vote was only about 7,000. Stassen began to frighten his rivals when he won the April primary in Wisconsin over General MacArthur and Dewey. The Minnesotan got 19 dele¬ gates to 8 for MacArthur and none for Dewey, who did not decide to enter his name until the last minute. The popular vote, based on the respective high delegate’s showing, was 230,000 for Stassen, 209,000 for MacArthur and 130,000 for Dewey. Stassen won again in Nebraska on April 13. This primary contest, although the outcome did not bind the delegates, was regarded as significant because it was a free-for-all popularity test. With or without their permission, the names of every prospective candidate were listed on the ballot. The results w^ere: Stassen 80,842; Dewey 63,885; Taft 21,236; Vandenberg 9,360; Warren 1,773; Martin 836. Stassen violated political tradition and irritated party politi¬ cians when he entered his name in the Ohio primary against Senator Taft, the “favourite son.” The Minnesotan did not enter a full list of delegates, naming only one at-large entry and restricting his efforts largely to industrial districts. He ap¬ parently figured that his opponent would be weak in those areas because of his sponsorship of the Taft-Hartley act, which union

Republican Party.

RESEARCH LIBRARIES. ASSO

“BEST VIEW HE'S HAD IN 16 YEARS,” a cartoon by Bishop which ap¬ peared in the St. Louis Star-Times some months before Gov. Thomas E. Dewey’s defeat in the presidential election of Nov. 2, 1948

leaders characterized as a “slave labour law.” Taft won 44 delegates to 9 for Stassen. Stassen’s lone atlarge candidate polled 323,698 votes against 388,000 for Taft’s high man. The outcome was regarded as a respectable demon¬ stration by the Minnesota invader. Governor Dewey had observed these Stassen gains with seem¬ ing indifference up to this moment, but he quickly decided that he could not afford to permit his youthful rival to add Oregon to his string of conquests. The New York governor spent sev¬ eral weeks in the northwestern state, crisscrossing its remotest regions by automobile, meeting crossroads people and shaking every extended hand. Even so, he won the 12 delegates only by a 113,396 to 104,259 count. Governor Dewey triumphed at the Philadelphia national con¬ vention in June because of a smart, smooth-running political staff, and because Republican leaders figured that only he could deliver New York’s 47 electoral votes. The tally on the first ballot, with 548 needed for the nomination, was as follows: Dewey 434; Taft 224; Stassen 157; Vandenberg 62; Warren 59; Martin 18; MacArthur ii. With Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Indiana in the van, the parade to Dewey began on the second ballot, which ended as follows: Dewey 515; Taft 274; Stassen 149; Vandenberg 62; Warren 57; Martin 10; MacArthur 7. On the third round, Dewey was named unanimously. His selection of Governor Warren as his running mate was endorsed unanimously. The platform was unusually short and general in terms of pledges. It supported the basic New Deal reforms, but prom¬ ised more economical, effective and prudent management of federal affairs. It subscribed to co-operative and nonpartisan conduct of foreign policy, although assailing the administration’s program as sometimes lacking in “clarity, competence or con¬ sistency.” As a reward for Pennsylvania’s welcome support, Dewey selected R.epresentative Hugh Scott, Jr., of that state as Re¬ publican national chairman. He replaced Carroll Reece of Tenn¬ essee, who had favoured Taft’s nomination.

lATION OF—RHODE ISLAND

621

In postconvention conferences. Governors Dewey and Warren mapped their campaign strategy. In view of their belief that the election was “in the bag,” they decided to conduct a “sweet¬ ness and light” campaign, to avoid controversial issues and to shun a detailed debate of issues with President Truman. This proved to be the worst kind of tactics, as events showed. The voters interpreted Dewey-Warren generalizations as signs of smugness. Truman’s one-man, Bryanesque crusade, which included speeches and appearances at every “whistle stop,” served to sharpen the contrast. Republican aloofness gave credence to the Truman charge that he was the champion of the “little people,” while Dewey was the candidate of the wellto-do, the “haves” and the reactionaries. Republican research experts listed the factors of the DeweyWarren defeat as follows: (i) Republican indifference and fail¬ ure to vote; (2) an amazing falling-off of the G.O.P. vote in agricultural states; (3) organized labour’s doorbell-ringing for Truman and Democratic congressional candidates pledged to repeal the Taft-Hartley act; (4) Truman’s promises of con¬ tinued and extended federal financial assistance in the fields of labour, agriculture, housing, health insurance, social security and education; (5) general prosperity as reflected in full em¬ ployment, peak wages, high farm income, heavy purchasing power and record profits. The Republicans organized the senate with Senator Kenneth S. Wherry of Nebraska as minority leader and with Senator Leverett Saltonstall of Massachusetts as his aide. In the house they named former Speaker Joseph W. Martin, Jr., of Massa¬ chusetts as minority leader, and Representative Leslie C. Arends of Illinois as minority whip. (See also Elections; United States.) (R. Tu.)

Research Libraries, Association of: see

Societies and

Associations.

Resins: see Paints and Varnishes; Plastics Retail Sales: see Business Review. Reunion: see French Overseas Territories.

Industry.

Reuther, Walter Philip e';;:: b„J se^: 1“; ing, W.Va. He worked in the steel industry, and later in De¬ troit, Mich., worked for several automotive manufacturers, and in 1933 he and his brother embarked on a tour of ii countries of Europe and Asia, working in factories and studying labour movements. He returned to Detroit in 1935, and in May 1936 was elected to the international executive board of the United Automobile Workers (U.A.W.), which was affiliated with the Congress of Industrial Organizations (C.I.O.). In 1942 he was elected vice-president of the U.A.W. During World War II, Reuther served as labour representa¬ tive with the War Manpower commission and the War Pro¬ duction board. He was elected president of the U.A.W.-C.I.O. in March 1946, and in Nov. 1946 was elected vice-president of the C.I.O., being re-elected to the U.A.W. presidency in Nov. 1947. On the night of April 20, 1948, Reuther was seriously wounded by a shotgun blast fired by an unknown assailant through a window of his home.

Rheumatism: see Dk fin Inlnnil

Arthritis.

^ north Atlantic state of the United States, in New England; one of the 13 original states; popularly known as “Little Rhody.” Area, 1,214 sq.mi. (smallest of the United States), including 156 sq.mi. of water; pop. (1940) 713,346. The urban population was 653,383

KIlUDC loldllU*

RHODESIA. NORTHERN

622

(91.6%). On July I, 1948, the bureau of the census estimated the population of the state at 748,000. Capital, Providence (253,504). Other cities include Pawtucket (75,797); Woon¬ socket (49,303); Cranston (47,085); Newport (30,532); War¬ wick (28,757); Central Falls (25,248). History.—At the regular 1948 session of the legislature, lead¬ ing measures passed included the following: acts making appro¬ priations for the support of the state for the fiscal year ending June'30, 1949, to a total of $37,199,479.68; an act creating the Rhode Island Port and Industrial Development commission, and abolishing certain independent agencies; an act authorizing corporations to provide for the indemnification and reimburse¬ ment of directors, officers and employees; an act regulating the taking of fish known as menhaden from the public waters of the state; an act to provide for the conservation of game by regulating field trials and shooting preserves; an act providing that the examinations for the position of veterans’ employment representative in local offices of the State Employment service be open only to veterans; an act authorizing the state depart¬ ment of social welfare to co-operate with the Federal Security agency’s business enterprises program for the blind; an act to extend and strengthen the mental health services in the state and designating the state department of social welfare as the agency to co-operate with the federal government; an act re¬ quiring the enrichment of bread and flour by the addition of certain vitamins and minerals for the better protection of the public health; an act providing a state-wide retirement system for school teachers of the state; an act relative to the regula¬ tion of rates for fire, marine and inland marine insurance, and to rating organizations; an act relative to the regulation of rates for certain casualty insurance including fidelity, surety and guaranty bonds and for all other forms of motor vehicle in¬ surance, and to rating organizations. The chief executive officers of the state elected in Nov. 1948 for 1949-50 were John 0. Pastore, governor; John S. McKiernan, lieutenant governor; Armand H. Cote, secretary of state; William E. Powers, attorney general; Raymond H. Hawksley, general treasurer. Edmund W. Flynn was chief justice of the supreme court. The state’s presidential vote of Nov. 1948 was: Harry S. Tru¬ man 188,619; Thomas E. Dewey 134,892; Henry A. Wallace

Resources of 22 banks under state supervision totalled $848,683,363.93, and of 9 banks under federal supervision $259,410,282.35. Savings de¬ posits (exclusive of club accounts) in savings banks and trust companies (the 22 state banks) amounted to $545,847,931.00 on June 30, 1948. In addition, 6 loan and investment companies had resources of $4,172,4t5.29; 8 building and loan associations $78,279,550.41; 28 credit unions $13,499,913.18. At the close of the fiscal year, June 30, 1948, total state receipts were $44,262,650.05; expenditures and encumbrances $40,392,629.77; surplus from operation $2,604,744.50. The state gross debt was $43,277,000, net debt $38,853,178. Agriculture—The total estimated value of agricultural production was $23,839,000 in 1948 and actual value was $21,980,000 in 1947. Total acreage of principal crops harvested was 51,000 in 1948. Cash estimated income from crops in 1948 was $6,989,000 and actual income was $6,391,000 in 1947; from livestock and livestock products $16,850,000 in 1948 and $15,589,000 in 1947; from government payments $125,000 in 1948 and $128,000 in 1947; total cash income $23,^64,000 in 1948 and $22,108,000 in 1947. Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Rhode Island, 1948 and 1947 1947

1948

Crop Corn, grain and silage and forage (grain equivalent) bu. Hay (tame), tons. Alfalfa, tons. Potatoes, bu. Oats, bu. Apples (commercial), bu. Peaches, bu. ..

259,000 53,000

352,000 57,000

1,462,000 33,000 143,000 14,000

1,512,000 33,000 187,000 13,000

2,000

2,000

Table 11.—Liyestock and Livestock Products of Rhode Island, 1948 and 1947 Item

1947

1948

Cows and heifers, 2 years and over . .. All cattle and calves. Hens, 3 months and over.i . . . Sheep and lambs. Hogs. Milk produced, lb. Eggs produced, doz. .. Chickens roised, no. Turkeys raised, no.

22,000

22,000

28,000 563,000

28,000 563,000

130,000,000 7,500,000 797,000 31,000

130,000,000 ,000,000 839,000 33,000

2,000 10,000

2,000 10,000

8

Manufacturing.—Employment in Dec. 1948 totalled 120,133 wage earners and 19,367 nonproduction workers (salaried personnel) and weekly pay roll was $5,908,035 for all manufacturing industries in Rhode Island, according to a report of the state department of labour. Wage earners were distributed among manufacturing industries in order: textile products 55.943; jewellery-silverware 17,329; machinery 16,139; iron and steel products 9,231; rubber products 8,649; electrical machinery 5,272; nonferrous metal 3,833; miscellaneous 23,104. The number of establish¬ ments employing four or more workers was 3,573 in Oct. 1947, and the number of persons employed was 219,042. Mineral Production—The value of mineral production in Rhode Island is small, exceeding only that of Delaware and the District of Columbia. Principal products in order of value are stone, sand and gravel, and graphite. Value in 1947 was $785,000, in 1946 $561,000, in 1945 $508.000 and in 1944 $612,000. The values of products were stone $274,130 in 1946, $219,263 in 1945, $213,351 in 1944, and sand and gravel $8,486 in 1946, $221,530 in 1945, and $287,112 in 1944. Quantity production of stone was 4,860 tons in 1946, 11,280 tons in 1945 and 19,790 tons in 1944; sand and gravel 41,659 tons in 1946, 317,300 tons in 1945 and 352,905 tons in 1944. (M. C. Ml.)

2,587Education.—During 1947-48 there were in the public elementary schools 59,001 pupils and 2,032 teachers; in junior high schools 16,273 pupils and 849 teachers; in senior high schools (three years) 14,051 pupils and 708 teachers; in senior high schools (four years and vocational) 4,737 pupils and 227 teachers. Pupils attending private schools were: elemen¬ tary 24,831; junior high 4,657; senior high (three years) 938; senior high (four years) 6,287. Total number of teachers in private day-schools was 1,375. The director of education in 1948 was Michael F. Walsh. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs._

The total number of persons receiving public assistance in all categories (excluding incapacitated fathers) in Nov. 1948 was_ 27,538. The total amounts paid out during the year Dec. i, 1947, to Nov. 30, 1948, were as follows: general public assistance $1,851,018; soldiers’ welfare $254,177: old-age assistance $4,530,274; aid to dependent children $2,573,277; aid to the blind $78,201. In unemployment compensation, the net amount of benefit payments during 1948 was $14,259,278.21 to 68,409 different individuals. The amount paid into the fund during 1948 including interest was $9,300,182.18. There were 909 inmates in correctional institutions on Nov. 30, 1948, and 4,934 patients in charitable institutions and insti¬ tutions for defectives, the number in the latter being 3,918. Communications.—The total mileage of highways on Dec. 31, 1948, (excluding city roads and streets under the control of the seven cities’ but including state roads built and maintained by the state into and through the cities) was 2,62,2. At the close of the year 1947, railroads were operating 179.95 mi. of main track in the state. On Dec. 31, 1948, motor buses operated more than 203.85 mi. of road, and trackless trolleys 82.44 mi. in the state. Water-borne commerce of the state for 1947 was 6,933,062 tons, of which 701,704 tons were foreign commerce (imports 694.85s tons; exports 6,849 tons) and 6,231,358 tons were coastwise (receipts 5,499,371 tons; shipments 731,987 tons). On Dec. 31, 1948, there were two public-owned (state) airports, both class 3, and seven private-owned airports or landing fields, all class i. Also there were two naval airports owned by the United States. In Dec. 1948 there were 218,393 telephones in service. Banking

and

Finance.—There

Were 31

banking institutions in

1948.

Nnrthprn ^

protectorate on the pla-

I IIUIlllCIII. teau of central Africa. Area: 290,320 sq.mi.; pop. (1947 est.): African 1,655,000; European 27,123; Asiatic 1,484. Chief towns: Lusaka (cap.), Livingstone and Ndola. The territory is administered by a governor, assisted by an executive council consisting of six official and four un¬ official members. The legislative council consists of a speaker, 9 official and 14 unofficial members—ten elected European and four nominated to represent native interests. Governor: Sir Gilbert Rennie. History •—During 1948, changes in the legislative council agreed to in 1946 came into effect; a speaker replaced the gov¬ ernor as president, two further elected European members re¬ placed the two nominated to represent interests other than native, and those representing native interests were increased from three to four, of whom two were Africans selected by the African representative council. But these changes no longer satisfied demands of the Europeans and a delegation from the unofficial members of the legislative council visited England in August for discussions on self-government with the secretary of state for the colonies. The governor, the secretary for native affairs and two Africans were also present, the African repre¬ sentative council having strongly opposed the proposals. After the discussions it was announced that it had been agreed that

RHODESIA, SOUTHERN —RIVERS AND HARBOURS ihe executive council should include four unofficial members, three to be appointed from among the elected members of the legislative council and one from among the members nominated to represent native interests. Steps were taken to make the agreement effective from Aug. 27. (Jo. A. Hn.) Finance and Trade.—Currency; Southern Rhodesian pound linked to sterling. Revenue (est. 1948) £6,211,025; expenditure (est. 1948) £6,110,064. Imports (t947) £10,709,767; exports (1947) £21,371,492. Principal exports: copper (blister and electrolytic), zinc and lead. Cop¬ per production: (1947) 136,224 tons blister, 56,276 tons electrolytic; (first seven months 1948) 93,277 tons blister, 35,498 tons electrolytic. Mining—Figures showed a steady increase in mineral production, but shortages of coal at the mines, resulting from shortages of rolling stock, involved temporary interruptions of copper production for the second consecutive year. {See also Rhodesia, Southern.)

Qhnriocia Cnilthorn niiUUCdld, OUUUICIII.

^ self-govemlng African colony in the Commonwealth of Nations,

with imperial government supervision over native rights. Area: 150,333 sq.mi.; pop. (June 30, 1948, est.): 1,979,160 (Euro¬ pean 105,000; Asiatic 3,280; coloured 4,880; African 1,866,000). Chief towns (June 30, 1948, Europeans only): Salisbury (cap., 27,000); Bulawayo (23,000); Umtali (3,400); Gwelo (2,800). Languages: English, Afrikaans and native tribal lan¬ guages. Governor: Major General Sir John Noble Kennedy; prime minister: Sir Godfrey Huggins. History.—In the general election of 1948, the United party, led by Sir Godfrey Huggins, won 24 out of the 30 seats, a record majority for the Southern Rhodesian parliament. Southern Rhodesian citizenship became an internationally recognized status, automatically conferring British nationality. The Central African council reached important decisions on hydroelectric projects, air services, port facilities at Beira (Portuguese East Africa), and African housing. Because of the decline of gold production, a subsidy of 273.6d. per ounce was introduced to raise the return to the producer to iio per ounce. Further restrictions were imposed on dollar imports with a view to balancing payments by March 1949. European immigration, greatly exceeding estimates, caused housing difficulties. Regulations requiring the immigrant to have capital of £1,500, an income of £500 a year, or a guarantee of employment were imposed. Immigrants totalled 13,595 i947(See also Rhodesia, Northern.) (G. R. Mn.) Education.—(1948) European: elementary schools 72, teachers 630, pupils 14,035; farm schools 9, pupils 142; technical schools 2, secondary schools 8. Asiatic and coloured: elementary schools 16, teachers 74, pupils 2,190. Native: elementary schools 1,897, teachers 4,s8o native and 265 European, pupils 178,862; there was one secondary school. Finance and Banking.—Budget (actual); (1947-48) revenue £12,701,000, expenditure £12,912,000; (est., 1948-49) revenue £13,900,000, ex¬ penditure £14,420,000. National debt (1947) £57.500,000. Currency cir¬ culation (Dec. 31, 1947): £8,819,000 (including Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland). Foreign Trade..—(Jan.-June 1948) imports £20,716,550, exports £12,465,602; (1947, entire year) imports £33,490,000, exports £23,649,000. Transport and Communications.—(1947) Main roads: c. 3,500 mi., in¬ cluding c. 2,500 mi. matted with bitumen surface. Railways: 2,711 mi.; passenger traffic 2,486,315; freight traffic 4,658,222 long tons. Industry.—Fuel and power: coal (production in long tons) (1947) 1,662,263; (Jan.-June 1948) 893,000. Raw materials: gold (1947) 522,735 oz., (Jan.-June 1948) 253,000 oz.; asbestos (1947) 54,094 long tons, (Jan.-June 1948) 36,000 long tons; chrome (1947) 171,023 long tons, (Jan.-June 1948) 132,000 long tons. The new works of the Iron and Steel commission were opened in Que Que. Agriculture.—Tobacco (Virginia): (1946-47) 58,960,290 lb., (194748) 79,130,000 lb. Livestock (1947): cattle 2,749,000; sheep 286,000; goats 557,000; pigs 117,000; poultry (European only) 419,000.

The United States rice crop of 1948 was the third conKluCe secutive record crop, reaching 81,170,000 bu., one-third larger than the 1937-46 average of 60,460,000 bu., and slightly larger than the 78,259,000 bu. of i947- 'I'I'c acreage also was at a record level of 1,743,000, 3% larger than that of 1947 and to be compared with an average acreage of 1,298,000 for 1937-46. The yield of 46.6 bu. per acre approximated that of 46.2 for 1947 and 46.9 bu. as the average for the previous decade. Crop conditions were favourable in Arkansas but not so favourable in

623

U.S. Rice Production by States, 1948, 1947, 1946 and 10-Year Average, 1937—46 (In thousands of bushels) State Louisiana. Texas. Arkansas. California.

1948

1947

1946

23,522 23,040 19,740 14,868

22,068 21,330 17,005 17,856

22,676 17,716 14,240 17,584

10-Yr. Average 21,403 15,588 11,667 11,802

Louisiana, Texas and California, the California harvest being several weeks late. The price for rice received by farmers rose to a new record average of $3.12 per bushel in February, then declined to near the $2 level at harvest time. Carry-over stocks on hand at the beginning of the crop year were very low. Exports from the U.S. from the large crops of the past few years were at record levels, amounting to 407,000 long tons in 1947-48, and 393,000 long tons in 1946-47, compared with 83,000 tons prewar. World rice production in 1947-48 recovered almost to prewar levels, reaching 99,547,000 metric tons, compared with 96,388,000 metric tons in 1946-47 and 100,812,000 metric tons pre¬ war. Normal production and export of the more important Asiatic rice areas, however, had not recovered so much as seemed to be indicated by world statistics. Total exports of the major exporting countries of Asia remained less than one-third of prewar, and the situation for the first half of 1949 was de¬ scribed in terras of available supply meeting only half the need, only 1,875,000 metric tons being available for import by deficit areas. International trade continued under the International Emergency Food committee; the allocation recommendations for 1948 covered 3,564,000 tons, compared with 2,234,000 in 1947 and world trade of 9,291,000 tons in 1934-38. (See also Food Supply of the World.) (J. K. R.)

Rio De Oro: see Spanish Colonial Empire. Rio Muni: see Spanish Colonial Empire.

Rnri Hjirhniirc dllU ndlUUUIO.

on loo

regular river and harbour proj¬ ects in the United States continued; of this number, 10 were completed. Maintenance was performed by the army’s corps of engineers on a total of 326 projects, including the extensive intercoastal waterways and Mississippi river system, the con¬ necting channels on the Great Lakes, 400 navigation locks and 185 coastal and inland harbours, and also channels and canals of the Ohio river system, the upper Mississippi river, the Illinois waterway and the hydroelectric generating plants on the Mis¬ souri river at Fort Peck, Mont., and the Columbia river at Bonneville, Ore. During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, $89,169,789.29 was expended for new work and maintenance of river and navigation projects and inland and coastal harbours. The Rivers and Harbors act of 1948 provided $166,989,100 for maintenance and improvement of the nation’s rivers and harbours. Of this total, $88,488,100 was designated for new construction work on 79 projects in 33 states and Alaska. Main¬ tenance, operation and care were allotted $71,000,000; advance planning, $1,924,000; preliminary examinations and surveys, $2,050,000; and miscellaneous items, $3,527,000. The important river and harbour projects for which $1,500,000 or more was allocated for construction were: McNary Lick and dam, Colum¬ bia river, Oregon and Washington, $22,000,000; Missouri river, Kansas City, Mo., to Sioux City, la., $3,000,000; Mississippi river, between Ohio and Missouri rivers, $9,000,000; Missouri river, mouth to Kansas City, $2,000,000; Gulf Intracoastal waterway. New Orleans, La., and Galveston, Tex., $4,119,000; Neches and Angelina rivers, Texas, $1,818,100; Missouri river at Fort Peck, Mont., $3,700,000; Cleveland harbour, Ohio, $2,000,000; Jim Woodruff dam, Florida, $3,000,000; Coos Bay,

624

RIVERS AND HARBOURS

Oregon, $1,500,000. Congress authorized 72 new projects—or modifications of existing projects—for rivers and harbours and flood control. It also authorized 24 new preliminary surveys of proposed projects. Among the investigations and surveys under way in 1948 was a comprehensive study of the Columbia river basin, recommend¬ ing adoption of a comprehensive, properly co-ordinated, mul¬ tiple-purpose plan of development for the entire Columbia river basin. At the Bonneville dam and reservoir, Oregon and Washington, the ten electric-power generating units were operated at capacity throughout 1948. In the first six months of the year, the units produced 1,914,244,000 kw.hr. At Fort Peck dam on the Mis¬ souri river in Montana, the reservoir was operated throughout the year for the maintenance of navigation on the Missouri river, and the secondary purposes of flood control and hydro¬ electric production. Operation of the completed 3S,ooo-kw. gen¬ erating unit was continued during most of the year, with total power production of 106,038,100 kw.hr. during the first six months. Installation of the second generating unit of 15,000-kw. capacity was completed, with a third unit of 35,000-kw. capacity planned for 1949. (G. Hb.) Canada.—^To reclaim and to prevent flooding of the valuable agricultural lands in the valley of the Lillooet river, British Columbia, the dominion government voted $100,000 for chan¬ nel deepening and works. The Etobicoke authority was estab¬ lished and estimates running as high as $600,000 were prepared on two plans to divert the river. Changing the mouth of the Thames river by a is-mi. channel from Lake St. Clair to Lake Erie was considered. Representatives of 28 municipalities exam¬ ined the interim report of the South Nation River Conservation authority which recommended investing $2,212,700 in flood control, 75% of the money to come in equal shares from fed¬ eral and provincial treasuries and the rest from the municipali¬ ties. Parliament voted reconstruction and capital expenditures for the National Harbours board as follows: Halifax, $2,605,775; Saint John, $2,000,000; Quebec, $122,000; Churchill, $50,000; Montreal, $853,105; Vancouver, $155,000. In addition, $250,000 was voted for improvements to Charlottetown. Canadian harbour traffic was heavy during 1948. During the U.S. longshoremen’s strike along the Atlantic coast in the fall, Halifax, N.S., became the temporary gateway to North America, appropriately at the time of “Port of Halifax week.” Churchill, Man., did better in 1948 than ever before, loading 5,315,342 bu. of wheat against a 1947 record of 4,975,754 bu. In 1948 Montreal, Que., continued to lead ports in tonnage and grain handled: 5,339,000 tons and 66,875,000 bu., respectively. (C. Cy.) Great Britain.—Docks, harbours and inland waterways came under the direction of the new Transport commission on Jan. i, 1948. Responsibility for docks and inland waterways was vested in the Docks and Inland Waterways executive. Its first task was to investigate all ports in order to expedite turn-round and make recommendations to the minister of transport. An unofficial strike of London dockers began on June 12 and within six days 120 ships with cargoes valued at £15,000,000 were at a standstill, endangering both essential food imports and Britain’s export drive. Notwithstanding appeals to the men by the leaders of their union (Transport and General Workers union), the situation became so grave by June 29, when the strike had spread to Liverpool, that the government declared a state of emergency. The same evening, the prime minister in a national broadcast demanded an immediate return to work. This was followed by a mass meeting of strikers and a return to work on June 30.

U.S. ARMY ENGINEER measuring the flow and direction of rising waters in a test model of the U.S. and its rivers. A giant model, one mile square, was being built in Mississippi in 1948 for intensive flood control study

The world’s first radar installation specially designed for har¬ bour supervision was opened in July 1948 at Liverpool docks. The narrow and tortuous Mersey estuary presented great pilot¬ age problems and on some 30 days of the year visibility in the channel was less than 600 yd. A “scanner” mounted on an 8oft.-high tower now “watched” all Liverpool bay and obtained echoes of every object within 20 mi.; these echoes were repro¬ duced on six screens, five covering fixed sectors of the bay, the sixth being mobile to cover any part of the bay. To facilitate the location of shipping, the screens were grid lined. Information as to a ship’s location and its neighbouring shipping-field was radioed to the ship. The main purpose, how¬ ever, was to reveal the pattern of traffic so as to ensure its eco¬ nomic disposal. France.—Conventions were signed in February for recon¬ struction loans to re-establish the war-damaged ports of Le Havre to the value of $3,023,625, Boulogne ($2,338,270), Dun-' kirk ($1,854,490) and Nantes ($1,411,025). Germany.—The huge dry dock at Wilhelmshaven, almost completed in 1945 and intended for use by warships of up to 18,000 tons, was demolished by the royal navy on Nov. 25. Netherlands.—An agreement between the Netherlands and Argentina in March provided for the supply of dredging equip¬ ment and port installations for Argentina. At Amsterdam a new mobile floating compressed-air unit, mounted on a barge, was put into operation for the scaling, cleaning and servicing of shipping. Palestine.—Prior to his assassination. Count Folke Bernadotte. United Nations mediator in Palestine, declared that the port of Haifa, its oil refineries and terminals must become a free port. Even before the British evacuation had begun, the trans¬ shipment of oil (4,000,000 tons a year) from this port had dwindled practically to nothing, as the pipe line in Arab terri¬ tory had been severed. Poland.—The five-year mutual trade agreement between the U.S.S.R. and Poland, concluded in January, provided for the supply of Soviet material for the restoration of Polish ports. Spain.—A new trade agreement between Spain and Argentina in April provided credits to Spain, in return for which Argentina

ROADS AND HIGHWAYS was granted a free port at Cadiz for 50 years as a depot and dis¬ tributing centre for Argentine exports to Europe. The credit would be paid partly by improved installations and re-equipment of port facilities. Trieste.—The joint British-U.S.-French proposal of March that the free territory and port of Trieste should be returned to Italy was rejected by both the U.S.S.R. and Yugoslavia. Africa.—The East African ports, Beira in particular, had been burdened with shipping tonnage beyond their capacity; this was caused largely by Britain’s colonial development plans and con¬ siderable delay in turn-round resulted. For this reason a new port to feed Kenya was under construction. In West Africa, at Monrovia, capital of Liberia, a new harbour was completed at a cost of $20,000,000 under lend-lease agreement between Liberia and the U.S. The new harbour, largest and most modern in West Africa and operated jointly by the Liberian government and seven U.S. companies was opened in July. The docks and harbours of Italy’s former colonies were of economic importance in U.N. discussions of their disposal; strategic considerations, the political wooing of Italy, the wishes of the inhabitants and moral obligations had to be taken into account. Abyssinia’s desire for a port and access to the sea was very great, but Assab in Eritrea, which might have been granted, was still war-damaged and its population pro-Italian; it was also poor in comparison with Massawa. The ports of Libya, of which Tobruk was potentially the best, held a commanding posi¬ tion in the eastern Mediterranean, but, without adequate access to fuel and labour, they did not compare with the harbours of Egypt and with Haifa. On strategic grounds, however, the Libyan ports served the best available flying route from the western world to the middle east. India. —It was claimed that the proposed Hirakud multi¬ purpose water power project in Orissa, begun in April, would enable the port of Damhra, near Chandbali, to be developed into a deep-sea port of much increased capacity. Australia.—It was announced in April that under an exten¬ sive resettlement scheme covering 300,000 ac. the existing har¬ bour of Albany, one of the best natural harbours in Australia, would be developed. Albany is 250 mi. south of Perth, Western Australia. (See also Aqueducts; Canals and Inland Water¬ ways; Dams; Floods and Flood Control.) Bibliography.—W. A. Flare, The Future oj British Ports and Canals (London, 1948). Films.—Saje in Port (Frith Films); Tugboats (Encyclopaedia Britannica Films Inc.). (D. G. Ds.)

During the year 1948 there was marked progress in restoring highway improvement throughout the world to the position it occupied at the beginning of World War II. In some respects there were advances beyond the prewar position. This was done in spite of shortages of funds, trained engineers, materials and

Roads and Highways.

equipment. Modern highway progress has been characterized by the rapid development of hauling, mixing and grading machines, all powered by gasoline or Diesel engines. This development reached aliigh peak in July 1948 when engineers from 75 coun¬ tries attended an exhibition and demonstration of new equip¬ ment models in Chicago. Machines were available for almost every operation in highway construction and maintenance. The new machines showed marked improvement in sturdiness, dura¬ bility and rate of doing work. Some countries that formerly relied to a great extent on hand methods and animal power were now awaiting delivery of machines from England and the United States. United States. —Highway improvement was greatly accel¬ erated under the pressure produced by new peaks in the num¬

625

ber of motor vehicles and in highway use. About 41,000,000 vehicles were in use and it was evident that the record travel of 369,000,000,000 mi. in 1947 would be exceeded in 1948. Stimulated by strong public demands, the state highway de¬ partments, in the 12-month period ending June 30, 1948, awarded construction contracts amounting to more than $1,000,000,000 as compared with $818,000,000 in the preceding 12 months. The flgures include both federal-aid and nonfederal work. This work included new urban expressways, moderniza¬ tion of main rural routes, and improvement of secondary or farm-to-market roads. In the same period, 18,222 mi. of federal-aid and federal projects were completed at a total cost of $583,000,000. This was more than twice the accomplishment of the preceding 12 months. An important part of the work done was improvement of the national system of interstate highways designated in 1947. This system contained 37,681 mi. of the most important highways and was eventually to include 40,000 mi. Of the funds authorized by the Federal-aid Highway act of 1944, $194,000,000 had been assigned for interstate system improve¬ ments having an estimated total cost of $384,000,000. The projects included 2,052 mi. of highway, 704 bridges and 95 grade crossing elimination structures. A number of cities were building expressways to permit a safe and uninterrupted flow of traffic. Among these were Cleveland, Washington, Birmingham, Dallas, Houston, Fort Worth, St. Paul, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Denver and San Diego. (See also Bridges; Federal Works Agency.) The Alaska Highway.—The Alaska highway was maintained in good condition by Canada and the United States. It was used to supply the airports along the route and for shipment of certain classes of goods to Yukon territory and interior Alaska. The route was open to tourist travel. Contracts were awarded to further improve sections of the highway in Alaska, and to improve the road leading from it to the coast. The value of this highway as an emergency freight route to Alaska came to public attention again late in the year as shipping difficulties developed on the Pacific coast. Canada.-—Road construction went forward on a scale larger than ever before. Work in Ontario province was typical of that done generally. In the fiscal year ending March 31, 1948, $75,000,000 was expended on rural highways. Projects ranged from an 85-mi. pioneer road opening new territory to the most modern expressways with controlled access and di¬ vided roadway. A 50-mi. divided highway was being con¬ structed between Toronto and Barrie. Montreal announced plans for a 4-lane expressway 12 mi. in length to be partly depressed and partly elevated. The land was expected to cost $15,000,000 and construction $24,600,000. Western provinces were strongly urging aid for highways' from the dominion government and completion of a highway across Canada to the Pacific coast. Mexico.—The federal government proceeded with improve¬ ment of its planned system of highways in a vigorous manner. Preference was given to the transisthmus highway from Coatzacoalcos on the Gulf of Mexico to Salina Cruz on the Pacific coast. One-fourth of the 185-mi. highway was to be completed in 1948. This highway would be used as an alter¬ nate to shipping through the Panama canal. Inter-Americain Highway.—The Inter-American highway, a section of the Pan-American highway, had been surfaced from the Texas border to southern Mexico. Closing of the gap to the Guatemala border proceeded rapidly. It was expected that travel to the border over graded but unsurfaced roads would be possible in dry weather by the end of 1948. Completion of surfacing was scheduled for 1950.

626

ROBERTSON. SIR BRIAN—ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

Large construction projects were also under way in Guate¬ mala and lesser projects in other countries, but the general progress was slowed by exhaustion of funds. No new sections of highway were opened to travel during the year. South America.—Efforts were made in all countries to in¬ crease the rate of highway improvement to new high levels, but difficulty in obtaining machinery was a big handicap. Out¬ standing work was done in Brazil where a 135-mi. section of the Rio-Sao Paulo highway was under construction. This fourlane divided highway through rough terrain was being built according to the highest standards. United Kingdom.—Pressure was exerted to hold highway work to a minimum to release men for farming, housing and industrial activities. Existing highways were maintained, but large-scale new construction, although badly needed, was deferred. Europe.—Excellent progress was made in reconditioning warwrecked highways and bridges in France, Italy and Germany. Scheduled objectives were not always attained because of short¬ ages of materials, but enough was done greatly to improve highway transport. In Italy 2,968 bridges on main roads were destroyed or damaged during the war. Of these 1,954 been repaired or rebuilt and 70% of the damaged roads had been repaired. In France more than 2,300 bridges had been rebuilt. U.S. army engineers directed repair and reconstruction of structures on the German Autobahnen. An outstanding world event of 1948 was the action of west¬ ern European countries, working through a committee of the United Nations, in tentatively designating an international highway network. The system was designed to facilitate longhaul traffic as an aid to European reconstruction. It included 10,000 mi. of existing highway and about 1,500 mi. on new location. Representatives of six countries recommended uni¬ form design standards. Various countries had been trying to remove obstruction to international truck traffic, and this was an important step forward. Countries participating in the planning were Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy and Switzer¬ land with representation for Bizonia, Germany. During the year there were several informal reciprocity agreements per¬ mitting trucks to cross international boundaries without unloading for inspection. India and Pakistan.—Political disturbance and govern¬ mental reorganization did not prevent continuation of organiza¬ tion and planning for the construction of modern systems of highways. Some new construction was begun but the more important development was the preparation made for road improvement on a much larger scale. Philippine Islands.—The work of rehabilitating war-dam¬ aged highways, in a program for which the United States had authorized almost $39,000,000, gained momentum rapidly. Major arteries and bridges in Manila and elsewhere were reconstructed. The Philippine bureau of public works, while fully occupied with rehabilitation problems, was preparing for construction of a modern system of highways. Turkey.—The government of Turkey moved swiftly toward establishment of a well-conceived plan for a long-range high¬ way improvement program. During the year it devised an effective highway administrative pattern to fit the needs of the country. Construction was begun on a general system of allweather roads. As part of the program of aid to Turkey, the United States had allocated $5,000,000 to be used principally for the purchase of highway equipment and supplies in the United States. The United States aided Turkey in organizing its highway department and in training highway workers, particularly those operating and repairing equipment. {See also Motor Transportation.) (T. H. MacD.)

Robertson, Sir Brian Hubert Lmrofficer.’waf'born on July 22, the son of Field Marshal Sir William Robertson. He served in World War I, and in 1922—23 took part in the Waziristan expedition. Having retired as a major in 1933, he served again in World War H, first in the middle east and, in 1944-45, in Italy as chief administrative officer to Field Mar¬ shal Lord Alexander. In Oct. 1945 he was promoted lieutenant general and appointed deputy military governor of the British zone of Germany. He was made a full general in 1947, and on Nov. I succeeded Marshal of the R.A.F. Sir Sholto Douglas as commander in chief and military governor in Germany. On April 7, 1948, General Sir Brian Robertson, in a speech before the Landtag of North Rhine-Westphalia, appealed to the Ger¬ mans of the western zones to form a government and be con¬ tent with unity so far as it could then be achieved.

Rockefeller Foundation: see Societies and Rockets: see Jet Propulsion ; Munitions of Roentgen Ray: see X-Ray and Radiology.

Associations. War.

The pope, Pius XII, is rec¬ ognized as supreme ruler and pastor of the Roman Catholic Church. It is he who creates cardinals and appoints archbishops, bishops, vicars and prefects apostolic who exercise ecclesiastical jurisdiction throughout the world. During 1948, the Sacred College of Cardinals was reduced to 56 through the deaths of Gennaro Cardinal Granito Pignatelli di Belmonte, dean of the Sacred College of Cardinals, Enrico Cardinal Sibilia, aged 97, Raffaello Cardinal Carlo Rossi, secre¬ tary to the Sacred Consistorial Congregation, Manuel Cardinal Arce y Ochotorena, archbishop of Tarragona, Spain, and Augus¬ tus Cardinal Hlond, primate of Poland. No new cardinals were created. One beatification took place in 1948; the Christian Brother Benildus was raised to the honours of the altar. The pope issued two encyclical letters during the year, one in May, urging a month’s prayer to Mary for a speedy, just settle¬ ment of world unrest and one in October, In Multiplicihus, on the situation in Palestine. The issue of church and state con¬ tinued to preoccupy the minds of the Catholic public and their leaders as in the preceding year. Archbishop John T. McNicholas, O.P., administrative board chairman of the National Cath¬ olic Welfare conference, issued a strongly worded reply to the Manifesto of Protestants and Other Americans United for the Separation of Church and State. He denied that U.S. bishops and Catholics were seeking a church-state union, either proxi¬ mate or remote. Denials of the Manifesto charges also came from other Catholic leaders and organizations, among them the Knights of Columbus. Religious education in the U.S. was di¬ rectly affected when the U.S. supreme court, in the McCollum case, ruled that released-time classes conducted in public schools were unconstitutional. North Dakota voters enacted an anti¬ garb law prohibiting nuns teaching in public schools,from wear¬ ing religious habits, but Bishops Vincent J. Ryan of Bismarck and Leo F. Dworschak, Fargo auxiliary, granted the nuns per¬ mission to wear secular dress. {See also Education; Law.) Religious persecution continued to mount as the Moscowcontrolled “iron curtain” extended its influence. In Czechoslo¬ vakia, the Catholic Church faced a constant advance of en¬ croachments on religious freedom. Confidential documents came to light indicating communist plans to split the church in the nation; a pastoral by Czech bish¬ ops asserted that opposition to the church in their nation was be¬ ing carried out according to a well-organized pattern. The Rev.

Roman Catbolic Cburcb.

ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH

627

ing centres.

MSGR. FULTON J. SHEEN of Washington, D.C., visiting with Australians at Sydney in April 1948. He was in Australia to attend Roman Catholic cele¬ brations marking the centenary of the diocese of Melbourne on May 2

Antonin Zemek, prior of a Dominican monastery, was sentenced to 18 years in prison, while nine others drew terms ranging from 2 to 15 years, on charges that they aided political refugees to flee the country. While tension mounted in Italy over the red prospects in the April 18 elections, Rome received news that Albania’s Communists had executed Bishops Francis Gjini of Alessio and George Volaj of Sappa. World attention focused on Italy and the ballot-box struggle between Christian Demo¬ crats and Communists in the April general elections. The Com¬ munists went down to defeat. In Hungary a school bill national¬ izing all schools was passed in June. Those who favoured it in¬ curred ecclesiastical excommunication and the matter became a source of contention between the Moscow-directed government of Hungary and Joseph Cardinal Mindszenty, archbishop of Esztergom and primate of Hungary. Despite every conceivable effort made at intimidation on the part of the government, and despite the flood of propaganda which was released in his regard. Cardinal Mindszenty stood his ground, confident in the loyalty to the Catholic faith and to his own cause of the majority of the Hungarian people. The cardinal was finally arrested and taken to prison by agents of the government on Dec. 26. Ex¬ pressions of sympathy were immediately offered not only by Catholics but by Protestant and Jewish leaders in different parts of the world. In Yugoslavia, despite a sharp break in relations between Moscow and Marshal Tito, who was accused of imperialism by the Cominform, church persecution continued unabated, and Bishop Peter Cule of Mostar was sentenced to ii years, and three priests and five nuns, given terms of 6 months to 8 years, were hustled off to Yugoslav prisons. Roman Catholic missions in the far east were suffering the violence of the communist advance. A survey of northern China showed that through the closing of Catholic schools by the com¬ munists, 1,000,000 children were deprived of a Christian educa¬ tion, and the schools and churches were made communist train¬

A N.C.W.C. news service survey showed that the total circu¬ lation of the U.S. Catholic press had risen to 13,495,580, an in¬ crease of 2,840,662 in two years. The National Catholic Edu¬ cation association held its 45th convention in San Francisco, Calif., and the i6th National Catholic Conference on Family Life was held in Hartford, Conn. The Catholic Press associa¬ tion, at its 38th convention in Cleveland, 0., pledged to dissi¬ pate secularism, elected Columbus’ Bishop Michael J. Ready honorary president and chose the Rev. Paul Bussard of St. Paul, Minn., to succeed the Rev. Humphrey Desmond as president. James J. Woods of Indianapolis, Ind., was elected president at the 15th Catholic Evidence Guild national convention in Phila¬ delphia, Pa., in June. The third Inter-American Catholic Social Action congress was held in August, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; the 66th annual convention of the Knights of Columbus in Houston, Tex.; and the 13th Catholic Students Mission Crusade convention at the University of Notre Dame, South Bend, Ind. In October, the National Catholic Rural Life conference held its annual convention in La Crosse, Wis., and the National Con¬ ference of Catholic Charities held its annual meeting in Boston, Mass. At their annual November meeting in Washington, D.C., the cardinals, archbishops and bishops of the U.S. issued a state¬ ment to the effect that secularism had banned religion from tax-supported education and was bent on destroying all co-opera¬ tion between organized religion and government in training future citizens. Catholic missions in the Republic of the Philippines were seriously affected by a typhoon in January which caused $20,000,000 in damages to Catholic institutions, followed a few weeks later by a series of earthquakes which caused $7,000,000 damages. Vigorous and concerted efforts were made by U.S. Catholics to cope with the relief situation. In February, the pope, with an Ash Wednesday radio address, opened the Lenten campaign of 3,000,000 U.S. Catholic school students for the $5,000,000 1948 bishops’ fund for victims of war. In November, Msgr. Thomas J. McMahon of the Catholic Near East Welfare asso¬ ciation, left the U.S. on a special mission to the war-troubled Holy Land. The number of Catholics in the U.S., Hawaii and Alaska was estimated at 26,075,697 in 1948, representing an increase of 807,524 over the previous year. There were 23 archdioceses, 100 dioceses and i vicariate apostolic (Alaska). Cardinals num¬ bered 4, archbishops 21, bishops 153 and priests in excess of 41,747. There were 141,083 sisters and 7,335 brothers. Colleges and universities numbered 221, high schools 2,432 and ele¬ mentary schools 8,249. The following new bishops were consecrated in 1948: Bishop Albert R. Zuroweste as the third bishop of Belleville, Ill.; Bishop Wendelin J. Nold, as auxiliary of Galveston, Tex.; New York’s Coadjutor Archbishop J. Francis A. McIntyre became archbishop of Los Angeles, Calif.; Des Moines’s Bishop Gerald T. Bergan, archbishop of Omaha, Neb.; and the Rev. Francis D. Gleeson, S.J., superior of St. Mary’s Indian mission at Omak, Wash., became Alaska’s vicar apostolic. Bishop John J. Lawler of Rapid City, S.D., and Bishop Alexander J. McGavick of La Crosse, Wis., oldest members of the U.S. hierarchy, died. The Rev. Russell J. McVinney was consecrated bishop of Provi¬ dence, R.I. The Rev. Edward C. Daly, O.P., was appointed bishop of Des Moines, la.; Leo F. Fahey, coadjutor of Baker City, Ore., John F. Dearden, coadjutor of Pittsburgh, Pa.; and Leo J. Steck, auxiliary of Salt Lake City, Utah. Bishop Thomas A. Connolly, auxiliary of San Francisco, was appointed co¬ adjutor of Seattle, Wash. The Most Rev. Louis J. Reicher was

628

ROME —ROWING

consecrated first bishop of Austin, Tex., and Msgr. James T. O’Dowd was appointed auxiliary bishop of San Francisco. Death claimed Archbishop Paschal Robinson, O.F.M., papal nuncio to Ireland, Bishop James A. Griffin of Springfield, Ill., and Trappist Frederic M. Dunne of Our Lady of Gethsemane abbey, Ky. On Nov. 30 the Rev. John J. Wynne, S.J., who organized the Catholic Encyclopedia and founded America, national Catholic weekly, died. Among the awards conferred during the year were the Signum Fidei medal at La Salle college, Philadelphia, to Max Jordan, N. C.W.C. correspondent in Europe; the Magnificat medal, Mundelein college, Chicago, Ill., to Mrs. Henry Mannix, presi¬ dent of the National Council of Catholic Women; Richard Pattee, Inter-American bureau director, N.C.W.C., received the 1948 Christian Culture award at Assumption college, Windsor, Ont., Canada, and Frank C. Walker, former postmaster gen¬ eral, was named the 1948 Laetare medallist by Notre Dame university. On the feast of Christ the King, Oct. 31, Mrs. Anna M. McGarry of Philadelphia and Ferdinand L. Rousseve, Negro architect, formerly of New Orleans, La., received the annual James J. Hoey awards for interracial justice. Paul W. Weber, Detroit journalist and labour leader, was named the 1948 recipi¬ ent of the Catholic Action medal, awarded by St. Bonaventure college, St. Bonaventure, N.Y. In March 1948, the annual Interracial Justice week, publi¬ cizing the cause of better race relations between whites and non¬ whites in the United States, was celebrated by about 125 Cath¬ olic colleges and universities in the United States. Headquarters of the week were at Manhattanville College of the Sacred Heart, New York, N.Y. A survey by the Rev. R. J. Roche, O. M.I., revealed that Negro students were welcomed in in U.S. Catholic colleges. The annual report of the Negro and Indian missions showed that there were 343,830 .Catholics among 15,000,000 nonwhite population. Ten Catholic Interracial councils were in existence at the close of 1948, in New York, N.Y., Brooklyn, N.Y., Detroit, Mich., St. Louis, Mo., Philadelphia, Pa., Baltimore, Md., Washington, D.C., Los Angeles, Calif., Chi¬ cago, Ill., and Hartford, Conn. {See also Catholic Organiza¬ tions FOR Youth; Catholic Welfare Conference, Na¬ tional; Church Membership; Education; Pius XH; So¬ cieties and Associations; Vatican City State.) (J. LaF.) Capital and largest city of Italy. Population (1936 . census) 1,562,580; (July i, 1947) 1,573,994. The greatest event of the year 1948 in Rome was the April general election. With a lavish use of posters by all parties, and innumerable mass meetings in the piazze, the city for a few weeks resembled a fair, during which public speakers addressed crowds of citizens in Italian or in Romanaccio. After the elec¬ tion, life returned to a more settled tempo, though conditions in fact remained far from normal, with the average level of salaries and wages 40 times higher than the prewar level and the cost of living 60 times higher. The most obvious activity in Rome was constructional. In the decade 1938-48 the population of the city increased by 43% and shortage of housing was acute. In 1948 the streets of Rome presented a different appearance from the earlier postwar years. The sciuscia—child of defeat— had vanished; he had become a strillone, or news vendor. Gone also were the street cigarette sellers who could no longer com¬ pete with the state tobacco shops selling U.S. cigarettes at L.350 (63 cents U.S.) a packet. There were no U.S. and British uniforms to be seen and no explanatory placards in English on historical monuments. (See also Italy.)

Rosenwald Fund, The Julius: see TIONS.

Societies and Associa-

NEW RAILWAY STATION in Rome, Italy, which was opened to traffic in 194S, although not scheduled for completion until 1949. Work on the struc¬ ture was begun under the fascist regime but was interrupted by Worid War II

Rotary International: see Dniifinff

Societies and Associations.

all-time peak in competitive rowing was reached

Kowing. in 1948.

In England, Cambridge defeated Oxford for the second suc¬ cessive year. The Cantabs stroked the 42-mi. course in 17 min. 50 sec., a new record, winning by 5 lengths. In the United States, four major rowing regattas were held, besides many others of minor importance. The third annual sprint championships of the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges were run at 2,000 m. on the Charles river at Cam¬ bridge, Mass. Twenty-eight entries competed in the freshman, junior varsity and varsity races. Harvard won the varsity, re¬ peating its 1947 victory. At Poughkeepsie, N.Y., the Hudson river classic listed 29 crews. The University of Washington, Seattle, swept the river in all three events. Harvard defeated Yale at 4 mi. at New London, Conn., during the same week. The Olympic tryouts were held at Lake Carnegie, Princeton, N.J., in connection with the National Association of Amateur Oarsmen’s regatta. The Pacific coast championships were can¬ celled because of its being an Olympic year. In the Eastern Intercollegiate sprint championships, the fresh¬ man final went to Yale in 6 min. 20.2 sec. with the U.S. Naval academy second and Massachusetts Institute of Technology third. Eliminated crews were the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton, Harvard, Boston university, Columbia and Rutgers. Yale also took the junior varsity race with Pennsylvania second and M.I.T. third. Harvard, Navy, Princeton, Columbia, Syra¬ cuse, Rutgers and Boston university failed to reach the finals in this event. Harvard won the varsity race for the second straight year in a close race with Yale and Navy. Times: Har-

ROYALL, KENNETH C L AI BO R N E —R U B B E R vard 6 min. 15.4 sec., Yale 6 min. 16.6 sec., Navy 6 min. 19.2 sec. Princeton, Pennsylvania, M.I.T., Syracuse, Columbia, Bos¬ ton university and Rutgers were eliminated. On the same day, at Lake Carnegie, Princeton’s lightweight varsity crew won the Wright cup from previously unbeaten Harvard. This same Princeton crew then sailed for England and won the Thames challenge cup at the Royal English Henley from Kent school. Conn., U.S.A., defending champion. In the Hudson river regatta at Poughkeepsie, N.Y., the Uni¬ versity of Washington Huskies swept the river in the varsity, junior varsity and freshman events. Ky Ebright’s University of California Golden Bears were second in the varsity and junior varsity events with Navy second in the freshman contest. Wash¬ ington’s winning times were 14 min. 6.4 sec. for the varsity and 14 min. 28.6 sec. for the junior varsity, both at 3 mi., and 9 min. 46.9 sec. for the freshman crew' at 2 mi. The order of finish for the other crews was: Varsity: Navy, Cornell, M.I.T., Princeton, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Syracuse, Columbia and Rutgers. Junior varsity: Navy, Pennsylvania, Columbia, Cor¬ nell, M.I.T. and Syracuse. Freshman: Wisconsin, M.I.T., Prince¬ ton, Cornell, Columbia, Rutgers, Pennsylvania and Syracuse. At New London, Conn., the Harvard and Yale classic resulted in a close win by Harvard in the varsity, 19 min. 21.2 sec. to Yale’s 19 min. 23 sec. Harvard beat Yale rather easily in the junior varsity and freshman races. The Olympic rowing trials were held at Lake Carnegie, Prince¬ ton, N.J., from June 30 to July 10. The cream of college and club crews competed through.the heats in the seven Olympic events;-some produced photo finishes, California v.. Washington and Princeton v. Yale being examples. The crews gaining the Olympic berths were: eight-oared shells. University of California; fours without coxswain, Yale; fours with coxswain. University of Washington; pairs without cox¬ swain, Yale; pairs with coxswain. Vesper Boat club, Philadel¬ phia, Pa.; single sculls, John B. Kelly, Jr., Vesper Boat club, Philadelphia, Pa.; double sculls, Arthur Gallagher of the Penn¬ sylvania Athletic club and Joseph Angyal of the New York Athletic club. The Olympic trials were held in conjunction with the Na¬ tional regatta and the winners became national champions. The

629

Vesper Boat club of Philadelphia won the Julius H. Barnes point trophy, with Yale second and the West Side Boat club of Buffalo, N.Y., third. The sixth annual Dad Vail Rowing association regatta was held on the Charles river, Boston, Mass. Boston university won the varsity, junior varsity and freshman races. Rollins college of Winter Park, Fla., was second in the varsity; Rutgers was second in the junior varsity and Iona college. New Rochelle, N.Y., was second in the freshman contest. Schoolboy rowing increased throughout the United States. La Salle high school of Philadelphia won its third eight-oared shell title in the 14th schoolboy championships at Philadelphia, and James Barker of the Dobbins (Philadelphia) Vocational school won the single-sculls title. Roosevelt high school of Wyandotte, Mich., captured the Canadian schoolboy title at St. Catherines, Ont. At the 66th running of the Royal Canadian Henley, the West Side Rowing club of Buffalo, N.Y., won the Club Point trophy and the Hanlan memorial cup for senior eights. The climax of the rowing season was the 1948 Olympics at Henley, England. Twenty-seven countries with 86 entries were represented. The U.S. won the eight-oared shell contest with the University of California, and the fours with coxswain with the University of Washington, and with these victories won 14 of the 26 first-place medals in the seven events. Great Britain won two events, the double sculls and the pairs without coxswain. Denmark took the pairs with coxswain, and Italy the fours without coxswain. The single-sculls championship went to Australia’s Mervyn Wood, with Eduardo Risso of Uru¬ guay second. The U.S.’s single-sculls champion and Sullivan award winner, John B. Kelly, Jr., was beaten in the semifinals by Risso. For the first time in Olympic history, the same college with the same rowing coach, the University of California and Ky Ebright, had the distinction of producing three Olympic eightoared shell winners: in 1928 in the Netherlands, in 1932 at California and in 1948 in England. (C. L. Bt.)

Royall, Kenneth Claiborne [a^‘’:uhea;mrwasbor„ on July 24 in Goldsboro, N.C., and was graduated in 1914 from the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. He later at¬ tended Harvard law school. He served as a first lieutenant of field artillery in World War I. He practised law in Raleigh, N.C., and in Goldsboro, and was president of the North Caro¬ lina Bar association, 1929-30. He served in the North Carolina state senate in 1927. On June 5, 1942, he was commissioned a colonel in the army and named chief of the legal section of the fiscal division in the headquarters of the army service forces. In May 1943 he was made deputy fiscal director of the army service forces and was promoted to brigadier general. He served overseas in 1944, and in 1945 became successively assistant to the secretary of war and undersecretary of war. On July 18, 1947, he was appointed secretary of war by Pres. Harry S. Tru¬ man, and continued as secretary of the army when the National Security act became operative that year. In 1948 he strongly backed Gen. Lucius Clay, U.S. military commander in Germany, when the latter defied the soviet blockade of Berlin and set up the air lift to supply the Allied zones of the city.

Ruanda and Urundi: see

Belgian Colonial Empire; Trus¬

tee Territories.

CREW of the University of California (left) leading in the eight-oared Olympic rowing event on the Thames river, Eng., Aug. 9, 1948. The U.S. crew won by three lengths over the British and Norwegian crews, which followed in that order

D fihnr December estimates of the world production and nuDOvri consumption of natural and synthetic rubbers for 1948 were 2,050,000 long tons and 1,890,000 long tons, respec-

630

RUBBER

tively.* Both estimates exceeded like figures for any previous year. Crude rubber production in most of the countries of its origin surpassed the output of any year since 194I) with Malayan production and exports at all-time high levels. In England and France the exports of finished rubber goods had increased and in the United States had decreased relative to 1946 and 1947 levels. Yet the high level of output by the U.S. industry attained in 1946 was maintained through 1948. Natural Rubber.—Production of natural rubber in the terri¬ tories of its origin for 1947 showed that slightly more than half (646,362 long tons) of the world’s rubber (1,270,000 long tons) was produced in Malaya, and 295,000 long tons were produced in the Netherlands Indies. The world output of natural rubber in 1948 approximated the 1941 peak record and was estimated at around 1,630,000 long tons. The stock-piling of natural rubber, authorized by the 80th U.S. congress, was carried on in line with the recommendation of the armed services. Additional funds became available for this purpose in the latter half of 1948. Funds appropriated for the Economic Cooperation administration were also devoted in part to purchase of rubber for the stock pile. As a part of the stock-pile provision, the secretary of agriculture was directed to conduct domestic research on agricultural materials designated as strategic and critical, including research on rubber with the necessary appropriations required for a program concerned mainly with guayule and kok-saghyz. The U.S.S.R. pursued an active program of rubber purchases throughout 1948. A pact of trade and payments with the United Kingdom had been negotiated Dec. 27, 1947, to supply the U.S.S.R. with wool, rubber, aluminum and other goods. Rus¬ sian deliveries of grain to establish sterling credits against this purchase were actively effected after Feb. 21, 1948, with twothirds of the £20,000,000 credits involved being established by July 10. Direct shipments of rubber from Malaya to the Soviet Union were 70,386 long tons during the first nine months of 1948. Net Russian imports of natural rubber had averaged 30,455 long tons annually from 1937 to 1941 inclusive, and were 35,000 in 1942, 22,000 in 1943, 24,000 in 1944, 17,000 in 1945, 9,500 in 1946 and 35,000 in 1947. It was reported that Russia made a trade agreement on July 2 to obtain additional rubber from Dutch sources up to 18,000 long tons. Negotiations with Ceylon by representatives of the U.S.S.R. for the whole output of 1949 failed. By September there was a relative scarcity of the higher grades of rubber which was made more acute by the preference shown by government purchasers for the higher grades. The trend of rubber consumption in the United States is shown in Table I. Synthetic Rubber.—The Rubber Act of 1948, passed by the 80th U.S. congress, set U.S. policy concerning synthetic rubber from March 31, 1948, until June 30, 1950. This law provided for a production capacity of 600,000 long tons of GR-S and 65,000 long tons of specialty rubbers to be maintained at all times. Of the latter amount, 45,000 long tons were designated for inner-tube manufacture. The law also provided that the plants be operated by government or by industry to at least one-third of the above-designated capacity. All restrictions on the use of natural latex were discontinued in 1948. The mandatory use of butyl rubber under a new order was set at not less than 4% of the total annual consumption of rubber. The rate of monthly consumption of synthetic rubber in the United States was far in excess of the minimum mandatory requirements, 18,500 long tons. Table II shows actual tonnages for the first nine months; about 80% was GR-S. 'The standard unit of measure of both agricultural and man-made rubber is the long ton of 2,240 lb.

Table I.—tt.S. Rubber Consumption.- Percentage to Total New Rubber Consumption (In long tonsl Nontransportatio n Uses Other Other synthetic GR-S Natural synthetic Butyl * 12.5 33.5 54.0 7.3 11.8 33.2 55.0 0.1 7.0 13.1 30.6 56.3 0.1 7.2 13.0 32.8 54.2 0.1 7.3 * 13.0 32.1 54.9 7.1 13.0 31.9 55.1 0.1 7.7 13.1 33.1 53.8 0.1 7.4 32.4 12.8 54.8 7.3 0.1 13.9 31.5 54.6 0.1 8.2

Transportation Uses

July. September ..... *tess than 0.05%.

Natural 58.9 60.9 59.9 61.7 61.4 60.1 60.3 60.4 58.2

GR-S 33.8 32.0 32.8 30.9 31.5 32.1 32.2 32.2 33.5

Table II.—U.S. Consumption of Synthetic Rubber (GR-S, Neoprene, Butyl, Nitrile Types), First Nine Months of 1948 (In long tonsl January . February . March , . April . . May . . June . . . July . . . August . . September

43,003 35,375 38,222 34,632 35,263 39,204 34,51 1 39,208 39,215

Several types of butadiene copolymers useful for electrical insulation because of low water absorption were produced. The amount of GR-S for wire insulation for the first half of 1948 aggregated 7,051 tons, a field in which Neoprene was increas¬ ingly used despite the absence of any mandatory consumption in 1948. More Neoprene was used than at any time in the previous three years. Demand for butyl grew for applications where good heat resistance and ozone resistance were desired, as in flexible high-voltage insulation. The production of U.S.-made latices exceeded the nation’s consumption of natural latex. Production of a fluid latex, w'hich upon removal from the reactor had a total solids content of 55% to 60%, was achieved. Copolymers of butadiene with styrene containing 80% to 95% of styrene were extensively used as reinforcing agents in crude rubber to increase hardness, rigidity and strength, and found extensive use in footwear. Phenolic resins were incorporated in GR-S and in the nitrile rubbers to make leather substitutes, gasket materials and adhesives. Extensive use was made of the nitrile rubbers in vinyl-chloride resins as auxiliary plasticizers. The most important development in U.S.-made rubber during 1948 was the increased manufacture and use of copolymers of butadiene and styrene prepared at temperatures ranging from 0° F. to 41° F. instead of the 122° F. temperature used in the manufacture of GR-S. Low-temperature rubber, which contains fewer low molecular weight polymers, has a tensile strength and elongation equivalent to natural rubber, combined with resistance to abrasion and flex-cracking superior to GR-S. Important factors in the commercialization of low-temperature rubbers were activated reaction recipes containing cumene hydroperoxide and the use of Redox-type catalysts. Representatives of the Reconstruction Finance corporation, testifying before the armed forces committee early in 1948, re¬ ported that of 51 plants in the rubber program, 22 were active and 16 in stand-by condition, 13 had been declared surplus and 8 of these had been sold with an average return of 37% on their original investment and of 54% on the investment after depre¬ ciation. Reclaimed Rubber.—The demand for reclaimed rubber con¬ tinued strong throughout 1948. Despite the varied composition of scrap, with both crude and U.S.-made rubbers, the uniformity of the product seemed to have improved rather than deteri¬ orated. Important Uses.—The demand for synthetic textile materials like rayon and nylon continued to increase. Nylon had acquired an important function in the transportation industry, where

RUGBY — RUMANIA Table III.— U.S. Reclaimed Rubber, First Nine Months of 1948 (In long tons) Calculated production January. February. March. April. May. June. July. August. September.

Reported consumption

25,634 23,678 24,089 21,802 21,043 22,504 17,712 20,255 21,805

25,885 22,374 24,362 22,322 21,975 23,786 19,291 22,917 23,478

Exports

Reported stocks

768 1,273 937 1,049 948 925 712 643 740

36,307 38,444 38,313 37,946 36,612 35,898 34,302 32,025 30,198

severe impacts are encountered in service as in aeroplane tires and in the shock plies of heavy-duty truck and bus tires. The production of high-tenacity rayon for 1948 in the U.S. was estimated at 250,000,000 lb., of which about 240,000,000 lb. were consumed by the rubber industry. For the first half of 1948 the U.S. consumption of various rubbers in transportation items amounted to 72% of the total rubber consumption as compared with 74% for the year 1947 and 75% for 1946. The demand for tires and tubes continued brisk despite an advance in prices at midyear. Table IV.— U.S. Tire Manufacture (OOO's omitted) Shipments Original equipment Replacement Export

Total pneumatic tires 1940 actual. 1941 actual. 1947 actual . '.. 1948 actual 1st quarter. 2nd quarter. 3rd quarter. 4th quarter est.

Totol

Production

23,656 27,033 29,075

35,773 40,436 64,962

1,193 1,510 3,443

60,622 68,979 97,480

61,089 64,163 102,269

7,921 7,484 7,787 7,950

9,959 14,884 15,638 10,700

539 489 427 450

18,419 22,857 23,852 19,100

22,905 22,696 21,970 19,000

U.S. rubber exports declined 40% in value and 44% in quan¬ tity in the first half of 1948 as compared with 1947. On a like basis of comparison British exports increased in tires 22%, in other products 10%, and Canadian exports increased in value. (See also Carbon Black; Chemurgy; Petroleum; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres.) (H. L. Tl.)

Rugby: see Football. Ruhr, International Control of: see

European Recovery

Program.

Rulers: see

Presidents, Sovereigns and Rulers.

U • A people’s republic of southeastern Europe, NUniunia* bounded on the north and northeast by the U.S.S.R., on the east by the Black sea, on the south by Bulgaria and on the west by Yugoslavia and Hungary. Area: 91,671 sq.mi.; pop.: (Jan. 25, 1948, census) 15,872,624. Languages (1948 census): Rumanian 85.7%; Hungarian 9.4%; German 2.2%; Yiddish 0.9%; others 1.8%. Religions (1947 est): Greek Orthodox 81%; Greek Catholic 9%; Roman Catholic 7%; others 3%. Chief towns (pop. 1945 est.): Bucharest (cap., 1948 census, 1,401,807); Cluj (110,956); Jassy or Iasi (108,987); Timisoara (108,296); Ploesti (105,114); Brmla (97,293); Galati (93,229). Chairman of the state praesidium: Constantin Parhon; prime minister: Petru Groza. History.—After the abdication of King Michael, Dec. 30, 1947, sovereignty was vested in the praesidium of parliament, and a constitution prepared which closely resembled that of the Soviet Union. The Communist-controlled coalition was re¬ named the People’s Democratic front. This included, besides the Rumanian Workers’ party (Partidul Muncitoresc Roman), the Plowmen’s front (Frontul Plugarilor, in which was incor¬ porated at the end of Jan. 1948 the left-wing rump of the former National Peasant party), the National Popular party and the Hungarian People’s union. All three parties were not only subservient to the Communists, but strongly infiltrated with members of the Communist party. The elections were held at the end of March. The official results were 405 seats for the

631

front and 9 seats for two mildly oppositional fractions. On Feb. 27 the patriarch of the Rumanian Orthodox Church, Nicodem, died. On May 24 the electoral college of the church elected as his successor the bishop of Iasi, Justinian Marina. At his enthronement ceremony on June 6 the new patriarch launched an appeal to the Uniate (Greek Catholic) Church to return to orthodoxy. During its 250 years’ existence the Uniate Church had been a stronghold of Rumanian nationalism. But its abolition was now ordered by Moscow as it was a link with the west, and one weak enough to be destroyed without danger. The result was a ceremony of “reintegration” of the Uniates into the Orthodox Church, which took place at Alba lulia on Oct. 22. The reunion was decided by a council of 36 priests and two archdeacons, claiming to represent the 423 priests of the church in Rumania. The two leading bishops. Mgr. Suciu and Mgr. Hossu, were imprisoned. A protest by the papal nuncio against the methods used was rejected by the Rumanian government on Oct. 23. In April the Communist minister of education introduced sweeping educational reforms. Their essence was the creation of an entirely uniform system of schools. All foreign schools, including the long-established French schools which had done so much to create a cultured class in Rumania, were closed down. Emphasis was to be henceforth on technical and practical instruction at the expense of the humanities. Such theoretical education as survived was to be based on Marxism-Leninism. University faculties and secondary schools were to have at¬ tached to them an educational counsellor appointed by the min¬ ister, and at least one professor or teacher was to be a “spiritual guide.” These two functions were to be performed by reliable Workers’ party members, and were to consist in the indoctri¬ nation with communist ideas of children and their parents. Nationalization laws were passed in June, which formally took over the most important enterprises, which had long been completely controlled by the government. In July a State Planning commission was set up. During the year official figures showed notable increases of output in indus¬ try, especially in iron and steel which in July were stated to have passed the 1938 level. Reductions of various prices were announced in May and in October. But according to a statement in August by Vasile Luca, the Communist minister of finance, the cost of living for a working class family in Bucharest was still twice that of 1938. On June 8 it was announced that Rumanian outstanding reparations to the Soviet Union had been reduced by half, this being a saving of $73,000,000. Rumania also made a trade treaty with Hungary to the value of $10,000,000. In November the formation was announced of two new soviet-Rumanian joint companies for chemicals and for tractor production. Rumania became involved in the Tito-Cominform dispute in the summer. Pressure was used on the Yugoslav minority in the Rumanian Banat to denounce the “Tito group.” (H. S-W.) Education.—Kindergarten schools (1943); (state) 1,094, pupils 57,512; (confessional and private) 151, pupils 8,449- Elementary schools (1943): (state) 11,041, pupils 1,607,879; (confessional and private) 612, pupils 67,081. Secondary schools (1938): (state) 716, pupils 168,331; (con¬ fessional and private) 209, pupils 35,923- Universities (i94S) 4, students 27,082, professors and lecturers 2,985. Banking and Finance.—Budget (1947-48 est.): revenue 90,000,000,000,000 lei; expenditure 102,900,000,000,000 lei. Gold reserve (end, July 1948) 32,550,000,000 lei. Currency circulation (end, July 1947)’■ 40,684,000,000,000 lei; (end, July 1948) 32,000,000,000 lei. Monetary unit: leu (pi. lei). Exchange rate (official): $i U.S. = 150 lei. On Aug. 14 and 15, 1947, the leu was stabilized and notes exchanged at the rate of I new to 20,000 old. Foreign Trade.—(1948): Imports 30,016,000,000 lei, exports 32,175,000,000 lei. Transport and Communications.—Railways (1948) 7,000 mi. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947) cars 14,609, commercial vehicles 14,358. Shipping (1947): ships in register (of 100 gross tons and over) 15, gross tonnage 32,962; entrance at Rumanian ports, 586 vessels of 1,350,000 tons. Telephones (1947): 127,153. Agriculture.—Main crops (1947, in metric tons): wheat 1,279,000.

RUNNING —RUSS IAN LITERATURE

632

maize 5,279,000, barley 286,000, rye 66,000, sugar (raw value) 81,000, potatoes 1,444,000, rice 10,000, cotton 3,000, cottonseed 7,000. Livestock (1948): horses c. 900,000, cattle c. 4,300,000, pigs c. 1,500,000. Industry_(1947, in metric tons^ except as noted) crude oil 3,800,000; coal and lignite 2,270,000; electricity (public utilities) 712,000,000 kw.hr. Raw materials: iron ore 115,000; copper 471, lead 2,985, zinc 2,023, gold 2,231 kg., silver 14,967 kg., sawn timber 1,359,000 cu.m. Manufactures: pig iron 91.000; steel 183,000, cement 418,000, cotton yarn 11,300, paper 47,500.

Running: see Track and Field Sports.

Mriontrlfipdtinn

electrification of unserved ruLluwirilludllulli ral areas in the United States con¬

tinued to accelerate in 1948. As of June 30, 1948, the Rural Electrification administration estimated that 4,019,476, or 68.6% of all U.S. farms, were receiving central station electric service. This compared with 61% on June 30, 1947; 45-7% on the same date in 1945; 30.4% in 1940 and 10.9% at the start of the federal rural electrification program in 1935. REA esti¬ mated that at the close of its fiscal year on June 30, 1948, 1,839,693 farms and about as many other nonfarm rural estab¬ lishments still were without electric service. Most of those un¬ served farms were located in the great plains and southern states where REA borrowers had extensive construction pro¬ grams under way. During the calendar year 1948, REA borrowers, their con¬ sumers and REA itself established new peaks of operation and power use. In addition to a great amount of construction work to increase the capacity of their systems, the borrowers added an estimated 147,000 mi. of lines and 469,000 consumers to their systems. This increased their miles of line in operation by 23.9% and their number of consumers by 23.4%, the largest gain for any year of the REA program. At the end of 1948, the borrowers were serving a total of 2,515,000 consumers and operating a network of 750,952 mi. of lines. The borrowers in¬ cluded 954 rural electric co-operatives, 42 public power districts, 22 other public bodies and 24 power companies. They had 952 rural power systems in operation, an increase of 41 over 1947, and 54 others were under construction. REA approved loans for its borrowers amounting to an estimated $400,000,000 during the calendar year 1948, a third more than any previous year, increasing the cumulative total to $1,590,000,000. Loan funds advanced to borrowers during 1948 to pay for completed con¬ struction totalled $278,857,176, or about $53,000,000 more than the peak year of 1947. This indicated a good flow of material to the projects, but the supply of some materials, especially conductor wire, was still far short of the demand and construc¬ tion was delayed in many areas. At the end of the year the REA borrowers had about 23,000 mi. of lines with poles set in place, awaiting the arrival of conductor. REA borrowers distributed 40.7% more power in 1948 than in any previous year. They sold 4,783,000,000 kw.hr. of electric energy, exceeding sales of 1947, the previous high year, by 1,384,710,449 kw.hr. The average annual consumption of elec¬ tricity per consumer on the REA-financed lines increased 275 kw.hr., from 1,822 kw.hr. to 2,097 kw.hr. The power shortage, increasing in severity throughout the closing months of the year, prevented an even greater increase in power use. It also prevented expansion of systems in many areas. REA borrowers reported that some areas lacked gen¬ erating capacity or transmission facilities or both. During the calendar year 1948 only 12% of the total amount of power distributed by REA borrowers came from REAfinanced generating facilities, but their output increased 60%. The installed capacity of REA-financed generators increased 17.9% to 217,000 kw. The financial position of REA borrowers continued strong throughout 1948. At the close of the year they had paid $184,-

400,000 in principal and interests on their loans, an amouni about equal to funds advanced by REA during the first five years of its program. Pa3mients made by borrowers on prin¬ cipal in advance of due dates totalled $18,500,000. (G. W. Hd.) Canada.—Despite materials shortages and high cost of la¬ bour, rural electrification went forward rapidly in 1948. In Alberta surveys were made to include an additional 2,500 farms. In Saskatchewan expansion brought power to about 7,000 new rural users. Manitoba advanced rural power links through a re-organization of the Manitoba Power commission, the chief responsibility of which was farm electrification extension, with an objective of 5,000 new rural subscribers yearly at a cost of $4,000,000. The 1948 objective was slightly surpassed, and as a result of the projected development a transformer factory was opened at St. Boniface, and a farm service thermal switch factory at Brandon. Manitoba preservative-impregnated jack pine poles replaced British Columbia red cedar poles. Manitoba farmers were spending at the rate of $4,000,000 yearly for building wir¬ ing and appliances. During 1948 Ontario built 3,450 rural lines and put power into 25,000 more farms, while Nova Scotia built 500 mi. of lines and added 2,500 rural subscribers. Information about rural electrification on the prairies became available in mid-1948 when results of the 1946 quinquennial cen¬ sus were published. About 7% of 269,601 occupied farms had electric power; 30.9% of these received their power from cen¬ tral power plants, such as provincial power commissions and private utilities; 69.1% used wind chargers or small electric lighting plants. Provincial breakdowns were as follows; Al¬ berta, 6,960 or 7.8% of farms electrified, 32.8% of these getting power from central plants and 67.2% otherwise; Saskatchewan, 7,490 or 6% of farms electrified, 11% from central plants and 89% otherwise; Manitoba, 4,675 or 8.6% of farms electrified, 59.9% from central plants and 40.1% otherwise. (C. Cv.)

Rural Rehabilitation Loans: see Farmers Home Admin¬ istration.

Russell Sage Foundation: see Societies and Associations. Russia: see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

RlK^ian litpntlirp

948, for the second year in succession, soviet writers were not for one moment allowed to forget their political responsibilities. The renewed drive toward “socialist realism” and away from “decadent formalism” found its particular expression in the soviet hero who, pitting himself against nature, conquered it and refashioned it according to his will. The formula was now so sharply stereotyped that it was difficult for a writer to go wrong. Speculation about the nature and limitations of man was considered to be metaphysical and, as such, bourgeois; and any suggestion that Russians might share the human limitations of mankind at large was recognized as an affront to soviet patriotism. At the same time, in the theme suggested by the grandiose plan for the conquest of drought in the steppe, cer¬ tain soviet writers such as the novelist Leonid Leonov seemed to have clutched thankfully at a concrete idea which could be developed in descriptive and narrative prose without doing violence to their artistic and humanistic consciences. The theme of man against nature conveniently by-passed the necessity for elaborating a conflict between human beings, or within a single human being, in which one side is heroic and the other vil¬ lainous. In the deserts of the south and the forests of the arctic all men might be seen as heroes.

nlltfuldil LllululUICa

A by-product of the new certainty which was thus brought

RYE —ST . LOUIS to the writers of the U.S.S.R. emerged at the congress of Ukrainian writers held in December. There the novelist Alex¬ ander Fadeyev, hitherto the scourge of decadent formalism, put in a strong word for form. The attack on formalism, he explained, was directed at writers who concentrated on manner at the expense of matter. Given the proper content it was the duty of every writer to pay scrupulous attention to expressive form. He recalled with approval the old Russian maxim that no work should be offered for publication until it had been laboriously transcribed by the author’s own hand at least three times. If Fadeyev’s advice was followed, as it usually was, the day of the long soviet novel might approach its end. The winners of ioo,ooo-rouble Stalin prizes in 1948 were as follows: Fiction: M. S. Bubennov for The White Birch Tree, P. A. Pavlenko for Happiness and Ilya Ehrenburg for The Storm. Poetry: N. M. Gribachev iox Bolshevik Collective Farm, A. I. Nedogonov for The Banner over the Rural Council and V. N. Sosur for Selected Poems. Drama: B. S. Romashov for The Mighty Force and A. M. Jakobson for The Battle. Crit¬ icism: B. V. Asafev for his book on the composer Glinka. It was remarkable that not a single woman appeared among the first-prize winners. E. F. Panova won a second prize (50,000 roubles) for her novel Kruzhelikha and V. K. Ketlinskaya won a third prize (25,000 roubles) for her novel During the Siege; but these two were the only women appearing in a total of 29 literary prizewinners. By western standards the most dis¬ tinguished work of the year was to be found in further transla¬ tions by C. Marshak of William Shakespeare’s sonnets, which appeared in the January and March numbers of Znahmya (“The Banner”). (W. E. Cw.) The United States rye crop of 1948 amounted to 26,388,• 000 bu., a slight increase compared with the 25,975,000 bu. of 1947, but a sharp decline compared with the 1937-46 average of 37,398,000 bu. The average yield of 12.6 bu. per acre exceeded the ten-year average of 12.1 bu. per acre, but was slightly below the 12.9 bu. per acre average of 1947. Acreage harvested at 2,097,000 was 104% of 1947, but far below the 3,055,000-ac. average for 1937-46. South Dakota again ranked first in both acreage and production. U.S. Rye Production in Leading States, 1948, 1947 and 10-Year Average, 1937-46 (In thousands of bushels) 1948

State South Dakota North Dakota Minnesota« • Nebraska. • Michigan • • Wisconsin. • Illinois . • • Indiana. . • Missouri. • •

• « • • • . • • •

4,704 4,656 3,466 2,250 1,280 1,104 946 928 600

10-Yr. 1947 Average 4,858 4,522 2,460 2,592

6,681 6,765 4,180 4,138

658 840 468

2,059 874 1,411 524

1,120 1,000

1,022

Stote

1948

Oregon. . • . Virginia. . . . Kentucky . • • Montana • . . Kansas .... Ohio, i . • . Oklahoma. • . New York. . . Tennessee. • .

551 480 420 405 391 360 342 342 330

10-Yr. 1947 Average 560 496 392 508 518 285 507 434 627 912 510 872 480 787 285 342 273 380

Rye stocks in the U.S. at the end of the crop year were only 15% of the average for the decade. Prices, after rising to record postwar levels of about $2.50 per bushel to the producer, broke sharply in February and declined later to a low of $1.39 per bushel after harvest. Indicated acreage seeded for harvest in 1949 was 3,381,000, or 89% of 1948 acreage. World rye production in 1948 increased substantially, com¬ pared with 1947, though it was still below the prewar average; harvests were 1,625,000,000 bu. in 1948, 1,490,000,000 bu. in 1947, and a 1,730,000,000-bu. average in 1935-39- The recovery, compared with either 1947 or 1946, was particularly noteworthy in Europe, the harvested crop amounting to 660,000,000 bu., compared with 495,000,000 bu. in 1947 and 765,000,000 bu. pre¬ war. The crop of the U.S.S.R., normally large, was reported to have been abundant. The Canadian rye crop was 25,348,000 bu.

633

against only 13,217,000 bu. in 1947 and 9,191,000 bu. prewar. (J. K. R.)

Safety: see Accidents. St. Christopher: see Leeward St. Croix: see Virgin Islands.

Islands.

St. Helena and Ascensinn Islands. British colony in the south Atlantic consisting of the island of that name. Ascension Island and Tristan da Cunha. Respective areas: 47; 34 and 45 sq.mi.; populations (1946 census): 4,748; 292 and 230. Capital: Jamestown (1,547). Language: English. Religion: Christian (90% Anglican). The colony is admin¬ istered by a governor, appointed by the British crown, assisted by an executive council of three ex-officio and one other official member. There is no legislature, but there is an advisory coun¬ cil consisting of the governor and five unofficial members. Gov¬ ernor: George Andrew Joy. History.—The dependency of Tristan da Cunha was given hopes of new prosperity by the announcement in 1948 that negotiations were in progress with a South African fishing con¬ cern to establish a fish-canning industry. It held out prospects of fresh labour being imported to work the factories and of regular communications being established. (Jo. A. Hn.) Finance and Trade.—Currency; pound sterling. Revenue (revised est. 1947): £83,628 (including a grant-in-aid of £27,000 and a grant under the Colonial Development and Welfare act of £22,170). Expenditure (re¬ vised est. 1947): £96,278. Imports (1947): £107,459. Exports (1947); £48,043. Rope, twine and matting are manufactured on a small scale; the rehabilitation of the flax mills commenced in 1948.

St. John: see Virgin St. Kitts-Nevis: see

Islands. Leeward Islands.

St. Laurent, Louis Stephen

lawyer and government

official, was born Feb. i, 1882, at Compton, Quebec. He was educated at St. Charles college, Sherbrooke, and Laval univer¬ sity, Quebec city, Que. He was called to the bar at Quebec in 1905 and continued in practice as a lawyer until William Lyon Mackenzie King {q.v.) called upon him on Dec. 10, 1941, to be minister of justice and attorney general on the death of Sir Ernest Lapointe. From Sept. 4 to Dec. 10, 1946, he held the additional post of secretary of state for external affairs, but on the latter date relinquished the portfolio of justice. He was elected as liberal member for Quebec East on Feb. 9, 1942, and re-elected in 1945. Mackenzie King announced early in 1948 his intention of retiring from active politics and in August the Liberal party elected Louis St. Laurent to succeed him. On Nov. 15, Mackenzie King laid down the office of prime minister and on that date St. Laurent became the 17th prime minister of the dominion of Canada. Eighth largest city in the United States, St. Louis, • Mo., had a population of 816,048 by the federal census of 1940, with an additional 541,567 persons living within the greater metropolitan area. Mayor in 1948: Aloys P. Kaufmann. After voting Republican for eight years, St. Louisans fa¬ voured Democrats at the Nov. 2, 1948, election. President Harry S. Truman carried the city by 99,998 votes (220,654 to 120,656) over Gov. Thomas E. Dewey. To the Democrats went all city offices at stake (sheriff, circuit attorney, coroner, public administrator and city treasurer), the three congressional seats from districts wholly or partly within the city, 16 of 18 St. Louis seats in the state house of representatives and all four seats in the state senate.

ST. LUCIA —SALVATION ARMY

634

Bond issues were badly defeated in the Nov. 2 elections. A $16,000,000 Negro slum clearance and housing proposal was defeated. By a lesser margin a $15,000,000 sewer bond issue went down. Also beaten was a proposed charter amendment to reduce firemen’s work week from 84 hours to 48 hours. A city earnings tax of .5% went into effect Sept, i, 1948. Levied on the gross earnings of an estimated 300,000 individuals and the net earnings of corporations, it was expected to yield $7,700,000 a year. With the enactment of this tax, the adminis¬ tration kept its promise to repeal a 5% amusement tax and cut the cigarette tax from 3 to 2 cents. These repeals, eliminating $1,000,000 a year revenue, and a $20 a month pay increase to all of the city’s 7,904 employees, effective Jan. i, 1949, swelled the anticipated deficit which the Governmental Research institute, a private organization, esti¬ mated would be $3,864,570 at the end of the 1948-49 fiscal year in April 1949. Housing remained inadequate. The city issued 6,281 build¬ ing permits for construction valued at $27,725,421, compared with $28,416,826 worth of building in 1947, but residential con¬ struction increased from $5,541,826 to $9,934,979. The tax rate was $2.74 on $100 valuation; assessed valuation of real and personal property, $1,204,341,346; bonded debt, $82,000,000; expenditures, $32,030,366.85; receipts, $30,517,936.86. These were the figures of the 1947-48 fiscal year which ended in April. The budget for the ensuing 1948-49 fiscal year was $36,221,350. (E. L. R.)

St. Lucia: see Windward Islands. St. Pierre and Miquelon: see French

Overseas Terri¬

tories.

St. Thomas: see Virgin Islands. St. Vincent: see Windward Islands. Sales, Retail and Wholesale: see

Business Review.

Colt production of salt was in 1948 of the order of wdll. 44,500,000 short tons a year, to which nearly every geo¬ graphical division of the earth made some contribution, though most of the outputs were small, for local use in food seasoning. The very large outputs of salt were limited to those countries like China or India, with enormous populations, or to the heavily industrialized countries, like the U.S., Great Britain, Germany and France, where large amounts of salt were used for in¬ dustrial purposes. The last four countries named accounted for about two-thirds of the world production and consumption. United States.—The salient data on the production and con¬ sumption of salt in the United States are shown in the table, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Production and Consumption of Salt in the United States lln thousands of short tons) 1947

Production. 16,138 Evoporoted .... 3,159 In brine. 9,225 Rock salt. 3,754 Consumption Soda ash. 7,467 Other chemicals . . 3,536 Food production* . . 758 Food preservationf . 1,613 Table and household. 652 Health, comfort, safety! 926 Other uses. 1,186

1946

1945

1944

1943

1942

15,132 3,250 8,471 3,412

15,394 3,183 8,706 3,506

15,717 3,943 8,326 3,448

15,214 3,994 7,961 3,259

13,693 3,518 7,373 2,802

6,958 3,097 824 1,610 708 746 1,191

7,087 3,249 790 1,656 682 694 1,237

7,340 3,568 830 1,638 603 578 1,162

7,158 3,351 921 1,624 666 671 824

6,671 2,683 902 1,462 685 586 703

‘Agriculture and livestock feeding. fMeat packing, fish curing, butter, cheese, canning, preserving and other food processing, and refrigeration. {Water softening and purification, sprinkling highways and railroad right of ways, dust and ice control.

Production reached a new record high in 1947, largely because of increased demand in the chemical industry. Canada.—Salt production in Canada increased from 537,935 short tons in 1946 to 731 >515 tons in 1947 and 616,067 tons in the first ten months of 1948. (G. A. Ro.)

A republic on the west coast of Central

Salvador, El. America, the only one without a Caribbean littoral, and the smallest but most densely populated country on the isthmus. Area: 13,176 sq.mi.; pop. (est. Dec. 1947): 2,073,000. The capital is San Salvador (pop. est. 1944, iio,435). Other cities are Ahuachapan (13,765); Cojutepeque (15,317); Nueva San Salvador, formerly Santa Tecla (24,239); San Miguel (18,676); San Vicente (13,637); Santa Ana (47,631); and Sonsonate (17,540). Language: Spanish; religion: Roman Catholic. President in 1948: Gen. Salvador Castaneda Castro, succeeded in December by a revolutionary junta. History.—The chief political development of the year 1948 was the overthrow of the government in December. According to the new regime, the change was effected in order to avert unconstitutional measures authorized by President Castaneda Castro. The latter had scheduled elections, Dec. 16 and 17, for delegates to a constituent assembly, which was expected to ex¬ tend his term of office (1945-49) an additional-two years. On Dec. 14 the garrison of the capital city revolted and, after two hours of fighting, captured the police headquarters where Cas¬ taneda Castro had taken refuge. The president was arrested, forced to resign and was committed to prison with several other members of his government. Castaneda Castro was replaced Dec. 17 by a junta composed of three army officers, Lt. Col. Manuel J. Cordova, Maj. Oscar Osorio and Maj. Oscar A. Bolafios, and two lawyers, Humberto Costa and Reinaldo Galindo Pohl. As “temporary expedients,” the constitution was suspended except for the guarantees of personal liberties, and the junta assumed, Dec. 18, supreme executive, legislative and judicial authority. The new government was first recognized Dec. 18 by Guate¬ mala and Costa Rica. During the year, El Salvador again played the leading role in the Central American unionist move¬ ment, but a meeting of the presidents of the several states, scheduled for December, was cancelled because of revolu¬ tionary movements in both El Salvador and Costa Rica. El Salvador experienced another year of failing hydroelectric service, but in September a new board was created and au¬ thorized to spend $15,000,000 to increase power and water de¬ velopment on the Lempa river. The building boom begun in 1946 continued unabated through 1948, and contracts were signed for the construction of a $1,777,500 bridge over the Lempa river. Education—There were i,si9 primary schools with 3,701 teachers and approximately 100,000 students in 1945! about 50 secondary schools en¬ rolled 6,982 students; and the national university had 835 students. Fed¬ eral appropriations for education in 1947 amounted to 2,903,040 colones. Finance—The monetary unit is the colon, valued at 40 cents U.S. on Nov. I, 1948. The 1948 national budget was raised twice during the year to a record total of 64,547,070.91 colones. Receipts were preliminarily estimated at 57,702,570.91 colones. As of June 30, 1948, the Central bank’s foreign-exchange holdings amounted to $21,200,000, and the coun¬ try was in no danger of a dollar shortage. The foreign debt at the end of 1945 was $18,300,000.

Trade and Resources-Exports in 1947 were valued at $40,100,000 ($26,200,000 in 1946); imports at $36,900,000 ($21,100,000 in 1946). The United States took 68.6% of the exports and supplied 76.9% of the imports. In the first half of 1948, exports were up 23.6% and imports 12% over 1947. Coffee (about 1,127,000 bags of 132 lb. ea h) was the chief export in 1947. In the same year there were approximately 686 000 cattle in the country. ’ Communications._ln 194S two railroads (385 mi.) carried 3,217,047 passengers and 536,068 tons of freight. All-weather highways totalled 1,436 mi. (150 mi. paved), and unimproved roads 2,300 mi. Registered motor vehicles included 2,399 automobiles and 866 trucks and buses There were 2 237 mi. of telegraph, 5,093 mi. of telephone lines, 4,411' telephones and about 11,000 radio receiving sets. Bibliography. Dana G. Munro, The Five Republics of Central America (1918); U.S. Department of Commerce, Foreign Commerce Weekly; Hispano-Americano (Mexico City). (m. L. M )

The Salvation Army is a religious and charitable organization which in 1948 operated in 97 countries and territories throughout the w'orld, preaching the Gospel of Christ in 102 languages and dialects.

Salvation Army.

SAMOA. AMERICAN —SAND AND GRAVEL

635

penal system, the Salvation Army operated an extensive program for the rehabilitation of prisoners. Religious meetings, song serv¬ ices and visitation were part of the Salvation Army’s program in practically every federal prison, state penal and correctional institution in the United States. In one year, more than 6,000 discharged prisoners were assisted and approximately 3,000 were paroled to its care. More than 12,000,000 meals were given to needy people in the United States in 1948 by the Salvation Army, and nearly 5,000,000 persons were given lodging by the organization. Medi¬ cal services rendered by the Army outside its hospitals included 8,000 X-rays and 40,000 laboratory examinations. To meet changing conditions, the International Salvation Army divided the work in the Northern India territory into two territories, one to be known as Northern India, with headquar¬ ters at Delhi, and the other as Pakistan, with headquarters at Lahore. During the year the International Salvation Army operated 1,078 day schools in various parts of the world; maintained 1,638 social agencies and institutions; placed nearly 80,000 men and women in full-time jobs and cared for more than 30,000 unmarried mothers in its 94 maternity homes. (See also Church Membership.) (E. I. P.) The Samoan Islands extend from 13° 26' to 14° 22' S. lat. and from 168° 10' to 172° 48' W. long., and are about 2,700 mi. east of Aus¬ tralia and 2,200 mi. south of the Hawaiian Islands. American Samoa consists of the inhabited islands of Tutuila, Tau, Olosega, Ofu and Aunuu, and the uninhabited coral atoll. Rose Island. Swain’s Island, 210 mi. northwest of Tutuila, was made a part of American Samoa in 1925. Total area of American Samoa is 76 sq.mi. and total population as of July i, 1948, was estimated to be 18,000 with about f of the population on the main island of Tutuila. Pago Pago, on Tutuila, is the capital and Samoa’s best harbour. A tripartite treaty signed by the U.S., Great Britain and Ger¬ many in 1899 divided the Samoan Islands into two possessions with the U.S. receiving what is now American Samoa and Ger¬ many the rest. American Samoa is an unorganized U.S. posses¬ sion governed by a naval officer appointed by the president. Capt. Vernon Huber was the governor in 1948. History .—On Feb. 25, 1948, a bicameral legislature, known as the Legislature of American Samoa, was established in place of the old legislature, the annual Fono. The house of repre¬ sentatives of the new legislature consists of 54 members, popu¬ larly elected, while the House of Alii is composed of persons holding the 12 highest-ranking titles in American Samoa. The legislature has only advisory powers. The judiciary consists of a high court, district court and village courts. Each of the three administrative districts has a native governor appointed by the governor. They in turn appoint village chiefs.

Samoa, American.

SALVATION ARMY WORKERS distributing loaves of bread to the needy in Shanghai, China, Bread distribution was one of the organization’s most urgent tasks in that country during 1948

Its 17,813 corps (local organizations) included 32,105 full-time officers. The International Salvation Army was commanded in 1948 by General Albert Orsborn, whose headquarters were in London, England. In the United States, Commissioner Ernest I. Pugmire was the national commander, with headquarters in New York city. In 1948 the Salvation Army in the United States initiated a ten-point, two-year program designed to build a more whole¬ some spiritual environment for youth. High points of the pro¬ gram were the re-establishment of family altars, constructive afterschool recreation and specialized training for Christian citizenship, race relations, world organization and preparation for marriage and family life. During the year the Salvation Army worked with youth in 1,370 centres throughout the U.S. To expand and strengthen the Salvation Army’s program in North and South America, the first conference of key Salvation¬ ists from both continents ever held in the western hemisphere met in Chicago, Ill., May 18-23. The Salvation Army continued to expand its rural service pro¬ gram. In northern California and Nevada alone, 61 different types of services were rendered. At the scene of the flood in Oregon, Salvationist officers and volunteers' set up more than 30 canteens and distributed more than 100,000 sandwiches and 100,000 articles of clothing. Vacations at the Salvation Army’s 60 summer camps were given to 100,000 needy children and 25,000 mothers. Daily Vacation Bible schools were held in crowded centres, country communities, migrant settlements and summer resorts. Supple¬ menting the Bible study was a carefully supervised program of recreation which would give the children opportunity to put into practice the fundamental principles of Christian living. Courses were provided for beginners, through primary, junior and inter¬ mediate grades. Recognized as a semiofficial adjunct of the United States

Education.—In 1946 there were 46 public schools and 7 private schools. Total enrolment in 1947 was 4,165 and there were 131 teachers. English is the language of instruction. About 94% of the population was literate according to the 1940 census. Production and Trade.—The main products are copra and native handi¬ craft, principally mats and rugs woven from grass. Principal crops are taro, breadfruit, yams, coconuts, oranges and papaya. Imports in 1947 amounted to $940,468 and exports $261,296, of which copra exports alone amounted to $222,270. Total revenues collected during the last 6 mo. of 1947 amounted to $273,499 while expenditures amounted to $207,509. Total resources of the Bank of American Samoa, an island government institution, were $1,778,914 as of Nov. 12, 1947. (S. Nr.)

Samoa, Western: see

New Zealand, Dominion of; Pacific

Islands under Trusteeship; Trustee Territories.

The production of sand and gravel in

Sand and Gravel. the United States, as reported by the

SANDSTONE —SAVINGS BANKS

636

U.S. bureau of mines, subdivided by major types of use, is presented in the table.

C

Sand. Building. . . • « Paving. Moulding . . . . Glass. Ballast, engine . . Abrasive . . . . Other uses . . •

{In thousands of short tons) 1944 1943 68,978 82,053 107,371 27,213 49,518 34,098 28,024 21,479 38,396 8,983 8,256 8,295 4,443 3,972 3,622 4,065 4,182 4,529 898 838 807 1,898 2,015 2,243

Gravel. Building. Poving. Ballast. Other uses . . .

196,975 54,412 115,680 23,110 3,773

152,011 35,227 94,769 19,407 2,607

Total.

304,346

234,064

1945 71,726 31,508 22,313 7,191 4,682 3,855 643 1,535

1946 96,440 49,132 28,932 6,974 4,849 3,512 907 1,955

1947 108,719 53,627 34,436 8,308 5,321 3,535 1,099 1,992

125,805 28,609 73,083 21,267 2,846

123,798 30,055 71,351 20,668 1,734

157,691 43,177 100,535 12,010 1,970

178,940 45,703 117,153 13,936 2,149

194,783

195,524

254,131

287,659

Canada.—The combined output of sand and gravel in Can¬ ada rose from 39,949,994 short tons in 1946 to 48,262,302 tons in 1947. (G. A. Ro.)

Sandstone: see

II

*

independent republic in northern Italy, 14

osn MBrinO. mi. southwest of Rimini. Area: 38 sq.mi.; pop.

Production of Sand and Gravef m the United States 1942

(R. B. Kr.)

for completion.

Stone.

Con Tronnicnn

Mayor Elmer E. Robinson took office Jan. 8, 1948. The resident population of San Francisco, Calif., on Jan. i, 1949, was estimated at 814,500. The U.S. census reported 827,400 as of Aug. i, 1945. Prelimi¬ nary reports for 1948 revealed 19,000 births in San Francisco and 9,700 deaths. Consumer backlogs and new demands maintained business in San Francisco at record-breaking levels in 1948 in most fields. At the same time industrial disputes, rising prices, and increased costs of consumer goods left some indelible marks on the year’s economic pattern. Some specific factors showing upward trends during the first ir months of 1948 as compared with the same period of 1947 were: general business activity was up 5.3%; financial trans¬ actions (bank debits for individual accounts) 10.6%; bank clearings 6.9%; retail department store sales 4.0%; independent store sales (for first ten months) 3%; building permits 6.5% in number and 45.3% in value; new dwelling units provided for 42.4%; airport plane traffic 15.5%, air mail loaded 4.9%, air express loaded 6.6%, but passenger traffic was off 3.8%; and San Francisco Stock exchange transactions were up 15% in number and 16.2% in market value. Activities receding from the exceptional levels of 1947 included real estate sales, electri¬ cal energy sales, industrial and commercial gas sales, freight car movements, number of ship arrivals and departures, and place¬ ment of workers. The number of taxable retail sales outlets in San Francisco on June 30, 1948, totalled 24,644 or an increase of 602 more than the preceding year. Independent outlets accounted for 21,594 and chains 3,050 compared with 21,141 and 2,901 re¬ spectively in 1947. Announcements of new industries and ex¬ pansions for San Francisco during 1948 totalled about 160 with outlays of $16,900,000 compared with 202 with outlays of $15,315,000 in 1947. Living costs average in San Francisco for the first three quarters was 7% above the same period of 1947. San Francisco’s funded debt outstanding on Oct. i, 1948, was $145,250,000. Estimated revenue receivable during the fiscal year 1948-49 amounted to $156,715,698. The total assessed valuation for the 1948-49 fiscal year was $1,430,218,531. The tax rate for 1948-49 fiscal year was $6.09 per $100 assessed valuation.

u3n rfdllCISCOi

During 1948 bonds for $63,890,000 for additional basic im¬ provements were approved by the people of San Francisco at elections held in June and November. They included $48,890,000 for school construction and $15,000,000 for sewage treat¬ ment works. IMost of the projects will require several years

(1948 est.): 12,150. Heads of the republic (Capitani Reggenti) in 1948: Dr. Arnaldo Para and Giuseppe Renzi. History.—During 1948 the foreign minister, Gino Giacomini, continued his efforts, hitherto unsuccessful, to get from the United States and Great Britain 739,000,000 lire in compensa¬ tion for damage caused by the Allied air bombing of San Marino—a neutral state the territory of which, it was claimed, had never been occupied by the Germans. The bombing in 1944, it was alleged, cost 60 lives, destroyed the museum li¬ brary and damaged 100 houses. The offer by a private com¬ pany to finance large-scale tourist traffic in consideration of the establishment of a casino was rejected. The government of San Marino decided, however, to build a radio station in order to secure additional revenue from advertising. The budget of 1947-48 was balanced at the level of 380,000,000 lire.

Santo Domingo: see Dominican Republic. Soo Tome: see Portuguese Colonial Empire. Sarawak: see British Borneo. prairie provinces of

OdolvdLulIbWdlL Canada, Saskatchewan was created by par¬ liament in 1905. Area: 251,700 sq.mi. of which 13,725 sq.mi. are lakes; pop. (1941) 895,922; (1948 est.) 854,000. Chief cities: capital, Regina (58,245); Saskatoon (43,027); Moose Jaw (20,753); Prince Albert (12,508). History.—The 1948 legislative session of the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (socialistic) government passed 123 laws, only a few of which were of major importance. Under labour, new classes of engineers’ certificates (heating and re¬ frigeration) were added, pensions to survivors of industrial ac¬ cidents were increased and more workers were brought under the compensation law. The government presented a $52,221,154 budget for the 1948-49 fiscal year, which was $6,647,343 in ex¬ cess of the record budget of 1947-48. On June 24 the C.C.F. government (holding 47 out of 52 seats) went to the polls and won 31 seats. The Liberals in¬ creased their seats from 5 to 19 and two independents won ridings. Despite these results, the C.C.F. popular vote was in¬ creased to 236,920 from 211,308 in 1944; the Liberals in¬ creased their vote from 139,183 to 152,395; the ProgressiveConservatives won no seats and lost ground in the popular vote. During the year Lieut.-Gov. R. J. M. Parker died and J. M. Uhrich was sworn in. Transportation.—In a $7,704,500 program for 1948, 204 mi. of provin¬ cial highways were paved, 572 mi. were gravelled and 511 mi. were dirt graded. On Oct. 31 automobile registrations totalled 106,933, an increase of 2,000 over the same date in 1947, but 2,000 less than in 1930. Agriculture.—The 1948 wheat production estimate was 184,000,000 bu.; the 1947 production was 173,000,000 bu. To offset fodder shortages caused chiefly by increased livestock production, the provincial depart¬ ment of agriculture continued its 1947 emergency feed program and began long-range activity to improve farm security. Production..—The 1946 values of production were (1945 in brackets); gross $636,880,150 ($568,566,436); net $393,878,839 ($339,755,726). Minerals.—Soon after the federal ban on private exploration for radio¬ active minerals was lifted, pitchblende with high uranium content was reported at Black Lake, 400 mi. north of Prince Albert, and development began. Gold was discovered at Waddy Lake, 100 mi. north of Lac la Ronge. The Saskatchewan government undertook a geological survey for minerals, oil, water and gravel. Mineral production for 1947 totalled $32,339,000; for 1946, $24,812,000. Oil production soared: the Jan. to May 1948 production was 291,556 bbl., compared with 540,117 bbl. in 1947, 136,874 bbl. in 1946 and 16,507 bbl. in 1945. (C. Cy.)

Saudi Arabia: see Arabia. Savings and Loan Insurance Corporation, Federal: see

Housing.

Savings Banks: see

Banking.

Pharlpc

SAWYER. CHARLES —SCULPTURE ), U.s. secretary of com-

^AWVPr wPilJfCI f uilul ICO tnerce, was born on Feb. lo in Cincinnati, O., was graduated from Oberlin college, Oberlin, 0., in 1908, completed a legal course at the University of Cincinnati and was admitted to the Ohio bar in 1911. That same year he was elected to the Cincinnati city council. He entered law practice and from 1921 was a member of the firm of Dinsmore, Shohl, Sawyer and Dinsmore. In 1932 he was elected lieutenant gov¬ ernor of Ohio, serving one term. He won the Democratic nomi¬ nation for governor in 1938, but was defeated in the election by John W. Bricker. In 1944 Pres. F. D. Roosevelt appointed him ambassador to Belgium and minister to Luxembourg. While ambassador to Belgium, Sawyer effected the return to that country of the Jan van Eyck altar triptych, “The Adoration of the Mystic Lamb,” one of the nation’s most cherished art pieces, which had dis¬ appeared during the nazi invasion. He was appointed secretary of commerce by Pres. Harry' S. Truman, taking office on May 6, 1948.

637

m

Qphliman Dnhort government offiwuiiUllldlly nUUCI l dal, was born on June 29 in Luxem¬ bourg. He came of Lorraine stock. Admitted to the bar in Metz before World War I, he was elected deputy of the re¬ covered departement of Moselle in 1919 and was afterward con¬ tinually re-elected. In the chamber of deputies he was a mem¬ ber of the mildly conservative Republican Democratic union, but in 1932 he joined the (Catholic) Democratic Popular party. On March 21, 1940, he was appointed undersecretary of state in Paul Reynaud’s cabinet and was responsible for looking after the refugees from Alsace-Lorraine, a post which he kept after the armistice. When the Germans re-annexed the three recov¬ ered departements and in Sept. 1940 started the expulsion of Lorrainers from the Moselle, Schuman was arrested by the gestapo an gross tons or more, as of June 30, 1948, was distributed as follows among the maritime nations:

United States . . United Kingdom . Norway . . ♦ Sweden .... Netherlands . . Fronce .... Panama . . .

Numberof vessels

Gross tonnage

3,644 3,103 766 512 448 426 436

26,689,500 1 8,373,800 3,856,500 1,719,200 2,513,600 2,356,300 2,721,700

Number of vessels

Gross tonnage

317 418 218 2,182

1,995,200 1,299,300 1,244,000 7,815,400

Total .... . 12,470

70,584,500

Italy. Russia .... Greece .... Other countries . .

Abrasives.

The decline in the number of sheep on U.S. farms continued in 1948 as in the preceding six years, reach¬ ing a new low of 35,332,000 on Jan. i, 1948, the lowest level since records began in 1867. Of that total, 30,544,000 head were stock sheep and 4,788,000 head were on feed. Comparable total figures are 37,818,000 head in 1947, and an average of 51,200,000 head in 1935-39. The number of farms keeping sheep also declined. Competition with other agricultural production, espe¬ cially cattle, the increased difficulty of obtaining farm and ranch

Sheep.

641

The total of 70,584,500 gross tons of vessels in the world fleet was an increase of 164,000 gross tons since June 30, 1947. The Shipbuilders Council of America, as of Nov. i, 1948, re¬ ported i,i6i vessels, of 1,000 gross tons or more, agg'fegating 8,199,570 gross tons, under construction in the world, as shown in the table on page 642. United States.—On Jan. i, 1948, private shipyards of the United States had under construction or on order 30 seagoing merchant vessels totalling 185,818 gross tons and two dredges aggregating 22,672 displacement tons. On Dec. 31, 1948, 76

642

SHIPPING. MERCHANT MARINE The average hourly earnings increased from $1,490 for Oct. 1947 to $1,618 for Oct. 1948. (See also Shipping, Merchant Marine.) (H. G. S.) Great Britain.—Foreign orders comprised a large part of the British business; during 1948 some 300,000 tons were delivered with an estimated value of £26,000,000, but many purchasers, unable to get tonnage elsewhere, were dissatisfied with the con¬ ditions imposed by the government. The shipbuilders were also dissatisfied with the system of licensing, and they considered that the steel quota was insufficient. The industry also suffered from a shortage of other materials. Although they were able to produce 1,750,000 tons per annum, shipbuilders were limited to a maximum of 1,000,000 tons; this made some unemployment

LAST FUNNEL SECTION of the Cunard White Star liner “Caronia” being lowered into position at a British dockyard in 1948. The ship began transatlantic service in Jan. 1949 Merchant Ships Under Construct/on in fhe World, Nov. 1, 1946

Great Britain ...». Sweden .. United States. Netherlands. France .. Norway. Denmark. Italy. .. Canada. Belgium. Spain.

Number of Vessels

Gross Tonnage

532 ]98 79 72 69 59 56 31 29 18 18

3,838,572 1,352,555 1,221,054 417,817 378,818 213,766 274,918 158,554 129,881 132,065 81,569

merchant ships, aggregating 1,190,430 gross tons and two dredges, totalling 24,672 displacement tons, were so listed. During 1948 the private shipyards of the United States de¬ livered 28 merchant vessels, of 1,000 gross tons or more, aggre¬ gating 165,300 gross tons, compared with 50 seagoing vessels, totalling 286,473 gross tons, in 1947. These were in addition to miscellaneous small craft. Ship-repair yards during the early part of 1948 were more active than anticipated because of a continued program for the reconversion of wartime merchant ships. As high as 70% of the employees in the shipbuilding and ship-repairing industry were engaged at one time in repair and conversion work. The late months of 1948 showed a rapid decline in repairing. Employment in 89 private shipyards and ship-repairing yards of the United States amounted to 82,000 at the end of Septem¬ ber. Of this total, only 25,000 were engaged in new construction as compared with 28,932 so engaged at the first of the year.

inevitable. The British yards, like most others, were particularly engaged on tankers, ranging up to the newest type of vessels of over 20,000 tons dead weight, for various countries. In the absence of passenger orders many yards designed for high-class liners turned to building tankers. Tramp orders were practically non¬ existent, the market being flooded with tramp-type ships built by the British and U.S. governments during World War II. On the repair side, the- cost and time increased steadily so that many projects were abandoned and the ships sent to the scrappers; these included salvaged war wrecks both in Great Britain and on the continent. A number of warships, mostly small ships, were being converted to commercial use. British naval work in private yards was practically at a stand¬ still, only one or two ships being completed, and the royal dock¬ yards were employed almost entirely on overdue refits. In the autumn a number of commercial yards were called upon to re¬ condition the smaller types of warship. Labour relations in Great Britain were disturbed by minor disputes and sectional strikes against the advice of the unions. Offers of incentives to increase production were rejected by the men and absenteeism increased. Further time was lost through disputes between unions about the demarcation of labour. Other Countries.—In Australia, shipyards continued the op¬ erations started during World War II; orders were principally for the Australian government and the cost was high, but the work done was good. Canada was building for France, Brazil, Argentina and Central American states, and the Canadian gov¬ ernment was preparing a scheme for modernization of Canadian shipping. The capital costs of the first big yard established in India proved much more than estimated and the provision of skilled labour was proving a problem. The Swedish yards were fully occupied with so many orders that they stopped accepting further contracts for a time. In Norway the yards were also fully occupied, although their ca¬ pacity was far below the demands of the shipowners and was confined to comparatively small vessels. In France the industry suffered from the labour unrest that occurred throughout the country, but was nevertheless making preparations to build 2 express transatlantic liners of about 45,000 tons each. The Belgian government established a big loan fund to assist ship¬ owners to order, and the Italian industry, after suffering from a very sharp rise in costs, was also being restored with state assistance. (F. C. Bo.) States merchant Shipping, Merchant Marine. United ships continued to be ac¬ tive in foreign trade during 1948, although the number of ves¬ sels in operation steadily decreased throughout the year. U.S. flag vessels carried about 50% of United States export and import trade, although carriage of dry cargo dipped below 50% in the latter part of the year. From a fleet of more than 2,300 merchant seagoing vessels of 1,000 gross tons and over in opera-

SHIPPING. MERCHANT MARINE tion on March 31, 1947, the fleet had dropped to approximately 1,450 by Sept. 30, 1948. On the latter date about 400 of these vessels were chartered from the government by private ship operators. The privately owned fleet had increased from some 700 vessels in March 1947 to slightly more than 1,000, about the same as the privately owned fleet in operation before World War II. A large part of the exports carried by United States vessels was cargo secured through the Economic Cooperation admin¬ istration for the relief and rehabilitation of European countries. Congress stipulated that 50% of the ECA cargoes from the United States should be carried by U.S. flag vessels to the extent they were available at world market rates, and this helped give employment to U.S. ships, especially to those in the irregular or “tramp” trades, which might otherwise have been driven out of foreign service by the increasing number of lower-cost vessels of other nations returning to these trades. Domestic U.S. shipping, lacking the stimulus of foreign aid and squeezed between high operating costs and low rates of com¬ peting land carriers, was unable to resume its prewar position. In spite of special low chartering rates granted on government vessels to operators in domestic trades, the number of dry cargo vessels of 1,000 gross tons and over operating in coastal and intercoastal services on June 30, 1948, was about one-third the number’operating on June 30, 1939. The number of government-owned vessels in reserve fleets increased from 1,418 on Dec. 31, 1947, to 1,901 on Nov. i, 1948. Some of the ships in these fleets were held in “ready status” to provide a reserve of ships to meet demands of the ECA program if necessary. About 550 had been selected by the armed services as part of those to be kept in a permanent na¬ tional defense reserve fleet for use in national emergencies. Those too old or too badly damaged for further use were sold for scrapping.

643

erally satisfactory, there were in the later months signs of the inevitable postwar depression. The shortage of tonnage on prac¬ tically every route had disappeared and there was less cargo to be carried, largely because of difhculties in making payment or in concluding satisfactory barter arrangements. In the summer, however, the ordinary passenger traffic was satisfactory and the income which many European countries derived from visiting tourists afforded them considerable financial relief. Emigration from Europe continued on a large scale and every available ship suitable for emigrants was packed. Numerous new cargo liners which had been delivered from the yards permitted better service for general cargoes; many companies that had been forced to buy tramp-type ships built for service during World War II, in order to maintain good will, transferred them to slow secondary services while the new ships maintained the fast main services. The market for specially de¬ signed vessels, especially refrigerator ships for the meat-carrying trade, received many new ships of improved type and a surplus was already foreseen. On many routes the shortage was entirely due to port delays. The resumption of coal exports on a large scale did something to balance British trade figures, but buyers complained of the quality compared with the price; labour troubles in many coun-

Of the surplus ships owned by the government at the end of World War II, 1,788 had been sold by Sept. 30, 1948, 1,117 for foreign flag and 671 of the best for U.S. flag operation. As of March i, 1948, congress prohibited the sale of governmentowned surplus vessels to other countries, since the fleets of lead¬ ing maritime nations, through purchases and construction, were nearing their prewar levels. The last of the United States vessels built or ordered under wartime impetus was completed during the year. A number of postwar shipbuilding plans had been offered, but none had fully materialized. In June 1948 congress authorized an appropriation of $178,000,000 for the U.S. maritime commission’s 1949 ship¬ building budget. The commission was therefore able to place contracts for several large vessels which private operators had agreed to purchase. In Aug. 1948 contracts were let for 2 passenger vessels for the Mediterranean service of American Export lines, and 3 combination passenger-cargo vessels for American President lines round-the-world service, on which the government agreed to pay about a 45% construction-differential subsidy to make up the difference between the cost of building these ships in a U.S. and in a foreign yard. Bids were submitted on a large express liner for United States lines North Atlantic service, and for a number of tankers on which the government was prepared to pay for national defense features. Plans were being prepared for a number of other passenger vessels and tankers and for one or two specially designed prototype cargo ships adaptable to either peace or war service, as a start on the program of 50 passenger vessels and 170 tankers in the succeed¬ ing 3 years which had been declared by the national military establishment to be essential to national security. (W. W. Sh.) Europe.—Although shipping results during 1948 were gen¬

FORMER NAVY FREIGHT BARGE converted for merchant duty from surplus navy goods is shown being readied for a haul from Seattle, Wash., to Seward, Alaska, in 1948, with a cargo of automobiles lashed to the deck

644

SHOE INDUSTRY

troubles but made good progress. The raising of a considerable tries increased the demand for imported coal and British coal merchant fleet was one of the first aims of the government of was shipped as far away as Australia. These coal exports eased Israel. For eastern Europe, shipping details were not available, the tramping situation, but the scarcity of outward bulk cargoes but all the nationalized fleets were being expanded. was serious and tramps were time-chartered to reinforce the Latin America and Far East.—Outside Europe, the Argen¬ liner fleets with general cargoes. Most freight rates fell, although tine and, to a lesser extent, the Brazilian merchant fleets made not as suddenly as after World War I, but the Australian grain rapid material progress; in each case the state fleet was by far trade at government-fixed rates saved British tramps from such the most important. The Panamanian and Honduran fleets, low rates as many continental ships accepted. The shortage of raised almost entirely by foreign interests, both grew greatly. In handy-sized tramps in Great Britain’s merchant marine forced the far east the Chinese tonnage also increased but many of the the government to continue the time charter of foreign ships earlier purchases gave great trouble and running costs were at high rates. ruinously high. Japan was allowed to run certain ships outside The British coasting and short sea trades suffered particularly home waters, each ship subject to licence, but the future of from high costs and long delays in port. It was estimated that their service was still under discussion at the end of 1948. between the United Kingdom and the continent the prewar ton¬ Films.—Freighter at Sea; Freighter at Port (Academy Films). nage was now able to handle only half the volume of traffic; on (F. C. Bo.) the coasting trade the position was much the same. Other coun¬ Approximately 468,500,000 pairs of shoes tries suffered similarly. Wartime damage to ports, many of were produced in the United States during which had not yet been fully repaired, was a big factor in reduc¬ 1948. Consumption lagged behind production, and although sales ing the volume of tonnage handled and in causing delays in the of women’s and juvenile shoes compared favourably with pre¬ turn-round of ships, but labour unrest in many countries was war averages, the consumption of men’s shoes was the lowest also to blame. The majority of labour disputes and strikes were irregular since 1933. For the first time in six or seven years, a return to a “buyers’ and were carried out against the advice of the trade-unions; market” made itself felt. With the lag between demand and disputes broke out among the seamen and dockers of most Euro¬ pean countries and in some of the Commonwealth of Nations supply constantly closing, there was a greater selectivity on the countries. The reluctance of some countries to implement the part of the consuming public. Price, quality and style were the agreements reached at the 28th maritime session (the Seamen’s determining factors. Retail dollar sales in 1948 equalled the conference) of the International Labour office at Seattle, Wash., previous year’s figures, but units decreased—with the result in June 1946 caused dissatisfaction and apprehension. A strongly that inventories, both wholesale and retail, increased sub¬ supported movement to boycott ships under the Panamanian stantially. and Honduran flags attracted attention. This boycott was pro¬ A strong demand for shoes in the lower price range, and the posed on the grounds that the poor conditions of service for fact that substitute soles could help meet this demand, caused crews on ships of Panama and Honduras deterred governments sharp inroads on the sole leather volume by these substitutes. and shipowners of other countries from making improvements Consumers continued to prefer leather, but durability and the in their conditions of service, the expense of which would place price differential were influencing factors. Plastic and composi¬ them at a disadvantage. tion soles were used in work, boys’ and play shoes. Thick crepe The commonwealth countries took measures to maintain their rubber soles returned and were especially effective on sport services started during World War II despite high costs; both shoes. India and Pakistan planned large merchant fleets in spite of Great Britain and Canada.—Britain continued its efforts to difficulties in manning them, particularly with officers. increase the volume of its shoe exports and concentrated on The Scandinavian countries were replacing war losses with Comparative Statistics of U.S. Shoemaking, 1947 and 1948 great energy but, except for Production of Shoes by Major Types (OOO's omitted} Sweden, were not able to regain Misses' and Youths* All Women's Men's Children's and Boys' Infants’ Other Total the balance of types and had to 1947 All Leather. 106,242 54,110 18,509 32,746 19,843 423,083 Other. accept a large proportion of so447 1,316 179 2,542 25,068 44,986 Total . 106,689 55,426 18,688 35,288 44,911 468,069 called crisis ships. Very large •1948 All Leather. 105,100 55,800 17,400 34,100 20,400 409,800 sums were earned by time-char¬ Other. .... 26,500 400 1,500 100 2,100 28,100 58,700 Total. .... 203,500 tering to foreign interests. 105,500 57,300 17,500 36,200 48,500 468,500 Dutch, Belgian and French fleets Per Capita Production of Shoes by Major Types (Pairs per Capita) 1947 AM Leother ♦ « 2.04 were greatly increased; the 4.41 1.30 2.49 0.1 4 2.94 Other • . • • 0.01 0.1 1 0.01 0.19 0.17 0.31 French merchant fleet was con¬ Total . . . 2.05 4.52 1.31 2.68 0.31 3.25 sidered for nationalization but •1948 All Leather . . 2.01 4.39 1.18 2.44 0.15 2.80 Other . • • • 0.01 0.12 0.01 0.15 0.20 0.40 after long discussions it was de¬ Total , , , 2.02 4.51 1.19 2.59 0.35 3.20 cided to return requisitioned fsfimoted Consumption of Shoes by Ma/or Types (000 's omifted) ships to their owners. The Por¬ 1947 All Leother . * 1 00,000 51,000 17,000 30,000 18,000 394,600 Other .... 420 1,300 180 tuguese fleet was increased, 2,500 25,000 45,400 Totol . , . 100,420 52,300 17,180 32,500 43,000 440,000 mostly from British yards; the •1948 All Leather . , 98,000 51,400 16,800 32,000 1 8,000 386,200 Spanish fleet was also increased, Other .... 400 1,300 100 2,000 26,000 49,800 Total . . . 98,400 52,700 16,900 but less extensively, and was 34,000 44,000 436,000 still under very strict govern¬ Estimated per Capita Consumption of Shoes by Major Types (Pairs per Capita) 1947 All Leother . . 1.92 4.15 1.19 2.28 0.13 2.74 ment control. Italy was making Other . . . . 0.01 0.1 1 0.01 0.19 0.17 0.32 Total , . , a rapid recovery in shipbuilding 1.93 4.26 1.20 2.47 0.30 3.06 •1948 All Leather . . 1.88 4,05 and repairing but running costs 1.14 2.29 0.12 2.64 Other . . , , 0.01 0.10 0.01 0.14 0.18 0.34 of Italian ships rose greatly. Total . , . 1.89 4.15 1.15 2.43 0.30 2.98 Greece was checked by political ‘Preliminory

Shoe Industry.

SHOWS, AN MAL—SIAM greater efficiency to reduce production costs. Working parties visited the United States to study production methods. The British Boot, Shoe and Allied trades concentrated their atten¬ tion on the development of machinery, essentials of craftsman¬ ship, etc., and formulated a plan to train young operators. In Canada, price rises were unavoidable in the face of drastic creases in raw materials. Retail dollar volume increased but unit volume dropped. The export trade held up, while imports were smaller. (See also Leather.) (E. G. An.)

QhnulC Animol wllUWa, nllMlldl*

^®*‘*®s*—number of entries and attendance records, the horse show as a combined social and sporting event surpassed in 1948 its prewar position. More than 550 shows were staged for entries of the American saddle breed. One of the largest events of this kind was a feature of the Kentucky state fair with more than 700 entries. Other prominent events were the shows at New Orleans, La., Tulsa, Okla., Los Angeles, Calif., Kansas, City, Mo., Wichita, Kan., and Houston, Tex. The interest in Tennessee walking horses, Palominos and quarter horses continued to increase. The Shelbyville, Tenn., Walking Horse show was billed as the world’s largest show for this breed. The Sixth Annual Horse show at San Angelo, Tex., in May brought together 221 entries of the quarter horse breed and more than 100 Palominos. Other quarter horse and Palomino shows of importance were held in Fort Worth, Tex., San Fran¬ cisco, Calif., Billings, Mont., Springfield, Mo., and throughout the western part of the United States. Increased interest in the Palomino and quarter horse breeds in the eastern part of the United States was evidenced by several new shows for these breeds during 1948. The hunt clubs in Kentucky, Virginia and other eastern states reported very satisfactory participation and attendance. The Royal Winter fair at Toronto, Can., was also an outstanding horse show. (D. W. Ws.; W. M. Wn.) Livestock.—The first of the major livestock shows in the United States during 1948 was the National Western Stock show. It was held in Denver, Colo., Jan. 16 to 24. The Na¬ tional Western was the country’s largest show of purebred Hereford cattle. It was also distinguished for contests and sales featuring quarter horses and Palominos. The largest annual livestock exhibition of the southwest, the Southwestern Exposition and Fat Stock show, was held in Fort Worth, Tex., Jan. 30 to Feb. 9. This exhibition was also the oldest established stock show in the United States. One of the earliest state fairs in 1948 was the Wisconsin centennial fair, held at Milwaukee from Aug. 7 to 29, of three weeks’ duration in honour of its 100th anniversary. The Wiscon¬ sin state fair is usually among the largest shows of the dairy breeds, particularly Guernseys and Holstein-Friesians. The Illinois, Ohio, Indiana and Iowa state fairs were major summer shows for the beef breeds, sheep and swine. A National Barrow show of all the swine breeds was staged in Austin, Minn., in mid-September. Various sectional livestock shows were held during the year, as follows: The Eastern States exposition, in Springfield, Mass., Sept. 19 to 25; the Aksarben Livestock and Horse show at Omaha, Neb., Sept. 30 to Oct. 10, chiefly a fat stock show; the Pacific International Livestock exposition at Portland, Ore., Oct. I to 9; and held at the same time was the country’s lead¬ ing dairy show, the Dairy Cattle congress, in Waterloo, la., Oct. 4 to 10. The American Royal Livestock show took place in Kansas City, Mo., Oct. 16 to 23. It was one of the country’s largest livestock shows. Particularly outstanding were the exhibit of

645

Hereford cattle and the annual horse shows, which rank among the country’s best. The Grand National Live Stock exposition at San Francisco, Calif., Oct. 29 to Nov. 7, was the largest livestock show on the west coast. It was held in the new Cow Palace on the out¬ skirts of the city. Climaxing the agricultural show year was the continent’s largest and most famous show, the International Live Stock Exposition and Horse show in Chicago, held Nov. 27 to Dec. 4. The 49th International exhibited 10,500 head of beef cattle, draught and light horses, sheep and swine, representing 30 dif¬ ferent breeds. The Calgary Exhibition and Stampede was the chief show and entertainment feature of Canada during the early summer. It was held July 5 to 10; the second postwar Canadian National exhibition was held in Toronto Aug. 27 to Sept. ii. The dominion’s major annual show, the Royal Winter fair, was also held in Toronto, Nov. 16 to 24. The largest show in South America was the Palermo in Buenos Aires, Arg., held in Aug. 1948. It featured the world’s largest show of Shorthorn cattle, and, to a lesser extent, Here¬ ford and Aberdeen-Angus cattle as well as the two leading dairy breeds of the Argentine, Holstein-Friesians and Guernseys. Two famous British shows were restored in 1948 after lapses dating back to 1939. The 109th show of the Highland and Agricultural Society of Scotland was held in July 1948 at Inver¬ ness and the century-old Royal Agricultural Society of Eng¬ land show was held during the summer at York. Both are itinerant shows and the longest established of the world’s major events of this class. The English Royal returned to York to commemorate its looth anniversary in the same city where the first Royal show took place in 1848. (W. E. 0.) Dogs.—Activity in showing dogs was maintained at a high level in 1948. There were approximately 825 shows for type or conformation (of which 298 were point or championship shows, the remainder match or informal shows); approximately no obedience trials, featuring the training of dogs; approximately 1,100 field trials, including 380 bird dog trials (setters, pointers and Brittany spaniels); 225 beagle trials (on rabbits); 90 re¬ triever trials (for retriever breeds); approximately 85 spaniel trials (for cocker but mostly springer spaniels, land and water work on pigeons, ducks and pheasants); almost 200 foxhound and coonhound trials; and 10 greyhound trials (coursing after live rabbits in an enclosure). The top type (bench) show again was the Morris and Essex at Madison, N.J., in May with 2,240 dogs competing. The New York city show at Madison Square Garden was held in Febru¬ ary, 2,058 dogs being present for the competition. The winner at both these shows was the male bedlington terrier. Champion Rock Ridge Night Rocket, owned by Mr. and Mrs. William A. Rockefeller. The winner of the national field trial for retrievers, at Herrin, Ill., was Clifford N. Brignall’s black male labrador, Brignall’s Gringo. Phillip D. Armour Hi’s springer Stoneybroke won the national field trial championship in spaniels. The leading bird dog winner in the national championship at Grand Junction, Tenn., was R. R. Waugh’s male pointer, Peter Rinski. The grouse championship was won by Dr. A. L. Ziliag’s male pointer. The Texas Traveler. Powel Briscoe’s pointer, Briscoe’s Carolina Doughgirl, took the quail championship, and the pheasant championship was won by Gerald M. Lovingstone’s pointer. Shore’s Brownie Doone. All the winners were pointers. (W. Ju.) 0*Am /'Thn!lAnfl\ A kingdom of southeastern Asiaboundululll ed by Burma to the west and north¬ west, by French Indo-China to the northeast and east and by

(In3ll3n0j.

646

SIERRA LE ONE —SILK

Malaya to the south. Area: 198,272 sq.mi.; pop.: (1947 cen¬ sus) 17,256,825; (mid-1948 est.) 17,676,000. Languages: Thai or Siamese c. 1S%, Chinese c. 20%, Indian and Malayan lan¬ guages also spoken. Religion: Buddhism. Chief towns (1947 census): Bangkok (cap., 827,290); Chiang Mai (534,623); Khon Kaen (590,664); Chiang Rai (476,118). Ruler: King Phumiphon Adundet; prime minister: Marshal Luang Pibul Songgram. History.—At the beginning of the year 1948 the Siamese gov¬ ernment was led by Nai Khuang Aphaiwong who had under¬ taken the office of prime minister after the coup d’etat of Nov. 9, 1947. The general elections held on Jan. 29, 1948, gave Nai Khuang’s Democratic party a substantial majority, but two months later his government was overthrown by the military party which had originally put it into office. Marshal Luang Pibul Songgram, who had been dictator of Siam from 1938 to 1944, had in fact been the power behind the scenes after the Nov. 1947 coup, but a number of ministers were resentful of his dominance while some of the officers of the army were impatient of any degree of civilian control; in consequence, in April, a group of military officers demanded and obtained the ministry’s resignation. The council of regency, acting for the young King Phumiphon Adundet who was absent in Switzerland, then called on Marshal Pibul Songgram to form a new ministry, and this ministry obtained a vote of confidence from the legislature. During the year the southern frontier of Siam was affected by the troubles in Malaya: Chinese communists endeavoured to use southern Siam as a base for operations in Malaya and the nature of the country through which the frontier passes made it difficult to prevent such activities. The Siamese government, however, co-operated wholeheartedly with the authorities of British Malaya in the task of policing the border. Strong measures were taken against Chinese communists in Siam. Siam maintained its rice exports at a satisfactory level; total exports for the year were more than 700,000 tons, compared with less than 400,000 tons in 1947. Rehabilitation of industry and communications made progress despite shortages of sup¬ plies. Considerable interest was aroused by the opening of the trial of three men accused of the murder of the late King Ananda Mahidol who died under mysterious circumstances on June 9, 1946. Prosecuting counsel expressly accused Nai Pridi Panomyong (also known as Luang Pradit Manudharm), the former resistance leader and postwar prime minister, who fled from Siam after the coup d’etat of Nov. 1947, of having con¬ spired with the three men before the court to assassinate the king, and a warrant for his arrest was issued but, because of his absence, not executed. Relations with French Indo-China were peaceful. Pibul Song¬ gram stated that he regarded the question of the frontier prov¬ inces, transferred to Siam in 1941 at Japanese instance and retroceded after the war, as closed. Anti-French elements from French Indo-China who took refuge in Siamese territory con¬ tinued, however, to be a problem in the Mekong valley. Diplo¬ matic relations were established with the U.S.S.R. during the year and the soviet legation was opened in Bangkok in March. (B. R. P.) Education.—(1938-39) elementary schools 12,213, pupils 1,475,382, teachers 3 7,754: secondary schools 670, pupils 75,838, teachers 4,335; technical and higher schools 339, pupils 16,525, teachers 985. Illiteracy (2940): 53%. Foreign Trade.—(1947, in bahts) imports 1,351,760,000; exports 926,000,000. Finance.—Budget (in bahts): (1947) revenue 685,000,000, expendi¬ ture 963,476,437; (1948 est.) revenue 2,668,780,000, expenditure 1,668,781,123. National debt: domestic (Sept. 1941) 26,200,000 bahts; foreign (Jan. 1948) £1,987,195. Currency circulation (April 1947); 2,114,000,000 bahts. Monetary unit: baht or tical with an official exchange rate of 40 to the pound sterling and 10 to the U.S. dollar; the free rate

(Dec. 1947) was £1 = 50 bahts and $1 = 16 bahts.

Sierra Leone:

see British West Africa.

Consumption of silk showed a sharp increase in 1948 • over the previous year. The first meeting of the International Silk congress was held in Paris and Lyon, France, from June 14 to 18, 1948, attended by delegates from 27 countries, who discussed promotion of the use of silk, practical problems in processing the fibre and plans for a permanent organization to be known as the Inter¬ national Silk organization. Most active among the national groups participating were those of the United States, France, India, Italy, Japan, the Netherlands and Switzerland. The chief supplier of raw silk, Japan, continued to operate under the control of the Supreme Commander for the Allied Powers (S.C.A.P.), although the year resulted in several new developments. Private trading, that is, negotiations directly with Japanese suppliers, was restored on June 12, although it had been optional the early part of the year. After June, however, the New York selling agency of S.C.A.P. discontinued operations, except for stocks already in New York. Production of U.S. silk fabrics from imported raw silk was at the average quarterly rate, in 1948, of 4,400,000 yd., com¬ pared with 2,100,000 yd. in 1947. Consumption of raw silk in the United States totalled 59,397 bales in 1948, compared with 20,818 bales in 1947. Consumption in the United States in 1939 totalled 355,639 bales. The occupation authorities in Japan announced on Dec. 27, 1948, a new schedule of prices for 1949, representing increases of 10 cents to 20 cents a pound over the 1948 prices. As in 1948, the prices were guaranteed not to decrease during 1949. France entered the raw silk market again in Dec. 1948, when it was confirmed in Tokyo that arrangements had been made for shipment in December and January of at least 7,000 bales. This represented the conclusion of negotiations first reported in June, when a spokesman for the French Silk federation stated that Allied occupation authorities had offered the French silk purchasers a two-year loan of $2,500,000 to finance raw silk pur¬ chases. Italy’s silk industry found it increasingly difficult toward the end of the year to maintain its position in exportation of silk fabrics and raw silk. Exports in 1948 were declared to be only 62% of 1938 figures. Exports of fabrics, in the first six months of 1948, were 67,000 kilos, compared with 150,000 kilos in the same period of 1947. India and Argentina were two important consumers of Italian raw silk in 1948. The British silk industry, for the first time after the end of World War II, resumed private trading with Japan on Nov. I, 1948, but purchases continued to be subject to au¬ thorization from the board of trade’s silk control. Britain’s native silk culture venture at Lullingstone silk farm in Kent was reported to be continuing its production, and the raw silk was being manufactured by one of England’s foremost silk weavers into scarfs and other accessories. Technical improvements in silk were announced from Japan during the year in the form of development of a new type of cocoon which produced silk of higher tenacity, closer to the characteristics of nylon, thus providing competition with nylon in the hosiery field. The cocoon was spun from what was termed the “three-sleep” silkworm, meaning that the worm passed through only three stages of development, instead of the usual four stages. This resulted in a shorter rearing period, and it was claimed that the quality of the yarn spun from the cocoons showed more elasticity and less size deviation, and had a more beautiful filament. Difficulties in achieving commercial

SILVER —SKIING production were caused by the decreased number of cocoons, more difficult egg rearing and conflict between period of culti¬ vation for other crops and of the new silkworms. Another at¬ tempt was made to toughen the silk fibre by applying short waves to kill the chrysalis and avoid the intense heat formerly used, which, it was believed, weakened the tensile strength of the yarn. A Raw Silk Machinery Research council was also authorized in Tokyo and given 11,500,000 yen to achieve lower production costs and better quality. (See also Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres; Textile Industry.) *

(I. L. Bl.)

Silver. The silver output of the leading producing countries * and the estimated world total are shown in Table I. Table I,— World Silver Production, 1941-47

(In millions of fine ounces) 1941 71.08 21.75 1.66 78.36 3.63 2.92 7.35 1.24 15.12 3.47 1.48 15.41

United States . Canada . . . Newfoundland. Mexico. . « . Honduras. . . Argentina. . • Bolivia .... Chile. .... Peru. Belgian Congo. South Africa. . Australia . . . Total. . . . •

262

1942 55.86 20.70 1.11 84.86 3.48 2.84 8.12 1.32 16.04 3.96 1.48 14.24 250

1943 40.79 17.35 1.26 76.63 3.16 2.32 7.30 1.09 14.66 3.11 1.33 10.33 217

1944 35.65 13.63 1.16 65.46 3.12 2.00 6.80 1.09 15.83 2.61 1.21 9.37

1945 29.05 12.94 1.08 61.10 3.00 1.70 6.68 1.03 13.00 4.14 1.24 8.08

1946 21.10 12.54 1.11 43.26 2.68 s

151

186

1947 38.58 11.77 0.96 58.84 2.40 9

6.11 0.87 12.33 5.05 1.20 9.05

6.23 0.98 11.39 4.06 1.15 9.53

126

157

The only producer of importance whose output was not re¬ ported is the U.S.S.R., which, along with various minor pro¬ ducers, accounts for about 15% of the total.

1915

'17

'19

’21

'23

'25

'27

'29

'3)

'33

'35

'37

'39

'41

'43

'45

647

Skating: see Ice Skating. competitors from Norway and Sweden

OlVlIllg. dominated ski championships in 1948, both in the United States and in Europe. Although most of the ski talent was concentrated in Europe for the winter Olympics and other classics, Norway sent a representative team to dominate the meets in North America. (For the results in Olympic competi¬ tion, see Olympic Games.) In international competition following the Olympics, almost all honours went to Norway or Sweden. Arne Hoel, 21-year-old Norwegian, won the Holmenkollen (Norway) jump before 65,000 onlookers with leaps of 204 ft. and 200 ft. Petter Hugsted of Norway, the Olympic champion, won the Hannibal jump. In other Holmenkollen competition, Olle Dalman of Sweden won the Alpine combined and Martin Lundstroem, also of Sweden, won the i8-km. run. Lundstroem also won Sweden’s 15-km. run. In the international competition at Aare, Sweden, Guttorm Berge of Norway and May Nilsson of Sweden were returned the combined winners in the men’s and women’s divisions, respectively. The Europeans’ conquest of U.S. ski events extended to the New York state cross-country and jump, won by Reidar Ander¬ sen of Norway; Eastern downhill, won by Per Klippgen of Nor¬ way; Brattleboro jump, won by Arthur Tokle of Norway; the Metropolitan ski title, won by Anund Dalen of Norway; North American Class A jump, Hans Kaarstein and Reidar Andersen, both of Norway, first and second, respectively; 42nd annual Norge Ski jump, won by Arne Ulland of Norway; Eastern jump, won by Hans Jacob Haanes of Norway; Eastern com¬ bined, won by Reidar Andersen of Norway; U.S. National Class A jumping championship, won by Arne Ulland of Norway; Torger Tokle memorial jump, won by Odd Harsheim of Nor¬ way; Franklin D. Roosevelt trophy jump at Bear mountain.

'47

SILVER PRODUCTION of the major producing countries and of the world, as compiled by The Mineral Industry

United States.—The salient features of the silver industry in the United States are shown in Table II, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Table II.—Silver Industry in the United States, 1942-47

lln thousands of fine ounces or of dollars) Mine production . . Imports. Exports.. Industrial use. . . . Secondary recovery . Net consumption. . .

1942 54,091 $41,103 $1,999 131,419 30,021 101,399

1943 1944 41,461 34,474 $27,903 $23,373 $30,687 $126,915 162,113 176,289 44,113 56,189 118,000 120,100

1945 29,024 $27,278 $90,937 184,661 58,361 126,300

1946 22,914 $57,578 $36,455 123,647 36,647 87,000

1947 35,824 $68,140 $30,649 126,366 27,866 98,500

The improvement in output of 1947 continued into 1948, with a total of 31,610,950 oz. in the first ten months. Canada.—Primary silver production in Canada decreased from 12,544,100 oz. in 1946 to 12,504,018 oz. in 1947, but showed marked improvement in 1948, with 10,980,206 oz. in the first three quarters. (See also Mineral and Metal Pro¬ duction AND Prices.) (G. A. Ro.)

Singapore: see Malaya (Federation of) and Singapore. Sinkiang: see China.

...

GRETCHEN FRASER, U.S. ski champion, finishing second in the women’s Alpine combined event at St. Moritz, Switz., on Feb. 4, 194S. Mrs. Fraser won the women’s special slalom event on Feb. 5

648

SKIN DISEASES—SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

won by Arthur Tokle of Norway. Jack Reddish of Salt Lake City, Utah, dominated the na¬ tional picture in the men’s division by winning both the U.S. and North American titles. He was first in both the slalom and downhill events of the national. Suzy Harris finished third in both the slalom and downhill to annex the women’s national title, although Janette Burr of Seattle, Wash., won the downhill and Anne Winn of Gannett, Ida., won the slalom. Maud Banks of Aspen, Colo., won the women’s division of the North Ameri¬ can championships. Among the handful of U.S. victors in 1948 meets were: Eugene Wilson of Coleraine, Minn., first in the Iron mountain jump; Merrill Barber of Brattleboro, Vt., invitational jump at Schunnamunk mountain; Sue Neidlinger of Hanover, N.H., Eastern slalom and combined. In team competition, Canada won the 12th annual Canada v. U.S. women’s ski tournament; Middlebury college, Vermont, won the Sun Valley, Ida., na¬ tional intercollegiate and retained the Intercollegiate Ski union title, and St. Lawrence university, Canton, N.Y., won the New York state crown. (M. P. W.)

Skin Diseases: see

Slate.

Dermatology.

Sales of the various forms of slate in the United States were reported, as shown in the table, by the U.S. bureau

of mines. Data on Slate Industry in the United States, 1942-47

the latter conferred repeatedly but failed to report any agree¬ ment, allegedly because the soviet commander had raised new issues, and tension between Russia and the western powers in Germany continued.

0

'fli II Smith college in Northampton, Mass., had OlHItn students enrolled from 43 states, 5 terri¬ tories and 23 other countries in 1948. An interdepartmental course in the humanities was added to the general education program of a new curriculum. Several student groups spent their junior year in other countries: 27 in France, 21 in Switzer¬ land, 5 in Italy and 10 in Mexico. On an exchange basis, 4 juniors attended the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada. The Smith college school for social work held its ten-week summer session on the campus for 142 students, with 118 others attending advanced seminars. In the fall of 1948 the col¬ lege had an enrolment of 136 graduate students. During the year seven scientific research programs, including that of the Smith college genetics experiment station, were subsidized by foundations, scientific societies and the United States navy. After reaching a designated goal of $4,300,000 from the alumnae, the 75th anniversary campaign went into its second phase with $7,000,000 as the objective. A symposium on Pom¬ peii, with exhibits loaned from the Louvre, was a preliminary feature of the 75th anniversary observance scheduled for 1949 and 1950- (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (H. W. Rl.)

(In thousands of short tons) 1942

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947

Roofmg. MMIstock. Flogstones.

71.4 18.7 16.9

35.4 16.0 22.0

32.8 12.4 15.8

38.2 11.5 20.0

56.2 12.2 27.9

64.4 13.6 34.6

Total.

107.0

73.3

61.0

69.7

96.3

112.5

Gronules. Flour.

356.5 127.2

292.3 103.2

309.2 107.7

374.8 107.4

513.8 149.7

? ?

Total.

483.7

395.5

416.9

482.2

663.5

763.5

Grand total.

590.7

468.8

477.9

551.9

759.8

876.0

The 1947 output exceeded the former 1946 record by 15%. (G. A. Ro.) Slovakia: see Czechoslovakia.

Smith, Walter Bedell

1

in Indianapolis, Ind., served overseas in 1918 and later returned to Washington, D.C., for duty in military intelligence. He served with the war department general staff (1939-42) and was promoted to the rank of brigadier general in 1942 and named U.S. secretary of the combined chiefs of staff. He was named a lieutenant general (temporary) in 1943, and given the permanent rank of major general in 1945. He was chief of staff to Gen. Dwight D. Eisenhower throughout most of World War H, and on Feb. 14, 1946, Pres. Harry S. Truman named him ambassador to the Soviet Union. In the spring of 1948 Smith transmitted to the soviet foreign minister a communication restating the U.S. stand on contro¬ verted issues, which the soviet chose to regard as an overture for bilateral peace talks. The U.S. later emphasized that the exchange was not a new gesture, but merely a reiteration of policy, although the soviet played up the incident as evidence of its own desire for peace. Smith participated throughout much of August in continuing discussions with representatives of Britain, France and the U.S.S.R. in Moscow on outstanding problems, including the Russian blockade of Berlin and the circulation of rival cur¬ rencies in the German capital. The consultants reached an agreement in principle, but when the discussions of currency reform were transferred to the military governors in Berlin,

Inctitlltinn IllolllUUUlu

institution, located on the Mall in Washington, D.C.,

was established in 1846 through a bequest from James Smithson, an English scientist. Its purpose is “the increase and dif¬ fusion of knowledge among men”; this is carried out by means of scientific researches and explorations, publications, and mu¬ seum and art gallery exhibits. The institution is governed by a board of regents, composed of the vice-president of the United States, the chief justice, three senators, three representatives, and six citizens from various parts of the country. The execu¬ tive officer is the secretary, who in 1948 was Dr. Alexander Wetmore. The institution has ten branches: United States Na¬ tional museum. National Gallery of Art, National Collection of Fine Arts, Freer Gallery of Art, Bureau of American Ethnology, International Exchange service. National Zoological park. Astrophysical observatory. National Air museum and Canal Zone Biological area. The research and exploration program of the institution was in full operation during 1948, after having been practically sus¬ pended during World War H. Numerous investigations in biol¬ ogy, geology, anthropology and astrophysics were in progress, and field expeditions went out to a number of localities includ¬ ing the Antarctic, Bikini, Arnhem land in Australia, Persia, Colombia and Panama. The National museum received more than 507,000 new speci¬ mens in 1948, the most outstanding of which was the Wright brothers’ original Kitty Hawk aeroplane of 1903, received on Dec. 17, 1948. The total number of entries in the accession catalogue was 25,470,827. Dr. Remington Kellogg became direc¬ tor of the National museum on May 26, 1948. The National Gallery of Art accessioned 1,360 works of art; visitors to the number of 2,159,435 entered its doors. The paintings from the Berlin museums drew a record crowd of 964,970 in a little more than five weeks. The National Collec¬ tion of Fine Arts received a number of art works and held nine special exhibitions. The director, Ruel P. Tolman, retired dur¬ ing the year and was succeeded by Thomas M. Beggs, formerly

SNYDER, JOHN WESLEY —SOCIALISM of Pomona college, Claremont, Calif. The Freer Gallery of Art augmented its valuable oriental collections with new specimens of Chinese and Persian paintings, bronzes and pottery. The Bureau of American Ethnology sent field parties to Panama and the Canadian Arctic. The bureau’s unit known as the River Basin surveys investigated 1,576 archaeological sites threatened by dam construction, and selected 250 for excavation Another unit, the Institute of Social Anthropology, worked in Brazil, Colombia, Mexico and Peru, in co-operation with agen¬ cies in those countries. The International Exchange service handled 760,119 packages of governm.ental and other publications for exchange between the United States and all other countries of the world. The weight of this material was 812,189 lb. The National Zoological park checked at its gates a total of 3,040,000 visitors in 1948, the second largest year’s attendance in the zoo’s history. At the end of the year there were 2,797 animals in the collection, which represented 690 different species. The Astrophysical observatory continued its day-by-day ob¬ servations of the solar radiation at its two field stations on Mount Montezuma, Chile, and Table mountain, Calif., and in¬ vestigated several possible sites for a new high-altitude station The most promising were in Mexico, southern California and the Hawaiian Islands. Scientific studies of the part played by solar radiation in the deterioration of fabrics were continued at the Montezuma station and at Miami, Fla. The National Air museum, created in 1946, began its first year of operations as a separate bureau under its first government appropriation. The Smithsonian’s entire aeronautical collections, probably the most valuable in the world, were turned over to it, and a storage depot was made available near Chicago for the large number of planes and other historic aeronautical objects that came to the Air museum from the army, the navy and manufacturers. The institution published in 1948 a total of 76 publications, including the third and fourth volumes of the monumental Handbook of South American Indians, and a List and Index to Publications of the U.S. National Museum from 1875 to 1946. (A. Wt.)

Snyder, John Wesley ‘S, „as' Jonesboro, Ark. He attended Vanderbilt university in Nash¬ ville, Tenn., 1914-15, and in 1917 joined the army and became a captain of field artillery. Following that war he was in the banking business in Arkansas and Missouri, and in 1930 he joined the field service of the comptroller of the currency of the U.S., serving with this office until 1937, when he became head of the St. Louis, Mo., agency of the Reconstruction Finance corporation (RFC). In July 1940, he went to Wash¬ ington, D.C., as special assistant to the board chairman of the RFC. He helped to organize the Defense Plant corporation, an RFC subsidiary, and as its operational vice-president and director administered the agency’s commitments of more than $10,000,000,000 to finance war production plants. From Jan. 1943 to April 1945 he was vice-president of the First National Bank of St. Louis, and on the latter date became federal loan administrator. On July 17, 1945, he was appointed director of the Office of War Mobilization and Reconversion and on June 23, 1946, was appointed secretary of the treasury. In 1948 Snyder’s prediction that the government’s fiscal-year surplus would be about $7,000,000,000 was used by Republicans as an argument for reduced taxes. Snyder testified before the senate banking and currency committee, which was considering anti¬ inflation measures, that he was against price controls, but that such controls should be employed in emergencies.

649

Soap, Perfumery and Cosmetics • and perfumes in the United States during 1948 were estimated to total slightly less —^perhaps 2%—than the $682,000,000 recorded in 1947. Drug stores enjoyed relatively better sales than department stores, mainly because of the rapid sales growth of home-permanentwave kits, which had almost no distribution in department stores. The business switched steadily from “basic” kits con¬ taining semipermanent equipment to “refills” of expendible dressings, lotions, etc. Liquid and cream shampoo preparations continued to gain, largely at the expense of soaps (e.g., “tar” soaps) formerly used for shampoos. While all perfumes and cosmetics still carried the burden of a 20% excise tax, opinion in the industry was that the tax had not slowed down sales of such staple items as face powder and lipstick; but that it had had a definitely deterrent effect on sales of high-priced items such as perfumes and the more elaborate gift sets. Perfume sales were poor in 1948, possibly because of unpre¬ dictable “style” changes. But the fact that sales in syndicate stores, at lower price levels, rose in 1948 suggested that the steadily rising cost of living had forced the consumer to econ¬ omize on luxuries. In the soap industry, reports for the first half of 1948 indi¬ cated an annual consumption of about 2,448,000,000 lb., approx¬ imately 6% higher than in 1947. Synthetic detergents continued to increase steadily in consumer acceptance and popularity; these were being produced at a rate of 400,000,000 lb. a year. Further substantial quantities were produced by the chemical industry. Tests conducted by the department of agriculture re¬ vealed that with cotton fabrics, natural soap is more effective than synthetic detergents when used in soft water, but that many of the latter are fully twice as efficient as natural soap in hard water. In Great Britain and on the continent, conditions which had throttled the cosmetic industries since World War II did not relax their grip in 1948 A curious development under socialized medicine in Great Britain was the growing extent to which pre¬ scriptions, for which the chemist or druggist was reimbursed by the crown, were illicitly used for the purpose of cosmetics rather than the medicines for which they were issued. (H. T.)

Soapstone: see CnOPOr

Talc.

Three foreign soccer clubs played in the U.S. dur-

uDuvula ing 1948. The Liverpool Football club of England was the most successful of the three, winning ii straight matches. Their triumphs included a 3-2 decision over the Djurgarden Football club of Stockholm, Sweden. The Swedish team won the other five matches they played in the United States. Manchester United defeated Blackpool 4 to 2 in the British Football association cup final. The Simpkin-Ford team of St. Louis, Mo., won the U.S. Challenge cup with a 3-2 edge over the Brookhattan-Galicia club of New York city in the United States Soccer Football association final. Ponta Delgada of Fall River, Mass., won its third straight National Amateur cup. The Philadelphia Amer¬ icans retained their professional title by winning the American Soccer league title, while the Kearny Scots of Kearny, N.J., won the Lewis cup. (M. P. W.) Socialists throughout the world devoted much of their energies during 1948 to the building up of international machinery for w'orld peace; to the reconstruc¬ tion of war-stricken economies; and, in countries under their control, to the further socialization of industry.

650

SOCIALISM

In all of their educational activities, democratic Socialists emphasized the need for preserving and extending civil liber¬ ties while legislating in behalf of economic security. The So¬ cialists continued to show their greatest strength in western and central Europe and Australasia, with Great Britain the most outstanding country under their control. The Socialist party in the U.S. nominated for the sixth time Norman Thomas for president of the United States. The So¬ cialist candidate ran on a platform which urged the social ownership and democratic management of the natural resources, the basic industries, the public utilities and the banking and credit institutions—“all economic facilities which are needed for the satisfaction of the fundamental needs of the people.” It advocated joint representation of workers, management and the consuming public in the management of socialized enter¬ prise; the maximum decentralization which is economically feasible; the use of the public corporation and the voluntary co-operative; and the preservation under public control of free¬ dom of labour organizations and of consumer choice. It pre¬ sented a long series of demands on the domestic and interna¬ tional fronts. The vote for the' Socialist candidates continued slight, 139,009 votes as compared with 80,424 in 1944. The Socialist Labor party candidate received 29,061 votes and the Socialist Workers’ party (Trotskyite) candidate, 13,613 votes. A Socialist, Frank P. Zeidler, was elected mayor of Mil¬ waukee, Wis., in a nonpartisan election. In Canada the Socialist banner was carried by the Co-opera¬ tive Commonwealth federation of Canada. The C.C.F., under the leadership of M. J. Coldwell, increased its representation in the dominion parliament from 28 to 31 as a result of a series of by-elections. The party retained its control of the province of Saskatchewan in the June election, winning 31 out of 50 seats. In Ontario the party increased its representation in the legislature from 8 to 22, and became for the second time the chief opposition party. The already weak Socialist movement in Latin America was further weakened throughout the year by the military coups in Venezuela and Peru, and the outlawry of socialistic elements, and by the continued restriction or suppression of opposition political movements by the Juan Peron administration in Ar¬ gentina. In Europe, Socialists of numerous democratic countries held several conferences during the year to discuss problems of mutual interest, and to strengthen the forces of democratic socialism as opposed to those of conservatism, on the one hand, and communism, on the other. In December the Committee on International Socialist Conferences delivered a demand to the Italian Socialist party to terminate its association with the Communist party of Italy by the middle of March 1949. The British Labour party throughout the year continued to supply leadership to the European Socialist movement. The Labour government continued to enact legislation pledged by it in its 1945 campaign. One of its first acts of the year was to begin the operation of the inland transportation system. On July 5 the government put into effect the National Insur¬ ance act of 1946 which provided an all-embracing system of insurance for every person in the country over school-leaving age. It likewise began the operation of the National Health act, which made available to every man, woman and child in Great Britain free medical attention, hospital and specialist services, surgical appliances and drugs.

of the three Scandinavian governments. In Sweden an election for members of parliament was held on Sept. 19, resulting in the election of 112 Social Democrats. While its popular vote was increased by 352,869 over that of 1944, its parliamentary representation was reduced by 3. The Liberals, the next largest party, secured 57 seats, a gain of 31; the Communist party secured 8 seats, a loss of 7. Following the election, the Social Democratic party continued as the government under the leader¬ ship of Premier Tage Erlander. In Norway the government had greatly increased its control over electrical, aluminum and chemical production; initiated state monopolies in the importation of grains, solid fuels and medical supplies; and had undertaken the operation of a na¬ tion-wide chain of agricultural machinery stations. In Finland, despite its proximity to the U.S.S.R., the Social Democrats in the parliamentary elections secured 54 out of 200 seats, a gain of 6. Although the Agrarians won the largest number of seats, or 56, the Socialists obtained the largest popular vote, and, following the elections, formed a cabinet consisting of 15 Socialists and i Independent. In France, during the year, the Socialists continued with the 3rd largest representation in the house of deputies, 103 out of 618. The party refused support to the Robert Schuman cabi¬ net in July over a dispute regarding the wage-price relationship. Five Socialists joined the country’s cabinet in early September headed by Premier Henri Queuille, Radical Socialist. The So¬ cialist party throughout the year gave its support to the Mar¬ shall plan and backed the labour federation headed by Leon Jouhaux, while the Communists, through the party and the com¬ munist-controlled General Confederation of Labour, vigorously opposed it. In Belgium, Paul-Henri Spaak, head of the Belgian Labour party, was premier in a coalition cabinet composed of Socialist and Catholic groupings. On Nov. 19 he resigned from the premiership during a dispute with Justice Minister Paul Struye over the latter’s alleged leniency toward convicted nazi collab¬ orators, but on Nov. 26 formed a new cabinet of Socialists and Social Christians.

In November the government introduced the last of its major measures of socialization to which it had pledged itself in its 1945 campaign—the nationalization of the steel industry. On the European continent. Socialists continued in control

In Australia the Labour parliament enacted legislation em¬ powering the government to acquire the assets and liabilities of all privately owned banks, some of which were British-owned. The validity of this legislation was tested in the courts, and in

In Italy the split between the Socialist party, which had co-operated closely with the Communists, and the Socialist Workers party under the leadership of Giuseppe Saragat, be¬ came permanent. The Socialist party under Pietro Nenni con¬ tinued its alliance with the Communists, joining with them in a Popular Front in the April elections. In this election the Communist-Socialist combination won 30% of the seats in the lower chamber. The Saragat Socialists received 7% of the votes cast. The latter party was represented by several mem¬ bers in the ensuing Alcide deGasperi cabinet. In July the So¬ cialist party accepted the Marshall plan “as a reality it is use¬ less to fight.” In Austria Karl Renner, Socialist, remained president of the republic, and Socialists and the People’s party still divided political power almost equally. The Socialists remained in con¬ trol of the strong trade-union movement. In Germany, in the western sector, the Social Democrats in the late fall won a majority of seats in the municipal council of the noncommunist portion of Berlin; controlled the gov¬ ernment in Land Schleswig-Holstein; and in other parts of the British, French and U.S. zones competed with the Christian Democrats for political leadership. In the Russian sector. So¬ cialists lost all independence and were completely submerged in the soviet-controlled Socialist Unity party.

SOCIALIST SOVIET REPU BLICS—SOCIAL SECURITY

DELEGATES to a meeting of the International Socialist Youth organization at their camp site in the U.S. zone of Austria. Socialist youth of IS nations were represented at the convention held there in July 1948

Aug. 1948, the privy council in London declared several of the provisions of the act invalid. In the U.S.-occupied island of Japan, a Socialist, Tetsu Katayama, was premier in the early part of the year, the Socialists having the largest representation in the Japanese diet (140 out of 466). In February, however, the premier resigned over differences in the cabinet as to the wisdom of increasing postal and railway rates as a means of raising additional revenue. The Socialists, however, joined the succeeding Hitoshi Ashida cabinet and served until its dissolution in October. Differences of opinion as to how vigorously the party, in view of the polit¬ ical situation, should push its program of socialization led, during the year, to a secession of several Socialist diet mem¬ bers. The Socialist party in India during 1948 became increasingly independent of the Congress party, of which Premier Jawaharlal Nehru, long regarded as a Socialist, was one of the chief leaders. The Socialist party at its convention instructed all of its mem¬ bers to withdraw from the Congress party and from any gov¬ ernment position to which they had been elected on the Con¬ gress ticket. It criticized the Congress party for alleged anti¬ democratic tendencies, at the same time vigorously attacking the Communist party for pursuing its objectives with little regard to the stability and integrity of the state. In Burma Premier Thakin Nu helped in the organization of a United Left party which aimed at the creation of a socialist state by democratic means. The government during 1948 was called upon to suppress a communist uprising. In Indonesia the socialistic Achmed Soekarno-Mohammed Hatta republican government was confronted in September with a communist up¬ rising, which it soon suppressed, and in December was itself overwhelmed by the Dutch troops which took into custody the important republican leaders. {See also Communism; Polit¬ ical Parties, British.) (H. W. L.; N. T.)

Socialist Soviet Republics: see

Union of Soviet Social¬

ist Republics.

Socialized Medicine: see Services.

Great Britain; Public Health

Cnniol Coniiritif OUuldl ObuUllljfi

651

Countries in both hemispheres strengthened and extended their existing social security and social welfare programs during 1948. The work of the United Nations and its specialized agencies was a factor in this expansion, as was the initiation by the United States of relief and recovery programs in Europe and the far east. Both these developments greatly increased the demands for technical advice on legislative provisions and administration of social se¬ curity programs. United States.—The various insurance and welfare programs that constitute the broad social security system in the United States operated during 1948 in a setting of full employment, record peacetime production of goods and services, and rising prices. Fewer workers were without jobs than in the preceding year. In 1948 about 2,100,000 persons were unemployed, about 144,300 fewer than in 1947. Of all the various social security and related programs, those operating under the Social Security act represent the largest segment, in terms of the number of persons actually or poten¬ tially affected by the four programs—old-age and survivors in¬ surance, unemployment insurance, public assistance (old-age assistance, aid to dependent children, aid to the blind) and maternal and child health and welfare services (maternal and child health, crippled children and child welfare services). During 1948 the advisory council on social security, created in 1947 by the senate committee on finance, issued three reports. In the first, the council recommended extension of coverage un¬ der old-age and survivors insurance to all employments and liberalization of benefit amounts, as well as other changes to strengthen the existing program. The second report recom¬ mended the adoption of an insurance program, co-ordinated with old-age and survivors insurance and covering the risks of wage loss from permanent and total disability. The third report rec¬ ommended certain changes that should be made in the public assistance programs if the preceding recommendations were accepted and embodied in legislation. Some amendments to the Social Security act were passed in 1948, but no comprehensive changes were made. One amend¬ ment increased the amount the federal government would con¬ tribute toward public assistance payments. This increase in fed¬ eral participation was the second in two years. No change was

652

SOCtAL SECURITY

made, however, in the monthly benefit amounts payable under federal old-age and survivors insurance, which remained at the levels fixed in 1939. Social Insurance and Related Programs.—In relation to the number of wage earners covered by the state unemploy¬ ment insurance systems, the number of unemployed persons who filed claims for unemployment benefits was low throughout the year. In Oct. 1948, a weekly average of 659,000 unemployed workers drew benefits under the state systems, and the amount disbursed during the month totalled $55,000,000. Protection against wage loss from unemployment was also available to railroad employees under the Railroad Unemploy¬ ment Insurance act and to unemployed veterans under the Serv¬ icemen’s Readjustment act. Of the $76,200,000 expended in October under all three unemployment programs, 25% went to unemployed veterans, as against about 40% in Oct. 1947 and almost 60% in Oct. 1946. Monthly benefits under the federal old-age and survivors in¬ surance program of the Social Security act were paid in Oct. 1948 to 2,245,000 persons, and totalled $44,515,000. lAbout three-fifths of the beneficiaries were retired workers, their aged wives, and dependent children; the rest were widows, children and aged dependent parents of deceased workers. Similar payments were made in the month under other in¬ surance or related public programs. Monthly retirement, dis¬ ability and survivor benefits went to beneficiaries under the rail¬ road retirement program (332,500), veterans’ programs (3,251,000), and the federal civil-service system (137,200). Retire¬ ment and disability pensions went to some 220,000 employees under state and local government plans and to the survivors of about 36,000 such employees who had died. Assistance and Welfare.—The social insurance programs are designed to provide at least a minimum protection against the common economic risks for the great majority of the gain¬ fully employed workers and their families, which they can sup¬ plement through individual thrift and other forms of savings. There will always be some persons, however, who cannot qualify for insurance benefits or whose benefits prove inadequate for family maintenance or who need a variety of services for which they turn to a public welfare agency. The public assistance programs under the Social Security act provide monthly pay¬ ments to three specific groups of needy individuals—the aged, the blind and dependent children. These programs are financed and administered by states or by state and local governments, and the federal government participates in the amount of assist¬ ance, within certain maximums, and in the administrative costs of the programs. In Oct. 1948, almost 2,500,000 persons aged 65 or over were receiving old-age assistance, at an average payment of $41.50 during the month. More than 1,176,000 children in 460,000 families were receiving aid to dependent children; the average payment was $27.87 per child and $71.25 per family. About 85,000 blind -persons received assistance, at an average payment of $43.00. Other needy persons who could not qualify under one of these special assistance programs were cared for by general assistance, financed without federal participation. In October, general assistance payments went to 360,000 cases, at an average pay¬ ment of $45.08 per case. The aggregate amount expended in the month for assistance in all four programs from all sources—federal, state and local —was $155,000,000. The Social Security act also provides federal grants to states to help them extend and improve state and community services for mothers and children. Of the annual total of $22,000,000 authorized for federal grants, certain portions of which must be matched by states, $11,000,000 went in 1948 for maternal and

child health services, $7,500,000 for services for crippled chil¬ dren and $3,500,000 for child welfare services. (See also Law; Relief.) (A. J. A.) Canada.—In the 1947-48 fiscal year, more than $750,000,000 was spent in social security programs by all governments in Canada. During the calendar year there were no important federal changes in old-age pensions administration. The interprovincial old-age pensions board met with federal authorities, and modifi¬ cation in the regulations helped assure greater uniformity and fairness in application of the federal law. Family allowances legislation was unchanged during 1948. Payments ran at approximately $270,000,000 for 1,700,000 families. The general effect of the 1948 amendments to the Unemploy¬ ment Insurance act speeded up payment of insurance claims and reduced the costs of administration. Maximum payments were increased from $14.40 to $18.30 per week; by the end of the 1947-48 fiscal year there was $447,000,000 in the unemploy¬ ment insurance fund; in the same fiscal year benefits paid totalled $34,947,000, and the national employment service of the unemployment insurance commission placed 722,484 workers. With the termination of veterans’ rehabilitation training pend¬ ing, emphasis swung to the peacetime projects of youth training and apprenticeship. Amendments in 1948 to the federal voca¬ tional training act permitted the retraining of unemployed work¬ ers. The federal government vocational training assistance to participating provinces (only Quebec and Prince Edward Island refraining) ran to $2,000,000 annually. (C. Cy.) Great Britain.—The legislative pattern of the new plan of social security was completed during the earlier part of 1948 by the passage of the National Assistance act and the Children act. Financial assistance for those in need was provided by a na¬ tional and uniform system, centrally administered by the Na¬ tional Assistance board and financed by the treasury. Welfare services of modern conception were to be provided by the larger local authorities under the central guidance of the minister of health in England and Wales and the secretary of state in Scot¬ land. The welfare services included the provision of residential accommodation for the aged, the infirm and others who might require it, and also special services for handicapped persons such as the blind, the deaf and those suffering from permanent incapacity. The Children act of 1948 placed central responsibility for the care of children on the secretary of state for the home depart¬ ment and the secretary of state for Scotland. Under their guidance the larger local authorities would establish children’s committees with comprehensive responsibilities, and each com¬ mittee would appoint children’s officers with direct responsibility for each child. It was estimated that more than 125,000 children would be provided for under the provisions of this act. On July 5 the complete scheme of social security came into operation, which, in addition to the Family Allowances act, 1945 (which became operative in Aug. 1946), included the provisions of the National Insurance act, 1946, the National Insurance (Industrial Injuries) act, 1947, the National Health Service act, 1946, the National Assistance act, 1948, the Children act, 1948, and the National Insurance (Industrial Injuries) act, 1948. These combined to form a complete and comprehensive system of state social services, the effect of which it was as yet too early to estimate. The insurance measures alone covered some 35,500,000 men and women of whom some 3,500,000 were embraced by state insurance for the first time. The National Insurance (Industrial Injuries) act of 1948, which was introduced in May, was in effect a short amending act designed to facilitate the transition from the old system of

SOCIAL SERVICE—SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS workmen’s compensation to the new system of industrial injury allowances. The old system was related to earning capacity and the new system was related to the extent of disability; the main act permitted special hardship allowances for those whose in¬ juries prevented return to their former employment but who could undertake other employment of a lesser standard. The maximum allowances permitted for this purpose had been found to be insufficient, and this 1948 act increased the maxi¬ mum so that no one would be worse off under the new system than under the old. The amending act thus provided a com¬ promise between the two systems until more experience of the working of the main act was gained. An important development was the approval by parliament of a supplementary industrial injuries plan for the mining industry, to be included in the administrative machinery of the ministry of national insurance. This scheme for colliery workers was based on contributions by the workers and their employers, and provided for supplementary weekly benefits up to a maximum of £i for those receiving national insurance injury benefits. During the year a reciprocal agreement on famil}? allowances was made between Great Britain and New Zealand, each coun¬ try waiving the residence test for families coming from the other country; this was the first agreement of the kind between Great Britain and a commonwealth country. The existing agree¬ ment on National health insurance between Great Britain and Eire was replaced by a similar agreement on sickness benefit and the maternity grants and allowances provided by the Na¬ tional Insurance act. (J. McAt.)

Social Service:

see Child Welfare; Relief; Social Se¬

curity.

Societies and Associations. Steitrofus LZ ties and associations, with date of founding, membership, offi¬ cers and chief activities during 1948. (See also the separate arti¬ cles on American Legion; Boy Scouts; Red Cross; Young Men’s Christian Association; etc.) American Academy of Arts and Letters.—An organization founded in 1904 for the protection and furtherance of literature and arts in the. United States. Membership is limited to so persons chosen from the Na¬ tional Institute of Arts and Letters. The seventh joint meeting of the academy and the institute was held on May 21, 1948, at which time 15 arts and letters grants of $i,ooo each were awarded. New members elected to the academy were William Faulkner, Leon Kroll, John Stein¬ beck and Mark Van Doren. Officers (1948): president, Paul Manship; chancellor-treasurer, James Truslow Adams; secretary, Archibald MacLeish. Publications include ceremonial programs and art catalogues. Headquarters: 633 W. issth St., New York 32, N.Y. American Academy of Political and Social Science-An organization founded in 1889 to promote the progress of political and social science through forums and publications. Total membership in 1948 was ap¬ proximately 14,000 and included members residing in all parts of the world. The s^nd annual meeting was held in Philadelphia, Pa., with the general topic “How to Achieve One World.” Publications: The Annals, a bimonthly journal. Officers (1948): president, Ernest Minor Patter¬ son; secretary, J. P. Lichtenberger; treasurer, Charles J. Rhoads. Head¬ quarters: 3817 Spruce St., Philadelphia 4, Pa. American Association for the Advancement of Science.—The association was founded in 1848 to further the work of scientists, to increase the effectiveness of science in advancing human welfare and to increase public understanding of the aims and methods oi- science in human progress. Its membership in 1948 exceeded 42,000. The association publishes The Scientific Monthly, a nontechnical, illustrated journal, and Science, a weekly journal for specialists. Officers (1948): president, Edmund W. Sinnott; administrative secretary. Forest Ray Moulton. Headquarters: ISIS Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. American Association of Law Libraries.—Founded in 1906 and incorpo¬ rated in 193s, the association has for its objective the fostering of “the development of law libraries in the United States ana Canada, through establishing and maintaining standards for libraries and librarians; to publish in its official organs material of professional interest and value.” Membership in 1948 was approximately 538. Publications: Index to Legal Periodicals; Law Library Journal; and Laio Libraries in the United States and Canada, a law library directory. Officers (1948,!: president, Hobart R. Coffey; treasurer, Elizabeth Finley; executive secretary, Mar¬ garet E. Coonan. Headquarters: Baltimore liar Court House, Baltimore I, Md. American Bankers Association.—This organization, founded in 1875, had

653

a membership in 1948 of more than 16,200 banks, representing 97.3% of U.S. banks in number and more than 99% of the entire banking resources of the nation. Its primary objective is “to promote ■ the general welfare and usefulness of banks and financial institutions.” During 1948 the association sponsored an anti-inflation program and stressed certain longrange programs. During the year 87,500 persons held memberships in the association’s American Institute of Banking, and more than 45,000 banking people were enrolled in courses in 400 cities. The Graduate School of Banking conducted courses for 950 bank officers. Publication: Banking, a magazine. Evans Woollen, Jr., of the Fletcher Trust com¬ pany, Indianapolis, Ind., was elected president of the association in Sept. 1948. Headquarters: 12 E. 36th St., New York, N.Y. American Bar Association-A society founded in 1878 to advance the science of jurisprudence and promote the administration of justice. Mem¬ bership as of Nov. 30, 1948, was 42,061. The Ross prize of $2,500 went to Frederic Solomon and the annual medal for conspicuous service to the cause of U.S. jurisprudence was awarded to Arthur T. Vanderbilt, chief justice of the New Jersey supreme court. Publications: The American Bar Association Journal, a monthly; an annual volume of reports and pro¬ ceedings and various pamphlets. Officers (1948): president, Frank E. Holman; secretary, Joseph D. Stecher; treasurer, Walter M. Bastian. Headquarters: 1140 N. Dearborn, St., Chicago 10, Ill. American Bible Society.—Founded in 1816 to encourage the “wider cir¬ culation of the Holy Scriptures without note or comment.” In 1948 mem¬ bership was approximately 200,000. Principal activities in 1948 consisted in the publishing, distributing and encouraging of the reading of the Scriptures throughout the world as well as assisting in the translation of the Bible for use by the natives of Africa, Latin America, Alaska and the Pacific islands. Publication: Bible Society Record. President in 1948 was Daniel Burke. Headquarters: 450 Park Ave., New York 22, N.Y. American Chemical Society..—Organized in 1876 to encourage the ad¬ vancement of chemistry in all its branches, to promote research in chemi¬ cal science and industry, and to improve the qualifications and usefulness of chemists. Membership was 58,776 in 1948. Most significant activities of the year included chartering of four new local sections, bringing the total number to 129, and continued co-operation with the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization to provide assistance to foreign students of chemistry studying in the U.S. Publications: Analytical Chemistry; Chemical Abstracts; Chemical and Engineering News; Rubber Chemistry and Technology; Industrial and Engineering Chemistry; The Journal of the American Chemical Society; The Journal of Physical and Colloid Chemistry; Chemical Reviews. Officers (1948): president, Charles A. Thomas; executive secretary, Alden H. Emery; treasurer, Robert V. Mellefont. Headquarters: 1155 i6th St., N.W., Washington 6, D.C. American College of Dentists.—^The college was founded in 1920 to pro¬ mote the ideals of the dental profession, advance the standards and effi¬ ciency of dentistry, stimulate graduate study and efforts by dentists, con¬ fer fellowships in recognition of meritorious achievement, especially in dental science, art, education and literature, and improve public under¬ standing and appreciation of oral health service. Membership in 1948 was about 1,340. A convocation was held in Chicago, Ill., on Sept. 12. The Journal of the American College of Dentists is issued quarterly. Offi¬ cers (1948) were: Dr. L. R. Main, president; Dr. Harold S. Smith, treasurer; Dr. O. W. Brandhorst, secretary. Headquarters: 4952 Mary¬ land Ave., St. Louis, Mo. American College of Life Underwriters.—An organization established in 1927 to encourage and foster educational standards for efficient life under¬ writers. To receive the C.L.U. designation, candidates must pass five examinations and satisfactorily complete three years of business expe¬ rience. During 1948, 2,885 candidates took examinations at 142 univer¬ sities and colleges; 3,030 persons held the C.L.U. designation. Publica¬ tions: Annual Announcement; C.L.U. Study Supplements. Officers (1948): president, S. S. Huebner; chairman of the board, Julian S. Myrick; dean, David McCahan. Headquarters: 3924 Walnut St., Phila¬ delphia 4, Pa. American College of Surgeons.—Founded in 1913, the college has as its objective the establishment and maintenance of an association of surgeons for the advancement and improvement of the standards of surgery. Mem¬ bership in 1948 totalled approximately 16,000. Publications include Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics and a quarterly bulletin. Officers (1948) included: president. Dr. Dallas B. Phemister; secretary. Dr. Paul B. Magnuson. Headquarters: 40 E. Erie St., Chicago, Ill. American Economic Association—Founded in 1885 to encourage economic research, publications on economic questions and freedom of economic discussion. In 1948 there were 5,900 members and 2,500 library, cor¬ porate and individual subscribers. During the year the associatioiv spon¬ sored the publication of a volume of 13 essays reviewing significant de¬ velopments in economics during the past decade and a half, published under the title, A Survey of Contemporary Economics. Other publica¬ tions: American Economic Review, quarterly; Papers and Proceedings. Officers (1948): president, Joseph A. Schumpeter; secretary-treasurer, James Washington Bell. Headquarters: Northwestern university, Evan¬ ston, Ill. American Geographical Society of New York.—Founded in 1852 to pro¬ mote geographical research and exploration and the dissemination of geo¬ graphical knowledge. The Ronne Antarctic Research expedition, spon¬ sored by the society, returned in April 1948. {See also Antarctica.) The society published the two northern sheets (covering the United States, Canada, Alaska and Greenland) of the s-sheet Map of the Americas; and the Coast of Northeast Greenland, a volume of reports on the work of the Louise A. Boyd arctic expeditions of 1937-38. Publications: The Geographical Review (quarterly); Current Geographical Publications (monthly). Officers (1948): president, Richard Upjohn Light; director, John K. Wright. Headquarters: Broadway at 156th St., New York 32,

N.Y. American Historical Association.—^This association was founded in 1884 for the purpose of promoting historical studies, collecting and preserving historical manuscripts and for other activities in the interests of U.S. his¬ tory and history in the U.S. It was incorporated by act of congress in

654

SOCIETIES AKD ASSOCIATIONS

1889. The association publishes the American Historical Review, a quar¬ terly, an annual report, and selected historical monographs. Membership in 1948 was 4,900. The annual meeting was held Dec. 28—30 in Wash¬ ington, D.C. Officers (1948) included; Kenneth S. Latourette, Yale uni¬ versity, president; Guy Stanton Ford, executive secretary; Solon J. Buck, treasurer. Headquarters; Library of Congress Annex, Washington, D.C. American Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters, Inc.—This in¬ stitution was incorporated in 1942 to establish and maintain standards for qualified property and casualty underwriters with the view toward their being certified as professional Chartered Property Casualty Under¬ writers. To attain the C.P.C.U. designation, candidates must pass five examinations and satisfactorily complete three years of business expe¬ rience. In 1948 a total of 1,449 C.P.C.U. examinations were taken by 764 persons, thus increasing the designation holders to 211. Publication; the Annual Announcement. Officers (1948); chairman of the board, S. S. Huebner; president, Charles E. Hodges; dean, Harry J. Loman. Headquarters; 3924 Walnut St., Philadelphia 4, Pa. American Institute of Accountants.—A national society of certified public accountants, the A.I.A. was founded in 1887 to maintain high standards of education and practice for the profession and to develop the techniques of accounting and auditing to serve the public interest. Its membership in 1948 was 12,247. During the year it continued to work toward improve¬ ment in the federal income-tax system. It also prepared the official C.P.A. examination for 46 states, the District of Columbia, the island possessions and territories and the treasury department. Publications; the Journal of Accountancy, a monthly magazine, and the Certified Public Accountant, a monthly news bulletin. Officers (1948—49); president, Percival F. Brundage; executive director, John L. Carey; treasurer, Charles H. Towns. Headquarters; 13 E. 41st St., New York, N.Y. American Institute of Chemical Engineers.—This organization was founded in 1908 for the advancement of chemical engineering in theory and prac¬ tice and the maintenance of a high professional standard among its members. Membership in 1948 was 8,675. Publication; a monthly. Chemical Engineering Progress. Officers (1948); president, A. B. New¬ man; vice-president, F. J. Curtis; treasurer, C. R. DeLong; secretary, S. L. Tyler. Headquarters; 120 E. 41st St., New York, N.Y. American Institute of Electrical Engineers.—This society, founded in 1884 for the advancement of the theory and practice of electrical engineering and allied arts and sciences, had 30,288 members as of Sept, i, 1948. During 1948 four general and four district meetings were held, as well as several specialized technical conferences. The institute’s sections num¬ bered 84, and it had 127 student branches. Publications; Electrical En¬ gineering, a monthly; Transactions, an annual, and Standards. President in 1948 was Everett S. Lee of the General Electric company, Schenectady, N.Y. Headquarters; 33 W. 39th St., New York, N.Y. American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers.—An organiza¬ tion founded in 1871 to promote the arts and sciences connected with the economic and scientific search for and the production and use of minerals, including metals, coal, petroleum and other nonmetallic min¬ erals. Its membership in 1948 was 19,000. At the annual meeting of the institute in February, 315 papers were read and discussed at 65 technical sessions. Publications in 1948 included five volumes of Transactions, monthly issues of the magazine Mining and Metallurgy and regular issues of the periodicals Petroleum Technology, Metals Technology, Mining Technology and Coal Technology. Officers (1948); president, W. E. Wrather; secretary, A. B. Parsons. Headquarters; 29 W. 39th St., New York city. American Iron and Steel Institute.—This organization was incorporated in 1908 to provide for the mutual exchange of information and experience, to encourage and co-ordinate industrial research, compile statistics and promote the use of iron and steel. Membership in 1948 included 104 company members, 500 associate members, 1,695 active members, 51 emeritus members and 9 honorary members. The institute co-operated during the year in joint research covering more than 20 phases of the industry and the use of its products. Publications; Steelways, bimonthly; Steel Facts, bimonthly; Yearbook and numerous other works. Officers (1948); Walter S. Tower, president; Harold L. Hughes, treasurer; George S. Rose, secretary. Headquarters; 350 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. American Law Institute.—Founded in 1923 to promote clarification and simplification of the law and its better adaptation to social needs, to se¬ cure the better administration of justice and to encourage and carry on scholarly and scientific legal work. During 1948 the institute, in co¬ operation with the National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform State Laws, continued the drafting of a uniform commercial code. .It also conducted a new program of continuing legal education for lawyers, and started drafting a federal income-tax statute. Publications included the Restatement of the Law and the society’s annual Proceedings. Mem¬ bership in 1948 included 1,023 elected members and 249 ex-officio mem¬ bers. Officers; president, Harrison Tweed; treasurer, William Dean Embree; director, Herbert F. Goodrich. Headquarters; 3400 Chestnut St., Philadelphia, Pa. American Mathematical Society.—Founded in 1888 to encourage and maintain an active interest in mathematical science. There were 3,800 members in 1948. Publications; Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society; Transactions of the AmericamMathematical Society; Mathemati¬ cal Reviews; Colloquium Publications; Mathematical Surveys. Officers (1948): president, Einar Hille, Yale university; secretary, J. R. Kline, University of Pennsylvania. Headquarters; 531 N. ii6th St., New York 27, N.Y. American Society of Civil Engineers.—The society was founded in 1852 for the purpose of advancing the sciences of engineering and architecture. Membership, as of Nov. 1948, was 24,430. Professional activities of the society were directed through its headquarters, its professional committees, 13 technical divisions (air transport, city planning, highway, etc.) and student chapters in 125 engineering colleges. Publications include Pro¬ ceedings (monthly). Transactions (yearly), C^vil Engineering (monthly) and a Yearbook. Officers (1948); Franklin Thomas, president; William N. Carey, executive secretary. Headquarters; 33 W. 39th St New York 18, N.Y. American Society of Mechanical Engineers-A national organization

whose membership of more than 25,000 in 1948 was grouped into 20 professional divisions covering all phases of mechanical engineering. There were 71 sections of the society in the U.S. and Canada, and student branches were maintained in 122 engineering schools. Four national meetings were held in 1948, and seven divisions held national conferences. Nuclear energy and gas turbines had important places on the programs. Publications; Mechanical Engineering, monthly; Journal of Applied Me¬ chanics, quarterly; Transactions, eight times yearly; and A.S.M.E. Me¬ chanical Catalog and Directory, annually. Officers (1948); E. G. Bailey, president; Clarence E. Davies, secretary. Headquarters; 29 W. 39th St., New York, N.Y. Brookings Institution.—A nonprofit organization devoted to research and training in the field of economics and government was founded in 1927. The institution is supported by grants from foundations, its own endow¬ ment and income from the sale of publications. Its 1948 publications included; The Issue of Compulsory Health Insurance, by Lewis Meriam and George W. Bachman; Governmental Costs and Tax Levels, by Lewis H. Kimmel; Major Problems of U.S. Foreign Policy, by the staff of the International Studies group; Union-Management Cooperation, by Kurt Braun; The Overseas Information Program of the U.S. Government, by Charles A. H. Thomson. Officers (1948) included; Harold G. Moulton, president; Lewis Meriam, vice-president; Elizabeth H. Wilson, secretary. Headquarters; 722 Jackson Place, N.W., Washington 6, D.C. Buhl Foundation, The—Established in 1927, the foundation had granted to existing (or especially established) agencies a total of $5,252,094 for the promotion of nationally significant programs in the Pittsburgh district —in regional economic, historical and social research, in higher educa¬ tion and in research in the natural sciences. The foundation’s $1,700,000 Chatham Village, a pioneering demonstration of large-scale planned resi¬ dential community building for long-term investment, has received inter¬ national recognition. Foundation assets in 1948 were $12,495,664. Di¬ rector; Charles F. Lewis. Headquarters; Farmers Bank building, Pitts¬ burgh 22, Pa. Carnegie Trusts.—Carnegie Corporation of New York, founded in 1911, with an endowment of $135,000,000, makes grants to institutions and agencies whose activities aim at the advancement and diffusion of knowl¬ edge among the people of the United States and the British empire. Proj¬ ects supported by the trust in 1948 were primarily in the social sciences. Five other separately administered Carnegie organizations in the United States are; Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh (1896), composed of a department of fine arts, music hall, museum of natural history and a public library. Carnegie Institute of Washington (1902), engaged in scientific study in the fields of astronomy, terrestrial magnetism, plant biology, embryology, genetics and archaeology. Carnegie Hero Fund Commission (1904), established to recognize by medals and monetary awards those civilians who risk their lives in heroic effort to save others. Awards for the areas of the United States, Canada and Newfoundland are administered from this fund. Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (1905), estab¬ lished to provide pensions for teachers and to advance higher education. The original sum of $13,000,000 received from Andrew Carnegie later was augmented by substantial sums from the Carnegie corporation for its program of educational research. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (1910). During 1948 the endowment put more emphasis on expanding its own direct activities and decreasing grants to other agencies. Assistance and support of the United Nations through stimulating public education in foreign affairs became an integral part of the endowment’s program in 1948. Catholic Community Service, National—A service organization founded in 1940 to promote the spiritual, educational, recreational and welfare needs of men and women in the armed forces, patients in veterans’ hos¬ pitals and their families. Activities in 1948 consisted in expansion of services to personnel in veterans’ hospitals and participation in the pro¬ gram of the reactivated United Service organization. Publications; NCCS Newsletter, a house organ, and various supplementary pamphlets. Thomas D. Hinton was executive director in 1948. Headquarters; 1312 Massa¬ chusetts Ave., N.W., Washington 5, D.C. Catholic Library Association.—An international organization of librarians, educators and others interested in promotion of Catholic literature and scholarship. Founded in 1936 its membership totalled 1,646 in 1948. Publications include; Catholic Library World; Catholic Periodical Index' Catholic Supplement to Standard Catalog for High School Libraries. Officers (1948); president. Brother Aurelian Thomas, Manhattan college' New York city; secretary-treasurer, Laurence A. Leavey, Manhattan col¬ lege. Headquarters; P.O. Box 25, Kingsbridge Station, New York 63, N.Y. Commonwealth Fund.—An endowment, established in 1918 by Mrs. Stephen V. Harkness “to do something for the welfare of mankind,” and* amounting to about $50,000,000 in 1948. Appropriations in the year ended Sept. 30, 1948, were $1,992,208.24. Activities tending to promote or maintain physical and mental health accounted for more than 80% of the total. Grants of more than $355,000 were made for research on medical and physiological problems. The British fellowship scheme was fully reconstituted after interruptions caused by World War II; 28 fel¬ lows went to the U.S. for graduate study. Malcolm P. Aldrich was presi¬ dent of the board of directors in 1948. Headquarters were at 41 E S7th St., New York, N.Y. Daughters of the American Revolution, National Society of._A national educational and patriotic society founded in 1890, whose activities were conducted in 1948 by 23 national committees, and whose membership was 161,813 in 2,616 chapters. The D.A.R. financially assists 14 ap¬ proved schools, supports U.S. music, distributes Student Loan funds and maintains an active program aimed at better citizenship and patriotism among the youth of the U.S. The society also has a large genealogical' library of more than 38,000 volumes located in Washington, D.C. Publi¬ cations include; National Defense News; Daughters of the American Revolution Magazine. President general in 1948 was Mrs. Roscoe C. O’Byrne. National headquarters; 1720 D St., N.W., Washington 6, D.C. Elks, Benevolent and Protective Order of—A fraternal order organized in 1868 to practise charity, justice, brotherly love and fidelity; to promote

SOCIETIES AND ASSOCIATIONS the welfare and enhance the happiness of its members; to quicken the spirit of U.S. patriotism. In 1948 the Elks had 950,000 members in 1,500 lodges; it expanded its program of aid to veterans’ hospitals, in¬ creased the number and amounts of scholarships and emphasized its Youth Movement. It spent almost $6,000,000 on charity. Publication; the Elks Magazine, a monthly. Officers (1948): grand exalted ruler, George I. Hall of New York, N.Y.; grand secretary, J. E. Masters of Chicago, Ill. Headquarters; Elks National Memorial Headquarters build¬ ing, 2750 Lakeview Ave., Chicago, Ill. Falk Foundation, The Maurice and Laura, of Pittsburgh, Pa., was estab¬ lished in 1929 for the purpose of advancing human welfare. In 1948 the foundation made grants of $225,000 for studies of the legal structure of the federal income-tax law and $35,000 for distribution of publications reporting results of research studies made under the foundation sponsor¬ ship. Such organizations as the United Jewish fund, community chest of Allegheny county, Pa., and the Red Cross were recipients of other grants. Publications in 1948 (financed by the Falk foundation); Our National Debt and Our Savings; Our National Debt and Life Insurance; Our Na¬ tional Debt and the National Welfare; Industry-Wide Bargaining and Economic Systems. Officers (1948); chairman, Leon Falk, Jr.; secretary, I. A. Simon; treasurer, Arthur E. Braun; executive director, J. Steele Gow. Headquarters; 1911 Farmers Bank building, Pittsburgh 22, Pa. Freemasonry (Masonic Fraternity).—The most significant fact for 1948 was the large increase in membership of this fraternity in the United States and Canada. The number of lodges in the U.S. totalled 15,205 with a membership of 3,284,068, the increase for 1948 amounting to 181,993. Canada, England, Australia and New Zealand also reported substantial membership gains. Although the grand lodge had been re¬ established in the Philippines and there was some activity in China and Japan, little progress was made in Europe because of unsettled social and political conditions. In addition to individual lodge activities of estab¬ lishing and maintaining homes and schools for orphaned children, hos¬ pitals and clinics in 1948, all the U.S. lodges contributed to the building of the George Washington Masonic memorial at Shooter’s Hill, Va. Guggenheim Memorial Foundation, John Simon.—Established in 1925 to improve the quality of education and the practice of the arts and pro¬ fessions, to foster research and to provide for the cause of international understanding, the organization had on Jan. 1, 1948, total assets of $25,250,102.31. During 1948 it awarded 132 fellowships with grants of $365,000, including 20 Latin-American awards with stipends totalling $65,000. Officers (1948) were; Mrs. Simon Guggenheim, president; Francis H. Brownell, vice-president; Otto L. Myers, treasurer; Henry Allen Moe, secretary. Headquarters; 551 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. International College of Surgeons.—This organization was founded in Geneva, Switzerland, in t935, for the creation of a common bond among surgeons of all nations and the promotion of highest standards in surgery throughout the world without regard for race, creed or colour. Member¬ ship in t948 was about 4,000 in 29 countries. Publication; The Journal of the International College of Surgeons. Officers (1948); president. Prof. Dr. Francisco Grana, Lima, Peru; president-elect. Dr. Herbert Acuff, Knoxville, Tenn.; secretary-general. Dr. Max Thorek, Chicago, Ill. Headquarters; 1516 Lake Shore Drive, Chicago, Ill. Kiwanis International.—Founded in 1915 as a fraternal organization composed of business and professional leaders interested in civic better¬ ment. Membership in 1948 totalled 190,000 in 3,000 clubs. Principal activities during the year included providing of lunches for needy children, sponsoring of community welfare and child health activities, assisting veterans to find jobs and participating in “Get Out the Vote” campaigns. Publications; The Kiwanis Magazine; Monthly Club Bulletin, and others. Officers (1948); president, J. Belmont Mosser; treasurer, J. Hugh Jackson; secretary, 0. E. Peterson. Headquarters; 520 N. Michigan Ave., Chicago II, Ill. Knights of Columbus.—A fraternal order founded in 1882, dedicated to the preservation and championship of Catholic and U.S. principles. Mem¬ bership as of Aug. 31, 1948, totalled 725,817. The organization’s activi¬ ties during the year centred around a national program for the distribu¬ tion of religious instruction by mail and the administration of an educa¬ tional trust fund providing college education for the children of members who died as a result of World War II. Publications; Columbia, a monthly, and News, a weekly. John E. Swift was supreme knight in 1948. Head¬ quarters; 45 Wall St., New Haven 7, Conn. League of Women Voters of the United States.—The league was founded in 1920 to promote political responsibility through informed and active participation of citizens in government, without supporting or opposing any particular party or candidate. Membership in 1948 was 83,000. The 1948 national convention adopted a two-year program which called for nation-wide work toward strengthening the United Nations, promoting international reconstruction and world trade, and a study of the federal budget. The organization promoted a campaign to encourage a large and informed vote in the 1948 elections. Publications in 1948 included; The United Nations and PaXestine; Trade Agreements at the Crossroads; The Citizen and the U.N. Officers (1948); president, Anna Lord Strauss; secretary, Mrs. James G. Scarborough. Headquarters; 726 Jackson Place, N.W., Washington, D.C. Lions Clubs, International Association of.—Founded in 1917 as a non¬ political, nonsectarian association of service clubs whose purpose is to recognize and meet the needs of the community. Membership in 1948 totalled 400,000 in 7,000 clubs in 25 countries. During the year the asso¬ ciation completed 97,826 activities classified under 8 major headings; boys and girls; citizenship and patriotism; civic improvements; community betterment; education; health and welfare; safety; sight conservation and blind. Publications; The Lion; El Lion (Spanish); Lions International Monthly Letter. Officers (1948); president, Eugene S. Briggs, Enid, Okla.; secretary-general, Melvin Jones, Chicago, Ill. Headquarters; 322 S. Michigan Ave., Chicago 4, Ill. Music Library Association.—An organization founded in I93t to promote the establishment, growth and use of music libraries in the U.S. and Canada. Membership in 1948 was 874. During the year the association was engaged in preparing for 1949 publication a number of library aids, namely, a directory of British and American musical periodicals; a re-

655

vised code for cataloguing music and a check list of thematic indexes. Publications; Notes, the quarterly journal, and quarterly supplements. Officers (1948); president, Scott Goldthwaite, University of Chicago; secretary, Frank C. Campbell, Library of Congress, Music Division, Washington 25, D.C. National Academy of Sciences.^—A scientific body incorporated by an act of congress in 1863 for the purpose of investigating and reporting upon scientific subjects as called for by any department of the U.S. govern¬ ment. Total membership (as of July i, 1948) was 430. Five medals were awarded during 1948, including two to European scientists. Publi¬ cations; Proceedings, Memoirs and biographical memoirs. Officers (1948); Alfred N. Richards, president; Raymund L. Zwemer, executive secretary; William J. Robbins, treasurer. Headquarters; 2101 Constitu¬ tion Ave., N.W., Washington 25, D.C. National Association of Manufacturers-The N.A.M. was founded in 1895 to promote the industrial interests of the U.S., foster domestic and foreign commerce, better employer-employee relations and protect the individual liberty and rights of each, disseminate information among the public with respect to principles of individual liberty and ownership of property, and support legislation in furtherance of those principles and oppose legislation in derogation thereof. Membership in 1948 totalled 16,000 manufacturers. Publications include the weekly NAM News and the quarterly NAM Law Digest. Officers (1948); Morris Sayre, president and chairman of the board; Earl Bunting, managing director; Noel Sar¬ gent, secretary. Headquarters; 14 W. 49th St., New York, N.Y. National Association of State Libraries.—The association was founded in 1889 to develop and increase the usefulness and efficiency of statesupported libraries. Membership in 1948 included 45 state libraries. Pub¬ lications include check lists of legislative journals, statutes, session laws and collected public documents, and the Proceedings of Annual Meetings. Officers (1948) included: president, Charles F. Gosnell; secretarytreasurer, Alfred D. Keator. Headquarters: New York State Library, Albany, N.Y. National Lawyers Guild.—Founded in 1937, the guild is an association of lawyers devoted to the interests of the people of the U.S. and the professional welfare of the lawyer. It had about 4,000 members in 1948. During the year it sent a delegation to confer with Ambassador Warren R. Austin regarding U.S. policy in Palestine; participated in the National Conference on Family Life, and also in the third congress of the Inter¬ national Association of Democratic Lawyers. Publications include: Na¬ tional Lawyers Guild Review (bimonthly) and National Guild Lawyer (quarterly). Officers: president, Robert W. Kenny; executive secretary, Robert J. Silberstein; treasurer, Nathan B. Kogan. Headquarters: 902 20th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. Performing Right Societies.—Organizations of composers, authors and publishers of musical works, in various countries, whose chief common aim is the protection of members’ copyrights in the field of public per¬ formance. Largest and most influential of the organizations is the Ameri¬ can Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (x\.S.C.A.P.), with a total membership of 2,400 in 1948. Because certain operations of the International Confederation of Societies of Authors and Composers were inconsistent with U.S. views on cartels, A.S.C.A.P. withdrew from the confederation early in 1948. Officers of A.S.C.A.P. (1948) included: Fred E. Ahlert, president; George W. Meyers, secretary. Headquarters: 30 Rockefeller Plaza, New York 20, N.Y. Research Libraries, The Association of.-—Founded in 1931, the association includes 48 research libraries in the United States and Canada. It seeks by co-operative effort to develop and increase the resources and usefulness of research collections in American libraries. It publishes periodically Doctoral Dissertations Accepted by American Universities and A Catalog of Books Represented by Library of Congress Printed Cards. Officers in 1948 included: Charles W. David, the executive secretary, and an ad¬ visory committee of five members. Headquarters: University of Pennsyl¬ vania, Philadelphia, Pa. Rockefeller Foundation.—Founded in 1913 for the purpose of promoting the welfare of mankind throughout the world in specific fields of medical, natural and social sciences, the humanities and public health. During 1948 appropriations were made to various agencies for research in nervous and mental diseases, experimental biology, social and economic problems, foreign languages and cultures and the study and control of certain dis¬ eases of public health importance. Publications; The President’s Review; The Annual Report. Officers (1948); president, Chester 1. Barnard; sec¬ retary, Flora M. Rhind. Headquarters: 49 W. 49th St., New York 20, N.Y. Rosenwald Fund, The Julius.—The fund was incorporated under the laws of the state of Illinois in 1917 and was endowed by Julius Rosenwald with securities valued at approximately $20,000,000. In setting up this foundation, Rosenwald stipulated that principal as well as income should be used by the trustees and that the whole fund should be expended in a single generation, specifically within 25 years of his death. In accordance with these instructions, the trustees expended all of the resources of the fund, both principal and income, and closed the foundation on June 30, 1948. The total expenditures of The Julius Rosenwald fund during the 31 years of its existence were $22,250,000. While the fund’s chartered purpose was stated in broad terms, “the well being of mankind,” the work was concentrated on enriching and equalizing opportunities for all the people in the United States, chiefly on the enlargement of educational and health facilities for Negroes. The chief expenditures in round figures were as follows: education $11,000,000, health and medical services $3,000,000, fellowships $1,750,000, race relations $3,000,000, social studies and gen¬ eral activities $2,000,000 and administration of the fund $1,500,000. A history of the fund’s work, written by Edwin R. Embree, who served as its president for 20 years, was to be issued by Harper & Brothers early in 1949 under the title: Investment in People, the Story of The Julius Rosenwald Fund, 1^17-1^47. Rotary International.—Founded in 1903 as an international organization of representative business and professional men for the purpose of fur¬ thering co-operation and good will in business and community life. In 1948 there were 6,600 Rotary clubs in 80 countries and geographical

656

SOCIOLOGY

regions, with a membership in excess of 320,000. The 39th annual con¬ vention was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in May 1948. During the year the organization continued to promote international good will and co-operation through its program of dissemination of information con¬ cerning the United Nations organization and financial support of foreign students in the United States, Publication: The Rotatian. Officers (1948-49): Angus S. Mitchell, Australia, president; Philip Lovejoy, U.S., secretary; Richard E. Vernor, U.S., treasurer. Headquarters: 35 E. Wacker drive, Chicago i. Ill. Russell Sage Foundation—This foundation was established in 1907 “to promote the improvement of social and living conditions in the United States.” With income from an endowment of $15,000,000, it conducts a program of investigating adverse social conditions with a view to pro¬ ducing and disseminating information which will assist citizens and organi¬ zations seeking to ameliorate, remedy or prevent such conditions. The foundation maintains a research staff, the results of whose studies are made available through publications, conferences and consultation services. The foundation library issued five bibliographies during 1948: Checklist of Current Serials in Social Welfare; Probation; Books of 1947 on Social Subjects; Displaced Persons; and Community Organization for Health and Welfare Services. Officers (1948): president, Morris Hadley; general director, Donald Young. Headquarters: 130 E. 22nd St., New York, N.Y. Temperance League of America.—Established in 1895 as the Anti-Saloon League of America, a national temperance federation, its name was changed in 1948. In 1948 the league sought legislation to deny use of the mails and interstate commerce for dissemination of liquor advertising. In the referendum elections of that year the league was instrumental in defeating a repeal of the local liquor option law in Arkansas and an initiated measure in Oregon to permit the sale of distilled liquor by the glass in hotels. In California it was active in defeating a measure to prevent local control of liquor; in North Dakota the league upheld the Food-Liquor Divorcement act. Publication: The American Issue. Officers (1948): general superintendent, Clayton M. Wallace; president. Bishop G. D. Batdorf. Headquarters: 131 B St., S.E., Washington 3, D.C. Theatre Library Association.—This association, an affiliate of the Amer¬ ican Library association, was founded in 1937 for the purpose of pre¬ serving and making accessible to the public the records of the drama and kindred fields of entertainment. Membership in 1948 was about 200. The official publication is Broadside, issued quarterly; a sponsored pub¬ lication is Theatre Annual. Officers (1948): president, George Freedley; treasurer, Paul Myers; secretary, Murray D. Morrison. Headquarters: 476 Fifth Ave., New York, N.Y. Twentieth Century Fund.—Founded in 1919 by Edward A. Filene, the organization devotes its resources to research and public education on current economic problems. In 1948 research and surveys sponsored by the fund dealt with economic problems including labour-management relations, domestic monopoly practices, capital requirements in the U.S. and investment and developmental possibilities in Turkey and Brazil. Fund publications in 1948 were: Electric Power and Government Policy; Cartels or Competition?; Report on the Greeks. Officers (1948): presi¬ dent, John H. Fahey; treasurer, A. A. Berle, Jr.; executive director, Evans Clark. Headquarters: 330 W. 42nd St., New York 18, N.Y. Woman's Christian Temperance Union, National_The union was founded in 1874 to unite the Christian women of the United States to rally public opinion to the standard of total abstinence from all alcoholic liquors. Activities during 1948 included summer schools and camps, lectures, exhibits, the distribution of literature and the production of two new sound films. Liquid Lore and Skid Row. Membership was about 400,000. Publications include Union Signal (weekly) and Young Cru¬ sader, a monthly for children. Officers (1948): Mrs. D. Leigh Colvin, president; Elizabeth Smart, corresponding secretary; Violet T. Black, treasurer. Headquarters: 1730 Chicago Ave., Evanston, Ill. Women's Clubs, General Federation of.—Founded in 1890 as an inter¬ national organization for the promotion of education, philanthropy, public welfare, civics and fine arts. International membership in 1948 was approximately 11,000,000 women in 16,500 clubs. Principal activ¬ ities during the year included an international good-will and rehabilitation program through individual correspondence with women of other nations and awarding of scholarships to foreign students for study in the U.S. The federation continued to support its three-year-old youth conservation program designed to provide adequate educational, health, welfare and recreational facilities for children and young people in the U.S. Publica¬ tion: General Federation Clubwoman, a magazine. Officers (1948): president, Mrs. J. L. Blair Buck.; secretary, Mrs. Earl B. Shoesmith; treasurer, Mrs. Charles L. Fuller. Headquarters: 1734 N St., N.W., Washington 6, D.C. ponist Organization of America.—Founded in 1897 to further the up¬ building of Palestine as a Jewish commonwealth and to promote the interests of the Jewish renaissance. Principal activities of the organiza¬ tion in 1948 were directed toward aid for the newly founded state of Israel. Such activities included assistance to refugee groups in Europe and Cyprus and participation in the creation of the Israel Corporation of America, for the investment of private capital in Israel. Membership in 1948 totalled 245,000. Publications: The New Palestine; Inside Israel; Dos Yiddishe Folk. Emanuel Neumann was president in 1948. Head¬ quarters: 41 E. 42nd St., New York 17, N.Y.

^nrinlniTU

1948 the trends in sociology were in many respects merely the continuation of de¬ velopments already clearly manifest. Among these were: (i) the gradual fusion of sociology and related social sciences into a more functionally differentiated whole; (2) the steady albeit slower growth of industrial sociology; (3) the continuing pre¬ occupation with race relations and with family problems; (4) the analytic working over of war experience, oftentimes per¬

OUblUIUgjfi

sonal, with bureaucratic and similar structures; and (5) the slow rapprochement of methods and techniques once thought mutually exclusive but now seen to be complementary. Among the trends not previously so well marked were: (6) attention to international relations and area studies; and (7) sharp criticism of both the techniques and presuppositions of public opinion polling. Fusion.—Stuart Chase’s The Proper Study of Mankind dem¬ onstrated the fusion of sociology with certain other sovial sci¬ ences. It served a useful purpose in showing the general public that academic analyses may have fruitful concrete applica¬ tions. Those most frequently coupled with the sociologists in Chase’s book were the anthropologists. A persuasive article not directly dealing with this alliance, but clearly implying it, was Robert Redfield’s “The Art of Social Science” {American Jour¬ nal of Sociology). Another article showing the conditions under which the working alliance might become more fruitful was Robert Bierstedt’s “The Limitations of Anthropological Method in Sociology” {American Sociological Review). The appended rejoinder by the anthropologist Clyde Kluckhohn was temperate, and the exchange of views probably furthered the adjustments that must be made by both sides. Kluckhohn’s Mirror for Man, winner of the Whittlesey House award for 1948, here and there contained claims which might have caused sociologists to shout “academic imperialism!” but even the most vociferous critics would not have denied its merits. Among textbooks the anthro¬ pological-sociological merger was most effectively demonstrated by J. Bennett and M. Tumin’s Social Life: Structure and Function. Industrial Sociology.—The sociology of industrial organiza¬ tion continued to grow in popularity, as attested by the 1948 “Census of Research” {Am. Sociol. Rev.). A stimulating article taking this interest as its point of departure, but having many implications of more general character, was Philip Selznick’s “Foundations of the Theory of Organization” {Am. Sociol. Rev.). An article by Barrington Moore, Jr., {Am. Sociol. Rev.) showed awareness of the criticisms of industrial sociology ad¬ vanced by H. Blumer and R. Dubin, and in particular admitted the distorted perspective which the ignoring of union organiza¬ tion initially introduced. Race Relations and Family Problems.—The theme of the 1948 meeting of the American Sociological society w'as racial and cultural conflict. Many of the papers maintained this focus, although naturally other interests received their customary recognition. It must be said that the meeting did little to ad¬ vance knowledge of either empirical evidence or abstract an¬ alysis; in the main only racial and cultural conflict in the United States was considered. Nothing on the Jew-Arab strug¬ gle, nothing on India or Indonesia, nothing on South Africa, nothing on the Balkans and the sovietized satellite states, noth¬ ing on Germany, nothing on the rising anti-Semitism of Britain —in short, a most provincial exhibition. The professional jour¬ nals contained a few interesting articles. Here may be men¬ tioned R. H. Lee’s “Social Institutions of a Rocky Mountain Chinatown” {Social Forces) ; J. Masuoka’s “The City and Racial Adjustment” {Social Forces); R. F. Spencer’s “Social Structure of a Contemporary Japanese-American Buddhist Church” {So¬ cial Forces); Clarence Click’s “Collective Behavior in Race Re¬ lations” {Am. Sociol. Rev.); Leonard Bloom’s “Concerning Ethnic Research” {Am. Sociol. Rev.); P. B. Foreman’s “Negro Lifeways in the Rural South” {Am. Sociol. Rev.); J. P. Gillin’s “ ‘Race’ Relations without Conflict” {Am. J. Sociol.); E. K. Francis’ “The Russian Mennonites: From Religious to Ethnic Group” {Am. J. Sociol.), and K. L. Little’s “Social Change and Social Class in the Sierra Leone Protectorate” {Am. J. Sociol.). The outstanding treatise in the field was D. Tomasic’s Person-

SODALITY O F OUR LADY ality and Culture in Eastern European Politics. This sociological study of Balkan problems broke new ground. It was adversely criticized as “propagandistic,” however, by M. M. Kossitch in his “Aus den Tiefen des Balkans” (Kolner Zeitschrift fiir Soci¬ ology). The best textbook of the year, R. A. Schermerhorn’s These Our People, was not so provincial as most, but in any case it made no claim to thorough coverage outside the United States, and dealt with American minorities in a very effective and attractive way. Family problems continued to elicit much interest, but the analysis remained superficial and conventional. Even J. H. Bossard’s new departure. Sociology of Child Development, suffered from the pangs of undigested theory. One of the few articles striking a new note was that by William L. Kolb, “Sociologically Established Family Norms and Democratic Values” {Social Forces); another was J. H. Bossard and E. S. Boll’s “Rite of Passage” {Social Forces), a study of the debutante. The Amer¬ ican Journal of Sociology published a special issue on “The American Family,” but it had no articles transcending the customarj' modes of description and analysis. Several new text¬ books of more or less standard type appeared: H. Becker and R. Hill’s Family, Marriage, and Parenthood, J. C. and Mary Landis’ Building a Successful Marriage and F. A. Magoun’s Love and Marriage. The Sociologist and Bureaucracy.—Sociologists, both as civilians and as members of the armed forces, often became acquainted with bureaucracy outside textbooks for the first time during World War II. The flood of articles thereby produced showed few signs of abatement in 1948. Among the more searching were A. K. Davis’ “Bureaucratic Patterns in the Navy Officer Corps” {Social Forces), G. D. Spindler’s “The Military: A Systematic Analysis” {Social Forces), F. D. Free¬ man’s “The Army as a Social Structure” {Social Forces), Hugh Mullan’s “The Regular-Service Myth” and R. P. Parsons’ re¬ joinder, “ ‘De-Mything’ the Regular-Service Myth” {Am. J,. Sociol.). These were all somewhat impressionistic reports by participant observers. Methods and Techniques.—Albert Ellis’ “Questionnaire versus Interview Methods in the Study of Human Love Rela¬ tionships” {Am. Sociol. Rev.) compared anonymous responses to questionnaires with personal interviews in which the subjects were identified, and arrived at the conclusion that more selfrevelatory or unfavourable responses were elicited by the former than by the latter. The triviality of the questions asked and the statistical naivete of the analysis called forth biting comment from Jessie Bernard {Am. Sociol. Rev.). S. C. Dodd’s “De¬ veloping Demoscopes for Social Research” {Am. Sociol. Rev.) was most interesting as a sample of contemporary positivistic ideology pushed to the verge of absurdity. Foreman’s “The Theory of Case Study” {Social Forces) showed a refreshing awareness of the need for coming to grips with the empirical data. Possibilities of bringing together the less extreme points of view were tellingly set forth by R. K. Merton, “The Bearing of Empirical Research upon the Development of Social Theory” {Am. Sociol. Rev.). In general, it seemed clear that belligerent antitheses of method and techniques were losing ground in favour of more conciliatory approaches which, if the dangers of facile eclecticism could be avoided, promised much. International Disciplines.—Sociological aspects of interna¬ tional relations and of area studies were brought into focus in a way which might represent the start of a new trend. State de¬ partment, military government and foundation officials had long been outspokenly aware of the provincialism of U.S. sociology as compared with several neighbour disciplines, but little atten¬ tion on the part of sociologists was evidenced, even during World War II. Two articles showing keen realization of the

657

situation appeared in professional sociological journals in 1948, however: W. R. Crawford’s “International Relations and Soci¬ ology” {Am,. Sociol. Rev.) and T. L. Smith’s “Needed Em¬ phases in Southern Sociology” {Social Forces). The discussion that followed Crawford’s paper, in particular, showed the vast scope of teaching and research opportunities available to sociolo¬ gists prepared to take advantage of them. Public Opinion Polling .—In 1948 scepticism regarding pub¬ lic opinion polls was expressed by Robert E. Myers and, at considerable length, by Herbert Blumer. The latter’s article, “Public Opinion and Public Opinion Polling” {Am. Sociol. Rev.), was formulated in 1947 but did not appear until Oct. 1948. Newcomb and Julian Woodard attempted to rebut Blumer’s attack, but without marked success. Outside the United States several developments of consider¬ able significance took place, but few if any seem to have been of crucial or even novel character. Sociological societies held meetings in France, Germany, Japan, China and in several Latin American countries. At Seeshaupt in Bavaria a meeting participated in by Germans and occupation personnel dealt with the teaching of the social sciences, from law to social psychol¬ ogy, in German universities. An interesting set of letters con¬ cerning participation in the revived German sociological society, in which letters by L, von Wiese, H. F. Infeld and A. M. Lee figured, was published in the American Sociological Review. The 1948 meeting of the American Sociological society took place in Chicago. Talcott Parsons of Harvard was the president-elect for 1949. (H. Bec.)

nf fliir hriv

the 15,695 sodaii-

OUUdllljf Ul UUI LdUjfa ties in the United States and pos¬ sessions, which existed in Catholic parishes, colleges, secondary and elementary schools, geared their efforts to the theme, “The personal formation of a real sodalist,” assigned for the annual World Sodality day observance. Early in the year Pope Pius XII granted a personal audience to two members of the staff. Rev. J. Roger Lyons, S.J., and Rev. Aloysius Heeg, S.J. Later, the pope sent a personal letter of gratitude to sodalists of North America for the large spiritual bouquet they sent him. In this the pope indicated especially that official rules (governing all Sodalities of Our Lady through¬ out the world) must be observed; he indicated that the members should concentrate their efforts on the extension of Christ’s interests into the home, the school and the all-important field of labour-management. On Sept. 27, the second centenary of the golden bull Gloriosae Dominae, issued by Benedict XIV, Pope Pius issued an apostolic constitution (of approximately 3,250 words) reaffirming all of the privileges and favours which had been bestowed on the Sodality of Our Lady from its founding in Rome in 1563. The annual summer schools of Catholic Action (Rev. Thomas Bowdern, S.J., dean), sponsored by the National Sodality secre¬ tariate in St. Louis and held in St. Louis, Montreal, Detroit*, San Antonio, Washington, New York, Chicago and Denver, were attended by 12,570. During the sabbatical biennium granted Rev. Daniel A. Lord, S.J., national organizer, on the occasion of his twenty-fifth anni¬ versary in the priesthood, Rev. Lyons was appointed to guide the national sodality movement and Rev. F. L. Zimmerman, S.J., to serve as director of publishing and administrative work entailed in the promotion of the organization. Action Now, adult sodality magazine, was changed to digest format under the acting editorship of Rev. Richard Rooney, S.J. (D. J. W.)

SODIUM CARBONATE —SOIL EROSION

658 Qnriiiim rorhnnQto

producuOulUni UulDUnfllC* tion of natural sodium carbonate in the United States reached a new record high; it amounted to 293,051 short tons in 1947, against 215,625 short tons in 1946. This output represented only about 6% of the total, the re¬ mainder being manufactured from salt. There is a small output of natural carbonate in Canada, 286 short tons being produced in 1945, none in 1946 and 136 short tons in 1947. (G. A. Ro.) The production of natural sodium sul¬

Sodium Sulphate. phate in the United States rose from

198,781 short tons in 1946 to 257,294 short tons in 1947, an in¬ crease of 29%, and a new record high. The natural sulphate out¬ put is about one-quarter of the total, the remainder being manu¬ factured. In Canada the output of natural sulphate increased from 105,919 short tons in 1946 to 136,150 short tons in 1947. (G. A. Ro.) Briggs Beautyware of Detroit, Mich., was the win¬ ner of the men’s division in the national amateur softball championship and the Phoenix, Ariz., Ramblers repeated as victors in the women’s division. In the All-American Girls’ Baseball league, Rockford, Ill., won the play-off. The Parichy Bloomer Girls, Forest Park, Ill., topped the National Girls’ Baseball league, an organization confined to the Chicago area. The Jax Maids of New Orleans, La., made a successful tour as professionals, meeting men’s teams throughout the United States and Canada. (M. P. W.)

Softball.

Soli Erosion and Soli Conservation • indicative

of

greatly increased public concern for soil and water resources occurred in 1948. The United Nations, through the 55 membernations of its Food and Agriculture organization, launched a soil- and water-conservation program and published an inter¬ national study, in three languages, of the causes of land de¬ terioration and practical procedures for organizing and carrying out conservation programs. A schematic land classification map of the world was issued to aid the different countries in making conservation surveys. An Inter-American Conference on Conservation of Renew¬ able Resources, held in September at Denver, Colo., in the United States, was attended by representatives of all western hemisphere nations. The conference placed strong emphasis on consideration of the interrelationships of soils, water, physiog¬ raphy, plant and animal and human life as essential to successful reclamation and conservation projects in all climatic zones. In¬ ternational co-operation as a means of speeding up conservation of productive land throughout the hemisphere was stressed. Soil-conservation meetings for agricultural workers of Eu¬ rope and the near east were held in Florence, Italy, during Sept. 1948, under sponsorship of the F.A.O. of the United Nations. The meetings took the form of a school, with lectures and dis¬ cussions on soil and water problems of participating nations, and field demonstrations on methods of erosion control and land and water management on Italian soils. The school was directed by conservation specialists of the United States. Its immediate purpose was to stress the importance of soil protection in the world’s agricultural economy, to consider means of reducing and eliminating damages to land, and to study at first hand the latest scientific developments and techniques in soil conserva¬ tion. Forty-nine countries of the world were carrying on soil con¬ servation work during 1948, patterned after the program of the soil conservation service of the United States. The work ranged from the extensive programs under way in Mexico, Australia, New Zealand and the Union of South Africa, to lesser or local

programs in China, parts of India and in other countries. Eighteen countries had organized divisions or bureaus for pro¬ moting action programs of soil conservation on the land. United States.—Widespread acceptance of the soil-conserva¬ tion program in the United States was an important factor in getting conservation measures on the land during 1948. People from all walks of life were taking the initiative to help the pro¬ gram. Conservation field days and demonstrations, initiated, financed and managed by local people, were held in more than 100 different communities. Some demonstrations of the type popularly called conservation farm “face liftings” were at¬ tended by as many as 40,000 or 50,000 spectators from both city and rural areas. In such demonstrations, complete con¬ servation farm plans, including all practices and land-use changes needed for permanent conservation, were applied to single farms in one day. Aside from the benefits to the farm selected for the demonstration, each face lifting was effective in spread¬ ing conservation to other farms and other communities. More than 1,000,000 people witnessed such demonstrations during the year. Face liftings were held on farms of all sizes, from 30 ac. to 200 ac. in the east and middle west, and as large as 850 ac. in the west. The demonstrations were attended also by many visiting agriculturists from Europe, Asia, Mexico, Canada and various South and Central American countries. Further development along this line was seen in the progress made by colleges and universities in expanding facilities for training in soil conservation. The land-grant colleges of 13 states had established courses providing for a degree in agri¬ culture with a major in soil conservation, while 71 other col¬ leges and universities had included the subject in their curricula, for the training of conservation specialists. Conservation treatment was applied to an additional 21,576,654 ac. in soil-conservation districts during the fiscal year 1948, an increase of 7% more than the previous record year of 1947. Basic conservation work completed, as of July i, 1948, included the following: detailed conservation surveys, by the soil con¬ servation service, on 280,000,000 ac. of farm and ranch land; 626,000 conservation farm plans, covering 222,000,000 ac., de¬ veloped by technicians of the service in co-operation with farm¬ ers in soil-conservation districts; and conservation treatment applied on 158,000,000 ac. in soil-conservation districts. Some significant land-use changes resulting directly from soil-conservation planning had been made by farmers operating the 158,000,000 ac. of treated land. For example, they had re¬ tired 9.16% of their eroded cultivated land to permanent hay, pasture or range, woodland or other uses not requiring plowing and providing year-round cover. An analysis of land use under conservation plans shows that permanent hay land increased 149-5%; pasture and range, 16%; orchard and vineyard, 8.5%; and woodland, nearly 5%. All idle land (5,010,192 ac.) had been put to profitable use: 1,199,000 ac. of idle land had been proved suitable for cultivation under careful conservation meas¬ ures, while the remainder was retired to hay or range, or used for permanent woodland and for wildlife. By Nov. I, 1948, farmers and ranchers had organized 2,072 conservation districts in the 48 states, Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, Alaska and Hawaii. They covered 1,132,321,880 ac. and included 4,500,260 farms and ranches, or two-thirds of the agricultural land of the nation. Approximately 10,000 landowners and operators served without compensation as super¬ visors or directors of the districts. In addition, during the year, more than 14,000 contractors were engaged in soil- and waterconservation work, providing heavy equipment, construction machines, tools and services of many kinds which were used in putting conservation on the land. Nearly 88% of the personnel of the soil conservation service worked directly with farmers

SOIL EROSION AND

OIL CONSERVATION

659

in the field during the year. During the year, 895 group-drainage jobs were constructed, benefiting 5,741 farms including 628,890 ac. A substantial num¬ ber of farmers reported large increases in crop yields and income from lands drained under the soil-conservation program. Irriga¬ tion work by the soil conservation service increased about 35%, as compared with any previous year. The main objectives of a conservation plan on an irrigated farm were outlined by the service’s technicians as follows: establishing an irrigation sys¬ tem best fitted to the water supply and the farm; obtaining a proper balance for crop rotations; providing methods of irriga¬ tion adapted to crops, soil and topography; and training opera¬ tors to apply correct quantities of water at controlled rates according to crop requirements. A new crop rotation for sugar-cane land, developed by the soil conservation service in the St. Mary Soil Conservation dis¬ trict, Louisiana, was reported as successful in controlling ero¬ sion, rebuilding fertility and increasing yields of cane as much as ten tons to the acre. The new rotation allows the land to be in sugar cane one-half of the 12-year cycle. Soybeans, Alyce clover, corn and soybeans, and white clover and dallis grass are used in the rotation. The increased cane yields, together with seed harvest, plus beef production from pasture, coupled with elimination of costs of seeding, tilling and harvesting one-fourth of the land' to cane each year, improved the cane grower’s economy in the area. Laiin America.—Well-organized soil-conservation programs were in operation in Mexico, Venezuela, Colombia, Chile, Ar¬ gentina, four Brazilian states, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Uruguay, Guatemala and El Salvador. Progress in getting conservation measures on the land was outstanding in Mexico and El Sal¬ vador, and in Sao Paulo province in Brazil during 1948. It was reported that terracing of coffee land in Sao Paulo had increased yields 20% to 30%, while at the same time soil erosion was reduced to a minimum during heavy rain storms. Africa.—The soil- and water-conservation type of agriculture was taking hold in many parts of the continent. In the Union of South Africa, more than 27,000,000 ac. were included in soilconservation districts at the end of 1948. The government ar¬ ranged for subsidies and rebates up to 50% of the cost of applying conservation measures to farm lands. Conservation farming competitions were organized in the Transvaal, with awards given to farmers through 1948-49 for the best conserva¬ tion works on their land. The British East African peanut scheme was proving effec¬ tive in introducing conservation practices to native agricul¬ turists. In these projects, as soon as the land is cleared, pre¬ cautions are taken against soil erosion, and thousands of native workers are taught to survey for contour farming, establish buffer strips, and set up rotations including sorghums and native grasses. In the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, where water conservation is essential to crop or pasture production throughout the greater part of the country, nearly 50 large reservoirs were built in narrow valleys of the Kordofan, Blue Nile, Upper Nile, and Kassala districts, to catch all surface runoff from watersheds. These are regions of very low rainfall where in the past there often had been complete lack even of drinking water in the dry seasons. Contour terracing was introduced in the central belt of moderate rainfall. A school was established in the Equatoria district to train native farmers in the use of contour-strip crop¬ ping and other water-control and water-conservation methods. The program was carried out by the soil conservation service of the Sudan’s department of agriculture, assisted by the drilling section of the geological survey and the forestry division. New Zealand.—An erosion survey of high country in New

ONE-DAY soil-conservation demonstration, popularly known as farm “face lifting,” in progress at a farm near Jefferson, Md., on Aug. IS, 1948. “Face lifting” in this picture included contour plowing and the painting of barns and farmhouse

Zealand revealed that on an area of 623,000 ac., 73% of the topsoil had been lost; on 1,500,000 ac. between 50% and 75% was lost; and on 3,000,000 ac. between 25% and 30%. Proper utilization of slopes of 30° or more, which make up 60% of New Zealand’s total area, was reported to be the dominion’s most urgent land problem. District conservators, operating under the Soil Conservation and Rivers Control council, made special studies during 1948 to determine the best native trees, shrubs and grasses for planting on steep eroded lands and along stream banks in farmland valleys. Australia.—Progress was reported in establishing wind-ero¬ sion control measures in the Mallee district of Victoria, in New South Wales, and in South Australia. By using straw and stub¬ ble to prevent soil drift, planting cover crops on fallowed fields and ryecorn or grass on hills, channels and other vulnerable areas, and adjusting rotations and cultivation methods to soil types, a considerable amount of the Mallee dust bowl had been stabilized. The New South Wales government allocated £1,000,000 sterling for soil-conservation operations in the state during the year. There were 150 conservation specialists on the field staff of the department of conservation of New South Wales, with zone headquarters in 24 different locations. Such placement of

660

SOKOLOVSKI, VASILI D AN I LOVICH—SORGHUM

conservation personnel was being practised in all Australian states, in order that technicians could make needed surveys and assist farmers in the development of their conservation farm plans. U.S.S.R.—A 15 -year program, designed to combat drought and soil erosion and convert nearly 300,000,000 ac. of wasteland into productive areas, was announced by the soviet government in the autumn of 1948. The project includes: (i) planting of protective forest belts on watershed divides, field boundaries, banks, ravines and gullies; (2) afforestation and stabilization of shifting sands; (3) land-use planning and introduction of grassland and feed-crop rotations based on scientific land clas¬ sifications; (4) contour plowing and planting and use of buffer strips of perennial grasses; (5) filling in of washouts; (6) use of grassed waterways and permanent pasture on steep slopes; (7) development of irrigation and construction of ponds and reservoirs; and (8) wide use of organic and mineral fertilizers. The scheme stressed cropland rotations with two to seven years of legumes, and grasses for the collective and state farms as the most important means of increasing crop yields and creating a firm base for animal husbandry. The project called for introduction of such land use on 77,509 collective farms between 1948 and 1955. Ch ina.—In several parts of China, soil-conservation projects were continued or established during the year in spite of unset¬ tled political and economic conditions. Soil- and water-conserva¬ tion research and demonstration stations had been established at Tienshui, Kansu; Ko-Lo-San, Chungking; Nanking University farm; Pa Kwa Chow Island in the middle of the Yangtze river; in sandy areas affected by serious wind erosion in Anhwei prov¬ ince; and at Liuchow in Kwangsi province. Land-use surveys, propagation of cover plants, terrace construction, runoff studies and shelterbelt plantings were carried out in the vicinity of these stations. Four million trees were planted in Anhwei, and 2,000,000 willow cuttings were established along shore lines and dykes on Pa Kwa Chow Island. India.—Detailed recommendations for soil-conservation pro¬ grams for India and Pakistan were prepared by a group of agricultural officials of the two countries who spent the year 1947 training with the soil-conservation service of the United States. The programs were submitted to the Pakistan and India governments in June 1948. Burma.—The agriculture department of the Union of Burma made plans in 1948 for a soil-conservation program. Activities included demonstrations of contour farming, cover crops and green manuring, crop rotations and use of improved implements. An agricultural specialist was sent to the United States to study the techniques of soil conservation. (See also Agriculture; Aqueducts; Dams; Irrigation; Meteorology.) Films.—Arteries of Life; Seeds of Destruction; Soil Resources (Our)] The Birth of the Soil; This Vital Earth (Encyclopaedia Britannica Films Inc.); What Is Soil? (Films, Inc.). (H. H. Be.)

Sokolovski, Vasili Danilovich

officer! .>7^™

at St. Petersburg (now Leningrad). He was a lieutenant general in 1940. In World War II he commanded operations in the Vyazma area in March 1943. In the following years, as colonel general, he commanded the troops of the ist Ukrainian front (army group), under Marshal Ivan S. Konev, marched through southern Poland and crossed the Oder river in March 1945. Appointed marshal of the Soviet Union, he became soviet gov¬ ernor general and commander in chief in Germany in April 1946. When, in June 1948, the U.S., France and Great Britain an¬ nounced the currency reform in their zones of Germany, Sokolovski declared that this action and their plans, for setting

up a western German state amounted to a partitioning of Ger¬ many. He imposed a blockade of all ground and water trans¬ portation around the sectors of Berlin administered by the western powers. To feed and supply their sectors, the U.S. and Britain established an air supply route. In midsummer am¬ bassadors of the U.S., Britain and France met repeatedly with Russian officials in Moscow, including Premier Joseph Stalin, in an effort to settle outstanding differences in Berlin. An agreement was reached on Aug. 30, but when the military com¬ manders met in Berlin to implement it, Sokolovski scuttled the agreement by introducing new issues, and after further fruitless discussions, the three powers referred the matter to the U.N. Security council.

Solar System: see Astronomy. Solomon Islands: see Pacific

Islands, British;

Pacific

Islands under Trusteeship; Trustee Territories.

Somaliland, British: see British East Africa. Somaliland, French: see French Overseas Territories. Somaliland, Italian: see Italian Colonial Empire.

SOphOUliS, TiiemiStOCleS

ifntTer.wi’bomNot.^rat

Vathy, island of Samos. An archaeologist and man of letters, he took a prominent part in local politics, heading the oppo¬ sition to the Greek governor appointed by the Porte. After the union of Samos with Greece in 1913, he was elected to the Greek parliament, where from that time he continuously represented his native island. In the same year he was appointed minister of the interior. A staunch supporter of the Liberal leader, Eleutherios Venizelos, Sophoulis followed him at the time of the Salonika revolution in 1916, returning to Athens after King Constantine had been removed from the throne. He was elected president of the chamber in 1917, a post which he held till the defeat of the Liberal party at the elections of Nov. i, 1920. In 1924, after Venizelos’ withdrawal from politics and the procla¬ mation of the republic, Sophoulis was for a few months prime minister. During the period from 1924 to 1936 he was repeat¬ edly re-elected president of the chamber. After Venizelos’ sec¬ ond withdrawal from politics in 1933, Sophoulis succeeded him as leader of the Liberal party. During the period of the Metaxas dictatorship (1936-40) he abstained from politics. In 1944 he was arrested by the Germans and was detained in the Haidari concentration camp near Athens. After the liberation, he took office as prime minister of a republican cabinet on Nov. 22, 1945- He resigned after the elections held on March 31, 1946, had given the victory to the Populist (conservative) party. On Sept. 7, 1947, he again assumed the premiership in a coali¬ tion government composed of Liberals and Populists. In June 1948, referring to reports of the possibility of a compromise with the Communists, he said that while he was prime minister the situation in Greece would be settled only when the rebels surrendered unconditionally or were crushed. In November he collapsed from a heart attack, but later rallied. ^nrirhlim

sorghum for grain in the United

OUlgllUIII. States in 1948 was estimated at 131,644,000 bu., the second largest crop on record, compared with 96,016,000 bu. in 1947, and the 99,791,000-bu. average for 1937-46. The large crop was accounted for mostly by expansion in acreage; the harvested area in 1948 was 7,298,000 ac. against 5,629,000 ac. in 1947 and an average of 6,221,000 ac. for the previous decade. The yield was 18 bu. per acre against 17.1 bu. per acre in 1947 and 15.7 bu. per acre for the previous decade. Much of the large harvest was in Texas and Kansas; the latter state, though sec¬ ond in production, produced a crop 150% larger than in 1947.

SOUTH AFRICA

THE UNION OF

661

The Arizona crop, largely used for certified seed, was more than twice the size of the average crop for 1937-46. Prices of sorghum grain, used mostly for feed, stood at a rec¬ ord level of $3-77 Pcr hundredweight average price received by farmers in Jan. 1948, but by February had declined to $2.77 and by October to $1.99 per hundredweight. Exports from the 1948 crop were expected to be large, perhaps as much as 25,000,000 bu., but use for alcohol distillation was expected to be smaller than in the past few years. (See also Syrup, Sorgo and Cane.) (j. k. R.)

South Africa, British: see

British South African Pro¬

tectorates.

South Africa, The Union of. wealth of Nations. The four provinces of which it consists, the Cape of Good Hope, Natal, the Transvaal and the Orange Free State, extend from the southernmost point of the African con¬ tinent to the Limpopo in the north. The former German colony of South-West Africa (area 317,725 sq.mi., pop. est. mid-1947; 370,000) is administered under mandate as an integral part of the Union, but this territory had not been incorporated as a province. Area; 472,550 sq.mi. (incl. Walvis Bay, 430 sq.mi.); pop. (mid-l948 est.) 11,790,000; (1946 census): 11,391,949 (Europeans 20.7%; native [Bantu] 68.7%; Asiatic 2.5%; mixed 8.1%). Chief towns (pop. census 1946, not including suburbs): Capetown (seat of legislature, 383,891); Pretoria (seat of gov¬ ernment, 167,649); Johannesburg (603,470); Durban (338,817); Port Elizabeth (133,064). Official languages: English, Afrikaans. Religion: European population; Christian 95.5% (Dutch Reformed Church 55%; Anglican 19%; Methodist 6%; Presbyterian 5%; Roman Catholic 5%, etc.); non-European populations: 51% Christian, the remainder Hindu, Moslem and Buddhist. Governor-general; Major Gideon Brand van Zyl; prime ministers in 1948; Field Marshal Jan C. Smuts and, from June 3, Daniel F. Malan. History.—Chief among the domestic affairs in the Union during 1948 was the general election for members of the house of assembly. This took place on May 26. Field Marshal Jan C. Smuts, the previous prime minister, led the United party which formed an election pact with the Labour party under which six seats were won by the latter. Against this combination were arrayed the Reunited National party in an election agreement with the Afrikaner party. The Nationalist-Afrikaner combina¬ tion won 79 seats. All other parties, including the three Bantu native representatives, totalled 74. The new government thus had an over-all majority of five. On June 3 Daniel F. Malan, leader of the Reunited National party, announced his admin¬ istration. The elections for the senate took place on July 29. With one vacancy in the senatorial representation of natives, the govern¬ ment held 22 seats against the opposition’s 21. The opening of the new parliament took place on Aug. 6 and the session lasted for two months. The minister of native affairs, E. G. Jansen, outlining the government’s policy in the house, said that the government proposed to take action to curb the flow of natives to the towns and to develop the native reserves so that they could carry a larger population. A. J. Stals, min¬ ister of education, announced in the house on Sept. 15 that about i6,ooo,ooo would be spent on native education during the year 1948-49. The Asiatic Laws (Amendment) bill passed its third reading in both houseg. This measure cancelled the second part of the Asiatic Land Tenure and Indian Representation act of 1946 which made provision for the representation of Indians in the

DANIEL. F. MALAN (centre), who became prime minister of the Union of South Africa following the parliamentary eiections of May 26, 1948. He is shown at Pretoria as he arrived to form a new cabinet

Union parliament and Natal provincial council, though this part of the act had never been put into force. Prime Minister Malan visited South-West Africa during Octo¬ ber to discuss with the two political parties there the representa¬ tion of the territory in the Union house of assembly and senate. A preliminary agreement was reached whereby South-West Africa would be represented in the Union by six members in the house of assembly and two in the senate. One of the main points to be decided was that of the financial relations between the Union and South-West Africa, especially the possibility of integrating the two different taxation systems. Malan proposed the appointment of a joint commission to report on the matter. (See also Trustee Territories.) Commercially and industrially, the Union experienced great progress during 1948. According to figures furnished by the minister of finance on Sept. 14, the Union sold the following gold to other countries: to the United Kingdom £17,929,000; to the United States £80,837,000; to the Belgian Congo £1,001,000; and to Mozambique £646,000. During the first nine months of 1948 £31,692,477 worth of diamonds were sold, of which £21,934,330 worth were sold as gems and £9,758,147 as indus¬ trial diamonds. A step of significance for the Union’s industrial future was the government’s encouragement of the movement to found a synthetic oil industry based on the country’s enormous coal deposits which could not be utilized economically as raw coal. The proposed issue of a licence, for the manufacture of liquid fuel and oil from coal, to the Anglo-Transvaal Consolidated In¬ vestment Co., Ltd., acting as a trustee for a company to be formed, was announced on Oct. 8. A plant was to be established with a designed capacity of 76,000,000 gal. of liquid fuel and oil a year. (See also Fascism.) (J. Md.) Education.—Total state and state-aided primary and secondary schools (1947) 1,232,284; total private schools 73,158; total schools 1,305,442. Higher education (1945): number of students at universities and colleges 14.222: number of students at technical colleges 42,134. Banking and Finance.—Revenue: (1947-48) £SA.i r9,253,ooo; ex¬ penditure: (r947—48) £SA.100,353,000. Public debt: total (Dec. 1946) £SA.583,000,000, (Dec. 1947) £SA.595,000,000; internal (Dec. 31,

662

SOUTH AMERICA —SOUTH DAKOTA

1946) £SA.s69,ooo,ooo, (Dec. 31, 1947) £SA.s8i,ooo,ooo. Gold reserve held by Central bank: (Dec. 31, i947) £SA.i87,117,000; (Jan. 31, 1948) £SA.9i,640,ooo, (Oct. 31, 1948) £SA.s7,522,ooo. Monetary unit: £SA.i = £1=403 cents U.S. Trade and Communications.—Imports: (1947 est.) £295,000,000; (1948 first half, est.) £162,000,000. Exports (excluding gold and specie): (1947 est.) £100,000,000; (1948 first half, est.) £60,000,000. Roads, c. 100,000 mi.; railways 13,259 mi. (1946); airways: passengers carried 82,839 (1946-47), mileage flown 5,123,426 (1946-47), mails 2,646,000 lb. (1946-47); motor vehicles in use 403,080 (cars 322,790, commercial vehicles 80,290) (Dec. 1947); telephones 300,000 (Dec. 31, 1946); radio receiving sets 377,193 (March 1946). Agriculture—Wheat flour (metric tons): (1947) 426,000, (1948, first half) 210,000; wool (lb.): (1947) 208,000,000, (1948, first half) 210,000,000; wheat, European farms (metric tons): (1947) 974,000; rye, European farms (metric tons): (1947) 41,000, (1948, prelim.) 22,000; barley, European farms (metric tons): (1947) 48,000, (1948, prelim.) 43,000; oats, European farms (metric tons): (1947) 176,000, (1948, prelim.) 87,000; potatoes, European farms (metric tons): (1947) 241,000, (1948, prelim.) 263,000; maize, European farms (metric tons): (1947) 2,357,000; sugar (raw value, metric tons): (1947) 489,000, (1948, prelim.) 546,000; citrus fruit exports (boxes): (1946-47 season) 2,413,000, (1947-48 season) 3,320,000. Livestock: cattle 12,600,000 (1947), pigs 1,150,000 (1947), sheep 30,500,000 (1947), goats 6,151,000 (1943)Mineral Production.—Coal production in metric tons: (1947) 22,968,000, (1948, first half) 11,679,000; gold (fine oz.): (1947) 11,197,638, (1948, first half) 5,821,649: platinum (oz.): (1947) 56,292, (1948, 3 mo.) 22,476; pig iron and ferroalloys (metric tons): (1947) 636,000, (1948, first half) 312,000; steel ingots and castings (metric tons): (1947) 600,000, (1948, first half) 269,000; diamonds (value of sales): (1947) £24,000,000.

South America:

see Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; British

Guiana; Chile; Colombia; Ecuador; Paraguay; Peru; Suri¬ nam; Uruguay; Venezuela.

Qnilth Pornlina ^ south Atlantic state of the United uUllin UulDllllda States, 8th of the original 13 to ratify the constitution in 1788; known as the “Palmetto state.” Area: 31,055 sq.mi.; 461 sq.mi. being inland water; pop. (1940) 1,899,804; white 1,084,308; Negro 814,164; others 1,332; 75.5% rural; 0.3% foreign-born. On July i, 1948, the census bureau estimated the population at 1,991,000. Capital, Columbia (62,396). Other cities: Charleston (71,275); Greenville (34,734); Spartanburg (32,249) (all 1940 figures). History.—A bill became law in 1948 for reorganizing the state government; a joint committee was appointed to study reorganization of legislative operations, and a commission of legislators and executives was created to report in 1949 on re¬ form of the constitution of 1895. In 1948 the people ratified an amendment to permit divorce (hitherto forbidden) for adul¬ tery, desertion, physical cruelty or habitual drunkenness, and another abolishing the governor’s pardoning power except for commuting death penalty to life imprisonment and vesting all other pardoning in a board of six acting by two-thirds majority. Both must be ratified by majority vote of the legislature elected at that same election. The legislature ratified Gov. J. Strom Thurmond’s agreement with a number of other southern gover¬ nors for common support of Meharry Medical college (Nash¬ ville, Tenn.) for Negro medical students from the supporting states. Fourteen southern state governors, including South Caro¬ lina, agreed in Dec. 1948 to such a plan for various advanced studies. The federal court order of 1947, confirmed by the supreme court in 1948, to admit Negroes to South Carolina Democratic primaries was followed by orders annulling a discriminating voter’s oath and ordering admission of Negroes to all party committees or conventions. Closely connected with this was the revolt of South Carolina from the national Democratic party. Resentment against Pres. Harry S. Truman’s civil rights pro¬ gram (antisegregation, penalizing of racial discriminations in choosing employees, antipoll tax requirement for voting and fed¬ eral jurisdiction over lynching) was intense. The newly organ¬ ized States’ Rights Democrats party carried South Carolina, Alabama and Louisiana for Governor Thurmond for president, South Carolina’s vote being Thurmond 102,607! Truman 34,423;

Thomas E. Dewey 5,386; Henry A. Wallace 154. Education.—For the year ending June 30, 1948, enrolment in white elementary schools was 179,225, an increase of 539: in Negro elementary schools 178,030, a decrease of 424; in white high schools 72,128, an increase of 917; in Negro high schools 29,427, an increase of 1,823; total white and Negro teachers, respectively, 9,272 and 6,452; expenditures for white schools $31,249,669; for Negro schools $10,785,980. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

In the year ending June 30, 1948, federal allocation for needy persons totalled $6,204,434, to which the state added $3,598,084 (plus $654,716 for the physically and mentally handicapped). A total of $7,SS6,847 went to 32,075 aged; $1,909,738 to 17,383 dependent children; $335,932 to 1,270 blind. Total relief disbursements were $9,802,518. The state em¬ ployment trust fund totalled $51,318,157. Payments to 25,755 unemployed during the year ending June 30, 1948, amounted to $3,206,461. Patients in the state hospital (for the mentally ill) June 30, 1948, were 5,050; in the school for the feeble-minded 979; prisoners in the state penitentiary and on state farms 1,563; in the reformatory for white boys 191; in the reformatory for Negro boys 182; in the reformatory for white girls 87; legal executions during year ending June 30, 1948, numbered 8. Communications—Paved highways June 30, 1948, totalled 9,661 mi.; mileage under the state highway department was 18,933; the funded highway debt was $52,245,327; railroads totalled 3,563 mi. Eastern, Delta, National, and Southeastern air lines cross the state. Banking and Finance—On June 30, 1948, there were 24 national banks, with 25 branches; 99 state banks, with 8 branches, including one private bank; 26 cash depositories, with capital account, deposits and resources, respectively, as follows: national, $20,607,000, $400,228,000 and $426,611,000; state banks and depositories, $16,440,666, $240,757,257 and $257,482,795. Resources of federal building and loan associations were $65,863,164; of state building and loan associations $23,994,037. The general appropriation act for the year ending June 30, 1949, totalled $104,490,698. The state debt June 30, 1948, was $57,523,598; estimated surplus $6,500,000. Federal income taxes for the year ending June 30, 1948, were $184,042,205; other federal internal revenues $23,392,985. Exports amounted to $41,200,000; imports $11,200,000. Duties on imports $573,434. Agriculture.—The 34 chief field and truck crops for the year 1948 were valued at $343,688,000, or 4% more than for 1947. Harvested acreage was approximately 4,257,000, a slight reduction.

Table I.— Leading Agricultural Products of South Carolina, 1948 and 1947 Corn, bu. Wheat, bo. Oats, bu. Barley, bu. Rye, bu. Hay, tons . Irish potatoes, bu. Sweet potatoes, bu.. Tobacco, lb. Cotton, bales. Cotton seed, tons. Peaches, bu. Pecans, lb. Peanuts, lb.

1948 28,360,000 3,444,000 12,144,000 473,000 76,000 459,000 1,408,000 4,284,000 128,750,000 890,000 361,000 3,320,000 2,660,000 16,900,000

1947 28,080,000 4,356,000 19,630,000 624,000 138,000 382,000 2,440,000 5,390,000 155,495,000 651,000 253,000 6,630,000 2,550,000 14,300,000

The value of commercial truck crops in 1948 was $8,676,000, a drop from the 1947 figure of $9,034,000, which in turn was a sharp drop from that of 1946. Manufacturing.—Increased production values and the beginning of sev¬ eral large manufacturing and hydroelectric plants marked 1948. These include a multimillion dollar plant at Camden by the du Pont inter¬ ests, and the large federal hydroelectric project on the Savannah river at Clark’s Hill, The value of manufactures for the year ending June 30, 1948, was $1,797,461,287 as against $1,557,240,138 for the previous year. Employees numbered 179,859 as against 168,091 the previous year. Total capital in manufactures was $583,866,964 against $526,855,000 the previous year.

Ta ble II.—Products of Principal Industries of South Carolina, 1948 and 1947

Textiles. Lumber products (barrels, boxes, baskets, veneering, paper and pulp, furniture, woodwork). Electricity . Clothing, including knitted. Fertilizers .

Yeor ending June 30, 1948 $1,287,266,921 126,918,753 37,604,244 56,755,974 31,962,824

Year ending June 30, 1947 $1,126,270,630 111,661,207 30,397,001 52,236,860 27,819,036

Mineral Production.—Mineral production, chiefly stone and clays, espe¬ cially granite and kaolin, for the year ending June 30, 1948, was valued at $8,497,129 as against $2,931,437 and $4,570,778 for two years previous. (d. d, w.)

^nilth ^ north-central state of the United States, OUUlll UdMIlde admitted as the 40th state on Nov. 2, 1889, popularly known as the “Coyote state.” Area, 77,047 sq.mi., of which 511 sq.mi. are water; population (1940), 642,961, with 158,087 listed as urban and 484,874 as rural; Indian popula¬ tion, 23,347. The federal bureau of the census estimated the population on July i, 1948, at 623,000. The state census taken during 1945 revealed a population of 589,920. Capital, Pierre

66Z

SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF—SOYBEANS (4,218 in 1945, according to state census). Principal cities with 194s census figures: Sioux Falls (42,343), Aberdeen (18,103), Rapid City (17,262), Huron (11,146) and Mitchell (9,894). History.—^At the general election on Nov. 2, 1948, the presi¬ dential vote was as follows; Thomas E. Dewey, 129,651; Harry S. Truman, 117,653; Henry A. Wallace 2,801. The Republican margin of 11,999 was in contrast to the Republican majority of 38,653 received at the 1944 presidential election. All the state offices were won by the Republicans with substantial ma¬ jorities. Six constitutional amendments were approved, includ¬ ing provisions empowering the governor to fill legislative vacan¬ cies and authorizing the legislature to provide a veterans’ bonus not in excess of $30,000,000. State officials elected in 1948 included: George T. Mickelson, governor (re-elected); Rex Terry, lieutenant governor; Sigurd Anderson, attorney general (re-elected); Annamae Riif, secre¬ tary of state (re-elected); Clarence E. Buehler, treasurer (re¬ elected), and Harold S. Freeman, superintendent of public in¬ struction (elected on nonpartisan ticket). Education.—The school census, ages 6-21, was 154,780 in 1947-48, compared with 154,420 in 1946-47. The enrolment was 85,299 in elementary schools and 29,211 in high schools. Total expenditures were $20,978,838. Social

Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

During the calendar year 1946 the state department of social security distributed $4,267,280 among 12,685 persons in old-age assistance; $846,134 to 1,696'families as aid to 4,173 dependent children, and $64,290 for the needs of 213 blind persons. Eight penal and charitable institu¬ tions were in operation on a legislative appropriation of $1,709,745 for the fiscal year 1947—48. Unemployment benefit payments were allotted during 1947 to 1,525 claimants for a total of $158,939 at an average weekly rate of $13.30. A total of $1,383,914 was paid to 8,347 veterans for unemployment readjustment allowances under the Servicemen’s Readjustment act. Under the same law, total claims of $3,563,585 were paid to 3,334 self-employed veterans whose net earnings during a given month were less than $100. Communications.—The state in 1947 maintained a hjghway system of 5,942 mi., including 2,853 mi- of pavement and 2,804 mi. of gravel sur¬ face, at a cost of $3,016,163. There were 3,981 mi. of railroad in opera¬ tion in 1948. Telephones in use, Jan. 1, 1948, numbered 129,142, of which 36,087 were classified as rural. Banking and Finance.—There were 35 national banks in operation on Dec. 31, 1947, with total assets of $279,578,000 and total deposits of $267,140,000. The 135 state banks and trust companies on June 30, 1948, had resources of $254,726,145 and deposits of $241,667,263. Nine build¬ ing and loan associations on June 30, 1948, reported total resources of $4,681,215. Total receipts for the state treasury for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, were $51,709,939; disbursements were $48,535,699. The bonded indebtedness was $18,342,000. Federal internal revenue collections for the same year totalled $76,106,651, of which amount $68,037,399 was derived from the income tax. Agriculture.—Cash farm income for 1948 was estimated to be slightly

below the 1947 figure of $692,000,000. The prosperous state of agricul¬ ture was reflected in the large increase of bank deposits and the reduction of farm indebtedness to the lowest level after 1910. Crop production continued high with the corn crop the third largest on record. Principal Agricultural Products of South Dakota, J 948 and 1947 Crop

1948 lest.)

Corn, bu. . Wheat, bu. Oats, bu. . Barley, bu. •

129,220,000 49,267,000 99,584,000 33,1 88,000

1947 75,430,000 53,628,000 95,511,000 31,504,000

Crop

1948 test.)

Flaxseed, bu. . . 7,524,000 Potatoes, bu, • • 2,310,000 Hay (tame and wild), short tons . • • • • 3,288,000

1947 5,850,000 1,840,000

3,166,000

Mining..—The total value of mineral substances produced in 1947 was $19,732,304. The state ranked third in gold production, valued at $14,251,790; second in bentonite, valued at $1,402,090; second in feldspar valued at $656,588, and third in mica, valued at $65,941.

of letters, arts and sciences; Raymond E. Kendall, director of the school of music; Earl B. Cranston, dean of the graduate school of religion. The naval R.O.T.C. unit was returned to peacetime footing— this university is one of those authorized by the navy depart¬ ment to offer training leading to commissions in the regular navy as well as that leading to reserve commissions. On April ii, 1948, was launched the “Velero IV,” a gift of Allan Hancock to supplement facilities of the Allan Hancock Foundation for Scientific Research of the University of South¬ ern California. The “Velero IV” was designed and planned as a sea-going marine laboratory for marine biological and geo¬ logical research and for developing and testing new ideas in marine engineering and naval architecture. Grants received for new research projects, in addition to con¬ tinuation of those previously undertaken, included; U.S. office of naval research; observation of beat frequency between spec¬ tral lines of relatively small wave-length difference; determina¬ tion of the absolute absorption of nitrogen in the vacuum ultra¬ violet; U.S. department of health: cultivation of Endamoeba histolytica; experimental high blood pressure; mental state of digestion; study of blood proteose; Life Insurance Medical fund; cholesterol in development of arteriosclerosis; Lever Bros.: hydrogenated vegetable oils; National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis: immunity in poliomyelitis; physical therapy studies; growth requirements of poliomyelitis; William A. Rob¬ inson and Cornelius Crane: expedition to Tahiti to study trans¬ mission and control of filariasis; National Research council, American Cancer society and Committee on Endocrinology: cancer research. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, fac¬ ulty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (E. S. Bs.) Southern Rhodesia: see Rhodesia, Southern. South-West Africa: see South Africa, The Union of; Trustee Territories.

Sovereigns, Presidents and Rulers: see Soviet Union: see

tional metropol¬

itan university,- located in Los Angeles, Calif., inaugurated in June 1948 its new president, Fred D. Fagg, Jr. Under the new president, administrative organization of the university was sim¬ plified. By consolidation and reorganization the list of 26 schools and colleges in the university was simplified to 14. The department of cinema was reorganized and placed on a pro¬ fessional basis to train students in motion-picture camera, sound, writing and production techniques, under Director Slavko Vorkapich. Tracy E. Strevey was appointed dean of the college

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

Cnuhoonc United States soybean crop of 1948 set a uUjfUcdllda new record of 220,201,000 bu. The 1947 crop was 183,558,000 bu., and the average production 1937-46 was only 134,642,000 bu.; the previous record, made in 1946, was 201,275,000 bu. The 10,311,000 ac. devoted to soybeans in 1948 was less than the 11,212,000 ac. harvested in 1947, though well in excess of the 7,162,000 ac. average for 1937-46. Yields in 1948 were the highest on record at 21.4 bu. per acre, exceed¬ ing the 18.8 bu. per acre average of 1937-46, far above the 16.4 bu. per acre of 1947 and higher than the 20.5 bu. per acre of 1946. Weather in the large producing areas of Illinois and Iowa was particularly favourable with very little drought or frost damage. U.S. Soybean Production by Leading States, 1948, 1947 and

(H. S. S.)

Southern California, University of.

Presidents,

Sovereigns and Rulers.

1 0-Year Average 1937—46

State Illinois • Iowa . • Indiana . Ohio . • Missouri. Minnesota

• . • • • •

• • • • • *-

1948 78,504 35,443 31,196 18,614 15,900 15,614

(In thousands of bushels] 10-yr. State averoge 1947 65,448 29,202 27,806 17,575 9,900 13,800

55,996 23,460 18,486 14,843 5,608 3,086

Arkansas . • North Carolina Kansas • • * Mississippi • • Kentucky • • Virginia.* • •

lO-yr.

1948 5,148

3,564 2,505 2,394 2,299 1,749

1947 average 3,396 2,296 3,495 2,333 1,887 1,285 1,330 885 1,750 729 902 1,425

The price of soybeans was as high as $4.40 per bushel in Jan. 1948, but declined almost to the government support price of $2.18 per bushel (national average) at the farm at harvest time in October before advancing moderately, later in the year. World production in 1948 set a new record, approximately

SPAAK, PAUL-HENRI —SPAIN

664

575,000,000 bu., compared with a revised estimate of 50^,^oo,000 bu. for 1947. In addition to record crops in the United States and Canada, China, excluding Manchuria, produced an estimated 211,000,000 bu., the largest crop after the 1930s. The Manchurian crop of 1948 was thought to be smaller than the 119,000,000-bu. crop of 1947.

Cnool/

(J- K-

Doill Uonri flUI'llClIII

Belgian prime minister, was born on Jan. 25 in Brussels. He practised law in Brussels and was elected to the chamber of deputies as a Socialist. He joined Paul van Zeeland’s cabinet as minister of posts and telegraphs in 1935 and was foreign min¬ ister a year later. He conducted the negotiations to secure Belgium’s release from the Locarno and the Anglo-FrancoBelgian agreements, then believing that Belgium could remain neutral in the event of war. He was prime minister from May 1938 to Feb. 1939 and at the outbreak of World War H again became foreign minister. In May 1940, after the capitulation of the Belgian army, he went to France and later to England, where he became foreign minister in the Belgian government-inexile. In Feb. 1945, he was retained as foreign minister in the Van Acker government, established in Brussels. He was elected president of the first general assembly of the United Nations (London, 1946), and remained foreign minister in Camille Huysmans’ cabinet. On March 19, 1947, he formed a new gov¬ ernment, retaining in addition to the premiership, the portfolio of foreign affairs. In May 1948 his government resigned but after a week’s crisis decided to -emain in power. Again in No¬ vember, after the failure of Maurice Eyskens to form a gov¬ ernment, he accepted the premiership and reshuffled his cab¬ wPduKf I

inet. rt • A country of southwestern Europe sharing with PortuuPullia gal the Iberian peninsula, Spain is separated from France by the Pyrenees range and otherwise surrounded by the Atlantic ocean and the Mediterranean sea. Area: (including Balearic and Canary Islands) 194,945 sq.mi.; pop. (est. mid1948): 27,761,000. Chief cities (pop. est. 1948): Madrid (cap., 1,250,000); Barcelona (1,200,000); Valencia (525,000); Seville (360,000); Malaga (275,000); Bilbao (250,000); Zaragoza (220,000). Religion: mainly Roman Catholic. Chief of state: General Francisco Franco (g.v.). History.—During 1948 Spain made considerable progress toward political stabilization. Economic factors, however, were somewhat less favourable, particularly in the late autumn. The electoral legislation enacted by the cortes in earlier years was given effect in 1948. The national legislature was chosen in a series of elections spread over the entire year. The new cortes, whose first meeting was to take place at an early date in 1949, represented all classes of society, as well as the economic and professional interests and the local and provincial political sub¬ divisions of the country. The majority of the deputies, elected represented the government party, with an extremely small number of independent deputies but no organized party in oppo¬ sition. The political activities of the exiled politicians of the regime in power during 1931-36 attracted little attention in 1948 and the strict control of the frontier was slowly relaxed. This trend coincided with the re-opening of the Franco-Spanish frontier, closed for nearly two years, and a trade agreement between France and Spain followed shortly thereafter. Other trade agree¬ ments followed, including at the very close of the year one with the British, French and U.S. military governments of western Germany, which undertook to send manufactured goods in return for food and raw materials. The total value of all these transactions, other than the extended Anglo-Spanish trade agree-

GEN. FRANCISCO FRANCO reviewing troops of the Faiange youth front at Madrid, Spain, on March 29, 1948, the ninth anniversary of the Nationalist victory in the Spanish Civil War

ment, was small, but they were significant of the revival of commercial relations with Spain by some of the countries wfflich had excluded that country from participation in the Interna¬ tional Trade conferences of Geneva, Switz., and Havana, Cuba. In mid-1948, the results of an extensive agricultural census were published, disclosing that of the 6,700,000 Spaniards en¬ gaged in agriculture, nearly one-half were owners of the farms they operated, and the rest were agricultural labourers. On the basis of this census, the program of acquisition and redistribu¬ tion of large estates in self-sustaining small holdings was to be carried forward much more rapidly. The autumn of 1948 was characterized by an exceptionally severe and prolonged drought which wrought great hardship on crops, livestock and indus¬ try; hydroelectric installations throughout Spain were limp¬ ing badly in the last two months of the year. Notwithstanding this setback, the rapid rise in the index of agricultural produc¬ tion in the past few years, as set forth in the solid studies of the Council of National Economy on the national income of Spain, was hardly more than arrested in 1948. Even taking into account the movement of international trade represented by intergovernmental agreements, there was a distinct slackening in the volume of exports, and somewhat of imports, in 1948. In great measure this was simply because of the lack of foreign credit. Spain continued to have to do busi¬ ness virtually on a cash basis, or to resort to outright barter under official management. During the year, the cortes approved a 4% foreign loan equivalent to about $100,000,000, but this operation had not been launched when the year closed. The government maintained a reasonably firm and consistent policy throughout the year in checking the increase of fiduciary issues; a trifling increase in gold reserves was effected, and the budget was brought in sight of balance. Although all national debt operation (interest, amortization, etc.) was expected to cost several hundred million pesetas more in 1948 than in the previ¬ ous year, it was calculated that this major item would fall from approximately one-sixth to one-seventh of the total nonborrow^ed revenue. The latter consists mainly of direct taxes, indirect

SPANISH-AMERICAN LtTERATURE (income and profits) taxes and the income from monopolies; all three classes showed some prospect of increase in 1948. Added emphasis upon the excise taxes on luxuries—that is, non¬ necessities such as tobacco, cosmetics, jewellery, automobiles, sporting goods, photographic supplies, first-class travel and other items—was expected to produce a substantially increased yield. The wholesale price index of the National Statistical institute continued in 1948 to rise, but at a retarded rate. It has risen from 186 (1944) to 205, 248 and 291 in the three successive years. The index for 1948 was not expected to rise substantially above 300 (ioo»=i939). The consistent resistance of the gov¬ ernment to the increase in bank credit and issues of paper cur¬ rency helped to counterbalance the effect of this trend in in¬ ternal prices upon the international value of the peseta. But the cumulative pressure of adverse factors weakened the peseta late in 1948, so that at the end of the year the exchange authorities were led to alter slightly the official and quasi-official rates of exchange with reference to certain specific commodities. (See also Fascism.) (C. Me.) Education.—At the beginning of 1948 approximately 3,000,000 children were attending about 47,000 primary, secondary and vocational schools and there were more than 48,000 students in 12 universities. Finance and Banking,—Revenue: (1947 est,) 12,963,000,000 pesetas, (1948 est,) 14,223,000,000 pesetas; expenditure: (1947 est,) 15,115,000,000 pesetas, (1948 est.) 15,196,000,000 pesetas; public debt (June 1948) 53,891,200,000 pesetas. Deposits (private banks only) (end 1947) 29,400,000,000 pesetas (end March 1948) 28,800,000,000 pesetas. Mone¬ tary unit: peseta = 100 centimes. Exchange rate (1948): 1 peseta = 9.132 cents U.S. This should not be confused with the gold peseta, used in foreign trade statistics. A government order issued in Dec. 1948 estab¬ lished special exchange rates in payment for Spanish exports; the rates varied according to the commodity. . Foreign Trade-(i gold peseta = 32.67 U.S. cents): imports: (1947) 1,214,000,000 gold pesetas, (1948, first half) 640,000,000 gold pesetas; exports: (1947) 938,000,000 gold pesetas, (1948, first half) 535,000,000 gold pesetas. Transport and Communications.—Road mileage: (1946) 79,672; railway mileage: (1946) 10,911. Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947) totalled 141,875 (automobiles 90,562, commercial vehicles 51,313). Ships of 100 gross tons and over on register (July 1947): 1,028 vessels of 1,140,035 tons. Telephones: 477,866 (1947). Industry and Production.—Coal (1947) 10,476,000 metric tons, (1948, first half) 5,137,000 metric tons; lignite (1947) 1,260,000 metric tons, (1948, first half) 693,000 metric tons; iron ore, metal content 45% (1947) 2,244,000 metric tons, (1948, first half) 924,000 metric tons; pig iron and ferroalloys (1947) 503,000 metric tons, (1948, first half) 243,000 metric tons; steel ingots and castings (1947) S4i,ooo metric tons, (1948, first half) 241,000 metric tons; copper, including content of ores, concentrates or matte exported (1947) 7,900 metric tons, (1948, first half) 5,300 metric tons; lead (1947) 28,300 metric tons, (1948, first half) 7,800 metric tons; wolfram (1946) 393 metric tons; wheat (1947) 2,994,000 metric tons, (1948 est.) 2,600,000 metric tons; rye (1947) 457,000 metric tons; barley (1947) 286,000 metric tons; oats (1947) 508,000 metric tons; potatoes (1947) 4,131,000 metric tons; maize (1947) 508,000 metric tons; rice (1947) 259,000 metric tons. Fish landed: (1945) 552,900 metric tons, (1948, first four months) 141,900 metric tons. Livestock: horses 600,000 (1945); cattle 3,808,000 (1946); sheep 19,700,000 (1948 est.); pigs 4,676,000 (1946); goats 6,410,000 (1945); poultry 43,000,000 (1948).

Spanish-American literature. stability in Latin America during 1948 was not encouraging to book publishing, which declined sharply, particularly in Argen¬ tina. Literary activity also suffered from the fact that in Spanish America no real group of young writers was carrying forward the work begun earlier in the century by such men as Mariano Azuela, Jose Rivera, Benito Lynch, Carlos Reyles, Alcides Arguedas, Romulo Gallegos, Eduardo Barrios, Jorge Icaza and others. A few of this older generation produced literary works in 1948, one being the Chilean Eduardo Barrios with a novel Gran Senor y Rajadiablos, and another the Ecuadorean Jorge Icaza, whose new novel Huairapamushcas appeared, written in a terse, nearly dialogue form, which carried forward the heavy over¬ tones of stark realism noted in his earlier works. Playa Negra was a new novel by an older Chilean writer, Luis Onego Luco. The elder Argentine novelist, Manuel Galvez, brought forth El Santito de la Tolderia, a novelized biography of an Indian of the pampas named Caferino Namuncura, revealing the author’s

665

preoccupation with extreme religious orthodoxy. Enjoying a good sale in Argentina was Addn Buenos Aires by Leopoldo Marechal, describing life in the porteno capital during the past 30 years. Elsewhere best sellers were frequently works that had appeared in print previously. El jilo de agua, a mature novel published in 1947 by the Mexican Agustin Yanez, brought forth much critical comment and had a wide sale in 1948. Other titles which enjoyed similar distinction in Mexico were: La Escondida, by Miguel N. Lira, a novel of the Revolution in poetic prose which won the Lanz Duret prize in 1947; L^ito Humana, by Jose Rebueltas; Al jrente estd la Aurora, by Juan M. de Mora; and La Yedra, by Javier Villaurrutia. Armando Chavez Camacho with Cajeme, novela de indios, indicated a new tendency in Mexico toward the Indian theme. An older writer, Gregorio Lopez y Fuentes, author of the highly esteemed El Indio (1935), produced a new novel Entresuelo. In Chile the important publishing house Zig-Zag reported that the best sellers were the older novels such as Victor Domingo Silva’s El mestizo Ale jo y la criollita, the 19th-century BlestGana’s nostalgic El loco estero and, curiously enough, Cumbres Borrascosas, a translation of Emily Bronte’s Wuthering Heights. National and municipal literary prizes were common in many countries but generally failed to reveal genuine talent or to stimulate better than mediocre works. The National Cultural commission in Peronista Argentina awarded prizes in 1948 to prose works which had appeared in the preceding three years. These were: El ultimo perro, by Guillermo House, depicting types, customs and scenes of the Argentine countryside; Desde el fondo de la tierra, by Ernesto L. Castro, a collection of jungle tales in sharp, clear style; and Luz de memorias, by Maria de Villarino, somewhat lyrical in character. In poetry few well known names appeared in 1948. Most conspicuous was the Chilean Pablo Neruda (Neftali Reyes), generally regarded as the leading Latin American poet who, in his latest work, Alturas de Machu Pichu, found inspiration in the aboriginal past. Another Chilean, less talented and better known, was the creationist, Vicente Huidobro, who died in Jan. 1948, leaving a posthumous volume entitled tJltimos poemas. A more conventional poet of the same country, Victor Domingo Silva, brought out a collection of Los mejores poemas. Elsewhere, little significant verse was noted. Miguel D. Etchebarne in Argentina published 36 sonnets in his Soliloquio, whose merit was exceeded by his Campo de Buenos Aires, also appear¬ ing in 1948. Another Argentine winning some acclaim was Luis Bernardez, with Las estrellas, while a promising young Peruvian poet, Javier Sologuren, offered a slender volume, Detenimientos, illustrated with linoleum prints. In Colombia more activity was noted in poetry and the short story than in other genres, with new books of verse by established authors such as Carlos Lopez Narvaez, Jorge Rojas, German Pardo Garcia, Nicolas Bayona Posada and by newer ones such as Jose M. Vivas Balcazar, Guillermo Payan Archer, Hugo Salazar Valdes, a Negro, and the youthful Dolly Mejia, a poet of somewhat erotic tendencies. Dramatic literature was scant, and throughout Spanish Amer¬ ica the theatre remained largely experimental. Rodolfo Usigli, probably Mexico’s best dramatist, published an excellent tragedy Corona de sombra, previously translated into English, along with his lighter efforts. Medio torn and El gesticulador. The his¬ torical drama El Virrey Solis by Antonio Alvarez Lleras was the most successful effort in Colombia. Elsewhere prize awards were made to plays performed which had not yet appeared in print, such as: in Chile El hombre que regreso and Morir par Catalina, by Santiago del Campo, and in Cuba Del agua de la vida by Rene Buch; in Buenos Aires El trigo es de Dios by Juan Oscar Ponferrada was regarded as of some importance. Essays and miscellaneous works were fairly numerous and

666

SPANISH COLONIAL E M PI RE—S P AN ISH LITERATURE

representative of these were: Veinte poetas chilenos, by Ber¬ nardo Cruz; Radiografia de la, panipa, a prize-winning appraisal of Argentina’s social and political heritage by Ezequiel Martinez Estrada; and Cervantes, Tirso y el Peru, by Aurelio Miro Quesada; also, Estudio critico, by Otto Morales Benitez (Colom¬ bia), with essays on Guillermo Valencia, Tomas Vargas Osorno and Andre Maurois. The eminent Mexican critic and stylist, Alfonso Reyes, collected his earlier verse and reviews in Cortesia, iQog-iQ47 and Entre libros, to which he added a literary survey of three centuries of his country in Letras de Nueva Espana. The important publishing house Fondo de Cultura Economica continued its splendid series of Latin American classics with J. T. Medina’s Vida de Ercilla and Andres Bello’s Filosofia del entendimiento. (I- A. E.)

Spanish Colonial Empire.

pop. (excluding Spain, est. mid-1947): 1,405,000. The accompanying table lists the colo¬ nies, protectorates, etc., of Spain {q.v.) with certain essential statistics appropriate to each of them. History .—h decree issued by the caliph of Spanish Morocco instituted the office of grand vizier, corresponding approximately to that of prime minister, and created a department putting the conduct of native affairs in native hands. This administrative development was in accordance with the policy of the high com¬ missioner, General Juan Varela, who aimed at entrusting Moor¬ ish officials with increasing responsibility for government in the Spanish zone. (E. A. P.)

Jose Maria de Cossio and Emilio Fernandez Galiano. Many studies on Miguel de Cervantes Saavedra continued to appear in 1948, after the elaborate literary celebrations of 1947 in honour of the 400th anniversary of the birth of Spain’s great¬ est literary figure. A special issue of the Boletin de la Real Academia Espanola was devoted to these studies. Among the authors were Jose Maria Peman, Julio Casares, Armando Cotarelo Valledor, Eugenio d’Ors, the ubiquitous Angel Gonzalez Palencia, Narciso Alonso Cortes, Santiago Montoto and Eduardo Julia Martinez. The 300th anniversaries of the deaths of the classic dramatists Tirso de Molina (Gabriel Tellez) and Rojas Zorrilla were also commemorated. The annual Eugenio Nadal prize in the field of the novel, awarded by the Barcelona weekly Destino, was won by Miguel Delibes Setien, of the staff of El Norte de Castilla and professor of the school of commerce of Valladolid, for his first novel, La sombra del cipres es alargada. The Academy published, in its Biblioteca selecta de cldsicos espanoles, an edition of Poesias de Antonio Garcia Gutierrez, prepared by Joaquin de Entrambasaguas. This was an attempt at literary rehabilitation of the famous dramatic poet of roman¬ ticism, author of the perennial El Trovador. In similar revivi¬ fying spirit, Leandro Fernandez de Moratin’s El si de las ninas was resurrected at the Teatro Espanol by the company of the Teatro Nacional. Removing Concha Espina from competitive consideration for the moment. Carmen de Icaza was still considered by many to

Spanish Colonial Empire Population Estimated

Capital Status, etc.

Country and Area sq. mi. (approx.)

Mid.1947 (OOO’s omitted)

Ceuta, Metilia, AIhucemas, Chafarines and Penon de Velez, 82

145

Madrid, administered as part of Spain

1,010

Tetuan, protectorate

Spanish Morocco, 17,631

High commissioner:

Gen. Juan Varela

Principal Products (in short tons)

exports (1942) raw materials 610,900 manufactures 7,370 (1944) wheat 40,434 barley 150,998 maize 6,507 sorghum 39,365 iron ore 742,556 antimony ore 359

Spanish Guinea, inciudin9 Fernando Po, Rio Muni and four small islands, 10,900

180

Santa Isabel, colony

exports (1946) (in metric tons) 4,582 coffee cocoa 13,420 fruit and veg. 4,548 timber 27,000

Western Sahara, including Ifni, Rio de Oro and Spanish Sahara, 106,150 *Excluding nomads.

70*

Villa Cisneros, colonies

fish and dates

Qimnich I itpratlirp

OjJdlllull LllCldlUlv.

Francisco Franco regime continued to be somewhat

disconcerted at the fact that Spain’s literary output went on apace in 1948, with excellence in the works themselves as well as in their physical appearance. Most reviewers were fair, giv¬ ing credit ungrudgingly where credit was due. The literaryhistorical field was noteworthy in its production, and was awarded favourable comment and criticism in 1948. In this field the publications of the Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Escuela de Estudios Hispanoamericanos de Sevilla, were particularly significant. A notable literary event early in the year (Jan. 25) was the public reception accorded Damaso Alonso when he took his seat in the Royal Spanish academy. Few, if any, would deny to Don Damaso this academic honour. A scholar of the first rank and a poet in his own right, he read his reception address on the 16th-century poet of Seville, Vida de don Francisco de Medrano. Damaso Alonso replaced the Arabist Miguel Asin Palacios in the academy. Another poet of distinction, Gerardo Diego, was also awarded a seat in the academy, as were the essayist and critic

Imports and Exports (all possessions. In pesetas)

(1945) imp. 125,383,000 exp. 197,736,000 (1946) imp. 1 50,307,000 exp. 217,379,000

Road, Rail and Shipping

rds. c. 500 mi. rly. 80 mi. shipping (1943) entered 307,379 tons

Revenue and Expenditure (in pesetas)

(1938) rev. and exp. 111,312,200 peseta

(est. 1943) rev. 22,266,400 pes. exp. 23,631,100 pes. (in 1943.1 peseta = approx. 9 U.S. cents)

be Spain’s best woman novelist. She published La fuente enterrada, based on life in an insane asylum. Three critical works on the great philosopher, Miguel de Unamuno, appeared—^by Julian Marias, Agustin de Esclasans and Nemesio Gonzalez Caminero. The aging Don Jacinto Benavente y Martinez, Una¬ muno’s literary contemporary, so much praised and maligned, was named new president of the Asociacion de escritores y artistas. His new play, Abdicacion, was successfully performed early in the year at the Teatro de Lara, and he was awarded the Mariano de Cavia prize of Madrid’s ABC for his article “A1 dictado,” published in that newspaper. Luis de Hoyos Sainz published a new Manual de folk-lore. Anthologies, selections and new editions of the great works of the past continued to abound in the new publications. These included more of the leather-bound obras completas of many authors who enjoyed great popularity in their day and rose to the enviable category of cldsicos. They were issued by the Imprenta Bolanos y Aguilar. Noteworthy in new editions, cor¬ rected and enlarged, was the second edition of the monumental Manual del librero hispanoamericano of Antonio Palau y Dulcet,

SPECIAL LIBRARIES A S SO CI AT IO N—ST A LIN, JOSEPH indispensable to all bibliographers and researchers in the field of Spanish. Of bibliographical interest also were two works of Angel Gonzalez Palencia: Erudites y libreros del siglo XVIII (Estudios historico-literarios, quinta serie) and Libras espanoles i939~i945- Interrupted by the Spanish Civil War, various w’orks of great size and scope appeared periodically in continua¬ tion volumes. One of these, beautifully printed and with many unusually well-executed colour plates, was the ambitious Enciclopedia herdldica y ge7ieal6gica hispa^ioamericana, edited by Al¬ berto and Arturo Garcia Carraffa and containing the Diccionario herdldica y genealdgica de apellidas espahales y americanas. Don Alberto died during the Civil War, and the work was con¬ tinued by his brother, proceeding from volume 59, which ap¬ peared in 1936. Another ambitious work, the volumes of which were appearing from time to time without regard for their numerical order in the series, was the Histaria de America y de las pueblas americanas, under the general editorship of Antonio Ballesteros y Beretta. Among recipients of monetary prizes, ranging from 5,000 pesetas to 50,000 pesetas, awarded for literary research, was Mariano Bassols de Climent, for his Las categarias verbales, del indaeurapeo a las lenguas ramances, winner of the Francisco Franco prize in the highest monetary category. The venerable Ramon Menendez Pidal appeared as lecturer at various literary convocations, particularly one at the University of Barcelona, where, on the theme of the Quijate, he added still another item to the huge bibliography on Cervantes. (J. H. Nr.)

Special Libraries Association: see

Libraries. '

A • Commerce in spices was retarded during 1948 as civil wpiuCOi strife in Malaya, Indonesia, Madagascar, China and other spice areas hampered production and delayed shipping. Pepper was scarce and expensive as supplies from French Indo-China and the Netherlands Indies became unavailable. Although for half a century the price of pepper had averaged close to 15 cents per pound at New York, during 1948 the spot market at New York advanced to 96 cents per pound, and more than $i at the retail level. Imitation pepper, commonly used during World War II, reappeared in western hemisphere food shops. World crops of mustard seed were bountiful and moved readily at prices remunerative to the growers. Most excellent was the quality of the yellow variety (Brassica alba). In the U.S. more mustard is consumed than any other spice, about 15,000 tons annually. China reported a good crop of mustard seed {Brassica juncea) but political and fiscal difficulties pre¬ vented exports. The yield of brown mustard seed in Canada was remarkably heavy per acre. With scanty shipments of nutmegs and mace from the Nether¬ lands Indies, tom by internecine war, the island of Grenada (British West Indies) gained a near monopoly in the produc¬ tion of these spices. Prices were high, Grenada receiving $1.40 per pound for mace against the prewar price of 50 cents per pound, and 60 cents per pound for nutmegs against the prewar price of 10 to 15 cents per pound. The herb supply was adequate. There was ample tonnage of Salvia afficinalis, the preferred variety of sage from Yugoslavia. France increased exports of its much-favoured thyme, as well as of savory and marjoram. Turkish and Italian bay (laurel) leaves were available, but very few were shipped from Greece. Ginger made a good crop only in Sierra Leone. India could spare but little of its tonnage, known as Cochin and Calicut, so great was the local demand for these varieties for making curry powder. Because its flavour suggests lemons, ginger from Jamaica is preferred for making ginger ale. By Nov. 1948 its

667

price was double the figure at which trading had opened during the February harvest. In Hong Kong, the grading, cleaning and packing of Saigon cassia (cinnamon) proceeded in prewar volume. About twothirds of the production of Saigon cassia was shipped to the United States, together with a large tonnage of the less costly varieties of cinnamon. Madagascar cloves were available during the year at about one-half the price asked for Zanzibar cloves. Crops were good in both islands. Indonesia bought heavily, as usual, as the coarsely ground clove is an important ingredient of the ciga¬ rettes smoked in Java and adjacent islands. The acreage of red peppers in the United States was much reduced in consequence of severe losses in 1947, which resulted from quality imperfections. Prices reached new highs. Ship¬ ping of small fruited varieties (cayenne) from Africa fell off, as food law officials excluded offerings as inferior to legal stand¬ ards of purity. A new product was welcomed by world markets, the paprika of Yugoslavia. It won quick acceptance because of the rich brilliance of its red colour. Spanish paprika in South, Central and North America held the lead for “sweetness,” en¬ tirely free from any piquancy or bite. Except for the Hun¬ garian, liked for its special flavour, other paprikas lost popu¬ larity. Interest in poppy, caraway and sesame seeds for bread and rolls was well maintained; the supply was good throughout the world and prices were easy. Picklers were again utilizing the pleasant flavours of celery, coriander, dill, anise and fennel. India, Europe and North Africa were shipping these in prewar volume. (C. A. T.)

Spirits: see Liquors, Alcoholic. Spitzbergen: see Norway. Sports and Games: see Angling; Baseball; Chess;

Basketball;

Cricket;

Archery; Badminton;

Billiards;

Curling;

Cycling;

Bowling; FENaNG;

Boxing; Football;

Gliding; Golf; Gymnastics; Hand-ball; Horse Racing; Ice Hockey; Ice Skating; Lacrosse; Motor-boat Racing; Polo; Rowing;

Skiing;

Soccer;

Softball;

Squash

Racquets;

Swimming; Table Tennis; Tennis; Track and Field Sports; Trap-shooting; Wrestling; Yachting.

Qnimch R^pflllptc

Stanley Pearson, Jr., of Philadelphia, Pa., won the national squash racquets championship in 1948 by defeating Andrew Ingraham of New York, 15-10, 15-10, 11-15, 12-15, in the final. Cecile Bowes, also of Philadelphia, won the national women’s cham¬ pionship over Elizabeth Howe of New Haven, Conn., 15-10, 1512, 15-10. Other squash racquets champions crowned in 1948 were: professional—A1 “Scotty” Ramsay of Cleveland, O.; metropolitan—Donald Strachan of the Princeton club. New York city; New York state—Calvin MacCracken of Princeton club. New York city; intercollegiate invitational—Diehl Mateer, Jr., of Haverford college, Haverford, Pa.; veterans—George Waring of Boston, Mass. The United States regained the Lapham International trophy with a 15 to 5 victory over Canada in the annual 15-man team match. It was the 17th U.S. victory in 27 years of competition. Boston defeated New York, 5 to o, in their intercity women’s team match. (M. P. W.)

Ol|U(loli i\dul|Uultfa

Stalin, Joseph Vissarionovich

prime minister, was born on Dec. 21 at Gori, Georgia, in Transcaucasia, the son of a peasant. He studied for the priesthood and entered the Tiflis Orthodox seminary in 1893, but was later expelled (see Encyclo-

668

STAMP COLLECTING —STANDARDS, NAT'L BUREAU OF

Standards, National Bureau of.frgr!^s''''Ma’'rch‘3! 1901, this bureau is the principal agency of the federal govern¬ ment for basic research in physics, mathematics, chemistry and engineering. During 1948 it consisted of 18 divisions and 3 offices: 13 scientific and technical divisions (electricity and op¬ tics, metrology, heat and power, atomic and molecular physics, chemistry, mechanics, organic and fibrous materials, metallurgy, mineral products, building technology, applied mathematics, electronics and radio propagation); i division concerned with commodity standards; 4 concerned with administrative, plant and shop affairs; and the offices of scientific publications, inter¬ national relations and weights and measures.

“COMINFORM MEETING,” (Rome) in 1948

an

Italian

cartoon

published

in

Cantachiaro

padia Britannica). He became active in the revolutionary under¬ ground in Georgia and, between 1902 and 1912, was arrested and deported five times, but each time escaped. In March 1913 he was arrested again and deported to the Turukhansk district in northern Siberia, where he remained until Feb. 1917. Re¬ turning to St. Petersburg (now Leningrad) he became one of the members of the Politburo of the Communist party. After the Communist coup d’etat of Nov. 7, 1917, he was appointed people’s commissar for nationalities. During the civil and sovietPolish wars he was political adviser with the Red army. In 1922 he became general secretary of the central committee of the party. Soon after Nicolai Lenin’s death (Jan. 21, 1924), Stalin’s rise to pre-eminence in the party machine and state administration began. By 1937 his position as dictator of soviet Russia was unquestionable, although he did not hold state office until May 6, 1941, when he assumed the post of prime minister. On July 19, 1941, after the German attack, he appointed him¬ self commander in chief and minister of the armed forces, and in March 1943 he assumed the rank of marshal of the Soviet Union. During World War II Stalin met the leaders of Russia’s war¬ time Allies at Tehran (Nov. 1943), Yalta (Feb. 1945) and Potsdam (Berlin) (July 1945). On March 3, 1947, he resigned as minister of the armed forces, retaining the post of prime minister. On May 17, 1948, he answered an open letter from Henry Wallace {q.v.) and restated that the coexistence of the soviet and U.S. “systems” was not only possible but doubtless neces¬ sary. On Oct. 28, after the failure of earlier conferences to resolve the dispute between the Soviet Union and the three western powers over Berlin, Stalin, in an interview with a cor¬ respondent of the newspaper Pravda, declared that an agree¬ ment on Berlin had actually been reached at Moscow on Aug. 30, and again in Paris in the U.N. Security council. He said “war instigators” in the U.S. and Britain wished to avoid any agreement with the U.S.S.R. because “a policy of concord . . , deprives the aggressive policy of these gentlemen of any pur¬ pose.” In answer, the U.S. radio “Voice of America” declared that the Aug. 30 Moscow agreement had been “scuttled by the Russian commander in Berlin,” and that no agreement was ever reached in the Security council. {See also Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.)

Stamp Collecting: see

Philately.

In addition to particular research projects, the bureau con¬ ducted necessary research and development in the fields of sci¬ entific standards and measurement methods, the determination of physical constants and techniques for testing materials. Standard measuring apparatus and reference standards were tested ai)d calibrated; specifications for federal supplies were formulated; and advisory services were rendered on scientific matters to other agencies of the federal government, state and municipal governments and industry. The broad scope of activi¬ ties led to a large number and variety of projects, each generally independent of the others, and precluded a neat summation. The work could, however, be classified under the following head¬ ings: research and development; testing, calibration and stand¬ ard samples; codes and specifications; commodity standards; and co-operative activities of both a national and international nature. The technical work, irrespective of type, could again be broken down into two types, classified and unclassified. Much of the former represented continuations of projects be¬ gun during World War II; e.g., guided missiles and proximity fuses. The unclassified or “normal” work of the bureau could be suggested by the following survey of representative projects. One of the interesting discoveries of the year was that fric¬ tional forces between solid surfaces and certain types of fluid media can be controlled by means of a magnetic field. The sig¬ nificance of the discovery and its fundamental importance can be seen by use of an analogy: it is as though the principle of the lever had just been discovered. Specifically, if the space between two parallel magnetic surfaces is filled with a liquid containing finely divided magnetic particles and a magnetic field is established between the two surfaces, the magnetic particles bind together and prevent movement parallel to their surfaces. The magnetic particles may be finely divided iron, which for most applications is mixed with a liquid such as oil to prevent packing. When this mixture is acted upon by a mag¬ netic field, the iron particles are mutually attracted and bind together in the field, and the mixture solidifies. Because the magnetic field can be produced by an electric current, a very simple means is thus obtained for the control of the binding and shearing forces over a very wide range of values. The first application of this discovery was in a clutch. Both parallel plate and cylindrical clutches of the magnetic fluid type were success¬ fully constructed; they were characterized by ease of control, high efficiency, smooth operation, rapid reversal, long life and simplicity of construction. The resin-bonding process for making paper passed the de¬ velopmental stage and promised to make practicable the use of short-fibred wood pulps for paper making. Deciduous woods such as maple, beech, birch and poplar had heretofore been used only as fillers, for they do not possess the primary qualities of strength and resistance to surface pick. The new resin-bonding process, however, depends on the resin for satisfactory bond strength, and it appeared likely that the nation’s supply of wood suitable for paper had been effectively increased.

STANFORD UNIVERSITY—STASSEN, HAROLD EDWARD During the year considerable progress was made in obtaining accurate knowledge of the energies of nuclear radiations emitted by radioactive isotopes. Accurate determinations of the energies of radiations from radioactive iodine 131 were made; radiation standards for cobalt 60, iodine 131 and phosphorus 32 were developed. One of the interesting developments in the general field of atomic physics was that of a new, and what appeared to be an ultimate, standard of length. From i88g the world’s standard of length had been the “metre” distance between two lines on the international metre bar. Experiments at the bureau showed that the wave length of green radiation from the mer¬ cury isotope of mass 198 offers a new and in many ways better standard. In precision, reproductibility and convenience, this spectral line is superior to both the standard metre and the red line of cadmium (formerly used for highly precise and minute measurements). Mercury 198 was obtained by transmitting.gold through neutron bombardment in an atomic pile. The shortage of housing led to intensified work by the bureau in the field of building technology. Groups of specialists were engaged simultaneously in investigations of properties of ma¬ terials; structural strength; fire resistance; acoustics and sound insulation; heating, ventilating and air conditioning; durability; exclusion of moisture; building and electrical equipment; build¬ ing, plumbing and safety codes; and related phases of engineer¬ ing. The year saw the completion of an initial attempt to apply an engineering approach to the structural design of houses. The procedures pursued in the construction of bridges and large structures were applied to dwelling houses. Engineering princi¬ ples were used to determine such factors as allowable loads for walls, floors and roofs. The determination of such data permits the development of structural designs and the utilization of nonconventional building materials that provide sufficient strength but require a minimum amount of material and labour. Other representative projects of the year included resistance measurements of high precision, investigation of methods for testing tapes and wires for magnetic recordings, insulating prop¬ erties of plastics, thermal properties of gases, combustion prob¬ lems in gas turbines and jet engines. X-ray protection studies, atomic energy levels, turbulence problems in aerodynamics, ultrasonic and supersonic studies, analysis of synthetic rubbers, fundamental studies of electron tubes, the design of components for high-speed automatic electronic computers, research in cos¬ mic and solar radio waves, investigations of the ionosphere, measurement and calibration problems in the high and microwave frequencies and the development of optical glasses. In addition to research and development in the physical sci¬ ences and mathematics, the bureau performed more than 250,000 tests and calibrations for the government and the public as well as providing more than 18,500 standard chemical samples. The total fee value of these activities was approximately $1,000,000. Test activities included the sample testing of 5,000,000 bbl. of cement, more than 4,000,000 light bulbs and more than 100,000 clinical thermometers; the testing of radium prepara¬ tions valued at more than $1,000,000; life-testing of more than 3,000 dry cells and batteries; test and analysis of more than 7,000 chemical samples; more than 33,000 separate determina¬ tions on more than 9,000 samples of products containing or¬ ganic and fibrous materials; and about 100,000 determinations on approximately 28,000 mineral-product samples. The results of the bureau’s work were made available through three monthly periodicals {Journal of Research, Technical News Bulletin and Basic Radio Propagation Predictions) and several series of nonperiodical publications (Applied Mathematics Se¬ ries, Building Materials and Structures Series, circulars and handbooks). An indexed list of publications (Circular 460, 375 pages) was compiled and was available from the superintendent

«69

of documents, U.S. government printing office, Washington, D.C. (H. Od.)

Ctonfni'rl Ilniuoi'Ciftf

Leland Stanford Junior uldlllOrD UniVcrSliy university), an independent insti¬ tution of higher learning near Palo Alto, California. Early in 1948 the university suffered a tragic loss in the death of President Donald B. Tresidder who died suddenly of a heart attack on Jan. 28, 1948. Vice President Alvin C. Eurich was appointed acting president, serving until Dec. 31, 1948, when he became the first chief executive of the newly created New York State university. J. E. Wallace Sterling, director of the Huntington library, was elected the fifth president of the university. The average scholarship record of the students during the year reached an all-time high. The university awarded 2,430 degrees, 1,398 at the baccalaureate level and 1,032 advanced degrees. Effective Sept, i, the four nonprofessional schools, humani¬ ties, social sciences, physical sciences and biological sciences, were merged into a faculty of humanities and sciences with Clarence H. Faust as dean. Simultaneously, Douglas M. Whit¬ aker, who was serving as acting vice president, became dean of graduate study. Louis B. Lundborg was appointed vice presi¬ dent for university development. In the academic program special emphasis was given to in¬ ternational studies. The international relations, Hispanic-American and Pacific, Asiatic and Russian programs were strength¬ ened. During the summer quarter when the major theme was “Issues of One World,” the Brookings institution of Washington brought to the campus a seminar on major problems of U.S. foreign policy. The university’s research program was expanded with govern¬ ment contracts amounting to approximately $3,000,000. The Stanford Research institute under the direction of J. E. Hobson reached a volume of an annual rate of more than $1,000,000. Crothers dormitory housing 63 law school students was com¬ pleted. Construction of Lucie Stern hall, which would house 240 men, was started at a cost of $1,200,000. The reconstruc¬ tion of the Administration building into a law school plant costing approximately $1,000,000 was also begun. Construction began on a microwave laboratory as the first unit of a new science and technology quadrangle. In addition, the primary electrical system was being replaced and the steam plant and lines modernized. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library vol¬ umes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (A. C. Eu.) Stars: see Astronomy.

Stassen, Harold Edward

president, was bom April 13 in West St. Paul, Minn. He studied at the University of Minne¬ sota in Minneapolis, was admitted to the bar in 1929 and in 1930 was elected county attorney, holding the post for eight years. He was elected governor of Minnesota on the Republi¬ can ticket, and re-elected in 1941. He was temporary chairman and keynote speaker at the Republican national convention in 1940, and resigned as governor in 1943 to join the U.S. navy, serving as flag officer to Adm. William F. Halsey, Jr. He was a delegate to the United Nations San Francisco conference in 1945.

On Dec. 17, 1946, he announced his candidacy for the presi¬ dency of the United States, and by early 1948 was campaigning on such issues as the reform of the U.N. to eliminate the onepower veto; increased military appropriations; and outlawry of

670

STATE, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF—STOCKS AND BONDS

the Communist party. His political chances were strengthened by his decisive primary victory over Thomas E. Dewey and Gen. Douglas MacArthur in Wisconsin in April, and by his vic¬ tory a week later in the Nebraska preferential primary. He later campaigned to win a partial list of Ohio delegates away from Sen. Robert A. Taft. During the Oregon presidential primary campaign, he de¬ bated with Governor Dewey the question of outlawing the Communist party, taking the affirmative position. Dewey won the Oregon primary, and later the presidential nomination. Stassen accepted the appointment as president of the University of Pennsylvania, being formally installed on Sept. 17.

State, U.S. Department of: see

Government

Depart¬

ments AND Bureaus.

State Guard: see National Guard. Steel: see Iron and Steel. Stellar System: see Astronomy.

dliU DUiluOa

ket in 1948 was fairly active in volume of trading, fairly steady as to the price level, and mod¬ erately bullish as compared with the closing price level of 1947. With respect to all leading groups of stocks, the alternate bull and bear movements during 1948, three in number, were cornparatively small. For 90 stocks combined, representing the rail¬ road, industrial and public utility groups, the Standard & Poor’s average price level in December stood at 120.6, as compared with 133.6 for June and 117.7 for January, and with 119.3 for Dec. 1947, and 120.8 for Jan. 1947. In other words, the 1948 price level seemed to indicate primarily a backing and filling procedure. Following election day on Nov. 2 stock market prices underwent a fairly drastic decline, and by the end of that month the price level had declined to the preceding March figure. Much publicity was given the fact that during November the aggregate market value of stocks listed on the New York Stock exchange had declined about $8,000,000,000. During 1948, corporate earnings remained exceptionally satisfactory as compared with 1947, and the same was also true of dividend distributions. Most groups or corporations managed to adjust themselves fairly well, through price increases and improved productive efficiency, to the large wage increases won by labour during 1947 and the first half of 1948. The entire year, like 1947, was marked by inflation thinking, a market psychology reflecting neither a postwar boom nor a serious busi¬ ness depression, and a feeling of hope for a well maintained foreign trade to fill the appalling needs of foreign nations occa¬ sioned by World War II. Toward the close of 1948, following the swift and fairly dras¬ tic decline in stock market prices after election day, the follow¬ ing factors were emphasized as causing most of the stock mar¬ ket’s unsettlement: (i) heavy selling to establish tax losses be¬ fore the close of the year, (2) adverse developments in the

Toble II.—J 948 Price Ronge of 25 Leading Representative U.S. Common Stocks Close 1947

Stock

Allied Chemical & Dye. American Car & Foundry. American Smelting & Refining. American Telegraph & Telephone . . . . American Tobacco. Anaconda Copper. Bethlehem Steel*. Chrysler Corporation. Douglas Aircraft. E. I. du Pont de Nemours. General Baking. General Electric. General Motors. Goodyear Tire & Rubber. Great Northern Ry. (pfd.). Illinois Central Railroad. . . . ^ . International Harvesterf. Montgomery Word.. • National Dairy Products. New York Central Railroad. Pennsylvania Railroad. Standard Oil of Indiana. Standard Oil of New Jersey. Union Pacific Railroodl. United States Steel. *Split up three shares to one. fSplit up three shares ’o one. {Split up two shares to one.

Jan. Feb. March. April. May. June. July. Aug. Seat. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Industrials 50 stocks 1948 1947 145.5 146.3 138.2 152.5 140.1 146.8 151.4 141.7 158.6 139.7 165.8 145.2 161.5 154.2 156.8 150.9 154.7 147.0 159.6 151.4 151.0 150.9 150.5 148.7

Public Utilities 20 stocks 1948 1947 68.6 79.7 65.6 80.9 66.4 77.6 69.1 74.7 72.2 72.5 74.0 73.1 72.8 76.2 70.7 75.8 70.6 74.5 71.1 74.5 67.5 69.9 66.1 66.7

1414

181/a 42% 793/a 1641/2 781/a

4114 3934

6534 67% 188% 11'/8 43 66 50% 50% 423/a 3414

65 32 18% 22% 53 92% 96% 87%

low 1948 171 28% 4634 147% 54% 30% 303/a 50% 47 164 8% 313% 50% 38% 36% 27% 26% 47% 2434 123/a 16% 367a 691/a 7934 673/a

Close 1948 181 31% 5434 150 61% 34 323/a 531/a 49% I8334 101/2

39% 591/a 42 403% 301/8 263% 54% 27% 121/2 161% 393/8 723% 861% 703%

foreign situation, particularly in Germany and the orient, (3) continued inflation with a prospect of a fourth round of wage boosts, (4) the apparent absence of any chance of avoiding a further rise in the national debt, (5) the prospect of the re¬ establishment of governmental price and business controls, (6) increased taxation generally as well as emphasis upon excess profits taxation, and (7) the fear of a concerted governmental attack upon big business. The election results seemed to have taken the market by great surprise, and the speculative reaction was decidedly pessimistic. Number, Volume and Amount of Stocks.—According to the New York Stock exchange’s compilation, the total stocks listed on that exchange on Dec. i, 1948, stood at 2,011,000,000 shares. with a total market value of $65,466,000,000. This value com¬ pares with $68,884,000,000 on Nov. i, 1947, $66,115,000,000 on Nov. I, 1946, and $69,560,000,000 on Nov. i, 1945. Of the 1948 total (as of Dec. i) U.S. stocks aggregated 1,957,000,000 shares, valued at $64,358,000,000, and stocks of other countries 53,807,000 shares, valued at $1,107,000,000. The total of shares was distributed over 1,397 separate U.S. issues and 19 issues of other countries, representing a total of 1,017 issuing corporations. Total shares traded on the New York Stock exchange during 1948 amounted to 302,218,965 shares, as compared with 253,624,000 shares during 1947, 363,709,000 shares during 1946, 377,564,000 shares during 1945, 263,074,000 shares during 1944, 278,742,000 shares during 1943, 125,678,000 shares during 1942 and 1,124,991,000 shares during 1929, the largest yearly total on record. The New York curb market had sales'during 1948 of 75,090,000 shares, as compared with 72,380,000 shares during 1947, 137,220,000 shares during 1946, 143,337,000 shares during 1945, 71,062,000 shares during 1944, 71,382,000 shares during 1943 and 22,328,000 shares during 1942.

Table I.— U.S. Security Market Prices Railroads 20 stocks 1948 1947 43.6 46.8 41.6 48.7 42.5 44.6 46.8 41.3 50.2 38.8 51.0 39.9 50.6 44.5 48.7 43.0 48.7 41.7 49.1 42.5 44.4 40.7 43.1 41.7

1 89'/2 41 Vs 5614 1513/a 681/2 34 103 6334 471/2 187 103/, 3534 581/4 431/2 41 311/8 89 5334 29

High 1948 198 49'/a 68 1585/, 6934

*Copper 7 stocks 1947 1948 115.1 118.3 108.2 121.0 116.5 118.8 132.3 114.1 136.2 109.7 108.1 142.0 140.2 115.3 114.4 137.0 134.3 113.0 139.1 115.6 130.9 118.7 129.4 116.9

Stocks 90 stocks 1948 1947 117.7 120.8 112.0 125.5 113.6 120.4 122.3 116.0 128.3 113.9 133.6 117.9 130.4 125.2 126.6 122.7 125.1 119.6 128.6 122.7 121.4 121.3 120.6 119.3

*1935-39 base period; all other figures use 1926 as a base period. The above figures are an average for the month based on daily closing prices, except for copper, which are weekly closing prices. Source of data. Trade and Securities^ Current Statistics, Standard and Poor’s Corporotion.

U.S. Bonds.—The U.S. bond market was remarkably stable during the year at a high price level (see Table HI). According to the New York Stock exchange’s record, stock, bond and note flotations of U.S. corporations during the first nine months of 1948 to¬ talled $4,110,000,000; but ex¬ clusive of refunding issues, in¬ vestment trusts and holding companies, the total flotation

STOCKS AND BONDS

671

MO

Table III,—U.S, Bond Prices for 1948 Composite Bonds Al4Dollars per $100 (Standard and Poor’s Weekly Corporate Bond Price Indexes) Month

Average

Jan. Feb. March. April. May .. June.

Average

Month July.■ Aug. Sept. . Oct. Nov. ...... Dec.

117.7

amounted to $3,870,000,000. These figures compared with sim¬ ilar totals during the corresponding nine months of 1947 of $2,681,000,000 and $1,414,000,000, respectively. Number, Volume and Amount of Bonds.—According to the New York Stock exchange’s compilation, the total par value of bonds listed on that exchange at the beginning of Dec. 1948 stood at $131,426,000,000, with a market value of $131,234,000,000. This par value compared with $136,711,000,000 and $136,880,000,000 for the corresponding years of 1947 and 1946. Of the 1948 total, U.S. corporation bonds (at the beginning of De¬ cember) amounted to $15,969,000,000, with a market value of $14,702,000,000; company bonds of other countries with a par value of $640,155,000 and a market value of $540,279,000; U.S. government bonds (inclusive of corporations and subdivisions) with a par value of $113,157,000,000 and a market value of $114,898,000,000; and other governments (inclusive of sub¬ divisions) \^ith a par value of $1,410,000,000 and a market value of $850,000,000. The total listed bonds of U.S. corpora¬ tions were distributed over 594 issues with 310 issuers; of U.S. government bonds with 74 issues and 3 issuers; and other gov¬ ernments with 189 issues and 47 issuers. The total bonds traded on the New York Stock exchange during 1948 amounted to $1,013,829,210 as compared with $1,076,000,000 during 1947, $1,364,000,000 during 1946, $2,262,000,000 during 1945, $2,695,000,000 during 1944, $3,255,000,000 during 1943 and $2,183,000,000 during 1942. Table IV,—1948 Price Range of 25 Leading U.S. Domestic Bond Issues Name

American Telegraph & Telephone 2%s 80 . . American Tobacco 3s 62. Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe 4s 95. Bethlehem Steel 2^s 70. Chesapeake & Ohio 31^s 96D. Chicago, Burlington & Quincy 3 Vi* 85 • . . . Commonwealth Edison 3s 77. Erie 4*/^s 2015.• Great Northern Railway 5s 73. Illinois Bell Tel. 2%s 81. Illinois Central 4s 52. Louisville & Nashville 3^s 2003 . National Dairy 2%s 70. Northern Pacific 4s 97. Ohio Edison 3s 74. Pennsylvonio Railroad gen 5s 68. Philadelphia Electric 2^^s 67. Reading Railroad 3V^s 95 . Southern Pacific 81. Southern Railway gen 4s 56. Standard Oil of New Jersey 2%$ 71 . . . . Swift & Company 2^8* 72. Union Pacific 2%s 76. Western Union 5s 51. Westinghouse Electric cv 2.65s 73 . • • . .

High

low

97 Va

893% 101 115% 96 913% 93 101 64 116 94% 99% 95 97 99 983/, 104% 98% 83% 843% 91% 92% 95% 96% 88% 99

103'/j 123>/8 99% 104% 100% 104'/j 73!/i 1233^ 100 103'/2 97%

lOO'/j 107% 102 111 % 102 93% 953/4

98 96% 98% 102% 102 1023/,

Last IDec.311 933% 103% 122% 99% 963% 973/, 104% 68% 119% 96% 102% 97 99% 102% 1003% 106 100% 863/, 893/, 96% 95% 973/, 1003/g 101% 100%

The New York Stock Exchange.—Alterations in rules, prac¬ tices and recommendations of the New York Stock exchange were comparatively minor in 1948. The following may be listed as most important: On March 9, the federal reserve board provided for, effective April I, “substitutions in under-margined accounts without put¬ ting up additional margin, under certain restrictions.” A special committee was appointed on Jan. 19 to consider the advisability of retiring memberships on the exchange. On May 13 this com¬ mittee reported that any seat retirement plan would be unsound. This conclusion was later concurred in by the board of gov¬ ernors of the,exchange. Effective Dec. 15, the board of gover¬ nors of the exchange amended the floor trading rules in such a way as “to permit members on the floor to purchase for their

SALES AND PRICES on the New York Stock exchange, 194S

own account, under certain conditions, long stock at a price higher than the last sale.” On June 30, according to the exchange’s report, 300 member firms carried 100,499 open securities margin accounts for cus¬ tomers. These figures compared with 297 firms and 56,131 on Dec. 31, 1946, 282 firms and 137,752 accounts on June 30, 1945, and 256,504 accounts (with number of firms not given) on Nov. 30, 1938. According to the condensed statement of income and expenses of the exchange for the nine months ended Sept. 30, 1948, there was a loss of $367,108. This compared with a loss of $183,601 for the same period of 1947. (S. S. H.) Great Britain.—Twice during the course of the year, indus¬ trial share prices fell and rose by as much as 10%. In August, public interest was at so low an ebb that the volume of trans¬ actions sank to its lowest since the end of World War II. Perhaps the most fundamental factor was the change in the government’s financial policy. The retreat from a 2^% long¬ term interest rate on government securities to a 3% level became complete and was formally confirmed by the chancellor of the exchequer. Sir Stafford Cripps. The government’s view that there was no longer justification “for any rise in income from profits, rents or other like sources” removed much of the incen¬ tive from markets, since this brought in its train voluntary divi¬ dend limitation to which most companies agreed at the request of the Federation of British Industries. The April budget, which planned for a substantial real surplus, underlined the govern¬ ment’s disinflationary policy. There were other adverse influences. It became increasingly apparent that the postwar era of inflation, lush profits and sell¬ ers’ markets had either ended or was coming to an end, and home traders, having to contend with high purchase taxes and excise duties, found a diminution in public spending power. One of the greatest psychological shocks which the investment world had to suffer was the imposition, for the first time in British fiscal history, of a capital levy. This took the form of a graduated special levy on investment income for 1947-48, officially char¬ acterized as “once-for-all.” It must be obvious, however, from a study of the market indexes in Table V that everything was not against the market all the time. There were indeed counterbalancing factors, espe¬ cially in the latter half of the year. The government securities index, for instance, finished the year very much as it began. The industrial ordinary share index regained much of the sub-

STOMACH DISORDERS —STRIKES

672

not prepared to retain the 3% government-guaranteed stock which they received in place of what was probably a 4% invest¬ ment, neither were stockholders in the gas industry which would probably be vested in 1949. The Iron and Steel bill, which would nationalize 107 of the leading undertakings, had yet to become law, but holders had already been moving into other

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URANIUMllronnim

wartime development of the atomic bomb led to a world-wide search for new sources of uranium, but little information was made public as to the results. The chief prewar sources were the radium-bearing ores of Canada and the Belgian Congo, and the uranium obtained as a by¬ product was more or less a drug on the market, as there were few industrial uses for it.

Ui alllUIII*

There are in the western United States, chiefly Colorado, Utah and Arizona, ores in which uranium is associated with vanadium and radium, but few if any of these are rich enough in uranium to be classed as uranium ores, though some uranium was recovered in the treatment of ores for vanadium, and at one time for the radium contained in them. Any future domes¬ tic supply of uranium would come from the known but limited reserves of vanadium-uranium ores, or from the discovery of new reserves. There are several other countries which, like the United States, have limited supplies of uranium-bearing ores, but unless these reserves have been appreciably enlarged by discoveries during the past few years, the resources adequate for any effec¬ tive utilization of uranium as a fissionable material are limited to Canada and the Belgian Congo. (See also Atomic Energy; Physics.) (G. A. Ro.) lIrnInO'V

streptomycin for tuberculosis involving

UlUIUgJfi the genitourinary tract was more or less standard¬ ized during 1948. As with tuberculosis in other regions, strepto¬ mycin was found most valuable in acute or early infections, and in some cases of suppuration and fever. Although it had not replaced surgical treatment, it proved to be of value when em¬ ployed prior to surgical treatment and in some cases later. It was also found of value in allaying tuberculous cystitis and as an aid to healing persistent sinuses. The drug should not be employed longer than two or three months, since the bacteria usually acquire resistance by that time. Systemic reaction occurs in about 10% of cases and may be observed at any stage of treatment. Clinical evidence of reaction must be watched for constantly and, when noticed, the treatment must be stopped at once. It was claimed that dihydrostreptomycin had less toxicity. Several other antibiotic drugs were found to be of value in combating infection in the urinary tract, but they were still in the experimental state in 1948, and further experience was necessary to evaluate their usefulness. During 1948 a new operation for removing the hypertrophied prostate gland, as described by Terence Millin of London, Eng., was rather widely used. It consists in a retropubic approach to the prostate gland, obviating incision of the space of Retzius and so preventing secondary infection of this region. The operation requires a considerable degree of skill and a thor¬ ough knowledge of the anatomy of the region involved. In the hands of experienced surgeons it proved to be highly successful, both as to mortality and morbidity rates. This operation does not supplant transurethral prostatic resection, but is indicated particularly in the case of an unusually large gland or when for other reasons transurethral resection may not be feasible. Urol¬ ogists who were successful in transurethral resection in all cases of prostatic obstruction continued to use that method, because when skilfully performed it is attended by extremely low mor¬ tality and morbidity rates. Considerable attention was paid to use of cytologic examina¬ tion of the urine for evidence of malignant lesions in the urinary tract. Various modifications of the method of G. N. Papanico¬ laou were employed in the search for malignant cells in the urinary sediment. While in some unsuspected cases the method proved of value, the findings could also be misleading. It was the general opinion that cytologic examination is not of as much

URUGUAY

739

value in urinalysis as it is in examination of cervical smears or respiratory excretions. In the surgical field several refinements were made in sig¬ moidal transplantation of the ureters when operating for car¬ cinoma of the bladder. It was recognized that a one-stage opera¬ tion, including reimplantation of both ureters into the sigmoid, combined with cystectomy, prostatectomy and seminal vesiculec¬ tomy in the male, as advocated by D. 0. Ferris and J. T. Priest¬ ley, is the method of choice. Modifications of the surgical technique employed with ureteral implantation, such as that sug¬ gested by R. M. Nesbit, were adopted. Tunnel-graft urethroplasty for hypospadias was developed and, judging from the results reported by F, Z. Havens during 1948, it seemed to be the method of choice. Bibliography.—D. 0. Ferris and J. T. Priestley, “Total Cystectomy,” 60:98-106 (July 1948). (W. F. Br.)

/. Urol.,

llriKTIlOU

^ republic in southeastern South America, bounded

UI UgUdj* on the north by Brazil, on the east by the Atlantic ocean, on the south by the Rio de la Plata and on the west by Argentina. Area: 72,172 sq.mi. (the smallest republic in South America); pop. (Dec., 1947 est.): 2,318,000. The population is estimated at 90% white, the bulk of the remainder being mestizo. Many Europeans, principally Italians and Spaniards, reside in Uruguay. Montevideo (1945 pop. est., 747,665) is the capital and chief port; other major cities (with 1945 pop. ests. unless otherwise indicated) include Paysandu (50,000), Salto (48,000), Mercedes (33,000), Minas (1942 est., 32,000), Tucuarembo (30,000), San Jose (1942 est., 30,000), Rocha (28,500), Melo (28,000), Durazno (1942 est., 27,000) and Santa Lucia (1942 est., 27,000). President in 1948: Luis Batlle Berres. History .—More friendly relations with Argentina were devel¬ oped by Uruguay in 1948, the two republics signing on Feb. 28 an agreement to settle all further disputes between them by arbitration. A joint statement issued at the time the pact was signed revealed Argentine-Uruguayan plans for an early commer¬ cial treaty, relaxation of controls placed on tourists passing be¬ tween the two countries and joint development of the water¬ power resources of the international falls at Salto Grande. The Uruguayan government announced early in March conclusion of negotiations to purchase all British-owned railroads in the repub¬ lic for approximately $28,600,000. Uruguayan administration of these railroads began on July i. The relations of the Batlle Berres government with both for¬ eign and domestic communists steadily deteriorated during the year. The Montevideo government exposed on April 24 an international meeting at Salto of communist leaders from vari¬ ous South American republics. Prominent among the com¬ munists involved were former Senator Pablo Neruda of Chile, former Senator Luis Carlos Prestes of Brazil, Rodolfo Ghioldi of Argentina and Ricardo Paseyro and Julio Dutret of Uruguay. When the Moscow radio accused the Uruguayan government of persecuting communists, President Batlle Berres asserted that “we are democrats by conviction, and have ample legislation giving rights to all parties.” He declared that Uruguay would not admit communists deported from other countries. An ap¬ parently communist-instigated riot broke out in October in the Trocadero theatre at Montevideo, interrupting the showing of The Iron Curtain, a U.S.-made film dealing with a spy ring in Canada. President Batlle Berres warned the rioters that the government would, if necessary, meet force with force. A measure limiting the activities of representatives and agents of foreign companies became law in August. Cancellation of agency contracts by one of the contracting parties in the absence of six months’ notice was forbidden, the sole exceptions being allowed in instances of bankruptcy or violation of essential

U.S.S.R. —UTAH

740

clauses of contracts. The city council of Montevideo approved in September a six-year public works project expected to involve an outlay of approximately $2,622,000 for roads, bridges and other municipal improvements. A Latin-American conference on nutrition was held at Montevideo in July, and a United Nations-sponsored parley on the development of science in Latin America met in the capital city two months later. In September, President Batlle Berres journeyed to Rio de Janeiro to visit Brazilian President Eurico Caspar Dutra. Finance.—The monetary unit is the peso, the value of which declined from 1.90 to the U.S. dollar, official rate (2.20 to the dollar, free rate), on April 28 to 2.30 to the dollar, official rate (2.39 to the dollar, free rate), on Sept. 30. Trade.—Uruguay emerged from the first four months of 1948 with a favourable trade balance of approximately $8,000,000, according to a finance ministry report. U.S. exports to Uruguay during 1947 were valued at $75,459,000, Uruguayan goods shipped to the U.S. during that year coming to $37,753,000. During the 1947-48 season, 88,799 bales of Uruguayan wool were exported to the U.S. Authorizations by the U.S. Economic Cooperation administration for purchase of Uruguayan hides, skins and leather totalled $60,000 during 1948. Uruguayan officials esti¬ mated that the republic’s meat exports during the year would total 58,500 metric tons. Cattle were exempted from import duties and surtaxes in May. In December, a one-year contract for British purchase of 34,000 metric tons of Uruguayan meat was announced. As of June 30, Uruguay accounted for $r3,ooo,ooo in outstanding U.S. Export-Import bank loans. An agreement was made in May for the purchase by Brazil of 15,000 metric tons of Uruguayan wheat flour at approximately $220 per metric ton; and Uruguayan-made tires valued at $2to,ooo were exported to Argentina in September. The National Ports administration, an agency of the government at Montevideo, was authorized in March to increase port charges by 30%. Agriculture and Production.—The 1947—48 wheat yield came to 440,000 metric tons, being one of the largest wheat crops in Uruguayan history. It was estimated that 90,000 metric tons of the crop were available for export. The flaxseed production for the same season totalled 4,100,000 bu., and the t947-48 rice harvest was estimated at 2,009,000 bu. In October, the Carmelo shipyards launched the “Cruz del Sur,” i,r70-ton steel sister ship of the “Presidente Berreta,” and four additional ships of the same design were under construction at the year’s end. During 1947, total electric power production came to 269,000,000 kw.hr., or 2.5% of the Latin-American aggregate. The number of Uruguayan workers em¬ ployed during that year in manufacturing industries was estimated at 67,000, or 4% of the Latin-American total. (G. I. B.)

U.S.S.R

see

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

A Rocky Mountain • state, admitted to the union in 1896, popularly known as the “Beehive state.” Area: 84,916 sq.mi. (82,346 sq.mi. land; 2,570 sq.mi. water); pop.: (est. July i, 1948) 655,000; (U.S. census 1940) 550,310. The rural nonfarm popu¬ lation was 150,465 in 1940, farm 94,352; urban 305,493, with the following origins: white (na¬ tive) 510,662; (foreign-born) 32,298; Negro (native) 1,225 (est. 1948, 3,200); (foreignborn) 10. Capital: Salt Lake J. BRACKEN LEE, Republican, City (pop. est. 1948, 210,000). elected governor of Utah Nov. 2,1948 Other principal cities with 1948 est. pop.: Ogden (63,000), Provo (28,208) and Logan (16,000). In 1947 (Dec. 31) the Mormon Church gave its membership total as 1,016,170, a little less than one-half, or 484,890, in Utah and 175,367 in Salt Lake City. History .—In 1948 the administration of Gov. Herbert B. Maw co-operated with federal authorities in essential postwar measures and the further development of the Colorado river. It aided business and industrial interests in the expansion of manufacturing, mining, metallurgical and transportation indus¬ tries and in encouraging eastern and Pacific coast industrialists and manufacturers to establish their branch factories in Utah. One such example was the purchase by the Kaiser-Frazer com¬ pany of the blast furnaces at Ironton and coke ovens at Sunny-

side from the War Assets administration at a cost of $1,150,000 with plans to spend approximately $4,000,000 in putting it into operation; this would give jobs to about 300 workers. The voting on Nov. 2, 1948, resulted in a Democratic victory in Utah, with the exception of the gubernatorial position, and in consequence, J. Bracken Lee (R.) was elected governor; Heber Bennion, Jr., secretary of state for a second term; Reese M. Reese, former state treasurer, auditor; Ferrell H. Adams, former auditor, treasurer; Clinton D. Vernon, attorney general; and E. Allen Bateman was re-elected superintendent of public instruction. The presidential vote was 149,151 for Harry S. Truman and 124,402 for Thomas E. Dewey. Education.—There were 149,720 children of school age in Utah in 1947 (fiscal year), and an average daily attendance at school of only 132,571 out of an enrolment of 146,406. The total cost of education for the fiscal year July 1947-July 1948, was $30,390,172.25, with $23,611,135.22 devoted to operating expenses. There were 4,553 teachers and 438 principals. Social

Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

Total obligations of $10,740,695.16 incurred in 1947 for public assistance, exclusive of administration, were distributed as follows: old-age assistance $6,393,515.46; aid to dependent children $2,797,472.84; aid to the blind $83,563.78; aid to employables $91,384.47; aid to unemployables $979,838.95; other assistance $394,919.66. A total of 15,649 households were receiving assistance in June 1947, as compared with 15,395 households in June 1946. From Jan. i to June 30, 1948, $5,807,323.10 was distributed for public assistance. The 1947 legislature fixed the amount of “budgetary needs” for recipients of public assistance at not to exceed (per month) $45 for a one-person case, $90 for a two-person case, $114 for a three-person case and $15 per person for each additional person beyond three in a case, with an over-all maximum of $175 for any case. The maximum must be adjusted according to changes in the U.S. cost-of-living index Jan. i and July i each year. Accordingly in Jan. 1948, the amounts were increased as follows: $48.15 for a one-person case, $96.30 for a twoperson case, $122 for a three-person case and $16 per person for each additional person beyond three in a case, with an over-all maximum of $187.25 for any case. By an act of the special legislature, on July i, 1948, the budgetary needs were increased to $50 (per month) for a one-person case, $100 for a two-person case, $127 for a three-person case and $17 per person for each additional person beyond three in a case, with an over-all maximum of $195 for any case. Communications.—In 1948 there were 29,611 mi. of roads maintained in Utah by the following agencies: state highway department 5,303; counties 15,3591 cities and towns 2,619; and by the U.S. government in various federal reservations and by the grazing service 6,330 mi. Gross motor-vehicle registration went to 229,991 licences, a new high, with registration receipts totalling $2,039,460.38 for 1948. Receipts from the 4-cent gasoline tax were $6,694,031.97. State highway expenditures were $12,406,591, of which $4,795,527 were federal co-operative funds for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948. The state distributed $1,500,000 to cities and counties from motor-vehicle registration receipts for expendi¬ ture on local roads. There were approximately 67 mi. of electric railway, with 51 mi. of main track line and 16 mi. second track line, and approximately 2,028 mi. of steam railway as of Dec. 31, 1947, including 1,847 nii. main track line and 181 mi. second track line. Banking and Finance—The 56 banks, 45 state and 11 national, had total assets of $589,594,483.70 on Oct. ii, 1948, and total bank de¬ posits reached $553,425,991.79. On June 30, 1948, the 13 statechartered savings, building and loan associations had aggregate assets of $41,311,780.07. On June 30, 1948, the 6 federal savings and loan associations had aggregate assets of $21,822,773.31. State receipts for the year ending June 30, 1948, were $72,782,544; expenditures were $71,668,282.54. The total of outstanding bonds in 1948 was $1,070,000, with an amount available in U.S. treasury 2% bonds of $1,400,000 for retirement of all outstanding bonds. Thus, the state of Utah was out of debt. Agriculture.—Figures showed cash income from farm marketings in 1947 was $51,719,000 for crops and $103,723,000 for livestock and livestock products, as compared with final figures of $42,591,000 for crops and $94,270,000 for livestock and livestock products in 1946. The preliminary value of truck and canning crops was $9,949,000 for

Table \.—Principal Agricultural Products of Utah, 1948 and 1947 Preliminary Crop Wheat, tons. Hay (tame and wild), tons Potatoes, bu. Sugar beets, short tons . . Celery, crates. Tomatoes, fresh, bu. . . . " , processing, tons Onions, I 00-lb. sacks . . Peas, tons (processed) . .

1948

1947

2,491,334 1,134,000 2,944,000 439,000 273,000 74,000 72,600 341,000

2,694,000 1,172,000 2,498,000 740,000 502,000 85,000 72,800 390,000 18,880

11,000

1947: for 1946, $7,690,000. The value of canning tomatoes in 1948 was $1,706,000 and shipping tomatoes $18,000. During the two periods of peak employment in 1948, approximately 1,500 Navaho Indians were brought into Utah for agricultural employ¬ ment. Although there were several times during the season when' the agricultural labour market was rather tight, all needs were met and no losses were reported which were attributable to labour shortages. Manufacturing—During the first three quarters of 1948, manufactur¬ ing employment in Utah averaged 26,700 per month. Comparison of

741

UTILITIES, PUBLIC—VANDENBERG. HOYT SANFORD this figure with the years 1937-41 shows the first nine months completed and others

Annual manufacturing pay rolls in 1944, 1945 and 1946 ranged be¬ tween $42,000,000 and $51,000,000. In 1947 the pay roll rose to more than $68,000,000. During the first three quarters of 1948 it already exceeded $56,000,000. The gross value, including processing, of Utah’s manufactured goods was estimated at $475,000,000 for the calendar year 1948. Mineral Production.—Preliminary reports show that metal mining in Utah in 1948 showed a slight drop, compared with the totals recorded for 1947, with the exception of silver, which showed an increase of 198,968 oz. over the 1947 high, and lead, which showed an increase of 12,754,000 lb. over the 1947 total. Gold, with a 136% increase in output, set the pace in Utah’s vigorous recovery in metal mining in 1947 from the poor showing in 1946. The spectacular record made by gold brought production of the metal to the highest figure in the state’s history and restored Utah to its former position as the largest gold-producing state. Copper followed gold closely, increasing 133% in quantity and bringing output of the metal to the highest point in any peacetime year. A labour strike on the Bingham and Garfield railroad from Oct. 22 to Nov. 5 resulted in the loss of a large quantity of metal from the Utah Copper mine. Silver production gained 89%, lead 62% and zinc 56%. The 1947 total value of $158,624,849, an all-time high, was 163% above the total value in 1946 and 27% more than the previous peak of $124,562,540 reached in 1943. Of the state total value in 1947, copper contributed 71%, gold more than 9%, lead 9%, zinc 6% and silver more than 4%.

Table II.—Principal

Mineral Produclion in Utah, 1948, 1947 and 1946

Mineral

Copper, lb. Lead, lb. Zinc, lb. Gold, oi. Silver, oz. Value of all ores.

1948

1947

1946

453,842,000 112,150,000 82,450,000 371,155 7,979,000 $150,194,918

533,066,000 99,396,000 87,346,000 421,662 7,780,032 $158,624,849

228,568,000 61,422,000 56,584,000 178,533 4,118,453 $60,202,627

The 1948 coal production was 1,693,364 tons; the 1948 coke produc¬ tion was 1,058,448 tons; salt production reached 113,285 tons; while gilsonite production reached 67,165 tons and was valued at more than $1,250,000. (J. C. Ar.)

Utilities, Public:

see Public Utilities.

idlldUCuf IVIfll NUO munist leader, was born at Tosya, Tur¬ key, son of a Greek schoolteacher. When the great exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey began, he went to Salonika, Greece, but later settled at Kavalla in Greek Mace¬ donia, a tobacco centre where many fellow refugees from Turkey had gathered. Vafiades joined the Tobacco Workers’ union and later the Communist party. He was arrested six times, sentenced for subversive activity and served a total of nearly five years in prison. The German invasion in 1941 found him in exile on the small island of Gavdos, south of Crete, from which he escaped and joined the Communist-controlled E.L.A.S. (Greek Popular Liberation army) in Mace¬ donia. He soon became a leader and in Oct. 1944 was in com¬ mand of the “Macedonian group of divisions” which entered Salonika unopposed when the Germans withdrew. When, after the disintegration of the Dec. 1944 rebellion, the Communist party of Greece decided to prepare another, better-organized attempt, Vafiades was picked as commander in chief of the rebel “Democratic army.”. Using now the name of “General Markos,” he started his guerrilla operations immediately after the plebiscite of Sept, i, 1946, when the Greek people decided on the restoration of the monarchy. On June 29, 1948, in the Grammes mountains, Markos declared to a U.S. newspaper reporter that his “Democratic government” would soon have a capital in Greece. On Aug. 20 the Greek army concluded the occupation of the Grammes area, without, however, leading to any serious deterioration of the Communist position. Ifnnnfliiini

VuildlllllllL'

Table I.— World

average monthly employment during the prewar an increase in excess of 50%. During 1947 and of 1948, several large manufacturing plants were were started.

vanadium content of the ores and concentrates produced by the major sources of supply

is shown in Table I. United States.—The major features of the vanadium in-

Production of Vanadium

(In short tons of metal content)

Northern Rhodesia. Peru.. South-West Africa* United States* • •

1937 259 643 652 544

1939 423 1,097 567 992

1941 377 1,121 297 1,257

1943 470 934 636 2,793

1945 241 758 463 1,482

1946 75 354 462 636

1947 62 482 303 1,059

Total . * . * •

2,150

3,200

3,100

4,850

2,944

1,528

1,906

Table 11.--Data on the Vanadium Industry in the United States (In short tons) Mine shipments . . Consumption (domestic ores) * Imports. Peru . . . , .

1939

1941

1943

1945

1946

1947

992 ? 1,066 1,066

1,257 1,197 1,069 1,068

2,793 2,590 1,058 1,026

1,482 1,911 789 776

636 748 406 396

1,059 1,118 528 492

dustry in the United States is shown in Table H, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Domestic production and imports both increased heavily in 1947, but consumption of domestic ores outran output. High¬ speed steels and other types of alloy steels consumed about 95%. of the vanadium output, but use in other varieties was growing. (G. A. Ro.)

Vandenberg, Arthur Hendrick

ator, was born March 22, in Grand Rapids, Mich., studied at the University of Michi¬ gan law school, Ann Arbor, Mich., for a year, then joined the Grand Rapids Herald as a reporter, becoming the paper’s editor and general manager. He was appointed to fill a U.S. senate vacancy in 1928 and was re-elected in 1934, 1940 and 1946. Although a noninterventionist before the U.S. involvement in World War H, Vandenberg generally supported the wartime foreign policy of Pres. F. D. Roosevelt, and in 1945 the latter appointed him delegate to the United Nations San Francisco conference. On Dec. 30, 1946, Vandenberg was named presi¬ dent pro tempore of the senate, and during succeeding years he personified in the senate, as chairman of that body’s committee on foreign relations, the bipartisan U.S. foreign policy. As early as Dec. 31, 1947, Michigan Republicans had begun to promote his candidacy for the Republican nomination for president, but he declared he could best serve the country by completing his senate term. However, he was considered a leading dark-horse candidate up to the opening of the Republi¬ can national convention in Philadelphia, Pa., in June 1948. Both before and after the convention he devoted his energy to the European Recovery plan, terming it an undisguised counteroffensive against the spread of communism. He also promoted passage of a bill to give military aid to Greece and Turkey, and in May urged the formation of mutual defense blocs of democratic nations under the U.N. charter. At the height of the Berlin crisis in September he issued a warning that the nation was united against aggression, despite any do¬ mestic political disagreements.

Vandenberg, Hoyt Sanford oSrwastomo'jVn”” in Milwaukee, Wis., was graduated from the U.S. Military academy at West Point, N.Y., in 1923, and from the Air Service Flying school and its Advanced Flying school in 1924. After several years of flight training and teaching, he entered the Air Corps Tactical school in 1934 and the Command and General Staff school in 1935. He taught at the Air Corps Tactical school 1936-38, when he entered the Army War college. Early in 1942 he was operations and training officer of the air staff in Washington. Later that year he helped organize the air forces in North Africa, becoming chief of staff of the 12th air force, and later of the northwest African strategic air force. He flew on numerous missions in that theatre. In Aug. 1943 he became deputy chief of staff at air force

VARNISHES —VEGETABLE OILS

742

headquarters and headed an air mission to the U.S.S.R. In April 1944 he was designated deputy commander in chief of the Allied expeditionary air force and commander of its U.S. air component, assuming command of the 9th air force in August. In July 194s he was appointed assistant chief of air staff, and in Jan. 1946 became director of intelligence on the war depart¬ ment general staff. In June 1946 he was named director of cen¬ tral intelligence. After serving in this capacity almost a year, he returned to duty with the air force in April 1947, becoming deputy commander and chief of air staff, June 19471 vice chief of staff with the rank of general, Oct. i, i947) chief of staff of the air force, April 30, 1948.

Varnishes:

see

Paints and Varnishes.

ifoeenr Pnllofro

^ college for women at Poughkeepsie, N.Y., founded by Matthew Vassar in 1861. The college year 1947-48 was the second in the admin¬ istration of President Sarah Gibson Blanding, Vassar’s sixth, and first woman, president. It was also marked by the retire¬ ment of Dean C. Mildred Thompson, after 25 years of dis¬ tinguished service to the college, and the appointment as her successor of Miss Marion Tait, formerly associate professor of Greek and Latin at Mount Holyoke college. At commencement exercises May 17, 1948, 173 students re¬ ceived the B.A. degree. At a second commencement July i, 118 additional students were graduated, the last to complete their course under the wartime three-year plan. One male veteran was awarded a B.A. degree from the University of the State of New York for credits earned at Vassar college. In the fall of 1948, the college returned to a normal, prewar col¬ lege calendar. During 1948 the Vassar faculty continued to study and im¬ prove the revised college curriculum put into operation during 1947. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.)

VdSodl uOIIG^C.

Ifnt'nnn

Pifii Ctoto

V3llC3n uliy ul3lB.

sovereign independent state, established by the Lateran treaty

^

between the Holy See and the Italian government on Feb. ii, 1929. The treaty is recognized in international law, and the reigning pope is the sovereign. The area of Vatican City is 108.7 ac., excluding the papal estate of Castel Gandolfo and certain basilicas in Rome which are extraterritorial. Executive powers are exercised by the governor, responsible to the pope. The Vatican in 1948 established diplomatic relations with the dominion of India. Archbishop Leo P. Kierkels, C.S.P., was appointed by Pope Pius XII as papal internuncio of India. The archbishop, who for many years had served as apostolic dele¬ gate to India, thus became the first papal envoy to that new nation with diplomatic status. The Vatican was represented at the 17th International Red Cross conference, which took place at Stockholm, Sweden, from Aug. 20 to Aug. 30, as well as at the International Save the Children congress, also at Stockholm. A very active part was taken by the Holy See in the critical issue of the elections in Italy. In accordance with instructions contained in several speeches by Pope Pius XII, the 300 bishops and 125,000 other members of the Catholic clergy in Italy used every effort through the written and spoken word to counter¬ act and refute propaganda organized or inspired by the leftists, and advised Catholics not to vote for parties hostile to religious interests. Thousands of parish priests concentrated their ef¬ forts on the women voters, who were regarded as generally more strongly attached to religion than were the men. The clergy’s efforts were supported and co-ordinated with those of

POPE PIUS XII giving his Easter blessing to a huge throng gathered in St. Peter’s square in the Vatican City, Rome, on March 2S, 194S

the lay Catholic Action which Vatican circles said had an esti¬ mated membership of 4,500,000 Catholics. The church’s atti¬ tude toward the elections was dictated solely by religious con¬ siderations, the purpose being to ensure religious peace and freedom, freedom of religious teaching and protection of Italy’s customs and traditions. The Vatican view was that this was not political activity since it was limited to defense of its own reli¬ gious interests, which were recognized by the Italian state it¬ self. The effects of the Vatican’s strong stand were seen both in the large number of actual voters who went to the polls and in the defeat suffered by the Communist and Communistsympathetic candidates. A dispensation was refused by the Vatican to Princess Anne of Bourbon-Parma to marry former King Michael of Rumania, on the ground that the contracting parties would not agree to sign the canonically required pledge to raise any offspring of the marriage in the Catholic Church. Vatican utterances with regard to the first assembly of the World Council of Churches (g.!;.), which opened in Amster¬ dam, the Netherlands, on Aug. 22, were sympathetic, but re¬ affirmed the traditional attitude of the Holy See toward nonCatholic efforts at reunion. A warning was issued by the Con¬ gregation of the Holy See that Catholic clergymen and laymen could not take part in “mixed” congresses or meetings of Cath¬ olics and non-Catholics in which matters of faith were dis¬ cussed. No official observers were sent. {See also Pius XII; Roman Catholic Church.) (J. LaF.)

Veal:

see

Meat.

Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats,

“ducd^

VEGETABLES of fats and oils from domestic materials was about 9,950,000,000 lb., approximately the same as in 1947, but 7% below the record production of 1943. Stocks in the fall were very low, but three of the major oil seed crops made new high production records; i.e., flaxseed, peanuts and soybeans. Moreover, cotton¬ seed, though not a record, was much more abundant than in 1947. Animal fats remained relatively scarce. Total U.S. butter production in 1948 was estimated at 1,500,000,000 lb., about 10% less than in 1947. Production of lard and pork fats declined by about 200,000,000 lb. in 1948, primarily because the small corn crop in 1947 led to a smaller hog crop, and animals were marketed at slightly lower poundage. Fats from other animals also declined, primarily because of the smaller numbers slaughtered. Vegetable oil seeds, however, were much more abundant; the 1948 cottonseed crop was about 35% above that of the previous year; soybeans were a record crop of 220,201,000 bu.; flaxseed production, stimulated by a government guarantee of $6 per bushel, was a full 12,000,000 bu. more than in 1947, and nearly double the 1937-46 average. Even the peanut crop, which had been pushed hard during World War II, achieved a new record production, estimated at 2,268,110,000 lb., compared with 2,182,895,000 lb. in 1947 and an average for the previous decade of 1,750,704,000 lb. Prices of most fats and oils reached record high levels early in 1948, declined sharply in February, recovered moderately and then declined to still lower levels as the abundant harvests of 1948 became more certain. Butter reached nearly $i per pound retail, then declined by about one-third. Some of the vegetable oil seeds declined even more sharply, soybeans from more than $4 per bushel early in the year almost to the government sup¬ port price of $2.18 at harvest time. Exports of most sorts of fats and oils from the U.S. increased in 1948. A notable exception was lard, which declined sharply, but peanuts, cottonseed oil and linseed oil exports were sharply increased, mostly to western Europe. Imports into the U.S. also increased in most categories, especially edible oils such as olive and sesame, and drying oils other than linseed. Copra declined sharply, because of nonavailability following typhoon damage to Philippine coconut groves—its export, however, was reviving sharply late in 1948. Though fats and oils on a world-wide basis in 1948 approxi¬ mated 100% of prewar production, they were still the major food in short supply in some parts of the world, particularly western Europe. The more abundant crops of the U.S., plus the expected increase in copra and palm oil production in the Neth¬ erlands Indies and the Philippines, were expected gradually to relieve the situation; however, consumption was expected to increase as supply eased. Canada produced an unusually large export surplus of flaxseed in 1948, and Argentine supplies were still held in rather large amounts. Groundnut (peanut) produc¬ tion of African areas, some being developed, expanded and a rather large amount of the 1947 crop remained to be moved from Nigeria, as well as an abundant new crop of about 400,000 tons. The olive oil crop of the Mediterranean countries of Eu¬ rope in 1948 was only about one-half as large as the very abundant crop of 1947. All in all, the fats and oils shortage U.S. Production of Principal Fats and Oils, 1943-1948* (In millions of pounds) 1948t

1947

1946

1945

1944

1943

Butter. Lard. Edible tallow. ... Edible vegetable oils Soap fats and oils . Drying oils .... Other oils . . • .'.

1,500 2,200 140 3,400 2,000 670 40

1,638 2,427 184 3,041 2,138 463 36

1,505 2,138 124 2,721 1,804 523 37

1,701 2,066 202 2,969 1,931 462 41

1,818 3,054 198 2,703 2,149 735 33

2,015 2,865 259 2,949 1,817 720 31

Totals.

9,950

9,927

8,852

9,372

10,690

10,656

’Calendar year. tPortly forecast.

743

was particularly one of export supplies, which in 1948 were only about 70% of prewar quantities. Drying oils were removed from international allocation during the year, (See also Butter; Coconuts; Cotton; Margarine; Peanuts; Soybeans.)

(J. K. R.) Uon’otohlnc vegetables, classed as VCgCldUiCOi commercial truck crops for the fresh market, was a large one, exceeded only in 1945 and 1946, and 11% above the average for 1937-46. Eleven of the 25 crops were larger than in 1947 and larger than average. The acreage de¬ voted to these crops in 1948 was 2% above average, but 2% less than in 1947; yields, however, were about 7% higher than in the previous year. The level of prices generally held slightly above 1947 in the winter and spring seasons, but was down about 10% in the summer and 25% in the fall. The 1948 U.S. production of ii truck crops for commercial processing was 5,458,500 tons, 2% less than the 5,562,720 tons of 1947, but 13% above the average for the previous ten years. Lima beans and sweet com production were the largest on rec¬ ord. Acreage harvested declined to 1,709,660, compared with 1,878,760 ac. in 1947, a record high of 2,100,000 ac. in 1946, and an average for the decade 1937-46 of 1,711,250 ac. Commercial Truck Crops for the Fresh Market.—The total tonnage of 25 crops was 8,337,600 tons in 1948, compared with 7,965,300 tons in 1947 and 7,216,600 tons average for the previ¬ ous decade. Though only sweet corn made a new record, cauli¬ flower, celery, eggplant, escarole, lettuce and peppers produced their second largest crop on record. Cabbage was the leading crop in tonnage, with 1,334,100 tons, lettuce was in second place with 1,184,800 tons and onions were third at 1,022,200 tons. Cali¬ fornia was the leading state with 2,347,600 tons, Florida second with 862,000 tons and Texas third with 796,800 tons. Table I.— U.S. Vegetable Production for Fresh Market, 1948, 1947 and 10-Year Average, 1937-46 (In thousands) Crop Artichokes. Asparagus. Beans, lima. Beans, snap. Beets.. • • • Cabbage . Cantaloupes. Carrots. Cauliflower. Celery. Corn, sweet. Cucumbers. Eggplant. Escarole . Moneyball melons. Honeydew melons . . . . Kale. Lettuce. Onions.. . . . Peas, green ....... Peppers, green. Shallots ......... Spinach. Tomatoes.. . . Watermelons.

Unit

1948 820 3,721 1,280 17,534 1,972 1,334 12,068 26,128 12,375 22,831 329,520 6,626 1,645 1,426 66 3,129 525 33,850 40,889 3,640 7,470 509 1 2,644 29,414 73,142

1947 761 4,350 1,421 17,614 1,942 1,142 12,541 23,029 11,499 20,606 325,520 6,470 1,093 958 70 3,487 625 34,170 35,799 4,389 6,038 443 12,241 29,386 81,063

10-year averoge 818 4,587 1,368 16,412 2,177 1,180 10,057 21,703 9,511 17,914 271,370 4,920 1,147 889 273 3,205 649 24,818 36,128 7,225 5,532 572 14,548 27,368 67,606

Acreage in 1948 was 1,801,840, compared with 1,842,760 ac. in 1947 and 1,766,520 ac. average for the decade 1937-46. California, as usual, was the leading producer with 377,610 ac. devoted to truck crops, followed by Texas with 319,100 ac. and Florida with 217,030 ac. Government acreage guides for the 1948-49 crop of winter vegetables asked 3% reduction in acreage; recommendations included increases for carrots (5%) and peppers (20%), and decreases for snap beans (10%), celery (10%), escarole (15%), cabbage (5%), lettuce (5%) and shallots (3%). The value of these crops, not including the value of vege¬ table crops in strictly market garden areas, in farm gardens, nor vegetables grown for commercial processing, was $599,561,000 in 1948, exceeded only by the $624,067,000 of 1947, and $623,-

VENEREAL DISEASES

744

000,000 of 1945. The average for the previous decade was $376,332,000. Lettuce, valued at more than one-sixth of the total for the 25 crops, was the leading crop in value, followed by to¬ matoes. California produced more than one-third of the total, or $203,150,000, and Florida $79,341,000. Commercial Truck Crops for Processing.—The aggregate production in 1948 of ii truck crops for commercial processing, including crops for canning, freezing, pickling and other proc¬ essing, exclusive of dehydration, was 5,458,500 tons, compared with 5,562,720 tons in 1947, and 4,820,250 tons average for 1937-46. California produced 1,091,200 tons of the total, and Indiana 611,800 tons. Tomatoes (2,847,600 tons) accounted for more than one-half the total, sweet corn for about one-fourth. Yields per acre were above average for all processing vege¬ tables, except asparagus, green peas and spinach. Harvested acreage was 9% less than in 1947. Table II.— U.S. Production of 11 Vegetables for Processing, 1948, 1947 and 10-Year Average

Crop Asparagus. Beans, lima. Beans, snap. Beefs. Cabbage . Corn, sweet. Cucumbers. Peas, green.. Pimentos. Spinach. Tomatoes.

1948 91,800 69,460 178,900 97,400 201,900 1,326,200 231,410 347,050 17,880 48,900 2,847,600

1947 100,100 56,490 169,300 74,600 72,300 1,091,600 245,590 434,810 19,630 55,500 3,242,800

Average 1937-46 81,760 31,930 173,840 11 5,080 177,620 1,025,920 174,860 366,250 17,290 73,000 2,582,700

Processing vegetable prices per ton were higher than in 1947, except for cabbage and tomatoes, which declined slightly. The total value of the crop was $214,355,000, compared with $212,523,000 in 1947 and $134,195,000 average for the decade 193746. Tomatoes were the largest contributor—$80,283,000. Stocks of processed vegetables, canned and frozen, were sig¬ nificantly smaller at the year’s end, compared with the previous year, partly because the canned pack was 10% smaller, and the frozen pack, though slightly larger than in 1947, was well below the record pack of 1946. Consumption of frozen vegetables in 1948 was 6.5 times that of prewar, whereas canned vegetable consumption increased only 23%, and fresh 8%. Exports of vegetables from the U.S. during 1947-48, exclud¬ ing potatoes and sweet potatoes, amounted to about .5% of the U.S. production, 193,000 long tons total, of which about 60% was fresh. (See also Agriculture; Corn; Horticulture; Lettuce; Potatoes; Tomatoes.) (J. K. R.)

IfnnorOQl

nioOQCQC Venereal disease continued to be a V6n6r6dl UlSudoCSi major health problem throughout the world during 1948, although scattered reports indicated that the sharp rate of increase following World War II might be levelling off. Evidence of this was strongest in North and South America, but there was also some supporting data from western European countries. United States.—The number of reported cases of early in¬ fectious syphilis in the United States showed a decline from the previous year. Mortality dropped to 8.9 per 100,000 population in 1947 as compared with 15.9 in 1938, the year the national control program started. Infant mortality had dropped from 0.63 per 1,000 live births in 1938 to 0.16 in 1946, which was only one-fourth the earlier figure. Admissions to mental hospi¬ tals because of syphilis had declined from 7.2 per 100,000 popu¬ lation in 1938 to 5.0 in 1946, the latest year for which figures were available in 1948. The total number of syphilis cases reported among civilians in the United States for the fiscal year 1948 was 338,141. In the same year the number of congenital syphilis cases reported was

13.309.

For the first time in many years the number of reported cases of gonorrhoea also dropped. After rising steadily from 191,000 in the fiscal year 1941 to a peak of 401,000 cases in 1947, the number of cases reported for the fiscal year 1948 dropped to 363,000. An encouraging sign for the future control of venereal disease was seen in the shortened schedules for treating syphilis with penicillin, and publication of outpatient treatment schedules for syphilis patients. Outpatient treatment schedules were published by the S3T)hilis Study section of the National Institute of Health in the Journal of the American Medical Association, opening the way for more widespread use of penicillin by private physicians in their offices. New studies on treatment schedules were initiated to deter¬ mine the effectiveness of treating syphilis with new products such as procaine penicillin or procaine penicillin with aluminum monostearate, in an effort to find still shorter treatment tech¬ niques. Results of studies on the treatment of pregnant women with aqueous penicillin to prevent prenatal syphilis showed that transmission was prevented in 96.5% of the cases treated. Other studies tended to refute fears that certain strains of gonorrhoea were developing resistance to penicillin similar to the resistance developed to the sulfonamide drugs in former years. A simpler and quicker method of diagnosing syphilis by means of a slide flocculation test was reported by the Venereal Disease Research laboratory of the U.S. public health service. During the fiscal year 1948 local health departments in the United States made more examinations than in 1947. The 3,000 clinics made about 2,179,000 diagnostic examinations, finding about 431,000 cases of venereal disease. These cases included about 44,000 cases of primary and secondary syphilis; 53,000 cases of early latent syphilis, and about 273,000 cases of gonorrhoea. About 60% of all syphilis cases were referred to rapid treat¬ ment centres for hospital treatment; 97% of the gonorrhoea cases were treated in the clinics. Local health departments continued to stress contact inves¬ tigation as a means of controlling the spread of venereal disease. They reported that about 556,000 case-finding investigations were made during the year, from which about 155,000 previously untreated cases of venereal disease were brought to treatment. Rapid treatment centres maintained in 41 states, the District of Columbia, Alaska and the Virgin Islands treated as many patients as in former years. Although there was a decrease as compared with previous years in the volume of inpatient facili¬ ties provided by the northern and Pacific coast states, this was balanced by an increase in the southern states. Throughout the nation admissions to the rapid treatment cen¬ tres during the year totalled 181,000 cases, of which syphilis patients comprised 83%, gonorrhoea patients 3% and chancroid and granuloma inguinale patients 2%. The rest were observa¬ tion cases and cases found after admission not to be infected. During the fiscal year 1948 congress appropriated a total of $17,399,500 for venereal disease control, of which $516,500 was made available to cover deficiency expenditures in the rapid treatment centre program during the previous fiscal year. Of the balance, $8,500,000 was used for grants to states and territories to help finance their control programs; $6,030,000 was spent for maintenance and operation of rapid treatment centres and project grants for other inpatient care; $2,278,000 was used for administration, research, demonstrations, scientific information, public and professional education and other control activities, and $75,000 was carried to surplus fund. Bibliography.—Annual Report, United States Public Health Service (1948); Syphilis Study Section, National Institute of Health, U.S. Pub¬ lic Health Service, “The Status of Penicillin in the Treatment of

VENEZUELA

745

Trend of Syphilis Morbidify Reporting, U.S. Civilians and Armed Forces Fiscal Years 1941-48

Fiscal Year

Est. Pop. in thou¬ sands

1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948

1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948

Reported Cases All early syphilis (primary, secondary, Congen¬ early latent) ital

Total in¬ cluding not stated

Primary or secondary

131,897 131,943 128,728 127,028 127,037 133,543 140,974 144,184

477,841 472,245 564,918 458,199 356,315 360,918 373,296 338,141

67,958 75,704 82,230 78,418 77,007 94,957 106,594 80,528

176,616 192,137 231,139 200,808 178,142 202,293 214,349 178,273

132,638 133,953 135,646 137,368 138,923 140,387 142,673 145,434

483,897 486,104 592,941 504,155 409,116 420,360 399,589 353,393

74,014 89,563 110,253 1 24,374 129,808 154,399 132,887 95,780

182,672 205,996 259,162 246,764 230,943 261,735 240,642 193,525

Rate per 1,000 Population

Late and late latent

Total in¬ cluding not stated

syphilis Primary (primary, or sec- secondary. ondary early latent)

Con¬ geni¬ tal

late and late latent

Continental U.S. Civilians 17,592 16,924 16,173 1 3,576 12,339 12,106 12,284 13,309

201,190 202,216 252,995 203,396 142,731 125,836 122,257 123,972

3.623 3.579 4.388 3.607 2.805 2.703 2.648 2.345

Total Civilian and Armed Forces 17,592 16,924 16,173 13,576 12,339 12,106 12,284 13,309

Syphilis,” J.A.M.A. 136:873-879 (March 27, 1948).

201,190 202,216 252,995 203,396 142,731 125,836 122,257 123,972

Great Britain and Europe.—In 1948 the general feeling re¬ garding the incidence of venereal disease in Europe and Great Britain was that the peak had been passed and that a steady decline could now be anticipated. Although the official figures for 1948 had not been published in Great Britain by the end of the year, the quarterly returns showed that the falling off of new infections of both gonorrhoea and syphilis that began in 1947 was steadily maintained. The Expert Committee on Venereal Diseases of the World Health Organization Interim commission, which met in Geneva, Switz., Jan. 12-16, 1948, recommended unanimously, in its re¬ port to the Interim commission and the World Health assembly, that “in view of reports from many countries on the increasing importance of genito-infections of unclassified or ill-defined origin, the possibility of new entities of venereal infections being recognized in the future should be stressed. Collection of data on these conditions is desirable.” A. H. Harkness and A. Henderson Begg in an investigation attempted to establish the role of “L” organisms in urogenital infections of males and females. Pleuropneumonia-like organ¬ isms were cultured from 21 (38%) of 57 cases of subacute abacterial urethritis (L. Waelsch) and from 5 (50%) of 10 cases of acute abacterial urethritis. Forty-one cases in which abacterial urethritis was associated with arthritis were examined and “L” organisms were recovered from seven (17%). Cultures of joint fluid, blood, conjunctival secretion or skin lesions were negative. “L” organisms were recovered from 2 (3%) of 74 cases of bacterial urethritis (nongonococcal); 2 (12%) of 16 cases of abacterial pyuria; 12 (26%) of 46 cases of nongonococcal cer¬ vicitis or vaginitis; 15 (10%) of 157 cases of acute gonorrhoea; 12 (11%) of 139 males, and 3 (17%) of 18 females. Fifty normal males and 15 normal females were also exam¬ ined by cultural methods. In no case were “L” organisms recovered. In the field of therapeutics, penicillin still produced much con¬ troversy regarding the best methods of administration. During the year there was a tendency to revert to the more gen¬ eral use of aqueous solutions of penicillin, as it was found that these preparations maintained as effective blood levels as the oily suspensions. During August a new penicillin compound, namely procaine penicillin oily injection, was introduced and it was claimed that effective blood levels following the injection of I c.c. could be demonstrated for at least 18 hr. and in the majority of cases for 24 hr. Streptomycin was not yet available for treatment of nongonococcal urethritis, but preliminary reports from the United

1.339 1.456 1.796 1.581 1.402 1.515 1.520 1.236

.133 .128 .126 .107 .097 .091 .087 .092

1.525 1.533 1.965 1.601 1.124 0.942 0.867 0.860

Bibliography.—Lord Balfour of Burleigh, B.M.J. Medical Notes in Parliament (London, July 10, 1948); Lord Listowel, B.M.J. Medical Notes in Parliament (London, July 10, 1948); A. H. Harkness and A. Henderson Begg, “The Significance of Pleuro-pneumonia-like or ‘L’ Or¬ ganisms in Non-Gonococcal Urethri.tis, Reiter’s Disease and Abacterial Pyuria,” British Journal of Venereal Diseases, vol. xxiv. No. 2 (London, June 1948); T. A. Warthin, “Reiter’s Syndrome: A Report on Four Patients Treated with Streptomycin,” Amer. Journ. Med., 4:827 (1948). (W. N. M.)

3.648 3.629 4.371 3.670 2.945 2.994 2.801 2.430

(T. J. B.)

.515 .574 .639 .617 .606 .711 .756 .559

States by T. A. Warthin sug¬ gested that good results were likely to be obtained. In March British venereolo¬ gists were granted group repre¬ sentation in the British Medi¬ cal association. The formation of this group of venereologists was mainly due to the efforts of the Medical Society for the Study of Venereal Diseases.

.558 .669 .813 .905 .934 1.100 .931 .659

1.377 1.538 1.911 1.796 1.662 1.864 1.687 1.331

.133 .126 .119 .099 .089 .086 .086 .092

1.517 1.510 1.865 1.481 1.027 0.896 0.857 0.852

A republic on the north coast of South America,

Venezuela. bounded on the north, east, south and west by the Caribbean sea, British Guiana, Brazil and Colombia, re¬ spectively. Area: 352,143 sq.mi.; pop. (July i, 1947, est.) 4,398,000, not including forest Indians estimated at 100,600 in 1941. Major sectors of the population are mestizo, Negro and mulatto. It is calculated that 80% of the people are rural, and no official attempt has been made to estimate racial or ethnic distribution. Caracas (1942 est. pop., 269,930) is the capital; other major cities (with pop. according to 1941 census) include Maracaibo (112,519), Valencia (53,938), Barquisimeto (54,176), Maracay (32,992), San Cristobal (31,447), Cumana (25,893), Puerto Cabello (22,087), Ciudad Bolivar (19,789), Coro (18,962) and Carupano (16,548). Under the constitution of 1947, Venezuela is a federal republic with 20 states, govern¬ mental functions on the national level being divided among legislative, executive and judicial branches, and each state be¬ ing authorized to write its own constitution. Presidents in 1948: until Feb. 15, Romulo Betancourt; Romulo Gallegos, from Feb. 15 to Nov. 24; thereafter, and provisionally, Lt. Col. Carlos Delgado Chalbaud. History .—Major 1948 .developments centred around the con¬ tinuing gradual liquidation of President Betancourt’s provisional regime, which had governed the country since the 1945 revolu¬ tion, and the overthrow in November of the government of Pres¬ ident Gallegos. The former process was, on the whole, peaceful, although some excitement accompanied the discovery early in February of an apparently revolutionary plot. Two U.S. war sur¬ plus B-24 bombers, which had been illegally taken from Bush field, near Augusta, Ga., were halted at Managua, Nicaragua, on Feb. 3, after authorities there were warned by the Venezuelan government that conspirators planned to use the craft to bomb Caracas. Five U.S. fliers charged with illegal use of the planes were later delivered into the custody of U.S. officials at New Orleans, La. Romulo Gallegos, prominent Latin-American novelist, was inaugurated as president of Venezuela on Feb. 15. Like Betan¬ court, Gallegos was a member of the left-of-centre Accidn Democratica party, which had been in power since 1945. This organization, after the installation of the new administration, controlled a comfortable majority of the seats in both chambers of congress. Eight members of Accion Democratica were included in Gallegos’ 12-man cabinet, the remaining ministers not being affiliated with any political party.

746

VENEZUELA

In mid-year, Pres. Gallegos journeyed to the U.S., where, from July i to 14, he was the guest of Pres. Harry S. Truman. In addition to Washington, D.C., Gallegos visited Missouri, New York, Tennessee, Louisiana and Texas. “Venezuela welcomes the assistance which foreign capital can bring to the develop¬ ment of her economy,” Gallegos declared in a New York speech on July 8. “We want capital to come to our country to develop our industry, for we have promised our people to take advan¬ tage of this happy hour to create a prosperous Venezuela of the future.” A large throng welcomed Pres. Gallegos back to Caracas on July 20. His administration faced difficulties which were catapulted toward climax in November. Determined opposition of con¬ servative and military groups led the government to announce the suspension of constitutional guarantees on Nov. 20. Press censorship was imposed at that time, and leaders of labour or¬ ganizations demonstrated in support of the administration. The government, however, was unable to weather the crisis: Presi¬ dent Gallegos’ cabinet resigned on Nov. 23, and he himself was deposed the following day during the course of a military coup. The new regime was headed by a three-man military junta com¬ posed of Provisional President Lt. Col. Carlos Delgado Chalbaud, who had been defense minister under Gallegos; Lt. Col. Marco Perez Jimenez; and Lt. Col. Luis Llovera Paez Secocin. The new regime dissolved congress and all state legislatures on Dec. s, the dissolution of municipal councils being ordered four days later. The exiled Gallegos arrived at Havana, Cuba, on Dec. 5. Gallegos asserted that the coup was the work of local “reactionary” groups in league with foreign oil companies, a charge which was vigorously denied by spokesmen for the Creole Petroleum company and the Gulf Oil corporation. Recognition of the state of Israel was announced by the Venezuelan government on June 26. Education—From Aug. 5 to Sept. 8, 1948, Caracas was the scene of the Latin-American Regional Educational seminar, held under the joint auspices of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural or¬ ganization and the Pan American Union. The seminar, attended by dele¬ gates from 18 western hemisphere countries, considered anti-illiteracy campaigns, rural education, teacher training, vocational schooling and education for peace. Finance.—The monetary unit is the bolivar, valued on Nov. 15, 1948, at 3.33 to the U.S. dollar. The Venezuelan government, early in March, announced for inclusion in the 1948 tax law an “economic partnership” formula affecting foreign oil companies operating in the country. Under this arrangement oil profits would be divided equally between the com¬ panies and the government. The measure was expected to reduce the foreign corporations’ profits, but to enhance their political security in the republic. The government declared on March 9 that it would accept no further cash bids for royalty oil, inasmuch as the development min¬ istry planned to hold Venezuela’s unpledged petroleum for export only in exchange for basic commodities not readily purchasable with dollars. The Central bank of Venezuela’s gold and foreign exchange holdings stood on July 31 at a total of $297,676,338. During the first seven months of 1948, the bank increased its gold holdings abroad by $40,000,000 to $86,592,319, and the balance of dollar sight deposits was reduced by $41,686,955 to $27,240,520. Trade—Cacao exports, the bulk of which went to the U.S., amounted to 13,900,000 kg. for the first six months of 1948, the year’s total being expected to reach 17,000,000 kg. A total of 30,492 metric tons of coffee was exported in 1947, the U.S. receiving 24,772 tons. During 1947 the oil industry brought into Venezuela imports valued at $137,000,000. During March 1948, the Glenn L. Martin company, a U.S. corporation, delivered three transport planes to the Venezuelan air line L.A.V. (Linea Aeropostal Venezolana). The signature of a most-favoured-nation trade treaty with Czechoslovakia was announced at Caracas in August. Production. A total of 434,300,000 bbl. of crude oil was produced during 1947, and the petroleum output for the first six months of 1948 stood at 37,948,093 cu.m. The Venezuelan Petroleum company announced in September the purchase of complete ownership of the Sinclair Oil com¬ pany and the Sinclair Refining company, both Venezuelan corporations, for an estimated $5,900,000. A new oil company at Caracas, owned by the government, was expected to begin production early in 1949. A steel manufacturing company, Siderurgica Venezolana, S.A., was formed in mid-1948 with an initial capital of $450,000. The Venezuelan Develop¬ ment corporation spent an estimated $3,300,000 during the year on the expansion of electrification. The year’s total electric power production came to 400,000,000 kw.hr., or 3.4% of the Latin-American total; and INAUGURATION CEREMONIES for Pres. Romulo Gallegos (upper left) at Caracas, Venezuela, on Feb. 15, 194S, after the first popular presidential elec¬ tion in the nation’s history. Gallegos was overthrown later in the year by the military coup of Nov. 24

VERM 1CULITE—VETERANS' ADMINISTRATION 85,000 workers, or 3.2% manufacturing industries.

of Latin America’s total, were employed in

Bibliography.—Inter-American Development Corporation, The Indus^

tries of Venezuela (1948); Pan American Union, National Economy of Venezuela (1948); Pan American Union, Bulletin (Washington, monthly). (G. I. B.)

VprminilitD

^ decline in 1943 and 1944, the produc-

VCl illltUlllC* tion of vermiculite in the United States ad¬ vanced from 64,808 short tons in 1945 to 86,390 short tons in 1946, and 131,385 short tons in 1947, and in addition to the domestic output, considerable amounts were imported from South Africa. Production was gradually spreading from the west to the eastern states. North and South Carolina were active producers, and development work was being done on several deposits in Georgia. (G. A. Ro.)

Voi'mnnt ^

north Atlantic state of the United States of America, the only one of the New England states without a sea coast; popularly known as the “Green Mountain state”; admitted to the union in 1791. Area; 9,609 sq.mi., of which 331 sq.mi. are water. Population (1940): 359,231 (in¬ cluding 235,992 rural, 123,239 urban); 328,740 native white including 71,180 of foreign and mixed parentage; 384 Negro, 41 of other races. The U.S. bureau of the census on July i, 1948, estimated the civilian population of the state to be 374,000. Montpelier is the capital city, with a population (1940) of 8,006. The chief cities are Burlington (27,686), and Rutland (17,082). History .—The general assembly did not meet in 1948. The state vote for president of the U.S. was distributed as follows; Thomas E. Dewey, Republican, 75,926; Harry S. Truman, Democrat, 45,557; others, 1,899. Charles A. Plumley was re¬ elected representative to congress. Chief state officers elected were; Ernest W. Gibson, governor; Harold J. Arthur, lieutenant governor; Levi R. Kelley, state treasurer; Howard E. Arm¬ strong, secretary of state. A new state office building, erected on the former site of the house in which Admiral George Dewey was born, was dedicated by Governor Gibson on Nov. 8.

iClIllUilla

Education.—There were 876 elementary schools in the state in 1947-48, with a teaching staff of 1,748 and enrolment of 40,483 (exclusive of transfers). There were 85 public high schools with a teaching staff of 726 and enrolment of 15,123. The three state teachers’ colleges had a teaching staff of 31 and enrolment of 457. State superintendent of schools was the commissioner of education, Ralph E. Noble. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.— Relief in general was administered by the overseer of the poor in each town. Approximately 6,139 persons a month received old-age assistance from state funds to the amount of $2,511,631.50 for the year 1948. Dependent children receiving aid from state funds averaged 2,218 a month. The total amount expended from these funds during the year was $484,161.60, representing payments to approximately 820 mothers’ aid recipients a month. Blind assistance funds amounting to $85,969.36 for the year were distributed to about 187 persons a month; aid to adult crippled persons amounted to $25,344.62 for the year and was distributed to about 126 persons a month. Unemployment compensation payments numbered 82,132, including those made to unemployed seamen, and amounted to $1,336,612.07; readjustment allowance payments were made to 60,764 persons, amounting to $1,202,604, and 1,361 selfemployment payments amounting to $124,080 were made to World War II veterans. The three state correctional institutions, during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, had an average of 308 inmates; their total expenses were $508,222.82. Communications.—The total mileage of the public highway system (state, state-aid and town highways) as of June 30, 1948, was 14,090, of which 1,803.64 mi. were in the state system, and 2,748.76 mi. in the state-aid system. Total expenditures during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, amounted to $8,973,051.86, of which $5,507,393.56 was for state highways, $2,055,426.39 for state-aid, $1,176,784.89 for town highways and $234,447.02 for administration, etc. There were 954.79 mi. of steam railways and 4.25 mi. of electric railways in the year ending Dec. 31, 1948; airports in the state numbered 21, airways 2, with a total mileage of 207. Telephone subscribers, as of Dec. 31, 1948, were estimated at 82,500. Banking and Finance—^The number of state and national banks as of June 30, 1948, was 79, of which 40 were state banks with total deposits of $204,820,819.47 and assets of $227,931,652.57. There were eight state co-operative building, savings and loan associations with total assets of $3.358,929-75. Total receipts of the state as of June 30, 1948, were $32,958,814.29;

747

Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Vermont, 1948 and 1947 Crop

All corn, bu. Hoy, oil, tons. Oats, bu. Potatoes, late, bo. Apples, bu. Maple syrup, gal.

1948 (est.1

1947

2,288,000 1,597,000 1,480,000 1,295,000 774,000 619,000

1,920,000 1,590,000 810,000 1,080,000 799,000 777,000

disbursements, $32,167,199.94; unappropriated surplus $225,648.69; state debt $2,890,000. Agriculture.—The total acreage of harvested crops in the state in 1948, according to the U.S. bureau of agricultural economics, was 1,149,000 compared with 1,140,000 in 1947. Late potato acreage was record high. The maple sugar crop, while lower than average, was about 65% of the entire U.S. production. Vermont was also the principal producer of maple syrup in 1948, and, with New York state, accounted for 73% of the total. Manufacturing.—The total value of production (including manufac¬ turing, processing, mining and quarrying, but not public utilities), as reported to the department of industrial relations, was $298,677,545 in 1948; there were about 37,941 persons employed in these industries, earning approximately $74,765,110. Granite manufacturing, of greater importance in the state than indicated by the total output value, paid the highest weekly wage in Vermont during 1948.

Table II.—Principal Manufacturing and Processing Industries of Vermont, 1948 and 1947 Industry

Machines, machine tools and ollied industries . . . Dairy products. Woollen, cotton and knit goods. Woodworking, furniture and lumber. Granite, marble and other stone industries . . . , Paper and paper products.

Value of products 1948 (est.l 1947

$66,426,835 55,164,300 48,801,020 30 399,083 20,174,410 19,201,565

$65,300,110 54,603,260 48,221,991 39,553,304 19,097,715 18,814,050

Mineral Production.—Leading mineral products of the state in 1948, according to the state geologist, were granite, marble, lime, talc and slate. Asbestos production, though small, was the largest in the United States so far as known, amounting to 14,772 tons from January to June; 131,491 cu.ft. of marble were cut from January to June 1948. Mineral production in 1947 was valued at $14,818,000, according to the U.S. bureau of mines. (C. E. Fe.)

An independent establish¬ ment of the United States government, the U.S. Veterans’ administration was created in 1930 to unify the work of the numerous federal bureaus which, at that time, were administering veterans’ benefits. By 1948 approximately one-third of the nation’s population was potentially eligible for VA-administered benefits provided by law for veterans of all wars, their dependents and bene¬ ficiaries. By Nov. I, 1948, the number of veterans of all wars totalled 18,819,000. Four out of every five, or 14,997,000, served in World War II. Because of the vast scope of its operations, VA maintained more than 700 offices, hospitals and homes throughout the country, through which most of the benefits were administered to veterans and their families in the continental U.S. The agency also maintained offices in Alaska, the Hawaiian Islands, the Panama Canal Zone, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands and in the Republic of the Philippines to administer benefits available in those areas. The foreign service of the U.S. depart¬ ment of state co-operated with VA in the administration of certain benefits available to veterans in foreign countries. Following are the major services administered by VA for veterans, their dependents and beneficiaries; Education and Training.—Education and training for World War II veterans are authorized by two laws; public law 346, 78th congress, as amended (commonly known as the G.I. bill), and public law 16, 78th congress, as amended (the Vocational Rehabilitation act). Training Under the G.I. Bill.—^Veterans in training under the G.I. bill may choose their place of study or their job training establishment, if the institution or establishment has been ap¬ proved by an appropriate state approving agency. Eligible veterans may get training for one year, plus a period equal to the time served in the armed forces between Sept. 16, 1940, and July 25, 1947. Maximum period of training allowed is 48 months.

Veterans’ Administration.

748

VETERANS' ADMINISTRATION

110,000

both in selecting their courses and throughout their training. While in training, and for two months afterward, trainees may receive subsistence allowances in addition to their dis¬ ability compensation. Maximum rates are the same as for vet¬ erans in schools and job-training courses under the G.I. bill. Additional allowances may be provided, depending on the vet¬ eran’s degree of disability and the number of additional de¬ pendents he has. On Nov. I, 1948, a total of 231,854 disabled veterans were in training under public law 16. Of these, 108,086 were enrolled in educational institutions, 35,294 were taking institutional onfarm training, and 88,474 were enrolled in job-training courses. G.I. Loans.—Eligible veterans who desire to buy or build homes, purchase farms or farm equipment, or go into business may qualify for loans guaranteed or insured under provisions

NUMBER OF VETERANS hospitalized from 1919 to 194S by types of disability, as compiled by the Veterans’ administration

For a veteran in school, VA will pay tuition, fees and book and supply costs up to a $5oo-a-year maximum. Veterans entering any type of training (except correspondence school instruction) may be eligible to receive subsistence allow¬ ances. Maximum allowances to those studying full-time in schools and colleges are $75 a month without dependents, $105 with one dependent, and $120 with more than one dependent. Maximum rates payable to job trainees are $65 a month for those without dependents and $90 for those with one or more dependents. The law does not permit a veteran to take a course for avocational or recreational purposes. If the course he desires is one which is frequently pursued for those purposes, he must submit to VA complete justification that the training would be in connection with his present or contemplated business or occupation. VA approval must be obtained before he may start such training. On Nov. I, 1948, there were 2,186,092 veterans in schools and job training establishments under the G.I. bill. Of these, 1,521,572 were enrolled in educational institutions, 268,292 were taking institutional on-farm training, and 396,228 were in onthe-job training courses. Training for the Disabled.—Eligible veterans with serviceincurred or -aggravated disabilities, in need of vocational train¬ ing to overcome their handicaps, may enrol in educational insti¬ tutions or on-the-job training establishments under public law 16. Such disabled trainees receive extensive guidance from VA

of the G.I. bill. VA does not lend money. The veteran must make his own arrangements for the loan through the usual financing channels. VA then guarantees the lender against loss, up to 50% of the loan, with a maximum guarantee of $4,000 on real estate and $2,000 on nonreal estate loans. If the veteran receives loans of both types, the maximum guarantee is prorated on these amounts. Farm realty loans may be made repayable within 40 years, other realty loans within 25 years, and nonrealty loans within 10 years. By Oct. 25, 1948, a total of 1,486,080 G.I. loans of all types, amounting to more than $8,000,000,000, had been approved for guaranty or insurance by VA. Ninety per cent of the loans, or 1,337,548, were for homes. Farm loans numbered 48,034 and business loans, 100,498. Readjustment Allowances.—The G.I. bill’s readjustment allowance program provides financial assistance for eligible vet¬ erans during periods of unemployment, partial employment, or when self-employed and earning less than $100 a month. A jobless veteran may receive $20 a week; a partially em¬ ployed veteran may receive up to $20 a week less earnings above $3. A self-employed veteran may receive $100 a month, minus any net earnings during the month. Maximum unemploy¬ ment allowance entitlement is for 52 weeks; for self-employ¬ ment, io| months. During the week ending Nov. 6, 1948, a total of 229,831 veterans claimed readjustment allowances for unemployment. That week, state unemployment compensation offices paid out $4,131,779-

A total of 46,204 veterans filed claims for self-employment allowances during Oct. 1948. During the month, unemployment compensation offices disbursed $4,471,906 in self-employment claims. Medical and Hospital Benefits.—^VA operated a network of 126 hospitals during 1948 for the treatment of ill and dis¬ abled veterans. In addition, beds in civil, state and other federal hospitals were being used by the agency on a contract or agree¬ ment basis. Clinics were maintained in VA regional offices and other field offices for examinations and outpatient treatments. On Nov. I, 1948, a total of 93,541 beds were occupied in VA hospitals. An additional 12,221 beds also were in use in other-than-VA hospitals. Of the total of 105,762 occupied beds in VA and non-VA hospitals, 55,229 were for neuropsychiatric patients, 13,417 for tuberculosis patients, and 37,116 for general medical and surgi¬ cal cases. On the same date, the medical staff of VA’s department of medicine and surgery numbered nearly 3,700 full-time physi¬ cians, more than 2,100 part-time physicians and about 800 spe¬ cialists (attending physicians and consultants). An additional

VETERANS OF FOREIGN WARS 2,400 physicians, taking part in the residency program, were serving patients on a part-time basis, and many were expected to join the full-time medical staff at the end of their training. Shortly after the end of World War II, VA began a $1,000,000,000 hospital construction program which, when completed, would result in 91 modern, new hospitals. The program called for large, key hospitals to be located near medical schools or concentrations of medical talent, so that VA might make use of the services of the nation’s leading specialists, acting as con¬ sultants. By Dec. i, 1948, 2 of the hospitals were completed and already in use, and 31 others were under construction. Plans called for the final hospital constructed under the program to open its doors some time in 1953. Insurance.—National Service life insurance, in amounts of not less than $1,000 nor more than $10,000 in multiples of $500, is available to members of the armed forces and to World War II veterans. A veteran who served at any time between Oct. 8, 1940, and Sept. 2, 1945, inclusive, may apply for a policy, whether or not he took out National Service life insurance while in service or had later let it lapse. He may get term insurance or any of six permanent plans— ordinary life, 30-payment life, 20-payment life, 20-year endow¬ ment, endowment at age 60, and endowment at age 65. Term policies issued before Jan. i, 1946, may be continued in their original form for eight years from the date of issue. When the original term period expires, they may be renewed for an additional five-year term, but at a higher premium rate based on the attained age of the insured. Term policies issued after Jan. i, 1946, may be continued for five years from the issue date. From 1941 through 1948, VA wrote nearly 19,600,000 Na¬ tional Service life insurance policies having a face value of $152,500,000,000. On Oct. I, 1948, about one-third, or 6,913,600, still were in force. Of these, about 5,342,000 were term policies. The remainder had been converted to permanent forms of insurance. Pensions and Compensation.—On Nov. i, 1948, the VA was paying monthly compensation and pensions to 2,263,296 disabled veterans and to 955,313 dependents of deceased vet¬ erans. Payments for disabilities ranged from $13.80 to $360 a month. On that date, the following cases (living veterans) were on VA’s rolls; Civil War, 42; Indian wars, 674; Spanish-American War, 104,660; World War I, 452,815; regular establishment, 44,389; and World War II, 1,660,716. Other Benefits.—In addition to these functions, VA was charged with administering other benefits to veterans. Among them were a guardianship service, a program to provide homes for paraplegic veterans, conveyances at government expense to amputees, burial benefits, and a contact service to advise vet¬ erans and their families of their rights and benefits. (See also Law; Medical Rehabilitation of the Disabled; Tubercu¬ losis.) (C. R. Gy.)

Veterans of Foreign l/lfars. entered

upon observance of its Golden Jubilee anniversary with a mandate from its approximately 1,500,000 members to concentrate its efforts on such major veterans’ objectives as housing, a uniform pension system for veterans of all wars, national security, and eradica¬ tion of communism and other subversive elements in the United States. In resolutions adopted by delegates to the 49th national en¬ campment in St. Louis, Mo., Aug. 29 to Sept. 3, 1948, the or¬ ganization went on record in condemnation of the failure of

749

congress to enact the Taft-Ellender-Wagner housing bill, or comparable legislation sufficiently strong to provide adequate low-cost housing for veterans. The delegates also demanded a firm attitude by the United States in its relations with the U.S.S.R., and urged that the sale or shipment of any or all critical materials to the Soviet Union be prohibited. The V.F.W. took a firm stand in favour of universal military training and for creation and maintenance of air, ground and sea forces second to none. It urged the United States to retain atomic energy secrets. It condemned the Communist party in the United States and the U.S.S.R. as enemies of the democratic way of life, and called upon congress and the several state legislatures to enact laws depriving communists of all citizen¬ ship privileges. The V.F.W. reaffirmed its stand for enactment of H.R. 157, the Veterans Economic Development Corporation act. This measure, originated by the V.F.W., has as its fundamental pur¬ pose the development of unused natural resources and unused productive capacity, and the provision of increased employ¬ ment opportunities, wifeh particular emphasis upon jobs for veterans. Major projects in connection with the V.F.W. observance of the 50th anniversary of its founding in 1899 by several groups of men returned from service abroad in the war with Spain included an intensive membership campaign and a series of pro¬ grams by state organizations and local posts of the V.F.W. to enhance the prestige of the organization of overseas veterans, and increase its usefulness in the promotion of service to the community and to veterans and their dependents. The national officers serving in 1948 were: commander in chief, Lyall T. Beggs, Madison, Wis.; senior vice commander in chief, Clyde A. Lewis, Plattsburg, N.Y.; junior vice commander in chief, Charles C. Ralls, Seattle, Wash.; quartermaster gen¬ eral, R. B. Handy, Jr., Washington, D.C.; judge advocate gen¬ eral, James N. Hardin, Greeneville, Tenn.; surgeon general. Dr. 0. C. Pratz, Flint, Mich.; and national chaplain, the Reverend Father Max Matz, New Brighton, Minn. (B. Y.)

’ flrffanhatiniiQ

only 3 of the 12 largest veterans’ organiza¬ tions in the United States claimed increases in membership. These were the Disabled American Veterans, the Air Forces association and the American Veterans of World War H (Amvets). By the end of the year less than 6,000,000 veterans had paid their current dues. This was a considerable decrease from the approximately 8,000,000 who had been members at the end of 1946. The American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars (V.F.W.) still contained 75% of the organized veterans. The remainder were divided among the Disabled American Veterans, Amvets, the American Veterans committee. Army and Navy union, Jewish War Veterans, Catholic War Veterans, Regular Veterans association, the Air Forces association and about 500 other smaller national and local groups. Many of the veterans’ groups found themselves in financial difficulties. The Military Order of the Purple Heart petitioned for voluntary reorganization, and even such financially sound organizations as the American Legion and the V.F.W. found it necessary to cut their staffs and reduce expenses. Organized veterans, as such, played little part in the 1948 presidential election. While every candidate had his veterans committee, no independent veterans’ groups of any size were formed for political purposes. Recognized veterans’ organiza¬ tions are not permitted, by their charters, to participate in partisan politics. The principal policy trends in U.S. veterans’ organizations UlgaillLauUilO*

750

VETERINARY MEDICINE

during 1948 were as follows: (1) A determined drive for a comprehensive housing pro¬ gram. The American Legion and Amvets added their endorse¬ ment of public housing to the previous ones of the V.F.W. and the A.V.C. Members of all of these organizations plus the Catholic War Veterans and Jewish War Veterans participated in a housing conference in Washington, D.C., to press the passage of the Taft-Ellender-Wagner bill. (2) Support by all major organizations of the temporary draft and by all except A.V.C. for universal military training. (3) Increased interest in community life. A survey by the veterans’ relations department of the Anti-Defamation league showed that nine out of the ten largest veterans’ organizations had instituted programs on a community level dealing with juve¬ nile delinquency, the education of youth or human relations. (See also American Legion; Disabled American Veterans; Veterans of Foreign Wars.) (Ri. A. B.) Canada.—The largest dominion veterans’ organization, the Canadian Legion, on Oct. 31, 1948, reported 2,036 branches, 956 ladies’ auxiliaries and 17 junior auxiliaries, with a total indi¬ vidual membership of more than 300,000. Through representa¬ tions to the federal government, the Legion was successful in having both pensions and war veterans’ allowances increased. In its 12th biennial convention in Saskatoon, Sask., in May, the Legion urged compulsory peacetime military training, ex¬ panded immigration, raising of civil service salaries to business and industry levels, rent controls until 1950, contributory oldage pensions, enfranchisement of the Indians without prejudice and a royal commission to investigate Canadian emigration. The National Council of Veterans Associations in Canada, parent organization for six veterans’ organizations, co-operated with the Legion in presenting a brief to parliament asking for increased pensions to disabled veterans. The Federation of British Canadian Veterans of Canada asked that the full Cana¬ dian allowances be extended to the 100,000 British veterans living in the dominion. Two new veterans’ organizations were formed during the year. Former paratroopers organized the Canadian Pegasus club with headquarters in Toronto, Ont. Air Chief Marshal L. S. Breadner, wartime head of the royal Canadian air force, organized and became the first president of the Royal Canadian Air Force association, made up of former active members of the Canadian air force. (C. Cv.) Other Countries.—The British Legion was open generally to men and women who had served in the armed forces and who subscribed to its principles. In July 1948 the membership of more than 1,000,000 was divided among 5,240 branches, some of which were in the colonies and other British communities abroad. In pursuit of a policy framed at its Whitsuntide con¬ ference in 1948, the Legion was renewing its campaign for a general increase in pension rates which were considered incom¬ mensurate with the cost of living. In 1946-47, the British Legion dealt with 32,578 individual pension applications and was successful in securing pensions, to the annual value of £312,566, for 12,538 claimants. In 1948, Sir Ian Fraser, M.P., and Lt. Col. C. Gordon Lark¬ ing were re-elected president and national chairman respectively. (J. C. As.) In Europe prior to World War II, the most active associa¬ tions of ex-servicemen existed in France, Germany, Italy, Po¬ land and Czechoslovakia. During the German occupation many leaders of the French associations were compromised by collaboration with the Petainsponsored Legion Frangaise des Anciens Combattants. After the liberation, however, the majority of the old associations were reformed, under new leadership, and joined the Union

Frangaise des Anciens Combattants (U.F.A.C.) of which Rene Cassin was honorary president, Leon Viala chairman and Mau¬ rice de Barral secretary-general—all three active in the exservicemen’s movement before 1939. The communist-controlled Franc-Tireiirs et Partisans Frangais (F.T.P.F.) formed a sep¬ arate group. In Italy the two traditional associations of combattenti and mutilati disappeared because of their fascist leadership, and there was an attempt to replace them by the creation of the Associazione Nazionale Partigiani d’ltalia (A.N.P.I) led by Luigi Longo, a prominent communist and a veteran of the Spanish civil war. In 1948 Gen. Giovanni Cadorna, who during World War II was a partisan leader in northern Italy, formed a rival federation of Liberty Volunteers. In Poland all pre-1939 ex-servicemen’s associations were for¬ bidden to continue their activities with the exception of the War Disabled union (Zwiqzek Inwaliddw). The union had 158,273 members organized in 395 branches in Poland and 24 in France. In Czechoslovakia the pre-1939 legionaries’ organizations, which had been dissolved by the Germans and partly restored in 1945, were absorbed by a single communist-led Union of Fighters for Freedom (Svaz Bojovniku za Svobodu), which was created on May 10, 1948. In Hungary, Bulgaria, Rumania and Yugoslavia, only com¬ munist-controlled Unions of Fighters for Freedom were allowed. An International federation of these unions was advocated in Prague, Czechoslovakia, on May 10, 1948, by Maj. Gen. Sidor Kovpak, a Soviet Ukrainian guerrilla leader, twice hero of the Soviet Union.

Uotorlnarv Mpriirinp

opening of six additional pub-

fClCllllulj mCUlwlllC* lie-supported veterinary colleges in

the United States during 1948 and the urge of the Association of Land-Grant College Presidents to enlarge facilities of the ten previously existing ones indicated that the country’s 13,000 veterinarians were regarded as totally inadequate to provide the livestock and food industries with a modem veterinary serv¬ ice. California, Georgia, Illinois, Minnesota, Missouri and Okla¬ homa appropriated funds for the maintenance of accredited cur¬ ricula leading to the degree of doctor of veterinary medicine. Expansion of the Veterinary Service.—The high price of farm animals continued to create an unusual demand for vet¬ erinarians in rural areas. Food industries subject to the regula¬ tions of the federal Food and Drug administration and local ordinances employed an increased number of competent hygien¬ ists, and the county health departments operating under statefederal direction made more positions for college-trained meat, milk and dairy inspectors. More attention was given to the farm-animal plagues (brucellosis, tuberculosis, hog cholera, etc.). In the large cities, interest in the ownership of family dogs continued to increase and to bring about a greater demand for urban veterinary service. Foot-and-Mou+h Disease Vaccination.—The outbreak of foot-and-mouth disease in south central Mexico—the first in North America in 20 years—remained unchecked through 1948, despite large expenditures by both Mexico and the United States. U.S. authorities were reproached by Mexican groups for not agreeing to resort to vaccination as a part of the control pro¬ gram, and for depending exclusively upon the killing of affected and exposed animals and the usual sanitary measures. The sac¬ rifice of irreplaceable draught oxen proved to be impractical and manifestly unpopular. The U.S. finally yielded to popular de¬ mands for vaccination in lieu of slaughtering oxen essential to the Mexican farmer. Large shipments of vaccine were imported from Europe, and emissaries of the U.S. bureau of animal Indus-

try were sent to Europe to study its production and use. The 8oth congress appropriated funds to provide for the making of a U.S. vaccine comparable with that which had been found effi¬ cient in Europe after 1938. A suitably isolated site for the pro¬ duction laboratory was being sought at the close of 1948. The sway toward vaccination and the wholehearted effort to aid Mexico in ridding itself of the grave invasion threatening its animal industry were not conceded to be a surrender of the time-tried radical method which, in all times, had kept this serious plague from getting a permanent foothold in the United States. Avian Medicine.—Interest in the scientific application of avian pathology grew as poultry flocks became larger and more valuable in the postwar years. In 1948 the production of poultry and eggs was rated as a $3,000,000,000 industry in the United States, and concurrently clinical avian medicine became a sig¬ nificant branch of applied animal science. Breed improvement, sanitary housing, feed hygiene and the production of tasty meat and eggs, together with modern disease prevention and treat¬ ment, characterized the domestic fowl situation during the year. The Poultry Improvement plan inaugurated in the 1930s, mainly to control pullorum disease (bacillary white diarrhoea), was widely expanded. Testing laying hens for Salmonella pullorum infection in order to provide only noninfected eggs for the hatcheries reached a high mark during the year. A misfortune of consequence was the spread of avian pneu¬ moencephalitis (Newcastle disease) to nearly all the states in 1948. Though formerly known only as an exotic fowl plague, this grave virus infection was acknowledged to be permanently implanted in the United States. Veterinarians in states bordering on the Mississippi reported that chicken raising in the midwest, the onetime “egg basket” of the world, continued to show a decline. The small but numerous poultry flocks could not compete successfully with the specialized poultry industry in supplying eggs and poultry of the higher grades. Flocks housed and fed under regulated sanitary conditions had created a demand for taste and flavour that could not be matched by flocks that foraged the barnyard and farm for subsistence. The high incidence of tuberculosis, variola, pneumoencephalitis and other poultry plagues where preventive measures were not systematically pursued was also a factor in the decline. The change w^as regarded as significant in the poultry and farm press, where it was emphasized that make¬ shift methods in the raising of farm animals were things of the past in the face of discriminating markets. Entero+oxaemla of Lambs.—The discovery of a convenient method of immunizing feed-lot lambs against enterotoxaemia (pulpy kidney disease) in the large sheep-raising districts of Australia and New Zealand was announced by laboratory work¬ ers of the Corn States Serum company of Omaha, Neb., after several years of laboratory studies and critical field trials. The disease is a common plague of lambs brought in from permanent sheep pastures and fed concentrates for growing and fattening to market condition. The specific cause is Clostridium welchii type D, a saprophyte of the large intestine, which develops tre¬ mendous pathogenic power when the digestive process is taxed beyond the pastoral level. The mortality is 100% and the mor¬ bidity may run as high as 50% if rationing is not carefully instituted. The development from the causal agent of a bacterin that immunizes feeder lambs for the duration of the fattening period was pronounced a sensational discovery. Public Health Service Veterinary Department.—The new term “veterinary public health” was used widely in veterinary publications' during 1948. The U.S. bureau of animal industry and the fish and wildlife service, co-operating with the U.S. pub¬ lic health service, had formed the Federal Rabies Control com-

VETERINARY STUDENTS being trained for research or teaching in 1948 are shown on laboratory assignment in the animal hospital at the University of Pennsylvania's school of veterinary medicine in Philadelphia

mission in 1947 for the express purpose of getting rabies con¬ trol under central direction. Under existing laws the U.S. bureau of animal industry, famous for its effective mastery of diseases of livestock, had no authority to take the control of rabies in dogs out of local direction, whereas the U.S. public health serv¬ ice was free to centralize a control program and to utilize its laboratory and educational facilities. The commission was devel¬ oped at a conference held at the school of veterinary medicine. University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, under the chairman¬ ship of Dean Raymond A. Kelser, former director of the vet¬ erinary corps, U.S. army. Participating officially were repre¬ sentatives of the American Medical association, American Pub¬ lic Health association, American Veterinary Medical associa¬ tion, U.S. bureau of animal industry and the U.S. public health service. The express objective was to co-ordinate medical and veterinary problems related to public health. Sleeping Sickness In Horses and Mules.—Although the in¬ cidence of equine encephalomyelitis had not been grave in the United States since 1936-37, a serious epizootic broke out in southern Louisiana. It had started along the Mississippi river below Baton Rouge in 1947 and was described as the most virulent type of the disease ever experienced in the U.S. The usual mortality of 10% to 20% mounted to 80% to 90%. In other parts of the United States only small isolated outbreaks occurred. In the veterinary press, mention was made of 26 human cases with 9 fatalities. Extensive resort to the vaccina¬ tion of horses and mules kept the infection confined within the bounds of the original territory involved—an achievement that emphasized the high merits of vaccinal immunity conferred by two doses of attenuated virus, and the inadequacy of single doses. Brucellosis.—No chronological account of veterinary events of 1948 would be complete without mentioning the brucellosis situation, as the disease is reportedly a serious menace to public health and the reservoirs of the specific micro-organism are the cattle and hogs of the farms. A report published in 1948 gave the over-all morbidity in cattle as 4.3% out of more than 82,-

751

752

VIRGINIA—VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF

000,000 animals tested serologically. Lack of uniform laws in 48 states continued to prevent effective control. The fact that important cattle herds containing thousands of cattle had been kept free from brucellosis for many years by the individual efforts of their owners was pointed out in the farm press as proof that collaboration of the livestock farmers remained to be organized. In brief, brucellosis continued to take a heavy toll from the livestock industry, and incidence of so-called undulant fever in man was not curtailed, according to the published report of the U.S. public health service. Bibliography.—“Change in the Control Program of Mexican Footand-Mouth Disease,” editorial, J. Am. Vet. M. A., 118:8-9 (Jan. 1948); “Foot-and-Mouth Disease Vaccination?” editorial, Vet. Med., 43:401402 (Oct. 1948); W. R. Hinshaw, “Current Problems in Poultry Pro¬ duction,” serial articles in Vet. Med., vol. 43 (1948): Symposium on Newcastl'e disease (avian pneumoencephalitis): Erwin Jungherr, “Re¬ port of the Committee on Modes of Spread of Newcastle Disease,” J. Am. Vet. M. A., 112:124—125 (Feb. 1948); T. C. Byerly, “Report of the Committee on Incidence of Newcastle Disease,” ibid., 112:125 (Feb. 1948); H. E. Moses, “Report of the Committee on Newcastle Virus Properties,” ibid., 112:126-127 (Feb. 1948); C. A. Brandly, “Report of the Committee on Newcastle Disease Immunization,” ibid., 112:127128 (Feb. 1948); F. R. Beaudette, “Report of the Committee on Di¬ agnosis of Newcastle Disease,” ibid., 112:128-130 (Feb.'1948); Earl M. Baldwin, Jr., L. D. Frederick and J. D. Ray, “The Control of Ovine Enterotoxemia by the Use of Clostridium perfringens. Type D Bacterin,” Am. J. Vet. Research, 9:296-303 (July 1948); Ernes S. Tierkel, “In¬ auguration of Rabies Control Studies by the U.S. Public Health Service,” J. Am. Vet. M. A., 112:18-24 (Jan. 1948); W. T. Oglesby, “1947 Out¬ break of Infectious Equine Encephalitis in Louisiana,” J. Am. Vet. M. A., 113:267-270 (Sept. 1948); “Farm Bureau and Bang’s,” editorial. Hoard’s Dairyman, 93:652 (Sept. 10, 1948); H. E. Kingman, Sr., “Brucellosis Eradication,” J. Am. Vet. M. A., 113:471-472 (June 1948). (L. A. M.)

11!

•

One of the 13 original states of the United States, Vllgllllda Virginia is known as the “Old Dominion” and as the “Mother of Presidents.” It is southernmost among the middle Atlantic states and has an area of 40,815 sq.mi., in¬ cluding 916 sq.mi. of water. Pop. (1940) 2,677,773, of which 35-3% was urban and 64.7% rural. On July i, 1948, the bureau of the census estimated the state’s civilian population at 3,029,000. Capital, Richmond (193,042 in 1940 and 232,000 in July 1948). Other major cities include Norfolk (144,332 and 170,000), Roanoke (69,287 and 71,000) and Portsmouth (50,745 and 57,200). History.—^The general assembly convened in regular session in Jan. 1948. At the request of Gov. William M. Tuck, the legislators approved major increases in state taxes to finance the largest programs of public education, health and mental hygiene ever undertaken in Virginia. The assembly also ap¬ proved a reorganization of all administrative agencies of the state government, adopted a broadened program of reforesta¬ tion, brought Virginia into the Ohio River Valley Water Sani¬ tation Compact, set up within the state health department the first program of its kind in the United States for the treat¬ ment of alcoholism, and laid down a foundation for state-wide fire prevention in public buildings. The need for improved school buildings received wide discussion during the year and brought demands from more than 70 counties for adoption of a state sales tax to finance local construction. Negro groups won four major court cases brought by them to compel equal¬ ization of white and Negro school facilities. At the general elec¬ tion in November, electors for President Harry S. Truman re¬ ceived 200,786 votes; for Thomas E. Dewey 172,070; for J. Strom Thurmond 43,393; for Henry A. Wallace 2,047; for Norman Thomas 726 and for Edward A. Teichert 234. L. Pres¬ ton Collins was lieutenant governor in 1948; G. Tyler Miller was superintendent of public instruction. Education.—In 1947-48, elementary school enrolment was 429,361, with a teaching staff of 11,431; secondary school enrolment was 139,747, with a teaching staff of 4,919. The teaching staff also included 1,182 instructors in vocational education and 2,262 principals and head teachers. Social

Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

For the year ended June 30, 1948, 13,090 persons received $1,287,221 in general relief; 19,315 received $3,541,344 in old-age assistance;

6,934 families with 20,444 dependent children, $2,403,615; 2,725 under the regular foster care program, $537,876; and 1,390 blind, $332,154. In 1948, 310,772 checks were written for civilian unemployment com¬ pensation, amounting to $5,089,218, and 260,642 war veterans’ readjust¬ ment allowance checks were written for $7,538,218. An average daily population of six penal institutions for adults was 4,460, and of four industrial schools for juveniles was 579, at the end of the fiscal year in June 1948. Communications.—On Jan. i, 1948, there were 9,020 mi. of highway in the state’s primary system; on July i, 1948, there were 38,453 mi. in the secondary system. During the year ended June 30, 1948, the state spent $57,635,000 on its highways, up 4% from the previous year’s expenditure. The total railroad mileage was 4,087.23 on Jan. i, 1948. There were 491,308 telephones in Virginia on Nov. 30, 1948. Banking and Finance.—On June 30, 1948, Virginia had 184 state banks with 36 branches, and 131 national banks and branches. On June 30, 1948, deposits of national banks were $1,005,550,000, and assets $1,089,756,000. On June 30) 1948, deposits in state banks totalled $710,158,630, and assets $774,850,999. Resources on Dec. 31, 1947, of 15 industrial loan associations were $10,656,803; of 56 building and loan associations $46,630,089; of 25 credit unions $1,466,413. For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1948, the state treasury received revenues of $271,243,285, about 10% more than in the previous year; expendi¬ tures were $280,752,758. The gross debt on June 30 was $13,464,937; there was no net debt, because a sinking fund of $15,373,737 left an excess of $1,908,799. The fiscal year ended with a general fund surplus of $40,037,216. Agriculture.—The 1948 crop season was generally a very favourable one for all crops except fruits. The corn crop was highest on record; new records also were set in production of peanuts, barley and hay. The tobacco crop was 4% smaller than in 1947 because of reduced acreage, but its value to producers was $6,000,000 higher. Small grains, particularly oats, had an excellent year, and the spread of improved farming practices was evident in new records set in yield per acre for many crops. The value of principal crops was placed at $303,347,000, up 8% from 1947. Cash receipts to Virginia farmers in 1948 from farm marketings were estimated at 10% above 1947, when cash income (including government payments) amounted to $416,089,000.

Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Virginia, 1948 and 1947 Crop 1948 1947 1948 Value Corn, bu. 50,525,000 42,940,000 $78,314,000 Wheat, bu. 9,194,000 8,522,000 20,686,000 Oats, bu. 4,891,000 3,456,000 4,646,000 Rye, bu. ...... 480,000 392,000 816,000 Barley, bu. 3,243,000 2,478,000 4,378,000 Buckwheat, bu.. . . . 126,000 96,000 176,000 Tobacco, oil types, lb.. 145,180,000 154,752,000 68,821,000 Peanuts for nuts, lb.. . 231,000,000 197,640,000 25,641,000 Hay, all tame, tons . . 1,823,000 1,437,000 46,486,000 Apples, commercial, bu. 8,640,000 5,072,000 12,831,000 Peaches, bu. 1,209,000 1,680,000 3,627,000 Cotton, lint, bales . . 24,000 1 8,000 3,708,000 Potatoes, bu. 11,529,000 9,450,000 19,023,000 Sweet potatoes, bu. . 3,510,000 3,500,000 6,318,000 Soybeans for beans, bu. 1,749,000 1,425,000 4,1 10,000 Manufacturing.—The value of products manufactured in Virginia soared to a new high of $2,370,673,000 in the year ended Dec. 31, 1946, an increase of 146% from the five-year average 1935-39. Wage earners received $313,485,434 in this period, and total salaries amounted to $73>449,o58. The average factory employment in the year 1947 was 211,800, up 28% from the prewar level. An increasing trend toward industrialization was evident over most of the state in 1948. Principal industries were tobacco products, food and kindred products, transporta¬ tion equipment, textiles, paper and printing and chemical products.

Table II.—Principal Industries of Virginia, 1946 and 1945 Industry Tobacco products . . . . Food and kindred products Textiles and their products Wood products . . . . . Poper and printing . . . . Chemical products . . . , Metals and machinery. . , Leather and its products .

Value of products 1946 1945 $863,819,963 $790,582,323 383,086,617 308,793,770 495,570,099 400,185,194 138,608,354 95,684,644 136,376,046 134,072,940 109,121,470 121,750,914 54,159,941 78,910,459 35,824,735 31.467,857

Mineral Production.—The production value of raw mineral resources in the year ending Dec. 31, 1947, was placed at $128,700,000. Coal production was valued at $60,838,000 in 1946. Approximately 16,000 bbl. of petroleum were produced in 1946; by 1947, this volume of output had increased sufficiently for the general assembly to order a reporting system from oil drillers; oil pools in the far southwest tip of the state were regarded as promising, although not likely to develop into a major production area. Principal ores are zinc, titanium and manganese

(J. J.

Kt.)

Virginia, University of. ment in self-government involving a broad grant of power from the administration to a student council marked the opening of the university’s 125th session. The army installed a transporta¬ tion reserve officers training corps, and the Virginia department of highways announced plans to move its offices and labora¬ tories for highway research to Charlottesville, Va., where they would be associated with the department of engineering of the

VIRGIN ISLANDS—VITAMINS university to constitute the Virginia Council of Highway In¬ vestigation and Research. Gifts during the year included a bequest of more than $600,000 from the estate of Lillian Thomas Pratt for work with crippled children, the personal and official papers of Carter Glass, a collection of modern French prints from T. Catesby Jones, the Alexander MacKay-Smith music collection and a col¬ lection of books on evolution including much significant Darwin material. John Lee Pratt provided funds for a new research project to be directed by John Howe Yoe. Yoe was developing methods for the quantitative determination of traces of chemical elements, especially those elements which are known to be sig¬ nificant in the metabolism of plants and animals, in soils and as important constituents in many industrial processes and products. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (C. W. Dn.)

Ulffrin lplonflVAGES AND HOURS

755

of Vocational Rehabilitation in Table I.—fndexet of Production-Worker Employment and Pay Rolls In Manufacturing Industries the Federal Security agency, 11939 average = 1001 assisted the states and territo¬ All manufacturing Durable goods Nondurable goods Employment Pay rolls Employment Pay rolls Employment Pay rolls ries through financial grants-inMonths 1948 1947 1948 1947 1948 1947 1948 1947 1948 1947 1948 1947 Jan. 160.5 152.7 358.7 307.3 188.2 178.0 403.1 340.0 138.7 132.8 315.3 275.3 aid, establishment of standards Feb. 159.5 153.7 354.1 310.6 185.8 180.1 393.1 344.6 138.7 133.0 316.0 277.4 of service and technical aid. March. 160.3 154.0 358.4 314.1 188.1 180.9 402.0 349.9 138.4 132.8 315.7 279.2 April. 156.1 152.9 347.1 310.7 185.1 180.8 393.4 349.9 133.3 130.9 301.9 272.3 The federal government as¬ May. 155.5 153.8 346.7 319.3 183.9 182.0 390.8 363.0 133.1 131.5 303.6 276.6 June. .. 158.2 154.7 359.0 327.2 184.5 183.9 401.3 375.5 137.5 131.7 317.6 280.0 sumed all necessary adminis¬ July. 158.4 153.3 360.0 321.8 184.7 178.7 403.1 359.4 137.6 133.4 317.9 285.1 Aug. 161.5 157.8 374.6 331.5 185.5 181.5 418.7 366.8 142.6 139.1 331.4 297.0 trative costs incurred by the Sep. 164.5 160.2 381.7 345.3 188.1 183.6 422.6 382.2 145.9 141.8 341.7 309.2 Oct. 160.4 ... 350.1 ... 185.0 ... 389.9 ... 141.1 ... 311.2 states as well as their expendi¬ Nov. 160.8 ... 353.4 ... 186.8 ... 395.0 ... 140.4 ... 312.8 Dec. 161.9 ... 365.7 ... 188.8 ... 411.0 ... 140.7 ... 321.4 tures for guidance and place¬ This table compiled from statistics released by the Monthly Labor Review, United States bureau of labour statistics. ment of disabled individuals. Medical examinations and treatment, training and the costs of Sept. 1948, as measured by pay rolls in manufacturing indusother services were shared equally by the states and the federal tries. This compares with an increase in manufacturing emgovernment. ployment of only 2.7% in the same period. Total employers’ The states were fully reimbursed by the federal government disbursements, including salaries and wages, amounted to $11,for costs of services to war-disabled civilians such as merchant 400,000,000 in Sept. 1948, or 10.4% more than for the same seamen, members of the Civil Air Patrol and the aircraft warn¬ month in 1947. ing service injured in performance of duty. Table I reflects comparisons in monthly employment and From July 1943 through June 1948, a total of 219,039 disabled pay-roll indexes. Pay-roll payments rose most rapidly in the men and women were rehabilitated by the state-federal pro¬ nondurable goods industries. Employment in durables was al¬ gram to qualify for, to take and to perform useful work. This most the same in September as in January, while the September figure compares with a total for the preceding 23 years of 210,employment level for nondurables was 5.2% above that for 125 under limited legislative authority. On an average yearly January. However, compared with 1939, durable goods indus¬ basis, program gains during 1943-48 represented an increase in tries had enjoyed a greater long-run increase in employment. successful rehabilitations of almost 400% over the figure for Coal mining continued to provide the highest weekly “takethe previous 23 years. home” earnings: $77.87 for bituminous coal miners and $72.77 In the same five-year period, rehabilitation resulted in an for anthracite miners. Next highest weekly payments went to estimated increase of more than $900,000,000 in earned income workers in building construction. The lowest weekly payments for rehabilitants. These rehabilitated people paid an estimated were made to hotel employees ($32.17), but the figure does not include tips and thus does not represent total earnings for that $75,000,000 into the federal treasury in federal income taxes alone. group. For the year ended June 30, 1948, 62,360 disabled people Table II. — Average Weekly Earnings, Average Weekly Hours, and were prepared for and placed in suitable employment. Of these, Average Earnings per Hour in Major Industries, Aug. 7 948 the number performing their jobs to their own satisfaction and Compared with Aug. 1947; U.S. Average hourly that of their employers was 53,131, an increase of 21% over Average weekly Average weekly earnings earnings hours (cents) fiscal 1947. The remaining 9,229 had completed their rehabili¬ 1947 1948 1947 1948 1947 1948 Industry tation to the point where they were employed but were being 40.1 39.8 134.9 123.6 ALL MANUFACTURING. 52.46 40.7 40.0 143.2 131.2 Durable goods. observed for a reasonable period to make certain that their 45.78 39.5 39.5 126.2 115.8 Nondurable goods. 54.53 40.4 39.6 150.2 137.6 Iron and steel. .. adjustment would be complete. This represented a 20% in¬ 51.53 39.9 39.2 143.9 131.4 Electrical machinery. crease over the previous year. During fiscal 1948, 2,569 blind 55.74 40.9 40.5 149.9 137.7 Nonelectrical machinery. Transportation equipment (except persons and 3,631 persons with other visual defects were re¬ 55.75 39.6 39.6 152.4 140.6 automobiles). 55.76 39.2 37.2 166.8 150.0 Automobiles. habilitated into suitable employment. All of these figures repre¬ 51.07 40.9 39.5 142.3 129.4 Nonferrous metals. . . 50.68 45.32 43.1 43.3 117.7 104.8 lumber and allied products .... sented record highs for one year. 44.09 41.3 41.2 118.8 108.9 Furniture, etc . • .. 49.06 40.9 40.6 132.2 120.8 Stone, clay and glass. For the fiscal year 1948, the annual rate of earnings for the Textile-mill products. . . 45.07 39.44 38.5 38.2 117.0 103.2 rehabilitated group upon application for services—approxi¬ 36.5 35.2 110.7 103.8 36.57 Apparel products. 112.6 105.7 Leather and leather products . . . . . 42.76 40.25 38.0 38.1 mately $17,000,000—rose to $86,000,000 during the first year Food and food processing .... . . 49.79 49.45 41.1 43.4 121.3 114.0 95.1 37.26 39.0 39.2 100.8 Tobacco manufactures. after rehabilitation, an increase of approximately 400%. The 50.72 43.2 42.4 132.0 119.6 Paper and allied products .... 59.48 39.1 39.4 168.4 150.8 . . 65.90 Printing and publishing . postrehabilitation earnings did not include those of about 6,000 Chemicals and allied products . . . . . 57.60 51.27 41.0 40.9 140.6 125.2 Products of coal and petroleum . . . . 70.62 60.62 41.2 40.6 171.4 149.4 rehabilitants who were engaged in farming or family work and 55.92 40.3 38.7 150.2 144.5 Rubber products. whose earnings were not reported. 46.32 40.3 39.3 127.2 117.7 Miscellaneous industries. NONMANUFACTURING Twelve thousand of the successful rehabilitants during 1948 Cool mining 68.51 38.0 38.5 190.5 178.0 Anthracite. were employed at the time they applied for services but re¬ 197.6 178.7 70.23 39.3 39.1 Bituminous. quired rehabilitation for one of the following reasons arising 56.09 43.0 41.4 144.9 135.4 Metalliferous mining. Street railways and buses. . . 62.68 58.00 47.6 46.6 132.8 124.1 from their disabilities: they were in danger of losing their jobs; 46.92 39.3 38.7 123.2 121.5 Telephone. 55.01 45.6 44.8 137.3 122.8 Telegraph. were in jobs that were hazardous to them or to their fellow . . 61.46 57.97 42.1 42.4 147.5 137.8 Electric light and power. 137.9 125.8 52.05 41.3 41.1 Wholesale trade. workers; were working only part-time; or were in otherwise un¬ 41.0 108.0 100.3 suitable employment. To meet the annual toll of disabilities, from 200,000 to 250,000 rehabilitations a year would be required. (See also Vet¬ erans’ Administration.) (M. J. Sy.)

Voice of America: see

Wages and Hours.

Radio; United States.

The United States’ national wage bill increased 10.5% from Sept. 1947 to

38.14 41.0 Retail trade. 71.3 29.50 44.9 45.0 Hotels. Building construction (private) . . . . . 72.07 64.36 38.3 38.6 188.0 Source: Month// Labor Review, United States bureau of labour statistics.

66.0 166.8

Data in Table II indicate that average weekly earnings in¬ creased in every industry during 1948. Average earnings ex¬ ceeded $50 per week in 71% of the classified industries in 1948 as against 61.3% in 1947. In 45% of the industries, average weekly earnings exceeded $60. Increases were not greatly af¬ fected by additional overtime work. For all manufacturing in-

756

WALES — WALLACE. HENRY AGARD

dustries, the work week was lengthened by an average of only 20 min. The greatest increase in “take-home pay” was one of 17.3% in the automobile industry. A 16.5% increase developed in the petroleum and coal products field. Adjustments to compensate for increases in the hours worked per week do not alter the ranking of these industries. The smallest boost in weekly earn¬ ings occurred in the food-processing industry. The average in¬ crease for all manufacturing was 10.1%. Average hourly rates of pay went up in every industrial field. In petroleum and coal products, there was a 14.7% increase. Among all of the 31 industrial classifications presented, ii dem¬ onstrated hourly increases of more than one-tenth over the 1947 rates. Shifts in hourly earnings over a five-year period are shown in Table III. The greatest total increase from 1943 to 1948 was Table III.—Rise in Hourly Earnings Rates, 1943-48: U.S. (August rotes) Industry 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 Index,1948 (1941 = 100)

ALL MANUFACTURING ... $ .965 $1,016 $1,025 $1,112 $1,236 $1,349 Durable goods. 1.060 1.111 1.114 1.186 1.312 1.432 Nondurable goods . ... .811 .865 .908 1.036 1.158 1.262 Iron and steel. 1.037 1.076 1.109 1.222 1.376 1.502 Machinery (nonelectricol) . . 1.063 1.120 1.136 1.246 1.377 1.499 Automobiles. 1.219 1.262 1.236 1.373 1.501 1.668 Lumber and allied products . .744 .803 .816 .928 1.048 1.177 Textile products.665 .711 .771 .924 1.032 1.170 Food ond food processing , ,805 .844 .882 1.015 1.140 1.213 Tobacco products.658 .715 .761 .885 .951 1.008 Rubber products. 1.015 1.102 1.119 1.295 1.445 1.502 NONMANUFACTURING Coal mining: Anthracite. 1.073 1.179 1.331 1.598 1.780 1.905 Bituminous. 1.147 1.189 1.248 1.466 1.787 1.976 Wholesale trode.944 .939 1.013 1.148 1.258 1.379 Private building. 1.246 1.323 1.383 1.462 1.668 1.880 Source: Monthly Labor Review, United States bureau of labour statistics.

181.1 172.5 191.8 172.4 177.6 157.8 200.2 211.2 184.3 193.8 174.4

192.6 191.3 172.8 187.8

Table IV.—Earnings in Great Britain at April 1948 Average weekly earnings Men over .. 134s. Od, Youths and boys. 57s. 2d, Women over 18 (full-time). 72s. 1 Ic/. Girls under 18. 48s. 4d, General average. 114s. Od.

Increase over Oct. 1938 ,

94% 119% 124% 161% 114%

dustrial establishments (jgs. sd.), and the lowest in public util¬ ity services (625. sd-) and food, drink and tobacco (685. 'jd.). For textiles the average woman’s rate was 745. 2d. These offi¬ cial statistics of earnings did not include either coal mining or railways or agriculture, for which separate figures were com¬ piled. In the coal mines the average earnings (including juve¬ niles) were 315. sd. a shift in April 1948, as compared with II5. 2d. in 1938. The changes in working hours in 1948 were few and small. Average weekly hours worked in all the industries covered by the returns were 45.3 for all workers (adult men 46.5, boys and youths 44.1, women 41.6, girls 42.3). These compared with an over-all figure of 46.5 in 1938 (men 47.7, boys and youths 46.2, women 43.5, girls 44.6). The range of differences from industry to industry was fairly narrow. The movement of wages and hours in 1948 was considerably affected by the British government’s appeal in Feb. 1948 for restraint in pressing for wage advances in view of the economic crisis and the dangers of inflationary pressure on scarce sup¬ plies. The acceptance of this request by a special conference of trade unions checked many incipient wage movements, advances being conceded after Feb. 1948 only when an especially strong case could be made out on national grounds. Table V. — Wages Index in Certain European Countries

in anthracite coal mining. The weakest change was in tobacco products. With only two exceptions (wholesale trade in 1944 and automobiles in 1945) there was a constant rise in the hourly rates of pay in all industries from 1941. The rate of increase slowed down from 10.7% in 1947 to 9.1% during the first eight months of 1948. The U.S. 1948 (July) average hourly rate for common labour (in road building) was $1.04. This compares with 92 cents in 1947 and 47 cents in 1941. Farm wages in July 1948 averaged $121 per month, not including board. The 1947 farm wage was $114. The figure for 1948 was more than three times the aver¬ age $37.18 that farm workers earned in July 1941. The net experience in 1948 was a constant and continuous upward trend in wages—both in hourly rates and average weekly earnings—with the length of the work week remaining relatively stable. (D. J. H.) Great Britain.—Up to Oct. 1948 the changes in wages re¬ ported to the British ministry of labour had resulted in an esti¬ mated total increase of £1,724,000 weekly in the wages of nearly 7,084,000 workers, compared with a rise of £1,019,000 in the wages of 3,240,000 workers in the corresponding period of 1947 and with a rise of £1,726,000 in the wages of nearly 5,000,000 workers for the whole of that year. Over-all, average wage rates were officially estimated to have risen by 6% between Oct. 1947 and Oct. 1948, compared with a rise of 7% in the cost of living over the same period. No figures were available to show how average earnings, as distinct from wage rates, changed in the course of this period; statistics of average weekly earnings for all workers covered by the returns for April 1948 are given in Table IV. For particular industries the highest averages for men over 21 were in metal, engineering and shipbuilding (1435. iid.) and paper and printing (143J. lod.), and the lowest for public utility services (1165. 8d.) and food (1245. id,.). For w'omen over 18 the highest rates were in transport (975.) and government in¬

(1937=1001

Austria. Czechoslovakia. Denmark. . . France. Germany (U.S. zone) . . Italy. Netherlands. Norway. Sweden. Switzerland. . .

Money Real wages wages 82 108 202 127 48 130 101 108 180 89 118 132 231 143

Date March 1948 June 1948 Dec. 1947 May 1948 March 1948 June 1948 March 1948 June 1947 1947 (average) Dec. 1947

Nature of figures Earnings Rates Earnings Rates, chiefly skilled (1 938= 1 00) earning Earnings Rates, men only Earnings Earnings Earnings

For other European countries such statistics as were avail¬ able indicated the approximate movements in money and real wages after 1937 as shown in Table V. The statistics, which were derived from the International Labour organization, were not on a uniform basis for the various countries, some relating to rates of wages and some to actual earnings, and some cover¬ ing a much greater range of industries than others. (See also Agriculture; Census Data,

Wales: see

Business

U.S.;

Review;

Canada,

Dominion

of;

Labour Unions; Prices.) (G. D. H. C.)

Great Britain & Northern

Ireland, United

Kingdom of.

Wallace, Henry Agard irts=e mca for his early career.) Wallace was secretary of agriculture in the Franklin D. Roosevelt cabinet, 1933-40. He was elected vice-president in 1940 and on completion of that term became secretary of commerce in 1945. He resigned from the cabinet on Sept. 20, 1946, at Pres. Harry S. Truman’s request, after a Wallace speech criticizing the administration’s policy toward the U.S.S.R. proved embarrassing to Secretary of State James S. Byrnes, who was attending the Paris peace conference. Wallace became editor of the New Republic, but resigned on his an¬ nouncement, Dec. 29, 1947, that he would run for president on a third-party ticket.

WALNUTS

“IN ‘UNCLE JOE’S’ POCKET,” a 194S cartoon by Costello of the Knicker¬ bocker News (Albany, N.Y.). Henry A. Wallace, presidential candidate of the newly formed Progressive party, polled 1,156,103 popular votes in the elec¬ tions of Nov. 2 but won no electoral votes

Wallace loomed as an important contender after a special con¬ gressional election in New York in Feb. 1948, when the candi¬ date he backed defeated the regular Democratic candidate. Po¬ litical observers, stressing that votes for Wallace would come from erstwhile Democrats, predicted his strength in New York state would throw that state into the Republican column. Guesses as to the number of popular votes he would receive nationally ranged as high as 8,000,000. Critics of Wallace charged that his party was supported by communists. Wallace urged a peaceful approach to the Soviet Union; charged the Marshall plan for European recovery had been converted into a plan for world containment of commu¬ nism ; and campaigned for greatly extended social security and health benefits. Wallace was nominated for president and Senator Glen H. Taylor of Idaho for vice-president on the Progressive party ticket at the party convention in Philadelphia in July. His cam¬ paign was marked by a tour of the south, which he called a “frontal assault” on racial segregation. In the November presidential election, Wallace polled 1,156,103 votes. After the election he declared that the Progressive party would continue to function in an effort to build up a united third party by 1950 or 1952.

Walnuts: see Nuts. Walvis Bay: see South Africa, Union of. War Brides: see Immigration and Emigration. W/ni* Pnmoo series of war crimes trials was practically Iwdl ulllliCOa concluded by the end of 1948. In the inter¬ national and national trials in which the United States partici-

WAR CRIMES

757

pated in both the eastern and western theatres, a total of 3,046 persons had been tried in 928 trials. All but about 400 had been found guilty. Nearly 700 death sentences had been given, but more than 200 of these had been commuted or disapproved. The total number of executions was less than 300. These trials were about equally divided between the European and Asiatic zones, as follows: Nuernberg 13, Dachau 491, Italy 9, Tokyo i, Yokohama 286, China ii, Manila 97, U.S. navy 20. The United Kingdom, France, Netherlands, Norway, Greece, Yugoslavia and Australia together had conducted four times as many trials. Data for war criminals trials by the U.S.S.R., China, Czecho¬ slovakia and Poland were lacking. It was clear, however, that more than 10,000 persons had been tried, of whom more than 80% were convicted. These figures did not include the numerous trials for traitors and quislings. The United Nations War Crimes commission set up in 1943 to gather data for use in these trials was dissolved in May 1948, but provision was made for conclusion of the publication of Law Reports of Trials of War Criminals, four volumes of which had appeared. Publication of the record of the Interna¬ tional Military tribunal of Nuernberg was nearly completed; 26 volumes had appeared. Europe.—In Germany, the series of 12 trials of major war criminals at Nuernberg was practically completed in 1948. The tribunals in these trials were international in that their juris¬ diction rested upon legislation of the four powers, as did that of the original Nuernberg tribunal, but they were composed entirely of U.S. judges. The indictments presented by Brig. Gen. Telford Taylor, chief of counsel, included 184 persons. Three trials included leaders of Heinrich Himmler’s SS, an organization which had been declared criminal by the Interna¬ tional Military tribunal. Three trials included Field Marshal Erhard Milch and other high officers of the German army. There was a trial of members of the medical profession, another of members of the legal profession, and leading industrialists, including Friedrich Flick, Alfred Krupp and directors of the I. G. Farben company. In another trial Baron Ernst von Weizsaecker, the nazi ambassador to the Vatican, and other gov¬ ernment officials were tried. Seven of the medical men and 18 of the SS, but none of the lawyers or industrials, were sentenced to death. The medical men were found guilty of lethal experi¬ ments on prisoners of war. The industrialists were acquitted or sentenced to imprisonment of 13 yr. or less. In addition to the Nuernberg trials, lesser war criminals were tried in Germany and Austria by U.S. tribunals. Trials at Dachau, Germany, and in the U.S. zone of Austria for violation of the laws of war were concluded in 1948. Of a total of 1,682 accused in 491 trials, 1,416 persons were found guilty. Offenses dealt with in these trials included murder, cruelty and torture of U.S. soldiers, especially fliers who had landed and sur¬ rendered. Murders and atrocities in the notorious concentration camps at Buchenwald, Dachau, Flossenburg and Doranordhausen also figured in several of these trials. Far East.—After sitting for more than two years and listen¬ ing to more than 9,000,000 words of evidence, the Tokyo tribunal for the trial of major Japanese war criminals adjourned on April 16, 1948, to write its opinion, which was read on Nov. II. It reviewed the action of 17 Japanese cabinets from the Manchurian “incident” of Sept. 1931 to the surrender of Japan on Sept. 7, 1945. It emphasized, as had the Nuernberg tribunal, the responsibility of individuals for crimes against international law even though committed under authority of a state if the state itself had no right under international law to give that authority. It found that Japan was, at the time of the acts alleged, party to numerous treaties prohibiting resort to war and methods of war which the defendants had authorized.

758

WAR PRISONERS —WARREN. EARL

FORMER DIRECTORS of the I. G. Farben chemical trust, on trial for war crimes before a U.S. tribunal at Nuernberg, Germany. Of the 23 officials on trial, all were acquitted, on July 29, 1948, of crimes against peace, but 13 were convicted of plunder or an inhuman use of slave labour

On Nov. 12 the sentences of the 25 indicted Japanese war leaders, 16 of whom had been cabinet members and 4 prime ministers, were read. All were found guilty of from i to 8 counts of the 55-count indictment. Seven were sentenced to death by hanging, six military men (Generals Hideki Tojo, Kenji Dohihara, Seishiro Itagaki, Heitaro Kimura, Iwane Matsui and Akira Muto) and one civilian (former premier Koki Hirota). All but one were found guilty of conspiracy to com¬ mit aggressive war, of planning or initiating aggressive war against some particular country and of violating the laws of war by authorizing atrocities or failing to prevent atrocities. General Matsui was found guilty only of negligence in not pre¬ venting atrocities, particularly the rape of Nanking of 1937. Sixteen of the accused were sentenced to life imprisonment, eight military men (Generals Sadao Araki, Kuniaki Koiso, Jiro Minami, Kenryo Sato, Teichi Suzuki and Yoshijro Umezu; Marshal Shunroku Hata, and Colonel Kingoro Hashimoto), two naval men (Admirals Takasumi Oka and Shigetaro Shimada) and six civilians (Baron Kiichiro Hiranuma, Naoki Hoshino, Okinori Kaya, Koichi Kido, Hiroshi Oshima [who, though a general, served as ambassador to Berlin during the period], and Toshio Shiratori). Former foreign minister Shigenori Togo was sentenced to 20 years’ imprisonment and former foreign minister Mamoru Shigemitsu to 7. All except Shigemitsu were found guilty of the conspiracy charge and all except Oshima of the aggressive war charge. None was found guilty of atrocities, and only Koiso and Shigemitsu of negligence in not preventing atrocities. Two of those originally indicted (Yosuke Matsuoka and Osami Nagano) had died during the course of the trial and one (Shumei Okawa) was severed from the trial because of mental illness. The tribunal consisted of ii judges. Chief Judge Sir William Webb of the supreme court of Queensland, Australia; E. Stuart McDougall of Canada; Mei Ju-ao of the legislative yuan of China; Lord Patrick, judge of the court of sessions of Scotland; Judge Bernard V. A. Ruling of the court of Utrecht, Nether¬ lands; Mr. Justice E. H. Northcroft of the supreme court of

New Zealand; Maj. Gen. I. M. Zaryanov of the military col¬ legium of the supreme court of the Soviet Union; Maj. Gen. Myron Cramer of the United States army, succeeding John P. Higgins, chief justice of the superior court of Massachusetts, who resigned; Judge Henri Bernard of France; Judge R. B. Pal of the high court of Calcutta, India; and Delfin Jaranilla, associate justice of the supreme court of the Philippines. Chief Judge Webb wrote a concurring opinion suggesting that the Japanese emperor had a measure of responsibility, and Judge Pal wrote a dissenting opinion. Gen. Douglas MacArthur who, as supreme commander for the Allied powers, had authority under the charter to reduce but not increase the severity of the sentences, examined the record and sustained the sentences. The executions were post¬ poned on Nov. 30 because two of the condemned men, Hirota and General Dohihara, lodged appeals with the supreme court of the United States. The supreme court denied this plea, 6 to I, on Dec. 20, and Tojo and the six others were hanged at Sugamo prison on Dec. 23. After conclusion of the trial. General MacArthur’s head¬ quarters moved to speed up the remaining trials of lesser war criminals. These included the trial for breaches of the law of war of Lt. Gen. Hiroshi Tamura, chief of the Prisoner of War Management bureau, and Adm. Soemu Toyoda, commander in chief of the fleet. The remainder of the Japanese leaders held for trial as major war criminals were released on Dec. 24 on the ground that the opinion of the Tokyo tribunal indicated they would be found not guilty. Among the other important trials during 1948 was that of Kajuri Aihara and 29 others for vivisection, experimental opera¬ tions and cannibalism on U.S. fliers at Kyushu Imperial uni¬ versity. Five were sentenced to death, 17, including i woman, to imprisonment from three years to life and the rest acquitted. Three Japanese officers were found guilty and sentenced to death on Jan. 29, 1948, for killing 1,200 Americans and 10,000 Filipinos in the Bataan death march of April 1942. The “mad doctor” Takudi was found guilty of lethal experiments on prisoners of war and sentenced to death Jan. 2, 1948. On March 16, 1948, the largest mass trial ended with the sentencing to death of Otohiko Inoue and 41 others of the Japanese navy for participation in the decapitation of U.S. fliers. Two of the 46 defendants were sentenced to imprisonment. Statistics of Oct. 1948 indicated that under General Mac¬ Arthur’s authority there had been 297 trials involving 814 de¬ fendants, of whom 745 had been convicted and 70 acquitted. Nine trials involving 187 defendants were in process. Five cases involving 8 defendants were ready for trial and 178 persons under supervision were being investigated by the U.S., British, Australian and Chinese divisions. {See also International Law; Psychiatry.) Bibliography.—Brig. Gen. Telford Taylor, “Report on War Criminal Trials,” press release by Secretary of the Army Kenneth C. Royall (May 17, 1948); Lord Justice Geoffrey Lawrence, “The Nuremberg Trial,” International Affairs, 23:151 (April 1947); Sir Norman Birkett, “Inter¬ national Legal Theories Evolved at Nuremberg,” ibid., 23:317 (July 1947) ; Willard B. Cowles, “Trials of War Criminals (Non-Nuremberg),” American Journal oj International Law, 42:299 (April 1948); Quincy Wright, “The Crime of ‘War-Mongering,’” ibid., 42:128 (Jan. 1948); “Legal Positivism and the Nuremberg Judgment,” ibid., 42:405 (July 1948) . (Q. W.)

War Prisoners: Warron Far! lldlIcily Ldll

see

Prisoners of War.

), U.S. governor, was born on March 19 in Los Angeles, Calif. He was graduated from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1912, received his law degree in 1914 and was admitted to the bar the same year. He joined the army during World War I, and was discharged as a first lieutenant.

WAR SAVINGS STAM PS—WASH I NGTON He became deputy city attorney in Oakland, Calif., in 1919, joined the staff of the district attorney of Alameda county in 1920 and, in 1925, when the district attorney resigned, was ap¬ pointed to fill out the term. He served 13 years in the office, winning a wide reputation for “racket busting.” This reputation was enhanced after he won the election for attorney general of California in 1938. In 1942 he was elected on the Republican ticket as governor of California. In 1944 he delivered the keynote speech at the Republican national convention in Chicago, but turned down a G.O.P. offer to run for vice-president of the U.S. on the ground that he was obligated to complete his term as governor. In the 1946 gubernatorial election, Warren shattered precedent in California by winning both the Republican and Democratic nominations in the primaries, making his re-election assured. At the 1948 Republican national convention, Warren was nominated by acclamation to be the party’s vice-presidential candidate. The Thomas E. Dewey-Warren ticket was defeated, however, in the balloting on Nov. 2.

War Savings Stamps: see

Post Office.

to fix the salaries of state elective officers. Counties were per¬ mitted to adopt home-rule charters. Combined city and county municipal corporations having a population of 300,000 or more (e.g., Seattle—King county) might be formed. The two-term limit of elected county officials was abolished. During the last days of May and the first in June, the Colum¬ bia river valley had the worst flood in more than a half century. Damage was estimated at $40,000,000 and in 15 counties, 11,570 persons were left homeless. State officers elected in 1948: governor, Arthur B. Langlie; lieutenant governor, Victor A. Meyers; secretary of state, Earl S. Coe; treasurer, Tom Martin; auditor. Cliff Yelle; attorney general. Smith Troy; state superintendent of public instruction. Pearl Wanamaker (elected on nonpartisan basis); chief justice of the state supreme court, Joseph A. Mallory; speaker, house of representatives, Charles W. Hodde. Education.—During the school year 1947-48, average daily attendance in elementary and secondary schools was 379,436; the total number of teachers 14,515, whose average salary was $3,312.84. Total current expenditures were $77,153,563.14, and the cost per pupil in attendance was $235.64. Despite a decline in veteran registration, the University of Washington attained the largest enrolment in its history. Enrolment at the State College of Washington continued high in the fall of 1948, and the three teachers’ colleges in the state reported record student bodies. Social

Washington• extreme north¬ west United States, popularly known as the “Evergreen state,” admitted to the union Nov. ii, 1889. Total area: 68,192 sq.mi., of which 66,977 sq.mi. are land; pop. (1940): 1,736,191; native 1,525,812; foreign born 210,379. An estimate as of July i, 1948, by the U.S. census bu¬ reau placed the population of the state at 2,487,000, an in¬ crease of 43.3% more than 1940. Capital: Olympia, 16,300 (est.). The 1940 census and ARTHUR B. LANGLIE, Republican, 1948 estimates for the three elected governor of Washington on Nov. 2, 1948 largest cities were, respectively: Seattle, 368,302 and 476,000; Spokane, 122,001 and 150,800; Tacoma, 109,308 and 137,000. The urban population in 1940 was 921,969, or 53.1%; in 1948 it was 1,256,500 (est.), or 57-i%History.—A record total popular vote of 917,158 in Nov. 1948 exceeded the previous high of 1944 by 51,739. Pres. Harry S. Truman won the state’s eight electoral votes by a vote of 476,165 to 386,315 for Thomas E. Dewey and 31,692 for Henry Wallace. The Republicans secured four of the state’s six seats in the house of representatives (a loss of one). Former gov¬ ernor Arthur B. Langlie, Republican, who had lost his seat to Mon C. Wallgren, Democrat, in 1944, defeated the latter for re-election in 1948 by a vote of 445,958 to 417,035. The re¬ maining seven elective executive offices, based on the party ballot, went to the Democrats. Pearl A. Wanamaker, superin¬ tendent of public instruction, was re-elected on a nonpartisan basis. In the 31st state legislature, the senate would be Re¬ publican and the house of representatives Democratic. Three initiative measures were adopted by popular vote. One bill granted veterans of World War II a bonus of $10 for each month of service within the United States and $15 for each month in foreign theatres. The sale of liquor by the drink was authorized. The social security laws were liberalized so as to assure each old-age pensioner an income of not less than $60 per month. A bill to restrict the sale of wine and beer to state liquor stores was defeated. The electorate adopted four amend¬ ments to the state constitution. The legislature was empowered

759

Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs-

During the period Nov. 1947 through Oct. 1948, inclusive, public assistance in the state, including federal direct expenditures and state aid, cost $72,463,500.99. An average of 17,541 persons received assistance to the total amount of $6,714,741.49. A total of $7,138,624.94 was spent on health care. An average number of 63,672 old persons received a total of $43,317,186. An average number of 31,693 children received a total of $11,168,700.77. An average number of 665 blind persons re¬ ceived a total of $544,833. On Oct. 31, 1948, ten charitable institutions had a total population of 10,169 and four correctional institutions had 2,178 inmates, and both programs cost the state $10,593,625.17 during the fiscal year of April 1, 1947, to March 31, 1948. Communications.—Railroad mileage for the state was 5,524 in 1944. In Sept. 1948, highway mileage was reported as follows: state 6,475, county 39,821 and city 6,160, for a total of 52,456. Net income for highways during that year was $55,953,808. On Jan. i, 1948, there were 605,307 telephones in the state. Banking and Finance.—During the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, citizens of Washington again paid the highest per-capita state tax, $81.10. Although property taxes were the highest in 15 years, the largest pay¬ ments of delinquent taxes on record reduced the delinquent tax rolls to the lowest point in 20 years. For the tax year 1947-48, the total assessed valuation of real and personal property was $1,762,045,221. On March 31, 1948, the bond indebtedness of $3,609,000 and outstanding war¬ rants amounting to $10,615,842.77 were easily covered by investments and cash balances. The treasurer’s cash balance was $120,764,786.41. For the year ending on March 31, 1948, total receipts were $353,983,996.30 and disbursements were $361,740,421.58. One hundred and twenty-four banks in the state on June 30, 1948, reported a total capital of $39,835,700; capital surpluses and undivided profits of $114,051,776; deposits of $2,145,599,147; and total assets of $2,166,829,278. Agriculture.—In 1945 the state had 79,887 farms, whose acreage totalled 16,719,726, and of these, 4.186,000 ac. were in 1946 devoted to 52 crops. In 1948 agricultural production was valued at $628,862,000. Field crops accounted for $250,842,000; fruits, nuts and berries $116,734,000; livestock and livestock products $219,298,000; vegetables $21,514,000; and specialties $20,474,000. In 1947 agricultural produc¬ tion attained the all-time record farm value of $657,704,000. Field crops accounted for $258,168,000; fruits, nuts and berries $113,066,000; livestock and livestock products $244,810,000; vegetables $20,579,000; and specialties $21,081,000. Table I.—Leading Agricultural Products of Washington, 1948 and 1947

Crop Wheat, bu. Apples, bu. Hay (all), tons. Pears, bu. Peas (100-lb. bags). Hops, lb. Potatoes, bu. Cherries, tons. Oots. bu. Barley, bu.

1948 lest.)

88,235,000 26,390,000 1,800,000 5,933,000 1,806,000 23,056,000 11,200,000 23,900 7,410,000 4,608,000

1947

64,750,000 33,480,000 1,617,000 8,305,000 3,334,000 20,358,000 8,840,000 29,800 6,812,000 3,640,000

Manufacturing and Trade-In 1947, total income payments to persons in the state amounted to $3,289,000,000 in contrast with $1,100,000,000 in 1940. For those years, per-capita incomes were $1,395 and $632, respectively. From July 1, 1947, to June 30, 1948, the total pay roll in the state was $929,288,510 and the number of workman hours 721.117,298. In 1947 there were 2,806 industrial plants in the state. The Washington port district led all others on the Pacific coast in tonnage with 2,424,744 but ranked only third in dollar value of exports and imports in 1947. From Oct. 1947 through Sept. 1948 the value of foreign merchandise exported was $743,328, and exports of domestic merchandise $177,185,362; imports for immediate consumption amounted to $108,795,902.

760

WASHINGTON —WEALTH AND INCOME

The sale of state-owned timber attained an all-time high of 888,088,500 bd.ft. in comparison with the previous peak of 509,822,500 bd.ft. in 1937. Chiefly because of flood conditions, the salmon pack of 1948 was the smallest in years. Bottom fish, a profitable catch in i947) found a poor market in 1948. Mineral Production.—Mineral’ production in 1945 amounted to $31,588,000 of which metals accounted for $7,140,242. In 1947 the latter

Table II.—Production of leading Metals of Washington, 1947 Metal

Zinc. Lead. Copper. Silver. Gold.

Amount

26,266,000 9,200,000 4,370,000 290,000 34,500

Value

1b. 1b. 1b. oi. oz.

$3,190,122 1,343,200 913,930 262,450 1,207,500

amounted to $6,916,602. Declining production of copper by 52% and of gold by 33% was offset by substantial increases in yields of lead, zinc and silver from the newly prospected bodies of low-grade ore in the northeastern counties of the state. (H. J. De.)

1 • . District of Columbia, national capital of WdSnin^lOIlf the U.S.A., in 1948 had an estimated popula¬ tion of 875,000, an increase of about 200,000 from the I940 census. The population in the metropolitan area was estimated at 1,391,000, an increase of about 483,000 from 1940. For the year ending June 30, 1948, expenditures in the Dis¬ trict of Columbia amounted to $96,491,391, of which $12,000,000, or one-eighth, was paid by the federal government. The district, which is on a pay-as-you-go basis, was faced with pressing needs for capital expenditures for schools and major public works. It became increasingly apparent that the federal government was not meeting its share of the expenses of its federal city, where more than 40% of the area was owned out¬ right by the federal government and where taxable real estate had shrunk to less than 40% of the area. During 1948 the National Capital Park and Planning com¬ mission nearly completed the comprehensive plan of the dis¬ trict. The Citizens’ Advisory Board on the Plan of the National Capital and Environs, composed of delegates from about 75 local organizations, assigned special committees to read and comment on the chapters as they appeared. The Joint Com¬ mittee on the National Capital, consisting of representatives from nine national professional and civic organizations, was to study and report on the plan. The Redevelopment Land agency set up by congress for the district had not yet received appro¬ priations. In 1948 congress passed a bill to create a National Capital Sesquicentennial commission to make plans for the celebration in 1950 of the isoth anniversary of the occupation of the federal city by the national government. The historic White House, declared unsafe for occupancy, was being strengthened structurally. The constitution of the United States provides that congress shall exercise exclusive jurisdiction in all cases whatsoever over the district. The president of the United States appoints the three commissioners who head the district government. A bill to change this form of government and provide for home rule failed to come to a vote in the 80th congress. (H. Js.) •11

Washington, University of (Seattie).

completion of ten new buildings and building additions, the university’s $21,500,000 postwar construction program was nearing comple¬ tion in 1948. The first units of a group of health science build¬ ings were completed at the year’s end and were to be occupied in the first quarter of 1949. The new medical school had at¬ tracted more than $400,000 in research grants in its first two years of operation. Student enrolment continued to grow. The college of eco¬ nomics and business was reorganized in 1948 by the establish¬

ment of a professional college of business administration and the creation of a separate department of economics in the college of arts and sciences. Another reorganization saw the old col¬ lege of mines incorporated into the college of engineering as a school of mineral engineering. Harold E. Wessman, formerly of New York university, joined the staff as new dean of the college of engineering. Other important appointments included those of Stanley Chappie as director of the school of music and Robert B. Heil¬ man as executive officer of the department of English. Construction of a 200-ton, 60-in. cyclotron was nearing com¬ pletion at the end of the year, and the university continued its studies of the biological effects of atomic radiation with re¬ surveys at Bikini and Eniwetok. The first surveys of the new Washington Public Opinion laboratory were carried out during the year, and the agency distinguished itself by reporting one of the few opinion polls correctly reflecting the results of the Nov. 2 election. The laboratory is a joint enterprise of the university and the State College of Washington, Pullman. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (R. B. A.)

Washington University (St. Louis).

Zt^e,itty!7t

St. Louis, Mo., is a privately supported, nondenominational and coeducational institution comprising the college of liberal arts, the schools of engineering, architecture, law, social studies, fine arts, business and public administration, medicine, dentistry, nursing, botany, graduate studies and the University college (principally adult education). During the year 1948 a new student centre was completed, and construction was begun on the Henry Edwin Sever Memo¬ rial hall which was to house the Sever Institute of Technology, the graduate division of the school of engineering. Important research was carried on in the university’s cyclo¬ tron and the related laboratory devoted to the chemistry of radioactive substances. The faculty included four Nobel prize winners, in the fields of physics, biochemistry and physiology. Gifts and bequests totalling $2,405,715 were received by the university during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (A. H. C.)

Water Supply: see

Public Health Engineering.

Wealth and Income, Distribution of. A survey of consumer finances in the United States, published in 1948 by the board of governors of the federal reserve system, supplied information on the distribution of income and savings in 1947 and liquid assets in early 1948. Two previous surveys had made similar information available for the period 1945-47. The surveys were based on small field canvasses of spending units, defined as “all persons living in the same dwelling and belonging to the same family who pooled their incomes to meet major expenses.” Data on the percentage distribution of spending units accord¬ ing to size of holdings of liquid assets—U.S. government bonds, savings accounts, and checking accounts—are provided in Table I. The 1948 distribution did not differ markedly from the pat¬ tern of the two preceding years. Over the 1946-48 period, how¬ ever, there were increases in the proportions of spending units having no liquid assets and those having assets of $5,000 and over.

WEALTH AND INCOME, DISTRIBUTION OF Table I. — OiVr/bufion of Spenc/ing Units by Size of Liquid Asset Holdings, Early 1946, 1947 and 1948 (Per cent) Amounts of liquid assets held* 1946 1947 1948 None. 24% 24% 27% $1-$199 . 15 14 15 $200-$499 . . 14 12 13 $500-$999 . 14 14 12 $1,000-$ 1,999 . 14 14 12 $2,000-32,999 . 7 7 6 $3,000-$4,999 . 6 7 6 $5,000-$9,999 . 4 5 5 $10,000 and over.. • . . . 2 3 4 All units. 100% 100% 100% Median holdings of all units. $400 $470 $350 Median holdings of those with assets . . . $750 $890 $820 *includes all types of U.S. government bonds, checking accounts, and savings accounts in banks and savings and loan associations, postal savings and shares in credit unions. Excludes currency holdings. Source: Board of governors of the federal reserve system.

761

1945, when the $5,ooo-and-over group contributed two-fifths of total net saving. This substantial increase in the proportion of all consumer saving occurring in the top income bracket was a reversal of the wartime movement. State Distribution of Income.—Income payments were of record dollar volume in every state in 1947, the latest year for which official (department of commerce) data on the geographic distribution of income were available in 1948. As compared with the nation-wide rise of 11%, individual incomes expanded 20% from 1946 to 1947 in the northwest and 15% in the south¬ west. (See Table IV). The 7% increase of income payments in the far west was the smallest among the regions. Table IV.—Income Payments to Individuals, by States and Regions

Table II shows the proportion of liquid assets held by spend¬ ing units at various income levels. Immediately apparent was the tendency for higher income groups to have relatively large accumulated savings in the form of liquid assets. The spending units having incomes of $5,000 or more in 1947 (comprising 14% of all units, as shown in Table III) owned one-half of total liquid assets in early 1948. This proportion was signifi¬ cantly higher than in the two preceding years, when spending units in the $5,ooo-and-over income groups accounted for some¬ what less than two-fifths of all liquid assets. Table II.—Proportion of Total Liquid Assets Held by Spending Units at Various Income Levels, Early 1946, 1947 and 1948* (Per cent) Per cent of total liquid assets heldf Annual income (money income 1947 before taxes) 1946 1948 $0-$999 . .... 7% 6% 5% 1 1 10 $1,000 $1,999 . 17 12 $2,000-$2,999 . 16 13 $3,000-$3,999 . . . . . 10 12 9 $4,000-$4,999 . 13 13 16 $5,000-$7,499 . . . . . 26 34 $7,500 and over. 100% 100% All units. *Thls table relotes liquid assets held in early \ 946, early 1 947 ond early 1 948 to income in the preceding year—1945, 1946 and 1947, respectively. fLiquid assets include all types of U.S. government bonds, checking accounts and savings accounts in banks and savings and loon associations, postal savings and shares in credit unions. Excludes currency holdings. Source: Board of governors of the federal reserve system.

Table III summarizes data on the size distributions of con¬ sumer income and saving provided by the three annual surveys of consumer finances. These data revealed a significant upward movement in the income distribution since World War II. This was an extension of developments in evidence over the war period. The postwar expansion of total money income was ac¬ companied by a shifting of many consumers to higher income levels. This shifting, it should be emphasized, pervaded the en¬ tire income distribution. The surveys found that when the nation’s spending units were ranked into tenths by size of in¬ come there was no substantial change from 1945 to 1947 in the proportionate share of total money income received by each tenth. Table III.—Distribution of Spending Units, Income, and Saving by Income Groups in 1945, 1946 and 1947 Annual income (money Income before foxes) Under $1,000 . $1,000-$1,999. $2,000-$2,999. $3,000-$4,999. $5,000 and over

(Per cent) -1947—-N - 1946—;-, { Spend- Totol Total Spend- Total Total Spend- Total Total Ining savinsavsaving ining units come ing come ing ing units come units 2% -11% 3% -7% 14% 20% . 5% -1% 17% 10 -2 22 12 2 11 23 16 27 . 17 7 23 25 21 9 14 23 23 . 22 31 27 33 35 25 32 36 22 . 14 40 84 31 61 40 10 24 8 . ^_ 1945

Per capita Income, 1947

Total Income payments Per cent increase 1946 1929

Amount Iln millions of dollars)

State and region

1929

1944

1946

to

1947

1947

Continental United States. . • $82,617 $151,217 $171,200 $189,734 11% 6,792 10,711 12,078 13,194 9 New England. . 1,459 2,713 2,889 Connecticut. • 3,299 14 449 864 916 998 9 Maine. • . . 3,787 5,447 6,324 Massachusetts 6,718 6 302 548 613 12 419 New Hampshire. 579 963 1,016 1,133 12 Rhode Island . 305 385 Vermont. • . 216 433 12 27,840 41,994 48,765 53,938 11 Middle Eost . . 218 402 435 479 10 Delaware . . District of Colum638 1,508 1,739 1,795 3 bia . • . 2,728 2,934 8 1,106 2,536 Maryland . . 3,268 5,794 6,228 6,740 8 New Jersey . 14,479 19,304 23,271 25,624 10 New York . . 7,338 11,085 12,712 14,426 13 Pennsylvania . 793 1,652 West Virginia 1,365 1,940 17 Southeast . . * Alabama . . Arkansas . . Florida . . . Georgia. . . Kentucky . . Louisiana . . Mississippi . . North Carolina South Carolina Tennessee . . Virginia . • . Southwest • • Arizona . . New Mexico Oklahoma . Texas. • •

. . . . .

Central • . • • Illinois. • . • Indiana . . . Iowa .... Michigan . . Minnesota • • Missouri . . . Ohio .... Wisconsin • • Northwest . . . Colorado . . Idaho . . . Kansas . . . Montana « . Nebraska . . North Dakota* South Dakota. Utah .... Wyoming . . Far West . . California . Nevada . Oregon . . Washington

. . . * .

to

1947

Per

A-

cent of

mount nationIdol- al averlors) age

130%$1,323 94 1,444 1,671 126 122 1,128 77 1,449 103 1,148 96 1,521 100 1,183

100% 109 126 85 110 87 115 89

94 120

1,559 118 1,646 124

181 165 106 77 97 145

1,624 1,465 1,542 1,781 1,372 1,031

123 111 117 135 104 78

8,681 802 562 695 956 964 862 544 966 438 905 987 4,153 245 161 1,079 2,668 24,226 7,036 1,877 1,348 3,543 1,443 2,210 4,920 1,849 3,927 633 230 997 325 764 264 288 272 154

21,476 1,943 1,122 2,369 2,373 1,825 2,001 1,188 2,514 1,268 2,276 2.597

23,609 2,089 1,334 2,462 2,529 2,173 2,036 1,202 3,023 1,407 2,558 2,796

25,723 2,371 1,358 2,571 2,778 2,364 2,270 1,382 3,290 1,517 2,830 2,992

9 13 2 4 10 9 1 1 15 9 8 11 7

196 196 142 270 191 145 163 154 241 246 213 203

883 67 837 63 710 54 1,104 83 885 67 850 64 892 67 659 50 890 67 778 59 916 69 1,064 80

9,246 582 420 1,808 6,436

9,938 631 492 1,897 6,918

.11,435 721 576 2,124 8,014

15 14 17 12 16

175 194 258 97 200

1,081 1,120 1,053 930 1,128

82 85 80 70 85

41,789 10,276 3,928 2,188 7,162 2,411 3,612 8,917 3,295

48,055 12,101 4,398 2,948 7,443 3,123 4,374 9,851 3,817

53,699 13,636 4,936 2,963 8,641 3,450 4,671 11,061 4,341

12 13 12 1 16 10 7 12 14

122 94 163 120 144 139 111 125 135

1,391 1,624 1,287 1,144 * 1,424 1,195 1,197 1,441 1,337

7,484 1,146 527 1,979 528 1,298 556 547 635 268

8,477 1,398 595 2,009 668 1,478 634 664 696 335

1,373 1,482 1,290 1,315 1,641 1,238 1,678 1,348 1,208 1,472

18,517 13,472 206 1,636 3,203

20,278 15,164 239 1,753 3,122

20 21 14 26 20 8 43 17 11 16 7 6 7 10 5

158 168 194 154 146 108 244 170 184 153

6,998 5,217 74 603 1,104

10,143 1,695 677 2,531 801 1,589 908 779 773 390 21,602 16,121 256 1,936 3,289

105 123 97 86 108 90 90 109 101 104 112 98 99 124 94 127 102 91 111

209 209 246 221 198

1,559 1,643 1,842 1,253 1,395

118 124 139 95 105

Source: United States department of commerce.

■ ■

All units.100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% Source: Board of governors of the federal reserve system.

In 1947, spending units with incomes of $S,ooo or more ac¬ counted for more than four-fifths of total net saving (the dif¬ ference between consumer income and consumer expenditure and taxes). This proportion was roughly twice as large as in

For the country as a whole, income payments advanced by one-fourth from peak war year 1944 to 1947, the second full postwar year. On a regional basis the war-to-postwar rate of income expansion was largest in the agricultural northwest and smallest in the far west. A sharp expansion of farm income, together with the relatively light impact of war-industry con¬ traction in the area, was mainly responsible for the northwest’s 36% increase in total income from 1944 to 1947. In the far west, where the income advance was 17%, the war had stimu¬ lated income growth more than in any other region and the contraction of war production had an unusually severe effect on

762

WEATHER—WEIZMANN, CHAIM

the income flow. Comparison of the income data for 1947 with those for 1929 affords a measure of long-term trends in the geographic distri¬ bution of income. Such a comparison reveals a pronounced rela¬ tive shift of income from the New England and middle eastern regions to the south and west. From 1929 to 1947, as shown in Table IV, the increases in income in the far west, southeast, southwest, and northwest were substantially larger than the nation-wide rise of 130%. The combined rate for these four regions of the south and west, 190%, was twice as large as the 94% increase in individual incomes recorded for each of the middle eastern and New England regions. It should be noted, however, that, despite their long-term relative income declines. New England and the middle east still received more than onethird of the nation’s income payments in 1947. Average-income levels in 1947 were highest in the far west and middle east. For each of these regions per capita income payments in 1947 were estimated at $1,559, nearly one-fifth above the national average of $1,323. Per capita incomes ^'ere lowest in the southeast and southwest, where all 15 states were among the 16 states in the nation with the lowest averages. The composite per capita income of the southern states in 1947 was nearly two-fifths below the average for all states outside the south. {See also Income and Product, U.S.) (M. Gt.) Europe.—In the course of 1948 reliable estimates of the dis¬ tribution of incomes between persons were published for five European countries: Denmark, Finland, Italy, Sweden and the United Kingdom; the estimates for Italy were rougher than those for the other countries. For Denmark and Finland esti¬ mates of the distribution of capital between persons were also available. United Kingdom.—The distribution of incomes in the United Kingdom for 1946 was given in the White Paper on national income {see Table V). The official figures had to be suppleTable V.—Distribufion of Incomes in the United Kingdom, 1946

Range of incomes lin £)

Under 250 . 250500 . 500- 1,000 . 1,000- 2,000 . 2,000-10,000 . 10,000 and over .... TOTAL. Unoliocated privote income

Number of incomes tin thousands)

Amount of income before tax lin £ millioni

Amount of income after income tax and surtax tin £ millioni

(15,000) 6,600 1,740 495 157 8 (24,000)

3,030 2,996 2,260 2,086 1,190 951 670 466 547 293 148 35 7,845 6^8^ 1,610 1,030 Total 9,455 7,857 Note.—Unallocoted private income includes the undistributed profit of companies, com¬ pany taxation, and any other income which cannot be aliocated to individuais. Source; Notional Income and Expenditure of the United Kingdom, 1 947 (H.M.S.O. CmtT. 7371). Figures by permission of the controller of his majesty's stationery office, London. Figures in parentheses are private estimates.

mented by an estimate for the number of incomes in the lowest group which could be made with reference to the estimated total number of income recipients. As in previous years, this distribution suffered from the defect of not giving details for the lowest group into which most incomes fall. In contrast to other countries, estimates of incomes after income tax and sur¬ tax were also given.

Denmark.—The latest statistical yearbook gave the distri¬ butions for 1945. The distribution of incomes was not very different from those for other countries in western Europe. The amount of capital possessed was somewhat low in relation to the total income in comparison with the United States or the United Kingdom and its distribution, as expected, was much more un¬ equal than the distribution of incomes. See Table VI. Finland.—Similar estimates were published for Finland in the latest Finnish statistical yearbook in 1948 in respect of 1945. Here again the ratio of capital to income is about the same as in Denmark. See Table VII. Table VII.—Distribution of Incomes and Capital in Finland, 1945 Range of incomes lin thousand Mk.)

Number of persons lin thousands)

Number of persons lin thousands)

100-200 . 61 200-600 . 105 600-1,200. 38 1.200- 2,700 16 2,700-7,200 . 4 7.200- 18,000 . 0.7 1 8,000 and over. 0.3

15-30.190 30-60 . 454 60-90 . 241 90-180. 128 180-360 . 16 360-540 . 2 540 and over. 1 Total

Range of capital lin thousand Mk.)

1,032

Total

225

Total income: Mir. 62,174,000,000. Total capital: Mk. 136,202,000,000. Note.—Mk.= $.0075 U.S. Source: Suomen Tilastoltinen Vuosikiria, 1 946—47. Estimates based on a sample inquiry.

Italy.—For the first time, a relatively reliable estimate of distribution of incomes was obtained for Italy, for 1947, by means of a sample inquiry. Here again the distribution of in¬ come was of about the same degree of inequality as in other western countries. Comparison with other countries is affected by the rate of exchange used, whether official or free market rate. See Table VHI. Table VIII.—Distribution of Incomes in Italy, 1947 Range of incomes lin thousand lire)

% of families Amount of income (in thousand million lire)

Under 260. 260-520 . 520-780 . 780 and over.

20 50 20 10

393 1,761 1,224 1172

Total. 100 4,550 Note.—Lire=$.0018 U.S. Source; Speech by minister of finance, Oct. 1948. Estimates based on a sample inquiry.

Sweden.—In 1948 the latest Swedish statistical yearbook gave the distribution of incomes for Sweden in 1946 in con¬ tinuation of estimates published for previous years. See Table IX. Table IX.—Distribution of Incomes in Sweden, 1946 Range of incomes lin kroner)

Number of income recipients lin thousands)

600-1,000 . . 1,000-2,000 . 2,000-5,000 . 5,000-10,000. 10,000-20,000 20,000-50,000 50,000 and over

196 570 1,432 750 142 35 6

Total. Note.—Kr.= $.28 U.S. Source: Statistisk Arsbolc for Sverige, 1948.

{See

Amount of incomes lin Kr. million)

also Budget, National.)

159 848 4,931 4,973 1,873 996 577

3,131

14,357

(T.

Bar.)

Table VI.—Distribution of Incomes and Capital in Denmark, 1945 Range of incomes (In kroner)

Number of income recipients (in thousands)

Range of capital (in kroner)

Number of estates (in thousands)

0. . Under 4,000 .... 800 1,200 . 4,000-10,000 . . . 1,200-2,000 . . . . 10,000-20,000. . . 2,000-5,000 . . . . 20,000-30,000. . . 5,000 10,000 . . . . 30,000-50,000. . . 10,000-20,000 . . . .67 50,000-100,000 . . 20,000-50,000 . . . .17 100,000-500,000. . 50,000 and over . . . 500,000 and over. » Total 1,983 Total 1,983 Total income: Kr. 7,757,000,000. Total capital: Kr. 18,530,000,000. Note.—Kr.= $.21 U.S. All persons liable to assessment (persons over 18) included. Source: Danmarks Statisfik Aarbog, 1 947. Under 800

Weather: see

Meteorology.

U/pITmann Phaim

provisional president of IICI£lll(lllll| bllullll the state of Israel, was born Nov. 27

in Motol near Pinsk in the then Russian part of Poland. After studies at Berlin and Fribourg universities, he became lecturer in chemistry at Geneva university and later, reader in biochemistry at Manchester university, England. In 1916-19 he was director of the British Admiralty laboratories. He was instrumental in securing from the British government the Bal-

WELLESLEY COLLEGE—WESTERN EUROPEAN UNION four declaration of Nov. 2, 1917, which promised to favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people. He was president of the World Zionist organization (1920-31) and of the Jewish Agency for Palestine (1929-31 and 1935-46). In 1932 he became chairman of the board of governors of the Hebrew university in Jerusalem and in 1933 director of the Daniel Sieff research institute of Rehovoth, Pal. On May 17, 1948, he announced in New York that he had accepted an invitation from the Israeli provisional government to serve as first president of Israel. He arrived at Tel Aviv, Israel, on Sept. 30, and was greeted by enthusiastic crowds.

WpIIpqIpV Pnllpffp ^

four-year liberal arts college for

VICIICulCJf UUliCgCa women, founded by Henry Fowle Durant in 1870 and located in Wellesley, Mass. Pre-eminently for candidates for the B.A. degree, Wellesley offers also the degrees of M.A., M.A. in education, M.S. and a certificate in hygiene and physical education. Many of the activities of alumnae and members of the col¬ lege community in 1948 were directed toward plans for the 75th anniversary which was to be celebrated in June 1950. Approxi¬ mately $3,000,000 was raised toward the 75th anniversary fund goal of $7,500,000 urgently needed for faculty salaries, student scholarships and the construction of a new dormitory and a library. The year 1948 marked the initial mediaeval symposium to be held at Wellesley. It was made possible by a gift from an alumna in honour of Edna Virginia Moffett, professor emeritus of history. An increased trend toward interdepartmental education was noted in 1948 with the introduction of a course in biology offered by the departments of botany and zoology. Other new interdepartmental courses included one in the physical sciences and another entitled “Interpretation of Man in Western Civiliza¬ tion.” Convinced that tax-exempt institutions are socially obligated to serve their communities as directly and continuously as pos¬ sible, the trustees of Wellesley college made available the facili¬ ties of the college for educational ventures related to but not identical with the winter programs of an undergraduate liberal arts college for women. The third session of the Wellesley Institute for Foreign Stu¬ dents was held for six weeks during the summer. The purpose of the institute was to acquaint the 43 men and women students from 24 countries with North American college life and com¬ munity living and to help them acquire a greater comprehen¬ sion of the English language through composition, conversation, pronunciation classes and day-to-day living. The summer of 1948 marked the second year for the Wellesley summer theatre and school. (For statistics of endowment, enrol¬ ment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (M. M. Hn.)

West Africa, British: see

British West Africa.

Western European Union.

Western union, or western European union, are un¬

official designations widely applied to the defensive, economic and cultural association of five western European countries (Belgium, France, Great Britain, Luxembourg and the Nether¬ lands) which came into being during 1948. The initiative toward this association was taken by the British secretary of state for foreign affairs, Ernest Bevin, in a speech to the house of com¬ mons on Jan. 22, 1948. After surveying the abortive attempts to agree with the U.S.S.R. about a German peace settlement, and the indications that soviet Russia intended to extend its influ¬

763

ence over western Europe, Bevin stated that “the time is ripe for a consolidation of western Europe,” and called for “the mobilization of such moral and material force as will create confidence and energy in the west and inspire respect else¬ where.” His statement was supported by both sides of the house. As a first step, the governments of Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands were approached by Great Britain and France, who were already allies under the treaty of Dunkirk of March 4, 1947, for an extension of that alliance. In the negotiations which followed, the scope of the proposed alliance was consider¬ ably widened, mainly at the insistence of the Belgian prime min¬ ister, Paul-Henri Spaak. After a final conference in Brussels, Bel¬ gium, from March 4 to March 12, the treaty establishing “West¬ ern Union” was signed at the Palais des Academies in Brussels on March 17 by Bevin (United Kingdom), Georges Bidault (France), Spaak (Belgium), Baron van Boetzelaer van Oosterhout (the Netherlands) and Joseph Bech (Luxembourg). The main provisions of the treaty of Brussels were as fol¬ lows; the five powers would “so organize and coordinate their economic activities as to produce the best possible results, by the elimination of conflict in their economic policies, the coordi¬ nation of production and the development of commercial ex¬ changes” (article i); they would “develop on corresponding lines the social and other related services of their countries” (article ii); they would “promote cultural exchanges” (article iii); “if any of the High Contracting Parties should be the ob¬ ject of an armed attack in Europe, the other High Contracting Parties will, in accordance with the provisions of Article 51 of the Charter of the United Nations, afford the party so attacked all the military and other aid and assistance in their power” (article iv); “for the purpose of consulting together on all the questions dealt with in the present Treaty, the High Contract¬ ing Parties will create a Consultative Council, which shall be so organized as to be able to exercise its functions continuously” (article vii); articles v and vi declared that the treaty was not in contradiction to the U.N. charter or other international en¬ gagements undertaken by the signatories; article viii subjected all disputes among the signatories to pacific settlement by juris¬ diction or conciliation; article ix foresaw accession of other states upon unanimous invitation by the signatories; article x contained provisions for ratification and fixed the validity of the treaty for 50 years. On April 17, 1948, the foreign ministers of the five powers, meeting in Paris, established themselves as the Permanent Con¬ sultative council foreseen in article vii of the treaty of Brus¬ sels and agreed to meet at least once every three months, in each of the five capitals in turn. They also set up a Permanent Organ (later renamed Permanent commission) of the council, to be assisted by a secretariat and to meet at least once a month, and a permanent military committee, both located in London. The Permanent commission, on which France, Bel¬ gium, the Netherlands and Luxembourg were represented by their ambassadors in London and the United Kingdom by Gladwyn Jebb, assistant undersecretary at the foreign office, and of which Eduard Star Busmann, counsellor of the Netherlands em¬ bassy in Paris, was secretary, held its first session on April 24. The military committee, composed of high-ranking staff officers, was set up at a meeting of the defense ministers and chiefs of staff of the five powers in London on April 30. Other committees were later set up on social security and conditions of work, on public health and on war pensions. The finance ministers of the five powers met on April 28-29 at Brussels, and the defense ministers held a second meeting on Sept. 27-28 in Paris. The Consultative council of the five foreign ministers held its second regular meeting on July 19-20 at The Hague, Netherlands, and its third on Oct. 25-26 in Paris.

764

WESTERN SAMOA—WEST INDIES. BRITISH

The three main questions facing the western European union during the year 1948 were the closer political and military in¬ tegration of the union and its extension beyond the circle of the original five member states. The degree of political inte¬ gration to be established among the member states of western union was left vague by Bevin in his speech of Jan. 22, and the question soon arose whether western union was to be only a particularly close alliance among sovereign powers, or whether it was to lead to fusion of its member states into an organic confederation or federation. It became clear during the year that the British and French governments held different views on this question. The British proposed to let the union shape itself according to practical requirements rather than to any constitutional draft and, while not excluding ultimate organic fusion, disfavoured the setting up of common organs for which there was no immediate practical need, and the sacrifice of national sovereignty for principle’s sake. They were particularly opposed to the immediate calling of a western union assembly or parliament. The French, on the other hand, increasingly seconded by the Belgians, urged the calling of a parliamentary council to prepare for the setting up of a western European consultative assembly. They argued that in order to succeed, western union had to capture the imagination and enthusiasm of the peoples; they regarded a supemational assembly as es¬ sential to give satisfaction to the widespread longing for Euro¬ pean unity, which during 1948 had manifested itself in many western European countries, and to foster a new European patriotism. The two points of view remained unreconciled during 1948, and progress was confined to the setting up of a committee of representatives of the five governments, con¬ sisting of five French, five British, three Belgian, three Dutch and two Luxembourg members, which was to consider “the steps to be taken toward securing a greater measure of unity between European countries” and to draw up a report by Jan. 1949. Greater progress was achieved toward the military and de¬ fense integration of the five powers. The work of the military committee set up in London on April 30 enabled the five de¬ fense ministers at their Paris meeting of Sept. 27-28 to agree on a defense policy “designed to ensure the security of the five Powers as a whole,” and to set up a permanent organization, under the authority of the defense ministers, which would “give effect to this policy, deal with problems of production and equipment, include the nucleus of a land, air, and naval com¬ mand with a permanent military chairman, and study the tactical and technical problems of western European defence.” The names of the senior officers of this defense organization were published on Oct. 4. Field Marshal Viscount Mont¬ gomery of Alamein, who relinquished his post as chief of the imperial general staff for the purpose, was appointed military chairman of the commanders in chief committee, which con¬ sisted of General d’Armee Jean de Lattre de Tassigny (France), commander in chief of land forces, western Europe; Air Mar¬ shal Sir James Robb (U.K.), commander in chief of air forces, western Europe; and Vice-Adm. Robert Jaujard (France), flag officer, western Europe. High-ranking Belgian, Dutch and Luxembourg officers would, it was announced, be attached to the staffs of the military chairman and the commanders in chief. Vice-Admiral Jaujard’s status differed from that of the two commanders in chief in that he would not be commander in chief of joint western European naval forces, but act mainly as naval adviser, particularly in connection with the use, main¬ tenance and defense of continental ports. The establishment of a joint defense organization and a shadow joint command was a step unprecedented among sovereign powers in peacetime. However, the entire work of

co-ordination and fusion for which this organization had been set up remained to be done, both in the field of defense proper and in the sphere of equipment and armament production. At the end of 1948, it was premature to say that western union already represented a militarily united body, which in the event of war could act as one. The achievement of 1948 was to have set the five powers which comprised western union on the road toward that goal. Western union was never intended to remain restricted to its five founder members. In his speech of Jan. 22, Bevin referred to them as a “nucleus” and foreshadowed the gradual accession of other western European nations, among which he particularly mentioned Italy and Portugal. However, no European acces¬ sions took place during 1948, and none was in sight at the end of the year, although the question was under discussion in sev¬ eral countries. The Italian government was divided between a policy of joining western union and one of maintaining neu¬ trality between the western world and the U.S.S.R. Of the three Scandinavian countries, Norway and (somewhat less de¬ cidedly) Denmark showed sympathies with western union, but subordinated them to their wish to maintain northern solidarity with Sweden, which remained resolutely neutral. Eire, which dis¬ played marked interest in joining western union, made its ac¬ cession dependent on the end of “partition,” which Northern Ireland refused to consider. While thus no progress was made in 1948 with extending western union in Europe, many preparatory steps were taken to extend it into, or supplement it with, a North Atlantic al¬ liance, by establishing close political and military links between the five Brussels powers on the one hand and the United States and Canada on the other. Soon after the signing of the treaty of Brussels, Pres. Harry S. Truman foreshadowed, in general terms, U.S. help to those free nations in Europe which were determined to protect themselves, and on June ii the U.S. senate passed a resolution, moved by Sen. Arthur H. Vandenberg, which promised the “association and help” of the U.S. to “regional alliances and other collective arrangements,” if they guaranteed among themselves “continuous and effective self-help and mutual aid.” On April 29, the Canadian minister for external affairs, Louis St. Laurent, called for an Atlantic alliance against “the rising tide of totalitarian communism,” declaring that “Canada and the U.S. need the assistance of the Western European democracies just as they need ours.” Diplomatic negotiations about U.S. and Canadian military support for western union, of which the main features were to be a formal guarantee against aggression and renewed mili¬ tary lend-lease, began in Washington, D.C., on July 6. The western union powers and Canada were represented by their ambassadors in Washington, the U.S. by Robert A. Lovett, undersecretary of state. From July 21, U.S. and Canadian officers attended, as observers, the sessions of the western union military committee in London. After their Paris meeting of Oct. 25-26, the foreign ministers of western union publicly recorded their “complete agreement on the principle of a de¬ fensive pact for the North Atlantic and on the next steps to be taken in this direction.” The exact terms of the Atlantic alliance, which would ob¬ viously have great influence on the future internal and external development of western union, still awaited formulation at the end of the year. (See also Armies of the World; Democ¬

(s. Hr.)

racy.)

Western Samoa: see

New Zealand, Dominion of; Pacific

Islands under Trusteeship ; Trustee Territories.

West Indies. British: see

Bahamas;

Barbados; Jamaica;

Leeward Islands; Trinidad; Windward Islands.

WEST VIRGINIA —WHEAT

West Virginia. Jtatein the union was conditionally ad¬ mitted on Dec. 31, 1862, and proclaimed a separate state on April 20, 1863, effective 60 days later. It has an area of 24,282 sq.mi., of which 148 sq.mi. are water surface. On July i, 1948, the estimated population was 1,915,000, or an increase over the 1940 population of about 13,000. In 1940 the urban resi¬ dents numbered 534,292, or 28.1% of the total population. Charleston (pop. 67,914) is the OKEY L. PATTESON, Democrat, capital. Other cities, in the or¬ elected governor of West Virginia Nov. 2, 194S der of size, are Huntington (78,836), Wheeling (61,099), Clarksburg (30,579), Parkersburg (30,103), Fairmont (23,105) and Bluefield (20,641). History.—By majorities in excess of 100,000 the state officers elected in -1948 were all Democrats. They were: governor, Okey L. Patteson; secretary of state, D. Pitt O’Brien; treasurer, R. E. Talbott; auditor, Edgar B. Sims; attorney general, Ira J. Partlow; superintendent of free schools, W. W. Trent. At the same time M. Mansfield Neely (D.) defeated Chapman Revercomb (R.) for re-election to the United States senate, and all the members elected to the house were Democrats. The 194950 state legislature was composed of 20 Democrats and 12 Re¬ publicans in the senate and 78 Democrats and 16 Republicans in the house of delegates. Education.—For 1947—48 the total pupil enrolment (net) in the 4,146 state elementary schools was 291,436. In the 380 state high schools it was 131,814. There were 10,202 elementary and 5,307 high school teachers. The total state appropriation for elementary and secondary education was $34,721,968. There were nine institutions controlled by the state board of education which in the first semester had a total student enrolment of 9,205, of whom 4,304 were veterans, and a teach¬ ing staff of 355. The state also supported the university (Morgantown), and Potomac State school (Keyser), a junior college preparatory to the university. Social

Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

For the year ending June 30, 1948, the total expenditure for old-age assistance was $5,293,566.50; for the blind $246,170; for dependent children $5,137,487. The total cost, including administration, was $11,355.767.26. Eight correctional institutions were largely self-sustaining, but they cost the state in excess of $250,000. Communications.—On Jan. I, 1948, the State contained 4,264.752 mi. of steam railway, or 7,423.091 mi. including double tracks and sidings. There were 10.03 mi. of electric railway. The state road system ag¬ gregated 33,278.410 mi., of which 4,885.824 mi. were primary. There were 60 licensed airports and others were in process of construction. On Nov. I, 1948, there were 3t7,933 telephones (Bell 279,683 and connect¬ ing lines 35,000) including 3,250 phones of small nonconnected systems. Banking and Finance—On June 30, 1948, the total deposits of 106 state banks and trust companies were $42t,530,5i6.5o; the total deposits of 76 national banks were $512,649,904.78; resources of 21 federal savings and loan associations were $36,976,067.47; resources of r7 state building and loan associations were $12,085,358.23; and resources of 28 industrial loan companies were $17,488,158.76. Total state receipts for 1947—48 were $213,886,083.30; disbursements were $2r4,622,877.7o. Because of balances from previous years, the unencumbered balance was $28,330,525.61; the funded indebtedness was $6r,637,ooo which, less a cash sinking fund of $5,217,736.61, left a net indebtedness of $56,419,263.39. Agriculture.—The total cash income from in 1947 was $t25,156,000. An additional government payments, and goods consumed value of $64,640,000, making a total farm 1945 there were 97,600 farms with a total at $341,000,000.

farm products and livestock $2,885,000 was received in on farms had an estimated income of $192,681,000. In acreage of 8,74t,oi7, valued

Principal Agricultural Products of West Virginia, 1947 Crop

Corn, bu.,. Wheat, bu. Oats, bu. Buckwheat, bu. Hay (all), tons. Apples (commercial), bu. Potatoes (Irish), bo. Barley, bu.

Yield, 1947 12,546,000 1,763,000 1,910,000 140,000 940,000 2,820,000 3,375,000 236,000

Value, 1947 $29,483,000 4,319,000 2,196,000 259,000 20,650,000 6,486,000 6,142,000 389,000

765

Industry.—In 1947-48 industry and business employed 523,353 persons, who earned $t,350,415,000 in a total estimated production valued ai $2,56t,ooo,ooo. In the order of the number of persons employed, the largest industrial groups, together with the total suras paid each, were: coal mining and coke making 124,220—$439,857,000; iron, steel and metals 40,934—$123,980,000; glass and glassware 21,651—$55,764,000; chemical and allied products 21,t97—$74,490,000; building, erection and repairs 18,382—$27,698,000; public agencies, buildings and insti¬ tutions 18,267—$3T,437,000; lumber and wood products t7,o63—$27,875,000; automobiles and trucks 17,035—$40,278,000; clay, stone, etc., 15,679—$38,525,000; clothing and textiles 14,510-—$31,053,000; public utilities 13,584—$34,r 15,000; construction, not building, t2,372—$27,698,000; food and beverage production it,3io—$19,116,000; oil and gas production ri,239—$25,296,000. Mineral Production.—The total production of crude oil in 1947 was 2,617,000 bbl., of natural gas 218,460,000,000 cu.ft., of coal 173,654,000 short tons, of coke (1946, bee-hive and by-products) 2,383,000 tons. The total value of all mineral products (1946) was $632,654,000. All told, 942 wells were drilled in West Virginia in 1947, or 127 more than in 1946. There were 970 permits to drill deeper, and a total of 822 wells were abandoned. Bibliography.—West Virginia Bluebook (1947); West Virginia Busi¬ ness Index (Aug. 1948). (C. H. A.)

Whaling:

see

Fisheries.

U/haat IfliudL

^94^ miracle crop of the year, though 6% smaller than the 1947 record crop. Much of the autumn sown portion of the crop in the Great Plains was seeded in dust under very unpromising mois¬ ture conditions. But rains came in late Nov. and Dec. 1947 to sprout it and weather conditions thereafter continued to be highly favourable. The total outturn of 1,288,406,000 bu. was the second largest on record and 36% above the average of the previous decade. It was the fifth consecutive crop of more than 1,000,000,000 bu.; these five wheat crops were the only ones in the history of the U.S. that had exceeded the 1,000,000,000-bu. mark, and average production for 1937-46 was only 942,623,000 bu. The 1948 yield of 17.9 bu. per acre was not quite up to the 18.4-bu. yield of 1947 but exceeded the i6.i-bu. average of 1937-46. Acreage harvested in 1948 was 71,904,000 (of 77,700,000 ac. sown), only 96.6% as much as the 1947 acreage harvested, but far in excess of the 1937-46 average of 58,832,000 ac. harvested. Kansas, North Dakota and Oklahoma were the leading producers (see Table I). The winter wheat crop of 1948 produced only 990,098,000 bu. as compared with the record 1,068,048,000 bu. in 1947. Never¬ theless, the 1948 crop was 43% higher than the 1937-46 aver¬ age of 688,606,000 bu. The average yield in 1948 was not so high as in 1947, 18.7 bu. against 19.5 bu., but was well above the 1937-46 average of 16.6 bu. per acre. Texas yields dropped sharply to lo.o bu. average against 17.0 bu. in 1947. The spring wheat crop, of 298,308,000 bu., grown mostly in the northern Great Plains, approximated the 299,138,000 bu. of 1947 and the 1937-46 average of 254,017,000 bu. largely be¬ cause spring wheat yields were high at 15.7 bu. per acre. The production of 44,742,000 bu. of the speciality spring wheat called durum was slightly larger than the 44,328,000 bu. of 1947 and the average of 34,619,000 bu. for the preceding ten years. However, yields of durum wheat in 1948 averaged 14.0 bu. per acre, below the 15 bu. of 1947 but equal to the 14-bu. average of the preceding ten years. Thus, the notable gains for the year, both in total crop and yield, were in other spring wheats, for durum acreage was 8% larger than in 1947, whereas acreage of other spring wheats was only 95% as much as the preceding year. North Dakota, as in most pre¬ ceding years, led in the production of spring wheat with a total of 136,580,000 bu. In regard to classes of wheat, a notable increase for 1948 was in soft red wheat, which is mostly produced in the eastern part of the winter wheat belt. A crop of 257,037,000 bu. was pro¬ duced as compared with 236,843,000 bu. in 1947 and 196,880,000 bu. average in the preceding ten years. Soft white wheat (winter and spring) of the Pacific northwest also increased, to

WHEAT

766

144,986,000 bu. in 1948 from 126,316,000 bu. in 1947 and 103,694,000 bu. average, 1937-46. Hard red winter wheat of the southern Great Plains decreased by about 119,000,000 bu. as compared with 1947. Serious concern, official and unofficial, in the autumn of 1947 and early 1948 as to whether United States wheat production would be sufficient to meet the record demands, emergency and Table I.— U.5. Wheat Production by Leading States, 1948, 1947 and 10-yr. Average, 1937-46 (In thousands of bushels) State

1948

1947

10-yr. Averoge

Kansas • • • 231,368 286,702 167,792 North Dakota 136,580 146,383 11 8,264 Oklahoma. • 98,962 104,734 63,680 Montana • • 90,547 65,346 59,666 Nebraska* • 82,988 90,300 54,667 Washington 79,268 64,750 56,282 Ohio. « • • 57,648 49,028 42,982 Texas • • • 56,290 124,270 45,686 Colorado. • 53,525 59,052 23,297 South Dakota 50,391 53,628 33,717

State

Illinois . . • Missouri. • « Indiana. • • Michigan • • Idaho * . . Oregon. . . Minnesota. * Pennsylvania. New York. . California. .

1948

1947

10-yr. Average

40,065 39,270 38,506 36,270 34,583 27,818 18,509 18,354 12,452 11,988

28,980 24,438 36,133 29,800 37,935 21,615 20,633 22,296 9,272 12,028

29,754 23,577 27,062 18,861 28,449 21,068 25,509 18,567 7,262 12,283

otherwise, proved to be premature. The domestic use of wheat for livestock feed, which early had been officially estimated at as much as 350,000,000 bu. to 400,000,000 bu., taking account of the short 1947 corn crop, proved to be less than 180,000,000 bu. Wheat exports, however, during the 1947-48 year reached a record level of 489,500,000 bu. against only 400,700,000 bu. in the preceding year. The result was that at the end of the crop year July i, 1948, the carry-over stocks of old wheat in the United States amounted to 195,700,000 bu. as compared with a low level of 83,800,000 bu. one year before and more than 600,000,000 bu. in the early years of World War II. Thus, the pro¬ vision which had been included as a domestic safety measure in the Foreign Assistance Act of 1948 requiring the responsible officials to hold wheat exports to a level sufficiently low to assure year-end stocks of at least 150,000,000 bu. in the United States proved to have been unnecessary. In part, the larger than ex¬ pected surplus resulted from conservation measures which were strongly urged under governmental auspices, plus savings by feeders, which were in considerable part the result of the high price of wheat. The M^heat situation at the end of 1948 in summary was; carry-over stocks of 195,700,000 bu. plus the 1948 harvest of 1,288,406,000 bu. provided a total supply of 1,484,106,000 bu. (against 1,448,700,000 bu. total supply the year before). It was estimated that domestic requirements during 1948-49 would total about 703,000,000 bu. (food 500,000,000; seed 93,000,000; feed 110,000,000) against domestic use of 763,500,000 bu. in the preceding year. Thus, 781,000,000 bu. appeared to be avail¬ able for export and carry-over, enough to permit export of as much as 500,000,000 bu. and yet leave year-end stocks substan¬ tially increased. Wheat during 1948, despite the record crop of 1947 and the very large crop of 1948, made a new record high price for the postwar period and attained the general high levels reached after World War I. From the peak in January of more than $3 per bushel at Chicago, Ill., the price broke very sharply in February. The official average price of wheat received by farm¬ ers in January was $2.81 per bushel; in February, $2.12. Recov¬ ery thereafter was very moderate; prices again slumped at the time of the harvest of the new crop, going temporarily as much as 20 cents below the government loan support level at 90% of parity ($2.28 at Chicago or a national average of $2 per bushel on the farm) only to recover late in the year to a level about 15 cents more than the loan price. Full parity prices during the latter half of the year averaged about $2.20 at the farm. Public and political agitation, official and unofficial, about the

high cost of living, the price of wheat and commodity specula¬ tion, which began in 1947, carried over into the early part of 1948, resulting in investigation by committees of the U.S. senate and house of representatives. The names of thousands of trad¬ ers in commodities were published; the committees mostly con¬ fined their investigations to large speculators and government employees involved in speculation. The world wheat crop of 1948 was estimated at 6,285,000,000 bu. compared with 5,815,000,000 bu. in 1947 and a prewar aver¬ age of slightly more than 6,000,000,000 bu. in 1935-39 (see Table II). Increased Canadian production in 1948 contributed to maintaining North American production at a level approxi¬ mating that of 1947, about 56% above prewar, the result both of increased acreage and higher yields. Canada in 1948 har¬ vested 393,342,000 bu., compared with 336,758,000 bu. in 1947 and 413,725,000 bu. in 1946. Most of the Canadian crop, 367,329,000 bu., was spring wheat. Wheat production in Europe was increased sharply in 1948, compared with the previous year, and approximated the prewar level. In France, for example, the crop by official estimate was Table II.— World Wheat Production, Revised Estimates for 1948, 1947, 1946, and Average 1935—39* (In million bushelsl Average

United State. Canoda. Mexico. Europe. Great Britain. North Africa. Union of South Africa. Asia. Argentina. Australia. U.S.S.R. World Total.

1948 1,284 393 18 1,465 85 120 19 1,650 180 185 .... 6,285

1947 1,365 337 16 1,025 62 104 17 1,517 250 220 875 5,815

1946 1,153 414 12 1,310 73 119 15 1,583 206 117 780 5,785

1935-39 758 312 14 1,592 62 120 16 1,490 222 170 1,240 6,010

•Revised estimates by the U.S. department of agriculture on basis of incomplete reports from several countries with adjustments for year of horvest, and including allowance for missing data and forecasts for crops being harvested.

fully up to prewar, ioo% above 1947. The 1948 wheat crop in Europe (excluding the U.S.S.R.) was estimated at 1,465,000,000 bu. or about 40% more than the 1947 crop of 1,025,000,000 bu.; 1946 production was 1,310,000,000 bu., and the 1935-39 average was 1,592,000,000 bu. Wheat production in the Soviet Union, though substantially less than prewar levels, was indicated to be somewhat larger than in 1947 because of increase in acreage, which, however, gave lower average yields. Production in Asia generally was higher than in 1947 and more than prewar. The crop of India and Pakistan was about 60,000,000 bu. larger than in 1947, though less than prewar. Early estimates on Argentina and Australia suggested smaller acreages and lower yields, hence a significantly smaller pro¬ duction than in 1947. The Argentinean crop in particular ap¬ peared likely to be much less than the prewar average. World exports of wheat in 1947-48 were a record of 24,872,000 long tons, or about 935,000,000 bu., as compared with 20,352,000 long tons, or 758,000,000 bu., in 1946-47. The prewar rate was about 560,000,000 bu. Wheat exports from the United States in particular were at a rate much higher than the prewar rate of about 100,000,000 bu. per year, exceeding 400,000,000 bu. in each of the past two years, and appeared likely to reach 500,000,000 bu. in 1948-49. Delegates of 36 countries, including 3 of the 5 major wheat¬ exporting countries, completed formulation of an international wheat agreement in March 1948. However, it failed of ratifica¬ tion by the U.S. senate as a -treaty. At the end of 1948 indications were that the planted acreage for the wheat crop to be harvested in the U.S. in 1949 would ap¬ proximate 80,000,000 ac., about 10% more than the national

goal of 71,500,000 ac. recommended by the government. Winter wheat acreage for 1949 harvest of 61,370,000 ac., compared with 58,161,000 ac, the previous year, and at 15.7 bu. per acre, gave an indicated production of 964,808,000 bu. The general con¬ dition of the autumn sown portion of the new crop was good to excellent. (See also Flour; Food Supply of the World.)

(J. K. R.) Wholesale Trade: see

Business Reviev/.

Onncanrotlnn UulloCi VdllUn*

intensified interest in international programs of wildlife conservation was notable during 1948. The Inter-American Con¬ ference on the Conservation of Renewable Natural Resources was held in Denver, Colo., Sept. 7-20. An International Union for the Protection of Nature was formed at a conference held for that purpose in Fontainebleau, France, Sept. 30-Oct. 7. Under the United States national commission for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization a special panel on nature protection was organized and at the close of the year was engaged in making plans for an inter¬ national conservation congress to be held in the U.S. The 13th North American Wildlife conference, outstanding U.S. event of its kind, was held at St. Louis, Mo., March 8-10, 1948. Three problems that were of particularly growing concern to wildlife conservationists were: (i) the jeopardy to wildlife areas resulting from dam and reservoir proposals in connection with huge river-basin and other hydroelectric-power and floodcontrol and irrigation projects; (2) the threat of intrusion by aircraft into wilderness areas otherwise protected from civili¬ zation’s encroachments; and (3) the hazards from new chemi¬ cal compounds developed for killing rodents, insects, weeds or other forms of life interfering with specific human enterprises. Hunting and Wildlife Population.—The number of hunting licences sold in the U.S. was 12,066,763 during the year ended June 30, 1947, the latest period for which totals had been com¬ piled in 1948. This was described by the fish and wildlife serv¬ ice as “the greatest army of hunters in all history.” .The totals for the two preceding years, 1946 and 1945, were, respectively, 9,854,313 and 8,194,296. There were no clear indications as to whether this upward trend had continued in 1948, but some doubt of the likelihood of this was cast by a report by the fish and wildlife service that sales of federal migratory bird hunt¬ ing stamps (the so-called duck stamps required of all wildfowlers over 16 years of age) declined during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1948, to 1,722,677—as compared with 2,016,819 in the year ended June 30, 1947, 1,725,505 in 1946 and 1,487,029 in 1945. No national estimates were made of the smaller or nonmigratory species, but the fish and wildlife service compiled state reports of big-game numbers and made intensive studies of the migratory waterfowl, protected by the federal govern¬ ment under international treaties. In each case the results showed little change in the totals as compared with the pre¬ ceding year. The big-game total for the U.S. was estimated at 7,725,000, of which 7,066,000 were deer. No figures were re¬ ported on waterfowl totals, but an intensive and widespread inventory in Jan. 1948 resulted in the conclusion that the con¬ tinent’s waterfowl population was about the same as in 1947. The number of adult birds noted in breeding-ground investi¬ gations later in the year tended to confirm this report. Obser¬ vations on the nesting grounds were considered encouraging, BIRD COUNTERS in Washington, D.C., helping to take the U.S. bird census conducted annually under the direction of the National Audubon society to learn which native birds are increasing or dying out

768

WILHE

and this optimism appeared to be warranted by the southward migration of the birds in autumn. At the end of the year no information was available as to the fate of the migrating flocks during the shooting seasons, but the fish and wildlife service was preparing for another intensive inventory early in 1949. Legislation.—A notable legislative event of the year was en¬ actment by the U.S. congress of the Taft-Barkley act to control water pollution. This measure set up machinery for declaring pollution a public nuisance subject to abatement, and authorized appropriations amounting to $139,000,000 over a five-year period for loans, research, grants to states and other public agencies. It provided for establishment of a pollution research centre at Cincinnati, 0., and set up a water pollution control advisory board. The law, however, came so far short of recom¬ mendations of such organizations as the Izaak Walton League of America as to be severely disappointing to many conservation¬ ists—particularly in its failure to outlaw new sources of pol¬ lution. The principal source of wildlife information in the United States was the fish and wildlife service, U.S. department of the interior, Washington 25, D.C. (See also National Parks and Monuments.) Bibliography.—Two important, books of 1948 were Fairfield Osborn’s Our Plundered Planet and William Vogt’s Road to Survival. Publications concerned with wildlife conservation; Wildlife Review (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service); American Forests (American Forest association, Wash¬ ington, D.C.); Nature Magazine (American Nature association, Wash¬ ington, D.C.); Outdoor America (Izaak Walton League of America, Chicago, Ill.); Audubon Magazine (National Audubon society. New York, N.Y.); National Parks Magazine (National Parks association, Washington, D.C.); Conservation News (National Wildlife federation, Washington D.C.); The Living Wilderness (The Wilderness society, Washington, D.C.); The Journal of Wildlife Management; The Journdl of Mammalogy; The Auk: A Quarterly Journal of Ornithology; publica¬ tions of The Wildlife Management Institute, Washington, D.C. (H. Z.)

Canada.—A report of a select committee on fish and game conservation set up by the Canadian Association of Tourist and Publicity Bureaus recommended; (i) more properly trained and better-paid law enforcement officers; (2) professional guides; (3) more complete removal of coarse fish from game-fish waters and increased stocking operations; (4) intensified antipollution measures. When the Ontario court of appeal upheld a lowercourt judgment awarding damages to property owners against a paper mill, and restrained the company from continued dump¬ ing of waste in rivers, fish conservationists took renewed hope for the ultimate success of antipollution campaigns. The On¬ tario Federation of Anglers and Hunters brought 134 regional conservation clubs into a provincial union, thus following the action of the Quebec Federation of Fish and Game Associations organized in 1947. The pattern of provincial wildlife conservation was set by the Ontario department of lands and forests, which made studies in 1948 on prairie chickens, pheasants, pickerel, pike, black bass, lampreys and chubs'; undertook experimental netting of coarse fish; mapped hinterland game areas; built two new fish hatcheries and planted more than 14,000,000 frylings. The Quebec government passed legislation authorizing an expendi¬ ture of $300,000 on a five-year inventory of provincial fishgame resources. Ducks Unlimited reported the dominion’s 1948 duck popula¬ tion only slightly above that of 1947 in most provinces, with no improvement in British Columbia and Manitoba. For the first time, an all-Canada duck-geese ceiling of three-shells-per-load was put into effect, with all pump guns compulsorily plugged permanently. Dominion wildlife service wildlife sanctuaries were opened at Britannia park, near Ottawa, Ont., and at Barriefield camp, near Kingston, Ont. An amendment to the Northwest Territories act gave the N.W.T. commissioner power to make ordinances for preserva¬ tion of game in the region, thus preventing costly delays caused

MINA when such changes had to go through parliament. White hunters were barred from Indian-Eskimo hunting-trapping preserves as designated by all islands in James bay. Saskatchewan estab¬ lished five new game preserves, bringing its total to 89. Canadian game licence statistics for 1947 were as follows: 365,245 anglers paid $1,395,482, and 572,995 hunters paid $1,714,348. Bibliography.—Howard Kennedy, Report of the Ontario Commission on Forestry (1947); Dominion of Canada Wildlife Service and U.S.A. Fish and Wildlife Service, Waterfowl Populations and Breeding Condi¬ tions (1948). (C. Cy.)

Other Countries.—In Africa the report of the Faunal Con¬ ference of Central and East African Colonies held in 1947 was published with the comments of the governments on the reso¬ lutions of the conference. These resolutions called for: more vigorous action in the conservation of fauna, with scientific supervision and advice; co-operation between the game depart¬ ments of the difl'erent colonies; strengthening of the game de¬ partments and attaching to them persons with biological quali¬ fications; and the prompt establishment of national parks. The recommendation of closer co-operation between game departments bore fruit in an informal conference in June 1948 of game wardens and representatives of scientific services at Chilanga in Northern Rhodesia. It was contemplated that such conferences should be repeated informally every year, and, occa¬ sionally, on a more formal footing. In India there was a strong movement for the establishment of a department of wildlife. In Malaya the re-establishment and development of the King George V national park was being pressed forward, though hampered by disturbed political con¬ ditions. In Singapore ordinances were passed for the protection of birds on Singapore Island and on Christmas Island and the Cocos-Keeling Islands. In Australia there were many signs of increasing interest in the conservation of wildlife, and in Queensland, in particular, the further development of the national parks and the con¬ struction of roads to make them more accessible was being pressed forward. (H. G. M.)

Ul/!lholmm4

(Wilhelmina

Helena

Pauline

Maria

of

(1880), queen mother and princess of the Netherlands, daughter of William III, king of the Netherlands, and Queen Emma, was born on Aug. 31 at The Hague. She succeeded to the throne in 1890 under the regency of her mother and was enthroned on Sept. 6, 1898. On Feb. 7, 1901, she married Henry, duke of MecklenburgSchwerin (d. 1934), and on April 30, 1909, Princess Juliana, heir to the throne, was born. After a tactful and efficient reign of more than four decades, an hour of great trial of Wilhelmina’s character came on May 10, 1940, when the Netherlands was invaded. She left the country, and on May 13 proclaimed that the seat of the Netherlands government had been trans¬ ferred to London and that the war would be carried on from there in co-operation with the Allies. In 1942 she paid an official visit to Canada and the U.S.; on Aug. 6 she addressed a joint session of both houses of congress in Washington, D.C. On March 13, 1945, Queen Wilhelmina set foot once more on Dutch soil and paid a ten-day visit to the liberated southern part of the Netherlands. On April 27 she took residence near Breda before returning to The Hague in July. Because of ill health and the need of rest, the queen was relieved from all official duties by a bill, passed by parliament on Oct. 10, 1947, which appointed Princess Juliana regent until Dec. i. Wil¬ helmina then resumed her duties, but on May 14, 1948, she again relinquished her royal powers in favour of Juliana. On Aug. 30 she resumed her throne for a week marked with cere¬ monies in celebration of her golden jubilee. She abdicated on illinciniind Orange-Nassau)

WILHELMINA, then queen of the Netherlands, arriving at the Olympic stadium in Amsterdam for a pageant in honour of her birthday. After a week of festivities ending Sept. 4, 194S, she abdicated in favour of her daughter Juliana

Sept. 4 and, taking the title from that day onward as princess of the Netherlands, retired to her palace at Het Loo, near Apeldoorn, in eastern Holland.

Iclonric

British Windward Islands (in the loldllUtfi Caribbean Sea) comprise the four islands of Dominica, St. Lucia, St. Vincent and Grenada—each ranking as a separate colony for internal administration—to¬ gether with the Grenadines, which lie between St. Vincent and Grenada and are associated partly with the one and partly with the other. Total area: 821 sq.mi.; total pop. (1946 census): 251,771 (Dominica 47,624, Grenada 72,387, St. Lucia 70,113 and St. Vincent 61,647); the great majority of the population is Negro. Chief towns: St. George’s (capital of Grenada and seat of the governor, pop. 5,774), Roseau (capital of Do¬ minica, pop. 9,751), Castries (capital of St. Lucia, pop. 7,056) and Kingstown (capital of St. Vincent, pop. 4,831). A gov¬ ernor, appointed by the British crown and assisted by a chief secretary, exercises general executive authority over the whole group; but there is no central legislature; neither are there common laws, revenue or a customs union. Each colony retains its own institutions; each has an administrator who, in the ab¬ sence of the governor, presides over an executive council con¬ taining ex-officio and unofficial members; each has a legislature with an unofficial, partly elected and partly nominated, ma¬ jority. Governor: R. D. H. Arundell (appointed 1948). History.—A disastrous fire swept Castries on the night of June 19-20, 1948. The entire commercial section in the heart of the town was wiped out, and practically all the government and leading business buildings were destroyed. Fortunately no lives were lost, but thousands were rendered homeless. Damage was estimated at i2,ooo,ooo, of which probably only one-fourth was covered by insurance.

Early in the year all four legislatures adopted the resolutions on closer union passed at Montego Bay, Jamaica, the previous September, as modified by the secretary of state’s dispatch of Dec. 1947; but Dominica and Grenada added provisos—Do¬ minica that it must be regarded as a separate constituent unit of the federation, and Grenada that it would not express an opinion on the practical possibilities of federation till it had considered the resolutions of the proposed committee on closer association. (Jo. A. Hn.) Finance and Trade.—Currency: by 1948 all four colonies had adopted the use of the West Indian dollar; i West Indian dollar = 84 cents U.S. (In the followingj the use of the symbol $ denotes West Indian dollars.) Revenue: Dominica (1946) £303,336; Grenada (1945) £359,175; St. Lucia (revised est. 1947) $1,341,130, (est. 1948) $1,484,102; St. Vincent (revised est. 1947) $1,577,331, (est. 1948) $1,641,187—these figures are inclusive of grants-in-aid in the case of Dominica and of grants under the Colonial Development and Welfare scheme in each case. Expenditure: Dominica (1946) £263,359; Grenada (1945) £369,545; St. Lucia (revised est. 1947) $1,423,932, (est. 1948) $1,779,423; St. Vincent (revised est. 1947) $1,333,324, (est. 1948) $1,635,907. Imports: (1946) Dominica £475.539; Grenada £797.543: St. Lucia (1947) £611,405; St. Vincent £691,780. Exports: (1946) Dominica £200,423; Grenada £827,882: St. Lucia (1947) £268,737; St. Vincent £229,460. Principal exports: Dominica, lime juice, lime oil, cocoa and vanilla; Grenada, nut¬ megs, cocoa and mace; St. Lucia, sugar; St. Vincent, arrowroot and cotton.

UfinOC

France again was the largest producer of wine in 1948 lilllCo* although the total production of famous growth (Appelation Controlee) wines amounted to 130,000,000 gal. against a total of 146,000,000 in 1947. The famous growths of Burgundy and Rhone produced 20,000,000 gal. against 21,000,000 the previous year, and Bordeaux 63,000,000 gal. against the 1947 yield of 73,000,000. Prices remained high in 1948 and were 27 times the cost of ten years before. Wages in the same period were up only 10 times and the general wholesale price index 18 times. In Spain the Jerez district produced 9,200,000 gal.—an aver¬ age yield. Of the Portuguese wines, 4,640,000 gal. were pro¬ duced as port wine. The United States production was up 25%; 92% of the total

769

WISCONSIN

770 World Production of Wine, 1947 and 1948 Millions of gallons Country Algeria. Argentina. Australia. Austria. Brazil. Bulgaria. Chile. Czechoslovakia. . . France. Germany. Greece. Hungory. Italy. Luxembourg . . . . Morocco. Palestine. Peru. Portugal. Rumania. South Africa . . . . Spain. Switzerland . . . . Tunisia. Uruguay. Yugoslavia.

. .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1947 219 256 37.7 25.7 * « 48 79.2 * 6.6 1,031 20 52.8 66 977 898 2.8 3.8 11 10.5 1.7 2 ♦ 4 197 264 * 156 37.1 34.4 475 536 25 23 12 112 * 15.8 1948 334

* *

Total. . . 4,016.8

Average 500 (1930-39) 215 20 (prewar)

1948 Quality Excellent No variation Good

No variation 1,530 50 100 935

(1930-39)

Good Very satisfactory

(1936-46)

Weak Good

(1939-48)

Average

1.6 241

37.1 (1936-46) 500 15 (10 yr.) 102.5 (1940-45)

Poor Spotty No variation No variation

* *

3,893.9

^Unknown. Countries like the United States, marked "No voriotion" in the accompanying table, produce uniform wines from year to year because of stable climatic conditions.

R. Zimmerman (Rep.) was re-elected secretary of state, but the Democratic candidate for attorney-general, Thomas Fairchild, was named over Donald Martin, and subsequently was ap¬ pointed to fill the unexpired term of Grover Broadfoot who was elevated to the supreme court by Rennebohm shortly after the election. The line-up in the new legislature was: senate, 28 Re¬ publicans, .5 Democrats; assembly, 74 Republicans, 26 Demo¬ crats. The Democrats gained 14 seats in the assembly, lost i in the senate and gained 2 seats in the federal house of repre¬ sentatives. John Callahan remained as superintendent of public instruction, an office not contested until the state elections in April 1949, and Marvin B. Rosenberry was chief justice of the state supreme court. Wisconsin celebrated its centennial of statehood in 1948. Education.—There were approximately 6,037 elementary and 457 sec¬ ondary schools, 2 s county normal schools and 9 teachers’ colleges in 1946-47. Enrolment in the elementary schools totalled 342,994: in secondary schools it was 144,294 and in county normal schools 737Elementary schools employed 13,830 teachers, while secondary schools had 6,456 and the county normal schools had 99. The teachers’_ col¬ leges had 516 faculty members teaching 8,052 college and 2,204 training school students. State aid for education in the fiscal year 1946-47 totalled $9,419,378. Total expenditures in all elementary and secondary public schools was $77,311,414. Social

was produced in the state of California, of which 30% was table and sparkling wines and the remaining 70% dessert and appe¬ tizer wines. Two new U.S. grape varieties for table and wine use—ruby cabernet, red, and the emerald Riesling, white, were announced—both combining high quality with large yield. (See also Liquors, Alcoholic.) (J. We.)

Uficnnncin north-central states of the United VllouUllolII* States, Wisconsin, popularly called the “Badger state,” entered the union as the 30th state in 1848. Area, 56,154 sq.mi. of which 1,439 sq.mi. are water. The population was estimated, as of July i, 1948, at 3,309,000, an increase of 171,413 as against the federal census figures of 1940. The urban population in 1940 was 1,679,144 and the rural 1,458,443. Only 24,835 were nonwhite. Foreign-born whites numbered 288,774. Capital, Madison (pop. 1940, 67,447). Milwaukee is the largest city with a population of 587,472. Other large cities are Racine (67,195), Kenosha (48,765), Green Bay (46,235), La Crosse (42,707) and Sheboygan (40,638). History.—The Republican presidential primaries in Wiscon¬ sin, April 6, 1948, saw a three-way race between Harold Stassen, Thomas E. Dewey and Douglas MacArthur. The MacArthur candidacy, which in effect was announced at the initial centen¬ nial ceremonies at Madison, Jan. 5, was well financed and ad¬ vertised, but failed to make the headway his supporters antici¬ pated. The Stassen campaign, supported by the Republican Voluntary committee, benefited considerably from the candi¬ date’s extensive stumping in the state. Dewey, the ultimate Re¬ publican nominee, made a fruitless last-minute trip to the state in an effort to cut the burgeoning Stassen lead. The final result was that of Wisconsin’s 27 delegates, 19 were pledged to Stas¬ sen, 8 to MacArthur, none to Dewey. Pres. Harry S. Truman carried the Democra.tic primaries without opposition. In the September state primaries, Oscar Rennebohm, who succeeded to the governorship on the death of Walter S. Goodland, March 12, 1947, was nominated to succeed himself over Ralph S. Immell, former Progressive, by a margin of 87,000 votes. In the November elections, the voters of Wisconsin again demonstrated their characteristic ability to split tickets. Tru¬ man (647,310 votes) carried the state over Dewey (590,959) by 56,351 votes. Rennebohm (Rep.) was elected over Carl Thomp¬ son (Dem.) by 126,000 votes. George Smith (Rep.) was elected lieutenant governor, Warren Smith (Rep.) state treasurer. Fred

Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.—

The number of cases receiving public assistance as of June 1948 was as follows: general relief 5,280; old-age assistance 47,806'; aid to the blind 1,290; aid to totally and permanently disabled 525; dependent children in their own or relatives’ home 7,560; dependent children in foster homes 1,050—a total of 55,546 households. Expenditures for public assistance in the year ending June 30, 1948, were: general relief $2,927,303; old-age assistance $20,948,779; aid to the blind $635,295; totally and perma¬ nently disabled $333,674; dependent children in own or relatives’ home $7(917,174 and in foster homes (9 mo. only) $258,326, making a grand total of $33,020,551. Civilian unemployment benefit payments during the calendar year 1947 were $3,389,650 as against $7,771,329 in 1946 and $4,264,654 in 1945. The contributions for 1947 totalled $16,293,966 compared with $7,590,280 for 1946 and $27,575,988 for 1945. Wisconsin’s 13 charitable, mental and correctional institutions during the year ending June 30, 1948, were operated at a cost of $6,437,741. The average daily population for June 1948 was 9,607. Communications—Public highways as of Jan. i, 1948, totalled 93,573 mi., divided as follows: 85,084 mi. (towns), 2,431 mi. (villages) and 6,058 mi. (cities). Expenditures by the highway commission for the fiscal year 1947-48 were $49,228,651. The total railway mileage (steam and electric) as of Dec. 31, 1947, was 6,713.8 mi. with 55.21 mi. of trolley coach route (trackless). There were 836,107 telephones and on Dec. 31, 1948, there were 162 airports and 12 seaplane bases. Banking and Finance.—At the end of 1947 there were 95 national banks and 461 state banks (a decrease of 2). National banks had deposits of $1,386,079,000 and assets of $1,474,794,000. Deposits in state banks totalled $1,543,020,659 and the assets were $1,638,544,090. The 531 credit unions (7 more than in 1946) listed assets of $24,696,212 (the largest in their history). Assets of the 113 savings and loan associations totalled $177,926,564. State receipts for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1948, were $172,342,801; disbursements $156,921,906. Taxes collected by the state and returned to local subdivisions totalled $50,073,989; agency collections returned to counties were $744,376; state aids amounted to $46,253,112. Agriculture.—The total acreage harvested in 1947 was 10,251,800. The gross farm income, excluding government payments, reached a new high point, $1,094,897,000, consisting of $144,810,000 from crops and $950,087,000 from livestock and its products, including milk. During 1947 Wisconsin’s total farm output declined slightly. Grain production increased, but cash crops, fruits and vegetables, livestock and live¬ stock products showed small decreases.

Table t.—Leading Agricultural Products of Wisconsin, 1948 and 1947 Corn (bu.). Oats (bu.). Canning peas (lb.). All fame hay (tons). All clover and timothy (tons) . . Alfalfa (tons).

1948 lest.l 11 3,252,000 126,148,000 164,440,000 5,371,000 3,175,000 1,948,000

1947

105,840,000 120,873,000 288,020,000 6,796,000 4,222,000 2,263,000

Value, 1948 (est.l $158,553,000 100,918,000 7,515,000 129,274,000

Manufacturing.-—The total value of Wisconsin manufactured products in 1948 was estimated at $2,100,000,000. The most important indus¬ tries in value of manufactured products were motor vehicles, paper and paperboard mills and wholesale meat packing. In 1947 the estimated average number of wage earners in Wisconsin manufacturing establish¬ ments was 339,700, compared with 308,400 in 1946 (and 200 897 in 1939); while the estimated weekly pay rolls increased from $14,087000

Table II.—Value of Mineral Products of Wisconsin, 1946 and 1945 Mineral Stone.. iron ore. Zinc. Sand and gravel.. *Estimated,

1946

$11,473,119 3,369,236* 3,483,344 6,802,828

1945

$8,442,921 3,575,133 3,579,030 4,111,282

WISCONSIN. UNIVE RSITY OF—WOOL in 1946 to $17,758,000 in 1947. Wisconsin, with an extremely diversi¬ fied industry, continued to rank first in the manufacture of cheese, milk products, malt and canned peas.

771 World sheep numbers (In millions)

Per cent change from 1936-40

Mineral Production—In 1947 the value of all mineral production in Wisconsin was $34,942,000, compared with $28,596,000 in 1946 and $22,217,000 in 1945.

Continent North America.. . • .. Europe, excluding U.S.S.R...

Films.—Better Schools for Rural Wisconsin; Laws (University of Wisconsin).

Asia. South America. Africa. Oceania..

overage Sheep —28.2 — 16.5 — 1.8 4.3 25.4 —11.4 — 3.8

World Total.

— 3.2

Wisconsin Makes Its (C. L. L.)

A state university, founded in 1848 at Madison, Wis. The University of Wisconsin began celebrating its year-long centennial observance in 1948 and planned to continue through the 1948-49 school year with a series of educational and cul¬ tural events. The Centennial Educational conference in October brought 450 educational leaders to the campus from 38 states to discuss “Higher Education for American Society.” World scientists gathered at Wisconsin for symposia on “Steroid Hormones” and “Combustion and Flame and Explosion Phenomena.” Cen¬ tennial music, drama and art events were among the greatest ever presented in the midwest. The 1948-49 operational budget for the university was set at $26,303,109 by the board of regents. The regents recommended to the st^te legislature an $82,181,235 ten-year university building program. The most important curriculum change of the year was the beginning of a two-year program of integrated liberal studies, offering freshman and sophomore courses in which a basic cul¬ tural foundation could be laid, upon which students could build specialized courses in later college years. Among the research developments of the year was the appli¬ cation of dicumarol, discovered at Wisconsin, to the treatment of coronary thrombosis. Adult education during the year, in the form of conferences, short courses and institutes, brought some 100,000 Wisconsin residents to the university for refresher training and a review of the latest developments in their fields. The university exten¬ sion division taught courses by mail to 25,358 home-study stu¬ dents and graded papers for 137,769 students in courses admin¬ istered by the U.S. Armed Forces institute. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Uni¬

Wisconsin, University of.

versities AND Colleges.)

(R. Tr.)

Withholding Tax: see Taxation. Woman's Christian Temperance Union, National:

see

Societies and Associations.

Women's Clubs, General Federation of:

see

Societies

AND Associations.

M

The quantity of wool shorn in the U.S. in 1948, as • estimated by the U.S. department of agriculture, was 237,290,000 lb., or 15,000,000 lb. less than in 1947 and 119,500,000 lb. less than the 1936-45 average. The record production of shorn wool amounted to 392,373,000 lb. in 1942. The esti¬ mated number of sheep shorn in 1948 was 29,616,000, or about 1,625,000 head less than in 1947 and 15,125,000 less than the ten-year average. The estimated weight per fleece was 8.01 lb. compared with 8.09 lb. in 1947 and the ten-year average of 7.97 lb. Pulled wool production for the year was estimated at 48,000,000 lb. in comparison with 57,300,000 lb. in 1947 and 71,000,000 lb. in 1944. World wool production in 1948 was estimated by the office of foreign relations of the U.S. department of agriculture at 3,830,000,000 lb., grease basis, compared with 3,730,000,000 lb. in 1947, and the 1936-40 average of 3,920,000,000 lb. The output of apparel-type wool was estimated at 2,980,000,000 lb., or about 70,000,000 lb. more than the preceding season. Before

Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Office of Foreign Relations

World War 11, the annual total averaged about 3,000,000,000 lb. World sheep numbers in 1948, by continents, and percentage changes from the 1936-40 period, are shown in the table above. Throughout the year, demand increased for merino type of wool. Prices continued to advance in all grades of wool and the largest increase was on the finest quality. Australian fine wool showed the biggest advance, averaging about $1.25, clean basis, Bradford yield in Dec. 1947, to $1.80, C.I.F. Boston, in Dec. 1948. To these figures must be added an import duty of 25^ cents per pound. The new series of sales opened in Australia in September. Europe, Great Britain and the U.S.S.R. were the principal buyers throughout the year. The United States pur¬ chased but little because of the lack of demand, at the prevailing prices, by the manufacturers. The mills preferred to purchase suitable wools from the remaining U.S. stock pile and from the U.S. clips at prices less than the prices obtained at the sales in Australia, South Africa and in London. In June, because of an increasing world demand for wool and the scarcity of fine grades to meet it, an internationally spon¬ sored research program was suggested. Plans for a four-year undertaking at the Textile Research institute at Princeton, N.J., were announced. On Oct. 8, Secretary of Agriculture Charles F. Brannan announced the signing of a contract by which the U.S. • government would contribute $20,000 annually to a program of fundamental research in wool, designed to improve the textures of fabrics made of every grade of wool. As a result of confer¬ ences both in the U.S. and in London, the International Wool secretariat, representing British dominion wool growers, agreed to allocate $30,000 annually for the four years the program would run. The remainder of the $75,000 annual cost was to be provided by important groups in the American wool-growing and wool-textile manufacturing industries. In June the United Kingdom-Dominion Wool Disposals Lim¬ ited announced that when this joint organization on Aug. i, 1945, took over 10,500,000 bales from the British government, it was expected that it would take about 12 years to liquidate the ac¬ cumulation. By July I, 1948, the accumulation amounted to only 3,500,000 bales, about 7,000,000 bales having been disposed of within three years. The U.S. government stock pile of wool was reduced from 306,148,000 lb. in January to 120,070,000 lb. on Nov. I. The highest point in the U.S. stock pile was in Sept. 1946, when approximately 500,000,000 lb. were on hand. On June 20, 1948, congress approved a compromise Farm Program bill, H.R. 6248. The compromise bill, insofar as wool was concerned, continued the existing law and price support of domestic grown wool at the 1946 levels of 43.3 cents per pound average greasy price until Dec. 31, 1949. Beginning on Jan. i, 1950, the bill would support the price of wool “at such levels not in excess of 90% nor less than 60% of its parity price as of Jan. I, as the Secretary may consider necessary in order to encourage an annual production of approximately 360,000,000 lb. shorn (O’Mahoney amendment) wool.” Early resumption of direct wool purchases by Germany was indicated in a report that the Joint Import-Export agency, which controlled imports into the Anglo-United States zones, was considering the allocation of funds for wool purposes. In

WORDS AND M EANINGS, NEW

772

Japan, stocks of wool greatly improved during the first six months of the year. By June 1948, more than 2,000,000 Ib. of wool had been imported from Australia and New Zealand. In September the Australian government took action to pre¬ vent the resale of Australian wool by European countries to the United States. These countries were told that in the future their purchases would be restricted by exchange control regulations to quantities sufficient for domestic requirements only. The countries re-exporting to the U.S. were France, the Netherlands, Belgium and Italy. It was understood that these countries were reselling their purchases at a loss in order to obtain additional dollars. Argentina, during November, was reported contemplating placing an additional export tax on wool, bringing the total tax to 12^%, ad valorem. During the six preceding months, Argen¬ tina had instigated tax boosts amounting to about 4^%. An additional 7^% to 8% export tax, to take effect Jan. i, 1949, caused importers to state that it would strangle the wool export trade between that nation and the United States. Rug manu¬ facturers in the U.S. had been using large quantities of Argen¬ tine carpet types of wool. As of Dec. 4, 1948, comparative values of 64s merino type of wool, clean basis, duty paid, from important sources of supply, were reported as follows: U.S.A., territory, $1.75; Texas $1.80; Ohio delaine $1.85; South Africa $2.00; Australia $2.08. Net imports of apparel wools into the U.S.A. for the first six months of 1948 totalled 254,099,000 lb. Consumption figures for the same period amounted to 612,944,000 lb. (See also Sheep; Textile Industry.) Films.—Wool—Golden

Fleece

(Australian

Bureau.)

News

and Information (C. M. An.)

Words and Meanings, New.

words to its vocabulary every year, some destined to live long, others to die soon. The words listed below, pertaining largely to 1947-48, are but a small residue of those collected by the committee preparing this article. Several groups of the coinages below may be commented upon briefly. As usual, scientific and technological advances are well represented among the new words: witness “Aerobee,” “Big Eye,” “G-layer,” “nuclear fuel,” “radiOgold,” “technetium,” “Intelex,” “photo-timer,” “reflectorize,” “servo-mechanism” and “UNIVAC.” Medical science, in particular, is represented by such coinages as “aerosporin,” “anoxiate,” “aureomycin,” “myanesin,” “polymyxin,” “sludged blood,” “topectomy” and “virus X.” Several new terms reflect international politics: “airlift,” “creeping war,” “ECA,” “firm containment,” “Israel” and “Israeli,” “Little Assembly” and “western union.” Finally, the fact that 1948 was an election year in the United States is revealed in several coinages: “Dixiecrat,” “Pixiecrat,” “States’ Righter,” “Southcrat,” “Trumancrat,” “Trumanite” and “Wallaceite.” The year 1948 witnessed the spread of commercial television. What would be the standard term for it? Would it be the word “television” itself or a less formal one like “tele,” “telesee” or “TV”? These questions were still unanswered in 1948. These words became prominent or were seemingly used for the first time during the years 1947 and 1948. Dates within the parentheses following a word or definition indicate the first recorded use of the new word or meaning in the files of the committee. A preceding hyphen means that the word or meaning is sus¬ pected to be older than the date given. If no date is given, the first record on file is 1948. Aerobee, n. Name of a rocket which, according to a U.S. army-navy an-

nouncement, attained a speed of 3,000 m.p.h. and reached an altitude of 78 mi. (-1948) aerodynomicist, n. One concerned with the dynamics of air and other gaseous fluids, such as pressures, forces and flow patterns, from the theoretical and practical standpoints. (1946) aerosporin, n. An antibiotic from soil bacteria, effective, in the laboratory, against typhoid, cholera and other diseases, including whooping cough in children. (-1948) airdrop, n. That which is dropped from an aeroplane, such as supplies. (1946) airlift, n. i. Air service, especially military, for freight and personnel; air transportation. 2. That which is transported by airlift. (1945) AMAG. American Mission for Aid to Greece. (1947) anoxiate (Gr. an-, “not, lacking,” -f- e»ygen 4- 4ale) v. Verb proposed by E. J. Van Liere to describe the decreasing of the amount of oxygen reaching the tissues, as during an ascent to high altitudes. (1946) ANTA. American National Theatre and Academy. (1946) aureomycin (Lat. aureo- [from aureus, “golden”] -\- myc-, “fungus,” -f -in) n. A golden-coloured antibiotic related to streptomycin, and effective in some diseases where streptomycin and penicillin fail. bean soup. Slang. A thick, foamy, fire-fighting substance made from soy¬ beans (hence its nickname by navy men during World War II), which emits carbon dioxide to smother fire. (1943) Big Eye. The Hale (for William Ellery Hale) telescope, located at Mt. Palomar, Calif.; so called from its 200-in. lens. (1945) biosorb {bio-, “life,” -|- abiorft), n. A cornstarch powder for surgical use. butterfly, n. Brit. A spiv, drone. (-1948) cocoon, n. A plastic covering sprayed on inactive aircraft for protection from the weather. (1947) cold wave. A type of permanent hair waving, generally using ammonium thioglycollate. (1945) copter, n. Short for helicopter. (1947) creeping war. War carried on covertly by means of chemicals, germs and electronic devices. cybernetics (Gr. kybernetes, steersman), n. The comparative study of com¬ plex electronic calculating machines and the electrical circuits of the human nervous system, aimed at a greater understanding of the functioning of the human brain. (-1948) dehydrofreezing, n. A method of preserving foods whereby they are first partially dehydrated and then quick-frozen. (1946) Dixiecrat (Dixie -f democrat, n. Popular term first used to describe those Democrats (chiefly southern) who opposed the civil rights program of the Truman administration; later applied to a States’ Rights Democrat. Dixiecratic, adj. ECA. European Cooperation Administration (the Marshall plan). electrokymograph {electro- -|- kymo-, “wave,” -\- graph), n. A machine for the study of heart action. (1946) expressway, n. A through highway for automobiles. (1944) extreme situations (behaviour in). Concentration camp conditions designed to break down the human personality. (First used by Bruno Bettelheim in 1943). fax, n. waves.

Short for facsimile newspaper, one distributed by means of radio

firm containment. The keeping of a nation within its boundaries by means of firm opposition. (1947) Flying Cigar. Slang. The Consolidated Vultee B-36, a very large six-engined plane. (-1947) fringe parking. (1947)

Parking on the outer boundaries of a business district

Furacin, n. Trade-mark of a germicide whose technical name is 5-nitro-2furaldehyde semicarbazone. (1946) G-Girl. A government girl, an employee of the FBI. (1946) G-layer. A fourth layer of ionized particles above the earth, with an esti¬ mated temperature of 1,800° F. Glidogram, n. A word puzzle, somewhat similar to a crossword puzzle, popu¬ larized by its inventor, Richard Guldenstein. gray marketeer. A dealer in the gray market. (1947) home, V. i. Of an object, to be directed toward a destination by electronic or other means. (Aviation usage dates from -1942.) Indianise, -ize, v. t. To replace British government personnel in India with Indians. (1945) lndianis(z)ation, n. (1942) instrument weather. Aviation. Weather in which the pilot cannot see the ground, so that he must fly by instruments. (-1945) Intelex. An electronic device of the International Telephone and Telegraph company for making railroad and aeroplane reservations in less than a minute. Trade-mark. Israel, n. The new Jewish republic in Palestine, proclaimed a state May 14 1948. Israeli, adj. Of or pertaining to the state of Israel, n. A citizen of Israel. (An adj. Israelian has been proposed.)

WORKS AGENCY. FEDERAL — WORLD CONSTITUTION Jeepster, n. A small passenger automobile adapted by Willys-Overland from the jeep. Trade-mark. (1945)

773

semidocumentary, n. A partly factual film. Also adj.

Kinsey report. Popular term for Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, by Alfred C. Kinsey, W. B. Pomeroy and C. E. Martin. (1947)

servo-mechanism (Lat. servus, “slave,” -|- mechanism), n. An auxiliary mech¬ anism such as a hydraffiic landing gear or a machine-gun synchronizer, either independent of or attached to some other mechanical device, whose function is to transfer motion, power, impulses and other influences. (-1948)

LANAC. Laminar Air Navigation and Anticollision radar, a system to aid in landing aeroplanes. (1946)

Shmoo, n. A benevolent little imaginary pear-shaped animal created by the cartoonist A1 Capp, able to supply most of the needs of mankind.

lettrism (Fr. lettrisme), n. In France, a philosophy of composition devised by Isidore Isou in which poetry, conceived as “rhythmic architecture,” employs nonconventional, meaningless combinations of letters. (1946)

Siporter {side port -f -er), n. A device for loading and unloading ships’ cargo through side hatches. Trade-mark. (1947)

kingmaker, n. A master politician; a political manipulator. (-1946)

sludged blood. Blood in which the red corpuscles, because covered with a sticky substance caused by a disease, adhere to each other and form clumps which stop up the small capillaries, thus generally impairing the circulation and shutting off the supply of oxygen to the tissues. (-1947)

“Little Assembly.” Popular name of the interim committee of the United Nations general assembly. (1947) LP. Trade-mark of Columbia Records, Inc., to describe its Long Playing microgroove record.

Southocrat, n. See States’ Rights Democrat.

magic, n. A device of the U.S. army for breaking codes. (-1945)

spelunker (Lat. spelunca, “cave,” -f -er), n. An amateur cave explorer; one for whom the exploring of caves is a hobby. (1946)

metopon, n. An opium derivative used as an analgesic. (1941) microcard (Gr. mikro-, “small,” -|- card), n. A library card three by five inches which can carry in microprint on its reverse side up to 250 pages of a book. (1944) microgroove, adj. grooves.

States' Righter. See States' Rights Democrat. States' Rights Democrat. Specijically. A member of the group of Democrats who, dissatisfied with the civil rights plank of the Democratic party, left the convention at Philadelphia, Pa., to hold their own in Birmingham, Ala., where they nominated candidates for president and vice-president on a platform upholding states’ rights. Also States’ Righter. Popular terms are Dixiecrat and (rarely) Southocrat.

Pertaining to a phonograph record with very small

Module furniture. Furniture designed by Morris Sanders and manufactured by the Mengel company, consisting of interchangeable basic units which can be arranged in a great variety of ways. The term Mengel Module is a trade¬ mark. (1946)

Storecast, n. Trade name for a commercial broadcast in a store. subway, adj. Pertaining to a person who, by reading newspaper reports while riding backhand forth in the subway, has become an enthusiastic follower of an athletic team. (1946)

Mothball Fleet. Slang. That part of the inactive fleet of the U.S. navy which can be readied quickly for active service. (1946) MPF. Short for Multi-Purpose Food, a soybean derivative developed by Henry Boorsook and used to supplement an inadequate diet. Trade name. (-1948)

tabun, n. Name of a group of poison gases. (1946)

myanesin. A British-developed, muscle-relaxing synthetic drug which may be of value in treating victims of infantile paralysis.

tele, n. Short for television.

technetium, n. Chemical element No. 43, named in 1947.

Its symbol is Tc.

tele-. Combining form of television. Combinations include Teleset (trade¬ mark of a television receiving set), tele-studio, televaudeville and telever¬ biage.

narrowcasting, n. Term used by its opponents to describe subscription radio. nuclear fuel. A radioactive substance such as uranium or plutonium. palletizing, n. The handling of merchandise, especially that prepared in units, on a wooden platform, or pallet, to which it is sometimes fastened. (1944)

telesee, n. Television. thalamotomy (Gr. thalamos, “chamber,” -p tome, “a cutting”), n. tion at the base of the brain for relief of mental illness.

parasite fighter, parasite plane. A small aeroplane that operates from a mother plane.

Opera¬

thiazolyl, n. A sulfa type of drug used in the treatment of infantile paralysis.

PAS. Short for para-aminosalicylic acid, a synthetic drug which may be used with streptomycin in the treatment of tuberculosis.

thruway, n. An express highway.

(1946)

phonogenic {phono, “voice,” -f- 'photogenic, “possessing the qualities that produce a pleasing photograph”), adj. With pleasing voice qualities; revealing pleasant personality through the voice. (-1944)

tomatin {tomato -f -dn), n. An antibiotic made from the juice of the leaves and stems of tomato plants, effective agamst such diseases as athlete’s foot. (1946)

PhotoMetric. Trade-mark of the PhotoMetric corporation to describe the technique and the apparatus invented by Henry Booth whereby measurements for men’s clothes are made by photography and sent to the factory, where a calculator indicates the suit nearest the measurements and the alterations necessary. The finished suit is sent directly to the customer.

topectomy (Gr. topos, “place,” -p ektome, “excision”), n. An operation for the relief of mental illness, consisting of the removal of certain portions of the brain tissue.

photo-timer, n. An electrical device which photographs the finish of a race and supplies the elapsed time from start to finish. (-1948)

Train of Gratitude, Train of Thanks. The French equivalent of (and ack¬ nowledgment of) the U.S. Friendship Train. Travelling through France in 1948, the train took on various products native to France for shipment to dif¬ ferent parts of the U.S.

Pinto Man. A prehistoric man thought to have lived in California 3,000 to 15,000 years ago.

Transistor, n. Trade name of a device which takes over most of the functions of a vacuum tube.

Pixiecrats. Humorous coinage on the analogy of Dixiecrat for those indiffer¬ ent to aU parties and groups.

Trumancrat, Trumanite, n. A supporter of Pres. Harry S. Truman. TV. Short for television.

polymyxin, n. An antigermicidal drug useful in the treatment of such diseases as whooping cough and meningitis.

twofer, n. Theatre Slang. Two tickets for the price of one. two-platoon system. Football. A system resulting from the “free substitu¬ tion rule,” which made possible the training and playing of two completely separate units (platoons) for use on offense and defense, respectively.

pre-cut house. A prefabricated house. (1946) profile, V. t. To describe (a person) in a highly pointed-up biographical sketch. (1947) Progressive party. Official name of the political party of Henry A. Wallace. (Formerly applied to the parties of Theodore Roosevelt in 1912 and Robert M. La FoUette in 1924.) Promizole, n. A synthetic drug, related to the sulfas, used in the treatment of tuberculosis. Trade-mark. (1944) Pyrok, n. Trade name of a building material developed in Great Britain by Samuel Clipson; when sprayed as a liquid, it will build up a wall as thick as desired. (1947) radiation sickness. A disease brought on by exposure to different kinds of radiations from radioactive substances, with symptoms that vary from skin burns in one type of injury to nausea, loss of white corpuscles, internal bleedmg and death in another type. (1944)

UNIVAC. Universal Automatic Computer. Trade name. virus X. An uncertain malady, according to one diagnosis a combination of Type A influenza and epidemic nausea. (1947) ■

vitamin B12. A chemical extracted from liver in the form of crystals, for use in checking pernicious anaemia. Wallaceite, n. A supporter of Henry A. Wallace. western union. Short for western European union, a political and economic alliance of Great Britain, France and the Benelux nations. (1944) Xerography (Gr. xeros, “dry,” -p graphein, “to write”), n. The electronic reproduction of printed material, a process invented by Chester F. Carlson and handled commercially by the Haloid company of Rochester, N.Y.

radiogold, n. Radioactive gold. (1947)

yak, n. Slang. A laugh. (-1946; the form yock dates from 1938)

refiectorize, v. To give a light-reflecting surface to. (1947)

Films.—WAo Makes Words’

Reflectoscope, n. A device which utilizes ultrasonic waves to detect flaws in solid substances. Trade-mark. (1944)

(Coronet Instructional Films). (I. W. R.)

re-print, n. A re-release, that is, a second release of a motion picture.

Works Agency, Federal: see Federal Works Agency. World Bank: see International Bank for Reconstruction

rocket-booster, n. A device for increasing the speed or the range of an object,

AND Development; International Monetary Fund.

such as a bomb. (1946) Scotchlite, n. A patented luminous fabric for safety signals. (1947) S.E.D.

Sozialistische Einheitpartei Deutschlands (Socialist Unity party of

Germany). (1946)

World Commerce: see International Trade. World Constitution, Committee to Form a: cago, University of; Hutchins, Robert Maynard.

see Chi¬

774

WORLD COUNCIL OF C H U RC H E S —WR E ST LI N G

World Council of Churches.

Churches, composed of 147 Protestant, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and Old Catholic denominations, was constituted Aug. 23, 1948, by the unanimous vote of 351 delegates from 44 nations at the first assembly in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. The constitution defined the functions of the council as follows: “to facilitate common ac¬ tion by the Churches, to promote cooperation in study, to pro¬ mote the growth of ecumenical consciousness in the members of all Churches, to establish relations with denominational fed¬ erations of world-wide scope and with other ecumenical move¬ ments, to call world conferences on specific subjects as occasion may require, to support the Churches in their task of evan¬ gelism.” The assembly elected six coequal presidents: Marc Boegner, pastor of Passy and president of the Protestant Federation of France; T. C. Chao, dean of the school of religion, Yenching university, Peiping, China; Erling Eidem, archbishop of Upp¬ sala, Sweden; Geoffrey Fisher, archbishop of Canterbury; Strenopolous Germanos, archbishop of Thyateira; and G. Bromley Oxnam, bishop of the Methodist Church, New York. John R. Mott was named honorary president. The following policy-forming and governing bodies of the council were established: (i) the assembly, composed of dele¬ gates chosen by the member churches, to meet ordinarily once every five years, the principal authority of the council; (2) the central committee, composed of the presidents and not more than 90 members chosen by the assembly from its members, to meet not less than once a year, the governing body of the council between sessions of the assembly; (3) the executive committee, made up of the presidents, the chairman and vicechairman of the central committee and 12 other persons, to meet ordinarily twice a year. The administrative and functional organization included: (i) the general secretariat: W. A. Visser’t Hooft, the general secretary, and the Rev. Henry Smith Leiper, the Rev. Robert C. Mackie, the Rt. Rev. Stephen C. Neill and the Rev. Oliver S. Tomkins, associate general secretaries; (2) the departments, with appropriate governing commissions, all responsible to the central committee and the assembly: (a) faith and order; (b) study; (c) reconstruction and interchurch aid, including the refugee division; (d) youth; (e) Ecumenical institute, estab¬ lished through the generosity of John D. Rockefeller, Jr.; (f) international affairs in conjunction with the International Mis¬ sionary council; (g) finance and business; (h) prisoners of war; (i) promotion and publicity. A commission on women’s work in the church was established and the appointment of a secretary for evangelism authorized. A budget of $539,660 for 1949 was adopted. Headquarters of the World council were established at 17 Route de Malagnou, Geneva, Switzerland. Offices were also set up in London and at 297 Fourth avenue. New York city. (See also Christian Unity; Pacifism.) (G. B. O.)

World Federation of Trade Unions. MeJion'of Trade Unions was seriously affected in 1948 by sharp differ¬ ences among its constituent national groups on the question of the European Recovery program. The U.S. Congress of Indus¬ trial Organizations and the British Trades Union congress both desired an early meeting of the W.F.T.U. to consider trade union action in relation to ERP then under debate in the U.S. congress; but the trade unions of the east European coun¬ tries refused to allow a meeting to be convened until April, by which time it was expected that the program would have taken final shape. The British T.U.C. was urged by several trade

union centres of western Europe to convene a conference of the trade unions of the Marshall aid countries to work out a com¬ mon policy, but was reluctant to act in this way until the mat¬ ter had been debated by the W.F.T.U. In face of the failure to get a meeting of this body, however, the trade unions of Great Britain, the Netherlands and Belgium, in March, con¬ vened a conference representing 14 countries, at which a con¬ tinuing organization—the ERP Trade Union Advisory commit¬ tee—was set up. The decision to convene this conference was sharply attacked by the soviet and other communist-dominated trade union movements, and the W.F.T.U. office in Paris be¬ gan propaganda attacking the Marshall plan. The British and other affiliated centres vigorously objected to this action, and a positive split in the W.F.T.U. was narrowly averted by post¬ poning discussion of the main issues to the next W.F.T.U. con¬ ference, which was postponed to 1949. Before these disputes had become acute, the W.F.T.U. had been endeavouring to consolidate its position in relation to the United Nations and to the International Labour organization. Having the right to raise questions directly at the U.N. Eco¬ nomic and Social council, it put forward for discussion the mat¬ ters of “guarantees for the free exercise and development of trade union rights” and “equal pay for equal work.” The coun¬ cil referred the first of these issues without discussion to the I.L.O., but the W.F.T.U., objecting to this, again placed it on the agenda of the council. The W.F.T.U. was also concerned with demanding from the United Nations full recognition as a specialized agency. With the I.L.O. it established consultative relations. The attempt of the W.F.T.U. to absorb the separate inter¬ nationals of the trade unions in particular industries was held up by failure to reach agreement concerning the degree of authority to be exercised over them, and also concerning finance. The American Federation of Labor, which from the outset had refused to join the W.F.T.U. because it would not accept joint action with the soviet trade unions, continued its efforts to persuade the western trade union centres to break away; but the British and other west European groups feared the effects of a complete breach on the solidarity of their own national movements, as well as those of a complete rupture with the trade union movements of Poland and Czechoslovakia, and with the main trade union organizations in France and Italy, where ideological splits had already occurred. By the autumn, how¬ ever, the rift had become so wide that the British T.U.C. and the C.I.O. both announced their intention to leave the W.F.T.U. unless it agreed entirely to suspend operations for the time being. This proposal was rejected by the procommunist section, and by the end of the year the W.F.T.U. had definitely broken apart. (G. D. H. C.)

World Health Organization: see United Nations (U.N.) Henry Wittenberg of the New York city police department dominated wrestling in the United States during 1948 by winning his seventh National A.A.U. championship, his fourth straight in the 191-lb. class. In win¬ ning the A.A.U. crown, Wittenberg extended his string of con¬ secutive victories to more than 300. The United States Naval academy won the National A.A.U. team title with 15 points to 10 for Oklahoma A. and M. The Oklahoma team won the intercollegiate championship. Lieut. Robert Kitt in the i2S^-lb. class and Malcolm MacDonald, ii4i-lb., won individual A.A.U. titles for the naval academy. Both were from Tulsa, Okla. Other National A.A.U. winners were: i36i-lb.—^Leo Thom¬ sen, Cornell college, Mt. Vernon, la.; i47i-lb.—Newt Copple,

WYOMING—X-RAY AND RADIOLOGY University of Nebraska; ibo^-lb.—Leland Merrill, New York A.C.; 174-lb.—Dale Thomas, Marion, la.; heavyweight—Ray Gunkel, Purdue university. (See also Olympic Games.) (M. P. W.) A Rocky moun¬ tain state, ad¬ mitted to the union on July 10, 1890, as the 44th state. Having been a leader in extending rights to women, it is known as the “Equality state.” Land area 97,506 sq.mi.; water area 408 sq.mi.; pop. (1948 est. U.S. census bureau) 275,000. The 1940 census, totalling 250,742, listed rural population at 157,165; urban 93,577; 229,818 na¬ tive white; 950 Negro; 17,107 foreign born. Capital, Cheyenne (1940: 22,474). A. G. CRANE, Republican, who suc¬ Other cities of 10,000 or ceeded as governor of Wyoming to re¬ place the incumbent Lester C. Hunt, more population: Casper (17,- Democrat, who was elected U.S. sena¬ 964); Laramie (10,627); Sher¬ tor from the state on Nov. 2, 194S idan (10,529). History .—State officials during 1948, elected in Nov. 1946, were: governor, Lester C. Hunt (D.), second term; secretary of state, A. G. Crane (R.); auditor, Everett T. Copenhaver (R.); treasurer, C. J. Rogers (R.); superintendent of public instruction, Edna B. Stolt (R.). Governor Hunt, elected junior U.S. senator in Nov. 1948, resigned the governorship, and Sec¬ retary of State Crane became acting governor. Justices of the state supreme court were Fred H. Blume, Ralph Kimball and William A. Riner. The state house of representatives, elected in November, was evenly divided (28-28) between Democrats and Republicans; the state senate was Republican. The presidential vote, 1948, in Wyoming was: for Harry S. Truman 52,354; for Thomas E. Dewey 47,947.

Wyoming.

Education.—In 1947-48 there were 579 elementary and rural schools with 1,137 elementary teachers and 584 rural teachers and a total enrol¬ ment of 41,730. There were 84 accredited high schools, with 809 teachers and an enrolment of 13,046. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.— Funds spent on public welfare during the year ending Sept. 30, 1948, were as follows: old-age assistance $2,279,025; aid to dependent children $417,674; aid to the blind $62,584; general welfare $292,204; child welfare $19,099; general welfare health $296,666; total $3,367,252. There were three correctional institutions with inmates (average) and expenditures as follows: state penitentiary at Rawlins (313 inmates) expended appropriation of $331,000 and capital outlay $20,000; girls’ school at Sheridan (48 inmates) expended appropriation of $95,000 and capital outlay $197,000; boys’ industrial institute at Worland (51 in¬ mates) expended appropriation of $115,000 and capital outlay $28,000. Communications.—Wyoming had 4,450 mi. of roads in the state highway system during 1948, 4,200 of which were oiled or paved. Highway con¬ struction contracts totalling more than $15,300,000 were let in 1947 and 1948, with more than $4,000,000 spent on maintenance in the same period. There were 220 mi. of roads added to the secondary system, while 250 mi. of the primary system were improved. Railroad mileage in the state remained at 1,912 mi. Banking and Finance.—On June 30, 1948, there were 29 state banks with deposits of $69,769,947. There were 26 national banks with de¬ posits of $151,719,055. There were ten savings and loan associations, all but one insured by the federal government. Total state receipts for the fiscal year which ended Sept. 30, 1948, were $43,519,856. Total disbursements for the same period were $33,788,125. The bonded debt of the state on Sept. 30, 1948, was $1,270,000. Agriculture and Ranching.—Crop production in Wyoming during 1948 Leading Agriculfural Products of Wyoming, 1948 and 1947 Crop

Corn, bu. Winter wheat, bu.. . Spring wheat, bu.‘. . Oats, bu. Barley, bu. All hay, tons .... Dry, edible beans, cwt. Sugar beets, tons . . Potatoes, bu.

1948

1947

1,008,000 4,800,000 1,558,000 3,960,000 4,730,000 1,043,000 1,224,000 319,000 2,400,000

1,235,000 4,687,000 1,443,000 5,049,000 4,71 2,000 1,325,000 1,444,000 454,000 2,480,000

775

generally held even or was slightly below the previous year. Farm prod¬ ucts were valued at an estimated $40,000,000. Wyoming livestock products sold for approximately $115,000,000 in 1948. An estimated 400,000 head of cattle averaging about 780 lb. per head sold for an average of 27 cents per pound, bringing an estimated total of $84,240,000. About 1,400,000 head of sheep were sold, averag¬ ing about 68 lb. per head at an average price of 22 cents per pound, for a total of $20,944,000. An average of nine pounds of wool per 2,300,000 head of sheep was sold at an average price per pound of 45 cents. This brought in about $9,315,000. Mineral Production—The taxable valuation of Wyoming mineral prod¬ ucts in 1948 on 1947 production was as follows: petroleum $67,371,886; bituminous coal (all Wyoming coal is of this type) $16,042,656; iron $1,852,846; natural gas $2,263,530; bentonite $617,940; other minerals $603.SSI- The U.S. bureau of mines valued the total mineral produc¬ tion in 1947 in the state at $118,422,000. Employment—Total employment in the state as of June 1948 was estimated at around 125,000, 56,301 of whom were covered by unem¬ ployment compensation. Largest single group, ranch and agricultural workers, was estimated at 25,000; employees of interstate railroads estimated between 10,000 and 12,000; employees in all phases of the oil industry, 10,500; wholesale and retail trade, 16,000; employees of the government (all levels), about 10,000; service industries, 9,400; contract construction workers, 7,400; transportation, communication and utilities employees, 5,200; mining (metals, coal and quarrying), 4,500; products of petroleum and coal, 3,000; finance, insurance and real estate, 1,600; manufacturing, 1,500; lumber and timber basic products, 1,000; printing, publishing and allied industries, 500. (L. C. H.)

Xerography:

see Photography; Printing.

X-Ray and Radiology.

sary of the discovery of radium, there was continual interest in the radioactive isotopes. The hope that some of the isotopes might prove useful in the treat¬ ment of cancer had not yet been borne out, although there was progress in establishing the criteria that must be met in the further search for radioactive substances which may be effective in treatment of cancer. The useful isotope must have a half life which is neither too long nor too short. It must not be so long as to constitute a danger because of its long retention in the body; it must not be so short as to be relatively inert when it is introduced into the body. Also, only isotopes selectively absorbed by some organ or tissue would be of value for treat¬ ment of cancer. A committee of the Council on Physical Medicine of the American Medical association published during 1948 a timely warning on the dangers in the use of radioactive isotopes. These agents require special methods of transportation and handling in order to obviate dangers, not only to patients, but to physi¬ cians, nurses, physicists and others engaged in their use for research or treatment of disease. The Isotopes division at Oak Ridge, Tenn., established a definite program for supplying iso¬ tope-labelled compounds and adopted rules of procedure for procurement of isotopes, with a view to preventing the use of these potentially dangerous agents by persons not properly qualified. The United States public health service initiated a largescale program in 1948 for control of pulmonary tuberculosis by means of mass chest X-ray surveys. By “mass” survey is meant the X-ray examination of the entire population, above 15 years of age, of city, county or state. The examination consists in making a 70-mm. film by the photofluorographic method and supplementing this by a 14 x 17-in. conventional X-ray film of each case with positive or suspicious findings on the small film. The first survey on a large scale was made in Minneapolis, Minn., where 301,513 persons were examined. A still larger mass survey was made in Washington, D.C., from Jan. 12 to July I, 1948, in which 503,398 persons had 70-mm. films made. A significant fact in both the Minneapolis and the Washington surveys was that more than 80% of the cases of tuberculosis discovered were in a minimal stage of the disease and an addi¬ tional appreciable percentage in a moderately advanced stage. The reports indicated that in both the communities the surveys were followed by persistent, well-organized efforts for manage-

776

YACHTING —YALE UNIVERSITY

ment and treatment of the cases disclosed by the surveys. If such surveys could be rapidly extended to the entire nation, the final control of tuberculosis might be expected within a genera¬ tion. The use of the photofluorographic method of X-ray examina¬ tion had so far been practically limited to the chest. The limits of safe X-ray dosage would be greatly exceeded if the existing apparatus were used for less penetrable parts of the body, as for serial exposures. Proposals were published during 1948 for the use of faster lens systems based on the principle of the reflector camera devised by Bernhard Schmidt in 1932. In spite of its limitations, however, several reports were made on the use of the photofluorographic method for other purposes than mass chest surveys. An experimental study was conducted in the department of radiology at Johns Hopkins hospital, Balti¬ more, Md., on the application of photofluorography to the early diagnosis of gastric cancer. At the New York hospital, Cornell Medical centre. New York city, a method was devised to utilize photofluorography for angiocardiography as described by George P. Robb and Israel Steinberg in 1938. (See also Cancer; Pho¬ tography; Tuberculosis.) Bibliography.—Edith H. Quimby, “Radioactive Sodium as a Tool in Medical Research,” Am. J. Roentgenol., 58:741-753 (Dec. 1947); Ed¬ ward H. Reinhard, “Artificially Prepared Radioactive Isotopes as a Means of Administering Radiation Therapy,” Am. J. Roentgenol., 58: 757-773 (Dec. 1947); W. E. Chamberlain, R. R. Newell, L. Taylor and H. VVyckoff, “Radiation Hygiene: Hazards to Physicians, Patients, Nurses and Others from Use of Radioactive Isotopes,” J.A.M.A., 138:818-819 (Nov. 13, 1948); “Program for Supplying Isotope-Labeled Compounds,” News Items, Am. J. Roentgenol., 59:743-744 (May 1948); “Revised Pro¬ cedure for Procurement of Radioisotopes,” News Items, Am. J. Roentge¬ nol., 59:744-745 (May 1948): William Roemmich, F. J. Weber, F. J. Hill and L. Amos, “Preliminary Report on a Community-Wide Chest X-Ray Survey at Minneapolis, Minnesota,” Pub. Health Rep., 63:1285-90 (Oct. I, 1948); Paul C. Hodges, “Bernhard Schmidt and His Reflector Camera,” Am. J. Roentgenol., 59:122-131 (Jan. 1948); George S. Monk, “Optical Systems for Photofluorography,” Am. J. Roentgenol., 59:282289 (Feb. 1948); Russell H. Morgan, D. M. Gould and W. W. Van Allen, “Two Danish Photofluorographic Cameras of the Original Schmidt Type,” Am. J. Roentgenol., 59:416-419 (March 1948); L. G. Henyey and Jesse L. Greenstein, “New Types of Fast Cameras,” Am. J. Roent¬ genol., 59:565-569 (April 1948); John F. Roach, Robert D. Sloan and Russell H. Morgan, “The Early Detection of Gastrointestinal Lesions by Photofluorography,” Scientific Exhibit, Annual Meeting of the American Roentgen Ray Society, Am. J. Roentgenol., 60:556 (Oct. 1948); Harold L. Temple, Israel Steinberg and Charles T. Dotter, “A Photofluorographic Method for Angiocardiography,” Scientific Exhibit, Annual Meeting of the American Roentgen Ray Society, Ant. J. Roentgenol., 60:555 (Oct. 1948). (A. C. Ch.)

YsPhtinir

yacht races of the Olympic games, sailed on

IdullUllg* Tor bay, England, provided some of the best sail¬ ing competition of 1948, in which yachts representing the U.S. piled up a total of 22,681 points in the five classes taking part. Great Britain’s total of 20,275 was second and Sweden’s 17,487 was third. Of the five individual classes, U.S. yachts finished first in two, Herman F. Whiton’s “Llanoria” winning among the six-metres and Hilary Smart’s “Hilarius” in the Star class. The Dragon class competition was won by “Pan,” T. Thorbaldsen, Norway; the Swallow class by “Swift,” Stuart H. Mor¬ ris, England; and in the Firefly dinghy racing P. B. Elvstrom, Denmark, was the winning skipper. Two of the outstanding international six-metre trophies, the Scandinavian Gold cup and the Seawanhaka cup, were again raced for on Long Island sound with the United States, Sweden and Norway competing. U.S. yachts won both, George Nichols’ “Goose,” sailed by Briggs S. Cunningham, taking the Gold cup and “Llanoria” the Seawanhaka. The ten-year-old “Goose” be¬ came the first six-metre sloop ever to win the Gold cup a fourth time. A comparable record was set by Henry C. Taylor’s yawl “Baruna” in the biennial Newport-Bermuda race when she won the Bermuda trophy for a second time, and was the first boat in the fleet to finish for a third time in the three Bermuda races sailed since she was built in 1938. Morgan Butler’s ketch

“Malabar XIII” was the Class B winner. Capt. John H. Illingsworth’s British entry, the unconventional “Myth of Malham,” took top honours among yachts under 40-ft. over-all. “Myth” subsequently won a lion’s share of the long distance racing trophies for which she sailed after her return to England from Bermuda. Other ocean races and their winners were: Miami-Nassau race, won by “Ciclon,” Alfonso Gomez Mena, Cuba; St. Petersburg-Havana race, won by “Windjammer II,” Garner Tullis, New Orleans; Newport harbour (Calif.) to Ensenada (Mexico) race, with a record fleet of 104 starters, won by “Mickey,” Larry Barr (Ocean Racing class) and “Bassana,” A. W. Lewis (Handicap class); Swiftsure Lightship race, won by “Nautilus II,” T. H. Monroe; New London-Marblehead race, won by “Et Toi,” C. R. Hunt. On the Great Lakes some long distance race winners were; Port Huron-Mackinac race, class winners “Blitzen,” E. Grates and M. Knapp, “Kathmar,” D. Sloss, and “Gale,” Harry Nye; Chicago-Mackinac race, class winners “Cara Mia,” L. L. Karas, “Onkahya,” George Sollitt, “Taltonah,” E. B. Tolman, Jr., and “Flight,” B. H. Knapp; Roches¬ ter race, won by “Avilion,” F. M. Temple; Freeman cup, class winners “Chance,” R. C. Dixon, and “Daphne,” H. K. Detweiler. Among the national and international championships held in various classes and groups, some outstanding winners were: U.S. intercollegiate dinghy championships, won by Brown uni¬ versity, Providence, R.I.; Sears cup for U.S. junior champion¬ ships, won by Vineyard Haven (Mass.) Y.C. crew, N. D. Cassel, skipper; International Star class championship (held at Lisbon, Portugal), won by “Twin Star,” Lockwood Pirie, Chicago; Mrs. C. F. Adams cup for U.S. women’s championship, won by Larchmont (N.Y.) Y.C. crew, Aileen Shields, skipper; Snipe class international championship (held in Spain), won by C. V. Castex, Argentina; Comet class international championship, won by “Barfly,” Owen P. Merrill, Riverton, N.J.; International Lightning class championship, won by “Dodge Trophy,” Rich¬ ard P. Bertram, Miami, Fla. Henry S. Morgan’s sloop “Djinn” scored a double triumph by taking both the historic King’s and Astor cups during the New York yacht club cruise. Bermuda yachtsmen won in the L-16 class but lost to the United States team in the Interna¬ tional one-design class in the annual spring Bermuda-U.S. series held at Bermuda. John Timken’s yawl “Kitty Hawk” and Harvey Conover’s yawl “Revonoc” were the class winners in the Stamford-Vineyard long-distance race. Though material shortages in many countries and high prices in the United States and elsewhere were somewhat of a damper on new yacht construction, the sport showed a healthy growth in all parts of the world. Films.—Learning to Sail (Hawley-Lord).

YjiIp IlniVPrQitU

(W. H. Tr.)

^948, which had been expected

Idle UllIVCioliy. to bring the first relief from postwar

overcrowding, found Yale again struggling with a student popu¬ lation too large for what it deemed the most effective use of its particular educational facilities. Determined to postpone no longer the necessary reduction in numbers and the expansion of important phases of teaching. President Charles Seymour an¬ nounced in December that the undergraduate population would in four years be reduced from 5,500 to less than 3,800, and that extension of programs for American studies, directed studies and other honours work, and for Russian studies, would be undertaken forthwith. The new university council, composed of alumni prominent in all fields touching university life, continued surveys leading to recommendations for supplementing and revising the facili-

YEAST —YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTtAN ASSOCIATION ties and scope of all departments. Achievements in medicine were of significance in the national life. The department of botany isolated an organism from which was developed Chloromycetin, a new drug for the treat¬ ment of typhus and rickettsial diseases. New courses in cancer control and in hospital administration were added. Results of frontal lobotomy operations and their effect on cases of schizo¬ phrenia and other mental diseases were assayed by the school of medicine, in collaboration with public and private mental institutions. Development of a new, lightweight, collapsible respirator for treatment of infantile paralysis was completed. Yale nuclear physicists successfully constructed advanced linear and proton accelerators for atom smashing. Courses leading to the bachelor of arts degree were revised, with a more fruitful balance between required and elective courses being struck. The Institute of International Studies brought out a new quarterly magazine on world politics, and law students held their third annual forum on public affairs, with national leaders in government, education and politics participating. The library received and exhibited the famous William Rob¬ ertson Coe collection of western Americana, and Yale archae¬ ologists found new techniques for preserving Babylonian clay tablets and making them legible for translation. (For statistics of endowment, enrolment, faculty, library volumes, etc., see Universities and Colleges.) (M. E. Gy.)

Vnopf Scientists doing research in the physiology of yeast ICdola were unusually active during 1948. Among the dis¬ coveries published were the following; glutamic acid stimulates yeast growth in the presence of suboptimal concentrations of pantothenic acid; glycine is used by yeast for the synthesis of nucleic acid purines in the same manner as it is used for uric acid synthesis by human beings; the irreversible toxic action of iodoacetic acid toward yeast cells is proportional to the concentration of undissociated acid; fluoroacetate inhibits the oxidation by yeast of acetate, an intermediate in ethanol oxidation; under certain conditions, yeast can produce relatively large amounts of fat with acetate as the sole source of carbon; yeast cells with large stored carbohydrate and fat reserves have' low alcohol tolerance; yeast is able to ferment lactose directly; fructofuranose is more readily fermented by yeast than alphaglucose; in anaerobic fermentation of glucose by yeast, a large proportion of the sugar is first assimilated and converted to fer¬ mentation products only after the substrate has disappeared; yeast invertase is inactivated by mushroom tyrosinase. Turnover and distribution of phosphate compounds in yeast metabolism were studied by means of radioactive phosphorus. Carbon assimilation tests and ability to use amino acids as a nitrogen source were both shown to be valuable criteria for yeast classification. Yeast extract was shown to contain a substance, apparently not identical with known accessory factors, required for oxida¬ tion of pyruvate. Yeast added to the ration was found to counteract the toxic effects of atabrine. Advances in the technology of yeast included: active dry yeast packed in inert gas or vacuum to delay deterioration; Torula iitilis found to be the best yeast for alcoholic fermen¬ tation of wood hydrolyzates; fodder yeast grown on the nonfermentable sugars remaining after alcoholic fermentation of wood hydrolyzate; torula yeast, grown on molasses, produced commercially for animal feed use. In Nov. 1948 a nation-wide conference on food and feed yeasts was held. Patents in the field of yeast issued during 1948 included the following: continuous fermentor; improved apparatus for

777

processing brewers’ pitching yeast; method for improving taste and flavour of liquid yeast products; wrapper with absorbent lining for compressed yeast; yeast derivative having the ac¬ tivity of the so-called chick antianaemia vitamin; cultivation of yeast on air-pervious masses. Bibliography.—Wilbur H. Swanson and C. E. Clifton, “Growth and Assimilation in Cultures of Saccharomyces Cerevisiae,” Journal of Bac¬ teriology, 56:115 (1948); Elliott Juni, Martin D. Kamen, John M. Reiner and S. Spiegelman, “Turnover and Distribution of Phosphate Com¬ pounds in Yeast Metabolism,” Archives of Biochemistry, 18:587 (1948); Lynferd J. Wickerham and Kermit A. Burton, “Carbon Assimilation Tests for the Classification of Yeasts,” Journal of Bacteriology, 56:363 (1948); Alfred S. Schultz and Seymour Pomper, “Amino Acids as Nitro¬ gen Source for the Growth of Yeasts,” Archives of Biochemistry, 19:184 (1948). (F. W. N.)

Vomon

independent state in the southwestern tip of the

IGlIICll* Arabian peninsula, between Saudi Arabia to the N., the British Aden protectorate to the S.E. and the Red Sea to the W. Area; c. 31,000 sq.mi.; pop. (1948 est.): 1,600,000. Lan¬ guage: Arabic. Religion: Moslem and Jewish (c. 5%). Capital; San'a (pop. est.; 25,000). Ruler; Sayf al-Islam Ahmad ibn Yahya. History.—At the beginning of the year 1948 it was reported that Imam Yahya, who had acceded in 1904 and was reputed to be more than 80 years old, had become partially paralyzed, and on Jan. 15 it was reported that he had died and that the assembly of ulemas and notables at San'a had elected Sayyid Abdullah Ibn Ahmed al Wazir as his successor. This report proved premature, but on Feb. 17 Imam Yahya was assassi¬ nated, with his chief minister and three others. The Arab gov¬ ernments were then informed by telegram that Sayyid Abdullah had, in fact, been acclaimed as imam in due form and that a new government, which claimed to be constitutional and pro¬ gressive, had been formed. The Arab league withheld recogni¬ tion and sent a fact-finding mission to San'a. Two of the imam’s many sons were killed in rioting after the assassination, while another. Prince Ibrahim, who had been imprisoned by his father and had been living in Aden after his release, supported the new government. Prince Ahmad, however, the eldest son, who had been designated by his father as his successor and called crown prince, raised an army in the coastal area where he had been his father’s viceroy, and challenged the new regime. His army, commanded by his brother Abbas, was successful and entered San'a without much fighting on March 13. Sayyid Ab¬ dullah and his associates were captured, and later he and about 30 others were reported to have been executed. Another report stated that Prince Ibrahim had been arrested and later released by his brother, that he had then returned to San'a and after demonstrations in his favour had mysteriously died. Though the revolutionary regime had found a number of sympathizers in the Arab countries, it had appealed in vain for outside help, and the Arab league’s political committee was quick, in a resolution of March 21, to recommend unanimously the recognition of Imam Ahmad. He received also the congratulations of the other Arab monarchs, and was recognized at once by Great Britain, other powers following suit. (C. He.) Finance and Foreign Trade.—The monetary unit is the Maria Theresa dollar, called the riyal, nominally = Rs.i (Indian) or about 30 cents U.S. The principal exports are coffee, hides and skins. Imports are principally manufactured goods.

Young Men’s Christian Association. Men s 0^' tian association is a world-wide fellowship seeking to improve the spiritual, social, recreational and physical life of young people, particularly young men and boys. The 1,513 Y.M.C.A.s in the United States reported 1,701,463 members at the end of 1948. Enrolments in various activi¬ ties totalled 3,152,428. The programs sought to deal with

778

YOUNG WOMENS CHRrSTIAN ASS*N —YUGOSLAVIA

physical and health, educational, recreational and religious needs, and provided personal and vocational counselling, resi¬ dence and food services. Funds exceeding $34,000,000 were on hand for new buildings and modernization of existing plants. More than 228,000 high school boys were enrolled in 8,641 Hi-Y clubs and 66,698 high school girls in 2,265 Tri-Hi-Y clubs. Special youth-and-government programs were conducted in 18 states in co-operation with the state governments and the universities. Since the first, held in 1936, 64 such youth legislatures composed of high school youths had been held, with attendances in excess of 2,000,000. Services among the armed forces were extended, at official request, to 43 military locations in the United States and over¬ seas. The reactivation of the United Service Organizations on a somewhat different basis than during World War II brought heavy additional responsibilities. More than $5,000,000 of an $8,650,000 objective for the World Youth fund for restoring buildings and strengthening Y.M.C.A.s in war-devastated countries of Europe and Asia had been raised by Oct. 1948. Secretaries of the permanent World Service staff of the North American associations were serving in more than 30 countries. Official consultative relations with the United Nations were maintained through the World’s Com¬ mittee of Y.M.C.A.s at Geneva, Switz., and New York. Expenditures by Y.M.C.A.s in the United States totalled $95,944,100 during the year, while capital investments totalled $235,929,000. Officers were Eugene R. McCarthy, president, and Eugene E. Barnett, general secretary. Headquarters of the National Council of the Y.M.C.A.s were at 347 Madison avenue, New York 17, N.Y. (0. E. P.) Great Britain.—During 1948, the Y.M.C.A., with a mem¬ bership of about 88,000, increased its varied religious, cultural, social and physical activities in more than 450 centres through¬ out the British Isles. Similar programs served the needs of British forces in more than 300 centres at home and in a dozen overseas countries. Further Christian youth leadership courses were held in the British army of the Rhine and new service centres were opened in the United Kingdom, East Africa, Greece, Malta and Gibraltar. There was a rapid expansion of community services when the Y.M.C.A. accepted responsi¬ bility for 30,000 European voluntary workers, as well as con¬ tinuing the normal training of 700 British boys a year for agri¬ cultural work, the maintenance of hostels for industrial workers and horticultural students, and the operation of 26 volunteer agricultural camps. Special educational projects at Chestnut college, Kingsgate, Kent, and Rhoose, Glamorganshire, in¬ creased in effectiveness, as also did the training of more than 1,000 young volunteer leaders. Sir Frank Willis continued as general secretary of the National Council of Y.M.C.A.s, and Kay Dickson, as general secretary of the Scottish National Council. Other Countries.—The World Alliance of Y.M.C.A.s con¬ tinued to fulfil the decisions of the 1947 plenary meeting at Edinburgh. Activities included large-scale joint Y.M.C.A. and Y.W.C.A. work with displaced persons in Germany; substantial assistance to the German Y.M.C.A., numbering more than 200,000 members; continuing reconstruction of war-damaged asso¬ ciations in Poland, the Philippines, China, Japan and Germany; and new work begun in Abyssinia, Madagascar, Burma and cen¬ tral Africa. World membership rose to about 2,500,000. John Forrester-Paton of Scotland continued as president, and Dr. Tracy Strong of the U.S.A. as general secretary. (R. W. J. K.)

Young Womens Christian Association. The role of women in the postwar world was the focus of the

first International Study Conference on Women and World Reconstruction, held at Teachers college, Columbia university, New York city, from Aug. 18 to Sept. 14, 1948, under the auspices of the Foreign division of the National board of the Young Womens Christian Associations of the United States. Forty-five members of Y.W.C.A.s from 27 nations and 10 American secretaries attended the conference to prepare for leadership in their own lands in the future. Under the guidance of a distinguished faculty they examined the political, social, religious and economic forces of the day. Inaugurated during the year was national Y.W.C.A. week, April 25-30, which turned the spotlight of national publicity on housing as it affected women particularly, and the first Y-Teen Roll-Call week, Oct. 11-16, which enlisted new members for this 12 to 18 age group. Both events were observed by the 435 community associations. The Y.W.C.A. membership of 3,000,000 women and girls also marked World Fellowship week, Nov. 14-20, with appropriate services. Mrs. Arthur Forrest Anderson was re-elected president for a third term and Mrs. Harrison S. Elliott remained general secretary of the National board of the Y.W.C.A., which had headquarters at 600 Lexington Ave., New York 22, N.Y. Con¬ tinuing publications were: The Woman’s Press and The Book¬ shelf. (M. E. S.) Great Britain.—The focal point for work and plans during 1948 was the biennial conference held in London July 16-21, which was attended by 500 delegates from all parts of the country and visitors from 31 countries. In the club centres, educational work expanded and strength¬ ened in variety and standard, particularly where this concerned public affairs. Drama and music were the bases of several co¬ operative efforts. In comparison with 1939, drama group mem¬ bership increased by 151%. Hostel work went steadily forward, the largest hostel, Helen Graham house, in central London, being opened on May 25. Hostels were also run for government ministries and depart¬ ments and for private firms, among the latter being one in Flintshire for European voluntary workers learning rayon manufacture and one in East Anglia for trainees at a silk fac¬ tory. Holiday houses served more than 3,000 visitors, and there were many exchange visits between British Y.W.C.A. members and members in other countries. Service centres in Britain still catered to women serving in the forces, and, in Germany, Austria, Greece and the middle east, to servicewomen. Control commission staff and families of soldiers serving abroad. Representatives continued to work in camps for displaced persons. (M. Kr.) YllPn^IPVi/l

^ federal people’s republic of southeastern

luguoiavia. Europe, bounded on the north by Austria, on the north and northeast by Hungary and Rumania, on the east by Bulgaria, on the south by Greece and on the west by Albania, the Adriatic sea and Italy. Area; (1940) 95,983 sq.mi.; (1947, including newly acquired territory of Istria and the Julian march [2,843 sq.mi.]) 98,826 sq.mi.; pop.: (1940 est.), 15,703,000; (March 15, 1948, census), 15,751,935- Federal repub¬ lics (pop. 1948 census): Serbia, 6,523,224; Croatia, 3,749,039; Slovenia, 1,389,084; Bosnia and Hercegovina, 2,561,961; Mace¬ donia, 1,152,054; Montenegro, 376,573. Languages: SerboCroat, Slovene and Macedonian; Albanian, German and Hun¬ garian are also spoken by the minorities. Religions (1931 census): Greek Orthodox, 48.7%; Roman Catholic, 37.5%; Moslem, 11.2%. Chief towns (1948 census): Belgrade (federal cap. and cap. of Serbia, 388,246); Zagreb (cap. of Croatia, 290,417); Ljubljana (cap. of Slovenia, 120,944); Sarajevo (cap. of Bosnia, 118,158); Skoplje (cap. of Macedonia, 91,557); Tito-

YUGO grad, formerly Podgorica (cap. of Montenegro, 12,206); Subotica (112,551); Novi Sad (77,127); Rijeka, formerly Fiume (72,130); Maribor (66,498); Nis (50,692). President of the republic: Ivan Ribar; prime minister; Marshal Josip Brozovich or Broz (Tito) {q.v.). History .—In January a reorganization of the Yugoslav cen¬ tral government took place. The ministry of industry was divided into two departments for heavy and light industry, while the ministries of agriculture and forestry were combined in one. On May 6 it was announced that the minister of light industry, Andrija Hebrang, and the minister of finance, Sreten Zujovitch, both very prominent members of the Communist party, were relieved of their duties. A month later they were declared expelled from the People’s Front (Yugoslavia’s Com¬ munist-led political organization). About the same time it was announced that on July 21 the Communist party of Yugoslavia would hold its first congress since World War II. Then, on June 28, came the publication in the Czech Communist party news¬ paper Rude Pravo of the communique of the Cominform by which the Yugoslav party was expelled from that organization. The accusations made in the Cominform statement and those in the letters of the soviet All-Union Communist party fell into three main categories: economic policy, party organization and Yugoslav-soviet relations. Great exception was taken to a phrase from a speech made by Tito in Zagreb in Nov. 1946, in which he had said that the peasants were the strongest pillar of the state. Not only was this “in complete contradiction with the principles of MarxismLeninism, which considered that in Europe and in the countries of people’s democracy the working class and not the peasantry was the most progressive and the most revolutionary class,” but it failed to take account of class differences in the villages, treat¬ ing the peasants erroneously as a simple class. This led the Cominform to the conclusion that the Yugoslav leaders were exponents of the Bukharinist heresy that capitalism could peace¬ fully grow into socialism. Moreover, the indictment continued, in order to meet criticisms from the All-Union Communist party on these points, the Yugoslav leaders suddenly rushed into ill-considered legislation of a more left-wing nature than cir¬ cumstances warranted, thereby showing themselves guilty of Trotskyism. The further nationalization measures of the spring, directed against small industrial enterprises and shops, were examples of such tactics. They were an undignified manoeuvre which could only compromise the banner of socialist construc¬ tion in Yugoslavia. One of the Cominform’s criticisms of the party organization in Yugoslavia was that party officials were not elected, but appointed or co-opted, and that there was not free criticism within the party ranks. More convincing was criticism of the curious secretiveness of the Yugoslav party. In all the other people’s democracies government had been by a coalition, in which from the beginning Communists had the leadership, and used it to bring the other parties, in course of time, into com¬ plete subjection. The original loose coalitions grew into mono¬ lithic mass organizations directed by the Communists. In this process Yugoslavia had started earlier, and gone further, than the other countries. But whereas in the other countries Com¬ munist parties existed openly, side by side with the “fronts,” in Yugoslavia the Communist party hid behind the fagade of the front, and Tito in the autumn of 1947 declared that the Com¬ munist party had no program of its own other than that of the front. This was anathema to the Cominform, which accused the Communists of the Russian pre-1917 revolutionary sins of “menshevism” and “liquidatorism.” The Yugoslav leaders re¬ plied that the front was, in fact, completely controlled by Communists, and was an instrument by which Communist pol-

LAYIA

779

icy was spread through the broad popular masses, not one by which the Communists merged themselves in a vague popular movement. But the published correspondence showed that the most im¬ portant accusation was that Yugoslavia was being unfaithful to the Soviet Union. The Yugoslav assistant foreign minister, Vladimir Velebit, and the former ambassador in London, Ljubo Leontitch, were described as “British spies.” The Yugoslav political police and its chief. Colonel General Aleksandar Rankovitch, were accused of having watched soviet subjects as if they were citizens of a bourgeois state. On the other hand, it was called intolerably presumptuous for the Yugoslav leaders to object when the soviet intelligence service recruited individual Yugoslav subjects to spy on the leaders. It was megalomania when the Yugoslav Communists took pride in their .war effort; it was no greater, they were told, than that of the Communists of neighbouring countries, and less than that of the French or Italian Communists. Yugoslavia was liberated by the soviet army. The most striking thing about these reproaches was that every instance given referred only to mildly critical remarks by Yugoslavs about the U.S.S.R. There was no evidence of any act hostile to the U.S.S.R. or favourable to the “western imperialists.” Denunciation by the Cominform did not result in capitulation by Tito or revolt by what the Cominform called the “healthy Marxist elements in the Yugoslav party.” The Yugoslav Com¬ munist party held its congress at the end of July, and all pro¬ posals and speeches of its leaders were received with the cus¬ tomary “unanimous enthusiasm.” The only jarring incident was the attempted escape across the Rumanian frontier of the war¬ time chief of staff of Tito’s army. Colonel General Arso Yovanovitch. He was shot by a frontier guard on Aug. 12. In the capitals of soviet-dominated countries some Yugoslav diplo¬ mats broke with their government, but most remained loyal. At the same time, though refusing to surrender to the Comin¬ form or to allow its partisans to get control of the party, Tito equally refused to make concessions to non-Communists. At the beginning of 1948 a former member of parliament of the Croatian Peasant party, Toma Jancikovitch, had been sen¬ tenced to ten years’ imprisonment. Other arrests of “reac¬ tionaries” took place during the year. Tito continued to support the Greek Communist guerrilla forces under Gen. Markos Vafiades, and took part in a frontier incident near Kaimakcalan in September. This policy was some¬ what incomprehensible in view of the fact that Markos’ other two protectors, the governments of Albania and Bulgaria, not only strongly supported the Cominform denunciation, but also had territorial ambitions at the expense of both Greece and Yugoslavia. The central committee of the Albanian Communist party published in July a statement denouncing the Yugoslav Com¬ munists. Economic relations with Yugoslavia were broken off, and Yugoslav “experts” expelled. {See also Albania; Bul¬ garia.)

A speech of Tito in October admitted economic difficulties created by the other people’s democyacies which were the nat¬ ural suppliers of Yugoslavia. Polish coal, Czech machinery and Rumanian oil were obviously important. A delegation went to Moscow in the autumn to renew the 1947 trade agreement, but by the end of the year nothing had been settled. Negotia¬ tions with Czechoslovakia were also unsuccessful. In the third week of December, however, a treaty with Britain was signed, including terms of compensation to expropriated British firms acceptable to both governments. As the year closed, Tito was still maintaining his independent policy, rejecting the “base calumnies” from Moscow and the

780

YUKON TERRITO RY—ZIRCONIUM

satellite countries, yet eschewing contact with the “imperialists,” using his police against both pro-Cominform Communists and all anti-Communists, committed to a grandiose economic plan requiring large imports, yet unable to come to terms with any of the countries from which these could be obtained. (H. S-W.) Education—(1946-47) Elementary schools 10,747, pupils c. 1,500,000; secondary schools 405, pupils c. 230,000; technical schools 670, pupils c. 58,000; continuation technical schools iii, pupils c. 16,000; advanced technical courses 526, pupils c. 9,500; universities (1939-40) 3, students 17.734. professors and lecturers 1.271. Banking and Finance.—Budget (1947-48 est.); revenue 85,854,000,000 dinars; expenditure 85,854,000,000 dinars. Monetary unit; dinar. Ex¬ change rate: 1 dinar = 2 cents U.S. (1948). Transport and Communications.-—Roads (1947) 20,646 mi. Railway mileage 6,717 (1947). Motor vehicles in use (Dec. 1947): cars 10,500, commercial vehicles c. 4,000. Shipping (July 1947): vessels (of 100 gross tons and over) 113, tonnage 172,186. Telephone subscribers (1939) 62,194. Radio licences (1947) 210,000. Agriculture.—Main crops 1946 (in metric tons): wheat 1,782,000; rye 169,000; barley 191,000; oats 160,000; maize 1,518,000; potatoes 400,000; beans 23,000; oilseeds 36,000; sugar (raw value) (1948) 96,000; cotton (1947) 2,000; wine (1939, hectolitres) 4,738,000. Industry.—Industrial enterprises (1939) 3,254. Fuel and power (1939): coal and lignite 6,068,000 metric tons; electricity 1,100,000,000 kw.hr.; crude oil 33,001 long tons. Raw materials (in long tons): bauxite (11944) 150,300; antimony ore (content) (1940) 5,700; chrome ore (1940) 69,897; copper ore (content) (1940) 46,210; iron ore (content) (1940) 586,331; lead ore (content) (1940) 68,000; manganese ore (1940) 10,471; pyrites (1940) 946,847; zinc (content) (1938) 41,000; silver (1939) 2,300,000 oz.; gold (1940) 75,000 oz.

Viil/nn Tol'ntnru

most northwesterly political division of Canada, was created in 1898; it is bounded by Alaska, British Columbia, the Northwest Terri¬ tories and the Arctic ocean. The area is 207,076 sq.mi., of which 1,730 are fresh water; pop.: (1941) 4,914, (1948 est.) 8,000. The capital is Dawson. (When the 1947 Redistribution act would become effective, the political division would be ex¬ tended to take in “that part of the district of Mackenzie in the Northwest Territories lying west of the 109th meridian of west longitude,” and would be known as Yukon-Mackenzie.) The Yukon is administered by a three-member territorial legislative council elected triennially, and is represented federally by one member of parliament. History.—In 1948, by amendments to the Yukon act, the positions of commissioner and administrator were re-established (they had been abolished in 1918), replacing the controllership; provision was made for holograph wills; the control of the im¬ portation of liquor was vested in the commissioner instead of the governor-in-council. In the fiscal year 1947-48 the federal government collected $1,548,701 in Yukon revenues and spent $2,045,019 for administration and development. Other significant 1948 developments included the extension of the Veterans’ Land act $2,32o-grant provisions to Yukon vet¬ erans, the extension of “all-up” air mail to the Yukon through feeder lines and the celebration of the 25th anniversary of radio broadcasting in the territory (with 13 commercial stations licensed, in addition to the stations of the Canadian army Yukon radio system).

TUKull I vrrilDry>

Transportation—Freight movement during 1947 on the Yukon river systems totalled 10,001 tons northbound and 3,537 tons southbound, and on the White Pass-Yukon railway 35,558 tons northbound and 4,985 tons southbound. Because the Alaska highway by-passed Dawson and Mayo Landing, the federal government began in 1948 to convert the White Horse-Dawson-Mayo Landing winter road into an all-weather highway. Throughout 1948, Canadian Pacific Air Lines provided daily flights from Vancouver to Yukon points. Pan American Airways serviced White Horse on its Seattle-Fairbanks run, and five charter operators flew out of White Horse, Carcross and Dawson. furs.—The production of furs experienced a decided slump in 1947. Pelts taken for the five annual periods ending June 30, 1943, to 1947, numbered, respectively: 52,897, 78,005, 87,292, 107,252, 58,777. Minerals.—^The 1948 amendments to the Yukon Placer and Yukon Quartz Mining acts included simplification provisions for grouping claims and extension of the area in which leases could be granted. Federal topographical survey experts confirmed active silver-lead mining in the Galena-Keno hills near Mayo Landing, where high-grade ore and concentrates were sacked and shipped to U.S. smelters. The removal of uranium mining from federal monopoly restrictions, and the establish¬ ment of a minimum price of $2.75 per pound for ore of a specified

uranium content stimulated the search for radioactive minerals in the territory, but no major strikes were reported by the end of the year. In 1948 the Tantalus Butte coal mine was put into operation with financial assistance of $150,000 from the federal government, in the form of a loan repayable from production. The value of mineral (gold, silver and lead) production in 1947 was $2,095,508; that for 1946 was $1,693,904. {See also Canada, Dominion of.) (C. Cy.)

Zanzibar and Pemba:

see British East Africa.

The output of zinc from the major producing coun• tries and the estimated world total are shown in Table I. Aside from the U.S.S.R., production reports were almost all filled in. Table I.— World Production of Zinc, 1939~47 (In thousands of short tons)

Australia. Belgium . . . • « Canada . France. Germany. Great Britain . . . Italy. Japan . Mexico. Netherlands. . • • Northern Rhodesia . Norwoy. Poland. Spain. United States . • .

1939

1941

1943

1944

1945

1946

1947

79.8 205.1 175.6 67.3 254.6 58.3 39.0 56.5 39.0 22.4 14.2 50.6 120.0 14.8 507.2

87.0 42.6 213.6 28.6 350.1 75.3 42.8 68.5 42.6 4.1 15.2 7.1 2 21.1 822.0

84.8 30.6 206.5 22.6 343.9 77.5 27.8 67.1 60.0 5.0 15.0 16.9 2 2i.2 942.3

88.2 9.6 168.5 9.7 286.2 80.7

93.8 12.9 183.3 9.3 2 69.5 1.7 20.4 54.0 — 17.1 10.2 40.1 19.1 764.6

85.4 95.0 185.7 33.5 31.3 73.1 16.8 12.4 46.3 2.2 19.2 33.3 62.4 19.4 772.4

77.7 146.7 178.2 50.7 22.9 76.4 28.6 16.4 62.5 10.5 23.7 38.1 79.1 21.8 802.5

Total.

1,930

2,030

—

69.0 54.3 2.3 16.2 13.0 2 19.9 869.3 1,790

1,400

1,550

1,740

The production rate in Europe had recovered to about twothirds of the prewar level. United States .—The salient features of the zinc industry of the United States are shown in Table II, as reported by the U.S. bureau of mines. Table M.—Data of Zinc Industry in the U.S., 7 939-47 *

Mine production. . » Smelter production. . Domestic ores. . . Foreign ores . . . Imports. In ore. Metal. Secondary recovery . Stocks. Producers' .... Consumers*. . . • Consumption ....

lln thousonds of short tons)

1939

1941

1943

583.8 507.2 491.1 16.2 67.0 36.1 30.9 189.6 2 86.3

749.1 822.0 652.6 169.4 323.8 289.2 34.6 284.0 92.0 25.1 66.9 827.4

744.2 942.3 594.2 348.1 593.2 537.0 56.2 368.5 261.0 170.6 90.4 816.8

2

626.0

1944 718.6 869.3 574.5 294.8 486.3 422.7 63.6 345.5 298.5 233.7 64.8 888.6

1945 614.4 764.6 467.1 297.5 478.8 381.7 97.1 360.4 328.6 256.2 72.4 852.3

1946 574.8 772.4 459.2 269.1 376.8 272.1 104.7 300.7 269.2 176.2 93.0 801.2

1947 637.6 802.5 510.1 292.4 370.3 298.0 72.4 ? 149.3 68.6 80.7 786.4

Although the 1947 output was appreciably better than that of 1946, the second half of the year lagged behind the first half and this lowered rate extended through the first half of 1948. Then in the third quarter production was cut still further by a strike, reducing the total for the nine months to 453,088 tons of mine output. During the first ten months of 1948 the smelter output was 702,264 tons, practically the same rate as in 1947. Canada.—Zinc production in Canada dropped from 235,310 short tons in 1946 to 213,980 tons in 1947, including 178,111 tons of metal and 35,^79 tons of recoverable zinc in ore and concentrates exported. Output in the first three quarters of 1948 was 174,859 tons, an increase of 15% over the same period of 1947. (q. a. Ro.)

yirmnilim

production of zirconium ores in the United

LllbUlllUIII. States amounted to 12,375 short tons in 1947, the first year in which output was reported, though operations Dofo on Zirconium Industry in the United States, 1941-47 (In short tons) Zircon

Imports • • • • Shipments • • • . Stocks Industry • • •

1941

1942

1943

1944

1 1,341 5,766

11,582 8,954

11,317 14,484

17,144 15,988

11,152 20;555

6,705

8,197

4,867

6,313

5,059

?

15,283

8,891

2,332

792

2,432

4,619

1945

1946

1947

30,873 ?

Baddeleyite

Imports . • . .

ZOOLOGY

781

had been under way for several years; the concentration of zircon sands had been started in Florida as a war measure. The domestic output was considerably surpassed by imports of zir¬ con, mainly from Australia, and of baddeleyite from Brazil. Such data as were available are shown in the table. About two-thirds of the consumption goes into ceramics, and the other third is divided between refractories and alloys. (G. A. Ro.)

ZOOlOfifV

^948 there was a notable increase in the o'* facilities for co-operation among zoologists. Several international organizations met for the first time after World War II and a new organization, the American Institute of Bio¬ logical Sciences, sponsored by the National Research council, was formally established with 12 charter member societies on Feb. 20, 1948. Under the sponsorship of the newly formed organization, the American Society of Zoologists met jointly with the American Association for the Advancement of Science at its centennial meeting in Washington, D.C., Sept. 11-13, 1948. A total of 204 papers were listed for this meeting. Research and Publication.—From among the thousands of zoological publications it is possible to do no more than select a few to illustrate the range and diversity of research interest. Embryology and Anatomy.—In his review of developmental physiology, J. S. Nicholas included an account of work done during World War II in European laboratories as well as short summaries of the results reported in 130 papers in the fields of experimental morphology, biochemistry of the embryo, develop¬ ment of the nervous system and placental structure and func¬ tion. V. Hamburger described the pattern of cell division in the spinal cord of developing chick embryos. P. Weiss and Helen B. Hiscoe found that, in both normal and regenerating nerves of birds and mammals, material accumulated on the cell-body side of constricted nerve fibres. They concluded that new proto¬ plasm was constantly being produced by the cell bodies of nerve cells and flowing along the fibres (axons) at a rate great enough to replace that used up in metabolism. S. M. Rose studied the regeneration of limbs in salamanders and showed that, contrary to expectation, the epidermis which moved over the stump of an amputated limb gave rise to the “regeneration” cells which detached from the epidermis and differentiated into cartilage, bone, muscle and other tissues. J. W. Saunders, Jr., independ¬ ently showed that the epidermis had a hitherto unsuspected importance in the normal development of the limbs of chick embryos; when the epidermal tip was removed, further axial growth at the apex of the limb was suppressed. Symposia on various aspects of animal pigmentation were held in connection with the meetings of the British Association for the Advancement of Science at Brighton, Eng., and at the 13th International Congress of Zoology at Paris, France, July 21-26, 1948. The New York Academy of Sciences published the results of a conference on normal and pathological pigment cells in man and other vertebrates. G. H. Parker summarized the work done on animal colour change from 1910 to 1943 and Mary E. Rawles reviewed recent work on the origin of pig¬ ment cells and pigment patterns in vertebrates. Geographical Distribution.—T. Gilsen, in a review of the geo¬ graphical distribution and means of dispersal of air-borne micro¬ organisms (aerial plankton), showed that they are not limited by the ordinary geographical barriers, but are found wherever climatic and other environmental factors are suitable for their growth and propagation. P. J. Darlington, Jr., brought together a wealth of widely scattered information about the distribution of cold-blooded vertebrates. He concluded that some fresh¬ water fishes may have come from the sea independently; that

RADIOGRAPH of a pregnant soft-shell turtle showing the eight eggs within her body; one of a series of radiographs taken at inlervais, in 1948, by Rainer Zangerl of the Chicago Museum of Natural History, to throw light on formerly invisible structures in fossil specimens by comparison with the reproductive process of living species

the major groups of cold-blooded land vertebrates (reptiles and amphibians) probably developed in the old world tropics and spread from there into less hospitable regions; and, finally, that their present distribution gives no ground for the supposition that there have been any great changes in the geography of the earth since Cretaceous times, but that “intermittent land con¬ nections between Eurasia and North America, between North and South America and perhaps between Asia and Australia” are sufficient to account for the distribution of these animals. Albert Wolf son, on the other hand, proposed that the long migratory flights of some birds from hemisphere to hemisphere could be used to support the theory of continental drift, a large-scale geographical change. His assumption that patterns of migration were established at a time when the continents were close together was critically examined and rejected by Dean Amadon, who marshalled the palaeontological evidence

ZOOLOGY

782

against this view. Natural History and Ecology.—T. Park reported the results of an extensive study of competition between flour beetles of different species {Tribolium confusum and T. castaneutn). When small numbers of either species were cultured under con¬ trolled conditions and the flour upon which they subsist was changed at regular intervals, the populations increased to a stable number, which was thereafter maintained indefinitely. If, however, small numbers of both species were introduced into the same container one or the other ultimately became extinct; the surviving species then reached its stable population level. Among the books that received considerable notice were two on conservation; Fairfield Osborn’s Our Plundered Planet and William Vogt’s The Road to Survival. Frank A. Beach in his Hormones and Behavior brought together a large body of objec¬ tive data on animal behaviour, especially sexual behaviour, in relation to hormones. The extension of the methods of sys¬ tematic zoology to man by Alfred C. Kinsey, W. B. Pomeroy, and C. E. Martin in their Sexual Behavior in the Human Male was favourably received by biologists, some of whom compared the book with Darwin’s Origin of Species as marking the be¬ ginning of a new era in the study of man. Comprehensive books on more specialized subjects were represented by C. J. Her¬ rick’s The Brain of the Tiger Salamander and The Avian Egg by A. L. Romanoff and Anastasia J. Romanoff. {See also En¬ docrinology;

Entomology;

Genetics;

Marine

Biology;

Palaeontology; Physiology.) Bibliography.—Dean Amadon. Science, io8 (1948); P. J. Darling¬ ton, Jr., Quarterly Review of Biology, 23 (1948); T. Gilsen, Biological Reviews, 23 (1948); V. Hamburger, Journal of Comparative Neurology, 88 (1948); New York Academy of Sciences, Special Publications, 6 (1948); J. S. Nicholas, “Developmental Physiology,” Annual Review of Physiology, vol. 10 (1948); T. Park, Ecological Monographs, 18 (1948); G. H. Parker, Animal Colour Changes (1948); Mary E. Rawles, Physiological Reviews, 28 (1948); S. M. Rose, Journal of Experiments Zoology, 108 (1948); J. W. Saunders, Jr., Journal of Experimental Zoology, 108 (1948); P. Weiss and Helen B. Hiscoe, Journal of Experi¬ mental Zoology, 107 (1948); Albert Wolfson, Science, 108 (1948). Films.—Animal Life at Skansen (Scandia Films); Animal Neighbors (Coronet Instructional Films); Bird Migration (Heidenkamp Nature Pictures). ^ (G. P. Du S.)

Zoological Parks.—Europe.—A rivalry which had long ex¬ isted among managements of European zoos, in 1948 seemed to have been disposed of through the offices of the newly founded

International Society of the Directors of Zoological Gardens. Membership included directors from most European countries; a free and generous exchange of plans, collections and other means of assistance were the main principles of the new society. Two original devices, one for the holding of birds, and the other for reptiles without the usual obvious means of restraint were designed by Walter van den Bergh and were completed in the Antwerp zoo. Certain birds were shown in brightly lighted cages, the fronts of which were without obstruction on the visitor’s side. A reflecting trough holding fluorescent lamps formed the frame of the clear opening, thus intensely illumi¬ nating the cage. The principle was based on the observation that most diurnal birds will mot leave an illuminated environ¬ ment to invade an area of darkness as is the public space be¬ yond the cages. The innovation in cages for reptiles also elimi¬ nated glass and wire cage fronts. Instead, a refrigerated panel in the floor of the cage at the front of it proved to be a barrier which the animals would not trespass after one “shock” ex¬ perience. United States.—The New York Zoological society announced a plan to offer a training and educational program to a small group of university seniors and graduates. The instruction would be given at the Zoological park during the summer; members of the park staff and other natural history institutions would pre¬ sent special information on the management of the collection and the conduct of the park. In addition to information gained through lectures, students would actively participate in the cus¬ todial care of the animals and assist in the various laboratories and other departments. Many ambitious plans for the enlargement of collections and for the construction of buildings and enclosures were aban¬ doned; funds granted in previous years were found to be in¬ adequate. Several cities, notably Detroit, opened children’s zoos. Among animals imported were 5 gorillas, 15 orangutans and a pair of adult Indian rhinoceroses; the latter were brought by the collector, Ralph Graham, to the Chicago Zoological park. Fletcher A. Reynolds, director of zoological gardens, Cleveland, O., was elected president of the American Association of Zoo¬ logical Parks and Aquariums. (Ro. B.)

783

the present and its

The contributions on the following pages are an attempt to examine some of the more outstanding events of 1948, under four main headings, and to relate them to the prior developments from which they emerged. This is done by directing the reader to appropriate articles and parts of articles in the Encyclopaedia Britannica and in Britannica Junior. By examining this background of material the reader of the Book of the Year 1949 will be able to have a fuller understanding and appreciation of present events and their roots in history.

roots in the past

{Numbered footnotes are direct references to articles in Encyclopaedia Britan¬ nica; the titles of the articles are in capitals, and parts of articles in italics. Other articles in Encyclopaedia Britannica and Britannica Junior for general reading under each numbered section of the four main headings are indicated throughout the text of the following pages. There are no footnote references to Britannica Junior; general background references to articles in Britannica Junior are in capital letters.)

CULTURAL SURVEY By Norman Cousins

Editor, Saturday Review of Literature

IThe

year 1948, like the preceding years since the end of World War II, was a period conspicuously lacking in welldefined cultural purpose. It was a period which reflected an al¬ most universal underlying uneasiness and insecurity—despite the surface manifestations in the United States of a throbbing and swollen economic prosperity. There was a tentative nature to the times and the artistic products of the times; and the uncertainty it produced was all the greater and more important precisely be¬ cause it was lodged in the subconscious rather than the conscious. The United States lived and made its decisions on a shiny surface of well-being and affluence, but the false reality revealed itself in the lack of any genuine optimism. Deep down inside people there was a restlessness and a pessimism that often affflcts those on the advantageous side of a grotesque disparity. Despite the Marshall plan and other aid, Americans knew, even if they didn’t say much about it, that they were the occupants of the big house on the top of the hill and that people were living in the valley, many of whom were envious or resentful. Along with this was the basic sense of insecurity related to the continuing world crisis and the existence of an absolute weapon that was supremely well adapted to the demolition of a highly industrialized nation such as the United States, it being clear to thinking Americans that they could not maintain an indefinite monopoly on atomic weap¬ ons or other even more hideous tools of mass destruction. There were, however, indications that out of the groping and intellectual floundering produced by this uneasiness there was in the making a period of introspection and soul-searching as in¬ tensive and extensive as anything Americans had known in their history. Re-examination and reappraisal had always been funda¬ mental aspects of genuine cultural activity, but the peculiar cir¬ cumstances of a world caught, in Walter Lippmann’s phrase, by a "perilous drift,” gave real impetus and direction to an emerging cultural emphasis on search and revaluation.! The absence of values was being felt. There was a growing tendency among thinking people to inquire whether this was the normal condition of a materialism that was yielding a large bounty for the mo¬ ment, or whether something had been lost en route that had to be regained, or whether only new values could restore that vital sense of inner balance without which long-range democratic progress would be impossible.^ It would be a long time before people would find the answers, for these speculations led logically, perhaps inevitably, to a con¬ sideration of the state of man in the modern world. It seemed that a new war was in the making; that such a war would cancel out 1,000 years of progress, and that the casualties would outnumber the survivors. But increasingly, in books, sermons, lectures and private discussions, it was felt that the answers were not to be found in politics alone, whether on a national or world level—however indispensable world government might be as the

first step. Fundamentally—and over the longer range—the problem was deep within man himself. The age-old debate as to whether he was basically competitive or co-operative, selfish or altruistic, good or evil, would have to be resolved soon.^ Little wonder that a book titled Human Destiny by Lecomte du Noiiy was so widely read, talked about and thought about in 1948. Little wonder that there were so many books which attempted to provide men with a better understanding of themselves or to give them the philosophical and spiritual foundations for building a better struc¬ ture for individual and collective living. Little wonder that so much of philosophical literature of the time, notably the works of Arnold J. Toynbee, should have such a strong historical aspect.^ The uneasy seriousness behind 1948’s neon-lighted fagade con¬ trasted sharply with the cultural atmosphere in the years follow¬ ing World War I. Then the philosopher, novelist or artist was able to shake off the depressive spell of a war which represented more of an interruption in the forward movement of the world than it did a periodic outbreak, as it did in 1948. The outlook then was that of the patient who had been through a serious illness but was cured and could resume his work with renewed energy and enlarged aims. There were no indications of a re¬ currence; and the artist in the early 1920s spoke with greater assurance than he did in 1948.® Thus the atmosphere following World War I was congenial to carrying on efforts at experimenta¬ tion in technique and thematic treatment which had been initiated shortly after the turn of the century.® This anxiety to advance the experimental method contrasted with the more sober craftsmanship of the artistic world of 1948. (For a background discussion of the broad ethical and philo¬ sophical concepts in modern culture see Encyclopaedia Britannica articles ETHICS; COMPARATIVE ETHICS; VALUE, THE¬ ORY OF; PHILOSOPHY, HISTORY OF; SOCIAL PHILOS¬ OPHY; PHILOSOPHY AND PHILOSOPHICAL STUDIES; SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY; PSYCHOLOGY, HISTORY OF: Social Psychology; MATERIALISM; IDEALISM; etc. In Bri¬ tannica Junior, see PSYCHOLOGY; PHILOSOPHY; SOCIAL¬ ISM.)

! PHILOSOPHY, HISTORY OF: Scholasticism (for a parallel awakening of interest in philosophy during the middle ages); ART: Copying and Tradition; PERIODS OF ART. ^ MATERIALISM. ^ FREE-WILL: The Psychology of Free-will, and following; PSYCHOLOGY, COMPARATIVE: Drive and Motivation in Mammals; INSTINCT IN MAN; PSYCHOANALYSIS: FREUDIAN SCHOOL: Mental Topography; PleasurePain Principle; SOCIAL INSECTS (for noncompetitive societies in na¬ ture). * FRENCH LITERATURE: Philosophy and History; 1830-1890 (for interesting comparison of this historical emphasis with that of French philosophy in the later 19th century). ® NOVEL: Novels after World War I (for contrast with uncertainties of 1948). ® POST-IMPRESSIONISM.

784

2

CULTURAL SURVEY

In literature, the serious U.S. nov’el was on shaky ground. Since World War II, authors and publishers had trod care¬ fully, hoping to discover a dominant public interest, which defied precise definition. Did the reading public want historical fiction? Three or four novels in that field had enjoyed conspicuous success, and literally hundreds of historical romances were pumped into tlie market in an attempt to follow suit. Did the reading public want fiction with a religious or inspirational theme? The recep¬ tion accorded the novels of A. J. Cronin and Lloyd Douglas brought on a rash of imitators. Did the public want erotica? Here, too, quick success in the case of a few novels resulted in a general plethora. What about war novels? Here, at least, the puUishers had thought they knew: there was no market for war novels. In justification, they could point to the poor sales records of the few war novels that did appear. But early in 1948 they discov¬ ered either that they were wrong or that the public taste was changing. After a dozen publishers had rejected a manuscript titled The Naked and the Dead, by an ex-G.I. in his early twenties, one issued the book and discovered it had the hit of the year on its hands. Norman Mailer was saying things about men in war that stirred people’s imaginations. Later in 1948, there could be no doubt about the readiness and even eagerness of the public to read about the war. Irwin Shaw, the young and distinguished playwright whose fiction had been largely confined to the stage and the short story, wrote a vast but carefully inter¬ woven novel. The Young Lions, which not only succeeded in giving single focus to both sides of the war. Allied and axis, but used that larger background for dramatizing the more endur¬ ing and consequential war of personalities and personal problems among individuals under and outside of stress. Then, at the end of the year. Mailer and Shaw were joined by Ira Wolfert, whose war novel. Act of Love, met with serious criticism because of its sprawling and undisciplined plot and poor development of characters, and because at times it threatened to bog down altogether. But Wolfert had more to say about the essential chal¬ lenge to man not only of war but of modern society than perhaps any other novelist during the year. As 1949 began, Lloyd Douglas’ The Big Fisherman, a popular fictionalization of early Christian history, skyrocketed into the No. 1 position on the literary hit parade. Perhaps, thought some publishers, this was where the dominant public interest lay after all.^ In terms of continuing trends, the interest of many serious writers in the psychological probing of personality disorders and maladjustments was worthy of note. Such subjects had long been a concern of doctors and psychologists.^ By 1948 this interest was so pervasive that even the light novel and the detective story had their overtones or undertones of psychological material. While often used to provide too easy answers, this widespread interest in such psychological explorations might be somewhat indicative of the questioning spirit with which 1948 artists and audiences were regarding themselves and their behaviour.^ Whatever the reluctance of publishers with respect to war fic¬ tion, there was no hesitation about war nonfiction. Particularly in the United States and England the record of the war, in the form of diaries, memoirs and official reports, was examined and re-examined. The Churchill and Eisenhower memoirs and the Hopkins diaries (as recast by Robert E. Sherwood) enjoyed pro¬ digious audiences. The political and social problems left in war’s aftermath were critically appraised from various points of view ranging from journalistic expose to the more sober analytical treatise. In the United States, the continued high interest in the personality and program of Franklin D. Roosevelt—at one period four books about him were high on the best-seller lists—was a further manifestation of the concern both with where we had been and with the political decisions that lay ahead.^ In France— partly because of the greater immediacy of the decisions in the making—a similar cultural concern was even more sharply defined by the increased participation of the writer in politics and of the politician in literature.^ The poets apparently were marking time in 1948. Though an even higher proportion of them than of the novelists was con¬ cerned with the basic questions of man’s quest for spiritual as¬ surance, few notes of commanding persuasiveness were heard.® Much of the poetic energy of the year appeared to have been devoted to a critical revaluation of poetry’s own past, a search for a tradition of discipline out of whicli the modern poet could speak with an assurance he seemed to bas e lost. Under these circumstances two events of the poetic year

achieved greater significance in highlighting the developing trends. The Nobel prize in literature award to T. S. Eliot gave international recognition to the growing authority of this spokes¬ man for the discipline of religious faith and for traditionalism.' It also underscored the increasing importance of the neo-Catholic renaissance in English literature.® The second major event in poetry in 1948 was the emergence of Edith Sitwell, in the United States and in England, from her position as the poet of a rather small coterie to one of first magnitude. Significantly, this event followed upon the appearance in her precise and disci¬ plined work of a prophetic tone which accorded well with the concerns of our time.** The revaluating process, evident in poetry, was also evident in the rising body of critical work produced during the year. In England particularly, the emphasis on critical writings and on the rediscovery of literary ancestors was marked. And in both England and the United States the revival of interest in such writers as Henry James, Nathaniel Hawthorne and Herman Mel¬ ville, as well as in some neglected English figures of the 19th century, continued unabated.^ This groping in poetry and criticism toward a tradition which could explain and relate mod¬ ern efforts in literature and the arts was one aspect of the need for certainties which appeared so pervasive in the year’s cul¬ tural life. (For background reading see the Encyclopaedia Britannica articles on AMERICAN LITERATURE; ENGLISH LITERA¬ TURE; FRENCH LITERATURE; etc., and the other national literatures. In Britannica Junior, see HAWTHORNE, NATHAN¬ IEL; MELVILLE, HERMAN; NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY; NOVEL; POETRY; AMERICAN LITERATURE; FRENCH LITERATURE.)

3

At first glance, the world of the theatre appeared to have been unaffected by the currents at work in other areas of in¬ tellectual activity. Much was offered frankly and simply as enter¬ tainment and exempted itself from cultural appraisal. *2 Along with the rather low level of significance in output was the rather high degree of technical competence in production, a character¬ istic of recent theatrical seasons.Yet, on deeper examination, the theatre’s underlying concerns appeared not markedly differ¬ ent from those of the other arts. In the United States, and to a lesser extent in England, a considerable success of the serious

^ PUBLISHING (for a survey of comparable literary preferences after World War I). ® NOVEL: Psychology and the Novelist (for earlier manifestations of this concern on the part of writers). ® PSYCHOANALYSIS: FREUDIAN SCHOOL (for a summary of the major aspects of Freudian theory); also PSYCHIATRY (for a discussion of personality formation and the origin of personality disturbances); PERSONALITY. * BIOGRAPHY: Modern Developments (for the rise of the biographical form as an aid in the interpretation of history). * PERIODICAL: especially the sections on Essay Periodicals, The Modern British Periodical and France (for parallels among writers active in politics, ROUSSEAU, JEAN JACQUES; ADDISON, JOSEPH; etc.). ® POETRY: especially the introduction and Definition of Poetry (for the high nobility of thought traditionally ascribed to the poetic imagination). ^ NOBEL PRIZES (for Nobel prize awards in previous years); POETRY: United' States/ Modern Developments (T. S. Eliot’s place in modern poetry). * ENGLISH HISTORY: Newman and Arnold (dealing with the Oxford Move¬ ment, a 19th century revival of interest in Catholicism among English men of letters). * POETRY: Modern Developments in British Poetry (for the rather high critical regard of the Sitwells, despite popular neglect). CRITICISM; AESTHETICS: introductory section and The Criticism and His¬ tory of Art and Literature, “ HAWTHORNE, NATHANIEL (noting his preoccupation with ethical questions, a quality which, with his psychological insight, probably accounted for his hew popularity); JAMES, HENRY (whose biography notes a similar concern with ethical and psychological problems). DRAMA (for a discussion of the more serious function of the drama in its earlier manifestations). THEATRE: Production and Direction—Modern Tendencies (for developments in the technique of theatre production).

CULTURAL SURVEY theatre attended the works of Tennessee Williams. Williams was concerned, as were so many of his fellows in the novel, with probing the psychologically disordered in the modern world. Another outstanding theatrical figure of the year was JeanPaul Sartre, whose influence had spread after the war from France to England and the countries of western Europe and to the United States. His philosophical idea of existentialism derived in part from the theories of Kierkegaard. ^ It purported to pro¬ vide a guide for modern man in working out his personal destiny in a social context. In the theatre, as in literature, Sartre was prolific and indefatigable; he had so much to say and said it in so many ways that his influence seemed to be diminishing. Even in the motion picture, the influence of the spreading concern with man’s pressing social and individual problems was felt. Of the year’s films critically regarded as outstanding, one— an Italian film—dealt with the war. One U.S. film took up the problem of the lost children of war-torn Europe; another pre¬ sented an ironic study of greed; a third gave serious considera¬ tion to the psychological history of a patient in a mental hospital. And an English film presented its audiences with the moral and philosophical problems of Shakespeare’s Hamlet. Such films as these were few when counted against the innumerable slick products of the studios; yet the warmth of the critical reception accorded their intellectual grappling with the real concerns of their audiences was both a portent of the potentialities in this art form and a measure of the intellectual needs of audiences.^ The dance, as an art form, had long attempted a more serious approach to the cultural demands of its audiences, which had been constantly widening, through increased presentation in concert form and, in the United States and England, through the musical comedy. Accompanying this widening of interest was a greater explicitness in its communication with its audiences. The so-called pure dance, with its emphasis on a formalized dance vocabulary and on traditional conflicts, had given way to a more recognizable presentation of dramatic or philosophical ideas.^ In context, the dance of 1948 was widely diverse. Yet two trends which had been developing for some time continued to be evident. One was the use of folk themes, and, in the United States, the explicit depiction of figures and legends out of U.S. history; the other was the use of psychoanalytical material in the depiction of states of mind or in developing conflicts. As in literature and painting, this latter influence, though it sometimes resulted in the substitution of static analysis for the more active resolution of aesthetic and ethical problems, more generally re¬ flected a real concern with the roots of behaviour and a need to find a satisfactory answer therefor. The historical investigations might similarly be part of the general attempt to justify or under¬ stand social behaviour.^ (In addition to the basic Encyclopaedia Britannica articles on DRAMA, THEATRE, MOTION PICTURES, BALLET and DANCE, see also, for related problems of the performer, the technician and the amateur; ACTING: Acting in the EnglishSpeaking Commercial Theatre; LITTLE THEATRE MOVE¬ MENT; MAKE-UP; STAGE DESIGN; COSTUME DESIGN, THEATRICAL. In Britannica Junior, see DANCING; DRAMA; THEATER; MOTION PICTURES; BALLAD; FOLKLORE.)

4

The social and personal interests that engaged the world and expressed themselves through the more literal arts were less clearly evident in the musical developments of the year. This was partly because of the nature of musical expression.® In addi¬ tion, the general restriction of new musical performances to audiences small in number—though modified somewhat by mod¬ em recording and broadcasting practices—delayed the cultural impact of new musical work. Changes in the content of musical performance during the year were, as usual, therefore, almost imperceptible.® A few developments could be noted, though these were scarcely definite enough to constitute a trend. There was some broadening of the concert repertoire.^ A particular de¬ velopment in the United States and England was the sharp drop in the public performance and critical esteem of the modern Russian composers.® In the later war years and even as late as 1947, works of these composers had dominated the modern musical scene. Their decline was probably more a reflection of the changing political climate than of a changed estimation of their work. In the United States this decline was accompanied by some rise in the attention given the work of native composers.®

/

785

Potentially the most important event bearing on the future of musical activity was the televising of the opening of the Metro¬ politan Opera from New York eity late in the year.i® The signifi¬ cance of this event lay in the possibilities it opened for a further inerease in the audience for classical music. A widening of popu¬ lar interest in classical music had been progressing for many years. In large part this was due to the growth of radio broad¬ casting and of recorded musie.^^ Yet this opening of new avenues to an audience unprecedented in size had affected mostly the symphony and chamber music; opera with its combined audi¬ tory and visual appeal had fared less well.^^ The advance in tele¬ vision broadcasting paved the way for new audiences for the opera and for further inereases in interest in instrumental per¬ formances. As an aside, the new medium contained also the possibility for a general lowering of commercial standards, an accusation which the sterner critics had levelled against radio broadeasting. Staple popular music continued much as before, with little if any production of songs regarded as musically distinguished or of significance. As a part of popular music, however, the high interest in the folk song in the United States continued un¬ abated.*® There was also serious attention given to jazz, with be¬ bop, its latest development, arousing wide interest and hot con¬ troversy.*^ In painting and the general field of the visual arts, the year appeared to have been primarily devoted to consolidation and retrospection. The modern schools which had battled so hard for recognition in the earlier decades of the century were largely in control.*® This atmosphere of acceptance deprived the art world of the atmosphere of excitement that had once been character¬ istic. In addition, in the absence of any emergent talent of com¬ manding stature—though the body of the new work shown in the year was critically regarded as high in quality—critical and pub¬ lic attention appeared to concentrate on the retrospective show. More narrowly, it was the old masters of modern painting—Ma¬ tisse, Picasso and the like—and the slightly lesser lights of well established reputation, whose work was being re-examined and appreciated anew.*® This emphasis on review was roughly com¬ parable with the interest in late history in the field of factual literature. It reflected also the concern so widely felt in a period of uncertainty and doubt to discover and reaffirm a cultural tradition. (For additional reading in Encyclopaedia Britannica see MUSIC; HARMONY; ORCHESTRA; INSTRUMENTATION; PAINTING; FINE ARTS. In Britannica Junior, see MUSIC; ORCHESTRA; OPERA; STRAVINSKY, IGOR; RADIO; TELE¬ VISION; PAINTING; FINE ARTS; PICASSO, PABLO; MA¬ TISSE, HENRI.)

* KIERKEGAARD, SOREN AABY (indicating the principal elements in his thinking). ® MOTION PICTURES (for the development of the motion picture as an art form). ® DANCE (for a discussion of the dance form and its deveiopment); BALLET (for emergence of the dance as a modern art form communi¬ cating basic life experiences); MUSICAL COMEDY. * FOLK-SONG; BALLAD; FOLK-DANCING; FOLKLORE (for a description of some of the source material referred to). ® MUSIC: Infroduction (for the nature of musical expression). ® MUSiC: Problems of the Future (for a discussion of the possibility that the broadcasting and recording of musical performances might change the quaiity and character of musical appreciation as weli as its extent). ^ CONCERT PROGRAMMES (dealing with historic developments in con¬ cert programming). * PROKOFIEV, SERGEI; STRAVINSKY, IGOR FEDOROVICH. ® MUSIC: Music of the 20th Century. “ TELEVISION. “ BROADCAST MUSIC; GRAMOPHONE (for a discussion of the achieve¬ ments and possibilities of recorded music). “ CHAMBER MUSIC; SYMPHONY (for discussion of their historical devel¬ opment); OPERA deals similarly with this art form. BALLAD (for the folk-song and its literary aspects); FOLK-SONG (for its musical characteristics). JAZZ (for its development distinct from that of popular dance music). POST-IMPRESSIONISM; PAINTING: Post-Impressionism. « PICASSO, PABLO; MATISSE, HENRI.

786

SCIENTIFIC SURVEY

5

The work of educators, as well as artists, reflected the insist¬ ent social concerns of the year. Under the stress of world political uncertainty, educational thought had been shifting its emphasis from its former centre on methods of teaching and ex¬ perimental techniques to questions of content.* * Questions of technique still had their place, but they were deeidedly sub¬ ordinated to discussions of the values to be imparted, the prin¬ ciples and purposes to be instilled. These were not new con¬ siderations, but in a world of uncertain values they were raised anew.2 As a negative response to the social and political pres¬ sures of the time, the answers that were forthcoming in some areas laid stress upon the values of nationalism.^ The countering attempt to find bases of world accord through mutual under¬ standing appeared to be more widely appealing in the field of education. This positive aspect was highlighted in the vast num¬ ber of international educational conferences held during the year. Many were held under the auspices of the United Nations Edu¬ cational, Scientific and Cultural organization.'* Others were held by independent international bodies. The conferences brought to¬ gether educators and youth from countries all over the world. The immediate problems discussed were varied and often on highly specialized problems of technique. Yet insistently the ques¬ tion of what to teach that would batter down divisive barriers became a central element in discussions. Trends in religious thought and action were similarly coloured by the climate of political and personal uncertainty. Throughout Europe and the near east a tightening and reshuffling of the ties between church and state followed the drawing of stricter na¬ tional and ideological lines.® More and more the secular role of the ehurch was given emphasis by political and social develop¬ ments. But, as part of this, leaders of the Christian religions in particular were at the same time recognizing the need for an assumption of social responsibility and for establishing ties of international eo-operation.® The ethieal component of Christianity had always been important; its new broadening into areas of social ethics was therefore regarded by many religious leaders as merely a logical extension of traditional concerns. (Collateral reading is to be found in Encyclopaedia Britannica articles on SCHOOL AND CURRICULUM; ELEMENTARY EDUCATION; SECONDARY EDUCATION; ADULT EDUCA¬ TION; UNIVERSITIES; RELIGION. In Britannica Junior, see EDUCATION; SCHOOL; UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGE; RE¬ LIGION.)

SCIEitTIFIC SURVEY By William L. Laurence

in history as the birth year of two new sciences—radioastronomy and cybernetics. Finally, the year saw the development and successful testing of three new designs of atomic bombs, with a greater utilization of the vast energy released from the nucleus.® (For basic reading in Encyclopaedia Britannica see ASTRON¬ OMY; ASTROPHYSICS; ATOMIC BOMB; PHOTOSYNTHE¬ SIS; ATOM; VITAMINS. In Britannica Junior, see ASTRON¬ OMY; METEOR AND METEORITE; SOLAR SYSTEM; PHYS¬ ICS; ATOM; BOMB; HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS; MEDI¬ CINE, HISTORY OF; VITAMINS.)

2

The most notable development in astronomy during 1948 was the dedication of the 200-in. telescope of the Mount Palomar observatory in California.® With this new “Jacob’s lad¬ der” of light man could see “island universes” (galaxies) as far as 1,000,000,000 light-years away—twice as far as before. The telescope was expected to provide new knowledge of stars and nebulae, their internal structure and external associations; it was expected to shed much light on such questions as the size and dimensions of the universe; whether it is closed or open; whether it is static or expanding; whether or not there is life on Mars or on other planets; how the universe began, if it did have a beginning, and whether or not it may have an ending and when.*® There were several other outstanding developments in astron¬ omy. One involved the observation of stars at a distance of 200,000,000 light-years that were believed to show young stars in their early stages of development, some 200,000,000 years ago, while another series of observations provided the first clues on how stars are actually being formed now out of cosmic dust in interstellar space. Another series of observations, made by an ingenious new combination of a camera telescope, a prism and highly efficient fast photographic emulsions very sensitive to in¬ fra-red rays, brought back a great “cosmic catch,” consisting of thousands of new stars in the Milky Way galaxy, including 709 of the giant red stars, from 100 to 1,000 times larger than the sun, and two new supergiant stars of the class to which Antares and Betelgeuse belong.** Still another important discovery was that giant stars of cer¬ tain types, particularly young stars, are veritable cosmic magnets, revolving in space at tremendous speeds and acquiring positive electrical potentials as high as 100,000,000,000,000 volts. Some stars were found to have magnetic fields more than 13,000 times as powerful as that of the earth and 160 times as powerful as that of the sun.*^ Closer to our own comer of the cosmos, evidence was found for the existence in the sun of a mechanism for accelerating atomic particles to enormous energies, providing the first clue to the origin of the cosmic rays, one of the great mysteries of the universe.*® Closer still, the discovery of a new electrical shell around the earth at a height of 250 mi. was reported. It was

Science Reporter, New York Times

IThe

calendar year 1948, roughly coinciding with the 6th year of the atomic era, saw a number of significant develop¬ ments in both theoretical and experimental science, in the physi¬ cal as well as the biological fields of investigation. It witnessed the ripening of many fruits, the blossoming and sprouting of many buds, the planting of new seeds, the ploughing of old fields and the breaking of new ground. It saw a resumption of itian’s battle against ignorance along lines neglected during World War II; renewed efforts on the part of astronomers and nuclear physicists to unravel the mysteries of the universe and the atom; the construction of gigantic machines for the study of the infinite and the infinitesimal; the development of new agents for fighting disease; promising new methods for the treatment of heart disease and high blood pressure; the discoverv of new vitamins; new light on the mystery of photosynthesis; progress in the use of radioisotopes in many fields; and new theories on the origin of the elements, creation of the universe, the forma¬ tion of stars and the source as well as chemical composition of the meteorites.^ It was the year which saw abundant confirmation of man’s suc¬ cess in creating matter out of energy, an aehievement that might turn out to be as important as, if not more than, the ereation of energy out of matter by nuclear fission. It would also go down

* EDUCATION, especially Education and the Community and History; EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS: International Confederation of Students^ ^ EDUCATION: Educational Theory (for definition and accepted purposes of education). ® NATIONALISM (for development of this force in modern life). UNITED NATIONS: The Economic and Social Council, * CHURCH AND STATE (for traditional relation of the two). * REUNION, CHURCH; CHRISTIAN UNITY. ^ SCIENCE; SCIENTIFIC METHOD (for a review of earlier methods and past progress). ' NUCLEUS: Nuclear Energy. ’ TELESCOPE: The 200-inch Telescope. NEBULA; MARS (for past and current theories about Mars); COSMOG¬ ONY (for earlier theories about the origin of the earth, sun, moon and stars); SPACE-TIME: Recent Developments (for information about the expanding universe theory); RELATIVITY (for whether the uni¬ verse is open or closed). “ SPECTROSCOPY, ASTRONOMICAL (how we learn about the stars through a prism); NUCLEUS: Energy Production on Stars. “ TERRESTRIAL MAGNETISM: Origin of the Field, Magnetic Activities and Solar Relations. ELECTRICITY, ATMOSPHERIC: Ionizing Radiations (dealing with cosmic rays).

SCIENTIFIC SURVEY named the G-layer, bringing to four the radio mirrors that make short wave radio transmission possible.^ (Basic information will also be found in Encyclopaedia Britannica under STELLAR CONSTITUTION AND EVOLUTION; STAR; EARTH; SUN; PLANET. In Britannica Junior, see TELESCOPE; OBSERVATORY; STAR; MILKY WAY; SOLAR SYSTEM.)

3

In the physical sciences also, some of the spectacular de¬ velopments of 1948 concerned the building and planning of new machines with which to make the greatest assaults so far at¬ tempted against the nucleus of the atom, the most heavily forti¬ fied citadel of the cosmos which locks the secret of the nature of the forces that hold the atomic nuclei, and hence the cosmos itself, together.^ Three of these machines were completed during the year. One was a 370,000,000-ev synchro-cyclotron at Co¬ lumbia university, using protons, the nuclei of hydrogen atoms, as atomic bullets.^ Two other giant atom smashers, known as synchrotrons, were completed and began operation at Cornell university and the University of California, respectively. Both were built to accelerate electrons, tlie negatively charged funda¬ mental particles of matter.^ A 300,000,000^-ev betatron, also using electrons, was nearly completed at the University of Illinois. Still another type of atom smasher, a linear accelerator, hurling protons at 32,000,000 ev was placed in operation at the Uni¬ versity of California. These giants among atom smashers would be dwarfed, how¬ ever, by two new machines contracted for during the year by the U.S. Atomic Energy commission. Both would hurl for the first time atomic projectiles (protons) at energies of billions in¬ stead of millions of volts. One, named the cosmotron, was under construction at the Brookhaven National laboratory, Upton, Long Island, N.Y. When completed it would hurl protons at energies of 2,500,000,000 to 3,000,000,000 ev, and would thus become the most powerful atom smasher in the world. It was not sched¬ uled to hold its supremacy for very long, however, as the Uni¬ versity of California was building another machine, the bevatron, that would dwarf even the cosmotron, since it was designed to hurl projectiles of energies from 5,000,000,000 to as high as 10,000,000,000 ev. With these two machines scientists expected not only to smash atoms but to create for the first time the heavy particles, protons and neutrons, of which the nuclei of the atoms of the material universe are constituted.® The most spectacular achievement in the field of nuclear physics during 1948 was the creation for the first time of the nuclear particles known as mesons out of pure energy, with the synchro-cyclotron at the University of California.® This was done by hurling 380,000,000-ev alpha-particles against the nuclei of graphite atoms. Mesons are nuclear particles of intermediate mass between the electron and the proton, and theory regarded them as the “cosmic glue” holding the nucleus together. Until they were made artificially they could be observed, relatively few at a time, only in the cosmic rays. Their artificial production by the tens of millions at a time made it possible at last to study them under controlled conditions, and these studies were expected to shed light not only on how the cosmos is held together but also on how it came into being. This achievement was hailed by nuclear physicists as the most important since the discovery of uranium fission in 1939, and hence one of the great landmarks of progress in recorded history.^ There was much activity on other sectors of the atomic front. The testing of three new types of atomic bombs, which yielded higher efficiencies in the release of nuclear energy, also promised to provide more efficient applications of that energy for peace¬ time power purposes.® Nuclear reactors, also known as atomic piles, for power purposes, entered the construction stage towards the end of the year and were expected to be in operation, on an experimental scale, within two years. A third nuclear reactor for experimental purposes was under construction. The intensity of the neutron radiation in the centre of the latter pile was such that 5,000,000,000,000 neutrons per second would pass through every square centimetre exposed to the radiation. One of the important secrets revealed by the U.S. government during the year related to what is known as the “breeder pile.” In existing plutonium-producing piles, vast amounts of nuclear energy were released by the splitting of uranium atoms of atomic mass number 235, while at the same time the uranium 235 con¬

787

sumed was replaced by about an equal amount of fissionable plutonium, through the transmutation of nonfissionable uranium of atomic mass 238. In the breeder pile, the quantity of plu¬ tonium so created would be greater than the quantity of uranium 235 consumed, the “capital” of the atomic fuel invested being replaced on a compound interest basis.® (For background reading in Encyclopaedia Britannica see ATOM: Atomic Structure, Recent Progress; ATOMIC BOMB: Atomic Structure; NUCLEUS: jS-Decay, oi-Decay and Spon¬ taneous Fission; ATOMIC WEIGHTS: Practical and Scientific Interest, Atomic Weights and Cosmogony; ISOTOPES. In Bri¬ tannica Junior, see ATOM; ELECTRON; RADIUM AND RADIOACTIVITY.) M Much progress was made in the production of radioactive “ isotopes and in their use as a research tool in industry, agri¬ culture, biology, chemistry, medicine and other fields, This progress was reflected in new approaches to the cancer problem, particularly in the field of early diagnosis.Studies were reported on the use of radioactive phosphorus and other elements in fer¬ tilizers to determine their uptake by plants. Radioactive sugar, digitalis and other substances were produced, to study the man¬ ner of their uptake by the animal body as well as their action on organs and tissues. Radioactive hydrogen and helium were made available during the year, as were 50 new chemical compounds incorporating radioactive carbon. The use of radioactive carbon dioxide shed more light on the mystery of photosynthesis than ever before. Solution of this vital secret of nature, without which life on earth could not go On, might lead to man’s duplicating the mechanism in the plant for creating food out of carbon dioxide and water and for storing solar energy. The promise held out by the possible solution of the mystery of photosynthesis had great social implications, since it might give man an abundant new source of food and place at his dis¬ posal the enormous energy of the sun poured down on earth every second. The studies already indicated that it might be¬ come possible to use single-celled algae, both of the fresh and salt water varieties, for the production of fats, proteins, sugars and vitamins. Since the quantity of plants produced in the world’s oceans through the mechanism of photosynthesis is fully ten times as great as the quantity produced on land, it might become possible to convert sea plants into edible substances. This, some scientists held, might lead to the farming of the sea (marine agriculture) as well as of the land. One of the most interesting studies with radioactive isotopes was carried out at the University of Chicago to determine the chemical composition of meteorites. Earlier studies had provided proof for the hypothesis that the meteorites are fragments of a planet similar to the earth that exploded in the gap between Mars and Jupiter some millions of years ago for reasons unde¬ termined. By using various radioactive isotopes as tracers the studies revealed that the composition of the meteorites was very similar to the chemical composition of the earth, This in turn

* IONOSPHERE (how it controU radio communication waves); also, RADIO; ELECTRICITY. ^ CYCLOTRON; ATOMIC BOMB: The History of "Atom Smashing." ^ NUCLEUS: Utilization of tho Energy of the Nucleus. * ELECTRON: The Electron as a Unit of Matter. ® NEUTRON: History, Atomic Energy. ‘ WILSON CLOUD CHAMBER: Applkathns of the Wilson Cloud Chamber/ RADIATION, RAYS: Cosmic Radiation. ^ QUANTUM MECHANICS: What Quantum Mechanics Has Accomplished (for the nature of matter and what holds it together). ' ATOMIC BOMB: The Future of Atomic Energy. ® ATOMIC BOMB: Uranium Fission, Production of Plutonium, The Isolation of U-235. ATOMIC BOMB: Medical and Biological By-products (the use of isotopes in "tracer experiments”). RADiOLOGY: Importance in Medicine, Treatment of Malignant Tumours, Effects on Cell Life. ^ PHYSiCS iN MEDICiNE: Source of Bodily Energy, Radiation/ BIOLOGY: Energy Cycle in the Biosphere/ METEOROLOGY: The Heat Balance of the Atmosphere—The Radiathnal Heat Budget (how the sun warms the earth). METEORITES: History of Meteorhics, Chemical Composition, Structure, Size, Origin of Meteorites/ EARTH: Constitution.

788

ECONOMI : SURVEY

provided a new picture of the abundance and distribution of the various elements in the earth’s crust, showing that some ele¬ ments, such as gallium, are much more abundant than had been believed heretofore. New light was also shed on the composition of the earth’s core about 2,000 to 4,000 mi. below the surface. It was discovered, for example, that there is enough gold in the earth’s core to make a layer covering the entire surface of the earth to a depth of one metre (3.28 ft.), whereas the platinum and palladium in the core, much rarer on the surface than gold, would make surface layers each two metres thick. (See Encyclopaedia Britannica articles NUTRITION; PHOTO¬ SYNTHESIS: Mechanism of Photosynthesis. In Britannica Jun¬ ior, see BOTANY; ALGAE; CANCER; METEOR AND METEORITE.)

5 One

of the outstanding developments in biological chem¬ istry, with wide applications in medicine and nutrition, was the discovery and isolation in pure form of the anti-pernicious anaemia factor in liver that had saved the lives of more than a million pernicious anaemia victims in the United States alone. This factor, regarded as a member of the vitamin B complex, was named vitamin B12. It is so powerful that 3 micrograms (million¬ ths of a gram) were found to be equivalent to 10 to 15 grams of liver extract, the daily dose for maintaining a patient. It is present in liver in such minute amounts that one ton of liver would yield only 20 milligrams of the vitamin. It is therefore one of the most powerful vitamins in nature and held out prom¬ ise in many other fields, such as ner\ ous diseases, since it also counteracts the degeneration of the spinal-cord nerve that often precedes or accompanies pernicious anaemia.' Later it was found that vitamin B12 could also be produced by bacterial fermentation and that it was probably identical with another mysterious factor, known as the “animal protein factor’’ or APF, needed for the growth of animals and poultry and for the hatching of eggs.^ This indicated that the new vitamin would play an important role in nutrition, since animal experiments had shown that it has the ability to bring a purely vegetable diet up to par with a diet of proteins of animal origin, such as meat, milk and cheese. This would vastly inerease the world’s avail¬ able food supply, which continued to be very short of animal protein foods. (Background material will be found in Encyclopaedia Bri¬ tannica under MEDICINE, HISTORY OF; BACTERIOLOGY; BACTERIA AND DISEASE: Cultivation [i.e., of bacteria for research and cure]. Action of Antitoxin. In Britannica Junior, see BACTERIA; DISEASE; PROTEIN; VITAMIN.)

6 In the field of antibiotics, one of the outstanding discoveries of the- year was the isolation from a new species of soil mould of a substance named aureomycin, which was found effective against bacterial infections not helped by either penicillin or streptomycin—including some venereal diseases and certain in¬ fections of the eye. Test tube experiments with aureomycin showed it to be more effective against the tubercle bacillus than streptomycin.® A new derivative of streptomycin, dihydrostreptomycin hydro¬ chloride, which promised to be more efficacious in the treatment of tuberculosis than the parent substance, was also developed during the year, as was a new chemical, para-amino salicyhc acid (PAS), described as effective against tuberculosis germs that had become resistant to streptomycin; it could be used with strepto¬ mycin in combatting the disease. Six new drugs, tested on human victims of malaria, were found to provide complete protection against the recurrent, as well as against the frequently fatal non¬ recurrent types of the disease. In the field of cancer, one of the most promising developments of the year was the announcement of a concentrated effort to find a diagnostic test for early cancer. Since cancer in its early stages is curable, the discovery of a test for its presence in the early stages would offer substantial hope for its eradication. Hopeful reports were also presented during the year on the efficacy of the diet of rice and fruit juices in the alleviation of heart disease and high blood pressure. (See also Encyclopaedia Britannica article on IMMUNITY. In Britannica Junior, see DRUGS AND DRUG HABIT; HEART AND BLOOD VESSELS; TUBERCULOSIS; CANCER.)

7

The first of two new sciences born during 1948—cybernetics (from the Greek kybernetes, steersman)—offered a new ap¬ proach to the study of the human mind and behaviour, based on a comparative study of the electrical circuits of the nervous sys¬ tems and those of the highly complex mechanical brains in large electronic calculating machines. It attempted to find the com¬ mon elements in the functioning of automatic machines and of the human nervous system.^ Radioastronomy, the other new science, used radar to make soundings into the depths of space and listen to the echoes that came back. By this method it was found that celestial noises of a wide range of frequencies in the short wave range are con¬ stantly being emitted, and that this modern version of the “music of the spheres,” when tuned in, provides man with new means for listening in on his universe and for deciphering some of its coded messages. Thus other ranges of electromagnetic radiation have been added to light for use as telescopes in the exploration of the vastness of space and its contents. The first of this new type of telescope for exploring tire cosmos, known as a radiotelescope and serving as a cosmic “ear” just as the optical telescope serves as a cosmic “eye,” was demonstrated at the first meeting of radioastronomers.® (For general reading in Encyclopaedia Britannica see NER¬ VOUS SYSTEM; BRAIN. In Britannica Junior, see NERVOUS SYSTEM; RADAR.)

ECONOMIC SURVEY By Alvin H. Hansen

Lucius N. Littauer Professor of Political Economy Harvard University

1

Dominant in the world economic scene in 1948 was the gen¬ eral condition of overfull employment in which all productive resources were strained to capacity to recover from the wastage of war, to rebuild and modernize plant and equipment, to alle¬ viate the world-wide housing shortage, to restore the depleted stock of consumers’ durable goods such as household equipment and automobiles, to restock consumers with adequate clothing and finally to narrow the serious postwar gap between food re¬ quirements and the world food supply.® The general condition of excess demand in relation to avail¬ able supply which had characterized the economic development in greater or less degree in all countries since World War II reached a new phase in 1948. Inflationary pressures, whether open or suppressed, continued to be felt throughout the world. Nevertheless, the inflationary situation presented widely different developments in various nations, ranging from an approach to stability in the United States and some other countries to con¬ tinuing rapid inflation in France and Japan.'' In the United States eonsumers’ prices levelled off and in De¬ cember were only slightly above the previous year-end level. They receded early in 1948 following a sharp break in agricul¬ tural prices, but rose to new heights during the summer. Food prices reached an all-time high, exceeding the peak following

® VITAMINS: Deficiency Diseases, Determination of the Vitamins in Foods; MEDICINE, GENERAL: Vitamins. ® BIOCHEMISTRY: Fermentation Processes; PROTEINS: Uses of Proteins. ® VENEREAL DISEASES: Mortality, Treatment of Syphilis, The Control of Venereal Diseases; FLEMING, SIR ALEXANDER (discoverer of peni¬ cillin); SULFONAMIDES, THE. « EXPERIMENTAL EMBRYOLOGY: The Origin of Nerve Patterns; NERVE; SPINAL CORD; SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM; MEMORY: Physiology of Memory; PSYCHOLOGY, COMPARATIVE: The Brain and Behaviour. ® RADAR; ELECTRICITY. * FOOD SUPPLY OF THE WORLD. ^INFLATION AND DEFLATION: Economic Limits and WAR FINANCEWORLD WAR I: How War Expenditure Was Met (for equivalent infla¬ tionary period during and after World War I); ASSIGNATS (for an 18th-century inflation).

ECONOMIC SURVEY World War Id A decline in consumers’ prices set in during the last months of the year because of various factors, including good crops and an increasing supply of better quality goods, especially electrical appliances, shoes, clothing and textiles. Yearend clearanee sales Became widespread for the first time since the war. The midsummer upward price surge was stimulated by the announcement in March of an accelerated defense program, by reduction of personal income taxes and by the inauguration of the European Recovery program. All these operated to increase inflationary pressures. Countering these factors were a number of anti-inflationary developments, including the marked improve¬ ment in the world food outlook,^ the decline in U.S. exports and the rise in U.S. imports, which together had the effect of in¬ creasing the supplies available for domestic use, and finally the gradual catching up in the supply of a wide range of consumers’ goods and the restocking of business inventories. The year ended in a precarious balance between inflationary and deflationary pressures. (For the basic causes of inflation, see articles in Encyclopaedia Britannica on INFLATION AND DEFLATION} SUPPLY AND DEMAND; TRADE CYCLE; QUANTITY THEORY OF MONEY; MONEY; CAPITAL AND INTEREST [especially Cy¬ clical and Monetary Phenomena]. Related articles, with statistical background, are PRICE; PRICES, STATISTICS OF; COST OF LIVING; INVESTMENT, ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF; IN¬ COME TAX: IN PRACTICE; TAXATION. In Britannica Junior, see COMMERCE; MONEY; INTEREST; BANKS AND BANK¬ ING; TAXATION; INCOME TAX.)

2

While U.S. prices were approaching a condition of stability in a relatively free market, rigorous controls were continued in some European countries, including the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Norway and to a smaller degree Denmark and Sweden.® Inflation continued to be suppressed by direct meas¬ ures.^ Wholesale prices in the United Kingdom were stable throughout most of the year. In the Netherlands and Norway wholesale prices were held rigorously even, while consumers’ prices were stable in Norway, but rose slightly in the United Kingdom, Netherlands, Denmark and Sweden. In other countries, notably France and Italy, an open inflation continued.® Whole¬ sale prices in France were 20 times the prewar level and in Italy, 60 times prewar. In France inflation continued throughout 1948 at about the same pace as in 1946-47 (rising 70% during the year) but in Italy the inflation had run its course by mid1947 and prices remained comparatively stable in 1948. Surprisingly, the industrial recovery of Europe (Germany ex¬ cepted) had progressed much more rapidly after World War II than after World War I.® By 1948 the volume of industrial pro¬ duction had reached or exceeded the level of 1937 in the west¬ ern European countries.^ Industrial production was 5% to 10% higher than in 1937 in the United Kingdom, France and the Netherlands, and about 25% higher in the Scandinavian countries. A marked recovery occurred also in the industrial output of western Germany, largely because of the monetary reform. Pro¬ duction rose quickly from 40% of prewar to about 70%. The physical damage to industrial plants had been largely repaired throughout western Europe. Output of coal for Europe as a whole was close to prewar levels, while the production of electrical power was almost one-third greater than the prewar output. Railroad transportation facilities had been repaired suffi¬ ciently so that rail traffic by 1948 exceeded the prewar level, though transport facilities by waterways and roads had declined.® There was, moreover, a marked improvement in the agricul¬ tural output of western Europe from the disastrously low level of 1947—a year of bad harvests caused by severe winter cold and summer drought. The progress was partly due to more favour¬ able weather conditions, and partly to the gradual restoration of livestock and farm equipment and to a larger use of fertilizers.® Nevertheless, despite these favourable developments, hving conditions had generally deteriorated as compared with prewar standards. The lag was explainable partly by the large propor¬ tion of industrial production going into the reconstruction of plant and equipment and the rebuilding of depleted inventories; and partly by the relatively low level of agricultural production. This meant that consumers’ goods constituted a disproportionately small part of total output. Moreover, the European population

789

had increased by about 10% since 1939, so that per capita pro¬ duction was less favourable, relative to prewar, than total pro¬ duction. Finally, it should be noted that all the European coun¬ tries faced peculiar difficulties with respect to their ability to pay for needed imports. (Collateral reading in Encyclopaedia Britannica will be found in the general articles AGRICULTURE: A GENERAL SUR¬ VEY, especially the latter part; PHYSICAL RESOURCES; POPULATION; BIRTH RATE; EUROPE. For the possible long-term effect of war on capitalist society, see CAPITALISM: The Future of Capitalism. In Britannica Junior, see INDUS¬ TRIAL REVOLUTION; TRANSPORTATION; AGRICUL¬ TURE.)

3

The rapid European recovery had been fed by heavy imporftitions of food, fuel, raw materials, tools and machinery from the United States. From the end of the war to the begin¬ ning of 1948, United States foreign-aid gifts, loans and invest¬ ments (including straight lend-lease, U.N.R.R.A., civilian sup¬ plies for occupied countries, aid to Greece and Turkey, loans to the United Kingdom, France, the Netherlands, etc., subscriptions to the International Monetary fund and the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) amounted to more than $17,000,000,000.1® finally in 1948 the United States under¬ took a new program of foreign aid—the European Recovery pro¬ gram or Marshall plan. European recovery still needed U.S. help, but in 1948 the United States net export surplus fell to only $6,500,000,000 from $11,300,000,000 in 1947. Foreign countries could not con¬ tinue to deplete their gold and doUar balances at the rate at which these had been used up in 1947.^ Moreover, U.S. foreign aid actually fell from $5,700,000,000 in 1947 to $4,600,000,000 in 1948. Thus, the European Reeovery program, instituted in 1948, did not quite offset the virtual cessation of the earlier post¬ war foreign-aid programs. The decline in U.S. exports reflected the effort of foreign coun¬ tries to curtail their purchases from the U.S. An important factor facilitating this development was the substantial increase in European agricultural production. Progress in industrial produc¬ tion also tended to reduce the demand for some types of goods, and increased the possibilities of export to the United States. Thus, while United States exports declined, imports from abroad increased by almost $2,000,000,000.^® At first the European Recovery program was used primarily to obtain food and agricultural commodities, but later in the year emphasis was shifted toward machinery and equipment. By the end of the year, about 40% of the total amount authorized was

^ COST OF LIVING: United States (for period following World War I). ® AGRICULTURAL PRICES: The Course of Agricultural Prices (for decline in food prices after major wars of modern history). ® DIOCLETIAN, EDICT OF (for an early experiment in price and wage control); also FRANCE; The Hebertists. * INDUSTRY AND TRADE, WAR CONTROL OF (for examples of control in World War I). ^ PRICES, STATISTICS OF (for trends in European countries after World War I). ® GERMANY: Towards Stabilization (for recovery of Germany after World War I). ^ EUROPE; Between Two Wars, 1919-39; RATIONALIZATION OF INDUS¬ TRY (for an interesting theory to promote economic recovery in Germany after World War I); also REPARATIONS. ' COMMERCE: World Economy (for commercial interdependence of na¬ tions, and effect of war upon them); RUHR (for an interesting example of international complications in one of Europe’s leading industrial areas). ® AGRICULTURAL STATISTICS: Statistics of World Agriculture. INTER-ALLIED DEBTS: Debts in World War II; MONETARY AGREEMENT; INTERNATIONAL PAYMENTS: Later Changes (for pre-1945 history of International Monetary fund). “ EXCHANGE, FOREIGN: Purchasing Power Parity and follawing; see also CAPITAL, EXPORT OF; British Investments Abroad for similar circum¬ stances under which Great Britain rose to supremacy as a creditor nation after the Napoleonic Wars. EXPORT CREDITS (for scheme used by Great Britain after World War I to stimulate British exports).

790

POLITICA L SURVEY

for procurement of commodities purchased outside the United States but paid for in dollars. The effect of such outside pro¬ curement was to ease the tight market for commodities on short supply in the United States. Foreign countries were using less and less of their remaining gold and dollar assets to pay for their excess of purchases from the United States. Payments to the United States in gold and dollar assets declined from $4,500,000,000 in 1947 to $1,100,000,000 in 1948, the latter amount being not widely different from the foreign gold production. Accordingly, the gold and dollar assets of foreign countries were substantially conserved during the year. This improvement in international monetary re¬ serve could not have been achieved without the aid granted through the European Recovery program.* Because of the decline in United States exports and a concur¬ rent increase in imports, a somewhat better international balance of trade was gradually being reached.^ The improvement was, however, due in large measure to deliberate foreign policies de¬ signed to reduce the purchase of United States goods and services in view of the difficulty of finding adequate means of payment. Some improvement in the international accounts was due also to the increased percentage of foreign trade carried in foreign merchant fleets, to the increase in United States tourist expendi¬ tures abroad® and finally to the increasing availability of goods of all kinds from sources other than the United States. Reflecting the levelling off of prices in the United States, there was no further increase in the money supply in 1948.^ Indeed, demand deposits and currency in circulation declined slightly and loans to business slackened. (For general reading in Encyclopaedia Britannica on the dis¬ location of world commerce and its causes, see EXCHANGE, FOREIGN; BALANCE OF TRADE; EXPORTS, INVISIBLE; GOLD STANDARD; INTERALLIED DEBTS; CAPITAL, EXPORT OF. In Britannica Junior, see UNITED NATIONS [for discussion of International Monetary Fund, etc.]; EX¬ CHANGE AND EXCHANGES; COMMERCE.)

4

The war had left many European countries, especially the occupied countries, with a redundant supply of money, consisting of notes in circulation and deposits in banks. After the war some countries, notably Belgium, had contracted their circulation to an amount more nearly in line with current earn¬ ings and prices. In 1947—48, three other countries attacked the problem of monetary redundancy. Austria cut down its note circulation three to one. The Soviet Union surprised the world by announcing a drastic monetary purge which cut down rouble notes ten to one and government loans tliree to one; and wrote down savings accounts about 20%. Rumania made a drastic reduction, converting at the rate of 20,000 old monetary units to one new leu. France attempted to bring about some contraction of the note circulation, but with little success. The 5,000-franc notes were cancelled and replaced by notes of smaller denominations, but only after tax liabilities of firms and individuals holding such notes had been paid. Notes in circulation decreased, but then rose again. Demand deposits also rose, reflecting the inflationary tendencies whieh France had been unable to check.®

Corporate profits in the United States reached an all-time high-$34,000,000,000 prior to taxes and $21,000,000,000 after taxes. Only little more than one-third of the amount, however, was distributed in dividends. Undistributed corporate profits played an important role in financing business expansion of plant and equipment. Together with depreciation allowances, undistrib¬ uted profits financed 65% of the funds invested during the year in capital improvements, renewals and net additions. The remain¬ ing funds for capital expansion came from bank loans and from new security issues, of which the bulk were bonds. Such capital expansions, made during and after World War II, had increased the productive capacity of U.S. industry by more than one-half since 1939.® Steel capacity, however, had increased only 16%. In most lines the heavy investment had brought capacity into reasonable relation to current demand. Excess capacity prevailed in aircraft, shipbuilding and magnesium production; but, in addition to steel, there was still undercapacity in the production of electricity, the transmission of gas and in transportation. The nation’s housing shortage became less acute for those who could afford to pay larger prices, but continued to be a serious problem for medium and low income families. More than 900,000 new units were constructed, and another 100,000 were provided by conversions and remodelling. About 80% of the new houses were intended for sale, not for rent. At the end of the year, con¬ struction of new housing units declined substantially, indicating that the demand for new houses by those who could afford to buy at prevailing high prices was approaching saturation. (For general reading in Encyclopaedia Britannica on problems of industry, see such articles as HOUSING; IRON AND STEEL; SHIPBUILDING and similar articles on other individual in¬ dustries. In Britannica Junior, see LABOR ORGANIZATIONS; CORPORATION; BANKS AND BANKING; CREDIT.)

POtITICAt SURVEY By Allan Nevins Professor of American History Columbia University

% The year 1948 was marked internationally by the tension ■ between Russia and the western powers. Basically, the con¬ flict was attributable to the secret, dictatorial and expansionist nature of the communist system, and to soviet suspicions of the west which dated back to World War I.® The prostration and poverty in much of western Europe, the turmoil and unrest throughout Asia and the elimination of Germany as a power seemed to give Russia an opportunity to dominate vast new areas.*® World events increased the tension. In January the U.S. state department made public certain captured documents of tlie German foreign office which indicated that the outbreak of war

(See, in Encyclopaedia Britannica, MONEY; especially Mone¬ tary Policies, for past attempts to avoid great fluctuations in the value of money; also, for general reading, BANKING AND CREDIT; CURRENCY; QUANTITY THEORY OF MONEY. In Britannica Junior, see MONEY.)

^ MERCANTILE SYSTEM (for the historical confusion of money and wealth in international trade—and the part this theory played in Britain’s loss of the American colonies). balance of TRADE; FREE TRADE: Fundamental Relation of Imports and Fxports/ SMITH, ADAM: Freedom of Trade (for the great economist's views on this subject).

5

Along with a greater measure of price stability came a slow¬ ing in wage increases in the United States. The 1948 round of wage increases was held to an average of less than 10%, intended largely to compensate for increases in the cost of living. Wage settlements were reached with a minimum of strikes. Though some major strikes did occur in coal mining, meat pack¬ ing, automobile manufacture and in shipping, the year was one of comparative freedom from loss of working time due to strikes.® In Canada wages increased at about the same rate as in the United States. Large wage increases were made in France in response to the rapid increase in the cost of living, and the same was true in Japan. In the United Kingdom and the Scandinavian countries substantial wage stability continued to prevail.^

® EXPORTS, INVISIBLE (for normal amounts prior to World War II). * GREENBACKS (for experiment in paper money during the American Civil War). •

FRANCE: Public Finance (for similar financial problems after 1914). trade unions and STRIKES AND LOCK-OUTS (for comparable period after World War I). ^ WAGES; WAGE STATISTICS: INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS. * INVESTMENT, ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF. RUSSIA; The Struggle for Existence and The Struggle for Control, RUSSIA: Catherine II (for one of the earliest programs of Russian terri¬ torial expansion); PANSLAVISM.

POLITICAL SURVEY in 1939 had been preceded by a secret Russo-German bargain for the division of the greater part of Europe. This had been knovs^n in general terms; it was now further documented in de¬ tail.^ The Russians brought sharp counteraccusations against the United States and Great Britain. In February the Gommunist party in Gzechoslovakia, by a sudden coup, gained control of that country. It was clear that Russia had instigated the step. The west was shocked, for Pres. Eduard Benes had been given a pledge of noninterference by Joseph Stalin, and the Gzechs had prized their hard-won liberties.^ The feeling deepened a few days later when Foreign Minister Jan Masaryk was either mur¬ dered or committed suicide in Prague. Gzechoslovakia at once aligned itself with the soviet bloc.^ A sterner phase of the “cold war” between west and east began in April with the Russian blockade of all road and rail com¬ munication from the British, French and U.S. zones to Berlin. The Soviet Union apparently intended and expected to force the western powers to evacuate Berlin, permitting Russia to make it the capital of its zone.^ Protests and arguments proved unavail¬ ing. Evidently, the Russian government was trying to retaliate against the United States and Britain for proceeding with the economic and political rehabilitation of western Germany. Amer¬ icans and Britons argued that they had done this only when the long refusal of Russia to write a peace treaty with Germany convinced them that Moscow was aiming at the demoralization of Europe. Russia retorted that the Anglo-U.S. course was again making Germany a dangerous military power. The Russian move was checkmated. The U.S. and British commanders in Berlin staged an unprecedented air lift of food, clothing and fuel. Hundreds of cargo planes were soon carrying the blockaded Berliners such quantities of freight that it even became possible to increase the daily food ration from 1,730 cal. to 2,000. Berliners of the western zones responded by rallying against communist demonstrations. In the December elections, the anticommunist Social Democrats carried these zones by nearly two-thirds of the total vote.^ Refusing to be intimidated by pro¬ vocative Russian air manoeuvres, the Anglo-U.S. fliers made their lift a memorable event in the history of aviation and an im¬ portant victory for the west in the struggle to keep Germany out of communist hands. (For additional background reading on these subjects, see Encyclopaedia Britannica articles on COMMUNISM; MARX, KARL: Marxist Theory and following; BOLSHEVISM; INTER¬ NATIONAL, THE [especially The Third (Communist) Interna¬ tional]; SOCIALISM [especially Marxism and following]; SO¬ VIET SYSTEM; UNITED NATIONS; also biographical articles on STALIN, BENES, etc. In Britannica Junior, see UNION OF SOVIET SOCIALIST REPUBLICS; UNITED NATIONS; BERLIN; GERMANY; COMMUNISM; MARX, KARL; WORLD WAR n.)

2

The gloomy developments in Europe, culminating in the total failure of the United Nations to end the dispute over the Berlin blockade, naturally did much to shape political and economic affairs in the United States. Throughout the year the Truman administration laboured to support western Europe, sus¬ tain Greece and Turkey against communist threats,® watch China, where communist armies were locked in combat with Chiang Kai-shek’s nationalist government,^ and strengthen U.S. defenses for possible war. This program had a powerful effect on the U.S. economy and furnished a troubled background for the presidential campaign. The fact that the national economy continued at a high level throughout the year gave the United States and western Europe confidence in facing Russia, which made no secret of its hope and expectation of a new U.S. depression. It also gave Pres. Harry S. Truman an advantage in his contest for re-election. A sharp break in commodity prices early in the year caused some alarm, but proved only a passing flurry. Various factors assisted the boom, but most important of all were the huge expenditures for European recovery. Congress acted promptly on President Truman’s request for funds to implement the foreign-aid program. More than $6,000,000,000 was voted for spending by the Eco¬ nomic Cooperation administration, created to take over European recovery work. In the initial spending of EGA funds, priority was given to food and relief supplies for western Europe. This meant that large sums were spent for U.S. breadstuffs, cotton,

791

dairy products, petroleum and meat. U.S. metals, farm machinery and other manufactures were also supplied in quantity.® (For general reading in Encyclopaedia Britannica on the equivalent period following World War I, see AGRICUL¬ TURE: Depression of the 1920s and following; UNITED STATES: Conditions of the United States, 1921—26 and follow¬ ing. In Britannica Junior, see CHINA; GREECE; TURKEY; CHIANG KAI-SHEK.)

3

Meanwhile, a great program of national rearmament was also put under way. President Truman had told congress that it was important, in combatting communism, to restore tem¬ porarily the draft and institute universal military training. The armed services complained that they were seriously undermanned, and Secretary of Defense James Forrestal called for a total force of more than 1,700,000 men. Parts of the defense program aroused political controversy. The administration originally pro¬ posed a combat air force of 55 groups, but the air force itself declared that 70 were needed, and convinced Republican leaders of the soundness of its demand. The Russian air strength was estimated at 40,000 planes as against approximately 23,000 in the U.S. forces on July 1, 1948.® Gongress, after much discussion, passed a new Selective Serv¬ ice act—the second peacetime conscription act iii U.S. history.^® Its purpose was to build up the armed forces to an even greater strength—about 2,000,000—than the secretary of defense had asked. The final appropriation for the armed services in the fiscal year 1948-49 totalled more than $10,000,000,000. This sum would have seemed more formidable had it not been for a comfortable surplus in the national budget. Except for these recovery and defense measures, the second session of the 80th congress passed little domestic legislation. It did, however, extend rent controls and the reciprocal trade agree¬ ments law, and carried through its tax-reduction plan over a presidential veto. Conspicuously it failed to take any action in amending the Taft-Hartley labour act or in passing a compre¬ hensive housing bill. It ignored the president’s requests for price control and rationing, the beginnings of a health insurance pro¬ gram and extension of social security.^^ The president had espe¬ cially urged enactment of an elaborate civil-rights program call¬ ing for abolition of poll taxes in federal elections, for a national antilynching law, for an end to segregation of Negroes in the national services and for the establishment of a permanent fair employment practice code.^^ But nothing was done in the regular session, while in the special session a filibuster of southern Demo¬ crats helped block action. (Background reading on the various issues before the 80th congress, scheduled for reconsideration in the Democratic 81st, ^ EUROPE: The German-Soviet Agreement; WORLD WAR II: Causes and Events Leading up to War, ^ MACHIAVELLI: II Principe (for an early view that politics should not be bound by moral considerations). ^ CZECHOSLOVAKIA: From 1935 to the End of World War II (for the parallel occurrences with respect to Germany in 1938-39). * BERLIN (for economic and political importance of city). ® GERMANY: Towards Stabilization and following (for earlier history of Social Democrats). ® EASTERN QUESTION, THE; GREECE: Modern History and TURKEY: Con¬ temporary Turkey (for history of international complications in eastern Mediterranean). ^ CHINA: Domestic Politics After World War I (for origin of communists* bitter hatred of Chiang). * INTER-ALLIED DEBTS and WAR ORGANIZATIONS, U.S.: Foreign Eco¬ nomic Activities (for similar aid during wartime). * AIR FORCES and CONSCRIPTION (for earlier history of these two military problems). ^**WAR ORGANIZATIONS, U.S.: Manpower, Labour and Conscr^tion (for first peacetime draft). ^ SOCIAL PHILOSOPHY: The Ethical Basis of Social Relations (for theoretical statement of the problem of social security). ^ CIVIL LIBERTIES: Developments in the United States and following (for historical and critical treatment of subject). JOHNSON, ANDREW and HOOVER, HERBERT (for other well-known "opposition" congresses).

792

POLITICAL SURVEY

may be found in such Encyclopsedia Britannica articles as SOCIAL SECURITY; NATIONAL INSURANCE; INDUS¬ TRIAL RELATIONS; HOUSING; INCOME TAX and IN¬ COME TAX: IN PRACTICE; POLL-TAX; SOUTH, THE: In¬ dustrial Developments. In Britannica Junior, see DRAFT; CUS¬ TOMS DUTIES; TAXATION; INCOME TAX; PENSION; NEGROES, UNITED STATES; SUFFRAGE.)

4

The presidential campaign became a focus of popular atten¬ tion early in the year. Republican leaders were confident of victory. Spring found three men actively struggling for G.O.P. delegates: Thomas E. Dewey, Harold E. Stassen and Robert A. Taft. By the time the Republican convention met in June, Gov¬ ernor Dewey was far in the lead. The only chance of defeating him lay in a coalition between Stassen and Taft, and this proved ineffectual. Dewey was nominated and Earl Warren was named candidate for vice-president. On the Democratic side. President Truman faced a double revolt. Henry A. Wallace had announced his candidacy for president on a “Progressive” platform.^ No sooner had President Truman announced his civil-rights program than a revolt devel¬ oped in the south. During the six years following Pearl Harbor, between 2,000,000 and 4,000,000 Negroes were estimated to have moved from the south to the north. Together with Negroes of an earlier migration, they released great social and political pressures. But in the south the president’s proposals caused a political upheaval. Most of that area still demanded race segre¬ gation; four states—Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas and South Carolina—showed special indignation. A conference of States’ Rights Democrats or “Dixiecrats” de¬ termined that if the president persisted in his plan, they would bolt the party convention in July.^ Other southern Democrats, while not going so far, favoured Truman’s withdrawal. The president was thus faced with the loss of many radical votes to Wallace and of support in the rebellious southern states. Declar¬ ing that he was in the race to stay, however, he made a 10,000mi. tour in June to state his case to the nation. When the Demo¬ cratic convention opened in July, opposition to Truman’s nomina¬ tion collapsed.® By a close vote, the Democratic convention adopted the civilrights program, over the vigorous protest of southern delegates. It then nominated Truman, with Alben W. Barkley of Kentucky for vice-presidential candidate. The entire Mississippi delegation and half the Alabama delegation at once bolted. A few days later a con\’ention of “Dixiecrats” met in Birmingham, Ala., and nominated Gov. J. Strom Thurmond of South Carolina for presi¬ dent. To some observers this seemed a disaster to Truman. Others believed, however, that the bolt strengthened him; as the president’s popularity fell in the lower south, it rose among northern Negroes. He stood to benefit in such important states as New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania and Illinois, where Negroes conceivably held the balance of power.® In a campaign notable chiefly for Dewey’s avoidance of con¬ troversial positions and for President Truman’s rear-platform ap¬ peals to the voters, it was generally believed that the Republicans would score an easy victory. All public opinion polls pointed in that direction. In the November election, however, the fore¬ casts of politicians, newspapermen and opinion analysts alike

were completely upset.® President Truman carried 28 states with 303 electoral votes; Governor Dewey carried 16 states with 189 electoral votes. The Wallace ticket, which some had believed would poll nearly 5,000,000 votes, obtained only slightly more than one-fifth that number. The Democrats won control of both houses of congress and wrested eight governorships from the Republicans. Though Governor Thurmond carried four southern states, he failed to affect the national result. The election was a spectacular personal triumph for President Truman, who prof¬ ited also from the loyalty of labour and the farmers to the Demo¬ cratic regime. The result of the election was accepted with every evidence of good feeling and national unity. (See the following Encyclopsedia Britannica articles for back¬ ground reading on the section above: DEMOCRACY; ELEC¬ TORAL SYSTEMS; TRUMAN, HARRY S.; REPUBLICAN PARTY; DEMOCRATIC PARTY; UNITED STATES: Consti¬ tution and Government. In Britannica Junior, see REPUBLICAN PARTY; DEMOCRATIC PARTY; PROGRESSIVE PARTY; TRUMAN, HARRY S.; NEGROES, U.S.; SUFFRAGE.)

5

Tension between the western powers and Russia continued to be the main public concern after the election. As the year ended, the sessions of the United Nations in Paris revealed anew a deep chasm between the soviet position and that of the democratic nations on peace with Germany, control of atomic power, limitation of armaments and the position of Greece.® The victories of the communist forces in China were a source of deep concern to the United States and Britain. In Palestine, the new Jewish nation of Israel, given de facto recognition by the United States, had fully established itself and seemed likely to make a satisfactory peace with the Arab na¬ tions.’ Meanwhile, the nations of western Europe, helped and encouraged by the flow of EGA aid from the United States, were struggling to their feet. Men began to hope that as healthful forces had asserted themselves, at least temporarily, after World War I, they would again win the day after World War II. (For the parallel period following World War I, see Encyclo¬ paedia Britannica articles on UNITED STATES; ENGLISH HIS¬ TORY; EUROPE; and various articles dealing with individual countries. See also FAR EASTERN PROBLEM. In Britannica Junior, see PALESTINE; ZION.)

* PROGRESSIVE PARTY (for similar third-party “Progressive” movements in 1912 and 1924). ® STATE RIGHTS (for this issue preceding Americon Civil War). ® DEMOCRACY: Democratic Institutions (for reasons why U.S. has favoured two-party system). * NEGRO, AMERICAN (for shifts in geographic distribution since 1830). PUBLIC OPINION SURVEYS (for history of polls). ® PEACE (for earlier international organizations, proposed or actual; and some of the reasons for their failure). ’ZIONISM (for historical survey of Jewish nationalism); PALESTINE; Post-World War I Developments; TRANS-JORDAN (for a leading Arab opponent of Zionism).

INDEX The black type entries are article headings and cross refer¬ ences. These black type article entries do not show page no¬ tations because they are to be found in their alphabetical position in the body of the book, but they show the dates of the issues of the Book of the Year in which the articles appear. For example “Air Races and Records 49, 48, 47” indi¬ cates that the article “Air Races and Records” is to be found in the 1949 Book of the Year, the 1948 Book of the Year and the 1947 Book of the Year. The reference “Radiology; see X-Ray and Radiology 49, 48, 47. See Radiology 46, 45” indicates that information on “Radiology” is to be found in the article “X-Ray and Radiology” in the 1949 Book of thx Year, the 1948 Book of the Year, the 1947 Book of the Year and under the heading “Radiology” in the 1946 Book of the Year and the 1945 Book of the Year. All black type entries

without dates indicate that the same entries appear in all previous issues. Examples, not Advertising 49, 48, 47, 46, 45, but Advertising; not Abyssinia: see Ethiopia 49, 48, 47, 46, 45, but Abyssinia: see Ethiopia. The light type headings which are indented under black type article headings and cross references refer to articles elsewhere in the text (of this issue only) related to the entry listed in black type. The light type headings which are not indented refer to in¬ formation in the text not given a special article. Those which show page references refer to this issue only. Those which refer to the article Obituaries are followed by the date of issue in which the obituary appears. All headings whether consisting of a single word or more are treated for the purpose of alphabetization as single complete headings. Names beginning with “Me” and “Mac” are alphabet¬ ized as “Mac”; “St.” is treated as “Saint.” All references below show the exact quarter of the page by means of the letters a, b, c, and d, signifying respectively the upper and lower halves of the first column and the upper and lower halves of the second column.

provinces and countries

Air Races and Records 49, 48, 47 Aviation, Military 94c; Jet Propul¬ sion 407a

Air Transport Command 47, 46, 45 A.UA .: see American Library Associ¬ ation Ala, Hussein 47 Alabama Aland Islands: see Finland 49 Alaska Alaska Highway: see Roads and Highways Aibania Greece 346a; International Court of Justice383d; International Law388b; Kidnapping 411a; Prisoners of War 589d; Roman Catholic Church 627b; U.N. 718d; Yugoslavia 779d

Alberta Alcohol, Industrial ARA 23c; Chemurgy 179b

Alcoholic Intoxication: see Intoxi¬ cation, Aicoholic Alcoholic Liquor: see Brewing and Beer; Liquors, Alcoholic; Wines "Aicohoiics Anonymous”: see In¬ toxication, Aicoholic 45 Intoxication, Alcoholic 393b

Aiekhine, Alexander 47 Aleman, Miguel 49, 48, 47 Aleutian Islands: see Alaska 49, 47, 46, 45 Alexander, Albert Victor 47 Alexander of Tunis, H. R. L. G. A. Alexei 46 Alfalfa Hay 352b

Algeria : see French Overseas Terri¬ tories 49, 48. See French Coioniai Empire 47, 46, 45 Iron and Steel 397a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Phosphates 564a; Telephone 690b; Wines 770a

Alien Property Custodian, Office of: see Foreign Investments Aliens Immigration and Emigration 369c; Law 416a

Alimentary System, Abbas 11 45 Abdullah ibn Hussein 49 Abrasives Sand and Gravel 636a

Abyssinia: see Ethiopia Academic Freedom: see Education 46,45 Academy of Arts and Letters, Amer¬ ican: see Societies and Associa¬ tions. Academy of Political and Social Science, American: see Societies and Associations Accident Insurance: see Insurance Accidents Automobile Industry 89a; Aviation, Civil 91a; Death Statistics 232c; Dis¬ asters 244d; Industrial Health 376c

Acheson, Dean ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hor¬ mone) : Diabetes 243c; Endocrinology 271c

ActofChapuItepec:^ee Inter-Amer¬ ican Conference on Problems of War and Peace; Pan American Union 46 Adams, Herbert46 Ade, George 45 Aden Adjusted Compensation: see Vet¬ erans’ Administration Aduit Education: see Libraries 49, 48. See Education 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Advertising Newspapers and Magazines S09d; Radio 603c; Television 692c Aeronautics: see Aviation, Civil;

Aviation, Military Electronics 268b; Meteorology 4S7a; Smithsonian Institution 649a Aerosporin: Chemotherapy 177d; Medicine 45Sa; Words and Meanings, New 772c

Afghanistan Furs 326a; International Trade 392a; Iran 39Sd A.F. of L.; see American Federation

of Labor Africa: see British East Africa; Brit¬ ish South African Protectorates; British West Africa; French Over¬ seas Territories; Italian Colonial Empire; Portuguese Coioniai Em¬ pire; South Africa, The Union of;

Spanish Colonial Empire; Trustee Territories; etc. Agagianian, Gregorio Pietro XV 46 Agricultural and Industrial Chem¬ istry, Bureau of: see Agricultural Research Administration Agricuitural Research Administra¬ tion Agriculture ARA 23b; Atomic Energy 82c; Avia¬ tion, Civil 92c; Book Publishing 122b; Budget, National 139d; Building and Construction Industry 142b; Busi¬ ness Review 146a; Census Data 167d; Co-operatives 21Sc; Democratic Par¬ ty 238b; Elections 262c; FCA 286a; Farmers Home Administration 286d; Food Research 304a; Food Supply of the World 304d; Four-H Clubs 315a; Home Economics 3SSa; Income and Product, U.S. 371a; International Trade 390a; Irrigation 398c; Law 42Id; Meteorology 460c; Prices 585a; Refugees 616d; Rural Electrification 632a; Shows, Animal 645a; Soil Ero¬ sion 658a; TVA 695b; Veterinary Medicine 750d; Wages and Hours 756b. See also various products, states, provinces and countries

Agriculture, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments and Bureaus Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Govern¬ ment 205a

Air Conditioning 48, 47, 46, 45 Aircraft Manufacture 49, 48 Aviation, Military 94b; CAA 192d Air Force, U.S.: Armies of the World 72a; Aviation, Military 94a; Decora¬ tions, Medals and Badges 235b; Jet Propulsion 406d; Law 417c; Meteorol¬ ogy 456d; Munitions of War 486c; U.S.728d Air Forces of the World: see Avia¬

tion, Military Air Lift: see Aviation, Civii; Avia¬ tion, Military; Berlin 49 Words and Meanings, New 772c

Air Mail: see Post Office Airports and Flying Fields Aviation, Civil 93b; CAA 192d; Coast and Geodetic Survey 198d; Law 418b. See also various cities, states.

Disorders of

Medicine 453b; Psychosomatic Med¬ icine 594c; Surgery 676b

All-American Canai: see Aqueducts; Irrigation 46, 45 Aqueducts 57c

Allen, Sir Hugh Percy 47 Alien, Lewis George 521c

Allergy Chemotherapy 178c; Dermatology 240d; Ear, Nose and Throat, Dis¬ eases of, 251a; Flour 303c; Medicine 453c; Psychosomatic Medicine 594b

Allied Commission on Reparations: see Reparations 47. See Allied Commission on Reparations 46 Allied Council for Japan: see Japan 49,48,47. .See Allied Military Gov¬ ernment 46 Allied Military Government: see Oc¬ cupied Areas, Administration of 48. See Allied Military Govern¬ ment 47, 46, 45 Allocations and Allotments: see Pri¬ orities and Allocations 48, 47, 46, 45 Alloys: see Beryllium; Magnesium; Metallurgy; Molybdenum; Monazite; Nickel; Titanium; Vanadi¬ um Secondary Metals 638c

Almonds: see Nuts Aluminum Architecture 64b; Bridges 131b; Min¬ eral and Metal Production 467a; Secondary Metals 638c

Ambassadors and Envoys American Academy of Arts and Let¬ ters: see Societies and Associa¬ tions American Academy of Arts and Sci¬ ences: see Societies and Associa¬ tions 46. See American Academy of Arts and Sciences 45 American Academy of Political and Social Science: see Societies and Associations American Association for the Ad¬ vancement of Science: see Socie¬ ties and Associations American Association of Law Li¬ braries: see Societies and Associa¬ tions American Bankers Association: see Societies and Associations

American Bar Association: see Soci¬ eties and Associations American Bible Society: see Socie¬ ties and Associations American Chemical Society: see So¬ cieties and Associations American Citizens Abroad American College of Dentists: see Societies and Associations 49, 48 American College of Life Under¬ writers: see Societies and Associa¬ tions American College of Surgeons: see Societies and Associations American Dental Association American Economic Association: see Societies and Associations American Federation of Labor Building and Construction Industry 142b; Labour Unions 413b; World Federation of Trade Unions 774d American Geographical Society: see

Societies and Associations American Historical Association: see Societies and Associations 49, 48,47 American Indians: see Indians, American American Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters, Inc.: see Societies and Associations American Institute of Accountants: see Societies and Associations 49, 48, 47, 46 American Institute of Chemical Engineers: see Societies and Asso¬ ciations 49, 48, 47, 46 American Institute of Electrical Engineers: see Societies and Asso¬ ciations 49, 48, 47, 46 American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers: see Soci¬ eties and Associations 49, 48, 47, 46 American Iron and Steel Institute: see Societies and Associations American Law Institute: see Socie¬ ties and Associations American Legion Education 256b; Veterans’ Organiza¬ tions 749d

American Library Association Libraries 426c

American Literature Book Publishing 122b; Children’s Books 182b; Literary Prizes 431d

American Mathematical Society: see Societies and Associations 49, 48,47 American Medical Association Industrial Health 376a; 379d

Insurance

American Society of Civil Engineers: see Societies and Associations 49, 48, 47, 46 American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers: see Soci¬ eties and Associations American Society of Mechanical Engineers: see Societies and Asso¬ ciations 49, 48, 47, 46 American Society of Tool Engineers: see Societies and Associations 48, 47 American Veterans Committee: see Veterans’ Organizations 49. See American Veterans Committee 48 American Veterans of World War 11 (Amvets): see Veterans’Organiza¬ tions 49. See American Veterans of World War 11 (Amvets) 48, 47, 46 Amino acids: Biochemistry 118c; Chemistry 175d; Food Research 304a; Medicine 453b Aminopterin; Chemotherapy 178b; Medicine 4S4a

Amvets (American Veterans of World War II) : see Veterans’ Or¬ ganizations 49. See American Veterans of World War 11 48, 47, 46 Anaemia Chemotherapy 177c; Food Research 304c; Medicine 453b; Vitamins 753d

Anaesthesiology Ananda Mahidol 47 Anderson, Clinton Presba 48, 47, 46 Anderson, Sir Kenneth A.N. 45 Anderson, William Franklin 45 Andorra 49 Andrews, Adolphus 521d

Angling

794

INDEX

Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Egypt 258c; Floods and Flood Con¬ trol 302a; Soil Erosion 6S9b Angola: see Portuguese Colonial

Empire Diamonds 244a; Fisheries 298b; Min¬ eral and Metal Production 467a; U.S. 729b Animal Fats; see Vegetable Oils and

Animal Fats Animal Industry, Bureau of: see Veterinary Medicine 49. See Ag¬ ricultural Research Administra¬ tion 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Annam: see French Overseas Terri¬ tories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Anniversaries and Centennials: see Calendar (page xxii) Antarctica 49. See Exploration and Discovery 48, 47 Argentina 68d; Australia 85c; Car¬ tography 163c; Chile 186c; Falkland Islands 285d; Marine Biology 445b; Norway 519c

Anthropology Archaeology 60d; Smithsonian In¬ stitution 649a; Sociology 656c Anti-Aircraft Guns: see Munitions

of War Antibiotics: see Bacteriology; Chemothera py ARA 23c; Dentistry 240b; Derma¬ tology 241c; Gynaecology and Ob¬ stetrics 349a; Medicine 453a; Pneu¬ monia 575d; Words and Meanings, New 772c Antigua: see Leeward Islands

Antimony Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Secondary Metals 638c Anti-Saloon League of America: see

Societies and Associations Anti -Semitism Aden 20a; Fascism 287d Antitank Guns: see Munitions of

War 47, 46, 45 Antitrust Law; see Law Antonescu, Ion 47, 45 Apples: see Fruit Appleton, Sir Edward Victor 48 Apricots: see Fruit 49, 48, 47 Aquariums 48, 47, 46, 45 Aqueducts Tunnels 711a

Arabia Arab League; see Arabia; Egypt; Iraq; Lebanon; Palestine; Syria; Trans-Jordan 49, 48. See Arab League 47 Aranha, Oswaldo 48 Arce y Ochotorena, Emanuel 46 Archaeology Anthropology 54b; National Geo¬ graphic Society 494b; Smithsonian Institution 649a

Archery Architecture Building and Construction Industry 141d; Plastics Industry 574b; Sculp¬ ture 637d

Archives, National .\rctic Regions: Anthropology S4b; Archaeology 60d; Canada 155a: Car¬ tography 163a; Fisheries 298b; Geolo¬ gy 330a; Meteorology 456c

Areas and Populations of the Coun¬ tries of the World Argentina •■Xntarctica 53a; Atomic Energy 84a; Aviation, Military 99b; Billiards 118b; Bolivia 121c; Boxing 126b; Cat¬ tle 165c; Chile 186c; Cotton 219c; Dance 230b; Debt, National 234c; Ed¬ ucation 256d; Employment 271b; Ex¬ change Control 281d; Falkland Is¬ lands 28.5d; Fascism 287d; Food Sup¬ ply of the World 307a; Furs326a; Gold 338a; International Trade 390d; Lead 422c; Leather 423c; Leprosy 425a; Libraries 426c; Linen and Flax 430b; Meat 452a; Meteorology 459d; Mexico 462d; Navies of the World 498c; Olympic Games 539d; Paraguay 555a; Peru 559d; Railroads 611d; Refugees 616c; Rivers and Harbours 624d; Seismology 640c: Sheep’ 641c; Shipbuilding 642d; Shipping, Mer¬ chant Marine 644c; Shows, Animal 645c; Silk 646d; Socialism 650b; Spanish-American Literature 665b; Telephone 690a; Tennis 696a; U.N. 717b; U.S. 726a; Uruguay 739c; Vege¬ table Oils and Animal Fats 743b; Wheat 766c; Wines 770a; Wool 772a; Yachting 776d

Argentinita 46 Argiiello, Leonardo: see Obituaries 48 Arizona Arkansas Arliss, George 47 Armies of the World Armstrong, Margaret Neilson 45 .^rmy, U.S.: Armies of the World 71d; Building and Construction Industry 143a; Cartography 162c; Clothing Industry 196b; Decorations, Medals

and Badges 235b; Law 417b; Muni¬ tions of War 486a; Prisons 590b; Red Cross 615b

Army Specialized Training Program: see Education 45 Arnold, Henry H. 46, 45 Arsenic

Mineral and Metal Production 468a

Art: see Architecture; Painting; Scuipture; etc. Arteaga y Betancourt, Manuel 46 Art Exhibitions Etching 276c; Painting 548a: Pho¬ tography 564c; Sculpture 637d

Art Galleries and Art Museums 47, 46,45 Arthritis Artificial Weather: see Meteorology 49, 48 Artillery: see Munitions of War 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See World War 11 46,45 Art Sales Aruba: see Curasao Asbestos Mineral and Metal Production 467a

ASCAP (American Society of Com¬ posers, Authors and Publishers): see Societies and Associations Ascension: see St. Helena and As¬ cension Islands 49. See British. Empire 48. British West Afri¬ ca 47, 46, 45 Asia: see Afghanistan; China; etc. Asphalt Assassinations Association for the Advancerhent of Science, American: see Societies and Associations Association of Research Libraries: see Societies and Associations Aston, Francis William 46 ASTP (Army Specialized Training Program): see Education 45 Astronomy Electronics 267d; National Geo¬ graphic Society 494b; Photography 564b: Smithsonian Institution 649a; Telescopes 691c Atcheson, George, Jr.; see Obituar¬

ies 48 Atherton, Gertrude Franklin 521d Athletics: see Track and Field

Sports; etc. Athlone, 1st Earl of, 46, 45 Atkinson, Joseph E. 52Id

Atomic Bomb 46 Atomic Energy 79c; Botany 124a

Atomic Energy 49, 48, 47 Building and Construction Industry 143a; Chemistry 173d; Chicago, Uni¬ versity of, 181b; FBI 289c; Fertil¬ izers 296c; Genetics 327d; Interna¬ tional Law 385b; Lilienthal. David E. 429b; Metallurgy 456b; Munitions of War 486a; Photography 564b; Physics 567d; Public Health Engi¬ neering 595d; Standards, National Bureau of, 669a; U.N. 717d; U.S. 728c Atom Smashers: see Atomic Energy

49,48 Attlee, Clement R. 49, 48, 47, 46 Audiovisual Education: see Motion Pictures 49 Aung San, U: see Obituaries 48 Aureomycin; Bacteriology 99d; Chem¬ otherapy 177d; Dermatology 241c; Medicine 453a; Pneumonia 575d; Words and Meanings, New 772c

Auriol, Vincent 49, 48, 47 Austin, Warren R. 49, 48, 47 Australia, Commonwealth of Aircraft Manufacture 32a; American Citizens Abroad 44a; Antarctica 53a; Anthropology 54b; Architecture 66b; Armies of the World 74c; Arsenic 75a; Atomic Energy 83d; Aviation, Civil 91b; Aviation, Military 98a; Baptist Church 104a; Birth Statis¬ tics 120b; Bread and Bakery Prod¬ ucts 129b; Business Review 149a; Butter ISOd; Cadmium 151b; Cattle 165c; Child Welfare 183c; Christian Science 189c; Civil Liberties 194b; Coal 196d; Cricket 219d; Dams 227a; Dance 229a; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Employment 271b; Exchange Control 282c; Food Supply of the World 30Sb; Football 3I0b; Forests 314b; Gold 338b; Horse Racing 356b; Horticulture 358a; Im¬ migration and Emigration 370b; In¬ surance 379d; International Trade 391a; Iron and Steel 397a; Jet Pro¬ pulsion 407c; Kyanite Minerals 413b; Law 422a; Lead 422c; Libraries 428d; Linen and Flax 430a; Lumber 437d; Marine Biology 445d; Marriage and Divorce 448a; Meat 452a; Meteorol¬ ogy 458d; Mineral and Metal Pro¬ duction 467a; Motion Pictures 481a; National Geographic Society 494b; Netherlands Indies 505a; Newspa¬ pers and Magazines 512c; Olympic Games 539d; Philately 561d; Pneu¬ monia 575b; Radio 602b; Railroads 612a: Refugees 616a; Relief 618a: Rivers and Harbours 625b; Rowing 629c; Sheep 641c; Shipbuilding 642d; Shipping. Merchant Marine 644a; Silver 647a; Socialism 650d; Soil ■Erosion 659d; Taxation 687d; Tea

688d; Telephone 690b; Television 692d; Tennis 696a; Textile Industry 698a; Tin 701a; Tungsten 710b; Tun¬ nels 711a; U.N. 717b; U.S. 729b; War Crimes 757c; Wheat 766c; Wildlife Conservation 768d; Wines 770a; Wool 771c; Zinc 780c; Zirconium 781a

Austria

.

Aluminum 41c; American Citizens Abroad 43c; Armies of the World 73d; Australia 85c; Birth Statistics 120b; Canals and Inland Waterways 160a; Chess 179c; Dance 230a; Danube, Conference for Control of, 230d; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, Na¬ tional 234d; Electric Transportation 266b; ERP 278b; Exchange Control 280d; Fencing 295b; Horticulture 357d: Immigration and Emigration 370a; Infant Mortality 378a; Inter¬ national Bank 381d; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 391b; Iron and Steel 397a; Lithuania 433b; Marriage and Di¬ vorce 448a; Mineral Production 467a; Music 489d; Newspapers and Maga¬ zines 513a; Olympic Games 539d; Railroads 611b; Refugees 616a; So¬ cialism 650d; Telephone 690b; Uni¬ tarian Church 717a: U.N. 717c; U.S. 728c; Wages and Hours 756d; War Crimes 757d; Wines 770a; Y.W.C..4. 778d Autobiography: see American Lit¬

erature; etc. Automobile Accidents: dents; Insurance Autombile Industry

see

Acci¬

Employment 270c; Federal Reserve System 292d; Foreign Investments 310d; Glass 337a; International Trade 390a; Labour Unions 413d; Machinery and Machine Tools 440a; Motor Transportation 481c; Plastics Industry 574b; Wages and Hours 75Sd Automobile Insurance: see Insur¬

ance Automobile Racing 49, 48, 47 Avery» Sewell Lee 45 Aviation, Civil ARA 24c; Aircraft Manufacture 32a; Airports 33b; Air Races and Records 34c: CAA 192c; Disasters 244d; Forests 313c; Jet Propulsion 407a; Law 416c; NMB 496c; Post Office 581b; Railroads 609d; Wildlife Con¬ servation 767a; Words and Mean¬ ings, New 772d. See also various countries

Aviation,

Military

Aircraft Manufacture 31a; Air Races and Records 34d; Armies of the World 71a; Disasters 244d; Jet Pro¬ pulsion 406d; Marine Corps 446c; Munitions of War 488a; National Guard 495b; Navies of the World 498b; Words and Meanings, New 772c. See also various countries Avocados: see Fruit 49, 48, 47, 46 Azores, The: see Portugal

Bacher, Robert Fox 47 Bacon Bacteriology Atomic Energy 82c

Badminton Badoglio, Pietro 45 Baekeiand, Leo Hendrik 45 Bagley, William Chandler 47 Bagramyan, Ivan C. 45 Bahamas Bahrein Islands: see British Empire Bainbridge,

William

Seaman:

see

Obituaries 48 Baird, John Logie 47 Baker, Ray Stannard 47 Baker, Sara Josephine 46 Baker Island: see PacIFic Islands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Balch, Emily Greene 47 Baldomir, Alfredo 522a Baldwin of Bewdley, Stanley Baldwin: see Obituaries 48 Ballet: see Dance Baltic States: see Estonia; Latvia;

Lithuania Baltimore Bananas: see Fruit Bank for International Settlements 48, 47, 46, 45 International Bank 381c

Bankhead, John Hollis, Jr. 47 Banking Bank of England 103b; Business Re¬ view 146b; Consumer Credit 214a; Debt, National 233c; Export-Im¬ port Bank 285a; FCA 286c; Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation 291a; Federal Reserve System 292b; In¬ ternational Bank 381b; RFC 613c; Societies 653b. See also various cities, states, provinces and coun¬ tries

Bank of England Bankruptcy: see Securities and Ex¬ change Commission 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Business Review 46, 45. See Federal Bureau of Investiga¬ tion 45 Bannerman, Helen 47 Bantock, Sir Granville 47 Baptist Church

Church Membership 191c

Barbados Barbier, George 46 Barbour, Ralph Henry 45 Barcroft, Sir Joseph: see Obituaries 48 Barium Minerals Barkley, Alben William 49, 46 Elections 261d

Barley Agriculture 26c: Food Research 304b; Food Supply of the World 306b Barrington-Ward, Robert McGowan 522a

Barros Camara, Joao de 46 Bartlett, Robert Abram 47 Bartok, Bela 46 Baruch, Bernard Mannes 47 Basalt: see Stone Baseball Betting and Gambling groes, American 502c

117d;

Ne¬

Bascom, Florence 46 Basilone, John 46 Basketball Betting and Gambling 117d; Olympic Games 540c Basutoland: see British South Afri¬

can Protectorates Bathyscaphe 445a

Batocki, Max J.O.A.T. von 45 Bauer, Gustav 45 Bauxite Mineral and Metal Production 467a BCG (Bacillus-CalmetteGuerin): Child Welfare 183c; Tuberculosis 709b

Beach, Amy March Cheney 45 Beans, Dry Beard, Charles A.: American Litera¬ ture 47b; Obituaries 522a Bearsted, Walter Horace S. 522b Bechuanaland Protectorate: see

British South African Protector¬ ates Beck, Josef 45 Beck, Ludwig 45 Beckman, Francis Joseph 522b Beef: see Meat

Beekeeping Beer: see Brewing and Beer Beer-Hofmann, Richard 46 Beery, Noah, Sr. 47 Beigian Colonial Empire Belgian Congo: see Belgian Colonial Empire Cobalt 200b; Copper 216a; Diamonds 244a; Fisheries 298b; (lold 338b; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Radium 607b; Silver 647a; South Africa, Union of, 661d; Tariffs 683d; Tin 701a; Trustee Territories 708a; Uranium 739a

Belgium Airports 34b: Aliens 39c; Argentina 69a; Armies of the World 70d; Billi¬ ards 118c; Birth Statistics 120b; Business Review 149b; Cadmium 151b; Candy 161d; Coal 196d; Coke 201b; Cofnmunism 207b; Cotton 219d; Cycling 223c; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Democ¬ racy 237c; Denmark 239b; Educa¬ tion 256c; Electric Transportation 266c; ERP 279b; Exchange Control 283b; Fertilizers 296a; Germany 334d; Glass 337b; Great Britain 342c; Infant Mortality 378a; Inter¬ national Law 386d; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 391a; Labour Unions 415a; Lead 422c; Linen and Flax 430a; Marriage and Divorce 448a; Me¬ teorology 458a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Olympic Games 539d; Prices 587c; Prisoners of War 589d; Radio 606b; Railroads 611a; Refugees 616a; Roads 626b; Ship¬ building 642b; Shipping, Merchant Marine 644b; Socialism 650c; Taxa¬ tion 687d; Telephone 690b; U.N. 717b; U.S. 728b; Western European Union 763b; Wool 772a; World Fed¬ eration of Trade Unions 774c; Zinc 780c

Bellamann, Henry 46 Below, Otto von Benavides, Oscar R. 46 Benchley, Robert Charles 46 Bend lx, Vincent 46 Benedict, Ruth Fulton 522b Benefactions: see Donations

and Bequests Benelux: see Belgium; Luxembourg 49, 48. See Netherlands; Tariffs 48 Benes, Eduard: Czechoslovakia 224d; Obituaries 522b

Ben-Gurion, David 49 Bennett, Richard 45 Bennett,

Richard

Bedford

B.:

see

Obituaries 48 Benton, Wiliiam Bentonite Bequests, Phiianthropic: see Dona¬ tions and Bequests Beriin Aviation, Civil 90d; Aviation. Mili¬ tary 94a; Clay, L.D. 195c; Commu¬ nism 206d; Democracy 236c: Ger¬ many 333b; Great Britain 342b; Rep¬ arations 620a; Stalin, J.V. 668b: U.S.S.R. 714b: U.N. 718b; U.S. 727d

Berlin Conference 46

Germany 334d; Reparations 620a

Bermuda American Citizens Abroad 43c; Me¬ teorology 460d; Yachting 776b Bernadotte of Wisborg, Folke: Obitu¬ aries 522c; Palestine SSlb; Sweden 679a; U.N. 719d Bernanos, Georges S22c Bernard, Tristan: see Obituaries 48 Berreta, Tomas: see Obituaries 48

Beryliium Industrial Health 376c; Mineral and Metal Production 468a; Public Health Engineering S9Sd

Berzarin, Nikoiai Y. 46 Bessarabia: see Union of Soviet So¬ cialist Republics 49, 48. See Ru¬ mania 47, 46, 45 Bestor, Arthur Eugene 45 Best Sellers: see Book Publishing Betting and Gambling 49, 48, 47 Horse Racing 356c; Taxation 687c

Beveridge Report: see Relief 48. See Social Security 48, 47, 46, 45 Bevin, Ernest Western European Union 763b

Bhutan 49 Bibesco, Princess Elizabeth 46 Bicycling: see Cycling Bidault, Georges 48, 47

Bor, General: see Komorowski, T. 45 Borates 46, 45 Bormann, Martin 47 Borneo: see British Borneo 49. See Netherlands Indies 49, 48, 45. See North Borneo 48. See Borneo 47, 46. See British Empire; Nether¬ lands Colonial Empire 45 Boron Minerals 49, 48, 47 Bose, Subhas Chandra 46 Boston Botany Atomic Energy 82c; Genetics 328b

Bougainville: see Solomon Islands 46, 45 Bovard, Oliver Kirby 46 Bower, Frederick Orpen 523b

Olympic Games 540c

Boyington, Gregory 46, 45 Boynton, Percy Holmes 47 Boy Scouts Bracken, John 46, 45 Braden, Spruille 47 Bradley, Omar Nelson Bragdon, Claude 47 Braithwaite, Dame Lilian 523b

Biddle, Francis 46, 45 “Big Inch” Line: see Petroleum 46, 45 Bikini Island: see Atomic Energy 49, 48. See Bikini Island 47

Brauchitsch, Heinrich A. H. W. von 523c

Billiards Biochemistry Bacteriology 99c; Chemistry 175d; Physiology 569a; Vitamins 7S3d

Biography: see American Litera¬ ture; English Literature; Obitu¬ aries. See also, in their alphabetical position, sons.

biographies of living per¬

Biology: see Anthropology; Botany; Genetics; Marine Biology; Physi¬ ology; Zoology Birth Control Birth Statistics Census Data 165d; Child Welfare 185d; Marriage and Divorce 446d

Bismuth Dermatology 241c; Mineral and Met¬ al Production 468a

Bizonia: see European Recovery Program; Germany 49 Blackett, Patrick Maynard S. 49 Black Markets 48, 47, 46, 45 Business Review 149c; China 189b; Exchange Control 283d; France 316c; Germany 333d; Great Britain 344a; Korea 412c; Motor Transportation 483a

Blarney, Sir Thomas Albert 46 Blandy, William Henry Purnell 47 Blaskowitz, Johannes 522d Blindness: Chemotherapy 178a; Law 421b; Medicine 454c; Relief 617d; Seeing Eye 640b; Social Security 651d; Taxation 684b. See also vari¬ ous states

Blockade: see Submarine Warfare 46, 45 Blood Plasma: see Medicine; Physi¬ ology 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Surgery 47, 46, 45 Blood Pressure: see Medicine 46, 45 Blue, Rupert 522d

Blue Cross: see Insurance Blum, L4on 47 Blumenfeld, Ralph David 523a

Board of Economic Warfare: see Foreign Economic Administra¬ tion 46, 45 Boetto, Pietro 47 Bogomolets, Alexander A. 47 Bohemia and Moravia 45 Bolivia Antimony 56a; Argentina 69a; Bra¬ zil 128a; Debt, National 234d; Ex¬ change Control 282a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Railroads 61 Id; Seismology 640c; Silver 647a; Tariffs 683d; Telephone 690a; Tin 701a; Tungsten 710b; U.S. 729a

Bombing: see Atomic Energy 49, 48, 47. See Aviation, Military; Muni¬ tions of War 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Atomic Bomb 46 Bonaire: see Curasao Bonds; see Stocks and Bonds Bonds, War: see War Bonds 46, 45 Bong, Richard Ira 46 Bonnard, Pierre: see Obituaries 48 Bonnet, Henri 47 Bono, Emilio G.G.G. de 45 Bonomi, ivanoe 45 Book-Collecting and Book Prices Book Publishing Law 418d; Paper and Pulp Industry 554a

Books: see Book Publishing; Chil¬ dren’s Books. See also under Amer¬ ican Literature; English Litera¬ ture; French Literature; etc. Art Sales 77c; Book-Collecting 121d; Literary Prizes 431d Booth, Maud Ballington 523a

200c;

International

46

Brazil American Citizens Abroad 43d; Archaeology 58b; Argentina 69a; Atomic Energy 84a; Aviation, Mili¬ tary 99b; Coffee 200d; Communism 206d; Cotton 219c; Debt, National 234d; Diamonds 244a; Exchange Con¬ trol 280d; Gold 338a; Illiteracy 369a; International Conference of Ameri¬ can States 383b; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 390d; Iron and Steel 397a; Leather 423c; Leprosy 424d; Linen and Flax 430a; Manganese 443c; Mineral] Production 467a; Monazite 472c; Music 490a; Navies of the World 498c; Olympic Games 539d; Paraguay 555a; Peanuts 557c; Rail¬ roads 61 Id; Roads 626a; Shipbuild¬ ing 642d; Shipping, Merchant Ma¬ rine 644c; Smithsonian Institution 649a; Soil Erosion 659a; Tariffs 683d; Telephone 690a; Tungsten 710b; Tunnels 711a; U.N. 717b; U.S. 729a; Uruguay 739d; Wines 770a; Zirconium 781a

Bread and Bakery Products Food Supply of the World 307c

Breadner, Lloyd Samuel 46, 45 Brearley, Harry 523c

Breitscheid, Rudolph 45 Breneman. Tom 523c

Brereton, Lewis Hyde 46, 45 Bresnahan, Roger 45 Bretton Woods: see International Monetary Fund 48, 47. See Inter¬ national Bank for Reconstruc¬ tion and Development 47. See Banking 47, 46, 45. See United Na¬ tions Monetary and Financial Program 46. See Exchange Stabili¬ zation Funds; International Law 46, 45 Brewing and Beer Liquors, Alcoholic 431b; Taxation 686b; Yeast 777c

Bricker, John William 45 Bridge, Contract: see Contract Bridge Bridges Railroads 611a; Roads 625c

Bridgman, Percy Williams 47 Brill, Abraham Arden 523d

Bristow, Joseph Little 45 British Borneo 49. See North Borneo 48. See Borneo 47, 46. See British Empire 45 British Columbia British East Africa Agriculture 30d; Anthropology 54d; Education 256c; Fisheries 298b; Illiteracy 368d; Peanuts S57c; Soil Erosion 659b; U.S. 729b; Wildlife Conservation 768c; Y.M.C.A 778b

British Empire See also various countries British Guiana Bauxite 110b; Mineral and Metal Production 467a

British Honduras Guatemala 348b

British Legion 48, 47, 46, 45 Veterans’ Organizations 750b

British Malaya: see Malaya (Federa¬ tion of) and Singapore 49. See Malayan Union and Singapore 48, 47. See Federated Malay States; Straits Settlements; Unfederated Malay States 46, 45 British Possessions in the Mediter¬ ranean: see Cyprus; Gibraltar; Malta 49, 48. See Mediterranean, British Possessions in the 47, 46, 45 British Somaliland: see British East Africa British South African Protectorates

INDEX

795

Trade

British West Indies: see Bahamas; Barbados; Jamaica; Leeward Is¬ lands; Trinidad; Windward Is¬ lands Bromine Chemistry 174c

Brooke, Sir Alan Francis 45 Brooke, Sir Basil 45 Brookhart, Smith Wildman 45 Brookings Institution: see Socie¬ ties and Associations Broomcorn 49, 48, 47, 46

Bruce, William Cabell 47

Connecticut 212d

Bowling Boxing

France 316d Biddle, Anthony J. D.. Sr. 522d

Genetics 327d; Marine Biology 444d Bilbo, Theodore G.: see Obituaries 48

Cocoa 391a

Brown, Mordecai Peter C. 523d Brozovich or Broz, Josip (Tito) U.S.S.R. 714c; Yugoslavia 779a

Bowes, Edward 47 Bowles, Chester 48, 47, 46, 45

Brandeis, Alice Goldmark Brannan, Charles Franklin 49

British-U.S. War Boards 46, 45 British West Africa

Cacao: see Cocoa Caccia Dominion!, Camillo 47 Cadmium Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Public Health Engineering 596a

Cadogan, Sir A. G. M. 48, 47 Caggiano, Antonio 46 Caillaux, Joseph Marie A. 45 Caldecote, Thomas Walker H. L: see

Obituaries 48 Calder, Alexander Stirling 46 Calendar (page xxii) Calendar of Events: see pages 1-16 California California, University of

Brucellosis; ARA 23d; Chemotherapy 177d; Medicine 4S3a; Veterinary Medicine 751d

Anthropology 54c; Atomic Energy 84a; Basketball 1 lOa; Football 308b; Libraries 427a; Rowing 629a

Brunei: see British Borneo 49. See North Borneo 48. See Borneo 47, 46. See British Empire 45 Bruno, Giuseppe 46 Brussels, Treaty of: see Western European Union 49 Bryan, John Stewart 45 Bryn Mawr College Bubonic Plague: see Plague, Bu¬ bonic and Pneumonic Buckner, Simon Bolivar, Jr, 46 Buckwheat Budget, National

Calles, Plutarco Elias 46 Cambodia: see French Overseas Ter¬ ritories 49, 48. See French Colo¬ nial Empire 47, 46, 45 Cambridge University

Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government 205a; Debt, National 233b; ERP 278c; Income and Product, U.S. 371c; Taxation 684a. See also various countries

Buell, Raymond Leslie 47 Buhl Foundation; see Societies and Associations 49, 48 BuildingandConstruction Industry Architecture 63c; Bridges 130a; Business Review 146b; Canals and Inland Waterways 159a; Dams 226d; Education 253c; Employment 270c; FWA 294a; Floods and Flood Con¬ trol 300d; Glass 337a; Hotels 360a; Housing 360b; Income and Product, U.S. 371b; Motor Transportation 482c; Newspapers and Magazines 509b; Paper and Pulp Industry 554a; Prices 585a; Railroads 607c; Refu¬ gees 616d; Rivers and Harbours 623d; Roads 625b; Sand and Gravel 636a; Standards, National Bureau of, 669a; Strikes 673b; Telephone 690b; Tunnels 710c; Wages and Hours 755c; Words and Meanings, New 773b

Bulganin, Nikolai Alexandrovich 48 Bulgaria Albania 36d; Armies of the World 73d; Atomic Energy 84a; Australia 85c; Austria 86d; Birth Statistics 120c; Canals and Inland Waterways 160a; Child Welfare 183c; Com¬ munism 207c; Danube. Conference for Control of, 230d; Death Statis¬ tics 232d; Debt, National 234d; East¬ ern Orthodox Churches 252a; Foreign Investments 312c; Greece 346a; Hungary 364d; Kidnapping 411a; Navies of the World 500a; Tele¬ phone 690b; Turkey 712a; U.N. 719c; Veterans' Organizations 750c; Yugo¬ slavia 779d Bullard, Robert L.: see Obituaries

48 Burma, Union of, 49.'5ee Burma 48, 47, 46, 45 Armies of the World 73d; Atomic Energy 84a; Canals and Inland Water¬ ways 160b; Communism 207b; Educa¬ tion 256c; Food Supply of the World 307d; I.L.O. 384c; International Trade 392b; Law 422a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Missions, Foreign 470b; Plague S71d; Rail¬ roads 611c; Refugees 617d; Repara¬ tions 620b; Socialism 651b; Soil Ero¬ sion 660b; U.N. 717b; U.S. 729b; Y.M.C.A. 778b

Burma Road: see Roads and High¬ ways 46, 45 Burton, Harold Hitz 46 Busch, Ernst 46 Buses: see Automobile Industry; Electric Transportation; Motor Transportation Bushfield, Harlan J. 524a

Business Review Consumer Credit 213b; Income and Product. U.S. 370c; International Trade 389b; Law 417c; Prices 585a; Stocks and Bonds 670a; Taxation 685d. See also various industries, cities, states and countries Butler, Frank E. 524a Butler, Nicholas Murray: see Obitu¬

aries 48 Butter Margarine 444c; Milk 466b; Vege¬ table Oils and Animal Fats 743a

Byelorussia 46 Byrnes, James F. 47, 46, 45 Cabinet Members Cabot, Hugh 46

Rowing 628d

Cameron, Sir David Young 46 Cameroons: see French Overseas Territories; Trustee Territories 49, 48. See British West Africa 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See French Colonial Empire; Mandates 47, 46, 45 Camouflage 46, 45 Camp Fire Girls Canada, Dominion of Abrasives 17d; Accidents 19b; Air¬ craft Manufacture 32a; Aluminum 41c; American Citizens Abroad 43c; Antimony 56a; Armies of the World 74c; Arsenic 75a; Asbestos 77d; Atomic Energy 80c; Automobile Industry 89c; Aviation, Civil 91b Aviation, Military 97d; Barium Minerals 104c; Barley 105a; Baseball 109b; Birth Statistics 120a; Bridges 130d; Business Review 149a; Butter 150d; Cadmium 151b; Canadian Literature 158a; Canals and Inland Waterways 159c; Cattle 165c; Chambers of Commerce 172c; Child Welfare 183c; Christian Science 189c; Clothing Industry 196b; Coal 196c; Cobalt 200b; Coke 201b; Community Chest207d; Community Trusts 208a; Consumer Credit 214b; Co-opera¬ tives 215d; Copper 216a; Curling 223c; Dams 227b; Dance 229a; Death Statistics 232b; Debt, National 234d; Democracy 237d; Diabetes 243a; Disciples of Christ 247a; Edu¬ cation 257b; Electrical Industries 264c; Electric Transportation 266a; Employment 27la; Entomology 274a; Estonia 276b; Etching 277a; Ex¬ change Control 281b; Feldspar 295a; Fertilizers 296a; Fisheries 299d; Floods and Flood Control 302b; Flour 303b; Food Supply of the World 304d; Football 310a; Foreign Investments 311a; Forests 313d; Furniture Industry 325c; Furs 326a; Gas, Natural 326c; Gold 337c; Golf 338d; Graphite 341b; Gypsum 349d; Horse Racing 356d; Horticul¬ ture 357d; Hospitals 358d; Housing 362d; Ice Hockey 365d; Ice Skating 366d; Immigration and Emigration 370a; Industrial Health 376b; In¬ surance 378d; International Law 387a; International Trade 389d; Iron and Steel 397a; Jet Propulsion 407c; Labour Unions 414a; Latvia 415d; Law 422a; Lead 422c; Leather 423b; Libraries 428a; Linen and Flax 430b; Literary Prizes 432d; Livestock 434a; Lumber 437b; Margarine 444c; Marriage and Divorce 448a; Meat 452a; Meteorology 456d; Mica 463d; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Molybdenum 472b; Motion Pic¬ tures 479d; Motor Transportation 482c; Municipal Goyt. 48Sb; Music 490b; Nat. Parks and Monuments 497c; Naval Academy, U.S. 498a; Newfoundland and Labrador 506d; Newspapers and Magazines 512a; Nickel 516b; Olympic Games 539d; Paper and Pulp Industry 554b; Peat 557d; Petroleum 561a; Philately 561d; Platinum 574c; Post Office 581d; Public Utilities 599c; Pyrite 601b; Radio 606b; Radium 607b; Railroads 612a; Refugees 616a; Re¬ lief 618a; Rivers and Harbours 624a; Roads 625c; Rural Electrification 632c; Rye 633b; Salt 634b; Sand and Gravel636a; Selenium 640d; Seventhday Adventists 641b; Shipbuilding 642b; Shoe Industry 645a; Shows, Animal 645c; Silver 647a; Skiing 648a Smithsonian Institution 649a; So¬ cialism 650a; Social Security 652c; Sodium Carbonate 658a; Sodium Sulphate 658a; Softball 6S8a; Soy¬ beans 664a; Spices 667b; Strikes 674a; Suicide Statistics 675b; Sun¬ day Schools 675d; Talc 682d; Tele¬ phone 690a; Television 692d; Tellur¬ ium 694a; Theatre 700a; Town and

796

INDEX

Regional Planning 703c; Tuberculosis 709c; Tungsten 710a; United Church of Canada 717a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; Uranium 739a; Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 743b; Veterans’ Or¬ ganizations 750a; Western Euro¬ pean Union 764c; Wheat 766c; Wild¬ life Conservation 768a; Zinc 780c. See also various provinces and terri¬ tories

Canadian Literature Literary Prizes 432d

Canadian-U.S. War Committees: see Permanent Joint Board on Defense 48, 47. See Canadian-U.S. War Committees 46, 45 Canais and Iniand Waterways Aqueducts S7a; Floods and Flood Control 302a; Irrigation 399b; Pana¬ ma Canal Zone 5S3c; Railroads 610b; Rivers and Harbours 623d

Cancer Alimentary System, Disorders of, 40c; Chemotherapy 178b; Death Statistics 232c; FSA 293b; Genetics - 327d; Gynaecology and Obstetrics 349c; Medicine 4S3b; Narcotics and Narcotic Traffic 493b; Surgery 676c; X-Ray and Radiology 77Sc

Candy Cane Sugar: see Sugar Canning Industry Fisheries 298d; Vegetables 744b

Cannon, James, Jr. 45 Canol Oil Project: see Northwest Territories 46, 45 Canton Island: see Pacific islands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Cape Verde islands: see Portuguese Colonial Empire Capone, Alphonse: see Obituaries 48 Carbon Black 49, 48, 47, 46 Foreign Investments 311b CARE (Cooperative for American Remittances to Europe, Inc.): Child Welfare 183b; Christian Science 189c; P.T.A. 5SSc Carey, Eben James: see Obituaries

48 Carey, Harry: see Obituaries 48 Caribbean Commission: see West Indies 48, 47 French Overseas Territories 322c Carlson, Evans F.: see Obituaries 48 Carnegie Trusts: see Societies and

Associations Carpenter, George Lyndon S24a

Caroline Islands: see Trustee Terri¬ tories 49, 48. See Mandates 47. See Caroline Islands 46, 45 Carpatho-Ukraine 46 Carrel, Alexis 45

Census Data, U.S. Agriculture 29b; Aliens 38c; Birth Statistics 120a; Immigration and Emigration 369c; Municipal Govern¬ ment 484c Centennials: see Calendar (page xxii)

Central America 47, 46, 45 See also various countries Ceramels 408b Cereals: see Barley; Corn;

Oats; Rice; Rye; Wheat Ceylon, Dominion of 49. See Ceylon 48, 47, 46, 45

Archaeology 63a; Coconuts 200c; Graphite 341b; I.L.O. 384c; InternationalTrade 391a; Meteorology 458a; Olympic Games 539d; Rubber 630b; Tariffs 683d; Tea 688d; U.N. 717c Chain Stores: see Business Review

46, 45 Business Review Industry 196b

146b;

Clothing

Chambers, Whittaker 49 Chambers of Commerce Chaminade, Cicile 45 de

Ribes,

Auguste:

see

Obituaries 48 Chandler, Albert Benjamin 46 Channel Islands: see Great Britain &. Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of, 49. See British Em¬ pire 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Chapultepec Conference: see InterAmerican Conference on Prob¬ lems of War and Peace; Pan American Union 46 Charge Account: see Consumer Credit Charles 49, 48, 47, 46 Charles Philip Arthur George, Prince 270a Charter of the United Nations: see

United Nations Conference on International Organization 46 Chase, Harold: see Obituaries 48 Chauvel, Sir Henry George 46 Cheese Chemistry Atomic Energy 82c; Leather 423b; Nobel Prizes 516d; Societies 653c; Vitamins 753d; Yeast 777a Arthritis 76d; Medicine 453a; Sur¬ gery 676c; Vitamins 753d

Chemurgy Rubber 630d

Ch’en, Eugene 45 Chennault, Clair L. 46, 45 Chernyakhovsky, Ivan D. 46, 45 Cherries: see Fruit 49, 48, 47, 46 Chess Chiang Kai-shek China 187d

Chicago Railroads 610a

Chicago, University of

Carter, Boake 45 Carter, William Spencer 45 Cartier de Marchienne, E. de 47 Cartography 49, 48

Archaeology 58b; Atomic Energy 84a; Dance 228d; Hutchins, R. M, 365b; Libraries 426d Chiefs of Staff, The Combined: see

Cassel, Gustav 46 Cassirer, Ernst 46 Castelnau, Edouard de C. de 45 Castillo, Ramon S. 45 Castillo Najera, Francisco 47 Catastrophes: see Disasters Gather, Willa S.: see Obituaries 48 Cathether 454c

Catholic Church: see Roman Cath¬ olic Church Catholic Community Service, Na¬ tional: see Societies and Associa¬ tions Catholic Library Association: see Societies and Associations Catholic Organizations for Youth Catholic Rural Life Conference, National 48, 47, 46, 45 Catholic University of America 49, 48, 47 Libraries 426d

,Catholic Welfare Conference, Na¬ tional Catt, Carrie C.: see Obituaries 48 Catteii, James McKeen 45 Cattle ARA 23d; Agriculture 26d; Brewing and Beer 129d; Dairying 226c; Food Supply of the World 306d; Leather 423a; Livestock 433c; Meat 451c; Milk 466b; Pneumonia 575b; Shows, Animal 64Sb; Tuberculosis 709c

Cavalieri, Lina 45 Cavan, Frederic Rudolph L. 47 C.E.D,: Committee for Economic Development Celebes Islands: see Netherlands Indies Cellulose Products: see Plastics In¬ dustry; Rayon and Other Synthe¬ tic Filers 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Paper and Pulp Industry 47,46,45 Chemurgy 179a

Cement Building and Construction Industry I41b; Railroads 609d

Censorship 46, 45

War 11 46, 45 Chinese Turkestan: see China 49. See Sinkiang 48, 47, 46, 45

Coinage Coke

Combined Chiefs of Staff, The 47 46 45 Child Labour 49, 48, 47. See Child Welfare 46, 45 Children’s Books Book Publishing Prizes 432c

122b;

Literary

Child Welfare Child Labour 181c; Education 257d; ERP 278b; FSA 293a; Juvenile De¬ linquency 409d; Municipal Govern¬ ment 485d; P.T,A. 555b; Refugees 6I6d; Relief 618a; Social Security 651d; U.N. 722a. See also various states

Chile Antarctica 53a; Argentina 68d; Atomic Energy 84a; Birth Statis¬ tics 120c; Copper 216a; Death Statis¬ tics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Employment 271b; Exchange Con¬ trol 282a; Falkland Islands 285d; Fertilizers 296a; International Bank 381b; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 390d; Iron and Steel 397a; Manganese 443c; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Navies of the World 498c; Nitrogen, Chemical 516c; Olympic Games 539d; Railroads 61 Id; Seis¬ mology 640c; Silver 647a; SpanishAmerican Literature 665b; Tariffs 683b; Telephone 690b; U.N. 717c; U.S. 726a; Uruguay 739d; Wines 770a

China American Citizens Abroad 43d; Armies of the World 73c; Atomic Energy 84a; Aviation, Civil 91b; Aviation, Military 99b; Baptist Church 103c; Botany 124a; Child Welfare 183b; Coal 196d; Communism 207b; Cotton 219c; Dams 227b; Edu¬ cation 256c; ERP 278b; Exchange Control 280d; Flour 303b; Food Supply of the World 307d; Formosa 314c; Friends, Religious Society of, 323a; Furs 326a; Gas, Natural 326c; Greece 346b; Immigration and Emi¬ gration 370a; International Mone¬

Electronics 268a; Navies of World 498d Coast Guard academy, U.S. 200a

the

Cobalt Mineral and Metal Production 468a; Vitamins 753d

Cobb, Irvin Shrewsbury 45 Cochin-China: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Cocoa Candy 161b

Coconuts Food Supply of the World 307a; Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 743b

Coffee Horticulture 358a; International Trade 390a Cohen, Morris R.: see Obituaries 48

Metallurgy 456a; Mineral Metal Production 467a

and

Chloromycetin: see Chemotherapy; Medicine 49

Cold, Common

Bacteriology 99d; Yale University 777a Cholera: see Epidemics 48 Disasters 246b Chosen: see Korea

Colijn, Hendrick 45 Colleges and Universities: see Uni¬ versities and Colleges Colombia

Chou En-Lai 47 Christian X: see Obituaries 48. See Christian X 47, 46, 45 Christian Science Christian Unity 49 Federal Council of Churches 290d; Religion 619a; World Council of Churches 774a

Christie, John Walter 45 Chromite Mineral and Metal Production 467a

Chronology: see Calendar of Events (pages 1-16)

Churches, World Council of: see World Council of Churches 49. See Christian Unity 48, 47, 46, 45 Churchill, Winston: see Obituaries 48 Churchill, Winston Leonard S, Democracy 237c; English Literature 272d

Church Membership See also various churches

Chemothera py

Carroll, Earl 524b

Antarctica 53c; Coast and Geodetic Survey 198c; Geography 329a; Na¬ tional Geographic Society 494d

Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. Coast Guard, U.S.

Chlordane 358b

Hiss, A. 353d

Champetier

tary Fund 388d; International Trade 390b; Japan 404d; Lutherans 438b; Marine Corps 446c; Mercury 456a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Missions, Foreign 470b; Mon¬ golian People’s Republic 472d; Nar¬ cotics and Narcotic Traffic 493a; Navies of the World 498c; Peanuts 557c; Philately 562a; Plague 571d; Railroads 611c; Refugees 616a; Rep¬ arations 620b; Roman Catholic Church 627b; Seismology 640c; Ship¬ ping, Merchant Marine 644c; Siam 646a; Soil Erosion 660a; Soybeans 664a; Spices 667a; Tariffs 683d; Tea 688d; Telephone 690b; Tibet 701a; Tin 701a; Tuberculosis 709b; Tungsten 710b; U.S.S.R. 714c; U.N. 717c; U.S. 724b; War Crimes 757c; Y.M.C.A. 778b Chinese-Japanese War: see World

Church of England Church Membership 192a

Church Reunion:.re£ChristianUnity Ciano, Galeazzo 45 Cigars and Cigarettes: see Tobacco Cinnamon: see Spices C.I.O.: see Congress of Industrial Organizations City and Town Planning: see Town and Regional Planning City Manager Plan: see Municipal Government Civil Aeronautics Administration Airports 33d; Aviation, Civil 92a; Electronics 268b; Law 416c

Civilian Defense 46, 45 Civilian Production Administra¬ tion 47. See Priorities and Allo¬ cations; War Production Board 46 Civilian Requirements, Office of: see War Production, U.S. 45 Civil Liberties Democratic Party 238b; Education 254c; Elections 262b; Federal Council of Churches 290c; Hotels 360a; Inter¬ national Conference of American States 383c; International Law 386b; Law 416b; Lynching 438d; Negroes, American 501c; Socialism 650a; Trieste 706b; Truman, H. S. 706d; U.S. 725a

Civil Service Budget, National 140d; Civil Liber¬ ties 193b; Commission on Organiza¬ tion of the Executive Branch of the Government 204d; Industrial Health 375d; Law 421c; Negroes, American 502a; Social Security 652a

Clapham, Sir John H. 47 Clapper, Raymond 45 Clark, Mark Wayne 47, 46, 45 Clark, Thomas C. 49, 48, 47, 46 Clarke, John Hessin 46 Clay, Lucius D. 49, 48, 47, 46 Clays Wages and Hours 755d

Clayton, William Lockhart 48, 47 Clements, Colin (Campbell) 524b

Clendening, Logan 46 Cleveland Climate: see Meteorology Clothing Industry 49 Employment 270c; Fashion and Dress 287d; Prices 585d; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres 613a; Refu¬ gees 616d; Strikes 673b; Wages and Hours 755d Cloves: see Spices 49, 47, 46, 45

Coal Electrical Industries 263b; Employ¬ ment 270d; Fuel Briquettes 325a; Glass 337b; International Trade 390a; Labour Unions 413c; Lewis, J. L. 42Sb; Mineral and Metal Pro¬ duction 467a; Prices 586d; Public Utilities 598d; Shipping, Merchant Marine 643c; Strikes 673b; Wages and Hours 755c

Chemotherapy 178a

Canals and Inland Waterways 160b; Coffee 200d; Communism 206d; Debt, National 234d; Exchange Control 281d; International Mone¬ tary Fund 389a; International Trade 390d; Mineral Production 467a; Music 491b; Navies of the World 498c; Nicaragua 515d; Panamd 553a Petroleum S60d; Platinum 574c Smithsonian Institution 649a; Spanish-American Literature 665d; Tele¬ phone 690b; Unitarian Church 717a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729a

Colorado Colorado, University of, 49, 48, 47 Columbia University Anthropology 55b; Atomic Energy 84a; Basketball 110a; Food Research ' 304c; Literary Prizes 432b; Rowing 629a

Columbium Medicine 453b

Combined Chiefs of Staff, The, 47, 46, 45 Combined War Boards, BritishU.S.: see British-U.S. War Boards 46, 45 Comets: see Astronomy Comic Books: Municipal Government 484a; Newspapers and Magazines 512a; P.T.A. 555c Cominform: see Communism;

Union of Soviet Socialist Repub¬ lics 49, 48 Commerce: see Business Review; International Trade Commerce, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments and Bureaus Commission on a Just and Durable Peace 47, 46, 45 Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Govern¬ ment 49 Committee for Economic Develop¬ ment Commodity Prices: see Business Review; Prices Commodity Trading: see Agricul¬ ture Wheat 766b

Commons, House of; see Parlia¬ ment, Houses of Commonwealth Fund, The: see Societies and Associations Communism Armies of the World 71a; Atomic Energy 83b; Chambers, W. 171d; Chambers of Commerce 172a; Civil Service 195a; Democracy 236c; Democratic Party 238c; Education 256a; ERP 279d; Hiss, A. 353d; Labour Unions 413c; Mindszenty, J. 466c; Motion Pictures 475d; Pacifism 546a; Political Parties, British 579b; Religion 619b; Roman Catholic Church 626d; Socialism 650b; Veterans’ Organizations 7S0c; Wallace, H.A. 757b; World Federa¬ tion of Trade Unions 774c. See also various countries

Community Chest Donations and Bequests 248a

Community Trusts Confectionery: see Candy Conference of American States: see International Conference of American States 49 Congo, Belgian: see Belgian Colonial Empire Congregational Christian Churches Christian Unity 190c; Church Mem¬ bership 191c; Presbyterian Church 584a

Congress, United States Agriculture 30b; American Legion 45b; Aviation, Civil 92c; Commis.non on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government 204d; Democratic Party 238c; Education 2S3b; Elections 261b; ERP 278a;

Housing 360a; Labour Unions 413c; Law 416a; Municipal Government 484b; Public Utilities S99a; Rail¬ roads 608b; Refugees 616c; Republi¬ can Party 620c; Taxation 684a; Truman, H.S. 707b; U.S. 723c; Wheat 766c

Congress of Industrial Organiza* tions Communism 207b; Labour Unions 413b; Law 420c; World Federation of Trade Unions 774b

Coningham, Sir Arthur 45 Connaily, Tom (Thomas T.) 48, 47 Connecticut Conscientious Objectors: see Law 49. See Pacifism 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Friends, Reiigious Society of, 47, 46, 45 Conscription: see Armies of the World; Law; Pacifism; United States 49. See Selective Service 48, 47, 46, 45 Conservation, Soil: see Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation Conservative Party, Great Britain: see Political Parties, British 49, 48. See Conservative Party, Great Britain 47, 46, 45 Consumer Credit Banking lOld; Business Review 146b; Federal Reserve System 292c; Furniture Industry 32Sc; Law 418b

Contract Bridge Betting and Gambling 117c Contract Renegotiation: see Busi¬

Credit, Consumer: see Consumer Credit Crerar, Henry Duncan G. 46, 45 Crewe, Robert Offley A. C.-M. 46 Cricket Crime FBI 289c; Juvenile Delinquency 409d; Kidnapping 411a: Law 416b; Lynching 438d; Police 577d; Prisons 590a; Secret Service, U.S. 638d; Supreme Court of the U.S. 676b; War Crimes 757b Crimea Conference: see Yalta Con¬

ference 46 Cripps, Sir (R.) Stafford 49, 48, 47 Croatia: see Yugoslavia 49, 48, 47,46. See Croatia 45 Crop Insurance: see Agriculture 46, 45 Crosman, Henrietta 45 Cross, Wilbur Lucius 524c

Crude Oil: see Petroleum Crushed Stone: see Stone Cryolite Cuba Chromite 190d; Coinage 201a; Com¬ munism 206d; Dance 228a; Debt, National 234d; Exchange Control 281d; Fertilizers 296b; Food Supply of the World 306d; International Trade 390d; Libraries 426c; Man¬ ganese 443c; Navies of the World 500b; Nickel 516b; Olympic Games 539d; Spanish-American Literature 665d; Sugar 674b; Telephone 690a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729a; Yachting 776c

ness Review 46, 45 Contract Settlement, Office of: see Law; War Mobilization and Re¬ conversion, Office of, 46, 45 Contract Terminations 47, 46, 45 Controlled Materials Plan: see Priorities and Allocations 47, 46, 45. See- War Production, U.S. 45 Convoys: see Submarine Warfare 46, 45 Cook, Sir Joseph: see Obituaries 48 Cook, Will Marion 45

Cunningham, Sir Andrew B. 45 Curasao

Cooperative for American Remittances to Europe, Inc.: see CARE

Olympic Games 542c Cyclotron: see Atomic Energy 49, 48, 47. See Physics 49, 48, 47, 46. See

Co-operatives FCA 286a; Newspapers and Maga¬ zines 512a; Taxation 688d; U.S.S.R. 715b

Copper Coinage 201a; Employment 270b; Foreign Investments 311b; Metal¬ lurgy 456b; Mineral and Metal Pro¬ duction 467c; Secondary Metals 638c; Stocks and Bonds 670d Copra: see Coconuts

Copyright Law 417d Corfu Channel case: Albania 36c; Inter¬ national Court of Justice 383d; International Law 388b; U.N. 718d

Cori, Carl Ferdinand 48 Cori, Gerty Theresa 48 Corn ARA 23c; Agriculture 25a; Chemurgy I78d; Entomology 274d; Food Research 304b; Food Supply of the World 306a; Genetics 327d; Meat 451d; Vegetables 743d

Cornell University Anthropology 55b; Atomic Energy 84a; Electronics 267d; Football 308b; Libraries 426d; National Geographic Society 494d; Rowing 629a

Cornhusking 47, 46, 45 Corporation Income Tax: see Taxa¬ tion Corundum: see Abrasives Cosmetics: see Soap, Perfumery and Cosmetics Cosmic Rays: see Physics Costa Rica Debt, National 234d; Dominican Republic 247c; Exchange Control 282b; International Monetary Fund 388d; Navies of the World 500b; Nicaragua 516a; Pan American Union 553d; Salvador, El 634c; Tariffs 683d; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729a

Costello, John A. 49 Cost of Living; see Business Review; Prices 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Price Administration, Office of, 48, 47, 46, 45 See also various countries

Cotton ARA 24d; Agriculture 25a; Clothing Industry 196a; Entomology 275a; Genetics 328b; International Trade 390a; Textile Industry 697d Cottonseed Oil: see Vegetable Oils

and Animal Fats Council of Foreign Ministers: see Foreign Ministers’Conferences48 See Council of Foreign Ministers 47 Countries of the World, Areas and Populations of the: see Areas and Population^ of the Countries of the World Courtauld, Samuel: see Obituaries 48 Courts: see Law Cowles, Gardner 47 Craig, Malin 46 Cranberries: see Fruit Craven, Frank 46

Surinam 678a

Curling Currency: see Coinage; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates. See also under various countries

Curry, John Steuart 47 Curtin, John 46, 45 Cutler, Elliott C.: see Obituaries 48 Cybernetics: see Mathematics 49 Words and Meanings, New 772c

Cycling

Atomic Bomb; Chemistry 46 C.Y.O.: see Catholic Organizations for Youth Cyprus Asbestos 77d

Czechoslovakia Architecture 66c; Aviation, Military 99b; Birth Statistics 120c; Boxing 126b; Bulgaria 144d; Business Re¬ view 149a; Canals and Inland Water¬ ways 160a; Child Welfare 183c; Civil Liberties 194a; Coal 196d; Coke 201b; Communisrh 206c; Danube, Confer¬ ence for Control of, 230d; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Eastern Orthodox Churches 252a; Education 256c; ERP 279d; Ex¬ change Control 284a; Hungary 364d; Immigration and Emigration 370a; International Monetary Fund 388d; Iron and Steel 397a; Law. 422b; Linen and Flax 430a; Lumber 437d; Mineral Production 467a; Motion Pictures 480c; Music 490b; News¬ papers and Magazines 512d; Olympic Games 539d; Poland 576d; Pres¬ byterian Church 584b; Prisoners of War 589d; Railroads 611b; Refugees 616c; Sculpture 638b; Roman Catholic Church 626d; Table Tennis 682a; Taxation 688b; Telephone 690b; Tennis 696a; Textile Industry 698a; Tuberculosis 709b; Turkey 712a; U.S.S.R. 713a; U.N. 717c: U.S. 729b; Venezuela 746b; Veterans’ Organi¬ zations 750c; Wages and Hours 756d; War Crimes 757c; World Federation of Trade Unions 774d; Yugoslavia 779d

Dafoe, John Wesley 45 Dahomey: see French Overseas Ter¬ ritories 49, 48. See French Coloni¬ al Empire 47, 46, 45 Dairy Industry, Bureau of: see Agricultural Research Adminis¬ tration Dairying ARA 23d; Agriculture 26a; Butter 150d; Cheese 173a; Food Supply of the World 305b; International Trade 390a; Livestock 433c; Milk 466a; Shows, Animal 645b

Dallin, Cyrus Edwin 45 Dalton, (E.) Hugh J. N. 48, 47, 46 Dams Aqueducts 57a; Canals and Inland Waterways 159a; Floods and Flood Control 300d; Indians, American 375c; Irrigation 398d; Rivers and Harbours 624a; TVA 695a; Wildlife Conservation 767a

Dance Theatre 699a Daniels, Josephus 524c

Danube, Conference for Control of, 49 Canals and Inland Waterways 160a; U.S.S.R. 714a; U.S. 728b

Danzig 46 Darby, William Orlando 46

Dartmouth College Ice Hockey 366a

Dates: see Fruit 49, 47, 46 Daughters of the American Revolu¬ tion, National Society of: see Societies and Associations Davenport, Charles Benedict 45 Davies, David Davies 45 Davis, Chester Charles 45 Davis, Elmer 46, 45 Davis. Garry 319c

Davis, Henry Hague 45 Davis, Norman Hezekiah 45 Dawson, Bertrand Dawson 46 Dawson, George Geoffrey 45 DDT: see Entomology 49, 48, 47, 46. See Medicine; Wildlife Conserva¬ tion 46. See DDT 45 ARA 24c; Plague 572a

Deafness Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of. 250d; Social Security 652d

Deaths (of prominent persons): see Obituaries Death Statistics Accidents 18a; Census Data 165d; Infant Mortality 377d; Medicine 454c; Suicide Statistics 675a; Tuber¬ culosis 708b

Debt, National Banking lOld; Budget, National 139a. See also various countries

Decorations, Medals and Badges— Military, Naval and Civil Defense, Civilian: see Civilian De¬ fense 46, 45 Defense, National (U.S.): see Avia¬ tion, Military; National Guard; Navies of the World; War Produc¬ tion, U.S. 45 Defense Communications Board: see Federal Communications Commission 47. See War Com¬ munications, Board of, 46, 45 Defense Transportation, Office of, 47, 46, 45 De Gasperi, Alcide: see Gasperi, Alcide de 49, 48 De Gaulle, Charles: see Gaulle, Charles de Deland, Margaretta W. (C.) 46 Delaney. Jack 524d

Delaware Democracy Communism 205d; Socialism 6S0a

Democratic Party Elections 260d; Negroes, American 501d; Taxation 684a; Thurmond. J. S. 700d; Truman, H. S. 706d; U.S. 723c. See also various states

Dempsey, Sir Miles C. 46, 45 Denfeld, Louis Emil 49, 48 Denham. George Edward W. B. 524d

Denham, Robert N. 48 De Nicola, E.: see Nicola, E. de 48, 47 Denmark Aliens 39c; Archaeology 60c; Armies of the World 71c; .4viation, Civil 91b; Aviation, Military 99a; Bacteriology 99c; Birth Statistics 120c; Business Review 149a; Contract Bridge 215c; Dance 229d; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Electrical In¬ dustries 264d; Electric Transporta¬ tion 266c; Estonia 276a; ERP 279b; Exchange Control 284a; Fencing 295b; Fisheries 298b; Greenland 347b; Iceland 366c; International Bank 381c; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 391a; Jet Propulsion 407c; Marriage and Divorce 448b; Meteorology 456d; Mexico 462d; Motion Pictures 480d; Museums 489c; Navies of the World 498c; Norway 520a; Olympic Games S39d; Philately 561d; Refugees 616a; Roads 626b; Rowing 629c; Sculpture 638b; Shipbuilding 642b; Sweden 678d; Swimming 679d; Taxation 685d; Telephone 690b; Tennis 696b; Tuberculosis 709b; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; Wages and Hours 756d; Wealth and Income, Distribution of, 762c: Western European Union 764c; Yachting 776b Dennett, Mary W.: see Obituaries 48

Denny, Harold Norman 46 Dentistry American Dental Association 44a; FSA 293a; Law 421a; Public Health Services 597b; Societies 653c Derby. Edward George V. S. 524d

Dermatology Medicine 454c Desk-Fax 689c

Detroit De Valera, Eamon 49 Devers, Jacob Loucks 46, 45 Devine, Edward Thomas 525a

Dewey, Thomas Edmund 49, 48, 45 Elections 260d; Newspapers and Magazines 509a; Radio 604c; Repub¬ lican Party 620c; U.S. 725a. See also under various states

Diabetes Death Statistics 232c: Endocrinology 272a; Gynaecology and Obstetrics 349a; Medicine 453b; Physiology 570a; Public Health Services S96b

Diamonds Abrasives 17b; International Trade

INDEX

797

390a; Mineral and Metal Production 467c

Diatomite Dictatorships: see Communism; Fascism; Spain; U.S.S.R. 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Germany 47, 46, 45. See Japan; Rumania 45 Dicumarol: Medicine 453d; Physiology 570b; Wisconsin, University of, 771a Diesel Engines: see Power Engineer¬

ing 46 Dietetics: see Food Research 49, 48. See Dietetics 47, 46, 45 Dietl, Eduard 45 Dill, Sir John Greer 45 Dimension Stone: see Stone Dimitrov, Georgi 48 Dinnyes, Lajos 48 Diplomatic Services: see Ambassa¬ dors and Envoys Disabled American Veterans 49, 48, Veterans’ Organizations 749d

Disasters Death Statistics 233a: Floods and Flood Control 301b; Industrial Health 376b; Meteorology 459b; Red Cross 614d; Seismology 640c

Disciples of Christ Christian Unity 190c: Church Mem¬ bership 191c Displaced Persons: see Dominican

Republic; Estonia; Latvia; Law; Lithuania 49. See Refugees 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Prisoners of War 48, 47, 46, 45 District of Columbia: see Washing¬ ton, D.C. Divorce; see Marriage and Divorce Dixiecrat: see States’ Rights Demo¬ crats

Dixon, Thomas 47 DME (distance measuring equipment): Aviation, Civil 93c; Electronics 268b Dodecanese: see Greece 49. See Dodecanese 48, 47, 46. See Italian

Colonial Empire 45 Doenitz, Karl 47, 46 Dog Racing Dog Shows: see Shows, Animal Dolamin 51b

Dollmann, Friedrich 45 Dominica: see Windward Islands Dominican Republic Costa Rica 218b; Debt, National 234d; Exchange Control 281d; Guate¬ mala 348c; International Conference of American States 383b; Interna¬ tional Monetary Fund 388d; Navies of the World 498c; Refugees 616a; U.S. 729a

Donaldson, Jesse M. 48 Donations and Bequests Community Trusts 208a

Doolittle, James 47, 46, 45 Douglas, Lord Alfred (Bruce) 46 Douglas, Lewis Williams 49, 48 Draft: see Armies of the World; Law; Pacifism; United States 49. See Selective Service 48, 47, 46, 45 Drama: see Radio; Theatre Dreiser, Theodore 46 Dress: see Fashion and Dress Drew, George Alexander 49 Drought: see Meteorology Drug Administration, U.S. 49, 48 Drugs: see Agricultural Research Ad ministration; Alimentary Sys¬ tem, Disorders of; Allergy; Anaes¬ thesiology; Bacteriology; Bio¬ chemistry; Chemistry; Chemo¬ therapy; Chemurgy; Dentistry; Dermatology; Drug Administra¬ tion, U.S.; Endocrinology; Ento¬ mology; Gynaecology and Obstet¬ rics; Medicine; Narcoticsand Nar¬ cotic Traffic; Physiology; Urology; Veterinary Medicine. See also articles on specific diseases, such as Anaemia; Diabetes; Leprosy;

etc. Words and Meanings, New 772b

Drug Traffic: see Narcotics and Nar¬ cotic Traffic 49, 48. See Drugs and Drug Traffic 47, 46, 45 Drunkenness: see Intoxication, Al¬ coholic Dry Point: see Etching 49 Duke University 49, 48, 47 Dulles, John Foster 49, 48 Dumbarton Oaks: see United Na¬ tions Conference on Internation¬ al Organization 46. See Interna¬ tional Law 46, 45 Dunhill, Thomas Frederick 47 Durant, William C.: see Obituaries 48 Durvosal 454b

Dutch Possessions: see Curagao; Netherlands Indies; Surinam 49, 48,47,46, 45. See Borneo47,46. See Netherlands Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Dutra, Eurico Caspar 49, 48, 47 Dyestuffs Eaker, Ira C. 46, 45

798

INDEX

Elections A.F. of L. 45b; Betting and Gam¬ bling 117c; Brewing and Beer 129d; Camp Fire Girls 153d; Civil Liber¬ ties 193b; Communism 206c; C.I.C). 2lid; Democracy 236c; Democratic Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of Party 237d; Dewey, T. E. 243a; Earnings, Company: see Business Fascism 287b; Labour Unions 413c; Review Law 422a; Liquors, Alcoholic 43 Id; Earthquakes; see Disasters 49, 48, Municipal Government 484a; Ne¬ 47, 45. See Seismoiogy 49, 48, 47, groes, American 501d; Newspapers 46,45 and Magazines 508d; Parliament, Easley, Claudius Miller 46 Houses of, 556c; Political Parties, East Africa, British: see British East British 578a; Public Opinion Surveys Africa 597d; Public Utilities 598c; Republi¬ Eastern Orthodox Churches 49, 48 can Party 620c; Socialism 650a; Christian Unity 190a; Church Mem¬ Stocks and Bonds 670a; Taxation bership 191d; Federal Council of 684a; Thurmond, J. S. 700d; Tru¬ Churches 290d; Religion 618c man, H, S. 707c; Wallace H. A. 757b; East Indies, Dutch: see Netherlands Words and Meanings, New 772b. Ind ies See also various cities, states, prov¬ Eastman, Joseph Bartlett 45 inces and countries East Prussia 47, 46 Electrical Industries Eclipses of the Sun and Moon: see Employment 270b; FPC 291d; Irri¬ Calendar (page xxii) 49, 48, 47, 46, gation 398c; Labour Unions 414a; 45. See Astronomy 47, 46, 45 Paints and Varnishes 548b; Plastics Economic Cooperation Administra¬ Industry 574a; Prices 585d; Public tion: see European Recovery Pro¬ Utilities 598d; Rural Electrification gram 49 632a; Societies 654a; TVA 695a; Tun¬ Economic Defense Board; see For¬ nels 710d; Wages and Hours 755d eign Economic Administration Electric Transportation 46,45 Electrification, Rural: see Rural Economics Electrification Business Review 146a; C.E.D. 205b; Consumer Credit 213b; Income and Electronics 49, 48, 47 Aviation, Civil 93b; Coast and Geo¬ Product, U.S. 370c; Societies 6S3d Economic Stabilization, Office of: detic Survey 198c; Machinery and Machine Tools 440c; Medicine 454c; see Civilian Production Adminis¬ Munitions of War 486c; Newspapers tration; War Mobilization and and Magazines 509c; Printing 588b; Reconversion, Office of, 47. See Stabilization Administrator, Of¬ Words and Meanings, New 772d Elementary Education: see Educa¬ fice of, 46. See Economic Stabil¬ ization, Office of, 45 tion Economic Warfare, Office of: see Eliot, Thomas Stearns 49 Foreign Economic Administra¬ English Literature 273d tion 46, 45 Elizabeth, Princess 49, 48 Ecuador London 434c; Philately 561d Colombia 203a; Debt, National 234d; Elks, Benevolent and Protective Exchange Control 282b; Navies of Order of: see Societies and Asso¬ the World 500b; Panama 553a; Plague ciations 571d; Telephone 690b; U.N. 717c; Ellice Islands: see Pacific Islands, British U.S. 729a Eddington, Sir Arthur Stanley 45 Elliott, Maud Howe 525b El Salvador: see Salvador, El Eden, (Robert) Anthony 46, 45 Elsberg, Charles Albert 525b Edinburgh, Prince Philip 48 Edison, Mina: see Obituaries 48 Embassies, Great Britain and the Education United States: see Ambassadors Accidents 18d; Aliens 39a; Architec¬ and Envoys ture 63d; Book Publishing 122b; Emergency Management, Office Budget, National 139d; Building and for, 45 Construction Industry 142b; Cath¬ Emery: see Abrasives olic Welfare Conference, National Emigration: see Immigration and 164d; Census Data 167a; Chambers of Emigration Commerce 172a; Child Welfare 185d; Employment (i.E.D. 205c; Deafness 232a; Dona¬ Business Review 146a; Census Data tions and Bequests 248a; Economics t68c; Child Labour 181c; Child Wel¬ 252b; Ethical Culture Movement fare 185d; Civil Service 194b; In¬ 277b; ESA 292d; FWA 294a; Geogra¬ come and Product, U.S. 370c; La¬ phy 329b; Home Economics 354c; bour Unions 413d; Negroes, Ameri¬ Illiteracy 368d; Indians, American can 501d; Social Security 651d; Vo¬ 375c; Jewish Religious Life 408c; cational Rehabilitation, Office of, Law 416b; Libraries 427b; Lutherans 754d; Wages and Hours 755c. See 438a; Mindszenty, J. 466c; Motion also separate industries and various Pictures 476c; N.E.A. 494a; Negroes, cities, states, provinces and coun¬ American 501c; P.T.A, 555b; Radio tries 607a; Roman Catholic Church 626d; Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.: Art Seventh-day .'Vdventists 641a; Sun¬ Exhibitions 76b; Photography 564d day Schools 67Sd; Television 692c; Encyclopaedia Britannica Films Inc. U.N, 722b; Veterans’ Administration 478c 747d; Veterans’ Organizations 750a; Enderbury Island: see Pacific Is¬ Vocational Rehabilitation, Office of, lands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 754d; Y.M.C.A. 778a; Y.W.C.A. Endocrinology 778c. See also individual colleges and Gynaecology and Obstetrics 349a; universities and various cities, Medicine 453b states, provinces and countries England: see Great Britain &. Education, U. S. Office of: see Edu¬ Northern Ireland, United King¬ cation; Federal Security Agency dom of Edwards, Gus 46 English Literature Eggs Book Publishing 122d; Literary Agriculture 26a; Poultry 583b; Vet¬ Prizes 432d erinary Medicine 751a Eniwetok Atoll 79c Egypt Ent, Uzal G. S2Sc Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 52b; Anthro¬ Entomology pology 54d; Anti-Semitism S6c; Ar¬ ARA 24a; Agriculture 25c; Aviation, chaeology 61c; Armies of the World Civil 92d; Infantile Paralysis 377b; 74d; Cotton 219c; Debt, National Plague 572a; Public Health Engineer¬ 234d; Exchange Control 284b; Floods ing 595b; Zoology 782a and Flood Control 302a; Illiteracy Entomology and Plant Quarantine, 369a; International Trade 392a; Ir¬ Bureau of; see Agricultural Re¬ rigation 398d; Italian Colonial Em¬ search Administration pire 400b; Meteorology 458a; Olym¬ Enzymes: see Biochemistry pic Games 539d; Palestine 5S0c; Epidemics Phosphates 564a; Syria 681d; Tax¬ Infantile Paralysis 376d; Public ation 688b; Telephone 690b; Textile Health Services 597a Industry 697d; Trans-Jordan 705b; Episcopal Church: see Protestant U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b Episcopal Church Eichelberger, Robert L. 46, 45 Eritrea: see Italian Colonial Empire Einaudi, Luigi 49 Espionage: see Federal Bureau of Eire Investigation 47, 46, 45 Aviation, Civil 91b; Birth Statistics Estonia 120c; Butter 150d; Church Member¬ Lithuania 433b; ship 192a; Death Statistics 232d; Etching Debt, National 234d; ERP 279d; Ethical Culture Movement Great Britain 342c; International Ethiopia Trade 391a; Law 422b; Libraries Floods and Flood Control 302a; In¬ 428c; Olympic Games 539d; Social ternational Monetary Fund 388d; Security 653a; Taxation 686a; Tele¬ I Italian Colonial Empire 400b; Rivers phone 690b; U.N. 717c; Western and Harbours 62Sa; U.S. 729b; European Union 764c Y.M.C.A. 778b Eisenhower, Dwight D. Eugen, Prince: see Obituaries 48 American Literature 46d; Book Pub¬ European Advisory Commission 46. lishing 122c; Education 256b 45 Eisenstein, Sergei 52Sb European Economic Cooperation,

Organization for: see European Recovery Program European Recovery Program 49, 48 Agriculture 28a; American Citizens Abroad 42d; Argentina 69a; Austria 86d; Bank of England 103c; Belgium 113a; Budget, National 139b; Busi¬ ness Review 148d; Canada 155d; Child Welfare 183b; China 188b; Civil Service 194c; Democracy 237c; Denmark 239c; Economics 252b; Eire 260a; Exchange Control 281a; Food Supply of the World 307d; Foreign Investments 311b; France 318a; Germany 333a; Gold 337b; Great Britain 342a; Hoffman, P.G. 354a; Iceland 366b; Income and Product, U.S. 371d; International Bank 382a; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 390b; Italy 402b; Labour Unions 413d; Law 416a; Machinery and Machine Tools 440b; Netherlands 504b; Newspapers and Magazines 512a; Norway 519d; Petroleum 560b; Political Parties, British 578d; Por¬ tugal S79d; Reparations 619d; Ship¬ ping, Merchant Marine 643a; So¬ cialism 6S0c; Stocks and Bonds 672a; Sweden 678d; Switzerland 680d; Turkey 712a; U.N. 721d; U.S. 724b; Uruguay 740a; Wallace H. A. 757b; World Federation of Trade Unions 774b Evangelicals, National Association of; see National Association of Evangelicals 49, 48, 47, 46 Evatt, Herbert Vere 48, 47 Events of the Year: see Calendar of Events (pages 1-16) Evers, John J.: see Obituaries 48 Exchange Control and Exchange Rates ERP 279b; Foreign Investments 310c; Gold 338b; International ( Monetary Fund 388c; International Trade 389b; Tariffs 683b. See also various countries Exchange Stabilization Funds 47, 46, 45 Exhibitions, Livestock: see Shows, Animal Existentialism: see Philosophy 49, 48 French Literature 320a Expenditure, Government: see Budget, National Exploration and Discovery; see Antarctica; Archaeology; Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S.; Geog¬ raphy; Marine Biology; National Geographic Society: Oceanog¬ raphy 49. See Exploration and Discovery 48, 47 Explosions: see Disasters Export Controls: see International Trade 49, 48. See Lend-Lease 47. See Foreign Economic Adminis¬ tration 46, 45 Export-Import Bank of Washing¬ ton Exchange Control 281a; Foreign In¬ vestments 311c Exports: see Agriculture; Interna¬ tional Trade; Tariffs. also var¬ ious industries, ^products and coun¬ tries Eye, Diseases of Atomic Energy 83b; Medicine 453b Facsimile: see Radio; Telegraphy Faeroe Islands: see Denmark 49 Fair Employment Practice, Com¬ mittee on, 46, 45 Falange: see Fascism 45 Falk Foundation, The Maurice and Laura: see Societies and Associa¬ tions Falkland Islands 49. See British Empire 48, 47, 46, 45 Argentina 68d; Chile 186c Fall, Albert Bacon 45 Famines: see Food Supply of the World 49; Famines 48, 47, 46, 45 Far Eastern Commission: see Repa¬ rations 49, 48. See Japan 49, 48, 47. See Allied Military Government 46 Farm Co-operatives: see Farm Credit Administration Farm Credit Administration Farm Debt: see Agriculture 49, 48 Farmers Home Administration 49, 48, 47 Farm Income: see Agriculture; In¬ come and Product, U.S. Farm Machinery: see Agriculture Farm Population; see Agriculture; Census Data, U.S. Farm Security Administration: see Farmers Home Administration 49, 48, 47. See Farm Security Ad¬ ministration 46, 45 Farouk I 49, 47 Farquhar, Silas Edger 525c Fascism Fashion and Dress Clothing Industry 196b; Furs 325d; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres 613a Faust, Frederick 45 FBI; see Federal Bureau of Investi¬ gation

Federal Bureau of Investigation Civil Liberties 193b; Civil Service 194c; Crime 220d; Kidnapping 411b; Law 419d; Words and Meanings, New 772d Federal Communications Commis¬ sion Radio 602d; Television 692b Federal Council of the Churches of Christ in America Christian Unity 190b; Religion 619b Federal Deposit Insurance Corpora¬ tion Federal Home Loan Bank: see Hous¬ ing Federal Housing Administration; see Housing Federal Income Tax: see Taxation Federal Land Banks: see Farm Credit Administration Federal Nlediation and Conciliation Service 49, 48 Federal Power Commission Public Utilities S98d Federal Reserve System Banking 102a; Business Review 147c; Debt, National 234a; Law 418b Federal Savings and Loan Insur¬ ance Corporation: see Housing Federal Security Agency Federal Deposit Insurance Corpora¬ tion 291a Federal Trade Commission Advertising 21b; Law 416c; Rail¬ roads 609d Federal Works Agency Federated Malay States: see Malaya (Federation of) and Singapore 49. See Malayan Union and Singa¬ pore 48, 47. See Federated Malay States 46, 45 Feldspar Fencing Olympic Games 542b Ferdinand I 52Sc Ferguson, James Edward 45 Ferrero, Gina Lombroso 45 Fertilizers ARA 24d; Co-operatives 215d; Ni¬ trogen, Chemical 516c; TVA 69Sb FHA (Federal Housing Administra¬ tion): see Housing FHLB (Federal Home Loan Bank): see Housing Fiction: see Literary Prizes 49, 48. See Book Publishing 49, 48, 47, See American Literature; Cana¬ dian Literature; English Litera¬ ture; French Literature; German Literature; Italian Literature; Russian Literature; SpanishAmerican Literature; Spanish Literature 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Prizes 47, 46, 45. See Publishing (Book) 45 Fido (fog, intensive, dispersal of): Air¬ ports 34b; Aviation, Civil 93d Fields, W. C. 47 Fighting France (Free France): see France; French Colonial Empire 45 FigI, Leopold 48 figs : see Fruit Fiji: see Pacific Islands, British Filberts: see Nuts Financial Review: see Business Re¬ view Fine Arts: see Music; Painting: Sculpture; etc. Finland Australia 83c; Birth Statistics 120c; Child Welfare 183c; Communism 206d; Contract Bridge 215c; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Democracy 236c; Denmark 239b; Es¬ tonia 276a; Exchange Control 280d; Infant Mortality 378a; International Bank 381d; International Monetary Fund 388d; Lumber 437c; Marriage and Divorce 446d; Navies of the World 499d; Olympic Games 539d; Public Opinion Surveys 598c; Rail¬ roads 611b; Socialism 650c; Taxation 688b; Telephone 690b; U.S.S.R. 714a; Unitarian Church 717a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; Wealth and Income, Dis¬ tribution of, 762c Finlay, William Finlay 46 Fire Insurance: see Insurance Fires and Fire Losses Disasters 245d; Forests 313d; In¬ surance 379d Fischer, Hans 46 Fish and Wildlife Service: see Fish¬ eries 49, 48, 47, 46. See Wildlife Conservation 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Fisher, Geoffrey F. 49, 48, 47, 46 Fisher, Irving: see Obituaries 48 Fisheries Canning Industry 162a; Indians, American 375c; Marine Biology 445b Fishing; see Angling Fitzalan of Derwent, E. B. F.-H.: see Obituaries 48 Fiume; Trieste 47, 46. Yugo¬ slavia 46 Flanagan, Edward Joseph 525d Flax: see Linen and Flax Fleming, Sir John Ambrose 46 Flexner, Bernard 46 Flint: see Abrasives 45

Floods and Flood Control Disasters 246b; FPC 292a; Horticul¬ ture 358a; Meteorology 4S9c; Rivers and Harbours 624a; TVA 695a; U.N. 721d Florida Flour Bread and Bakery Products 129a; Prices 587a Fluorspar Flying Bombs; see Rockets 45 "Flying Tigers”: see Chennault, Claire L. & Food and Agriculture Organization: see Food Supply of the World 49, 48 Food and Drug Administration: see Drug Administration, U.S. 49, 48. See Drugs and Drug Traffic; Fed¬ eral Security Agency 47, 46, 45 Food Research ARA 23d; Bread and Bakery Prod¬ ucts 129a; Chemistry 175d; Flour 303b; Home Economics 354d; Physics 569a; Public Health Services S96d; Vitamins 754a; Words and Meanings, New 772c; Yeast 777b Food Supply of the World 49, 48, 47 Agriculture 25a; Food Research 304a; U.N. 718c Foot-and-mouth disease: ARA 23d; Aleman, M. 37d; Cattle 165c; Cuba 222c; Meat 452a; Mexico 462c; Vet¬ erinary Medicine 750d Football Betting and Gambling 117d; Negroes, American 502c; Words and Mean¬ ings, New 773d Forbes, George W.; see Obituaries 48 Ford. Henry: see Obituaries 48 Foreign Economic Administration 46, 45 Foreign Exchange: see Exchange Control and Exchange Rates Foreign Investments Exchange Control 281b; Export-Im¬ port Bank 285a; Income and Product, U.S. 371d Foreign Loans, U.S.: see United States 49 ERP 279d; Exchange Control 281a; Export-Import Bank 285a; Foreign Investments 310a Foreign Ministers’ Conferences 48. See Council of Foreign Ministers 47 Foreign Missions: see Missions, For¬ eign (Religious) Foreign Trade: see International Trade Forests Aviation, Civil 92d; Lumber 436d; Meteorology 460d; National Parks and Monuments 497b Formosa Armies of the World 73d; Food Sup¬ ply of the World 306d; Sugar 675a Forrestal, James Foundations: see Community Trusts; Donations and Bequests; Societies and Associations Four-H Clubs Fra nee Advertising 23a; Aircraft Manufac¬ ture 32b; Airports 34b; Albania 36d; Aliens 39c; Aluminum 41c; American Citizens Abroad 43d; An¬ gling 51d; Antarctica 53a; Archaeol¬ ogy 61a; Architecture 63d; Armies of the World 70d; Atomic Energy 80c; Automobile Industry 90b; Aviation, Civil 92d; Aviation, Military 94a; Bank of England 103c; Bauxite 110b; Belgium 113a; Birth Statistics 120c; Bridges 132a; Business Review 149a; Canals and Inland Waterways 160a; Candy 161d; Cartography 163a; Coal 196d; Coke 201b; Cycling 224a; Dams 227b; Dance 229a; Danube, Confer¬ ence for Control of, 230d; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Democracy 237c; Denmark 239b; Ed¬ ucation 256c; Egypt 258d; Electrical Industries 264d; Electric Transportation266c; Employment 271c; Etch¬ ing 276d; ERP 278b; Exchange Con¬ trol 280d; Fascism 287b; Feldspar 295a; Fencing 295b; Fertilizers 296a; Food Supply of the World 307c; For¬ eign Investments 312c; Forests 314b; French Literature M9c; French Overseas Territories 320d; Furs 326a; (Jas, Natural 326c; Germany 332c; Glass 337b; Gliding 337c; Great Britain 342c; (Greece 346b; Horse Racing 3S7a; Infant Mortality 378a; International Bank 381c; Interna¬ tional Law 386d; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 391a; Iron and Steel 397a; Italian Colonial Empire 400b; Italy 401d; Jet Propulsion 407c; Lead 422c; Lebanon 423d; Literary Prizes 433a; Lumber 437d; Marriage and Divorce 448b; Medicine 455a; Min¬ eral Production 467a; Motion Pic¬ tures 475c; Museums 489c; Music 490a; Navies of the World 498b; Newspapers and Magazines 512d; Olympic Games S39d; Painting 546d; Palestine 552c; Phosphates 564a;

Portugal 579d; Potash 582b; Presby¬ terian Church 584b; Prices 587d; Prisoners of War 589d; Public Utili¬ ties 600a; Radio 606b; Railroads 610d; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres 612d; Refugees 616a; Relief 618a; Reparations 619d; Rivers and Harbours 624d; Roads 626a; Rubber 630a; Sculpture 638b; Shipbuilding 641d; Shipping, Merchant Marine 644b; Silk 646c; Socialism 650c; Spain 664b; Spices 667b; Swimming 680c; Syria 681c; Tariffs 683c; Taxa¬ tion 688b; Telephone 690b; Tele¬ vision 692d; Tennis 696b; Textile Industry 698b; Theatre 700a; Tri¬ este 706a; U.S.S.R. 713c; U.N. 717c; U.S. 728b; Veterans' Organizations 750b; Wages and Hours 756d; War Crimes 757c; Western European Union 763b; Wheat 766c; Wines 769d; Wool 772a; World Federation of Trade Unions 774d; Zinc 780c Franco, Francisco Frank, Hans 47 Frank, Karl Hermann 47 Franks, Sir Oliver Shewell 49 Fraser, Sir Bruce Austin 46 Fraser, Leon 46 Frazier, Lynn J.: Obituaries 48 Frederick IX 49, 48 Philately 561d Freedom of the press: Benton, W. 114a; Education 256a; Guatemala 348b; Hutchins, R. M. 365c; News¬ papers and Magazines 509c Free France (Fighting France): see France; French Colonial Empire 45 Freemasonry; see Societies and As¬ sociations 49, 48. See Masonic Fra¬ ternity 46, 45 Freer Gallery of Art: see Smith¬ sonian Institution French Colonial Empire: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 French Committee of National Lib¬ eration: see France 45 French India: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Co¬ lonial Empire 47, 46, 45 French Indo-China: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Food Supply of the World 307d; In¬ ternational Trade 392c; Plague 572a; Siam 646b; Spices 667b French Literature Literary Prizes 433a; Philosophy 563c French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 French Pacific Islands: see French Overseas Territories 49. See Pacific Islands, French 48, 47, 46, 45 French Union: see France 47 Frequency Moduiation; see Federal Communications Commission 49, 48, 47. See Radio 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Frick, Wiiheim 47 Friedeburg, Hans Georg von 46 Friends, Religious Society of Christian Unity 190b; Church Mem¬ bership 191b; Federal Council of Churches 290d Friendship Train 305a Frings, Joseph 46 Fritzsche, Hans 47 Fruit Agriculture 26a; Canning Industry 161d; Entomology 274b; Horticul¬ ture 357d; International Trade 390a Fuel Briquettes Fulbright, James F. 526a Fuller’s &rth Fulmer, Hampton Pitts 45 Funk, Walther 47 Furfural: see Chemurgy 48 Furniture Industry Employment 270c; Interior Decora¬ tion 380d; Plastics Industry 573b; Strikes 673b; Wages and Hours 75.5d; Words and Meanings, New 773a Furs Fashion and Dress 289a; Fisheries 299d; International Trade 390a FWA: see Federal Works Agency Fyffe, Will: see Obituaries 48 Gaiapagos Isiands: see Ecuador Gaien, Clement August von 47, 46 Gambia: see British West Africa Gambling: see Betting and Gam¬ bling 49, ^7 Gammexane 177d Gandhi, Mohandas K. 48, 47, 46, 45 India 372b; Obituaries 526a Gandhi, Mrs. Mohandas K. 45 Gardner, Oiiver Max 47 Garnet: see Abrasives Garvin, James L.; see Obituaries 48 Gas, Natural Electrical Industries 263b; FPC291c; Public Utilities 598d Gasoline; see Petroieum Gasoline Engines: see Power En¬ gineering 46 Gasparri, Enrico 47 Gasperi, Alcide de 49, 48

Italy 402a Gastroenteritis 275c Gas Turbines: see Power Engineer¬ ing 46. See Gas Turbine, The Combustion 45 Gates, Thomas S. 526b Gaulle, Charles de Gay, Maisie 46 Gayda, Virginio 45 Gayford, Oswald Robert 46 GCA (ground control approach): Air¬ ports 34a; Aviation, Civil 93b Geiger, Roy Stanley; see Obituaries 48. See Geiger, Roy Stanley 46, 45 Gem Stones Diamonds 244a; Mineralogy 468d Genetics Genocide, Convention on: see Internationai Law; United Nations 49 Civil Liberties 194b; Lithuania 433c; Narcotics and Narcotic Traffic 493a Gent. Sir Edward 526b Geography Antarctica 53c; Book Publishing 122b; Cartography 162c; Coast and Geodetic Survey 198c; Zoology 781b. See also various cities, states, prov¬ inces and countries Geology Oceanography 537b George II: see Obituaries 48. See George 11 47 George VI Georgia German Literature Germany Agriculture 28a; American Citizens Abroad 43c; .'Vrehitecture 66b; Armies of the World 71a; Berlin 114b; Birth Statistics 120c; Bridges 131c; Busi¬ ness Review 149b; Canals and Inland Waterways 160a; Cartography 163a; Chicago, University of, 18ic; Chris¬ tian Science 189c; Civil Liberties 194a; Coal 196d; Coke 201b; Cotton 219d; Dance 230a; Death Statistics 232d; Debt. National 234d; Denmark 239b; Dyestuffs 250a; Education 256c; Electrical Industries 264d; ERP 279b; Exchange Control 283d; Fascism 287b; Feldspar 295a; Fer¬ tilizers 296a; Fluorspar 303d; Food Supply of the World 305a; Foreign Investments 312c; Forests 314b; France 316d; Friends, Religious So¬ ciety of, 323a; Fuel Briquettes 325a; Furs 326a; Geography 329a; German Literature 332a; Girl Scouts 336d; Glass 337b; Great Britain 342c; Im¬ migration and Emigration 370a; In¬ fantile Paralysis 376d; International Law 386d; International Trade 391b; Iron and Steel 397b; Kidnapping 411a; Latvia 415d; Lead 422c; Li¬ braries 426c; Lithuania 433b; Lum¬ ber 437d; Machinery and Machine Tools 440d; Marriage and Divorce 446d; Meteorology 458a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Motion Pictures 481b; Narcotics and Nar¬ cotic Traffic 493a; Newspapers and Magazines 512a; Philosophy 563c; Photography 564d; Pius XII 571b; Poland 576c; Post Office 582a; Pres¬ byterian Church 584b; Prisoners of War 589d; Psychiatry 591c; Radio 606b; Railroads 611b; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres 612d; Refu¬ gees 616a; Reparations 619d; Rivers and Harbours 624d; Roads 626a; So¬ cialism 650d; Sociology 657c; Spain 664b; Telephone 690b; Textile In¬ dustry 698a; Tuberculosis 709b; Tur¬ key 712a; U.S.S.R. 713c; Unitarian Church 717a; U.N. 718b; U.S. 727d; Wages and Hours 756d; War Crimes 757c; Wines 770a; Wool 771d; Y.M.C.A. 778b; Y.W.C.A. 778d; Zinc 780c Gerould, Katharine Fullerton 45 Gerow, Leonard T. 46 Ghavam-es-Saltaneh, Ahmad 47 G.l. Bill of Rights: see Education; Veterans’ Administration 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Law; Sociai Security 46, 45. See Housing 45 Gibraltar Y.M.C.A. 778b Gibson, Charies Dana 45 Gide, Andre Paul Guillaume 48 French Literature 320c Gilbert and Ellice Isiands Colony: see Pacific Isiands, British Gilroy, Norman 46 Ginger: see Spices 49, 48, 47, 46 Giraudoux, Hippolyte Jean 45 Girl Scouts Glands: see Endocrinology Glaspell, Susan 526c Glass, Carter 47 Glass Clothing Industry 196b; Sand and (iravel 636a; Wages and Hours 755d Glennon, John Joseph 47, 46 Gliding Aviation, Civil 92c G-Men: see Federal Bureau of In¬ vestigation 47, 46, 45 Goddard, Rayner Goddard 47 Goebbels, Josef 46, 45

INDEX

799

Goering, Hermann W. 47, 46, 45 Gold Banking 102a; Chemistry 174a; Coin¬ age 201a; Employment 270b; Ex¬ change Control 281a; Federal Re¬ serve System 292c; Foreign Invest¬ ments 312a; International Monetary Fund 388c; Mineral and Metal Pro¬ duction 467c; Secondary Metals 638c; Teixation 687d Gold Coast: see British West Africa Bauxite 110b; Diamonds 244a; Gold 338b; Manganese 443c; Mineral and Metal Production 467a Goldsborough, T(homas) Alan 49 Golf Golikov, Fiiip Ivanovich 45 Gonorrhoea: see Venereal Diseases Goode, Sir William (A. M.) 45 Goodland, Walter S.: see Obituaries 48 Gore, Howard Mason: see Obituaries 48 G&ring, H. W.: see Goering, Her¬ mann W. 47, 46, 45 Gorizia: see Trieste, The Free Terri¬ tory of, 48, 47, 46. See Yugoslavia 46 Gort, John S. S. P. V. 47 Gottwald, Klement 49 Goudy, Frederic W.: see Obituaries 48 Gouraud, Henri Joseph Etienne 47 Gouveia, Teodosio Clemente de 46 Government Departments and Bu¬ reaus Government Printing Office: see Printing Office, U.S. Government Governors and Premiers, British: see British Empire Govorov, Leonid N. 45 Grain: see Barley; Corn; Oats; Rice; Rye; Wheat Granite: see Stone Granito Pignatelli di Belmonte, Gennaro 526c Grant, Heber J. 46 Granville-Barker, Harley G. 47 Grapefruit: see Fruit Grapes: see Fruit Graphite Gravel: see Sand and Gravel Gray, Carl R., Jr. 48 Gray Markets: see Black Markets 48 Great Books: see Libraries 49. See Education 49, 48. See Hutchins, Robert Maynard 48 Great Britain &. Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of Accidents 19b; Advertising 22d; Af¬ ghanistan 23b; Agriculture 30c; Air¬ craft Manufacture 32a; Airports 34b; .Mr Races and Records 35a; Albania 36c; Aliens 39c; Aluminum 41c; Am¬ bassadors and Envoys 42b; American Citizens Abroad 43c; Angling 5Id; Antarctica 53a; Anti-Semitism 56c; Archaeology 62d; Architecture 63d; Argentina 68d; Armies of the World 70d; Art Sales 77c; Atomic Energy 80c; Automobile Industry 90a; Avia¬ tion, Civil 90d; Aviation, Military 94a; Banking 103a; Bank of England 103b; Baptist Church 103c; Belgium 113a; Berlin 114b; Birth Control 119c; Birth Statistics 120a; BookCollecting 122a; Book Publishing 122d; Boxing 126a; Boy Scouts 126d; Bread and Bakery Products 129b; Bridges 131b; Budget, National 141a; Building and Construction Industry 143c; Business Review 148d; Cabinet Members 151a; Cadmium 151b; Camp Fire Girls 153c; Canals and Inland Waterways 159c; Candy 161d; Cartography 162d; Chambers of Commerce 172c; Chess 179d; Child Labour 182a; Cihild Welfare 184a; Chile 186c; Church Membership 192a; Church of England 192a; (iivil Service 194d; Clothing Industry 196b; Coal 196d; Cocoa 200c; Coke 201b; Communism 207b; Consumer Credit 214c; Contract Bridge 215b; Cotton 218d; Cricket 220a; Crime 221a; Cuba 222c; Dance 229a; Dan¬ ube, Conference for Control of. 230d; Death Statistics 232c; Debt, Na¬ tional 234d; Decorations, Medals and Badges 235c; Democracy 237c; Den¬ mark 239b; Dog Racing 247b; Do¬ minican Republic 247c; Donations and Bequests 248a; Education 257c; Egypt 258c; Eire 260a; Electrical In¬ dustries 264c; Electric Transporta¬ tion 266b; Employment 271a; Eng¬ lish Literature 272d; Etching 276d; Ethical Culture Movement 277b; Ethiopia 277c; ERP 279b; Exchange Control 281b; Fascism 287b; Fencing 295b; Fertilizers 296a; Finland 297c; Fisheries 298b; Floods and Flood Control 301d; Food Supply of the World 307a; Football 310a; Foreign Investments 311b; Forests 314a; France 316b; Friends, Religious So¬ ciety of, 323a; Furniture Industry

800

INDEX

325d; Furs 326a; Genetics 327c; Ge¬ ography 329a; Germany 332c; Girl Scouts 336d; Glass 337b; Gliding 337b; Gold 338a; Golf 339a; Govern¬ ment Departments and Bureaus 340d; Greece 346b; Guatemala 348b; Gypsum 349d; Horse Racing 3S7a; Hospitals 3S9b; Housing 363a; Ice¬ land 366c; Immigration and Emigra¬ tion 370a; Industrial Health 376c; Infant Mortality 378a; Insurance 379d; International Court of Justice 383d; International Law 386d; Inter¬ national Monetary Fund 388d; In¬ ternational Trade 389b; Iraq 396a; Iron and Steel 397a; Italian Colonial Empire 400a; Italy 401d; Japan 404d; Jet Propulsion 407a; Jute 409d; La¬ bour Unions 414b; Lacrosse 415b; Law 421c; Libraries 428b; Linen and Flax 429c; Liquors, Alcoholic 430d; Literary Prizes 432d; Lumber 437c; Lutherans 438a; Machinery and Ma¬ chine Tools 440c; Marine Biology 44Sb; Marriage and Divorce 446d; Meat 4S2a; Medical Rehabilitation of the Disabled 4S2b; Medicine 455a; Meteorology 458a; Mineral Produc¬ tion 467a; Mongolian People’s Repub¬ lic 472d; Motion Pictures 475b; Motor T ransportation 482d; Municipal Gov¬ ernment 485c; Munitions of War 488a; Museums 489b; Music 489d; National Parks and Monuments 497b; Navies of the World 498b; Newspapers and Magazines 512b; Norway 519c; Olympic Games 539d; Palestine 550c; Paper and Pulp In¬ dustry 554b; Parliament, Houses of, 556a; Peru 559d; Philately 561c; Pho¬ tography 564a; Police 577d; Political Parties, British 578a; Post Office 582a; Presbyterian Church 584a; Prices 586d; Printing 588c; Prisoners of War 589d; Prisons 590b; Public Health Engineering 595d; Public Heaith Services 597a; Public Opinion Surveys 598c; Public Utilities 599c; Radio 606c; Railroads 610b; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres 612c; Refugees 616a; Relief 617d; Repara¬ tions 619d; Rivers and Harbours 624b; Roads 626a; Rowing 628d; Rub¬ ber 630a; San Marino 636c; Sculp¬ ture 638a; Shipbuilding 64ld; Ship¬ ping, Merchant Marine 643c; Shoe Industry 644d; Shows, Animal 645c; Silk 646d; Soap, Perfumery and Cos¬ metics 649d; Soccer 649d; Socialism 650a; Social Security 652c; South Af¬ rica, Union of, 661d; Spain 664b; Stocks and Bonds 671d; Strikes 673a; Suicide Statistics 675b; Sweden 679a; Table Tennis 682b; Taxation 687b; Tea 688d; Telegraphy 689c; Tele¬ phone 690b; Television 692d; Tennis 696a; Textile Industry 697d; Theatre 700a; Tibet 701a; Town and Regional Planning 703c; Trans-Jordan 705a; Trieste 706a; Tuberculosis 709b; Tunnels 711a; Turkey 712a; U.S.S.R. 713a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 728b; Uruguay 739d; Venereal Diseases 745a; Veter¬ ans' Organizations 750b; Wages and Hours 756b; War Crimes 757c; Wealth and Income, Distribution of, 762a; 'Western European Union 763b; Wheat 766c; Wool 771c; World Fed¬ eration of Trade Unions 774b; Yacht¬ ing 776b; Yemen 777d; Y.M.C.A. 778a; Y.W.C.A. 778c; Yugoslavia 779d; Zinc 780c. See also British Empire Great Lakes Traffic: see Canals and Inland Waterways Greece Airports 34c; Albania 36d; Archaeol¬ ogy 62d; Armies of the World 73d; Bauxite 110b; Canals and Inland Waterways 160a; Chromite 190d; Civil Liberties 194a; Cyprus 224b; Debt, National 234d; Decorations, Medals and Badges 235c; Eastern Orthodox Churches 251c; Education 25^; ERP 278b; Exchange Control 280d; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 391b; Kid¬ napping 411a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Navies of the World 498c; Refugees 617b; Seismology 640c; Shipbuilding 641d; Shipping, Merchant Marine 644b; Spices 667b; Taxation 686a; Telephone 690b; Tun¬ nels 711a; U.N. 717c; Unitarian Church 717a; U.S. 724b; War Crimes 757c; Wines 770a; Y.M.C.A. 778b; Y.W.C.A. 778d; Yugoslavia 779d Green, William 49, 48, 47, 46 Greenland Atomic Energy 84a; Cryolite 221c; Denmark 239c; Meteorology 456d; Public Health Engineering 596a Gregg, John Robert 526d Greiser, Arthur 47 Grenada; see Windward Islands Griffin, Bernard William 46 Griffith, David Wark 526d

Griffiths, James 49 Grindstones, see Abrasives Griswold, Dwight Palmer 48 Gromyko, Andrei A. Guadalcanal: see Solomon Islands 46, 45 Guadeloupe: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Guam Guatemala Archaeology 58c; British Honduras 136a; Costa Rica 218b; Debt, Na¬ tional 234d; Exchange Control 281d; International Conference of Amer¬ ican States 383b; Refugees 616a; Roads 625d; Salvador, El 634c; Tar¬ iffs 683d Guayule: see Rubber 45 Guderian, Heinz 45 Guedalla, Philip 45 Guerrero, Jos6 Gustavo 47 Guerrilla Warfare 46, 45 French Overseas Territories 32 Id; Greece 346a; Refugees 617b; U.N. 719c; Yugoslavia 779d Guevara, Juan Gualberto 46 Guggenheim Memorial Founda¬ tion, John Simon: see Societies and Associations Literary Prizes 432a Guiana, British: see British Guiana Guiana, Dutch: see Surinam Guiana, French: see French Over¬ seas Territories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Gui nea: see French Overseas Ter¬ ritories 49, 48. See Portuguese Colonial Empire; Spanish Colo¬ nial Empire 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Gustavus V Gustavus Adolphus; see Obituaries 48 Gymnastics Olympic Games 540c Gynaecology and Obstetrics Gypsum Mineral and Metal Production 467c Haakon VII Hacha, Emil 46 Hackworth, Green Haywood 47 Hackzell, Anders Werner Antti 47 Haiti Debt, National 234d; Education 256c; Exchange Control 281d; Illiter¬ acy 368d; Navies of the World 500b; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729a Halsey, William F., Jr. 46, 45 Hamilton, Sir Ian Standish Monteith; see Obituaries 48 Hammer Throw: seeTrackand Field Sports Hand-ball Hanna, Edward Joseph 45 Hannegan, Robert Emmet 47, 46 Hanotaux, Albert Auguste G. 45 Hansson, Per Albin 47 Harbord, James G.: see Obituaries 48 Harbours: see Rivers and Harbours Hardinge of Penshurst, C. H. 45 Harmon, Clifford B. 46 Harmon, Millard Fillmore 46 Harmsworth, Cecil B. H. 527a Harness Racing: see Horse Racing 49 Harper, George M.: see Obituaries 48 Harriman, William Averell 49, 48, 47 Harris, Sir Arthur T. 46, 45 Harris, Basil 527a Harrison, Mary Scott L, D. 527b Hart, William S. 47 Hartley, Fred Allan, Jr. 48 Harvard University Anthropology 54b; Archaeology 59a; Architecture 64a; Football 308d; Rowing 628d Hauptmann, Gerhart 47 Hawaii Hay Agriculture 26a; Alfalfa 38b Hay Fever: see Allergy; Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of, 49 Health, Industrial: see Industrial Health Hearing Aids: see Deafness Heart and Heart Diseases Arthritis 77a; Bacteriology 100b; Death Statistics 232c; Law 421a; Medicine 453d; Public Health En¬ gineering 595a; Surgery 676d; Words and Meanings, New 772d Hecht, Selig; see Obituaries 48 Heine, Thomas Theodor 527b Helicopter: see Aviation, Civil Helium Physics 568b Hemp Narcotics and Narcotic Traffic 493b Henriot, Philippe 45 Henson, Herbert H.: see Obituaries 48 Herbs: see Spices Herriot, Edouard 47, 46, 45 Hershey, Milton Snavely 46 Hertz, Josph Herman 47 Herzfeld, Ernst Emil 527b Hess, Rudolf Walther 47 Hewitt, Henry Kent 46, 45 Higashi-Kuni, Naruhiko 46 Highways: see Roads and Highways Kfill, Grace L.: see Obituaries 48

Hill, Louis Warren 527b Hillman, Sidney 47, 46, 45 Himmler, Heinrich 46, 45 Hirohito 49, 48, 47, 46 Hispaniola: see Dominican Repub¬ lic; Haiti 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See West Indies 48, 47, 46, 45 Hiss, Alger 49 Chambers, W. 17 Id Hitler, Adolf 46, 45 Hjort, Johan 527c Hlond, Augustus 527c Hockey: see Ice Hockey Hodges, Courtney, H. 46, 45 Hodgson, William Roy 48 Hodza, Milan 45 Hoffman, Paul Gray 49 Germany 335a Hogs _ , Agriculture 26d; Bacon 99c; Food Supply of the World 306d; Livestock 433d; Meat 451c; Pneumonia 575a; Shows, Animal 645b; Tuberculosis 709d; Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 743a Hoke, Michael 45 HOLC (Home Owners’ Loan Cor¬ poration): see Housing Holland: see Netherlands Home Building, Federal: see Hous¬ ing Home Economics ARA 24c; Book Publishing 122b Home Loan Bank Board: see Hous¬ ing Home Owners’ Loan Corporation: see Housing Homer, Louise: see Obituaries 48 Homma, Masaharu 47 Honduras Costa Rica 218b; Debt, National 234d; Navies of the World 500b; Shipping, Merchant Marine 644a; Silver 647a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729a Honduras, British: see British Hon¬ duras Honey: see Beekeeping Hong Kong: see British Empire Linen and Flax 430a; Spices 667c Hoover, Herbert Clark 48, 47 American Literature 48b Hoover, Lou Henry 45 Hoover Commission, Report of the: see Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government 49 Hopkins, Sir Frederick Gowland: see Obituaries 48 Hopkins, Harry Lloyd 47, 45 Hops Hormones: see Endocrinology Horse Racing Betting and Gambling 117d Horses Livestock 433d; Shows, Animal 645a; Veterinary Medicine 751d Horse Shows: see Shows, Animal Horticulture Hospitalization: see Hospitals 49. See I nsurance 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Hospitals American Dental Association 44b; Building and Construction Industry 142b; Donations and Bequests 248a; FSA 293a; Insurance 379d; Osteo¬ pathy 544a; Psychosomatic Medicine S94c; Public Health Services 597a; Red Cross 615a; Veterans’ Adminis¬ tration 748d Hotels 49, 48, 47 Employment 270b; Railroads 610d; Wages and Hours 75Sc Housing American Legion 45d; Architecture 63d; Banking 102d; Budget, National 139d; Building and Construction In¬ dustry 141b; Business Review 148c; Co-operatives 215c; Home Economics 354d; Insurance 379a; Law 420c; Municipal Government 483d; Public Health Engineering 595a; RFC 613d; Town and Regional Planning 703b; Veterans’ Organizations 750a; Y.W.C.A. 778c Housing Administration, Federal: see Housing Housing Agency, National: see Housing Housing and Home Finance Agen¬ cy: see Housing 49, 48 Housing Authority, U.S.: see Hous¬ ing Houssay, Bernardo Alberto 48 Howland Island: see Pacific Islands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Huch, Ricarda: see Obituaries 48 Hughes, Charles Evans 527c Huidobro, Vincente 527d Hull, Cordell 46, 45 Human Nutrition and Home Eco¬ nomics, Bureau of: see Agricultur¬ al Research Ad ministration; Home Economics Human Rights, Declaration of: see International Law; United Na¬ tions 49 Civil Liberties 194b; Democracy 237b; Religion 619a Humbert 47, 46, 45 Hume, Robert Ernest 52 7d Hungary Argentina 69a; Armies of the World

74b; Atomic Energy 84a; Australia 85c; Austria 86d; Bauxite 110b; Birth Statistics 120c; Boxing 126b; Bridges 132b; Bulgaria 144d; Canals and Inland IVaterways 160a; Chess 179c; Child Welfare 183c; Coal 196d; Copyright 216c; Dance 230a; Dan¬ ube, Conference for Control of, 230d; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, Na¬ tional 234d; Education 257a; Fenc¬ ing 295b; Foreign Investments 312c; Gas, Natural 326c; Infant Mortality 378a; Lutherans 438a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Oiympic Games 539d; Presbyterian Church 584b; Refugees 616d; Roman Catho¬ lic Church 627b; Rumania 631d; Table Tennis 682b; Telephone 690b; Tuberculosis 709b; U.S.S.R. 714a; U.S. 729b; Veterans’ Organizations 750c; Wines 770a Hunter College 47 Hunting: see Wildlife Conservation 49, 48 Hurdling: see Olympic Games 49. See Track and Field Sports 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Hurley, Patrick Jay 46 Husseini, Haj Amin el 49, 48, 47 Hutchins, Robert Maynard Chicago, University of, 181c Ibn-Sa’ud 49, 48, 47 ICC: see Interstate Commerce Commission Ice Cream Ice Hockey Iceland Aliens 39c; Armies of the World 71c; Aviation, (jivil 91b; Child Wel¬ fare 184a; ERP 279d; Exchange Con¬ trol 282d; Fisheries 300b; Interna¬ tional Trade 391c; Music 490a; Nor¬ way 520a; Post Office 582a; Refugees 616a; Telephone 690b; U.N. 717c; U.S.729b Ice Skating Olympic Games 540a Ickes, Harold L. 47, 46 Idaho Illinois Illinois, University of Illiteracy 49, 48, 47, 45 Census Data 167b I.L.O.: see International Labour Organization ILS (instrument landing system): Airports 33b; Aviation, Civil 93b; CAA 192d Imamura, Akitune 528a Immigration and Emigration Aliens 38c; Census Data 165d; Child Welfare 184a; Law 417b; Refugees 616b; Shipping, Merchant Marine 643c; Tuberculosis 709c Imports: see International Trade; Tariffs. See also various industries, products and countries Incendiary Warfare: see Warfare, Incendiary 46, 45 Income Distribution of; see Wealth and Income, Distribution of Income and Product, U.S. Business Review 146c; Wealth and Income. Distribution of, 760d Income 'Tax: see Taxation India 48, 47, 46, 45 India, Dominion of, 49, 48 Anthropology S4b; Argentina 69b; Armies of the World 74c; Aviation, Military 99b; Business Review 149a; Chromite 190d; Coal 196d; Cricket 219d; Dance 230a; Debt, National 234d; Disciples of Christ 247a; Elec¬ tric Transportation 267a; Exchange Control 282d; Floods and Flood Con¬ trol 302a; Food Supply of the World 306d; French Overseas Territories 322a; Furs 326a; Gold 338b; Great Britain 342c; Illiteracy 369a; Inter¬ national Law 386d; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 391a; Iron and Steel 398a; Manganese 443c; Medicine 455b; Meteorology 459d; Mineral and Met¬ al Production 467a; Missions, For¬ eign 470b; National Geographic So¬ ciety 494d; Newspapers and Maga¬ zines 512c; Olympic Games 539d; Pakistan 548d; Peanuts 557c; Plague 57 Id; Railroads 611c; Rivers and Harbours 625a; Roads 626b; Salva¬ tion Army 635c; Shipbuilding 642d; Silk 646c; Socialism 651b; Soil Ero¬ sion 660b; Spices 667b; Sugar 675a; Tea 688d; "Textile Industry 698a; Tibet 701a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; Vatican City State 742b; Wheat 766d; Wildlife Conservation 768d Indiana Indiana University 49, 48, 47 Indians, American Anthropology 54c; Archaeology 58d; Illiteracy 369a; Law 418c; Museums 488c; Roman Ciatholic Church 628a; Utah 740d Indo-China, French: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Armies of the World 71a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a Indonesian Republic: see Nether¬ lands Indies 49, 48, 47

Communism 207b; International Law 386d; International Trade 392c; Ref¬ ugees 617d; Reparations 620b; So¬ cialism 6Slb; U.N. 718b Industrial Health Meteorology 4S9a; Public Health Engineering 59 Sd Industrial Production: see Business Review. See also separate industries and various states, provinces and countries Infantile Paralysis Bacteriology 100b; Epidemics 275c; Medicine 4S4b; Public Health Serv' ices 597a; Words and Meanings, New 773c; Yale University 777a Infant Mortality Death Statistics 232c; Gynaecology and Obstetrics 349b; Venereal Dis¬ eases 744b Inflation: see Business Review;Con¬ sumer Credit; Prices Budget, National 140c; Debt, Na¬ tional 234a; Exchange Control 280d; Truman, H. S. 707b; Wages and Hours 756c. See also various coun¬ tries Influenza: see Pneumonia 49. See Epidemics 48 Bacteriology 100b Information and Educational Ex¬ change, Office of, 48 Education 256c; Law 416b Ingersoll, Royal Eason 45 Ingram, Arthur Foley W. 47 Inland Waterways: see Canals and inland Waterways Inner Mongolia: see China 49. See Mongolia 48, 47, 46, 45 Insects and Insecticides: see Ento¬ mology Horticulture 358b; Talc 682d; Wild¬ life Conservation 767a Instalment Buying and Selling: see Consumer Credit institutum Divi Thomae Insulin: see Diabetes Insurance Accidents 19b; A.M.A. 50a; Banking 102c; Co-operatives 215c; Industrial Health 375d; Societies 653d; Veter¬ ans’ Administration 749a Insurance, Crop: see Agriculture 46, 45 I nsurance, Old Age: see Social Secu¬ rity Inter-Allied Debts: see War Debts 48, 47, 46, 45 Inter-American Affairs, The Insti¬ tute of 48, 47, 46, 45 Inter-American Confederation of La¬ bor: A.F. of L. 45a; Green, W. 347a; Peru 559d I nter-American Conference on Problems of War and Peace 46 I nter-American Defense Board 48, 47, 46, 45 Inter-American Defense Confer¬ ence 48 Costa Rica 218b; Pan American Union 553d I nter-American Highway: see Roads and Highways Interior, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments and Bureaus Interior Decoration Furniture Industry 325c International Bank for Reconstruc¬ tion and Development 49, 48, 47. See United Nations Monetary and Financial Program 46. See Bank¬ ing 46, 45 Banking lOld; Exchange Control 281b; Foreign Investments 311c; In¬ ternational Conference of American States 382d International Children’s Emerg¬ ency Fund: see Child Welfare 49, 48, 47 Art Exhibitions 76d; Law 416a International College of Surgeons: see Societies and Associations 49, 48 International Conference of Amer¬ ican States 49 Colombia 202a; Pan American Union 553c International Court of Justice 49, 48, 47. See United Nations Con¬ ference on International Organi¬ zation 46 Albania 36c; International Confer¬ ence of American States 382d; Inter¬ national Law 385a; U.N. 717c International Emergency Food Council: see Food Supply of the World 49, 48, 47 International Information and Cultural Affairs, Office of: see In¬ formation and Educational Ex¬ change, Office of, 48. See Inter¬ national ilnformation and Cul¬ tural Affairs, Office of, 47 International Labour Organization World Federation of Trade Unions 774c international Law Copyright 216c; International Court of Justice 383d; U.N. 721c; War Crimes 757b International Monetary Fund 49,

48, 47. See United Nations Mone¬ tary and Financial Program 46 Banking lOld; Exchange Control 280d; Foreign Investments 31 Id; In¬ ternational Conference of American States 382d International Refugee Organiza¬ tion: See Refugees 49, 48 International Stabilization Fund: see Banking 47, 46, 45 International Trade Business Review 148d; ERP 279c; Exchange Control 280d; Export-Im¬ port Bank 285a; FTC 293d; Foreign Investments 310c; International Conference of American States 382d; International Monetary Fund 388c; Law 416b; Shipping, Merchant Ma¬ rine 642d; Tariffs 683a; U.N. 718c. See also various industries, products and countries International Trade Organization: see Tariffs 49, 48 Interstate Commerce Commission Law 418b; Railroads 6()8a Intestinal Disorders: Alimentary System, Disorders of Intoxication, Alcoholic Inventions: see Electronics 49, 48, 47. See Standards, National Bu¬ reau of 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Inverchapel, Archibald J.K.C.K. 48, 47 Investment Banking: see Banking Investments, Foreign in the U.S.: see Foreign Investments Iodine Iowa Iowa, State University of Iowa State College Iran Arabia 57d; Exchange Control 284b; International Trade 392a; Olympic Games 539d; Seismology 640c; U.S. 729b Iraq Archaeology 61c; Armies of the World 74d; Bridges 132b; Exchange Control 282d; Great Britain 342c; Interna¬ tional Trade 392a; Irrigation 398d; Meteorology 458a; Palestine 551b; Railroads 611b; Syria 681d; Tariffs 683d; Trans-Jordan 705b; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b Ireland: see Eire Ireland, Northern Archaeology 63a; Birth Statistics 120c; Boxing 126b; Church Member¬ ship 192a; Death Statistics 232d; Football 310b; Libraries 428b; Linen and Flax 429c; Marine Biology 446a; Meteorology 460d; Presbyterian Church 584b; Railroads 610d; West¬ ern European Union 764c Irish Free State: see Eire Iron and Steel Automobile Industry 88b; Building and Construction Industry 141b; Business Review 146b; Electronics 268c; Employment 270c; Fertilizers 296b; Foreign Investments 310d; In¬ ternational Trade 390a; Metallurgy 456a; Mineral and Metal Production 467c; Railroads 607d; Secondary Metals 638b; Societies 654b; Strikes 673b; Taxation 688b; Wages and Hours 755d Iron and Steel Institute, American: see Societies and Associations Irrigation Aqueducts 56d; Fertilizers 296c; Public Utilities 598d; Soil Erosion 659a Irwin, William Henry (Will) 528a Isaacs, Sir Isaac Alfred 528a Islam Pakistan 549a; Religion 619b Isle of Man: see Great Britain &, Northern Ireland, United King¬ dom of, 49. See British Empire 49, 48. 47, 46, 45 Isotopes: see X-Ray and Radiology 49. See Atomic Energy 49, 48, 47. .See Chemistry 47, 46. See Atomic Bomb 46 Israel, State of, 49 . , . Anti-Semitism 56c; Arabia 57c; Ar¬ mies of the World 74d; Canada 154d; Dance 230b; Exchange Control 284c; International Law 386d; Music 490c; Palestine 550c; Philately 562a; Ref¬ ugees 616c; Societies 656b: Syria 68 Id; Tariffs683d;Trans-Jordan 705b;U.N. 717c; Venezuela 746a; Words and Meanings, New 772d Istria: see Trieste 47, 46 Italian Colonial Empire Ethiopia 277c; U.N. 718a Italian Literature Italian Possessions in Africa: see Italian Colonial Empire Italy Advertising 23a; Aircraft Manufac¬ ture 32b; Airports 34c; Aliens 39c; Aluminum 41c; American Citizens Abroad 43c: Archaeology 63a; Argen¬ tina 69a; Armies of the World 71c; Asbestos 77d; Australia 85c; Avia¬ tion. Civil 91b; Aviation, Military 98c: Bank of England 103c: Bauxite 110b; Birth Statistics 120b; Boxing 126b; Bridges 132b; Business Review

149a; Candy 161d; Civil Liberties 194a; Coal 196d; Coke 201b; Commu¬ nism 206d; Copyright 216c; Cotton 219d; Cycling 224a; Dance 230a; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, Na¬ tional 234d; Democracy 236c; Educa¬ tion 256c; Electric Transportation 266c; ERP 278b; Exchange Control 280d; Fascism 287b; Fruit 323d; Furs 326a; Geography 329a; Germany 334d; Immigration and Emigration 370a; Infant Mortality 378a; Inter¬ national Monetary Fund 388d; In¬ ternational Trade 391b; Iron and Steel 397a; Italian Colonial Empire 400b; Italian Literature 400d; Lead 422c; Lutherans 438a; Marriage and Divorce 448b: Mercury 456a; Mineral Production 467a; Motion Pictures 481a; Music 489d; Navies of World 498b; Newspapers and Magazines 512a; Olympic Games 539d; Painting 546c; Pius XII 571a; Pneumonia 575b; Prices 587d; Public Health En¬ gineering 595c: Public Opinion Sur¬ veys 598c; Public Utilities 600a; Rail¬ roads 611a; Refugees 616a; Rivers and Harbours 625a; Roads 626a; Roman Catholic Church 627b; Row¬ ing 629c; Sculpture 638b; Seismology 640c; Shipbuilding 641d; Shipping, Merchant Marine 644b; Silk 646c; Socialism 650b; Soil Erosion 658b; Spices 667b; Sulphur 675c; Swim¬ ming 679d; Taxation 686a; Telephone 690b: Tennis 696b; Trieste 706a; Tunnels 711a; Turkey 712a; Unitar¬ ian Church 717a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; Vatican City State 742b; Vet¬ erans’ Organizations 750c; Wages and Hours 756d; War Crimes 757c; Wealth and Income, Distribution of. 762c; Western European Union 764c; Wines 770a; Wool 772a; World Fed¬ eration of Trade Unions 774d; Zinc 780c Ivory Coast: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Co¬ lonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Iwo Jima 46 Jackson, Robert H. 47, 46 Jamaica Olympic Games 539d; Spices 667b; Telephone 69Qa Janson, Paul Emile 45 Japan Agriculture 28a: Aluminum 41c; American Citizens Abroad 43c; Armies of the World 71a; Birth Sta¬ tistics 120b; China 188d: Coal 198b; Coke 201b; Cotton 219a; Death Sta¬ tistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Education 2S6c; ERP 278c; Exchange Control 284d; Fisheries 300b; Food Supply of the World 307d; Foreign Investments 312c; Furs 326a; Geog¬ raphy 329a; Insurance 379d; Inter¬ national Law 386d; International Trade 392b; Iron and Steel 397a; Law 416a; Lead 422c; Libraries 426c; Marine Biology 445b; Marriage and Divorce 446d; Mercury 456a; Min¬ eral and Metal Production 467a; Missions, Foreign 470a; Philately 562a; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres 612d;’ Reparations 620a; Seismology 640c; Shipping. Mer¬ chant Marine 644c; Silk 646c; So¬ cialism 651a; "Sulphur 675c; Sunday Schools 675d; Swimming 679d; Tele¬ phone 690b; Tungsten 710b; U.S. 728d; War Crimes 757c; Wool 772a; Y.M.C.A. 778b; Zinc 780c Japanese-Chinese War: see World War 11 46, 45 Japanese Relocation, U.S.: see War Relocation Authority 47, 46, 45 Jarvis Island: see Pacific Islands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Jastrow, Joseph 45 Java: see Netherlands Indies 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Netherlands Co¬ lonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Food Supply of the World 306d; Plague 571d; Sugar 675a Javelin Throw: see Track and Field Sports Jeans, Sir James Hopwood 47 Jessup, Walter Albeit 45 Jet Propulsion 49, 48, 47. See Power Engineering 46 Aircraft Manufacture 31c; Aviation, Civil 93a; Aviation, Military 94b; Machinery and Machine Tools 440c; Metallurgy 456b; Munitions of War 486d Jewish Religious Life Anti-Semitism S6b; Church Mem¬ bership 191d Jewish Welfare Board, National Jimenez Oreamuno, Ricardo 46 Jinnah, Mohammed Ali 48, 47 Obituaries 528b Jodi, Alfred 47, 46 Johns Hopkins University John Simon Guggenheim Memori¬ al Foundation: see Societies and Associations Johnson, George Francis 528b Johnson, Herschel V. 48, 47 Johnson, Hiram Warren 46 Johnson, John Monroe 45

INDEX

801

Johnson, Walter 47 Johnston, Eric A. 46, 45 Motion Pictures 475c Johnston Island: see Pacific Is¬ lands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Joint War Committees (U.S. and Canada): see Canadian-U.S. War Committees 46, 45 Jones, George Clarence 47 Jones, Jesse Holman 46, 45 Jong, Jan de 46 Jordana y Souza, F. G. 45 Judaism: see Jewish Religious Life Jugoslavia: see Yugoslavia Juin, Alphonse Pierre 45 Juliana 49 Julius Rosenwald Fund: see Socie¬ ties and Associations Jumping: see Olympic Games 49. See Track and Field Sports 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Junior Colleges: see Universities and Colleges Justice, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments and Bureaus Jute Linen and Flax 430b; Textile In¬ dustry 697d Juvenile Delinquency Kaiser,,Georg 46 Kalinin, Mikhail Ivanovich 47 Kalish, Max 46 Kaltenbrunner, Ernst 47 Kansas Keenan, Joseph Berry 47 Keitel, Wilhelm 47, 46 Kenney, George Churchill 46, 45 Kentucky Kenya: see British East Africa Railroads 611c; Rivers and Har¬ bours 625a; Trustee Territories 708a Kern, Jerome David 46 Kesselring, Albert 46, 45 Keyes, Roger John B. K. 46 Keynes, John Maynard 47 Keyserling, Hermann 47 Kidnapping King, Ernest Joseph 46, 45 King, William Lyon Mackenzie Kingman Island: seei Pacific Is¬ lands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Kinkaid, Thomas Cassin 46, 45 Kirk, Alan Goodrich 45 Kiwanis International: ^ee Societies and Associations Klatzkin, Jakob 528b Kleffens, Eeleo Nicolaas van 48, 47 Kluge, Guenther von 45 Knights of Columbus: see Societies and Associations Knox, (William) Franklin 45 Knudsen, William S. 528c Koch, Fred Conrad 528c Koenig, Joseph-Pierre 45 Koenigsberg: see East Prussia 47. See Koenigsberg 46 Koga, Mineichi 45 Koiso, Kuniaki 46, 45 Komorowski, Tadeusz 45 Konev, Ivan Stepanovich 46, 45 Konoye, Fumimaro 46 Korea Agriculture 28a; American Citizens Abroad 43d; Armies of the World 71a; China 189a; Education 257a; ERP 278c; Ice Skating 366d; Inter¬ national Law 386d; International Trade 392b; Iron and Steel 397a; Missions, Foreign 470b; Olympic Games 539d; Sunday Schools 676a; Tariffs 683d; Telephone 690b; Tung¬ sten 710b: U.N. 718a; U.S. 728d Krauss, Samuel 528c Krueger, Walter 46, 45 Krug, Julius Albert 49, 48, 47, 45 Kure (Ocean) island: see Pacific Islands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Kuwait: see Arabia Foreign Investments 311b; Post Of¬ fice 582a Kyanite Minerals Labor, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments and Bureaus Labour: see Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service 49, 48. See Child Labour 49, 48, 47. See Agri¬ culture; American Federation of Labor; Child Welfare; Congress of Industrial Organizations; Em¬ ployment; international Labour Organization; Labour Unions; Law; National Labor Relations Board; National Mediation Board; Negroes, American; Radio; Ship¬ building; Strikes; United States; Wages and Hours 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Municipal Government 48, 47. See Motion Pictures; Relief; Su¬ preme Court of the U.S. 48, 47, 46, See Civilian Production Ad¬ ministration; National Wage Stabilization Board 47. See War Labor Board, National; War Pro¬ duction, U.S. 46, 45 Budget, National 139d; Census Data

Leeward Islands Legislation: see Business Review; Law Lehar, Franz 529b Lehman, Herbert H. 46, 45 Leigh-Mallory, Sir Trafford 45 168c: Democratic Party 238b; Elec¬ Leland Stanford Junior University: tions 262c; U.N. 722c. See also vari¬ see Stanford University ous industries, products, states, LeMay, Curtis E. 45 provinces and countries Lemons: see Fruit Labour Party, Great Britain: see Lend-Lease 48, 47. See Foreign Politicai Parties, British 49, 48. Economic Administration 46, 45 See Labour Party, Great Britain Western European Union 764d 47, 46, 45 Leonard, Benjamin: see Obituaries 48 Labour Unions Leonard, William Ellery 45 A.F. of L. 44c: Business Review Leopold 111 46 148c; Communism 206c; C.I.O. 211d; Leopold, Aldo S29b Co-operatives 21Sd; Law 420c; Leprosy NLRB 49Sd; Negroes, American Medicine 455b sold; Strikes 673a; Wages and Hours Lettuce 7S6c; World Federation of Trade Vegetables 743d Unions 774b Leucaemia; see Chemotherapy 49, Labrador: see Newfoundland and 48, 47 Labrador Medicine 453b Labuan: see British Borneo 49. See Lewis, John Llewellyn North Borneo 48 Labour Unions 413d Lacrosse Ley, Robert 46 La Guardia, Fiorello H.: Obitua¬ Lh6vinne, Josef 45 ries 48. See La Guardia, Fiorello Liaquat All Khan 49 H. 47 Liberal Party: see Political Parties, Lalique, Ren6 46 British 49, 48. See Liberal Party Lamb: see Meat 47, 46, 45 Lamont, Robert Patterson 528d Liberia Lamont, Thomas William S28d Aviation, Civil 91b; International Land, Emory S. 46, 45 Bank 381d; Rivers and Harbours Landi, Elissa S29a 625a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b Landis, Carole 529a Liberty Ships: see Shipbuilding; Landis, Kenesaw Mountain 45 Shipping, Merchant Marine 47, Lane, Alfred Church S29a 46, 45 Lang, Cosmo Gordon 46 Libraries Langdon, Harry 45 A.L.A. 45d; Education 2S4b; Motion Lange, Oscar Richard 47 Pictures 478c; Photography 566c; Laos: see French Overseas Territor¬ Societies 653b ies 49, 48. See French Colonial Libya: see Italian Colonial Empire Empire 47, 46, 45 Rivers and Harbours 625a Lard Lie, Trygve 49, 47 Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 743a Liebman, Joshua Loth 529b Larkin, James; see Obituaries 48 Liechtenstein Laski, Harold J. 46 Foreign Investments 312c Latin America: see French Overseas Life Insurance: see Insurance Territories 49, 48. See Argentina; Life Statistics: see Birth Statistics; Bolivia; Brazil; British Guiana; British Honduras; Chile; Colom¬ Death Statistics; Infant Mortal¬ bia; Costa Rica; Ecuador; Guate¬ ity; Suicide Statistics Lighting; see Electrical Industries mala; Honduras; Nicaragua; Pa¬ Architecture 63d; Interior Decora¬ nama; Paraguay; Peru; Salvador, El; Surinam; Uruguay; Venezue¬ tion 381b Lilienthal, David Eli 49, 48, 47 la ; 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45. See Lilly, Josiah Kirby 529c International Law 46, 45 Lime International Conference of Amer¬ Glass 337b ican States 382b Limes: see Fruit Latter Day Saints: see Mormons Limestone: see Stone Lincoln, Joseph Crosby 45 Latvia Linen and Flax Lithuania 433b Lions Clubs, International Associa¬ Laval, Pierre 46, 45 tion of: see Societies and Asso¬ Law Accidents 19a; Agriculture 30b; ciations Aliens 39a; Book Publishing 122b; Liquors, Alcoholic Child Labour 181d; Child Welfare Brewing and Beer 129c; Kansas 410a; 18Sb; Civil Liberties 193d; Consumer Law 420d; Societies 656b; Taxation Credit 213c; Copyright 216d; Drug 685b; Wines 769d Administration. U.S. 248d; EklucaLiterary Prizes 49, 48. See Prizes 47, tion 2S4c; FTC 293c; Glass 337a; 46, 45 Housing 360c; Industrial Health A.L.A. 46a; Nobel Prizes 516d; Pu¬ 376a; Insurance 379b; International litzer Prizes 600c Law 38Sa; Juvenile Delinquency Literature: see Literary Prizes; No¬ 409d; Libraries 427a; Negroes, Amer¬ bel Prizes; Pulitzer Prizes 49, 48. ican sole; Patents 557a; Public Util¬ See Book Publishing 49, 48, 47, 46. ities 598d; Radio 605d; Railroads See American Literature; Cana¬ 608a; RFC 613d; Roman Catholic dian Literature; English Litera¬ Church 626d; Rubber 630b; Societies ture; French Literature; German 653b; Supreme Court of the U.S. Literature; Italian Literature; 676b; Taxation 684a; Wildlife Con¬ Russian Literature; Spanishservation 768a American Literature; Spanish Lawes, Lewis Edward: see Obituaries Literature 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See 48 Prizes 47, 46, 45. See Publishing Lawn Tennis: see Tennis (Book) 45 Lawrence, Ernest Orlando 46 Lithium Minerals Lawrence, Sir Geoffrey 47 Lithuania Leacock, Stephen Butler 45 Little Assembly: U.N. 718a; Words and Lead Meanings, New 773a Employment 270b; Foreign Invest¬ Liver Disorders: see Alimentary Sys¬ ments 311b; Glass 337b; Mineral and tem, Disorders of, 49, 48 Metal Production 467b: Paints and Livestock Varnishes 548b; Secondary Metals ARA 23c; Agriculture 25a; Cattle 638c 165a; Food Supply of the World 306b; League of Nations 47, 46, 45 Hogs 354a; Horses 357b; Meat 451c; League of Women Voters of the Prices 587b; Sheep 641b; Shows, Ani¬ United States: see Societies and mal 645b; Veterinary Medicine 750d; Associations 49, 48, 47 Wheat 766a. See also various states, Leahy, William D. 48, 47, 46, 45 provinces and countries Leather Livestock Shows: see Shows, Animal Employment 270b: Prices 585b; Shoe Lloyd, Lola Maverick 45 Industry 644c; Wages and Hours Lloyd George, David Lloyd G. 46 755d Lobotomy: see Nervous System; Psy¬ Lebanon 49. See Syria and Lebanon chiatry 49 48, 47, 46, 45 Medicine 453d; Yale University 777a Archaeology 61a; Armies of the World Local Government: see Municipal 74d; Exchange Control 284c; Inter¬ Government national Trade 392a; Irrigation 398d; Lockridge, Ross Franklin, Jr. 529c Olympic Games 539d; Palestine 551d; Lomax, John Avery 529c Red Cross 615d; Syria 681c; U.N. London 717c; U.S. 729b London Conference of Foreign Min¬ Leclerc, Jacques: see Obituaries 48. isters: see Moscow Conference of See Leclerc, Jacques 45 Foreign Ministers 46 Lecointe, Sadi 45 London University Lee, John Clifford Hodges 45 Lonsdale, Hugh Cecil Lowther 45 Lee, William C. 529b Loran Navigation: see Electronics Lee, Willis Augustus, Jr. 46 49, 48, 47. See Radar 46 Lee of Fareham, Arthur Hamilton Lorenz, Adolf 47 Lee; see Obituaries 48 Loring, John Alden: see Obituaries 48 Leese, Sir Oliver William H. 45 Los Angeles

802

INDEX

Louisiana Lovett, Robert Abercrombie 49, 48 Lubitsch, Ernst: see Obituaries 48 Luce, Clare Boothe 46, 45 Ludwig, Emil 529d Lumber Building and Construction Industry 141b; Employment 270c; Forests 313c; Housing 363b; Plastics Indus¬ try S73b; Wages and Hours 755d Lumiere, Louis 529d Lunt, Geoffrey Charles Lester 529d Lutherans Church Membership 191c Lutyens, Sir Edwin Landseer 45 Luxembourg Aliens 39c; Armies of the World 70d; Belgium 113a; Cycling 224a; Democ¬ racy 237c; Education 256c; ERP 279b; Fertilizers 296b; Great Britain 342c; International Bank 381c; In¬ ternational Law 386d; International Trade 391c; Iron and Steel 397a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Prisoners of War 589d; Radio 606d; Refugees 616a; Taxation 686a; Tele¬ phone 690b; U.S. 728b; Western Eu¬ ropean Union 763b; Wines 770a Lynching Lyttelton, Oliver 45 Lytton, Victor A. G. R. L.: see Obit¬ uaries 48 M acao: see Portuguese Colonial Em¬ pire MacArthur, Douglas War Crimes 758c McCain, John Sidney 46 McCloy, John Jay 48 MacColl, Dugald Sutherland 530a McConaughy, James Lukens 530a McCormack, John 46 McGavick, Alexander J. 530b MacGill, Helen Gregory: see Obitu¬ aries 48 McGill University 49, 48, 47 McGrath, James Howard 48 McGraw, James H. 530b McGuigan, James Charles 46 Machado, Bernadino 45 Machinery, Farm: see Agriculture Machinery and Machine Tools Agriculture 29b; Candy 161b; Cloth¬ ing Industry 196a; International Trade 390a: Linen and Flax 430b; Plastics Industry 572d; Printing 588c; Reparations 620b; Roads 625b; Textile Industry 698a; Wages and Hours 756i Mackensen, August von 46 Mackenzie King, William Lyon: see King, William Lyon Mackenzie McLaughlin, Andrew C.: see Obitu¬ aries 48 McLean, Evalyn Walsh: see Obitua¬ ries 48 MacNair, Harley Farnsworth: see Obituaries 48 McNair, Lesley James 45 McNarney, Joseph Taggart 47, 46 McNary, Charles Linza 45 McNaughton, Andrew G. L. 45 McNeil, Hector 48 McNutt, Paul Vories 47, 46 McPherson, Aimee Semple 45 McReynolds, James Clark 47 Madagascar: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Co¬ lonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Atomic Energy 84a; Graphite 341b; Plague 571d; Spices 667a; Y.M.C.A. 778b Magazines and Periodicals: see Newspapers and Magazines Maglione, Luigi 45 Magnesia 46, 45 Magnesium Metallurgy 456b; Mineral and Metal Production 467b; Secondary Metals 638c Magnesium Compounds 49, 48, 47 Magni, Alessio 45 Maher Pasha, Ahmed 46 Maillaud, Pierre 530c Maillol, Aristide 45 Maine Maize: Corn Makin, Norman John Oswald 48, 47 Malaria: see Public Health Engi¬ neering 49 Chemistry 177b; Red Cross 615d; U.N. 722c Malaya (Federation of) and Singa¬ pore 49. See Malayan Union and Singapore 48, 47 Armies of the World 71a; Commu¬ nism 207b; Forests 314b; Great Brit¬ ain 342b; Infantile Paralysis 376d; International Trade 392c; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Rail¬ roads 611c; Refugees 617d; Repara¬ tions 620b: Rubber 630a; Siam 646a; Spices 667a; Tin 701a; Wildlife Con¬ servation 768c Malinovsky, Rodion Y. 46, 45 Malta Meteorology 458a; Y.M.C.A. 778b Manchuria: see China 49. See Man¬ churia 48, 47, 46, 45 Mandated Pacific Islands: see Pa¬ cific Islands under Trusteeship 49, 48. See Pacific Islands, Man¬ dated 47, 46, 45

Mandates: see Trustee Territories 49, 48. See Mandates 47, 46, 45 Manganese Mineral and Metal Production 467b Manitoba Mannerheim, Carl G. E. von 46, 45 Manpower, War: see War Manpower Commission 46, 45 Mantle, (Robert) Burns 530c Manufacturing: Business Review 146d; Employment270b; Incomeand Prod¬ uct, U.S. 371b; Labour Unions 413d; Societies 655c; Wages and Hours 755c. See also separate industries and various states, provinces and countries Manuilsky, Dmitry Zacharovich 47 Mao Tse-tung 47 Maple Products Sugar 674d Maps: see Cartography; Geography 49, 48 Marble: see Stone Margarine Cotton 219d; Taxation 685a Mariana Islands: see Trustee Terri¬ tories 49, 48. See Mandates 47. See Marianas Islands 46, 45 Marie, Andr6 49 France 317b Marine Biology Fisheries 298c; Oceanography 537c Marine Corps Navies of the World 498d Marine Insurance: see Insurance Marinetti, Filippo Tommaso 45 Market Gardening: see Vegetables Marketing: see Business Review Agriculture 29c; Co-operatives 215c; FCA 286b Marriage and Divorce Church of England 192b; Law 420a Marriott, Sir John Arthur R. 46 Marshall, George Catlett ERP 278a Marshall Islands: see Trustee Ter¬ ritories 49, 48. See Mandates 47. See Marshall Islands 46, 45 Marshall Plan: see Democracy; Eu¬ ropean Recovery Program 49, 48 Marten, Sir Clarence Henry K. 530c Martin, Joseph William, Jr. 49, 48 Martinique: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Co¬ lonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Marx, Wilhelm 47 Maryland Masaryk, Jan 530d Mascagni, Pietro 46 Masella, Benedetto Alois! 46 Mason, Alfred Edward Woodley 530d Masonic Fraternity: see Societies and Associations 49, 48. See Ma¬ sonic Fraternity 46, 45 Massachusetts Massachusetts Institute of Tech¬ nology Rowing 628d Mathematics Electronics 268d; Societies 654b; Words and Meanings, New 772c Maurice and Laura Falk Founda¬ tion, The: see Societies and Asso¬ ciations Mauritania: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Co¬ lonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Mauritius Mayhew, Kate 45 Meat Agriculture 26a; Bacon 99c; Cattle 165a; Food Supply of the World 305b; Hogs 354a; Horses 357c; Interna¬ tional Trade 390a; Livestock 433d; Prices 587b; Sheep 641c Medals: see Decorations, Medals and Badges—Military, Naval and Civil Medical Rehabilitation of the Dis¬ abled 49, 48, 47 FSA 293b Medicine ARA 23c; A.M.A. 49c; Atomic En¬ ergy 82c; Book Publishing 122b; Child Welfare 184a; Insurance 379d; Medical Rehabilitation of the Dis¬ abled 452a; Nobel Prizes 516d; Pub¬ lic Health Engineering 595d; Public Health Services 596b; Words and Meanings, New 772b. See also spe¬ cific diseases and medical sciences Mediterranean, British Possessions in the: see Cyprus; Gibraltar; Malta 49, 48. See Mediterranean, British Possessions in the 47, 46, 45 Meek, Donald 47 Meinzer, Oscar Edward 530d Mellilo, James (“Jimmy Smith”) 531a Mental Health: see Psychosomatic Medicine 49, 48. See Nervous Sys¬ tem; Psychiatry; Psychology 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Child Welfare 184c; FSA 293a Merchant Marine: see Shipping, Merchant Marine Mercury Mineral and Metal Production 467b Meretskov, Kirill Afanasjevich 46 Merit System: see Civil Service Merrill, Frank Dow 45 Mesotrons (Mesons): see Atomic

Energy 49. See Physics 49, 48,47, 46, 45 Metallurgy Atomic Energy 82c: Chemistry 173b Metal Prices and Production: see Minerai and Metal Production and Prices Meteorology Agriculture 2Sc; Aviation, Civil 92d; Floods and Flood Control 301b; Oceanography 537c Methodist Church Christian Unity 190c; Church Mem¬ bership 191d Metopon: Narcotics and Narcotic Traffic 493b; Words and Meanings, New 773a Mexico ARA 23d; American Citizens Abroad 44a; Antimony 56a; Archaeology 58c; Argentina 68d; Arsenic 75a; Atomic Energy 84a; Aviation, Civil 91b; Aviation, Military 99b; Birth Statistics 120c; Boxing 126a; Cadmi¬ um 151a; Cattle 165c; Communism 206d; Copper 216a; Cotton 219c; Dams 227b; Dance 228c; Death Sta¬ tistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Education 257a; Exchange Control 280d; Gas, Natural 326c; Gold 338a; Graphite 341b; Illiteracy 369a; Im¬ migration and Emigration 370a; In¬ dustrial Health 375d; Infantile Pa¬ ralysis 376d; International Monetary Fund388d; International Trade 390d; Lead 42 2c;''Leaf her 423c; Libraries 426c; Lumber 437c; Meat 452a; Mer¬ cury 456a; Mineral Production 467a; Music 490d; National Geographic Society 494d; Navies of the World 500b; Olympic Games 539d; Painting 548a; Petroleum 560d; Public Opin¬ ion Surveys 598c; Roads 625d; Silver 647a; Smithsonian Institution 649a; Soil Erosion 659a; Spanish-American Literature 665c; Taxation 686a; Tele¬ phone 690a; Tungsten 710b; Tunnels 711a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729a; Veteri¬ nary Medicine 750d; Wheat 766c; Zinc 780c Mexico City Conference: see InterAmerican Conference on Prob¬ lems of War and Peace; Pan American Union 46 Meyer, Eugene 47 Mica Munitions of War 486a Micara, Clemente 46 Michael (Mihai) 49, 48 Vatican City State 742d Michelson, Charles 531a Michigan Michigan, University of Archaeology 60b; Basketball 110a; Football 308b; Ice Hockey 366a Microphotography: see Photography Midway Isiands: see Pacific Isiands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Mikhailovitch, Draja 47 Mikoiajczyk, S. 48, 47, 46, 45 Military Academy, U.S. 49, 48, 47, 46 Football 308b; Naval Academy, U.S. 498a Military Government, Allied: see Occupied Areas, Administration of, 48. See Aiiied Military Govern¬ ment 47, 46, 45 Military training: Armies of the World 71a; National Guard 495b; Psychol¬ ogy 593a Miik ARA 24a; Agriculture 27d; Butter 150d; Canning Industry 162a; Cattle 165a; Dairying 226c; Epidemics 275c; Food Research 304a; Pneumonia 575c Miller, Glenn 45 Minis, Harry Alvin 531a Millstones: see Abrasives Milne, George Francis Milne 531b Mindszenty, Joseph 49, 46 Hungary 364a; Roman Catholic Church 627b Mineral and Metal Production and Prices Employment 270b; Foreign Invest¬ ments 310d; Income and Product, U.S. 371b; Prices 585b; Secondary Metals 638b; Strikes 673b; Wagesand Hours 755d. See also separate minerals and various states, prov¬ inces and countries Mineralogy Geology 330b; Societies 654a Mining: see Mineral and Metal Pro¬ duction and Prices Minnesota Minnesota, University of Archaeology 60b; Football 308b; Track and Field Sports 704b Minobe, Tatsukichi 531b Mint, United States: see Coinage Miqueion: see French Overseas Ter¬ ritories 49, 48. See French Colo¬ nial Empire 47, 46, 45 Missions, Foreign (Religious) Mississippi Missouri Mitscher, Marc Andrew: see Obitu¬ aries 48. See Mitscher, Marc An¬ drew 46, 45 Moffat, Samuel A. 531b Mohammedanism: see Islam

Molasses: see Sugar 47, 46, 45 Molotov, Vyacheslav Mikhailovich U.S.S.R. 713a Molybdenum Fertilizers 296c; Metallurgy 456c; Mineral and Metal Production 468a Monaco. Monazite Mondrian, Piet 45 Monetary Units: see Exchange Con¬ trol and Exchange Rates Money, Sir Leo George Chiozza 45 Mongolian People’s Republic 49. See Mongolia 48, 47, 46, 45 China 187a Monsky, Henry: see Obituaries 48 Montana Montenegro: see Yugoslavia Montero, Juan Esteban 531b Montgomery of Alamein, B. L. M. Armies of the World 71b; Western European Union 764b Montreal Montreal, University of, 49, 48, 47 Montserrat: see Leeward Islands Mooney, Edward 46 Moore, Grace: see Obituaries 48 Moore, John Bassett: see Obituaries 48 Moravia: see Bohemia and Moravia 45 Mormons Church Membership 191c Morocco: see French Overseas Terri¬ tories 49, 48. See Spanish Colonial Empire 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Cobalt 200b; Irrigation 399a; Min¬ eral and Metal Production 467a; Phosphates 564a; Pneumonia 575d; Telephone 690b; Wines 770a Morrison, Herbert S. 49, 47, 46, 45 Mortgages, Farm: see Farmers Home Administration 49, 48, 47. See Agriculture; Farm Credit Ad¬ ministration 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Mortgages, Home: see Housing Moscow Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers 46 Motion Pictures Advertising 22a; .4.L.A. 46c; Argen¬ tina 68d; Chambers of Commerce 172b; Civil Liberties 193d; Electron¬ ics 268c; Law 417d; Libraries 427d; P.T..4. 555c; Photography 564c; Ra¬ dio 602d; Television 692d; Uruguay 739d Motor-Boat Racing Motor Transportation Accidents 18a; Automobile Industry 87b; ICC 392d; Munitions of War 486a; Railroads 609d; Roads 625c. See also various states and countries Motor Vehicles: .rec Accidents; Auto¬ mobile Industry; Electric Trans¬ portation; Federal Bureau of In¬ vestigation; Motor Transporta¬ tion Mott, John R. 47 Mottistone, John E. B. S.; see Obitu¬ aries 48 Mountbatten, Philip: see Edin¬ burgh, Duke of, 48 Mountbatten of Burma, Louis (F. A. V. N.) Mountbatten 49, 48, 46, 45 Mount Holyoke College' Moyne, Walter Edward Guinness 45 Mozambique: see Portuguese Colo¬ nial Empire Atomic Energy 84a; Rivers and Har¬ bours 625a; South .4frica, Union of. 66 Id Mueller, Paul 49 Mules: see Horses Muller, Hermann Joseph 47 Mulock, Sir William 45 Munch, Edward 45 Municipal Government Banking 102c; Debt, National 234c; Housing 362a; Police 577b; Taxation 686d. See also various cities and states Munitions Assignment Board (U.S. and Great Britain): see BritishU.S. War Boards 46, 45 Munitions of War Aircraft Manufacture 32d; Armies of the World 71a; Atomic Energy 79c; Aviation, Military 96a; Jet Propul¬ sion 406d; Navies of the World 498b; Reparations 620a Murphy, Robert Daniel 48, 46, 45 Murray, Philip Communism 207b; Labour Unions 413d Museums 49, 48. See Art Galleries and Art Museums 47, 46, 45 Archaeology 58d; Art Exhibitions 75b; Education 256c; Etching 276c; Sculpture 637d; Smithsonian Insti¬ tution 648c . Music Book Publishing 122b; Dance 227d; Negroes, American 502c; Pulitzer Prizes 600d; Radio 605d; Societies 655b; Television 692c; Theatre 699a Music Library Association: see So¬ cieties and Associations Mussolini, Benito 46, 45 Mustard Seed: see Spices

Mutton: see Meat Myanesin: Medicine 455b; Words and Meanings, New 773a Nagano, Osami: see Obituaries 48. See Nagano, Osami 45 Nagumo, Chuichi 45 Nagy, Ferenc 48 Narcotics and Narcotic Traffic 49, 48. See Drugs and Drug Traffic 47, 46, 45 U.N. 717d Nash, Charles W. 531c Nash, Paul 47 National Academy of Sciences: see Societies and Associations National Archives: see Archives, National National Association of Evangeli¬ cals 49, 48, 47, 46 National Association of Manufac¬ turers: see Societies and Associa¬ tions National Association of State Li¬ braries: see Societies and Associa¬ tions 49, 48, 47 National Budget: see Budget, Na¬ tional National Catholic Community Service: see Societies and Asso¬ ciations National Catholic Rural Life Con¬ ference: see Catholic Rural Life Conference, National 48, 47, 46, 45 National Catholic Welfare Confer¬ ence: see Catholic Welfare Con¬ ference, National National Congress of Parents and Teachers: see Parents and Teach¬ ers, National Congress of National Debt: see Debt, National National Defense (U.S.): see Avia¬ tion, Military; National Guard; Navies of the World; War Production, U.S. 45 National Defense Research Com¬ mittee: see Scientific Research and Development, Office of, 46,45 National Education Association Education 253b; Geography 329b; Motion Pictures 478b National Gallery of Art: see Smith¬ sonian Institution National Geographic Society Anthropology 54b; Archaeology 58c; Cartography 162c National Guard Armies of the World 7 Id National Housing Agency: see Hous¬ ing National Income and National Product: see Income and Product, U.S. National Insurance: see Relief; So¬ cial Security Nationalization of Industries: see Coal; Public Health Services; Public Utilities; Railroads 49 Bulgaria 144b; Business Review 150c; Czechoslovakia 226a; ERP 278a; Great Britain 343d; Hungary 364c; Labour Unions 414d; Law 421d; Political Parties, British 578b; Ru¬ mania 631c; Socialism 649d; Stocks and Bonds 672b; Textile Industry 698a; Yugoslavia 779b National Labor Relations Board National Lawyers Guild: see Socie¬ ties and Associations National League of Women Voters: see Societies and Associations 46. See National League of Women Voters 45 National Mediation Board Railroads 608d National Military Establishment: see Government Departments and Bureaus; United Stotes 49, 48 National Museum: .see Smithsonian Institution National Parks and Monuments National Railway Labor Panel: see National Mediation Board 47, 46, 45 National Wage Stabilization Board 47 National War Fund: see War Relief, U.S. 46, 45 National War Labor Board: see Na¬ tional Wage Stabilization Board 47. See War Labor Board, Na¬ tional 46, 45 National Wealth: see Wealth and Income, Distribution of Natural Gas: see Gas, Natural Nauru: see Pacific Islands under Trusteeship; Trustee Territories 49, 48. See Mandates; Pacific Islands, Mandated 47, 46, 45 Naval Academy, U.S. 49, 48, 47, 46 Football 308b; Rowing 628d; Wrest¬ ling 774d Navies of the World See also various countries Navy, U.S.; Anthropology 54a; Avia¬ tion, Military 96a; Building and Construction Industry 143a; Chi¬ cago, University of, 181b; Decora¬ tions, Medals and Badges 235a; Jet Propulsion 407b; Meteorology 456d; Munitions of War 486a; Navies of the World 498b; Prisons 590b; Seis¬ mology 640d; Words and Meanings,

INDEX

803

New 773a Navy, U.S. Department of: see Gov¬ ernment Departments and Bu¬ reaus Nazimova, Alla 46 Nazimuddin, Khwaja 49 Nazis: see War Crimes 49, 48, 47. See Anti-Semitism; Germany 48, 47, 46, 45. See Fascism 45 N.E.A .: see National Education As¬ sociation Nebraska Necrology: see Obituaries Negroes, American Advertising21a; Baseball 105d; Birth Statistics 120d; Census Data 167c: Death Statistics 233a; Education 254c; Home Economics 355b: Illiter¬ acy 369a; Law 418b; Literary Prizes 432a; Lynching 438d; Roman Cath¬ olic Church 628a; U.S. 725b. See also various states Nehru, Jawaharlal 49, 48, 47 Neilson, Nellie: see Obituaries 48 Nelson, Donald Mar 45 Neoantergan 40d. Nepal National Geographic Society 494d Nervous System Anaesthesiology 51b; Chemotherapy 178c; Medicine 453c; Psychosomatic Medicine 594b; Surgery 677b Netherlands Airports 34c; Aliens 39c; Argentina 69a; Armies of the World 70d; Avia¬ tion, Military 98d; Baptist Church 103c; Belgium 113a; Birth Control 119c; Birth Statistics 120b; Business Review 149a; Butter 150d; Candy 161d; Chess 179d; Coal 196d; Coke 201b; Curagao 223a; Cycling 224a; Dance 229d; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Decorations, Medals and Badges 235c; Democracy 237c; Electric Transportation 266d; ERP 279b; Exchange Control 283b; Floods and Flood Control 301d; For¬ eign Investments 311c; Germany 334d; Gold 338a: Great Britain 342c; Horticulture 3S8a; Immigration and Emigration 370b; Infant Mortality 378a; International Bank 381c; In¬ ternational Law 386d; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 391a; Japan 404d; Labour Unions 415a; Law 422c; Meteorology 460b; Mexico 462d; Music 489d; Navies of the World 498c; Norway 519c; Olympic Games 539d; Presby¬ terian Church 584b; Prices 587c; Pub¬ lic Health Engineering 595a; Public Opinion Surveys 598c; Radio 606b! Railroads 611a; Refugees 616a; Repa¬ rations 620b; Rivers and Harbours 624d; Sculpture 638b; Shipbuilding 641d; Shipping, Merchant Marine 644b; Silk 646c; Swimming 679d; Tax¬ ation 688c; (Telephone 690b; Tele¬ vision 694a; Town and Regional Plan¬ ning 703d; Turkey 712a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 728b; Wages and Hours 756d; War Crimes 757c; Western European Union 763b; Wool 772a; World Fed¬ eration of Trade Unions 774c; Zinc 780c; Zoology 782c Netherlands Antilles: see Nether¬ lands 49. See Curagao 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Netherlands Colonial Empire: see Curagao; Netherlands Indies; Su¬ rinam 49, 48. See Netherlands Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Netherlands Indies Armies of the World 71a; Coconuts 200c; Coffee 200d; ERP 279d; Luth¬ erans 438b; Mineral and Metal Pro¬ duction 467a; Netherlands 503d; Rubber 630a; Spices 667b; Tariffs 683d; Tea 688d; Tin 701a: U.S. 729b: Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 743b Neurath, Konstantin von 47 Neutrality: see International Law 46, 45 Norway 519d; PiusXII 571c; Sweden 678b: Switzerland 680d Neutrons: see Physics 49, 48, 47. See Atomic Energy 48, 47. Chem¬ istry 47, 46. See Atomic Bomb 46 Nevada New Brunswick New Caledonia: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 American Citizens Abroad 44a; Chromite 190d; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Nickel 516b Newcastle disease 100b Newfoundland and Labrador American Citizens Abroad 44a; Can¬ ada 154d; Iron and Steel 397a; Silver 647a; Telephone 690a New Guinea: see Netherlands''lndies; Pacific Islands under Trus¬ teeship; Trustee Territories 49, 48. See New Guinea 47, 46, 45 U.N. 723a New Hampshire

804

INDEX

New Hebrides: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See Pacific Islands, British 49, 47, 46, 45. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 New Jersey New Mexico New South Wales 47, 46, 45 Newspapers and Magazines Advertising 20b; Christian Science 189d; Education 256a; Electronics 269a; French Literature 320c; Labour Unions 413c; Law 416b; Paper and Pulp Industry S54a; Pulitzer Prizes 600d; Radio 603b; Roman Catholic Church 627c; Words and Meanings, New 772d New York New York City New York University Basketball 110a; Track and Field Sports 704b New Zealand, Dominion of American Citizens Abroad 44a; Ar¬ mies of the World 74c; Atomic En¬ ergy 83d; Australia 85c; Baptist Church 103c; Birth Statistics 120b; Butter 150d; Child Welfare 184a; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, Na¬ tional 234d; Education 256c; Ex¬ change Control 282c; Food Supply of the World 305b; Horticulture 358a; Immigration and Emigration 370b; International Trade 391a; Libraries 428d; Meat 452a; Meteorology 458a; Motion Pictures 481a; Refugees 616a; Relief 617d; Social Security 653a; Soil Erosion 659b; Taxation 686a; Telephone 690b; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; Wool 772a Niblo, Fred 53 Id Nicaragua Colombia 203a; Costa Rica 218b; Debt, National 234d; Guatemala 348c; International Monetary Fund 388d; Pan American Union 553d; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b Nichols, Robert Malise Bowyer 45 Nickel Coinage 201a; Mineral and Metal Production 467b; Secondary Metals 638c Nicola, Ehrico de 48, 47 Niger: see French Overseas Territor¬ ies 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Nigeria: see British West Africa Archaeology 63a; Columbium 204c; Tariffs 683d; Tin 701a; Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 743b Night Club 45 Nimitz, Chester W. 47, 46, 45 Ninth International Conference of American States: see Interna¬ tional Conference of American States 49 Nitrogen, Chemical Fertilizers 295d NLRB: see National Labor Relations Board Nobel Prizes 49, 48. See Prizes 47, 46, 45 Noel-Baker, Philip John 48, 47 Nokrashy Pasha, Mahmoud F. 48 Obituaries 53 Id Nordhoff, Charles Bernard: see Obitu¬ aries 48 Norfolk Island: see British Empire 49, 48 Norris, George William 45 North Atlantic Alliance: see Armies of the World; Western European Union 49 U.S. 728b North Borneo: see British Borneo 49. See North Borneo 48. See Borneo 47, 46. See British Empire 45 North Carolina North Carolina, University of 49, 48, 47 Football 308b; Libraries 426d North Dakota Northern Ireland: see Ireland, Northern Northern Rhodesia: see Rhodesia, Northern Northern Territory 47, 46, 45 Northrop, John Howard 47 Northwestern University Accidents 18d; Anthropology 55b; Football 308b; P.T.A. 555b Northwest Territories Norway Aliens 39c; Antarctica 53a; Armies of the World 71c; Atomic Energy 83d; Aviation, Civil 91b; Aviation, Mili¬ tary 99a; Birth Statistics 120b; Business Review 149b; Cartography 163a; Contract Bridge 215c; Dance 229d; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Employment 271b; ERP 279b; Exchange Control 283b; Fertilizers 296b; Fisheries 298b; Horticulture 357d; Iceland 366c; Ice Skating 366d; International Mone¬ tary Fund 388d; International Trade 391c; Jet Propulsion 407c; Mineral

Production 467a; Motion Pictures 480d; Museums 489c; Music 489d; Navies of the World 498c; Olympic Games 539d; Prices 587c; Refugees 616a; Shipbuilding 641d; Skiing 647c; Socialism 650c; Sweden 678d; Taxa¬ tion 686a; Telephone 690b; Town and Regional Planning 703d; Tubercu¬ losis 708b; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; Wages and Hours 756d; War Crimes 757c; Western European Union 764c; Yachting 776b; Zinc 780c Nose: see &r. Nose and Throat, Dis¬ eases of Notre Dame, University of Football 308b Nova Scotia Novikov, Alexandr Alexandrovich 45 Noyes, Frank Brett 531d Nursing: see Hospitals 49, 48 Red Cross 615b Nursing, War 46, 45 Nutmegs: see Spices Nutrition: see Food Research; Vita¬ mins 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Dietet¬ ics 47, 46, 45. See Medicine 46, 45 Nuts Agriculture 26a; Horticulture 358a; Peanuts 557b Nyasaland Nylon: see Rayon and Other Syn¬ thetic Fibres Interior Decoration 381a; Plastics Industry 574c Oats Agriculture 26b; Food Research 304a; Food Supply of the World 306b Obituaries O'Brien, Howard Vincent; see Obitu¬ aries 48 Obstetrics: see Gynaecology and Obstetrics Occupational Therapy: see Medical Rehabilitation of the Disabled 49, 48, 47. See Physical Medicine and Occupational Therapy for the Wounded 46, 45 Occupied Areas, Administration of, 48 American Citizens Abroad 43c; Ar¬ mies of the World 71a; Berlin il4b; Education 257a; Germany 332d; Ital¬ ian Colonial Empire 400a; japan 404c; Korea 411d; Police 577b; Repa¬ rations 619d; U.S. 727d Oceanography 49, 48, 47. See Marine Biology 46, 45 Fisheries 298c Marine Biology 444d; National Geographic Society 494c O’Connell, William Henry 45 O’Donnell, John Hugh: see Obituaries 48 O’Duffy, Eoin 45 Office of Education, U.S.: see Edu¬ cation; Federal Security Agency Ohio Ohio State University Consumer Credit 214a; Libraries 426d; Track and Field Sports 704b Oil: see Petroleum Oils and Fats, Vegetable and Ani¬ mal: see Vegetable Oils and Ani¬ mal Fats Okamura, Yasuji 46 Okinawa 46 Oklahoma Old-Age Insurance: see Social Secu¬ rity Old-Age Pension: see Relief; Social Security. See also under various states Oldfield, Berna (Barney) Eli 47 Oleomargarine: see Margarine Olive Oil: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 47, 46, 45 Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 743b Olives: see Fruit Olympic Games 49 Boxing 126b; Boy Scouts 126d; Gym¬ nastics 348d; Ice Skating 366d; Lon¬ don 434d; Negroes, American 502c; Radio 606d; Rowing 629c; Swimming 679d; Track and Field Sports 704b; Yachting 776b Oman and Muscat (Masqat): see Arabia O’Neill, Rose Cecil 45 Ontario OPA (Office of Price Administra¬ tion): see Price Administration, Office of 48, 47, 46, 45 Opel, Wilhelm von 532a Opera: see Music Opium: see Narcotics and Narcotic Traffic 49, 48. 5ee Drugs and Drug Traffic 47, 46, 45 Oppenheim Etdward) Phillips 47 Oppenheimer, J. Robert 46 Oranges: see Fruit Orczy, Emmuska: see Obituaries 48 Oregon Organization of American States; see International Conference of American States; Pan American Union 49 Orion 613b Orsenigo, Cesare 47 Osborn, Sidney Preston 532a Osmeha, Sergio 46, 45 Osteopathy Ostland: see U.S.S.R. 47, 46. See Ostland 45

Park, Robert Ezra 45 Osubka-Morawski, E. B. 47, 46 Parker, Louis N. 45 Ottawa Parks and Monuments; National Oumansky, Constantine A. 46 Parks and Monuments Outdoor Advertising: see Advertis¬ Parliament, Houses of ing Parodi, Alexandre 48, 47 Outer Mongolia: see Mongolian Peo¬ Parrado y Garcia, Augustin 47, 46 ple’s Republic 49. See Mongolia Parri, Ferruccio 46 48, 47, 46, 45 Partridge, Sir Bernard 46 Overton, John Holmes 532a Passfield, Sidney James Webb: see Owen, Derwyn Trevor: see Obituaries Obituaries 48 48 Patch, Alexander M., Jr. 46, 45 Owen, Robert Latham: see Obituaries Patel, Vallabhbhai 48 48 Patents Oxford and Asquith, Margot 46 Law 417d Oxford University Patino, Sim6n Ituri: see Obituaries 48 Rowing 628d Patrick, Edwin Daviess 46 Pacific Islands, British Patten, George W. (Gilbert) 46 Pacific Islands, French: see French Patterson, Eleanor Medill 532b Overseas Territories 49. See Pa¬ Patterson, Joseph Medill 47 cific Islands, French 48, 47, 46, 45 Patterson, R. P. 47, 46, 45 Pacific Islands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Patton, George Smith, Jr. 46, 45 Pacific Islands under Trusteeship Pauker, Ana 49 49, 48. See Pacific Islands, Man¬ Paul I 48 dated 47, 46, 45 Peace Treaties 48 Fisheries 298b; Trustee Territories Peaches: see Fruit 707b Peanuts Pacifism Pact of Bogota: See International Agriculture 26c; Food Supply of the Conference of American States 49 World 307a; Soil Erosion 659b; Vege¬ Padway, Joseph Arthur: see Obituar¬ table Oils and Animal Fats 743a Pearl Harbor Inquiries 47 ies 48 Pears: see Fruit Painting Art Exhibitions 75b; Art Sales 77b; Peat Museums 489a; National Geographic Pecans: see Nuts Pemba: see British East Africa Society 495a; Smithsonian Institu¬ tion 648d Pendergast, Thomas Joseph 46 Penicillin: Chemotherapy; MedPaints and Varnishes Building and Construction Industry icine49, 48, 47, 46, 45. 5ee Urology 48, 47, 46. See Dentistry 47, 46. 141b; Plastics Industry 573b; Talc 682d See Dermatology: Surgery 47, 46, Pakistan, Dominion of, 49, 48. See 45. See Agricultural Research India 45 Administration 46, 45. See Eye, Afghanistan 23a; Arabia 58a; Armies Diseases of; Heart and Heart Dis¬ of the World 74c; Aviation, Civil 92b; eases 45 Electric Transportation 267a; Ex¬ ARA 24a; Allergy 40d; Arthritis change Control 282d; Food Supply of 76d; Bacteriology 99d; Child Welfare the World 306d; Illiteracy 369c; In¬ 183c; Dentistry 240b; Dermatology dia 373d; International Trade 391a; 240d; Liquors, Alcoholic 431b; Pneu¬ Islam 399c; Jute 409d; Missions, monia 575d; Venereal Diseases 744c Foreign 470b; Olympic Games 539d; Pennock, Herbert Jeffries 532b Public Health Engineering 595c; Pennsylvania Railroads 611c; Red Cross 615d; Pennsylvania, University of Reparations 619d; Roads 626b; Sal¬ Football 308b; Rowing 628d vation Army 635c; Soil Erosion 660b; Pension, Old-Age: see Relief; Social Tariffs 683d; Tea 688d; Textile In¬ Security. See also under various dustry 698a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; states Wheat 766d Pensions, Army and Navy: see Vet¬ Palaeontology erans’ Administration Marine Biology 444d Pepper: see Spices Paleologue, Maurice Georges 45 Performing Right Societies: see So¬ Palestine cieties and Associations Anti-Semitism 56c; Arabia S7c; Perfume: see Soap, Perfumery and Archaeology 62c; Armies of the Cosmetics World 74d; Child Welfare 183c; Permanent Joint Board on Defense Egypt 258d; Elections 262d; Ex¬ (U.S. and Canada) 48, 47. See change Control 282d; Great Britain Canadian-U.S. War Committees 342b; International Trade 392a; Iran 46, 45 395d; Iraq 396b; Israel, State of, Per6n, Dofia Marfa Eva Duarte de 48 399d; Kidnapping 411b; Law 422b; Perdn, Juan Domingo Lebanon 423d; Marine Corps 446c; Argentina 68b Pius XII 571a; Plague 572a; Rail¬ Perry, James De Wolf: see Obituaries roads 611b; Red Cross 615d; Refu¬ 48 gees 616d; Rivers and Harbours 624d; Pershing, John Joseph 532c Roman Catholic Church 626d; Sun¬ Persia: see Iran day Schools 675d; Syria 681d; Trans¬ Perth, Archbishop of, 47 jordan 705b; U.N. 717d; Wines 770a Peru Palmyra Island: see Pacific Islands, Antimony 56a; Argentina 69a; Ar¬ U.S. 47, 46, 45 senic 75a; Communism 206d; Copper Panama 216a; Dance 230b; Debt, National Archaeology 58b; Colombia 203a; 234d; Education 256c; Exchange Con¬ Debt, National 234d; Exchange Con¬ trol 282a; International Trade 390d; trol 281d; National Geographic So¬ Lead 422c; Libraries 426c; Mineral ciety 494d; Navies of the World 500b; and Metal Production 467a; Navies Olympic Games 539d; Pneumonia of the World 498c; Olympic Games 575b; Shipbuilding 641 d; Shipping, 539d; Petroleum 560d; Plague 571d; Merchant Marine 644a; Smithsonian Seismology 640c; Silver 647a; Smith¬ Institution 649a sonian Institution 649a; Socialism Panama Canal Zone 49 650b; Spanish-American Literature Pan-American Conference: see In¬ 665d; Telephone 690b; Tungsten ternational Conference of Ameri¬ 710b; Tunnels 711a; U.N. 717c; U.S can States 49 729b; Vanadium 741c; Wines 770a Pan-American Highway: see Roads Petain, Henri Philippe 46, 45 and Highways Peter 11 46, 45 Pan American Union Pethick-Lawrence, F. W. 47 International Conference of Ameri¬ Petitde Julleville, Pietro: see Obitu¬ can States 382c aries 48. See Petit de Julleville, Papandreou, George 45 Pietro 46 Papen, Franz von 47 Petkov, Nikola Dimitrov: see Obitu¬ Paper and Pulp Industry aries 48 ARA 23c; Chemurgy 179a; Employ¬ Petroleum ment 270d; Foreign Investments Aviation, Civil 92c; Co-operatives 310d; International Trade 390a; 215c; Electrical Industries 263c; Newspapers and Magazines 509d; Electronics 268a; Employment 270d; Standards, National Bureau of, 668d; Foreign Investments 310c; Geology Strikes 673b; Talc 682d; Wages and 329d; International Trade 390a; Hours 755d Mineral and Metal Production 467b; Paprika: see Spices 49, 48, 47, 45 Motor Transportation 483a; Paints Papua: see British Empire 49, 48, 47, and Varnishes 548b; Public Utilities 46, 45. See New Gu’nea; Pacific 599c; Wages and Hours 755d Islands, British 47, 46, 45 Phenergan 40d Trustee Territories 708a Philadelphia Paraguay Philanthropy: see Donations and Argentina 69a; Debt, National 234d; Bequests Exchange Control M2a; Telephone Philately ■ 690b; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b Philippines, Republic of the Parathion: ARA 24a; Entomology 275a Armies of the World 74d; Aviation, Parents and Teachers, National Civil 91b; Camp Fire (jirls 153c; Congress of Chromite 190d; Coast and Geodetic Paris Survey 198d; (Coconuts 200c; Copy¬ Paris Peace Conference: see Peace right 216d; Education 256c; Ex¬ Treaties 48. See Paris Peace Con¬ change Control 284d; Fisheries 298c; ference 47 Food Supply of the World 306d;

I.L.O. 384c; International Trade 392b; Japan 404d; Law 421c; Lumber 437c; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Music 490a; Naval Academy, U.S. 498a; Olympic Games S39d; Protestant Episcopal Church 590d; Reparations 620b; Roads 626b; Ro¬ man Catholic Church 627c; Seismol¬ ogy 640c; Sugar 675a; Taxation 686a; Telephone 690b; Unitarian Church 717a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 743b; War Crimes 757c; Y.M.C.A. 778b Philology 48 Book Publishing 122b Philosophy Book Publishing 122b; French Liter¬ ature 320a Phoenix Islands: see Pacific Islands, British 47, 46, 45 Phosphates Entomology 274a; Fertilizers 296b; Mineral and Metal Production 467b; TVA 695b Photography Antarctica 53c; Cartography 162b; Coast and Geodetic Survey 198c; Marine Biology 444d; Motion Pic¬ tures 479a; National Geographic Society 495a; Newspapers and Mag¬ azines 509a; Printing 588d; Pulitzer Prizes 600d; Words and Meanings, New 773b; X-Ray and Radiology 77,5d Physical Medicine and Occupa¬ tional Therapy for the Wounded 46, 45 Physics Atomic Energy 82c; Blackett, P.M. S. 121a; Chemistry 173d; Electronics 267a; Meteorology 456c; Nobel Prizes 516d; Photography 564b; Standards, National Bureau of, 668d; Words and Meanings, New 772b Physiology Atomic Energy 82c; Endocrinology 271c; Zoology 781a Pierson, Reginald Kirshaw 532d Pigeon Racing 47 Pig Iron: see Iron and Steel Pigs: see Hogs; Livestock Pike, Sumner Tucker 47 Pineapples: see Fruit 49, 48, 47, 46 Pittsburgh Pius XII Roman Catholic Church 626c; Sodality of Our Lady 657d; Vatican City State 742b Plague, Bubonic and Pneumonic Veterinary Medicine 750d Planck, Max: see Obituaries 48 Plant Industry, Soils and Agricul¬ tural Engineering, Bureau of: see Agricultural Research Adminis¬ tration Plasma, Blood: see Physiology 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Medicine, Sur¬ gery 47, 46, 45 Plastics Industry Chemurgy 179b; Electrical Indus¬ tries 264d; Interior Decoration 381a; Words and Meanings, New 772c Platinum Group Metals Mineral and Metal Production 467b; Secondary Metals 638c Pla y Deniel, Enrico 46 Plums: see Fruit Plutonium: see Atomic Energy 49, 48, 47. See Physics 48. See Chemis¬ try 47, 46. See Atomic Bomb; Metallurgy 46 Biochemistry 119b Pneumonia Chemotherapy 177d; Death Statis¬ tics 232c; Medicine 453a Poetry: see Book Publishing 49, 48, 47, 46. See Literary Prizes 49, 48. See American Literature; Cana¬ dian Literature; English Litera¬ ture; French Literature; Russian Literature; Spanish-American Literature; Spanish Literature49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Prizes 47, 46, 45. See Publishing (Book) 45 Poiret, Paul 45 Poland Aliens 39c: Argentina 69b; Atomic Energy 80a; Austria 86d; Canals and Inland Waterways 160a; Child Wel¬ fare 183c; Coal 196d; Communism 206d; Czechoslovakia 226a; Debt, National 234d; Eastern Orthodox Churches 252a; Education 257a; ERP 279d; Exchange Control 280d; Gas, Natural 326c; Hungary 364d; Immigration and Emigration 370a; International Monetary Fund 388d; Iron and Steel 398a; Lumber 437c; Marriage and Divorce 446d; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Navies of the World 498c; Newspapers and Magazines 512d; Olympic Games 539d: Post Office 582a; Prisoners of War 589d; Refugees 616b; Rivers and Harbours 624d; Telephone 690b; Textile Industry 698b; Town and Regional Planning 703d; Tuberculo¬ sis 709b; U,S.S.R. 7I3c; Unitarian Church 717a; U.N, 717c; U,S. 729b; Veterans' Organizations 750c; War Crimes 757c; World Federation of

Trade Unions 774d; Y.M.C.A. 778b; Yugoslavia 779d; Zinc 780c Pole Vaulting: see Track and Field Sports Police .\ccidents 18d; Crime 220d; FBI 290a Poliomyelitis: see Infantile Paraly¬ sis Political Parties: see Political Par¬ ties, British 49, 48. See Commu¬ nism; Democratic Party; Elec¬ tions; Republican Party; Social¬ ism 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Conserva¬ tive Party, Great Britain; Liberal Party 47, 46, 45 Democracy 236c. See also under in¬ dividual countries Political Parties, British 49, 48 Great Britain 342a; Parliament, Houses of, 556c Pollard, Albert Frederick 532d Pollock, Channing 47 Polo Polymyxin: ARA 23c; Chemotherapy 177d; Words and Meanings, New 773b Ponce, Manuel M. 532d Popcorn 49, 48, 47 Popular Music: see Music Population, Movements of: see Refugees Populations of the Countries of the World: see Areas and Populations of the Countries of the World Porter, Paul Aldermandt 47 Porto Rico: see Puerto Rico Portugal Airports 34c: -Armies of the World 71c; Atomic Energy 84a; Birth Statistics 120c: Bridges 132b; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; ERP 279b; Exchange Control 284a; International Trade 391c Meteorology 458a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Music 491b; Navies of the World 498c; Olympic Games 539d; Plague 571d; PortugueseColonial Empire580a; Shipping, Merchant Marine 644b; Telephone 690b; U,N. 717c; Wines 769d Portuguese Colonial Empire Post Office Aviation, Civil 93a; Banking 101c; Budget, National 140c; Civil Serv¬ ice 194c: Commission on Organiza¬ tion of the Executive Branch of the Government 204d; Law 416b; Phi¬ lately 561d; Railroads 608c Postwar Planning: see Reconstruc¬ tion Planning 47, 46. See Postwar Planning 45 Potash Fertilizers 296b; Mineral and Metal Production 467d Potatoes ARA 24c; Agriculture 26b; Food Supply of the World 305a Potsdam Conference: see Berlin Conference 46 Poultry ARj). 23c; Agriculture 26a; Eggs 258b: Food Supply of the World 307a; Livestock 433d; Tuberculosis 709d; Veterinary Medicine 751a Power Engineering 46 Atomic Energy 83a Pratt, James Bissett 45 Precious Stones: see Gem Stones Presbyterian Church Christian Unity 190c; Church Membership 191d Presidents, Sovereigns and Rulers Preysing, Conrad von 46 Price Administration, Office of, 48, 47, 46, 45 Prices Business Review 146b; Economics 252b; Food Supply of the World 307a; Income and Product, U.S. 370c; Law 417c. also various commodities, industries and coun¬ tries Primary Education: see Education Prince Edward Island Princeton University Football 308d; Libraries 426d: Row¬ ing 629a Principe: see Portuguese Colonial Empire Printing 49, 48, 47, 46 Electronics 269a; Employment 270b; Labour Unions 413c; Newspapers and Magazines 509b; Photography 566c; Plastics Industry 573b; Print¬ ing Office, U.S. Government 589b; Strikes 673b; Wages and Hours 755d; Words and Meanings, New 773d Printing Office, U.S. Government Priorities and Allocations 48, 47, 46, 45 Prisoners of War Aliens 39a; Germany 335c; Great Britain 343b; Japan 404c; Law 416a; Red Cross 6i5c: War Crimes 757dj Prisons Juvenile Delinquency 409d: Salva¬ tion Army 635c. See also various states Private Schools: see Education Prizes: see Literary Prizes; Nobel

Prizes; Pulitzer Prizes 49, 48. See Prizes47,46,45.5er a Iso Art Exhibi¬ tions; Mineralogy; Motion Pic¬ tures; Roman Catholic Church; Societies and Associations; Thea¬ tre; etc. Production, Industrial: see Busi¬ ness Review. See also separate in¬ dustries and various states, provin¬ ces and countries Profits, Company: see Business Re¬ view; Taxation Progressive Party: Communism 207a; Elections 260d; U.S, 725b; Wallace, H.A. 757b; Words and Meanings, New 773b Prometheum 173d Proportional Representation: see Municipal Government 48, 47, 46, 45 Protestant Episcopal Church Church Membership 191b Protons: see Atomic Energy 49, 48, 47. See Physics 49, 48, 47, 46. See Atomic Bomb 46 Prunes: see Fruit Psychiatry Juvenile Delinquency 409d; Prisons S90a; Psychosomatic Medicine 594b Psychology Gynaecology and Obstetrics 349c; Music 492c; Psychiatry 591b Psychosomatic Medicine 49, 48 Medicine 454b; Nervous System 503b; Psychiatry 591c Psychology 594a; Public Health Services .596b Public Assistance: see Child Wel¬ fare; Relief; Social Security. See also various states Public Buildings Administration: see Federal Works Agency Public Health Engineering Aqueducts 56d; Building and Con¬ struction Industry 142b; FS.^ 293b; FWA 294c; Meteorology 459a; Mu¬ nicipal Government 484b; Public Utilities 599d; Tunnels 710c; U.N. 722c Public Health Service, U.S.: see Epidemics and Public Health Control 47, 46. See Federal Se¬ curity Agency; Venereal Diseases 47 46 45 Public Health Services 49, 48 Bacteriology 99c; (ihild Welfare 184a; Diabetes 243a; FSA 293a; Heart and Heart Diseases 352c; Hospitals 358d; Industrial Health 375d; Law 421a; Osteopathy 544b; P.T.A. 555b; Public Health Engineer¬ ing 595a; Tuberculosis 708b; U.N. 722c; Venereal Diseases 744c; Veteri¬ nary Medicine 751b; X-Ray and Radiology 775d Public Housing Administration: see Housing 49, 48 Public Housing Authority, Federal: see Housing Public Libraries: see American Library Association; Libraries Public Opinion Surveys Elections 261d; Sociology 657c; U.S. 725a; Washington, University of (Seattle) 760c Public Roads Administration: see Federal Works Agency; Roads and Highways Public Utilities Banking 102b; Building and Con¬ struction Industry 142b; Business Review 146b; Electrical Industries 263b; Employment 270b; FPC 291c; Gas, Natural 326b; Income and Product, U.S. 371b; Rural Electri¬ fication 632a; SEC 639d; Stocks and Bonds 670b; Strikes 673b; TVA 695a; Tunnels 710d; Wages and Hours 755d Public Works Administration: see Federal Works Agency 45 Publishing (Book): see Book Pub¬ lishing Puerto Rico Aliens 39b; Olympic Games 539d; Telephone 690a Pulitzer Prizes Pulp Industry: see Paper and Pulp Industry Pulsejets: see Jet Propulsion 49, 48, 47 Pumice: see Abrasives Purdue University Wrestling 775a Pyle, Ernest Taylor 46 Pyrite Mineral and Metal Production 467d Q Fever: see Epidemics; Public Health Services 49. See Pneu¬ monia 49, 48 Public Health Engineering 595c Quakers: see Friends, Religious Society of Quebec Queensland 47, 46, 45 Queullle, Henri 49 France 317d Quezon, Manuel Luis 45 Quicksilver: see Mercury Quiller-Couch, Sir Arthur T. 45 Quirino, Elpidio 49 Philippines 562b Quisling, Vidkun Abraham 46

INDEX

805

Quito, Charter of: Colombia 203a: Ecuador 253a; Panama 553a Quo Tai-chi 48, 47 Racing and Races: see Motor Boat Racing 49, 48. See Air Races and Records; Automobile Racing; Yachting 49, 48, 47. See Dog Rac¬ ing; Horse Racing; Track and Field Sports 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Pigeon Racing 47 Cycling 223c; Words and Meanings, New 773b Raczkiewicz, Wladyslaw: see Obituar¬ ies 48 Radar: see Munitions of War 49, 48. See Electronics 49, 48, 47. See Astronomy 47. See Radar 46. See Radio Detection 45 Airports 34a; Aviation, Civil 93b; CAA 192d; FCC 290b; Meteorology 456c; Rivers and Harbours 624c; Words and Meanings, New 773a Radar Countermeasures 46 Radio Advertising 20b; Chambers of Commerce 172b; Christian Science 189d; CAA 192d; Co-operatives 216a; Electronics 267b; FCC 290a; Meteor¬ ology 456d; Munitions of War 486b; Music 490b; P.T.A. 555c; Seventhday Adventists 641a; Telegraphy 689b; Telephone 691b; Words and Meanings, New 773a Radio Detection: see Electronics 49,48,47. Radio 48. See Radar 46. See Radio Detection 45 Radiology: see X-Ray and Radiology 49, 48, 47. See Radiology 46, 45 Radium Uranium 739a Raeder, Erich 47 Railroad Accidents: see Disasters Railroad Retirement Act: see Social Security Railroads Bridges 131b; Building and Con¬ struction Industry 142b; Chicago 180d; Disasters 246c; Electric Transportation 265d; Employment 270b; FWA 295a; ICC 392d; NMB 496c; Post Office 580c; Stocks and Bonds 670b; Tunnels 710d. See also various cities, states and countries Ralmu 47 Rainfall: see Meteorology Raisins: see Fruit Rajagopalachari, ChakravartI 49 Ralston, James Layton 533a Ramadier, Paul 48 Ramjets: see Jet Propulsion 49, 48 Ramsay, Sir Bertram Home 45 Randall-Maciver, David 46 Rapid Transit: see Electric Trans¬ portation Rates of Exchange: see Exchange Control and Exchange Rates Rationing 48. See Price Administra¬ tion, Office of, 47, 46, 45 Australia 85a; Austria 86d; Den¬ mark 239b; Food Supply of the World 305a; Great Britain 344a; Italy 402c; Motor Transportation 483a; New Zealand 515b Rayleigh, Robert John Strutt: see Obituaries 48 Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres Chemurgy 179c; Clothing Industry 196a; Dyestuffs 250a; Linen and Flax 429c; Rubber 630d; Textile Industry 697c Receipts, Government: see Budget, National Reciprocal Trade Agreements: see International Trade 48, 47, 46, 45 Reclamation: see Forests; Irriga¬ tion; Soil Erosion and ^il Con¬ servation 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Canals and Inland Waterways; Floods and Flood Control 48, 47, 46, 45 Reconstruction Finance Corpora¬ tion ERP 278b: Housing 361d; Law 418b Reconstruction Planning 47, 46 Reconversion: see Rationing 48. See Law 48, 47, 46, 45. See Civilian Production Administration; War Mobilization and Reconversion, Office of, 47. See Business Review 48, 47, 46. See War Production, U.S. 46, 45 Red Cross Prisoners of War 589d; Tuberculosis 709b Reece, Brazilla Carroll 47 Reed, James A. 45 Reeves, Joseph Mason 533a Reforestation: see Forests Reformed Church: see Presbyterian Church Refugees Aliens 39b; Anti-Semitism 56c; Canada 154a; Child Welfare 184a; Denmark 239c; Estonia 276a; Ger¬ many 332c; Immigration and Emigra¬ tion 370a; Israel, State of, 400a; Lat¬ via 415c; Lithuania 433b; Lutheran?

806

INDEX

438a; Palestine 5S2b; P.T. A. 55Sc; Red Cross 61Sd; Roman Catholic Church 627b; Turkey 711c; U.N. 717d; U.S. 724d Rehabilitation of the Wounded: see Physical Medicine and Occupa¬ tional Therapy for the Wounded 46, 45 Reid, Harry Fielding 45 Reid, Ogden Mills; see Obituaries 48 Relay Racing; see Track and Fieid Sports Reiief Baptist Church 103d; Budget, Na¬ tional 139c; Catholic Organizations for Youth 164a; Catholic Welfare Conference, National 164d; Child Welfare 183b; Christian Science 189c; Community Chest 207d; Com¬ munity Trusts 208a; Donations and Bequests 248a; Education 2S4a; Federal Council of Churches 290b; Food Supply of the World 305a; Friends, Religious Society of, 323a; Girl Scouts 336d; Methodist Church 461b; Mormons 474c; Municipal Government 484c; N.E.A. 494a; Red Cross 614d; Refugees 617d; Roman Catholic Church 627d; Salvation Army 635c; Social Security 651c. See also various cities and states Relief, War: see War Relief, U.S. 46, 45 Religion Book Publishing 122b; Christian Unity 190a; Church Membership 191b; Donations and Bequests 248a; Literary Prizes 432a; Missions, Foreign 470a; Pacifism 546a; Philos¬ ophy 563b; Sunday Schools 675d; World Council of Churches 774a Religious Oenominations: see Church Membership Religious Education: see Law 49. See Sunday Schoois 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Education 253a; Roman Catholic Church 626d Relocation, Japanese: see War Re¬ location Authority 47, 46, 45 Rent Control: Building and Construc¬ tion Industry 142c; Housing 360c; Law 416a; U.S. 723d Reparations 49, 48, 47 ERP 280a; Finland 297a; Germany 335a; Hungary 364c; Japan 404d; Malaya 443a; Rumania 63id; U.S.S.R. 714a; U.S. 728c Representatives, House of: see Congress, United States; Eiections Repubiican Party Democratic Party 237d; Dewey, T. E, 243a; Elections 260d; Taxation 684a; Truman, H. S. 707b; U.S. 723c. See also various states Research Libraries, Association of: see Societies and Associations Resins: see Paints and Varnishes; Plastics Industry Retail Sales: see Business Review Reunion: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Reuther, Walter Philip 49, 47, 46 Rheumatism: see Arthritis Rhineland: see Saar 48, 47. See Rhineland 46 Public Utilities 600a Rhode Island Rhodesia, Northern Bridges 131c; Cobalt 200b; Copper 216a; Illiteracy 368d; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Vanadium 741c; Wildlife Conservation 768c; Zinc 780c Rhodesia, Southern Arsenic 75a; Asbestos 77d; Bridges 131c; Chromite 190d; Gold 338b; Immigration and Emigration 370b; International Monetary Fund 389b; Law 422b; Meteorology 458a; Min¬ eral and Metal Production 467a; Railroads 611c; Tungsten 710b Riach, Nancy: see Obituaries 48 Ribbentrop, Joachim von 47, 46, 45 Rice ARA 23c; Agriculture 26b; Food Re¬ search 304b; Food Supply of the World 305b Rintelen, Anton von 47 Rio de Janeiro, Treaty of: see InterAmerican Defense Conference 48 Rio de Oro: see Spanish Colonial Empire 49, 48, 47 Rio Muni: see Spanish Colonial Empire Rivers and Harbours Aqueducts 57a; Bridges 130c; Canals and Inland Waterways lS9a; Dams 226d; FPC 292a; Floods and Flood Control 300c; Irrigation 398c; Pub¬ lic Utilities 599d; Railroads 610c; TVA 69Sa Riza Khan Pahlavi 45 Roads and Highways Accidents 18b; Bridges 130b; Build¬ ing and Construction Industry 142b;

FWA 294c; Motor Transportation 482b; Municipal Government 484b; Sand and Gravel 636a; Tunnels 710d. See also various states, provinces and countries Roberts, Michael 533b Robertson, Sir Brian Hubert 49 Robinson, Sir Robert 48 Robinson, William Heath 45 Robots: see Rockets 45 Rockefeller Foundation: see Socie¬ ties and Associations Chicago, University of, 181c; Hos¬ pitals 359c Rockets: see Jet Propulsion; Muni¬ tions of War 49, 48, 47. See Power Engineering 46. See Rockets 45 Meteorology 456c; Photography 564c; Physics 567b; Purdue Univer¬ sity 601a; Words and Meanings, New 772b Rodriguez, Jose Marie Caro 46 Rodriquez, Manuel: see Obituaries 48 Roentgen Ray: see X-Ray and Radiology 49, 48, 47. See Radi¬ ology 46, 45 Roerich, Nikolai Konstantinovich: see Obituaries 48 Rokossovsky, Konstantin 46, 45 Rolland, Romain 45 Roman Catholic Church Catholic Organizations for Youth 163d; Catholic University of America 164b; Catholic Welfare Conference, National 164c; Church Membership 191d; Education 254d; Newspapers and Magazines 312a; Pius XII 571a; Religion 618d; Societies 654d; So¬ dality of Our Lady 657d; Vatican City State 742b Rome 49, 45 Rommel, Erwin 45 Roosevelt, Anna Eleanor 48, 47 Roosevelt, Edith Kermit C. 533b Roosevelt, Franklin D. 46, 45 American Literature 46d; National Parks and Monuments 497c Roosevelt, Quentin 533c Roosevelt, Theodore, Jr. 45 Roques, Emile 46 Rose, Maurice 46 Rosenberg, Alfred 47 Rosenthal, Moriz 47 Rosenwald Fund, The Julius: see Societies and Associations Rossi, Angelo Joseph 533c Rotary International: see Societies and Associations Rothenstein, Sir William 46 Rothschild, Henri de: see Obituaries 48 Rowing Olympic Games 542b Roxas y Acuna, Manuel 48, 47 Obituaries 533c; Philippines 562b Royal, Forrest 46 Royall, Kenneth Claiborne 49, 48 Ruanda and Urundi: see Trustee Territories 49, 48. See Belgian Colonial Empire 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Mandates 47, 46, 45 Rubber Chemurgy 178d; Employment 270d; International Trade 390a; Law 418b; Munitions of War 486b; Plastics Industry 572d; RFC 614b; Shoe In¬ dustry 644d; Talc 682d; Wages and Hours 755d Ruffini, Ernesto 46 Rugby: see Football Ruhr: see Saar 48, 47, See Rhineland 46 Ruhr, International Control of: see European Recovery Program 49 Germany 333a; Great Britain 342c; U.S.S.R. 714b; U.S. 728b Rulers: see Presidents, Sovereigns and Rulers Rumania Australia 83c; Birth Statistics 120b; Bulgaria 144d; Canals and Inland Waterways 160a; Copyright 216c; Danube, Conference for Control of, 230d; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Eastern Orthodox Churches 252a; Education 257a; Foreign Investments 312c; Hungary 364c; Navies of the World 498c; Railroads 611b; Refugees 617b; Tele¬ phone 690b; Turkey 712a; U.S.S.R. 714a; Veterans’ Organizations 750c; Yugoslavia 779d Rundstedt, Karl R. G. von 46, 45 Running: see Track and Field Sports Runyon, (Alfred) Damon 47 Rupertus, William Henry 46 Rural Electrification Agriculture 29c; Co-operatives 216a Rural Rehabilitation Loans: see Farmers Home Administration 49, 48, 47. See Farm Security Administration 46, 45 Rushbrooke, James Henry: see Obitu¬ aries 48 Russell Sage Foundation: see So¬ cieties and Associations Russia: see Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Russian Literature Ruth. George Herman: Baseball 105a; Obituaries S33d

Ruthenia: see Carpatho-Ukraine 46. See Ruthenia 45 Rutin: Chemurgy 179b; Medicine 453b Ryan, James Hugh: see Obituaries 48 Ryan, Tommy 533d Rye Food Research 304b; Food Supply of the World 305b Saar 48, 47, 46 Sabotage: see Federal Bureau of Investigation 47, 46, 45 Safety: see Accidents Red Cross 615b St. Christopher: see Leeward Is¬ lands St. Croix: see Virgin Islands Saint Exupery, Antoine de 45 St. Helena and Ascension Islands 49. See British Empire 48. See British West Africa 47, 46, 45 St. John: see Virgin Islands St. Kitts-Nevis: see Leeward Islands St. Laurent, Louis Stephen 49 St. Louis St. Lucia: see Windward Islands St. Pierre and Miquelon: see French Overseas Territories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 St. Thomas: see Virgin Islands St. Vincent: see Windward Islands Salazar, Antonio de O., 46, 45 Sales, Retail and Wholesale: see Business Review Saliege, Jules-Geraud 46 Salisbury, James E. H. Gascoyne-Cecil: see Obituaries 48 Salotti, Carlo: see Obituaries 48 Salt Mineral and Metal Production 467d Salten, Felix 46 Salvador, El Camp Fire Girls 153c; Coinage 201a; Debt, National 234d; Guatemala 348c; I.L.O. 384c; Music 491b; Nic¬ aragua 516a; Soil Erosion 659a; Tariffs 683c; U.S. 729b Salvage Drives, U.S. 45 Salvation Army Church Membership 191d Samoa, American Samoa, Western: see New Zealand, Dominion of; Pacific Islands un¬ der Trusteeship; Trustee Terri¬ tories 49, 48. See Mandates; Paci¬ fic Islands, Mandated 47, 46, 45 Sanatescu, Constantin: see Obituaries 48 Sand and Gravel Sandstone: see Stone Sandstroem, Alfred Emil F. 48 San Francisco San Francisco Conference: see United Nations Conference on International Organization 46 Sankey. John Sankey 534a San Marino Santo Domingo: see Dominican Re¬ public S3o Tom6: see Portuguese Colonial Empire Sapieha, Adam Stefan 46 Saracoglu, Shukru 45 Sarawak: see British Borneo 49. See North Borneo 48. See Borneo 47, 46. See British Empire 45 Saskatchewan Sastri, V. S. Srinivasa 47 Sauckel, Fritz 47 Saudi Arabia: see Arabia Foreign Investments 311a; Religion 619b; Trans-Jordan 705b; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b Savings and Loan Insurance Cor¬ poration, Federal: see Housing Savings Banks: see Banking Sawyer, Charles 49 Schacht, Hjalmer 47 Schirach, Baldur von 47 Schuman, Robert 49, 48 France 316b Schwellenbach, Lewis Baxter 48, 47, 46 Obituaries 534a Schwimmer, Rosika 534a Scientific Research and Develop¬ ment, Office of, 46, 45 Scotland: see Great Britain &. Northern Ireland, United King¬ dom of Scott, William Berryman: see Obitu¬ aries 48 Scrap: see Secondary Metals 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Salvage Drives, U.S. 45 Sculpture Art Exhibitions 75c Sea bees 46, 45 Seabrook, William Buehler 46 SEC: see Securities and Exchange Commission Secondary Education: see Educa¬ tion Secondary Metals Secret Service, U.S. Securities: see Stocks and Bonds Securities and Exchange Commis¬ sion FTC 293d Sedition: see Federal Bureau of Investigation 45 Seeing Eye, The Seiberling, Charles Willard 47

Seismology Antarctica 53c; Coast and Geodetic Survey 198d Selective Service: see Armies of the World; Law; Pacifism; United States 49. See Selective Service 48, 47, 46, 45 National Guard 495b; Veterans' Organizations 750a Selenium Mineral and Metal Production 468a Selfridge, Harry Gordon: see Obitu¬ aries 48 Senate: see Congress,^United States; Elections Senegal: see French Overseas Terri¬ tories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Serbia: see Yugoslavia Seredi, Justinian George 46 Sergei 45 Serum Therapy: see Medicine 48, 47, 46, 45 Seventh-day Adventists 49, 48, 47, 46 Church Membership 191c Sewage; see Public Health Engi¬ neering Seychelles 49. See British East Afri¬ ca 48, 47, 46, 45 Seyss-Inquart, Arthur 47 Sforza, Carlo 45 Shaposhnikov, B.M. 46 Sharpening Stones: see Abrasives Sheehan, Winfield R. 46 Sheep Agriculture 27d; Food Supply of the World 306d; Leather 423a; Live¬ stock 433c; Meat 451c; Pneumonia 575b; Shows, Animal 645b; Veteri¬ nary Medicine 751b; Wool 771b Sheldon, Edward Brewster 47 Shertok, Moshe 49 Shidehara, Kijuro 47, 46 Shigemitsu, Mamoru 46 Shimada, Shigetaro 45 Shinwell, Emanuel 48, 46 Shipbuilding Shipping, Merchant Marine 643b; Strikes 673b; Wages and Hours 756b Shipping, Merchant Marine Coast Guard, U.S. 199a; Disasters 246a; Insurance 380b; Rivers and Harbours 624b; Shipbuilding 641d; U.N. 722c Shipping Administration, War: see War Shipping Administration 47, 46, 45 Shmoo 773c Shoe Industry Leather 423a Shoran: see Electronics; Radio 48 Shows, Animal Cattle 165c Shvernik, Nikolai M. 47 Siam 49, 48, 47, 46. See Thailand 45 Debt, National 234d; Food Supply of the World 307d; International Bank 38Id; International Trade 392c; Ir¬ rigation 399b; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Narcotics and Nar¬ cotic Traffic 493a; Navies of the World 498c; Tin 701a; Tungsten 710b; U.S. 729b Sierra Leone: see British West Afri¬ ca Diamonds 244a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Spices 667b Silesia 46 Public Utilities 600a Silk International Trade 390a Silver Coinage 201a; Employment 270b; Mineral and Metal Production 467d; Secondary Metals 638c Simeon 11 47 Simms, Ruth Hanna McCormick 45 Simons, Moises 46 Simpson, William H. 45 Singapore: see Malaya (Federation of) and Singapore 49. See Malayan Union and Singapore 48, 47 Sinkiang: see China 49. See Sinkiang 48, 47, 46, 45 Sjahrir, Sutan 47 Skating: see Ice Skating Skiing Olympic Games 540a Skin Diseases: see Dermatology Slate Slaughter. Marion Try 534b Slezak, Leo 47 Slim, Sir William Joseph 46 Slovakia: see Czechoslovakia 49, 48, 47. See Slovakia 46, 45 Small, John Davis 47 Smetona, Antanas 45 Smith, Alfred Emanuel 45 Smith, Sir (Charles) Aubrey 534b Smith, Ellison DuRant45 Smith. Gipsy Rodney: see Obituaries 48 Smith, Holland McTyeire 46, 45 Smith, Logan Pearsall 47 Smith, Walter Bedell 49, 48, 47 Smith College Smithsonian Institution Anthropology 54b; Archaeology S9a; National Geographic Society 494b Smyth, Dame Ethel Mary 45 Snyder, John W. 49, 48, 47, 46

Soap, Perfumery and Cosmetics , Soybeans Talc 682d; Vegetable Oils and Ani¬ Agriculture 26b; Food Research mal Fats 743b 304b; Food Supply of the World 307a; Soapstone: see Talc Paints and Varnishes 548b; Vege¬ Soccer table Oils and Animal Fats 743a; Olympic Games S42c Words and Meanings, New 772c Socialism Spaak, Paul-Henri 49, 48, 47 Political Parties, British 578b. See Belgium 112a also various countries Spaatz, Carl A. 48, 47, 46, 45 Socialist Soviet Republics; see Spain Union of Soviet Socialist Repub* Advertising 23a; Airports 34c; Ar¬ lies gentina 69a; Armies of the World Socialized Medicine: see Great Brit¬ 74b; Atomic Energy 84a; Aviation, ain; Public Health Services 49 Military 98d; Baptist Church 103d; A.M.A. 50a; Education 257d; Insur¬ Birth Statistics 120c; Bolivia 121c; ance 379c; Municipal Government Coal 196d; Death Statistics 232d; 485d; Soap, Perfumery and Cos¬ Debt, National 234d; ERP 278b; metics 649d; Socialism 650b; Social Exchange Control 284a; Fascism Security 652d 287d; Fruit 323d; Guatemala 348c; Social Security Iron and Steel 397a; Lead 422c; Budget, National 139c; Elections Mercury 456a; Mexico 462d; Mineral 262c; FS.'^ 293a; Income and Prod¬ and Metal Production 467a; Motion uct, U.S. 370d; Law 421a; Relief Pictures 475c; Navies of the World 617d; Socialism 650b; Taxation 685b. 498c; Newspapers and Magazines See also various states and countries 513a; Olympic Games 539d; Painting Social Service: see Child Welfare; 546d; Portugal 579d; Potash 582b; Relief; Social Security Radio 606b; Railroads 611b; Rivers Societies and Associations and Harbours 624d; Shipbuilding Sociology 642b; Shipping, Merchant Marine Book Publishing 122b; Child Wel¬ 644b; Spanish Literature 666b; Tele¬ fare 183b; Geography 329b; Marri¬ phone 690b; Tungsten 710b; U.N. age and Divorce 447b 718a; Wines 769d; Zinc 780c Sodality of Our Lady 49, 48, 47, 45 Spanish-Ameriean Literature Sodium Carbonate Spanish Colonial Empire Sodium Sulphate Spanish Literature Softball SPARS: see Coast Guard, U.S. 46, Soil Erosion and Soil Conservation 45 ARA 24d; Agriculture 30b; Floods Speaks, Oley 534c and Flood Control 302a; TVA 695b; Special Libraries Association: see U.S.S.R. 716b Libraries 49. See Societies and As¬ Sokolovski, Vasili D. 49 sociations 47, 46. See Special Li¬ Solar System: see Astronomy braries Association 45 Solomon Islands: see Pacific Islands Speer, Albert 47 under Trusteeship; Trustee Ter¬ Speer, Robert Elliott: see Obituaries ritories 49,48. See Pacific Islands, 48 British 49, 48, 47. See Mandates; Spellman, Francis Joseph 46 Pacific Islands, Mandated 47. See Spelman Fund of New York: see Solomon Islands 46, 45 Societies and Associations 48, 47, Somaliland, British; see British 46. See Spelman Fund of New East Africa York 45. Somaliland, French; see French Spices Overseas Territories 49, 48. See Spilsbury, Sir Bernard Henry: see French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Obituaries 48 Somaliland, Italian; see Italian Spirits: see Liquors, Alcoholic Colonial Empire Spitsbergen: see Norway 49, 48 Somervell, Brehon B. 46, 45 Sports and Games: see Angling; Soong, T. V. 46, 45 Archery; Badminton; Baseball; Soper, George Albert 534c Basketball; Billiards; Bowling; Sophoulis, Themistocles 49, 48 Boxing; Chess; Crick^; Curling; Sorghum 49, 48. See Syrup, Sorgo Cycling; Fencing; Football; Glid¬ and Cane 47, 46, 45 ing; Golf; Gymnastics; Hand¬ Agriculture 26b; Chemurgy 179a; ball; Horse Racing; Ice Hockey; Food Supply of the World 306b Ice Skating; Lacrosse; MotorSorrells, John Harvey 534c boat Racing; Polo; Rowing; Ski¬ South Africa, British: see British ing; Soccer; Softball; Squash South African Protectorates Racquets; Swimming; Table Ten¬ South Africa, The Union of nis; Tennis; Track and Field Anthropology 54c; Antimony 56a; Sports; Trap-shooting; Wres¬ Architecture 66b; Asbestos 77d; tling; Yachting Baptist Church 104a; Birth Statis¬ Betting and Gambling 117c; Book tics 120b; Boxing 126b; Business Publishing 122b; Contract Bridge Review 150a; Butter ISOd; Child 214d; Olympic Games S39d Welfare 184a; Chri stian Science 189c; Spruance, Raymond A. 46, 45 Chromite 190d; Coal 196d; Commu¬ Squash Racquets nity Chest 207d; Death Statistics Squier, John Bentley 534c 232d; Debt, National 234d; Dia¬ Stabilization Administrator, Office monds 244a; Electric Transporta¬ of: see War Mobilization and Re¬ tion 267a; Employment 271b; Es¬ conversion, Office of, 47. See tonia 276b; Exchange Control 282c; Stabilization Administrator, Of¬ Fascism 287b; Fisheries 298b; fice of, 46. See Economic Sta¬ Friends, Religious Society of, 322d; bilization, Office of, 45 Gold 338a; Horticulture 358a; Inter¬ Stainless Steel: see Metallurgy 47, national Monetary Fund 388d; In¬ 46 ternational Trade 391a; Linen and Stalin, Joseph Vissarionovich Flax 430a; Manganese 443c; Marri¬ U.S.S.R. 714a Stamp Collecting: see Philately age and Divorce 448b; Meteorology 4S8a; Mineral and Metal Produc¬ Standards, National Bureau of tion 467a; Newspapers and Maga¬ Stander, Henricus Johannes 534d zines 512c; Olympic Games 539d; Stanford University Plague 571d; Platinum 574c; Radio Libraries 426d; Music 491d 606b; Railroads 61 Id; Silver 647a; Stanley, Wendell Meredith 47 Stark, Harold R. 45 Soil Erosion 659b; Taxation 687d; Telephone 690b; Tennis 696a; Trus¬ Stars; see Astronomy Stassen, Harold E. 49, 48, 47, 46 tee Territories 708a; Tungsten 710b; Republican Party 620c; U.S. 725a U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; Wheat 766c; State, U.S. Department of: see Wines 770a Government Departments and South America: see Argentina; Bo¬ livia; Brazil; British Guiana; Bureaus State Guard: see National Guard Chile; Colombia; Ecuador; Para¬ States’ Rights Democrats: Democratic guay; Peru; Uruguay; Venezuela Party 238d; Elections 260d; Thur¬ South Australia 47, 46, 45 mond, J. S. 700d; Truman, H. S. South Carolina 706d; U.S. 72Sb; Words and Mean¬ South Dakota ings, New 773c Southern California, University of Steam Turbines: see Power Engi¬ Football 308b; Track and Field neering 46 Sports 704b Steel: see Iron and Steel Southern Rhodesia: see Rhodesia, Steelman, John Roy 47 Southern Stein, Gertrude 47 South Tirol 47, 46 Steinach, Eugen 45 South-West Africa: see Trustee Stellar System: see Astronomy Territories 49, 48. See South Stephens, William Dennison 45 Africa, The Union of, 49, 48, 47, Sterner, Albert 47 46, 45. See Mandates 47, 46, 45 Stettin 46 Furs 326a; Lithium Minerals 433a; Stettinius, E. R., Jr. 46, 45 Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Stilwell, Joseph W. 47, 46, 45 U.N. 722d; Vanadium 741c .’American Literature 47d Southwood, Julius Salter Elias 47 Stimson, Henry Lewis 46, 45 Sovereigns, Presidents and Rulers: American Literature 47d see Presidents, Sovereigns and Stirbey, Barbu 47 Rulers Stirling, W. Edward 534d Soviet Union: see Union of Soviet Stirling, Yates, Jr. 534d Socialist Republics

Stocks and Bonds Banking lOld; Debt, National 233c; Foreign Investments 311c; Insur¬ ance 379a; Post Office 581b; Rail¬ roads 608b; SEC 639b; Wealth and Income, Distribution of, 760d Stomach Disorders: see Alimentary System, Disorders of Stone, Harlan Fiske 47 Stone Employment 270c; Wages and Hours 755d Straits Settlements: see Malaya (Federation of) and Singapore See Malayan Union and Singa¬ pore 48, 47. See Straits Settle¬ ments 46, 45 Strategic Mineral Supplies 48, 47, 46, 45 RFC 614b Stratovision: FCC 290a; Radio 602d Strauss, Lewis Lichtenstein 47 Strawberries: see Fruit 49, 48, 47 Street, Julian: see Obituaries 48 Streicher, Julius 47 Streptomycin: see Chemotherapy; Medicine; Tuberculosis; Urology 49, 48, 47, 46. See Nervous System 48. See Bacteriology 47, 46. See Chemistry 46 Arthritis 76d; Bacteriology 99d; Dentistry 240c; Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of, 250b; Plague 571d Stri kes Business Review 148c; C.I.O. 211d; Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service 291b; Labour Unions 413c; Lewis, J. L. 425b; NMB 496d. See also various industries, products, cities, states, provinces and coun¬ tries Stritch, Samuel Alphonsus 46 Strong, George Veazey 47 Strontium Minerals Stuart, John Leighton 47 Stuelpnagel, Otto von S35a Subasitch, Ivan 45 Submarine Warfare 46, 45 Subsidies: see Agriculture Gold 337d; Prices 587a Subtilin 23c Sudan: see French Overseas Terri¬ tories 49, 48. See Anglo-Egyptian Sudan 49, 48, 47, 46, See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Suetsugu, Nobumasa 45 Suez Canal: see Canals and Inland Waterways 49 Sugar AR.\ 24d; .Agriculture 26a; Chem¬ urgy 178d; Food Supply'of the World 305b; International Trade 390a; Maple Products 444b; Soil Erosion 659a Suicide Statistics Sulfonamide Drugs: see Bacteri¬ ology; Medicine; Urology 45 Arthritis 77a; Chemotherapy 178a; Leprosy 424b; Medicine 4S5a; Words and Meanings, New 773c Sullivan, John Lawrence 49, 48 Sulphur Mineral and Metal Production 467d Sultan, Daniel Isom; see Obituaries 48 Sumatra: see Netherlands Indies Summerville, George J. 47 Sumner, James Batcheller 47 Sunday Schools Superphosphates Support Prices: see Agriculture Paints and Varnishes 548b; U.S. 726d; Wool 771d Supreme Court of the U.S. Civil Service 194d; Drug Adminis¬ tration, U.S. 248d; Economics 252b; International Law 386b; Law 416a; Motion Pictures 475d; Negroes, American 501c Surgery Cancer 160c; Deafness 231c; Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of, 250d; Eye, Diseases of. 285c; Gynaecology and Obstetrics 349b; Insurance 379d; Medicine 453a; Nervous System 503b; Psychiatry 592a; Psychoso¬ matic Medicine 594d; Societies 653d; Urology 739b; Words and Meanings, New 773c Surinam Bauxite 110b; Curacao 223a; Mineral and Metal Production 467a Surplus Property Disposal 48, 47, 46, 45 Suzuki, Kantaro 46 Obituaries 535a Svinhufud, Pehr Eyvind 45 Swains Island: see Samoa, Ameri¬ can 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Pacific Islands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Swann, Sir Oliver S35b Swaziland: see British South Afri¬ can Protectorates Asbestos 77d Sweden Aliens 39c; Architecture 64d; Armies of the World 71c; Arsenic 75b; Atomic Energy 83d; Aviation. Civil 91b; .Aviation, Military 99a; Baptist Church 104a; Birth Control il9c; Birth Statistics 120c; Cartography 162d; Contract Bridge 215c; Cycling

INDEX

807

224a; Dance 229d; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Democ¬ racy 236c; Denmark 240a; Electrical Industries 265a; Electric Transpor¬ tation 266d; Employment 271b; ERP 279b; Exchange Control 283b; Feld¬ spar 295b; Germany 334d; Gliding 337b; Hospitals 359c; Housing 362d; Hungary 364c; Iceland 366c; Infant Mortality 378a; International Trade 391a; Iron and Steel 397b; Jet Pro¬ pulsion 407c; Lumber 437c; Marine Biology 446a; Marriage and Divorce 446d; Meteorology 458a; Mexico 462d; Mineral Production 467a; Mo¬ tion Pictures 480d; Museums 489c; Music 490a; Navies of the World 498c; Norway 520a; Olympic Games 539d; Photography 565a; Prices 587c; Sculpture 638b; Shipbuilding 641d; Shipping, Merchant Marine 644b; Skiing 647c; Soccer 649d; So¬ cialism 650c; Telephone 690b; Town and Regional Planning 703d; Turkey 712a; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b; Wages and Hours 756d; Wealth and In¬ come, Distribution of, 762d; Western European Union 764c; A’achting 776b Sweet Potatoes: see Potatoes Swimming Olympic Games 540c Switzerland Aliens 39c; Aluminum 41c; Architec¬ ture 64c; Aviation, Military 98d; Birth Statistics 120c; Business Re¬ view 149a; Child Welfare 183c; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Electrical Industries 264d; Electric Transportation 266d; Em¬ ployment 271c; ERP 278d; Exchange Control 280d; Foreign Investments 312c; Geography 329a; Gliding 337b; Hungary 364c; Infant Mortality . 378a; International Law 388b; Inter¬ national Trade 391c; Jet Propulsion 407c; Medicine 455b; Music 490a; Olympic Games 539d; Pneumonia 575d; Presbyterian Church 584b; Radio 606b; Railroads 611a; Roads 626b; Silk 646c; Telephone 690b; Town and Regional Planning 703d; Wages and Hours 756d; Wines 770a Symington, William S. 49, 48, 46 Symons, Arthur 46 Symphony Orchestras: see M usic Synthetic Products: see Agricul¬ tural Research Administration 49, 48, 47. See Plastics Industry; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fi¬ bres; Rubber; Standards, Nation¬ al Bureau of 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Chemistry -48, 47, 46, 45. See Petroleum 46, 45 Minerology 468d; Nitrogen, Chemi¬ cal 516d; Paints and Varnishes 548b Syphilis: see Venereal Diseases 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Medicine 47, 46, 45 Syracuse University 49 Rowing 629a Syria Armies of the World 74d; Coinage 201a; Exchange Control 284c; Inter¬ national Trade 392a; Irrigation 399b; Lebanon 423d; Palestine 550c; Sun¬ day Schools 67Sd; U.N. 717c Syrup, Sorgo and Cane Maple Products 444b; Sugar 674d Szold, Henrietta 46 Table Tennis Taft, Robert Alphonso 49, 48 U.S. 724b Taft-Hartley Act: see Labour Uni¬ ons; Law; National Labor Rela¬ tions Board; United States 49, 48 A.F. of L. 45b; C.I.O.’212a; Demo¬ cratic Party 238c; Elections 262c; Newspapers and Magazines 509a Tahiti: see French Overseas Terri¬ tories 49. See Pacific Islands, French 48, 47, 46, 45 Tal Li 47 Taiwan: see Formosa Talc Talmadge, Eugene 47 Tanganyika: see Trustee Territories 49, 48. See British East Africa 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Mandates 47, 46, 45 Diamonds 244a; Plague 571d; Rail¬ roads 611c; U.N. 718d Tangerines: see Fruit Tangier 49, 48 Tanguay, Eva: see Obituaries 48 Tanks, Military: see Munitions of War 47, 46, 45. See World War 11 46, 45 Munitions of War 486b Tarbell, Ida Minerva 45 Tardieu, Andre Pierre G. A. 46 Tariffs International Trade 389c; U.N. 72Id Tarkington, (Newton) Booth 47 Tasmania 47, 46, 45 Meteorology 458a Tassigny, Jean de Lattre de 45

808

INDEX

Armies of the World 71b; Western European Union 764b Tauber, Richard 535b Taussig, Charles William 535c Taxation Automobile Industry 89b; Brewing and Beer 129c; Budget, National 139a; Business Review 146c; Demo¬ cratic Party 238b; Furs 326b; Hotels 359d; Income and Product, U.S. 371a; Law 416b; Liquors, Alcoholic 431a; Municipal Government 484a; Stocks and Bonds 670c; Wool 772a. See also various cities, states and countries Taylor, Laurette 47 Tea Technicolor: see Motion Pictures Tedder, Sir Arthur W. 46, 46 Telegraphy Building and Construction Industry 142b; Employment 270b; FCC 290b; Wages and Hours 755d Telephone Building and Construction Industry 142b; Electronics 267b; Employment 270b; FCC 290b; Munitions of War 486c; Plastics Industry 574b; Wages and Hours 755d. See also various states, provinces and countries Teleran: see Munitions of War; Radio 48 Telescopes 49, 48, 47 Astronomy 78d; Electronics 267d; Words and Meanings, New 772c Television Advertising 20b; Boxing 125b; FCC 290a; Motion Pictures 478a; Music 489d; Radio 602b; Telegraphy 689b; Telephone 69 Ic; Words and Meanings, New 772b Tello, Julio Cesar: see Obituaries 48 Tellurium Mineral and Metal Production 468a Temperance League of America: see Societies and Associations 49 Tempie, William 45 Temporary Controls, Office of: see Price Administration, Office of 48, 47. See Civilian Production Administration 47 Tennessee Tennessee Valley Authority Libraries 427a; Public Utilities 599a Tennis Termites: see Entomology 46, 45 Teropterin 454a Teschen 46 Texas Texas, University of Football 308c; Track and Field Sports 704c Textile Industry Clothing Industry 196a; Cotton 218d; Dyestuffs 2S0a; Employment 270c; Interior Decoration 381a; In¬ ternational Trade 390a; Linen and Flax 429c; Prices 585a; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres 612b; Silk 646c; Strikes 673b; Wages and Hours 755d; Wool 771c Thaelmann, Ernst 45 Thailand: see Siam Theatre Literary Prizes 432b; Societies 656a; Television 692c Theatre Library Association: see Societies and Associations Thephorin 40d Therapy: see Medical Rehabilita¬ tion of the Disabled 49, 48, 47. See Chemotherapy 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Medicine; Physical Medi¬ cine and Occupational Therapy for the Wounded 46, 45. See also various diseases and medical sciences Thoma, Ritter Wilhelm von 535c Throat: see Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of Thurmond, James Strom 49 Elections 260d; Newspapers and Magazines 509a; U.S. 725b Thyroid: see Endocrinology Tibet Tien, Thomas 46 Tildy, Zoltan 48 Hungary 363d Timber: see Lumber Timor: see PortugueseColonia i Em¬ pire 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Nether¬ lands Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Tin Canning Industry 162a; Coinage 201a; Mineral and Metal Production 467d; RFC 614b; Secondary Metals 638c Tinker, Joseph B. 535c Tires: see Rubber Tiselius, Arne 49 Tiso, Josef: see Obituaries 48 Titanium Chemistry 173d; Foreign Invest¬ ments 311b; Mineral and Metal Production 468a Tito; see Brozovich or Broz, Josip Tobacco Agriculture 26a; Employment 270d;

International Trade 390a; Wages and Hours 755d Tobago: see Trinidad 49, 48, 47. See West Indies, British 46, 45 Tobin, Maurice Joseph 49 Togoiand: see French Overseas Ter¬ ritories; Trustee Territories 49, 48. See British West Africa 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See French Colonial Empire; Mandates 47, 46, 45 Tojo, Hideki 46, 45 Hirohito 353c; Obituaries 535d; War Crimes 758b Tokyo 48, 47, 46, 45 Tolbukhin, Fedor 45 Tolman, Richard Chace 536a Tomatoes Entomology 274a; Vegetables 743d Tongan Island Protectorate: see Pacific Isiands, British Tongking: see French Overseas Ter¬ ritories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Tornadoes: see Disasters Toronto Toronto, University of, 49, 48, 47 Football 310a; Ice Hockey 366a Torpedoes: see Munitions of War 49, 48, 47, 46, 45. See Navies of the World 47, 46, 45. See Submarine Warfare 46, 45 Totalitarian State: see Commun¬ ism; Fascism; Spain; U.S.S.R. 49, 48, 47, 46, See Germany 47, 46, 45 Towers, John H. 46, 45 Town and Regional Planning Great Britain 343d; Lavf 42 Id; Municipal Government 48Sd. See also various cities Toyama, Mitsuru 45 Track and Field Sports Olympic Games 540a Trade Agreements: see Internation¬ al Trade; Tariffs Trade Commission, Federal: see Federal Trade Commission Trade Unions: see Labour Unions Traffic Accidents: see Accidents Traiiers 47, 45 Train, Arthur 46 Train of Gratitude 773d Transitor: see Electronics; Tele¬ phone 49 Words and Meanings, New 773d Trans-Jordan Arabia 58a; Armies of the World 74d; Exchange Control 282d; Palestine 550c; U.N. 717c Transportation: see Aviation, Civil; Electric Transportation; Motor Transportation; Railroads Business Review 148c; Income and Product, U.S. 371b; Labour Unions 413c; Shipping, Merchant Marine 642d; Strikes 673b; Town and Re¬ gional Planning 703d; Wages and Hours 755d. See also various coun¬ tries Trap-shooting Treason: see Federal Bureau of In¬ vestigation 49, 48, 47, 46 Treasury, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments and Bureaus Tresidder, Donald B. 536a Trichinosis: see Public Health Engi¬ neering 49 Trieste, The Free Territory of, 49, 48, 47, 46 American Citizens Abroad 43c; Ar¬ mies of the World 72c; ERP 279b; Italy 401d; Rivers and Flarbours 625a; U.N. 718b Trinidad and Tobago Leeward Islands 424b; Olympic Games 539d; Petroleum 560d; Tele¬ phone 690a Tripartite Conference at Berlin: see Berlin Conference 46 Tripoli: see Abrasives Trolley Coaches: see Electric Trans¬ portation Troubetzkoy, Amelie Rives 46 Trucial Sheikhs: see Arabia Truck Crops: see Vegetables Trucks: see Automobile Industry; Motor Transportation Truman, Harry S. Budget, National 138d; Business Review 146c; China 188b; Civil Lib¬ erties 193b; C.I.O. 211d; Debt, National 233b; Democratic Party 237d; Education 253b; Elections 260d; ERP 278a; Housing 360b; Labour Unions 413c; Negroes, Amer¬ ican 501c; Newspapers and Maga¬ zines 509a; Prices 586d; Public Opinion Surveys 597d; Radio 604c; Railroads 608d; Republican Party 620c; Taxation 684a; U.S. 723d; Western European Union 764c; Words and Meanings, New 773d. See also under various states Truman, Martha Elian: xec Obituaries 48 Truman Doctrine: see Greece; Tur¬ key; United States 48 Trustee Territories 49, 48 Anthropology S4a; International Law 387d; Pacific Islands under Trusteeship 545c; South Africa,

Union of, 661d; U.N. 717d Tsaldaris, Constantin 48, 47 Tsolakoglou, George 536a Tuberculosis Bacteriology 99c; Child Welfare 183c; Death Statistics 232c; Ear, Nose and Throat, Diseases of, 250b; Medicine 4S3a; Red Cross 615d; U.N. 722c; Urology 739a; X-Ray and Radiology 775d Tulane University 49, 48, 47 Football 308b Tully, James (Jim): see Obituaries 48 Tung Oil: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 48, 47, 46, 45 Tungsten Mineral and Metal Production 467d Tunisia: see French Overseas Terri¬ tories 49, 48. See French Colonial Empire 47, 46, 45 Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Phosphates 564a; Telephone 690b; Wines 770a Tunnels Aqueducts 57b Turbojets and Turboprops: see Jet Propulsion 49, 48, 47 Turkestan, Chinese: see China 49. See Sinkiang 48, 47, 46, 45 Turkey Anthropology 55b; Archaeology 62b; Armies of the World 74c; Cartog¬ raphy 163c; Child Labour 182a; Chromite 190d; Cotton 219c; Debt, National 234d; ERP 278b; Floods and Flood Control 301d; Interna¬ tional Monetary Fund 388d; Inter¬ national Trade 391c; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Music 490a; Navies of the World 498c; Olympic Games S39d; Palestine 552c; Pneu¬ monia 575d; Roads 626b; Spices 667b; Taxation 688c; Telephone 690b; U.N. 717c; U.S. 724b Turkeys: see Poultry Turner, Richmond Kelly 46, 45 TVA: see Tennessee Valley Author¬ ity Twentieth Century Fund; see So¬ cieties and Associations Typhoid Fever: see Public Health Engineering 49 Bacteriology 99d U-Boats: xee Submarine Warfare 46, 45 Uganda: see British East Africa Cotton 219c; Floods and Flood Con¬ trol 302a; Railroads 611c; Trustee Territories 708a Ukraine 47, 46 Ulcer: see Alimentary System, Dis¬ orders of, 49, 48 Ultrafax 602c Umezu, Yoshijiro 46, 45 Un-American Activities Committee: Atomic Energy 83b; Chambers, W. 171d; Civil Liberties 193b; Hiss, A. 353d; Lilienthal, David E. 429b; Mo¬ tion Pictures 475d; U.S. 723d Undulant fever; see Brucellosis Unemployment: see Census Data, U.S.; Employment Unemployment Insurance: see Vet¬ erans’ Administration 49 , 48, 47. See Social Security 49, 48, 47, 46, 45 Unemployment Relief: see Relief U.N.E.S.C.O. (United Nations Edu¬ cational, Scientific and Cultural Organization): see United Nations 49, 48 Museums 489c; Psychology 594a Unfederated Malay States: see Ma¬ laya (Federation of) and Singa¬ pore 49. See Malayan Union and Singapore 48, 47. See Unfederated Malay States 46, 45 Union of American Republics: see International Conference of American States 49 Union of South Africa: see South Africa, The Union of Union of Soviet Socialist Republics Agriculture 28a; Albania 36d; AntiSemitism 56c; Argentina 69a; Armies of the World 70d; Atomic Energy 79d; Austria 86c; Aviation, Civil 91b; Aviation, Military 96d; Bauxite 110b; Berlin 114b; Bulgaria 144d; Canada 157b; Canals and Inland Waterways 160a; Cartography 163a; Chess 179c; Chile 186b; China 187a; Christian Unity 190a; Civil Liberties 194b; Coal 196d; Communism 206a; Cotton 219d; Czechoslovakia 226b; Dams 227b; Dance 230a; Danube, Conference for Control of, 230d; Debt, National 234d; Democracy 236d; Democratic Party 238b; Den¬ mark 239c; Eastern Orthodox Churches 251c; Education 2S6b; Egypt 258d; Electrical Industries 264d; Electric Transportation 267a; Estonia 276a; ERP 279d; Finland 297a; Fisheries 298b; Flour 303b; Food Supply of the World 307d; Forests 314b; France 316d; Friends, Religious Society of, 323a; Furs 326a; Germany 332c; Gold 338a; Great Britain 342b; Hungary 363d; Iceland 366c; International Law 385b; International Trade389d; Iran

395b; Iron and Steel 397c; Italian Colonial Empire 400b; Italy 401d; Japan 404c; Jet Propulsion 407b; Kidnapping 411a; Korea 411d; La¬ bour Unions 414a; Latvia 41Sd; Lead 422c; Linen and Flax 430a; Lithuania 433b; Lumber 437d; Manganese 443c; Mineral Production 467a; Mongolian People’s Republic 472d; Motion Pic¬ tures 475c; Munitions of War 488a; Music 491b; Navies of World 498b; Netherlands Indies 505a; Nickel 516b; Norway 519c; Pacific Islands under Trusteeship 545d; Palestine S52a; Petroleum 560b; Platinum 574c; Poland 576c; Political Parties, British 578b; Prisoners of War 589c; Radio 606b; Religion 618c; Repara¬ tions 619d; Rivers and Harbours 624d; Roman Catholic Church 626d; Rubber 630a; Rumania 631c; Russian Literature 632d; Seismology 640c; Shipbuilding 641d; Siam 646b; Soil Erosion 660a; Sugar 675a; Sweden 679a; Taxation 688d; Trieste, 706b; Turkey 712a; U.N. 717b; U.S. 727d; Uruguay 739d; \Vallace, H. A. 757b; War Crimes 757c; Western European Union 763b; W’heat 766c; Wool 771c; World Federation of Trade Unions 774c; Yugoslavia 779a Unitarian Church Church Membership 191b United Church of Canada United Kingdom: see Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of United Nations (U.N.) A.F. of L. 45a; Armies of the World 70d; Atomic Energy 79d; Benton, W. 114a; Building and (Construction Industry 143a; Civil Liberties 194b; Copyright 216c; Democracy 237b; Education 253a; Food Supply of the World 305a; Illiteracy 368d; Inter¬ national Court of Justice 384a; In¬ ternational Law 385b; Libraries 426c; Lie, T. 429a; Motion Pictures 476c; Music 490d; Narcotics and Narcotic Traffic 492d; Newspapers and Magazines 509a; Philosophy 563b; Public Utilities 600a; Red Cross 615d; Refugees 616a; Religion 619a; Rivers and Harbours 625a; Roads 626a; Social Security 651c; Soil Erosion 658a; Trustee Territories 707d; Unitarian Church 716d; World Federation of Trade Unions 774c; Y.M.C.A. 778a. See also various countries United Nations Conference on In¬ ternational Organization 46 United Nations Information Or¬ ganization 46, 45 United Nations Monetary and Financial Program: see Interna¬ tional Bank for Reconstruction and Development; International Monetary Fund 47. See United Nations Monetary and Financial Program 46 United Nations Public Information Services 47 United Nations Relief and Re¬ habilitation Administration 48, 47, 46, 45 Child Welfare 183b United Nations War Crimes Com¬ mission: see War Crimes 49, 48, 47. See United Nations War Crimes Commission 46, 45 United Service Organizations 47, 46, 45 Jewish Welfare Board, National 408d; Y.M.C.A. 778a United States Abrasives 17b; Accidents 18a; Ad¬ vertising 20b; Afghanistan 23b; ARA 23b; Agriculture 24d; Aircraft Manufacture 31a; Airports 33b; Air Races and Records 34c; Albania 36d; Alcohol, Industrial 37c; Alfalfa 38b; Aliens 38c; Aluminum 41c; Am¬ bassadors and Envoys 41d; Ameri¬ can Citizens Abroad 42c; American Dental Association 44a; A.F. of L. 44c; American Legion 45b; A.L.A. 45d; American Literature 46d; A.M.A. 49c; Angling 5 Id; .Antarctica 53b; Anthropology 54a; Antimony 55d; Anti-Semitism 56b; Aqueducts 56d; Arabia 57d; Archaeology 58b; Arch¬ ery 63b; Architecture 63c; Archives, National 66c; -Argentina 68d; Armies of the World 70d; Arsenic 75b; Art Exhibitions 75b; Art Sales 77b; As¬ bestos 77d; Asphalt 78a; Astronomy 78d; Atomic Energy 79c; Austria 86d; Automobile Industry 87b; Automo¬ bile Racing 90b; Aviation, Civil 90d; Aviation, Military 94a; Bacon 99c; Bacteriology 99c; Badminton 100b; Banking 101c; Bank of England 103c; Baptist Church 103d; Barium Minerals 104b; Barley 104d; Base¬ ball lOSa; Basketball 109c; Bauxite 110b; Beans, Dry 110c; Beekeeping llOd; Bentonite 114a; Berlin 114b; Beryllium 117b; Bettingand (Gambling 117c; Billiards 118b; Birth Control 119c; Birth Statistics 120a: Bismuth 121a; Bolivia 121c; Book-Collecting

12 Id; Book Publishing 122a; Boron Minerals 123b; Botany 123d; Bowl¬ ing 124d; Boxing 124d; Boy Scouts 126c; Brazil 128c; Bread and Bakery Products 129a; Brewing and Beer 129c; Bridges 130b; Bromine 137d; Broomcorn 138a; Buckwheat 138d; Budget, National 138d; Building and Construction Industryl41b; Business Review 146a; Butter ISOd; Cabinet Members ISOd; Cadmium ISla; Camp Fire Girls 153c; Canada 154d; Canals and Inland Waterways 159a; Candy 161a; Canning Industry 161d; Car¬ bon Black 162b; Cartography 162c; Catholic Organizations for Youth 163d; Catholic Welfare Conference, National 164c; Cattle 165a; Cement 165c; Census Data 165d; Chamber of Commerce 172a; Cheese 173a; Chemurg>' 178d; Chess 179c; Child Labour 181c; Children’s Books 182b; Child Welfare 183c; Chile 186c; China 188b; Christian Science 189c; Christian Unity 190b; Chromite 190d; Church Membership 191b; CAA 192c; Civil Liberties 193b; Civil Service 194b; Clays 195c; Cloth¬ ing Industry 196b; Coal 196d; Coast and Geodetic Survey 198c; Coast Guard, U.S. 198d; Cobalt 200b; Cocoa 200c; Coconuts 200c; Coffee 200c; Coinage 200d; Coke 201b; Columbium 204c; Csmmission on Organization of theExecutiveBranch of the Government 204d; C.E.D. 205b; Communism 206d; Community Chest 207d; Community Trusts 208a; Congregational Christian Churches 208b; Congress, U.S. 208c; C. I.O. 21 Id; Consumer Credit 213b; Contract Bridge 214d; Co-operatives 215c; Copper 216a; Copyright 216c; Corn 216d; Cotton 219a; Crime 220b; Cryolite 221c; Cuba 222c; Curl¬ ing 223c; Cycling 224a; Dairying 226c; Dams 226d; Dance 227d; Dan¬ ube, Conference for Control of, 230d; Deafness 232a; Death Statistics 232b; Debt, National 233b; Decora¬ tions, Medals and Badges 235a; Democracy 237d; Democratic Party 237d; Denmark 239c; Diabetes 243a; Diamonds 244b; Diatomite 244b; D. A.V. 244c; Disciples of Christ 247a; Dog Racing 247b; Dominican Republic 247c; Donations and Be¬ quests 247d; Drug Administration, U.S. 248d; Dyestuffs 250a; Econo¬ mics 252a; Education 253a; Eggs 258b; Eire 260a; Elections 260d; Electrical Industries 263b; Electric Transportation 265b; Electronics 267a; Employment 270a; Entomo¬ logy 274a; Epidemics 275c; Estonia 276a; Etching 276c; Ethical Culture Movement 277b; ERP 278a; Ex¬ change Control 280d; Export-Im¬ port Bank 285a; Eye, Diseases of 285b; Falkland Islands 286a; FCA 286a; Farmers Home Administra¬ tion 286d; Fascism 287b; FBI 289b; FCC 290a; Federal Council of Churches 290c; Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation 291a; Federal Mediation and Conciliation Service 291b; FPC 291c; Federal Reserve System 292a; FSA 292d; FTC 293c; FWA 294a; Feldspar 295a; Fencing 295b; Fertilizers 295d; Finland 297c; Fires and Fire Losses 297d; Fish¬ eries 298b; Floods and Flood Control 300c; Flour 303a; Fluorspar 303d; Food Research 304a; Food Supply of the World 304d; Football 308b; Foreign Investments 310b; Forests 313b; Four-H Clubs 315a; France 316d; Fruit 323c; Fuel Briquettes 325a; Fuller’s Earth 325b; Furniture Industry 325b; Furs 325d; Gas, Na¬ tural 326b; Gem Stones 327b; Genetics 327c; Geography 328d; Geology 329c; Germany 332c; Girl Scouts 336c; Glass 337a; Gliding 337b; Gold 337c; Golf 338d; Govern¬ ment Departments and Bureaus .339d; Graphite 341b; Great Britain 342c; Greece 346a; Greenland 347b; Guatemala 348c; Gymnastics 348d; Gypsum 349d; Haiti 350c; Hand-ball 350d; Hay 352a; Heart and Heart Diseases 352c; Helium 352d; Hemp 353b; Hogs 354a; Home Economics 354c; Honduras 355d; Hops 356a; Horse Racing 356a; Horses 357b; Horticulture 357d; Hospitals 358c; HoteIs359c; Housing360a; IceCream 365d; Ice Hockey 365d; Iceland 366b; Ice Skating 366d; Illiteracy 369a; Im¬ migration and Emigration 369c; In¬ come and Product, U.S. 370c; In¬ dians, American 375b; Industrial Health 375d; Infantile Paralysis 376d; Infant Mortality 377d; Insur¬ ance 378d; International Bank 381c; International 'Conference of Amer¬ ican States 382b; International Law 386b; International Monetary Fund 388d; International Trade 389b; ICC 392d; Intoxication, Alcoholic 393c; Iodine 394a; Iron and Steel 397a; Ir¬ rigation 398c; Italian Colonial Em¬

pire 400b; Italy 401d; Japan 404d; Jet Propulsion 406d; Jewish Religi¬ ous Life 408c; Jewish Welfare Board, National 408d; Jute 409d; Juvenile Delinquency 409d; Kidnapping 411a; Korea 41 Id; Kyanite Minerals 413a; Labour Unions 413b; Lacrosse 415b; Lard 415b; Latvia 415d; Law 416a; Lead 422d; Leather 422d; Leprosy 424d; Lettuce 425a; Liberia 426b; Libraries 426c; Lime 429c; Linen and Flax 430a; Liquors, Alcoholic 430c; Literary Prizes 431d; Lithium Min¬ erals 433a; Lithuania 433b; Live¬ stock 433c; Lumber 436d; Lutherans 438a; Lynching 438c; Machinery and Machine Tools 439c; Magnesium 440d; Magnesium Compounds 441a; Manganese 443c; Maple Products 444b; Margarine 444c; Marine Biol¬ ogy 445b; Marine Corps 446b; Mar¬ riage and Divorce 446d; Mathematics 450d; Meat 451c; Medical Rehabili¬ tation of the Disabled 452b; Medi¬ cine 453a; Mercury 455d; Meteor¬ ology 4S6d; Methodist Church 461b; Mexico 463a; Mica 463d; Military Academy, U.S. 466a; Milk 466a; Mineral and Metal Production 466d; Missions, Foreign 470a; Molybdenum 472a; Monazite472c; Mongolian Peo¬ ple’s Republic 472d; Mormons 474c; Motion Pictures 475b; Motor-Boat Racing 481b; Motor Transportation 481c; Municipal Government 483d; Munitions of War 486a; Museums 488c; Music 489d; National Associa¬ tion of Evangelicals 493b; N.E.A. 494a; National Geographic Society 494b; National Guard 495a; NLRB 495c; National Mediation (Board 496c; National Parks and Monu¬ ments 497a; Naval Academy, U.S. 497d; Navies of the World 498b; Negroes, American 501c; Nether¬ lands Indies SOSa; Newspapers and Magazines 508d; Nicaragua 515d; Nickel 516b; Nitrogen, Chemicals 516c; Norway 519c; Nuts 520d; Oats 521b; Olympic Games 539d; Osteo¬ pathy S44a; Pacific Islands under Trusteeship 545c; Pacifism S46a; Painting 546d; Paints and Varnishes 548a; Palestine 551b; Panama 553a; Paper and Pulp Industry 554a; Par¬ aguay 555a; P.T.A. 555b; Patents 556c; Peanuts 557b; Peat S57d; Phi¬ lately 561d; Philippines 562c; Philos¬ ophy 563b; Phosphates 564a; Photo¬ graphy 564a; Pius XII 571c; Plastics Industry 572c; Platinum 574c; Pneu¬ monia S74d; Poland 576d; Police 577b; Polo S79b; Popcorn 579c; Post Office 580c; Potash 582b; Potatoes 582c; Poultry 583b; Presbyterian Church S83d; Prices 585a; Printing 588b; Printing Office, U.S. Govern¬ ment 589a; Prisoners of War 589d; Prisons 590a; Protestant Episcopal Church 590d; Public Health Engi¬ neering 595a; Public Health Services 596b; Public Opinion Surveys 597d; Public Utilities 598c; Pyrite 601b; Radio 602b; Radium 607b; Railroads 607b; Rayon and Other Synthetic Fibres 612b; RFC 613c; Red Cross 614c; Refugees 616a; Relief 618b; Re¬ ligion 619a; Reparations 619d; Re¬ publican Party 620c; Rice 623b; Rivers and Harbours 623d; Roads 625b; Roman Catholic Church 626d; Rowing 628d; Rubber 630a; Rural Electrification 632a; Rye 633a; Salt 634b; Salvador, El 634d; Salvation Army 635b; Sand and Gravel 635d; San Marino 636c; Sculpture 637b; Secondary Metals 638b; Secret Serv¬ ice, U.S. 638d; SEC 639b; Seeing Eye 640b; Seismology 640c; Selenium 640d; Seventh-day Adventists 641a; Sheep 641b; Shipbuilding 641d; Ship¬ ping, Merchant Marine 642d; Shoe Industry 644c; Shows, Animal 645a; Silk 646c; Silver 647a; Skiing 647c; Slate 648a; Smithsonian Institution 648c; Soap, Perfumery and Cosmetics 649c; Soccer 649d; Socialism 650a; Social Security 651c; Societies 653b; Sociology 656d; Sodality of Our Lady 657d; Sodium Carbonate 658a; Sodi¬ um Sulphate 658a; Softball 658a; Soil Erosion 658b; Sorghum 660d; South Africa, Union of, 661d; Soybeans 663d; Spain 664b; Spices 667b; Squash Racquets 667d; Standards, National Bureau of, 668c; Stocks and Bonds 670a; Stone 672c; Strikes 672d; Strontium Minerals 674a; Sugar 674b; Suicide Statistics 675a; Sul¬ phur 675c; Sunday Schools 675d; Superphosphates 676a; Supreme Court of the U.S. 676a; Sweden 678b; Swimming 679d; Syrup, Sorgo and Cane 682a; Table Tennis 682b; Talc 682c; Tariffs 683b; Taxation 684a; Tea 688d; Telegraphy 689a; Tele¬ phone 690a; Telescopes 691c; Tele¬ vision 692a; Tellurium 694a; TVA 695a; Tennis 696a; Textile Industry 697c; Theatre 698b; Tibet 701a; Tin 701b; Titanium 701c; Tobacco 701c; Tomatoes 702c; Town and Regional

Planning 703c; Track and Field Sports 704a; Trap-shooting 705c; Trieste 706a; Tuberculosis 708b; Tungsten 710a; Tunnels 710d; Tur¬ key 712a; U.S.S.R. 713a; Unitarian Church 716d; U.N. 717b; Uranium 739a; Uruguay 739d; Vanadium 741b; Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 742d; Vegetables 743c; Venereal Dis¬ eases 744b; Venezuela 745d; Vermiculite 747a; Veterans’ Administra¬ tion 747c; Veterans of Foreign Wars 749b; Veterans’ Organizations 749d; Veterinary Medicine 750d; Voca¬ tional Rehabilitation, Office of, 754d; Wages and Hours 75Sb; War Crimes 7S7b; Wealth and Income, Distribu¬ tion of, 760d; Western European Union 764c; Wheat 765c; Wildlife Conservation 767a; Wines 769d; Wool 771b; World Federation of Trade Unions 774b; Wrestling 774d; X-Ray and Radiology 775d; Yachting 776b; Y.M.C.A. 777d; Y.W.C.A. 778c; Zinc 780c; Zirconium 780d; Zoology 781a. See also various cities, states, ter¬ ritories and possessions U.S.-Brltish War Boards: see Brit* ish-U.S. War Boards 46, 45 U.S.-Canadian War Committees: see Permanent Joint Board on Defense 48, 47. See Canadian*U.S. War Committees 46, 45 U.S. Empioyment Service 47 FSA 292d U.S. Government Departments and Bureaus: see Government De¬ partments and Bureaus. See also under specific name; i.e.. Coast Guard, U.S., etc. U.S. Investments Abroad: see For¬ eign Investments 49. See U.S. Investments Abroad 48, 47, 46, 45 U.S. Mint: see Coinage Universal military training: Budget. National 139b; Communism 206a; Hutchins, R. M. 365c; Pacifism 546a; Veterans’ Organizations 7S0a Universities and Coiieges See also individual college and uni¬ versities and various sports and games U.N.R.R.A.: see United Nations Reiief and Rehabilitation Adminis¬ tration 48, 47, 46, 45 Uranium 49, 48, 47. See Atomic Bomb; Chemistry; Metallurgy 46 Atomic Energy 84a; Biochemistry 119b Urethane 178b Urology Biochemistry 118c; Surgery 676d Uruguay Argentina 69a; Brazil 128a; Child Welfare 183c; Debt, National 234d; Exchange Control 280d; Interna¬ tional Monetary Fund 388d; Inter¬ national Trade 390d; Navies of the World 500b; Olympic Games 539d; Railroads 611d; Rowing 629c; Tariffs 683c; Telephone 690b; U.S. 729b; Wines 770a U.S.S.R.: see Union of Soviet So¬ cialist Republics Utah Utilities, Public: see Public Utilities Vafiades, Markos 49 Valentine, Lewis Joseph 47 Valery, Paul 46 Vanadium Mineral and Metal Production 468a; Uranium 739a Vandegrift, Alexander A. 46, 45 Vandenberg, Arthur H. 49, 48, 47 Vandenberg, Hoyt Sanford 49 Van Loon, Hendrik Willem 45 Van Nuys, Frederick 45 Varnishes: see Paints and Varnishes Vasconcellos Mottas, Carlo C. de 46 Vassar College Vatican City State Vatutin, Nikolai Fedorovich 45 Veal: see Meat V-E Day: see Business Review; War Manpower Commission; War Pro¬ duction, U.S.; War Production Board 46 Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats ARA 23c; Butter 150d; Coconuts 200c; Cotton 219d; Fisheries 298d; Food Supply of the World 305b; International Trade 390a; ’Lard 415b; Margarine 444c; Paints and Varnishes S48b Vegetables ARA 23c; Agriculture 26a; Canning Industry 161d; Horticulture 358b; International "Trade 390a; Lettuce 425a; Potatoes 582c; Tomatoes 702c Velez, Lupe 45 Velloso, Pedro LeSo 47 Venereal Diseases Bacteriology 99d; Child Welfare 183c; Dermatology 241c; U.N. 722c Venezuela American Citizens Abroad 43c; Avia¬ tion, Civil 92b; Birth Statistics 120c; Colombia 203a; Death Statistics 232d; Debt, National 234d; Educa¬ tion 256c; Exchange Control 281d; Fisheries 300c; Foreign Investments 311a; Illiteracy 369a; Mineral and

INDEX

809

Metal Production 467a; Panama 553a; Petroleum 560c; Refugees 616a; Socialism 650b; Telephone 690b; U.N. 717c; U.S. 729b Vermiculite Vermont Veterans; American Legion 45b; Bud¬ get, National 139a; Civil Service 194d; Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch of the Government 20Sa; D.A.V. 244c; Education 253a; Farmers Home Ad¬ ministration 287a; FWA 294a; Hous¬ ing 360c; Law 421b; Literary Prizes 432b; Red Cross 615a; Seeing Eye 640b; Social Security 6S2a; Taxation 686b; Tuberculosis 709a; Veterans’ Administration 747c; Veterans of Foreign Wars 749b; Veterans’ Or¬ ganizations 749d Veterans’ Administration Aviation, Civil 92c; Banking 102d; Libraries 428a; Osteopathy 544b; Psychosomatic Medicine 594c Veterans of Foreign Wars Veterans’ Organizations 49, 48 American Legion 4Sb; D.A.V. 244c Veterinary Medicine Vichy 45 Vickery, Howard Leroy 47 Victor Emmanuel III; see Obitu¬ aries 48. See Victor Emmanuel 111 47 Victoria 47, 46, 45 Victory Gardens: see Horticulture 46, 45 Victory Tax: see Taxation 45 Villeneuve, Jean-Marie Rodrique: see Obituaries 48 Vinson, Frederick Moore 47, 46, 45 Virginia Virginia, University of Boxing 126b Virgin Islands Virgin Islands, British: see Leeward Islands Viruses: see Infantile Paralysis; Medicine; Pneumonia Bacteriology 100b; Words and Mean¬ ings, New 773d Vishinsky, Andrei Y. 49, 48, 47 Atomic Energy 80b; Democracy 237b; U.S.S.R. 714a Visual Education: see Motion Pic¬ tures 49 Vital Statistics: see Birth Statistics; Census Data, U.S.; Death Statis¬ tics; Infant Mortality; Marriage and Divorce; Suicide Statistics Vitamins ARA 23c; Anaemia 50b; Biochemis¬ try 119a; Bread and Bakery Products 129b; Brewing and Beer 129d; Can¬ ning Industry 162a; Chemistry 174d; Chemotherapy 177c; Food Research 304b; Medicine 453b; Words and Meanings, New 773d; Yeast 777c V-J Day: see Business Review; War Manpower Commission; War Pro¬ duction, U.S.; War Production Board 46, 45 V-Mail; see Photography 46, 45 Vocational Ed ucation: Ed ucation Vocational Rehabilitation, Office of , 49, 48, 47 Vogiie, Louis 536b Voice of America: see Radio; United States 49 Volpi di Misurata, Count Guiseppe: see Obituaries 48 Volstead, Andrew J.: see Obituaries 48 Von (in personal names): see under proper names Voronov, Nikolai Nikolayevich 45 WAC: see Women’s Army Corps 47, 46, 45 Wade, Lance 45 Waesche, Russell Randolph 47 WAFS: see Women’s Airforce Serv¬ ice Pilots 45 Wages and Hours Business Review 146b; Census Data 169a; C.I.O. 211d; Employment 270c; Income, and Product. U.S. 371a; Labour Unions 413d; Law 420d; NMB 496d; Strikes 673d. See also specific industries and various states Wainwright, Jonathan M. 46 Wake Island; see Pacific Islands, U.S. 47, 46, 45 Wales: see Great Britain &. Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of Walker, Frederic John 45 Walker, James J. 47 Wallace, Henry Agard C.I.O. 212a; Elections 260d; News¬ papers and Magazines 509a; Radio 604c; Truman, H. S. 706d; U.S.S.R. 714a; U.S. 725b; Words and Mean¬ ings, New 773d Walnuts; see Nuts Walsh, David Ignatius: see Obituaries 48 Walvis Bay: see South Africa, Union of

810

INDEX

Wang Ching-wei 45 War Assets Administration: see Surplus Property Disposal 48, 47 War Boards, British-U.S.: see British-U.S. War Boards 46, 45 War Bonds 46, 45 War Brides: see Immigration and Emigration 49, 48, 47 Marriage and Divorce 446d War Committees, Joint (U.S. and Canada): see Canadian-U.S. War Committees 46, 45 War Communications, Board of: see Federal Communications Com¬ mission 47. See War Communi¬ cations, Board of, 46, 45 War Contracts: see Contract Termi¬ nations 47, 46, 45 War Crimes 49, 48, 47. See United Nations War Crimes Commission 46, 45 International Law 386b; Japan 40Sa; Law 416a; Psychiatry S91c War Damage Insurance: see Insur¬ ance 48, 47, 46, 45 War Debts 48, 47, 46, 45 War Department, U.S.: see Govern¬ ment Departments and Bureaus 47, 46, 45 Warfare, Incendiary 46, 45 War Food Administration 46, 45 War Frauds: see Federal Bureau of Investigation 46, 45 War Information, Office of, 46, 45 War Labor Board, National 46, 45 War Manpower Commission: see U.S. Employment Service 47. See War Manpower Commission 46, 45 War Medicine: see Medicine; Psy¬ chiatry 47, 46, 45. See Nursing, War; Surgery 46, 45 WarMobilizationand Reconversion, Office of, 47, 46, 45 War Prisoners: see Prisoners of War War Production, U.S. 46, 45 War Production Board: see Civilian Production Administration; Pri¬ orities and Allocations 47. See War Production Board 46, 45 War Relief, U.S. 46, 45 War Relocation Authority 47, 46, 45 Warren, Earl 49, 48 Elections 261d War Risk Insurance: see Insurance 48, 47, 46, 45 War Savings Stamps: see Post Office War Shipping Administration 47, 46, 45 Washington Washington, D.C. Washington, University of (Seattle) 49, 48, 47 Basketball 109c; Botany 124c; Edu¬ cation 256a; Rowing 628d Washington University (St. Louis) 49, 48, 47 WASP: See Women’s Airforce Serv¬ ice Pilots 45 Water Supply: see Public Health Engineering Wavell, Archibald P. 47, 46, 45 WAVES: see Women’s Reserve of the Navy 47, 46, 45

Waymack, William Wesley 47 Wealth and income, Distribution of Income and Product, U.S. 371a Weather: see Meteorology Wedemeyer, Albert Coady 48, 46, 45 Weizmann, Chaim 49 Weilesley College Wells, Herbert George 47 Werfel, Franz 46 West, James Edward 536b West Africa, British: see British West Africa Western Australia 47, 46, 45 Western European Union 49 Armies of the World 70d; Belgium 113a; Copyright 216c; Democracy 237c; ERP 279b; France 317d; Great Britain 342b; International Law 386d; Labour Unions 415a; Nether¬ lands 504b; Pius XII 571c; Political Parties, British 579a; U.S. 728b; Words and Meanings, New 773d Western Samoa: see New Zealand; Pacific Islands under Trustee¬ ship; Trustee Territories 49, 48. See Mandates; Pacific Isiands, Mandated 47, 46, 45 West Indies 48, 47, 46, 45 American Citizens Abroad 43c; Meteorology 458b West Indies, British: see Bahamas; Barbados; Jamaica; Leeward Is¬ lands, Trinidad; Windward Is¬ lands 49, 48, 47. See West Indies, British 46, 45 Cricket 220a West Virginia Westwood, Joseph 536c Whaling : see Fisheries Wheat ARA 23c; Agriculture 25a; Chemurgy 179a; Flour 303a; Food Re¬ search 304b; Food Supply of the World 305b; International Trade 390a Whitaker, John Thompson 47 White, Harry Dexter 536c White, Stewart Edward 47 White, William Allen 45 Whitehead, Alfred North; see Obit¬ uaries 48 Whitten-Brown, Sir Arthur 536d Whitty, Dame May 536d Wholesale Trade: see Business Re¬ view Wages and Hours 755d Wickard, Claude R. 46, 45 Wilderness Preservation 48, 47 National Parks and Monuments 497b Wildlife Conservation National Parks and Monuments 497b Wilhelmina Netherlands 503d; Surinam 677d Wilkinson, Ellen Cicely: see Obit¬ uaries 48. See Wilkinson, Ellen Cicely 46 Wilkinson, Theodore Stark 47 William, Warren S36d Williams, Edward Huntington 45 Willkie, Wendell L. 45 Wilson, Charles Edward 45 Wilson, Sir Henry M. 46, 45 Wilson, James: see Obituaries 48 Wilson, Lewis R. 536d Winant, John Gilbert: see Obitu¬

aries 48. 5ec Winant, John Gilbert 47, 45 Windward Islands Wines Liquors, Alcoholic 431b Wingate, Orde Charles 45 Wisconsin Wisconsin, University of Anthropology 55b; Boxing 126b; Row¬ ing 629a Withholding Tax: see Taxation Witzleben, E.J.W.G.E. von 45 Wolf-Ferrari, Ermanno 537a Woman’s Christian Temperance Union, National: see Societies and Associations Women’s Airforce Service Pilots 45 Women’s Army Corps 47, 46, 45 Women’s Auxiliary Ferrying Squad¬ ron (WAFS): see Women’s Air¬ force Service Pilots 45 Women’s Clubs, General Federa¬ tion of: see Societies and Associa¬ tions Women’s Reserve of the Navy 47, 46, 45 Women’s Reserve of the U.S. Coast Guard Reserve: see Coast Guard, U.S. 46, 45 Women’s Reserve of the U.S. Mari ne Corps Reserve: see Marine Corps 46, 45 Wood, Sir Henry Joseph 45 Wool Clothing Industry 196a; Interna¬ tional Trade 390a; Sheep 641c; Tex¬ tile Industry 697d Woolley. Mary Emma: see Obituaries 48 Woolsey, John Munro 46 Woolworth, Charles Sumner; see Obi¬ tuaries 48 Words and Meanings, New Work Projects Administration: see Federal Works Agency 45 Works Agency, Federal: see Federal Works Agency World Bank: see International Bank for Reconstruction and Develop¬ ment; International Monetary Fund 49, 48, 47. See United Na¬ tions Monetary and Financial Program 46 World Commerce: see International Trade World Constitution, Committee to form a: see Chicago, University of; Hutchins, Robert Maynard 49, 48 World Council of Churches 49. See Christian Unity 48, 47, 46, 45 Baptist Church 103d; Christian Uni¬ ty 190a; Disciples of Christ 247a; Lutherans 438a; Missions, Foreign 470c; Pacifism 546b; Presbyterian Church 584b; Religion 619a; Sunday Schools 675d; Vatican City State 742d World Federation of Trade Unions 49, 48, 47, 46 Labour Unions 414a World Health Organization: see United Nations 49, 48 Child Welfare 183c; Intoxication, Al¬ coholic 393c; Tuberculosis 709b; Ve¬ nereal Diseases 745a World War II 48, 47, 46, 45 Wrestling Olympic Games 540d

Wright, Sir A. E.: see Obituaries 48 Wright, Harold Bell 45 Wright, Orville 537a Wyatt, Wilson Watkins 47 Wyoming Xerography: see Photography 49 Printing 588c; Words and Meanings, New 773d X-Ray and Radiology Anaesthesiology 51b; Atomic Energy 82c; Electrical Industries 264d; Elec¬ tronics 268c; Medicine 454a; Metal¬ lurgy 456c; Photography 564b; Phys¬ ics S68d; Tuberculosis 708c Yachting Yale University Accidents 19a; Archaeology 60c; Libraries 426d; Rowing 628d; Track and Field Sports 704b Yalta Conference 46 Yamashita, T. 46, 45 Yeast 49, 48, 47, 46 Brewing and Beer 129d Yeats-Brown, Francis 45 Yemen 49. See Arabia 48, 47, 46, 45 Arabia 58a; U.N. 717c Yeremenko, Andrei I. 45 Yoshida, Shigeru 47 Japan 405b Yost, Fielding Harris 47 Youmans, Vincent 47 Young, Arthur 537b Young Men’s Christian Association Young Womens Christian Associa¬ tion Youth Movements 45 Yugoslavia Albania 36d: Argentina 69a; Austria 86d; Bauxite llOb; Bulgaria 144d; Canals and Inland Waterways 160a; Child Welfare 183c; Chile 186b; Communism 206c; Czechoslovakia 226b; Danube, Conference for Con¬ trol of, 230d; Eastern (Orthodox Churches 251c; Education 257a; ERP 279d; Exchange Control 280d; Foreign Investments 313b; Greece 346a; International Monetary Fund 388d; Kidnapping 411a; Lumber 437d; Mineral and Metal Production 467a; Motion Pictures 475c: Navies of the World 498c; Newspapers and Magazines 513a; Olympic Games 539d; Prisoners of War 589d; Rail¬ roads 611b; Refugees 617b; Rivers and Harbours 625a; Roman Catholic Church 627b; Rumania 63Id; Spices 667b; Taxation 688d; Trieste 706a; U.S.S.R. 714c; U.N. 717c; Veterans’ Organizations 750c; War Crimes 757c Yukon Territory Zanzibar and Pemba: see British East Africa Zhdanov, Andrei Alexandrovich 537b Zhukov, Georgi K. 46, 45 Zimmerman, James Fulton 45 Zinc Coinage 201a; Employment 270b; Foreign Investments 311b; Mineral and Metal Production 467d; Second¬ ary Metals 638c Zionism 47 Zirconium Chemistry 173d; Medicine 453b; Surgery 676d Zonta International 45 Zoology Genetics 327d; Marine Biology 444d

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