The Roman Villa at Shakenoak Farm, Oxfordshire. Excavations 1960–1976 9781841718576, 9781407320434
The excavation of the Roman villa at Shakenoak Farm, Oxfordshire, was carried out between 1960 and 1976 and the results
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English Pages [589] Year 2005
Polecaj historie
Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Table of Contents
LISTS OF ILLUSTRATIONS
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT
PREFACE
Part I Sites A and D
1. The Site
2. General Description
3. Detailed Description
4. The Finds
Part II Sites B and H
1. Site B
2. General Description
3. Detailed Description
4. Comparative History of Buildings A and B (Fig. II.14)
5. Site H
6. The Finds
Part III Site F
1. Site F
2. General Description
3. Detailed Description
4. The Finds
5. Appendices
Part IV Site C
1. Site C
2. Detailed Description
3. The Finds
Part V Sites K and E
1. General Introduction
2. Site K
3. The Finds
4. Sites J and F
5. Site E
6. Appendices
Citation preview
l na tio ne di nli ad l o ith ria W ate m
BAR 395 2005 BRODRIBB, HANDS & WALKER THE ROMAN VILLA AT SHAKENOAK FARM
The Roman Villa at Shakenoak Farm, Oxfordshire Excavations 1960–1976 A. C. C. Brodribb A. R. Hands D. R. Walker
BAR British Series 395 9 781841 718576
B A R
2005
The Roman Villa at Shakenoak Farm, Oxfordshire Excavations 1960–1976 A. C. C. Brodribb A. R. Hands D. R. Walker
BAR British Series 395 2005
Published in 2016 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR British Series 395 The Roman Villa at Shakenoak Farm, Oxfordshire. Excavations 1960–1976 © the estates of A C C Brodribb and D R Walker. © A R Hands and the Publisher 2005 The authors' moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher.
ISBN 9781841718576 paperback ISBN 9781407320434 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841718576 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by Archaeopress in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 2005. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2016.
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The Roman Villa at Shakenoak Farm, Oxfordshire, 1960–1976 CONTENTS Lists of Illustrations.................................................................................................................................. v Abbreviations used in the text ................................................................................................................. xi Preface ................................................................................................................................................... xv Part I: Sites A and D .............................................................................................................................. 1 1. The Site................................................................................................................................................. 3 2. General Description.............................................................................................................................. 4 3. Detailed Description............................................................................................................................. 7 Environs of Building A .......................................................................................................................... 14 Site D...................................................................................................................................................... 16 4. The Finds............................................................................................................................................ 17 The Coins ............................................................................................................................................... 17 A Note on the Theodosian Coins by Dr. C.H.V. Sutherland, F.S.A. ..................................................... 18 Stone and Brick ...................................................................................................................................... 19 Quartz by Mr. A.W.G. Kingsbury.......................................................................................................... 21 Graffiti, Oculist’s Stamp, Pipeclay Figurines ........................................................................................ 22 Coal by Mr. E. Bradburn ........................................................................................................................ 23 The Samian Ware ................................................................................................................................... 23 Jet and Shale........................................................................................................................................... 28 The Coarse Pottery ................................................................................................................................. 30 Painted Plaster ........................................................................................................................................ 48 The Glass by Dr. D.B. Harden, F.SA. .................................................................................................... 49 Bronze Objects ....................................................................................................................................... 52 Silver and Lead....................................................................................................................................... 58 The Brooches by Mr. D.F. Mackreth ..................................................................................................... 60 The Late Roman Military Belt-fittings by Mrs. Sonia Hawkes, F. S. A................................................ 61 Iron Objects ............................................................................................................................................ 64 Charcoal and Timber by Professor G.W. Dimbleby .............................................................................. 69 Wheat...................................................................................................................................................... 69 Bone Objects .......................................................................................................................................... 69 Animal Bones by Dr. P.A. Jewell .......................................................................................................... 71 Mollusca by Professor A.J. Cain............................................................................................................ 73 Human Remains by Dr. D.R. Hughes and Dr. C.B. Denston................................................................. 74
i
Part II: Sites B and H ...........................................................................................................................77 1. Site B...................................................................................................................................................79 2. General Description ............................................................................................................................80 Constructional Details.............................................................................................................................80 3. Detailed Description ...........................................................................................................................84 4. Comparative History of Buildings A and B......................................................................................100 5. Site H ................................................................................................................................................102 6. The Finds ..........................................................................................................................................103 Coins .....................................................................................................................................................103 Stone, Brick and Related Materials.......................................................................................................106 Shale, Jet, Asphalt.................................................................................................................................109 Coal by Dr. A.H.V. Smith and Mr. E. Bradburn ..................................................................................109 Egyptian Blue by Dr. F.B. Atkins.........................................................................................................109 Samian Ware by Mr. B.R. Hartley, F.S.A. ...........................................................................................112 Coarse Pottery .......................................................................................................................................120 Wall-Plaster...........................................................................................................................................139 Painted Plaster by Miss Joan Liversidge, F.S.A. ..................................................................................139 Glass by Dr. D.B. Harden, F.S.A..........................................................................................................143 Bronze Objects......................................................................................................................................149 The Decorated Bronze “Buckle” by Professor J.M.C. Toynbee, F.S.A. ..............................................155 The Brooches by Mr. D.F. Mackreth ....................................................................................................156 Silver and Lead .....................................................................................................................................158 Iron Objects...........................................................................................................................................158 Bone Objects .........................................................................................................................................162 Animal Bones........................................................................................................................................162 Mollusca................................................................................................................................................162 Part III: Site F .....................................................................................................................................163 1. Site F .................................................................................................................................................165 2. General Description ..........................................................................................................................166 3. Detailed Description .........................................................................................................................167 The Character of the Anglo-Saxon Occupation....................................................................................174 Conclusions...........................................................................................................................................175 4. The Finds ..........................................................................................................................................177 Coins .....................................................................................................................................................177 Stone and Related Materials .................................................................................................................178 The Carved Stones by Professor J.M.C. Toynbee, F.S.A. ....................................................................188 Samian Ware .........................................................................................................................................191 Wheel-made Coarse Pottery..................................................................................................................192 The Anglo-Saxon Pottery by Miss F. Berisford ...................................................................................194 Glass by Dr. D.B. Harden, F.S.A..........................................................................................................202 Bronze Objects......................................................................................................................................204 The Romano-British Brooches by Mr. D.F. Mackreth .........................................................................207 ii
More Late Roman Military Belt-Fittings by Mrs. Sonia Hawkes, F.S.A. ............................................208 Date and Origin of a Small-Long Brooch by Dr. H. Vierck.................................................................210 Two Bronze Spiral-headed Pins by Mrs. Kate Pretty ...........................................................................215 The Ironwork by Mr. P.D.C. Brown .....................................................................................................217 Anglo-Saxon Iron-working Debris by Mr. H. Cleere, F.S.A................................................................241 Lead.......................................................................................................................................................241 Bone Objects .........................................................................................................................................241 The Animal Bones ................................................................................................................................251 Coprolites and Abnormal Bones by Dr. P.A. Jewell ............................................................................252 Miscellaneous Bones of Birds and Small Animals by Professor B.J. Marples ....................................252 Charcoal ................................................................................................................................................252 5. Appendices........................................................................................................................................253 Early Anglo-Saxon Settlement in North Oxfordshire by Miss F. Berisford.........................................253 The Place-Name Evidence by Mrs. Margaret Gelling, F.S.A...............................................................255 A Reconsideration of the Ditchley Villa...............................................................................................259 Some Late Romano-British Pottery from London by Mr. J. Clark.......................................................260 Geology of the area around Shakenoak Farm by Mr. H.P. Powell.......................................................261 Changes in Vegetation at Shakenoak by Dr. S.R.J. Woodell ...............................................................270 The Mollusca by Professor A.J. Cain ...................................................................................................273 Part IV: Site C .....................................................................................................................................275 1. Site C.................................................................................................................................................277 2. Detailed Description .........................................................................................................................278 3. The Finds ..........................................................................................................................................302 Coins .....................................................................................................................................................302 Stone and Related Materials .................................................................................................................307 Shale and Jet .........................................................................................................................................308 Pottery Syrinx .......................................................................................................................................308 Samian Ware by Mr. B.R. Hartley, F.S.A. ...........................................................................................311 Coarse Pottery .......................................................................................................................................313 Graffiti...................................................................................................................................................341 Painted Wall-Plaster..............................................................................................................................343 Glass by Dr. D.B. Harden, F.S.A..........................................................................................................350 Lead.......................................................................................................................................................354 Bronze Objects......................................................................................................................................355 The Brooches by Mr. D.F. Mackreth ....................................................................................................359 Bronze Lace-Tags from Site F by Mrs. T.M. Dickinson ......................................................................361 Iron Objects...........................................................................................................................................362 Slag .......................................................................................................................................................372 Nails ......................................................................................................................................................372 Linen Heckles by Mr. P.D.C. Brown....................................................................................................375 Wood.....................................................................................................................................................378 Charcoal ................................................................................................................................................379 Bone Objects .........................................................................................................................................379 The Animal Bones by Mr. C.L. Cram...................................................................................................384 Miscellaneous Bones of Small Mammals and Birds by Professor B.J. Marples ..................................401 Mollusca by Dr. J.E. Chatfield..............................................................................................................401 iii
Leather ..................................................................................................................................................403 The Human Remains by Mr. C.B. Denston ..........................................................................................408 An Abnormal Middle Phalanx from Skeleton no. 12 by Dr. J.H. Musgrave and Dr. T.J. David.........415 Part V: Sites K and E..........................................................................................................................417 1. General Introduction .........................................................................................................................419 2. Site K ................................................................................................................................................420 3. The Finds ..........................................................................................................................................436 Coins .....................................................................................................................................................436 Objects of Stone, by Mr H.P. Powell....................................................................................................441 Flints, by Mr A. Sherratt .......................................................................................................................442 The Samian, by Mrs J. Bird and Miss B.M. Dickinson ........................................................................442 Coarse Pottery .......................................................................................................................................446 Stamps and Graffiti ...............................................................................................................................476 Note on a Mortarium Stamp, by Mrs K. Hartley ..................................................................................476 Enamel, by Dr R.F. Tylecote ................................................................................................................478 Gold Objects .........................................................................................................................................480 Bronze Objects......................................................................................................................................480 The Brooches, by Mr D.F. Mackreth ....................................................................................................483 Iron Objects...........................................................................................................................................484 Bone Objects .........................................................................................................................................488 Organic Remains...................................................................................................................................488 Wood.....................................................................................................................................................488 Leather ..................................................................................................................................................490 Charcoal ................................................................................................................................................495 Plant Remains other than Wood............................................................................................................495 The Animal Bones, by Mr C.L. Cram ..................................................................................................496 Insect and Seed Remains, by Mr M. Robinson.....................................................................................527 Land and Freshwater Mollusca, by Dr J.E. Chatfield...........................................................................531 4. Sites J and F ......................................................................................................................................535 The Animal Bones from Site J, by Mr C.L. Cram ................................................................................535 The Animal Bones from Site F, by Mr C.L. Cram ...............................................................................541 5. Site E .................................................................................................................................................542 Cremated Remains from Site E, by Dr C.B. Denston...........................................................................544 6. Appendices........................................................................................................................................545 1. The Shakenoak Estate Boundaries....................................................................................................545 2. The Agriculture of Shakenoak Villa, by Professor S. Applebaum ...................................................548 3. A Further Note on the Bronze Object from Site B (Part II), by Mr D.A. Hinton.............................557 4. The Evolution of the Shakenoak Villa in the Roman Period............................................................558 5. The Problem of “Continuity”............................................................................................................560
iv
LISTS OF ILLUSTRATIONS Part I Fig.I.1 Roman sites in north Oxfordshire .................................................................................................1 Fig.I.2 Environs of Shakenoak..................................................................................................................1 Fig.I.3 Shakenoak sites .............................................................................................................................2 Fig.I.4 Plan of Building A, Shakenoak .....................................................................................................5 Fig.I.5 Reconstruction of Building A, Period 3b ......................................................................................6 Fig.I.6 Plan of the environs of Building A................................................................................................6 Fig.I.7 Sections in Building A ..................................................................................................................9 Fig.I.8 Site A, Pit C plan and section........................................................................................................9 Fig.I.9 Site D, plan and sections ...............................................................................................................9 Fig.I.10 Hearths in Building A................................................................................................................11 Fig.I.11 Stonework, relief-patterned tiles ...............................................................................................20 Fig.I.12 Graffiti, oculist's stamp, pipeclay figurines...............................................................................22 Fig.I.13 Figured samian 1 - 17................................................................................................................25 Fig.I.14 Figured samian 18 - 36..............................................................................................................27 Fig.I.15 Figured samian 37 - 66, jet and shale........................................................................................29 Fig.I.16 Distribution of red colour-coated ware .....................................................................................31 Fig.I.17 Coarse pottery 1 - 27 .................................................................................................................33 Fig.I.18 Coarse pottery 28 - 54 ...............................................................................................................35 Fig.I.19 Coarse pottery 55 - 76 ...............................................................................................................37 Fig.I.20 Coarse pottery 77 - 94 ...............................................................................................................39 Fig.I.21 Coarse pottery 95 - 103 .............................................................................................................41 Fig.I.22 Coarse pottery 104 - 115 ...........................................................................................................43 Fig.I.23 Coarse pottery 116 - 126 ...........................................................................................................45 Fig.I.24 Coarse pottery 127 - 146 ...........................................................................................................47 Fig.I.25 Painted plaster ...........................................................................................................................48 Fig.I.26 Glass ..........................................................................................................................................50 Fig.I.27 Bronze objects 1 - 8...................................................................................................................53 Fig.I.28 Bronze objects 9, 10 ..................................................................................................................54 Fig.I.29 Bronze objects 11 - 19...............................................................................................................55 Fig.I.30 Bronze objects 20 - 37...............................................................................................................56 Fig.I.31 Bronze objects 38 - 53...............................................................................................................57 Fig.I.32 Bronze objects 54 - 59, silver and lead objects .........................................................................59 Fig.I.33 Belt-fittings from Oudenburg and Richborough .......................................................................62 Fig.I.34 Iron objects 1 - 32......................................................................................................................65 Fig.I.35 Iron objects 33 - 62....................................................................................................................66 Fig.I.36 Iron objects 63 - 92....................................................................................................................68 Fig.I.37 Bone objects ..............................................................................................................................70 Part II Fig.II.1 Roman Sites In North Oxfordshire ............................................................................................77 Fig.II.2 Environs of Shakenoak ..............................................................................................................77 Fig.II.3 Shakenoak Sites .........................................................................................................................78 Fig.II.4 Plan of Building B, Periods 1-3 .................................................................................................81 Fig.II.5 Plan of Building B, Periods 4 and 5...........................................................................................82 Fig.II.6 Reconstruction of Building B, Periods 2a and 3a ......................................................................82 Fig.II.7 Cellars in Building B..................................................................................................................85 Fig.II.8 Phases of Cellar Construction ....................................................................................................86 Fig.II.9 Sections through Cellars ............................................................................................................89 v
Fig.II.10 Hearths in Building B ..............................................................................................................91 Fig.II.11 Reconstruction of West Wall of Room B. XM Period 4 .........................................................95 Fig.II.12 Sections A-A - D-D..................................................................................................................97 Fig.II.13 Sections E-E - H-H ..................................................................................................................99 Fig.II.14 Development of Buildings A and B.......................................................................................101 Fig.II.15 Site H......................................................................................................................................102 Fig.II.16 Coin diagram for Sites A and B .............................................................................................103 Fig.II.17 Dobunnic and Anglo-Saxon Silver Coins..............................................................................105 Fig.II.18 Stonework ..............................................................................................................................106 Fig.II.19 Stone Objects, Jet, Shale, Graffito .........................................................................................107 Fig.II.20 Samian 71-75 .........................................................................................................................112 Fig.II.21 Samian 76, 77.........................................................................................................................113 Fig.II.22 Samian 78-81 .........................................................................................................................114 Fig.II.23 Samian 82, 83.........................................................................................................................115 Fig.II.24 Samian 84, 85.........................................................................................................................116 Fig.II.25 Samian 86-94 .........................................................................................................................117 Fig.II.26 Coarse Pottery 147-162..........................................................................................................122 Fig.II.27 Coarse Pottery 163-178..........................................................................................................123 Fig.II.28 Coarse Pottery 179-192..........................................................................................................124 Fig.II.29 Coarse Pottery 193-206..........................................................................................................125 Fig.II.30 Coarse Pottery 207-222..........................................................................................................127 Fig.II.31 Coarse Pottery 223-236..........................................................................................................128 Fig.II.32 Coarse Pottery 237-253..........................................................................................................129 Fig.II.33 Coarse Pottery 254-265..........................................................................................................130 Fig.II.34 Coarse Pottery 266-286..........................................................................................................132 Fig.II.35 Coarse Pottery 287-300..........................................................................................................133 Fig.II.36 Coarse Pottery 301-317..........................................................................................................134 Fig.II.37 Coarse Pottery 318-336..........................................................................................................135 Fig.II.38 Coarse Pottery 337-354..........................................................................................................136 Fig.II.39 Coarse Pottery 355-381..........................................................................................................137 Fig.II.40 Painted Plaster I .....................................................................................................................140 Fig.II.41 Painted Plaster II ....................................................................................................................141 Fig.II.42 Painted Plaster III...................................................................................................................142 Fig.II.43 Glass 31-42 ............................................................................................................................144 Fig.II.44 Glass 43-56 ............................................................................................................................145 Fig.II.45 Glass 57-70 ............................................................................................................................146 Fig.II.46 Bronze Objects 60-65.............................................................................................................150 Fig.II.47 Bronze Objects 66-72.............................................................................................................151 Fig.II.48 Bronze Objects 73-78.............................................................................................................152 Fig.II.49 Bronze Objects 79-105...........................................................................................................153 Fig.II.50 Bronze Objects 106-124, Silver Objects 3-5 .........................................................................157 Fig.II.51 Iron Objects 91-135 ...............................................................................................................159 Fig.II.52 Iron Objects 136-143 .............................................................................................................160 Fig.II.53 Bone Objects 18-34................................................................................................................161 Part III Fig.III.1 Early Anglo-Saxon Sites in North Oxfordshire......................................................................163 Fig.III.2 Environs of Shakenoak ...........................................................................................................163 Fig.III.3 Shakenoak Sites ......................................................................................................................164 Fig.III.4 Dating of Shakenoak Sites......................................................................................................165 Fig.III.5 Plan of Site F ..........................................................................................................................166 vi
Fig.III.6 Sections A-A - D-D ................................................................................................................168 Fig.III.7 Sections E-E - G-G .................................................................................................................169 Fig.III.8 Sections H-H - K-K ................................................................................................................170 Fig.III.9 Distribution of Finds in Ditch, Site F .....................................................................................171 Fig.III.10 Hearth in Ditch, Site F ..........................................................................................................173 Fig.III.11 Anglo-Saxon Silver Coin......................................................................................................178 Fig.III.12 Stone Object 29.....................................................................................................................179 Fig.III.13 Stone Object 30.....................................................................................................................180 Fig.III.14 Stone Objects 31-33..............................................................................................................181 Fig.III.15 Stone Objects 34-36..............................................................................................................182 Fig.III.16 Stone Objects 37, 38 .............................................................................................................183 Fig.III.17 Stone Objects 39-44..............................................................................................................184 Fig.III.18 Stone Objects 45-49..............................................................................................................185 Fig.III.19 Stone Objects 50-53..............................................................................................................186 Fig.III.20 Stone Objects 54-62..............................................................................................................187 Fig.III.21 Baked Clay object.................................................................................................................189 Fig.III.22 Samian 95, 96 .......................................................................................................................191 Fig.III.23 Wheel-made Pottery 382-398 ...............................................................................................193 Fig.III.24 Hand-made Pottery 399-402.................................................................................................197 Fig.III.25 Hand-made Pottery 403-408 and Comparative Material......................................................198 Fig.III.26 Hand-made Pottery 409-414.................................................................................................199 Fig.III.27 Hand-made Pottery 415-418.................................................................................................200 Fig.III.28 Hand-made Pottery 419-424.................................................................................................201 Fig.III.29 Glass 71-73 ...........................................................................................................................202 Fig.III.30 Bronze Objects 126-139 .......................................................................................................204 Fig.III.31 Bronze Objects 140-173 .......................................................................................................206 Fig.III.32 Bronze Object 174: Small-Long Brooch ..............................................................................211 Fig.III.33 Comparative Bronze Objects................................................................................................212 Fig.III.34 Distribution Map of Bronze Spiral-headed Pins...................................................................215 Fig.III.35 Bronze Spiral-headed Pin from Girton .................................................................................215 Fig.III.36 Iron Objects 144-146 ............................................................................................................218 Fig.III.37 Iron Objects 147-156 ............................................................................................................219 Fig.III.38 Iron Objects 157-164 ............................................................................................................220 Fig.III.39 Iron Objects 165-176 ............................................................................................................221 Fig.III.40 Iron Objects 177-186 ............................................................................................................222 Fig.III.41 Iron Objects 187-191 ............................................................................................................223 Fig.III.42 Iron Objects 192-198 ............................................................................................................224 Fig.III.43 Iron Objects 199-207 ............................................................................................................225 Fig.III.44 Iron Objects 208-215 ............................................................................................................226 Fig.III.45 Iron Objects 216-223 ............................................................................................................227 Fig.III.46 Iron Objects 224-235 ............................................................................................................228 Fig.III.47 Iron Objects 236-254 ............................................................................................................229 Fig.III.48 Iron Objects 255-269 ............................................................................................................230 Fig.III.49 Iron Objects 270-281 ............................................................................................................231 Fig.III.50 Iron Objects 282-295 ............................................................................................................232 Fig.III.51 Iron Objects 296-313 ............................................................................................................233 Fig.III.52 Iron Objects 314-337 ............................................................................................................234 Fig.III.53 Iron Objects 338-342 ............................................................................................................235 Fig.III.54 Iron Objects 343-353 ............................................................................................................237 Fig.III.55 Nail Histogram .....................................................................................................................239 Fig.III.56 Bone Objects 35-39 ..............................................................................................................242 vii
Fig.III.57 Bone Objects 40-46 ..............................................................................................................243 Fig.III.58 Bone Objects 47-58 ..............................................................................................................244 Fig.III.59 Bone Objects 59-72 ..............................................................................................................245 Fig.III.60 Bone Objects 73-77 ..............................................................................................................246 Fig.III.61 Bone Objects 78-81 ..............................................................................................................247 Fig.III.62 Bone Objects 82-93 ..............................................................................................................248 Fig.III.63 Bone Objects 94-104 ............................................................................................................249 Fig.III.64 Bone Objects 105-118 ..........................................................................................................250 Fig.III.65 Topography of the Anglo-Saxon Charter-Boundaries..........................................................256 Fig.III.66 Late Romano-British Pottery from London..........................................................................260 Fig.III.67 Geology of the Shakenoak Area ...........................................................................................262 Fig.III.68 Development of Geological Cambers...................................................................................265 Part IV Fig.IV.1 Roman Sites in North Oxfordshire .........................................................................................275 Fig.IV.2 Environs of Shakenoak...........................................................................................................275 Fig.IV.3 Shakenoak Sites......................................................................................................................276 Fig.IV.4 Dating of Shakenoak Sites .....................................................................................................277 Fig.IV.5 Phases of wall construction, Building C.................................................................................278 Fig.IV.6 Doorway of rooms C.I and C.II..............................................................................................278 Fig.IV.7 Plan of Sites A and C..............................................................................................................281 Fig.IV.8 Section A-A ............................................................................................................................283 Fig.IV.9 Section B-B ............................................................................................................................285 Fig.IV.10 Section C-C ..........................................................................................................................287 Fig.IV.11 Section D-D ..........................................................................................................................289 Fig.IV.12 Section E-E...........................................................................................................................291 Fig.IV.13 Plan of Building C ................................................................................................................292 Fig.IV.14 Section through well in Building C ......................................................................................293 Fig.IV.15 Section H-H through road south of enclosure wall ..............................................................295 Fig.IV.16 Burials on Sites A and C ......................................................................................................299 Fig.IV.17 Grave of Skeleton no. 16 ......................................................................................................300 Fig.IV.18 Burials from Sites A and C: ages at death............................................................................300 Fig.IV.19 Coin diagram ........................................................................................................................302 Fig.IV.20 Coin diagram ........................................................................................................................303 Fig.IV.21 Stone and Brick Objects .......................................................................................................306 Fig.IV.22 Shale Objects ........................................................................................................................308 Fig.IV.23 Pottery Syrinx.......................................................................................................................309 Fig.IV.24 Samian Ware ........................................................................................................................311 Fig.IV.25 Coarse Pottery 425-446 ........................................................................................................313 Fig.IV.26 Coarse Pottery 447-466 ........................................................................................................315 Fig.IV.27 Coarse Pottery 467-485 ........................................................................................................316 Fig.IV.28 Coarse Pottery 486-503 ........................................................................................................318 Fig.IV.29 Coarse Pottery 504-519 ........................................................................................................319 Fig.IV.30 Coarse Pottery 520-534 ........................................................................................................321 Fig.IV.31 Coarse Pottery 535-551 ........................................................................................................322 Fig.IV.32 Coarse Pottery 552-570 ........................................................................................................323 Fig.IV.33 Coarse Pottery 571-590 ........................................................................................................325 Fig.IV.34 Coarse Pottery 591-609 ........................................................................................................326 Fig.IV.35 Coarse Pottery 610-634 ........................................................................................................327 Fig.IV.36 Coarse Pottery 635-651 ........................................................................................................329 Fig.IV.37 Coarse Pottery 652-671 ........................................................................................................330 viii
Fig.IV.38 Coarse Pottery 672-690 ........................................................................................................332 Fig.IV.39 Coarse Pottery 691-712 ........................................................................................................333 Fig.IV.40 Coarse Pottery 713-728 ........................................................................................................334 Fig.IV.41 Coarse Pottery 729-746 ........................................................................................................336 Fig.IV.42 Coarse Pottery 747-763 ........................................................................................................337 Fig.IV.43 Coarse Pottery 764-787 ........................................................................................................339 Fig.IV.44 Coarse Pottery 788-807 ........................................................................................................340 Fig.IV.45 Graffiti ..................................................................................................................................341 Fig.IV.46 Graffiti ..................................................................................................................................342 Fig.IV.47 Painted Plaster I....................................................................................................................345 Fig.IV.48 Painted Plaster II...................................................................................................................346 Fig.IV.49 Painted Plaster Ill..................................................................................................................347 Fig.IV.50 Details of Plastering .............................................................................................................348 Fig.IV.51 Angles on Painted Wall-Plaster............................................................................................349 Fig.IV.52 Glass .....................................................................................................................................351 Fig.IV.53 Bronze Objects 175-187 .......................................................................................................356 Fig.IV.54 Bronze Objects 188-202 .......................................................................................................357 Fig.IV.55 Bronze Objects 203-222 .......................................................................................................358 Fig.IV.56 Iron Objects 354-371............................................................................................................363 Fig.IV.57 Iron Objects 372-387............................................................................................................364 Fig.IV.58 Iron Objects 388-408............................................................................................................365 Fig.IV.59 Iron Objects 409-422............................................................................................................366 Fig.IV.60 Iron Objects 423-435............................................................................................................368 Fig.IV.61 Iron Objects 436-441............................................................................................................369 Fig.IV.62 Iron Objects 442-464............................................................................................................370 Fig.IV.63 Iron Objects 465-484............................................................................................................371 Fig.IV.64 Iron Objects 485-509............................................................................................................373 Fig.IV.65 Iron Objects 510-514............................................................................................................374 Fig.IV.66 Length of Nails from Site C .................................................................................................376 Fig.IV.67 Linen Heckle from Norway..................................................................................................377 Fig.IV.68 Distribution Of Cut Timber in Fishpond I............................................................................378 Fig.IV.69 Oak Charcoal from fourth-century deposits, Site C .............................................................380 Fig.IV.70 Hazel and Hawthorn Charcoal from fourth-century deposits, Site C...................................380 Fig.IV.71 Charcoal from debris of Building C .....................................................................................381 Fig.IV.72 Bone Objects 119-124 ..........................................................................................................382 Fig.IV.73 Bone Objects 125-131 ..........................................................................................................383 Fig.IV.74 Leather Object 1 ...................................................................................................................404 Fig.IV.75 Leather Objects 2 and 3........................................................................................................405 Fig.IV.76 Leather Objects 4 - 7 ............................................................................................................406 Fig.IV.77 Leather Objects 8 - 15 ..........................................................................................................407 Fig.IV.78 Abnormal Middle Phalanx from Skeleton no. 12.................................................................415 Part V Fig.V.1 Roman Sites in North Oxfordshire ..........................................................................................417 Fig.V.2 Environs of Shakenoak ............................................................................................................417 Fig.V.3 Shakenoak Sites .......................................................................................................................418 Fig.V.4 Dating of Shakenoak Sites.......................................................................................................420 Fig.V.5 Plan of Building K ...................................................................................................................424 Fig.V.6 Section A-A .............................................................................................................................429 Fig.V.7 Section B-B..............................................................................................................................431 Fig.V.8 Section C-C..............................................................................................................................433 ix
Fig.V.9 Section D-D .............................................................................................................................435 Fig.V.10 Stone Objects 76, 77; Jet Objects 5, 6 ...................................................................................438 Fig.V.11 Brick Object 78......................................................................................................................439 Fig.V.12 Brick Object 79......................................................................................................................440 Fig.V.13 Samian ...................................................................................................................................443 Fig.V.14 Coarse Pottery 808-827 .........................................................................................................447 Fig.V.15 Coarse Pottery 828-848 .........................................................................................................448 Fig.V.16 Coarse Pottery 849-867 .........................................................................................................450 Fig.V.17 Coarse Pottery 868-887 .........................................................................................................451 Fig.V.18 Coarse Pottery 888-911 .........................................................................................................452 Fig.V.19 Coarse Pottery 912-930 .........................................................................................................453 Fig.V.20 Coarse Pottery 931-948 .........................................................................................................455 Fig.V.21 Coarse Pottery 949-973 .........................................................................................................456 Fig.V.22 Coarse Pottery 974-994 .........................................................................................................457 Fig.V.23 Coarse Pottery 995-1014 .......................................................................................................459 Fig.V.24 Coarse Pottery 1015-1030 .....................................................................................................460 Fig.V.25 Coarse Pottery 1031-1049 .....................................................................................................461 Fig.V.26 Coarse Pottery 1050-1066 .....................................................................................................462 Fig.V.27 Coarse Pottery 1067-1080 .....................................................................................................463 Fig.V.28 Coarse Pottery 1081-1099 .....................................................................................................465 Fig.V.29 Coarse Pottery 1100-1123 .....................................................................................................466 Fig.V.30 Coarse Pottery 1124-1146 .....................................................................................................467 Fig.V.31 Coarse Pottery 1147-1169 .....................................................................................................468 Fig.V.32 Coarse Pottery 1170-1196 .....................................................................................................470 Fig.V.33 Coarse Pottery 1197-1220 .....................................................................................................471 Fig.V.34 Coarse Pottery 1221-1239 .....................................................................................................472 Fig.V.35 Coarse Pottery 1240-1259 .....................................................................................................474 Fig.V.36 Coarse Pottery 1260-1276 .....................................................................................................475 Fig.V.37 Coarse Pottery 1277-1300 .....................................................................................................476 Fig.V.38 Pottery Stamps and Graffiti ...................................................................................................478 Fig.V.39 Glass.......................................................................................................................................479 Fig.V.40 Gold Object 1; Bronze Objects 223-237................................................................................483 Fig.V.41 Bronze Objects 238-250; Lead Object 8................................................................................484 Fig.V.42 Iron Objects 515-523 .............................................................................................................487 Fig.V.43 Iron Objects 524-536 .............................................................................................................488 Fig.V.44 Iron Objects 537-562 .............................................................................................................489 Fig.V.45 Iron Object 563; Bone Objects 132-138 ................................................................................491 Fig.V.46 Wooden objects 1-3 ...............................................................................................................493 Fig.V.47 Wooden Objects 4-8 ..............................................................................................................494 Fig.V.48 Wooden Objects 9, 10............................................................................................................495 Fig.V.49 Wooden Object 11; Leather Objects 16,17............................................................................496 Fig.V.50 Samples of non-marine Mollusca ..........................................................................................534 Fig.V.51 Finds from Sites F and J ........................................................................................................538 Fig.V.52 Plan of Site E .........................................................................................................................544 Fig.V.53 Site E Section A-A.................................................................................................................545 Fig.V.54 Shakenoak Estate Boundaries................................................................................................548 Shakenoak General Site Plan ................................................................................................................570 also available as a full-size download from....http://www.barpublishing.com/additional-downloads.html
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ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THE TEXT Part I Ant. Ant. J. Arch. Arch. Camb. Arch. Cant. Arch. J. Brit. Num. Jour. Camulodunum Colchester Great Casterton Jewry Wall J. R. S. Langton LRBC Med. Arch. Num. Chron. Oxon. P. Geol. Assoc. RIC Richborough Roman Amphorae V. C. H. Wroxeter Wroxeter 1923-27 Part II Alchester 1937 Ant. J. Arch. Camulodunum Gillam J. R. S. L. R. B. C. Newstead Oxon. RIC Richborough
Antiquity Antiquaries journal Archaeologia Archaeologia Cambrensis Archaeologia Cantiana Archaeological journal British Numismatic journal Camulodunum, C.F.C. Hawkes and M.R. Hull, Research Report 14, Society of Antiquaries of London, 1947 The Roman Potters’ Kilns of Colchester, M.R. Hull, Research Report 21, Society of Antiquaries of London, 1963 The Roman Town and Villa at Great Casterton, Rutland, ed. P. Corder, University of Nottingham, III, 1961 Excavations at the Jewry Wall Site, Leicester, K.M. Kenyon, Research Report 15, Society of Antiquaries of London, 1948 Journal of Roman Studies A Roman Villa at Langton, near Malton. P. Corder and J.L. Kirk, Yorkshire Archaeological Society, 1932 Late Roman Bronze Coinage, R.A.G. Carson, P.V. Hill and J.P.C. Kent, 1960 Medieval Archaeology Numismatic Chronicle Oxoniensia Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association The Roman Imperial Coinage, H. Mattingly and others, 1923-67 Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, I (1926), II (1928), IV (1949) Roman Amphorae, M.H. Callender, O.U.P., 1965 Victoria County History Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, I (1914) Report on Excavations at Wroxeter, 1923-27, D. Atkinson, O.U.P., 1942 Excavations at Chesterton Lane, Alchester, 1937, D.B. Harden, Oxf.Arch.Soc. Transactions, 1937 Antiquaries Journal Archaeologia Camulodunum, C.F.C. Hawkes and M.R. Hull, Research Report 14, Society of Antiquaries of London, 1947 Types of Roman Coarse Pottery Vessels in North Britain, J. P.Gillam, 1968 Journal of Roman Studies Late Roman Bronze Coinage, R.A.G. Carson, P.V. Hill and J.P.C. Kent, 1960 A Roman Frontier-Post and its People, J. Curle, 1911 Oxoniensia The Roman Imperial Coinage, H. Mattingly and others, 1923-67 Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, II (1928), III (1932), IV (1949), V (1968) xi
Segontium T. Birm. A. S. V. C. H. Wroxeter I, II Wroxeter 1923-27
Segontium and the Roman Occupation of Wales, R.E.M. Wheeler, 1924 Transactions of the Birmingham Archaeological Society Victoria County History Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, I (1913), H (1914) Report on Excavations at Wroxeter, 1923-27, D. Atkinson, 1942
Part III Ant. J. J. R. S. LRBC
Antiquaries Journal Journal of Roman Studies Late Roman Bronze Coinage, R.A.G. Carson, P.V. Hill and J.P.C. Kent, 1960 Maiden Castle Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, XII, 1943 Med. Arch. Medieval Archaeology Oxon. Oxoniensia Proc. Camb. Ant. Soc. Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society RIC The Roman Imperial Coinage, H. Mattingly and others, 1923 - 1967 V. C. H. Victoria County History Verulamium Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, XI, 1936 Yorks. Arch. Journ. Journal of the Yorkshire Archaeological Society Part IV Arch. Ael. Arch. J. Beds. Arch. Journ. Camulodunum Fishbourne Gillam Hod Hill I LRBC
Archaeologia Aeliana Archaeological Journal Journal of the Bedfordshire Archaeological Society Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, XIV (1947) Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, XXVII (1971) Types of Roman Coarse Pottery Vessels in North Britain, J.P. Gillam, 1968 Hod Hill, Vol. 1, J.W. Brailsford, 1962 Late Roman Bronze Coinage, R.A.G. Carson, P.V. Hill and J.P.C. Kent, 1960 Lydney Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, IX (1923) Med. Arch. Medieval Archaeology Proc. Camb. Ant. Soc. Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society Proc. Hants. Field Club Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club and Archaeological Society P.S.A.S. Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland RIC The Roman Imperial Coinage, H. Mattingly and others, 1923-67 Richborough Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, IV (1949) Verulamium Research Reports of Society of Antiquaries of London, I (1936) Part V Arch. Ael. Ant. J. Arch. Arch. J. CBA Res. Rpts. CW Cod. Theod. Eburacum Isings (1957) J.R.S.
Archaeologia Aeliana Antiquaries Journal Archaeologia Archaeological Journal Council for British Archaeology Research Reports Transactions of the Cumberland and Westmorland Antiquarian Society Codex Theodosianus Royal Commission on Historical Monuments (England), City of York I, Eburacum, 1962 Roman Glass from Dated Finds, C. Isings, Gröningen, Djakarta, 1957 Journal of Roman Studies xii
Karanis LRBC Med. Arch. Oxon. Proc. Prehis. Soc. RIC VCH WAM
Roman Glass from Karanis, D.B. Harden, 1936 Late Roman Bronze Coinage, R.A.G. Carson, P.V. Hill and J.P.C. Kent, 1960 Medieval Archaeology Oxoniensia Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society Roman Imperial Coinage, H. Mattingly and others, 1923-1967 Victoria County History Wiltshire Archaeological Magazine
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PREFACE The excavation of the Roman villa at Shakenoak Farm, Oxfordshire, was carried out between 1960 and 1976 and the results were published in five volumes between 1968 and 1978. The three excavators, Conant Brodribb, David Walker and the writer, were equal participants in all aspects of the excavation and publication of the site. As the only survivor of the team, I have a special responsibility in decisions regarding the reprinting of the original reports as a single BAR volume, but after so many years of close friendship and collaboration, I feel able to act on my colleagues’ behalf and in accordance with what I am sure would have been their wishes. The deficiencies of the excavation and publication are obvious, and are perhaps to be expected in a work undertaken by amateurs forty years ago. But while many details could profitably be revised, I still consider the broader aspects of the analysis of the site to be tenable today and I am confident that this would be the view of my friends. Consequently, it seems preferable to republish the original reports without amendment or comment, as our considered opinions at the time, without the benefit of hindsight. No new evidence regarding the site has been forthcoming, nor is it likely to do so, virtually all the area within the enclosure having been excavated down to the undisturbed subsoil. The only light, and that an indirect one, subsequently shed on the villa has come from the writer’s excavations at the nearby roadside settlement at Wilcote, a site certainly closely associated with Shakenoak (Wilcote I, 1993, BAR 232; II, 1998, BAR 265; III, 2004, BAR 370; IV, in prep.). This volume is presented as a memorial to Conant Brodribb and David Walker. A.R. Hands Oxford 2005.
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Part I Sites A and D
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
2
Excavations at Shakenoak
Occupation of the site from the first century A.D. to theeighth century has been established but this first report is concerned only with the Roman-British buildings A (Fig. I.4) and D (Fig. I.9) at heights of 327 ft. O.D. and 335 ft. O.D respectively and the area immediately surrounding Building A, hereafter called Site A (Fig. I.6). Site B, north of the stream and 150 ft. from A, contains a large Roman building and evidence for a subsequent Saxon occupation. Site C, to the east of A, is known to contain at least one Roman building. Site E, 950 ft. south of A, is a circular artificial mound of at present unknown date, and Site F, to the north of B, contains a late Roman ditch and much Anglo-Saxon material. The authors are excavating these sites as completely as possible and will publish them in detail in later reports.
1. The Site (National Grid Reference SP 374138, O.S. 6 in map SP 31 SE) The Roman villa at Shakenoak lies in a shallow valley drained by a small tributary of the river Evenlode, just within the parish of North Leigh, Oxfordshire, close to its western boundary with Hailey and 550 yards south-east of Shakenoak Farm. This part of North Leigh parish was formerly within Wilcote parish. The villa is one of a large group in a district which was intensively occupied during the Roman period (Fig. I.1). The great North Leigh villa lies one and three-quarter miles to the north-east and the supposed Roman-British minor settlement at Wilcote lies one and a half miles to the north, on Akeman Street (Fig. I.2).
The first published reference to the site is in V.C.H. Oxfordshire, I (1939), 319, but local inhabitants in the 1880s or 1890s seem to have known of the existence of buried foundations. The present-day field names, Parson’s Piece and Upper Parson's Piece, are unrevealing and there are no references to the site in Davis's map of Oxfordshire (1797), Bryant's map (1824), Hakewill’s map (1826), the Wilcote Tithe Award (1840) or the first edition of the O.S. 25 in. map (1876). Although surface finds were made from time to time before the excavation all air photographs have so far proved uninformative. Continuous area excavation of Site A was begun in 1960 and completed in 1965, the site then being handed back to agriculture. Investigation of other parts of the villa has been in continuous progress since 1965.
The valley, known to geologists as the Wilcote Valley, is an abandoned meander of the river Windrush which once flowed into the Evenlode. It is blocked at its western end, about half a mile west of the villa, by a deposit of the Northern Drift. Just east of the villa a line drawn across the valley from Wilcote in the north-west to North Leigh church in the south-east reveals the following succession: unterraced Northern Drift (at Wilcote); Oxford Clay, Cornbrash, Forest Marble, White Limestone and Hampen Marly Beds (all in the Great Oolite series), and Freeland Terrace Gravel, all on the north side of the stream which flows into the Evenlode and apparently lacks a present-day name. On the south side of the stream the succession reverses from Hampen Marly Beds to White Limestone at North Leigh church (W. J. Arkell, ‘The Geology of the Evenlode Gorge, Oxfordshire’, in P. Geol. Assoc., LVIII, Part 2, 1947, Pl. 3).
Brief notes on the excavations have appeared in I.R.S., LII, 1962; LIV, 1964; LV, 1965; LVI, 1966; LVII, 1967, and Ant., XXXVI, 1962. This report, however, supersedes anything said in these preliminary notes. Some of the finds have been, or will be, mentioned in Art In Britain under the Romans, J. M. C. Toynbee, 1964, p. 124, Oxon. (XXXI, 1966, p. 156), Mod. Arch. (XI) and the Brit. Num. Jour. (both forthcoming). The significance of two Saxon charters (Grundy: Saxon Oxfordshire, Oxford Record Society, 1933, pp. 76-85, nos. K 556 and K 775), which probably refer to the site, is also considered in Med. Arch. (XI, forthcoming).
Half a mile north of the villa is the Lady Well, a copious spring at the top of the Hampen Marly Beds which has deposited a bed of tufa nearly half a mile long and at least 8 ft. deep in the valley bottom below Bridewell Farm half a mile downstream from the villa. A mile to the east of the villa are the ancient North Leigh oolitic limestone quarries. On the villa site the soil on the north side of the stream is a free-draining slightly alkaline stonebrash; on the south side it is heavier and often waterlogged in winter, although the drainage improves considerably as the field rises southward to North Leigh Lane (Fig. I.3). Both fields yield good arable crops.
Note:- The scheme of numbering the rooms in Building A, Period 3 (Fig. I.4) is that used during the excavation on all plans, sections and records and has been retained here to avoid the confusion which would arise from changing the numbering for the sake of the report. In the areas under excavation sites and buildings are designated by capital letters, rooms in buildings by Roman numerals, periods of construction and occupation by arabic numerals and subdivisions of these periods by lower-case letters. Thus “A. IV. 3b” denotes Building A, room IV, Period 3b levels.
The course of the stream in the immediate vicinity of the villa has been straightened in recent times: it appears as a straight line for nearly 400 ft. to the west on the 1876 O. S. 25 in. map.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
2. General Description
the west side a set of baths was installed. This marked a major change in the use of the building; from then on the occupation was primarily domestic.
Site A was occupied, apparently without interruption, for about 350 years. No traces were found of any occupation earlier than A.D. 100. On the opposite side of the stream, however, excavations on Site B have revealed a large Roman building, probably the main dwelling of the villa at least until the third century, which has yielded evidence of an initial occupation in the first century A.D. The first building on site A, erected soon after A.D. 100, therefore represents an extension of the villa on previously unoccupied land.
The bath installation included a hot room (VIII on the Period 3 plan, Fig. I.4) stoked from within the building, a small projecting structure (room IX) which may have held a hot-water tank, and a small semicircular latrine (room X). The central block of rooms (II, XVIII, XVII, XVI) had massive foundations and must have had clerestory windows to ensure at least some natural lighting of the interior. The main entrance was on the east side, and the roof was of stone slates. Internally the building was decorated with many different patterns of coloured wall plaster, and the floors were of good cement. Outside, to west and south, there was a stone wall enclosing an area of some 13,000 sq. ft. This enclosure was used as a rubbish dump for ash rakings from the bath furnace, for builders’ debris, and for household refuse. Parts of it, on the north-west and southeast sides of the building, carried pebble floors.
Period 1 - Site A, close to the stream, is low-lying, flat, and waterlogged in winter, and it seems that the builders were put to some trouble to combat these disadvantages. The south end of the building had been underpinned with rubble to provide a firm foundation and a long drainage ditch had been cut immediately to the west. The building was an aisled barn with rough but well-built masonry outer walls and timber-based internal partitions. Its main purpose was doubtless agricultural and industrial as traces of iron smelting were found and there were no signs of any domestic comfort.
Period 3b - In the middle of the fourth century a number of alterations were made. Chief among these were the remodelling of the baths, the installation in room XVI of a stone-channelled hypocaust, and the subdivision of the east corridor. The remodelling of the baths involved adding a new cold room with a plunge bath (rooms VI and VII) and rebuilding the hot room (room VS). The hypocaust of room XVI had its stoking pit in the west wall, with a leanto shelter over it. The flue channels were later reduced in width.
Whether the outer walls were carried up in masonry or half-timbering could not be determined; nor was it possible to recover a complete plan of the interior. The main entry seems to have been on the east side and rough paving surrounded the building on the three other sides. Period 2 – Between A.D. 180 and 200 the building was demolished and replaced by a larger. It is possible that the old building, on soft clay, had become unsafe: it is also possible that it had been found too small to serve the purposes of an expanding estate. The new building was a third larger and in better masonry. It contained eight rooms with a long corridor on the east side. Two of the rooms were large; the larger was a central working area with a hearth in one corner containing much fused lead, and may have been used mainly for industrial purposes.
The partitioning of the east corridor suggests an increased intensity of occupation. The floors of rooms XVII and XVIII were relaid with heavy cobbles and a hearth was installed which may have been for iron working. At some time during Period 3 a timber-lined pit, waterproofed with clay, was set over the old ditch in the enclosure, and a rectangular timber building was constructed at Site D, 350 ft. south of Site A.
The next largest room, of some 576 sq. ft., had its floor raised above ground level on five stone sleeper walls. This mode of construction suggests a granary somewhat on the standard military pattern with an elevated floor to keep the corn dry. Two small rooms on the west, one of which had an annexe floored with inverted tegulae, had suffered much disturbance from later rebuilding and their purpose remains unknown. The presence in the building of painted wall plaster assignable to Period 2 suggests that at least part was in domestic occupation.
The peak of prosperity was reached in the second half of the fourth century, and Building A remained in occupation until at least A.D. 430. The inhabitants were eventually, it seems, reduced to living in the one room at the northern end which still retained its roof, the other rooms being roofless and used as dumps for household refuse. The possible significance of this final phase is discussed on p.64. By the end of the fifth century the building had been completely abandoned. Later the ruins were used – probably by Saxons – as a burial ground. After that there was no activity on the site until the laying of field drains and stone-robbing in the nineteenth century.
Period 3a - Between A.D. 240 and 270 the Period 2 building was pulled down to be rebuilt on a still more generous scale. It was a quarter larger than its predecessor and nearly half as large again as the Period 1 building. In the new building there were only two more rooms but on
4
Excavations at Shakenoak
5
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
6
Excavations at Shakenoak Immediately outside the building undressed flat limestone slabs, typically some 2 in. - 4 in. thick and 6 in. - 12 in. square, had been laid roughly edge-to-edge on the undisturbed blue clay (Fig. I.6). This paving had no clearcut limits, but the gaps between the slabs increased with distance from the building and the paving finally petered out about 20 ft. - 30 ft. away from the building. The situation on the east side is not yet known. In the extreme south-east corner of the site the paving was much more solid and showed considerable wear. It had been repaired in various places and extended at all points up to the Period 1 outer walls, passing under the Period 2 and 3 structures at some points. This paving was certainly laid at very nearly the same time as the building was erected, since no rubbish had had time to collect on the blue clay below it. Some of the earliest pottery from the site was found on the paving, including coarse pots nos. 1, 6, 7-8, 29, 58, 62, 79 and 95 (Figs. I.17 - I.21).
3. Detailed Description PERIOD 1 The entire area of Site A indicated on the plan (Fig. I.6) was excavated down to the undisturbed subsoil, at between 2 ft. 6 in. and 4 ft. 6 in. below modern ground level, without producing any indications of structures earlier than the building to be described. As it is now known that there was occupation at an earlier date on the north side of the stream it is evident that Building A was an extension, on hitherto unoccupied land, to an already existing farm. Before the Period 1 building (Fig. I.4) was erected, large blocks of undressed limestone, packed with yellow clay, were laid as a foundation at the southern end of the building site and it was upon this that the walls and floors rested. It is clear that the land was then, as now, badly drained and marshy, and this packing was laid down to provide a firmer foundation. The packing rested on the natural blue clay, which was sterile except for small patches of charcoal and burnt clay, presumably the result of preliminary clearing operations.
The evidence for the date of construction of the Period 1 building is conflicting but, on balance, it seems probable that the Period 1 occupation started soon after A.D. 100. The lowest levels of the enclosure yielded sherds of several Form 27 samian bowls and three brooches (Fig. I.27, nos. 2, 3, and 7) which date to A.D. 50-100. Later deposits in the enclosure also produced a few objects which can be dated to A.D. 50-100; for example, brooch no. 6 (Fig. I.27) and a fragment of a blue and white marbled glass bowl (Fig. I.26, no. 1).
The Period 1 structure had been much damaged by the foundation trenches of walls of later buildings, but the general plan indicates that it was an aisled barn 74 ft. by 38 ft., with substantial outer walls and slender internal partitions based on oak sleeper beams.1 Two of these, one 30 ft. long and 15 in. wide, were found in position. The outer walls, 2 ft. - 2 ft. 2 in. wide, were of hammer-dressed limestone block facing, with a central core of undressed limestone, set in yellow mortar. The blocks measured up to 10 in. in the face, three or four courses surviving above the offset which was immediately based on footings some 12 in. deep of undressed limestone slabs pitched or set on edge with a filling of earth. The stone was of considerably poorer quality than that used in the succeeding periods. The roof was almost certainly of imbrex and tegula, the pentagonal limestone slates of the later structures being conspicuously absent. It is possible that the entrance was on the east side, in the same spot as in the later Period 3 structure.
The evidence of the coins and the coarse pottery, however, suggests that all these objects were strays from the earlier occupation elsewhere on the villa site and that the date of occupation of Site A was slightly later than A.D. 50-100. The paving, and hence the building, was dated by a considerably worn coin of Vespasian (no. 1) which was found among the stones, and by another, less worn, of Trajan (no. 2), found on the paving. A second coin of Trajan (no. 3) was also found within the enclosure. The evidence afforded by the coarse pottery is more striking. The Period 1 levels yielded several sherds which may well be dated to the very beginning of the second century (e.g., Fig. I.19, nos. 56 and 62), but the Flavian forms well known from other local sites (e.g. Alchester) were entirely absent. There was also a complete absence from Site A of figured samian of Flavian date.
Two types of floor were found in the Period 1 building. An area of pebbles set in hard-packed red clay represented a floor surface of this period. Its original extent could not, however, be determined as the boundaries of the surviving surface were the foundation trenches of the Period 3 walls. In the centre of the building were two areas of white clay and one of soft yellow mortar which rested on the original ground surface. They were too soft to have formed floor surfaces and originally may have carried wooden or stone floors. The floors produced coarse pots nos. 2-5, 18, 20, 33 and 61 (Figs. I.17-I.19).
1
Only a small proportion of the total amount of coarse pottery recovered can be attributed to Period 1, and it seems that the occupation was neither intensive nor wealthy. The small amount of samian ware was all undecorated, and there was no painted plaster. During Period 1 the main centre of the villa lay on the north side of the stream, and it is clear that Building A was largely agricultural and industrial. A small amount of slag from iron working was found in the earliest deposits outside the building, and two iron bars (Fig. I.36, no. 74), which were probably unworked smith’s stock, were found embedded in the central mortar floor.
We are indebted to Professor G. W. Dimbleby for this identification.
7
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker from this, only layers of soft orange mortar remained, from which some harder surface must have been removed. It is most probable that the main entrance was midway down this corridor, in the same position as the later Period 3 entrance.
PERIOD 2 The first reconstruction of Building A involved the almost complete demolition of the Period 1 building. There were no signs of violent destruction, and there was no indication of any time-lag between the demolition of the Period 1 building and the erection of the Period 2 building. The lowest course of the Period 1 west wall and the greater part of the Period 1 north wall were retained and incorporated in the new building, but the new east and south walls were built only a few inches outside the Period 1 east and south walls. It seems unlikely that so much effort was expended merely to enlarge the building by such a small amount, and it is possible that the Period 1 footings were considered unsafe for further use. This may have been the main reason for the demolition of the Period 1 building.
The two small rooms at the northern end of the building had hard orange mortar floors, under one of which was the enamelled bronze object (Fig. I.29, no. 11). On the floor of the eastern of these two rooms were fragments of the appliqué samian vessel (Fig. I.13, no. 2). In these two rooms two doorways were clearly visible; the impressions of the wooden door-sills remained in the surface of the mortar, whence the timber had been removed. The rooms at the southern end had been too badly damaged by the construction of the massive Period 3 foundations to yield much information.
The new building, 89 ft. by 40 ft., was constructed on a simple plan, and the stone used was of much finer quality than that used in Period 1, being typically of long, welldressed rectangular limestone blocks. The walls were of similar construction to those of the earlier period. The presence of some stone roof-slates suggests that the building was at least partly roofed in this material, although imbrex and tegula roofing may have been used as well.
The only notable feature of the rooms projecting to the west was an area of paving consisting of inverted tegulae set in orange mortar. As the surfaces of the tegulae showed no signs of wear, and there were no signs of paths leading away from the building at this point, it is unlikely that there was another doorway here. While it is clear from the existence of a probable granary that much of the Period 2 building was agricultural in purpose, the presence of painted plaster, as well as the more complicated architectural plan, suggests that the building was a considerable advance on the Period 1 structure. It is possible that, although the centre of the villa was still on the north side of the stream, Building A Period 2 may well have been partly a dwelling house. This is also suggested by the fact that the objects from Site A that can be assigned to the second half of the second century are considerably finer in quality and greater in quantity than those which can be dated to the first half of the century.
The building had a large central “working” area, 34 ft. by 25 ft., containing a hearth, and an adjoining granary 24 ft. square. A corridor 10 ft. wide ran the length of the east side of the building, connecting the small rooms at the north with those to the south. The projecting rooms to the south-west had been too much damaged by the Period 3 foundations to make it possible to determine whether they were part of the original Period 2 structure or a later addition. The central room had two layers of massive rubble flooring. The lower of these was of sterile mortar and rubble, but at a later date it was raised by about 3 in., and this upper rubble floor contained much red and white and a little apple-green painted plaster, which must have come from an earlier phase of the Period 2 structure. The hearth in the corner (Fig. I.10, no. 1) contained more than 20 lb. of fused lead, but there was no other indication of its purpose.
Hardly any floors or deposits could be related to the Period 2 walls because of damage caused by later construction and post-Roman robbing and consequently little material was available to date Period 2. A coin of Elagabalus (no. 7) was lodged against the outer face of the extreme south-east corner of the building, but disturbance in this area makes its significance uncertain. The date of construction of the Period 2 building cannot therefore be given with any accuracy, but between A. D. 150 and 180 seems probable.
The room immediately to the south had a raised floor, of which the supporting sleeper walls had survived. They were originally five in number; the fifth, however, at the west end of the room, had been removed by recent robbing. The walls were each about 1 ft. 10 in. wide, with intervals of 2 ft. - 3 ft. between them. As no stone bridging slabs were found, it is possible that the floor was of wood. The room was probably a granary but, as we do not know how the grain would have been stored in it, it is unprofitable to speculate on its capacity.
PERIOD 3a A second almost complete demolition led to the construction of the Period 3a building, again with no apparent time-lag in occupation and with no signs of a violent destruction of the earlier building. Only the west wall of the Period 2 corridor and the south wall of the two rooms at the north end of the Period 2 building were used again, the latter being the only wall in the whole building to be retained in use during all three periods. All the other Period 2 walls were ignored, and new walls were
No floor surfaces had survived in the eastern corridor except for a small area of rough limestone paving. Apart 8
Excavations at Shakenoak
constructed, sometimes very close to the old ones. These measuring 6 in. - 10 in. in the face, were set in regular courses on rubble footings some 12 in. deep with a filling of earth. The easternmost wall of the building was moved in slightly, so that it was based on the old Period 1 wall.
new walls, of large, roughly dressed limestone blocks running the length of the east side of the building, with rooms at its northern and southern ends. The central rooms, XVII and XVIII, had massive cobbled floors made of stones up to 12 in. long and 4 in. - 6 in. square set on end, including some dressed building stones and occasionally even voussoirs. In room XVII the cobbling was 8 in. deep, and was based on 3 in. of broken tegulae and a layer of white mortar, which was laid direct on the Period 2 sleeper walls.
The new building in its original Period 3a form was an enlarged version of Period 2, 105 ft. by 49 ft., with a line of small rooms added along the western side. As before, there were two large central rooms, apparently used as working areas, and a corridor, 75 ft. long and 8 ft. wide,
9
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker The eastern corridor had been too heavily disturbed by later foundations to yield much useful information, but its mortar floor survived in places (see section of room XXI, Fig. I.7). Midway down its length (room XXII), the main entrance to the building was marked by a gap in the outer wall and two small buttresses on its inner face. A doorway with a worn sill led into room XVIII from the corridor, and another led from room XVIII into room XVII.
leading into the cobbled central room XVIII. Nothing remained of the floor of room XXIV, 16 ft. by 11 ft., which was completely reconstructed in Period 3b. Two different reconstructions are possible for the Period 3a building, the more likely of which is shown by the reconstruction of Period 3b in Fig. I.5. The arguments in favour of a basilican building are first the basic similarity of the design to many others known in the Roman world, and secondly the massive foundations of the walls of the central block II-XVIII-XVII-XVI, the outside walls of the building being comparatively slender. The even more massive walls of room XVI lend additional weight to this view, for it is at this part of the building, where clerestory windows would not have been needed, that an upper story would have been possible.
At the northern end of the building there were two rooms. Room I, 44 ft. by 14 ft., had a very rough mortar and stone floor, and opened directly on to the corridor. No trace was found of any partition between it and the corridor. There was also a doorway connecting rooms I and II. Room II, 20 ft. by 16 ft., had a fine orange cement floor and a rectangular hearth in its southern wall (Fig. I.10, no. 2). The wall plaster from this room was mostly white and yellow, the former predominating. At the southern end of the building, room XVI, 20 ft. square, was distinguished by the abnormal width of its walls, which were 3 ft. wide on rubble footings 18 in. deep compared with the normal wall width elsewhere in the building of 2 ft. - 2 ft. 6 in. on rubble footings 12 in. deep. This may indicate that there was a second story over this room. It had a hard floor of orange mortar.
An alternative reconstruction would make rooms XVIII and XVII into an open central courtyard. However, the lack of evidence for any method of disposing of rainwater, together with the comparatively small area of rooms XVIII and XVII (820 sq. ft.) are arguments against this, as is the presence of the XVII-XVIII wall. The Period 3a building represents a very great advance in luxury on the Period 2 structure, and a fundamental change had clearly taken place in the character of Building A. While the Period 2 building may have had some domestic occupation its primary function was without doubt agricultural, the principal dwelling house of the villa being at this time on the north side of the stream. In Period 3a, however, the addition of a bath wing and the adoption of a more complicated plan show that the building had become primarily a dwelling house. This change appears to have taken place at the same time as structural changes made in the main house (Building B), which will be discussed in a later report.
The small rooms down the western side of the building included a suite of baths. The walls of the apsidal room X and the small structure IX were keyed into the masonry of the west wall of the building and were therefore contemporary with it. Room X, 5 ft. by 2 ft. 9 in. at the widest point, closely resembles the semicircular latrine found in the Langton villa (Langton, fig. 10, plates 48 and 49). A drain, 5 in. by 4 in., cut through the semicircular wall of X, had been blocked later by the make-up of the latest floor which was of fine red cement with a quarterround moulding. The floor showed few signs of wear and a flat tile, 18 in. by 17 in., was set flush in it, abutting the XXI wall.
One notable piece of evidence for a considerable advance in the interior decoration and domestic comfort of the building was the recovery from the Period 3 levels of thousands of pieces of fine quality painted plaster, no fewer than 114 different designs or colour schemes being identifiable (Fig. I.25). A scattered dump of about 2,700 small red, white and grey tesserae, found unstratified immediately north of the building, indicates that there was once a tessellated pavement of simple design within it. It is most probable that this pavement is of Period 3 date, although it cannot be assigned to any particular room any more than the fragments of moulded stonework (Fig. I.11), found in the make-up of the Period 3 floors, can be assigned to the Period 1 or 2 buildings.
The small rectangular structure IX, 4 ft. 6 in. by 2 ft., contained a central brick pila of which only the lowest tile, 7.5 in. square, had survived, set on a stone base. A channel, 9 in. wide, through the wall, connected room VIII with IX, which may possibly have held a hot water tank. Narrow buttresses, triangular in section and 18 in. across the face, had been inserted into the north-west and south-west internal corners, and these bore splashes of fused lead. Room VIII, 11 ft. by 7 ft., was a caldarium. Only the bases, 10 in. - 12 in. square, of a few pilae had survived later renovations. The stoke-hole was in the south-east corner of the room, as was shown by the intense burning there of the floor and the surrounding stonework. Much of the room had been badly damaged by recent stone-robbing. Room XI, 11 ft. by 5 ft., yielded no finds and no hints as to its purpose. Room V, 15 ft. by 11 ft., was probably a frigidarium. Room IV, 11 ft. by 10 ft., had a good orange cement floor similar to that in Room II and a doorway
The coins permit fairly accurate dating of the construction of the Period 3a building. The area of pebble flooring south of Room XVI is of particular value in this connection. It ran up to the south wall of the room and must therefore postdate its construction. This floor had above it coins of Antoninus Pius, Victorinus, and Aurelian (nos. 4, 15, 27).
10
Excavations at Shakenoak
The coin evidence from the whole of the building, including this floor, may be summarised as follows:
after A.D. 260. (iii) The Period 3a levels produced, in all, 10 coins of the period A.D. 259-273, some of which were quite unworn. (iv) Because the excavations were so extensive, it is probable that if the
(i) Probably during the course of Period 2, a denarius of Elagabalus (no. 7) was deposited by the side of the Period 2 wall. This coin showed some wear, but would not have circulated long after c. A.D. 240. (ii) A worn sestertius of Antoninus Pius (no. 4) was found on the Period 3a cobbles south of Room XVI. This coin would have been driven out of circulation soon
Period 2 building had continued in use for any length of time after A.D. 259-260, coins from after that date would have been found in the pre-Period 3 levels, but, in fact, none was found.
11
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker It is therefore evident that the Period 3a building must have been constructed in the middle years of the third century, with perhaps A.D. 240-270 as the outside limits.
ante-room to a newly added frigidarium (room VI, 6 ft. 6 in. by 6 ft.) which had a cold plunge (room VII, 6 ft. 6 in. by 4 ft.) at one end (see section, Fig. I.7). The floor of room VII was of large limestone flags lined with a very hard pink cement which was carried up the walls. There was a lead waste-pipe in the north-west corner of the room. In the north wall of room VI, the frigidarium, a roof ridgestone was inserted upside down, probably as a drain. Neither this nor the lead waste-pipe appeared to empty into any ditch or outside drain. Cut blocks of tufa were found in the debris above rooms VI and VII and it is probable that at least part of the bath wing was roofed with this material.
PERIOD 3b A large number of structural changes were made during the course of Period 3. Some of them cannot be dated with any accuracy, and there is no evidence that they all occurred at the same time, though it is quite possible that they did. It is convenient to consider all these changes in a single section, and to call the building in its final stage ‘Building A.3b’, but it must be borne in mind that there was probably no Period 3a-3b transition in the same way that there was a Period 2-Period 3a transition.
The entire west wall of room XXIV was removed except for the bottom course, and a pebble and cement floor was constructed running from room XXIV outside the building and extending in a strip 10 ft. wide down to rooms VI and VII. This was laid after the construction of the bath wing (see p. 16).
The eastern corridor was subdivided by a series of rather poorly built masonry walls, and room I was separated from the corridor by a similarly shoddy wall. Orange mortar floors were laid in all these new rooms, although room I retained its original floor. The main entrance was refloored with massive cobbling (see section, Fig. I.7) as were rooms XVII and XVIII. The XVII-XVIII dividing wall was removed, remaining as a line of stones on the same level as the new cobbling. This was shown by wear on the topmost remaining course of this wall.
Most of these complex alterations can be dated with a fair degree of accuracy. It may be taken as fairly certain that the floors in rooms II, XVIII, XVII and in the corridor must have been raised at the same time. If they had not, steps would have been necessary, which would not only have been inconvenient but should have left some traces. The best evidence for the date of these alterations is provided by coin no. 147 which was found sealed in the IIXVIII wall at the point where the Period 3a doorway had been blocked. The third course from the top had a worn upper surface, and had formed the Period 3a sill. The coin rested on this surface, and the wall had then been raised by means of two courses of masonry of a different type, to bring it up to the level of the Period 3b floor. The work must obviously have been done at the time when the floors were raised. The coin is a copy of the ‘Gloria Exercitus’ (one standard) type of the House of Constantine and dates to after c. A.D. 340. The great many other coins found on, in and under these floors confirm that the work must have been done between c. A. D. 340 and c. A. D. 370, the latest coin found under a Period 3b floor being no. 68, dated to A. D. 335. No coins of the House of Valentinian, very common on the Period 3b floors, were found under them.
A hearth was built in the south-west corner of room XVIII on the Period 3b floor (Fig. I.10, no. 3). When excavated, it was found surrounded by a scatter of pieces of slag from iron working. Slag was also found in all the Period 3b deposits inside Building A, indicating that small-scale iron working was once again taking place, apparently for the first time in 200 years. In room II, a new floor was laid which covered the Period 3a hearth. A new, smaller, semicircular hearth (Fig. I.10, no. 2) was cut into the south wall of the room. The new floor was, with that of room IV, the finest of any period within the building, being of hard orange cement with a pink cement surface. When first excavated it was still as smooth and hard as a modern floor. A channelled hypocaust with masonry piers was inserted in room XVI to heat part of the room. The outer “walls” of the hypocaust were too insubstantial to have supported true walls or a roof. At a later date, before the hypocaust fell into disuse in the fifth century, the flues, originally 12 in. 18 in. wide, were halved in width by rough insertions of poor masonry. Coins of the House of Theodosius (nos. 126 and 130) and the bronze bull’ s head (Fig. I.27, no. 1; also Ant., XXXVI, 1962, 219) were found in the debris fill of the flues, and a very worn coin of Magnentius (no. 80) was found in the stoking pit.
It is also possible to date the extension of the bath wing accurately, for a coin of Constantine II or Constans (no. 74), unworn and dated to A.D. 343, was found 3 ft. north of room VI in a thick layer of ash from the Period 3a hypocaust. This ash deposit ran under rooms VI and VII. Confirmatory evidence came from the large deposits of builders’ debris (roof-slates, mortar, painted plaster, nails, window-glass and dressed stone, as well as large quantities of broken flue-tile) which lay a few feet to the west of the building. This debris contained, as well as a coin of Magnentius (no. 81), a hoard of 15 coins (Hoard A, p. 18) which was lost in c. A.D. 355. As there was much building activity on the site in the middle of the fourth century, it would be reasonable to assume, though it cannot be proved, that this builders' debris is the result of this activity, and that Hoard A may therefore give us the exact
The bath suite was completely reorganised. The caldarium was moved from room VII1 to the southern half of room V and was probably stoked from room VIII. The surviving pilae in room VS were of tiles 7.5 in. square, based on others 11 in. square. The northern half of room V was an 12
Excavations at Shakenoak date of the alterations.
Another feature of rooms II, III, IV and XVIII was the presence in the latest deposits of a great quantity of sherds of red colour-coated ware. This concentration was very high both absolutely and in proportion to other wares (Fig. 16). In the other rooms of the building the proportion was far lower and the floors of these other rooms were covered by little or no black deposit, producing few objects. It may also be significant that in rooms II, III, IV and XVIII the ratio of animal bones to oyster shells (about 30:1) was far higher than that (about 4:1) from earlier deposits, including the main Period 3 deposits in and around the building. In the latest phase of occupation oysters evidently formed a very small proportion of the inhabitants’ diet, either because the oyster trade had diminished or because the people were too poor to be able to buy them.
It seems probable that all these changes took place within a few years of the middle of the fourth century. The insertion of the hypocaust into room XVI cannot be dated so accurately because the only stratified coin from this room was one of Tacitus (no. 27) on the floor of the period 3a room under the hypocaust, which is therefore later than c. A.D. 275. It is clear that in the middle of the fourth century, when most of the Period 3b alterations were made, the villa was still expanding, and was reaching the peak of its prosperity. The division of the corridor into small rooms suggests that the occupation of Building A was becoming more intense, with a larger number of people accommodated. This view is confirmed by the coin evidence which shows that the occupation reached its peak in Valentinianic times.
There are three reasons for believing that rooms II, III, IV, V and XVIII were roofless in this last phase of occupation. First, it is inconceivable that a deposit of kitchen refuse 6 in. thick would have been tolerable indoors, especially as it would only have had to be shovelled away to reveal, in room II, for example, a fine cement floor. Secondly, the sheet of fallen roof-slates which covered room I extended for only 2 ft. - 4 ft. into room II where they overlay the latest black deposit. A fire of sufficient intensity to destroy the roof of room I would hardly have failed to spread to adjoining rooms had they had roofs, but there were no signs of burning in room II. The third, and perhaps the most convincing point, was the presence in room II of an irregular gutter, up to 9 in. deep and 1 ft. wide, which ran the east-west length of the room. It had been cut in the latest floor some 2 ft. south of the I-II dividing wall, and was filled with black earth and pieces of cement from the broken floor.
A tentative reconstruction of the building in Period 3b is given in Fig. I.5. The problems associated with a reconstruction of this type have been discussed under Period 3a. FINAL PHASE OF OCCUPATION The evidence for the decline which took place in the final phase of Period 3b is provided by the nature of the deposits on the latest floor levels. In room I the latest levels yielded no objects apart from the interesting late pot no. 105 (Fig. I.22) and a few other sherds. There were no animal bones or oyster shells. A few patches of carbonised spelt wheat (see p. 69), amounting to about two quarts in volume, lay on the latest rough floor. The roof of the room had clearly been destroyed by fire; above the latest floor on which lay the wheat was a layer of carbonised wood containing many nails, and above this was a layer of shattered and heavily burned pentagonal stone roof-slates and several hundred iron nails, some still in position in the broken slates. Above the slates, in the middle of the room, lay a roof ridge-stone.
This gutter must have been intended to carry rainwater from the roof of room I. Its presence, and that of the ridgestone found above the broken roof-slates in room I, may indicate that the roof of room I was reconstructed at a late date with gables to east and west and a ridge down the centre. Materials from the disused parts of the building could have been used for this. The walls of the rest of the building were probably no longer standing to their full height; if the superstructure were timber-framed the beams would no doubt have been removed for further use or for fuel. It may be concluded that by the end of the final phase only room I still possessed a roof and that the occupants were using the neighbouring roofless areas as a rubbish tip.
In contrast to the relative emptiness of room I, the latest floors of rooms II, III, IV, V and XVIII were covered by a black deposit up to 6 in. thick, containing many objects. This deposit was thickest in rooms II and III and here contained about a thousand fragments of animal bones (see p. 71) and a very large quantity of pottery, all of it of demonstrably late types. Numbers 17, 22, 24, 51, 53, 66, 67, 70, 71, 72 and 74 (Figs. I.17 – I.19) all came from this black level. The worn and clipped siliqua no. 138, dated to A.D. 392-395, which may well have remained in circulation for about 25 years after being struck (see p. 18), and coin no. 135, dated to A.D. 388-395, which may have circulated for about 40-50 years, were found in the upper levels of room II, as were also the fittings from military belts (Fig. I.29, nos. 13 and 15; Fig. I.32, no. 58), discussed on p. 61.
The date when the building became reduced to this lamentable state is of great interest and the evidence of the Theodosian coins is significant. Whereas the rubbish dating from the final phase of the occupation was concentrated in the northern end of the building, the spread of the Theodosian coins was fairly even over the whole site, suggesting that coins ceased to be used some time before the end of the occupation. The coins indicate that they continued to circulate at Shakenoak until c. A.D. 420430 (see p. 18) but, as the circulation of coin in rural areas probably ceased at about this time in southern Britain 13
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker generally, the date at which the site was finally abandoned may well be considerably later than c. 420-430.
bounded by the modern line of the stream to the north and the enclosure wall to the west and south, were fully excavated down to the undisturbed subsoil, except for part of the north-west corner of the enclosure.
POST-ROMAN PERIOD There was no evidence anywhere on Site A for occupation after the first half of the fifth century. None of the objects found could be dated to after A.D. 450 at the very latest, and Anglo-Saxon material was completely absent although the area to the north of the stream was occupied until the middle of the eighth century.
These areas produced about 45,000 finds, including nearly 100 coins. Unfortunately the stratification was generally ill-defined since much of the enclosure contained nothing but an almost homogeneous fill of black earth, which extended from the topsoil to the undisturbed subsoil. In several instances fourth-century pottery (e.g., Fig. I.21, no. 101) was found at the lowest levels - evidence that parts of the enclosure were periodically cleared of the earth and debris which continually accumulated there. The only parts surfaced were south-east of the building and west of rooms XXIV and IV, and also the Period 1 paving described above. This is consistent with the absence of any gateways through the enclosure wall.
Four fairly complete skeletons and a number of scattered human bones were found inside Building A, representing at least nine individuals (see p.74). The four skeletons lay extended and supine, with heads to the west, in graves which had been dug down through the debris of Building A.3b until the latest floors had been reached. One lay in room II by the doorway into room I, a second in room IV, a third in room XVI, and a fourth immediately south of room XI. The legs of a fifth were immediately south of the hearth in room XVIII, the whole of the upper part of the body having been removed during modern stone-robbing. All were exactly orientated to the walls of Building A, suggesting that the general outline of the building was still visible when the burials took place. The scattered bones presumably represented other burials, but they had been too disturbed by ploughing and stone-robbing for any conclusions to be drawn, for they all lay little more than 9 in. below modern ground level. There were no grave-goods associated with the burials, and no evidence as to the period of time over which they were deposited. All the skeletons which were complete enough for identification were of adult males from about 17 to 40 years of age. One had been decapitated.
Most of the area was covered by a layer of black earth, 1 ft. - 2 ft. 6 in. thick, shading gradually into a grey-brown colour 20 ft.- 40 ft. from the building. Most of the objects contained in this fill were found within 30 ft. of the outer west wall of the Period 3b building. The softness of the deposit and the many large, unworn sherds which it contained showed that people and animals seldom walked over it, and that the ground was not regularly cultivated. It must be reluctantly concluded that this part of the enclosure was for most of the occupation nothing more than a rubbish tip. The main thoroughfare was at all times to the east of the building, and only one door, that from room XXIV, opened on to the western side. There was no apparent drainage for surface water or for the effluent from the baths after the silting up of the ditch west of the building (discussed below), and today the Roman levels are waterlogged for much of the winter.
A possible reference to the burials in a charter of A.D. 1044 is discussed elsewhere (Med. Arch., XI, forthcoming). Certainly they relate to the post-Roman phase at Shakenoak when there was an intensive occupation to the north of Site A.
To the west there were large areas where there were deposits of builders’ debris: broken roof-slates, nails, mortar, and painted wall-plaster. Hoard A (p. 18) had been deposited in one of these masses of debris. There were also thick deposits of ash and soot from the hypocausts.
The building was robbed of stone, but there was no evidence that this took place before the nineteenth century. The stratification of the north-west corner of the enclosure had been greatly disturbed by the laying of stone-lined field drains dated to the nineteenth century by a potsherd and the base of a beer-bottle. The modem stream bed represents a realignment of the original one, probably undertaken within the last 150 years.
The following features were revealed: (1) The Enclosure Wall
ENVIRONS OF BUILDING A
The enclosure wall, 2 ft. wide and built of neatly dressed limestone blocks set in yellow mortar, survived to a height of five or six courses above its footings to the south of room XVI. It ran from the south bank of the modern stream to a well-defined end south of room XIX, a distance of 215 ft. The wall had been cut through by the modern realigned stream and continued to the north of it. The eastern end terminated in a gateway; this will be more fully investigated when Site C (Fig. I.3) is excavated.
The areas north, west and south of Building A (Fig. I.6),
The east - west length of the well showed signs of having
Only 19 pieces of pottery dating from medieval to modern times were found over Site A, and of these only 10 are from before the nineteenth century. This indicates that there was little agricultural activity on Site A until recent times.
14
Excavations at Shakenoak been reconstructed, since the bottom course of stones was at some points separated from the one above by a thin layer of earth, and at other points these two courses were up to 4 in. out of alignment with one another. At the south-west corner it became clear that there were in fact two periods of construction, for the earlier of the two walls turned north before the later, so that the later wall overhung the earlier by about 9 in. Unfortunately it was impossible to determine how far along the west side this situation continued, for the wall was only preserved to the height of one course for most of its length.
It seems therefore that the whole of the ditch had become filled in by the middle years of the second century or soon after. That it must have filled in fairly quickly was shown by the almost complete absence of weathering of the sides. It may well be that it went out of use at the time the first enclosure wall was built. (3) Timber-lined Pit West of Room VII (Pit C) A timber-lined pit had been constructed partly over the line of the ditch, but not aligned to it (see plan and section, Fig. I.8). The pit was square, about 5 ft. 2 in. by 5 ft. internally. The bottom of it, about 4 ft. 6 in. below modern ground level, was lined with four oak planks, each about 1 in. thick and 14 in. - 15 in. wide, which ran the whole length of the pit2. The sides were of untrimmed, roughly butting lengths of oak trunk or branch, 4 in. - 8 in. in diameter. Neither nails nor pegs had apparently been used in the construction. The pit clearly post-dated the ditch and had been carefully packed round on each side with about 9 in. thickness of white clay. A similar, shallower, clay packing underlay it, rendering the pit virtually waterproof. It may perhaps have served as some kind of settling tank but it cannot have acted as a soak-away because of its waterproof clay packing. It is possible that it had a lid and it may have been cleaned out periodically. Its purpose remains uncertain, and the possibility that it was intended for storage or for some industrial process cannot be ruled out.
There were no indications of any gateways in the wall, though the stones of the topmost surviving course to the south of the building did in some places show wear on their upper surfaces, suggesting that the superstructure of the wall had been removed before the occupation of Site A had ceased. At a point 25 ft. east of the south-west corner a gap 6 in. wide had been deliberately made in the wall, presumably to act as a drain. The black level of the enclosure had spilled through this gap, and contained at this point coins of Constantine I, Constans and Honorius. The earliest (Period 1) deposits ran under the lowest course of the enclosure wall, but finds were so rare in these levels that dating was difficult. The wall certainly pre-dated the Period 3 pebble floors south of Building A, which ran up to the wall. A construction date between c. A.D. 180 and c. A.D. 250 seems probable.
The pit was filled with black silt containing a few large nails, some pottery, a stone roof-slate and coins of Gratian and Theodosius (nos. 117 and 131). The latter of these was probably not lost until early in the fifth century and this date is supported by the late nature of the pottery from the fill, which included no. 133 (Fig. I.24) and other types paralleled in the latest levels of Building A. The date of construction of the pit cannot, however, be fixed with any accuracy.
(2) Ditch West of Building A A small U-section ditch, 130 ft. long, averaging 3 ft. 6 In. in width and dug to a depth of 2 ft. into the subsoil (see Fig. I.8), had been dug from a point just north of the later enclosure wall whence it ran in a straight line northwards into the stream. The spoil from the ditch lay immediately on the undisturbed and sterile clay and at some points ran under the rough stone paving of Period 1. No objects were found in or under this spoil, and it can be assumed that the ditch was dug before, or very soon after, the construction of the Period 1 building. The ditch was probably for drainage.
(4) Stone-lined Pit A pit, measuring 2 ft. 6 in. square internally and 1 ft. 9 in. deep, was found 2 ft. 6 in. to the south of room VII. The floor was of four pentagonal limestone roof-slates and the sides, which were some 7 in. thick, were of three to five courses of unmortared rough limestone blocks. The fill was orange-yellow subsoil with no trace of black silt. The pit contained no objects and this, together with the nature of the fill, suggests that it had filled in very quickly. A denarius of Caracalia (no. 6), very worn, but unlikely to have circulated after c. A.D. 240, was found lodged against the outer face of the top course of stones. The purpose of the pit remains unknown, but it may have had some connection with the Period 3a baths. There was no sign of any inlet or outlet, nor can it have been intended to hold water.
The fill of the ditch was of two kinds. At the extreme southern end the lowest level was a dark silt deposit which contained some early pottery, including nos. 28, 110 and ill (Figs. I.18 and I.22). Above this was a grey clay level containing a few fragments of early Nene Valley ware. Above this again was the confused black level which covered much of the enclosure, containing some Antonine samian. This fill continued only for about the first 30 ft. northwards. For the whole of the rest of its length the ditch was filled to the top with a peaty black mass. This contained nothing except a bead (Fig. I.26, no. 11), pot no. 102 (Fig. I.21), which is certainly of the second century, and, at the very bottom, pieces of waterlogged twigs and small branches. The black level which ran over the top of the ditch contained some samian.
2
We are indebted to Mr. F. Hughes, Department of Forestry, University of Oxford, for this identification.
15
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker (5) Pebble Floor West of Room IV
AREAS WEST AND SOUTH OF THE ENCLOSURE WALL
A fine cement and pebble floor extended for 10 ft. west of the Period 3 building, running from the north wall of rooms VI and VII to the junction of rooms IV and XXIV. It ran over the single remaining course of stones of the west wall of room XXIV and was continuous with the floor of this room. As it ran up to the north wall of rooms VI and VII it must have been laid after the construction of these two rooms.
Trenches were dug for a distance of 30 ft. to the west of the enclosure wall and 10 ft. to the south. In both cases there was almost no Roman material more than 5 ft. from the enclosure wall, and the black Roman deposits faded into featureless brown earth, much of which was probably topsoil carried down the slope by modem ploughing. SITE D
Outside the building, in the rubbish above this floor, lay 15 coins, 11 of which were of the period A.D. 364 - 378, the remainder being House of Constantine (Fel Temp) (1), barbarous copies (2) and Arcadius (1). The floor was evidently in use from about A.D. 350 (the date when rooms VI and VII were built) to about 380 or perhaps even a decade later. An earlier date is ruled out because the very common issues of the House of Constantine had had time to go almost entirely out of circulation before the rubbish level began to build up. If the floor had remained clean longer, then more Theodosian coins would have been expected. It should perhaps be noted that there is no possibility of this remarkably satisfactory coin series being a scattered hoard.
Excavations at a point 350 ft. south and 20 ft. west of Building A (Fig. I.3) revealed a ditch, 26 ft. 6 in. long and varying in width from 2 ft. to 4 ft., cut into the natural subsoil to a depth of about 1 ft. - 1 ft. 3 in. (Fig. I.3). It was filled with brown soil and contained nine or ten postholes in an irregular row. The post-holes varied in size from 6 in. in diameter to more than 1 ft. 6 in. and were up to 1 ft. 9 in. deep. They yielded a few sherds of coarse Romano-British pot, including colour-coated ware dating from the second half of the fourth century and pot no. 128 (Fig. I.24) of decorated calcite-gritted ware, for which there is an exact parallel from Building A Period 3b. Other finds were nails, a piece of window glass rough on one side and smooth on the other, and fragments of animal bones. There were no floors on either side of the ditch and trenches dug for 20 ft. to east and west failed to reveal any other features. Trial trenches showed that the ditch did not resume its course again for at least 40 ft. to the north or south.
As well as the coins, the rubbish level produced an oculist’s stamp (Fig. I.12, no. 4), a pair of bronze tweezers (Fig. I.29, no. 18), a bracelet (Fig. I.30, no. 20), and much coarse pottery of late type, including nos. 106, 107, 108, 109, 116, 127 and 136 (Figs. I.22 – I.24).
The topsoil is at this point only 8 in. - 10 in. thick over stony orange subsoil, and it is apparent that the surface of the subsoil is being eroded rapidly by ploughing. It is therefore highly unlikely that any floors would have survived. The most probable explanation of the feature is that it represents one side of a rectangular timber-framed hut, the north and south walls of which were less substantial than the east and west walls and have therefore been totally destroyed by ploughing. The fourth wall was either similarly destroyed or the hut was more than 20 ft. wide. The pottery dates the structure to the second half of the fourth century.
(6) Miscellaneous (a) An area of rough, heavy paving, 18 ft. by 7 ft., in the south-west corner of the enclosure had been built after the enclosure wall but could not be dated more closely. The paving was unworn and there were no signs of gaps in the enclosure wall at this point. Such floors are used today in parts of Europe as bases for ricks, and some such purpose is possible here. (b) Several floors and levels of paving ran east of Building A and will be discussed in a later report. These floors extended a short way westwards to the south of rooms XIX and XVI.
16
Excavations at Shakenoak 6. 7. 8. 9-11.
4. The Finds THE COINS The coin series from Site A is not particularly remarkable numismatically, but archaeologically it is of considerable interest as the number of coins recovered is large compared with many villa excavations. Using the formula of Ravetz (‘The Fourth-Century Inflation’, Num. Chron., 1964, 201 ff.), it is possible to see that the series falls into her pattern B, with a peak in group V (Valentinianic). The relation of group III (A.D. 330-346) to group V is similar to that at Frilford Temple but that of groups V-VII (Theodosian) is closer to that at Alchester. The Theodosian coins are the subject of a separate report (see p. 18), but it will suffice to say here that the series shows that coin loss was remarkably intense from c. A.D. 360 onwards.
12. 13-14. 15. 16-21. 22-23. 24-26. 27. 28. 29-40. 41-42.
SUMMARY Vespasian Trajan Antoninus Pius Faustina I Caracalla Elagabalus Valerian II Gallienus Salonina Claudius II Victorinus Tetrici Gallic Empire Aurelian Tacitus Irregular Radiates Carausius Allectus House of Constantine 306-324 324-330 330-341 341-346 346-360 Magnentlus House of Valentinian 364-378 Magnus Maximus House of Theodosius 388-402 Barbarous copies Unclassified Hoard A 320-355 1. 2-3. 4. 5.
1 2 1 1 1 (silver) 1 (silver) 1 (silver) 3 1 2 1 8 3 1 1 12 2 1
43. 44. 45-48.
5 1 21 5 5 5
70-72. 73-74.
49-51. 52-53. 54-55. 56. 57-58. 59-62. 63-66. 67-69.
75-76. 77-79. 80-84.
38 (one silver) 1 (silver)
85 -90. 91-102.
15 (one silver) 14 11
103-4. 105-9.
15 179
Vespasian. Sestertius, rev. uncertain. Worn. Trajan. As, 98-102, rev. uncertain. Antoninus Plus. Sest., RIC 794. Faustina I. As, rev. uncertain.
110-1. 112-6.
17
Caracalla. Denarlus, RIC 312 (d). Elagabalus. Den., RIC 150. Valerian II. Antoninlanus, RIC 3. Gallienus. Ant., RIC 255 (delta); 270; 297, obv. K, Z in field. Salonina. RIC 16. Claudius II. cf.P.IC 261 ff. (2). Victorinus. RIC 118, obv. A, V In field. Tetricus I. RIC 86 (3); cf. RIC 121; + 1 uncertain. Tetricus II. RIC 248; cf. RIC 254. Gallic Empire. Types uncertain. Aurellan. RIC 241 (off P). Tacitus. RIC 140 (Felicit Temp). Radiate imitations, 14-17 mm. Gallienus (1); Claudius II, altar (1); Tetricus I (3); Uncertain (7). Carauslus. cf. RIC 141 (1). In name of Diocletian, obv. IC, rev. as RIC 5, but with S P in field, MLXII In exergue. Allectus. RIC 55 (obv. A). Uncertain follis of c. 294-308. Constantine I. RIC vii 14 (London); 3 (Lyons); 128 (Lyons); + another similar. Constantine II. RIC 455 (Trier-P); 539 (Trier-P); + another similar. Constantlus II. RIC 551 (Trier-P); 240 (Lyons-P). Uncertain Constantinian. Gloria Exercitus (2 Standards), (2). Constantine II. RIC 586 (Trier-P). Constantius II. RIC 592 (Trier-S); Constans. RIC 593 (Trier-S) . Uncertain Constantinian. Gloria Exercitus (1 Standard), (4). Urbs Roma. RIC 247 (Lyons-P); 257 (Lyons-P); + 2 uncertain. Constantinopolis. RIC 543 (Trier-P); 242 (Lyons-P); + 1 uncertain. Constans. LRBC i 141, 149; 150 (all P). Constantius II. LRBC i 637/8 (P); + 1 similar. Constans. LRBC ii 35 (S); 178 (P). Constantius II. LRBC ii cf. 32; cf. 42; 455 (P) . Magnentius. LRBC ii cf. 137; cf. 56; 227(p); 219/220; 53(P). Valentinian I. RIC (Arles) 17(a) ix(a), (2); 17(a) xii(a); + 3 uncertain. Valens. RIC (Lyons) 21(a) xxii(a). RIC (Arles) 9(b) ii(a); 9(b) vi(c); 17 (b) ix; 1 9 (a) xvii (b). RIC (Siscia) 15 (b) xxxv (3); + 4 uncertain. Gratian. RIC (Lyons) 21(b) xxix(a) (2). House of Valentinian. Securitas Reipublicae type, (5). Valentinian I. Gloria Romanorum type, uncertain mints, (2). Valens. RIC (Arles) 16(a), xi(b); 16(a) xiv(a) (2); + 2 uncertain.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker 117. 118-21. 122. 123. 124. 125. 126-9. 130-1. 132. 133. 134. 135-7. 138.
Gratian. Gloria Romanorum type, uncertain mint. House of Valentinian. Gloria Romanorum type, mints uncertain, (4). Gratian. RIC (Arles) 15. House of Valentinian. Siliqua reduced by filing to 18 gr. RIC (Trier) 2 7/45 . Magnus Maximus. Siliqua reduced by filing to 16 gr. RIC (Trier)84b/c. Theodosius I. cf. RIC (Lyons) 44(c). Arcadius. cf. RIC (Lyons) 44(d) (4). House of Theodosius. cf. RIC, (Lyons) 44 (2). Honorius. RIC (Aquileia) 58(d) off. P. House of Theodosius. cf. RIC (Aquileia) 58. Arcadius. Reverse uncertain. House of Theodosius. Reverse uncertain, (3). Arcadius. Siliqua reduced by clipping to 13 gr. RIC (Trier) 106(b).
A NOTE ON THE THEODOSIAN COINS by C. H. V. SUTHERLAND The following estimates are entirely approximate but, I think, are clear possibilities. The upper limits for AE might be reduced, and the AE assessments postulate a more or less consistent daily use, without hoarding.
Fourth-Century Imitations 139-43. 144-5. 146. 147. 148. 149-53. 154-64.
Fallen Horseman type. 17 mm., 12 mm., 11 mm., 10 mm., 8 mm. (5). Victoriae Dd Nn Aug et Caes type of Magnentius, 15 mm., 15 mm. (2). Urbs Roma type, 11 mm. Gloria Exercitus (1 Standard) type, 9 mm. Salus Reipublicae type of Theodosius 1, 9 mm. Uncertain types, 11 mm., 11 mm., 10 mm., 8 mm., 7 mm. Illegible, probably mostly Theodosian or imitations.
Supposing that my estimates of wear are correct, or reasonably so, this batch of currency (if the terminal date coincides with that of the villa) might be regarded as ending in the decade 420-430. I do not think that the coins, by themselves, allow of anything more extended or specific.
Hoard A The hoard of 15 coins found in builders’ rubbish to the west of Building A (see p. 13) must have been lost in about A.D. 355. It is interesting in that the coins appear to have been selected for size and for the quality of their silver coating. The very recent issues of Magnentius, as well as the AE 2 ‘Fel Temp’ types, seem to have been deliberately rejected. 165. 166. 167-70. 171. 172-3. 174. 175. 176-7. 178. 179.
Constantine I. RIC vii (Trier), 303-P. Constantine II. RIC (Lyons) 229. Urbs Roma. RIC (Lyons) 267-S; (Trier) 542S; (Arles) 379-S + 1 uncertain. Constantine I. RIC (Arles) 364-P. Constantine II. RIC (Trier) 539-S; cf. (Rome) 364. Constantius II. RIC (Arles) 396. Uncertain Constantinian. Gloria Exercitus (1 Standard). Constans. LRBC i 138(S); 140(S). Constans. LRBC ii 33(S). Constantius II. LRBC ii 253/6(P).
18
Excavations at Shakenoak “The slates which I have seen are almost certainly Stonesfield slates. They are grey, calcareous sandstone with the typical appearance of unfrosted Stonesfield slates. One is more yellow and contains scattered ooliths but this is a typical variation in Stonesfield slates. I have not been able to identify any diagnostic fossils although there is a badly preserved impression on one slate which may be Trigonia impressa. The stone with the most characteristic appearance of Stonesfield slate is from the Period 3b levels of Building A. This is part of a ‘pot-lid’ which is the local name for the fissile concretions from the Stonesfield Slate Bed. The slates would probably come from the outcrop of the bed in Stocky Bottom, or around Stonesfield Ford, since this was the main outcrop and the nearest to Shakenoak. Arkell mentions (Geology of Oxford, 1947, (p. 40) that ‘Crude unfrosted slates ... were used by the Romans for roofing villas at Ditchley and probably elsewhere’.”
STONE AND BRICK This section includes stonework, small objects of stone, brickwork and relief-patterned tiles. Some of the finds are shown in Fig. I.11. Fig, I.11 1. 2.
Pillar with square base. Pilaster or pillar, the front partly chiselled away to give a roughly flat vertical surface. 3. Pilaster or pillar. 4. Pillar, possibly part of no. 1, in which case this pillar was originally 3 ft 6 in - 4 ft high. 5, 6. Pillars with square bases. 7. Fragment of a pillar similar to no. 2. 8. Moulded cornice. From room II, make-up of Period 3b floor. 9-11. Roof-slates. 12. Ridge-stone. Room VI. 13, 14. Millstones. No. 13 from Period 1 levels inside Building A; no. 14 from Period 3 levels. 15-17. Relief-patterned tiles. No. 15 from south-east corner of Building A (with five similar examples from same place; two more from enclosure west of Building A). Undated, probably Period 1 or 2. Nos. 16 and 17 unstratified.
Other structural pieces included 16 fragments of moulded cornice (Fig. I.11, no. 8) from the Period 3 deposits inside and outside Building A, a complete ridge-stone (Fig. I.11, no. 12) which had been used as a drain in the north side of room VI, and a fragment of a similar ridge-stone found above the shattered and burned roof-slates over room I. A number of voussoirs had been re-used as cobbles in the make-up of the Period 3b floors of rooms XVII and XVIII. Three pieces of Purbeck marble (identified by Mr. Powell as being from Purbeck itself) were found in the Period 3b levels in the building. They may have come from the same block, which had at least two polished faces at right angles and cannot have been less than half a cubic foot in volume at the least. Occurrence of the marble in a deposit dating from the late fourth or early fifth century is unexpected (see G. C. Dunning in Archaeological News Letter, vol. 1, no. 11, 1949, pp. 14 and 15).
STONE (1) Structural remains. - The dressed stone used in all periods of construction of Building A was a local oolite of uncertain origin. Tufa was found in the debris over and about rooms VI and VII where it may have been used in vaulted roofs; it occurs naturally in the valley bottom east of Bridewell Farm which is about half a mile north-east of Site A (Fig. I.2). Thirteen fragments of pillar or pilaster were found, all in the Period 3a or 3b levels inside and outside Building A. It is not certain that these belong to the building as closely similar fragments have been found elsewhere at Shakenoak. They will be discussed more fully in a later report. The stone of one pillar (Fig. I.11, no. 1) was identified by Mr. H. P. Powell, of the Department of Geology, University of Oxford, as coming from the Burford area of the Windrush valley, probably from the horizon in the Great Oolite known as Taynton Stone.
2) Objects of stone. - Seven pieces of millstones were recovered from Building A. The largest (Fig. I.11, no. 13) was found in the Period 1 levels at the north end of the building and a smaller piece, of different design, was found in the Period 3 levels (Fig. I.11, no. 14, identified by Mr. Powell as coarse-grained pebbly grit, probably Millstone Grit from the Pennines). Five smaller pieces, similar to no. 14, but all from different millstones, were also found in the Period 3 levels.
Several hundreds of complete and thousands of fragmentary stone roof-slates were found, especially in the Period 3 levels, many of them still having the iron nails still in position. The vast majority of the slates were pentagonal, as in Fig. I.11, no. 9, though a few were hexagonal. Some had been broken at the nail-hole in antiquity and had been re-bored and used again. A very few slates were rectangular (Fig. I.11, no. 11). The holes had been made by picking, as was done in modern times at the Stonesfield quarries. We are grateful to Mr. Powell for the following note on four slates which he examined (and for his identification of other material described below):
Twelve whetstones, of oval, circular or rectangular crosssection, 0.5 in – 1.5 in in diameter and 2.5 in - 4 in long, were found on Site A. These were identified by Mr. Powell thus: eight of sandstone (five fine-grained); two of medium-grained reddish sandstone, possibly Millstone Grit; one of fine-grained limestone, and one of grit. Another whetstone, of similar appearance, picked up on the surface of the field about 30 ft south of Site D, was identified by Mr. Powell as quartzite, from local Drift. (3) Tesserae. - A scattered deposit of 2705 tesserae was found unstratified immediately north of Building A. All 19
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
(4) Flints. - Three worked flints, from the fourth-century deposits outside Building A, were submitted to Mrs. J. Crowfoot Payne, Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum, who has kindly provided this note:
bore traces of having been set in hard pink cement. There were 1,447 of red brick, typically cubes of 0.75 in - 1 in; 1,073 white (of which some were identified by Mr. Powell as White Chalk, possibly from the Chilterns), typically 0.25 in by 0.25 in top surface and 1 in – 1.25 in long, and 181 of grey stone (of which some were identified by Mr. Powell as cement-stone), varying in size from 0.25 in by 0.25 in by 0.75 in to 0.875 in by 0.625 in by 1.25 in Four others were of white Stone in the form of triangular right prisms, made by sawing normal tesserae diagonally in half.
“End scraper: grey flint, ochreous patina; made on small blade, neatly retouched round end only; very clear signs of use, abrasion of both sides, and formation of narrow band of lustre along both sides and round the end on both faces. Blade fragments (2): grey flint with thin ochreous patina; both used.” 20
Excavations at Shakenoak pieces submitted to him bore the “billet” pattern as in no. 25 in his Group 6, it seemed that a different die had been employed from that used for the pieces found at Charterhouse-on-Mendip and also at Verulamium (unpublished).
BRICKWORK The use of brick in Building A was apparently confined to the Period 3 bath hypocaust fittings, Periods 1 and 2 tegula and imbrex roofing, and relief-patterned tiles of uncertain purpose. No brickwork seems to have been used in the walls.
This “billet” pattern seems to have had some local popularity; a fragment is noted by Lowther from the Roman bath-house at Worsham Bottom, five miles southwest of Shakenoak (Fig. I.1), where a second piece was found in 1964 by one of the Shakenoak excavators. Another piece was in Widford church (Fig. I.1), seven miles south-west of Shakenoak before 1965. The two other patterns found at Shakenoak (Fig. I.11, nos. 16 and 17) resemble those in Lowther’s Group 8.
In room VS 77 complete brick tiles from the hypocaust pilae were recovered. Of these, 10 were base tiles 11 in square and 1.5 in - 2 in thick; 60 were 7.5 in square and 1 in – 1.5 in thick, of fine, close texture, and seven 7.5 in square and 1.25 in – 1.75 in thick, of distinctly coarse texture in two particular pilae. All had been well fired but a few had warped in firing. Some bore fingerprints, others imprints of hobnails and the paws of dogs about the size of modern fox-terriers (see p. 72). The tallest of the 13 surviving pilae was of 11 tiles 7.5 in square on a base tile 11 in square.
QUARTZ A piece of quartz crystal, 1.125 in, found above the latest floor of room XXIV in Building A, was examined by Mr. A. W. G. Kingsbury, Curator of the Mineral Collections in the University Museum, Oxford, to whom we are indebted for this report:
From room VIII another nine tiles 7.5 in square and seven tiles 11 in square were recovered. Many broken pieces of both kinds were in the fill of the robber trench east of both rooms as well as pieces up to 3 in thick, possibly of pila capping tiles. One tile 14 in square and 2 in thick was set in the latest floor of room X.
“The specimen is a portion of a hexagonal prism of quartz, which I would judge was 1 in. or more in diameter, but it is almost impossible to guess the length of the original crystal. It is certainly not of local origin, and though it could be of British origin, there are no likely localities within at least 120 miles. If it is British, the most probable areas for it to have come from would be, for example, north Cornwall, the Tremadoc-Snowdon district of North Wales, or somewhere else in North Wales. On the other hand, the transparency of the quartz suggests that it may well have come from France (Alpine districts), North Italy, or Switzerland.”
Many pieces of tegula and imbrex roofing tiles were also recovered, chiefly from Period 1 and 2 levels. One complete imbrex was 14 in long, 0.75 in thick, and tapered from 6 in wide at one end to 5 in wide at the other. The tegulae, of which 12 intact examples were found laid with flanges downward as paving on the west side of the Period 2 building, were typically 15 in long, 12 in wide and 1 in thick, with flanges 1 in square. RELIEF-PATTERNED TILES Several hundred pieces of box flue-tile were recovered from Site A, including two complete specimens from room VS. These measured 16.5 in by 6.25 in by 5 in and had rectangular side apertures. The majority of these pieces bore the usual combed patterns; on some the combing had clearly been done with the fingers and on a few it had been done in widely spaced single scoring. Ten pieces of thicker tile bore repetitive patterns apparently made with cylindrical dies (Fig. I.11, nos. 15, 16, 17). Three of eight pieces with the pattern as in no. 15 were submitted to Mr. A. W. G. Lowther, F. S. A., to whom we are indebted for the comment that they are not pieces of flue-tile but brick, 1 in – 1.75 in thick, of unknown purpose. The only other patterned tiles known to him which are not flue-tiles are curved specimens, apparently for building ornamental plastered half-columns, of which one, found in King William Street, London, is now in the Guildhall Museum (Lowther Group 5, no. 18, in A Study of the Patterns on Roman Flue-tiles and their Distribution, Research Papers of the Surrey Archaeological Society, no. 1, 1947). Mr. Lowther also stated that although the three 21
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
GRAFFITI, OCULIST’S STAMP, PIPECLAY FIGURINES Fig. I.12
3. Graffito cut on the outside of a shallow black-burnished bowl. Undated. 4. Oculist’s stamp of fine-grained limestone, reading MAVRI COLLYRVVM, “the salve of Maurus” (J.R.S., LVI, 1966, 221). On Period 3 pebble floor west of room IV. 5 -9. Fragments of two different pipeclay figurines of the “pseudo-Venus” type. For the geographical distribution in Britain of 100 of all types of these, see F. Jenkins, ‘The Cult of the “Pseudo-Venus” in Kent’, Arch. Cant., LXXII, 1958, 60-76. Undated.
1. Two adjoining portions of the base of a black-burnished cooking-pot, with a graffito cut on the inside of the base; VLIXIIS, “Ulixes” (J.R.S. LV, 1965, 227). From deposit dated to first half of third century. 2. Graffito cut on the outside of a sherd of hard grey ware; Undated.
22
Excavations at Shakenoak COAL
2.
Several hundred pieces of coal ranging in size from 0.25 in to 4 in in diameter were found in the Period 3a and 3b levels inside and outside Building A, especially in the deposits of ash west of rooms IV, VS, VI and VII. Two pieces from sealed deposits (below the Period 3b floor of room IV and below the floor of room VII were submitted to Mr. E. Bradburn, of the National Coal Board, Yorkshire Division, Scientific Department (Coal Survey), to whom we are grateful for this note:
3.
4.
“By extraction and examination of the miospore assemblages from the coal samples it was possible to say that the seam which supplied the fuel was from the Middle Coal Measures. The nearest coalfields to Shakenoak where coals of this age outcrop are in Warwickshire and Somerset. The carbon contents of the coals determined from reflectance measurements of the polished bright coal surface (vitrite) were found to be of the order of 80 per cent. Both samples showed the same degree of coalification and were unweathered. Of the two coalfields mentioned above only Warwickshire has coal of this rank. The Warwickshire coalfield is therefore suggested as the probable source of the coal found at Shakenoak.”
5. 6.
THE SAMIAN WARE
7.
The samian from Site A appears to be entirely datable to the second century. The majority of the decorated vessels date from the second half of the second century. This is in accord with the agricultural nature of Building A in the first half of the century. PLAIN SAMIAN 8.
In all, 1,202 sherds of samian were found on Site A, of which 144 (12%) were from patterned vessels. The table below gives the relative frequencies with which various forms of plain vessel occurred.
9.
Potters’ stamps We are indebted to Mr. B. R. Hartley, F. S.A., of the Department of Latin, University of Leeds, for information on the stamps on the plain samian vessels. The readings of nos. 1, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, 14 and 17 are due to him, as are all details of dies. The stamps were as follows: 1.
10.
ATT[ISIO] on fm. 31. ATTISIO of Rheinzabern. Late-Antonine or early third century. This is the only record outside Rheinzabern, but the decorative ending and the details of the letters make the identification certain (Cf. Ludowici, Stempelnamen röm. Töpfor aus meinen Ausgrabungen in Rheinzabem, 1901 - 14, Katalog V, p. 209.)
11.
23
CELSI M on fm. 31R. CELSVS of Lezoux, where this stamp occurs on fm.79 and other mid- to lateAntonine types. c. A.D. 160-190. ]·VSS·A·[. C. Four dies of CINTVSSA of Lezoux give stamps with stops between the letters in this way. Both the forms and the sites involved suggest a Hadrianic-Antonine date (probably c. A. D. 130160). CRACVNA·F on fm. 33. This stamp and no. 5 below are from the commonest die of CRACVNA of Lezoux. Oswald (Index of Potters’ Stamps, p. 93) assessed the date as Hadrian-late-Antonine, but only by including an East Gaulish potter of the same name and also CRACINA of Lezoux, who was certainly a different man. The site-record suggests that CRACVNA flourished in the early-Antonine period, though he may have begun work under Hadrian. CRA[CVNA·F] on fm. 33. See no. 4 above. CR probably on fm. 41 (?). This fits exactly a stamp of CHRESIMVS of Montans, reading C-RESIMI in full, and does not fit any other recorded stamp beginning CR; the fabric matches the known late products of Montans. The site-evidence points increasingly to a Hadrianic and early-Antonine date for this potter. II·ΛIBIN[I·M] on fm. 31 (?). A potter of Les Martres-de-Veyre (Germania, 32 (1954), p. 172, no. 97) working under Hadrian (Ant. J., 25, p. 75, for seven examples involved in the Second Fire of London, c. A.D. 125), and perhaps beginning under Trajan. The stamp probably read BALBINI.M originally, but the die became worn or choked with clay, and a fault developed between the first and second letters. REBVRRIOF on fm. 33. REBVRRVS of Lezoux. The die was used most often on fm. 33, but has also been noted on fm. 27 and fm. 38. A mid-Antonine date is most likely. [SΛM]OGENI on fm. 33. SAMOGENVS of Central Gaul, perhaps, Lezoux. The die originally had an ansa at each end, but - as with this example the final one is rarely impressed, and the die may have been chipped. The record of forms suggests a mid-Antonine date. RO[PPI·RVT·M] on form 18/31R (?). A potter or, more probably, a partnership of Les Martres-deVeyre. The stamp was in use before A.D. 130, as an example was found under the Wroxeter forum, completed at that date (Wroxeter 1923-27, p. 263). C.A.D. 110-135 is the probable date. TIN[TIRIOM] fm. uncertain. TINTIRIO of Lezoux, where the stamp has been found. It is usually on fm. 33, but is known also once each on fm. 31R and fm. 80. Mid- to late-Antonine.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
12. 13.
14. 15. 16. 17.
Unfortunately, none of the appliqué sherds was from a well-dated deposit. No. 1 came from the predominantly third- or fourth-century deposits west of Building A; no. 2 from below the Period 3 floor of room 1, and no. 3 from an undated deposit immediately south of Building B.
Illegible (Fig. I.15, no. 69), on fm. 33. No parallel has been found for this stamp, which is almost certainly illiterate. [ΛALLVR]O·F on fm. 18/31 (?). MALLVRO of Lezoux. This stamp is from one of the earlier dies, used consistently on Hadrianic-Antonine forms, particularly 27 and 18/31. ]IX[ on fm. 31. Almost certainly SEXTVS of Lezoux, a stamp reading SIIXTIM. Late-Antonine. ]V·SI, fm. uncertain. Not identified. ]M, fm. uncertain. Not identified. DONNCI] = DONNAVCI on fm. 27. DONNAVCVS of Les Martres-de-Veyre. C. A.D. 105-130.
Stamps of Albucius (A.D. 150-190) occur on three form 30 bowls (Fig. I.13, nos. 4-17). A form 37 bowl (Fig. I.14, no. 21) is probably attributable to Doeccus (c. A.D. 160-190) and another (Fig. I.14, no. 22) to Doeccus or Albucius. Another form 37 bowl is attributed to Potter X5 (Fig. I.14, nos. 23-26). Two joining sherds (Fig. I.14, no. 31) are probably from a vessel made by Butrio (A.D. 120-145). These vessels comprise more than three-quarters of the total number of sherds of moulded vessels from Site A and show clearly the preponderance of Central Gaulish wares manufactured after A. D. 120. The only sherds to come from a sealed deposit were those of Butrio (?) which were in the deposit of Period 2 material immediately north of the northernmost wall of the Period 2 building and under the Period 3 floor of room 1.
DECORATED SAMIAN The patterned sherds represent at least 21 moulded vessels, one vessel with incised “cut glass” decoration and one vessel decorated with appliqué figures.
Several of the sherds may be strays from Site B. A further two pieces of one of the bowls of Albucius (Fig. I.13, nos. 4-12) came from Site B and are not illustrated here: they actually joined on to the illustrated Site A pieces.
The most important pieces are the figured appliqué sherds (Fig. I.13, nos. 1-3). The figure in Phrygian dress is identical with that illustrated by Roach Smith, Catalogue of London Museum Antiquities, 1854, pl. VII, fig. 1, and described by Waiters, Catalogue of Roman Pottery in the Department of Antiquities in the British Museum, 1908 (M2371). A similar figure is illustrated in Baudry and Ballereau, Puits funéraires gallo-romains du Bernard (Vendée), 1873, p. 176. The second figure (Fig. I.13, no. 2) appears to be identical with the central figure in the illustration of a Déchelette form 72 olla found in Cornhill, London (the “Cornhill vase”), shown in Roach Smith, op. cit., pl. VI; Waiters, op. cit., pl. XXXII (M2365), and Oswald and Price, Terra Sigillata, 1920, pl. LXXXIV, no. 1. The third figure (Fig. I.13, no. 3) was found on Site B, but it is felt that it may well come from the same vessel as the other figures in view of the apparent rarity of the type. It is probable that some, if not all, of the sherds decorated in barbotine and appliqué vine-leaves come from the same vessel as these figures.
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Excavations at Shakenoak
1-3. Sherds from vessel decorated with appliqué figures. No. 3 is from Site B but has been included because it is probably from the same vessel as nos. 1 and 2. 4-12. All from one bowl, Dragendorff form 30, stamped ]VCI (ALBVC IVS of Lezoux, c. A.D. 150-190). 13-16. All from one vessel, Dr. fm. 30, stamped ALBVC[ (ALBVCIVS of Lezoux). 17. Dr. fm. 30, stamped ]BVCI (ALBVCIVS of Lezoux).
25
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
Fig. I.14 18, 19. 21. 22 23-26, 28 27. 28. 29, 30. 31. 32 -36.
3
No. 20 may be from the same vessel. Fm. 37. Probably DOECCVS of Lezoux (c. A.D. 160-190). Closely similar in design but not in fabric to nos. 18 and 19. DOECCVS ? Also (not illustrated) a piece of the base of this vessel. Fm. 37. ALBVCIVS or DOECCVS ? Fm. 37. Potter X53 (c. A.D. 125 -145). Uncertain. Very similar in design to no. 25 but from a different vessel. Uncertain. Two-joining sherds. Dr. fm. 30. The figure-type (Oswald and Price no. 159) and wavy-line borders indicate BVTRIO (c. A.D. 120-145). Uncertain.
We are indebted to Dr. G. Simpson for this identification.
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27
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Fig. I.15 37-42. 43-64. 65 . 66. 67, 68. 69. 70.
Unidentified. Vessel or vessels with barbotine decoration and with appliqué decoration (cf. R.J. Charleston, Roman Pottery, frontispiece). The vine-leaves (nos. 59-61) may belong to the vessel shown in Fig. I.13, nos. 1-3. Fm. 36 dish with barbotine decoration. The fabric is hard and of a pinkish red colour with a dull surface, and the quality of the finish is better than on many of the other samian vessels. For a somewhat similar vessel see Colchester, fig. 23, no. 1. Rim of a dish, possibly fm. 36, with barbotine decoration. Vessel with incised decoration, possibly Déchelette, fm. 72. Illegible stamp on fm. 33 cup (no. 12 in list on p. 24). Spindle-whorl cut from a samian base.
JET Fig. I.15 Two pieces of jet were found. In addition to the piece illustrated, a fragment with a convex polished surface, 0.875 in by 0.5 in, was found in a fourth-century deposit. 1.
Fragment of a pennanular bracelet ? Late fourth-century deposit.
SHALE Fig. I.15 Two complete spindle-whorls and pieces of four bracelets were found. 1. 2-5.
Spindle-whorl (two identical examples found). Late fourth-century deposit. Bracelets. Fourth-century deposit.
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sandy in texture and buff or grey-buff in colour. The exterior, or exterior and interior, are coated with a black substance resembling soot, widely differing in quality so that on some examples the black coating is barely detectable while on others it produces a jet-black matt surface which, on washing, becomes slimy and is easily removed. Some examples are decorated with lines of burnishing, but the fabric is not to be confused with blackburnished ware, which not only has a much harder surface but is also of totally different fabric. Two vessels in blackcoated ware have been found to bear nonsense stamps (nos. 58 and 142).
THE COARSE POTTERY Figs. I.16 - I.24 In this section the dating of the Site A periods is taken as follows (the dating is discussed in the detailed description of the site on pp. 16-3l): Period 1 (P1) Period 2 (P2) Periods 1 and 2 (P1/2) Period 3a (P3a) Period 3b (P3b) Period 3 (P3) Periods 2 and 3 (P2/3)
c. A.D. 120 – c. 180 c. A.D. 180 – c. 250 c. A.D. 120 – c. 250 c. A.D. 250 – c. 350 c. A.D. 350 – c. 430 c. A.D. 250 – c. 430 c. A.D. 180 – c. 430
The distribution of this fabric over periods is as follows: Period 1, 50.6%; Periods 1/2, 24.2%; Period 3, negligible. It is therefore evident that it was at its peak during the second century, and that it had died out entirely by the middle of the third.
The study of the coarse pottery of the South Midlands is still in its early stages. Although some kilns in the OxfordDorchester region have been excavated and published, none of them has been accurately dated. Except for the pottery from Callow Hill (Oxon., XXII) and that published by Professor Frere from Dorchester (Arch. J., CXIX), very little stratified pottery from this area has been published. For this reason we publish the Shakenoak pottery in rather more detail than is usual for a villa site, although this first report will concern itself only with those types which can be readily dated, as well as with pieces which are so rare that no more evidence for their date is likely to be forthcoming in the continuing excavations at Shakenoak.
C. Calcite-gritted wares This distinctive fabric has been shown to have a continuous history from pre-Roman times until the fifth century, but at Shakenoak Site A the first-century types found at Alchester are absent. Its distribution is as follows: Periods 1/2, 1.8%; Period 3, 10.0%; Period 3b, 14.0%. Although there is no doubt that at Shakenoak this fabric continued to be used during the second and third centuries, it is clear that the greater part belongs to the latter half of the fourth and the first half of the fifth centuries, when it is paralleled by similar examples from the remarkable cemetery at Frilford (Oxon., IV). A small but interesting sub-group is of much harder and darker fabric than normal (nos. 108-9), and this has been paralleled elsewhere on the site by similar examples.
Shakenoak Site A has produced some 57,000 sherds of coarse pottery, which may be divided into the following fabrics: A. Coarse grey wares Coarse pottery of grey fabric, sometimes with red or blue interior, was used extensively throughout the Roman period at Shakenoak but was supplemented in Periods 1 and 2 principally by black-coated wares, and in Period 3b by calcite-gritted and colour-coated wares. It therefore reaches its peak during the first part of Period 3, the distribution being as follows, in percentages of the total number of sherds found:
D. Black-burnished ware This small and distinctive group, with hard gritty dark grey or black fabric and burnished surfaces, is well known throughout the province although its place of origin remains elusive. It is found in every period of occupation at Shakenoak and there is no significant variation in quantity:
Period 1, 46.4%; Periods 1/2, 60.0%; Period 3, 73.3%; Period 3b, 58.8%.
Periods 1/2, 2.3%; Period 3, 3.7%.
It is very difficult to distinguish early grey wares from the later, but the very thin hard types, typically with bubbly surface, seem to be exclusively early.
In the latest levels, however, there does seem to be a distinct falling off in quality, both of fabric and of execution (nos. 17, 51-52).
B. Black-coated wares This fabric, which seems to have been confined in its circulation to a very small area, was used extensively at Shakenoak during the early periods, when it was the poorest quality fabric used. Typically the fabric is soft and
E. Cream/red wares This miscellaneous group includes cream-white flagons and mortaria of the type manufactured at the Cowley kilns 30
Excavations at Shakenoak the fifth century.
and elsewhere (nos. 95-97); a series of hard orange-red dishes with burnished surfaces, dating exclusively from the first half of the second century (nos. 1-10), and a small number of other vessels, some of which are unusual (nos. 61 and 137). Other members of this group are probably incorrectly fired coarse grey ware, or colour-coated vessels from which the slip has been entirely removed.
(iv) Vessels with red fabric and red colour-coat Frere has shown that at Dorchester the manufacture of red colour-coated ware had begun by A.D. 185 (Arch. J., CXIX, p. 12 g). It is, however, certain that the export of colour-coated ware from the Dorchester kilns does not begin until the second half of the third century, since barely half a dozen sherds have been found at Shakenoak from the Period 1/2 levels. This is confirmed at Richborough (Richborough, II, p. 97), where it was found that deposits of the very end of the third century contained no red colour-coated ware at all.
Taken together, these fabrics are distinctly commoner In the early periods than the later: Periods 1/2, 8.7%; Period 3, 1.7%. F. Colour-coated wares
Red colour-coated ware (examples with black colour-coat are very rare) accounts for some 11.3% of all Period 3 pottery at Shakenoak, but it is certain that the greater part of it dates from after c. 350, since sealed deposits dating to before c. 350 contain only 1%-2%. It continued to be used until the very end of the occupation of Site A.
(i) ‘Rhenish’ wares and derived fabrics The series of beakers, with thin red paste and metallic black surface, is surprisingly well represented at Shakenoak, some 380 sherds having been recovered. The greater part of it clearly comes from the Colchester kilns (Colchester, p. 102 ff.) and the Shakenoak examples show the same evolution as at Colchester, beginning in the second century, reaching a peak at the end of that century, but continuing in an attenuated form into the fourth (nos. 12 1-122). A few sherds of rough-cast ware of the kind produced at Great Casterton (Great Casterton, III, p. 51, 2) have also been found, all from Period 1/2 levels.
The distribution of red colour-coated ware within the building also suggests that much of it is of fifth-century date. The finding of Theodosian coins scattered evenly over the building suggests that the shrinkage towards the northern end (see p 13) did not take place until within the fifth century. In those rooms which continued in use longest, colour-coated ware forms a much higher percentage of the total Period 3 pottery than in the other rooms, as Fig. I.16 shows. For this reason, much of the colour-coated ware must have been deposited in the very last stages of the use of the building.
(ii) ‘Castor’ wares One piece of ‘hunt cup’ has been found on Site A (no. 119), together with the greater part of a Castor box (no. 124). Apart from these, only a few sherds of thin beakers of cream fabric and darker colour-coat have been found, mainly from the second-century levels.
(v) Vessels of the later fourth century with white fabric and red or purple-brown colour-coat Dishes and jars of this fabric were one of the principal products of the New Forest kilns, but it is represented at Shakenoak by only 52 sherds, against 2,400 sherds of redfabric colour-coated ware. It is evident that Oxfordshire is on the very edge of the New Forest potters’ marketing area. Almost all the sherds of this fabric from Site A come from Period 3b levels (nos. 121 and 122).
(iii) Vessels with red fabric and chalky white colourcoat A few sherds of beakers of this fabric have been found in the Period 1/2 levels, but it seems to have died out entirely during Period 3a. It was revived during the second half of the fourth century for the well-known series of mortaria (no. 76). These mortaria continued in use until well into
Fig. I.16. - Distribution of red colourcoated ware expressed as a percentage of the total Period 3 pottery found in each room of Building A. No figures are shown for rooms IX and X because they yielded too few sherds (only 16 in all) to have significance.
31
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker FIG. I.17 STRAIGHT-SIDED DISHES A.
Hard orange-red fabric, burnished surfaces
This small group seems to be exclusively confined to the first half of the second century. The fabric bears some resemblance to Glevum ware (J.R.S., XXXIII, 1943, pp. 15-28), and may perhaps be the work of an offshoot of the Glevum kilns. Except for these dishes the only other vessel in this fabric is the bowl no. 61, the base of which is unfinished and therefore suggests a local origin. There are four main varieties: (i) 1-4. (ii) 5-6. (iii) 7-9. (iv) 10.
B.
With rim slightly beaded. All P1. With sharply pointed rim. Both Pl. With rim thickened. Nos. 7-8, P1; no. 9, P1/2. Coarser in fabric and execution, perhaps the latest in the series, Pl/2. Also another, P1.
Black-burnished ware
Some 50 examples in this fabric have been examined from Site A, coming from all periods of occupation. Diameters range from 4.5 in - 14 in but 80% of all examples fall within the range 5 in - 8 in. Depths are from 1 in to 2 in. (i) 11. (ii) 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. (iii) 18. (iv) 19. (v) 20. (vi) 21.
Oval dish with handles. Unstratified, but another example P3,and a third P3b. Plain undecorated dishes. Of the dishes of this fabric 60% are undecorated, and the type has a very long life. There is, however, a noticeable decline in style in the second half of the fourth century. With curved side and slightly thickened rim. Pl/2. Straight side (diam. 10 in). Pl. With rounded base. P2/3. Slightly rounded base, and fine style. P3. Shallower, and with flat base (diam. 8 in). P3. Much coarser fabric, with rough burnishing (diam. 10.5 in). P3b. Decorated with curved lines. Five examples; one Pl (this vessel); three Pl/2; one unstratified. Decorated with triangular pattern. Three examples; one P2; two P3 (one this vessel). Decorated with cross hatching. One example only, P1. With shallow external groove. One example only, P3a.
C. Colour-coated ware 22.
A single example with red-brown colour-coat and greyish fabric, very coarse style, P3b. Another, with red fabric, also P3b.
D. Coarse grey ware 23.
With shallow external groove, P3, cf. Jewry Wall, fig. 20, no. 3 (300-325). Two others without groove, both P3.
E. Coarse red ware 24.
Intact bowl, found on latest floor of building; undecorated except for two deeply cut exterior grooves. Fifth-century; dishes with similar decoration come from the fifth-century Frilford cemetery (Oxon. , IV, nos. 9-10).
F. Calcite-gritted ware 25.
A single example only in this fabric, with slightly thickened rim. P3. cf. Wroxeter 1923-27, fig. 46, D3, “fourth century, perhaps after 350”.
BEAD-RIM DISHES 26-27. This form is found only in black-burnished ware. Four examples from Site A, all diameter 7 in – 7.5 in, all P3. At Jewry Wall there were examples of this form, though not in this fabric, dated to c. 220 on.
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37. With rim pointed downwards. Pl/2. 38. Similar, but deeper. Pl/2.
FIG. I.18 REEDED-RIM PIE-DISHES
C. Coarse grey ware
The reeded-rim dishes from Site A all show very shallow reeding and fall at the very end of the type-series, which begins elsewhere in Claudian times and extends into the second century. They should be compared with the carinated bowls nos. 77-78, which have very similar rim forms. The type is very rare compared with plain-rimmed pie-dishes, the six examples found being to Periods 1/2.
This very large group occurs in all levels, and was found to have little chronological significance, with equal numbers found in the Pl/2 and P3 levels. Diameters vary from 5 in to 13 in, with 88% falling between 6.5 in and 8.5 in almost exactly the same as the black-coated group. 39-41. 42-45.
28. Black-coated buff ware, from the bottom of fill of ditch west of Building A (first half of second century). 29. Ware as last. P1. 30. Coarse grey ware. P1/2. 31. Coarse grey ware. Two examples (the other diameter 6,5 in), both P 1/2.
46.
All Pl/2. All P3. No. 42 diam. 7.5 in; no. 43 diam. 6.5 in. No. 44 is the only example showing decoration. Unstratified. An unusual example showing hanging rim.
FLANGED DISHES Excluding degenerate forms, this class is confined at Shakenoak to black-burnished ware, in noticeable contrast to other sites such as Colchester and Jewry Wall, where most are of grey or grey-burnished fabric. In the second half of the fourth century a distinct degeneration takes place (nos. 51-53).
PLAIN-RIMMED PIE-DISHES One of the commonest forms at Shakenoak, occurring in three fabrics: A. Black-burnished ware The evidence from Shakenoak conforms with that from other sites. Cf. Wroxoter 1923-27, p. 296, where it is stated that the type is common during the second century, but is superseded by the flanged type (nos. 47-50 below) during the course of the third. The distribution on Site A is as follows:
A. Black-burnished ware There is little doubt that this group is the successor of the unflanged black-burnished dishes (see note above), coming into use in the middle of the third century (Colchester type 305A, c. 250-400). The distribution of stratified examples is as follows:
Periods 1/2, 18 examples; Period 3, 5; Period 3b, 1. Periods 1/2, 3; Period 3, 16; Period 3b, 2. Diameters vary from 5.5 in – 11.5 in, but 88% fall between 7 in and 9.5 in, noticeably larger than the dishes of similar fabric, nos. 11-21. Rather more than 60% are decorated, always with lattice, in contrast to the later flanged type which is almost always plain.
Diameters range from 4 in to 11.5 in, with 84% between 6 in and 10 in and no peak within those limits. This is a wider variation in size than is shown by the other dish groups, which normally show most examples falling within a range of 2 in – 2.5 in. Most examples are undecorated, with a few showing decoration of curved lines. None shows the lattice decoration so prevalent on the earlier flangeless variety.
32. 33. 34. 35.
Hard black-burnished ware, with lattice decoration. P1/2. As above, but much deeper. P1. Similar, but with shorter rim. P1. With rounded rim. Three examples or this type, all Pl/2. This triangular rim type is Colchester type 37, dated there to c. 70-170. 36. Similar to no. 32, but with rim pointed downwards. P2, but perhaps a stray.
47-50. All P3; no. 47 diam. 7.5 in, no. 48 diam. 6 in. 51. Coarser fabric and style. 3b. Somewhat similar evidence of degeneration is seen at Jewry Wall (types A-C). 52. Very coarse fabric and style. P3b.
B. Black-coated ware
B. Coarse grey ware
As is always the case with this fabric, the group is confined to Periods 1 and 2. There are 21 examples from Site A, and their diameters vary from 6 in to 9.5 in, with all but one falling between 6 in and 8.5 in, slightly smaller than the black-burnished group.
53. Very coarse grey fabric, with rudimentary flange. P3b. Compare with similarly degenerate examples from Frilford Cemetery, Oxon., IV, nos. 5-6, fifth century, and also from Dorchester, Oxon., XXVI-XXVII, nos. 24-27, late Romano-British. 54. Coarse grey ware, rather unusual form, possibly related to the above. P2/3.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker 63. Red fabric and red colour-coat. P3. 64. Ware as last. P3a. 65. Ware as last. P3. Diam. 10.5 in. 66. Ware as last. P3b. Diam. 7 in. 67. Ware as last. P3b. Diam. 7 in. 68. Ware as last. P3. Diam. 8.5 in.
FIG. I.19 BOWLS A. Copies of samian form 35/36 55. Unpainted orange fabric, with orange barbotine decoration. A very close copy of the samian type. Pl. 56. Cream fabric, with painted white decoration. Unstratified, but cf. Alchester (Ant. J., XII, No. 1, p. 56, 41) “early second century at the latest”; Wroxeter, I, pl. 17, 16-17) “end of first century and first half of second”. 57. Coarser copy of the above, without foot-ring, in blackcoated ware. Pl/2.
B. Copies of samian form 45 Of the nine examples of this type from Site A none was certainly of Period 3a, while six were certainly of Period 3b, suggesting that the type is almost entirely of late fourth- or early fifth-century date. Copies of samian form 45 in this fabric were extensively produced at the Dorchester kilns (Oxon., I, type i). Diameters range from 6.5 in to 10 in.
B. Shallow bowls, perhaps inspired by the above 58. Black-coated ware, with buff fabric. Nonsense stamp on interior of base. Pl. 59. Shallow bowl with carination and indented rim. Hard grey ware. P1. 60. Similar to no. 58, but in coarse grey ware and with rudimentary foot-ring. Unstratified. Bowls of this type first appeared at Jewry Wall in Trajanic levels (Jewry Wall, fig. 38, no. 17).
69. Red fabric and red colour-coat. P3. 70. Ware as last. P3b. Diam. 7.5 in. 71. Ware as last. P3b. Diam. 10 in. 72. Ware as last. P3b. Diam. 7.5in.
C. Copies of samian form 37 This type again is entirely confined to Period 3b, with no examples from 3a against some five from 3b. The type is well known at Dorchester (Oxon., XXVI-XXVII, p. 15, 612, fourth century onwards; Arch. J., CXIX, no. 215, probably late fourth-century - fifth-century).
C. Bowl of unique type 61. Bowl with reeded rim and apparently unfinished base, in hard burnished orange ware, similar to nos. 1-9 above. Pl.
73. Red colour-coat on red fabric, with white painted decoration. P3. 74. Red colour-coat on red fabric, with white painted decoration and rouletting. P3b.
D. Bowl copying samian form 27 62. Bowl with red-brown fabric and fine black surface. Pl. Cf. Richborough, I, no. 45 (second-century); Caerleon (Arch. Camb., 1933) 212-213, “late second century at latest”.
MORTARIA 75. Soft white fabric. P2/3. Cf. Richborough, IV, no. 516 (pre-275-300) 76. Orange-red clay with cream slip. Late P3b. This is the latest type of mortarium at Shakenoak, and is probably confined to Period 3b. Diameters of the six examples from Site A range from 7.5 in to 11 in. Cf. Frilford Cemetery (Oxon., IV, nos. 1-3, fifth-century).
RED COLOUR-COATED WARE VESSELS A. Copies of samian form 38 This very common form was manufactured on a large scale at the Dorchester kilns (see Oxon., I, where it is called type vi). No examples are known at Shakenoak from before Period 3, and only one is certainly pre-c. 350, as against seven which are from after that date. Diameters range from 5.5 in to 10.5 in, with most between 8 in and 10.5 in. The type seems to become coarser during its life, the earliest examples (nos. 63-65) having a rounded bead on the flange while later examples (nos. 66-68) tend to have a poorer quality colour-coat and a thicker, coarser flange. Examples of this second type have been found in the latest deposits at Dorchester (Arch. J., CXIX, nos. 211, 217 and 220).
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker drinking, it is possible that an attempt was being made to adhere to a standard unit of liquid measurement. No. 87, for example, would have held about 2.5 pints (50 fl. oz.).
FIG. I.20 CARINATED BOWLS
It is probable that all examples had handles, as on no. 84, but usually these are not found attached to their rims.
Carinated bowls at Shakenoak are entirely confined to the Period 1/2 levels, in marked contrast to Ditchley, where one series is dated to the late fourth century (Oxon., I, fig. 11, no. 16).
83. Coarse grey ware, with burnished decoration, and unusually constricted waist. P3, but perhaps a stray. 84. Black-coated ware, showing handle. Pl/2. Diam. 6 in. 85. Ware as last, with rough lattice decoration. P1. 86. Ware as last, but neater lattice decoration. P1. 87. Ware as last, decorated with burnished parallel lines. P1. 88. Ware as last, decorated with burnished vertical lines. Pl/2. 89. Pale orange fabric, finely made, and smaller than the above. Pl/2.
A. Reeded-rim bowls Only two examples of this type. Cf. Jewry Wall, fig. 21, 716, where they are dated c. 90-160. 77. Coarse grey ware with lattice decoration and two grooves on top of rim. Pl/2. 78. Pale orange fabric, with two grooves on rim. Pl/2.
LIDS
B. With hanging pie-dish rim
Very little is known of the chronological significance of lids, if any exists, and it cannot be said that excavations at Shakenoak have added much to our knowledge in this respect. The evidence so far extracted about dating can be summarised thus:
This is a well known second-century type, cf. Jewry Wall, fig. 44, 18 (A.D. 150-160). 79. Coarse grey ware, undecorated. Four examples, all Pl/2, diameters 6 in – 6.5 in. 80. Very similar, but in grey-buff fabric with black coat, with lattice decoration. One example, Pl/2. 81. As last, but rather more ornate. One example, unstratified.
(i) The type with rounded and thickened rim undoubtedly belongs to all periods (nos. 91, 92, 94); (ii) The type with squared-off rim (no. 90) belongs exclusively to Periods 1 and 2; (iii) The type with rim pointed downwards is also of Periods 1 and 2 (no. 93).
C. With upward pointed rim 82. Coarse grey ware, one example, P2.
90. Black-coated ware with squared-off rim. Pl/2. Two other examples, rather similar, but in coarse grey ware, Pl/2. Diam. 6 in; P2 diam. 5.5 in. 91. Black-coated ware with rounded rim. Several examples, all Pl/2. 92. Coarse grey ware, with rounded rim. Pl/2, but many other examples ranging from P1 to P3b. 93. Coarse red ware, with rim pointed downwards. Pl/2. Several other examples of this form in both coarse grey ware and black-coated ware, all Pl/2. 94. Red fabric, with red colour-coat, rounded rim. The only example of a lid in colour-coated ware, P3b.
MUGS The distribution of mugs in the Roman province is unusual and interesting. At Wroxeter mugs with handles seem to have been one of the commonest forms, in use during the second half of the second and the whole of the third centuries (Wroxeter, I, fig. 18, 40). At Jewry Wall, however, the form is rare, and at Richborough it seems to have been non-existent. At Shakenoak mugs are quite common, being distributed as follows: Period 1, 4; Periods 1/2, 8; Period 3, 1; unstratified, 6. Assuming the single Period 3 example to be a stray, it would therefore appear that mugs were common at Shakenoak during the whole of the second century, and that they had gone out of use by the middle years of the third. Excluding no. 89, which is atypical, the only fabrics used are black-coated ware and coarse grey ware. The range of diameters is unusually narrow, being: 5 in, 3; 5.5 in, 5; 6 in, 3; 6.5 in, 1; 7.5 in, 1. Eleven of the 13 measurable examples therefore fall between 5 in and 6 in, a far closer knit group than occurs with any other form. As these vessels were clearly used for 38
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
FIG. I.21 FLAGONS A. Ring-necked flagons 95. Coarse red fabric. Top of flagon, with stump of handle. P1. 96. Fine pale orange fabric. Unstratified. Cf. Jewry Wall type B fig. 28, 2-5, where the type continues until the end of the second century.
B. Flanged-neck flagon 97. Coarse white ware, with buff exterior slip. In make-up of P3b floor. Flagons of this type, dated elsewhere to the third century onwards, were made at the Cowley kilns (Oxon., VI, p. 9 ff.).
AMPHORAE 98. Orange fabric. Globular amphora of Dressel form 11. According to Callender (Roman Amphorae, p. 20) the type is common throughout the first and second centuries. Unstratified. Sherds of at least three other amphorae have been recovered from Site A, including the base of a carrot amphora. All were unstratified.
BARREL-JAR 99. Barrel-shaped jar of unusual form with everted and hanging rim. Coarse grey-brown ware with rough lattice decoration. P2.
‘CAVETTO-RIM’ JARS A considerable number of sherds of jars of this series have been found, but they are almost all late in the series, and add nothing to the known chronology. No. 101 is included here as the only complete Section. No. 100 is of some interest, and seems to be a coarse copy in grey ware of an early example of the black-burnished series. 100. Hard grey ware, with burnished lines. Pl/2. 101. Black-burnished ware. Unstratified. Cf. Jewry Wall, fig. 28, nearest to no. 22 (300-325); Colchester type 279C, the latest in the series (fourth century).
NECKED JARS AND BOWLS A. Black-coated ware Large storage jars in this fabric, with out-turned rim, sometimes beaded, are common in the earliest levels on Site A. 102. Hard buff fabric, with black coating. Fill of ditch west of Building A (first half of second century). 103. Coarse greyish fabric, with black coat, P1.
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Excavations at Shakenoak
41
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker FIG. I.22 B. Calcite-gritted ware The manufacture of calcite-gritted jars does not seem to have ceased at any time during the Roman period, but they become at least ten times more common during the second half of the fourth century. The majority have plain slightly everted rims and cannot be dated to any one period. A few, however, can be dated with certainty. (i) Unique type 104.
Calcite-gritted jar of remarkable form, for which no exact parallel can be found. P 1/2.
(ii) Jars with triangular rim-section This series, in which the rim is flattened to give varying degrees of triangulation, is well known throughout Southern England. It is known to date from the second half of the fourth century onwards, being found on the latest levels at Park Street (Arch. J., CII for 1945, fig. 20, 8-10, where numerous other references are given), Dorchester (Arch. J., CXIX, 1962, no. 232), and also at Frilford Cemetery (Oxon., IV, nos. 20-22). This late date is confirmed at Shakenoak, where it forms one of the commonest types from the latest levels. No. 108 is of interest, being of a particularly dark and hard fabric, quite distinct from that of normal calcite-gritted ware. This fabric seems to have continued in use well into the fifth century at Shakenoak. 105. 106. 107. 108.
Soft calcite-gritted ware. P3b. Ware as last. P3b. Diam. 8.5 in. Very coarse calcite-gritted ware. P3b. Diam. 8 in. Very hard calcite-gritted ware, black in colour. P3b. Diam. 5.5 in.
(iii) Late storage jar 109.
Ware as last. P3b. Fragments of other storage jars of similar fabric come from the same levels.
C. Plain red ware 110.
Jar with vertical neck, in coarse red ware. Fill of ditch west of Building A (first half of second century). Cf. Wroxeter, I, fig. 18, 37 - two examples, both 80-120, but in black-coated ware.
D. Coarse grey ware 111. 112. 113. 114. 115.
Hard grey ware. Fill of ditch west of Building A (first half of second century). This type, with rim turned over squarely, is nearest to Jewry Wall, fig. 25, 7-8, where it is not found after c. 160. It is quite a common type at Shakenoak, and is concentrated in Period 1. Very heavy coarse grey jar, crudely produced, with turned-over rim and cordon. Probably a local product. Pl/2. Small jar in coarse grey ware, with sharply everted rim. P1. Nearest to Jewry Wall type C (Fig. 27, nos. 19-28) where the chief period of use was c. 125-220. Grey fabric, with lightly incised spiral decoration. Pl/2. Coarse grey-ware jar of unusual form with sharply bulging body. P 1/2.
42
Excavations at Shakenoak
43
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker FIG. I.23 116. 117.
Coarse grey-ware jar with thickened everted rim and constricted neck, with incised decoration on body. P3b. Coarse grey-ware storage jar with beaded rim. P3b.
‘CASTOR’ AND ALLIED FABRICS 118. 119. 120. 121. 122. 123. 124.
Beaker of buff fabric with black colour-coat and white barbotine decoration. P3. Cf. Wroxeter, II, fig. 19, 69, third- early fourth century. Fragment of ‘hunt cup’ of white fabric with black colour-coat. P1/2. Diam. 3 in. This is the only fragment of hunt cup from Site A. Upper part of cornice-rim beaker with rough-cast decoration. Soft red fabric with rather poor colour-coat. Thirteen sherds of rough cast ware came from Site A, all from Periods 1 and 2. Beakers of this type were manufactured in large quantities at Great Casterton (Great Casterton, III, p. 51, 2) and are generally dated to c. 120 - 200. Beaker of white fabric with black colour-coat, decorated with rouletting. P3. Similar, but with cream fabric and purple/cherry-red slip, decorated with rouletting. This and no. 121 represent the latest phase of the colour-coated beaker type-series. Bead-rim beaker in hard red ware, without colour-coat, but slightly burnished. P3. This would seem to be an unglazed copy of one of the later ‘Rhenish’ ware beakers manufactured at Colchester. Castor box with lid, in white fabric with orange-brown colour-coat. P3. These boxes seem to have been produced over a long period, from the late second to the early fourth century.
DECORATED COARSE WARES Site A has produced a small quantity of rather unusual coarse pottery decorated with slashed or indented patterns. Most of it seems to date from the fourth century. 125. 126.
Neck of vessel in hard coarse grey ware, with elaborate rim decorated with roughly slashed lines. P3. Upper part of vessel of similar form and fabric but decorated with indentations on rim and cordon. P3b.
44
Excavations at Shakenoak
45
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker FIG. I.24 127. 128. 129. 130. 131.
Upper Part of jar of rough calcite-gritted ware, decorated with a double row of indentations. P3b. Small fragment of similar fabric, but with a single row of indentations. Site D (post-c. 300). Similar to 127. P3a . Rim of bowl of coarse grey ware with darker surfaces, decorated with impressions from a three-toothed instrument. P3. Fragment of very coarse calcite-gritted ware decorated with faintly combed lines. Unstratified.
MISCELLANEOUS 132. 133. 134. 135. 136. 137. 138. 139. 140. 141.
142.
Part of spout of large mortarium, in cream fabric decorated with incised crosses. P3. Rim of beaker of poor quality colour-coated ware with red fabric and red colour-coat, with rouletted decoration. P3b. Upper part of small flagon in hard orange fabric. P3. Flanged dish of white fabric with dull red colour-coat. P3. Well known as a type of the late fourth century at the Yorkshire coast signal stations (J.R.S., II, 227). This and the next belong to the very small group of ‘New Forest’ ware vessels from Site A (see p. 53). Necked jar of the same fabric as the above, but the slip is a brighter cherry-red. P3b. Bowl of coarse red fabric with rim of unusual form. P1/2. Bowl of black-coated ware with ornate rim and graffito (?) incised on side. Pl/2. Handle of skillet (?) of coarse red fabric. P2/3. Very coarse hand-made handle or foot of red fabric, one end clearly made for insertion. Unstratified. Mortarium stamp on coarse buff ware. Pl/2. We are indebted to Mrs. K. Hartley, of the Department of Latin, University of Leeds, for this note: “A flange fragment in brownish cream fabric with brownish orange slip. The fragmentary stamp preserves the lower half of the letters ]TVG[, from one of the six dies used by MATUGENUS, and reading ??TVGEN in full. Apart from 30 examples from Brockley Hill, Middlesex, where he worked and where a die used by him has been found, 100 of his stamps have been recorded throughout England and Wales. The complete absence of his stamps from Scotland and from Hadrian’s Wall strongly supports a primarily Trajanic date. On a few stamps he is recorded as being the son of Albinus, whose activity c. A.D. 65-95 is attested by dated deposits. A date c. A.D. 90-125 is indicated for Matugenus.” Nonsense stamp on the inside and outside of a vessel of uncertain form. Black-coated ware (cf. no. 58). P 1/2.
SPINDLE-WHORLS 143. 144. 145. 146.
Spindle-whorl cut from the base of a vessel of soft red fabric with orange-brown lead glaze. This would seem to be an imitation St. Rémy ware, since normal St. Rémy ware has a white fabric. P2. Spindle-whorl of coarse grey ware. P3. Spindle -whorl very roughly cut from the base of a black-coated ware vessel. Pl/2. Spindle-whorl of coarse grey ware, well executed. Unstratified.
46
Excavations at Shakenoak
47
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker PAINTED PLASTER Fig. I.25 In all, 114 types of painted wall-plaster were recovered from Site A, the great majority from Period 3 deposits. The designs were very simple, consisting in the main of panels of a single colour with borders or stripes of another colour or colours. Spotted or marbled effects were attempted in two cases. Two more complicated designs are illustrated in Fig. I.25. In three instances a second coat of paint of a different colour had been applied over the original decoration. Occasionally the plaster was picked or scratched to provide a rough surface for a new coat of plaster, 0.125 in - 0.25 in thick, which was in its turn painted.
1.
Plaster from Period 2 or 3a deposit.
2.
48
Plaster from Period 3 deposit.
Excavations at Shakenoak THE GLASS 7.
by D. B. HARDEN Site A yielded 1,933 fragments of glass, of which 1,153 were window-glass (or wall-veneer, see below) and 780 were fragments of vessels and other items. About half the window-glass and all the fragments of vessels, etc., were submitted to me, and the report which follows lists the most interesting pieces in this large group, and briefly summarizes its main features.
8.
9.
CATALOGUE Vessels4 Beads Miscellaneous
10.
pp. 48-50 p. 50 p. 50
11. 12.
Vessels
13.
1. Fragment of a pillar-moulded bowl of marbled blue and white mosaic glass. Cf. the bowl found at Radnage, Bucks., Ant. J., III (1923), 334, pl. xxxv. Middle of first century. From enclosure west of Building A, undated deposit. (Fig. 26, no. l.) 2. Base of bowl or beaker, colourless, with base-ring (d. 42 mm). From a vessel which has been ground and polished from a thick blank (polished surface still extant on the interior). Cf. L. Berger, Römische Glaser aus Vindonissa (Basel, 1960), pp. 67 ff., pls. 10 and 11. Berger’s no. 167 (a late first century piece) has, like this fragment, a raised carved element in the centre of the underside. Cf. also Smith (1957), p. 177, no. 357. Late first or early second century. From enclosure west of Building A, earliest deposit (Fig. I.26 no. 2). 3. Fragmentary handle, dark green, from a one-handled prismatic bottle. The handle is large and thick and must have come from a very large bottle. First to second century. From enclosure west of Building A, earliest deposit. 4. Fragment of the base of a thick prismatic bottle, blue-green, showing part of a moulded design in relief on the underside (complete design uncertain). Late first or early second century. From enclosure west of Building A, undated deposit. 5. Fragment of bowl or flask, colourless, with applied rosette, d. 9 mm, probably one of a series, either laid in horizontal lines or semés. Cf. Smith (1957), p. 159, no. 326, for a similarly decorated flask. Late second or third century. From enclosure north of Building A, undated deposit (Fig. I.26, no. 3). 6. Two fragments of colourless beakers with pushed-in hollow base-ring, from which the sides slope upwards to a carination with two cut horizontal lines above the carination and three
14. 15.
16.
17. 18.
19.
20.
4
21.
The following bibliographical abbreviations are used: Harden (1936) = D. B. Harden, Roman Glass from Karanis (University of Michigan Studies, Humanistic Series, XLI, Ann Arbor, 1936); Harden (1962) = D. B. Harden in Eburacum: Roman York (Royal Commission on Historical Monuments, England, City of York, 1, 1962); Isings (1957) = C. Isings, Roman Glass from Dated Finds (Groningen, Djakarta, 1957); Smith (1957) = R. W. Smith, Glass from the Ancient World. The Ray Winfield Smith Collection (Corning Museum of Glass, Corning, N.Y., 1957).
49
more lines further up the side. Second to early third century. From room XXIV, Period 1 or 2 deposit. (Fig. 26, no. 4.) Three fragments of a thin-walled, faceted shallow bowl of colourless glass, the facets set close together, in quincunx. Second or early third century. Two fragments from north of Building A, the third from room IV, Period 2 deposit (Fig. I.26, no. 5 illustrates a piece from north of Building A). Eight fragments of a two-handled bottle of colourless glass. The shape is Isings (1957), p. 157, form 127. The body, none of which is preserved, would probably have borne horizontal wheel-cuts or incisions. Third or fourth century. From north of Building A, undated deposit (Fig. 26,no. 6). Three rim-fragments from colourless beakers with rounded and thickened rims. Third century. From north of Building A, undated deposit. Two fragments from the body of a colourless bowl with pincered vertical ribs. Third century. From undated deposit north of Building A. Three fragments, perhaps from the same bowl, colourless, with plain vertical trailed ribs. Third century. From undated deposit north of Building A. Fragment from the basal angle of a colourless bowl with vertical ribs ‘nipt diamond-ways’. Third century. From undated deposit north of Building A. Eight fragments from the body of a vessel (goblet or flask?), colourless with milky weathering. Faint vertical ribbing on sides. Third century. From undated deposit north of Building A. Four fragments from the body of one or more indented beakers, shape as Isings (1957), p. 46, form 32. Second or third century. From undated deposit north of Building A. Fragment of the side of a colourless deep bowl, curving outwards towards the rim, which is missing; two horizontal wheel-cut grooves below the rim-curve. Diam. c. 8 cm. Second to early third century. Prom the earliest deposit south of Building A. Rim of large flask or jug, diam. c. 7.5 cm, sharply outsplayed with thickened and rounded lip. Cf., perhaps, for shape of vessel, Harden (1936), p. 230, no. 709, pls. ix and xix, and Harden (1962), p. 140, nos. H 11 and HG 146. 3-4, figs. 89 and 90 (though all these rims have a different profile). Third century. From undated deposit south of Building A. Fragment from the side of a cylindrical beaker with three closely-set horizontal wheel-cuts. Third century. From undated deposit south of Building A. Side-to-stem junction from a chalice, the stem added to the body as a pad from a second paraison. Type as Harden (1936), p. 151 f., nos. 420-25, pl. xvi. Third century. From undated deposit south of Building A (Fig. 26, no. 7). Three fragments of rim and side of a colourless cylindrical bowl, rim rounded and thickened. For this type cf. W. A. Thorpe, English Glass (1935), p. 39, pl. vi, b (Airlie, Angus); Harden (1936), p. 124, fig. 2, a (Curium, Cyprus); id. (1962), p. 137 f., fig. 88, b and HG 202.6 (York). Third century. North of Building A, Period 2 or 3 deposit. Bottom of a handle of ‘dolphin’ type, probably from a tall cylindrical bottle with two such handles at base of neck. Cf. Harden (1962), p. 141, HG 182, fig. 89. Late third or fourth century. From undated deposit west of Building A. Fragment of cylindrical neck of flask, colourless, with two widely-spaced faint horizontal wheel-cuts; sharp constriction at base of neck. On this type the rim is knocked off and ground smooth and the body is globular. For an almost exactly parallel complete vessel, cf. Harden (1962), pl. 141, HG 33, pl. 67. Late third or fourth century. From disturbed area above modern drain west of Building A (Fig. I.26, no. 8).
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
50
Excavations at Shakenoak 22. Hollow, pushed in base-ring of bowl or jug. Late third or fourth century. From undated deposit north of Building A. 23. Fragment of wall of colourless vessel, mould-blown with horizontal ribbing. Almost certainly from a barrel-jug of Frontinus type. See Isings (1957), p.106, form 89 (onehandled) and p. 158, form 128 (two-handled): the early date ascribed to the one-handled type, as distinct from the twohandled, by Isings is difficult to accept. Late third or early fourth century. From undated deposit south of Building A. 24. Fifty-two fragments of a greenish shallow segmental bowl, with knocked-off and smoothed rim. Fourth century. South of Building A, undated deposit (Fig. I.26, no. 9). Fragments of similar bowls were found ii the deposits on the latest floors of rooms II and XVIII, and in the débris fill of room V. 25 Fragment of the body of a bowl, colourless, with mouldblown decoration in honeycomb pattern. Fourth century. From undated deposit north of Building A (Fig. 26, no. 10). 26. Two fragments of a mould-blown bowl, colourless, with vertical sides and rounded bottom. The pattern shows, near the rim, a band of vertical narrow hollows, vaguely hexagonal, and below that an all-over honeycomb design of broad hexagons with slightly raised centres. For the type cf. Harden (1936), pp. 103, 123, nos. 333-5, pl. xv; Isings (1957), p. 133, form 107a. Fourth century. In deposit above pebble floor west of room XXIV, dated A.D. 360-380. 27. Fragment of a greenish-yellow shallow bowl with knockedoff rim and indented body. For the shape see Isings (1957), p. 147 f., form 117, and D. B. Harden in Dark-Age Britain: studies presented to E. T. Leeds (ed. D. B. Harden, 1956), p. 136, class d i, pl. xv, f. Later fourth century. From Period 3 deposit immediately south of room XI. 28. Fragment of bottom of side and basal angle of an olive-green cylindrical bottle, bubbly glass. Fourth century. From room XXII, above Period 3b floor.
41, 42. Clear blue glass beads. From Period 3 deposit south of Building A (Fig. I.26, nos. 23 and 24). 43, 44. Clear green glass beads. From Period 3 deposit south of Building A (Fig. I.26, nos. 25 and 26).
Miscellaneous 45. Two fragments, perhaps contiguous, of an opaque turquoiseblue drawn glass rod, with a patch of opaque white milky weathering at one end. Combined length 12 mm, average diam. 1 mm. Too thin for use as a rod and perhaps refuse from the process of applying a trail to a vessel. Late Roman. From Period 2 or 3 deposit south of Building A. 46. Plano-convex game-piece, brown or dark green glass, appearing black, with two blue circles and one red leaf marvered flush with surface, centrally. Cf. similar pieces from Lullingstone and Krefeld-Gellep. Lullingstone: set of 15 white and 15 brown game-pieces with various coloured inlays found in a burial group with a gameboard of wood (J.R.S., XLIX (1959), 132 f. and Arch. Cant., LXXII (1958), p. lxiii f.). Lt. -Col. Meates dates the group ca. 300, with a slight bias towards the early years of the fourth century. Krefeld-Gellep: set of 24 pieces, 10 black with red and green marvered inlays in floral form, 13 opaque white with similar inlays and one plain opaque white. Found with a coin of Constantine I and a fragment of an engraved bowl with hunting scene of Wint Hill type in fourth century inhumation (R. Pirling, ‘Spätröm und Frühmittelalterliche Gläser aus Krefeld-Gellep’ in Annales du 3e. Congres des J. I. V., Damas, 1964, p. 91 ff., and id., Das röm fränkische Gräbefeld von Krefeld-Gallep (Germ. Denkm. der Vö1ker wanderungzeit, Ser. B, Bd. 2, 1966), pls.101; 102, 1-12). From late fourth-century deposit west of Building A (Fig. I.26, no. 27). For the type in general cf. Harden (1936), pp. 19 ff. , Pl. xx. 47. Plano-convex circular game-piece, diam. 1.8 cm, clear green glass. From early fifth-century deposit, room II. 48, 49. Plano-convex, circular game-pieces, diams. 1.2 and 1.8 cm, dark brown glass, appearing black. From undated deposits west of Building A. 50. Circular setting for a finger-ring, flattened on top and bottom, consisting of an opaque sky blue disc marvered into a winecoloured base. Probably made in a mould. From west of Building A, in a deposit dated after A.D. 350 (Fig. I.26, no. 28). 51. Fragmentary setting for a brooch in form of a cone of dark olive green glass, concave beneath. All extant surfaces and the edge have been ground smooth. From south of Building A, undated deposit (Fig. I.26, no. 29). 52. Similar complete cone of dark blue glass, but flat beneath. Surfaces ground smooth, but the edge seems to have been grozed all round, to fit into its setting. South of Building A, on fourth-century pebble floor (Fig. I.26, no. 30).
Beads 29. Melon bead, blue faience. From fill of ditch west of Building A (Fig. I.26, no. 11). 30. Clear green glass bead. West of Building A, Period 1 or 2 deposit (Fig. I.26, no. 12. 31. Opaque green glass bead. Room III, deposit on latest floor. An identical bead came from the deposit on the latest floor of room XII (Fig. I.26, no. 13). 32. Clear blue glass bead. From an undated deposit west of Building A (Fig. I.26, no. 14). 33. Clear green glass bead. From west of Building A, Period 3 deposit (Fig. I.26, no. 15). 34. Clear green glass bead with one transverse groove. Probably not a true segmented bead, since the groove is placed asymmetrically. Site as no. 26 above (Fig. I.26, no. 16). 35 . Opaque blue glass bead, one end broken away. From room XVIII, Period 3b deposit (Fig. I.26, no. 17, showing bead restored to its full length) . 36 . Clear blue glass segmented bead. From fill of wood-lined pit west of Building A (Fig. I.26, no. 18). 37. Clear blue glass segmented bead. From Period 3 deposit west of Building A (Fig. I.26, no. 19). 38. Six almost identical opaque green glass beads, found together on the pebble floor west of room IV, deposit A.D. 360-380 (Fig. I.26, no. 20). 39. Clear blue glass bead. From Period 3 deposit west of Building A (Fig. I.26, no. 21). 40. Clear blue glass bead. Period 3 deposit above ditch west of Building A (Fig. I.26, no. 22).
DISCUSSION This collection of glass is very characteristic of the period, the second to the fourth century, to which Building A belongs. Only two pieces (nos. 1-2) belong to the first century. These could well be strays from Site B, or some other area of first-century occupation. Many fragments of cylindrical and prismatic bottles were found, some of thick glass, some of thin, which look more characteristic of the 51
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker second-century types of such vessels than of those of the first century, and some might well be later still. The other types of common green glass (unguent bottles, bowls, etc.), not listed in the catalogue, probably belong to the second and third centuries.
BRONZE, SILVER AND LEAD OBJECTS Figs. I.27 – I.33 Several hundred bronze objects were found on Site A, of which the more interesting pieces are illustrated here. We are grateful to Mrs. Sonia Hawkes for the discussion of the late Roman military belt-fittings (Fig. I.29, nos. 13 and 15, and Fig. I.32, no. 58) which appears on p. 61 and for providing the illustrations (by Mrs. Marion Cox and Mrs Elizabeth Fry-Stone) of similar fittings from Oudenburg and Richborough (Fig. I.33). We are also indebted to Mr. D. F. Mackreth for drawing the brooches (Fig. I.27, nos. 28) and for his report on them which appears on p. 60.
The colourless fragments are mostly of the third century, though some may be of the second and some of the fourth century. Among the earliest types are the fragment of a vessel with applied rosettes (no. 5) and the fragments of a bowl with hexagonal cut facets (no. 7); among the latest are the barrel-jug (no. 23), the mould-blown fragments with honeycomb pattern (nos. 25-26), and the tall twohandled cylindrical bottle (no. 8). Closely akin to the colourless fragments are the greenish-colourless ones, which mainly belong to shallow bowls of fourth-century date with rounded bottoms and slightly incurving rims (e.g. no. 24).
Of the bronze objects not illustrated, the majority were too corroded or too fragmentary for satisfactory identification. About 50 small pieces of thin bronze plates were found, all In deposits dated to the fourth or early fifth century. The probably represent the decoration of wooden boxes or of leather. Four are shown in Fig. I.32 (nos. 54-56 and 59).
The very considerable quantity of window-glass includes both the matt/glossy variety of the early and middle Roman period and the double glossy variety of the later third and the fourth century. There is, however, more of the matt/glossy than of the double glossy, and since some of the matt/glossy fragments have traces of a substance which laboratory tests have shown to be lime mortar all over one side; it is worth considering whether some of this matt/glossy glass could be wall-veneer and not windowglass5. The beads, game-pieces, and ring- and broochsettings are probably all third century at the earliest, and most are probably fourth century.
The dates given in the descriptions below are those of the deposits in which the objects were found. Fig. I.27 1. Bronze bull’s head bucket ornament (see Ant., XXXVI, 1962, 219; also J. M. C. Toynbee, Art In Britain under the Romans, O. U. P., 1964, p. 124 for discussion). From rubble fill of Period 3b hypocaust in room XVI, Building A. 2. Brooch. South of Building A; Period 1 deposit. 3. Brooch. south-west of Building A and east of early ditch, lying on upcast from ditch; early Period 1 deposit. 4. Brooch. Building A, room XVI, Period 1 or Period 2. 5. Brooch. Building A, room XVII, from between Period 3a and Period 3b floors. 6. Brooch. South of Building A, late Period 1, or Period 2. 7. Brooch Found 15 ft west of south-west corner of room XVI, early Period 1 deposit. 8. Brooch. South-west of Building A, undated deposit.
Two fragments might possibly indicate glass-working on the site. They are a distorted fragment of green glass with one thickened and rounded edge and a twist at one end, which may be a waste piece from glass-working, and the opaque turquoise-blue drawn glass rod (no. 45), perhaps refuse from the process of applying glass trails to vessels. On such uncertain evidence no firm conclusion that glass was being worked at Shakenoak can be substantiated, but it remains a possibility. SUMMARY This group as a whole provides a useful cross-section of the kind of glass that can be found on a second- to fourthcentury Roman site in this Country, and it is of some value because of its very quantity. I do not think that there are many Roman villas in Britain that have produced so much. Certainly the Ditchley villa near Charlbury, Oxon., which was fully excavated in 1935, was not nearly so prolific in glass .
5
For these two varieties of window glass, see D. B. Harden in Studies in Building History (ed. E. M. Jope, 1961), pp. 44 ff. For such glass used as wall veneer see ibid., p. 52, note 68, and G. G. Boon in J. Glass Studies, VIII (1966), p. 44, note 9.
52
Excavations at Shakenoak
53
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
Fig. I.28 9, 10. Two joining pieces from a candelabrum. Cf. London in Roman Times, London Museum Catalogue no. 3, 1930, fig. 12, 1. Latest deposits south of rooms XVI and XI; late fourth or early fifth century.
54
Excavations at Shakenoak
11. Bronze with millefiori inlay in alternate panels of red and white and blue and white chequers. Cf. similar object from Campsfield, Kidlington (Oxon., XVII-XVIII, 1952-53, fig. 26) which may be from the same mould but is decorated with blue and white chequered millefiori inlay. Closely similar objects from Brigetio and Carnuntum in Pannonia are described by I. Sellye (Les bronzes émaillées de la Pannonie romaine, Budapest, 1939, pl. XVI, nos. la-4b) and E. Swoboda (Carnuntum, Graz-Koln, 1958, pl. XVIII/2). The origins and purpose of these objects are unknown. In letters to the authors of this report Professor Swoboda, of the University of Graz, and Dr. Kovrig, Director of the Archaeological Department, Magyar Nemzeti Múzeum, Budapest, expressed the view that the Pannonian objects were
made in the Rhineland. Second century. 12. Belt decoration with millefiori inlay of blue and white (outer band) and red and white (inner band). Cf. Richborough, I, pl. 13, no. 10; Antiquities of Roman Britain (British Museum, 2nd ed., 1958), pl. XXI, no. 6. Unstratified. 13, 15. Late Roman military belt-fittings (see p. 61). Building A, room II, latest deposit. 14. Strap-end. Fourth century. 16. Bezel of ring or brooch with an inlaid faceted “jewel” of yellowish glass set in white cement. Late fourth century. 17. Nail-cleaner. Fourth century. 18. Tweezers. Late fourth century. 19. Decorative boss with an irregular hole cut near the centre. Second century.
55
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
Fig. I.30 20 - 26. 27, 28. 29. 30, 31. 32. 33, 34. 35. 36. 37.
Bracelets. All late fourth century. Ear-rings. Cf. Jewry Wall, fig. 83, no. 18. Fourth century. Chain. Second or early third century. Needles. No. 30 undated, no. 3l fourth century. Pin. Third century. Unguent spoons or ear scoops. Undated. Pin. First half of third century. Handle of spoon? Fourth century. Part of a drop handle. Late second or early third century.
56
Excavations at Shakenoak
38. 39.
Decorative boss. Traces of white cement on inside surface. Early fourth century. Spoon-bowl, silvered bronze. Found with another identical piece and a disc of silvered bronze, 0.5 in diam., possibly cut from another spoon. Late fourth or early fifth century. 40. Ring. Second century. 41 - 43. Rings. Probably fourth century. 44. Uncertain. Second century. 45. Handle of tankard. Late second or third century. 46. Unidentified. Early fourth century. 47, 48. Iron nails with bronze heads. Undated. 49. Bead. Third or fourth century. 50, 51. Nails. Undated. 52. Rivet (?) with hollow shaft. Late fourth century. 53. Uncertain. Cf. J. Curle, A Roman Frontier-post and its People (Newtead), pl. LXXVIII, no. 10, described as “bronze bolt for fastening lock plate”. Third century.
57
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Fig. I.32 54. 55. 56, 57, 59. 58.
Plate. Fourth century. Decorative nail with large head. Undated. Plates with bronze nails or rivets. Fourth century. Late Roman military belt-fitting (see p. 61). Latest deposit in room II.
SILVER In addition to the two objects illustrated, a lump of fused silver, weighing slightly less than 1 oz. and bearing file-marks, was found in the latest deposits south of Building A. 1. 2.
Uncertain, from a chatelaine. Ring for suspension very worn. Latest deposit in room II; early fifth century? Uncertain. Fourth-century deposit.
LEAD A total of 40 lb. of lead was recovered from Site A. Of this, the waste-pipe from the Period 3b frigidarium (room VII) accounted for 14 lb. 5 oz., and of the rest about 20 lb. were fused lumps, the remainder being mostly clippings from sheets of lead varying in thickness from 0.31 in to 0.25 in. 1. 2. 3, 4. 5. 6. 7.
Uncertain. Fourth-century deposit. Uncertain. Mid-second century deposit. Rivets for repairing pots, from fourth-century deposits. A similar rivet was found in position on a pot in the early fifth-century deposit in room ii. Binding for edging of wood or leather? Fourth-century deposit. Uncertain. Second-century deposit. Waste-pipe from room VII. Length 2 ft 1.75 in; external diameter 2.5 in; internal diameter 2 in; diameter of flange, 3.5 in. Period 3b.
58
Excavations at Shakenoak
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker 5. Bronze; good condition; hinged. Pin and left wing missing. The bow is divided into two parts in the centre by a moulded knob with lobes. The upper part of the bow has a raised panel with four lozenges and infilling triangles. The head is surmounted by a cast loop, now broken. The lower part of the bow has a ridge and tapers to a knobbed foot. The lozenges and triangles have slight traces of enamel, now green probably due to discolouration by bronze corrosion.
THE BROOCHES By D. F. MACKRETH [Note: The numbering of the brooches is that shown on Fig. I.27.] 2. Bronze; Poor condition, hinged. Pin and right wing missing. The surviving wing is plain. The tapered bow is decorated at the top and the plain lower half has a ridge which runs down to a small projecting foot. The decoration consists of three raised lozenges in a line with flutings above and slight gable ridges between the lozenges on either side. The lozenges have recesses in them and probably held enamel but no sign of this remains. The catchplate is pierced by a single round hole.
The type of brooch appears to be the southern counterpart of the headstud and trumpet, having the enamel settings of the one and the centre knob of the other (other examples: Arch., LXXX, p. 239, fig. 2, 2 and 3). An example in Cirencester Museum has a Polden Hill spring arrangement showing that the type must start about or before A.D. 75. The later forms are hinged and have head loops like the Shakenoak specimen which is probably late first or early second century.
Parallels for this brooch are to be found in the south and south-west. All are basically the same; lozenges on the head, a plain lower bow and foot knob. Most have a cast loop on the head (e.g., Caerleon, Arch., LXXVIII, p. 162, fig. 13, 10 and 11) though there is no sign of it on this specimen. The use of enamel on brooches in lozenges, triangles or strips does not seem to date much before A.D. 70. A brooch from Shepherd’s Shore Down, Bishops Cannings, Wiltshire (Devizes Museum, 989) has flutings over the lozenges. The absence of a head loop, common on brooches in the later first century and later, probably places the Shakenoak specimen at about A. D. 80.
6. Bronze; poor condition; pin and catchplate missing. Langton Down type. The brooch has incised lines on the head. The bow was finely reeded and has the appearance of being slightly recurved, though this may be accidental. The catchplate was pierced but it is difficult to tell if there were two holes or one. This specimen belongs basically to Hull’s class A (Camulodunum, p. 317), it is larger than his class B and the recurved bow would fit if it is not accidental. These brooches started to arrive in this country before the Conquest but came in greater numbers afterwards; their life, however, seems to have been short and it is likely that they should all be dated before A.D. 60, apart from odd survivals.
3. Bronze. This brooch once had wings. The sides of the brooch as it is at present seem to have been filed or ground in antiquity. The brooch was originally sprung, the double pierced lug behind the head securing the spring to the body. The chord of the spring passed through the upper hole and an axial bar passed through the lower one and through the coils of the spring. The section of the bow has a ridge with concave sides. On the head the ridge is relieved on either side by grooves, thus giving the brooch the appearance of having a hook like the Colchester examples mentioned below. The half round section of the missing wings can be seen on either side of the head. The catchplate has a triangular piercing and there is a groove in the catch for the pin to seat in.
7. Bronze; good condition; small; pin and spring missing except for one end coil of spring corroded on to righthand wing endplate. The head has the Polden Hill arrangement of rearward-facing hook to hold the chord, and pierced endplates to the wings to hold the axial bar which passed through the coils of the spring. On either side of the head are “plates” which appear to clasp it. The foot is finished off with a knob. The Polden Hill spring arrangement, the side “plates” and the knobbed foot relate this brooch to a well defined class of brooch which appears to have a distribution in the West Country and is probably derived from the Polden Hill brooch itself. The small size, however, marks the Shakenoak brooch off from the series mentioned (example; Wroxeter, II, p. 11, fig. 4, no. 1) which is dated to the late first and early second centuries. The Shakenoak specimen is probably of the late first century.
Colchester provides parallels (Camulodunum, pl. XCI, 3641) for both the appearance of the brooch and the arrangement of the spring and lug; two specimens illustrated are dated to before A.D. 60. The date range for the Shakenoak brooch is probably A.D. 55-75. 4. Bronze; good condition; complete. Simple four-coiled, internal chord, one-piece brooch. Decoration is confined to transverse incised lines at the top and bottom of the bow. This type is common before and commoner after the Roman conquest. Its simplicity probably accounts for the long survival of the type into the Flavian period (example found at Newstead).
8. Bronze; good condition; sprung; catchplate and most of the pin missing. The centre of the bow has an oblong panel surrounded by ridges, those at the top and bottom are notched. The bow bends in to the head which has a vertical projection; between the centre panel and the projection are two steps. The sides of the bow have serrated edges. This brooch belongs to Collingwood’s group Y, symmetrical bow (Archaeology of Roman Britain, fig. 64, 98). The 60
Excavations at Shakenoak spring arrangement, of internal chord spring held to body by an axial bar passing through the coils and a single hole in the lug behind the head, is the same as that usually found on sprung trumpet brooches. Collingwood dates this type to the early second century.
decorated with zoomorphic and geometric ornament in cast ‘chip-carving’ style. Finds of such luxury fittings have been numerous, but unfortunately most have come from old and badly recorded excavations so that, until recently, it was not altogether clear how they functioned. The reconstruction shown here (Fig. I.33, no. 1) is based on a recently excavated and properly recorded find of a belt-suite from grave 46 in the cemetery adjacent to the newly discovered shore-fort at Oudenburg in Belgium.8 The broad belt, 8 cm. or more in width, was furnished with a zoomorphic buckle set centrally within a large chipcarved rectangular plate, which, riveted at one end of the belt, served to mask its overlap at the waist. The belt was adjusted and fastened by means of a narrower strap, attached near the other end to a leather flap mounted with a pair of triangular plates, which was passed through the buckle and on through a strap-slide, to terminate at its free end in a pointed strap-tag. The tag facilitated threading the strap through buckle and slide and, for its passage, required the slide to have its characteristic raised central portion.
THE LATE ROMAN MILITARY BELT-FITTINGS by SONIA CHADWICK HAWKES Amongst the metal objects from Shakenoak, three, found in the debris from the latest occupation of Building A, Site A, together with worn Theodosian coinage, command particular interest (Fig. I.29, nos. 13 and 15, and Fig. I.32, no. 58). All were originally belt-fittings and at least two, if not all, had once belonged to accoutrements worn in the late Roman armed forces. The construction and standard fittings of the late Roman military belt are best illustrated from northern Gaul and the Rhineland. Here numerous excavated graves have been found to contain the remains of officers and men who had served in the army of the fourth and early fifth centuries and been buried in pagan fashion with their weapons and equipment. Continental discussion of these graves has been voluminous and controversial but it is now clear that they contained the burials of barbarians, principally Franks and other Germans, who had served in various capacities, either as regulars in the Field Army (comitatenses) and in the frontier forces (limitanei and laeti), or perhaps even as irregulars (foederati) under their own native leaders.6 It is their burial customs which point to these men as Germans; and the occurrence of their graves in cemeteries associated with frontier forts and strongholds, and with fortified towns, which attests their military role. Many of these graves are well-dated by associated coins and pottery, so the basic chronology of the various types of military beltfittings is not in doubt. On the other hand, they were the products of many different workshops and fashions during a period of more than 50 years, and considerable variety of style and arrangement is evident. Recent publications of individual graves have made the general sequence clearer, but we still need a Europe-wide study of the subject to ascertain the finer details of chronology and distribution. For present purposes it will be enough to point out that up to the middle of the fourth century it was customary to fasten the military belt with rather simple and functional metal buckles, tags and sets of stiffeners,7 whereas during the second half of the fourth century the fashion was for more elaborate fittings, of gilded silver for senior officers and bronze for those of lesser rank, often lavishly
An additional accessory was the rosette-shaped attachment with hanging ring, affixed hereto the lower edge of the belt between buckle and slide.9 The rosette attachments were a regular feature of the late Roman military belt down to the early fifth century, occurring sometimes singly, sometimes several together. Evidence from early Frankish graves at Rhenen, on the Dutch side of the lower Rhine, suggests they may have served to attach utensils such as knives, tools or tweezers.10 Alternatively they could have been used to secure more essential military equipment such as a frog for the scabbard of the sword. This point needs further clarification. Towards the end of the fourth century and during the early fifth, in addition to the rosette attachments, the most common belt-fittings were a pair of tubular-sided plates riveted to the ends of the broad belt, which, again adjusted by a narrow strap, was now fastened by a zoomorphic buckle with small hinged plate.11 Similar buckles cast in one piece with their plates, the final evolution of this originally late Roman type, probably made their appearance during the second quarter of the fifth century.12 From the end of the fourth century, though chip-carved ornament persisted on some better class metalwork, the majority of buckles, plates and tags had only a simple punched border decoration. 8
J. Mertens, ‘Laat-Romeins graf te Oudenburg’, Helinium, IV (1964), 219-34, figs. 7-12. 9 In the reconstruction figured by Mertens, he places the rosette attachment on the other side of the slide, but in this position it would have tangled with the strap-tag. That this reconstruction is incorrect can be seen from the photographs of the fittings in situ, where the rosette attachment is definitely lying between buckle-plate and strap-slide, as we have it here. 10 Unpublished information by courtesy of Mr. 1. Ypey, Amersfoort. 11 For the reconstruction of this type see Laur-Belart, Ur-Schweiz, XXIII (1959), 60, fig. 39. The fittings from the Dorchester grave must have been arranged in similar fashion. 12 J. Werner, ‘Kriegergräber aus der ersten Hälfte des 5. Jahrhunderts zwischen Schelde und Weser’, Bonner Jahrbücher, CLVIII (1958), 391 ff.
6
The majority of the Continental literature has been listed and summarised in Sonia Chadwick Hawkes and G. C. Dunning, ‘Soldiers and settlers in Britain, fourth to fifth century’, Med. Arch., V (1961), 170, and Vera I. Evison, The Fifth-Century Invasions South of the Thames (1965), pp. 9-17. 7 A. Dasnoy, ‘Quelques ensembles archéologiques du bas empire provenant de la région namuroise’, Annales de le société archéologique de Namur, LIII (1966), 218-225, figs. 17 and 19.
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Graves of late Roman date containing this military belt equipment are rare in Britain. Best known is that of the Saxon mercenary buried at Dorchester-on-Thames, Oxon., in the early fifth century, but sets of belt-fittings of similar date, preserved without proper record from Milton Regis, Kent, and Croydon, Surrey, suggest that there were others.13 Graves with fourth-century belt assemblages are lacking here at present, unless the fine chip-carved buckles
and plates preserved in Liverpool Museum, and purporting to have been found in Kent, originally came from graves. If so, their most likely provenance is Richborough, the headquarters fort of the Saxon Shore defences in Britain, the occupation levels of which have yielded a goodly number of individual buckles, strap-tags, rosette attachments and other related articles, some chip-carved, some punch-decorated. These, considered together with a fourth-century Germanic weapon-burial outside the fort, and further finds of Germanic weapons from the ditch,
13 Except where otherwise stated, all British finds mentioned have been published in Hawkes and Dunning, op. cit.
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Excavations at Shakenoak suggest that the late Roman garrison at Richborough included semi-barbarian troops brought over from northern Gaul, probably by Count Theodosius in 368-9, and perhaps again by Stilicho in 398-9.
has recently been brought to my notice from Dragonby, Lincs., by courtesy of Mr. J. May.) The finds from Shakenoak are thus very important, as they are among the first such to come from a significant and properly dated context on a rural site.
Stray finds of fourth-century Continental military beltfittings have been made on the sites of several Roman towns (London, Leicester, Caistor-by-Norwich, and Catterick), and this has been taken to imply that similar troops were used to garrison some of the walled towns of Roman Britain. That this was so in the early fifth century is clear from the Saxon burials at Dorchester, and from recent excavations in the town itself which have revealed late- or sub-Roman buildings, interpreted by the excavator as possible accommodation for the garrison, and a few sherds of early Germanic pottery.14 There can be little doubt that the man buried in his military belt was a member of a detachment of troops installed to defend the town, either after the reorganisation of Stilicho, or after 410 when the British civitates were authorised to take measures for their own protection. Buried close to the man was a woman with early north German brooches and a buckle of distinctive type, with loop decorated with dolphins and horse-heads, and long rectangular plate with punched and engraved ornament. This buckle belongs to a numerous class (type I) which seems to have been an insular production of some originality. The other main type which was produced in Britain (type IIA) is more directly inspired from Continental models, and may have borrowed its openwork arcaded plate from north Gaulish buckles of fourth-century date brought over by the troops of Theodosius. Both British types are likely to have been primarily military in character and use. Two examples of type IB were found at Richborough, for example, and both types have turned up in some numbers from Roman towns (Caerwent, Caistor, Catterick, Chichester, Cirencester, Colchester, Leicester, London, Silchester, Verulamium, Water Newton). It seems generally accepted now that these, like the imported Continental types, probably belonged to the equipment of town garrisons, either barbarian mercenaries or local levies, employed by the civil administration of the Vicarius before 407, and perhaps also by the civitates after 410.15
One of them (Fig. I.29, no. 15) is part of a strap-slide, which, as its rivet attests, had probably been repaired and re-used before being finally discarded. Originally it will have formed part of a belt-suite similar to that from Oudenburg, for, while it is not precisely like the Oudenburg strap-slide, it has a fairly close parallel in a comparable group of belt-fittings, likewise datable to the second half of the fourth century, from another grave in Belgium, at Tournai rue Despars grave D.16 Nearer at hand come two parallel pieces from Richborough: two halves of a plain slide with similar lunate terminals (Fig. I.33, no. 2),17 which was once fitted to a belt at least 7 cm. broad, and half of a decorated slide of nearly identical shape (Fig. I.33, no. 3), which belonged to a belt about 8 cm. in width. The form, geometric chip-carved ornament, and dimensions of the latter make it a very close parallel indeed to the Shakenoak fragment. Both were probably brought to Britain on the belt of a soldier in some north Gaulish troop at a date within the last half of the fourth century. The shore fort at Richborough seems not to have been reoccupied after the withdrawal of the regular army by Constantine III in 407, so the Richborough piece was presumably broken and discarded before this date. But the Shakenoak slide may have been in use longer - witness the repair - as the associated coins suggest, though not necessarily in its original function. The second piece of continental origin is the fragmentary rosette attachment (Fig. I.29, no. 13), the primary use of which was discussed above. It is tempting to suggest that this, thrown away after its attachment loop and ring had been broken off, may originally have formed part of the same military belt as the slide. This is possible, but the type continued to be made and used well into the fifth century, as we have seen, and the size and decoration of this example hints at a relatively late date in the series. In Britain examples of comparable size occur at Dorchester and at Croydon in early fifth century associations, for example.
There has been less readiness to adopt the suggestion that the similar buckles and fittings found on the sites of Roman villas and villages indicate the use of troops in the countryside too. This is scarcely surprising, for though finds from villas and rural sites are numerous, very little is known about their precise circumstances. (Finds have been published from Gestingthorpe, Essex; Lullingstone, Kent; Holbury, West Dean and Popham, Hants.; North Wraxall and Upper Upham, Wilts.; Chedworth and Spoonley Wood, Gloucs.; Duston, Northants.; Clipsham, Rutland; Alwalton, Hunts. A further unpublished find of type IIA
The third piece (Fig. I.32, no. 58) is not of Continental manufacture, but is the end of one of those long narrow plates normally associated with British buckles of type I. Hard wear, or more probably deliberate secondary working over with the hammer, has all but obliterated its original ornament, of which only the borders of punched crescents, grooves and diagonal hatching remain clear. The central panel still shows part of a roundel composed of two engraved concentric rings, possibly enclosing engraved and punched ornament, and there are faint traces of two
14
Sheppard Frere, ‘Excavations at Dorchester on Thames, 1962’, Arch. J., CXIX (1964), 121 ff., and ‘The end of towns in Roman Britain’, The Civitas Capitals of Roman Britain (ed. J. S. Wacher, 1966), 93 f. 15 Sheppard Frere, Britannia (1967), pp. 359 and 368.
16 G. Faider-Feytmans, ‘Sépultures du IVe siècle à Tournai’, Latomus, X (1951), 43 f., pl. iv, l. 17 J. P. Bushe-Fox, Richborough, II (1928), pl. xxi, 5e.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker smaller circlets and some hatched work at the broken end. This must always have been a crudely executed piece, but so are others in its class. The decoration is recognisably similar to that on other type I plates, notably that from Dorchester and another from Catterick,18 and is generally paralleled in the more sophisticated ornament on plates from Cirencester, Duston and Silchester. It has already been argued that, although buckles of type 1 must have begun in manufacture already before the end of the fourth century, as their discovery at Richborough suggests, their life extended well into the fifth century. Now we have further confirmation of this dating through this discovery at Shakenoak of a battered fragment of one of these type 1 plates in a layer dated by coins to c. 430 or later.
IRON OBJECTS Figs. I.34 – I.36 Approximately 9,700 iron objects were found in the excavation of Site A. Of these, 92 are illustrated here. A further 8,960 were nails differing only slightly from Fig. I.36, no. 86. The remainder were mostly fragments too corroded for identification. The dates given in the descriptions below are those of the deposits in which the objects were found. Several hundred irregular lumps of very heavily corroded iron, often mixed in with slag, were found in the earliest Period 1 levels and in the Period 3b levels, especially near the hearth in room XVIII. The Period 3b levels also yielded several samples of “clod”, the purple pebbly clay sometimes used as a source of iron, and what appeared to be a corroded bloom of smelted iron. These indicate that in the first and last phases of Building A, iron-working was carried out on a small scale.
It is hard to resist speculation about the historical significance of these three objects. And it must be said at the outset that, while British-made buckles are relatively common on country sites, Continental-style military beltfittings have only once before been found in a Roman rural building (at Holbury, West Dean, Wilts.). So the appearance of two of them at Shakenoak, together with a British buckle-plate and an unusually large number of Theodosian coins, must command due attention. What were they doing there, thrown out with the rubbish from the latest occupation of this small building? Was the last resident a retired soldier from one of the town garrisons of late Roman Britain? Or was the building, in its last phase, occupied by a detachment of troops, barbarian mercenaries or local recruits, placed there to defend an important Roman estate, such as that of the nearby villa at North Leigh? Either is a possibility, and it is to be hoped that future excavations at Shakenoak may shed further light on this important question.
Fig. I.34 1. 2. 3-5. 6. 7, 8. 9. 10. 11. 12-14. 15. 16-20. 21-23. 24. 25. 26. 27, 28. 29, 30. 31. 32.
18 In private collection, this has kindly been brought to my notice by Mr. M. Pocock.
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Part of lock? Late third or early fourth century. Uncertain. Fourth century. Keys. Third or fourth century. Holdfast. Late fourth century. Keys. Fourth century. Unworked smith’s stock? Undated. Wedge or piece of adze blade. Undated. Chisel. Main flue of hypocaust, room XVI, late fourth or early fifth century. Chisels. Fourth century. Tool of uncertain purpose. Fourth century. Knives. Late third or fourth century. Reaping or pruning hooks. Cf. K.D. White, Agricultural Implements of the Roman World, 1967, figs. 58-62. Nos. 21 and 23 fourth century, no. 22 undated. Blade with socket for wooden handle. Late fourth century. Chisel. Fourth century. Uncertain. Possibly wood-carving chisel or punch for wood or leather. Undated. Fragments of saw blades? Third or fourth century. Knives. Fourth century. Plasterer’s trowel. Third or early fourth century. Spearhead. Late fourth century.
Excavations at Shakenoak
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66
Excavations at Shakenoak 33. Scoop. Late third or early fourth century. 34. Latch-lifter. Undated. . 35, 36. Bands for strengthening or binding wood? Associated with builders’ debris. Fourth century. 37, 38. Straps with hinged loops. Late fourth century. 39. Nail or bolt with perforated head. Late fourth century. 40. Uncertain. Fourth century. 41, 42, 44. Rings hinged to spikes probably intended for driving into wood. Nos. 41 and 42 from latest deposit in Room II, no. 44 undated. 43. Probably for driving into wood. Undated. 45. Loop, possibly for attachment to leather. Fourth century. 46. Uncertain. Fourth century. 47, 48. Ox goads. No. 47 undated, no. 48 fourth century. Cf. PittRivers, Excavations in Bokerly Dyke and Wansdyke, pl. CLXXXIII, nos. 17 and 18.
49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57, 58. 59-61. 62.
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Shackle. Fourth century. Uncertain. Fourth century. As no. 43. Fourth century. Uncertain. Late fourth century. Hinge. Late fourth century. Uncertain. Late fourth century. Riveted plate. Undated. Washer. Undated. Bosses? Purpose uncertain. Fourth century. As no. 43. Third or fourth century. Piece of chain or harness? Late second or early third century.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
63, 64. Uncertain. The spikes are probably intended for driving into wood. Fourth century. 65, 66. Nails. Fourth century. 67. Cleat. Late fourth century. 68, 69. Nails. Fourth century. 70. Uncertain. Late fourth century. 71. Uncertain. Late fourth or early fifth century. 72, 73. Uncertain. No. 72 was found in association with no. 58. Early fourth century. 74. Two bars of unworked iron, probably smith’s stock. Early second century. 75. Incomplete cleat. Fourth century. 76. Uncertain. Late fourth century. 77. Iron ring from wooden shaft, attached by iron nail. Traces
78, 79. 80. 81-83. 84, 85. 86. 87. 88-92.
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of the impression of the wood remain on the nail and the inside of the ring. Late fourth century. Styli. Late fourth or early fifth century. Part of a bit or of a similar piece of harness. Fourth century. Nails. Third or fourth century. Nails with unusually large heads. Eight examples found, all from the latest deposits within or just west of Building A; late fourth or early fifth century. Nail, typical of those found in deposits of all periods from second to fifth century, Uncertain. Fourth century. Rings, perhaps from harness. Latest deposit in room II; fourth or early fifth century.
Excavations at Shakenoak CHARCOAL AND TIMBER The smallness (less than 0.02 in) of the fragments left after acid treatment indicated that the wood had been almost completely disorganised. Decomposition must therefore have continued after the embedding in plaster, and this in turn would have been followed by progressive calcification.”
A great many pieces of charcoal were recovered from deposits inside and outside the building. The timber of the sleeper-beams in the Period 1 structure (p. 7) was identified as oak by Professor G. W. Dimbleby, of the Institute of Archaeology, University of London, to whom we are also indebted for the following note on a random sample of the charcoal recovered from Site A:
WHEAT The deposit of ash and charcoal sealed in by the fallen roof-slates of room I Period 3, contained about two quarts in volume of carbonised grain (p. 13), identified by Dr. Hans Helbaek, of the Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen, as spelt wheat, Triticum spelta.
“Oak (Quercus) forms the largest proportion, especially of the bigger pieces, but birch (Betula) and hazel (Corylus) are also abundant. There is a small amount of hawthorn (Crataegus) type (indistinguishable from apple or pear).” Professor Dimbleby also examined material found among the building debris above the Period 3b floors inside Building A. This comprised pieces up to 1 in square, having the superficial appearance of wood or bone, and a lump of plaster about 7 in by 5.5 in in which was embedded what looked like the end of a large piece of timber, about 4 in by 2.5 in (illustrated in Plants and Archaelogy, G. W. Dimbleby, 1967, pl. IVd, and referred to on p. 73). Analysis of these pieces indicates that wood was used in conjunction with mortar in constructing the building and could be evidence of timber framing in the superstructure. We are grateful to Professor Dimbleby for the following report on his investigation of this material:
A sample of this wheat was examined by Mr. R. C. Alvey, who found it to contain 511 spelt grains, one wild oat and two spikelets. There were no Bromus seeds in the sample. The dimensions of 25 randomly chosen grains of spelt and of the wild oat are given in the table below. Measurements of Wheat Grains in mm.
“None of these samples showed the structure of wood when seen under a lens. They showed some crude structure, being porous, alveolar or penetrated by irregular tubes, but this was too large in size to be the basic elements of wood. It was suggested, however, that this may have been wood which had been largely decomposed by fungal and insect attack before becoming impregnated with lime from the plaster matrix. To investigate this possibility, pieces of the material were dissolved gently in dilute HCl, and the residue examined microscopically. In some cases the only residue was a brown turbidity, but in others fragments of fibrous material were left. Under the microscope this was clearly seen to be wood. A large number of such fragments was examined, from which the following features were determined: (i) (ii) (iii)
Vessels 100µ in diameter were present, as well as smaller vessels; Rays seen in tangential view were uniseriate; Larger rays were also present, seen as sheets of ray tissue in radial longitudinal section.
BONE OBJECTS Fig. I.37
These features suggest that the material was oak, but to confirm this, exhaustive comparison was made withsections prepared from known material, including species other than oak. On all points precise correspondence was found with oak. The only other possible species was sweet chestnut (Castanea) but the apparent occurrence of large rays ruled this out. Nothing was seen which could not be derived from oak timber.
Pins were the commonest bone objects, 83 complete or fragmentary ones being found. A selection of types is illustrated in Fig. I.37. Three roughly worked pieces of bone were found, and it is possible that some boneworking took place on the site. The dates given below are those of the deposits in which the objects were found.
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1. 2. 3. 4.
5. 6. 7. 8.
Tine of antler, polished and drilled. Undated. Boar’s tusk, drilled. Late third or fourth century. Piece of bone handle. Late third or early fourth century. Ring made by roughly trimming the surface of an antler and sawing it into sections. Found with one other complete ring and 30 broken ones. Main flue of hypocaust, room XVI; late fourth or early fifth century. Pin. The point has been broken off and the end roughly sharpened for re-use. Fourth century. Pin. Fourth century. Pin. Second or early third century. Pin. Third or fourth century.
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.
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Pin. Fourth century. Pin. Third century. Pin. Undated. Pin. Fourth century. Pin Second or third century. Pin. Second or third century. Pin. Undated. Pin. Third or fourth century. Pin. Undated.
Excavations at Shakenoak ANIMAL BONES
Horse
About 14,500 animal bones were recovered during the excavation of SiteA, mostly in a fragmentary state. A group of about 1,000 from the early fifth-century deposit above the latest floors in rooms II and III (see p. 13) was submitted to Dr. P. A. Jewell, of the Department of Zoology, University College London, to whom we are indebted for the following report:
The bones are from small animals of pony size. From the teeth, at least four individuals are represented. Heavily worn first premolars and incisors are from two aged individuals about 8 years old and 12 years old or more respectively (this last is indicated by an incisor so worn that the central enamel ring has completely gone). A third animal was a young adult, the teeth being erupted and in wear but as yet little worn. The fourth animal had an unerupted M2 and so was under two years old.
Condition of the bones All the bones are in fragments and had been broken and chopped up in antiquity. They have been chopped into very small pieces so that fragments that can give useful measurements are scarce. Even the compact ends of long bones have been split into pieces which shows that the bones were not cut simply to extract the marrow but must, presumably, have been boiled down to effect a complete extraction. Many of the fragments are burnt and some are almost completely calcined and have evidently been in a fire19. Even small bones like the phalanx were chopped, and pieces of skull bones are present, but no large skull fragments or horn cores were found so that little idea can be gained of the type of animals present.
Cattle The cattle bones are from a small type of animal, and all that are measurable compare well with the bones of the small “Celtic ox” from Iron Age and Romano-British sites. A very large collection of Roman cattle bones from Corstopitum was described by Meek and Gray1 and the range of size for a number of these bones has been presented by Jewell 2,3. The range was quite wide and some fairly large cattle (about the size of modern shorthorns) were evidently being bred in Roman times. In the Shakenoak collection there is only one bone fragment that indicated a large beast, and this is the distal end of a tibia. It is 68 mm. wide and in this dimension equals the widest tibia of the Corstopitum remains, yet the Shakenoak specimen is a detached epiphysis and so comes from a young animal. Perhaps it is the remains of a young bull of improved breed type that was brought to Shakenoak for crossing purposes but for some reason had to be disposed of? All the other bone fragments are from small beasts. Four astragali show the same size range as astragali from the Romano-British site of Highdole Hill, Sussex; two metacarpals are at the lower end of the size range for this bone in “Celtic” oxen and the fragments of humeri are similarly small. The majority of the cattle teeth are fully erupted but not heavily worn and so come from animals that are a few years old; a fully erupted but unworn I3 indicates an animal about three years old, and a worn specimen indicates one three and a half to four years old. A well-worn milk-molar is from an animal under two years old.
Species present The species present are horse, ox, sheep, and pig. There are two fragments (a distal end of a tibia and most of a calcanium) that may be from red deer, but there is no other evidence for deer, or indeed for any other wild animal, nor for dog or cat. Some hundreds of fragments were recovered, but when the identifiable fragments (excluding teeth) that could be correctly allocated to a species were sorted out they were found to be present in the following numbers: ox, 47 fragments; horse, 16 fragments, sheep, 16 fragments; pig, one fragment. Ox evidently preponderated and the great majority of fragments are from large animals of ox or horse size. Of the teeth, 39 are ox, 24 horse and one sheep. The low number of sheep bones is noteworthy, especially bearing in mind that it is easy to allocate fragments to sheep on the basis of size alone, whereas horse and ox are indistinguishable on this score. On the other hand, the fairly large number of horse bones is notable, and these bones are fragmented and split just like the other species.
Sheep The sheep remains simply indicate a small, fine-limbed beast somewhat like the breeds at present still surviving in the outer isles of Scotland.
19 These calcined bones occurred at all depths in the deposit and were mixed in with unburned bones, indicating that they had not been burned while in this deposit but at some earlier stage before being discarded. (Excavators’ note.)
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Measurement of Bones in mm.
Of the 13,500 bones, 3,822 (28.3%) were assigned to species. The percentages are given in the table below. At least 1,500 bones of small mammals of the size of a cat or smaller, or of birds, are included in those not identified.
In addition to the group of 1,000 bones examined by Dr. Jewell, a further 13,500 were examined by the authors. These bones were dealt with as a single group, since very few of them were from sealed and dated deposits. Comparative material from the University Museum collection was kindly made available by Professor A. J. Cain, then of the Department of Zoology, University of Oxford.
72
Excavations at Shakenoak MOLLUSCA undatum L.). We are indebted to Professor A. J. Cain, of the Department of Zoology, University of Manchester, for identifying these species. Professor Cain also examined a number of snail shells from Roman deposits on the site. We are grateful to him for the following report:
On Site A were found 3,852 shells of the common oyster (Ostrea edulis L.); one had had a rectangular panel, 0.5 in by 0.75 in, cut out of it. Other edible molluscs included 27 mussels (Mutilis edulis L.) and two whelks (Buccinum
Mollusca from Shakenoak Room II, from between Period 3a and 3b floors Succinea putris (L.) Arianta arbustorum (L.) Cepaea hortensis (Müller) Cepaea emoralis (L.) Helix aspersa (Müller) Oxychilus sp
1 2 2 both unbanded 00000 1 juvenile, yellow tip, banding 00300 fragments 2
Room II, Period 1 or 2 (below Period 3a floor) Arianta arbustorum (L.)
1
Room IV, below Period 3b floor Planorbis planorbis (L.) 1 Cochlicopa sp. 1 Cepaea hortensis (Müller) 100000 Cepaea nemoralis (L.) 1 fivebanded 12345 Helix aspersa (Müller) 15 Helicella gigaxi (L. Pfeiffer) 1 Discus rotundatus (Müller) 1 Qxychilus sp. 2 (and several minute and juvenile shells not yet worked on) Room II, in Period 3a floor Arianta arbustorum (L.) Cepaea hortensis (Müller) Cepaea nemoralis (L.) Helicella itala (L.) Oxychilus sp.
2 1 unbanded 00000 2 banded 1:3 (45) and :2345 1 2
Shells from sealed but undated deposits (2%-3% – not more – could be later intrusions through disturbance by rats, etc. burrowing.) Vallonia costata (Müller) Ceciloides acicula (Müller) epaea nemoralis (L.)
1 2 3 banded (12) 3 (45) S 1:345 :2345 Helix aspersa (Müller) 36+ Discus rotundatus (Müller) 1 (plus a few small shells not yet worked on)
73
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Shells from unsealed Romano-British deposits Cepaea hortensis Cepaea nemoralis
Unbanded 00000 Banded 12345 hyalozonate Banded (12) 345 Unbanded 00000 Banded 12345 and minor variants Banded 00045
The molluscan fauna ranges from undoubtedly aquatic forms (Planorbis) through semi-aquatics (Succinea) to widespread terrestrials (Helix aspersa, Cepaea) and terrestrials characteristic of dry calcareous soils (Helicella itala). Ceciloides is a subterranean form of calcareous soils. The assemblage strongly indicates exactly the conditions at the present day – a stream by a dry calcareous bank with open vegetation at least in part (Vallonia is never found in woodland). Detailed collections of presentday Cepaea have not yet been made from the area, but the frequencies of the different banding morphs are very like what is obtained at the present day in the Oxford district and nearby towards Banbury in rough herbage or hedgerows.
2 1 1 2 (1 is a pink) 13 (1 is a hyalozonate) 2
Femur
Humerus
Ulna
(R) FeD1 27.5 FeD2 34.3
(R) HuL1 341.0 HuD1 23.5 HuD2 19.1
(R) UlL1 26.6
Utilizing the humeral and ulnar lengths, the reconstructed stature of this individual is approximately 5 ft. 8.5 in, using the formulae (for ‘Whites’) of Trotter and Gleser.
“The human remains examined represent at least nine individuals, some of whom are better represented than others. The sex of the individuals could be determined with some confidence in five cases, less reliably in three more cases, and not at all in one case. In all instances where it was possible to make an assessment, the individuals appeared to be of the male sex. Precise estimates of age at death were only possible in five cases, but three other individuals were certainly ‘adult’; only in one case was an assessment of age at death virtually unobtainable.
Sex. – This individual was a male, the assessment of sex being very reliable as all the bones available for study were large and robust. Age at death. – The estimate of age at death had of necessity to be based upon an examination of the degree of suture closure in the cranial fragment, and an examination of the general appearance of the post-cranial remains. A suggested age is between 40 and 50 years, but estimates based upon limited criteria, such as were available here, are not completely reliable. Pathology. – No pathological manifestations were exhibited on the bones available for study. As no teeth were preserved, no comment upon dental pathology can be made. Evidence of trauma. – One feature of interest was noted in connexion with the axis. This cervical bone appeared to have been cut by some sharp-edged instrument, probably from left to right across the body of the bone, and thus severing the inferior surface, lamina and spine from the remainder of the bone. The appearance of the exposed surface of the bone does not seem to suggest that the damage is of post-mortem occurrence. There is further evidence of cutting by some sharp-edged instrument, viz. at the base of the odontoid process, and on the posterior aspect of the bone, immediately inferior to the superior articular process.
Individual No. 1
Individual No. 2
This individual is represented by a number of complete bones and by many fragmentary remains. One of the largest of these fragments is a portion of the cranium. Only two of the conventional biometric measurements could be taken on this fragment, viz. the bregma-lambda arc (S2) and chord (S’2), the values being 136 mm. and 123 mm. respectively. Amongst the complete bones, which were all from the post-cranial skeleton, were a right humerus and a right ulna and some of the bones of the hands and feet. Measurements that could be taken on long bones were:
This individual is better represented in the remains than No. 1, although the cranial bones are fragmentary, for there are several complete long bones and most of the mandible available for examination. The biometric measurements that could be taken appear below:
HUMAN REMAINS The finding of four fairly complete skeletons and a number of scattered human bones inside Building A is described on p. 14. These bones were submitted to Dr. D. R. Hughes and Dr. C. B. Denston, of the Duckworth Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Faculty of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge, to whom we are indebted for the following report:
74
Mandible
Femur
RB’ M2P1 ZZ M2H
FeL1 (L) 453.0 FeL2 450.0 430.0 FeL3 FeD1 25.5 FeD2 34.3
34. 6 29.8 46.0 25.5
(R) 453.0 26.1 35.0
Excavations at Shakenoak Tibia
Humerus
Individual No. 6
TiD1 (L) 37.5 (R) 35.0 24.0 25.0 TiD2
HuD1 (L) 23.3 (R) 24.1 HuD2 19.0 19.5
This individual is represented by two portions from the central third of the shaft of the femur, the portions being from a right and left femur. The age at death cannot be determined by inspection; the sex of the individual is probably male, judging from the diameters of the shafts.
Radius RaL1 (L) 247.0 (R) 248.0
Individual No. 7
From the long bone measurements a reconstructed stature of approximately 5 ft 8 in can be calculated, using the Trotter and Gleser formulae.
This individual was the best represented in this series of remains, the cranium being almost intact, the mandible being complete, and many long bones being in a state of good preservation. All the customary biometric measurements could be taken on the mandible and cranium, with the exception of maximum bizygomatic breadth, and on most of the long bones. The biometric measurements relating to this individual appear below:
Sex. – The sex of this individual can be confidently assessed as male on a basis of anatomical appreciation. Criteria available include the innominate bones, portions of the cranium and mandible, and the numerous long bones. The relevant features of these bones unanimously suggest male sex. Age at death. – The age at death was probably between 18 and 25 years. The main criteria are the dentition and the long bones, the skull being too poorly preserved to be of much assistance. The appearance of the one pubic symphysis to be preserved supported this assessment. Pathology, (a) general and (b) dental. – (a) The patellar surface of the left femur exhibits some signs of ripping at the margins, as do the olecranon processes of both ulnae. This may be interpreted as indicating incipient osteoarthritis. (b) Signs of a slight degree of enamel hypoplasia were noted on some teeth. This may be interpreted as indicating a disturbance in the development of the teeth, either because of dietary disturbance of a temporary kind or because of some non-chronic illness of short duration. There were no signs of caries, or of periodontal disease. There was slight rotation of the mandibular left lateral incisor and canine. No teeth had been lost before death.
L 180.0; B 143.5; B’ 91.0; H’ 34. 0; LB 98.0; S1 128.5; S2 113.0; S3 126.0; S 368.0; T’ 308.0; U 154.0; S’1 111.5; S’2:2 103.5; S’3 105.5; G’H 66.0; GL 92.5; GB 88.5; G2 37. 0; G’l 43.0; O2 34.0; O1 42.0; FL 37.0; FB 30.7; NB 22.8; NH 45.0; OH 112.0; BOH 111. 5; Wl 116.5; CyL 21.4; RB’ 31.3; M2P1, 29.0; Hl 29.1; ZZ 42.8; CrC r 93.0; M< 11) 110.0º; CpL 72.0; RL 64.0; GoGo 87.5; ML 91.0; CrH 62.0; M2H 25.5; FeLl (L) 448.0 (R) 445.0; FeL2 (L) 446.0 (R) 443.0; FeDl (L) 23.8 (R) 24.6; FeD2 (L) 34.6 (R) 34.8; TiL3 (L) 350.0 (R) 350.0; TiD1 (L) 35.0 (R) 33.6; TiD2 (L) 26.0 (R) 25.7; HuL1 (L) 322.0 (R) 320.0; HuD1 (L) 20.0 (R) 22.1; HuD2 (L) 17.0 (R) 17.2; RaL1 (R) 239.0; U1L1 (L) 263.0 (R) 265.0; F1L1 (R) 359.0. Sex. – The evidence of the skull and post-cranial bones is available for an assessment of sex. This individual was in all probability a male, although the anatomical signs suggesting this are in no way emphatic. Various measurements taken on the long bones, however, confirm the assessment of male sex. Age at death. – Four criteria are available for study, viz. the degree of dental attrition, the progress of endocranial and ectocranial sutural closure, the appearance of the pubic symphysis (one only being preserved), and the general appearance of the post-cranial bones. The best estimate of age at death is between 20 and 25 years, there being no apparent conflict between the four estimates. Stature. – The reconstructed stature of this individual was approximately 5 ft 6.5 in, utilizing measurements taken on the femora, humeri, one fibula, one radius, and using the Trotter and Gleser formulae.
Individual No. 3 This individual is represented by seven teeth, viz. four molars, two canines and one premolar. It would be incautious to make any assessment of sex, but the individual was obviously ‘adult’ at time of death. Individual No. 4 This individual is represented by the proximal half of a left femur, the distal half of a right humerus, and the proximal extremity of a left radius. From the robustness of the long bone fragments, it appears likely that this individual was of male sex, and the remains are certainly those of an adult. Individual No. 5
Pathology, (a) general and (b) dental. – (a) The occurrence of Schmorl’s nodes (an irregular or hemispherical bone defect in the upper or lower margin of the body of a vertebra) was noted in bones of the vertebral column, with a progressive increase in size from the 7th to the 12th thoracic vertebrae. A slight degree of orbital
This individual is represented by one bone – an almost complete left femur, the missing portion being the distal epiphysis. The obvious non-union of the epiphysis and shaft suggests an age at death of about 19 years, whilst the robustness of the bone suggests that the individual was of the male sex. 75
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker osteoporosis (sometimes called usura orbitae) was noted on the superior surfaces of both orbital cavities.
Individual No. 9 This individual is represented by a fragmentary mandible only. The sex is almost certainly male; the age at death is more difficult to assess, but was probably between 30 and 35 years. The majority of the teeth had been lost after death, only five remaining in situ. The condition of these teeth was good, there being no signs of caries or periodontal disease. The sockets of the missing teeth revealed no signs of apical abscesses. Only three measurements could be taken, viz.
(b) A total of 28 permanent teeth had erupted by the time of death. Although the maxillary right third molar was present, it is doubtful whether maximum eruption would eventually have taken place. This is suggested by the absence of the maxillary left homologue, and by that of both mandibular third molars. There is every reason to suppose that these teeth were congenitally absent. There were no signs of caries in any of the teeth, but a small abscess was observed at the apex of the root of the maxillary right medial incisor. Signs of a slight degree of periodontal disease are visible along the alveolar margins, and several teeth carry light deposits of calculus or tartar. A mild gree of enamel hypoplasia is visible on some of the teeth. As has been suggested earlier in this report, this may be taken as indicating a disturbance in the normal process of tooth growth.
CYL 20.5; M2 P1 30.1; ZZ 49.4. Miscellaneous remains from topsoil The identifiable human fragments may be accounted for as follows, the numbers of fragments appearing within parentheses:
Non-metrical traits. – A routine examination of the remains for traits of this kind revealed two features of interest: (a) The bilateral occurrence of parietal notch bones; (b) the occurrence of Wormian or accessory bones, viz. four in the sagittal suture, and three in the lambdoid suture, all the bones being of small size.
Crania Mandible Femora Tibiae Radii
This individual is represented only by post-cranial remains. They comprise the femora, tibiae, fibulae and ulnae; they are mostly complete. In addition, there are fragments of the humeri, radii, the innominates, the ribs and of the vertebrae. The bones of the hands and feet were also completely preserved.
FiL
(1) (2) (1) (1) (1)
Tarsals (10) Metatarsals and Phalanges (13) Metacarpals and Phalanges (15)
Of the cranial fragments, 10 could be fitted together to form part of the posterior surface of a cranium. This, therefore, may represent yet another individual. The four mandibular fragments could be fitted together to form an almost complete lower jaw, the right ramus being missing. The distal half of a tibia was found to belong to a proximal half from Individual No. 2. Apart from this, however, it did not prove possible to match any of these miscellaneous fragments with remains already described, although it is perhaps reasonable to suppose that there may be some degree of connexion. The cranial and mandibular remains considered in this miscellaneous section come from male individuals (possibly the same individual) and the appearance of the mandible suggests a mature adult.
The biometric measurements that could be taken appear below:
Fibula
Ulnae Clavicles Innominates Scapula Vertebrae
There were also fragments of ribs, and a maxillary premolar and molar.
Individual No. 8
Femur FeL (L) - (R) 455.0 FeL2 450.0 FeL3 428.0 FeD 25.2 24.5 FeD2 33.3 31.2
(30) (4) (2) (3) (2)
Tibia TiL (L) 365.0 (R) 359.0 TiL2 363.0 358.0 TiL3 351.0 345.0 TiD 33.8 35.0 TiD2 20.2 22.1 (L) 357.0
It will be appreciated from this final section that the estimate of nine individuals represented by the remains from the Shakenoak Farm site should be considered to be a minimum estimate of the actual number.”
(R) 353.0
Sex. – The bones are almost certainly those of a male individual, although the anatomical signs are not particularly emphatic. Metrical analysis of certain long bones supports the assessment of sex, however. Age at death. – There was insufficient evidence preserved for any precise estimate of age at death. The bones are certainly those of an ‘adult’ individual, however. Stature. – Using the Trotter and Gleser formulae and the available long bone measurements, a reconstructed stature of approximately 5 ft 6.5 in was obtained.
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Excavations at Shakenoak
Part II Sites B and H
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
78
Excavations at Shakenoak and although the field was carefully observed from high ground on the south side of the valley at all seasons under various crops over a period of years, no crop marks were ever noted.
1. Site B (National Grid Reference SP 374138, O.S. 6 in map SP 31 SE) The environment of the Roman villa at Shakenoak Farm, near Wilcote, Oxfordshire, and the geology of the area were discussed in Excavations at Shakenoak I, published in 196820, which contains the account of the 1960-65 excavations of Sites A and D. Excavation at Shakenoak has been in uninterrupted progress since 1960 and is still continuing.
NOTES (i) Sites and buildings at Shakenoak are designated by capital letters, rooms in buildings by Roman numerals, major periods of construction and occupation by Arabic numerals, and subdivisions of these periods by lower-case letters. Thus, “A.IV.3b” denotes Building A, room IV, Period 3b levels. On each site the earliest period of construction has been labelled 1, the next 2, and so on. As a result, there is no “Period 2” applicable to all Shakenoak, and it is necessary to specify the site as well as the period thus: A.3b, B.4, and so on.
The earliest building on Site A, south of the stream which runs through the shallow valley in which the villa lies (Fig. II.3), was erected early in the second century. Its use was at first largely agricultural and industrial. It was twice rebuilt, becoming more complex in the middle of the third century and attaining its greatest size in the middle of the fourth century. It remained in use until at least A.D. 420430, the final phase of occupation yielding evidence suggestive of the presence of Germanic mercenary troops. In Saxon times the site was used as a burial ground. Site D, 350 ft south of Building A, contained a timber structure dated to the second half of the fourth century.
(ii) For ease of reference the serial numbers, allotted to objects described and Illustrated in this report run on in sequence, as far as is practicable, from the numbers allotted to objects published in Shakenoak I. Thus, as the coarse pottery sherds published in Shakenoak I were numbered 1-146, the sherds described here are numbered 147-381.
This report covers the excavation in 1965-69 of Sites B and H, both north of the stream (Fig. II.3). Site B, 150 ft north of Site A, contained the main residence of the early villa and was occupied from the first century A.D. to the fifth century, with a break in the fourth century. There was also evidence for Saxon occupation on Site B in the mideighth century.
NOTES ON FIGS. III.1 AND III.2 (page 77) 1. At East End, O.S. grid ref. SP 403144, the authors have observed a large scatter of imbrex, tegula and flue-tile, much of it badly fired. No other material is present, and there does not seem to be a building nearby. It seems likely that the scatter represents a tile-kiln.
Excavations to the north-east of Site B revealed Site H, which contained material of Bronze Age date.
2. At Mlddleton Stoney, O.S. grid ref. SP 531233, the foundations of a stone building of Roman date have been discovered beside the Norman motte by Mr. T. Rowley, of the Delegacy for Extramural Studies. University of Oxford. We thank Mr. Rowley for permission to publish this information.
Excavation of other areas is completed or in hand, and forthcoming reports will discuss Site F, a ditch containing much material dating from the middle of the fifth century to the eighth century; Site C, east of Site A, which contains at least one Roman building; and the areas south and east of Site B, which are also known to contain Roman features. Site B lies at about 335 ft O.D. on the southern slope of a stonebrash field known as Upper Parson’s Piece which commands wide views of the Wilcote valley and the adjacent fields to east, south and west. The soil is freedraining, in contrast to that of Site A, which is always wetter and is at times below the modern water level. This contrast, together with the nature of the building revealed on Site A, suggested (as was borne out by excavation) that the main residential quarters of the villa would very probably lie on Site B where, before excavation, there was a surface scatter of building debris. Air photographs were, as in the case of Sites A and D, completely uninformative, 20
Republished as Part I of the volume
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
2. General Description
PERIOD B.4 In the middle of the third century two-thirds of the building was demolished across its full width, leaving in use only four rooms at the west end and a small part of the north corridor. The Period B.3b hypocaust was also filled in. This truncated building was not apparently occupied after A.D. 300 and there was no evidence of further occupation on the site for another 50 years at least.
The histories of Buildings A and B are compared on page 100 and in Fig. II.14. It is sufficient to say here that while A attained its greatest size c. A.D. 350, B did so in the middle of the second century. Building B, from its situation and its character, was undoubtedly the main dwelling house of the estate from its foundation in Flavian times until about 250. Its occupation can be divided into five main periods (Figs. II.4 and II.5), with an unrelated sixth, Saxon, phase.
PERIOD B.5 At some date after A.D. 350 a small rectangular building, 16 ft x 10 ft, of which only the two long walls were found, was erected over the site of the demolished north corridor of the Period B.3b building. This little structure, hardly more than a shed, remained in use until c. A.D. 430.
PERIOD B.1 The earliest structure found on Site B was a circular timber hut some 12 ft in diameter, largely destroyed by later construction. The hut preceded the first stone building but the lack of associated features or finds made it impossible to determine its date of construction or how long it was occupied.
PERIOD B.6 Despite evidence near at hand of an intensive post-Roman occupation, no structures of this period were found on Site B. Some Saxon objects, however, were found so close together in the topsoil over Building B as to suggest that there may perhaps have been a Saxon hut on the site which was entirely destroyed by later ploughing and cultivation.
PERIOD B.2a In Flavian times a simple building with masonry footings was erected immediately to the north-east of the Period B.1 hut. This building, 85 ft x 42 ft, contained ten rooms and had projecting wings. Two of the rooms formed a Tshaped cellar, the east end of which had five niches in its walls. In one room there was apparently a large kiln or furnace.
CONSTRUCTIONAL DETAILS In general, the constructional details of Building B in Periods B.2 – B.4 were similar to those of Building A, and are summarised here. The walls which had survived the damage caused by rebuilding or destruction in Roman times and by modern robbing were 2 ft – 2 ft 6 in wide, carefully built of regular courses of hammer-dressed oolitic limestone facing blocks, typically 5 in – 8 in in the face and 6 in – 9 in deep, with a central core of undressed or very roughly dressed limestone, set in white or yellow mortar. They were generally without offsets (in contrast to the walls of Building A) and were based directly on limestone rubble footings 10 in – 12 in deep with a filling of earth. The best surviving masonry was in the cellars (rooms B.VIII and B.X, discussed on p. 84 and shown in Fig. II.7). The wall construction showed no peculiarities except in the case of one composite wall of stone and timber (the Period B.4 west wall of room B.XXI, discussed on p. 95 and illustrated in Fig. II.11).
PERIOD B.2b During the first half of the second century the building was enlarged to 104 ft x 52 ft by the addition of a continuous corridor round the west, north and east sides. The construction of this corridor involved the destruction of half the circumference and all the floor levels of the Period B.1 hut. Also, at some time in Period B.2 the opening between the two parts of the cellar was narrowed, and later the western half was filled in and replaced by a stair-well. PERIOD B.3a The building attained its greatest size (137 ft x 47 ft, nearly a third larger than the Period B. 2b building) after extensive reconstruction in the middle years of the second century. Only three rooms from the Period 2 building, together with part of the north and east corridor, were incorporated without modification Into the new building. Despite the increase in total floor area, only one room was added (22 ft x 20 ft), round which the lengthened corridor was extended. The cellar was completely filled in and a long veranda with a porch was built over it and along most of the southern side of the house.
Whether the walls were originally carried up in masonry or half-timbering could not be determined, since too few courses had survived to yield any evidence on this point. There is, of course, no reason to suppose (as is often suggested) that walls only 2 ft – 2 ft 6 in thick could not have carried a superstructure entirely of masonry, particularly when set on a firm subsoil. However, the almost complete absence of blocks of stone in the deposits outside the building and in the valley bottom generally, indicates either that the superstructure did not contain very large quantities of stone, or that post-Roman robbing was extraordinarily complete.
PERIOD B.3b In the first half of the third century, further, but much less extensive, alterations were made. The east corridor was closed off; hearths were built in the east end of the north corridor, and the west corridor was drastically modified by the installation of a stone-channelled hypocaust, a stoking pit and another hearth.
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Excavations at Shakenoak
weight of its roof, excluding timbers, must have been nearly 27 tons. A roof of imbrex and tegula would have been little more than half as heavy. The Site B roofing materials are discussed on p. 108.
While it is extremely difficult to calculate what loads the walls were intended to bear, is of interest to note that the central section of Building A in Period A.3 (rooms A.II, A.XVIII, A.XVH and A.XVI), which measured 90 ft x 25 ft and certainly had a stone-slated roof, must have supported a roof weight of not less than 24 tons excluding all necessary timbering. If the centre section of Building B in Period B.3 (rooms B.XII, B.XIII, B.IV, B.VI, B.VII, and B.XIV, measuring 100 ft x 25 ft, was stone-slated, the
Building B in Period B.2 had some architectural pretensions, as is shown by the fine pilaster (Fig. II.18, no. 18), recovered from the make-up of the Period B.3 west wall of room B.XVII. If the pilaster was originally used
81
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
appear to have been dissimilar in design or size. They clearly cannot come from an ornamental facade for this reason, and it is perhaps easier to imagine pairs of pilasters flanking doorways and to explain the cutting back of the bases of some of them (Fig. II.18, nos. 18, 21 and 22; Part I, p. 19, no. 2) as representing the widening of the openings at floor level. Site A produced only two fragments certainly from a pillar or pillars (Part I, p. 19, nos. 1 and 4), and Site B produced none at all.
externally, it is hard to reconcile with a half-timbered building and with its completely unweathered state. It is possible that it flanked a doorway, in which case the deliberate removal of the front of the base might represent a widening of the opening. Fragments of up to 10 pilasters (p. 108) were found in the Period B.3 or B.4 levels in and about Building B. The Period A.3 levels of Site A produced fragments of a further 11 (Part I, p. 19). Re-examination of nos. 2, 5, 6 and 7 showed that they were all probably pilasters rather than pillars which had fractured lengthways) yet all 21 pilasters
No pieces of cornice such as were found on Site A (Part I, p. 20) were found on Site B, and it is now concluded that 82
Excavations at Shakenoak all the moulded stonework found on Site A probably originated in Buildings A.3a or A.3b. Very few late floors had survived except as isolated, abraded patches of mortar. Much wall-plaster (p. 139 and Figs. II.40 – II.42) was recovered but hardly any tesserae (p. 108), and no internal or external doorways could be identified with certainty. Three hearths survived from the period B.3b structure, and a stone-channelled hypocaust broadly similar to that found in Building A, room A.XVI. The most unusual feature was the furnace or kiln in room B.IV (discussed below, p. 84). The use of brick and tile in Building B is described on p. 95.
83
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker out into a stone-lined pit, 7 ft 6 in by 4 ft, which showed no signs of burning and contained no ash. The floor was of rammed clay and was continuous with the floor of the channel, which sloped steeply upwards as it approached the eastern end. At the eastern end, the channel was heavily burned, as was the surrounding floor of the room over a roughly circular area some 8 ft in diameter. This burned area, which is indicated by a dotted line on the plan (Fig. II.10), had on it several tegulae in situ which had been warped and even partly fused on their upper surfaces by intense heat. There were also large stones (indicated on the plan) which were similarly burned. The reddening had penetrated into the floor for 6 in to 9 in, indicating a long period of intense burning.
3. Detailed Description PERIOD B.1 – THE CIRCULAR HUT The earliest structure on Site B was a roughly circular hut, some 12 ft in diameter Later Roman construction had destroyed all the occupation levels and nearly half the circumference, but six post-holes remained. They averaged 14 inches in diameter and were 6 in – 7 in deep. This hut certainly preceded the B.2b building, and while it cannot be proved that it did not coexist with the B.2a building, it is most unlikely that it did so. The hut could not be dated since the post-holes produced no finds whatsoever and there were no related structures anywhere in the surrounding excavated areas. It is concluded that this was probably an isolated hut either of pre-Roman date or dating from soon after the conquest. The site as a whole has produced only one indisputably pre-conquest object, the Dobunnic “quarter stater” (coin no. 180, p. 104 found in gravel below the second-century floor over room B.X (Fig. II.9, section K-K deposit 5). This could have been unwittingly brought to the site in Roman times with the gravel in which it was found or it could still have been in circulation in Period B.2. Patches of gravel occur in the valley bottom near the villa and it seems unlikely that the Roman builders would have brought such readily available material from any great distance. In this case, an occupation in the area in the late first century B.C. or the first half of the first century A.D. is possible. Excavation of the area between Sites A and B may clarify this point.
This feature is hard to interpret. The room B.IV dividing wall did not appear to have been cut through, but to have been originally constructed with a gap at this point although the walls of the pit and channel were not keyed into the wall masonry. It seems improbable that the pit was a stokehole in view of the absence of ash in the fill, and because the pit was too deep and narrow for the purpose. It is possible that it was a flue or vent, to allow air to be drawn into the kiln or furnace in room B.IV, but it is very remarkable that both parts of this structure should be situated indoors, and in a building which otherwise gives every indication of having been a dwelling-house. That a large kiln or furnace stood in room B.IV seems certain, but its purpose remains obscure. Iron smelting, pottery manufacture and tile making are all excluded by the absence of wasters or slag, for the tiles in room B.IV seem to have formed the base of the kiln. Glass-working, of which there were very slight indications on Site A (Part I, pp. 51-52), is similarly unlikely. At a later date, possibly at the end of Period B.2, the wall between rooms B.II and B.IV was continued over the channel. The pit and channel were filled with earth, sealing in coarse pots nos. 205-209 which probably date from the mid-second century, and levelled off with a layer of stones which were worn on their upper surfaces. This dating makes it difficult to associate the kiln with the Period B.3b hearths.
PERIOD B. 2a – THE FIRST STONE BUILDING The earliest stone structure on the site was a building 85 ft x 42 ft with slightly projecting wings, resembling in this respect the earliest stone building at Ditchley (Oxon. I, 1936, p. 24), which was probably slightly later in date. Most of the walls of this building had been reduced to their foundations at a later date and could be traced only as shallow foundation-trenches filled with rough pitching, very few dressed stones remaining in situ. It is therefore possible that some of the internal partitions represent alterations from the original plan, though this cannot be proved.
THE CELLARS The two cellars, rooms B.VIII and B.X (Figs. II.7 – II.9), were the most notable feature of the building. Room B. VIII was 19 ft x 7 ft 6 in internally, and room B.X was 17 ft x 17 ft 6 in. The floors of both were 6 ft below modern ground level and the original depth from floor to ceiling must have been at least 7 ft if, as seems likely, the ceiling stood clear of the arches over the three recesses in the north wall of room B.X. In the earliest phase, the two cellars opened directly into one another with no constriction of the opening (Fig. II.8). There was a slot 12 in wide and 6 in deep extending to the full height of the wall in the north-east corner of B.VIII, where a door-post stood. If there had been a corresponding slot in the southeast corner, as seems probable, it was destroyed by later alterations. The walls of the cellars survived to a height of about 5ft 6 in, with the bottom course of masonry offset 1
No traces of the original floors remained in rooms B.I and B.II, and the dividing wall between them was so slight that it is probable that it was not carried up to the full height of the building, but that it was a partition across a single room. In room B.III no original floor had survived and only traces remained in room B.IV. THE KILN OR FURNACE A remarkable feature of rooms B.II and B.IV was the stone-lined channel running between them (Fig. II.10, no. 1). At the western end, in room B.II, the channel widened
84
Excavations at Shakenoak
85
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
86
Excavations at Shakenoak known from Burham (Kent) (V.C.H. Kent, III, 1932, pp. 109, 110; Arch. Cant., 1956, LXXX, p. 168), Chalk (Kent) (J.R.S., 1962, LII, p. 190), and South Street (Kent) (J.R.S., 1962, LII, p. 190). All seem to have been built in the first or second century; at present none can be definitely ascribed to the third or fourth centuries.
It was difficult to ascertain whether the two cellars were constructed at the same time, though they probably were. The floors of both were of rammed stones and clay on the stony natural, but the floor of B.VIII was on average some 2 in higher than that of B.X, with the two meeting in a gentle slope. Both floors appeared equally worn, that of B.VIII being slightly dished whereas that of B.X was flat. The masonry of the two rooms differed considerably, that of room B.X being generally of longer and better cut blocks than that of B.VIII. The more complex construction of B.X, however, might have demanded the use of better material. The walls of room B.VIII had bulged badly, the north wall in particular having been pushed nearly a foot out of perpendicular at the top by earth pressure. Whether this was due to inferior construction or to unsuspected variations in the nature of the subsoil, or whether the complex shapes of the walls rendered them less susceptible to distortion than the flat wall surfaces of room B.VIII, could not be determined.
The Lullingstone “deep room” was apparently used for storage before it was devoted to the cult of the local water nymphs. The Park Street cellar was used for storage purposes in its original form21; so, seemingly, was the timber-walled Faversham cellar. Part of the Chalk cellar was being used for the manufacture of bone pins when it was destroyed by fire in the third century. It seems to have formed the whole substructure of one building, not necessarily a villa. At Hartlip the cellar consisted of two rooms entered by a flight of steps and contained “several bushels of wheat”. At Otford the cellar – if it was a cellar – was in a courtyard and three steps led down to it. The Stroud cellar, which is also dubious, appears to have had no stairway.
In the extreme south-west corner of room B.VIII, a stone was missing from the fourth course up in the south wall, and the stones above and below the gap so formed projected about 5 in from the wall (Fig. II.7, no. 5). The gap could have been a socket for a beam, possibly connected with timber steps. There were no disturbances or irregularities in the floor surfaces anywhere in the two cellars, but it is probable that access was originally by way of room B.VIII because when this room was filled in it became necessary to construct a new entrance.
On the continent many cellars have been reported from villas, particularly in Gallia Belgica, in the Trier region and in the Rhineland. For example, de Maeyer (De Romeinsche Villa’s in Belgie, Antwerp, 1937) lists 28 villas containing between them no fewer than 48 cellars. In Gallia Belgica, a typical cellar was about 15 ft x 12 ft in size, set some 6 ft 8 ft below Roman ground level, usually with a ramp or stairs leading down to it, with a floor of beaten earth, a flat roof borne on timber beams supporting a cement upper floor, one or more windows and plastered walls containing niches. The niches were usually rectangular or semicircular in plan, barrel-vaulted or half-domed. The number of wall niches does not relate to the size of the cellar: one cellar barely 11 ft x 12 ft had no fewer than nine niches in its walls. The only cellar in Britain with as many as five niches was the 41 ft x 12 ft cellar at Chalk where the niches were triangular-headed. The 23 ft x 8 ft cellar at Park Street had one niche, which was round-headed with a brick arch and brick jambs, 2 ft 6 in high, 2 ft 4 in wide and 1 ft 6 in deep, with smooth plastered walls. By comparison, the two larger niches at the east end of the Shakenoak cellar were 2 ft 6 in high at the tile jambs of the arches, 3 ft 4 in wide and 2 ft deep. An odd feature of the Shakenoak niches is that those in the north wall were set a good deal higher than those in the east wall (Fig. II.7, nos. 1 and 2). In general appearance the Shakenoak niches resemble those at Haulchin (Hainaut) (Cumont, Comme la Belgique fut romanisée, p. 44, f lg. 13), Le Roux-lezFosses (Namur) (Annales de la Société archéologique de Namur, 1910, Tome XXIX, 2e livr., p. 117 ff.), and Obergrombach (Baden) (Germania Romana, II, 1924, p. 22 and pl. XXVI, 1), although in these the arches were entirely of masonry and not of brick.
The most striking feature of the cellars was the group of five niches, three in the north wall and two in the east wall, in room B.X. The details of their construction are indicated in Fig. II.7, nos. 1 and 2. Each had been topped by an arch of tiles 7 in square. Later alterations had removed all but the first one or two of these tiles, but from the situation of those remaining it could be seen that the arches had been semi-circular. The sides and backs of the niches, like the cellar walls generally, showed no signs of ever having been plastered. In the south wall of room B.X, the eleventh to thirteenth courses were offset to give a stepped effect over a length of at least 6 ft (Fig. II.7, no. 3). This may represent a window embrasure, for while later construction had greatly damaged the “embrasure” and the early levels outside it, it appeared that such a window would have been roughly at ground level, making the room a semi-basement rather than a true cellar. Cellars are rare in villas in Britain, but are known from Park Street (Herts.) (Arch. J., 1945, CII, p.21), Lullingstone (Kent) (Lullingstone Roman Villa, H.M.S.O., 1963; Meates, Lullingstone Roman Villa, Heinemann, 1955), Faversham (Kent) (Philp, Excavations at Faversham, 1965, 1968), and may have existed at Hartlip (Kent) (V.C.H. Kent, III, 1932, p. 118), Otford (Kent) (V.C.H. Kent, III, 1932, p. 122), and Stroud (Hants.) (Arch. J., 1909, LXVI, p. 49). Other cellars from rural sites are
21
The suggestion by the late Professor Sir Ian Richmond (published posthumously in The Roman Villa in Britain, ed. A.L.F. Rivet. 1969, p. 50) that the Park Street cellar was a half-underground stable is denied by Mrs. H. E. O’Neil, the excavator (personal communication to the authors).
87
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker KEY TO SECTIONS J-J – L-L (Fig. II.9) Section J-J 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Yellow mortar. Black earth (Period B. 3) Cut stone and mortar. Brown earth. Large stones with heavily worn upper surfaces. Crushed brick and mortar. Yellow mortar and brown earth. Black earth, containing much domestic refuse. Crushed pink cement. Period B.2 phase 3 fill. Yellow mortar and much-painted wall-plaster. Orange mortar and red painted wall-plaster. Rubble and orange mortar. Yellow subsoil and mortar (Period B. 2 phase 2 floor). Black deposit (Period B.2 phase 1 floor). Natural.
Section K-K 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Rubble and yellow mortar. Large pebbles (Period B. 3 floor). Yellow mortar. Brown earth and pebbles. Gravel and pebbles. Brown earth. Stone pitching. Rubble, grey earth and domestic refuse (Period B.2 phase 3). Orange and yellow mortar and rubble (make-up of Period B.2 phase 3 floor). Dark grey to black deposit. Rubble and yellow mortar (make-up of Period B.2 phase 3 floor) Natural (Period B.2 phase 1 floor).
Section L-L 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Black earth (on Period B. 3 floor). Yellow subsoil and mortar. Large stones with heavily worn upper surfaces (Period B. 3 floor). Gravel and pebbles. Mortar, brown earth and stones. Plaster, yellow mortar and crushed brick, with some rubble. Large stones. Brown earth, rubble and tile. Yellow mortar and brown earth. Black earth. Crushed pink cement. Crushed brick and tile, with yellow mortar and pebbles. Rubble and yellow mortar. Rubble, grey earth and domestic refuse. Stone pitching. Yellow and orange mortar and painted wall-plaster. Yellow mortar and small stones. Orange and yellow mortar and rubble. Dark grey to black deposit. Natural.
88
Excavations at Shakenoak
examined.
It has been suggested by de Maeyer (op. cit.) that most villa cellars were intended for storage and to ensure coolness. Sherds of amphorae and iron barrel-hoops have been found in some, e.g. Anthée, and those which had thick sand on their floors seem to have been used for storing amphorae. Cumont, however, thought (op. cit., p. 116) that they might have been used as living quarters in cold weather. Others have suggested that those with wall niches (e. g. Ronchinnes) were columbaria for the deposition of the ashes of the villa-owners; at Le Roux-lezFosses one cellar niche contained a small black jar full of “cendres” which, unfortunately, were not further
The elaborate decoration of some continental cellars is hard to reconcile with purely utilitarian purposes, but it seems reasonable to assume that plain cellars with wide ramps or stairways down to them were intended primarily for the storage of perishable foodstuffs or beer or wine. Perhaps the most surprising aspect of the Shakenoak cellars is that they were thought necessary or desirable adjuncts to the house. The labour involved in excavating some 4,000 - 4,500 cu ft of hard, stony subsoil must have 89
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker northern socket, at least, was filled with masonry. The northern corner of the opening partly collapsed or was demolished, and a new wall was built just to the east of the former west wall of room B.X. The same was done at the southern side of the opening, leaving a doorway 6 ft 6 in wide. There were no signs of timber door-posts. A new orange cement floor was laid continuously across both cellars, 6 in - 1 ft above the old floor, sealing in a deposit which contained coarse pots nos. 147-151, and samian nos. 79 and 93. It would therefore seem that this first alteration took place before A.D. 120, and possibly considerably earlier.
been prodigious, as must have been the task of quarrying, dressing and transporting to the site at least 1,500 cu ft (nearly 100 tons) of stone for the cellar walls. If the Period B.2 building was timber-framed on low stone footings, then the cut stone used in the cellar would almost have equalled that required for all the rest of the building. The effort put into the building of the cellars suggests that they were of prime importance to the occupiers of the house. Considerable skill must have been needed to build them, and such skills cannot have been readily available in rural Britain in Flavian times. Their capacity makes it unlikely that so much space would have been needed to store the perishable commodities of what was then a small establishment. The niches seem an unnecessarily complicated solution to the problem of storing barrels or other vessels. Possibly the cellars had some religious purpose, but in this case the lack of decoration is surprising. The walls of neither cellar were plastered, and the painted plaster in the fill was insufficient to cover one per cent of the wall areas.
FILLING IN OF THE CELLARS In the next phase (Fig. II.8, Phase 3) the northern half of the doorway was blocked up, the southern side of the opening between the cellars was demolished so that only the footings or a single course of dressed stone remained, and a stair-well was constructed outside the south-west corner of room B.X. The whole of room B.VIII was filled in up to ground level possibly because its north wall had bulged and become dangerous.
It is noteworthy that room B.X containing the wall niches, remained in use after room B.VIII had been filled in, implying that the former was the more important. Whatever purpose the cellars had served was evidently outmoded by the middle of the second century, although it is possible that they were simply found to be too damp.
As has already been said, the original entrance to the cellars seems to have been in room B.VIII. The new entrance consisted of a flight of timber steps enclosed in a stone stairwell. The offset courses of the well were too narrow to form steps themselves and must have been intended to support a timber structure (Fig. II.7, no. 4; Fig. II.8). The west wall of this new entrance cut through the south wall of room B.VIII and as the approach to the new entrance was from the west, it is clear that the south wall of room B.VIII must have gone out of use above ground level, leaving this area outside the building. A steep-sided pit had been dug to the south-west of room B.X to facilitate the construction of the new stairwell. This pit was afterwards filled with rubble and mortar to form a hard standing round the entrance.
Of the other rooms of the period B.2a structure, room B.V was probably a veranda, and it is reasonable to suppose that this extended across room B.VIII, above the cellar. Room B.V may have had a raised floor or there may have been a step between B.V and the floor above B.VIII; later alterations had destroyed all evidence on this point. No traces of the floors remained in rooms B.VI, B.VII, and B.IX. The date of the construction of the Period B.2a building cannot be easily determined, since no foundation deposits were found. The best indication is probably the date at which substantial quantities of material first appeared on the site, since although there may have been some smallscale occupation before the construction of this building, it is now certain that Period B.2a is the first large-scale occupation. The fill of the cellars contained considerable amounts of material earlier in date than the earliest Site A deposits, and the presence of considerable quantities of Flavian samian together with some pre-Flavian samian and of late first-century pottery (pp. 112-126) would suggest a date for the first large-scale occupation of c. A.D. 70-90.
The west wall of the stairwell was faced only on its eastern side, and acted as a revetting wall to hold back the fill of room B.VIII. The deposits in this room ran straight up to the back of the west wall of the stairwell with no signs of a foundation trench; the wall was incapable of standing on its own without support, and must have been built as room B.VIII was filled in, being progressively heightened as the level of the fill in the room rose. The fill of room B.VIII was at first sight very complex (Fig. II.9, Section J-J), with alternating levels of grey earth containing much occupation rubbish and relatively sterile layers of wall-plaster, orange mortar and cut stones. It was, however, found that sherds from the same pots came from both the highest and the lowest strata, and it seems very probable that the fill represents the tipping in of builders’ debris and kitchen refuse in random sequence. The filling was deliberate and was not spread over any appreciable length of time.
PERIOD B. 2b – ALTERATIONS TO FIRST STONE BUILDING A number of alterations took place during the occupation of the Period B.2 building. In the case of the cellars, rooms B.VIII and B.X, the sequence is well established. The first alteration consisted of a narrowing of the opening between the two rooms (Fig. II.8, Phase 2). The supposed timber door-posts of the first phase were removed and the 90
Excavations at Shakenoak
152-204, samian nos. 71-78 and 80-92, and glass nos. 5358, 74, 75, 85-87 and 143-148 also came from these levels, and although much of this material clearly comes from earlier deposits accidentally included in the rubbish used to fill in room B.VIII, there are no objects certainly datable to after A.D. 140.
When room B.VIII was filled in and the new entrance was constructed, a new floor was laid some 1 ft 5 in above the earlier one in room B.X, burying the remaining masonry of the first and second phases which would otherwise have blocked off the stairwell opening. These alterations can be dated accurately, since the fill of room B.VIII and the lower fill (below the phase 3 floor) of room X together produced many thousands of objects including coin no. 182, a sestertius of Trajan dated to A.D. 103-111, with perhaps 30 years’ wear. Coarse pots nos.
In the final phase, room B.X and the stairwell were both filled in, first with grey earth containing some kitchen refuse and then with a mass consisting almost entirely of builders’ debris. This fill contained fewer objects than that 91
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker plastered and painted, though the decoration was not as elaborate as in Period B.3. The Period B.3a wall built across room B.X had a fine pilaster built into it, and its unweathered state indicated that it might have flanked an internal doorway (p. 82, above). The lower fill of room B.X produced fragments of box flue-tile with rounded holes in the sides. This is a type not seen elsewhere at Shakenoak (Part I, p. 21), and, since the earliest bath-house in Building A did not come into use until A.D. 240 – 260 p. 12 ff.), the Site B fragments may be evidence for an isolated bath-house of Period B.2.
in room B.VIII, but produced coarse pots nos. 220-238. These are of types demonstrably later than those in the earlier fill, and the evidence of the glass (nos. 70, 71, 83, 84, 127, 132 and 133), samian (nos. 94-115) with a high proportion of Antonine sherds and brooch (bronze no. 66, Fig. II.47), suggest a date of c. A.D. 160 for this work. It is most probable that this final filling-in took place at the same time as the transition from Period B.2b to Period B.3a. ADDITION OF CORRIDOR
A tentative reconstruction of the Period B.2a building is given in Fig. II.6.
At some tine during Period B.2 another alteration was made which may or may not coincide exactly with any of the cellar alterations. This was the construction of a corridor 9 ft wide round the west, north and east sides of the building (room B.XI). This corridor must have been an addition to the B.2a structure for two reasons. First, at the south-west corner of the Period B.2a building there was a butt joint where the later corridor wall met the earlier wall of room B.III; indeed, the foundation trench of the corridor wall ended some 6 in. short of the earlier wall. Secondly, although the floors of the rooms of the B.2a building were horizontal, they were stepped down towards the south, following the slope of the ground. The corridor, however, was produced by terracing the hillside, giving an early level surface running north-south as well as east-west. As a result, the northern wall of the corridor became a revetting wall holding back a bank of earth up to 2 ft 6 in high (Fig. II.12, Section D-D). Also, the surface of the corridor along its northern length lay below the bottom of the lowest course of dressed stones of the north walls of rooms B.I, B.IV, B.VI, and B.IX. The rough foundation pitching of these walls has been exposed and concealed again by plastering it over with white mortar. It seems unlikely that such an unsatisfactory method of construction would have been used had the north corridor been built at the same time as the rest of the building. Along the eastern side of the building, the corridor attained Roman ground level once again about 13 ft north of its south-eastern end, and here the builders had inserted a step rather than raise the level of the ground artificially beyond this point. The corridor then opened directly onto a large area of gravelled yard. The floor of the corridor consisted of the natural stony subsoil which was exposed by the terracing.
AREAS SOUTH OF BUILDING B IN PERIOD B.2 Several structures south of the building can be dated firmly to Period B.2. (1) A shallow pit to the south and east of room B.III had been cut 1 ft 6 in into the soil. It ran some 2 ft from the south side and 2 ft from the east side of room B.III, and to within 6 in of the south wall of room B.V. The fill of soft orange mortar and sand sealed in a form 33 samian base of Roppus (no. 132) dated to A.D. 100-120, and coarse pot no. 218. The purpose of this pit is uncertain, for the surface of its fill was far too soft for a path and it did not appear to have any function connected with drainage. It must have been made during Period B.2 since it so closely follows the outline of the building in that period (Section F-F, Fig. II.13). (2) The line of the wall between rooms B.VIII and B.X was carried on south of Building B by a gully, 1 ft 4 in – 2 ft 6 in wide and from 9 in to 1 ft deep, for a distance of 10 ft. This line was then carried on by four post-holes, 7 in – 9 in in diameter and 12 in – 15 in deep (plan, Fig. II.4). This line marked a sharp transition in the earlier deposits, the areas to the east being quite unlike those to the west, although in later times (see below, p. 94) the same black refuse level spread over the whole area. It is concluded that the gully and post-holes represent a fence, and since it was aligned to a wall which existed only in Period B.2, the fence must also date from that period. To the west of the fence there were four more post-holes and a strip of pebble flooring, the full extent of which has not yet been determined. These features are undated, but are included in the B.2 plan for convenience. The whole of the western area produced, below the later black levels, a layer of brown earth 6 in – 9 in thick which contained only a very few animal bones and potsherds which showed much wear. It would seem that this area was a garden, or more probably grass, and that it was carefully kept clean.
The date at which this corridor was added cannot be given with any certainty. The floor of the northern and eastern lengths remained in use throughout Period B.3 and almost all the finds from it date from this period. The western length, which was not used again in Period 3, produced no finds. Immediately to the north of the north wall of the north corridor there was a shallow gully, about 9 in wide and 2 in – 6 in deep (Fig. II.4) to take the rainwater from the roof. This was filled with chips of imbrex and tegula, probably flaked off by frosts, but the small number of datable sherds, including samian no. 131, from this gully could likewise date from Period B.2b or Period B.3.
To the east of the line of the fence the brown earth levels were replaced by a succession of floors of pebbles, gravel and mortar. These various materials occurred in large, irregular patches, but combined to give a floor surface. They sealed in a slightly worn coin of Nerva (no. 181)
At least some of the rooms in the B.2 building were 92
Excavations at Shakenoak room (B.XIV).
immediately to the south of room B.X and also coarse pots nos. 210-216, confirming that the floors were laid down in the first half of the second century, that is, in Period B.2. It should be noted that patching and resurfacing continued up to the middle of the third century, and that these features therefore belong equally to Period B.3.
The new and distinctive masonry of the westward extension of the north wall of the north corridor was also carried on for more than 20 ft to the east of the former northwest corner of the Period B.2b building in the form of two to four courses of new masonry above three to five of the old, showing that most if not all of this wall was rebuilt. The southern half of the east wall of the eastern corridor showed two periods of construction, with the Period B.2b wall having been thickened by the addition of a new course of stones along its west face. This alteration could not be detected along the northern half of the wall because of later robbing.
The eastern limits of this flooring are not included in the area of Site B, and will be discussed in a later report, as will the massive stone platform in the extreme southeastern corner of Site B. PERIOD 3a – MAJOR REBUILDING In Period B.3, Building B reached its greatest size, although retaining a very simple plan (Fig. II.4). The redesigning of the building was so fundamental as to imply an almost complete rebuilding. Rooms B.IV, B.VI and B.VII probably remained unchanged, although this is not absolutely certain.
There were few signs of luxury in the B.3a building. There were hardly any tesserae in any Site B deposits. At least some of the pilasters from the B.3b and B.4 levels may have originated in the B.3a building, and the many fragments of painted wall-plaster (p. 139 below, and Figs. II.40 - II.42) from the Period B.4 fill of the north corridor must have come from the Period B.3 house.
The westernmost wall of the B.2b structure, the outer wall of the corridor, was demolished down to ground level, a single course of cut stones remaining embedded in the Period B.3a floor and showing heavy wear on their upper surfaces. The northern corridor was extended to the west to enclose on two sides a large room, B.XIII, 22 ft x 20 ft. The purpose of this room is obscure. A rectangular block of stone, 2 ft 6 in x 2 ft x 8 in deep, lay in the centre of the room with its upper surface level with the floor. It was probably intended as a base or support. All the floors in the new extension were at approximately the same level as the corridor, that is to say they were terraced into the slope of the hill (Fig. II.12, sections). The floor of room B. XII consisted in this period of the hard-packed stony subsoil.
Five deposits can be used to date Period B.3a: (1) It is probable, though not certain, that the final filling in of room B.X took place during the transition from Period B.2b to B.3a, and this fill can be dated to c. A.D. 160 (see above, p. 91). (2) A thin black deposit extended over the B.3a floor of room B.XII and was particularly thick along the eastern side of the room, where the foundation trench of the earlier (B.2b) corridor wall had rendered the surface soft. A depression had formed, which had filled with rubbish containing a coin of Hadrian (no.183) with at least 50 years’ wear, glass nos. 59-69, 80, 89 and 92, coarse pots nos. 256-271 and samian nos. 116 and 117.
Along the whole of the south side of the building a corridor or veranda (room B.XV) was constructed, with a porch halfway along its length. The floor of B.XV had been destroyed in most places. The absence of moulded stonework in any quantity suggests that the pillars supporting the roof of the veranda were of wood (reconstruction drawing, Fig. II.6). The east end of the veranda adjoined a new room (B.XVII) built partly over the fill of the former room B.X. At the western end the veranda opened directly into the western corridor, but as the floor level of the former was about 1 ft above that of the latter there must have been a step or steps, of which no trace survived.
(3) The floor of the north corridor, room B.XI, had a similar thin black level on it (Fig. II.12, Section C-C; Fig. II.13, Section E-E), the contents of which dated mainly from Period B.3a since the deposit extended along the full length of the corridor, including that part which had not existed in Period B.2b. This deposit contained brooch no. 70 (Fig. II.47), samian no. 120 and coarse pots nos. 239255. (4) An open gully ran along the outside of the western corridor (Fig. II.4) and then turned and ran along the northern corridor (above, p. 92), carrying away the rainwater from the roofs. This gully was about 9 in wide and up to 8 in deep along its western length and was sited some 6 in away from the building. It ran under the Period B.3b and B.4 walls which projected to the west of the B.3a outer wall. The gully contained much pottery, and although most of it was unsealed, it was found in many cases that sherds from the lengths sealed below the later structures fitted on to sherds from the unsealed portion. Consequently it was assumed that most of the pottery in the deposit dated
The partition wall between rooms B.I and B.II was removed and the room thus formed was enlarged to the west (room B.XIII). It is possible that the partition wall went out of use in Period B.2, but later alterations had destroyed all structural details in this area. Later alterations had also destroyed structural details of the walls of rooms B.IV, B.VI and B.VII, although it is probable that most of the walls remained in use as their removal would have formed unusually large rooms. The south wall of room B.IX was moved 3 ft. 6 in. southwards to form an enlarged 93
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker up to the southern wall of room B.XXI represents another entrance which replaced the demolished porch.
from Period B.3a. The deposit contained samian nos. 125130 and coarse pots nos. 272-297. Samian no. 131 and coarse pot no. 298 came from the northern length of the same gully.
Period B. 3b reflects a change in the living standards of the occupants of the building (p. 100 and Fig. II.14), although there is no reason to suppose that Building B ceased to be a dwelling-house. The number of cooking-hearths (if this was indeed their purpose) indicates an intensive occupation.
(5) There was a small depression in the west corridor which was sealed under one of the piers of the Period B.3b hypocaust, and which produced a samian stamp of Divicatus dated to A.D. 150-180 (samian no. 121). Taken together, this evidence suggests that the transition from Period B.2b to B.3a cannot have taken place much after A.D. 160. Much of the pottery can be dated to the first half of the third century, but the complete absence of red colour-coated ware and of radiates shows that Period B.3a ended before A.D. 250.
PERIOD B. 4 – EXTENSIVE DEMOLITION Particularly noticeable in the excavation of Building B was the extent of the destruction to which almost all of the features east of room B.XII had been subjected. While the walls in the western portion survived to considerable height (up to nine courses of masonry), most of the walls in the eastern part had been reduced to foundation trenches filled with rough pitching. Courses of dressed stones generally survived only in features which lay below the Roman ground level such as the cellars (B.VIIII and B.X), the pit and channel in rooms B.II and B.IV, the northern wall of the north corridor and part of the eastern wall of the east corridor. All floors in the eastern areas had been almost completely destroyed.
PERIOD B. 3b – FURTHER ALTERATIONS A number of alterations took place in Period B.3 and are here included in a single sub-period, B.3b, although it is not certain that they all took place at the same time. Two minor, undated alterations occurred at the eastern end of the north corridor. First, it was cut off by a wall of poor masonry from the eastern corridor, forming a new room, B.XVIII. Secondly, two hearths were constructed at its eastern end (Fig. II.10, no. 3 shows the eastern one, the western one being of similar design but very poorly preserved). There were no associated deposits to indicate the purpose of the hearths.
There are three possible explanations of this destruction. It could be attributed to erosion caused by ploughing, but it is difficult to see why only one half of the building should be affected. The ploughed-away material would have been carried down into the valley bottom, but preliminary investigations in that area have not revealed any such deposits. Alternatively, post-Roman stone-robbing could have been the cause. Modern robbing, however, was encountered on Site A and to a small extent on Site B in room B.XX. In both cases it was recognisable as a series of clearly defined, rubble-filled trenches along the lines of walls, the floors remaining untouched and surviving later ploughing. Stone-robbing is known to have occurred also in Anglo-Saxon times on Site A22 but there is no evidence for it on Site B, and indeed it is difficult to envisage what use the Saxons could have had for such a large quantity of stone.
The western part of the building was greatly altered. A channelled hypocaust (room B.XX was inserted in the west corridor (compare Building A, room A.XVI; Part I, p. 12). It was stoked from the northern end, and here the outer corner of the Period B.3a building was removed and a new room (B.XIX) was built with massive foundations bearing unusually thick walls, possibly intended to carry an upper story. This structure extended across and sealed in the northern end of the drainage gully (see above), and had a gravel floor which sloped steeply down to the main flue of the hypocaust. The western and southern corridors were separated by a wall to form a new room, B.XXI, containing another hearth (Fig. II.10, no. 2) and a post-hole which may date from this period. A small corner of the Period B.3a outer wall to the south-east of room B.XXI went out of use. All these alterations may have been contemporary, for a distinctive type of masonry of huge, square, poorly dressed blocks was used in all of them. The only dating was that discussed above, afforded by the pottery sealed in by the extension of room B.XIX and the samian stamp of Divicatus, A.D. 150-180, sealed beneath the hypocaust in room B.XX.
The third possibility is that the robbing was systematically undertaken in the Roman period, and that the cleared area was levelled to produce a hard standing. The building materials would probably have been used again on Site A. This theory finds confirmation in the structural features which survived demolition. In the north corridor, the early (Period B.2b – B.3b) floor went out of use and for the westernmost 20 ft was filled in with rubble and resurfaced with mortar. The remaining length of the corridor was filled in up to Roman ground level with a mixture of domestic rubbish and builders’ debris and left unsurfaced. This fill contained many fragments of roof-slate, imbrex
Another alteration was the removal of the projecting porch from the southern corridor and the blocking of the opening with masonry. It is possible that the pebble floor which ran
22
94
This point will be discussed in Part III.
Excavations at Shakenoak
rammed earth and stones in the new extension. There were several hundred pieces of coal (below, p.109; cf. Part 1, p. 102), typically 0.5 oz. - 3 oz. in weight, scattered on the floor with an unworn coin of Allectus (no. 269).
and tegula and much painted wall-plaster, including that illustrated in Figs. II.40 – II.42. At about the same time the south corridor went out of use, for the black levels south of the building (see below), which were firmly dated to the second half of the third century, ran over the remains of south wall of the corridor, the surviving stones of which showed wear on their upper surfaces. Room B.XII was refloored at a higher level; the floor surface survived at only a few points along the northern side of the room, but the mass of rubble and mortar on which it rested covered the whole room.
The Period B.4 building bears a remarkable, but certainly misleading, resemblance to the villas with corner towers common in Pannonia. The villa at Szentkirályszabadjaromkút (E.B. Thomas, Römische Villen in Pannonien, Budapest, 1964, p. 120, figs. 57, 58), for example, looks in reconstruction very like Shakenoak B.4, as does the villa at Hosszúhetény-Somkerékdülö (op. cit., p. 274 ff., figs. 144, 145) although the latter has a rather more complex plan. While it is possible that room B.XXII had an upper story (above, p. 94), only the north wall of room B.XXII was abnormally massive, the other walls being of normal construction and averaging 2 ft 3 in in thickness. Also, the towered Pannonian villas are usually reconstructed as possessing a central open courtyard (but see Kékkút no. II, op. cit., p. 55 ff. figs. 26, 27 for a basilican reconstruction), whereas there is no reason to doubt that room B.XII was roofed in Period B.4.
The surviving portion of room B.XI and also room B.XII had white-plastered walls during this period; the walls had been plastered before the floor was laid, so that the plastering continued down below the floor level ending in an irregular line well above the Period B.3 floor (section C-C, levels 5 and 6, Fig. II.12). In room B.XX the hypocaust flues were filled in with rubble, and a mortar floor was laid over them. This, like the corresponding floor in room B.XIX, was considerably damaged by ploughing. The floor level of room B.XXI was also raised with rubble, covering the hearth and sealing in coarse pots nos. 299 and 300, but the surface of white mortar had survived only as isolated patches. At a later date, the west wall of room B.XXI went out of use and was replaced by a new wall 3 ft to the west. This wall was of an unusual type (Fig. II.11), with timber beams embedded in the masonry. The purpose of this mode of construction, not encountered elsewhere at Shakenoak is unknown. There is no reason to suppose that this wall was particularly liable to subsidence, although it was built over the Period B.3 drainage gully. In the new enlarged room so created (room B.XXII) the mortar floor of B.XXI was used again, with
To the south of the building, equally remarkable changes occurred. Up to the end of Period B.3, the whole of this area was kept clean, but it is evident that by the middle of the third century refuse was being allowed to collect over both the grass or garden and over the pebble floors. The fence was removed and a black deposit 1 ft - 1 ft 6 in thick accumulated, in which the earliest coins were worn denarii of Elagabalus and Severus Alexander (nos. 186 and 187). The deposit also contained more than 60 coins dating from the second half of the third century, and coarse pots nos. 302-359. A small number of later coins were scattered on the surface of this deposit.
95
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker KEY TO SECTIONS A-A – D-D (Fig.II.12) Section A-A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Black earth with much pot (Period B.31 gully). Yellow Mortar. Stone and mortar floor (Period B.4). White-painted plaster (Period B.4). Red Earth. Rubble (make-up of Period B.4 floors). Pebbles, yellow mortar and earth. Ash and charcoal. Natural. Period B.3a floors.
Section B-B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Black Earth. Coal (on Period B.4 floor surface). Rubble and yellow mortar (make-up of Period B.4 floor). Grey earth and stones. Yellow mortar (Period B.3a floor). Soft red earth and stones. Red Earth. Brown earth and stones. Black earth with much pot (Period B.3a gully). Burned clay back of (Period B.3b) hearth. Burned earth. Grey ash and earth. Burned clay and earth. Grey ash and charcoal. Natural.
Section C-C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Yellow mortar, imbrex and tegula fragments (Period B.3a gully). Loosely packed yellow subsoil and stones. Orange-yellow mortar with few stones. Orange mortar (Period B.4 floor). White plaster (Period B.4). White-painted plaster (Period B.4). Yellow mortar, rubble and painted wall-plaster (make-up of Period B.4 floor). Mortar, earth, rubble, imbreces, tegulae, slates and nails; earth content increasing towards S end (make-up of Period B.4 floor). Hard orange mortar. Brown earth, on Period B.3 floor. Black deposit, on Period B.3 floor. Natural.
Section D-D 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Yellow mortar, imbrex and tegula fragments (Period B.2b-B.3a gully). Black deposit containing fused bronze (Period B.5 floor surface). Brown earth containing big stones. Collapsed wall (Period B.2b-B.3a). Brown earth and rubble. Loosely packed yellow subsoil and stones. Orange mortar containing very large stones. White plaster on Period B.2a wall used again in Periods B.2b and B.3a. Yellow mortar. Natural.
96
Excavations at Shakenoak
97
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
KEY TO SECTIONS E-E – H-H (Fig.II.13) Section E-E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Yellow mortar, imbrex and tegula fragments (Period B.2b-B.3a gully). Loosely packed yellow subsoil and stones. Yellow mortar. Black earth and stones. Loosely packed brown earth, many fragmentary roof-slates. Hard orange mortar (Period B.2b-B.3 floor surface). Natural. Period B.2a wall, used again in Periods B.2b and B.3; demolished in Period B.4.
Section F-F 1 2 3 4 5
Black earth with much domestic refuse. Brown earth. Soft orange subsoil and sand. Natural. Period B.2a wall (demolished in Period B.3).
Section G-G 1 2 3 4
Black earth with much domestic refuse. Stones and gravel (road?). Brown earth. Natural.
Section H-H 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Foundation trench of Period B.2a wall. Loose mortar spill. Black earth with much domestic refuse. Yellow mortar. Earth, stones, pebbles and rubble. Heavy stone pitching. Natural (uncertain feature).
98
Excavations at Shakenoak
99
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker also be discussed in Part III.
From this evidence, and from the evidence of the deposits within the building, it appears that the transition from Period B.3b to B.4 occurred in the middle of the third century, and that the coin of Allectus (no. 269) from the latest floor in room B.XXII, which was unlikely to have circulated after A.D. 300, may give this as the terminal date.
Apart from a few eighteenth- and nineteenth-century sherds in the topsoil, and a small area of modern stonerobbing in room B.XX, there were no other traces of postRoman activity on Site B.
PERIOD B.5 – THE FINAL PHASE
4. Comparative History of Buildings A and B (Fig. II.14)
The diagram on p.103 (Fig. II.18) shows that the coin-loss on Site B was remarkably low throughout most of the fourth century compared with that on Site A. There is no evidence of occupation on Site B during the first half of the fourth century, for the comparatively small number of coins found of that period were all on the surface of the black deposit south of the building, which had virtually ceased to increase in depth. Many of these coins could have been lost in the re-occupation after A.D. 350, described below. This is confirmed by the coarse pottery.
A comparison of the histories of Buildings A and B shows that they differed greatly in their development. As both buildings were part of the same economic unit, it is necessary to consider them together and to try to arrive at an interpretation of the site as a whole, but since the site is still under excavation and considerable areas remain unexplored any conclusions must at this stage be tentative. The development of the villa up to the beginning of the third century seems to indicate a steadily rising prosperity reflected in an expanding agricultural establishment and a dwelling-house that grew in size and comfort throughout this period. The agricultural functions were consigned to a separate building (A) early in the second century, and by the latter part of that century Building B was perhaps as large and comfortable as any in Oxfordshire, with the exception of North Leigh (R.G. Collingwood and I.A. Richmond, The Archaeology of Roman Britain, p. 142, fig. 49). It had fairly elaborately painted walls but no mosaics. The first signs of change come in Period B.3b, with the insertion of cooking hearths and the sub-division of the corridors in Building B, and by Period B.4 only a small portion of the building remained in use.
Two parallel walls of massive stones, poorly laid and without foundations, are attributed to the final period of occupation, B.5. They were embedded in the Period B.4 fill of the former north corridor, and the surface of this fill was utilised as the floor (section D-D, Fig. II.12). There were no signs of cross-walls, so the structure must have had flimsy end-walls, if any. A dense black deposit, 2 in – 3 in thick, covered the area between the walls and extended some 15 ft further south. It contained 15 oz. of fused bronze and some fragments of crucible with bronze adhering (below, p.149), and also the bronze bosses (Fig. II.80, nos. 115-116 and seven closely similar examples) and the associated Iron objects (Fig. II.52, nos. 140-143). Also from this level came five coins of the House of Constantine, three of the House of Valentinian and five of the House of Theodosius, together with coarse pots nos. 360-362. The structure was probably built in the middle years of the fourth century and the wear on the Theodosian coins indicates that occupation continued for as long as on Site A, that is to say until c. 420-430.
This sudden and fundamental change on Site B coincides with alterations to Building A, which was converted from a simple building of agricultural type (Period A.2) into a small but fairly well-appointed dwelling-house, complete with baths. In the middle of the fourth century, 50 years after the disappearance of Building B, Building A underwent alterations which suggest an increased intensity of occupation and certainly no decline in living standards.
PERIOD B. 6 - SAXON FINDS Although it is known that there was a considerable activity on Site F between the fifth and eighth centuries, no structure of post-Roman date was found on Site B. A number of Anglo-Saxon objects were however found in the topsoil, most of them in an area of 100 sq. ft. At the points indicated on the plan (Fig. II.5) there were found a late seventh-century buckle (Fig. II.46, no. 65) and a penny of c. A.D. 735 (coin no. 350). Also found in this area was a bronze pin of Saxon type (Fig. II.49, no. 87) and some hand-made pottery. The last will be described in Part III, which will include much Saxon pottery. These objects were found so close together as to suggest the former existence of a ploughed-out hut, though this is very uncertain. Other Saxon objects included another bronze pin (Fig. II.49, no. 88) and a fragment of glass which, as it is from a Saxon vessel known elsewhere at Shakenoak, will
It is difficult to believe that the owner of Building B.3a would have chosen to go and live in Building A.3a. It is far more probable that we are seeing a change in the ownership or in the mode of exploitation of the estate – for example, a change from an owner-occupied to a bailiff-run establishment. This would explain why there is no indication of a reduction in the level of agricultural activity on the site in the fourth century, and yet the villa did not continue to grow in the way that many villas did in that period. The profits of the farm were no longer being spent on increasing the comfort of the dwelling-house, for they were being siphoned off elsewhere. In view of the proximity of North Leigh villa, with its enormous growth between the second and fourth centuries, it is reasonable to
100
Excavations at Shakenoak
suggest that the Shakenoak estate was absorbed by its richer neighbour in the third century. It is possible that the history of Ditchley villa may parallel that of Shakenoak more closely than has hitherto been suspected.23
small forces in the outlying farms for defensive purposes. These suggestions must remain tentative until more evidence is forthcoming from other local sites, including North Leigh itself.
The most striking development at Shakenoak in the fifth century was the introduction of a military, possibly barbarian mercenary, element (Part I p. 64). If Shakenoak was indeed a satellite of North Leigh, then it is perhaps possible to visualise the owner of the great estate stationing 23
The further developments at Shakenoak from the fifth to the eighth centuries will be the subject of the next Part, and will not be discussed here.
The evidence will be discussed in Part III.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
natural variations in the subsoil. The tenth was a pit, 10 ft 6 in x 6 ft 6 in and extending 3 ft 3 in below the modern surface at its deepest point (Fig. II.15). The red clay fill contained a number of worked flints of Bronze Age date (below, p. 108). In the topsoil above the pit was a fragment which may possibly be from a Roman cast bronze statue (Fig. II.15, no. 125). This is of interest in view of the finding of carved stonework including an altar and pieces of stone statuary, on Site F, immediately to the south.25
5. Site H (Fig. II.15) An area 200 ft x 200 ft to the north-east of Site B was surveyed with a metal-detector and a magnetometer,24 and ten features were excavated of which nine proved to be 24 We thank Dr. M. J. Aitken, of the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford, for carrying out these surveys.
25
102
To be reported in Part III.
Excavations at Shakenoak Elsewhere, even when a site has been completely excavated, the coins have usually been combined together, and the conclusions drawn can be quite misleading. Any interpretation of the history of Shakenoak based on either the Site A coins, or the Site B coins alone, or on a combination of the two, would in all three cases give a totally false and useless result.
6. The Finds COINS Site B yielded nearly as many coins as Site A. Two of them, nos. 180 and 350 (Fig. II.17), are of considerable numismatic interest. The series as a whole is chiefly remarkable in that its chronology differs very greatly from that of the Site A series, as is shown in the accompanying diagram (Fig. II.16). Here it can be seen that, for the period before A.D. 260, the coin loss on Site B was roughly equal to that on Site A. This is perhaps surprising, seeing that Site B was, during this period, the main dwelling-house of the villa. During the period 260-296 the coin loss on Site B was much greater than the loss on Site A and constituted more than half the total number of coins found on Site B. The Site B loss declined rapidly after 296 and was less than that on Site A during the period 296-378, the difference being particularly marked for the years 364-378. Site B, however, showed a distinct revival in Theodosian times. About 10% of the coins on both Sites A and B were Theodosian, a figure which is much above the average for other sites in Oxfordshire.
It must also be very firmly borne in mind that coin-loss in any particular area of a site is not so much a measure of the intensity of the “occupation” as of the suitability of that area for coins to accumulate. Thus, the coin-loss on Site B was slight before A.D. 250 because large areas around the building were kept very clean. Coin-loss after A.D. 250 was considerable because these areas were no longer kept clean, and this increase in coin-loss is despite the fact that the occupation of the area was well beyond its peak. It is a paradox that if Site B had continued to be the main dwelling-house during the second half of the third century, the areas round it would have been kept clean, and coinloss would have been much less. Many of the Site B Theodosian coins were considerably worn and there is no doubt that the use of coin continued on Site B for quite as long as on Site A – that is to say up to the decade c. 420-430 (Part I, p. 18). It is now generally accepted that the circulation of bronze money ceased entirely at about this time throughout lowland Britain, and examination of Theodosian coins in the Ashmolean Museum from other local sites, including Ditchley, Alchester and Dorchester, and also the Kiddington Hoard, strongly suggests that many of these sites also continued to be occupied until c. 420-430.
Fig. II.18 may serve as a useful object-lesson for the unwary. The construction of complex coin-graphs from Romano-British sites has become common, but it is clear that they must be used with great caution. When the coins are from an old excavation they are often few in number, and come from a small area of a large site. Experience at Shakenoak shows that the variation in coin-loss within a single site can be much greater than one might expect.
103
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker 184 185 186
Uncertain as of second century. Uncertain as of second-third century. Elagabalus. Denarius, RIC 150. Very base silver, probably a cast copy. 187 Severus Alexander. Denarius, RIC 221, obv. (a). 188 Gallienus (joint reign). Antoninianus (silver), RIC 170, obv. f. 189-197 Gallienus (sole reign). Ant., RIC 164, obv. 8A; 181, obv. K; 192(a), obv. K; 207; 228/30 B in exergue; 267, obv. 8F, PROVIDENTIA (leaning on column) S in field; 287; + 2 others uncertain. 198-199 Victorinus. Ant., RIC 67 obv. C; 118, obv. A, star and V in field. 200-206 Tetricus I, Ant., RIC 86; 90; 86/91; (2); 121/123; 146, obv. 4A, an unusually heavy coin, weight 105 grains. These so-called double antoniniani are well known from the reign of Gordian III onwards. They are probably makeweights, intended to increase the weight of a batch of coin which would otherwise fall below the norm; + 1 uncertain. 207 Tetricus II. Ant., RIC. 254 ff. 208-210 Gallic Empire. Ant., uncertain types. 211 A lead disc, diam. 15 mm. On the obverse are the incuse impressions of the obverse of a coin of Victorinus and on the reverse the reverse of a coin of Gallienus. It can hardly be an attempt to produce a regular coin; perhaps it is child’s toy.
SUMMARY Pre-Roman Nerva Trajan Hadrian Second-third centuries Elagabalus Severus Alexander Gallienus Victorinus Tetrici Gallic Empire Radiate imitations Carausius Allectus House of Constantine: 306-324 330-341 341-346 346-360 Magnentius Julian II House of Valentinian: 364-378 House of Theodosius: 388-402 Fourth-century imitations Unclassified Anglo-Saxon
1 (silver) 1 1 1 2 1 (silver) 2 (silver) 10 (one silver) 2 8 3 56 2 2 4 12 5 4 2 1 (silver) 7 11
Radiate imitations
18 15 1 171
180
Debased silver “quarter stater” of the Dobunni.
181 182 183
Fig. II.17 (x 2) Obverse: Face to right with degenerate dolphins in front; star on chin; no pupil to eye. Reverse: Horse galloping to left; traces of driver above; degenerate cock’s head below. cf. D. Allen, ‘A Study of Dobunnic Coinage’ in E.M. Clifford, Bagendon, a Belgic Oppidum, 1961. Class B. Weight 0. 77 grams. Slightly worn. Dated to the last years of the first century B. C. In gravel below the Period B.3a floor above room B.X (Fig. II.9, Section K-K, deposit 5). This coin is interesting in that it would seem to be the earliest Dobunnic coin yet found in Oxfordshire, and a preliminary note on it has been published in Oxon. XXXIII, p. 138. There are two possible explanations for its presence here. First, it could have reached Shakenoak at about the time of issue, and then have been transferred to its present find-spot at a later date. Alternatively, it may have still been in circulation (or have returned to circulation) in Flavian times, when the known occupation of Shakenoak started. This would certainly seem to have happened in other areas on the edge of Dobunnic territory, but it is very remarkable that at Bagendon itself the Class B coins had entirely gone out of use by the time the site was first occupied in the early years of the first century A.D. Nerva. Dupondius, RIC 65. Trajan. Sestertius, RIC 527. Hadrian. Sestertius, RIC 759, obv. (d).
212-213 Claudius II, rev. altar, 16 mm.; 9 mm. 214 Claudius II, rev. Aequitas, 15 mm. 215-221 Tetricus I, rev. Laetitia, 15 mm.; 13 mm.; rev. Salus, 14 mm.; rev. Sacrificial implements, 14 mm.; + 3 uncertain, 18 mm.; 16 mm.; 14 mm. 222 Tetricus II, rev. Sol, 17 mm. 223 Copy of Gallic Empire type, but with bust to left, 16 mm. 224-266 Other radiate copies. 18mm.(2); 17mm.(2); 16mm.(2); l5mm.(2); 14mm.(2); 13mm.(4); 12mm.(6); 11mm.(5); 10mm.(4); 9mm.(6); 8mm.(6); 7mm.(3). 267-268 Carausius. Ant., reverses uncertain. 269-270 Allectus. Ant., RIC 45, S-A in field; Quinarius, RIC 128, obv. 2F, QC in exergue. 271-279 Constantine I. RIC vii (Trier) 42; (Trier) 105 B; cf. (Trier) 213 ff.; (Trier) 369 S; (Trier) 542 P; (Trier) 542; (Trier) 545 P; (Trier) 590 S; (Trier) 591 P. 280-281 “Gloria Exercitus”, two standards, obverses uncertain. 282 “Gloria Exercitus”, one standard, obverse uncertain. 283-284 “Urbs Roma”, uncertain mints. 285 “Constantinopolis”, uncertain mint. 286 Constantius II. LRBC i 132 S. 287-291 Constans. LRBC i 140(a) S; 149 P; 164 P; 160/164 P; + 1 uncertain. 292-294 Constantius II. LRBC ii 204; 457; + 1 uncertain. 295 Constans. LRBC ii 342 ff. 296-297 Magnentius. LRBC ii 211; cf. 217 ff., reduced by clipping to 11x 9 mm. 298 Julian II. Siliqua, C. 154. Reduced by clipping to a rectangle 15 x 10 mm., weight 19 grains. 299 Valens. RIC (Arelate) 9(b) mm ii (a). 300-302 House of Valentinian, Securitas Reipublicae type (3). 303 Valentinian 1. RIC (Lugdunum) 10(a)/20(a). 304 Valens. RIC (Arelate) 7(d) mm vii(b). 305 Gratian. RIC (Arelate) 15. 306 Theodosius-I. RIC (Arelate) 30(d), but with mm TCON. 307 Valentinian II. RIC (Lugdunum) 44 (a/b). 308 Arcadius. RIC (Lugdunum) 44(d).
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Excavations at Shakenoak
309-314 House of Theodosius, reverse Victory, (6). 315-316 Theodosius I. RIC (Aquileia) 58(b); + 1 uncertain.
The study of the later sceattas is extremely complex, because of the large number of types that have to be fitted into a short span of years, and our ignorance of the political structure of the coinage. As a result of the finding of this coin, a study of the whole of the ‘Wolf’ series has been published in the British Numismatic Journal, XXXVI, 1967, p. 11 ff. by D. M. Metcalf and D. R. Walker. They consider this coin (no. 29 in their catalogue) to belong to their class E-F, that is to say it is a copy of the two primary series A-B and C-D, both of which may have been East Kentish in origin. The possibility that this coin is of comparatively local origin, perhaps a Mercian issue, cannot be ruled out. The chemical composition of the coin has been published by D. M. Metcalf, J. M. Merrick and L. K. Hamblin, Studies in the Composition of Early Medieval Coins, Corbitt and Hunter, 1968 (no. 0. 63 in their catalogue). They found it to contain 44-46% silver, which indicates that it was struck on the 3-siliqua standard. The series cannot be dated at present more accurately than to c. A.D. 735-745. As the whole monetary system collapsed soon after this period, the Shakenoak coin, with its comparatively high silver content, is not likely to have circulated for more than about a decade or so. This is confirmed by its almost unworn state. It is at present the latest dated object from the Saxon period at Shakenoak.
Fourth-century imitations 317-324 Fallen horseman type, 17 mm.; 15 mm.; 14 mm.; 14 mm.; 13 mm.; 12 mm.; 11 mm.; 11 mm. 325 Urbs Roma type, 13 mm. 326 Gloria Exercitus type, 12 mm. 327 Salus Reipublicae type of Theodosius 1, 12 mm. 328-334 Uncertain types, 12 mm. (2); 99 mm. (3); 8 mm. (2). 335-349 Uncertain, third-fourth century. 350 Anglo-Saxon sceat or penny of BMC type 32(a). Fig. II.17 (x 2) Obverse: Diademed bust to right, holding cross; border of dots. Reverse: Wolf-serpent with small ears and tongue curved downwards, ending in dot; all within wire torque with wolf’s head at both ends; border of dots. Weight 0.94 grams. Found in the topsoil close to bronze objects nos. 65 and 87 (Fig. II.5). This coin is of considerable archaeological and numismatic Interest. Few certain find-spots are known for the sceatta coinage, and this would seem to be only the sixth recorded from Oxfordshire. A preliminary note on this coin has been published in Oxon. XXXI, p. 156.
105
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker STONE, BRICK AND RELATED MATERIALS This section includes stonework, small objects of stone, brickwork and relief-patterned flue-tile, jet, shale, asphalt and Egyptian blue.
Fig. II.18 18 Pilaster of Chipping Norton Limestone of local origin.26 The base has been chipped away and the piece re-used as a building stone in the west wall of room B.XVII, Period B.3a. 19-22 Fragments of pillars or pilasters. No. 22 is Chipping Norton Limestone, or is possibly from other horizons in the Great Oolite. 26 We are indebted to Mr. H.P. Powell, Assistant to the Curator of the Geological Collections, University Museum, Oxford, for all identifications of stones.
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Excavations at Shakenoak
Fig. II.19 23 Quartzite pebble, with two facets worn by polishing or grinding, one planar and one plano-convex. Room B.XII, on Period B.3 floor. 24 Gaming counter cut from a pebble of red quartzite with white veining. Fill of room B.VIII. Period B.2. 25 Fine-grained black sandstone cylinder, with deep longitudinal grooves and two shallow incised encircling lines. Unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. 26 Fragment of a disc of dark grey mudstone, upper and lower surfaces showing marks of turning, traces of iron oxide in rivet-hole. Unstratified. 27 Pestle of Purbeck marble. Site as no. 23 above. 28 Flint arrowhead. See below, p. 108.
JET 2 3 4
Finger ring, the incised design on the bezel almost completely worn away. Room B.XII, on Period B.3 floor. Uncertain. Unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. Bead. Site as last.
SHALE 6- 8 Bracelets. All from later third-century deposits south of Building B. GRAFFITO 5 Graffito on black-burnished flanged pie-dish. Unsealed deposit south of building B; later third century.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker STONE 1. STRUCTURAL REMAINS
3. TESSERAE
The dressed stone used in all periods of construction of Building B was a local oolite. Eleven fragments of pillars or pilasters were found, of which five are illustrated (Fig. II.18). All came from third-century deposits except the pilaster (Fig. II.18, no. 18), which had been re-used as a building stone in the west wall of room B.XVII, Period B.3a. No fragments of cornice were found (compare Part 1, pp. 19, 20) and it appears that while both Buildings A and B contained pillars or pilasters, only Building A in its Period A.3 phases contained moulded cornices.
Site B produced only 22 tesserae, of which 18 were of red brick, two of white chalk, and two of grey cementstone. These were probably all strays from Sites A and C. 4. FLINTS A number of worked flints were submitted to Mrs. J. Crowfoot Payne, of the Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum, who kindly provided these notes: All specimens are of grey flint with white patina, unless otherwise stated.
Many fragments of stone roof-slates, exactly like those from Site A (Part 1, p. 19), were recovered from the Period B.4 fill of the eastern end of the corridor, room B.XI, but they were not common elsewhere. Fragments of imbrex and tegula were frequently encountered in deposits of all periods on Site B, in particular in the gully north of B.XI, where they would seem to have fallen from the corridor roof.
(i)
2. OBJECTS OF STONE (ii)
Seventeen whetstones were found on Site B. Fifteen were of oval, circular or rectangular cross-section, typically 0.5 in – 1.5 in in diameter and 2 in – 3.5 in long, and were identified by Mr. Powell as follows: 1, 2, 3 Medium-grained grey sandstone. 4 Glauconitic, medium-grained sandstone with sponge-spicules, probably deriving from upper Greensand. 5 Calcareous sandstone. 6 Impure limestone, pale grey, well-laminated, containing fragments up to about 1 mm. long of a very soft, black substance, possibly coal. 7 Fine-grained, greenish grey sandstone, not calcareous. 8 Calcareous sandstone containing a few grains of a very soft, black substance possibly coal. 9 Medium-grained sandstone, slightly calcareous. 10 Dolerite (igneous). 11 Pink-brown quartzite. 12 Grey quartzite. 13 Very compact, fine-grained, dark grey sandstone. 14 Reddish brown quartzite. 15 White quartzite.
(iii)
Group from the drainage gully west of Building B: Arrowhead: tanged and barbed; retouched over upper face, and tang on bulbar face. Tip of head and barbs missing (Fig. II.19, no. 28). Bronze Age. Scraper: roughly circular; heavily used round most of the circumference, with a very narrow band of lustre near edge. Grey flint with thin ochreous patina. Bladelet: used. Group from the fill of rooms B.VIII and B.X: Borer: double-ended, on fragment of flake; rather irregular retouch along both sides on upper surface near one end, along one side on either face at the other end; both points slightly polished by use. Flakes: five, used. Core: small blade core, oblique-fronted, singleended. Bladelet: used. Miscellaneous flints from unsealed deposits south of Building B: Scraper: roughly horse-shoe shaped. Borer: on flake fragment; a little retouch only near point, worn by use. Flakes: 12 small irregular flakes, used.
Mrs. Crowfoot Payne also kindly provided the following notes on the worked flints from Site H (p. 108): “The group consists of normal manufacturing debris, not strictly datable, but most probably Bronze Age, to be associated with the arrowhead described above (Fig. II.19, no. 28). Blade: fine nibbling, perhaps produced by use, along both edges. Flakes and bladelets: 76, generally small, with much reduced striking platforms. A few are core-preparing flakes, and a few are calcined. The better specimens show use. Cores: three, all very small: one nodular, with flakes removed in all directions, the other two probably fragments of small blade cores.”
A further two specimens consisted of fragments of purplish, medium-grained sandstone, 0.5 in – 0.75 in thick, one of which was roughly rectangular, 2 in x 2 in, and the other triangular with sides 3 in – 31 in long. The upper and lower surfaces were rendered smooth and concave by wear, as were the edges. Both were found in undated deposits south of Building B. Other stone objects (Fig. II.19, nos. 23-27) are described above. 108
Excavations at Shakenoak Virgil, Georgics III, 451, where it appears in a list of drugs used for treating ailments in sheep.
BRICKWORK The use of brick in Building, B seems to have been confined mainly to tegula and imbrex roofing. In contrast to Site A, finds of box flue-tile were scanty, most of the pieces being recovered from the deposits to the south of the eastern end of Building B. All were similar to the pieces found on Site A and bore the same combed patterns, except for some fragments from the fill of room B.X (c. A.D. 160) which had circular holes in their sides in contrast to the rectangular holes in the box flue-tiles from elsewhere at Shakenoak.
COAL Several hundred small pieces of coal, varying from 0.5 oz. - 3 oz. in weight, were found on the Period B.4 floor of room B.XXII. A sample was submitted to Dr. A.H. V. Smith and Mr. E. Bradburn, of the National Coal Board, Headquarters Production Department, Yorkshire Geological Outstation, who kindly reported as follows: “If all the sample is from the same stratigraphic horizon (and the palinological evidence shows nothing to the contrary) the coal comes from a seam of Middle Coal Measure age. The reflectance measurements on the vitrinite give an average maximum reflectance in oil of 0.55, which corresponds to a carbon (dry, mineral matter free) content of 82%.
Tiles 1 in – 1.25 in thick and 7 in square, similar to the hypocaust pila tiles found in room VS in Building A (Part I, p. 21), had been employed for the springers and voussoirs of the arches over the niches in room B.X. Four were found in situ (Figs. II.7 and II.8). Three similar tiles formed the back of the eastern of the two period B.3b hearths in room B.39 (Fig. II.10).
The same conclusions can be drawn from this evidence as before Part I, p. 23), namely that the coal probably came from the Warwickshire coalfield, although the carbon content is a little higher than in the Site A sample. This may well be due, however, to improved apparatus used for reflectance measurements.”
Three small pieces of relief-patterned tile were recovered from undated deposits on Site B. They bore the “billet” pattern found on eight similar pieces from Site A (Part I, pp. 19, 21, and Fig. II.11, no. 15) and, as in the case of the Site A pieces, they were from bricks at least 1 in – 1.25 in thick and not from flue-tiles. The purpose of these tiles is uncertain, but as many more pieces have been recovered from Site C it may be possible to give a more detailed account of them in a later report.
EGYPTIAN BLUE by F.B. ATKINS Sub-spherical nodules having a maximum dimension of about l cm., and consisting essentially of a blue substance, were recovered from the fill of room B.VIII (Period B.2). The nodules have a thin, discontinuous crust of orangebrown, earthy iron-oxides and consist almost entirely of aggregates of azure-blue crystals which have been identified by their X-ray powder diffraction pattern as “Egyptian blue” (a calcium-copper silicate, CaCuSi4O10. Up to 5% of the material from the interior of the nodules consists of various impurities including quartz, calcite, and limonite.
SHALE Seven fragments of shale bracelets, of which three are illustrated in Fig. II.19, nos. 6-8, were found in unsealed deposits of the later third century south of Building B. JET The three jet objects from Site B are illustrated in Fig. II.19, nos. 2-4. ASPHALT
The individual crystals of Egyptian blue have been examined with the polarizing microscope and are intensely pleochroic, ω - deep azure-blue, ε - pale rose-pink, uniaxial negative, nω 1.636. Typically the crystals are platy or tabular with a square cross-section measuring up to 0.1 x 0.1 mm. X-ray powder diffraction data are listed in the table below and compared with data for pure, synthetic CaCuSi4O10 (Pabst, 1959). The comparison suggests that the Shakenoak Egyptian blue is very pure.
The fill of room B.VIII (Period B.2) produced two pieces of shiny, black material, weighing 2.3 and 1.9 g., which, when heated in the air, melted and emitted the characteristic smell of asphalt. The infra-red spectra of both samples recorded as nujol mulls on a Perkin-Elmer Infracord 137 Spectrophotometer closely resembled that of a sample of modern asphalt. Samples were also pyrolysed at 400° and the products analysed on a Pye Argon gas chromatograph with a 2.5% SE 10 silicone column at 200°. The patterns of products from the two samples were almost identical and closely resembled that produced by a sample of modern asphalt.
Egyptian blue or “blue frit” is a synthetic substance which can be readily synthesized from a finely ground mixture of CaCO3, CuO and SiO2 together with borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O), the latter acting as a flux, by prolonged heating at about 800° C. (Pabst, 1959). The starting materials in ancient times appear to have been the natural minerals calcite or limestone (CaCO3), quartz (SiO2) and a
Pliny (Natural History, XXV, 180ff.) describes the many medical purposes to which such asphalt was put. That it was also used for veterinary purposes is suggested by 109
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker copper mineral, probably generally malachite (Cu2(CO3) (OH)2), with natron (Na0CO3.10H2O) as the flux (Lucas, 1962).27
Records of Egyptian blue from Romano-British sites seem to be rather rare. It has been recorded from Wroxeter, Shropshire (West, 1931), Bignor, Sussex (Davy, 1817), Silchester, Berkshire and Woodeaton, Oxfordshire (Jope and Huse, 1940a, b). At Woodeaton it occurs both as a finely-ground paint on a small potsherd (presumably a palette) and also as small balls made by rolling in the hands (Jope and Huse, 1940a). Although the above list is probably incomplete, the references are certainly not abundant. The identification of Egyptian blue, particularly when finely-ground as a paint pigment, depends on X-ray techniques and it is suggested that the pigment may be more common at Romano-British sites than the few references in the literature suggest.
The only ancient description of the manufacture is that of Vitruvius (c. 24 B.C.): ratio autem eius e quibus est inventa satis habet admirationis. harena enim eum nitri flore conteritur adeo subtiliter ut efficiatur quemadmodum farina, et aes cyprium limis crassis uti scobe facta mixtae conspargitur ut conglomeretur. deinde pilae manibus versando efficluntur et ita conligantur ut inarescant. aridae componuntur in urceo fictili, urcel in fornace, simul autem aes et ea harena ab ignis vehementia confervescendo coaluerint, inter se dando et accipiendo sudores a proprietatibus discedunt suisque rebus per ignis vehementiam confectis caeruleo rediguntur colore.
The Shakenoak material has not been ground but it is reasonable to suppose that it was stock material intended as a paint pigment. In view of the complexity of the synthesis (e.g. a temperature requirement of ca. 800o C.), the absence of local copper-bearing minerals and the fact that, at a single site, only relatively small quantities of a pigment would be required, it is very unlikely that the Shakenoak material was manufactured in situ. Egyptian blue from Wroxeter is listed by West (1931) as “imported” and this seems the most likely origin for the Shakenoak (and other RomanoBritish) samples. The hand-rolling of the starting materials described by Vitruvius (see above) indicates that the Shakenoak balls have been unmodified since leaving the furnace.
This description, although incomplete (the essential element, calcium, being absent from the starting materials), is of interest in that it may explain the sub-spherical shapes of the Shakenoak samples; Jope and Huse (1940) have also described samples of frit c. 1 in in diameter from Egypt, Silchester (Berkshire) and Woodeaton (Oxfordshire) having a biconical or ball shape which they ascribe to rolling between the bands. Egyptian blue, the principal blue pigment of ancient Egypt, was used chiefly in wall paintings and frescos, although it was also powdered, made into a paste, shaped, dried and fired to produce small objects such as cylinder seals and beads (Lucas, 1962). It was known at least as early as the Fourth Dynasty - 2900 to 2250 B.C. (e.g. Laurie, 1913).
One apparently unique aspect of the Site B material is its occurrence as well-formed single crystals. Other records refer either to finely-ground pigment or to semi-glassy “frits”, well-developed single-crystals being previously reported only from modern syntheses.
“It was used not only in Egypt but also in Rome in imperial times, as the universal blue for fresco-paintings.... It disappeared from the artist’s palette somewhere between the second and seventh centuries.” (Lucas, 1962, p. 343.)
REFERENCES Davy, Sir Humphry. 1817. Arch. 18, 222. Fouqué, F. 1889. Bull. Soc. franç. Miner. 12, 36. Jope, E. M. and Huse, G. 1940a. Nature 146, 26. Jope, E. M. and Huse, G. 1940b. Oxon., V, 167. Laurie, A.P. 1913. Arch. 64, 315. Laurie, A.P., McLintock, W.F.P. and Miles, F.D. 1914. Proc. Roy. Soc. A. 89, 418. Lucas, A. 1962. Ancient Egyptian materials and industries. 4th ed. Edward Arnold, London. Micault. V. 1881. Bull. Soc. franç. Miner. 4, 82. Minguzzi, C. 1938. Periodico di Mineralogia 3, 333. Pabst, A. 1959. Acta Cryst. 12, 733. Pisani. F. 1880. Bull. Soc.franç. Miner. 3, 197. Pliny. XXXIII, 57-8. Theophrastus. History of Stones XCVIII. Vitruvius. De Architectiza VU, 11, 1. West, L.C. 1931. Roman Britain. The objects of trade. Blackwell, Oxford.
In addition to Vitruvius, the ancient writers Pliny and Theophrastus refer to the pigment respectively as “caeruleum” and “kyanos”. In the 1880s samples of Egyptian blue found at RomanoFrench sites were examined by several mineralogists (e.g. Pisani, 1880; Micault, 1881; Fouqué, 1889). Fouqué (1889) established the composition, synthesized single crystals and reported the crystal system, density, optic sign, and pleochroism. Laurie, McLintock and Miles (1914) reported the refractive indices, confirmed the synthesis and speculated on the original discovery by the Egyptians. The crystal structure was determined by Pabst (1959) who also listed X-ray powder diffraction data.
27
The natural counterpart of Egyptian blue is the mineral cuprorivaite (Minguzzi, 1938), which is known only from Vesuvius, where it is very rare. The Egyptian blue of ancient times is certainly all synthetic.
110
Excavations at Shakenoak TABLE. X-ray powder diffraction data for Egyptian blue from Shakenoak and for pure CaCuSi4O10 (Pabst, 1959). 11.46 cm. diameter camera, CuKa radiation.
Plus 15 or more additional lines, weak and mostly diffuse.
111
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker SAMIAN WARE Site B produced 884 sherds of samian ware, as well as a large number of indeterminate flakes. All the samian from the cellars, rooms B.VIII and B.X, together with the patterned samian and stamps from elsewhere on the site, was sent to Mr. B.R. Hartley, F.S.A., of the Department of Latin, University of Leeds, to whom we are indebted for the following report: THE SAMIAN WARE - by B.R. HARTLEY, F.S.A.
74 Form 15/17, South Gaulish. This form was in use in its standard version at Inchtuthil c. A.D. 85. The Shakenoak dish is much thicker and clumsier than the standard variety and may well be a trifle later. c. A.D. 80-105 (Fig. II.20, no 71). 75 A jar approximating to Déchelette 67, but with barbotine leaves instead of moulded decoration. The fabric is South Gaulish. Probably Flavian or early Trajanic (Fig. II.20, no. 72).
A. Samian from the Period B.2 fill of room B.VIII 71 Form 15/17 or 18, South Gaulish. Not strictly datable, though the fabric is suggestive of pre-Flavian origin. 72 Form 15/17 or 18, South Gaulish. The fabric suggests preFlavian date, but there is not enough of the profile for certainty. 73 Form 27 base, South Gaulish. This cup was not stamped. Flavian.
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Excavations at Shakenoak
76
Form 27, South Gaulish, with grooved footring and stamped SVLP on a central dome. Sulpicius of La Graufesenque. This particular stamp has only been noted otherwise at Leicester and Strasbourg, all examples being on typically Flavian Trajanic cups of form 27.
77
113
Form 27, South Gaulish. Flavian-Trajanic.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
78 79
A small scrap, probably South Gaulish and FlavianTrajanic. A large, deep example of form 18 (or 18R), South Gaulish, Flavian-Trajanic. Five sherds of this vessel came from the black deposit at the extreme bottom of room B. VIII (deposit 14 in section J-J, Fig. II.9).
80 81
114
Form 18/31, Central Gaulish, probably from Les Martresde-Veyre. Trajanic or Hadrianic. Form Curle II, Central Gaulish. A strongly curved flange, which may best be paralleled among Hadrianic examples from Lezoux (cf. Oswald and Pryce, Terra Sigillata, 1920, pl. LXXXI, 19).
Excavations at Shakenoak
82
Form 27, Central Gaulish, with very straight upper wall. Hadrianic.
83
115
Form Curle II base, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
84
Form 18/31, Central Gaulish. A shallow dish, Hadrianic or early Antonine.
85
116
Form 27, East Gaulish. The fabric matches examples from Chémery-Faulquemont. Hadrianic or earlyAntonine.
Excavations at Shakenoak
86 87 88
89 90 91 92
Form 33, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine. Form 18/31R, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine. Three fragments from one or two examples of form 18/31R, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine. A fourth fragment, which fits on to one of these, came from an unsealed deposit south of Building B. Form 33, Central Gaulish. Hadriante-Antonine. A small, straight-sided cup of form 33, Central Gaulish. Probably early-Antonine. Form 18/31R, Central Gaulish. A slightly deeper version of no. 125. Form 38, Central Gaulish. Antonine.
B. Samian from the Period B.2 fill of room B.X 93
94
95 96 97 98
Form 27 South Gaulish. The fabric and form, with wellrounded upper curve, suggest pre-Flavian manufacture. This cup is very close to examples from the ditch of the fort at Cirencester in a large group of material datable to c. A.D. 55-65. Four sherds of this vessel came from the lowest black deposit in room B.X (section K-K, Fig. II.9). A small fragment of a South Gaulish form 37 vessel. The arrangement is zonal, with a straight wreath of small leaves over a free-style scene including the antler of a kneeling stag (D. 362) and a small conventional tree both derived from the Germanus repertoire. Bowls In this style regularly appear in late-Flavian or Trajanic contexts (e.g. at Holt, Y Cymmrodor, XLI, fig. 34 ff.) (Fig. II.20, no. 73). Form 27, South Gaulish. Flavian-Trajanic. From the grey earth deposit in room B.X deposit 8 in section K-K, Fig. II.9. A small fragment of form 37, South Gaulish showing part of an ovolo with trident tongue and a wavy line below. c. A. D. 80-100 (Fig. 20, no. 74). Form 27 rim, probably Central Gaulish and Hadrianic. Form 30, a small bowl with unworn footring, represented by many joining sherds. The ovolo is only otherwise
99 100 101 102 103 104
117
known on bowls from moulds signed by Bassus at Lezoux. (This is a deeper impression in the mould than usual and the tongue appears larger, but the asymmetrical border makes the identification certain). The decoration is not separated by a border from the ovolo, though an attempt was made to provide a guide-line for the latter. The types in the panels are: (i) hind (D. 844); (ii) goat or hind (0. 1848A or D. 885) and (iii) dog (D. 934). The double-chevron wreath at the bottom of the decoration does not seem to be known on any signed or stamped bowl. In view of the ovolo, it is likely that the potter of this bowl had some connexion with Bassus and the Quintiltanus Group, though the use of borders of squarish beads distinguishes him from them. Stylistically the piece would be expected to be Hadrianic or early-Antonine. Twelve sherds of this vessel came from the same deposit as no. 95 above; one sherd from the black deposit below the floor of room B.XII (deposit 11, section B-B, Fig. II.12); one sherd from room B. VIII (deposit 9, section LL, Fig. II.9); and one sherd from the rubble fill at the eastern end of corridor B.XI (Fig. II.20, no. 75). Base of a dish, probably form 36, Central Gaulish, Hadrianic or Antonine. Form 18/31R, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine. Form 18/31, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine. Form 18/31R, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine. From the same deposit as no. 95 above. A footring fragment, possibly South Gaulish. Two sherds of form 37, Central Gaulish, in the style of X5. These sherds join Part I, Fig. 47, sherd no. 23, but are considerably less weathered. They add a festoon containing a cock to right (0.2346A) balancing the one to left previously illustrated, but it is here accompanied by a striated spindle. The full scheme of decoration is probably now known and the figures of the earlier sherds are confirmed as a boar (D. 826), dog (D. 934) and cock (D. 1025). The date suggested in Shakenoak I (A.D. 125-145)
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105 106 107 108 109 110
is probably right, but it may be worth stressing the absence of X-5’s work in Scotland. Both sherds from the same deposit as no. 95 above. (Fig. II.21, no. 76 is a reconstruction based on the Site A and B sherds.) Form 36, Central Gaulish. Antonine. Form uncertain, Central Gaulish. Probably Antonine. Two fragments from an enclosed vessel with barbotine scroll, similar to Part I, Fig. 15, nos. 43-64. Apparently Central Gaulish. Antonine. Form 33, Central Gaulish. Probably Antonine. Form Curle 23, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic or Antonine. A fragment of form 37 which joins Part I, fig. 14, no. 19. On close inspection the ovolo is seen to be the one with beaded tongue referred (under no. 131 below) to the Cerialis-Cinnamus Group. The style and the range of figure types, including D. 103, D. 146, D. 523 and O.735A, are in accord. c. A.D. 145-175. From the same deposit as no. 95 above (Fig. I.21, no. 77).
122 123 124
D. Samian from drainage gully west of Building B 125 126
The following five sherds came from the foundation trenches (in room B.X) of the west and north walls of room B.XVII: 111 112 113 114
115
Rim of form 18/31. Central Gaulish. A Central Gaulish scrap. Form 31, East Gaulish, probably Rheinzabern ware. LateAntonine. A fragment from the Albucius bowl of Shakenoak I, Fig. 13, nos. 4 - 12. A further two sherds of this bowl came from an unsealed deposit south of Building B. (Fig. I.22, no. 78 is a reconstruction based on the Site A and B sherds.) Form 33, Central Gaulish. Antonine.
127
C. Samian from various deposits inside Building B 128 116 117
119
120 121
(usually after A.D. 169). c. A.D. 150-180. From room B.XX, sealed below hypocaust pila, on Period B. 3a floor. A fragment from a large dish with concave base (form 32 etc.). Probably East Gaulish and late-Antonine. Found on the surface of the Period B. 3 floor of room B. XVII. Form 27, Central Gaulish. Part of the upper, very straight wall of a large cup. Early-Antonine. From the same deposit as no. 122. A small fragment from a panelled form 37 bowl by Cinnamus of Lezoux or an associate. The dolphin stand (D. 1069A) is typical of their work. c. A.D. 150-180. From the fill of the east end of corridor B.XI (Fig. II.22, no. 81).
Form 35/36 flange, weathered. Probably South Gaulish and Flavian. On Period B.3a floor of room B. XII (deposit 11 in section C-C, Fig. II.12). Six sherds from a large jar (Déchelette 72 etc.) or flagon, combining appliqué and barbotine decoration. The leaf is D. (appliqué) type 157. This vessel is slightly unusual in having barbotine beads dividing it into panels, as on colour-coated ware. Dating evidence for these appliqué and barbotine jars is meagre: at Lezoux all the ones known to the writer are from midor late-Antonine contexts, but they are not common either there or elsewhere. From the same deposit as no. 116 (Fig. II.22, no. 79). 118 Curle 15 or 23, Central Gaulish. A very thick wall fragment. Certainly Antonine, probably late-Antonine. From the Period B. 3 floor above room B. VIII (level 5 in section J-J, Fig. II.9). Form 37, heavily burnt. Rheinzabern ware, assignable to Primitivus, who used the large rosettes with coarse border between (H. Ricken, Die Bilderschusseln der röm. Töpfer von Rheinzabern = Ludowiel Kat. VI, Tafelband, 192, 16). The scene in the medallion is part of an erotic group (ibid. Textband M66 variant, as used by Primitivus on ibid. Tafelband 189, 15), but it is impressed vertically instead of horizontally. Late-Antonine or early thirdcentury. From on the Period B. 3 floor of room B. XVH (Fig. II.22, no. 80). Form 38, Central Gaulish. Antonine. From corridor B.XI, east end, on Period B.2 floor (used again in Period B.3a). Form 33 stamped DIVICATVS. Divicatus worked at Lezoux, where examples of this stamp have been found. An Antonine potter, whose work occasionally appears in Scotland, he made both form 27 (before A.D. 160) and 80
129
130
Form 18/31R, Central Gaulish. Almost certainly from Lezoux. Many joining sherds from a South Gaulish form 37 in the style of Frontinus of La Graufesenque or a close associate. The ovolo with large rosette tongue is well attested for Frontinus (cf. F. Hermet, La Graufesenque, pl. 85, where it and most of the other details are to be found). The figures are a griffin (not in Hermet or Oswald) and the wolf and twins (O.849). In general style this bowl is close to examples from the Pompeii Hoard of A.D. 79 (J.R.S., IV, pls.VII-X, and the style is also common at Agricolan sites in Scotland. c. A.D. 70-90 (Fig. II.23, no. 82). Several large fragments of a jar approximating to Déchelette form 67 but with a more everted, straighter rim than usual. Instead of moulded decoration the body has barbotine leaves. South Gaulish fabric. Probably Flavian or Trajanic (Fig. II.23, no. 83). Flaked fragments of a form 27 bowl, apparently in South Gaulish fabric. Flavian or Trajanic. Many fragments from a small form 37 with winding scroll decoration typical of Drusus I (X-3) of Les Martres-de-Veyre, with his ovolo replacement of conjoined dolphins (cf. J.R. Terrisse, Les céramiques gallo-romaines des Martres-de-Veyre, pl. VII, 131). The workmanship is typically careless. Drusus must have been one of the earliest Central Gaulish potters to export regularly to Britain, since a bowl of his came from a Flavian II pit at Newstead. c. A.D. 100-120. This bowl has been mended unusually, with bronze strips instead of the normal lead rivets (Fig. II.24, no. 84). Form 33 cup stamped AVEN[TINI · M] by Aventinus of Lezoux. This stamp is usually on form 31 or 33, occasionally on form 27 or below the decoration of bowls of form 37 (applied after moulding) of early- or midAntonine type. The stamp comes from Antonine contexts at Newstead and Cramond, and also at Chester-le-Street (founded c. A.D. 160?) and in the Aquineum group (A.D. 167? -Arch. Ertesito, 1936, p. 34, no. 1). Its period of use may, therefore, be assessed as c. A.D. 150-175.
E. Samian from various deposits outside Building B 131
118
Many sherds of form 37 with a large winding scroll. The ovolo is very blurred, but is certainly the one with beaded tongue used by Cerialis, Cinnamus, Anunus, Paullus and associates (cf. Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., XCIV, p. 103 and Gallia, XXVII, p. 3ff.). Large scrolls of this kind with figures in the lower divisions and striated bands as spacefillers are typical of Cerialis (and the bands seem only to have been used by him and by Cinnamus in his early
Excavations at Shakenoak
132
133
134
work). The figures are a Cupid (D. 254), a goat (D. 893) and a lioness or the like (unidentified). Unstamped bowls in this style were current at Lezoux before A.D. 150 and at least one comes from a definite Antonine I context at Newstead (Proc. Soc. Ant. Scot., LXXXIV, p. 27, no. 8). c. A.D. 145-175. From drainage gully north of corridor B. XI (Fig. II.24, no. 85). Form 18/31R stamped ROP·VS·FE. A potter, or potters, named Rop(p)us worked in South Gaul and at Les Martres-de-Veyre (where this stamp is attested: Germaina, 1954, 172, no. 74). It is possible that this particular stamp was used in both areas, since it has been noted often on dishes thought to be in South Gaulish fabric. The Shakenoak dish is overfired, and it is therefore difficult to assess the fabric, though overfiring is more typical of Les Martres-de-Veyre than south Gaulish kilns. Probably Trajanic, but just possibly Flavian, if South Gaulish. From the shallow pit south of room B.III, below the orange fill (deposit 3, section F-F, Fig. II.13), on the surface of the natural. Form 37, Central Gaulish, with large winding scroll. This is probably by Iustus of Lezoux, who used both the leaves on his rare scroll bowls (cf. Stanfield and Simpson, Central Gaulish Potters, pl. 110, 9 and 10). c. A.D. 160200. From mortar floor south of room B. XVII, deposit 4 in section H-H, Fig. II.13 (Fig. II.25, no. 86). Form 37 rim with a blurred, unidentifiable ovolo. Probably Antonine. From immediately east of the east end of corridor B.XI.
145
146
147 148 149
Note on a bowl of Doeccus (Part I, Fig. I.14, no. 22) Form 37 in the style of Doeccus of Lezoux. The panels have (i) a slave (D. 322), (ii) man with chlamys (D. 344) and (iii) in a medallion an athlete (D. 402) and warrior (D. 103). All these types occur on stamped Doeccus bowls. In the second panel the label of a stamp impressed on the mould survives, though it is so eroded that only the faintest traces of letters remain. However, the label fits in shape and size a DO||CCVS stamp commonly used on moulds. The rosettes at the top and bottom of the borders are 8 mm. in diameter. They are not common with Doeccus, but compare Stanfield and Simpson, op. cit., pl. 148, 22. c. A.D. 160-200.
F. Samian from unsealed deposits south of Building B 135
136 137
138
139 140
141 142 143 144
Newstead, where it should belong to the Flavian II phase. c. A.D. 90 – 100 (Fig. II.25, no. 90). Three sherds from the same bowl in the style of Doeccus of Lezoux. The ovol and squarish beads are diagnostic (Stanfield and Simpson, op. cit., fig. 44, 2) and the rosettes and leaves are normal (ibid., details 5, 32 and 37). The large plant is on a stamped Doeccus bowl from Great Chesterfield (Cambridge University Museum). c. A.D. 160-200 (Fig. II.25, no. 91). Form 37, Central Gaulish. A small fragment from a freestyle bowl with sea-bull (D. 35, but smaller) and lozenge, both used by Iustus of Lezoux (Stanfield and Simpson, op. cit., pl. 111, 12). c. A.D. 160-200 (Fig. II.25, no. 92). A small fragment of form 31 with an ovolo (Ricken, op. cit., E. 23) used at Rheinzabern by many potters. LateAntonine or early third-century (Fig. II.25, no. 93). Form 33 stamped AVENTINI · [M] with the same die as no. 130. A small fragment of form 37 with an ovolo having a rosetted tongue bent to the left at the tip, probably one of X-6’s ovolos (Stanfield and Simpson, op. cit., fig. 18, 3). c. A.D. 125-150 (Fig. II.25, no. 94).
A small fragment of form 37 with a large chevron-festoon enclosing acanthus tips. Both are characteristic of the Potter of the large-S (Stanfield and Simpson, op. cit., p. 76). His work is relatively common in Britain, but does not appear in Scotland, so a basically Hadrianic date is clear (Fig. II.25, no. 87). Form 35/36 flange, Central Gaulish. Not closely datable within the second century. A small fragment of form 37 with a blurred ovolo, probably Cinnamus ovolo 3 (Stanfield and Simpson, op. cit., fig. 47, 3) or the Cerialis-Cinnamus ovolo. Antonine (Fig. II.25, no. 88). Fragments from a jar (Déchelette 72 etc.) (illustrated in Part I, Fig. I.13, 1-3). It is perhaps not entirely certain that the head and body of these fragments go together. Neither definitely fits any of Déchelette’s appliqué types. It is, however, just possible that the head belongs to the torso with Phrygian dress (Déchelette appliqué type 92a), if the head-dress has been slightly trimmed. Form 37 base fragment showing grooves below the decoration. Central Gaulish, probably late-Antonine. A small fragment of form 37 with the characteristic square beads of Doeccus and part of a triton (D. 16) commonly used by him. c. A.D. 160-200 (Fig. II.25, no. 89). Form 36 flange, Central Gaulish. Probably Antonine. A small, weathered scrap from a Central Gaulish form 37. Antonine. Form 38 rim, Central Gaulish. Antonine. Form 37, South Gaulish. The ovolo was used by Mereato (Knorr, Töpfer und Fabriken verzierter Terra-Sigillata des ersten Jahrhunderts, Taf. 57, 19) Mercato’s work is very common in Britain, but is missing from Flavian I contexts in Scotland though present at
119
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker COARSE POTTERY for the rough-cast beakers (nos. 197-8) and a few fragments with chalky-white surface. Straight-sided dishes are also entirely absent; this is remarkable since they were common on Site A in the Period A.1 levels, dated A.D. 120-180. A number of the forms in this deposit were not found on Site A, namely nos. 152162; 169, 183184; and 186.
The number of sherds of coarse pottery from Site B was nearly 33,000, considerably fewer than from Site A. Most of them were, however, from fairly well stratified deposits, and nearly half came from the levels dating from the first 150 years of the occupation (nos. 147-298). Most of the remainder came from the unsealed deposit to the south of the building, which can nevertheless be dated fairly accurately to the second half of the third century, only a very small proportion of it being later. From this group a number of interesting types and series are published (nos. 302-359). There is only a very small amount of pottery from the fourth century (nos. 360-362). In addition a small quantity of unpublished material from Site A is included for comparison.
152-157 Carinated bowls; black-burnished ware wish lattice decoration. Gillam, types 218-220 (A.D. 125-160). 158 Similar fabric, but decorated with horizontal lines. 159 Similar fabric, but decorated with curved lines. 160-162 Similar fabric, with plain surface. Fig. II.27 163-165 Pie-dishes; coarse grey ware; cf. Part I, nos. 39-46. 166-167 Pie-dishes; buff fabric with black-coating; cf. Part I, nos. 37-38. 168 Carinated bowl; coarse buff fabric with black-coating and burnished linedecoration; cf. no. 301, somewhat later in date. 169 Sieve; coarse orange fabric; cf. Wroxeter II, fig. 19, no. 65, dated to A.D. 80-130. 170 Flanged bowl; coarse grey ware. 171 Carinated bowl; grey fabric with burnished lattice decoration. 172 Mortarium; pale orange fabric with brown grits; also another very similar. 173 We are indebted to Mrs. K. Hartley, of the Department of Latin, University of Leeds, for the following note on this vessel:
Little needs to be added to what has been said in Part I concerning the fabrics found; as might be expected from a site which was intensively occupied in the second and early third centuries, the quantity of Castor ware and Rhenish ware was greater than on Site A. Two new fabrics were, however, encountered, which may be dated to the years before the first occupation of Site A (before c. 120). From the Period B. 2 levels came a small number of sherds of hand-made calcite-gritted ware (nos. 183-4; 229). It is to be compared with examples found at Alchester (Alchester, 1937, fig. 5). No hand-made pottery of any kind was found on Site A. In the same levels were also found two examples of the earliest type of the black-burnished cooking-pot series, with hand-made body and wheel-made rim (nos. 151 and 186).
“A mortarium in cream fabric with pink core, heavily tempered with sandy particles; there is abundant transparent white, pink and brown trituration grit. The fabric, grit and form point to production In the potteries in the vicinity of Oxford, like those at Cowley, Dorchester, Littlemore, Sandford, etc. (Oxon., I, pp. 81-102, VI, pp. 921; Arch., LXXII, pp. 225-242). No other examples of the potter’s trade-mark are known, though several generally similar ones have been noted, one of them from Littlemore (unpublished). Mortarium production began in the Oxford area of the Thames valley early in the second century, gaining momentum in the third and fourth centuries. The mortaria were not stamped after c. A.D. 170, and a date of c. A.D. 110-160 can be suggested for this example.”
A very small number of hand-made sherds of the AngloSaxon period were also found in the topsoil. For convenience these will be held over for discussion with the much larger quantity of similar pottery described in Part III. (1) Pottery on the earliest floor of room B.VIII, Period B.2a (see p. 90). This is the earliest deposit from the site. 147 148 149 150
151
Plain-rimmed pie-dish; buff fabric with black exterior coating. Plain-rimmed lid; coarse grey fabric. Lid with thickened and rounded rim; buff fabric with darker surface. This would seem to be an exclusively early type. Plain-rimmed jar; red-buff fabric with thick black coating, decorated with vertical external indentations, probably copied from metal work. For another example of this distinctive type see no. 215; a third example was found on Site A, but was unstratified. The series clearly dates from the late first to early second centuries. Jar with wheel-made rim and hand-made body; blackburnished ware, the body being matt surface decorated with burnished cross-hatching.
174
Mug; coarse buff fabric with lattice decoration in a darker colour; also another very similar. 175 Lid with thickened and rounded rim; black-coated buff ware. 176 Lid with plain rim; fabric as above. 177-178 Lid with upturned rim; fabric as above. Fig. II.28 179-182 Lids with upturned rim; coarse grey ware. 183-184 Jars of calcite-gritted ware, hand-made. For similar vessels see Alchester, 1937, fig. 5. Since there was no hand-made pottery from Site A it is clear that this series does not extend far into the second century. 185 Jar of the same fabric as the above, but wheel-made; the rim-form is exactly the same as the above. It is clear that wheel-made calcite-gritted ware was being produced by
(2) Pottery from the fill of room B.VIII, Period B.2b (see p. 92). This fill contained over 2,200 sherds and was clearly deposited in c. A.D. 140, though much of the material is earlier. It is worth noting that colour-coated wares and Rhenish are absent, except
120
Excavations at Shakenoak c. A.D. 140. Jar of black-burnished ware with wheel-made rim and hand-made body, with burnished lattice decoration on a matt body. 187 Jar with internally ledged rim; hard orange fabric with darker surface. 188 Small jar of black-burnished ware with plain exterior; also another very similar. These small jars with a variety of rim forms seem to be common throughout the second century. For other examples from Site A see below, nos. 370-376. 189 Jar of black-coated buff ware, decorated with lines in a darker colour. 190-191 Jars of black-coated buff ware. 192 Jar of coarse grey ware with burnished lattice decoration; also two others very similar.
(3) Pottery from the lower fill of room B.X (Section K-K, deposit 9, Fig. II.9), Period B. 2, of the same date as the last group (see p. 29).
186
199 200 201 202 203 204
Jar of black-burnished ware; cf. no. 188 above. Plain-rimmed jar with cordon and girth-groove; buff fabric with black coating. Bead-rimmed jar; soft grey-buff fabric with black coating. Jar of coarse grey ware. Large jar with plain rim; coarse grey ware with lattice decoration of a darker colour. Top of flagon of cream fabric.
(4) Pottery from the stone-lined channel in room B.IV (see p. 84). This deposit certainly dates from Period B.2 but cannot be fixed more accurately. No. 205 suggests a date before the middle of the second century.
Fig. II.29 193-195 Jars of coarse grey ware. 196 Narrow-necked jar with cordon; coarse grey ware with lattice decoration in a darker colour. 197-198 Rough-cast cornice-rim beakers; red fabric with blue core and black colour coat. This is the earliest colourcoated ware from the site.
121
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122
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123
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124
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker 205 206
Carinated bowl with slightly reeded rim; coarse grey ware. Lid with upward pointed rim; grey-buff ware with black coating and bands of burnishing.
Fig. II.32 237
Lower part of flagon (?) of hard cream fabric, with design added in brown paint with a thick brush. No exact parallel for this remarkable vessel has been found. Rough-cast beaker; red fabric with blue-black colourcoat; cf. nos. 197-198 above.
Fig. II.30
238
207 208 209
(7) Pottery on the lowest floor of room B.XI, Period B.3 (see p.94).
Jar of grey-buff fabric with black coating. Jar of pale buff fabric with black coating. Jar of coarse grey ware with traces of black coating.
(5) Pottery from the lower levels south of Building B, sealed beneath the gravel floors. This deposit certainly dates to before the middle of the second century (see p. 93 f.). 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219
239
Straight-sided dish; black-burnished ware decorated with curved lines. 240 Plain-rimmed pie-dish; black-burnished ware with line decoration. Note that all pie-dishes from earlier levels were carinated. All examples of this type from Site A had lattice decoration. 241 As above but with rounded rim; cf. Gillam type 225 (A.D. 190-240). 242-243 Plain-rimmed pie-dishes; coarse grey ware. 244 Bowl with beaded rim and girth groove; red fabric. 245 Carinated bowl; coarse grey fabric with lattice decoration. 246-247 Jars of buff fabric with darker surface. 248 Large jar with cordon and girth-groove; very coarse greybuff fabric with burnished decoration. 249 Jar with heavy squared rim; buff fabric with dark coating. 250 Jar of hard and fine grey ware. 251 Jar with cordon and girth-groove; coarse red fabric, decorated with lines of darker colour; cf. no. 248 above. 252 Rough-cast beaker; white fabric with black colour-coat; cf. no. 369 below. This and nos. 254-255 below are the earliest Castor ware from the site. 253 Beaker of Rhenish ware with bands of rouletting; cf. nos. 266-268 below, also from the Period B.3 levels. For comparative material from Site A see nos. 367-368 below.
Bead-rimmed bowl; buff fabric with black coating. Lid with squared rim; coarse grey ware; cf. Part 1, no. 90. Globular jar with bead rim; black-burnished ware. Smaller jar with slightly everted rim; black-burnished ware. Jar similar to the last, but larger; cf. Gillam type 118 (A.D. 125-160). Type and fabric as no. 150. Very small jar of gritty fabric with black coating. Jar with plain everted rim; calcite-gritted ware. Jar with thickened rim; buff fabric with black coating. Jar of coarse grey ware.
(6) Pottery from the later fill of room B.X. This level is dated to the end of Period B.2 (see p. 84). It contains the first straightsided dishes (nos. 220-221). Except for the remarkable vessel no. 236, the only colour-coated wares are rough-cast (no. 239). 220 221 222
Straight-sided dish; black-burnished ware with plain exterior. As above, but decorated with curved lines; cf. Part I no. 18. Plain-rimmed pie-dish; buff fabric with black coating.
Fig. II.33 254 255
Fig. II.31 223
224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236
Bead-rimmed bowl with foot-ring; hard red fabric with burnished surfaces; for this distinctive fabric see Part 1, nos. 1-10, where it was confined to the Period A.1 levels (before c. 180). Bowl with pie-dish rim; grey ware. Lid with rim pointed downwards; dark red fabric. Mortarium with heavily overhanging rim; hard orange fabric. Jar of black-burnished ware; cf. Gillam type 115 (A.D. 120-140). Jar of similar fabric; cf. Gillam type 125 (A.D. 125-180). Jar of hand-made calcite-gritted ware; cf. nos. 183-184. Small jar with plain rim and double cordon; fine quality buff fabric with black coating. Wide-necked vessel of grey fabric with black coating. Large jar with thickened rim; coarse grey ware with traces of darker surface. Heavy jar with beaded rim; coarse grey ware. Jar of coarse grey ware; cf. no. 228 above. Wide bowl with heavy cordon; soft buff ware with darker surface. Fragments of the body of ajar, probably Drag. 67; very hard pale cream fabric with bright cherry-red slip, darker in places, and decorated with moulding and rouletting. This is clearly an imitation of samian, but its origin is very uncertain. No parallels have been traced.
Castor ware hunt-cup; cf. Gillam type 84 (A.D. 170-220). Fragments of Castor ware “gladiator” beaker showing a youthful male head and two interlocked shields (?). The relation of the body fragments to the rim is not certain.
(8) Pottery from the lowest floor of room B.XII Period B.3 (see p. 94). 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265
126
Funnel of red fabric with exterior surface burnished. Straight-sided dish; black-burnished ware decorated with curved lines. Flanged pie-dish; black-burnished ware with rough lattice decoration; cf. Gillam type 226 (A.D. 220-270). Jar-with heavily everted rim; poor buff fabric with black coating. Small jar of soft buff fabric with black coating. Similar to last, but with girth-groove. Jar of fine grey ware with burnished decoration. Small jar of coarse grey ware. Jar with thickened rim and cordon; fine grey ware with burnished surfaces. Neck of flagon; pink fabric with white chalky coating. A few fragments of this fabric were found in both the Period 2 and Period 3 levels of Site B. See Part I, p. 31, fabric F (iii).
Excavations at Shakenoak
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128
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129
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
130
Excavations at Shakenoak evidence of the coins shows clearly that it is to be dated to the second half of the third century. There is certainly very little material of earlier date but it is possible that a small proportion is later.
Fig. II.34 266 267 268 269 270 271
Beaker of “Rhenish” ware decorated with rouletting; cf. nos. 253, 337, 367. Folded beaker of “Rhenish” ware with five bands of rouletting. As above, but with thicker rim. As above, but with markedly thickened rim. small bowl of “Rhenish” ware; cf. Gillam type 210 (A.D. 200-260). See also nos. 339-340 below. Folded beaker; white fabric with orange colour-coat, decorated with imbricated scales; cf. Gillam. type 53 (A.D. 240-320). The dating of this type is uncertain; it may well begin a little earlier than A.D. 240.
About 9% of the pottery from this deposit was of the red-fabric red colour-coated ware known to be of local manufacture. This is a surprisingly high figure for a late third-century deposit, and is indeed higher than that in the Site A Period A.3a levels (c. A.D. 250-350). It was found that in some cases the forms were different from those found in the Period A.3b levels on Site A (after c. 350), and these are therefore dealt with in detail. 302-308 Jars of calcite-gritted ware, wheel-made. These cannot be distinguished from earlier examples (nos. 185, 217 above), but show that the fabric continued to be produced with little stylistic evolution. No. 308 has slashed decoration below the rim; a similar example was found in the Period A.3a levels of Site A (c. A.D. 250-350).
(9) Pottery from the gully west of the building. Period B.3a (see p.94). 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286
Straight-sided dish with slightly thickened rim; buff fabric with black coating. Plain-rimmed pie-dish; ware as above. Form and fabric as above, but carinated. Plain-rimmed pie-dish; coarse grey ware. Flanged dish; greyish fabric with black coating. Plain-rimmed pie-dish; black burnished ware, diam. 9 in. Plain-rimmed pie-dish; black-burnished ware decorated with vertical lines. Bowl with foot-ring, copying samian form 29; red fabric with burnished surfaces. Bowl of similar form, but of buff fabric with black coating. Carinated bowl; coarse grey ware with burnished decoration. Carinated bowl; grey-buff fabric with black coating and traces of burnishing. Bowl of grey-buff fabric with black coating. Mug of course grey ware with burnished decoration. As above, but of buff fabric with black coating. Plain-rimmed lid; grey fabric with black coating.
309-315 Bowls of rather coarse orange fabric, sometimes turning to brick-red. This is a distinctive type, and seems to be confined to this period; in most cases the rim is bent over and thickened (nos. 309-314), and the body is decorated with one or more girth-grooves. No. 315 is exceptional, but of the same fabric. 316 Bowl with pie-dish rim; hard grey ware with roughly burnished surfaces. 317 Somewhat similar, but with overhanging rim; soft red fabric; cf. Part I, no. 57. Fig. II.37 318-328 Bead-rim bowls of brick-red fabric. All have red colour-coat except no 327-328, which have a brown colour-coat. The variations in the colour of the slip are probably not intended. The nonsense stamp on no. 318 should be compared with those found at Cowley and Sandford (Arch. 72, p. 223). It is interesting that nonsense stamps were not found among the large quantity of colour-coated wares from the Period A.3b levels on Site A (after 350). This may suggest that the practice is early. These bowls show two distinct rim forms; nos. 323-328 have plain beaded rims and are exactly like examples from Site A of the late fourth century (no. 363 below). Nos. 318-323 have slightly hanging rims; no examples with this feature have been found in late fourth-century levels, which suggest that they are exclusively early. A third type with a very thick bead rim was not found in these levels and is confined to late fourth-century deposits (no. 364-366 below). It may be possible to trace a similar development on other sites; at Park Street, fig. 18, nos. 2 and 23 (small bead rim and hanging rim) date from the first quarter of the fourth century, while fig. 21, no. 10, with thickened bead rim, dates to the second half of the century (Archaeological Journal, CII, 1945). 329 Flanged bowl copying samian form 38; orange fabric with red colour-coat. This is the only example of this form to come from these levels, although in the latefourth century levels of Site A the form outnumbered bead-rim bowls. The distinctive form of the flange should be compared with later example from Site A (Part I, nos. 63-68). 330 Mortarium copying form 45; hard red fabric with red colour-coat, with degenerate “lion” spout. This may not be Oxford ware. This is the only example of this type from these levels of a form which becomes very common
Fig. II.35 287-288 Lids of soft grey fabric with black coating. 289 Lid with upward pointed rim; coarse grey ware. 290 Jar of black-burnished ware. 291-296 Jars of buff fabric with black coating. 297 Wide-necked bowl with everted rim; coarse grey ware. 298 Jar with thickened rim; coarse grey ware with darker surfaces decorated with black lines. From the gully north of the building. (10) From under the upper floor of room B.XIII, Period B.3 (see p. 94). 299 300
Jar with thickened and everted rim; coarse grey ware. Jar with triangular rim; coarse grey ware.
Fig. II.38 (11) From the filling of room B.XI, Period B.3b-B.4, mid-third century (see p. 93). 301
Plain-rimmed pie-dish, slightly carinated; grey fabric with darker decorated with black lines; cf. no. 168 above. This example is clearly a stray.
(12) Pottery from the black levels to the south of the building. The date of this unsealed deposit is discussed on p. 94. The
131
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker in the late fourth century (Part I, nos. 69-72). The later examples do no seem to have had the spout. 331-332 Bowls copying samian form 36; red fabric with red colour-coat. This is a form not seen on Site A. 333 Jar of red fabric with red colour-coat. 334 Jar of soft red fabric with poor red colour-coat. 335 Neck of flagon with plain rim and cordon; buff fabric with red colour-coat. 336 Base of bowl with circular stamp; very hard orange fabric with dark red colour-coat.
before c. A.D. 350; see no. 252 above. 370-376 Small jars of black-burnished ware with various rimforms. These were common on Site A but only in levels dated to before A.D. 250. No. 371 diam. 4.5 in; 372, 5 in; 373, 4.5 in; 374, 2.5 in; 375, 3 in; 376, 6 in. 377-381 Flanged bowls of calcite-gritted ware. Nos. 377-379 all date from Period A.3a (c. A.D. 250-350). Nos. 380-381 date from Period A.3b (after c. A.D. 350). Nos. 377-379 diam. 9 in; no. 381, 9.5 in.
Fig. II.38 337 Beaker of “Rhenish”, ware. 338 Base of beaker of “Rhenish” ware. 339-340 Small bowls of “Rhenish” ware; cf. no. 270 above. 341-344 Mortaria of cream-white fabric; all are from the Oxfordshire kilns and are typical of the late third century. 345-347 Necked jars of coarse grey ware; cf. Part 1, nos. 125126. Nos. 345 and 346 are perhaps to be compared with Gillam type 32 (c. A.D. 300). 348 Small jar with handle; grey-buff fabric with black coating. 349 Straight-sided dish with thickened rim; soft red fabric. 350 Straight-sided pie-dish with incised decoration; blackburnished ware; this of decoration is not otherwise known. 351 Flanged pie-dish with two holes punched through the side; black-burnished ware. 352 Straight-sided dish with holes punched in the side and base; black-burnished ware. 353 Carinated bowl of soft white fabric with traces of red paint on the rim and carination. Another example exactly similar came from an undated level on Site A. This small and distinctive group was manufactured at Headington (Oxon., XVII/XVIII, fig. 45, no. 8) and is common on some Oxfordshire sites such as Woodeaton, though very rare at Shakenoak. It has a wide distribution area, cf. Richborough, II, no. 163; IV, no. 460 (first half of third century); Segontium, fig. 77, no. 34 (late third century). 354 Titula of pale buff ware. Fig. II.39 355 Mug of orange fabric with burnished line decoration. 356 Spindle-whorl of coarse grey ware. 357 Spindle-whorl cut from the side of a vessel of red fabric. 358-359 Spindle-whorls of coarse grey ware. (13) Pottery from Period B.5 levels (see p. 100). 360 361 362
Straight-sided dish of black-burnished ware with decoration of curved lines. Small jar of black-burnished ware with lattice decoration; cf. Gillam type 147 (A.D. 290-370). Jar of coarse grey ware with burnished lattice decoration.
(14) Comparative material from Site A. 363-366 Bead-rimmed jars; red fabric with red colour-coat; Building A, Period A.3b (after c. A.D. 350). For discussion of this type see nos. 318-328 above. 367-368 Beakers of “Rhenish” ware. No. 368 shows traces of decoration with white paint. Some dozen examples of this type were found on Site A, all from Period A. 1/A. 2 levels (before c. A.D. 250). 369 Rough-cast beaker; white fabric with black colour-coat;
138
Excavations at Shakenoak These rectangles are 3.70 cm. apart and painted on a purple ground (Fig. II.40, no. 2). This additional material probably indicates that the grey plaster, as well as being used as a band just above floor-level, also appeared in the dado as rectangles outlined by dark red lines which alternated with areas of purple. The rectangles painted on the purple ground seem to have contained geometric motifs.
WALL-PLASTER Site B produced several thousand fragments of painted wall-plaster. A total of 171 types was noted in addition to the group described below, of which 63 were not distinguishable from types found on Site A (Part I, p. 48). As on Site A, the designs were simple stripes or panels of one colour on another. Evidence of redecoration or overpainting was rare, but in one case a striped design had been covered with two coats of thick white paint. Other fragments showed that an original painted surface had been picked over or almost completely scraped off to provide a basis for a new layer of plaster some 0.25 in thick which was then painted.
Other fragments suggest a yellow lozenge outlined in white and veined in purple, with the rest of the space filled in with opposing triangles of mottled greyish-blue and black or rust red outlined in black (Fig. II.40, no. 3). Another rectangle may have been filled in with a coarsegrained marble effect of yellow, red and white on a black ground (Fig. II.40, no. 4). Other possibilities for another rectangle or for use elsewhere include a green curvilinear design edged in black and white associated with more red and yellow, and a carefully incised straight line painted red and black, which springs out of a small circular black and yellow motif, all painted on a green ground.
The fill of rooms B.VIII and B.X contained 1,896 fragments of painted plaster, but all were plain white or red except for 82 pieces representing a further 26 types. A group of about 650 fragments came from the fill of corridor B.XI north of rooms B.IV and B.VI, in a mass of rubble and mortar used in the levelling off of this part of the building. It therefore probably represented the decoration of the Period B.3 structure, and dated from the late second or first half of the third century. It is possible to reconstruct a considerable portion of the complex pattern of stripes and panels (Fig. II.40 – II.42). A group of fragments from Site C, showing a closely similar series of designs will be discussed in a later report. We are indebted to Miss J. Liversidge, F.S.A., for the following report on this plaster.
AREA ABOVE THE LEVEL OF THE DADO
DADO
The purple fragment which supplies the clue for the two rectangles has a pink line near its upper edge (Fig. II.41, no. 2). Probably a purple band of unknown depth separated it from a pink border striped with lines of varying width in purple and white which ran round the room at the top of the dado, probably 20-60 cm. above floor-level (Fig. II.42, no. 6). Above this border may have come a blue ground with black and grey motifs with occasional traces of dark red (Fig. II.41, no. 4). Another piece shows the blue separated from the green by fine black and white lines (Fig.II.41, no. 5; Fig. II.42, nos. 1-3). Further fragments show a band of yellow above the pink border (Fig. II.41, no. 7). This band is decorated with dark red and purple streaks and curvilinear motifs and it may have been a border for two more types of decoration. One has the green ground which just appears on Fig. II.41, no. 6, and black and yellow pattern and a red bud. It seems likely that much of this and also the design used on the blue ground represent leaves and stalks. Fig. II.42, nos. 4-6 may show that next to the green ground in some cases there were more foliate or curvilinear motifs in purple and dark red, with occasional indications of rust-red circles marked out with a compass.
A quantity of grey stippled in rust and purple occurs. Such imitations of marble are customary at dado level, particularly for the lowest foot or so of a wall where it could be easily touched up if damaged. This could have been the position it occupied at Shakenoak. Some fragments, however, show a sequence of two fine purple lines painted on the grey ground 5 cm. away from a border consisting of black, yellow and white lines, a purple band 3.50 cm. wide and another white line beyond which are traces of yellow, green and black (Fig. II.40, no. 1). Another piece shows the corners of two rectangles outlined in white, the angles decorated with a bead of white paint.
Comparison with other schemes of Romano-British wallpainting suggests that here we may have evidence for the habitual division of the wall into rectangular areas of different colours, perhaps a sequence of red and green panels and blue pilaster strips. No evidence for the fine lines and borders characteristic of this type of decoration has been found, but by the third century these features may well have been sometimes omitted. Possibly the description of the motifs on the blue and green grounds as foliate is mistaken and the upper parts of the wall merely echoed the imitation marbling of the dado.1 Dados with geometric decoration are not uncommon, comparative
THE PAINTED PLASTER by JOAN LIVERSIDGE The fragments of wall-painting found in a mid-thirdcentury deposit in Building B probably come from a wall with a dado painted to imitate marble wall-veneers, some of them arranged to depict geometric motifs. The material may also include part of the wall at a higher level. Not enough has survived to make it possible to recover the design with any degree of certainty, and the attempt at a partial reconstruction which follows is based on probabilities supported by a few fragments which do provide valuable clues.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker material being known from the Roman town at Aldborough (Yorks) and the Winterton (Lincs) villa.2
by J.L. in Ian Stead, Winterton Roman Villa (H.M.S.O.). Figs. II.40 – II.42
REFERENCES
1-10 Wall-plaster from corridor B.XI, north of rooms B.IV and B.VI, Period B.4 deposit, probably of debris from the destruction of the Period B.3 building.
1
As in House XXVIII.3 at Verulamium. J.M.C. Toynbee, Art in Roman Britain (1963), no. 172, Pl. CCI. 2 H.E. Smith, Reliquiae Isurianae (1852). Pls. 1, III; report
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Excavations at Shakenoak B.3a wall in room B.X; nos. 78 and 79 from unsealed deposits south of Building B. 80-82 Fragments of bases of prismatic bottles of square horizontal section, with traces of moulded patterns. No. 80 has one arm of an equal armed cross, a common symbol on these bottles (Fig. II.43, no. 36). No. 80 from room B.XII, on Period B.3a floor; no. 81 from corridor B.XI, Period B.3a deposit; no. 82 from an unsealed deposit south of Building B.
GLASS by D.B. HARDEN Site B yielded 1,271 fragments of glass, of which 882 were window-glass and 389 were fragments of vessels and other items. Of the window-glass, 500 fragments (57%) were the matt/glossy variety, the remaining 382 fragments being of the double glossy type. The Period B.2 fill of room B.VIII, which was deposited not later than A.D. 140, produced 87 fragments of window-glass, 55 of which were of the double glossy type and these 49 were found in a group and were so similar in appearance as to suggest that the came from a single pane, though only three were found to join. It appears that this type was in common use in the middle of the second century.
Fragments of unguent-bottles, green, second century: 83
84
CATALOGUE I. GREEN GLASS 53
Unguent-bottle, greenish; poor, streaky and bubbly metal; broken and mended, some pieces missing. Rim outsplayed and folded upward and inward, cylindrical neck, low triangular-sectioned body, flat base. H. 13.4 cm. D. body 7 cm. Second century. Room B.VIII, Period B.2 fill (Fig. II.43, no. 31). 54-58 Five fragments of bodies of green bottles: no. 54, probably hexagonal; nos. 65-57, prismatic with square horizontal section; no. 58, an angle piece, perhaps also from a prismatic bottle (cf. no. 55). Later first or early second century. Room B.VIII, Period B 2 fill. 59-67 Fragments of bodies of green bottles: no. 59, probably hexagonal; nos. 60-61, probably cylindrical; the remainder prismatic with square horizontal section one of which (nos. 62-63; Fig. II.43, no. 32) has a moulded rosette pattern of interlocking segments of circles forming petals (number uncertain, probably eight). Later first or early second century. Room B.XII, on Period B.3a floor. 68-69 Fragments of angular handle of tall jug, green, of later first-century type, cf. an example from Winchester, D.B.H. in M. Biddle: “Two Flavian burials from Grange Road, Winchester” in Ant. J., XLVII (1967), 238-240, no. 17, fig. 7, PL. xliii. Site as preceding group (Fig. II.43, nos. 33-34). 70 Rim and neck of jug, green; type as nos. 68-69 and perhaps belonging to same vessel as those fragments (the glass of all three fragments is very streaky): rim folded out, up and in and flattened on top; mark of upper attachment of handle just below rim. Room B.X, Period B.2b fill (Fig. II.43, no. 35).
85 86
Fragment of base of large unguent-bottle, very bubbly; part of an inscription ]·V·[ curving in a circle on under side of base.1 Room B.X, Period B.2b fill (Fig. II.43, no. 37). Another similar to no. 83, but not from the same bottle; part of an inscription ] I · A· [ curving in a circle on under side of base. The first letter is either I or N. Site as no. 83 (Fig. II.43, no. 38). The letters on nos. 83-84 are hollow on the outside of the vessel and in relief on the inside, indicating that the vessel was blown or impressed on a mould while still on the blow-pipe. Many similarly inscribed unguent-bottles are known. The inscriptions mostly run in a circle, facing inwards, with sometimes, a figure of Victoria in the middle. See A. Kisa, Das Glas im Altertume, 1908, 925 f., 939 f., where a number of examples with different inscriptions are cited. Part of cylindrical neck of smallish bottle. Room B.VIII, Period B.2 fill. Part of squat triangular-sectioned body of smallish bottle. Site as no. 85.
Fragments of bowls, and a jug: 87
88
89 90
Fragment of side of pillar-moulded bowl, pale green; narrow closely-set ribs. Cast, and wheel- and firepolished. Mid or late first century. Site as no. 85 (Fig. II.43, no. 39). Fragment of rim of shallow bowl, green; rim rounded and thickened, side convex. D. 20.4 cm. Later first or early second century. Unsealed deposit south of Building B. Fragment of base of bowl, green; pushed-in tubular basering. D. c. 19.0 cm. Later first or second century. Fragment of rim of jug, olive-green; outsplayed, thickened rim; on outside, remains of upper attachment of handle. Perhaps third century. Corridor B.XV, Period B.3 deposit.
1
I am very grateful to Mr. R.P. Wright, M.A., F.S.A., for helpful comments on this inscription and that on no. 84.
Fragments of green or bluish green bottles, later first or early second century:
II. COLOURLESS GLASS A. Cast or blown, late first or early second century:
71
Part of cylindrical neck, green. Room B.X, Period B.2b fill. 72-75 Fragments of multi-ribbed handles. No. 72 from an unsealed deposit south of Building B; no. 73 from corridor B.XI, Period B.3 fill; nos. 74 and 75 from room B.VIII Period B.2 fill. 76-79 Fragments of sides of prismatic bottles of square horizontal section. No. 76 from drainage gully west of room B.XXI; no. 77 from foundation trench of Period
91
92
143
Fragment of rim and side of dish; straight outsplayed side, rounded rim with two raised horizontal ribs on outside. Cast, and polished on both surfaces. Corridor B.XI east of room B.X, undated deposit (Fig. II.43, no. 40). Several fragments of base of bowl; widely splayed side, flat base, with two concentric rings cut in relief near edge.
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Excavations at Shakenoak Cast, and polished on both surfaces. Room B.XII, Period B.3a deposit (Fig. II.43, no. 41). Fragment of base of bowl; splayed side with offset between it and base, which is flat and horizontal. Blown. Drainage gully west of room B.XX (Fig. II.43, no. 42).
105
B. Blown; wheel-cut or incised decoration; second or third century:
107
93
106
(i) Faceted: 108 94
95
Nine fragments of rim and seven fragments of body (two of which join) of shallow bowl; vertical rim, thickened and rounded, rising directly from convex bottom. Just below rim, a band of horizontal oval facets; below this, on under side of bowl, an all-over pattern of wide and narrow oval facets in quincunx. Third century. Room B.XII in make- up of Period B.4 floor (Fig. II.44, no. 43). One fragment of rim of same bowl as no. 94. Unsealed deposit south of Building B.
109
110
(ii) Linear cutting only: 111 96 97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
Fragment of large bowl, strain-cracked; splayed, convex sides, one horizontal wheel-cut line. Second century. Site as no. 95. Fragment of goblet, greenish-colourless, some iridescence; conical body, probably with base-ring (missing). Two narrow horizontal wheel-cut lines near base. For the shape cf. Harden, Roman Glass from Karanis (1936), 149, no. 408, pls. iv and xv, a finer piece, more truly colourless. Room B.X, in foundation trench of Period B.3a wall (Fig. II.44, no. 44). Fragment of rim of beaker, much weathered; out-turned lip, ground smooth with two wheel-cuts at rim and another 1.5 cm. below; side tapers upward. Corridor B.XI, Period B.3 deposit (Fig. II.44, no. 45). Fragment of rim and side of beaker, little weathering; shape as no. 98; no wheel-cut at rim, but some on body, singly and in a group of five. Site as no. 98 (Fig. II.44, no. 46). Fragment of rim of beaker, no weathering; out-turned lip, ground smooth, vertical side; three horizontal wheel-cuts at rim, two more 1.5 cm. below. Room B.X, in foundation trench of Period B.3a wall (Fig. II.44, no. 47). Fragment of rim of beaker, dulled; shape as no. 98; two horizontal wheel-cuts at rim, another 1 cm. below. Room B.XVII on latest (Period B.3) floor (Fig. II.44, no. 48). Fragment of top of side of beaker; part of out-turn of lip extant, sides taper upward (as in no. 98); one horizontal wheel-cut 1.5 cm. below lip. Corridor B.XI, in make-up of Period B.4 floor. Fragment of top of side of beaker; part of out-turn of lip extant, sides taper upward (as in no. 98); three horizontal wheel-cuts under lip and three broader ones 1.5 cm. below. Room B.XVII on latest (Period B.3) floor (Fig. II.44, no. 49). Fragment of top of side of beaker; part of out-turn of lip extant, sides taper upward (as in no. 98); three well-made horizontal wheel-cuts on body, c. 8 mm. apart. Corridor B.XI, north-west corner, on latest (Period B.3b or B.4) floor (Fig. II.44, no. 50).
Fragment as no. 102, etc., with one horizontal wheel-cut extant. Room B.X, in an area disturbed by Period B.3a foundations. As no. 105, but pair of horizontal wheel-cuts. Site as no. 105. Fragment of lower part of side and basal angle of beaker; side expands downward to curved basal angle; group of three horizontal wheel-cuts 1.5 cm. above bottom of side. Site as no. 105 (Fig. II.44, no. 51). Two fragments of side and basal angle of beaker; side vertical, curved basal angle; two groups of five horizontal wheel-cuts round body, one 4 mm. wide, the other 5 mm. Corridor B.XI period B.3b or B.4 deposit (Fig.II.44, no. 52). Three fragments, two joining, or base of beaker; vertical (?) side, rounded basal angle, slightly concave base; one wheel-abraded circle on under side. Late third century. Room B.XII, on Period B.4 floor (Fig. II.44, no. 53). Five fragments of side of beaker with rounded carination near bottom of side; one thin wheel-cut horizontal line above carination. Corridor B.XI, Period B.3b or B.4 deposit. Two fragments of rim and neck of flask; splayed lip, ground smooth on edge, with two horizontal wheel-cuts 3 mm. apart on outside; cylindrical neck. Corridor B.XV, on Period B.3 floor (Fig. II.44, no. 54).
C. Blown; trailed decoration, second or third century: (i) Cylindrical bowls of “Airlie” and related types: 112-115 Fragments of several bowls. The type is that of the bowl from Airlie, Angus, in the National Museum of Antiquities of Scotland, no. EQ 150 (W. A. Thorpe, English Glass (1935), p. 39, pl. vi, b (undecorated); also one from Curium, Cyprus, in Cambridge (Mus. Archaeol. and Ethnol., no. 23.788B), Harden, Roman Glass from Karanis, p. 124, fig. 2, a (simple cut facet decoration, and two applied rings on base, both solid); and some fragmentary examples from York, represented by the rim and base fragments nos. b and HG 202.6 (Harden, ‘Glass in Roman York’ in R.C.H.M. (England), City of York I, Eburacum, p. 137 f., fig. 88). No. 112 has a vertical rim, thickened and rounded in a flame, cylindrical body, rounded basal angle and flat base with tubular pushed-in base-ring; outside base-ring a thin circular trail, inside it a thick trailed ring. No. 112 represented by a base restored from several fragments, five rim-fragments, and many fragments from upper part of body, bearing parts of a horizontal trail. Room B.XII, on Period B.4 floor (Fig. II.44, no. 55). No. 113: Rim-fragments from at least two vessels, some probably from vessel no. 112. Site as no. 112. No. 114: Fragments from basal angles of at least two vessels; one fragment with trail at angle. Site as no. 112. No. 115: Amorphous body-fragments. Site as no. 112. 116 Fragment of base of bowl, greenish-colourless; pushed-in tubular base-ring, within which an added blob of glass, hollow in the centre. Probably from a bowl of “Airlie” type. Unsealed deposit south of Building B. 117-120 Fragment of rim and side, fragment of side and basal angle, and two fragments of base, possibly from the same
147
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121
vessel. Rim thickened and rounded, side vertical with basal curve, base flat with one trailed ring on under side. Corridor B.XV, above room B.VIII. Period B.3. Fig. II.44, no. 56 is a reconstruction based on the assumption that all the fragments are from the same vessel. Two fragments of base of bowl; curved basal angle, flat base with one circular trailed ring on under side. Room B.XX, robbed area.
141
III. GLASS OBJECTS: ALL ROMAN, BUT NOT CLOSELY DATABLE 142-148 Game-pieces of dark glass (green or brown), appearing black. D. varies from 1.5 to 2 cm. No. 142 from drainage gully west of room B.XX; nos. 143-148 from room B.VIII, Period B.2 fill (Fig. II.45, nos. 62-65 are nos. 144-147 respectively). 149-151 Beads: no. 149, pale green, oblate, about two-thirds extant. D. 2 cm. H. 1 cm. Unsealed deposit south of Building B, later third century (Fig. II.45, no. 66). No. 150: opaque, pale green, cylindrical. L. 0.7 cm. D. 0.4 cm. Site as no. 149 (Fig. II.45, no. 67). No. 151: fragment of bead of mosaic glass, oblate, with large hole. Made from pieces of blue and white marbled mosaic glass and red, green and white streaky mosaic glass, by a native workman using waste Roman mosaicglass fragments. D. c. 2.5 cm. Site as no. 149 (Fig. II.45, no. 68). 152 Bronze wire pin with oblate spherical head of dark glass (blue ?), appearing black. The top of the pin is fixed in the under side of the glass head and does not pierce through it. Site as no. 149 (Fig. II.45, no 69). 153 Finger-ring: opaque yellow; made from a circular rod, the ends of which have been joined at the bezel. Bezel stamped with a boy’s face, frontal, with puffed out cheeks, perhaps a cupid. There is an internal strain-crack across the design on the bezel, which may show where the two ends have spread away from each other, owing to contraction of the glass. D. 2.1 cm. Corridor B. XI, north-east corner, undated deposit (Fig. II.45, no. 70).
(ii) Miscellaneous trailed: 122
Fragment of side of large bowl (?); horizontal trails in relief, bending and touching, on body. Late second or early third century. Room B.XVII, on Period B.3 floor. 123-124 Two fragments of body of bowl (?); horizontal opaquewhite trails in relief, bending and touching, on body. Late second or early third century. Both from unsealed deposits south of Building B. 125-126 Two fragments of rim of beaker; out-turned lip, rounded and polished at edge, two raised horizontal trails 1.5 and 2.6 cm. below. Room B.X, foundation trench of Period B.3a wall (Fig. II.45, no. 57). 127 Fragment of side of beaker; in general as nos. 125-126, but with thicker walls. Room B.X, Period B.2b fill. D. Blown; tooled indents or ribs; second or third century: 128 129
Room B.XXI robbed area (Fig. II.45, no. 61). Fragment of multi-ribbed handle of jug. Pebble floor south of room B.X.
Fragment of lower part of side of beaker; large indents (probably four) on body; curve of basal angle preserved. Site as no. 127. Two fragments of lower side and base of bowl; flattened base, vertical tooled ribs on body. For shape and ribbing cf. Harden, Roman Glass from Karanis, p. 92, no. 215, pl. xiii. Unsealed deposit south of Building B (Fig. II.45, no. 58).
E. Blown; plain fragments, second or third century:
SUMMARY
130-131 Fragments of rims of wide bowls; rims thickened and rounded. No. 130 from pebble floor south of room B.X; no. 131 from corridor B.XV, undated deposit. 132- 133 Two fragments of rim of bowl or beaker; rim outsplayed and rounded in flame concave neck, globular (?) body. The fragments do not join, but must be from the same vessel. Second century. Room B.X, Period B.2b fill (Fig. II.48, no. 59). 134 Fragment of side of conical goblet, much strain-cracking; for shape cf. no. 97 (II b (ii) above). Room B.X, foundation trench of Period B.3a wall. 135-137 Three fragments, which join, of base of bowl (?); concave base. No. 135 from unsealed deposit south of Building B; nos. 136-137 from pebble floor south of room B.X. 138 Fragment of base of bowl; concave, with pushed-in tubular ring. Room B.XX, in fill of central flue. Period B.3b or B.4. 139 Fragment of side and base of bowl or jar; convex, globular body, with constriction between it and base, pushed-in tubular base-ring, flattened on under side. Drainage gully west of room B.XX (Fig. II.45, no. 60). 140 Fragment of goblet on tall, splayed footstand; footstand added as a pad from another paraison. For the type see Harden, Roman Glass from Karanis, 151 f., nos. 420 ff., pl. xvi.
The glass from this area of the Shakenoak site is of considerable interest, since it includes a very large quantity of colourless pieces of the second and third centuries A.D., suggesting that the main occupation of the site occurred during those two centuries. None of this colourless is exceptional in quality, nor are there any fragments of the very highly decorated varieties of Rhenish glass – polychrome and monochrome snake-thread cut and painted wares with figured scenes, and the like; indeed, the only piece which bears more than the simplest decoration is no. 94 in group II.B(i), with its fine faceting. The assemblage is, however, important as showing what colourless ware of a more ordinary kind a prosperous country household in Britain was able to acquire for dayto-day use at table. Since comparatively little of this ware has been published from Romano British sites (though much has been found, both in towns and villas), it has seemed well not to skimp the illustrations of it in the present report, even though all the examples are fragmentary and not a single complete type is reconstructible.
148
Excavations at Shakenoak In sum, the glass evidence suggests that this site was mainly, if not solely, occupied during the second and third centuries. It may have begun during the later first century, but it is not necessary to postulate such an early date for its initiation on the glass evidence alone, since the few certain examples of first-century glass, both colourless and coloured, could have been retained in use until the second century before being broken and discarded. There is no evidence that the site continued to be occupied in the fourth century, for it has yielded no recognizable fourthcentury types of glassware.
Apart from the many varieties of beaker or drinking-cup with wheel-cut lines, special attention should be drawn to gerry the “Airlie” type bowls listed under II. C(i). This shape is very frequent in the late second and third centuries. It occurs, as here, more or less plain, with perhaps a horizontal trail or two; but it is also frequently decorated with enamel-painted or with engraved or faceted designs (see C. Isings, Roman Glass from Dated Finds (1957), 102 f., form 85 b, and refs. ad loc.). Though this second- and third-century colourless formed the bulk of the glass, not only in this catalogue, but also amongst the amorphous, uncatalogued pieces, there are a number of other varieties to which attention should be drawn.
BRONZE, SILVER AND LEAD Figs. II.46 – II.50 Several hundred bronze objects or fragments of bronze were found on Site B. The most interesting are illustrated here, the majority of the remainder being too incomplete or too corroded for Identification.
First, there are three fragments of colourless which are earlier than the rest and probably belong to the last quarter of the first century or the early second century. Two (nos. 91, 92) are cast, not blown, and finely polished on both surfaces, techniques which were specially prevalent in the first century, both on coloured and colourless wares. The third (no. 93) has an offset base of an early type.
More than 1.5 lb. of fused bronze was found scattered in the latest deposits (Period B.5) of room B.XXIII and In the area immediately to the south. Twenty-six sherds of hard grey pot from crucibles, partly fused on the exterior and with bronze adhering to the interior, came from the same deposit. The crucibles were probably less than 4 in in diameter and round-bottomed, but the smallness of the sherds makes a more exact estimate impossible. There is therefore clear evidence of small-scale bronze working in the late fourth or early fifth century. The bronze object no. 120, Fig. II.80, is of interest in this connection although from a different deposit.
There are two varieties of coloured glasses that must be equally early. First, the fragments of tall-necked, angularhandled jugs (nos. 68, 69, 70), and second, the fragment of a pillar-moulded bowl (no. 87). The jugs are FlavioTrajanic and the pillar-moulded bowl is also first-century type and cannot have been made later than A.D. 100. The prismatic and cylindrical green bottles have a wider extent in time, beginning about A.D. 50 and lasting up to 125, at least, if not until the middle of the century. Some of the Shakenoak fragments look quite early and might be of the first century; others fall well within the second century. The nearly complete unguent-bottle (no. 53) and the two inscribed fragments (nos. 83-84) belong firmly to the second century. Closer dating than that is not possible, nor, regrettably, is it possible to say what complete inscriptions are represented by the few letters on our two fragments. Some unguent-bottles bear names (e.g. C LVCRETI FESTIVI on a bottle – now lost again – found at Girton, Cambridge), others bear inscriptions made up of contractions (e.g. M.CN.A.ING.V.A.V. on a bottle in Colchester Museum) or mere initials (e.g. S.P.S.G.A.F. on a bottle in Cheltenham Museum). No doubt such inscriptions indicate the purveyor of the oil or other contents which were sold in the bottles.
We are indebted to Professor J.M.C. Toynbee for the discussion of the “buckle” (Fig. II.48, no. 60) which appears on p. 152, and to Mr. D.F. Mackreth for his report on the brooches (Fig. II.47, nos. 66-70,) which appears on p. 151 and for his drawings of them. Fig. II.46 60
61 62 63 64
It is rather strange that among this assemblage we can point to only one example (no. 90) of coloured ware that is probably third-century, for, although coloured was not so common then in the west as it was before the vogue for colourless became dominant, the manufacture of coloured glasses by no means ceased, especially for containers, such as jugs and oil-flasks, and we might have expected more fragments to have turned up on a site which, as the colourless shows, was in full occupation.
65
149
Decorated “buckle” of thin bronze sheet, with the remains of an iron pin embedded in the lead backing. See below, p.155. From an unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. Nail cleaner. From fill of room B.VIII Period B.2. Spoon bowl of silvered bronze. Site as no. 60. Seal box with pale brown enamel inlay. Cf. Richborough IV, pl. XXXIV, nos. 75 and 76. From within the Period B.3b fill of corridor B.3a, eastern end. Tweezers. Sealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. Belt buckle with iron rivets. From the topsoil above room B.II, with a mid-eighth-century penny (coin no. 350, p. 105) and sherds of Saxon pottery. Buckles of this type, with the loop and plate in a single piece, are illustrated in B. Faussett, Inventorium Sepulchrale, 1856, pl. IX, nos. 7, 8, 12 and 13. An example from Dumpton Park, Broadstairs, Kent, was associated with a hoard of primary sceattas, c. A.D. 700 (Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries, 2nd ser., XXIII, pp. 272-282). Also, the Barfreston Down grave 27 example (Faussett, op. cit., pl.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
150
Excavations at Shakenoak
151
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
152
Excavations at Shakenoak
153
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker X, no. 3) shows the rounded loop of the Shakenoak specimen. A date at the end of the seventh century seems possible.
104 105
Uncertain. From south of Building B, later third century. Binding for leather or wood. From corridor B.XI, western end, Period B.3 deposit.
Fig. II.47
Fig. II.50
66
106-110 Rings. Found together south of Building B; later third century. 111-114 Rings. All from unsealed deposits south of Building B; later third century. 115-116 Uncertain. These objects, together with seven other closely similar examples not illustrated, were found in the latest deposits (Period B.5) in room B.XXIII and the areas immediately to the west and south. No. 115 and two others of identical size were found with iron objects nos. 140-143 (Fig. II.52). Four are silvered on the inside of the concave surfaces only, making it unlikely that they are decorative bosses from furniture. There is no apparent means of attaching them to a surface and no traces of adhesive cement (contrast the hemispherical boss illustrated in Part I, Fig. I.31, no. 38). 117 Uncertain. From south of Building B. Later third century. 118 Finger ring, design on bezel too corroded for identification. Site as no. 117. 119 Finger ring of silvered bronze with traces of ambercoloured enamel in the recessed bezel. Drainage gully west of Building B, Period B.3a. 120 Waste portion of bronze from casting. This is the “stalk” of bronze which has been removed from a casting, representing the filling of the hole through which the molten metal was poured into the mould. South of Building B. Fourth century. 121 Nail cleaner. Drainage gully west of Building B, Period B.3a. 122-123 Unidentified. On the Period B.3a floor of room B.XII with a coin of Hadrian (no. 183) and coarse pots nos. 256271. 124 Uncertain. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.31, no. 53. Site as no. 123.
67 68 69 70 71 72
Brooch. Grey deposit in room B.X, deposit 8 in Section K-K Fig. II.9. For a discussion of this and the succeeding five brooches, see p. 117. Brooch. From an unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. Brooch. Site as no. 67. Brooch. Site as no. 67. Brooch. From the Period B.3 deposit sealed below the Period B.4 rubble fill of corridor B.XI, west end. Brooch. Site as no. 67. Brooch with bright blue enamel inlay. Cf Richborough III, p. 78 and pl. X, no. 16: Richborough V. p. 88 and pl. XXM, no. 66. Site as no. 67.
Fig. II.48 73-75 Bracelets. Undated deposits south of Building B; later third century. 76 Bracelet? South of Building B, late second- or early thirdcentury deposit. 77 Bracelet. Site as no. 73. 78 Spearhead. From fill of room B.X, Period B.2b. Fig. II.49 79-82 Unguent spoons? No. 79 from an unsealed later thirdcentury deposit south of Building B. Nos. 80, 81 and 82 from the fill of room B.VIII, Period B.2. 83-86 Pins. Nos. 83-85 from fill of room B.X, Period B.2b. No. 86 from an undated deposit, corridor B.XI. 87-88 Pins with squared heads showing signs of having been embedded in wood or bone up to about in. depth. Both from topsoil. Many identical pins have been found in Saxon deposits on Site F and will be discussed in a later report. 89 Uncertain. From south of Building B, later third-century deposit. 90 Ear scoop? Site as no. 89. 91 Chisel or scraper made by hammering out the end of a small bronze rod of rectangular cross-section. Site as no. 89. 92 Nail with hemispherical head. Corridor B.XI, eastern end. Third century. 93 Nail with hemispherical bronze head and iron shank (cf. Part I, Fig. I.31, no. 48). Site as no. 92. 94 Nail with spherical head. Fill of room B.VIII, Period B.2a. 95-96 Nails with spherical heads. Found together south of Building B in an unsealed deposit; later third century. 97 Nail with flat, originally circular, head. Site as no. 95. 98 Nail with spherical head. Site as no. 95. 99 Decorative stud with concave head. Room B.V, undated deposit. 100 Bracelet (cf. Part 1. Fig. I.30, no. 25 for a better made example of the type). Unsealed deposit south of Building B. Later third century. 101 Fragment of bracelet of similar type to no. 100. Found with no. 103 below, site as no. 100. 102 Uncertain. Room B.IV, undated deposit. 103 Uncertain (cf. Part I. Fig. 31, no. 44). Found with no. 101 above.
The following objects are not illustrated: (i) Iron nail with spherical bronze head as in Part I. Fig. I.31, no. 48. From room B. XXHI, Period B.5, on the latest floor with coins nos. 293 and 337. Late fourth century. (ii) Two fragments of twisted and flattened wire bracelets, as in Part I, Fig. I.30, no. 26. Unsealed deposit south of Building B. (iii) Four rivets made by rolling up thin bronze sheet. See Part I, Fig. I.32, no. 59 for a similar rivet in situ. From undated deposits. (iv) Thirty-three fragments of thin bronze sheet, all from third or fourth century deposits (cf. Part I, p. 52). (v) Fragment of brooch spring (discussed below, p. 156). On Period B.3 floor of room B.XII.
154
Excavations at Shakenoak THE DECORATED BRONZE “BUCKLE”* (Fig. II.48, no. 60) by J.M.C. TOYNBEE
Turned the other way up, so that the feline head is not inverted, the design gives the impression of a fantastic crouching animal, whose fore-legs and fore-paws are fashioned from the “stems” and bird-claws, while the birdbodies and serpent-necks and heads form the haunches and hind-legs and hind-paws.
This decorated bronze object, 4 cm. high and 2.8 cm. wide at its greatest extent, came to light in a deposit of material dating from the second half of the third century. Apart from a slight chip on the (spectator’s) right-hand side, the upper surface of the piece is perfectly preserved and has now a fine dark-green patina. On the back are the remains of an iron fastener soldered on to the bronze. The weight of the object and its oval shape make it unlikely that it was a brooch. It might have been a phalera attached to a leather jerkin or cuirass or, perhaps more probably, one half of mounted on a narrow leather belt.
When the piece is turned on its side, the axial bar appears to form a ground-line, along which creeps stealthily, on either side, a monster, whose neck is the “stem”, whose fore-legs are the diagonal ridge and bird-claw, whose back is the bird-body, and whose enormous tail (taking the place of hind-legs and hind-Paws) are the serpent-head and neck and parted “tendrils”. The two beasts share the feline head. The decoration of the bronze does, in fact, display several characteristically Romano-Celtic traits – notably the horror vacui, the stylisation and deliberate denaturalisation of natural animal and human forms, and the conceit of making a pattern “readable” from whatever angle it is looked at. To take a few examples from elsewhere – severely conventionalised human faces appear on two bronze repoussé mounts from the Brigantian stronghold at Stanwick in Yorkshire.1 “Mixed” creatures, in this case serpents with long-billed bird-heads, are found on the upper edge of the false triangular upturned peak of the bronze “sports-helmet” found in the River Wensum at Worthing in Norfolk.2 At the centre of the running acanthus-scroll border of the now lost Bacchic mosaic pavement from Stonesfield in Oxfordshire is a grotesque human head, which looked at in one way is young and beardless, with arms and hands sprouting from the cheeks, while viewed upside down it is elderly, moustached and bearded, with arms and hands springing from the brow.3
The great interest of the piece, whatever its use may have been, lies in the relief decoration on its face. This consists of a symmetrical, “fold-over” pattern, the two balancing halves being parted by a vertical bar that forms the axial line of the design, starts at the top, and covers about threequarters of the total length of the field. About halfway down it is a small round knob; and at the bottom it terminates in the inverted head of an animal, probably a feline, whose triangular mask, pointed nose, and round, staring eyes are clearly rendered. The principal feature on either side of the bar is a composite creature, with the feathered body, leg, and raised, crooked claw of a bird, while the neck and head are those of a serpent with round eyes and long, slit-like mouth. The tail-end of each creature is flush with the edge of the piece and its neck is turned back, so that the head faces outwards. Each birdserpent’s leg merges into a thick stem-like element; and these two “stems” appear to sprout from either side of the inverted feline head. A diagonal ridge links each claw with the base of the axial bar. Rising above each bird-back and passing behind each serpent-neck and head is a species of tendril that splits into two at the top, a more or less straight portion reaching to the start of the bar, while the other portion curls in a spiral to occupy the space between the axial bar and the back of the serpent-head. It was obviously the artist’s purpose to fill the field at his disposal as completely as he could, leaving visible as little as possible of the background.
One may guess that the bronze was the work of a native artist. Taken in conjunction with the very stylised bronze bull’s head found earlier on the site,4 it would seem to indicate a taste for objets d’art worked in the RomanoCeltic tradition on the part of the owners of the villa. REFERENCES 1. 2.
Viewed as a whole, the pattern can be seen to form a grotesque and very stylised human face. The upper portion of the axial bar and the curly spirals flanking it represent a “tattooed” brow; the spaces between the serpent-heads and bird-backs are the hollows of the eyes; the axial bar from the knob downwards forms the nose, with the ends of the crooked claws as nostrils; and the spaces between the crooked claws and the inverted feline head take on the likeness of a hideous gaping mouth, below which the feline head projects chin-wise. The general effect is, indeed, rather that of an unprepossessing Roman theatre-mask.
*
3. 4.
See also Part V, p.482
155
C. Fox. Pattern and Purpose, 1958. p. 73, pl. 43B. J.M.C. Toynbee, Art in Roman Britain, 1963, pp. 167-8, no. 102, pl. 109. V.C.H. Oxfordshire, i. 1939, p. 315, pl. 24A. Antiquity. xxxvi, 1962, pp. 219-20, fig. 1; Part 1, pp. 52 - 53, Fig. I.27. 1.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker THE BROOCHES by D.F. MACKRETH
69
[Note: The numbering of the brooches is that shown in Fig. II.47.] 66
67
68
Trumpet brooch. The lower part of the bow is missing. The four-coil spring is held in place between two plates pierced to hold a bar which passes through the coils. On the head is a cast loop and pedestal, the skeuomorph of the free wire loop and binding of typologically earlier specimens. The pedestal is divided into two zones by cross grooves; above the upper are traces of zig-zag ornament. The trumpet head is really the oval sectioned upper bow splaying out to a flat plate rather than the swelled shape of more normal specimens. The centre of the bow is marked by a version of the “acanthus” decoration typical of the type and has a group of three cross-mouldings at top and bottom. The lower part of the bow is flatter in section and has a medial crest. Attention may be drawn to the large size, the form of the head and the atypical method of securing the spring. These, with the fossilised loop and collar, show that the brooch does not belong to the normal trumpet family in which, if these forms of loop and pedestal, are present, the pin is hinged. In theory, on typological grounds, this brooch ought to be well on in the date-range of trumpet brooches. The starting date for these is no longer clear as a fully developed enamelled example has been found in a context of c. A.D. 75 at Baginton, Warwickshire (to be published in the Transactions of the Birmingham Archaeological Society). Colchester Derivative. Complete except for spring and pin. The spring was attached to the brooch by the Polden Hill method (cf. Part I, p. 53, Fig. I.27, no. 7). The wings each have a vertical moulding at the end and one in the middle recessed into the surface. The pierced lug for the chord of the spring is carried down the front of the bow almost to the foot and is beaded. The junction of the wings with the bow is masked on each side by a step which is curved when viewed from the side. The foot is finished with a three-part cross-moulding where the central element is larger than the others. Like most Colchester Derivatives, this brooch is difficult to parallel save in isolated features. However, it is generally related to brooch no. 70. This can he seen in the Polden Hill spring arrangement, the treatment of the lug for the chord, the mouldings on either side of the head, and the foot knob. The Polden Hill arrangement is present at Colchester before A.D. 60 (Camulodunum, p. 311, pl. XCI, 43) but the absence of foot knobs on the brooches from the Sheepen site may mean that this is a later feature, although it may merely be a difference between one workshop and another. The date range is more probably c. A.D. 60-100. Hod Hill. Hinged pin and return of catch-plate missing. Faint traces of tinning or silvering are present. There is a wide cross-flute just below the curled over head. The rest of the bow is in two main parts. The upper one is basically triangular in section and tapers towards the bottom which is cut square. The lower part has a rounded front and tapers to the usual foot knob topped by a small cross moulding. Like most Hod Hills, exact parallels are hard to find and are not always significant as far as date goes. No preRoman example has been proved although they are
70
introduced in numbers at the Conquest, and very few seem to survive beyond about A.D. 60. Aucissa. Uninscribed and distorted, with the hinged pin missing the profile of the bow should be a deep D with a very short recurve for the foot and catch-plate. The head is basically flat with cross-mouldings. In this case three flutes; the centre one is wider than the outer ones and marked by a nick at each end. In the flute nearest the bow proper is a bead row. The main curve of the bow has a moulding down each side and the centre swells up with a bead row recessed in it. Where the re-curve starts are two cross-mouldings and a flute, and the chamfered lower part is stopped by a foot knob with a cross-moulding. Aucissae, like Hod Hills, come in immediately at the Conquest, if not before, but seem to stop at an earlier date. The presence of a few at Wroxeter (Wroxeter I, p. 25, fig. 9, no. 5; Wroxeter, 1923-27, p. 199, pl. 47. H. 22; and at least two from recent excavations, unpublished) shows that the type lasted until at least c. A.D. 60, as Wroxeter seems not to have been founded before A.D. 55-60 (Frere, Britannia, 1967, p. 84). Colchester Derivative: Dolphin. Complete except for the lower part of the pin. There is a Polden Hill spring arrangement with a rear hook instead of a pierced plate (cf. Part I. p. 53, Fig. I.27, no. 7). The wings are short and well rounded and have at their ends a single ridge. The junctions of the wings with the bow are masked by single mouldings curved in side view. The rear hook is carried over the head as a median ridge and is recessed into the bow to a point one third of the way down, where it is flanked on each side by an oblique lentoid moulding with a central groove. Below, the bow is flatter and tapers with a slight re-curve to a foot knob which has a cross moulding above it. There is a circular piercing almost hidden in the return of the catch-plate. This specimen belongs to a well-defined group of Colchester Derivatives. In this case, there are more variants especially in decoration (e.g. Wroxeter 1923-27, p. 205, pl. 47. H. 103; T. Birm. A. S., 81, 1963-64, p. 101 fig. 1), but the essential shape, the Polden Hill spring arrangement, the humped head over the line of the wings, and the mouldings masking the junction of the wings with the bow remain unchanged. The writer reserves the term “Dolphin” for this group of brooches alone (Collingwood and Richmond: The Archaeology of Roman Britain, 1969, p. 295, Group H, and fig. 102, no. 2). For the present brooch, almost exact parallels exist at Cirencester and Pennocrucium (Corinium Museum, C. 223 and C. 227; T. Birm. A. S., 174, p. 9, fig. 3.4). The distribution is mainly in the western Midlands from Gloucestershire to Cheshire and from Shropshire to Leicestershire. The date range appears to be from about A.D. 75 into the second century.
Not illustrated. No. (v) above (p. 154). Fragment of spring, six coils surviving. If this is from a brooch, then it is one side of the usual two-part spring of a Colchester Derivative. There seems to be wear along one section of all the coils which could have been caused by rubbing on the wing, due to opening and closing the brooch. A general date of somewhere in the second half of the first century may be suggested.
156
Excavations at Shakenoak
157
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker I.36, nos. 65 and 66. From rubble fill of east end of corridor B.XI. Third century. 102 Cutting tool of unknown purpose. From unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. 103 Knife. From fill of room B.X, Period B.2b. 104 Knife. Fill of room B.VIII, Period B.2a. 105 Small knife, possibly part of the group of objects nos. 120-135 discussed below. From the same deposit as nos. 120-135. 106 Staple. Site as no. 101. 107 Spearhead. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.34, no. 32. From unsealed deposit south of Building B; late third century. 108 Plate with two nails or rivets. From fill of room B.VIII; Period B.2a. 109 Nail with large head, shaft broken off short. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 85, but this is of coarser manufacture. From rubble fill of corridor B.XI. Third century. 110 Plate with rivet, probably for attachment to leather. Unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. 111 Part of a handle or loop, with rivet for attachment to leather or wood. Site as last. 112 Uncertain. 113 As no. 112. 114 Hooked spike for driving into masonry or wood. Site as no. 110. Cf. no. 134. 115 Ring. Site as no. 110. 116 As no. 115. 117 Small cleat. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 67. Site as no. 110. 118 Cleat, probably from boot sole. One of nine identical examples, two from the fill of room B.X and the rest from unsealed deposits south of Building B. 119 Uncertain. Both ends are sharpened as if for driving into wood. Rubble fill of corridor B.XI, eastern end. Third century. Objects nos. 120-135 were found together in an unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. No 105 may also be part of this group, though found 5 ft away. Many of the pieces appear to belong to a set of small tools for working wood, leather or bone. No. 133 may not belong with the other objects. 120 Chisel. 121 Uncertain. 122 Chisel. 123, 124 Uncertain. 125 Chisel. 126 Chisel with curved blade. 127 Chisel or engraving tool? This object very closely resembles the cutting tool of a modern lathe. 128 Iron strip with trivet. 129 Knife. 130 Uncertain. The longitudinal slit is a feature of corrosion. 131 Knife. 132 Uncertain (despite a superficial resemblance, this is not a cleat as no. 118). 133 Hook for driving into masonry or wood. Cf. no. 114. 134 Knife? 135 Chisel, or possibly a stylus with the point broken off (cf. Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 78).
SILVER OBJECTS Fig. II.50 3 4 5
Unidentified. From south of Building B. Later third century. Unidentified. From fill of room B.VIII, Period B.2b. Decorative boss mounted on iron. Corridor B.XI, Period B.2b or B.3a deposit.
LEAD Site B produced slightly less than 9 lb. of lead, mostly as fused lumps, with a few clippings from sheets 0.031 in – 0.125 in thick. IRON OBJECTS (Figs. II.51, II.52) Site B produced 7,828 iron objects, of which 7,308 were nails differing only slightly from that illustrated in Part 1, Fig. I.36, no. 86. A further 129 pieces are discussed below and the remaining 391 were fragments too corroded for identification. Several hundred small pieces of slag were found, mostly in the latest deposits in the western half of Site B, but the distribution was fairly uniform and could not be related to any particular site of iron-working. The authors thank Mr. A.W.G. Lowther, F.S.A., for pointing out that the iron object illustrated in Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 40, is a linch-pin. (For similar examples from Stane Street see Sussex Arch. Coll. (1942), LXXXII, p. 113, 114, and Surrey Arch. Coll. (1950), LI, pp. 47-151 and fig. 3. Also Newstead, p. 294 and pl. LXX, nos. 1, 3 and 6; Mumrills, fig. 124, no. 5; and for an example from Wroxeter, Arch., 1940, LXXXVIII, p. 224, fig. 16, no. 2). Fig. II.51 93
94 95 96 97 98
99 100
101
Key. For an illustration of the mode of operation, see Guide to the Antiquities of Roman Britain (British Museum), fig. 41. From room B.XII, below Period B.4 floor. Second or early third century. Wedge. Site as no. 93. Uncertain. Site as no. 93. Band for binding wood? Cf. Part I, Fig. I.35, nos. 35 and 36. From latest deposit south of Building B. Probably fourth century. Uncertain. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 87, for a similar object. From second-century deposit south of Building B. Spike, heavily corroded to within 1 in. of the head, with marks of the wood in which it was embedded visible in the corrosion with the grain running crosswise. From fill of room B.X, Period B.2b. Small chisel. From unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. Knife. In addition to the normal handle there was a second wooden shaft set at right angles to the blade and held by an iron collar and rivet. From fill of room B.X, Period B.2b. Spike for driving into masonry or wood. Cf. Part I, Fig.
Fig. II.52 136
137
158
Hobnail. Seventy-two examples were found on Site B, of which 58 came from south of Building B. They occurred in deposits of all dates from mid-second to late fourth century. Needle. From an unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century.
Excavations at Shakenoak 138
Knife with bone handle and bronze collar. From room B.XII, on Period B.3 floor. 139 Iron key with lead handle. Unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. 140-143 Group of objects found with bronze objects no. 115 (Fig. II.50) and two identical pieces. Room B.XMII, Period B.5 deposit.
In addition, to these the following iron objects were found: (i) Ox goad, exactly as that illustrated in Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 47. From fill of room X, Period B.2b. (ii) Two nails with large heads, closely similar to Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 85. From Building B, undated deposits. (iii) Nail or spike, 3.25 in long, as Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 65. From latest floor of room B. XII, Period B.4. (iv) Nail, 10 in long, 0.5 in x 0.5 in square cross-section at head. Site as preceding object. (v) Iron loop, as Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 59. From an undated deposit south of Building B.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Fig. II.53
BONE OBJECTS (Fig. II.53)
18, 19 Pins. Corridor B.XI, eastern end, in latest deposits. Third century. 20 Pin. Corridor B.XI, eastern end, on earliest floor. Period B.2 – B.3. 21-25 Pins. Fill of room B.VIII. Period B.2a. 26-30 Pins. Unsealed deposits south of Building B, later third century. 31 Pin. Corridor B.XI, sealed below room B.XX hypocaust. Period B.3a. 32 Pin. Room B.XII, latest deposit. Period B.4 – B.5. 33 Pin? Unsealed deposit south of Building B; later third century. 34 Fragmentary spindle-whorl decorated with incised horizontal lines. Site as no. 33
Site B produced 57 complete or fragmentary bone pins and part of a bone spindle-whorl. The bone pins from Sites A and B can be divided into three main classes: (a) Pins with conical heads of the same width as the shaft, and incised line decoration (Part I, Fig. I.37 nos. 7-9; this report, Fig. II.53, nos. 20-25). These have close parallels in the bronze pins (Part I, Fig. I.30, no. 35, and this report, Fig. 49, nos. 83 and 84). (b) Pins with spherical, oblate or flattened circular heads. These are probably variations of a single type (Part I, Fig. I.37, nos. 16, 17 and 11 show the progressive flattening of the head. See also this report, Fig. II.53, nos. 26, 31 and 32, and possibly 28 and 29). (c) Pins with “turned” heads of complex form (Part I, Fig. I.37, nos. 13 and 14, and this report, Fig. II.53, no. 27). These exactly parallel the bronze form (Part I, Fig. II.30, no. 32).
THE ANIMAL BONES Of the 14,939 animal bones recovered from Site B, about 85% came from the areas south of the building. These were almost all small, heavily weathered fragments, few of which were identifiable. This contrasts with the situation on Site A (Part I, p. 71f.), where approximately 90% of the bones came from deposits outside Building A, but were better preserved from weathering by the thick accumulations of later rubbish. Clearly, the areas south of Building B were frequently walked on whereas those west of Building A were not (Part I, p. 14).
All other forms of head are far less common at Shakenoak, each being represented by a single example. The dating of these three types on Site A was difficult since so few came from sealed deposits. Type (a) pins came from second-, third- and fourth-century deposits (Part I, p. 69). On Site B, the sealed fill of room B.VIII produced 25 fragmentary pins and in all seven cases where the head had survived it was of type (a) (Fig. II.53, nos. 21-25). The only other example to come from Site B (Fig. II.53, no. 20) was found in the earliest deposit at the eastern end of corridor B.XI.
The percentages closely resemble those derived from the Site A material (Part I, p. 72). Only 802 bones (5.3%) were assigned to species. Of the remainder, at least 1,000 were of mammals smaller than a cat and several hundred were of birds, including 11 leg-bones of domestic cocks with the spurs attached.
All ten of the type (b) pins from Site B had spherical or nearly spherical heads, and all came from unsealed deposits containing late third-century material. This agrees with the single dated specimen from Site A (Part I, p. 69, no. 16).
MOLLUSCA Site B produced 3,701 shells of the common oyster (Ostrea edulis L.), 284 mussels (Mutilis edulis L.) and 43 whelks (Buccinum undatum L.). The mussels were therefore 10 times, and the whelks 20 times, as common on Site B as on Site A in relation to the oysters (Part I, p. 73). Nearly all the whelks and mussels came from Period B.2 or B.3a deposits. Two explanations are possible: either whelks and mussels were eaten more frequently at this time than in the later third and fourth centuries, or at Shakenoak the inhabitants of Site A in the third and fourth centuries were poorer than those on Site B in the second century and were unable to afford whelks and mussels, although consuming just as many oysters.
The only type (c) pin from Site B (Fig. II.53, no. 27) came from a deposit which was unsealed but which contained second- and early third-century material. The examples from Site A (Part I, Fig. I.37, nos. 13 and 14) were both from second- or third- century deposits. It therefore appears that up to the middle of the second century, type (a) pins predominated, being largely replaced by types (b) and (c) in the third and fourth centuries. An unsealed deposit south of Building B produced a boar’s tusk drilled for suspension, exactly as that illustrated in Part I, Fig. I.37, no. 2.
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Part III Site F
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KEY TO ANGLO-SAXON SITES SHOWN IN FIGS. III.1 AND III.2 1 Asthall; 2 Minster Lovell; 3 Chadlington; 4 Spelsbury; 5 North Leigh; 6 Long Hanborough; 7 Eynsham, New Wintles Farm; 8 Cassington, Purwell Farm; 9 Yarnton; 10 Yarnton; 11 Cassington, Smith’s Pit II; 12 Cassington, Tolley’s Pit; 13 Cassington, A.40; 14 Oxford, Summertown; 15 Kidlington; 16 Bunkers Hill Quarry; 17 Kirtlington; 18 Islip; 19 Oddington 164
Excavations at Shakenoak mercenaries. The latest deposits on Site B (Period B.6) yielded a few Anglo-Saxon objects dating from the late seventh and mid-eighth centuries, and Site A was used by the Saxons as a burial ground (discussed in Part I, p. 74 and p. 176 below).
1. Site F (National Grid Reference SP 374138, O.S. 6 in map SP 31 SE) The environment of the Roman villa at Shakenoak Farm, near Wilcote, Oxfordshire was discussed briefly in Excavations from Part I, and is considered in more detail in this report (geology, p. 261; ecology, p. 270). Excavations at Shakenoak have been in uninterrupted progress since 1960 and are still continuing.
Site D contained a timber structure dated to the second half of the fourth century, and Site H was a Bronze Age feature. Excavation of other areas is completed or in progress. Forthcoming reports will discuss the remaining lengths of the enclosure ditch; Site C, which contains a Roman building and other Roman features as well as Saxon burials; Site E, an artificial mound some 100 ft in diameter; Site G (below, p. 174); and the areas south and east of Site B, which contain various Roman features.
This Part discusses the excavation in 1967-70 of Site F, which included a 500 ft length of a late Romano-British enclosure ditch north of Site B and south of Site H (Fig. III.3), which contained deposits dating from the late fourth century to the middle of the eighth century A.D.
Site F is defined as the length of the Romano-British enclosure ditch west of the field boundary together with adjacent areas as indicated on the plan (Fig. III.5). A 500 ft length of this ditch has been excavated, and aerial photography has indicated that the ditch probably continues for approximately 200 ft west of the excavated length though the precise course is not yet known with certainty. The course of the ditch to the east of the field boundary is also not yet known and this length, which is designated Site J and lies within New Yatt Farm, will be discussed in a later report together with the westernmost part of Site F.
The earliest structure so far discovered at Shakenoak was a pre-Flavian circular hut on Site B (Period B.1). The first stone building was also on Site B (Period B.2a), it was a small dwelling-house constructed in A.D. 70-90. Early in the second century an agricultural building was added on Site A (Period A.1) and both buildings expanded and underwent extensive alterations up to the middle of the third century. At this time, Building B ceased to be a dwelling-house and was soon afterwards largely demolished, and Building A was converted into a small house (Period A.3a). Site B was not occupied after about A.D. 300, except for a small structure which existed there from the late fourth century to c. A.D. 420-430 (Period B.5). Building A was finally reduced to a single room by c.A.D. 420-430, and associated deposits produced evidence suggesting the presence of Germanic
For convenience, measurements along the ditch in a westward direction are taken from the former parish and present farm and field boundary. Thus F.382ft refers to a point 382 ft west of the former Wilcote parish boundary measured along the centre of the ditch.
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the middle of the fifth century and contained both wheelmade and hand-made pottery, and belt fittings of the type associated with Germanic mercenary troops of the late fourth or early fifth century.
2. General Description PERIOD F.1 A ditch of V-shaped section was dug around Sites B and G enclosing some three to four acres, probably in the second half of the fourth century. This ditch rapidly collapsed to a shallow U-shaped profile through weathering.
PERIOD F.4 The main post-Roman deposits contained many objects indicative of animal husbandry, iron-working and smelting, and weaving. These dated from the sixth and seventh centuries.
PERIOD F.2 In the early fifth century a small cooking hearth was inserted in the side of the ditch. Associated deposits produced late Romano-British pottery.
PERIOD F.5 The latest deposits in the ditch produced a silver penny of mid-eighth-century date. This was the latest datable object from Site F.
PERIOD F.3 The earliest post-Roman deposits in the ditch were dated to
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Excavations at Shakenoak such features lie outside the excavated areas. This is unusual, although there is no reason why the villa could not have been enclosed by an equally formidable hedge. It is also remarkable that the villa had in the late fourth century sufficient resources to carry out work on such a large scale. The construction of the ditch suggests not only that there may have been a change in the method of farming at this time, such as a change to cattle ranching, but also that the Shakenoak site may by this time have been part of a much larger economic unit with correspondingly greater resources.
3. Detailed Description Although areas of more than 7,000 sq ft adjacent to the enclosure ditch were excavated down to the undisturbed subsoil, no finds or features were discovered. Modern ploughing had destroyed all features of archaeological interest except those within the ditch. PERIOD F.1 The ditch as originally constructed probably possessed a V-shaped profile, and varied in depth from 4 ft 6 in to 5 ft 6 in and in width from 8 ft to 10 ft (Figs. III.6 and III.7, sections D-D and E-E). Erosion produced a wider, shallower ditch of U-shaped profile. The date of construction could not be fixed positively because of the absence of finds from the lowest levels. However, the excavators have noted that a modern ditch cut across Site C in 1961, had collapsed within five years from a steepsided, rectangular profile to a shallow U-shaped profile similar to that presented by the surface of the Period F.1 deposit. Period F.1 need therefore have occupied only five to 25 years, depending on the rainfall and the number and severity of frosts. The low humus content of the Period F.1 fill and the absence of finds also suggest a brief span for this period. It is therefore probable that the construction of the ditch preceded the Period F.2 deposits by only a few years. The absence of artefacts is not unexpected since after c. A.D. 300 there was probably no major Roman dwelling site north of the stream, and so there was little chance of occupation debris finding its way into the ditch.
PERIOD F.2 Along the surface of the sterile, stony Period F.1 deposits between F.130 ft and F.180 ft there was a thin layer of pebbles and black earth (Fig. III.7, section G-G, and Fig. III.10). This deposit contained some 40 unworn sherds of Romano-British pottery from a small number of vessels, which could in many cases be reconstructed. The deposit was uncontaminated by later material and is dated to the end of the fourth or the beginning of the fifth century (for discussion, see below, p. 192). A small hearth had been cut into the south side of the ditch at F.168 ft (Fig.III.10). It was roughly lined with stones, some of which had dressed faces while others were irregularly shaped blocks. The floor was the natural stony subsoil. Floor and sides showed signs of burning, some of the stones being fire-reddened to a depth of 2 in - 4 in. In some cases the fire-reddening was also on the sides facing away from the fire, indicating that the stones had been reused. The slight construction and lack of any associated deposits except those described below would seem to exclude any industrial purpose and indicate that it was a cooking hearth.
The ditch could never have served to drain off surface water since it was nearly horizontal over the 500 ft length excavated, and the natural drainage into the subsoil is in any case so good in this area that during the excavation no water collected in the ditch even after heavy rain. It is probable that the spoil from the construction was heaped into a bank on the south side of the ditch, but modern ploughing has completely destroyed all traces of this feature. Excavation revealed no post-holes or other features within 25 ft of either side of the ditch.
A thin layer of ash extended from the floor of the hearth for some 3 ft across the ditch, and was continuous with the lower part of the Period F.2 deposit. The hearth was filled with sterile brown silt which sealed in the Period F.2 deposits at this point, showing that it was of the same period as these deposits.
The function of the ditch would appear to have been to enclose an area of between three and four acres, presumably for cattle or for other purely agricultural purposes. The shape of the enclosure, the width and depth of the ditch and its situation in a valley bottom show that it was not defensive, despite the insecurity of the times.
It appears likely that there was an occupation site somewhere near this hearth in Period F.2, but excavations failed to reveal any structure in the vicinity. Such an inconveniently placed and unroofed hearth indicates very low living standards, and it is possible that any dwelling was of such slight construction that no traces have survived modern ploughing. The very hard subsoil may have discouraged diggers of post-holes from penetrating beyond the topsoil and in consequence all traces of construction and occupation may have vanished. There is no evidence that the Period B.5 structure, which may have been contemporary, was a dwelling (Part II, pp. 100 and 149).
Large areas were excavated to the undisturbed subsoil between the ditch and building B, and it is certain that the area of the villa complex to the north of the stream was not enclosed by a ditch or a wall during the whole of the second and third and most of the fourth centuries, unless
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KEY TO SECTIONS A-A - D-D (Fig. III. 6) Section C-C 1 Grey-black earth (Period F.4). 2 Mass of stones (causeway, Period F.3). 3 Fine, sterile, brown silt. 4 Loose-packed stones and subsoil (Period F.1). 5 Undisturbed subsoil.
Section A-A 1 Grey earth (Period F.3/4). 2 Loose packed stones and subsoil (Period F.1). 3 Undisturbed subsoil. Section B-B 1 Sterile red-brown earth. 2 Grey earth (Period F.3/4). 3 Loose-packed stones and subsoil (Period F.1). 4 Undisturbed subsoil.
Section D-D 1 Sterile, dark red-brown earth. 2 Grey-black earth (Period F.3/4). 3 Loose-packed stones and subsoil (Period F.1). 4 Undisturbed subsoil. 168
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KEY TO SECTIONS E-E - G-G (Fig. III.7) 4 5
Section E-E 1 Grey earth (Period F.3/4). 2 Ash and charcoal. 3 Brown silt and some stones. 4 Loose-packed stones and subsoil (Period F.1). 5 Undisturbed subsoil.
Loose-packed stones and subsoil (Period F.1). Undisturbed subsoil.
Section G-G 1 Grey earth (Period F.3/4). 2 Brown silt and small stones. 3 Very fine brown silt. 4 Fine red-brown silt. 5 Dark grey earth and small stones. 6 Black earth (Period F.2). 7 Loose-packed stones and subsoil (Period F.1). 8 Undisturbed subsoil.
Section F-F 1 Sterile red-brown earth. 2 Grey earth (Period F.3/4). 3 Ash and charcoal.
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KEY TO SECTIONS H-H - K-K (Fig. III.8) Section J-J 1 Red-brown earth. 2 Grey earth (Period F. 3/4). 3 Black earth, ash, charcoal, slag and cinders. 4 Loose-packed stones and subsoil. 5 Undisturbed subsoil.
Section H-H 1 Grey earth with some stones (Period F.3/4). 2 Fine brown silt. 3 Loose-packed stones and subsoil (Period F.1). 4 Undisturbed subsoil. Section I-I 1 Grey earth (Period F.3/4). 2 Fine brown silt. 3 Loose-packed stones and subsoil. 4 Undisturbed subsoil.
Section K-K 1 Red-brown earth. 2 Grey earth (Period F.3/4). 3 Fine brown silt. 4 Loose-packed stones and subsoil. 5 Undisturbed subsoil. 170
Excavations at Shakenoak The occurrence of objects of iron, including knives, of bone objects including pin-beaters and combs, of fragments of loom-weights, and of bronze pins closely match one another and differ completely from the previous group. Hand-made grass-tempered pottery of seventhcentury types also showed a generally similar distribution. All these are assigned to Period F.4. Grass-tempered pottery was never found in the same deposits as the pierced lug and calcite-gritted types.
PERIODS F.3 AND F.4 The fill of soft, almost stone-free black earth which extended from the Period F.1 or F.2 deposits up to the Period F.5 levels and the modern topsoil along most of the length of the ditch was, in general, almost homogeneous. No distinct stratification could be detected. At a very few points there was a detectable transition in the texture of the earth about half-way down the mass, and occasionally this coincided with a thin scatter of stones or charcoal forming an ill-defined layer (e.g. Figs. III.7 and III.8, sections F-F and H-H). However, when the occurrence of finds along the ditch was plotted (Fig. III.9), certain features became apparent. From the figure it is clear that the occurrence of the hand-made vessels with pierced lugs exactly matches that of the wheel-made, rilled, calcite -gritted vessels. Sherds of both types are concentrated between F.0 ft and F.120 ft and, except for a few strays, neither type is found outside this area. Other notable finds from the same length of ditch include the small-long brooch (Fig. III.32, no. 174, and p. 211) and the late Roman military belt-fittings (Fig. III.30, nos. 136 and 137). All these sherds and other objects came from the lower half of the black fill, and are assigned to Period F.3, since, although they were not from a sealed deposit, it is evident that they form a homogeneous group.
It is concluded that there were two different deposits in the ditch, and this is confirmed by the observation that the Period F.3 material always occurred in the lower half of the black deposit between F.0 ft and F.140 ft, whereas in this area the Period F.4 material invariably came from the upper half. The transition between the Period F.3 and F.4 deposits was, however, indefinite, and there was no point where there was a clearly defined boundary between the two. Fig. III.9 shows that the occurrence of animal bones does not exactly match either the Period F.3 or the Period F.4 deposits, although it corresponds fairly well with a combination of both. Since no distinct boundary could be detected between the Period F.3 and Period F.4 deposits it was impossible to assign most of the bones to a particular period, and consequently they are treated as a single group (p. 251).
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker sherds were found in a relatively unworn state scattered between F.30ft and F.290ft. It was probably a vessel that was found on the site by the Saxons, having been sunk below ground level for storage purposes, thereby surviving the destruction of the buildings.
PERIOD F.3 The pottery from the Period F.3 levels described above is of great interest, and can be divided into three categories: (i) Wheel-made, calcite-gritted jars with rilled decoration; (ii) A very distinctive hand-made type with pierced and cupped lugs; (iii) Worn, stray sherds of various Romano-British types.
Near the eastern end of the excavated length of the ditch, between about F.35ft and F.75ft, the deposit of black earth was partly replaced by a mass of stones, many dressed and some burned (III.Fig. 6, section C-C). These formed a causeway, designed to assist men and animals in crossing the ditch. It had no well-defined limits to east or west, but the main deposit of stone was between F.45ft and F.60ft, rapidly declining to a thin scatter of stones extending for a further 30 ft on either side of the causeway.
The significance and dating of these types is discussed below (p. 192). Since the Period F.3 deposits are dated by the small-long brooch (Fig. III.32; p. 211) to the middle of the fifth century or a little earlier, it would appear that these pottery types represent a combination of the last wheel-made vessels in the Romano-British tradition with the earliest post-Roman hand-made form. The occurrence of two of the bronze belt-fittings associated with Germanic mercenaries of the late Roman period implies a continuity with the final phase of the occupation of Building A, which produced three similar belt-fittings1 (Part I, p. 61) and which ended in c. A.D. 420-430. (See below, pp. 208-210). Nevertheless, Period F.3 is certainly significantly later in date than the latest Site A occupation, since the latter produced no hand-made pottery while the period F.3 deposits contained none of the Romano-British colourcoated ware which was such a feature of Period A.3b.
The mass of stones contained 132 fragments of painted wall-plaster of five type all of which were known from Building A, room A.II.3b. Two of these types were no previously known from any Shakenoak deposit except that in A.II.3b, and the relative frequency of occurrence of the five types in the causeway corresponded closely with in the A.II.3b deposit. It is certain that some at least of the causeway material was taken from this room in Building A. Although a number of walls in Building A were robbed (Part I, Fig. I.4), it is probable that the robbing was modern and certain that it postdated the burial of the skeletons within the building (Part I, p. 14). It is therefore likely that the stones used in the causeway came from the fallen superstructure or from standing walls rather than from excavated robber-trenches. It will also be noted that most of Building B was deliberately levelled in Roman times (Part II, p. 94) and so was a less likely source of surface stone than Building A, although much nearer to the causeway.
There is no doubt that the hand-made and wheel-made wares were in use simultaneously, since about 20 sherds of the former and 15 sherds of the latter were found intimately mixed at F.60 ft with the small-long brooch at the centre of the mass. The absence of the hand-made grass-tempered wares which constitute the only types in Period F.4 indicate that Period F.3 had certainly ended by A.D. 550, and probably by A.D. 500. A date earlier than A.D. 440 for the beginning of Period F.3 is improbable in view of the absence of wheel-made pottery except for the single calcite-gritted type. It is noteworthy that this type, which is well known in late fourth-century deposits at Shakenoak and elsewhere, has also been noted in a very late Roman or sub-Roman context in London (below, p. 260).
The most interesting aspect of this feature and of the scatter of stones to either side of it was the inclusion of a number of carved fragments, many of which had been heavily burned, presumably owing to their re-use in hearths. These are illustrated in Figs. III.12 – III.16 and are discussed in detail below (p. 194). These stones are without parallels from Sites A, B, C, D or H. If, as appears probable, they come from a cemetery or shrine, it is reasonable to suppose that it is situated nearby, and it is interesting to note that Site H produced a fragment of bronze which may have come from a statue (Part II, Fig. II.15, no. 125). It is hoped that further excavation may throw light on this question.
There was no indication of any non-agricultural activity in Period F.3. PERIOD F.4
The causeway included in its make-up a number of sherds of the hand-made pierced lug vessels and of wheel-made combed calcite-gritted pots, but no pottery of Period F.4 types. The two sherds of pot no. 422 came from its surface. The causeway was therefore a Period F.3 feature, though probably continuing in use in Period F.4. The small, long brooch (below, p. 210; Fig. III.32, no. 174) was found at F.60ft in the period F.3 black earth deposit which at this point ran between the stones of the causeway.
The Period F.4 deposits produced the largest number of artefacts. The pottery included a few worn Romano-British sherds, but the great majority was of characteristically seventh- and perhaps eighth-century types. These are discussed in detail below (p. 194). Most of the RomanoBritish sherds were worn strays, and in general vessels were represented by single fragments. An exception was the large storage vessel (Fig. III.23, no 398) of which 36 1
A further piece from Site C will be described in Part IV.
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concentration produced fewer finds generally, and significantly fewer loom-weight fragments, but it contained very large quantities of iron ore and slag (p. 241). In the region of F.400ft the mass of ore, slag and ash was up to 10 in thick (Fig. III.8, section J-J) and at F. 420ft this deposit produced a pair of smith’s tongs (Fig. III.42, no. 192). Ten iron knives came from the same deposit.
A striking feature of the Period F.4 deposits was the great quantity of iron and bone objects which they contained, usually in a remarkably good state of preservation. The distribution of Period F.4 material in the ditch was not uniform, but showed two distinct maxima, one between F.70ft and F.270ft and the other between F.370ft and F.460ft (Fig. III.9). In the former, eastern, concentration there were large numbers of loom-weight fragments and some pieces of iron ore and tap slag. The western
It appears that the two separate Period F.4 deposits correspond with two types of activity but there is no way 173
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker of telling if a chronological difference is involved. Most probably the deposits represent the rubbish from two hut complexes, in the easternmost of which weaving was the major activity, while iron smelting and working predominated to the west.
1
The Site F deposits indicate prolonged occupation in the immediate vicinity of the ditch. The occupation cannot have been within the ditch itself, for the fill was loose packed with no signs of floors, and contained many large and fragile, but unbroken, objects such as complete animal skulls which would certainly have been broken had they been trodden on. Extensive excavations to the south of the ditch on Site F failed to reveal any signs whatever of huts or of post-Roman features of any kind, although this area was immediately to the south of the densest Period F.4 deposits and very near the Period F.3 causeway. Site B produced a small group of Saxon objects from an area of some 200 sq. ft (Part II, Fig. II.5), consisting of a bronze buckle of late seventh-century date (ibid., Fig. III.46, no. 65), a silver penny dated to A.D. 735-745 (ibid., p. 105, coin no. 350; Fig. III.17) and a few small sherds of handmade pot discussed below (p. 195, nos. 423 and 424; Fig. III.28). These all indicate an occupation closer in date to Period F.5 than Periods F.4 or F.3. Two bronze pins (Part II, Fig. II.48, nos. 87, 88) and a fragment of glass (below, p. 202, no. 168) came from the topsoil immediately to the south of Building B. Since all Site B and all the areas of Site F indicated on the plan (Fig. III.5) were excavated to the undisturbed subsoil, it follows that either there were no dwellings in those areas or that any dwellings had no sunken floors or post-holes associated with them. While modern ploughing has disturbed the earth to a depth of about 1 ft, there has been no significant erosion of the hillside at this point, for there has been little deposition of eroded material in the valley bottom.
The terminal date for the Period F.4 deposits is, on the basis of the finds, some time in the late seventh or early eighth centuries. By the end of Period F.4 the ditch had almost silted up, but at the western end of the excavated length, notably between F.250ft and F.480ft, there was a layer of almost sterile red-brown earth up to 6 in thick immediately above the black F.4 deposit and below the modern topsoil (Fig. III.8, sections J-J and K-K). This contained a few scraps of animal bone and the silver penny (coin no. 364; Fig. III.11) dated to c. A.D. 725-750. This deposit must date from the middle of the eighth century and so is contemporary with Period B.6 (Part II, p. 100), confirming that Shakenoak was occupied up to this date. No object later in date than this has been found anywhere at Shakenoak, with the doubtful exception of a single sherd of pottery (no. 423), and it is evident that the site was abandoned in the middle years of the eighth century or soon after.
For which the authors are indebted to Dr. M. J. Aitken, of the Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, University of Oxford. PERIOD F.5
The ditch probably survived as a barely perceptible depression in the ground until the eighteenth or nineteenth century, as is shown by the slight thickening of the modern topsoil over the centre of the ditch at some points (Fig. III.7, section E-E), while elsewhere the modern topsoil was separated from the latest Anglo-Saxon levels by a thin layer of earth containing eighteenth- and nineteenthcentury sherds (Fig. III.6, sections B-B and D-D; Fig. III.7, section F-F). We thank Mr. D. A. Hinton, of the Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum, for identifying nine sherds of pottery from these levels as “indeterminate coarse wares, probably of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, with no sherds positively datable earlier than the seventeenth century”.
An occupation to the north of the ditch is unlikely. Proton magnetometer and metal detector surveys1 of an area of 40,000 sq ft to the north of Site F revealed only 10 very minor magnetic anomalies, all of which were excavated. Except for a small Bronze Age pit (Site H, Part II, p. 102) all were natural. Aerial photography and examination of the field surface have failed to yield any evidence of occupation in this area.
THE CHARACTER OF THE ANGLO-SAXON OCCUPATION It is possible to infer something of the economic basis of the Anglo-Saxon occupation in the sixth to eighth centuries from the Site F finds.
Site A did not produce any Saxon artefacts. Excavations on Site C have yielded a third Saxon coin of the mid-eighth century, which may possibly be associated with the burials on that site, but otherwise it has produced only one object which could be Saxon.
Clearly agriculture was the most important activity, and although there is no evidence that crops were grown, animal husbandry was obviously very important. It is hoped that further examination of the animal bones will yield information of the types of stock, but mere comparison of the species represented (table, p. 251) shows that sheep predominated, with ox and pig playing a smaller part in the economy. This is in marked contrast to the figures from the Roman period when ox accounted for almost half the bones, and pig and sheep were only about half as common. This may suggest a decline in arable and an increase in open grazing of sheep, though other interpretations are possible (p. 251). The presence of cattle
It is possible that the Anglo-Saxon occupation was south of Site B, immediately north of the stream, in an area which will be excavated in 1972. Site G, which lies some 100 ft south of F.400ft. (Fig. III.3), has yielded much iron ore and tap slag from the surface and may prove to be an occupation site associated with the more westerly F.4 deposits.
174
Excavations at Shakenoak It is obvious that at least by the middle of the eighth century Shakenoak was sufficiently involved in trade with other communities for coins to be in common use (Part II, coin no. 350, p. 195; below, coin no. 364, Fig. III.11; Part IV). This is in itself of considerable interest. It has been supposed that the use of the sceatta coinage on a large scale was generally confined to urban trading communities and coastal areas. That such a small community, far inland and not near any centre of population, has produced three coins of this period suggests that the use of coin was considerable even as far north as southern Mercia, and that trade was more important in the life of a community of the size of Shakenoak than might have been supposed.
bells (pp. 221, 238) suggests that at least some of the animals were not enclosed, which may have considerable ecological significance (p. 272). The many dogs could have been employed in guarding the free-ranging flocks and herds. The rather large number of horses, all small animals by modern standards, cannot have been used as draught animals since suitable collars were not available. They must have been used for riding and as pack animals (heavy goods such as iron ore must have been transported by pack animals; see also p. 251). If this were so, it would indicate that communications with the outside world were of considerable importance, for an entirely self-sufficient community would have little use for horses.
Great changes must have occurred in the appearance of the countryside when Anglo-Saxon subsistence farming replaced the villa economy, but it is uncertain what form these changes took. Some developments are, however, more probable than others on ecological grounds, and these are discussed below (p. 270). The most probable changes in the environment from Roman to Saxon times would seem to be:
In view of the large numbers of sheep, it is not surprising that implements for the carding, spinning and weaving of wool are common on the site, and they indicate that the production of cloth, perhaps at least partly for export, was an important part of the activities of the community. The bone instruments used in these processes were made on the site (p. 241), but such a minor activity can hardly be regarded as an industry and there is no reason to suppose that there was an export trade in these items.
(i) (ii) (iii)
Iron smelting was carried out with ore which was available fairly close at hand (p. 264) but, as it is hoped that future excavations will reveal the site upon which this activity took place, it will not be discussed further here. The iron produced would certainly have been used on the site, and the smith’s tongs are conformation of this (p. 224, no. 192). Whether iron-working was on such a scale that the products were exported cannot yet be determined. Charcoal would have been very readily available, especially as scrub would probably have encroached on the former villa fields (p. 272).
A reduction in the area of land under cultivation. The appearance of free-ranging flocks and herds, with the ecological consequences discussed below. An increase in flooding in the valley bottom owing to neglect of the drainage (note the appearance of frogs in Saxon times, p. 252, indicative of standing or very slow flowing water). CONCLUSIONS
The most important question emerging from the excavations at Shakenoak is that of continuity from Roman to Anglo-Saxon times, from the late first to the eighth centuries. This is so contrary to previously held views on this period and to the results obtained in other villa excavations that it would require much evidence in its favour before it could be accepted.
The evidence for pottery manufacture is as yet very uncertain. On the one hand, the antler pot stamp (Fig. III.60, no. 76) can hardly have been intended for export. Also, the Period F.4 deposits produced many fragments of baked, coarsely grass-tempered clay varying from 12 in to 1 in in thickness, with a smooth convex surface and a very rough concave inner face. These cannot have come from hearths since hearths would have produced pieces with flat or concave smooth surfaces. One of the authors, however, has observed pots being fired in south Asia in kilns consisting of thin, grass-tempered clay domes, inside which stacks of sun-dried pots are interspersed with fuel. The rates of combustion and oxygen concentration are controlled by small holes in the dome, and when the process is complete the dome is broken open, producing fragments identical in appearance with those from Shakenoak. On the other hand, no stamped pots have been found at Shakenoak, and the comparative rarity of AngloSaxon pot on the site generally might indicate that pottery was neither manufactured nor used on the site on any large scale.
However, occupation up to c. A.D. 420-430 can be taken as proven on both Site A and Site B. The nature of the Period F.2 deposits makes it most likely that they are very nearly contemporary with those of Periods A.3b and B.5 (Fig.4). The finding of similar bronze belt-fittings in the Periods A.3b and F.3 deposits indicates that there was probably continuity of occupation between these periods. The dating of the Period F.3 deposits to the middle of the fifth century and the survival of the Roman pottery tradition both make a break in the occupation in the middle of the fifth century improbable. Such discontinuity of occupation is to be sought, if anywhere, between Periods F.3 and F.4, or between Periods F.4 and F.5/B.6. The gap between Periods F.3 and F.4 could be as long as a century, for there is little direct evidence of occupation in the sixth century. However, in view of the difficulty of dating the domestic pottery and tools of this period with accuracy it is hard to see what evidence could be forthcoming that would absolutely prove continuity of occupation on such a site. In 175
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker occupation, and common sense suggests that the two are somehow linked.
any case it is perhaps easier to conceive of a continuous occupation than of the only alternative, a periodic reoccupation of such a small and unimportant site. Were such a site once abandoned, its few poor dwellings and slight structures would vanish and their precise location be forgotten so swiftly that reoccupation on the exact spot would be most improbable. The site is not a particularly attractive one, and many other locations in the Wilcote valley would offer the same advantages as Shakenoak. When the scarcity of early Anglo-Saxon sites in the area is considered (Fig. III.1) reoccupation is seen to be very unlikely.
It is tempting to seek, however unadvisedly, even deeper roots for the Saxon occupation, and to speculate that Shakenoak was used as quarters for mercenaries because, in the third century, it had been absorbed into the great North Leigh estate and so become a bailiff-run satellite (Part II, p. 102). The owner of such an estate might wish, in the early fifth century to provide protection for his property and this would best be effected by stationing his forces on the edge rather than in the centre of his estate, a solution which might also be socially more pleasant for him. Alternatively, such settlement might have been official government policy. As is known, the more or less peaceful quartering of barbarians on the large estates of Gaul and Italy was perfectly normal throughout the fifth century, and so long as the province remained more or less stable there is no reason why such a system should not have been used in Britain. Certainly the citizens of Dorchester-on-Thames seem to have had mercenaries in their employment, and if, as is probable, the owner of North Leigh was as powerful, and as attractive a paymaster, as any small and attenuated urban community, then he too might have employed mercenaries.
It is noteworthy that there was no sterile level between the Period F.3 and F.4 to silt up during deposits in the ditch, such as might have been expected had it been left a long abandonment. The apparent gap between Periods F.4 and F.5/B.6 is not long, but it might be argued that Periods F.5 and B.6 are represented only by a small group of oddly assorted (though accurately datable) objects. But again, the probability of such notable objects as bronze buckle (Part II, Fig. II.46, no. 65) and the three silver pennies having been lost so close to ether and purely by chance on a deserted Saxon site would seem to be exceedingly small. In view of the length and intensity of the Saxon occupation up to the end of Period F.4, the occurrence of the Periods F.5 and B.6 objects cannot be chance, but must surely indicate a continuing Saxon interest in the site.
The degree of Romanisation of the Germanic mercenaries at Dorchester and Shakenoak is not easily determined. Since one of the Dorchester graves was that of a woman it would appear that there was possibly a family or tribal group living there. At Shakenoak there is no evidence for a similar community, and the inhabitants were fully Romanised, for example in their use of coinage, except for their military equipment. There is no evidence for a culturally Germanic element at Shakenoak before A.D. 430.
The significance of two Anglo-Saxon charters which very probably refer to Shakenoak is discussed below (p. 255) with various items of place-name evidence which indicate the survival of a Celtic stream name into the late Saxon period. This is most unusual in this area and must indicate continuity of a kind. The inhumations found on Site A (Part I, p. 74) and further burials on Site C (Part IV) are at present undated but certainly belong to the post-Roman period and show distinct signs of being a military cemetery. It is tempting to associate them with the end of the occupation and it would not be surprising if the occupation of the site had come to a sudden end in the eighth century, lying as it did on the borders of Mercia and Wessex. This point will be discussed in Part IV.
It is therefore possible to envisage by the middle years of the fifth century a racially mixed but culturally sub-Roman population at Shakenoak. Such a population would clearly have a far better chance of survival when the period of uncontrolled settlement began than would a purely Celtic one. A second “wave” (if such a term can be used) of settlement certainly took place at Shakenoak in the middle of the fifth century, as is shown by the appearance of very distinctive hand-made pottery which had not been seen there before. However, there was still some continuity with the past, for purely “Saxon” pottery was used side by side with the last “Romano-British” type. Whether or not a third “wave” must be postulated to introduce the use of Period F.4 grass-tempered pottery is doubtful.
If this remarkable continuity of occupation is to be accepted, it is necessary to enquire whether the earlier history of the site hints at any reasons for it. Here the latest phase of occupation of Building A at once comes to mind, with its evidence of occupation by Germanic mercenaries (Part I, p. 61) confirmed by the Period F.3 deposits and finds from Site C. If, by the early fifth century, Shakenoak was effectively the home of a small imported mercenary force, then it is perhaps possible to see here the seeds of a more lasting settlement than the normal villa establishment of the period, inhabited by slaves and labourers of Celtic origin. This must remain pure speculation, but it should not be forgotten that Shakenoak is very unusual in two respects, in its mercenary occupation and in its Saxon
If this interpretation of the evolution of Shakenoak is correct, there seems little reason to doubt that other sites might show a similar sequence of events if they were fully excavated. Such gradual mixing of sub-Roman and Germanic elements may be far more common than is generally supposed. It is only a combination of chance and extensive excavation that has made it possible to suggest it at Shakenoak. It must be remembered that the material 176
Excavations at Shakenoak remains of three centuries of post-Roman Shakenoak are very few indeed compared with those of a similar period of Roman occupation. For example, the number of sherds of Romano-British pottery from the site now stands at well over 120,000, while only 200 sherds of Saxon pottery have been found. If it were not for the fact that the Saxons threw their rubbish into a conveniently placed enclosure ditch, the number of sherds of Saxon pottery from all Shakenoak would be three. Shakenoak had the further good fortune of being entirely abandoned in the eighth century, instead of being buried under a modern town or village.
4. The Finds COINS All except one of the coins from Site F were of Roman date and are clearly the result either of accidental inclusion or of scavenging among the Roman buildings. They were all found in the Period F.3 or F.4 fill. The chronological distribution of the Roman coins suggests that scavenging was going on on both Sites A and B, although the number of coins is not sufficient to be very significant. It is interesting that none of the coins had been pierced as might have been expected, considering the use of Roman coins as ornaments in the Anglo-Saxon period. Although it is now accepted that coins ceased to circulate after the first decades of the fifth century, it is also worth noting the complete absence from all levels of the minims which were until comparatively recently ascribed to the Dark Ages, and the absence of any coins from the Period F.1 or F.2 levels.
All these hypotheses must remain of their very nature unproven, but the archaeological facts upon which they are based and which have been reported so far in three publications are, the authors hope, a sure foundation upon which others may build their own interpretations.
The Anglo-Saxon penny came from F.303ft and was in the Period F.5 fill in an area which was otherwise almost sterile. It cannot therefore be used to date any of the major deposits, but does provide a terminal date for the ditch fill generally. Together with the Anglo-Saxon coin found on Site B (Part II, p. 105, no. 350) and another from Site C (to be described in Part IV) it is the latest datable object from Shakenoak. SUMMARY Faustina II Gallienus Claudius II Radiate imitations House of Constantine 330-341 341-346 House of Valentinian 364-378 House of Theodosius 388-402 Fourth-century copy Anglo-Saxon Sites A and B Total
1 2 1 3 1 1 2 1 1 1 14 350 364
351 Faustina II. Sestertius, reverse uncertain. 352-353 Gallienus. Antoniniani, RIC 157 (obv. K); 179. 354 Claudius II. Ant., RIC 18 (obv. A). 355-357 Radiate imitations. Tetricus I, rev. Laetitia (1); Claudius II, rev. altar (1); + 1 uncertain. 358 Constantine II. RIC vii (Trier) 520-S. 359 “Populus Romanus”. LRBC i 1067-B. 360-361 House of Valentinian. Securitas Reipublicae type (2). 362 Areadius. Cf. RIC (Lyons) 44(d). 363 Uncertain fourth-century copy. 364 Base silver penny or sceat of BMC type 15(a).
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Fig. III.11 (x 2) Obverse: Reverse:
Diademed bust to right holding cross. Figure standing facing, head right, holding two long crosses; cross-hatching on shirt. Wt. 11 grains, slightly worn. Some 200-300 pebbles, all roughly spherical and about 3 in - 4 in in diameter, were found in the Period F.3/4 deposits along the whole excavated length of the ditch. They all showed signs of exposure to intense heat, many having cracked and some having split into fragments as a result. They were very probably “pot-boilers”. We are indebted to Mr. H.P. Powell, Assistant to the Curator of the Geological Collections, University Museum, Oxford, for the following note and for all the geological identifications given below:
This coin should be compared with no. 350 (Part II, p. 105) from Site B, which is of the same period, c. A.D.725-750. The place of minting is uncertain but is probably to be found in southeast England. It is unlikely to have circulated long after the middle of the eighth century when the currency system seems to have collapsed. STONE AND RELATED MATERIALS The Period F.3 and F.4 deposits generally contained remarkably little stone but, occasionally, dressed blocks of Romano-British building stone were encountered, frequently showing fire-reddening indicative of their reuse in hearths. The causeway (p. 193) was constructed in part from the debris of Building A, as well as incorporating the carved stones described below (Figs. III.12 – III.15, nos. 29-36; p. 188 below), many of them fire-reddened.
“The pot-boilers are quartzite pebbles out of the Northern Drift, which is a glacial deposit. The quartzite boulders are one of the main constituents of the drift so the Saxons are unlikely to have gone short as there are several patches of drift in the area [map, Fig. III.67]. The quartzites are derived from Triassic conglomerates in the Birmingham area.”
The ditch produced 24 whetstones. Since the whetstones followed the distribution pattern characteristic of Period F.4 artefacts (Fig. III.9) it is likely that they date from this period.
178
Excavations at Shakenoak
179
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
180
Excavations at Shakenoak
181
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30-36 Carved stones. These are discussed below (p. 188). All are probably Taynton Stone, no. 29 being a more shelly variety than the others. Found between F.0 ft and F.130ft, mostly in the make-up of the causeway.
182
Excavations at Shakenoak
37
38
Gritstone pebble, artificially hollowed out, probably to form a lamp. The bowl is encrusted with soot. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.180ft.
183
Whetstone; fine-grained, grey, micaceous sandstone. Six joining fragments from F.4 deposits, F.190ft - F.290ft.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
39 40
41
Spindle-whorl. Very fine-grained, silty, calcareous sandstone. The shallow grooves are not natural laminations. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.100ft. Uncertain. One surface and edge are highly polished, the others being smooth but unpolished. Possibly stone inlay of Romano-British origin. Fine-grained, grey, micaceous sandstone. Period F.4 deposit, F.220ft. Whetstone. The facets of this natural pebble show wear. Banded green and white, indurated siltstone,
42 43 44
184
showing “microfaults” and with some quartz veins. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.140ft. Whetstone. Fine-grained, calcareous sandstone. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.410ft. Whetstone. Fine-grained, pink, micaceous sandstone. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.110ft. Fragmentary whetstone. Coarse sandstone with yellowish and white quartz grains and speckled with a black mineral which is harder than steel. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.180ft.
Excavations at Shakenoak
45 46 47
48
Whetstone. Fine-grained sandstone. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.150ft. Whetstone. Pale grey, siliceous rock probably quartzite. Period F.3/4, F.110ft. Whetstone. Fine-grained, pale sandstone with a few flakes of mica. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.160ft.
49
185
Whetstone. Fine-grained sandstone with some mica. Period F.4 deposit, F.180 ft. Whetstone. Calcareous sandstone. Period F.4 deposit, F.190ft.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
50 51
52
Whetstone. Fine-grained, compact sandstone, or quartzite. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.170 ft. Fragment of a large, flat whetstone. Fine-grained, non-calcareous sandstone. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.430 ft.
53
186
Whetstone. Fine-grained, compact green-grey sandstone. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.300 ft. Whetstone. Fine-grained, calcareous sandstone. Period F.3/4 deposit. F.130 ft.
Excavations at Shakenoak
54, 55 Fragments of large, flat, thin whetstones. Fine-grained, non-calcareous, pinkish sandstone. Period F.3/4 deposits; no. 54, F.100ft.; no. 55, F.420ft. 56 Fragment of a massive whetstone. Feldspathic, coarse grit, probably Millstone Grit. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.180ft. 57 Whetstone, with worn facets and grooves on all faces. Brown, feldspathic coarse sandstone. Contains a few fragments of a soft, black material, possibly coal. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.440ft.
58
Whetstone, with wear on upper and lower surfaces and on one edge. Fine-grained, non-calcareous, pinkish sandstone. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.430 ft. 59-62 Flints. See below.
187
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Another five fragments (not illustrated) from very large whetstones similar to no. 56 were identified as follows:
BAKED CLAY LOOM-WEIGHTS
63
64
65 66 67
Pinkish, coarse grit, probably not Millstone Grit since it contains no feldspar, and the quartz grains are more rounded and generally red or pink. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.430ft. Coarse grit containing quartz and feldspar, probably Millstone Grit. About three quarters of the rock is of quartz grains c. 2 mm. across, but sometimes as much as 3 mm. The quartz is clear, and occasionally shows crystal faces. The feldspar consists first of irregularly-shaped, pink grains 2-3 mm. across, and secondly (one-third to two-thirds of the total) of feldspar in various stages of decomposition into powdery and clayey material. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.180ft. Coarse grit, probably Millstone Grit, as no. 60, except that the feldspar grains are seldom more than 1 mm. across. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.230ft. As no. 65. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.140ft. Dark, medium-grained sandstone. Period F.3/4 deposit, F.440ft.
Site F produced 141 fragments of baked clay loomweights, and the one complete specimen illustrated in Fig. III.21. All were similar in size and shape, and made of poorly-fired, coarse, pebbly clay with grass tempering. The close correlation of their distribution with other Period F.4 material (Fig. III.9) indicates that they probably belong in that period. THE CARVED STONES by J.M.C. TOYNBEE All the sculptures (Figs. III.12 – III.15, nos. 29-36) are worked in local limestone, probably of three different types. 29. DIMENSIONS: 28 cm. high at greatest extent 19 cm. wide “ “ 10 cm. thick “ “
FLINTS A number of worked flints from the period F.3 and F.4 deposits were submitted to Mrs. J. Crowfoot Payne, of the Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum, who kindly provided these notes:
Part of an altar worked in a now much pitted and corroded piece of stone. The left-hand side of the capital and the upper portion of the shaft survive. The back and sides are undecorated, but the front carries the head and the upper part of the body of a human figure, carved in fairly high relief, in a shallow niche or recess with rounded top. The figure seems to be female, with long hair falling down the sides of the neck and drapery passing in a thick fold over the left shoulder and apparently covering the chest. At her left side is an object that might be the upper part of a cornucopia brimming with fruit. If that is the correct interpretation, the figure could depict a goddess of fertility. Her left arm appears to be concealed behind the cornucopia (?). Of her right arm no trace is left. This altar could have stood in a domestic shrine.
Axe-head fragment: convex working edge, oval crosssection; flaked, ground working edge and sides; resharpened by flaking on one face only (Fig. III.20, no. 62). Arrowheads: 3, tanged and barbed (Fig. III.20, nos. 5961); the complete specimens show gently convex edges, and rounded barbs a little shorter than the tangs; bifacial retouch. Concave scraper: thick flake, roughly faceted striking platform, with irregular retouch and signs of use along both sides. Scraper: side-scraper on thick flake with plain striking platform. Scraper: horse-shoe shaped, rather irregular retouch. Spoke-shave: blade fragment, with steep retouch making neat hollow, worn by axe. Flakes and bladelets: 14, some signs of use.
30. DIMENSIONS: 31 cm. high 23 cm. wide 19. 5 cm. thick at its greatest extent Two adjoining fragments, one considerably larger than the other, of the rear part of a sizable animal worked in the round. The surface of the vertical cut that sundered this surviving portion from the rest of the creature is more or less even. Tail (assuming that it had one), a large slice of the rump, and hind legs are lost; but we have the beast’s right-hand hind thigh and part of its genitals and on the right side the curve of its body is complete; on the left side about a third of the rounded body has been broken off. A series of horizontal striations on the upper surface of the body would seem to indicate the creature's furry coat, but the right flank is smooth. To judge by what is left, the carving of the whole was competent - plastic and naturalistic.
LAVA (Not illustrated) – A fragment of a lava quern, roughly triangular in shape and measuring 3.5 in x 2.75 in x 0.875 in thick was submitted to Dr. F.B. Atkins, of the Department of Geology, University of Oxford, to whom we are indebted for the following note: “The stone is a basaltic, vesicular lava which could have come from Northern Ireland or the Inner Hebrides in the British Isles, or from various Continental sites.” Period F.3/4 deposit, F.430ft. 188
Excavations at Shakenoak
to have been the position of the funerary lion on a flat base re-used in bastion no. 10 on the city wall of Roman Londinium.1 Other funerary lions from Romano-British sites are the very fragmentary piece from the Roman and Anglo-Saxon cemetery excavated in the grounds of Girton College, Cambridge2 and the couple from the mausoleum west of the Cor Burn, near Corbridge.3 But none of these provides evidence as to how precisely it was mounted.
In view of the fact that all other known sculptured animals found in sepulchral contexts in Roman Britain are lions (see Note 4), this example is likely to be a lion too, although other identifications cannot be wholly excluded. The animal could, perhaps, have been mounted on a coping much larger and more substantial than the coping fragments of nos. 31, 32 and 33. Alternatively, and perhaps more probably, it stood upon a flat base and crowned a high pedestal erected in the villa's cemetery. Such is likely 189
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker 31. DIMENSIONS: 17 cm. high at greatest extent 24 cm. wide at greatest extent 15 cm. thick at greatest extent
33. DIMENSIONS: 13.5 cm. high at its greatest extent 14 cm. thick at its greatest extent 34 cm. long at its greatest extent
A fragment of rounded coping, on the upper surface of which are carved, in one piece with it, the now battered portions of the front part of the body and fore-legs and fore-paws of an animal, crouched on the coping. Its head has been broken off and lost. On the animal’s left side the curve of the coping terminates in a flat, almost vertical edge just below the left fore-paw; but on its right side the coping slants gently, with a more or less level surface, to a point 12 cm. distant from the right fore-paw, and at this point there was a piece, c. 6 cm. long, of what appears to be the flat vertical surface of the coping’s other edge. At a point 2 cm. from this edge there projects a small lump of stone that might possibly be part of the termination of the beast’s tall. On what is left of the beast’s chest and the well-preserved right fore-leg the tufts of its shaggy coat have been chiselled out: the tufts on the surviving lower portion of the neck might represent a mane. The right paw has a distinctly feline look. It is clear that the beast’s body rested directly on the coping. Between its fore-paws is what appears to be a head, now so much defaced that it is impossible to say whether it is human or that of another animal.
Three adjoining fragments of a length of rounded coping, well preserved with its flat vertical edge on one side, but broken on the other. On the left-hand fragment, as one faces the well-preserved side, is a vertical excrescence, 6 cm. high and 8 cm. across. What appears to be the original surface of the excrescence in front and on the right is curved; and when the excrescence was complete it may have been a circular ornamental feature, rather than the remains of an animal group. On the right-hand fragment, at a distance of 17 cm. from the excrescence, is the scar of another curved, vertical projection of the same type, but broken off at the point at which it rose from the crest of the coping.
The coping would seem to have crowned a wall or balustrade, most probably the precinct-wall or -balustrade that enclosed a tomb-monument or mausoleum belonging to the family that owned the villa, since the motif of an animal mastering or devouring or guarding its prey is a well-known funerary one. Either the victorious beast, whether lion, bear, boar, or bison,4 stands over its victim’s prostrate form or, less commonly, as here, it holds just the head between its fore-paws. Whether the prey is animal or human, the group is symbolic of the all-devouring power of death. Two complete lions, each balancing on a length of coping and standing over its victim, are known from Roman Britain – the famous Corbridge lion, almost certainly a tomb-monument in origin and later adapted for a fountain decoration;5 and the lion that came to light among sepulchral remains near the Roman road in the southern suburb of Chester.6
Part of the capital and the upper portion of the shaft of an altar, which, like no. 29, could have stood in the villa’s domestic shrine. On the right side of the altar the capital has been sliced off on a line that slopes down from left to right; and the whole of the left-hand side of the capital and of the surviving portion of the shaft has gone. The front of what is left of the shaft retains its original surface. Two horizontal grooves with a slightly projecting moulding between them separate the capital from the shaft, near the top of which, towards the left side of the die as it now exists, is what appears to be the letter 0 – unless it is just a small circle marking the centre of the die. An altar large and wide enough for this to be the 0 of D E 0 is perhaps unlikely in a villa context, but such a possibility cannot be wholly ruled out.
Nos. 31, 32 and 33 would appear to have come from three separate walls or balustrades, or at any rate from different sides of the surround of a mausoleum or other funerary monument, as they do not correspond in shape and size. 34. DIMENSIONS: 22.5 cm. high at its greatest extent 31 cm. wide at its greatest extent 21.5 cm. thick at its greatest extent
The surface of the right side of the surviving portion of the shaft is intact and on it are incised two curving lines. As on the front, two grooves with an intervening moulding separate shaft from capital. At the back, on the left side as one faces it, part of the original surface of the shaft remains; and here again two horizontal grooves enclosing a projecting moulding separate it from the capital.
32. DIMENSIONS: 10 cm. high at its greatest extent 13 cm. wide at its greatest extent 14 cm. thick at its greatest extent A small fragment of rounded coping, with its narrow, flat vertical edge preserved on one side, while on the other both rounded surface and edge have been broke away. On the crest of the rounded surface is an excrescence, c. 2 cm. high and, as it survives, c. 4 cm. square. It is impossible to say whether this excrescence is part of a group of the same type as that of no. 31 or the base of some vertical ornament.
35. DIMENSIONS: 8.5 cm. high at its greatest extent 13.5 cm. wide at its greatest extent 5.5 cm. thick at its greatest extent Another perplexing fragment, apparently the apex of a very small pediment or triangular canopy, almost flat behind, but in front sloping inwards with steadily decreasing thickness, so that only a quite thin slab of stone, extending downwards, can have been left at the bottom, where it has 190
Excavations at Shakenoak been broken off from the surviving pediment or canopy. Between the two forward-bending arms of this pediment or canopy, which are topped by two rounded mouldings separated by a shallow groove, there would appear to be enclosed a shallow niche with sloping sides hollowed out of the thickness of the stone. On the lost portion below the bottom of the extant fragment there could have stood in such a niche a figure carved in fairly high relief, the rest of the stone having been reduced to a thin slab in order to form the plane of the figure’s background. If that were so, the fragment could be the remnant of a small votive monument. But this is purely guesswork.
SAMIAN WARE Site F produced 31 samian sherds, and 62 small flakes found as a group, probably representing a single, heavily weathered sherd. All the fragments came from the F.3 and F.4 deposits. Most were very small and weathered, and all were clearly strays from the Roman sites. Two patterned sherds and two fragmentary stamps were found. We are indebted to Mr. B.R. Hartley, F.S.A., of the Department of Latin, University of Leeds, for the following comments: 150
36. DIMENSIONS: 9.5 cm. high at its greatest extent 15 cm. wide at its greatest extent 6 cm. thick at its greatest extent
151
A puzzling architectural fragment whose function is by no means easy to determine. One possibility is that it is the right-hand part of a small pediment, with a heavy, projecting raking-cornice, sloping down from left to right. The left-hand portion of the pediment has been broken off. On top a deep cavity has at some time been gouged out of the thickness of the cornice, which appears to have once been rather higher than it is today, since the back part of the cornice, behind the cavity, projects slightly above the front part. A broad groove separates the cornice from the triangular field of the tympanum, which is rounded at the bottom. Along the reverse of this rounded bottom runs a narrow groove, behind which the stone seems to have extended downwards in the form of a thin slab that could have carried an inscription or incised design.
152 153
The fragment could, then, perhaps be part of the crowning feature of a rather small votive or sepulchral monument, which would have had a substantial base balancing the pediment, and probably lateral supports, all worked on the original thickness of the stone. If so, it is unusual: I can recall no other instance of a tympanum rounded below. REFERENCES 1. 2.
3. 4. 5. 6.
Guildhall Museum: RCHM (England); London iii (Roman), 1928, pp. 102-3, fig. 26, pl. 11. Museum of Archaeology and of Ethnology, Cambridge: E.J. Hollingworth and M.M. O’Reilly, The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Girton College. Cambridge, 1925, pp. 35-36, pl. 9. Archaeologia Aeliana, ser. 4, xxxvi, 1958, p. 234. For Roman funerary lions, bears, boars, and bisons, see, for instance, S. Ferri, Arte romano sul Reno, 1931, figs. 122-133. J.M.C. Toynbee, Art in Britain under the Romans, 1964, p. 114, pl. 29, b. R.P. Wright and I.A. Richmond, Catalogue of the Inscribed and Sculptured Stones in the Grosvenor Museum Chester, 1955, p. 55. no. 168, pl. 40.
191
A small fragment of form 37, possibly trimmed for use as a counter. This is from the same bowl as Part I, Fig. I.14, no. 31 and confirms the attribution to Butrio. The figuretype is a Cupid (D.270). c. A.D.120-145 (Fig. Fig. III.22, no. 95). A flake from a bowl of form 37 (probably freestyle) with a serpent-on-rock (D. 960 bis). This is most likely to be one of the Sacer Group or Criciro. The slip is rough and matt, like third-century Lezoux ware, though the piece must in fact be Hadrianic or early-Antonine (Fig. III.22, no. 96). Form 33 stamped ]LIS[. This is too fragmentary for certainty, but the traces fit a stamp of Gentilis of Lezoux, where it was found in a mid- to late-Antonine group. Form 33 stamped D·R·I·P·P·I·N·I . Drippinus probably worked at Lezoux. His stamps are not common, but they have been noted on forms 31R and 80, and so a mid- or late-Antonine date seems certain.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker 2. PERIOD F.3
WHEEL-MADE COARSE POTTERY
The levels designated Period F.3 (p. 172) produced 530 sherds of wheel-made pottery, in addition to the handmade sherds described below, p. 194. Of these more than half were of a very distinctive calcite-gritted fabric, representing a large number of fitting fragments from a small number of vessels. The remaining sherds, of other Romano-British fabrics, were found to be generally small and worn, and could not be reconstructed. It can therefore be taken as certain that the calcite-gritted sherds represent the only wheel-made fabric still in use at the time when the deposit was formed, and that they are contemporary with the earliest hand-made fabrics.
The wheel-made coarse pottery from Site F (Fig. III.23) may be divided as follows: 1. PERIOD F. 2 The Period F.2 deposit, which has been described on p. 167, contained 40 sherds, all of which were wheel-made. Unlike the wheel-made sherds from the later fill of the ditch these sherds were large and unworn and many of them reconstructed to form a small number of vessels. It is quite evident that these pots were in use until the time when they were deposited and that there is no question of their being accidental strays. Of the 40 sherds no fewer than 36 were of various colour-coated vessels.
It must be emphasised that this calcite-gritted fabric is quite different from the normal calcite-gritted fabric found at Shakenoak which is coarse and friable and contains large calcite grits, and which has now been traced from its earliest hand-made form, at the end of the first century (Part II, nos. 183-184) to the late fourth century (Part I, nos. 105-107). The rims of jars of this fabric are, by the very nature of the clay used, formless. The fabric represented in this deposit is harder and more compact, with much finer grits. It is typically dark in colour and is often decorated with a combed pattern known as rilling. The forms are also distinctive, with thin bodies and rims which are typically small, neat and triangular, with a sharp profile which could not have been produced with the local coarse calcite-gritted fabric.
The pots represented were as follows: 382 383 384 385
386 387 388
Mortarium; orange-red fabric with blue core, reddish grits and white colour-coat Mortarium; form as last but with sharply squared flange; orange fabric, reddish grits and white colour-coat. Mortarium copying samian form 45; red fabric with red colour-coat. Bead-rim bowl copying samian form 37; fine red fabric with fine red colour-coat, decorated with rouletting and white paint. The painted main circles are of differing sizes. Straight-sided dish; cream fabric with reddish-brown colour-coat. Upper part of necked jar with thickened rim and cordon, cream fabric with purple-black colour-coat. Jar with out-turned rim, sharply triangulated; fine grained calcite-gritted ware, dark in colour, decorated with combed pattern (rilling). For discussion of this fabric see under Period F.4 below.
This fabric was noted in very small quantities on Site A from the A.3b levels (Part I, no. 108), and it is also well known from other sites in southern Britain, rated to the last part of the Roman period. It has now been found at Shakenoak on Site C in large quantities in levels which certainly date to the period c. A.D. 370-390, and there is also one example from the Period F.2 deposits (no. 388 above). The pots from the Period F.3 deposits cannot, however, be survivals from this earlier period, since other fabrics would have been equally likely to have survived, and some, because of their superior fabrics, would have been more likely to have survived.
Mortaria of the type represented by nos. 382-3 were common on Site A, but were always confined to the Period A.3b levels (Part I, nos. 75-76). The same applies to the bowl no. 385 (Part I, nos. 73-7) and the mortarium no. 384 (Part I, nos. 69-72). None of these types were found in the late third-century deposits on Site B, except for an atypical mortarium copying samian form 45 (Part II, no. 330). The types represented by nos. 386 and 387 were not found on Site A although the fabric in which they are made was almost entirely confined to the A.3b levels.
It would seem clear that what we have represented here are the products of a centre of Romano-British pottery production which, although it may have started as early as A.D. 370, continued in production until A.D. 450 at the very earliest, and possibly considerably later, at a time when all other wheel-made pottery had ceased not only to be produced but also to be used. That this centre is to be found to the south-east of Shakenoak rather than in the Celtic west is suggested by the presence of similar pottery in fifth-century levels in London (below, p. 260).
All the types found here which were also found on Site A could date from as late as the first two decades of the fifth century, but a large deposit from Site C, (Part IV), associated with many coins of the Valentinianic period and therefore to be dated to the period c. A.D. 370-390, has also produced many examples of all these types, as also of the pie-dish represented here by no. 386. While we can therefore be certain that this deposit dates to after c. A.D. 350, it is possible that its date is as early as c. A.D. 370, while there is no reason why it should not be as late as c. 420-430.
389-396 Jars of calcite-gritted ware, of the fabric described above. The triangulation of the rim is very evident on nos. 389, 391, 393 and 396; no. 393 has heavily overhanging rim and a cordon on the neck; nos. 389, 390, 391 and 394 are decorated with ruling. The base, no. 394, may come from another pot.
192
Excavations at Shakenoak
period and that (with one exception) vessels were not even being salvaged from the Romano-British levels. These sherds had clearly accidentally been included in the fill of the ditch, and the fact that some 15% of them came from colour-coated vessels suggests, as one might expect, that they came mainly from the latest Roman levels of the site.
3. PERIOD F.4 The Period F.4 deposits produced some 524 sherds of wheel-made pottery (i.e. about one per 1 ft length of ditch). Generally the sherds were worn and small, and with one exception it was unusual for more than one sherd to come from a single pot; for example, more than 40 red colourcoated vessels were represented, but of these 38 were known by one sherd only while two vessels were represented by two sherds each. It is therefore evident that the use of wheel-made pottery had entirely ceased by this
Only one of these sherds is here illustrated. No. 397, coming from the upper part of a necked jar, bears beneath the cordon a burnished decoration of a type not previously found at Shakenoak. Also illustrated as no. 398 is the only
193
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker wheel-made pot which would seem to have been in use during Period F.4. It is a very large storage jar of greyish brown fabric with slashed lines on the neck. It is obviously of Romano-British origin, but was found in some 36 fragments in a 260 ft length of ditch in the F.4 deposit. It is unlikely that such a jar would have survived in continuous use for so long a time, but since storage jars were often sunk into the ground it is possible that it was found intact by the Anglo-Saxons and used again by them.
FABRIC The fabrics present at Shakenoak seem to bear out some tentative theories about the early Anglo-Saxon pottery of the Upper Thames Valley in general. These theories have been based on a study of collections of associated sherds from occupation sites and cemeteries for which there is some, albeit meagre, dating evidence in the form of small finds and decorated pottery. The material shows the use of two distinct clays for pottery-making:
THE ANGLO-SAXON POTTERY
(1)
by F. BERISFORD
(2)
Site F has produced a substantial amount of early AngloSaxon pottery, which is a welcome addition to that from other occupation sites in the Upper Thames Valley. It includes the rims or bases of 24 vessels of varying forms and fabrics, which are described and illustrated on pp. 197202 and in Figs. III.24 – III.28.* The remaining sherds and fragments probably bring the total of vessels to twice that number.
A rather coarse clay, often giving a soft, soapy texture to the fabric. A finer, sandy clay, usually harder fired than (1) and presumably the same as that used in the local Romano-British pottery industry.
These clays seem to represent a regional difference within the Upper Thames Valley. The first predominates on sites to the west of Oxford; for example it accounts for c. 70% of the sherds from Smith’s Pit II and Tolley’s Pit, Cassington – and Shakenoak is no exception to this rule. The second is most common to the south and east of Oxford and comprises the majority of the pottery from Sutton Courtenay and Dorchester-on Thames. However, without determining the distribution of these two clays within the area as a whole it cannot be said whether this points to some local trade in pottery or to the availability of both clays close to the same site.
The pottery is divided stratigraphically into two periods, F.3 (pots nos. 399-401 and 403-411) and F.4 (pots nos. 402 and 412-422). That of Period F.3 was stratified in the lowest level of the ditch, from c. F.40 ft - F.100 ft, in association with Romano-British wheel-made, calcitegritted jars (nos. 389-396), two pieces of late Roman military belt equipment (p. 208 and Fig. III.30) and an Anglo-Saxon small-long brooch (p. 210 and Fig. III.32, no. 174) dating to the mid-fifth century.
Both clays are sometimes used alone, particularly the sandy one, but more usually they contain deliberate additions, giving rise to three distinct fabrics:
The Period F.4 pottery, together with bone and metal objects and animal bones, was stratified in the level immediately above. There were two main concentrations, from F.360 ft – F.500 ft, which contained metal-working tools and much slag in addition to the aforementioned material, and from c. F. 0 ft – F.240 ft. This material can only be dated later than Period F.3 and before the deposition of the mid-eighth-century penny in the level immediately above, but a study of material from other sites in the area suggests that it may belong basically to the seventh and early eighth centuries. In addition, two sherds from a largish vessel (no. 422) found above the Saxon causeway, which overlay the Period F.3 material at F.50ft, should probably also be regarded as belonging to this phase.
(1)
(2)
Some further sherds, two of which are illustrated (nos. 423 and 424), came from the topsoil on Site B, but will be dealt with here. A late seventh-century buckle and a coin of c. A.D. 735 came from the same area.
(3)
A fabric containing differing amounts of hard, angular grits, which vary in size from finely crushed particles to fragments measuring up to 3 mm. The grits probably derive from the local gravels and seem to contain a high proportion of quartz; therefore vessels in this fabric are, for convenience, referred to as “quartz-gritted” in the report. A calcite-gritted fabric, the grits again varying in amount and size. Professor E.M. Jope notes1 that limestone fragments occur naturally in pockets of clay in the Hanborough terrace and, this being a convenient source of clay for Shakenoak, some such grits may be natural inclusions. However, as calcite-gritting as a technique seems to be most prevalent within a specific period of time, it seems likely that the majority of the grits are deliberate additions. A grass- or straw-tempered fabric, usually fairly soft. The grass-tempering is often combined with “quartz-” or calcite-gritting, perhaps to produce a harder fabric.
“Quartz-gritted” fabrics occur frequently on sites of early, middle and late Anglo-Saxon date in the Upper Thames
*
We thank Miss Berisford for her drawings of the sherds, Figs. III.24 – F.III.28, nos. 399-424.
194
Excavations at Shakenoak suspended over a fire. 3 Vessels with two upstanding lugs are fairly common on sites of the early and middle AngloSaxon periods, but there are so few examples with added pouches that no attempt at a typology is possible. All but no. 402 of the Shakenoak examples are of Period F.3 but the type probably continues at least into the seventh century: furthermore, the form of both the vessel itself and the pouch varies, though the normal form may be a fairly deep, upright walled vessel, as is the case in most of the examples without pouches.
Valley, but the calcite-gritted and grass-tempered ones may provide a loose relative chronology for pottery within the early Anglo-Saxon period. The technique of calcite-gritting seems to be fairly common in the fifth and sixth centuries, but to have become much rarer by the seventh century. For instance, a calcite-gritted pottery is fairly common at Purwell Farm, Cassington (probably sixth century), but is much rarer at New Wintles Farm, Eynsham (seventh to early eighth centuries).2 At Shakenoak half the illustrated pottery and many more sherds of Period F.3 are calcite-gritted, as opposed to two of the illustrated sherds and a handful of others from the Period F.4 assemblage.
Shakenoak has also produced two fragments from a “colander” (no. 411), perhaps of a form similar to those from Sutton Courtenay, House XXVVIII 4 and Bourtonon-the-Water.5 Vessels of this form are known from a number of sites in the area, though usually the fragments recovered are too small to guess whether, like the Sutton Courtenay example, they were open at both ends. Rims where found, however, are like those of the Sutton Courtenay and Shakenoak vessels. The only markedly different one is that from New Wintles Farm, which is funnel-shaped. Their function is still unclear, but it is interesting to note that all the examples which I have come across from this region are of the same sandy, lightly grass-tempered fabric, which may or may not point to a common source of manufacture.
Grass-tempered fabrics on the other hand, although fairly common on sites by the start of the sixth century and, on the evidence from Shakenoak, probably in use even earlier, are predominant on sites of the late sixth century and after. However, the lack of middle Anglo-Saxon pottery from the region makes it difficult to decide at what date the practice of grass-tempering ends. If we regard Shakenoak as continuing into the early eighth century grass-tempered wares would seem to be in use then, but none have been found in the tenth-century levels in Oxford, so the technique presumably dies out at some point between these two dates.
One other vessel should be noted here. This is a well-made bowl (no. 403) from the Period F.3 deposit, which is of a typical Anglo-Saxon “quartz-gritted” fabric, but closely copies a Romano-British “pie-dish” in form. Taking into account the amount of Roman pottery stratified in this early deposit, originals were probably available for imitation.
It must be stressed that these are only tentative theories which the finding and excavation of further sites may completely destroy. Moreover, they are based on the ratios of different fabrics within sizeable groups of associated sherds and it is, therefore not practicable to apply them to small assemblages of sherds which include no other dating evidence.
The sole decorated sherd found was a minute fragment of “quartz-gritted” ware with traces of two shallow, horizontal grooves, but that some decorated pottery was produced on the site may be implied by the antler stamp found in the ditch (p. 241 and Fig. III.60, no. 76). The remaining forms are too diverse, or of types with too long a life, to give any further useful information about the site.
FORM Apart from the decorated vessels and a few distinctive plain forms no typology of early Anglo-Saxon pottery on this criterion is possible at the present time for the Upper Thames Valley. Shakenoak has, however, produced some forms worth commenting on. First, there are three definite and two probable examples of cooking-pots with two upstanding lugs, pierced for suspension and having a shallow pouch (nos. 399 and 402) or a thick, horizontal lug (no. 400) below each hole. Similar cooking-pots are known from Sutton Courtenay, Houses XXIII and XXIV (Fig. III.25, a and b). That from House XXIIII is very similar to no. 399 from Shakenoak. The other, with its deep pouch and lacking the upstanding lug, must belong to the same general type but, so far as I know, has no early parallels in this country. Another example, with a thick, shallow pouch similar to Shakenoak no. 402, was found in a late sixth- to early eighth-century context at New Wintles Farm, Eynsham (Fig. III.25, c).
SITE B Of the probable three vessels from Site B only one (no. 423) demands comment. This is, in both fabric and form, totally dissimilar from any other Anglo-Saxon pottery at Shakenoak or in contexts up to the early eighth century on any sites in the area. It is perhaps related to the pottery found on the Clarendon Hotel site in Oxford and there interpreted as a local version of St. Neots type pottery,6 and probably dating to the ninth century or later. This seems a rather late date for the Shakenoak example, and until further excavation has proved the presence or absence of more material dating later than the early eighth century its presence there must remain problematical.
The pouches are presumably meant, as E.T. Leeds suggested for the Sutton Courtenay examples, to protect a knotted cord or leather thong from burning while the pot is
195
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker REFERENCES 1
Med. Arch. VI-VII (1962-63), 10. I am grateful to Mrs. S.C. Hawkes and Mrs. M. Gray for allowing me to make use of unpublished material from this site. 3 Archaeologia, XCII (1947), 90. 4 Archaeologia, LXXVI (1927), 72 and fig 10. 5 Ant. J. , XII (1932). p. 289, fig. 5. 6 Oxon., XXIII (1958), 44-5. 2
196
Excavations at Shakenoak CATALOGUE (Figures in brackets after each description indicate the location of the sherds in the ditch.)
399 Most of the upper part of a vessel with two upstanding, pierced lugs and shallow Pouches, both incomplete, formed by pinching out clay from the walls; fairly upright walls and projecting rim. Fabric: soft; light calcite-gritting and grasstempering; fired dark grey with smooth, black/brown surfaces; traces of burnishing on exterior. Rim diam. 7.75 in (F.80ft - F.110ft) 400 Most of the upper part of a vessel with two upstanding, pierced lugs; the usual pouches are replaced by thick, horizontal lugs; globular body and short, upright rim. Fabric: fairly soft; fine calcite-gritting; fired dark grey with dark surfaces over thin red skin; surfaces tooled smooth. Rim
diam. 8 in (F.40ft - F.70ft) 401 Part of an upstanding, pierced lug, perhaps from a vessel similar to 400. Fabric: soft and soapy; grass-tempering and light calcite-gritting; fired purple-black with dark surfaces over thin red skin. Two other sherds of identical fabric probably belong to the same vessel (F.40ft – F.70ft) 402 Sherds from an upstanding, pierced lug, with remains of a shallow pouch, from a crudely-made, upright-walled vessel; a narrow groove is visible at the upper edge of the hole. Fabric: soft and soapy; coarse quartz and occasional calcite grits; fired black throughout; lumpy, uneven surfaces. (F.160ft)
197
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
403
404 405
Most of a bowl (base missing), probably imitating a Roman “pie-dish” form. Fabric: hard; coarse quartzgritting; fired black throughout; burnished on exterior. Rim diam. 7 in (F.40 ft – F.80 ft) Sherd from a small, crudely-made bowl with irregular rim. Fabric: soft; sandy; grass-tempering; fired purpleblack throughout; lumpy surfaces. (F.40ft – F.70ft) Sherds from sharply everted rim of a crudely-made, baggy vessel. Fabric: fairly soft; grass-tempering; fired black throughout. (F.80ft – F.110ft)
406 407
408
198
Sherd from a tall, slightly everted rim. Fabric: soft; fine calcite-gritting; fired black throughout; traces of burnishing on exterior. (F.80ft – F.110ft) Sherds from the upper part of a small jar with upright rim. Fabric. fairly hard; very fine quartz-gritting; fired dark grey with black, smooth surfaces; traces of burnishing on exterior. Rim diam. 4 in (F.80ft – F.110ft) Sherd from an upright, thickened, flat-topped rim. Fabric: fairly hard; occasional coarse quartz and calcite grits; grass-tempering; fired black with grey /brown surfaces; exterior tooled smooth; interior harsh and pitted. (F.40 ft – F.70ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
Fig. III.26 409 410
411 412
Sherd from a vessel with upright rim and sloping shoulder. Fabric: fairly hard; sandy; fired pink with black, harsh surfaces. (F.40ft – F.70ft) Sherds from a crudely-made, baggy vessel with short, everted rim. Fabric: fairly hard; coarse quartz-gritting; fired black throughout; surfaces very lumpy and harsh. (F.80ft – F.110ft) Rim sherd from a “colander” the holes are small with rough edges. Fabric. fairly soft; sandy; light grasstempering; fired red with black surfaces. (F.40ft – F.70ft) Sherds (none joining) from the lower walls and base of a
413
414
199
large vessel. Fabric: fairly soft; coarse quartz-gritting and heavy grass-tempering; fired grey with darker surfaces; exterior lightly tooled; interior rough and pitted. (F.400ft – F.420ft) Sherd from slightly everted rim of a crudely-made, upright-walled vessel. Fabric: fairly hard; quartz- and calcite-gritting; fired dark grey throughout; rough, harsh surfaces. (F.250ft) Sherds from the upper part of a globular jar with upright, thickened, flat-topped rim and high, pronounced shoulder. Fabric. soft; heavy grass-tempering; fired dark grey with buff/grey surfaces; exterior lightly tooled; interior wiped. Rim diam. 6.5 in (F 220 ft – F.240ft)
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
415
416
Most of the upper and lower parts of a squat, widemouthed vessel with short, everted rim and wide, flat base. Fabric: fairly soft; sandy; grass-tempering; fired dark grey with black/brown/orange exterior, tooled fairly smooth; interior black and sooted. Rim diam. 6 in (F.160ft) Sherds from the base and lower walls of a small, crudelymade vessel. Fabric: hard. sandy; grass-tempering; fired black, with buff/black, pitted surfaces. (F.110ft)
417 418
200
Sherds from upright, tapering rim of crudely-made vessel. Fabric: fairly hard; fine quartz-gritting; fired black throughout. (F.110 ft) Sherd from the upper part of a large bowl with slightly incurving, flat-topped rim. Fabric: fairly soft; coarse quartz-gritting; fired black with lighter surfaces. Rim diam. 8 in (F.80ft – F.100ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
419 420
421
Sherd from the rim of a bowl similar to 401. Fabric; soft; very coarse quartz-gritting; fired grey with red surfaces. (F.80ft) Sherds from a small, crudely-made vessel, with fairly upright walls and slightly everted rim. Fabric. fairly soft; coarse quartz-gritting and grass-tempering; fired dark grey throughout; surfaces lumpy and harsh, with heavy vertical tooling on exterior; interior of some sherds burnt red, probably after firing. Rim diam. 4.5 in (F.40ft) Sherd from upright, flat-topped rim of thick-walled vessel. Fabric. hard, quartz-gritting; fired black throughout; exterior tooled, especially on neck; interior
422
201
wiped. (F.10ft) Large sherd from the upper part of a large, crudely-made jar with upright, thickened rim, short neck drawn up with the fingers (several finger-prints still survive) and high shoulder. Fabric: fairly soft; coarsely gritted with occasional pebbles up to 6 mm., probably accidental inclusions; grass-tempering; fired grey/black throughout; exterior lumpy and finished with the fingers; interior wiped. Rim diam. 5.75 in (F. 50 ft from above AngloSaxon causeway, p. 172.)
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker FROM SITE B (Part II, p. 100, Period B.6) 423
424
body marvered opaque white trailing combed upwards and downwards and forming a feathered pattern. D. body c. 5.0 cm. One fragment from Site B, south of Building B, in topsoil (Part II, p. 100), the other from F. 190 ft, Period F.3 or F.4 deposit (Fig. III.29, no. 71).
Sherd from an upright, thin-walled vessel with very sharply everted rim. Fabric: fairly soft; coarse shelltempering; fired dark grey with red, pitted surfaces. (Topsoil.) Sherd from a baggy vessel with short, upright rim. Fabric: fairly hard; fine quartz-gritting; fired grey throughout; rough, harsh surfaces. (Topsoil.)
From its metal, shape, colour and state of preservation (i.e. no weathering) this fragment could be either late Roman or Anglo-Saxon, i.e. between the fourth and seventh centuries or even perhaps up to the tenth century, but its trailing narrows this dating down somewhat.
GLASS
Marvered trailing combed both ways occurs on glasses at many other periods, for example 18th-dynasty and Greekperiod cored vessels; medieval glasses, e.g. a greenish beaker from Colchester which is probably twelfth- to thirteenth-century (D.B.H. in Ant. J., XXX (1950), 70-2); and Venetian glasses of the sixteenth century and later. There is no question, however, of this fragment belonging to any of these dates.
Site F produced 65 fragments of glass, all but two of which were of Roman origin. The Roman fragments were clearly strays, for it is most unlikely that so many insignificant fragments, representing many vessels, came from Roman glasses that had fallen into Anglo-Saxon hands. All the fragments were submitted to Dr. D.B. Harden, F.S.A., to whom we are indebted for the following report:
Within the Anglo-Saxon or Teutonic period two-way combing occurs, but apparently rarely. There is a sixthcentury squat jar from Dollerupgaard, Jutland, which is dark green with white feather pattern on the body, much more closely-set than on this fragment (see H. Norling Christensen, Romerske Glaskar i Danrnark, Fra Nationalmuseets Arbejdsmark, 1953, 90, fig. 71; G. Ekholm, Romerska Glasvaror I Skandinavien, Fornvännen, 1937, 78, fig. 13). Two other examples come from Lombard graves of the late sixth or early seventh century at Castel Trosino in Italy (A. Kisa, Das Glas im Altertume, 412-414, pl. III opp. P. 420). Kisa (p. 412) suggests that the glasses may be two centuries or so earlier and treasured, like some other contents of these Lombard graves. The glasses are in any case much more elaborate than our piece and serve as a parallel for the two-way combing only.
THE GLASS by D.B. HARDEN 154 155
Fragment of side of a “square”, bluish-green bottle. Fragment of multi-ribbed handle of “square”, bluishgreen bottle. 156-157 Two fragments of greenish “square”, bottle, with advanced internal strain cracking: 156, part of side; 157, part of base with parts of two moulded concentric circles. 158 Fragment of inturned rim of bowl, green; body of vessel was bulbous. 159-161 Three fragments, two of which join, from colourless vessels; shape indeterminable. 162 Fragment of vessel, olive green; misshapen in fire. 163 Fragment of blue glass, iridescent; shape indeterminable. 164 Fragment of window-pane (or “square” bottle?) of unusual deep green colour. 165 Fragment of colourless double-glossy window glass, late Roman. 166 Small elongated barrel bead, clear green. Late Roman, probably fourth-century. From F.250ft (Fig. III.29, no. 73). 167 Short cylindrical bead, opaque dull red, with two crossing zigzag marvered trails of opaque white. Anglo-Saxon, late fifth- to sixth-century. From F.4 deposit, F.200ft (Fig. III.29, no. 72). 168 Two joining fragments of lower part of side of squat jar or jug, green: usage scratches on outside, no weathering. Convex side, curving in and thickening towards base. On
I know of no other Saxon-period glasses with two-way combing, but glasses with one-way combing of opaque white festoons or inverted festoons are very common. There are two small blue bag-beakers from Faversham, Kent, with festoons, which are probably seventh-century (D.B.H. in Dark-Age Britain, 141 and 142, note 38). There are also cone-beakers and bell beakers of the fifth or early sixth century, mostly with inverted festoons (D.B.H., ibid., 140f., pi. xvi, f and j). On the continent such festoons and inverted festoons are very frequent on Teutonic glasses of the fifth century and continue into the sixth century (see W. von Pfeffer, Zum Typologie merowingerzeltlicher Gläser mit Fadenverzierung, Festschrift des röm. -germ. Zentralmuseum in Mainz zur Feier seines hundertjahrigen Bestehens, 1952, Band III, 154 ff., fig. 3 nos. 1-12). Note, however, that von Pfeffer, despite her complete account of trailing (Fadenverzierung) on Teutonic glasses, cites no examples of two-way combing. These continental trailed glasses are more common in north France and Belgium than in the Rhineland and it is thought that they mostly, if not wholly, come from glasshouses in one or both of these
202
Excavations at Shakenoak Miss M. Bimson, of the British Museum Research Laboratory, kindly examined the fragments and reported that the white opacifier for the trails is tin oxide and not calcium antimonate. This helps somewhat in corroborating the above rather vague archaeological conclusions. W.E.S. Turner and H.P. Rooksby (‘Further historical studies based on X-ray diffraction methods of the reagents employed in making opal and opaque glasses’, Jahrbuch des röm. germ. Zentralmuseums Mainz, VIII (1961, l ff.)) state that the use of tin oxide to opacify white glass seems to have been introduced some time between the second and the fifth centuries A.D. If this is correct, and having regard to the absence of archaeological evidence for opaque white trailing of our type between the first and the fourth centuries, the existence of tin oxide in this piece is a further argument for it being fourth-century or later; and since its trailing seems more allied to examples of the fifth to the seventh centuries than of the fourth, we can use this scientific analysis to confirm such a dating and therefore to confirm early Saxon presence on the site.
areas. They are usually green glasses, though some are greenish yellow or yellowish in tone and some are blue. In early Roman times (first century A.D.) one-way looped festoons of opaque white are known, but inverted festoons are not, nor are two-way feathered patterns. For two such early pieces see Kisa, Glas, 410, fig. 201, pl. XI, from Hausweiler; and F. Fremersdorf, Römisches Buntglas in Köln (Denkmäler des röm. Köln III, 1958), 26, pl. 17, from Cologne. For comparable Roman pieces of the fourth century see D.B. Harden et al., Masterpieces of Glass, 90, no. 123 (almost certainly made in Cologne); and W. Haberey, Spätantike Gläser aus Gräbern von Mayen, Bonner Jahrbücher, 147 (1942), 284, no. 2, pl. 36. These are cited to show that good opaque white festooning occurred in early and in late Roman times, but not, apparently, in mid-Roman times when colourless vessels were dominant and, if they had coloured trails, they were in relief and not marvered. So much for the archaeological evidence, which, to sum up, indicates, but without sure proof, that this piece is more likely to be post-Roman than Roman; and if post-Roman, then probably fifth- to seventh-century, rather than later.
203
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker BRONZE OBJECTS Site F produced 62 bronze objects, of which 47 are illustrated in Figs. III.30 and III.31, a small-long brooch is illustrated in Figs. III.32 and III.33, and a bronze ring is illustrated in Fig. III.53, no. 339. The remaining 13 objects are described below but are not illustrated. All the objects came from the Period F.3 or F.4 deposits.
204
Excavations at Shakenoak 126, 127 Brooches; no. 126 from F.350ft., no. 127 from F.130ft. We are indebted to Mr. D.F. Mackreth for the report on p. 207. 128 Bronze collar enclosing a mass of iron oxide. Possibly part of a knife. F.90ft. 129 Uncertain. Possibly the pin of a very large penannular brooch. F.350ft. 130 Ring. F.220ft. 131 Bracelet. F.250ft. 132 Bracelet. Possibly Romano-British (compare Part I, Fig. I.30, no. 25). F.250ft. 133 Tweezers. F.280ft. 134 Tweezers. F.210ft. 135 Tweezers. F.260ft. 136, 137 Late Roman military belt-fittings, both from F.110ft., Period F.3 deposit. See p. 208. 138 Uncertain. F.300ft. 139 Cast bronze tag flattened at either end, the tip tongueshaped, the butt square ended and split to attach a narrow strap (width c. 7 mm., thickness 1 mm.) which was secured by a single rivet. Anglo-Saxon, seventh-century. F.200ft. We are indebted to Mrs. S.C. Hawkes, F.S.A., for the following note:
“The small size of tag and original strap suggests that they had formed part of the fastening, not of a waist-belt but of a shoe, boot or garter. And while on the Continent, more especially in the Frankish dominions, metal tags and buckles were fashionable on footgear already in the sixth century, in this country they seem not to have made their appearance so early. This is well illustrated by the results of excavations at Finglesham in Kent: here, a series of richly furnished aristocratic burials of sixthcentury date were entirely without metal shoe-fittings, whereas, in a poorer series of seventh-century graves, many skeletons of both sexes had lace-tags, with or without buckles, about their feet and shins. The lace-tags varied in quality from quite large and elaborate specimens in cast bronze to simple cones or cylinders of rolled sheet metal, often very tiny. This range of types occurs likewise in cemeteries outside Kent, though less numerously, The closest parallels to the Shakenoak specimen known to me at present were found as a pair in grave S. 18 at Horndean, Hants., on a female skeleton: there was one on either shin 6 in above the ankles (G.M. Knocker, Proc. Hampshire Field Club, XIX, 2 (1958), p. 136, fig. 11). Another pair of similar but flimsier tags was on the ankles of a female skeleton in grave 83 at Burwell, Cambs. (T. C. Lethbridge, Recent Excavations in Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries in Cambridgeshire and Suffolk: Cambs. Antiq. Soc. 460 Publs., n. s. III, 1931, p. 65, fig. 31B, no. 3. A smaller, single, example was found by the feet of a girl-child in grave 2 at Stanton Harcourt, Oxfordshire (Oxon., X (1945), p. 35, fig. 10). Like the Finglesham finds, and others less similar from Winnall (A.L. Meaney and S.C. Hawkes, Two Anglo-Saxon Cemeteries at Winnall, Winchester, Hampshire: Soc. Med. Archaeol. Monograph Ser., no. 4, 1970, pp. 10, 12 and 39, figs. 8, nos. 5/2-3 and 9, no. 10/4), all come from graves firmly datable to the seventh century.”
205
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
140 Perforated plate. F.110ft. 141-145 Decorative plates from buckets? No. 141, F.220ft; no. 142, F.220ft. no. 143, F.360ft; no. 144, F.390ft; no. 145, F.200ft. 146 Uncertain. F.250ft. 147 Uncertain. Compare no. 151. F.120ft. 148 Ring. F.380ft. 149 Uncertain. F.130ft. 150 Perforated disc. F.110ft. 151 Fitting from scabbard or knife? Compare no. 147. F.240ft. 152 Bronze strip. F.40ft. 153 Uncertain. F.80ft.
154 Uncertain. F.250ft. 155 Pin. F.400ft. 156,157 Pins. No. 156 from F.240ft; no. 157 (half the head of which is missing) from F.380ft. We are indebted to Mrs Kate Pretty for the report on p. 215. 158-161 Pins. All show signs of having had their heads imbedded in wood or 163-173 bone to a depth of 2 mm. - 5 mm. From F.160ft, F.90ft, F.120ft, F.170ft, F.180ft, F.150ft, F.390ft, F.430ft, F.130ft, F.230ft, F.130 ft, F.50ft, F.130ft, F.150ft, and F.190ft, respectively. Another two similar pins were illustrated in Part II. Fig. II.49, nos. 87 and 88. These were erroneously described as “square-headed”, but
206
Excavations at Shakenoak examination under the microscope showed that they had heads of circular cross-section encrusted with green corrosion products which had a curious fibrous appearance, similar to wood or possibly bone. Solution in ammonia or in dilute nitric acid did not give any insoluble residue, and it is presumed that no actual wood or bone fibres had survived within the corrosion. The frequent occurrence of these pins, and their similarity in shape and size, would be in accord with their use in carding combs. It is unlikely that they were dress pins.
THE ROMANO-BRITISH BROOCHES by D.F. MACKRETH The brooches discussed here are nos. 126 and 127 in Fig. III.30 and no. 338 in Fig. III.53.1 126
Nauheim Derivative. The four-coil internal chord onepiece sprung pin brooch has a flat plate-section bow which narrows to a pointed foot. Down each side of the bow is a faint line of square punch-marks. The decoration places this brooch amongst a variety found in numbers at Lowbury Hill, Berks. (The Romano-British Site on Lowbury Hill in Berkshire, D. Atkinson, 1916.) The main distribution of this type seems to be central southern England with some outliers as far away as Wroxeter (unpublished, Rowley’s House Museum, Shrewsbury, 48 and B 426). As there is no evidence yet for any occupation at Wroxeter before about A.D. 60 (Transactions of the Lichfield and South Staffordshire Archaeological and Historical Society, V, 1963-4, pp. 1516), the date may be taken as being up to about A.D. 65.
127
Colchester Derivative. Part of the spring is missing. The plain wings are curved to fit the spring which is held to the brooch by means of a projection doubly pierced behind the head of the bow. The chord of the spring passes through the upper hole while a bar inside the coils is held in the lower. This is carried over the head of the brooch and carried down the bow for a short distance and is almost certainly a skeuomorph of the hook on the Colchester type. The bow is flat behind and has in front a raised central portion, with traces of zig-zag ornament, bordered by concave surfaces. The catch-plate is plain and has a pin groove. This brooch belongs to a well-defined type in which the only main variants are piercings in the catch-plate (Verulamium, p. 207, fig. 44, no. 22). The distribution is chiefly in southern England with a bias towards the east. A brooch from Shakenoak Site A is closely related (Part I, p. 60, fig. 27, no. 3) and approximately the same date range of A.D. 55-75 may be given, although the type may have evolved a few years earlier. Nauheim Derivative. Iron, corroded, part of the pin and catch-plate are missing. For this example, little can be added to the comments on Brooch 4 from Site A (Part I, Fig. I.27, p. 60, no. 4) except that the use of iron would seem to be more characteristic of the earlier part of the date range of this type of brooch and may even in this case, be pre-Conquest.
We are indebted to Mrs. Tania Dickinson for the following note: “Amongst the material recently published from Saxon Southampton, for which a seventh- to eleventh-century date range applies, are some very similar pins to this group from Shakenoak (Proceedings of the Hampshire Field Club, XXVI (1969), p. 68, fig. 27). They exhibit the narrow tang to hold the head, now missing; several have the unusually sharp angular bend in the stem which may result from a peculiar function of the pins. Four, or possibly five, of the Shakenoak pins (Fig. III.31, nos. 159, 165, 166, 170 and possibly 163) appear to show a slight swelling or “hip” towards the base point. This characteristic of a large group of bronze and bone dress pins first appears during the seventh century, but persists throughout the later Saxon period. In view of uncertainty as to whether the “hipping” was intentional, and as to the function of the Shakenoak pins, the chronological value of this feature should not be stressed. The find associations of the pin already published in Part II (Fig. II.49, no. 87), however, suggested an early eighth-century date, which accords with other suggestions on the chronology of these pins.” 162
Needle. F.390ft.
The following objects are not illustrated: (i), (ii) Pins, similar to no. 158, but with the points missing. F.390ft and F.430ft. (iii) Coin of bronze wire, probably part of the hinge of a Romano-British brooch, very corroded. F.190ft. (iv)-(xiii) Small scraps of thin bronze sheet. F.10ft, F.40 ft, F.100ft, F.110ft, F.140ft, F.160ft, F.210ft, F.390ft, F.410ft, and F.20ft.
338
1
207
We thank Mr. Mackreth for his drawings of the brooches.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker crosses with dots in their acute angles, was made by repeated use of a single stamp, which was impressed into the clay or wax of the plate’s mould prior to casting: cast in bronze, of course, the stamped pattern appears in shallow relief. A somewhat similar border of crosses, though less crisp in execution, occurs on another fragmentary type I plate from Silchester.4 The remaining ornament on the Shakenoak fragment – lines of punched dots and engraved cross-hatched triangles – is secondary work carried out after the plate had been removed from its mould. This particular arrangement of paired triangles finds no exact parallel on other surviving plates of its class, but panels of cross-hatching – triangular, lozenge-shaped or square – feature in one form or another on most of them, and can be regarded as characteristic of this type of metalwork.
MORE LATE ROMAN MILITARY BELT-FITTINGS by SONIA CHADWICK HAWKES The final, one-room, occupation of Building A at Shakenoak, which on coin evidence continued at least until c. A.D. 430 (Part I, pp. 7, 13, 17-18), is remarkable for having yielded, among its débris, the outworn fragments of three late Roman military belt-fittings (ibid., pp. 61-64). Further excavation north across the stream which bisects the villa complex has now produced two more such fittings. At first glance it seems somewhat curious that these should have come, not from Building B, which also showed a limited late occupation, down to c. A.D. 420, though perhaps of purely industrial character (Part II, p. 80), but from the long boundary ditch on Site F, to the north of Building B and distant from Building A by some 300 ft. The association of these further fittings in the ditch together with late-or sub-Roman calcite-gritted pottery, early Saxon domestic pottery and a small-long brooch of mid-fifth-century date (pp. 172, 210), is a piece of remarkable good fortune. It suggests, moreover, that they were buried there a full generation later than those in Building A. They are of the same kinds, however.
I have recently argued, on the basis of new dating evidence, that the manufacture of the type IB buckles commenced rather earlier than previously supposed, in the third quarter of the fourth century.5 The fact that there are no well-preserved examples from undoubted fifth-century contexts goes far to suggest that the Romano-British workshops producing them did not outlast the fourth century. Naturally some specimens remained in use into the fifth century, but there are only two examples from Anglo-Saxon graves (a small percentage of a growing corpus with new finds all from Roman sites), and those are anyway so worn that they had clearly survived exceptionally long after manufacture. Even the buckle and plate from Dorchester-on-Thames,6 found with the skeleton of a Continental Saxon woman who may well have been a dependent of one of a unit of troops garrisoning the little town during the last days of Roman Britain, was far from new when it was buried quite early in the fifth century: by its condition it must have been in use for at least a generation. The type IA buckles, less numerous, more restricted in their distribution, and greatly inferior in craftsmanship, appear to have been the poor relations, derivative from those of type IB. Dating them is difficult because those from Roman sites are all old unstratified finds: the slightly higher proportion of survivors (compared with the IB variety) from AngloSaxon graves may or may not be suggestive of longer life into the fifth century.
The bronze ring (Fig. III.30, no. 36) has rightly been picked out by the excavators as once belonging to one of those late fourth- to early fifth-century rosette-shaped attachments with pendent ring, which were of regular occurrence on the broad military belt. Exact parallels for this basically lozenge-sectioned ring with, on one side only, a stepped ridge around its opening, can be seen on a number of other insular finds,1 and are common on the Continent also. One inner-edge area of our ring from Shakenoak shows heavy wear through friction against the loop of the now lost rosette which once attached it to the belt. A fragment of such a rosette-plate, minus its rivet, loop and ring, was found in Building A (Part I, Fig. I.29, no. 13). Since my discussion of the type’s function (ibid., p. 62), a major publication has appeared from the Continent, which illustrates the manner of use very comprehensively. 2 The fragment of decorated bronze (Fig. III.30, no. 137) is unmistakably the remnant of one of those long narrow plates which were made to be worn with late RomanoBritish buckles of type I, and more particularly with the generally superior, and as I now think, primary, sub-type IB (with horse-heads).3 Another such plate fragment, in very battered condition, was found in Building A (Part I, Fig. I.32, pp. 58, 63 no. 58). But this new piece, though also very decrepit, must originally have been a better piece of craftsmanship. Whatever the method of manufacture used for the other type I plates – and the techniques would repay investigation – this plate, as the ornament of its side borders shows, was definitely cast. The effect of shallow “chip-carving” – that much misused term – was not produced by stamping, punching or incising hard pre-east bronze. Instead, microscopic examination has shown that the continuous pattern, of rectangle framed diagonal
To return to the Shakenoak finds, it is impossible to be sure whether these fragmentary plates had belonged originally to buckles of type IB or IA. This is anyway immaterial since neither is in anything like pristine condition. As we have seen, that from Building A was broken and battered almost out of recognition, while that from Site F likewise shows signs of advanced old age. Only half the original plate survives. As so often happens with these fragile objects, the original fracture occurred where it had been folded (and additionally weakened by the provision of tongue-slot and shouldering) to fit around the loop. At this end the rough edges seem to have been filed smooth, but where it has broken across the middle the edges, though they show signs of wear, have been left 208
Excavations at Shakenoak sites of late Roman Britain. We are also faced with imponderables such as the use of veterans from these forces, still wearing remnants of their uniforms, by the magnates of Britain to protect their towns and country estates from barbarian marauders after A.D. 410.
irregular. There are three rivet-holes, all apparently secondary, one still with traces of an iron rivet in situ. In other words, to the period during which the plate was worn with its original buckle, we must add one or two phases of subsequent re-use before this poor remnant was finally discarded. All this adds up to a long life-history fully in accord with a date of deposition around or after A.D. 450.
If Shakenoak has no ready answer on the date at which it first received a detachment of troops, it does have something to tell us about their ethnic identity. In 1961, I was rash enough to argue that the armed forces of late Roman Britain must have been largely of Germanic origin: this term “Germanic”, over-enthusiastically seized upon by some and as heavily criticised by others, is one which I have not pressed since. It is, after all, a fact that only at Richborough,7 at Dorchester, and perhaps now at Winchester,8 have we hitherto had any really tangible archaeological proofs of Germans in the late Roman army in Britain. So, in writing about the Shakenoak situation in 1968, I was very careful indeed precisely not to use the word “Germanic”: the excavators were less cautious, however (Part II, p. 79), and rightly so, since by that time the new evidence from Site F was already to hand. On Site F, as we have seen (p. 71), our fragmentary late Roman military bronzes were found in the same deposits not only as late Roman wheel-made pottery, but also as hand-made Germanic pottery and a small-long brooch of continental Saxon origin. If we accept the argument for continuity of human occupation on the site from before c. 420-30 down to c. 450 and after, we have to find a non-violent explanation for the appearance of these overtly Germanic artifacts. Again the best explanation is one of basically “no change”. If the original military detachment at Shakenoak had been composed of Saxons, wearing standard late Roman military equipment and using standard late Roman pottery, it is not difficult to imagine how, as time went on and the Upper Thames valley began to fill up with more Saxons, recruited now as federates, these men or their descendants could have acquired Saxon wives. The smalllong brooch suggests the presence of at least one woman newly arrived from north Germany. Maybe some original German soldiers already had wives of their own nationality, as was clearly the case not too far away at Dorchester-on-Thames. At any rate, the presence of Germanic womenfolk at Shakenoak in the fifth century is the most likely explanation for the appearance there, alongside the superior wheel-made wares, of handmade kitchen crocks.
In view of the earlier finds of late Roman military beltfittings from Building A, these further discoveries of exactly similar kind might be regarded as rubbish survival from the earlier fifth-century occupation. The sites are too widely separated to admit of rubbish being conveyed from one to the other by accident, but that the people who were using the enclosure ditch as a rubbish-tip had scavenged over the ruins of Building A is of course a possibility. Against this interpretation, however, is the almost total absence from the ditch of any of those sherds of red colour-coated pottery (Part I, p. 13) or those Theodosian coins, which had featured so prominently in the last deposits in Building A. Much the most acceptable explanation is that the bronzes found in the enclosure ditch had been amongst the personal possessions of people who, having survived the fire which destroyed the last habitable room in Building A, had re-housed themselves somewhere close at hand (in a building yet to be located, p. 174), and that it was their children who ultimately discarded them as useless a full generation later. The continuity of population-history on the Shakenoak site which this implies is anyway virtually assured on other grounds; namely by the continued use there, throughout the whole first half of the fifth century, of a class of late- or subRoman calcite-gritted wheel-made pottery, quantities of which were found, newly broken, in the enclosure ditch in the same rubbish deposit as our bronzes. The three pieces of military belt-equipment discarded by the last inhabitants of Building A have already caused speculation about the character of Shakenoak’s fifthcentury occupation. The proffered suggestion that it might have been originally of a military nature (Part I, p. 64), which the excavators have accepted and developed (Part II, pp. 79, 102), now receives much support from these two additional finds from Site F. With five such objects from one rural site, it does now seem very likely that the last occupants of the Shakenoak complex were descended from members of a late Roman military unit placed there for defence. As we have seen, the military belt-fittings were made by workshops, British and Continental, which had operated mainly in the latter part of the fourth century. Exactly when they first arrived at Shakenoak, and in what condition, whether before the end of effective military control in Britain c. 406, or after, remains problematic. We are faced here with larger questions concerning the character and strategic dispositions of the units of the comitatenses and pseudocomitatenses – which made up the late Roman field army – and of the limitanei which ranked lower, and how far the distribution of our buckles and beltfittings can be taken to reflect the decanting of such troops as garrisons amongst the towns, road-stations, and rural
With Shakenoak, then, we now have three (perhaps four) sites – a shore fort, a small town (and perhaps also a larger one) and now a rural estate – where wearers of late Roman military equipment are attested as Germanic. REFERENCES 1.
2.
209
Sonia Chadwick Hawkes and G.C. Dunning, ‘Soldiers and Settlers in Britain’, Med. Arch., V (1961), figs. 1, nos. 5-7; 2, no. c; 24, nos. b, e, f. H. Bullinger, Spätantike Gürtelbeschläge: Typen, Herstellung, Trageweise und Datierung (Dis. Arch.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
3.
4.
5. 6.
7. 8.
Gandenses, XH, 1969). See also Vera I. Evison, Ant. J., XLVIII (1968), p. 239, fig. 1, for a proposed reconstruction of the belt-set from Dorchester-onThames. Hawkes and Dunning (1961), pp. 23 ff., 41 ff., figs. 1, no. 16; 13, g. 1; 15, esp. m-q. For a more up-to-date discussion, see Sonia Chadwick Hawkes, ‘A late Roman buckle from Tripontium’, Trans. Birmingham Archaeol. Soc., LXXXV (1971). Hawkes and Dunning (1961), fig. 15, q; George C Boon, ‘The latest objects from Silchester, Hants.’ Med. Arch., III (1959), p. 80, no. A.11, pl. iv, A. For similar border ornament on a larger scale, see the 4th-century Christian lead coffin from East Stoke, Notts.: J.M.C. Toynbee, Art in Britain under the Romans (1964), pp. 355-6, pl. lxxxi. Hawkes (1971). Joan R. Kirk and E.T. Leeds, ‘The Early Saxon graves from Dorchester, Oxon.’, Oxon. XVII/XVIII, (1952/3), p. 69, c. fig. 27, 16, pi. iv, B; Hawkes and Dunning (1961), fig. 1, 16. Hawkes and Dunning (1961), p. 17, fig. 5. Giles Clarke, Ant. J., L (1970), pp. 292-8, with figs. 3-6. Burials of the years of the fourth century, by their crossbow brooches, belt-fittings and knives definitely military, and by the fact of their containing these objects at all probably (though not certainly) Germanic.
of existing datings, namely by general comparisons of its attributes. E.T. Leeds made a detailed study of the small-long brooches of England.1 According to Leeds the Shakenoak brooch belongs to the cross pattée variant. In my view he underestimates a fundamental fact, namely, these brooches constitute groups, which are only in part typologically independent from the cruciform and great square-headed groups. Leeds himself points this out in the case of the trefoil variant, 2 but fails to follow up the one-sided influences of these large bow brooches on the small-long group.3 Nearly every sub-group includes a number of borderline cases that could be characterised equally well as small versions of the large brooches or as small-long brooches. As a working hypothesis I am assuming a formal continuum between the small-long brooches and the large bow brooches. Thus both small-long and cruciform brooches must be considered for purposes of dating. The stylistic context might also be taken into consideration.4 COMPARISONS WITHIN THE GROUP The Shakenoak brooch is distinguished by a number of attributes from most Angle-Saxon small-long brooches:5
DATE AND ORIGIN OF A SMALL-LONG BROOCH 1. The head-plate in the form of a Greek cross and the disc foot-plate are sharply separated from the bow and the foot. The disc is cast flat. Most other brooches show gradual transitions between these sections. 2. The bow is long, highly arched and has a marked profile. In comparison, most other small-long brooches display a shorter bow, with a shallow arch and weak profile. 3. The upper surfaces of the bow and foot of the brooch are faceted. The sides of the head- and foot-plate are bevelled. Both these features accentuate the strictly stereometric aspect of the piece. So do the notches and grooves that further subdivide the surfaces. In most small-long brooches these features, if present at all, are less commonly used than others. 4. The pin of the brooch was apparently made of bronze (as is the surviving spring). The original bronze piece seems to have been broken off and replaced by an iron pin. Pins and springs of bronze are very rarely found on small-long (or cruciform) brooches from England.
by HAYO VIERCK It is worthwhile discussing in detail the dating of this isolated brooch (Fig. III.32, no. 174, Fig. III.33* no. 3), since the stratigraphical position of the piece from the enclosure ditch, Site F at F. 60ft (Fig. III.3), has been ascertained. Being the only potentially datable metal object from the layer which follows directly upon the Roman infill (Fig. III.7, Section F-F) it provides a means of measuring the time-span separating the early Saxon from the late Roman settlement at Shakenoak. Admittedly, it is at present often difficult to give an absolute dating of brooches from the migration period where closed assemblages offer no parallels for crossdatings. Existing chronologies are based largely on classifications derived from their authors, more or less intuitive typology. This does not mean that they are necessarily wrong; but it is unadvisable to adopt them without reconsideration. Leaving apart the question of whether the type sequences are “right” or “false”, as put forward by Åberg, Leeds or Kiln – to name but three – every excavation since their time has broadened the spectrum of the known forms that could necessitate new groupings and datings. Since there is no space here for a detailed analysis of the whole brooch-group to which the small-long piece from Shakenoak belongs, the period to which it is to be assigned is best determined independently *
Among the small-long brooches found in England the closest resemblances occur in Leeds’ cross pattée formée sub-group (c). Their main feature is a curved angle between the arms of the head-plate.6 A case in point is a brooch from Barrington B, Cambs.7 It has a head-plate consisting of an almost identical Greek cross but the base is a common shovel-foot. Leeds tentatively assigns the sub-group to the mid-sixth century. One specimen comes from Krefeld-Gellep I, Kr. Krefeld, North RhineWestphalia.8 It has always been considered – and probably
We thank Dr. Vierck for providing Fig. III.33.
210
Excavations at Shakenoak
rightly so – an Anglo-Saxon import.9 The sub group also ncludes a Scandinavian piece from Korum, Isle of Fyn, Denmark.10 Two further brooches of continental origin (Fig. III.33, no. 2) – found in the Perlberg cemetery, Kr. Stade, Lower Saxony11 – provide close parallels to the piece from Shakenoak. There are close resemblances between the typologically most important features. In both cases the foot-plates are disc-shaped. The head-plate with two notches would appear to be a variant of the one with four. The brooches have also approximately the same
proportions. No chronological conclusions can be drawn from these comparisons. However, there may be a typological connection with the fifth-century Thuringian “pincer-brooches” (Zangenfibeln),12 for example the simple piece from Prague-Podbaba, ČSSR13 (Fig. III.33, no. 6). Finally, the comparisons that J. Kovačević draws between the small-long brooches and an object from the civitas Margum/Dubravica, North Serbia (mid-fifth century?), can be neither confirmed nor disproved.14
211
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
Fig. 33. 1 “Skåne” (Scania), Sweden; 2 Perlberg, Kr. Stade, Lower Saxony, Germany (repair on bow omitted); 3 Shakenoak, Oxfordshire; 4 Velp, Gelderland, Netherlands; 5 Clausentum (Bitterne, Southampton); 6 Praha-Podbaba, Č.S.S.R.; 7 Borresø, Almindingen, Island of Bornholm, Denmark. All bronze. No. 7 after Klindt-Jensen; nos. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, redrawn after Strömberg, Körner, Werner, Cotton and Gathercole, Svoboda, op. cit. (1/1).
212
Excavations at Shakenoak destruction layers in Clausentum (Bitterne, Southampton). Cotton and Gathercole have dated them between 370 and 390 and after 390.21 In its detail the spur shows points of comparison with the brooch: its sides display sequences of facets, grooves and notches. A rivet-plate is attached to each side of the spur, and, like the head-plate of the brooch, the centre piece of the spur has four curved angles with bevelled sides.
COMPARISONS WITH CRUCIFORM BROOCHES The Shakenoak brooch bears a closer resemblance to the English cruciform brooches in N. Åberg’s groups I and II than to those of groups III-V.15 The stereometric aspect and the facets, bevels and notches, all cut with vigour and precision, are similar. The decoration of the foot, including the elongated faceting, corresponds to a type that is standard in brooches of group II. Whatever changes may have to be made in Åberg’s classification, the brooches of this group (and of group I), retaining a close affinity with their continental prototypes, will doubtless remain at the beginning of the insular development.
CHRONOLOGICAL CONCLUSIONS On the basis of the evidence gained from these comparisons we may assign the Shakenoak brooch to the fifth century A.D. The chronology of this century presents well-known problems, since nobody has yet succeeded in synchronising convincingly the final phase of the Roman period with the beginning of the early medieval chronologies for the Continent and Scandinavia. There are, however, two factors pointing in all likelihood to a date somewhere in the first half of the century; on the one hand the brooch belongs to a type that was certainly worn in the fifth and sixth centuries; while on the other hand features corresponding to some of its details are found on continental and Scandinavian brooches from the fourth and the beginning of the fifth century. Moreover the affinity with late Roman bronze objects is very close. In brief, there is, stylistically and therefore most probably also chronologically speaking, no sharp break between the late Roman belt-fittings from Shakenoak22 and the earliest Anglo-Saxon find.
Among the fifth-century cruciform brooches from South Scandinavia a piece from “Skåne” (Scania), Sweden, provides a useful comparison (Fig. III.33, no. l).16 This brooch could be described as cruciform, though I would prefer to restrict this term to pieces terminated by an animal or human head. Be that as it may, it is a good example of the fluid transition between cruciform and small-long brooches. The surface is stereometrically subdivided and dominated by three rectangular level surfaces, one of which forms the head-plate while a second tops the bow and a third marks the beginning of the foot. As is the case with the Shakenoak brooch, the (approximately octagonal) foot-plate is cast flat. A further comparison is provided by a small bow brooch with a rectangular platform on the bow and with a foot ending in a rounded disc (Fig. III.33, no. 7). It comes from Borresø, Almindingen Parish, Bornholm Island, Denmark.17
ORIGIN THE STYLISTIC BACKGROUND
There is finally the question whether the brooch was made in Saxon England or brought in by a woman immigrant. The latter seems more likely, since the piece displays as yet no specifically insular traits. All the four characteristics that distinguish this from most other small-long brooches from England suggest that the object is of South Scandinavian or North German origin. Yet, even if the brooch was cast in England, it can still be numbered among the fifth-century finds relevant to the archaeological reconstruction of the migration itself. Found in the very centre of England, this unpretentious object presents further precious evidence of early settlements in the Upper Thames area.23
The comparisons drawn so far suggest that the Shakenoak piece belongs to the early small-long brooches in England and is thus to be assigned to the fifth century. This assumption is corroborated by stylistic considerations. A wide range of bronze objects, designed for different purposes, are representative of the said right-angled subdivision of surfaces.4 And all these features are characteristic of late Roman metal-work in bronze of the fourth as well as fourth- and early fifth-century Germanic imitations. For instance, the decorative sequence observed on the foot of the brooch – notches/groove(s)/facets/ groove(s)/notches – is also found on late Roman belt attachments.18 The same sequence is often found on fourthand early fifth-century “knob-on-bow brooches” (Bügelknopffibeln) discovered sporadically throughout the West- and North-Germanic regions.19 It also occurs on the arms and the foot of a group of faceted bow brooches (Stützarmfibeln), dating from the second half of the fourth and of the early fifth centuries. They are found between the Rhine and the Elbe20 (cf. Fig. III.33, no. 4). These types of brooch, with their highly arched bows and marked profile, provide characteristic examples of a decorative convention that is still largely aniconic. In contrast to the later bow brooches which are often wrought in animal style, this decoration serves to accentuate the functional nature of the objects. Among the Roman finds one piece is of particular interest: one of two similar spurs (Fig. III.33, no. 5) from
REFERENCES 1. E.T. Leeds, ‘The distribution of the Angles and Saxons archaeologically considered’, Archaeologia. 91 (1945), 1 ff. 2. Ibid., 8 f.: “Initially the type is a cheap variant of a cruciform brooch of about A.D. 500 and that is one of the reasons for its variety, since it develops pari passu with the larger models which at the outset it was intended to imitate.” 3. The reason for this derives from the fact that at least in the Anglian region the small-long brooches and the cruciform or square-headed brooches make up a single 213
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker 17. O. Klindt-Jensen, Bonholm i Folkevandringstiden (1957), 113, fig. 85, 4. 18. E.g., H. Bullinger, ‘Spätantike Gürtelbeschläge, Dissertationes Archaeologicae Gandensis, 12 (1969), Taf. 60, S.E. Chadwick Hawkes and G.C. Dunning, ‘Soldiers and Settlers in Britain’, Med. Arch., 5 (1961, 1962), 2, fig. 1, 4 (Dorchester, Oxon.). 19. E. Meyer, ‘Die Bügelknopffibel’, Arbeits- und Forschungsberichte zur sächsischen Bodendenkmalpflege, 8 (1960), 260 Abb. 4, 266 Abb. 12, 269. Abb. 16, 17, 272, Abb. 21, 281. Abb. 29, 284, Abb. 35, 286, Abb. 26, 287, Abb. 37. 340, Abb. 110. 20. J. Werner, ‘Kriegergräber aus tier ersten Hälfte des 5. Jahrhunderts zwischen Schelde und Weser’, Bonner Jahrbücher, 158 (1958), 376 ff., Abb. 4-7. 21. M.A. Cotton and P.W. Gathercole, Excavations at Clausentum, Southampton 1951-1954 (1958), 45, 46, fig. 12, 6-7. E. Keller has briefly compared them with continental pieces: E. Keller, ‘Zur Datierung des Reitersporim von Seebruck’, Bayerische Vorgeschichtsblätter, 34 (1969), 201 ff. 22. S. E. Chadwick Hawkes. ‘Late Roman military beltfittings from Shakenoak, Oxfordshire’, Part I. 00 ff., Fig. I.29, no. 15. 23. For the early finds of this region see, e.g., E.T. Leeds, ‘The early Saxon penetration of the Upper Thames area’, Ant. J., 13 (1933), 229 ff. More recent finds that are likely to have been brought over by immigrants are: the tutulus brooch from Abingdon, Berks., gr. 106 (E.T. Leeds and D.B. Harden, The Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Abingdon, Berks. (1936), pl. 16; and two small reliefbrooches with semicircular head-plate from Cassington, Oxon., Oxon., 7 (1942). pl. 5B; for the comparative material, cf. H. Viezck, ‘Zum Fernverkehrüber See im 6. Jahrhundert…’ in K. Hauck, ‘Goldbrakteaten aus Sievern’, Münstersche Mittelalterschriften, 1 (1970), 366.
formal and functional unit on the clothing. 4. Including also other objects than dress adjuncts. 5. Cf. the illustrations in Leeds, op. cit. 6. Leeds, op. cit., 22 ff. 7. Ibid., 25, fig. 14b. 8. R. Pirling, ‘Das römisch-fränkische Gräberfeld von Krefeld-Gellep’, Germanische Denkmäler der Volkerwanderungszeit, B2 (1966), Taf. 112, 2. 9. E.g., H. Zeiss, ‘Ein Fibelfund aus Krefeld-Gellep…’ (Festschrift A. Oxé 1938), 251 ff. H. Kühn, 'Die germanischen Bügelfibeln der Rheinprovinz', Die germanischen Bügelfibeln tier Völkerwanderungszeit (1965). Taf. 31, 106. 10. A. Albrectsen, Fyriske Jernaldergrave 3 (1968), Tav. 71 f. 11. G. Körner, ‘Die südelbischen Langobarden zur Völkerwanderungszeit’ Veröffentlichungen der Urgeschichtlichen Sammlungen ties Landesmuseums zu Hannover (1938), Taf. 12, 15-16. 12. Kühn, op. cit., Taf. 82, 19. B. Schmidt, ‘Die späte Völkerwanderungszeit in Mitteldeutschland’, Veröffentlichungen des Landesmuseums für Vorgeschichte in Halle, 18 (1961), Taf. 38-40. 13. Schmidt, op. cit., Taf. 38 c., B. Svoboda, ‘Čechy v době stěhování národů/Böhmen in der Völkerwanderungszeit’, Monumenta Archaeologica, 13 (1965), Tab. 50, 9. 14. No conclusion can be drawn from the sketch given by J. Kovačevic, Varvarska Kolonizacija južnoslovenskih oblasti (1960), fig. 19. Perhaps this is not a brooch but a strap-slide from a sword? The “head-plate” resembles a cruciform rivet, found in a warrior’s burial (gr. 31) at Brighthampton, Oxon.: V.I. Evison, The Fifth Century Invasions South of the Thames (1965), fig. 11e. 15. N. Åberg, The Anglo-Saxons in England (1923), 33 ff. 16. B. Strömberg, ‘Untersuchungen zur jüngeren Eisenzeit in Schonen’, Acta Archaeologica Lundensia, 4, 4 (1961), Taf. 53, 1.
214
Excavations at Shakenoak original catalogue of 11 pins and these seven radically alter the pattern of distribution in the country as a whole (Fig. III.34)(We thank Mrs. Pretty for providing Figs. III.34 and III.35.)
TWO BRONZE SPIRAL-HEADED PINS by KATE PRETTY These two bronze spiral-headed pins (Fig. III.31, nos. 156 and 157) came from the ditch fill of the post-Roman period. Both pins are of the same type although the smaller one has been broken at the head in antiquity, giving it a lop-sided appearance. The pins are 5.2 and 4.5 cm. long and the complete head is 0.25 cm. across. Both are formed of a single piece of bronze split at one end to form two wires which are coiled inwards to form a heart-shaped head.
The only feature that all these pins have in common is the decoration of the head with inturning spiral wires. Pins with this type of decoration are widely known, from Mohenjo-Daro in the second millennium B.C. to Lithuania in the seventh century A.D. In Britain however they seem to be limited to the post-Roman period and in particular to the fifth and sixth centuries A.D. Two pins from Dunning’s catalogue have been mislaid, but of the other 16 pins, three are cast in the spiral-headed form and all the others are made by the technique of splitting a bronze strip or wire and coiling the split ends. A similar technique is used during the Iron Age when the ends are curled outwards rather than inwards. It seems that fashion alone was responsible for the inturning spiral head.
Pins with an inturned spiral head have a widespread distribution in Britain, from Pembroke to Suffolk and from Lincoln to Wiltshire. They are not, as Dunning implied in 1936,1 identical, nor can they all be seen as stemming from East Anglia as he then postulated. Seven more pins (including those from Shakenoak) can now be added to his
215
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Where spiral-headed pins are dated, they appear to be sixth century. It is tempting to call them “British” in that, like penannulars, they do not seem to be a form of metalwork found on the Continent immediately preceding the migration period. Certain pins, like those from Comberton, Kingscote and Caerwent, probably come from late Romano-British contexts. The technique of manufacture is not a difficult one; it is possible that there is spontaneous or fashionable evolution in different parts of the country though the Girton pins seem to come from a single source since they are so alike. I am not convinced that this single source is an Anglo-Saxon source and I am quite sure that the centre is not in East Anglia as Dunning suggested. The present distribution of the Girton pins would seem to point to the Upper Thames Valley or even the Severn Valley as being a more likely source.
About half of these pins fall into one group which I have called the Girton group after the pin from the Anglo-Saxon cemetery at Cambridge (Fig. III.35). This group is characterised by small delicate, bronze pins, with a size range of 4.0 - 5.5 cm., and a single curl to the spiral head which is sometimes marked off by a collar. Both Shakenoak pins belong to this group, though neither has a collar. The smaller pin is most closely paralleled in size by a pin from Lakenheath, Suffolk, which is also broken at the head; the larger pin is closest to the pin from Girton. The Girton pin itself is dated by Fox to the sixth century through association with two small-long brooches. In the past it has been thought that all early, small spiralheaded pins were “Anglo-Saxon” just as the later, larger ones are grouped as “Irish”. This nomenclature may be misleading; only three of the 18 pins were found in reliably Anglo-Saxon contexts and two of these pins fall within the Girton group. They are the Girton pin itself and one from Winklebury, a small, poorly furnished cemetery in Wiltshire, where the only diagnostically Anglo-Saxon piece was an openwork plate. The other Girton pins either have no datable context like Lakenheath and Kingscote,2 or are from graves like Broadwell and Bourton-on-the-Water3 which contain no other grave-goods.
REFERENCES 1. Dunning. G.C., ‘Iron age pottery and Saxon burials at Foxcote manor, Andoversford, Glos.’, in Trans. Bristol and Glos. Arch. Soc., 58, 1936. 2. In possession of Mr D. Mears. Publication forthcoming. 3. O’Neil, H. E., ‘Saxon burials in the Fosse Way at Bourton-on-the-Water, Glos.’, in Proc. Cotteswold Naturalists Field Club, 34, 1965.
The two pins from Bourton-on-the-Water were found in the same grave, on either side of a female skull, and the excavator has suggested that they held some sort of headdress. At Bidford-on-Avon, a cast silver spiral-headed pin was found under the skull in a woman’s grave together with a garnet-headed pin which is dated to the sixth century. The Broadwell pin was by the shoulder and the Winklebury pin was “on the breast”. Since all the pins from graves come from female graves, there seems little doubt that they are female equipment.
216
Excavations at Shakenoak THE IRONWORK by P.D.C. BROWN from the surface are not surprising in an unsealed deposit. The remainder of the objects described are Anglo-Saxon, or may be presumed to be Anglo-Saxon.
The ironwork from Site F provides a larger number and a greater variety of objects than has yet been published from any Anglo-Saxon settlement site. It must more nearly reflect the numerous uses to which iron was put, and the technical skills of the smiths, than the very miserable selection of iron objects from Sutton Courtenay.
All the objects described are illustrated at actual size in Figs. III.36 – III.54; figures in brackets after each description below indicate the location of each object in the ditch. There remain, undescribed and unillustrated, only a very miscellaneous selection of fragments of iron, and a number of nails (though these have been included in the statistics and comments on nail length).
A few of the objects seem to belong to the Roman period, for example the key, no. 208, and the nail, no. 237, and must have been circulating as survivals, or have made their way into the filling of the ditch by chance. Others seem to be modern, for example the piece of iron wire, no. 205, and two iron nails, not illustrated, which though rusted appear identical to present-day wire nails; a few such percolations
217
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
144
Tanged knife with large triangular blade broken along the edge; the cut-out notch at the base of the blade seems to be intentional. Although there are no parallels, this looks as though it could be Anglo-Saxon; Roman examples are usually socketed, though both socketed and tanged examples occur in Part I, nos. 29, 30. (F.40ft)
145 146
218
Tanged knife blade: slight groove along back edge of blade on right side only. (F.40ft) Tanged knife blade; broken in two, point missing; grooves along back edge of blade on both sides. (F.150ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
147 148 149 150 151 152 153
Fragmentary tanged knife blade; worn by much whetting. (F.360ft) Part of an iron knife blade. (F.440ft) Fragment of iron, not necessarily a knife blade. (F.410ft) Tanged knife blade. (F.13ft) Tanged knife blade; most of blade broken off. (F.220ft) Tanged knife blade. (F.430ft) Considering the position of the “tang” and its roundness as opposed to flatness, this is probably part of the blade of
154 155 156
219
a pair of shears rather than a knife. Shears are by no means uncommon as grave finds though locally they occur only in the miniature form accompanying cremations, cf. Abingdon C9, 13, 19, 20. (F.220ft) Tanged knife blade; bent and with parts of the edge broken. (F.80ft) Tip of knife blade. (F.60ft) Tanged knife blade; bent through 90o; drawn as though straight. (F.450ft)
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
157 158 159 160
Tanged knife blade; point broken. (F.390ft) Tanged knife blade; worn by whetting. (F.170ft) Tanged knife blade. (F.380ft) Tanged knife blade; bent, worn by whetting. (F.180ft)
161 162 163 164
220
Part of knife blade; but which end is which? (F.70ft) Tanged knife blade; broken along the edge. (F.70ft) Iron strip, not a knife blade. (F.170ft) Fragmentary knife blade. (F.420ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
165 166 167 168 169 170 171
Clapper from a cowbell. (F.390ft) Clapper from a cowbell. (F.180ft) Link from a snaffle bit; loops set in line. (F.380ft) Perhaps a link from a snaffle bit (loops set in line), but it is smaller than the others and the open loop does not appear to have been broken or bent. (F.100ft) Link from a snaffle bit; loops set at right-angles. (F.480ft) Link from a snaffle bit; loops set in line. (F.40ft) Iron loop for attaching an iron ring or a handle to a wooden box, or to a door; cf. similar loops in Part I, nos. 41, 42, 44, 45, and Part II, no. 113. This type of fastening is the simplest and was used by Roman and Anglo-Saxon
172 173 174 175 176
221
craftsmen. (F.160ft) Part of an iron link from a snaffle bit. (F.480ft) Fragment of a loop ending for a strap. (F.400ft) Part of the loop ending for a strap; 2 rivets. (F.180ft) Interlocking pair of loop endings joining two straps; 2 r ivets in each; thickness of straps 3.5 mm. (F.170ft) Flat bar, shaped as drawn. The excrescences are rust spots. This is probably the crooked loop at the end of a flat rim handle – a characteristic Roman trick, cf. Part I, no. 34. The piece is reminiscent of Anglo-Saxon purse frames/strike-a-lights, but is probably too large for these. (F.160ft)
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
177 178
179 180 181 182
Iron rod with looped ends. (F.120ft) Curved iron rod with looped ends. This is a curved and slightly longer version of no. 177, and seems best explained as the handle of a metal-bound bucket; though at 9 cm. diameter it must have been a small bucket. (F.450ft) Key, for barrel-type lock. (F.110ft) Iron-wire ring. (F.130ft) Key, for barrel-type lock, broken across the end. (F.130ft) Flat object, shaped as drawn, use unknown. (F.170ft)
183 184 185 186
222
Iron rod, shaped as drawn, use unknown. (F.160ft) Loop-ended iron rod, perhaps part of a bucket handle like no. 178; slightly larger than no. 178. (F.20ft) Flat object as drawn; broken across a rivet hole. Cf. nos. 176 and 189. (F.390ft) Key, for barrel-type lock; the all-important hole at the end of the key is formed by simply bending the slender shaft into a circle, rather than by cutting out a specific shape as in nos. 179 and 181. (F.430ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
187 188 189
Flat iron ring; use unknown. (F.140ft) Iron ring, oval section. (F.150ft) Oblong iron plate with one surviving rivet and one rivet hole, and a loop springing from one side. This looks like an escutcheon plate, with a loop for the handle, from a metal-bound wooden bucket. (F.380ft)
190 191
223
Iron ring, round section. (F.20ft) Penannular iron brooch with pin. This is in very poor condition; the ends seem to be simply butted together. Examples at Abingdon B.61 and Brighthampton 25 and 29 all have shaped, knobbed or spiral terminals. (F.40ft)
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
192 193 194
Pair of pliers, or blacksmith's tongs; of the simplest sort which must have been common workshop tools although few have survived (cf. Sibertswold, 115). (F.420ft) Quadrangular iron bar. (F.400ft) Iron rod, drawn from all four sides in view of the possibility of its being a twist drill; though this seems most unlikely as the projecting small ridge runs along the length of the bar rather than spiralling round it. (Cf.
195 196 197 198
224
continental examples cited by D.M. Wilson, Festschrift for H. Jankuhn, 1968, 146-7.) (F.430ft) Iron bar with loop end; this is probably the key of a barrel-type lock, broken across the bottom end. (F.320ft) Bent tip of an iron point. (F.450ft) Miscellaneous fragment of iron. (F.20ft) Miscellaneous fragment of iron. (F.410ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
199 Iron buckle with two pins; the long oval form of the buckle begins with the secondary cemeteries of the seventh century. At 9 cm. wide the belt seems larger than would be required by a man, and may come from a horse’s girth-belt or something similar. (F.380ft) 200 Iron buckle with two pins, suitable for a belt 6cm. wide. (F.150ft) 201 Iron buckle loop, suitable for a belt 3cm. wide. (F.180ft) 202 Distorted buckle loop, or link from a chain. (F.110ft) 203 Clapper from a cowbell, still attached to its suspension loop which is riveted through the sheet metal at the top of the bell. (F.150ft) 204 Rounded end-fragment of iron binding strip with two rivet holes. Cf. the metal loop-endings, nos. 173-175. (F.420ft) 205 Fragment of two-stranded wire. This looks more like a piece of modern barbed wire than anything else. R.J. Forbes
(History of Technology, II, 75) places the invention of wiredrawing in the tenth century; before then it was forged, and it must be extremely unlikely that wire was twisted or plaited for any reason but decorative effect as on the cauldron chain from Sutton Hoo, and the bucket handle from Leighton Buzzard II, grave 39. (F.420ft.) 206 Irregular lozenge-shaped plate with hole; use unknown. Cf. Part I, no. 64. (F.390ft) 207 Oval plate with coiled spring at one end. This looks like the broad and flat bow of some varieties of the early Roman poor man’s, or Nauheim, brooch. Iron examples like this are not known, but bronze examples occur at a number of places including Alchester where there are also both bronze and iron examples of the narrower variety (Ant. J., XII (1932), pl. XVIII, 4-7). (F.210ft.)
225
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
208 209 210
Iron key. This is typically Roman, especially the thick ring-ended handle. Cf. Part I, no. 8 and Part II, no. 139. (F.430ft) T-shaped key with crooked end. The arms of the T seem to end in coils in a rather non-functional way. (F.400ft) This is a very rusty piece. It looks like a binding strip from a large bucket or barrel; but its cross section is definitely triangular, one edge being quite thick. So it may be a fragment broken from a worn scythe blade. (F.90ft)
211 212 213 214 215
226
Another fragment like no. 171. (F.60ft) Fragment of strip-binding. (F.80ft) Fragment of a blade-edge; the top edge as drawn is the broken edge. This piece can best be interpreted as one end of a T-shaped adze blade. (F.110ft) Fragment of iron rod. (F.410ft) Fragment of iron strip. (F.180ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
216 217 218 219
Two pieces of sheet iron joined with a rivet. (F.440ft) Fragment of sheet iron with rivet head. (F.450ft) Fragment of sheet iron with rivet head. (F.130ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.180ft)
220 221 222 223
227
Fragment two iron sheets fastened with a rivet. (F.140ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.150ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.150ft) Two fragments of sheet iron. (F.110ft)
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
224 225 226 227 228 229
Fragment of sheet iron with rivet. (F.450ft) Two fragments of sheet iron. (F.90ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.350ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.180ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.180ft) Fragment of iron; use unknown. (F.180ft)
230 231 232 233 234 235
228
Fragment of sheet iron. (F.40ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.150ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.10ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.390ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.400ft) Fragment of sheet iron. (F.40ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244
Quadrangular iron bar, bent at one end. (F.0ft) Fragment of iron rod. (F.440ft) Large iron nail with rhomboidal head which does not seem to have been designed for hammering. These seem to be Roman; cf. Part I, nos. 66, 68, 69. (F.10ft) Rectangular bar of iron. (F.l0ft) Iron fragment. (F.10ft) Iron fragment, probably miscellaneous, but cf. no. 195. (F.310ft) Fragment of iron. (F.180ft) Fragment of iron. (F.150ft) Fragment of iron. (F.160ft)
245 246 267 248 249 250 251 252 253 254
229
Quadrangular tip of an iron point. (F.440ft) Fragment of iron rod. (F.410ft) Fragment of iron, perhaps the broken tang of a knife blade. (F.220ft) Fragment of iron. (F.400ft) Fragment of iron. (F.400ft) Object of unknown use, cf. no. 264. (F.100ft) Fragment of iron. (F.130ft) Fragment of iron. (F.130ft) Fragment of iron. (F.140ft) Fragment of iron. (F.130ft)
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
255 256 257 258 259 260 261
Fragment of iron. (F.90ft) Fragment of narrow binding strip. (F.110ft) Fragment of iron. (F.80ft) Fragment of iron sheet with a rivet. (F.180ft) Fragment of iron. (F.430ft) Fragment of iron. (F.170ft) Double-pointed piece of iron, quadrangular; one end is less worn than the other as though it had been sunk in a wooden handle. Perhaps an awl. (F.120ft)
262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269
230
Fragment of iron. (F.120ft) Fragment of iron. (F.130ft) Iron object like no. 250. (F.10ft) Fragment of iron. (F.130ft) Fragment of iron. (F.380ft) Lump of iron. (F.110ft) Fragment of iron. (F.360ft) Fragment of a blade edge; see no. 213. (F.230ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
270 271 272 273 274 275
Large quadrangular nail, lop-sided head. (F.440ft) Large iron nail, broken. (F.450ft) Large iron nail, broken. (F.180ft) Nail, broken. (F.180ft) Rusted remains of nail. (F.230ft) Nail, broken. (F.130ft)
276 277 278 279 280 281
231
Nail, broken. (F.10ft) Nail, broken. (F.160ft) Nail, complete. (F.160ft) Fragment of nail. (F.180ft) Slender nail, broken. (F.170ft) Slender nail, broken at end. (F.390ft)
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
282 283 284 285 286 287 288
Nail, bent. (F.20ft) Fragmentary nail, broken. (F.460ft) Nail, broken. (F.140ft) Slender nail, complete. (F.60ft) Slender nail, broken. (F.120ft) Slender nail, complete. (F.410ft) Nail, broken. (F.10ft)
289 290 291 292 293 294 295
232
Fragment of iron, probably not a nail. (F.80ft) Nail, broken. (F.160ft) Fragment of a nail. (F.150ft) Nail, broken. (F.130ft) Nail, broken at tip. (F.130ft) Slender nail, complete. (F.140ft) Slender nail, complete. (F.180ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304
Iron point, circular section with uniform taper. (F.60ft) Iron rod, perhaps a Point; quadrangular head, circular shaft, slight taper, broken at tip. (F.80 ft) Iron rod, perhaps a point, uneven and corroded. (F.110ft) Iron point. (F.130ft) Iron point; circular section, uniform taper, cut off diagonally at top. (F.430ft) Iron point; circular section, uniform taper, cut off diagonally at top. (F.420ft) Iron point, quadrangular at head, very corroded. (F.410ft) Iron point; circular section, uniform taper. (F.60ft) Tip of iron point. (F.440ft)
305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313
233
Tip of iron point. (F.270ft) Iron rod with rectangular head. (F.310ft) Corroded fragment of an iron point. (F.450ft) Fragment of an iron point. (F.490ft) Iron point, broken at both ends. (F.460ft) Iron point; lump of corrosion, or splitting around head. This seems to be complete. (F.430ft) Iron pin, tapering and more slender than the points; perhaps it originally had a corroded head. (F.160ft) Double-pointed iron tool, quadrangular at the thickest part; cf. no. 261. (F.130ft) Tip of an iron point. (F.150ft)
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
314 Short length of iron rod, broken at one end, perhaps at both. (F.80ft) 315 Double-pointed iron tool with quadrangular shaft; cf. nos. 261, 312. (F.420ft) 316 Slender iron point, bent though probably complete. (F.450ft) 317 Bent and broken fragment of an iron point. (F.360ft) 318 Short length of iron rod. (F.140ft) 319 Bent and broken fragment, perhaps from an iron point. (F.450ft) 320 Fragment of iron. (F.150ft) 321 Pin with spherical knob head; when lost it was obviously stuck through some material which has caused the lump of corrosion. (F.400ft) 322 Corroded iron needle. (F.390ft) 323 Iron needle with eye, point broken. (F.440ft)
324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337
234
Iron pin, knob head irregular and probably broken. (F.100ft) Iron pin, spherical knob head; point broken. (F.250ft) Fragment of iron pin. (F.30ft) Shaft of iron pin. (F.160ft) Shaft of iron needle or pin. (F.270ft) Iron needle with eye. (F.220ft) Fragment of iron needle. (F.80ft) Part of an iron needle with eye. (F.140ft) Fragment of needle or pin. (F.60ft) Complete iron needle with eye. (F.50ft) Fragment of iron. (F.180ft) Fragment of iron. (F.430ft) Fragment of iron. (F.430ft) Part of iron staple? (F.290ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
338 339
Iron brooch (see p. 208). (F.80ft) Group of seven rings. The main ring is of tapering iron wire with a well-made hook and eye fastening. Threaded on to it are three small iron rings; a larger ring, almost a bracelet, of iron wire, flattened in the middle and with the ends hooked over to join together; a ring of bronze wire originally the same as the iron one, but now distorted and with one end broken; and a small ring of flat bronze decorated with S-shaped punch marks. It is broken across one end and tapers at the other, and may once have been part of a finger-ring. (F.220ft)
This group of rings can best be thought of as an amulet similar to the large and varied groups of amulets which were carried by Anglo-Saxon women and are found in their graves. These amulets were normally carried on a purse which hung from the belt on the left side, and although the stuff of the purse rots away the amulets are found as a miscellaneous collection of odds and ends lying beside the left hip or thighbone. The best-recorded local example comes from Cassington (Purwell Farm, grave ii). There the purse was mounted on an iron ring, not the more common ivory ring, and contained a loop of bronze wire threaded with a cast bronze ring, a fourth-century bronze strap-end, a bone disk, an iron disk and a lead disk; also in
235
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker the purse were two boars’ teeth, one pierced, a disk-headed bronze rivet, an iron ring, a fragment of glass, and a rolled-up piece of iron wire.
tooth, bone) and at Chatham tumulus XVIII (lead, glass, silver, bone). The common occurrence of rings in these collections of amulets shows how important they were. “Old”, objects such as the terrets are ring-shaped, and cast bronze rings occur in the Cassington groups, at Wheatley 27, and at Brighthampton 49. These are examples of ones and twos. A larger group, of six cast bronze rings, was found in the richly furnished grave, Alfriston 43, in Sussex; and as many as seven cast bronze rings of various sizes came from Dorchester grave III. Although these few, and mainly local, examples do not give an exact parallel to the bunch of rings from Shakenoak, they seem to reflect the same ideas, and are evidence of the pagan superstitions and beliefs that influenced everyday life.
If this group is compared with others less well-recorded or no longer extant, the common factors between them show up. For instance it seems usual to include an object which is very old, perhaps 100 or more years old. At Cassington there is the strapend, at Abingdon B.75 a Roman triple-ringed strap junction and a knife-handle, at Long Wittenham grave 31 a ring from a piece of Roman military equipment, at Fairford (W.M. Wylie, Fairford Graves, pl. V) an Iron Age terret, at Brighthampton grave 22 another Iron Age terret, at Wheatley grave 27 an Iron Age swan’s-neck pin.
340 It is also noticeable that the Cassington group contains objects, or fragments of objects, made in a very wide range of materials: bronze, iron, lead, bone, tooth and glass. A similarly wide range of materials was found at Wheatley grave 27 (bronze. iron, glass,
341 342
236
Iron needle with eye, bent at the point, but complete. This is the best example. (F.320ft) Iron needle, broken at point and across eyehole. (F.100ft) Iron pin, with fragmentary head, point broken. (F.410ft)
Excavations at Shakenoak
343 344 345 346 347 348
Tanged knife blade, intact but blade bent. (F.400ft) Tanged iron knife blade; blade broken. (F.400ft) Quadrangular nail, complete. (F.90ft) Slender nail, complete. (F.110ft) Nail, without a proper head, complete. (F.80ft) Slender nail, complete. (F.140ft)
349 350 351 352 353
237
Nail, probably broken. (F.150ft) Nail, broken. (F.440ft) Nail, point hammered over. (F.450ft) Nail, point hammered over. (F.200ft) Nail, point hammered over; head missing. (F.390ft)
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker proofing qualities; the grease from the animal wearing the bell is probably sufficient to prevent the iron rusting. The clappers 166 and 203, as well as the one from Brighthampton which is only a little bigger, and the two Sutton Courtenay bells seem to be of size suitable for sheep or goats; the larger clapper, no. 165, is perhaps from a cow bell.
KNIVES The knives are all of the type with a straight blade edge and a straight back which curve towards each other to meet at the point. This type is the normal in the later cemeteries such as Yelford and Chadlington, and is the commonest type at Sutton Courtenay. There are no examples of the type of knife with a slightly humped back which is the commonest type in local cemeteries of the sixth century; nor are there any examples with an obtuse-angled cut-off at the back of the blade. These have yet to be found in the Upper Thames valley; though elsewhere they are dated to the ninth century and later.
The significance of the bells must be that flocks and herds were not contained in fenced fields, but were free to graze in the open, though they must always have been under the more or less watchful eye of a stockman or shepherd to prevent them straying too far apart, or on to land owned by someone else. If the present-day Catalan practice reflects an ancient one, then it is to be presumed that bells would only be fitted to the lead animals which tend to be the first to stray away from the flock.
Only two of the blades (145, 146) have grooves along the back edge. Several knives are bent (146, 154, 156, 160, 343) and several others are broken (146, 147, 148, 151, 155, 161, 247 and 344); these were probably the reasons for discarding them. They indicate that knives must often have been put to uses for which they were never designed, as though they were customarily regarded as an all-purpose tool. The blades which have been worn by much whetting (147, 158, 160) are all hollowed at the point of the blade nearest the handle. Sharpness at this point is needed for cutting objects held in the hand, be they pieces of wood or joints of meat, rather than food laid out on a plate.
SNAFFLE BITS Nos. 167, 169 and 170, and perhaps 168 and 172 also, seem to be best explained as the links of snaffle bits. There are a number of two-link snaffle bits from AngloSaxon cemeteries, from human graves and from the graves of horses. They are made up of two links and two large rings, one at each end, to which the bridle and reins were attached. Baldwin Brown (Arts in Early England, IV, 422, 776, 786) mentions four examples, and illustrates the two from Bifrons and Market Overton which are both of this type. One from Little Wilbraham, grave 44, measures about 12 cm. across the mouth; and a single-link bit from Leighton Buzzard II, grave 45, measures 14 cm. The links 168-170, and a piece from Fairford, grave 33, would make up into bits of about the same size. The larger link, no. 167, compares, better with the larger bits from London (R.E.M. Wheeler, London and the Vikings, 42, fig. 20) and from the hoard of ironwork from Crayke, Durham (Yorks. Arch. Journ., XXXIV, 280); these bits measure about 18 cm. across the mouth.
COWBELLS (nos. 165, 166, 203) Three clappers in this context remove any doubts there may have been about the two clapperless bells from unsealed deposits at Sutton Courtenay (S.C.I., 181, pl. 27). There is also a clapper from Brighthampton, presumably from the area of the cemetery, though not recorded as coming from a grave. These bells are of considerable technical interest, being made up of sheet iron and then partly coated with copper or bronze. The technique was already in use in the Roman period. In Europe examples are dated to the second century A.D. in the Rhineland, and the third and fourth centuries A.D. in Hungary (Intercisa, Arch. Hungarica, XXXVI, 373-380, pl. XXII). In England they occur at Maiden Castle in the fourth century A.D. (R.E.M. Wheeler, Maiden Castle, 288, fig. 97, 2). In Ireland ordinary bells of this type were hallowed after use by the saints, and were enshrined. The bell of St. Patrick’s well is “of iron dipped in bronze and is of the normal, early, rectangular, lay, cowbell type. It is possibly the original bell of St. Patrick which is mentioned in the Annals of Ulster, A.D. 552” (A. Mahr, Christian Art in Ancient Ireland, vol. I, pls. 78-83 and vol. II, 156-7). Such bells are no longer used in England; but only in 1970, in Spain, I saw bells of exactly the same type of iron coated with copper, being worn by sheep in the countryside near Barcelona, and subsequently acquired several examples in the local village market. The sizes available ranged from 3 in to almost 12 in long.
The size of the end-rings seems to vary considerably from about 3 cm. at Little Wilbraham to 12 cm. at Crayke. Among the Shakenoak ironwork nos. 187, 188 and 190 could have served this purpose. LOOP-ENDED CONNECTING LINKS (nos. 173, 174, 175, 204) Links of this sort are the common type for joining or attaching leather straps. They occur in graves mostly in connection with women's purses, keys and amulet bags. Bronze examples occur at Burwell, graves 6 and 83 and at Holywell Row, grave 85; iron examples at Shudy Camps, grave 2, and Abingdon, grave 93. Larger varieties could be use in harness, for example to attach the reins to the bit, as on the continent at Weimar, grave 31.
In neither the old bells nor the new ones does the copper coating entirely cover the iron, so its use must be explained by its effect on the sound of the bell rather than on it rust-
KEYS Keys of the type of 179, 181, 186 and 195 were used for 238
Excavations at Shakenoak large enough to say what it comes from. Some pieces may be pieces of metal binding strips from barrels, though the larger fragments probably come from buckets such as those from Pagans Hill, Somerset, and Harrold, Beds. (Med. Arch., II, 1957, 108-111).
depressing the spring-plates on the barbed bolt of a padlock. This sort of padlock was common enough in the Roma period (cf. Part I, nos. 1, 2 and Part II, no. 93): they are large bulky things. The only Anglo-Saxon example known comes from Leighton Buzzard II, grave 57, and a 3 cm. long is minute by comparison. These keys suggest that larger versions were made by the Anglo-Saxons. The type obviously continued in use for it was common in the medieval period.
AWLS The three pieces, nos. 261, 312 and 315, have common characteristics which suggest that they were made specifically for some purpose. They are all quadrangular in the middle, and pointed at each end. They could have been small boring tools, such as leather-workers’ awls. For this they must have had handles so that one end is in effect the tang while the other is the tool. This explains the wear on only half of no. 261.
Keys like 208 and 209 simply fit into the bolt of the lock, and act as a handle to slide it to and fro. They are equally common in Roman and Anglo-Saxon contexts though no. 208 is a typical Roman example, and doubtless a survival (cf. Part I, nos. 3-7). ADZES
NAILS
The two blade-edges, nos. 213 and 269, probably come from the ends of a T-shaped adze. Adzes of this sort do not occur in any graves, and on this evidence D.M. Wilson conjectures (Anglo-Saxon carpenters’ tools, Festschrift for H. Jankuhn, 1968, 143-150) that they first came into use during the eighth century. Examples can be cited from Hauxton and St. Neots, Cambs. (Proc. Camb. Ant. Soc., VII, 27, pl. VI, 1 and XXXIII, 145, fig. 3, 1), from London (R.E.M. Wheeler, London and the Vikings, 1927, 24) and from the Viking hoards at Hurbuck, Co. Durham (D.M. Wilson, The Anglo-Saxons, 78-9) and Crayke, Yorks. (Yorks. Arch. Journ., XXXIV, 280, fig. 17). The Crayke example is broken, and lacks a piece about 2 in long from one end of its blade; this is just the sort of piece that survives at Shakenoak.
A glance at the drawings of the nails, nos. 270-295 and 347-353, shows the considerable variety in which they were made. Most of them are more or less rectangular; most of them taper; most of them have heads which are large compared to the cross-section of the shank; and most of them are broken. Apart from these common points they vary considerably in size, both length and thickness, from the slender nos. 285 and 287, through 278, to 270. Most of the nails are far too thick to hammer into soft woods without splitting, let alone into hard woods which must have been preferred for any lasting timberwork. It seems far more likely that all but the thinnest were used like bolts, on the analogy of rivets and metalwork. A small hole would be bored through the timber first; then the nail would be forced through and the point which stuck out would be hammered flat on the far side. This would produce bent nails of the shape of 282 and 351-353. The process of hammering the points of the nails flat would
IRON BUCKETS The fragments of sheet iron, and of pieces riveted together may be compared with similar fragments from Sutton Courtenay (S.C.I., pl. 27), though no piece is here really
239
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker produce a work-hardened area in the shank of the nail which would be more susceptible to corrosion than the rest of the nail. Eventually it was at this point that the nail broke, as the surviving examples show was usually the case.
would explain the care with which the points have been made. And, as a final speculation, since points of this sort are not recorded from Sutton Courtenay, is it possible that they are connected with a technical innovation or development of the late seventh or eighth centuries?
The histogram (Fig. III.55) records the length of the shank of each nail, distinguishing only between those which are broken and those which are complete. The broken nails should give an indication of the thickness of the wood being used. The lengths of these broken shanks mostly fall between 0.025 and 0.05 metres (i.e., 1 in and 2 in). So, presumably the thickness of the wood varied between 0.5 in and 1 in.
PINS AND NEEDLES (nos. 311, 321-323, 340-342) Fragments of pins and needles can usually be distinguished from each other, the needles being fine, shorter than the pins and slightly flat in cross-section. The only complete pin (321) is a small one with a solid spherical head; the broken fragments show that the others were of different lengths. The size and workmanship of the needles is remarkable, and something of a surprise. Nos. 321, 329, 331, 333 and 340 preserve their eyes intact (as does Part III, no. 137), and are all carefully made, like bronze ones, with the shank of the needle flattened and grooved towards the eye hole on each side. Bronze examples are sometimes found in graves in workboxes (cf. Baldwin Brown, Arts in Early England. 412, pl. CXVI), and are known from a cremation at Abingdon, C. 82, and from the settlement at Waterbeach, Cambs. (Proc. Camb. Ant. Soc., XXXIII, 133, fig. 2, 12). Iron needles are not known elsewhere at this date. In shape and size both bronze and iron varieties are strictly comparable, the complete ones measuring a little over 2 in long.
Of the total of 59, there are only 13 unbroken nails. These seem to be of the thinner sort, but this is not surprising, for if they are neither bent nor broken, they must have been used for nailing a floorboard to a joist or something similar, rather than for fastening two planks together; and so must have been thin enough to hammer home completely without splitting the wood. The proportion of complete to broken nails (13:46) may or may not reflect the uses to which nails were put by AngloSaxon carpenters. It would be interesting to compare this figure, and to test my other conjectures of this section, with those from a site producing a very much larger quantity of nails than the Shakenoak ditch has yet done.
REFERENCES
POINTS
Abingdon: E.T. Leeds, D.B. Harden, The Anglo-Saxon Cemetery at Abingdon, 1936. Alfriston: Sussex Arch. Coll., LVI (1914), 16-53. Brighthampion: Archaeologia, XXXVII, 391-398 and XXXVIII, 84-97. Burwell: T.C. Lethbridge, Recent Excavations in AngloSaxon Cemetaries, 1931 Cassington: Oxoniensia, VII (1942), 61-70. Chatham: J. Douglas, Nenia Britannica, 1793. Dorchester: Oxoniensia, XVII (1952), 63-76. Fairford: W.M. Wylie, Fairford Graves, 1852. Holywell Row: as Burwell. Kingston: B. Faussett, Inventorium Sepulchrale, 1856. Leighton Buzzard: Archaeological Journal, CXX (1963), 161-200. Little Wilbraham: R.C. Neville, Saxon Obsequies, 1852. Long Wittenham: Archaeologia, XXXVIII (1860), 327352. Shudy Camps: T.C. Lethbridge, A Cemetery at Shudy Camps, 1936. Sibertswold: as Kingston. Sutton Courtenay: I - Archaeologia, LXXIII, 147-192. II - Archaeologia, LXXVI, 59-80. III - Archaeologia, XCII, 79-93. Sutton Hoo: R.L.S. Bruce-Mitford, The Sutton Hoo Ship Burial, 1968. Wheatley: Proc. Soc. Antiqs., 2 ser., XXIX, 48-65.
The use of the iron points, nos. 296-310, is unknown. They are consistently and carefully made with around section and an even taper towards a point. P. Addyman found three at Maxey, Northants. (Med. Arch., VIII (1964), 60) and has mentioned others in the Cambridge region, for example two at St. Neots (Proc. Camb. Ant. Soc., LVIII (1965), 65). These five examples are like the Shakenoak ones, and are all the same length, a little over 4 in. Of the complete examples at Shakenoak, none is larger than this: three (296, 297, 303) are the same length; three (300, 301, 302) are about 3.5 in; and one (310) is a good deal shorter at 2.5 in. Most of the broken pieces must belong to the larger sizes. The points show no sign of blunting and their heads no sign of hammering; so any use as a punch or similar tool is ruled out. The pointed ends are uniformly and carefully finished, whereas the heads are somewhat variable and have not been finished with the same care; it looks then as though it is the pointed end which is the operative end of these objects. But, if they were used as points, there must have been some way of holding them. They are not tanged for individual handles. They could have been set in a strip of wood, rather like iron teeth in a wooden rake. This sort of setting could explain the uneven finish of the heads, though I think they are much too carefully made to have actually been used in a farm industry; something to do with textiles, the preparation of wool, spinning or weaving - this
240
Excavations at Shakenoak LEAD
ANGLO-SAXON IRON-WORKING DEBRIS
The Period F.3 and F.4 deposits produced four pieces of lead, weighing a total of 6.5 oz. Three of these were fused lumps, and the fourth was a clipping from a sheet 2 mm. thick, resembling closely the waste fragments from Roman deposits on Sites A (Part I, p. 58) and B (Part II, p. 158).
by H. CLEERE The material submitted was of three types, all associated with iron-working activities: 1. TAP SLAG
BONE OBJECTS
This is a dense heavy material containing relatively large voids, resulting from the trapping of gas bubbles during the very rapid cooling when the slag is run from the smelting furnace. Its presence is positive evidence that smelting was practised in the vicinity of the site, i.e. the primary process of reducing metallic iron from its ores.
Site F produced 92 bone artefacts, almost all from the Period F.4 deposits, of which the commonest were bone combs and pin-beaters (Figs. III.56 – III.64). The combs were all of similar type and size, with approximately equally spaced teeth on both sides. They varied only in that some were plain while others were patterned with a series of parallel or cross-hatched incised lines. It is possible that all these combs were associated with weaving rather than with the combing or adornment of the hair.
2. CINDER This is a material that is structurally and chemically identical with tap slag, i.e. it is fayalite (2FeO.SiO2) formed during the smelting or reduction operation. However, it is distinct morphologically in that it is very vesicular and contains small particles of charcoal and unreduced or partially reduced ore. It is slag material that has formed during the smelting process, but which has not been allowed to run out of the furnace; instead, it collects at the base of the hearth as part of a so-called “furnace bottom” (German Ofensau) and is not removed until the smelting operation is completed and the furnace is being cleared for the next operation. This zone of the furnace is relatively cool, and so particles of burden material (ore and charcoal) which fall into it are not broken down further.
Needles were also common, in a variety of sizes and types. The only bone object to which a purpose other than weaving or processing of wool could definitely be assigned was the antler pot-stamp (Fig. III.60, no. 76). No pottery bearing this stamp has so far been found at Shakenoak and other evidence for pottery manufacture on the site is tenuous (above, p. 00). It is very probable that some at least of these bone objects were made at Shakenoak. Fig. III.61, no. 81 obviously represents an early stage in the manufacture o an object or objects, possibly pin-beaters. At least two pin-beaters, (Fig. III.64, nos. 114 and 118) were so roughly made as to suggest an unfinished state.1 A roughly worked longitudinal section 0.25 in thick cut from an antler cylinder 2.75 in long and l.25 in in diameter, and a similar strip of bone 1.25 in long from a bone c. 1 in in diameter (neither of which is illustrated) were also blanks for uncompleted objects. Fig. III.59, no. 70; Fig III.60, no. 74; Fig. III.61, no. 80; and Fig. III.64, no. 115 may also belong in this category.
Care must be taken to distinguish this material from a somewhat similar product from the forging hearth. A similar bed of slag-like material can form at the base of a forging hearth. However, the presence of ore in most of the Shakenoak specimens suggests an origin in the smelting furnace rather than the forging hearth.
1
A third closely similar object from Site C is discussed in Part IV.
3. FURNACE LINING At an early stage in the smelting operation, the clay lining of the furnace becomes coated with slag. The slag in fact penetrates the lining to a depth of several millimetres, and there is an interface zone in which slag-clay compounds such as hercynite predominate. A similar zone also occurs at the base of the furnace. The Shakenoak specimens included five examples of this type of material, of which two are believed to have come from the hearth and three from the shaft. Unfortunately, their small size made it impossible to extrapolate with any accuracy the probable dimensions of the smelting furnace. There can be no doubt whatever that iron smelting was carried on at Shakenoak during the sixth and seventh centuries. All the material examined supports this view; comparison with other iron-smelting sites suggests that the furnaces were close at hand, since it appears to have been the practice to dump waste materials very close to the furnaces.
241
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
35-37 Combs. No. 35, F.140ft; no. 36, F.180ft; no. 37, F.150ft.
38,39 Fragments of ribs of combs. No. 38, F.450ft; no. 39, F.180ft.
242
Excavations at Shakenoak
46
40-45 Combs. No. 40, F.170ft; no. 41, F.330ft; no. 42, F.110ft; no. 43, F.420ft, no. 44, F.450ft; no. 45, F.130ft.
243
Comb rib with iron rivet. F.50ft.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
53-56 Comb ribs. No. 53, F.280ft; no. 54, F.400ft; no. 55, F.130ft; no. 56, F.160ft. 57 Fragment of comb with iron rivet. F.380ft. 58 Comb rib with iron rivet. F.170ft.
47-49 Comb ribs. No. 47, F.230ft; no. 48, F.230ft; no. 49, F.160ft. 50 Comb. F.140ft. 51 Comb rib. F.130ft. 52 Comb rib with iron rivet. F.140ft.
244
Excavations at Shakenoak
A further six fragments of similar combs were found at F.120ft, F.290ft, F.340ft, F.400ft, F.410ft. and F.420ft, but were in too poor condition to merit illustration.
59-68 Combs. No. 59, F.380ft; no. 60, F.420ft; no. 61, F.340ft; no. 62, F.280ft; no. 63, F.400ft; no. 64, F.210ft; no. 65, F.410ft; no. 66, F.410ft; no. 67, F.290ft; no. 68, F.420ft.
69 70
Needle? F.200ft. Drilled fragment of long bone of ox or horse. F.130ft. 71, 72 Spatulae. No. 72, F.160ft; no. 72, F.165ft.
245
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
73 74 75
76
Needle (?) cut from an antler tine, partly smoothed on the shaft and polished at the point. F.190ft. Goat or sheep horn core. F.220ft. Uncertain. F.430ft.
77
246
Antler pot- stamp. F.210ft. The authors thank Dr J.N.L. Myres, P.S.A., for examining this stamp, and reporting that he does not know of any stamped vessel which exactly matches it. Spindle-whorl. F.150ft.
Excavations at Shakenoak
78 79 80
81
Worked antler tine. F.130ft. Sharpened and polished antler tine. F.400ft. Tibia of sheep, drilled on one side but not otherwise worked. F.160ft.
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Metatarsal or metacarpal of ox or horse. The ends have been squared off and longitudinal grooves incised along either side of the shaft. F.120ft.
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82-93 Pin-beaters. No. 82, F.390ft; no. 83, F.180ft; no. 84, F.160ft; no. 85, F.180ft; no. 86, F.200ft; no. 87, F.230ft; no. 88, F.160ft; no. 89, F.180ft; no. 90, F.220ft; no. 91, F.160ft; no. 92, F.170ft; no. 93, F.180ft.
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Excavations at Shakenoak
100 Uncertain. F.200ft. 101-103 Pinbeaters? No. 101, F.450ft; no. 102, F.220ft; no. 103, F.225ft. 104 Uncertain. F.120ft.
94-96 Pin-beaters. No. 94, F.420ft; no. 95, F.210ft; no. 96, F.130ft. 97 Sharpened and polished bone. F.400ft. 98 Spatula. F.40ft. 99 Pin-beater. F.170ft.
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115
105-110 Needles. No. 105, F.150ft; no. 106, F.190ft; no. 107, F.120ft. no. 108, F.410ft; no. 109, F.230ft; no. 110, F.420ft. 111 Pin with incised head. F.50ft. 112 Uncertain. F.370ft. 113 Uncertain. F.190ft. 114 Pin-beater? F.420ft.
116 117 118
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Roughly trimmed rod of triangular cross-section. F.360ft. Cut and polished bone, possibly part of a spatula. F.440ft. Uncertain. F.50ft. Pin-beater? F.420ft.
Excavations at Shakenoak differences. Oxen are twice as common as sheep in the Roman period, but the proportions are reversed in the Anglo-Saxon deposits. The fairly high proportion of dog bones in the Anglo-Saxon period could perhaps represent the use of dogs in guarding and shepherding the flocks. Also, the numerous indications of weaving as a major activity at Shakenoak must point to a plentiful local supply of wool in Saxon times.
THE ANIMAL BONES The length of ditch considered in this report yielded a total of 45,088 animal bones of which 3,206 were identified by the authors with the results shown in the table below. A further group of abnormal bones was submitted to Dr. P.A. Jewell, of the Department of Zoology, University of London and is discussed in a separate section below. A group of small bones was examined by Professor B.J. Marples and is also discussed below.
The continuing presence of a significant number of deer bones shows that hunting remained a minor source of food, as in Roman times. The number of horse bones, all from small, pony-sized animals, and the occurrence of pieces of harness (iron nos. 167-170, 172, 199) show that horses were a common form of transport.
The Site F bones form the largest group so far studied from Shakenoak. Nearly all came from the Period F.3 and F.4 deposits, but a few hundred came from the F.2 deposit or lay partly in that deposit and partly in the F.3 levels above. In very few cases was it possible to assign a bone unequivocally to Period F.2, and consequently it was impracticable to treat these bones separately.
However, deductions from the figures in the table must be treated with caution. It does not necessarily follow that the figures represent real changes in the animal populations. In the Roman period, the villa economy was based on the production and export of a large surplus of agricultural produce which, in terms of stock must have meant exporting live animals. Most of the Roman bones must represent kitchen refuse, and so give a reasonably accurate picture of the occupants’ diet. There is no reason to suppose that the agricultural economy of the fifth to eighth centuries was any other than one of subsistence farming, in which case nearly all the animals bred on the site would have ended their days there and would appear in domestic refuse. Consequently, it is arguable that while there were real differences between the Roman and Saxon economies, the nature and origins of these differences cannot be deduced reliably from the animal remains.
The larger bones were generally well preserved, and had only rarely been broken to extract the marrow (contrast Part I, p. 71). As before, it was not possible to distinguish between dog, wolf and fox, or (in general) between sheep and goat bones. However, though the authors’ lack of skill in identification has probably led to some distortion of the absolute percentages, the errors should be constant and so the relative frequencies of occurrence of the various species on the different Shakenoak sites can be meaningfully compared. Comparison of the relative proportions of the common domestic species for the Roman period (A, A.II.3b, B) and for the Anglo-Saxon period (F) reveals some interesting
1
Part I, p. 72. Identified by Dr. P.A. Jewell (Part I, p. 71). 3 Part II, p. 162. 4 This figure does not include the bones discussed by Dr. P.A. Jewell or by Professor B.J. Marples. 5 In addition to these, seven skulls of goats were identified by their long, slightly backward-curving horn cores. 6 All from animals ranging in size from a modern foxterrier to a labrador. 2
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker MISCELLANEOUS BONES OF BIRDS AND SMALL ANIMALS
COPROLITES AND ABNORMAL BONES by P.A. JEWELL
by B. J. MARPLES COPROLITES Three fragments, appearing like bones, are in fact the remains of One has a small phalanx in it evidently eaten a lot of bone to calcareous faeces.
BIRDS
heavily encrusted small faeces, presumably dog. (sheep?). The dog had give these characteristic
Domestic fowl: The great majority of the bones are those of the fowl. They are all small and belonged to birds of the size of a pheasant or smaller. There are 65 whole or part bones, as follows: sternum, 1; coracold, 3; clavicle, 7; humerus, 8; ulna, 7; radius, 13; metacarpus, 3; femur, 2; tibia, 3 (2 immature); tarsus, 18 (6 immature); 2 of the tarsi have large spurs. Goose: 8 bones are present, as follows: ulna, 1; radius, 3; metacarpus, 1; tibia, 2; tarsus, 1. Jay: ulna, 1. Duck: 1 fragment of a clavicle is probably that of a duck.
ABNORMAL BONES Horse, first phalanx. This foot bone has heavy bone growths or exostoses on its lateral and posterior aspects. The condition is called ring bone. It is caused by hard work and heavy strain on the foot and is particularly liable to develop in horses that work on hard surfaces. Horse, upper molar. The pulp cavity of this tooth is greatly expanded and the root dilated. The animal had suffered from a tooth abscess. (It could have been severe and might have drained through an open sore on the animal’s face.) Fused vertebrae. This specimen comprises parts of two thoracic vertebrae and is probably horse but identification is not certain (it could be ox). The condition is spondylosis and shows ankylosis of the bones which are fused together by heavy growth around the intervertebral disc, the disc having become compressed almost out of existence. The condition is caused by strain on the vertebral column, overloading a pack animal for example, or by other heavy work. Rib, horse or ox. Fragment of a rib that had been broken in two places in life and had healed irregularly.
OTHER BONES Frog: tibio-fibula, 1. Hare: caleaneum, 1; metapodials, 3. Cat: radius, 1. Weasel: femur, 1. Sheep: humerus, 1 (foetal). CHARCOAL Fifty pieces of charcoal were collected from the Period F.4 deposit between F.400ft and F.410ft. The authors are indebted to Mr. A. Shaw, of the Department of Forestry, University of Oxford, for the following identifications: Oak (Quercus) Hawthorn (Crataegus) Possibly Crataegus sp. Crataegus or willow (Salix) Hazel (Corylus) or alder (Alnus) Unidentified twigs
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13 + 3 possible 17 + 5 possible 2 1 2 7
Excavations at Shakenoak
5. Appendices This early phase of settlement must be differentiated from subsequent influxes of Anglo-Saxons into the area, probably during the second half of the fifth century, after the collapse of Romano-British control. Opinions have varied as to the regions whence these settlers arrived, some people favouring an advance from East Anglia via the Icknield Way and the river Cherwell and others one from the lower reaches of the Thames.5 Probably the truth is that both regions contributed towards the settlement of the Upper Thames at this time, coupled with an expansion of population from existing sites in the area. Certainly similarities between the metalwork and pottery of the Upper Thames and that of both East Anglia and the lower reaches of the Thames are traceable in this and the preceding centuries, and as more Germanic settlers arrived on the east coast it is likely that groups of people would press further west.
EARLY ANGLO-SAXON SETTLEMENT IN NORTH OXFORDSHIRE by F. BERISFORD The earliest Anglo-Saxon federate or Germanic settlement in the Upper Thames Valley seems to belong to the early fifth century, when the Roman administrative framework was breaking down and the Romano-British population enlisted the aid of Germanic people to help defend their interests in the area. The evidence for this phase of occupation is scanty and its exact significance debatable, but that it originated as some form of defensive measure may be inferred from the late Roman military belt-fittings, in use among Germanic recruits into the Roman army, which have been found on various sites in the region. The best known examples are probably those from the burials at Dorchester-on-Thames,1 but there are further examples from burials at Reading and Long Wittenham and now from the site at Shakenoak.2
However the Anglo-Saxons arrived in the Upper Thames Valley, the subsequent pattern of settlement seems to have been one of relatively dense occupation throughout the early period, particularly along the Berkshire bank of the Thames, with a further, probably largely seventh-century, spread up its tributaries, the sites generally becoming smaller and more widely scattered as the distance from the Thames increases. This is well illustrated by the distribution of sites up the Evenlode valley, on a tributary of which Shakenoak lies. The map (Fig. III.l)* shows a cluster of sites, ranging in date probably from the early- or mid-sixth to the eighth century, around the junction of the Evenlode with the Thames, with a scatter of sites further up the Evenlode valley itself. The first of these, and the nearest known site to Shakenoak, is the inhumation cemetery at North Leigh where eight graves, apparently of seventh-century date, were excavated during the years 1928-30.6 Next comes a seventh-century brooch and some ironwork from Spelsbury7and lastly a seventh-century cemetery at Chadlington, where an estimated 45-50 inhumations were found in 1925.8
Dr. J.N.L. Myres goes so far as to suggest tentatively that this evidence, taken in conjunction with finds of early Anglo-Saxon pottery such as the carinated pedestal bowls, implies the existence of some kind of “political frontier along the Berkshire bank of the Upper Thames.”3 If the finds do indeed represent an organised federate settlement along the Thames this is a plausible theory. Alternatively, they may represent some form of local militia protecting the interests of individual Romano-British settlements: this is, as Mrs. S.C. Hawkes has suggested,4 one explanation for the presence of the early fifth-century material from Site A at Shakenoak. With the finding of late Roman beltfittings and late or sub-Romano-British wheel-made pottery associated with a mid-fifth-century small-long brooch and Anglo-Saxon pottery in the lowest levels of Site F one should, presumably, accept the presence of some form of Anglo-Saxon occupation overlapping with, or beginning shortly after, the Roman. To such questions as how long these people retained their original status and how many other settlers infiltrated into the area in their wake, there is no easy answer, but it may be conjectured that as Romano-British control diminished the two elements either drew apart or merged.
As elsewhere, settlement in the Upper Thames Valley seems to have taken the form of small villages and farmsteads, which appear to have been largely selfsufficient. The occupation sites themselves are almost invariably on the river gravels, while the surrounding claylands and wooded areas provided good arable land and pasturage for livestock. Analyses of animal bones from a few of the more recently excavated sites indicate a large proportion of sheep among the livestock and, excepting potsherds, implements connected with spinning and weaving are the most common finds on all the occupation sites. There is also often evidence for potting, the making of bone tools and smelting and the material from Shakenoak provides a good example of the various
It is evidence such as this which is used to prove “continuity” between Roman and Anglo-Saxon settlement in the area. Opinions on the subject differ and this is hardly the place for a detailed discussion of the problem. Suffice it to say that the word needs careful definition before use and that, although there may be a continuous infiltration of Anglo-Saxon settlers, in whatever capacity, into the region there is little evidence of continuity in the mode of settlement once the breakdown of the Roman system was complete.
*
We thank Miss Berisford for providing the material for Fig. III.1 on p. 163.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker activities of a single site. However, this need not exclude a certain amount of trade (for example in surplus grain, cloth and leather or in those goods requiring more highly skilled workmanship) being carried on both between local sites and with areas farther afield.
REFERENCES 1. Oxon. XVII-XVIII (1953), 63-76. 2. Shakenoak I, 96-100. 3. J.N. Myres, Anglo-Saxon Pottery and the Settlement of England (1969), 89. 4. Part I, 100. 5. Discussions of this question are to be found in R.G. Collingwood and J.N. Myres, Roman Britain and the English settlements (1936), 391-396 and J. Kirk in DarkAge Britain, ed. D. B. Harden (1956), 123-131. 6. Oxon. V (1940), 21-23. 7. V.C.H. Oxon. I, 357. 8. Oxon. V (1940), 23-39.
In fact, in spite of the increasing number of occupation sites which have come to light during the last few years, our knowledge of the life of the Anglo-Saxons is still very sketchy. The number of known cemeteries far outnumbers that of settlements and it is the former which provide most of the evidence for date and cultural connections and on which distribution patterns are based. For instance, we have little or no idea of where the people buried in the large Thames-side cemeteries lived. Do these cemeteries indicate the presence of larger villages, perhaps lying undiscovered under present-day towns or villages, or did they serve several small communities scattered over the surrounding countryside? Such questions, like those of the progress of the occupation of the area, can only be answered when more sites have been found and excavated.
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Excavations at Shakenoak severe critic might feel that there is nothing so absolutely certain about the identifications proposed for the northeastern and eastern portions of the survey; but reasonably good confirmation can be adduced from later field-name evidence,2 and it would be very bad luck indeed if this part of the boundary had been altered while most of the rest remained intact from the tenth century. There has been some alteration in the administrative geography here in that Wilcote, the parish in which both Roman sites were situated, has been amalgamated with the parish of North Leigh, but there is no reason why this should have involved any interference with the boundary between Wilcote and Hailey.
THE PLACE-NAME EVIDENCE by MARGARET GELLING I have been asked to discuss here the place-name and charter-boundary evidence which may indicate continuity of occupation from Roman to Anglo-Saxon times in the area which stretches from the line of Akeman Street near Ramsden to the excavated buildings south of Shakenoak Farm, and which includes the supposed Romano-British village situated between the house called The Hays and the Manor House at Wilcote. The background to this discussion is an article in Medieval Archaeology,1 and a good deal that was argued there in detail will be treated very briefly here, the aims of this appendix being to consider more precisely the topography of the Anglo-Saxon charter boundaries in the stretch of country just defined, and to discuss their possible bearing on the interpretation of the results of the excavations.
The relevant sections of the two sets of Anglo-Saxon boundaries are as follows: A. BCS 1230, A. D. 969 - Ða non on sugarode. and lang rode on huntena weg. andlang weges Þ’ hit sticað æt wic ham. ðA non be wyrt wale on ofling ecer. Þa non on ealdan weg andlang weges on cycgan stan. of Þam stane on Þane grenan weg. and lang weges. Þonne on yccenes feld. of yccenes felda on ðA hege rewe. andlang hege rewe on met sinc. and lang met sinces on ecgerdes hel ufeweardne æfter wyrt walan on wenric.
The area under consideration extends just over a mile from north-west to south-east. The supposed Romano-British village near The Hays (which is called wicham in charter bounds) is exactly a mile from the excavated buildings. I suggest that two settlements this far apart would have seemed very near neighbours indeed in the conditions of the fourth and fifth centuries, and that the occurrence one mile to the north of Shakenoak of the place-name wicham, which appears to be of very early date and to have some special significance as regards Anglo-Saxon cognisance of Roman dwelling-sites, must be taken into account in assessing the significance of these excavations.
B. KCD 775, A. D. 1044 - andlang surode innan huntenan weg and lang huntenan wege into wicham. of wicham a be Þare wyrtruman Þæt hit cymð on sceapa weg. of sceapa wege and lang rihtes ge mæres --- on kicge stan. of kicge stane into æceres felda. of æcenes felda Þær Þa cnihtas licgað. and fram ham Þe Þa cnihtas licgað. on mæt seg. andlang met seg into wenric. My suggested identifications for some of these boundary marks are shown on the accompanying map (Fig. III.65).* That of sugarode (surode in the later survey) with the straight section of the north boundary of Crawley and Hailey may be regarded as certain as the same name, in the form Sawrode, occurs in a survey of several parts of Wychwood Forest made in 1300. The boundary leaves sugarode for “huntsmen’s way”, which is the road from Delly End to Wilcote. Mrs Wickham Steed informs me that the point at which these two tracks meet was the starting place of the traditional Whit-hunt, centred on Burford but involving Witney, Hailey and Crawley. The hunt is recorded in the time of Elizabeth I, and this name in the charter-bounds suggests that it was much older.3 After that, there is nothing absolutely beyond dispute until we reach the Windrush (wenric) east of Witney.
In terms of administrative geography, the area to be discussed is the north-east portion of the parish of Hailey, and the adjacent parts of the parish of North Leigh. The place-name evidence which shows Anglo-Saxon cognisance of earlier settlement here is to be found in two sets of charter boundaries which were edited and discussed in the article in Med. Arch. The two sets of boundaries describe the same area, which comprises the modern parishes of Curbridge, Crawley, Hailey and Witney. The whole circuit was discussed and mapped, mainly in order to make plain how closely the bounds can be identified with later landmarks, so that little doubt was left of the correspondence between the boundary mark wīchām and the Romano-British village believed to lie between The Hays and Wilcote Manor, and between the extraordinary phrase æcenes felda Þæ Þa cnihtas licgað and the area of the Shakenoak excavations. The identifications depend on the assumption that modern parish boundaries in this area are identical with pre-Conquest estate boundaries. On general grounds this is more likely than not to be the case, except in the immediate neighbourhood of the town of Witney. It is certainly the case as regards the southern, western and north-western portions of these boundaries. There a number of landmarks can be identified absolutely safely with objects such as the tumulus at Hawksley, or with field-names on tithe and enclosure awards. A very
My suggestion (in Med. Arch.) that yccen is the name of the stream on either side of which lie the excavated buildings still seems to me a good one. It is open to objection on the grounds that the Celtic river-name which has become Itchen in Hampshire and Warwickshire is normally treated as a weak noun in old English, with yccenan (not yccenes) as its genitive. This is not fatal to *
255
We thank Mrs. Gelling for providing the map, Fig. III.65, p. 256.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
whereabouts of the place. The modern form is probably represented by Edging Field, which occurs in an Enclosure Award, and can therefore be placed on the map; it lies beside the same stream.
the theory, as some hesitation over the declension of preEnglish river-names is shown elsewhere; the Kentish rivername Cray, for instance, is treated as strong in the phrase Cræges æwelma in a charter of 798, and as weak, with the dative Crægan, in several other charters. The name yccenes feld, “open land of the River Yccen”, which I take to be the name of the whole area in which the excavated buildings lie, continued in use through the medieval period. Mrs Wickham Steed has found a reference in the Pleas of Wychwood Forest to Echenesfeld, where a poaching offence occurred in 1366. This is certainly the same name, though there is nothing to indicate the exact
After yccenes feld the bounds of 969 follow a hedgerow to a feature called met sinc, which they travel along. This is almost certainly Madeley Brook, one head-stream of which rose south-east of New Yatt. The name is mæt seg in the later charter. This name survived until 1212 when (as Mrs Wickham Steed has pointed out to me) it occurs in a charter printed in Sir Christopher Hatton’s Book of Seals 256
Excavations at Shakenoak bounds do occasionally include qualifying phrases which are not essential to the survey. One example (from BCS 1176) is the phrase up on wearddune Þær Þæt cristel mæl stod, “up on the watch-hill, where the crucifix stood”. As the verb is in the past tense, the crucifix is not mentioned as a land-mark; it is just a bit of local knowledge which happened to get written into the survey.
(ed. L.C. Loyd and D.M. Stenton, Oxford, 1950, no. 4). This charter, which deals with land at Cogges, mentions a road giving access to the Forest iuxta gurgitem de Metsegge. Our boundary is the north-west boundary of Cogges for part of its course, and the mention of the weir is useful confirmation for the suggestion that met sinc, mæt seg is a stream-name. It cannot be said that the spelling of 1212 makes the name any easier to interpret; it may be another pre-English stream-name, for which, however, there does not seem to be a parallel. These two names, yccenes feld and met sinc, appear to have been on the modern boundary between Halle and Wilcote, and the former at least is almost certainly a pre-English rivername. Its survival in Oxfordshire, where very few preEnglish names were handed on except those of the major rivers, is evidence for continuity of occupation from Roman to Anglo-Saxon times.
The safest translation for cnihtas in the phrase in KCD 775 is probably “servants”, but none of the senses in which the word is evidenced from the earlier Old English period quite explains its use here. The archaeological evidence might possibly be considered to point to a use of cniht in some earlier sense, which was modified before the time of the earliest written records. It is a west-Germanic word of obscure origin. A nineteenth century field-name which deserves mention in connection with the cnihtas is Navelands, the position of which is shown on the map. This was Knaves Nolle in 1609,5 and could contain Old English cnafa, which (like cniht) meant “boy, young man, servant”.
The most surprising feature of the Anglo-Saxon bounds is the phrase Þær Þa cnihtas licgað which follows æcenes felda in the survey of 1044. I know of nothing comparable to this in any other Anglo-Saxon survey. Burials are referred to frequently, usually in the phrase hæðenan byrgels, but this phrase from KCD 775 has always seemed suggestive of some particularly striking local memory or legend. It is surely no coincidence that excavation has discovered male inhumation burials of a most unusual kind in the area which I take to be yccenes feld. The burials date from the post-Roman period, but from a time when the outline of a building in which some of the men were interred was still visible. It is a reasonable assumption that the memory of these burials could be preserved until 1044, when the second set of bounds was written down. This would be no more surprising than the remembering of the whereabouts of the “heathen burials”, which (as G. M. Young pointed out in 19404) were apparently not distinguished by the presence of tumuli. The nature of these “heathen burials” has still to be established, but to be heathen at all implies that their whereabouts was remembered for several centuries before they were mentioned in charter boundaries. Unlike the “heathen burials”, however, the place “where the servants lie”, is unique, and the problem of its relationship to the excavation-finds is fascinating.
The phrase about the cnihtas is unique. The place-name Wīchām, which occurs in both sets of charter boundaries, is, on the other hand, very well evidenced. Reasons for believing that there was a connection between this name and Romano-British village or small town sites was set out in Med. Arch. XI, and the response to this evidence has been sufficiently favourable for a somewhat bolder tone to be adopted here. It now seems possible for the degree of coincidence between this place-name and Romano-British villages elsewhere in the south-eastern part of the country to be adduced as a strengthening of the case for the existence of the supposed village between The Hayes and Wilcote Manor House. (The danger of a circular argument here is obvious, and I do not claim to be avoiding it.) Apart from the place-name evidence this is a very nebulous village indeed, and its precise whereabouts is not certain. V.C.H. Oxon. I, p. 344, speaks of some finds "immediately east of the wood in which lies Hayes Barn" and of others “north of the manor” (i.e. Wilcote Manor). These two places are about two-fifths of a mile apart. Nevertheless, Dr. Harden decided in 1939 to include it in his catalogue of Roman sites in Oxfordshire in V.C.H. Oxon. I, and to classify it as a village. The Ordnance Survey reached the same conclusion, and it appears as a village on the Ordnance Survey Map of Roman Britain. It is probably real enough. It is at any rate encouraging that another wīchām, the Romano-British settlement at Wycomb in Whittington, Gloucestershire, which on the Ordnance Survey Map of Roman Britain, is only accorded the same symbol as our site near Wilcote, is now known to be a major settlement covering at least 20 acres.6 For the purpose of this article I am considering the Oxfordshire site as certain in spite of the lack of information about it. Wīchām is an actual boundary mark in both the charter surveys, so it would probably be profitable to look for building remains on the parish boundary north and east of The Hays.
Building A, where some of the inhumations were, is not on the parish boundary. It is about 600 ft. from it. Perhaps more than one Roman building was used in this fashion, and It would certainly be gratifying if further inhumations were discovered in the vicinity of Site D, or if the mound at Site E proved to be a great burial mound. The distance from the boundary of Site A does not, however, invalidate the probable connection of the burials with the phrase in the charter. The syntax of the survey is unfortunately obscure at this point (this was discussed in more detail in the article in Med. Arch.), but it is reasonable to interpret Þær Þa cnihtas licgað as qualifying yccenes feld in general, rather than indicating a particular spot in yccenes feld. Charter 257
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Saxon estates. Those which did not flourish were eventually divided up between more successful neighbours, and the division, which would split their land more or less in half, had the effect of leaving the actual settlement on or very close to an estate boundary. The curious dichotomy between development into a parish and relegation to a parish boundary which characterises the class of places called wīchām may be additional evidence for considering the name to belong to a very early period, perhaps even to antedate the main coming of the English.
The use of the term wīchām for the Romano-British settlement one mile north of the excavations is only known to us because it occurs in the bounds of two Anglo-Saxon land grants. The relationship of places called wīchām to Anglo-Saxon estate boundaries is of great interest, and this also is relevant to the Shakenoak sites. It is difficult to avoid the conclusion that the estate (later the parish) boundaries in this area were formed with special reference to both these places, although the formation must have taken place at a time when the main centres of population had shifted elsewhere. The small parish of Wilcote has westward projections at its northern and its southern ends, the first enabling it to take in the wīchām, and the second giving it a tongue of land immediately west of the Roman buildings near Shakenoak. This might be thought accidental if no parallels could be found, but situation on a parish boundary is so marked a feature of the wīchām place-names that historical significance may fairly be postulated for it.
To attempt to summarize the significance of the placename evidence in relation to the results of the excavations at Shakenoak is to risk making a more definite and categorical statement than this type of evidence will bear. However, the attempt should be made, if only to justify the inclusion of this discussion in the excavation report. I suggest that the finding of “laeti” equipment and of one very early Anglo-Saxon brooch is paralleled by the occurrence in the area of the name wīchām, which may fairly be held to indicate very early English settlement on the site of a Romano-British village. For this name to be known in the tenth century, when it was included in the bounds of a charter, it had to be known to and remembered by English-speaking people in a neighbouring settlement. The likeliest candidates for this role are the early AngloSaxon settlers whose rubbish is plentifully scattered in the ditch at Site F.
In the article in Med. Arch. XI, I discussed 30 names. I have since made an analysis of these as regards their position in a parish. The results are very interesting. Two names (Wycham near Gloucester and Wycham in South Newington, Oxfordshire) relate to places whose exact position is not known. Of the remaining 28, the high number of 15 refer to places which are parishes today or can be shown to have had analogous status (e.g. a separate Domesday estate) in the past. This leaves 13 names which refer either to fields where there is no modern settlement at all, or to small modern hamlets. These might have been dotted about within the areas of their parishes with no dominant pattern emerging. In fact, 11 of them occupy positions like that of the wīchām in Wilcote, on or very near the boundary of the parish. To take one instance, Wickham Green near Urchfont, Wiltshire, is a minute hamlet, so close to the parish boundary of Easterton that it is difficult to be certain which parish it belongs to.
The curious position of the Shakenoak settlement and the wīchām in relation to the parish boundaries is part of a pattern discernible in the whole group of places called wīchām, and may be further evidence that English occupation here pre-dated the main English settlement. The events which led to the use of one of the Roman buildings near Shakenoak as a mortuary for a group of men who may have met their deaths in battle were remembered, and the area was associated with the burials in local speech in the eleventh century. The survival of a pre-English name for a small stream indicates verbal contact between Romano-British and English people in this limited area.
Only two of the “non-parochial” wīchāms are situated in what might be considered an unremarkable way, well within their parishes. These are Wickham Bushes in Berkshire (a field-name, known to coincide exactly with a Romano-British village), which is comfortably included in the southern part of the parish of Easthampstead, and Wycomb in Scalford, Leicestershire. (The Leicestershire place is difficult to classify. It should possibly be classified as an ancient manor, as together with Chadwell it was a royal manor appurtenant to Rothley in 1086; and as Chadwell and Wycomb together occupy the north-east corner of Scalford parish, perhaps this is not an exception to the rule that places called wīchām either became parishes or were later situated on the edge of another parish.)
The picture may become clearer if the Romano-British village east of The Hays is located and investigated. Even without this, however, it is probably safe to assert that this is one of the most remarkable instances so far noted of correspondence between the evidence of archaeology and place-names, leaving aside those instances where the place-name refers to a visible monument of prehistoric or Roman date. In this instance we appear to have the perpetuation of a historical situation of which, as far as we can tell, there was no visible memorial. This seems to imply continuous oral tradition.
The most natural explanation of these phenomena seems to me to be that on the whole the settlements to which the name wīchām applies antedate the emergence of the estate boundaries. A high proportion, more than half, of these settlements flourished and became the centres of Anglo-
REFERENCES 1. Margaret Gelling, ‘English Place-Names Derived from the Compound wīchām’, Med. Arch., XI (1967), pp. 87104. 258
Excavations at Shakenoak The assumption has been made that the unquestionably fourth-century material from the site was associated with the final period of the stone building. In the case of the coins there is little to support this view. No fourth-century coin appears to have been found within the dwellinghouse, and only five came from its immediate vicinity. Several came from the enclosure and ditch to the north, five from near the well to the south and the rest from the southern half of the enclosure. On the other hand the site produced seven coins of the period A.D. 40-120, a large proportion in a total of only 52 coins and certainly indicative of an intensive coin-using occupation in the late first and early second centuries.
2. I am indebted to the late Mrs. Wickham Steed for valuable information about field-names here, culled from her collection of material for the history of Wychwood Forest. 3. See Folk-Lore viii (1897), p. 310, for an account of this hunt by Percy Manning. 4. G.M. Young, ‘Saxon Wiltshire’, Wiltshire Archaeological Magazine, xlix (1940-2), p. 33. 5. Survey of Wychwood Forest, P.R.0. LR 2/202. 6. Information from Mr. H. C. Bowen. Mrs. Barbara Rawes informs me that a Germanic buckle of type 1B has been found with late Roman material in a ditch at Wycomb.
The three fragments of first- or second-century glass vessels came from the house, whereas the four third- or fourth-century pieces came from the southern end of the enclosure. The coarse pot from the house similarly dates from the second century, except for a single sherd of late colour-coated ware from above the floor of Room B which is not satisfactory for dating purposes. All the pot found below the floors was second century or earlier. In some cases second-century pot also came from above the latest floors: for example, a second-century bowl (Oxon. I, fig. 11, no. 16) was found on the latest floor of Room C.
A RECONSIDERATION OF THE DITCHLEY VILLA Although Shakenoak is one of a large group of villas in North Oxfordshire (Part II, Fig. II.1) surprisingly little is known of the many other rural sites in the vicinity with the exception of the villa at Ditchley, explored in 1935 by Dr. C.A.R. Radford and published by him in Oxon. I (1936), pp. 24-69. The dwelling house was extensively, but not completely, excavated and trenches were dug across various structures at the southern end of the enclosure and across the enclosure itself.
The considerable quantity of fourth-century wares came from the upper levels of the enclosure ditch, from the debris levels above the “forecourt” (therefore dating from after the destruction of the stone building) and from the well.
The excavator interpreted the results as follows: 1. A rectangular wooden building was constructed c. A.D. 70. 2. This was replaced c. A.D. 100 by the first stone building, which was later enlarged before being destroyed by fire c. A.D. 200. 3. From A.D. 200 to the Constantinian period the site was abandoned. 4. A somewhat enlarged version of the second-century villa was reconstructed in the Constantinian period on the earlier foundations, and remained in use at least until the end of the fourth century, and probably well into the fifth.
It therefore appears unnecessary to postulate an occupation of the house after c. A.D. 200, in which case all the phases of the stone building were probably consecutive and all belonged to the second century. On the other hand, it is clear that the enclosure was occupied in the fourth century, although the report placed the date of the intensive “reoccupation” too early since the coin series does not include any of the “fallen horseman” types now known to have constituted the bulk of the bronze coinage before c. A.D. 370. The 14 coins of the House of Valentinian and the 15 of the House of Theodosius (some very worn) show that the occupation was very intense in the late fourth century and probably continued as long as bronze coinage circulated, i.e. up to c. A.D. 420-430. However, there would seem to be no reason to associate this occupation with the house.
A reinterpretation of the site is now proposed, based on the published report and on the finds and documents deposited in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. It appears possible to draw alternative conclusions from some of the evidence, and in view of the proximity of the site to Shakenoak a brief outline of these is given here.
The concept of a period of abandonment might also be questioned. The absence of coins does not necessarily indicate lack of occupation, since it is possible that only farm labourers who did not use coins were living on the site. Also, the six radiates found are too high a proportion of the total coin series to be accounted for by losses in the later fourth century, and a few sherds of the coarse pot may well date from the period A.D. 200-350. Nevertheless, this period must represent a great reduction in the level of activity on the site.
Perhaps the most striking feature of the excavator’s interpretation is the supposed rebuilding of the villa, after abandonment for over a century, on exactly the original foundations, though with some additions. Even when buildings were demolished and immediately replaced there was usually little inclination to re-use earlier foundations (compare Shakenoak Building A) and even to re-locate them after such long disuse might have been difficult.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker It is difficult to relate these changes in any detail to the other features on the site, such as the “barn” and “granary” at the southern end of the enclosure. One section in particular (Oxon. I, plate XIV, section R-R) seems to indicate that the north and south walls of the "granary" were of different date, and the small area excavated makes interpretation difficult. The considerable quantities of fourth-century material from the vicinity of the well, the “barn”, the “granary” and the enclosure ditch may well indicate that these structures were re-used, or remained in use, in the fourth century. The picture thus revealed is of a small second-century villa, built on the site of a Flavian timber house, which was abandoned as an independent dwelling site at the end of the second century. Occupation from then until c. A.D. 370 was slight, but from A.D. 370 until well into the fifth century the occupation was again intense, though not associated with a stone dwelling-house. The similarity of this development to that of Shakenoak is obvious: the difference is that Shakenoak carried on as an independent establishment half a century longer than Ditchley, and was then demoted to a smaller, though still considerable, establishment, whereas Ditchley was reduced to a mere agricultural enclosure, perhaps used for storing tools and produce, and inhabited – if at all – only by peasants. The partial revival of Ditchley in Valentinianic times corresponds to the increase in coin loss at Shakenoak in the late fourth century, and both sites appear to have continued as farms well into the fifth century.
The deliberately dumped levels immediately overlying Roman buildings on riverside sites at Bush Lane, St. Dunstan’s Hill and Billingsgate contain some shell-gritted ware, along with residual Roman material of all dates and imported wares probably of the fifth century, though the date this dumping took place is not clear. The site where the best dating evidence for shell-gritted pottery exists is the house and bath-building at Billingsgate, Lower Thames Street (J.R.S., LIX, p. 224; Britannia, I, p. 292). A complete shell-gritted pot (Fig. III.66, A*; Guildhall Museum 17866) was placed in the hypocaust of the tepidarium – probably a “votive deposit” – perhaps at the time of a late rebuilding of the floor. The bath was abandoned while the house continued in occupation, and rubbish, including shell-gritted pottery and coins dating up to 388-402, accumulated on the floor; more pottery was dumped in and around the stoke hole of the bath hypocaust, 4.2% of the sherds being of shell-gritted jars (including Fig. III.66, B and C; Guildhall Museum E. R. 1286). Finally the roof of the bath collapsed, an event dated by the presence among the fallen tiles of a fragmentary Saxon applied saucer brooch of the early fifth century. The house, however, seems to have gone on in use for some years – a sherd of an eastern Mediterranean amphora apparently of at least late fifth-century date lay in the stoke hole of the hypocaust of the house – but the pottery of this phase cannot be distinguished from that of the preceding phase.
In the present state of knowledge it is impossible to discuss the history of any other local villa in detail. The possibility remains that Shakenoak and Ditchley may represent a general tendency of some villa estates (North Leigh, and possibly Stonesfield) to grow at the expense of their neighbours, a development culminating in estates so large that a degree of decentralisation became necessary by the second half of the fourth century if they were to be run efficiently.
SOME LATE ROMANO-BRITISH POTTERY FROM LONDON by J. CLARK
This shell-gritted ware is clearly among the latest pottery of Romano-British type in use in London, making its first appearance in the late fourth century, but continuing in use well into the fifth century.
Apart from early bead-rim jars and large storage vessels, shell-gritted (or calcite-gritted) pottery of the Roman period is rare in London; however, small cooking-pots of soft shell-filled buff or grey fabric, soapy to the touch, with the upper part of the body covered with shallow horizontal rilling, executed with a comb, do appear in late fourthcentury and fifth-century contexts, though they are not common even there.
*
We thank Mr. Clark, and the Guildhall Museum, for providing drawings of the vessels shown in Fig. III.66.
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Excavations at Shakenoak GEOLOGY OF THE AREA AROUND SHAKENOAK FARM
THE JURASSIC ROCKS In Oxfordshire the Jurassic strata incline south-eastwards at an angle slightly greater than the regional slope so that younger formations come to the surface towards the southeast. This arrangement is not evident in the map of so small an area as the one under consideration and, in fact, in this area the strata are affected by superficial structures such as cambers, so that their attitude varies somewhat from place to place.
by H.P. POWELL The accompanying geological map (Fig. III.67)* covers an area lying between the valleys of the Evenlode and the Windrush, bounded roughly by a line joining the villages of Finstock, Combe, Freeland and Hailey. Within this area the outcropping formations belong to two periods of earthhistory, the Jurassic and the Pleistocene. In addition there are some Recent deposits, formed since the end of the Ice Age.
The Roman site at Shakenoak Farm lies at 325 ft O.D. in a valley aligned northeast, south-west joining the valleys of the Windrush and the Evenlode. This “Wilcote Valley” separates outliers of Oxford Clay forming the high ground of Wilcote, Ramsden and Leafield in the north and northeast, from the main mass of Oxford Clay extending southwards from North Leigh. The geological section from Wilcote to New Yatt shows the arrangement of the beds which form the valley sides. The Shakenoak end of the valley is drained by a small stream which flows northeastwards to join the Evenlode at Ashford Mill.
First, the “solid”, rocks, consisting mainly of clays and limestones, were formed during the Jurassic Period about 185 to 165 million years ago. Secondly, the "superficial" deposits of sand and gravel were laid down in the Pleistocene Epoch between something like 1 million and 10,000 years ago. Thirdly, the post-Pleistocene, or Recent, deposits comprise tufa and alluvium or river mud.
In the Evenlode valley the oldest beds in the area, the Lias, outcrop.
The following table summarises the strata present in the area (the oldest rocks are at the bottom):
LIAS
RECENT Tufa, Alluvium
The Lias is not well exposed in the area. The quarries at Fawler, now overgrown, once showed sections from the Lower Lias to the Chipping Norton Limestone (for references see Richardson 1946, p. 17 and Arkell 1947).
PLEISTOCENE Brickearth Terraced Limestone Gravel: Hanborough level Terraced Northern Drift Gravel: Freeland level Northern Drift
Chipping Norton Limestone White, oolitic limestone, unfossiliferous; formerly burnt for lime (15 ft)
UPPER JURASSIC Oxford Clay
Clypeus Grit Rubbly and marly oolites with Parkinsonia parkinsoni, Clypeus ploti, etc. (8-12 ft) Massive limestones, Coral Bed at base (10 ft)
MIDDLE JURASSIC Great Oolite Series Lower Cornbrash Forest Marble White Limestone Hampen Marly Beds Taynton Stone (Stonesfield Slate Beds) Chipping Norton Limestone
Upper Lias Blue clay with bed at base containing diagnostic ammonites (5-12 ft) Middle Lias Ironstone; ferruginous, sandy calcareous oolite (9 ft) Sands, micaceous, loamy; clay at base with Amaltheus margaritatus
Inferior Oolite Clypeus Grit
Lower Lias Clay, with Androgynoceras lataecosta near top, proved (20 ft) in boring to further (100 ft) (see Bather 1886, p. 144)
LOWER JURASSIC Upper Lias Middle Lias
LOWER LIAS The Lower Lias is not exposed in the area though it seems to form parts of the valley floor around Charlbury and Fawler. Its presence here above its proper stratigraphical
*
We thank Mr. Powell for providing the material for Figs. III.67 and III.68.
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However, it seems reasonable to suppose that the nearest possible source is most likely to have been used. This suggests Fawler, and the literature does mention boxstones at more than one horizon.
position is probably due to valley-bulging which is discussed further in the section on structure. The clay was formerly worked to a depth of about 20 ft in the old brick-yard at Fawler.
Hull (1860) gives a section with 15-30 ft of “sands with concretionary nodules of iron-ore” forming the lower division of the Middle Lias.
MIDDLE LIAS The Middle Lias has a lower sandy division and an upper limy division. The lower beds are visible at one or two places in the Evenlode valley. At Fawler the quarries showed 11 ft of reddish brown, micaceous, loamy sands with blue clay at the bottom which contained in the upper part Amaltheus margaritatus, an ammonite diagnostic of the lower Middle Lias. A little below this level the clay contained ammonites indicative of the uppermost Lower Lias (Bather 1886). The sands sometimes contain concretions of sand cemented with calcite. Large concretions, called doggers, occur in the sands in the lane south of Fawler from the railway cutting to Topples Wood. The upper part of the Middle Lias comprises the Marlstone or Ironstone. Typical specimens of ironstone from Fawler appear to be a ferruginous, sandy limestone of a reddish brown colour. The ferruginous matter is probably limonite formed by alteration of the original minerals. The unweathered rock is a dark green oolite composed of green ooliths of chamosite in a brown matrix of siderite and calcite. The proportions of the constituents vary and in some parts the rock is highly calcareous, especially, of course, where concentrations of shelly fossils occur. More detailed descriptions are given by Whitehead (p. 197).
Arkell (1947, p. 18) in a general description of the Margaritatus Zone (= the lower division of the Middle Lias) says that the sands and loams sometimes contain concretionary masses and doggers of rusty sandstone and sometimes bands of ironstone resembling that above (i.e. the Ironstone proper). Woodward (p. 268) gives a section of Fawler in which he mentions ironstone concretions, and ironstone, this time in the Upper Lias. I visited the quarries in February, 1970 and was able to collect box-stones from the slopes at the south end of the old workings. The earthy filling of the boxes contains much quartz sand and also mica so they presumably are from the sands below the Ironstone. The ore from Shakenoak has been long buried in the ground so that the soft earthy matter has been lost. Nevertheless the specimens seem to contain some flakes of mica. The walls of the boxes are sandy limonite with occasional fragments of mica. The Middle Lias sands of Fawler appear to be the most likely source of the Shakenoak Saxon iron ore.
The highly ferruginous nature of this bed was first noted by E. Hull who drew attention to its possibilities as a source of iron and called it the Blenheirn ore (Hull 1859 p. 10; Whitehead p. 171). It was dug from about 1858-1866 and again from 1882-1886.
UPPER LIAS The Upper Lias consists of clay with some concretions and ironstone nodules. The section at Fawler showed 5-11 ft. of unfossiliferous clay with a thin earthy limestone a the base full of ammonites which represent nearly the whole of the Lower Toarcian stage (Woodward, p. 268).
The Oxfordshire Marlstone ore is too calcareous to be easily smelted. Ores of this type are nowadays mixed with more siliceous ores, for example, the Northampton Sand Ironstone, to bring the proportion of calcium carbonate to a beneficial level.
The clay was dug for bricks (Richardson 1910, p. 31) and, according to Woodward (p. 298) for making “the coarser kinds of earthenware”.
SOURCE OF ANGLO-SAXON IRON ORE This question may be considered here. The Anglo-Saxon ore is a fine-grained ferruginous sandstone showing “box structure”. The “box-stones” are formed by the redistribution of iron compounds into areas relatively ironrich and iron-poor. The iron-rich areas form the walls and partitions of the boxes, and in this case they appear to be composed of goethite with some sand. The iron-poor areas are the earthy filling of the boxes and seem to consist of limonite and goethite mixed with quartz grains and clay minerals.
INFERIOR OOLITE CLYPEUS GRIT The Inferior Oolite Series of the Cotswold escarpment is 350 ft. thick but in Oxfordshire it is poorly represented because the area was a shallows at the time of deposition. In our area the only representative is the Clypeus Grit which is the topmost part of the Inferior Oolite. The Clypeus Grit is not a true grit but a series of limestones, mostly marly, and typically with the large ooliths which give the rock its gritty texture. The beds are fossiliferous with abundant Clypeus ploti, the sea urchin
Box-stones such as these occur at a number of localities in the region, for example, Duns Tew, Worton, and others, so that the source of the ore cannot be precisely located. 263
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker They must have been gathered from the ground at the outcrop of the Slate Beds in Stocky Bottom or Bagg’s Bottom above Stonesfield Ford.
that gives its name to the formation, corals, brachiopods, bivalves, etc. (see Hull 1859, p. 15). At Fawler the beds yielded the diagnostic ammonite Parkinsonia parkinsoni, and other species of Parkinsonia (Arkell 1947a, p. 90). Detailed sections are described by Arkell at Charlbury (1947a, p. 91) and by Richardson at Fawler (1946, p. 20).
I have examined the other stone tiles from Shakenoak and they are yellowish and greyish sandy stone from some formation other than the Stonesfield Slate Beds. Such tilestones occur as local sandy developments of the Chipping Norton Limestone and the Taynton Stone, for example at Hillbarn Farm near Stonesfield, or Fulwell which Arkell suggested as a source for the roof of the Ditchley Roman Villa (1947b, pp. 129, 149). In Roman times such sources as Fulwell where the stone is at the surface would be more easily worked than the Stonesfield slates which have only a small outcrop.
Perhaps it is worth noting here that the Clypeus Grit has a unique development of freestone in Wychwood Forest. This stone was used to build Cornbury Park (Arkell 1948). GREAT OOLITE CHIPPING NORTON LIMESTONE The Chipping Norton Limestone succeeds the Clypeus Grit. In this area it is about 23 ft. thick and consists of massive, white, unfossiliferous limestones, sometimes with sandy non-oolitic limestones in the lower part. Many sections have been described (see Arkell 1947).
TAYNTON STONE The Taynton Stone formation, about 20 ft. thick, is lithologically similar to the Chipping Norton Limestone, consisting mainly of white oolite limestone. Locally it becomes sandy, as already mentioned, and Arkell notes that at the old limekiln quarry half a mile east-south-east of Ranger’s Lodge, Wychwood Forest it contains a bed of pure sand (1947a, p. 92).
The stone has been used locally for lime-burning, as at Fawler (Bather, p. 144) and for building. The town of Charlbury is mainly built from Chipping Norton Limestone dug from the quarries alongside the Enstone Road northeast of the town. The best building-stone is a pale cream or creamy-brown very oolitic limestone of freestone quality. Stone of this type was used at Shakenoak (see Part II, p. 106).
The stone has been used locally for building though it is not of the same outstandingly high quality as the Taynton Stone of Taynton. Some specimens of stone from Shakenoak seem to me to be of the Burford type of Taynton Stone (Part I, p. 19; Part III, p. 178). The occurrence of the best stone at Taynton is not far from Akeman Street so presumably it could be brought to Shakenoak without much difficulty.
STONESFIELD SLATES The Chipping Norton Limestone and Taynton Stone are usually separated by thin clay formations. Sharp’s Hill Beds in this part of the county, Fuller's Earth in the west. In the Shakenoak area the Sharp’s Hill Beds appear to be absent so that the Chipping Norton Limestone and the Taynton Stone are in contact. At Stonesfield, however, they are separated by the representative of another sporadic formation, namely, the Stonesfield Slate Beds.
The Taynton Stone in some localities develops shelly beds consisting largely of small oysters. Such a development is recorded at Ashford Mill railway cutting (Arkell 1947, p. 51). HAMPEN MARLY BEDS
The Stonesfield Slate Beds consist of thin bands of sand and sandy limestone up to 6 ft thick in all. The deposit seems to have a lenticular form about 2 miles long by 1 mile wide (Arkell 1947b, p. 139). An account of the Stonesf ield Slates, geological, historical, etc., is given by Arkell (1947; 1947b) so that only a few notable facts are given here. The roofing stone is a very characteristic grey, fissile, micaceous, calcareous sandstone with bands and streaks of white ooliths. The stone may have been used for roofing throughout antiquity but the industry at Stonesfield was probably of very little importance until about the end of the sixteenth century when it seems that the frosting process was discovered. Then the stone was dug out, stacked, and covered up while still wet, until it could be exposed to frost. After frosting it could be split into the thin tilestones familiar today.
These clay beds separate the Great Oolite into a lower limestone division comprising the Chipping Norton Limestone and the Taynton Stone, and an upper block of White Limestone. The beds, 20-27 ft thick, are clays and clayey limestones often crowded with the fossil oyster, Ostrea hebredica, and with a brachiopod, Rhynchonella concinna. At outcrop the thickness may be reduced, even to disappearing, by sagging down of flaps of the overlying formation (see under “Structure”, p. 266). The Hampen Marly Beds are not exposed near Shakenoak but their outcrop is evidenced by springs. The impervious clays throw out the water which has seeped down through the thick, permeable limestone formation above. The Lady Well and its nearby seepages, half a mile or so north of the Shakenoak site, mark the junction of the Hampen Marly Beds and the overlying White Limestone.
Undoubted Stonesfield Slates were used for roofing at Shakenoak (Part I, p. 19) but they were crude slabs of stone which had not been produced by the frosting process. 264
Excavations at Shakenoak
laterally into clay so that on the opposite side of the Evenlode, around Combe, the Forest Marble is a bed of stiff blue clay.
WHITE LIMESTONE This formation underlies the site at Shakenoak as well as much of the surrounding area. It consists of about 50 ft. of a variety of limestones, including soft, limy clay; splintery calcite mudstone; rubbly, impure, shelly limestone; hard white oolite; and other types. The typical rock is a cream or buff limestone largely made up of calcite grains of mud grade mixed with some clay particles, containing some ooliths, shellfragments, and bivalves and other fossils. Where the White Limestone underlies the soil pieces of this kind of rock abound in the ploughed fields.
CORNBRASH The Cornbrash is fairly constant in its lithological characteristics, being a reddish brown, rubbly, shelly, nonoolitic limestone, and 9-12 ft thick. It has a broad outcrop around Witney and Woodstock but at North Leigh it is still overlain by Oxford Clay. Detached from the main outcrop are the outliers of Cornbrash at Wilcote, Ramsden, Leafield and Langley.
Numerous sections have been described (see Arkell 1947; Richardson 1946), and a good section can be seen in the working quarries at Fisher’s Gate just north-east of North Leigh Church. The White Limestone is not a good building stone though it has been used as such (Pringle, p. 18). Its main uses are as road stone and as a source of lime.
The Cornbrash in this area is all Lower Cornbrash, linked palaeontologically with the Great Oolite. The Upper Cornbrash, linked by its fossil content to the Upper Jurassic, rarely occurs in the Oxford area. One of the few places where it was exposed is the quarry north of the Swan Inn, Long Hanborough (Richardson 1946, p. 76).
FOREST MARBLE OXFORD CLAY
The Forest Marble was named from Wychwood Forest where an ornamental limestone was once obtained (Arkell 1947, p. 46; 1948, p. 88).
The shallow seas in which the Great Oolite sediments were deposited became deeper at the onset of Upper Jurassic times, and this change brought a corresponding change to clay sedimentation. The Oxford Clay is about 300 ft thick at Oxford. About 100 ft still remain at North Leigh and Perrottshill forming the high ground above the Wilcote Valley. In the outlier at Ramsden a well boring proved about 21 ft of Oxford Clay (Pringle, p. 5).
At the surface the Forest Marble is usually distinguishable from the formations above and below by weathering flaggy whereas the White Limestone and the Cornbrash become rubbly. There is a variety of lithological types but the typical Forest Marble is a dense limestone made up of shell fragments of clear or bluish-grey calcite with creamy ooliths, set in a calcitic matrix. An example of this type of rock is the “Bladon stone” from Hanborough Station, wellknown as a building stone in Oxford. The stone passes
The formation is not well-exposed in the district but it is too well-known to need description here. It was once dug for making bricks and tiles, both in large pits as at Oxford 265
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker The case of the Lower Lias around Charlbury has already been mentioned. Arkell lists several others, and one of the most striking is the occurrence of nearly vertically inclined Ironstone in the right bank of the river 40 yards below Catsham Bridge, above Charlbury.
and also in many small pits as at Combe, The Demesnes, and Leafield. Presumably some of the tiles at Shakenoak were made from the Oxford Clay at East End as there appears to be the site of a Roman kiln there (Part II, p. 79). No higher Jurassic strata are preserved in this area and the next deposits to be described are gravels of the Ice Age. Before that the structures affecting the Jurassic rocks will be briefly considered.
FOLDING Crumpling of the cover rocks, the Jurassics, has developed in response either to movement of the ancient rocks of the underlying “basement” or as “ripples” from intense folding in more distant places, or both. The Evenlode from Charlbury to Hanborough appears to flow along the bottom of a trough-like fold, with a corresponding upfold along the ridge on the north-east. The dip of the strata down from the ridge is too great to be accounted for purely by cambering.
STRUCTURE The following notes are merely a summary of the interesting and detailed account of the structure of the lower Evenlode valley by W.J. Arkell in the Proceedings of the Geologists’ Association, 1947, and in his Geology of Oxford.
There may be a slight upfold also on the south-west in the Ramsden group of hills. In drawing a section from Ramsden or Wilcote across to New Yatt it is not possible both to draw in the base of the Forest Marble as a straight line joining outcrops and also to keep the true thickness of the formation. The outcrop on the north side of the Wilcote Valley is too wide for that so the section shows slight arching of the strata with the Forest Marble draping the hillside.
CAMBERS The term “camber” is applied to a block of strata tilted towards the bottom of a valley by removal of the support of underlying strata. Cambering develops in a valley where the sides are formed by “competent” beds of limestone or sandstone lying above “incompetent” or plastic beds of clay. Clay is squeezed from the outcrop by the pressure of the competent bed, and, probably more important, is also washed out by the spring line which develops at the junction. The limestone bed then sags towards the valley bottom.
Perhaps some extra sagging in this area is caused by solution of White Limestone at the spring line. The Lady Well area is the site of several strong springs and that they were formerly, if no longer, highly charged with dissolved calcium carbonate is evident from the great deposit of tufa below Bridewell Farm. Any original shape of the strata downhill will, of course, increase the power of the spring.
Cambering occurs at two horizons in the Evenlode valley; at the junction of the Clypeus Grit, Chipping Norton Limestone and Taynton Stone with the Upper Lias, and a the junction of the White Limestone with the Hampen Marly Beds.
FAULTS
1. River valley in limestone. 2. The river has cut down through the limestone and is running on clay. 3. Cambering developed with valley bulging, or upwelling of clay in the valley bottom. Thin limestone appears in valley bottom above its proper position (dotted) and with a high dip.
Stresses in rocks are sometimes relieved by cracks with permanent displacement of the strata. The surface of fracture is called a fault. There are no important faults in the area. The 1-inch Geological Survey map (Witney; Sheet 236) shows a fault extending southwards from Ashford Bridge to Holly Court Farm along the line of the stream. It is tempting to suppose that the position of the fault determined the course of the stream but Arkell interprets the structure differently. He accounts for the occurrence of Clypeus Grit near Ashford Bridge not by its being upthrown by a fault but by squeezing up in a valley bulge.
There are no cambers in the Wilcote Valley because the ancient Windrush had not cut down through the White Limestone. VALLEY BULGES The conditions which produce cambers can also cause valley bulges. Thick beds of limestone exert pressure on the underlying clay. Where a stream cuts through the limestone to the clay a release of pressure takes place in the valley bottom with upwelling of clay and other strata (see diagram 3 above). This seems to be the explanation for the anomalous structure in the bottom of the Evenlode valley, where strata, often with a high dip, appear above their expected stratigraphical position.
PLEISTOCENE DEPOSITS The oldest Pleistocene deposits are the patches of Northern Drift, so called because it is derived from rocks north of the area in which it occurs and because it entered our area from the north by way of the Moreton gap. It consists mainly of rounded pebbles of brown quartzite about the size of a fist. These are mixed with other boulders, sometimes as much as 1 ft. across, of great lithological
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Excavations at Shakenoak variety implying derivation from a very wide area. The boulders are set in a mass of finer gravel sand and loam, and usually the whole mass seems to be churned into the underlying Jurassic clay. The lack of stratification and the fact that some boulders bear ice-scratches points to deposition from ice (see Sandford 1926, p. 106).
HANBOROUGH GRAVEL This deposit lies about 30 ft lower than the Freeland gravel and is quite different in appearance. It is about 15 ft thick and is composed of water-worn pebbles of Jurassic limestone. It contains remains of straight-tusked elephant, rhinoceros, and other vertebrates, which are said to indicate warm-climate conditions (Sandford - 1924). This thick deposit represents the flood plain probably of the first Interglacial across which the river meandered in a belt about three-quarters of a mile wide.
The distribution of the Northern Drift supports this view for it lies at a variety of heights from 649 ft O.D. at Waterman’s Lodge in Wychwood Forest, to about 300 ft lower around Cogges, east of Witney. Across the Thames on Cumnor Hurst and Boars Hill it reaches heights over 500 ft again. The patches occupy a belt about 8 miles wide extending south-eastwards from the Moreton Gap along the high ground bordering the Evenlode valley, past Oxford and on towards the Goring Gap and the London basin.
Subsequent elevation of the land increased the power of the river causing it to cut down and etch its meanders in the bedrock. The “normal” process of valley formation is that the river lowers its bed towards base level. Then the meanders gradually migrate downstream by undercutting of the banks, thus trimming off the spurs or meander-cores. A trench-like valley results in which the river once again meanders freely across a new flood plain.
The evidence suggests that the Evenlode – Thames drainage line already existed by glacial times and that it was invaded by a tongue of ice from the main ice-sheet piled up against the Cotswolds.
After Hanborough times the Evenlode became less and less powerful and was unable to trim off the meander spurs so that its course was now confirmed within the ancient incised meanders. A comparison of the modern river’s tiny meanders with the amplitude of the old ones shows how the volume of water has decreased.
The Northern Drift is the source of “foreign” rocks which settlers in Roman times and later found useful as whetstones, “pot-boilers”, cobbles and so on. TERRACED NORTHERN DRIFT GRAVELS
There are several probable reasons for the lessening flow. One is the loss of Windrush water as discussed below, though this seems to have taken place even before Hanborough times. Another is the loss of supply through capture of the headwaters of the Evenlode by streams flowing towards the Stour and the Avon. These same streams, instead of being swollen by their captured water, are also too small for their valleys so that there must be other more general reasons for diminution of the Evenlode. It may be that rainfall was formerly greater, or that supply of water was more seasonal due to such causes as springtime melting of snowfields. The subject is more fully discussed by Arkell (1947). A paper by Bishop suggests that the Evenlode was periodically swollen by overflow from Lake Harrison, the meltwater impounded on the south by the Jurassic escarpment and on the other sides by the ice sheets.
After retreat of the ice which left the Northern Drift behind the Evenlode resumed its course, and aided by solifluxion and tributary streams it began to carry away the glacial debris. Later on, when for one reason or another the carrying-power of the river diminished, it dumped this same material and spread it across its flood plain as sheets of gravel. Later again, rejuvenated by increased water supply, greater fall, or reduced load, the river excavated a deeper valley through its earlier flood plain leaving remnants of old gravels as terraces on the valley sides. The cycle of changes from aggradation to down-cutting has recurred at least five or six times in the Oxford area. In the Evenlode valley the two oldest terraces are named Combe and Freeland from the localities where they mainly occur. The Combe terrace gravel lies on the north side of the valley at 380 - 395 ft O.D., or 160 - 175 ft above the river. The Freeland terrace gravel is found south of the river at heights of 350 - 365 ft O.D., or 130 - 145 ft above the stream. These gravels represent delta-like expansions of the Evenlode near its confluence with the ancient Thames. They are composed of Northern Drift materials, quartzite, vein quartz, etc. In general the Freeland gravel is made up of smaller pebbles than the Combe gravel, and is noticeably sandy. Neither contains any Jurassic limestone.
Another interesting problem which may be mentioned here is why the Combe and Freeland gravels are composed solely of quartzitic material with no limestone, while the later river gravels consist almost entirely of limestone pebbles. One suggested reason is that the Combe and Freeland gravels have been decalcified (Sandford). Another is that during the formation of these two gravels the ground was so frozen that no limestone was available. This in turn suggests that they were deposited in a glacial period and, conversely, that maximum glacial conditions did not obtain during deposition of the limestone gravels.
Patches of gravel which by their position and composition belong to the Freeland stage of river development are found on the sides of the Wilcote valley. These are discussed further in the notes on the origin of the valley.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Of more general archaeological interest is the single human artefact found in the Hanborough gravel (Arkell 1947c). This is an unrolled late Abbevillian or early Acheulean palaeolith, a type belonging in time to an early interglacial, perhaps the first.
Interglacial
Northmoor gravel
Glacial
Erosion
Post-glacial
Alluvium
LATER GRAVELS
RECENT DEPOSITS
At successively lower levels within the Evenlode Gorge there are deposits of limestone gravels. The oldest is Wolvercote gravel, represented only by a few very small patches. This and the others are fully described by Sandford (1924). The next lowest, and more thicklydeposited gravel is of Summertown terrace age. This is partly obscured by later brick-earth. Finally, here and there beneath the alluvium are deposits of the latest gravels, the Northmoor terrace.
Since the end of the Ice Age the Evenlode has been aggrading its bed, gradually building up the deposit of alluvial silts and clays on the valley floor. In places hard-water springs have deposited considerable amounts of tufa. The notable example in our area is at Bridewell Farm where it is said to be at least 8 ft thick (Arkell 1947, p. 247). Tufa can be seen at the farm in the banks of the Shakenoak stream and can be traced downstream for about half a mile. Upstream from the farm for another quarter of a mile it is proved by the auger and by the subsoil brought up in mole heaps. It does not seem to have been worked economically in recent times but it is presumably the source of tufa used at Shakenoak (Part I, p. 19). Pieces of tufa cut from the sides of the stream are so crumbly that it seems an unlikely building material. It may be that it hardens slowly on exposure to air as many other building stones-do, or that harder material occurs in the heart of the deposit.
SUMMARY OF PLEISTOCENE EVENTS The Hanborough gravel contains a warm climate fauna as mentioned above. The main part of the Summertown gravel also has a “warm fauna”, though the lowest part contains woolly mammoth, a “cold form”. This suggests that deposition of limestone gravels took place mainly in interglacial times, beginning quite early before “warm species” had migrated in. Each time the climate became warmer great quantities of frost-shattered limestone were released from the grip of ice and were sludged downhill by solifluxion. The river was unable to carry the greatly increased load and so began to deposit gravel. When the debris had been cleared from the hillsides or when glacial conditions returned, the reduction of load relative to volume of water allowed the river to lower its bed.
Snail shells collected from tufas of this age are at present being studied for the information they yield on past climatic changes. ORIGIN OF THE WILCOTE VALLEY The Wilcote Valley appears to have been a former course of the Windrush. It flowed north-eastwards from Crawley, by Halley, Delly End, Gigley Farm, Shakenoak, Bridewell Farm, Holly Court Farm, and joined the Evenlode at Ashford Mill. The valley was abandoned when a tributary of the Thames eroded headwards far enough to break into the Windrush valley and by offering a lower course diverted it along its present valley.
With these ideas in mind the following generalised sequence of events can be constructed. A somewhat different interpretation is given by Bishop (p. 303). Glacial period
Entry of Northern Drift ice lobe Erosion Combe gravel Erosion Freeland gravel Erosion
Interglacial period
Hanborough gravel deposited and meanders initiated
Glacial
Erosion; Hanborough incised by meltwaters
This idea seems to have first been put forward by Pocock (pp. 92, 93). It was discussed by Morley Davies (p. 91) who suggested that the Bridewell Farm - Holly Court Farm loop might represent an abandoned meander of the ancient Evenlode. However, he recognised gravels of Hanborough age farther up the valley from Bridewell Farm and thought that this therefore pointed to the Windrush rather than the Evenlode as the former occupant of the valley. The alignment and amplitude of the bend also seems more consistent with a Windrush meander.
meanders
I examined the gravels in the Wilcote Valley to see if the terraces above Bridewell Farm do exist. The Geological Survey 1-inch sheet (Witney; 236) shows two patches. One is 100 - 200 yards south- south-east of Bridewell Farm, the other is about 500 yards south-southwest of Bridewell. The first appears not to be a gravel deposit at all, or else the gravel has been spread by ploughing. There is no obvious
Great Interglacial Wolvercote gravel. This thin deposit represents a short interglacial time Erosion; meanders deepened Summertown gravel Glacial
Erosion
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Excavations at Shakenoak Arkell (1947a, p. 101) describes the events as follows: “... it was at or before the Freeland stage that the Windrush last flowed into the Evenlode by way of the Bridewell Farm – Holly Court Farm valley (at Gigley Farm). The valley is blocked by a deposit of Northern Drift at a minimum height of 355 ft. O.D. The amphitheatre-like ridge of high Oxford Clay at North Leigh and Perrotts Hill represents the last meander cliff of the old river, at the foot of which its gravels still cling to the spurs.”
terrace form and although the ploughed earth is full of small subangular fragments of limestone, deep furrows go down to rubbly limestone 9 in - 12 in below the surface. The second is easily recognised as a river terrace but it has no limestone gravel. The ploughed earth is full of quartzite pebbles 2 in - 3 in long, and almost no limestone. This contrasts strongly with the field slopes surrounding the terrace where the stony soil is full of blocks of limestone. This patch of Northern Drift gravel is at the same O.D. height as a patch immediately west of Bridewell Farm, shown on Arkell’s map (1947a) as Freeland gravel.
The patch of Northern Drift at Gigley Farm separating the Windrush end of the Wilcote Valley from the Evenlode end is unusual in two respects. It lies on limestone, and it lies at a lower level than the surrounding patches. Its surface slopes gently towards the southern bank. It is described as Unbedded Drift (Richardson 1946, pp. 110, 115) but I have not seen any section of it. It may be Northern Drift which the river had not finished reworking before it was diverted or it may have been sludged into the abandoned valley during a period of solifluxion after Freeland times.
Farther down the valley, at North Leigh church, there is gravel with a clear terrace form, and according to Pocock (p. 92) there is 7 ft or more of quartzite gravel. Arkell’s map shows another patch of Freeland gravel a quarter of a mile east by north of North Leigh Church. The western edge of this patch is perched 10 ft or so above the next field where an old quarry has lowered the ground. The section is much overgrown but shows some limestone gravel with the following apparent relations: 1 ft 6 in
Earth with quartzite pebbles and blocks of White Limestone.
4 in - 6 in
Limestone gravel. Blocks up to 3 in long with rounded edges, the fragments smaller than 1 in. are well-rounded. Large admixture of sand-sized particles. “Ravined”, into:
3 in
White marl
1 ft 6 in
White Limestone
REFERENCES Arkell, W.J., 1947. The Geology of Oxford, Clarendon Press. Arkell, W.J., 1947a. ‘The Geology of the Evenlode Gorge’, Proceedings of the Geologists' Association, Vol. 58, pp. 87-114. Arkell, W.J., 1947b. Oxford Stone, Faber and Faber. Arkell. W.J.,1947c. ‘A Palaeolith from the Hanborough Terrace’, Oxoniensia, Vol. XI, pp. 1-4. Arkell, W.J., 1948. 'The Building-stones of Blenheim, Cornbury Park, Glympton Park, and Heythrop House, Oxfordshire', Oxoniensia, Vol. XW. pp. 49-54. Bather, F.A., 1886. ‘Liassic and Oolitic Rocks of Fawler…’ Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 42 , pp. 143-145. Beckinsale, R.P., 1970. ‘Physical Problems of Cotswold Rivers and Valleys’. Proceedings of the Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club, 1970, Vol. 25, Pt. 4, pp. 194-205. Bishop, W.W., 1958. ‘The Pleistocene Geology and Geomorphology of Three Gaps in the Midland Jurassic Escarpment’. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., Ser. B, Vol. 241, pp. 255-306. Davies, A.M., 1923. ‘The Abandonment of Entrenched Meanders’. Proc. Geologists’ Assoc., Vol. 34, pp. 81-96. Hull, E., 1859. 'The Geology of the Country around Woodstock', Memoir of the Geological Survey. Hull, E., 1860. ‘On the Blenheim Iron Ore…’, The Geologist, Vol. 3, pp. 302-305. Pocock. T.J., 1908. ‘The Geology of the country around Oxford’, Mem. Geol. Survey. Pringle, J., 1926. ‘The Geology of the Country around Oxford’, Mem. Geol. Survey. Richardson, L., 1910. ‘Excursion to Stonesfield and
Rest obscured by quarry scree and blackthorn This limestone gravel may represent the relic of a Hanborough terrace banked against the hill just below the Freeland terrace, and long ago removed by quarrying. It is at the same O.D. height as the only undoubted Hanborough gravel in the Wilcote Valley, the patch about half a mile south-east of Holly Court Farm (Richardson 1946, p. 115 and Plate 6B). Finally, the Geological Survey map marks two small patches of Hanborough gravel west-north-west of Holly Court Farm on each side of the Ashford Mill - North Leigh road. This is the middle of the old meander core where gravel would be most likely to be preserved. However, although Pocock (p. 92) mentions a gravel pit here, the ground shows no convincing signs of a river terrace. In the Wilcote Valley then, there are several patches of Freeland gravel, one at least 7 ft. thick, while the Hanborough gravels are very thin and poorly represented. This suggests that by Hanborough times the valley had been abandoned by the Windrush, leaving only a small tributary to the Evenlode.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker such soils. So we have to rely on general information about vegetation in southern Britain, collected from acid areas. Of course there is a lot of local information from the excavations, which can help us. Such an exercise is worth trying, since a knowledge of the sort of environment in which these people were living, and which they were themselves modifying, can help us to understand some of their activities, and to build up a mental picture of the kind of life they lived.
Fawler’, Proc. Cotteswold Naturalists’ Field Club. Vol. 17 pp. 28-31. Richardson, L. 1946. ‘The Geology of the Country around Witney’, Mem. Geol. Survey. Sandford, K.S., 1924. ‘The River Gravels of the Oxford District’. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. Lond., Vol. 80. pp. 113-179. Sandford, K.S., 1926. ‘Pleistocene Deposits’, in Pringle, 1926. Whitehead, T.H., and others, 1952. ‘The Liassic Ironstones’, Mem. Geol. Survey. Woodward, H.B., 1893. ‘The Jurassic Rocks of Britain. Vol. 3, The Lias’, Mem. Geol. Survey.
PRE-HUMAN VEGETATION Since later changes in vegetation depend almost entirely on what was there at the beginning, a brief account of the vegetation which probably occupied the area before human occupation should serve as the starting point.
CHANGES IN VEGETATION AT SHAKENOAK
The major part of southern Britain was covered by forest from about 7000 B.C. until clearance by Man began. It was primarily a mixed-oak forest (Quercus spp.) with a mixture of other tree species. Alder (Alnus glutinosa) was alway associated with the oak, and was sometimes very common indeed elsewhere elm (Ulmus spp.) and lime (Tilia cordata) were present, especially on base-rich soils. Dimbleby (personal communication) has a Neolithic soil pollen profile from Ascott-under-Wychwood which suggests that clearance had taken place in lime-hazel woodland. There is a good deal of evidence suggesting that alder was very widespread in these primeval forests. Conditions under full forest cover were much more humid than in contemporary woodlands, and alder was not confined to poorly drained soils, as it is now. It is therefore likely that in this area the forest was a mixture of oak and alder, elm and lime, with local variation in the proportions of the species; alder was commoner in the valleys, for instance.
by S.R.J. WOODELL In the last thirty years a reasonably good picture has been constructed of the major changes which have occurred in British and western European vegetation since the Ice Age. In recent years the effects of early human influences have been recognized and documented. The major source of information on these changes is fossil pollen, which is analyzed by the careful sampling of sequential layers in peat or lake muds, and the counting and identification of preserved pollen grains. In addition soil pollen analysis, especially of layers of soil buried beneath buildings, for instance, is very important in archaeology. Areas of human habitation provide concentrations of materials which have been accumulated on the sites, and while these may give a biased picture, since certain plants and animals will have been preferentially used, they can help fill out the background provided by other methods. There is a great deal of additional information to be gleaned from a variety of other sources. Larger plant fossil remains, such as seeds, twigs, and in areas of settlement, charcoal, are commonly used. Soil type may have changed over a couple of millennia and buried soils can give valuable clues as to what was there in the past. Dimbleby (1967) has made good use of these. Land molluscs, insects, small mammal bones as well as those of birds and other vertebrates are all useful. The bones of domesticated animals are often important.
It is not easy to imagine the kind of forest this was from our own experience of the modern British managed woodland. Most western European woodland is managed and kept tidy, often planted for timber and harvested before the trees grow old. Fallen branches are cleared away, not left to rot. What little virgin forest there is left in the north temperate zone is very different. In most virgin stands many of the larger trees are heart-rotten and up to 50 per cent of the total volume of timber may be dead; fallen and standing. Leaving aside the question whether virgin forests are more often even-aged, because of frequent catastrophes, or mixed age, the result of long undisturbed periods (Jones, 1945), the overall aspect of the forest would be very different from what we are used to. The presence of large numbers of dead trees on the forest floor, in all stages of decomposition, would make passage through it very difficult. Gaps in the canopy caused by the death of individual trees would permit the temporary establishment of a lush herbage, and of shrubs such as hawthorn (Crataegus spp.) and hazel (Corylus avellana). To our eyes it would look very untidy. A further difference was in the form of the trees. The gnarled stunted trees that we think of as characteristic oaks are the result of their
Using all these lines of evidence, and given the general background of vegetational and climatic change, one can construct an (admittedly) speculative picture of what local changes, consequent upon human activity, may have occurred at a place like Shakenoak. Unfortunately in an area where the substrata are of limestone or other base-rich rocks, the information is less complete, since pollen preservation is poor or nonexistent. The reason for this is that microbial and fungal activity is very high in basic soils, and even the resistant outer coat of the pollen grains is destroyed, whereas in acid soils, or anaerobic sediments such as lake muds, breakdown is slow or negligible and most pollen analyses have come from
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Excavations at Shakenoak present. These include rye, the vine, mulberry, plum and medlar, peas and many culinary herbs. Along with these there would have been many weeds, among them ground elder (Aegopodium podagraria), corn cockle (Agrostemma githago), various buttercups, thistles and other weeds of pasture and arable land (see Godwin, 1956, (p. 342) for a list of such species). Some of these plants were undoubtedly native and merely had their ranges extended by the Romans. Others were probably introduced. Aegopodium may have been introduced by the Romans as a medicinal plant; it was used to treat gout, and it is thought that the Romans were unusually afflicted with this disease. The native species, and in particular many of the arable weeds, were widespread in the early Post-Glacial period before forest covered most of Britain. This was because after the retreat of the ice large areas of open, base-rich soil were left exposed. These were ideal habitats for “weedy” species which are opportunists, exploiting open habitats until they are no longer able to compete with the more stable vegetation that later succeeds them. During the period of maximum forest spread many of these plants survived in small refuges: areas uncolonized by trees, such as sand dunes, river banks, lake drift-lines, cliffs and screes. The clearance of forest and subsequent cultivation by Man gave these opportunist plants a chance to spread again. One of the clearest indications in the pollen diagrams of the influence of Man is the appearance of plantain (Plantago) pollen.
growing widely spaced or alone. In virgin forest they are tall, straight-trunked, elegant specimens (Plate 1 in Dimbleby (1967) shows this sort of growth). Such forests would have been formidable barriers to primitive men with stone axes. THE FIRST EFFECTS OF MAN Change in these forests began about 3000 B.C. and it is reflected in the pollen diagrams. One of the most notable changes at first was a decrease in elm and an increase in birch (Betula spp.) and ash (Fraxinus excelsior). Alder also decreased, probably as a result of the micro-climate becoming less humid. There has been a good deal of controversy as to how much these changes were the result of a climatic deterioration, and how much a consequence of selective felling by Man. Though there is some evidence of climatic change, which resulted in an increase in the ratio between precipitation and evaporation and a consequent vegetational change, most authorities now believe the changes in forest composition, especially the increase in birch, to be anthropogenic (Pennington, 1969). The elm decline can be traced to its use as a fodder for stalled cattle. It was selectively felled for this purpose (Troels-Smith, 1960). Elm was also a source of food, and fibre, and because of its value to early Man was one of the first species to suffer from his depredations. Neolithic clearance was mostly temporary, rather similar to present-day Tropical “slash-and-burn” agriculture. The abandoned land reverted to forest, but this secondary forest was of a different type: elm was slow to recover and birch and ash were established and maintained themselves. Both of these species were responding to the more open conditions. In the Shakenoak region there is no evidence of permanent pre-Roman settlement, but it is probable that temporary clearances took place in the area. Perhaps some of the earliest clearance was for cattle-grazing rather than agriculture. This may have taken place locally even in Mesolithic times.
One envisages, then, that Shakenoak during the Roman occupation was a farm partly under arable crops and partly pastureland. The presence of sheep and ox bones indicates a fair population of grazing animals, and sheep are not normally grazed in forest, though cattle may be. Much of the land immediately surrounding the farm would have been woodland and scrub. Pigs would have been of major importance in grazing there. Just what the nature of this woodland was must be a matter for speculation. Though there was a large quantity of oak in the timber investigated by Dimbleby (Part I, p. 72) this is not necessarily an indication of its predominance in the forest, since it may well have been selected for some domestic purpose. However it was no doubt an important component. Birch was also found on the site and was no doubt present in the woodland. Hawthorn and hazel are shrubs which appear in clearings in mature forest, and they are important species in the succession back from grassland to forest. Hawthorn in particular is quick to invade abandoned grassland on calcareous soils today. What we cannot know is whether the woodland was grazed mainly by pigs or cattle, and it is worth discussing briefly the different effects these animals have on woodland.
The Romans almost certainly had to clear forest here, but much of it may have been secondary forest of the kind envisaged above. The nearness of Wychwood Forest, now much reduced in size, supports the belief that the Romans would have had to clear forest. A further point worth mentioning is that a pollen analysis carried out by Dimbleby (personal communication) from nearby Eynsham Park showed oak-hazel forest under the Iron Age camp there. Further, Diinbleby’s analyses show that bracken (Pteridium aquilinum) was an important component of the vegetation in the forest. It is still so today, even on the calcareous soils of Wychwood. THE ROMANS
Cattle grazing in woodland leads to the elimination of most of the woodland species, especially the herbaceous plants of the forest floor. The soil is consolidated by their trampling and grassy vegetation spreads. Tree regeneration is suppressed: the germination and establishment of tree seedlings is difficult, and those which are established are
The Romans extended cereal growing in Britain, and the wheat found in Building A, room I, Period 3b (Part I, p. 69) indicates that it was grown locally. There is no evidence of other crops, but it seems likely that several of the crops grown widely by the Romans would have been 271
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker then it seems likely that the numbers of oxen on the farm must have been higher than is reflected in the numbers of bones from that period. If this was so, then after the Roman occupation, the proportions of sheep and pigs must have increased, and there was probably a steep decline in the numbers of oxen. This is an arguable interpretation of the figures on p. 000. If this was the case, then the effects on the vegetation can be postulated. We know that agricultural activity had dropped to a very low level by the end of the Roman occupation.
browsed. Pigs, on the other hand, are believed to have encouraged forest regeneration. They stamp the seeds into the soil, where they are more likely to germinate than on the surface, and where they are protected from small mammals which would eat them. Pigs also churn up the soil and aerate it, and they destroy mice, voles, slugs and snails which would eat the seeds and seedlings. Thus we can imagine two possible extremes for the forest around Shakenoak. With predominantly cattle grazing there would have been a gradually ageing oak woodland with grass beneath. As time went on and old trees died, this would change almost imperceptibly to grassland. If pigs were the grazing animals, there would have been an all-age, regenerating woodland, probably partly open and colonized by ash and birch, and by shrubs such as hazel and hawthorn. In view of the large numbers of pig bones on the site (Part I, p. 72) I would regard the latter alternative as more likely. Of course a mixture of grazing animals would produce something between these extremes. The intensity of grazing and the length of the period during which it took place must also have affected the situation. What kind of forest it was will have had a considerable effect on what happened when it was released from this grazing pressure.
Succession back to forest would have occurred. The reduction in oxen and increase in pigs would encourage this, for the reasons given earlier. What was this secondary forest like? It can be assumed that there was no lack of seed-parents in the surrounding area. At the present time in southern Britain, high forest can be re-established by natural regeneration in less than a century. In Saxon times, in an area surrounded by forest, forest would be well-developed in less than a century. The presence of frog bones in the material from this period indicates that stream drainage had eased or was less efficient (the present level of the stream is well above that of Roman times). This poorly drained valley would soon develop a dense swampy woodland, probably with alder as a major component. Alder was possibly present in charcoal from this time (p. 252). Elsewhere, on the better drained limestones, oak would still be a prominent species. For the reasons stated earlier, there would not have been much elm, and lime never recovered to its former levels after Man had begun clearance. Birch and ash were likely to have been common, especially in the earlier stages. If forest succession went to completion these two species would decline as the oak canopy became more complete. Similarly hazel and hawthorn would have responded to increased shade by declining in vigour and quantity. If succession was not allowed to go to completion these last four species would have been very common, with ash more frequent on the better drained soils, and birch commoner on wetter soils.
Beyond the immediate area of the farm there were probably large tracts of forest, barely penetrated except for hunting, especially in the clay vales. Large populations of deer roamed in these forests. It must be realized that this landscape was certainly not static. Population changes, and the ebb and flow of economic fortunes must have led to fluctuations in the area under cultivation, in the numbers and nature of grazing animals, and consequently in the amount and type of woodland. Any reduction in the intensity of farming would allow the forest to press back in again. What is fairly certain is that much land fell into disuse when the Roman occupation came to an end. THE SAXON PERIOD The period following the collapse of the Roman administration was marked by abandonment of much farmland in the better-drained areas of Britain, and in addition the Saxons turned their attention to the lowland clay regions, which had been avoided previously. Much of the farmland on the limestone went out of cultivation, and it passed through a natural succession from grassland through scrub to woodland. It is the nature of these changes, the type of woodland that resulted, and the detailed changes that took place at Shakenoak that present the most difficult problem. However the fact that farming is believed to have been at little more than subsistence level (above, p. 130) does give us a starting point.
One species about which there has been a good deal of speculation is beech (Fagus sylvatica). It was present, probably in very small quantity, before Man came on the scene in southern Britain. After the clearance by the Romans, and subsequent abandonment of the land on their departure, beech appears to have come into its own, especially on the chalk, and to a lesser extent the limestone of southern England. The reasons for this are not clearly established, but it is a phenomenon which can be paralleled elsewhere, with other species. What seems likely is that beech cannot invade mature oak forest in competition with the oaks, even though the climate may have changed in its favour. After oak is removed, however, beech is able to enter the succession, and once established it can maintain itself and prevent oak from becoming dominant again. (Beech has been helped in some areas by deliberate cultivation in the last few centuries.) It may well have become an important tree around Shakenoak at the end of
Evidence from bones on the site (above, p. 251) must be used circumspectly, since they represent what was used rather than what animals were there. However we can make some inferences. If the Romans had exported meat,
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Excavations at Shakenoak
the Roman occupation.
REFERENCES Dimbleby, G.W. (1967): Plants and Archaeology, London. Godwin, H. (1956): The History of the British Flora, Cambridge. Jones, E.W. (1945): “The structure and reproduction of the virgin forest of the north temperate zone”, New Phytol., 44, 130. Pennington. W. (1969): The History of British Vegetation, London. Troels-Srnith. J. (1960: “Ivy, Mistletoe and Elm. Climate indicators - fodder plants.” Danm. geol. Unders., Series 4, 4, 4-32.
CONCLUSION: THE SAXON FOREST We have seen that the forest which recolonized the area in Saxon times was very different from that primeval forest that existed before Man arrived on the scene. The one species of tree which probably remained important throughout the whole period we have discussed was oak. Its associates had changed from the alder, elm and lime of the pre-Neolithic period, to ash, birch and beech, with alder confined to the poorly drained valleys. Furthermore it was a much more open forest, with a much larger quantity of shrubs such as hawthorn, hazel, dogwood and others. There was less debris on the forest floor; much of this would have disappeared over the previous 500 years. Its exact composition must have depended on the quantity, nature and intensity of grazing, and no doubt it fluctuated with the fortunes of the local population. I would expect it to have been a mixed-age forest in Saxon times, actively regenerating under the influence of pig grazing. In the Shakenoak district there would have been a large area under grassland, if the numbers of sheep bones is indicative of a large sheep population.
I am indebted to Professor G.W. Dimbleby for his very valuable advice and comments, and to Miss M. J. Bailey for her criticism of the manuscript.
THE MOLLUSCA by A.J. CAIN A collection of snails from the Period F.4 deposit between F.380ft and F.420ft was examined, with the following results.
I do not think it would be too unrealistic to picture Shakenoak in Saxon times as a settlement immediately surrounded by open weedy ground, possibly with some arable crops. On the stream-side a dense alder woodland would cover the wet soil created by impeded drainage. Beyond the fields was sheep and cattle-grazed grassland, merging through scrub into mixed-age woodland, with much understory scrub and well-developed herbaceous vegetation. It would be not unlike a neglected parkland of today, with its open grazed areas and overgrown fox coverts, but on a much larger scale, and with much more woodland. Beyond this there would have been dense forest, much as it was in Roman times.
A. SMALL SHELLS IN EARTH INSIDE LARGE SHELLS Succinea putris L. Cochlicopa sp. Vallonia excentrica Sterki Ena montana (Drap.) Marpessa laminata (Montagu) Clausilia bidentata (Ström) Cecilioides acicula (Aftiller) Hygromia hispida (L.) (apparently concinna type) Helicella itala (L.) Discus rotundatus (Müller) Oxychilid spp.
I have attempted to summarize the main changes in vegetation, land use, human activity and climate in the table.
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1 3 3 1 3 2 1 21 13 2 11
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker In the previous report on Roman material, the rather small sample had a similar facies - unbanded 2, midbanded 1, “fivebanded” 19, 00345 etc. 2. Several more samples of Roman date from Shakenoak have since been seen and give when combined unbanded 24, midbanded 10, “fivebanded” 50, 00345 etc. 5. As there maybe some heterogeneity between these Roman samples (to be expected since some are small, and moreover Cepaea morph frequencies can vary significantly over 50 yards) it seems that no difference can be asserted between morph frequencies in Roman and Anglo-Saxon times. As banding frequencies appear to vary with large changes in climate (Currey and Cain, 1968; Cain, 1971) such a constancy is not surprising. All the samples, moreover, point to a habitat of rough herbage with occasional bushes or hedgerows, not to dense woodland in which one finds, in the Oxford district (Cain and Sheppard, 1954), considerably more effectively unbanded shells – all those with at least the upper two bands missing - because of predation by thrushes and, no doubt, other birds. The morph frequencies, therefore, confirm the deductions from the list of small species.
Except that in the Roman sample previously reported (Part I, p. 72) there were a few aquatic species (perhaps gathered in water used to mix the cement for the floors and walls), the above assemblage gives much the same impression as before. S. putris is a marsh and riverbank species. Most of the rest suggest rather dry, very calcareous ground, except that H. hispida takes to rather dense and damp vegetation. The absence of several expected species is surely due merely to the small size of the sample. M. laminata and E. montana suggest woodland, scrub, or old hedges; Vallonia is definitely non-woodland, as is Helicella. B. LARGER SPECIES Helix pomatia L.
7 adults and fragments of 3 others at least 36 adults, 11 juveniles 4 adults, 1 juvenile
Helix aspersa (Müller) Arianta arbustorum (L.) Cepaea hortensis (Müller) unbanded 45 “fivebanded” 32 “fivebanded” with some fusions of bands 5 faded 1 Cepaea nemoralls (L.) unbanded 8 (2 were browns) midbanded 12 “fivebanded” 101 00345 etc. 17 Cepaea juveniles, species uncertain numerous
REFERENCES Cain, A.J., 1971. ‘Colour and banding morphs in subfossil samples of the snail Cepaca’. Chapter 4 (pp. 65-92) in Creed, R. (ed.), Ecological Genetics and Evolution. Oxford and Edinburgh; Blackwell Scientific Publications. Cain, A.J. and Sheppard, P.M., 1954. ‘Natural selection in Cepaea’. Genetics, 39. 89-116. Currey, J.D. and Cain, A.J., 1968. ‘Studies on Cepaca IV. Climate and selection of banding morphs incepaca from the climatic optimum to the present day’. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Ser. B. 253, 483-498.
H. pomatia is the so-called Roman snail, which appears in Britain only a little while before the Romans and is unknown in early and middle Holocene deposits. H. aspersa is the Common Snail, an abundant weed species in close relation to human activity, except in the mildest parts of Britain where it occurs in natural habitats. The banding morphs of C. nemoralis show a very close resemblance to those common in the Oxford district at the present day, in particular in the abundance of “fivebandeds” – i.e. those with the full five bands, 12345, or with slight modifications - and in the presence of forms with the top two bands missing, 00345, with the middle band reduced as well, 00:45, or with the top three missing, 00045.
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Part IV Site C
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Excavations at Shakenoak A.3b), surviving into the early decades of the fifth century. In the late fourth century an enclosure ditch (Period F.1) was constructed to the north of the stream. A timber structure (D) dated from the middle of the fourth century.
1. Site C (National Grid Reference SP 375138, O.S. 6 in map SP 31 SE) The Roman and Anglo-Saxon sites at Shakenoak Farm, Oxfordshire, lie on both sides of a small stream in the Wilcote valley some one and a half miles south of Akeman Street (Fig. IV.1). The geology and ecology of the area have been discussed elsewhere (Part III, pp. 261, 270) as has the Anglo-Saxon occupation of the region (Part III, p. 194). The Roman occupation of the area is indicated in Fig. IV.1. Shakenoak was probably continuously occupied from the last quarter of the first century A.D. to the middle of the eighth century. Evidence for occupation before c. A.D. 70-90 is at present inconclusive, and consists of a circular hut (Period B.1) and a few objects of pre-Flavian date, all of which came from Flavian or later deposits.
SUB-ROMAN PERIOD The final occupation of Building A ended in c. A.D. 420430, when it was probably being used by a small detachment of soldiers of Germanic origin (Part I, p. 61; Part III, pp. 208, 210). Further evidence of such occupation came from deposits dating to the Middle of the fifth century in the enclosure ditch (Period F.3). ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD The enclosure ditch produced many objects indicative of agriculture – especially animal husbandry – as well as woollen cloth production, and iron smelting and smithing, mostly dating from the sixth century to the eighth century (Period F.4). Site B produced material from the late seventh and mid-eighth centuries (Period B.6). Site A contained nine inhumations, forming part of the cemetery discussed below (p. 298). The evidence of two AngloSaxon charters has been discussed elsewhere (Part III, p. 255).
The occupation can be divided into four major periods, covering all Shakenoak: EARLIER ROMAN PERIOD A Flavian corridor house (Period B.2a) lying to the north of the stream underwent successive extensions (Periods B.2b and B.3a) up to the middle of the third century. An aisled barn (Period A.1) was added to the south of the stream at the beginning of the second century, and this was replaced later in the century by a larger agricultural building (Period A.2).
This report describes Site C, which forms the south-eastern quarter of the central area of the Roman villa. The site contains a second-century bath-house (Building C) and various other features of Roman date, as well as a further 13 Anglo-Saxon inhumations. (Figs. IV.3, IV.7, IV.13, IV.16).
LATER ROMAN PERIOD Building B, the main dwelling house up to the first half of the third century, underwent a marked decline in living standards later in the century (Period B.3b) and was later partly demolished (Period B.4). Total demolition left Site B deserted from c. A.D. 300 on, except for a small workshop (Period B.5) in the late fourth and early fifth centuries. Building A was converted into a small dwelling house (Period A.3a) between A.D. 240 and 270 and this underwent various modifications and extensions (Period
Excavations are completed on Site E, a circular mound some 100 ft in diameter; Site F west of F.500 ft and Site J, both containing the late fourth-century enclosure ditch and material of the fifth to eighth centuries; Site G, where surface finds suggest Anglo-Saxon iron smelting; and Site K, which contains features of Roman date. Site H, a Bronze Age feature, has been described (Part II, p. 79).
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immediate vicinity of Building A. Most of Site C was abandoned and used as a rubbish tip. The sub-Roman period was represented, if at all, by the belt-fitting (below, p. 298), which could perhaps better be considered as a late Roman object. In the Anglo-Saxon period Site C was not occupied, but was used as a burial ground and produced only one artefact (coin no. 676) indisputably of this period.
NOTES (i) Sites and buildings at Shakenoak are designated by capital letters, rooms in buildings by Roman numerals, major periods of construction and occupation by Arabic numerals, and subdivisions of these periods by lower-case letters. Thus, "A.IV.3b" denotes Building A, room IV, Period 3b levels. On each site the earliest period of construction has been labelled 1, the next 2, and so on. As a result there is no "Period 2" applicable to all Shakenoak, and it is necessary to specify the site as well as the period thus: A.3b, B.4, and so on. Fig. IV.4 shows the relationships between the various periods of the different sites.
THE EARLIER ROMAN PERIOD THE CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDING C: PERIOD C. 1 The history of Building C (Fig. IV.13) was not easily interpreted as it had been demolished to ground level at the end of the second century and extensively robbed in later Roman times. A drainage ditch was cut through the middle of the building in the nineteenth century, and the cutting of a second ditch in 1961, parallel to and immediately beside its predecessor, further increased the destruction.*
(ii) For ease of reference the serial numbers allotted to objects described and illustrated in these reports run in sequence, as far as is practicable, from one report to the next. Thus, as the coarse pottery sherds published in Part I were numbered 1-146, those in Part II were numbered 147381, those in Part III were numbered 382-424, and those described in this report are numbered 425-807.
Building C, 40 ft. by 28 ft., exhibited a number of features which distinguished it from Building B. As it was sited on the low-lying, waterlogged clay of the valley bottom, great care was needed in its construction. Whereas most of the walls of Buildings A and B were seated in trenches filled with a foundation pitching of large, undressed blocks of limestone, Building C was erected on a massive stone platform. A similar but less carefully constructed platform lay beneath the southern end of Building A (Part I, p. 7). The grey clay which formed the original Romano-British topsoil in the area of Building C was first removed to expose the surface of the gritty yellow subsoil, upon which were placed large unmortared limestone blocks, about 1 ft cubes in size, with some smaller blocks in between as packing (Figs. IV.10 and IV.12, Sections C-C and E-E).
2. Detailed Description Site C contained only one building, Building C. The other major features were a fishpond (Fishpond I), the enclosure wall and the various roads, paths and paved or gravel surfaced areas (Fig. IV.7). The history of Site C can be divided into the same four periods, as can that of the rest of Shakenoak. The earlier Roman period was one of construction, most of which probably took place in the first half of the second century. The later Roman period was one of decline from the end of the second century onwards, with no new work being carried out except for the repair of roads and paths in the
*
The authors were present when this ditch was cut, and recorded the features before their destruction.
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Excavations at Shakenoak This rectangular platform lay below the six main rooms C.I - C.VI and the apse C.VII but did not extend below room C.VIII. It ran under the outer walls of the building and stopped abruptly some 3 in. outside their outer faces.
The room had direct access to the outside gravel surfaced area through a doorway in the west wall, 3 ft 10 in wide. The construction of this room is not inconsistent with that of a frigidarium, with a cold water tank standing on the stone base. The door leading out-side is, however, unexpected.
The outer walls of the building were constructed on this platform, but only to a height of two courses on the outer faces and three on the inner in the first instance (the stones used on the inner faces being smaller than those used on the outer). A second layer of unmortared, roughly dressed stones was then carefully packed in over the whole area within the outer walls, and on top of this the partition walls were constructed. The partition walls were keyed into the upper courses of the outer walls, showing that the construction proceeded simultaneously. Both the partition walls and the outer walls were then carried up for a further two courses, at which height they were finished off with a 0.5 in - 1 in thick skim of smooth cement, which was continuous with the cement bonding the stones of the lower courses of the wall. This cement surface was then covered by a new layer of cement in which was bedded the lowest course of the higher part of the wall (Fig. IV.5). It would therefore appear that the footings and superstructure of Building C were constructed in two separate operations.
Room C.I, which measured 14 ft 9 in by 9 ft 10 in, was entered from room C.II by another doorway, 3 ft 10 in wide. The impression of the wooden door-sill, consisting of a single plank 1 ft 8 in wide and 1.25 in thick extending the full width of the doorway, could be seen in the mortar in which it had been embedded. At the north-west corner of the doorway the mortar impression showed where the upright door-jamb had been socketed into the door-sill (Fig. IV.6). The floor of room C.I was much damaged, but patches of yellow cement remained along the southern side. A remarkable feature of this room was a carefully built, stone-lined well, 3 ft 11 in deep, in the north-west corner of the room (Fig. IV.14). Although it was not exactly aligned to the walls of the room, the well was not a later insertion, as it appeared not to have been cut through the pitching beneath the building but to have been built simultaneously with it. It probably functioned as a well rather than a soakaway since there was no staining or silt deposit at the bottom. It would have contained about 1 ft of water in Roman times. An obvious possibility is that it was the source of water for the supposed tank in room C.II.
The final phase of construction was the laying within the rooms of a pitching of small, flat stones set on edge at 45° and bedded in yellow mortar. Coarse yellow mortar was then poured over the pitching to give a smooth surface, which was finished off with a layer of pink cement containing pulverised brick, giving the superficial appearance of opus signinum. Room C.II, which measured 7 ft 11 in by 13 ft 1 in1, was the best preserved. The most notable feature of this room was a massive stone base in the south-east corner, which survived to a height of 10 in, but had originally been at least 2 ft 6 in high (below, p. 343). The cement floor was well preserved and sloped downwards towards the northwest corner of the room, where it was 2 in lower than along the southern edge of the room. The cement of the floor was continuous with that of the walls, which it met in a concave quarter-round fillet. The scheme of decoration and details of the superstructure of this room are discussed below (p. 343). A shallow groove in the floor, 1 in wide and extending for 10 in from the west wall of the room (plan, Fig. IV.13) suggested that a bench or similar feature had been fitted against the wall.
1
Measurements in an east-west direction are given before those in a north-south direction.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker KEY TO SECTION A-A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Pebbles and small stones. Stones of Period A.3 floor. Stones and black earth. Black earth with some stones. Yellow subsoil. Grey earth (Period A.2). Stone floor (Period A.2). Floor of big stones with gravel packing (Period A.1). Deposit of wall-plaster. Pebble path. Undisturbed natural grey clay. Rough stone paving. Paving surrounding Fishpond I. Sterile grey earth. Black earth containing mostly late fourth-century material. Grey silt. Fallen stones of revetting wall of Fishpond I. Timber. Undisturbed natural cream clay and limestone. Rammed pebbles. Small stones in grey earth. Thin scatter of small stones.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker KEY TO SECTION B-B 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Pebble floor (Period A.3b). Stones and subsoil (Period A.3a). Pebbles and mortar (Period A.2 floor surface). Large stones, pebbles and earth (Period A.2). Heavy stone pitching with gravel between stones (Period A.1). Undisturbed natural grey clay. Stony grey earth. Rough stone floor. Red earth containing late fourth-century material. Light grey silt. Paving surrounding Fishpond I. Grey silt. Fallen stones of revetting wall of Fishpond I. Timber. Undisturbed natural cream clay and limestone. Black earth containing some late fourth-century material. Sterile grey silt. Dark grey silt containing some late fourth-century material. Small stones.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker KEY TO SECTION C-C 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Black earth. Stone and pebble floor (Period A.3b). Pebbles and small stones (Period A.2). Gravel and heavy pitching (Period A.1). Undisturbed natural grey clay. Pebbles and small stones. Small stones and subsoil. Sterile brown earth. Pebbles, small stones and yellow subsoil. Mixture of gravel, yellow subsoil and debris of Building C. Debris of Building C. Brown earth containing fragments of bricks and tubulae.
13 14 15
Stones, gravel and yellow subsoil. Floor of yellow gravel (Period C.1). Brown earth and gravel fill of Period C.1 gully.
16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
Gritty yellow subsoil containing shattered limestone. Brown earth and mortar. Mortar and crushed brick. Modern silt. Black earth. Robber fill of building debris and earth. Building debris, small stones and brown earth. Small stones.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker KEY TO SECTION D-D 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22
Black earth containing late fourth-century material. Red earth containing late fourth-century material. Light grey silt. Grey silt. Timber. Rammed pebbles. Undisturbed natural cream clay and limestone. Fallen stones of revetting wall of Fishpond I. Paving surrounding Fishpond I. Orange mortar. Stones and grey earth. Earth, brick, mortar and painted plaster. Yellow subsoil, stones and clay. Undisturbed natural grey clay. Brown earth broken brick and some stones. Yellow gravel and subsoil. Yellow gravel (Period C.1). Grey earth. Undisturbed natural shattered limestone. Black earth. Grey earth. Stone paving.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker KEY TO SECTION E-E 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Sterile grey silt. Dark grey or black earth. Grey silt. Fallen stones of revetting wall of Fishpond I. Natural cream clay and limestone. Paving surrounding Fishpond I. Undisturbed natural grey clay. Floor of small stones, yellow subsoil and gravel. Gritty yellow subsoil containing shattered limestone. Black earth and ash. Crushed mortar, black earth and ash. Mortar and crushed brick. Brown earth containing debris from Building C. Black earth (Period C.1). Yellow subsoil, gravel and some stones. Undisturbed natural clay and shattered limestone. Grey earth. Surface of roadway. Stony grey-brown earth.
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at the same general level, though the actual surfaces had not survived except for a small area along the western side of room C.IV.
There was an irregular hole, about 6 - 10 in wide and extending through four courses of masonry, in the west wall of room C.I near to the well. A drain-pipe appeared to have been extracted from the wall at this point.
Rooms C.V (7 ft 1 in by (?) 9 ft 10 in) and C.VI (9 ft 8 in by (?) 13 ft 1 in) were also extensively damaged, but by stone-robbing. Small areas of cement flooring survived in room C.V with traces of fire-reddening in places. These floors were at the same height as that of room C.II. The robbing was confined to the floors except for a few stones
It is not possible to say much about rooms C.III (10 ft 8 in by (?) 9 ft 10 in) and C.VI (14 ft 4 in by 13 ft 1 in) which were almost totally destroyed by the nineteenth century and 1961 ditches. Enough survived, however, to show that they had resembled rooms C.I and C.II, with similar floors
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been removed for further use their absence is not conclusive evidence for a timber-framed superstructure. Several large blocks of mortar showed the impressions of timbers of circular cross-section up to 8 in. in diameter. On the other hand, a timber-framed superstructure might have been unsuitable for a building containing a hypocaust. A few blocks of sawn tufa, one with white painted plaster adhering to one surface, indicated the barrel vaulting of a hot room (compare Building A, Part I, p. 12).
removed from the inner face of the east wall of the building, but it can be assumed that an east-west partition wall between rooms C.V and C.VI was also destroyed. Had they formed a single room it would not have had a straight west wall. Room C.VII, 7 ft by 5 ft at the widest point, was built on the same stone platform as the main part of Building C, but the apsidal wall was not keyed into the south wall of room C.VI. Nevertheless there seems no reason to doubt that it was built at the same time as the main structure. The Roman ground level fell away towards the east and south at this point, and it had been necessary to reinforce the foundation of the apse by building a short stub of wall which ran partly below the semicircular wall and was keyed into it, thus acting both as an underpinning and as a buttress. This room was floored in the same material as room C.II, with similar quarter-round fillets.
The debris contained much mortar and cement of all types, including several large pieces of genuine opus signinum. Far commoner, however, was an imitation of opus signinum similar to the flooring of room C.II (see above, p. 279). The deposit produced many hundreds of fragments of box flue-tiles, all but three of which bore combed patterns and resembled those from Site A (Part I, p. 21), with rectangular holes at the sides in contrast to the mid-second century pieces from Building B which had circular holes (Part II, p. 109). Three pieces of roller-patterned flue-tile were found (below, Fig. IV.21, no. 73, and Part I, fig. I.11, nos. 16, 17). There were large numbers of bricks of standard dimensions (Part I, p. 21) and scores of pieces of tiles with combed patterns similar to those from Site A, which were probably used as wall insulation (below, Fig. IV.21, no. 72 and p. 305) in addition to 54 pieces of rollerpatterned brick (below, p. 305 and Fig. IV.21, no. 73; Part I, fig. I.11, no. 15; Part II, p. 109). Pieces of imbrex and tegula were common, as were stone roof-slates (Part I, fig. I.11, nos. 9 - 11).
There is little direct evidence from within Building C itself to indicate that it was a bath-house, though the well, the possible tank stand, and the apsidal room all point to such a use. However, the great mass of building debris which was found immediately to the west of Building C had certainly originated in that building, for the painted plaster from within the building and that found in situ on the walls of room C. If exactly matched the types from the debris, and fragments from the debris could actually be fitted back on to the tank stand in room C. II. This being so, it is certain that Building C contained a heated room or rooms, for the debris contained many hundreds of fragments of box flue-tiles as well as bricks exactly similar to those used in the pilae in room A.VS (Part I, p. 12). The roller- and comb-patterned bricks may also indicate a heated room.
The debris contained thousands of fragments of charcoal. A few dozen pieces were from timbers of 1 sq in crosssection or larger, but the vast majority were from laths of 1 in x 0.375 in to 2 in x 0.625 in cross-section, exactly similar to the timbers from the fishpond (below, p. 378). All the worked timber from the deposit was oak, with other
The few large blocks of limestone from the debris were mostly undressed but since dressed stones would have 293
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker rectangular tank which extended beneath the modern stream into Site K (plan, Fig. IV.7; Sections A-A, B-B, DD, E-E, Figs. IV.8, IV.9, IV.11, IV.12). The sides were revetted with carefully constructed drystone walls, and the bottom was the natural cream clay and limestone with pebbles rammed into the surface in some areas. The interpretation of this feature as a fishpond and its mode of operation discussed in Part V, since it was associated with a much larger pond to the north, on Site K.
species present only rarely and then as untrimmed sticks (table, p. 381). The thousands of fragments of wall-plaster from the debris deposit are discussed below (p. 343). It was possible to deduce something of the decorative schemes of several rooms from them, as well as details of doorways, window embrasures and perhaps ceilings. The pipes, pots nos. 457-466, also came from this deposit, and seem to have had some structural function associated with the building.
Again, there was no direct evidence for the date of construction of this fishpond, but the paving which surrounded it rested on sterile clay; it therefore seems most likely that it was made in the early second century, at the time when the villa first expanded on to the land to the south of the stream.
It is likely that at least one of the rooms C.III – C.VI was heated. The waterlogged nature of the ground would have made it impracticable to construct a hypocaust with the heated floor at the same level as the floors of rooms C.II and C.VII, as this would have meant that the fire would have had to have been kindled at a level at least 18 in lower, which would have been very liable to flooding. It may be that the burned areas in room C.V represent the base of the hypocaust, where the fire burned, and that the pilae rose from this surface to support the true floor at a higher level. If so, room C.VI is less likely to have contained the hypocaust because steps, of which there were no signs, would have been needed to overcome the difference in floor levels between rooms C.VI and C.VII.
No structural features were associated with the fishpond on Site C; water entered it from Fishpond II to the north (Part V). The area immediately to the east of the pond had been destroyed by the nineteenth-century and 1961 ditches. THE FLOORS OF THE ENCLOSURE Almost the whole of Site C was surfaced with some form of flooring (Fig. IV.7). The areas immediately to the north, west and south of Building A were found to have been roughly paved with flat, undressed blocks of limestone at the time of the construction of the building (Part I, fig. I.6 and p. 7). This paving was also found to extend along the eastern side of the building, consisting there of a wide strip of massive pitching 1 ft to 1 ft 6 in thick (Sections A(i) A(ii), B(i) - B(ii), C(i) - C(ii), Figs. IV.8, IV.9, IV.10).
The presence of a heated room does not necessarily prove that Building C was a bathhouse. However, it seems likely that the occupants of Building B would have desired some bathing facilities, and certainly there were none in that building. It is unlikely that there is a separate bath-house elsewhere at Shakenoak, and Building C is therefore the only possibility. Also, it is not easy to assign any other function to the structure. The finely painted walls, among the best anywhere at Shakenoak, exclude any agricultural or industrial use for the building. It is difficult to see it as a dwelling-house in view of its small size, the small size of all the rooms, and the superfluousness of such a house on a site which already possessed a fine dwelling on Site B.
This heavy pitching was roughly surfaced with a mixture of small stones, gravel and sandy yellow subsoil. The subsoil, like that used in large quantities as flooring elsewhere at Shakenoak, had not apparently originated in the valley bottom in the immediate vicinity of the villa buildings, since there the subsoil was clay and limestone. The Wilcote valley generally, however, away from the clay deposited by the stream, contains areas where the subsoil is sandy or gravelly, often mixed with small fragments of limestone, above the solid limestone of the valley bottom. The “subsoil” used by the Romans could easily have been obtained within a few hundred feet of the villa complex.
There is little direct evidence for the date of the construction of the building as there were no foundation deposits. It seems likely, however, that the building was erected at about the same time as Building A. The earliest gravel floor immediately west of Building 7C (plan, Fig. IV.7) lay directly on the sterile grey clay which was the pre-construction topsoil, and did not seal in any rubbish. If this floor had post-dated the Period A.1 building, then a scatter of Roman material might have been expected, sealed below the gravel. The existence of Building C in the first half of the second century is confirmed by pot no. 427, found in the gully just outside the doorway into room C.II (below, p. 295). A date of c. A.D. 120 for the construction of the building seems probable.
The solid Period A.1 flooring immediately to the east of Building A became less thick and well-defined about 20 ft from the building, merging into the much less substantial surface of gravel, small stones and subsoil which covered most of the enclosure. The massive flooring was continuous with the road which ran southwards from the building, passing through the enclosure wall and continuing on southwards. Efforts were made to trace this road south of the enclosure (Fig. 15, Section H-H), but since the underlying limestone of the valley sides rises to within about 1 ft of the modern surface some 50 ft south of the enclosure wall, all traces of the road had been destroyed by ploughing.
THE CONSTRUCTION OF FISHPOND I The north-east corner of Site C was occupied by a shallow
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It is clear that this road formed the main access to the villa from the south, confirming the view that the main approach to Building A was from the east side (Part I, p. 00). The road had a branch running off to the east, immediately north of the enclosure wall, and passing to the south of Building C (Sections D(iv) - D(v), E(iii) - E(iv), Figs. IV.11 and IV.12). This branch was less substantial than the road to the east of Building A, and probably represents the roadway linking Sites A and B. The fishponds in the valley bottom made the detour to the east necessary. Unfortunately modern ploughing has destroyed all Roman features to the east of Building C, and the exact line of the road cannot therefore be determined.
THE GULLY WEST OF BUILDING C A shallow gully some 33 ft long, 2 ft wide at the top, and of a maximum depth of 9 in, ran to the west of Building C, passing beneath the wall of room C.VIII (plan, Fig. IV.7; Section C(ii) - C(iii), Fig. IV.10). It was cut into the fine gravel floor and had been deliberately filled in, the fill containing pots nos. 427 and 428, which probably date from the first half of the second century. The gully sloped slightly downwards from the southern to the northern end, and may have originally contained a drainpipe, though this cannot be proved. It is unlikely to have remained open for any length of time, as it would have been an inconvenience to anyone entering Building C through the doorway in the north-west corner of Room C.II, which appears to have been the only entrance into the building. It cut into, but not through, the gravel floor, which must in turn have postdated the construction of Building C (Section C(ii) - C(iii) and C(iii) - C(iv), Fig. IV.10). This drain, if that is what it was, might have been associated with the supposed watertank in Room C.II. The removal of the drainpipe preceded the construction of room C.VIII.
A pebble footpath some 5 ft wide ran in a north-easterly direction from the paved area east of room A.I. It lay above the Period A.1 floor but was sealed in by the Period A.3b floor and by the fourth-century rubbish deposit (Fig. IV.8, Section A(i) - A(ii)). It was partly laid upon a deposit of painted wall-plaster which is discussed below. This path probably provided access to the areas north of the stream via a foot-bridge, at a time when the fishpond on Site K (Fishpond II) had been filled in.
The southern end of the gully was neatly rounded off. The northern end was not located, as it became so shallow that it could not be distinguished. It presumably discharged into Fishpond I. The type of pipe which the gully might have contained is uncertain. A lead pipe of such length would have been very expensive, though lead was used in Building A (Part I, p. 13 and Fig. I.32, no. 7). A wooden pipe with iron joints might have left stains in the surrounding yellow gravel. The pottery tubes found among the debris of Building C (pots nos. 457 - 466) might possibly have been used, but they seem rather fragile for the purpose, as they would have been covered by only a few inches of gravel.
In two other areas of Site C the floors were constructed with particular care. A strip some 10 ft wide along the west and south sides of Fishpond I was surfaced with stones and subsoil to give a firm surface, though not one substantial enough to take wheeled vehicles or animals. The area immediately west of Building C had a floor composed of clean yellow sandy gravel up to 1 ft 2 in thick (plan, Fig. IV.7; Section C(ii) - C(iii) and C(iii) C(iv), Fig. IV.10). This became thinner and less distinct to the west and merged into the general enclosure surface. The rest of the enclosure was surfaced with a mixture of small stones, gravel and sandy subsoil, with a few larger flat stones. This contrasted with the unsurfaced area to the west of Building A (Part I, p. 14), and would have given a clean and reasonably firm surface for pedestrians, though it would not have been suitable for carts or large animals. The absence of rubbish indicated that the whole area was kept very clean in this period. The only finds of this date were from a few shallow depressions where the surface had been repaired, sealing in small deposits.
THE GULLY NORTH-EAST OF BUILDING A A small gully, approximately 2 ft 3 in wide and 10 in deep, ran from the foundation trench of the west wall of Building A.1 in a curve for 28 ft eastwards. The exact relationship of this gully to Building A.1 was not entirely clear, since the Period A.3 foundation trench had partly destroyed the junction, and the gully did not reappear inside the building. It contained pots nos. 486-491, glass no. 175 and samian nos. 165 and 166. A date in the middle of the second century seems probable. The early paving ran across the 295
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker The grey clay which formed the first-century surface across both sites (Figs. IV.8 – IV.10, Sections A-A – E-E) overlies deposits of white, cream and reddish-brown clay for some 70 ft – 100 ft south of the stream. In the southernmost parts of the two sites the grey clay lies directly on the undisturbed natural limestone that runs under the clays in the valley bottom. The grey clay is today under water for most of the year, and never forms a firm, dry surface. Even though the modern surface is some 3 ft – 4 ft above the clay it carries standing water in the winter. Although the water table was probably lower in Roman times than it is today, the early Roman ground surface must always have been liable to flooding in winter and marshy in summer, though in the immediate vicinity of the buildings the system of fishponds may have facilitated quite close control of the water level.
gully and sealed it in. At this point it was not clear whether the paving was laid in Period A.1 or A.2; it was less well made here and no distinct A.1 and A.2 surfaces could be discerned. The paving therefore is of little use for dating the gully. THE ENCLOSURE WALL The enclosure wall which surrounded Site A on the western and southern sides (Part I, p. 14) continued on round the south side of Site C (plan, Fig. IV.7). It must have turned north somewhere east of Building C in order to rejoin the stream but as modern ploughing had totally destroyed the Roman levels in this area the exact line could not be determined. The rough foundation pitching of the wall was located at a point 16 ft to the east of Building C, but was not present 20 ft further east again. The wall may have turned north somewhere between these points.
It is probable that the erection of buildings on such unfavourable land was forced on the builders by the contours of the valley. Having once committed themselves by the construction of Building B.2, the problem of finding a suitable site for Building A.1, some twenty years later, could be solved only by expanding eastwards or westwards along the fairly steep north slope of the valley, a procedure which would have required extensive terracing of the hillside and led to an extended rather than a compact farmstead, or by building on Site A. The location of the fishponds on Sites C and K was inevitable, as this was the only low-lying land in the vicinity. It is, however, surprising that the position chosen for the bath-house was not nearer to Building B.
The curious shape of the enclosure requires explanation. If the dating of the section of wall south of Site A is taken as that of the entire wall (Part I, p. 14), then it postdated the construction of Buildings A and C. The roadway running east from Building A and passing south of Building C probably dates from the early second century, for some connection between Sites A and B must have been needed from that time. In this case, the road pre-dated the enclosure wall and the line of the former dictated that of the latter. One function of the wall was probably to keep animals from straying into the enclosure (the floors inside the enclosure being generally too soft for oxen or horses, and Fishpond I being an obvious hazard) and so the enclosed area was kept to a minimum. This is the reverse of the situation to the north of the stream in the late fourth century, when a ditch and bank formed a large enclosure probably intended to contain cattle (Part III, p. 167).
THE LATER ROMAN PERIOD Towards the end of the second century the area to the south of the modern stream contained three major structures: Building A, Building C and Fishpond I. Virtually the whole of the area of Site C was paved in some way, and these surfaces were kept clean and in use. No deposits of rubbish had been allowed to accumulate anywhere on Site C.
The wall was broken by two openings. The main access road passed through the larger one and, since the road presumably dated from the earliest occupation of Site A, it is assumed that the road was made before the wall was built. There were no signs that the wall had ever passed under the road at this point. No post-holes flanked the opening, nor was there any indication of a gate or gates.
During the first half of the third century two of the three features changed radically, the fishpond going out of use and silting up, and Building C being completely gutted and turned into a barn. From the second half of the third century onward the area was increasingly used as a rubbish tip. Only those areas immediately adjacent to Building A continued to have new floors laid down.
A second, smaller, entrance was cut through the wall to the west of the main gateway. Two courses of cut stone lay beneath the paved surface, suggesting that the opening was not part of the original construction. This opening was 8 ft 3 in wide, and had later been narrowed by a length of blocking wall to give an opening 5 ft 9 in wide. These alterations could not be dated. This was clearly a less important entrance, intended for men and animals rather than for vehicles, opening on the outside on to an irregular area of cobbling which rapidly petered out into the Roman field surface. The surface of the cobbling produced only fourth-century material.
ALTERATIONS TO BUILDING C: PERIOD C. 2 Various alterations were made to Building C, and while there is no proof that they occurred simultaneously, the probability is that they did and that they represent a change in the function of the building. (i)
It may be thought surprising that any construction took place on Sites A or C, considering their extreme wetness.
296
Room C.I was extended 5 ft westwards by a wall of massive masonry, the stones being poorly dressed and resembling those used in the early third-century alterations in Building B (Part II, p. 94). The new
Excavations at Shakenoak
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
The date of deposition of the mass of debris can be determined with reasonable accuracy. Pots nos. 429-456 were sealed below the deposit and date from the very end of the second century or the early years of the third, whereas the debris contained nos. 457-475, none of which need be later than the end of the second century. It therefore seems likely that the Period C.1 to Period C.2 transition took place c. A.D. 200. It is interesting to note that the decline of Building C seems to have begun rather earlier than that of Building B (Part II, pp. 94, 100-101). This may perhaps indicate that the decline of Shakenoak as a whole began rather earlier than the evidence from Site B suggested.
walls, enclosing an area 7 ft 3 in by 3 ft 0 in, met the west wall of room C.I at butt joints and were built over the earlier north-south gully (above, p. 295). The former west wall of room C.I went out of use. The well in room C.I was filled in with a mass of earth and large stones (Fig. IV.14, Section F-F), sealing in pots nos. 425 and 426, both of secondcentury date. The doorways between rooms C.I and C.II, and between room C.II and the gravel floor west of Building C, were blocked with poorly laid masonry, and the section (Fig. IV.10, Section C(iii) – C(iv)) shows that this took place after the building debris had been deposited to the west of room C.II. A platform of dressed stones, many of which were re-used building stones, set in mortar, was laid across the eastern half of room C.I. It probably covered the whole north-south width of the room, though only a few stones remained in the southern quarter of the room. The platform sealed in a thin black ash deposit which lay above the Period C.1 floor and which contained no datable finds. Rooms C.II, C.IV, C.V, C.VI and C.VII were covered with a layer of unmortared pitching consisting of large stones, some dressed, set on edge directly on the Period C.1 cement floors. This pitching may also have covered room C.III, but the nineteenth-century and 1961 ditches had destroyed all evidence on this point.
It is impossible to say when Period C.2 ended and the building was finally abandoned. The robbing of Rooms C.V and C.VI occurred in Roman times, and was sealed by a layer of black earth which contained a very few sherds of undatable grey ware, glass no. 211, and a slightly worn coin of Constans (no. 450), indicating that the building had been abandoned by the middle of the fourth century. The bronze belt-fitting (Fig. IV.53, no. 183) also came from this deposit, but was not necessarily associated with the coin. THE ABANDONMENT OF FISHPOND I Fishpond I probably remained clean and in use throughout the second century. During the first half of the third century a thick deposit of silt collected at the bottom of the pond forming a shallow, muddy pool, and the upper parts of the stone revetting walls were allowed to collapse or were deliberately pushed down into the pond. This happened at the same time as the deposition of the silt as the silt ran between and partly above the fallen stones (Sections A-A, B-B, D-D, Figs. IV.8, IV.9, IV.11). The silt produced samian nos. 154-164 and coarse pots nos. 476485, which suggests that the fishpond went out of use in c. A.D. 200.
It appears that three types of floor were present in Building C.2. The western half of Room C.I and the western extension, C.VIII, were roughly floored with a mixture of rubble and black earth, and this ran over the top of the disused C.I/C.VIII wall. The eastern half of room C.I contained a mortared stone platform, and the rest of the building was re-floored with unmortared stone pitching. Assuming that all these alterations took place simultaneously, it is reasonable to suppose that it was at this same time that the mass of debris was deposited to the west of the building.
The most striking feature of the silt fill was the mass of timber which lay in the bottom of the pond, and which ran between and below the fallen stones (Fig. IV.68). This is discussed below (p. 378) and was discarded off-cuts from the construction or structural alteration of a building. The silt also contained leather shoes, sandals and a cap (Figs. IV.74 – IV.77) but was otherwise almost devoid of finds.
Two possibilities present themselves: either Building C was stripped of its decorative wall-plaster and probably of its partition walls, which were too narrow to be loadbearing, to make a barn or building for some industrial purpose, or the entire building was stripped to ground level and the foundations and flooring used again as the base for a hard standing. The former explanation may be the correct one, since nowhere did the Period C.2 pitching extend outside the walls of the building, and the highest surviving courses of the walls did not show wear except between rooms C.I and C.VIII. Hardly any building stones and no substantial timbers were found among the debris to the west, which did, however, contain many imbrices and tegulae. This could mean either that the main walls were not demolished, or that such valuable materials as dressed stones and wooden beams were used again elsewhere.
REPAIRS TO THE PAVED SURFACE ON SITE C Most of the paved areas of Site C remained clean and in use at least during the first half of the century. A small amount of patching was done in places and this sealed in third-century pottery (nos. 508-512). The successive rebuildings of Building A, however, raised it higher and higher above the general level of Site C, and made it necessary to raise the level of the roadway which ran along the east side of the building. These raised floors did not need to extend very far south of Building A, since the ground rose in that direction, and they did not extend far to the east, but petered out in a slope which led down to the 297
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker original Site C level. The plan (Fig. IV.7) shows the extent of these various floors, which can be related to the various reconstructions of Building A (Sections A-A, B-B, C-C, Figs. IV.8, IV.9 and IV.10). The floors tended to become less clearly defined along their eastern limits, and also to merge into one another to the north and into the roadway to the south. The areas on the plan are those where the floors were distinct and clearly defined.
level falls away to the east and is today waterlogged for much of the year and cannot be cultivated. Trial trenches showed that the Roman ground level sloped downwards similarly, though less steeply, and that all traces of occupation levels and floors faded out some 20 ft east of the boundary. Exploratory trenches dug elsewhere in this field showed no Roman deposits, the modern plough soil lying directly on the undisturbed natural clay.
Each of the floors east of Building A sealed in a group of pottery and the dating of the groups agreed well with the dates of the successive periods of the building (Period A.1; nos. 492-497 and samian no. 171; Period A.2: nos. 498502; Period A.3a: no. 503; Period A.3b: nos. 504-507). The latest floor surface, part of which was laid in Period A.3b and part of which was the Period A.3a floor still remaining in use, produced the 25 coins of group (d) (below, p. 302), showing that these floors remained in use until the abandonment of Building A. 3b in c. A.D. 420430.
THE SUB-ROMAN PERIOD Site C produced no deposits corresponding in date to those of Period F.3 (Part III, p. 192), nor were there any deposits as late as the latest from Site A (Part I, p. 13) except for the scanty remains on the surface of the latest floors east of Building A. The only object which can perhaps be assigned to this period is the tubular bronze belt-fitting (Fig. IV.53, no. 183) which must belong to the same group as the pieces from Site A (Part I, p. 61) and Site F (Part III, p. 207). It is apparent that by the middle of the fifth century the centre of occupation had moved north of the stream.
RUBBISH DEPOSITS Except for the roadway immediately to the east of Building A and the roadway running to the east alongside the enclosure wall, all Site C was used as a rubbish tip from c. A.D. 250 onwards. Almost all the site was covered in grey or black earth, but although there were no visible variations in this deposit, examination of the contents showed that there were three main localised deposits, each representing the tipping of rubbish over different and comparatively short periods.
THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD Site A produced a group of inhumations and a scatter of human bones which corresponded to a total of at least nine individuals (Part I, pp. 14 and 74). Site C produced a further 13 burials and more scattered bones and it is probable that these 22 interments represent a complete cemetery unless there are more burials elsewhere, widely separated from the main group (Fig. IV.16). The remains from Site C are discussed below (p. 408).
The first of these extended in a strip some 20 ft wide immediately to the north of the road running alongside the enclosure wall. This produced the 32 coins of group (a) (below, p. 302) and coarse pots nos. 513-519. It was almost entirely of the later third century, but with a little fourth-century material scattered on its surface.
All the skeletons were of adults, and with one exception all were males aged from 16 to 50 years at death. All the skeletons were supine with the feet to the east and all were aligned within 8 deg. of a common axis which was the alignment of the east-west walls of Building A. Several had been disturbed by ploughing or by modern stonerobbing and four (nos. 3, 5, 6 and 9) had been largely destroyed. It is possible that some of the scattered bones from Sites A and C represent further ploughed-up burials. They lay at various depths, some being in graves only 1 ft. deep while others lay as much as 2 ft. 9 in. below the modern surface. In general, the graves had been dug down to a fairly solid Roman floor surface, and only rarely was this surface penetrated by the gravediggers, even if it meant that the grave was very shallow. There is no reason to suppose that the Saxon ground surface differed notably from that of 1960*, and consequently the graves must have been covered by small mounds which have been totally destroyed by ploughing. As no traces of ring-ditches were observed, these mounds must have been made of earth scraped up from the surrounding area rather than from an encircling ditch. Such mounds might have survived as a landmark until late Saxon times at least.
The second deposit was thinner and less well defined, and covered the central area of Site C. It produced the 15 coins of group (b) (below, p. 302) and Hoard B (below, p. 305), and was almost exclusively of the first half of the fourth century. The third deposit was by far the richest and most important, and accumulated in the muddy hollow above the silted-up fishpond and in its immediate vicinity. It produced the 161 legible coins of group (c) (below, p. 302) and pots nos. 520-807, and dated very largely from the Valentinianic period. There is evidence that at this time the area was an overgrown waste with hazel and hawthorn bushes encroaching on the former enclosure (below, p. 379). (The animal bones in all three deposits are discussed on pp. 384-401.) The area to the east of the modern field boundary (the 1961 ditch shown in Fig. IV.7) was not extensively excavated, except for the east end of Building C. The modern ground
*
The present excavations have led to changes in the surface levels of up to 3 ft on parts of Site C.
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299
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
suppose that the burials date from the end of the Saxon occupation, The only object from Sites A and C which was unquestionably of Anglo-Saxon date was the silver penny (coin no. 676) of c. A.D. 730-750. This was found immediately below the modern topsoil 22 ft north-west of skeleton no. 10 (Fig. IV.16). It is also possible that bone object no. 126 (Fig. IV.73) is a Saxon pin-beater and that stone object no. xvii (p. 307) is Saxon.
The graves all had rounded ends and most tapered a little towards the foot. There were no signs of coffins, and the graves usually fitted the skeletons so closely that it was clear that the bodies had been deposited directly in the earth. Five graves, nos. 16, 17, 18, 20 and 21, were roughly lined with flat stones set on edge along the sides. Fig. IV.17 shows the plan and section of grave no. 16. One grave, no. 15, was unlined but was packed tightly with large stones above the skeleton. All the others had been back-filled with the excavated earth.
In view of the rarity of Saxon coins at Shakenoak, in contrast to the common occurrence of potsherds and other objects of that period, it is improbable that the coin should have been accidentally carried across from the area north of the stream when no other Saxon material was similarly transported. It is therefore tempting to associate this coin with the burials, though such an association is by no means certain.
All the burials were devoid of grave-goods. Coins were found in the fill of two graves (coin no. 481 in grave 17; coin no. 584 in grave 16), but were accidental inclusions. There was no direct evidence from which to date the burials, except that they post-dated the Roman levels in which they lay and pre-dated the nineteenth century stonerobbing in Building A. However, if the identification of the cemetery with the “cnihtas” of the Anglo-Saxon charter (KCD 775) of 1044 is accepted (Part III, p. 255) and if the lack of grave-goods is taken as evidence of Christianity, then the possible span may be narrowed down to between the seventh and the eleventh centuries. As there is no evidence that Shakenoak was occupied after the middle of the eighth century (Part III, p. 174) it is not unreasonable to
The very unusual distributions of ages (Fig. IV.18) and the fact that all but one of the identifiable skeletons was male show that this was not a typical village cemetery, but was probably associated with military activity. This is confirmed by the evidence of violent death in one case (no. 1) and of injuries consistent with sword or axe cuts in four others (nos. 10, 14, 15 and 17). It is not certain that all the burials took place at the same time except in the case of 300
Excavations at Shakenoak Building A were still discernible, since all burials were closely aligned to the axis of the east-west walls of the buildings.
nos. 11 and 12 who shared a common grave. Some of the graves might have been roughly aligned in north-south lines, but had all the interments taken place simultaneously a more compact and orderly disposition might have been expected. If the graves had been covered by mounds, the diggers of later graves would have known where the earlier burials lay and could have avoided them or have located the new graves suitably near their predecessors. In no case did one grave cut into or lie unduly close to another. If, however, the burials represent military casualties of some kind, it is reasonable to suppose that they were all approximately, if not absolutely, contemporary. The burials presumably took place while the outlines of
If the cemetery was military in character, it is notable that, while the graves were simple, the bodies were carefully laid out with no signs of unduly hasty interment. If the burials date from the end of the Saxon occupation, they could not represent simply the results of a massacre of the local inhabitants, for it is unlikely that Saxon Shakenoak would ever have been sufficiently populous to have provided so many able-bodied men at one time.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Fig. IV.19 shows the same four groups compared in the form of a graph.
3. The Finds COINS
In deposit (a) nearly three-quarters of the coins were of the period A.D. 260-296, and it may be taken as certain that almost the whole of the deposit dates from this period. The later coins were usually found on the surface of the deposit or in the topsoil above it. Deposit (b) is markedly later in date and is almost entirely of the Constantinian period. The small hoard of coins found in this level (nos. 659-675) was lost c. 343-345, and so ties in well with the other coins from the area. Deposit (c) contained by far the largest group, 161 legible coins in all. Of these 50% were of the House of Valentinian, and only 6.25% of the period before 296. There can be no doubt that by far the greater part of this deposit was laid down in the period of Valentinianic coin circulation, i.e. c. 365 -390, since during this period a considerable quantity of Constantinian currency was still in circulation, and even some of the radiates could have been lost during the same period. Because of the waterlogged conditions, the coins from this deposit were particularly badly preserved, few of them containing any uncorroded metal. This made it hard to judge wear, but where it was possible these conclusions were borne out. The Theodosian coins came either from the surface of the deposit or from the topsoil above it. It seems fairly safe to say that almost the whole of the deposit was laid down after c. 330, by far the greater part of it in the second half of the fourth century, and considerably more than half of it in the period c. 365-390.
Almost all the coins from Site C came from one of four deposits: (a) (b) (c) (d)
The black earth deposit which ran to the south-west of Building C and south-east of Building A. The thinner black earth deposit between Buildings A and C. The thick black deposit above Fishpond I. The thin black deposit which lay above the latest floors immediately to the east of Building A.
These levels were not sealed, and merged into one another at the edges. Each of them, however, produced a quite distinct coin series which makes it possible to date the deposit with some accuracy: DEPOSITS Coins: pre-260 260-296 306-330 330-341 341-364 364-378 378-402
(a) 0 23 1 4 0 4 0
(b) (c) 0 2 0 8 1 10 5 31 7(+ Hoard B) 22 2 81 0 7
(d) 0 6 0 8 6 1 4
Distribution of coins in deposits (a) - (d) on Site C. Imitations are taken as contemporary with the coins they copy.
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three combined) but also in composition. As an example, it may be noted that 92% of all the Valentinianic coins from Site C come from deposit (c). While this does not show clearly on Fig. IV.19 because deposit (c) is itself so large, it is almost entirely responsible for the high percentage of Valentinianic coins on the graph of all Site C coins combined (Fig. IV.20). It is quite clear that the statistical comparison of coins from different areas within a site, or of coins from different sites, can only be undertaken with the greatest caution, bearing in mind the total number of coins within a deposit as well as their chronological distribution.
Deposit (d) had a much wider spread than the other three and dates from the period of occupation of Building A.3, more particularly from its A.3b phase (c. 350-420/30). This is the only deposit where Theodosian coins form a considerable proportion of the total (16%), markedly higher than the proportion of Valentinianic coins. Several of these coins show very considerable wear, and they serve to confirm the late terminal date of the A.3b occupation. The few other coins from Site C were all unstratified. The only coin of particular interest was the early Saxon penny, no. 676, which came from the topsoil north-east of Building A (Fig. IV.16). The significance of this coin is discussed on p. 298.
The Site C coins also illustrate the point made in Part II (p. 103). With the possible exception of deposit (d) the Site C coins bear no relation to the "intensity of occupation" of either Site C or Shakenoak as a whole. They seem to represent three distinct periods when rubbish was allowed to accumulate in the yard in restricted areas, when the distribution of rubbish over the fields, which was presumably the normal method of disposal, was temporarily suspended. These rubbish levels, even the huge deposit (c), may well represent the rubbish production of the villa for only a very few years. As noted on Site B, the loss of coins seems to signal, if anything, a decline in the “quality” of the occupation of a site, and bears no relation whatever to the “intensity” of that occupation.
When all the Site C coins are grouped together they show a pattern markedly different from those from Site B though, as was to be expected, there is considerable similarity to the Site A distribution (Fig. IV.20). The only difference between the Site A and Site C distributions is that Site C shows a much lower percentage of coins from before 260 and after 388,and a rather higher percentage of coins of the Constantinian and Valentinianic periods. The value of such a graph is, of course, small, since, as we have seen, the Site C coin-series is in fact a compilation of four different deposits which not only differ considerably in size (deposit (c) being larger than the other
303
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker SUMMARY Faustina II Gordian III Gallienus Claudius II Quintillus Victorinus Tetrici Gallic Empire Carausius Allectus Radiate imitations House of Constantine:
364-378 378-383 House of Theodosius: 388-402 Fourth-century imitations Unclassified Anglo-Saxon Hoard B
1 1 4 6 1 1 2 3 1 1 19 7 6 42 15 5 5 1 95 (one silver) 1 9 33 35 1 17
Total
312
306-324 324-330 330-341 341-346 346-360
Magnentius Julian II House of Valentinian:
365
Faustina II. Sestertius, RIC 1645/46. Very worn. From above Fishpond I. 366 Gordian III. Debased antoninianus. Very worn. From above Fishpond I. 367-370 Gallienus. Ant., RIC 167 + 3 others. 371-376 Claudius II. Ant., RIC 53/54; 139; 261 obv. K; c-f. 261; + 2 others. 377 Quintillus. RIC 26 378 Victorinus. Ant., rev. uncertain. 379 Tetricus I. Ant., rev. Laetitia. 380 Tetricus II. Ant., rev. PIETAS AVG. Pietas standing left, holding branch and sceptre. Good but irregular style. 381-383 Gallic Empire (3). 384 Carausius. Ant., RIC 950 ff. 385 Allectus. Quinarius, RIC 124/127. 386-387 Uncertain radiates. 388-404 Radiate copies. 14 mm. (5), 12 mm. (4), 11 mm. (1), 10 mm. (3), 9 mm. (1), 7 mm. (1), 6 mm. (2). 405-406 Constantine I. RIC vi London 121 (a); Trier 378. 407-432 Constantine 1. RIC vii Lyons 222, 225, 229, 238, 241P, 246-P, 247-P, 256-P; Trier 316,431-P, 433-P, 460-P, 463-P, 479-P, 479-S, 523-P, 523, 530-P, 530-S, 553, 586/90, 590-S; Arles 347, 387,414-S; Aquileia 73. 433-435 “Gloria Exercitus”, two standards, obverses uncertain (3). 436-437 “Urbs Roma”, uncertain mints. 438-441 “Constantinopolis”, uncertain mints. 442-443 Constantius II Caesar. “Gloria Exercitus”, one standard (2). 444-446 Period 337-341. LRBC i 105, 130/1, 252. 447 Constantine II Augustus. “Gloria Exercitus”, one standard.
448-449 Constantius II Augustus. “Gloria Exercitus”, one standard (2). 450-451 Constans Augustus. “Gloria Exercitus”, one standard (2). 452-459 “Gloria Exercitus”, one standard, obverses uncertain. 460-467 Period 341-346. LRBC 1 139, 140-S, 148-S, 149, 150, 155-P, 158/60, 450. 468-474 House of Constantine. Period 341-346, obverses uncertain. 475 Constantius II. LRBC ii 40. 476 Constantius Gallus. LRBC ii 456. 477-479 “Fallen horseman” type, uncertain obverses and mints, (3). 480-484 Magnentius. LRBC ii 13, 12/18, 60, 60, + 1 uncertain. 485 Julian II. Cf. LRBC ii 270. 486-512 House of Valentinian. RIC Lyons 10a mm. vi (b), iia, 10a/20a, 10a/20a, 12 mm. iv (a), 12/21a, 20a mm. xiv (b), 20a mm. xv (b), 20a mm. xix (b), 20a mm. xxv (b), 21b; Arelate 7a mm. ii (a); 7a mm. ii(b), 7d mm. ii(b), 9a mm. ii(a), 15 mm.xiii(c), 15 mm. xiii(c), 15 (6 coins), 16b mm. xiii(b), 17b mm. xiv(a); Aquileia la mm. i(b); Siscia 15b mm. xxxv. 513-514 Valentinian I. “Gloria Romanorum” type (2). 515-521 Valens. “Gloria Romanorum” type (7). 522-537 House of Valentinian. “Gloria Romanorum” type (16). 538 Valentinian I. “Securitas Reipublicae” type. 539-550 Valens. “Securitas Reipublicae” type (12). 551-573 House of Valentinian. “Securitas Reipublicae” type (23). 574-579 House of Valentinian. Reverses uncertain (6). 580 Gratian. Mint uncertain, cf. RIC Lyons 30a.
304
Excavations at Shakenoak 581
Siliqua of Valens, clipped down to weigh 15 grains. Cf. RIC Trier 27a/45c. Moderate wear with some wear after clipping. On Period A.3 floor east of Building A. 582-590 House of Theodoslus. RIC Lyons 44b, from above latest floor east of BuildingA, very worn; Lyons 44d-P, from top of black deposit above Fishpond I; Arelate 30cT, from top of black deposit above Fishpond I, some wear; 30d, from above latest floor east of Building A, some wear; +5 others similar, from above latest floor east of Building A; from topsoil above Fishpond I, worn; from top of black deposit over Fishpond I; as last; as last, some wear. 591-593 Copies of “Urbs Roma” type. 13 mm., 13 mm., 11 mm. 594-597 Copies of “Constantinopolis” type.13 mm., 13 mm., 12 mm., 10 mm. 598 Copy of “Two Victories” type of 341-346. 12 mm. 599-600 Copies of “Two Victories” type of Magnentius. 14 mm., 14 mm. 601-611 Copies of “fallen horseman” type. 18 mm., overstruck on a regular “Urbs Roma” coin; 17 mm., 16 mm., 15 mm., 15 mm., 14 mm., 14 mm., 14 mm., 12 mm., 11 mm., 10 mm. 612-623 Uncertain fourth-century copies. 624-658 Illegible third - fourth centuries.
Hoard B. This hoard of 17 coins was found in the black deposit 75 ft. east of Building A and 20 ft south of Fishpond I (in deposit (b), above, p. 302). They were closely packed together in a roll and had obviously been wrapped in something. The date of loss is probably c. 343-345. The coins were in a greatly decayed state. Nos. 659, 660, 663 and 674 were better preserved than the others, and none of them showed more than slight wear. 659 Constantine II Caesar. RIC vii Trier 520-S. 660 Constantius II Caesar. “Gloria Exercitus”, one standard. 661 Constans Caesar, “Gloria Exercitus”, one standard. 662-663 Theodora. LRBC i 113-P, 120. 664-669 House of Constantine. “Gloria Exercitus”, one standard. 670-671 “Urbs Roma”, LRBC i 224 + 1. 672-673 “Constantinopolis”, uncertain mints. 674 Constans. LRBC 1 150-P. 675 Totally decayed. 676 Anglo-Saxon sceat or penny. The coin is entirely corroded and barely legible. Its silver content must be very low indeed. Obverse: Diademed bust to right; it is not possible to see if there is a cross in front of the face. Reverse: Man standing facing, head right, holding a bird in his left hand in front of him and a long cross in his right hand; his shirt is square and his shirt is square and his skirt flared. Date c. 730-750. See also nos. 350 (Part II) and 364 (Part III) for similar coins. Found in the topsoil north-east of Building A (Fig. IV.16). The coin is now in the Ashmolean Museum.
305
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
Fig. IV. 21
BRICK
STONE
72
68,69 Pilasters of local limestone. Cf. Part I. p. 19, fig. 11; Part II, pp. 82, 108, Fig. II.18. Both from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 70 Two joining fragments of a ridge-stone of local oolithic limestone. Cf. Part I, p. 19, Fig. II.11. From topsoil. 71 Game-piece of very fine grained, slightly calcareous sandstone. Cf. Part II, Fig. II.19, no. 24. From late thirdor fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C.
73 74 75
306
Scratch-patterned tile with two semicircular indentations on one edge. Pink cement adhering to patterned face only. From debris of Building C. Roller-patterned brick. Cf. Part I, p. 21, Fig. I.11, no. 15; Part II, p. 108. From debris of Building C. Roller-patterned box flue-tile. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.37, no. 16. From debris of Building C. Brick with graffito reading ]CCXX[ or possibly ]CCM[ . From debris of Building C.
Excavations at Shakenoak middle, 3.2 cm. x 3.7 cm., tapering to nearly circular cross-section at ends. Diam. 2.7 cm.; length 9.6 cm. From fourth-century deposit between Building A and Fishpond I. (viii) Fine-grained sandstone. Pinkish grey, compact and non-porous. Cut by two fine joints full of white quartz inclined to each other at 50 deg. and both planes at right angles to plane of bedding. Irregular rectangular cross-section, c. 2.6 cm. x 2.9 cm. x 9.1 cm. From silt fill of Fishpond I.
STONE, BRICK, SHALE, JET STONE 1. STRUCTURAL REMAINS The dressed stone used in Building C was a local oolitic limestone. The site produced two large pieces of pilasters (Fig. IV.21, nos. 68 and 69) and two small fragments, all of local limestone. A very small piece of cornice (as Part I, Fig. I.11, no. 8) was identified by Mr. H.P. Powell, Assistant to the Curator of the Geological Collections, University Museum, Oxford, to whom we are indebted for all the identifications of stones in this report, as follows: “Oolitic Limestone. Highly, oolitic and even-textured. Ooliths large, up to 1 mm., and composed of crumbly, marly limestone. Shell fragments occur, mainly concentrated in a band where they form less than 5% of the rock. Matrix is sparry calcite. Probably Taynton Stone, certainly Great Oolite.”
Other stone objects were: (ix)
Two joining fragments of a quern, diam. 29 cm., oolitic limestone; medium-grained and compact. Ooliths variable in size, up to 0.5 mm., forming 5070% of the rock. Remainder is mainly brown, granular carbonate with some irregular patches of pale grey marly carbonate. Jurassic in age. Provenance, Oxfordshire or Cotswolds. Both from unsealed fourth-century deposit between Building A and Fishpond I. (x) Fragment of millstone, similar to Part I, fig. I.11, no. 14. Coarse sandstone, pink, with irregular grains of quartz resulting in a porous rock. Much interstitial clay mineral, presumably from the breakdown of feldspars. Probably Millstone Grit. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. (xi) - (xvi) Millstone fragments. Nos. (xi) - (xiii) are of similar stone to (x) above. Nos. (xiv) and (xv) are of coarse sandstone, essentially similar to (x) but coarser, (xiv) with grains up to 6 mm. long and (xv) finer grained though with a few scattered pebbles of quartz which are much larger than the groundmass grains – up to 17 mm. No. (xvi) is conglomerate with irregular pieces of quartz up to c. 20 mm. long. Groundmass very similar to no. (x). Probably Millstone Grit. All from unsealed fourth-century deposits. (xvii) A fragment of a very large whetstone, c. 4 cm. thick and more than 7 cm. x 9 cm. in the other dimensions, heavily grooved and faceted by wear. Large whetstones of this type have not been noted elsewhere at Shakenoak in Roman deposits, but are common in Anglo-Saxon contexts (Part III, p. 188, nos. 54-67). Fine-grained sandstone, brownish red with red patches of weathered feldspar, some mica. Possibly Pennant Sandstone (South Wales). Room C.II, above Period C.2 cobbles.
Five fragments of limestone ridge-stones, four similar to Part I, Fig. I.11, no 12 and the fifth illustrated in this report, Fig. IV.21, no. 70, completed the structural remains. All these pieces came from the unsealed fourthcentury deposits on Site C. 2. OBJECTS OF STONE Site C produced eight whetstones, identified by Mr. Powell as follows: (i)
(it)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Sandstone, medium-grained. The fresh rock is greenish. Some interstitial clay minerals. Noncalcareous. Originally square cross-section, 1.9 cm. x 1.9 cm. x 7.0 cm., but very worn indeed. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. Calcareous sandstone, grey, fine-grained. Similar to (vii) below. Rectangular cross-section, 1.0 cm. x 2.3 cm., 4.5 cm. length surviving. From fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. Fine-grained sandstone, brownish, calcareous. Rectangular cross-section, 1.3 cm. x 2.5 cm. x 5.8 cm. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. Fine-grained calcareous sandstone, light brownish grey, porous, rather friable. Grains well rounded. Rectangular cross-section, 2.3 cm. x 3.0 cm. x 6.8 cm. Site as (iii). Hornfels. Fine-grained, siliceous metamorphic rock. Lamination due to shearing stress has developed at right angles to the original bedding. Subrectangular cross-section, 4.4 cm. x 3.5 cm. x 13.8 cm. Site as (iii). Quartzite. Grey, compact, non-porous, fine-grained rock of quartz grains with a siliceous cement. Irregular cross -Section, c. 2.6 cm. x 3.9 cm. x 5.3 cm. From surface of road immediately north of the enclosure wall. Calcareous sandstone, grey, medium-grained, similar to (ii) above. Subrectangular cross section at
A stone game-piece is illustrated in Fig. IV.21, no. 71. 3. TESSERAE Site C produced 2,000 tesserae, both from the debris levels immediately west of Building C, and from third- or fourthcentury deposits which probably derived from alterations and reconstructions of Building A. The majority, 1,527, were of brick, 406 were of white chalk or limestone and 67 were of grey cementstone (compare Part I, p. 19). 307
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker a fragmentary bronze syrinx from a “Middle La Tène” grave at Klein Kühnau, Dessau1; boxwood examples from Alesia in Gaul2 and Barbing-Kreuzhof, Regensburg, Bavaria3, and a pottery specimen from an unknown findspot in the Rhineland4. A mould for making a pottery syrinx, bearing the stamp POTTALVSFE, was found at Rheinzabern5.
4. FLINTS Two flints from Site C were submitted to Mrs. J. Crowfoot Payne, of the Department of Antiquities, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, to whom we are indebted for the following note: "(i) (ii)
Flake-blade, dark grey flint; nibbled and polished by use along both edges. From fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. Blade fragment, grey flint with white patina; used. From fill of gully, east of Room A.I."
The dimensions of the Shakenoak syrinx are: height 124 mm., greatest surviving width 96 mm., greatest thickness 12 mm. It weighs 240 g. and the depth of the holes or pipes is shown in Fig. IV.23. They were 7 mm. - 8 mm. in diameter at the top, spaced 3 mm. - 5 mm. apart, and had conical ends. The dimensions of the Alesia syrinx were: height 115 mm., greatest surviving width 77 mm., thickness at top 11 mm. and at base 6 mm. It weighed 50 g. and originally had eight pipes, all apparently drilled, in depth 71, 63, 55, 50.5, 43, 39, 35.5 and 31.5 mm., 9 mm. in diameter at the top, spaced 2 mm. apart, also with conical ends. Much less remained of the Barbing-Kreuzhof syrinx; the surviving piece shows that it was similar in shape to the Alesia specimen and was 100 mm. in height, 45 mm. wide at the top and 40 mm. at the base, 10 mm. thick at the top and 6 mm. thick at the base. The four remaining pipes had conical ends and were 65, 57, 51 and 47 mm. deep and 8.5 mm. in diameter at the top. They may have been bored with a hot iron. Both the Alesia and Barbing-Kreuzhof instruments are ascribed to the end of the second century or the beginning of the third. They had similar incised geometric decoration.
SHALE Fig. IV. 22 9, 10 Spindle-whorls. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.15, no. 1. Both from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. Site C also produced eight fragments of shale bracelets, similar to Part I, Fig. I.15, nos. 2-5, and Part II, Fig. I.19, nos. 6-8 and p. 109. All came from fourth-century deposits. JET A fragment of the shaft of a jet pin came from the late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. POTTERY SYRINX
The Rhineland syrinx was an elongated instrument and much more sophisticated in that it had an individual mouthpiece of flageolet type above each of its eight pipes, thereby apparently making it easier to play and giving an unrestrained range of tone without resorting to overblowing. It was complete, of cream clay fabric, 100 mm. in height and 165 mm. wide.
Fig. IV. 23 Syrinx of red-brown baked clay; fabric more friable and smoother than tile, containing small grits; one side very smooth, the other rather rougher; edges bevelled; mouthpiece rather worn; two joining pieces. When complete it had at least seven, possibly eight, holes or individual pipes. The names CATAVACVS and BELLICIN[ have been scratched with a sharp pointed instrument on two of the bevelled edges. From debris of Building C, west of Building C; c. A.D. 200.
The illustration5 of the Rheinzabern POTTALVSFE mould suggests that a syrinx made from it would have been similar in shape to, but smaller than, the Shakenoak or Alesia instruments - about 72 mm. wide with 13 pipes, the deepest of about 55 mm. and the shallowest of about 20 mm. POTTALVS seems to have been an Antonine potter6.
Although representations of the syrinx are not uncommon in Roman art, very few examples of the instrument itself have survived. The Shakenoak specimen appears to be only the fifth known from north of the Alps: the others are
308
Excavations at Shakenoak
syrinx may have sounded a semitone higher3.
The maximum number of pipes for a syrinx appears to have been 13; seven was the minimum and classic number. A bronze syrinx from Pompeii had 11 pipes7.
The notes which can be obtained on the Shakenoak syrinx are (as closely as can be determined without reckoning quarter-tones):
Four French flautists tested the Alesia syrinx and all arrived at much the same scale for the seven playable pipes, namely
Pipe: 102 mm. 97 mm. Note: B flat (approx.) C
86 mm. flat C sharp
84 mm. C sharp
D, E, F sharp, G, B, C, D, As the scale appears to ascend in semitones it might be assumed that the broken 71 mm. and 67 mm. pipes would have originally yielded D and D sharp respectively, but
which, according to Reinach2 is the hypophrygian octave when completed. It is thought that the Barbing-Kreuzhof 309
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker 2.
this is only conjecture. The note of the broken 105 mm. pipe is also uncertain: an attempted reconstruction of the pipe yielded only an overblown c’’’ (C in alt) instead of the expected A. The note from the 102 mm. pipe is lower than B flat but higher than A, and the notes of the 86 mm. and 84 mm. pipes are both near to C sharp, the former being a little lower than a true C and the latter being the truer of the two. When overblown all the surviving pipes play about a seventh to an octave higher. So far as it can be recovered, the scale, when the syrinx is not overblown, seems to be chromatic, which does not tally with the classical modes.
3. 4.
5.
6.
REFERENCES 1.
7.
Klein Kühnau syrinx: Zettschr. f. Ethnologie 39, 1907, 189 Abb. 39: also F. Behn, Muslkleben in Altertüm und frühen Mittelalter, Stuttgart, 1954, fig. 86 and p. 109.
310
Alesia syrinx: T. Reinach in Pro Alesia I, 1906-07, May and June 1907, pp. 161-169, 180-185 and pl. XXI. Barbing-Kreuzhof syrinx: G. Ulbert, “Ein römischer runnenfund von Barbing-Kreuzhof”, Bayerische Vorgeschichtsblätter 26, 1961, pp. 56-59 and pl. 1. Rhinelandd syrinx: Beschreibung römischer Altertümer der Sammlung Niessen, 1911, taf. 108, 3231; also F. Behn, “Eine antike Syrinx aus dem Rheinland”, Die Musik 12, 1913. Rheinzabern mould: W. Ludowici, Stempel-Namen römischer Topfer von meinen Ausgrabungen in Rheinzabern, 1901-04, Munich, p. 137, no. 11; also F. Behn (as 1 above), p.110. POTTALVS : F. Oswald, Index of Potters’ Stamps on Terra Sigillata, 1931. Pompeii syrinx: Notizie degli scavi di antichitá, 1899, p. 444, fig. 6.
Excavations at Shakenoak SAMIAN WARE Site C produced 265 sherds of samian ware as well as a number of indeterminate flakes. We are indebted to Mr. B.R. Hartley, F.S.A., of the Department of Latin, University of Leeds, for the following report. (The decorated sherds are illustrated in Fig. IV.24.) by B.R. HARTLEY, F.S.A.
158 159 160
A. Samian from Fishpond I. (i) From below the silt 154 Several fragments giving a substantial part of small form 37 with scroll decoration. The ovolo was used by Sacer and Cinnamus of Lezoux (Stanfield and Simpson, Central Gaulish Potters, fig. 47, 2). The scroll, with a hare (D. 950a) and rings in the lower part, suggests a connection with the Sacer group rather than Cinnamus, and the small “filler” in the upper part was used at Les Martres-deVeyre, whence much of Sacer’s repertoire was derived. c. A.D. 130-160, and probably A.D. 135-155. (Fig. IV.24).
161 162
(iii) From the upper silt 163 Form 31, Central Gaulish. Late-Antonine. 164 Form 27, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine. B. Samian from the gully north-east of Building A. There are many fragments of several examples of form 31, all Central Gaulish and Antonine, none likely to be earlier than A.D. 150. Otherwise there are only:
(ii) From the lower silt Nos. 155-162 are clearly a group of the middle of the second century. Apart from no. 160, all fall in the range A.D, 130-150 and the deposit will have been formed after A.D.140. 155
156 157
Form 33, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic or early-Antonine. Form 37 rim, Central Gaulish. Probably Antonine. Form 15/17, late variant, in the fabric of Les Martres-deVeyre. Trajanic or early-Hadrianic. Form 18/31R, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine. Form 27, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine.
165 166
Form 18/31 stamped BELI [NICCIM]. One of the less common stamps of Beliniccus, only known otherwise from Corbridge and Nijmegen, used at Lezoux within the range A.D. 140-160. Form 18/31 or 31, Central Gaulish. Early-Antonine. Form 33, Central Gaulish. Early-Antonine.
Form 33, Central Gaulish. Antonine. Form 18/31, Central Gaulish, almost certainly from either Les Martres-de-Veyre or the Ligonne workshops at Lezoux. Trajanic-Hadrianic.
C. Samian from above Building C. 167 A fragment, probably form 38, slightly burnt, Central Gaulish. Antonine. 168 Form 29 in the fabric of La Graufesenque. A tiny part of a
311
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker festoon or medallion alone survives of the decoration. c. A.D. 70-85.
194 195 196
D. Samian from the debris of Building C to the west of Building C. 169 Form 33, Central Gaulish. Antonine. 170 Form 33, Central Gaulish. Antonine.
197
E. Samian from surface of Period A.1 floor east of Building A. 171 Form 33, stamped PATER[NI]. This stamp belongs to one of the Paterni of Lezoux, where it has been found in an early- or mid-Antonine group. It cannot be connected with the well-known maker of decorated ware as it is often on form 27, including a record at Carrawburgh, where it should belong to Period Ia. The range A.D. 130160 is certain and A.D. 135-155 likely.
198 199
F. Samian from the later black levels on Site C and unstratified. 172 Form 31R, Central Gaulish. Late-Antonine. 173 Form 31R, Central Gaulish. Late-Antonine. 174 Curle 15 or 23, Central Gaulish. Antonine. 175 Form 18/31, East Gaulish (perhaps from La Madeleine). Hadrianic-Antonine. 176 Form 18/31, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine. 177 Form 79 ? Central Gaulish. Late-Antonine. 178 Form 36, late variant, with rivet-hole. Central or East Gaulish. Late second or third-century. 179 Form 38, Central Gaulish. Worn internally, as if used as a mortarium. Antonine. 180 Curle 23, Central Gaulish. Antonine. 181 Form 36, Central Gaulish. Antonine. 182 Form 38, East Gaulish. Probably third-century. 183 Form 18/31, Central Gaulish. Antonine. 184 Ludowici T6 etc., East Gaulish. Probably third-century. 185 Form 18/31 or 31, Central Gaulish. Antonine. 186 Form 31, Central Gaulish. Antonine. 187 Form 37, Central Gaulish. The acanthus leaf and the other small leaf were both used by Casurius and Doeccus at Lezoux. Combined, as here, the bowl is more likely to be by Casurius. c. A.D. 160-190. (Fig. IV.24). 188 Form 31, Central Gaulish. Antonine. 189 Form 18/31R, Central Gaulish. Hadrianic-Antonine. 190 Form ? Central Gaulish. Probably Antonine. 191 Form 31, Central Gaulish. Antonine. 192 A tiny Central Gaulish scrap, possibly from a decorated bowl. 193 Form 72 etc., Central Gaulish, with “cut-glass” facets. Antonine. (Fig. IV.24).
200
201
202 203 204
312
Form 42 or an early example of form 38, heavily burnt. Hadrianic or Antonine. Form 80 rim, Central Gaulish. Mid- to late-Antonine. Form 37, Central Gaulish, with decoration of panels, including a lion (Déch. 750). The absence of masks at the junctions of the panels suggests that this may be by Secundus of Lezoux. In any case the sherd is Antonine and c. A.D. 150-180. (Fig. IV.24). A small sherd from the base of form 18/31or 31, stamped GNAT[I.M]. Gnatius worked in Central Gaul and, although his stamps have not been recorded there, almost certainly at Les Martres-de-Veyre. This stamp appears in (early ?) Antonine contexts in Scotland at Camelon, Castledykes and Newstead (twice). c. A.D. 135-160. Form 30, probably from one of the bowls of Albucius found earlier (cf. Part I, fig. I.13, no. 17). (Fig. IV.24). Form 36, Central or East Gaulish. This is from the late variant of the form with a bead at the distal end of the flange. Late second- or third-century. Form 31, stamped VRBΛNVSFI with a die with striated background (probably made from an old sherd). This stamp has not previously been recorded, though others reading VRBANVSFI are not uncommon. They belong to Urbanus of Trier, and presumably this does too, though the lettering is more reminiscent of Rheinzabern (where the edges of old sherds were often used as dies). Pots by Urbanus have only been noted four times before in Britain (London, twice, Reculver and West Tilbury). Third-century, but probably c. A.D. 200-230 rather than later. Form 37, Central Gaulish, presumably from the same bowl as Part I, Fig. I.15, nos. 39 and 40. This fragment now suggests a Possible attribution, since the festoon and the plant in it were both used by X-5 at Lezoux (cf. Stanfield and Simpson, Central Gaulish Potters, pl. 67): the Ovolo, of which only a small fragment survives, could also be X-5’s. The style would suggest Hadrianic date and it is satisfactory to be able to note a bowl from the same mould from a Hadrianic group at Verulamium (unpublished). c. A.D. 120-140. (Fig. IV.24). Small fragments with the ovolo used, amongst others, by Albucius of Lezoux. Probably from one or other of the bowls found before. (Fig. IV.24). Form 37 base, Central Gaulish. Late-Antonine. Form 33, Central Gaulish, stamped MΛRTINIM by Martinus of Lezoux. The same stamp is on form 79 in the wreck at Pudding Pan Rock, so a range A.D. 160-195 is certain and A.D. 170-195 probable.
Excavations at Shakenoak COARSE POTTERY Site C produced 26, 350 sherds of coarse pottery, about half as many as from Site A. The stratified pottery is here divided into 13 groups, the largest of which, accounting for almost half the total, came from the well-dated rubbish deposit above Fishpond I (deposit 13). No new fabrics were encountered, and there was no Anglo-Saxon pottery.
Fig. IV. 25 (1) Pottery from the well in room C.1. (Fig. IV.14, Section FF). These two jars date to some time within the C.I occupation, but a closer date is not possible. 425 426
(2)
Jar with plain lip and sharp profile; pale grey fabric with black surface. Upper part of jar with narrow neck; pale greyish fabric
313
with darker surface, decorated with shallow girth-grooves and zig-zag decoration. Pottery from the gully west of Building C. (Fig. IV.10, Section C-C, deposit 15). This group was also deposited within the period of the C.1 occupation. No. 427 suggests a date fairly early in the life of the building, before c. A.D. 150.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker 427
428 (3)
429
430 431 432 433 434
435
436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446
Jar with plain rim; grey fabric with black and slightly burnished surface, decorated with two cordons and vertical indentations copying metalwork. This is the fourth example of this type from Shakenoak. One (Part II, no. 150) came from the earliest level of room B.VIII and cannot be later than the early years of the second century. Another (Part II, no. 215) was plainer than this example, without cordons, and was dated earlier than the middle years of the second century. Plain jar with slightly everted and thickened rim; greybuff fabric with black surface.
Fig. IV. 26 447 448 449 450 451 452 453
Pottery sealed below the debris from Building C. (Fig. IV.10, Section C-C, deposit 12). This deposit contains no types which need to be dated later than the end of the second century, the latest being the rough-cast Castor beaker (no. 456) which had certainly reached this area by that date. A date for the deposit more than a decade or so into the third century is unlikely, but the presence of Castor ware means that it cannot be earlier than c. A.D. 170-180. Some of the vessels certainly date from the early part of the second century.
454 455 456
Plain straight-sided dish; hard orange-red fabric. Dishes of this distinctive fabric, for which a local origin was suggested, were found in some numbers on Site A, confined to the Period A.1 levels (Part I, nos.1-10). The evidence of Site A was that the fabric was exclusively of the first half of the second century. Mug; grey-buff fabric with dark coating and crosshatched decoration. Mug with beaded rim; pinkish-grey fabric with black coating, decorated with shallow girth-groove and crosshatching. Mug with beaded rim; pale grey fabric with dark coating. Mug with beaded rim; orange fabric. Mug with beaded rim and girth-groove; coarse grey fabric. Only one mug at Shakenoak can certainly be dated to before c. 140 (Part II, no. 174), and this is rather different in form from all other known examples. There are many examples from the second half of the second century but the type was almost extinct by c. 250. See Part II, nos. 284-285 and Part I, p. 63-64 and nos. 83-88. Bowl with pie-dish rim; fine, hard, grey fabric. For a somewhat similar example, with equally wide rim, see Part II, no. 297 (second half of second or early third century). Bowl with pie-dish rim; buff fabric with black coating. Bowl of unusual form; gritty brick-red fabric. Jar with slightly thickened rim; buff fabric with black coating. Plain necked jar; dark grey fabric with black coating. Jar with thickened rim; grey fabric with darker surface. Jar with more sharply everted rim; coarse grey fabric. Jar with plain rim, sharply angled body and girth-groove; pale grey fabric with black surface. Bead-rim jar with cordon; grey fabric with darker surface. Heavy plain jar; coarse grey fabric. Well made jar with triangular rim and cordon; grey fabric with darker surface. Heavy jar with slightly beaded rim; coarse grey fabric.
(4)
Pottery from the debris from Building C (Fig. IV.10, Section C-C, deposit 11). This deposit dates from the destruction of Building C and includes a number of vessels certainly connected with the structure. None of the vessels need be dated much after the end of the second century.
457
Pipe, the rim thickened on the inside; very coarse dark grey fabric with almost black surface. This and the following vessels were the only ones of which more than one fragment was found in this deposit. They were represented by a large number of joining fragments scattered uniformly throughout the deposit, suggesting that they were broken at or shortly before the deposition of the debris. Since all the other material in the deposit was connected with the structure of Building C it is probable that they were connected with the building, although it is uncertain whether they are drains or chimney-pots. Pipe similar to the last in form and fabric, but with the rim only slightly thickened. Pipe with rim thickened externally only and of slightly greater diameter than the last; coarse orange-grey fabric with darker surface. Pipe (?) with rim rounded and turned inwards; dark greyish fabric. The identification of this and the next two as pipes is less certain; they are of greater diameter than the preceding three. Form as last, but with less pronounced thickening of the rim; coarse grey fabric. Form as last; coarse grey fabric. Almost certainly a pipe, but with the rim turned more sharply outwards and with a slight flange; orange-grey fabric with a darker surface. Pipe (?). It is uncertain whether this and the next two were similar in function to nos. 457-463 or were narrownecked jars. Hard dark orange fabric with a hole neatly drilled just below the rim. Pipe or small jar; hard buff-grey fabric, darker on the inside. Pipe or small jar; buff fabric.
458 459 460
461 462 463 464
465 466
314
Jar with heavy beaded rim; fine and hard grey fabric without traces of darker coating. Jar with less markedly beaded rim; coarse grey fabric. Jar with double beaded rim; coarse grey fabric. Jar with flanged rim of unusual form; grey fabric with slight traces of burnishing. Jar with plain out-turned rim; orange fabric. Jar with rim slightly ledged internally; orange-red fabric. Plain-rimmed jar, rim well everted; hand-made calcite gritted ware. This is the only hand-made calcite-gritted vessel to be found to the south of the stream, the fabric being otherwise confined to the early second-century levels of Site B (Part II, p. 79 and nos. 183-184 and 229). These Site B examples are rather heavier and have slightly less sharply everted rims than this one. Despite the presence of this pot in a late second century context it is probable that it is a stray and that we are right in saving that calcite-gritted ware ceased to enter Shakenoak much after c. 120. Plain-rimmed jar of wheel-made calcite-gritted ware. Cf. Part II, no. 217. Plain heavy jar; wheel-made calcite-gritted ware. Rough-cast beaker with plain out-turned rim; creamfabric with slate black colour-coat. This type cannot be earlier than c. 170. Cf. Part II, nos. 252 and 369.
Excavations at Shakenoak
315
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
Fig. IV. 27 467 468 469 470 471 472 473
Pie-dish with slightly curved sides; coarse grey fabric. Jar with triangular rim; hard grey-buff fabric, darker on the outside. Jar with triangular rim; coarse grey fabric. Thin jar with heavily everted rim and cordon; coarse grey fabric. Jar with slightly everted rim and cordon; greyish buff fabric with darker surface. Narrow-necked jar; coarse orange-grey fabric with darker surface, Almost vertical-sided jar with only slight neck and double beaded rim; dark and soft buff fabric. For a very similar rim form see no. 449 above.
474 475
Plain rimmed jar; coarse grey fabric. Jar with everted rim; black-burnished ware. Nearest to Gillam 139 (180-250).
(5)
Pottery from within the silt of Fishpond I. The evidence of the samian suggests that this deposit accumulated in A.D. 150 or later.
The latest pot in the group is no. 476, which cannot date much before c. 220. The other vessels could be rather earlier than this; certainly none of them can date from after c. 250. 476
316
Pie-dish with flange; black-burnished ware. Cf. Part II, no. 258.
Excavations at Shakenoak 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485
Lid with slightly up-turned rim; coarse grey fabric. Mug with beaded rim; rather rough orange-brown fabric. See Part I, p. 38. Mortarium; cream-buff fabric. Small jar with plain rim and girth-groove; grey fabric with black coating. Jar with heavily overhanging rim and cordon on neck; grey fabric with fine black coating. Jar with triangular rim; hard coarse grey fabric. Plain rimmed jar; gritty grey fabric with darker surface. Plain-rimmed jar; wheel-made calcite-gritted ware. See no. 454 above. Narrow-necked jar with plain everted rim and cordon on neck; hard fine grained orange-buff fabric. A somewhat larger version of nos. 426 and 472 above.
501 502
Plain-rimmed jar with sharp profile to neck and girthgroove. Coarse grey fabric with darker surface. Jar with slightly thickened rim and cordon on neck; coarse grey fabric.
(9)
Pot from on the floor surface immediately beneath the latest floor to the east of Building A (Fig. IV.9, Section B-B). This corresponds to the A.3a building (c. 250-350).
503
Jar with slightly thickened rim and three shallow girthgrooves; hard grey fabric.
Fig. IV.29 (10) Pottery on the latest floor to the east of Building A (Fig. IV.9, Section B-B). This corresponds to Period A.3b (c. 350-420/30).
Fig. IV. 28 (6)
Pottery from the gully north-east of Building A (p. 295). This group was found with samian nos. 165 and 166 dated to c. A.D. 150. This date is suitable for the whole group.
504
486
Jar with triangular and everted rim; coarse grey fabric decorated with crosshatching in a darker colour. Plain rimmed jar with cordon on neck and two girthgrooves; soft buff fabric with black coating. Plain jar with thickened rim; very coarse red fabric. Jar with beaded rim and cordon; fine grained orange-buff fabric. Heavy jar with plain out-turned rim; wheel-made calcitegritted ware. Jar with thickened rim; rather finer wheel-made calcitegritted fabric.
505 506 507 (11)
Pottery from various hollows formed in the main yard surface sealed below deposit 13. Nos. 508-510 come from one small hollow which had been sealed by resurfacing. They are obviously a group from the first half of the third century. Nos. 511 and 512 came from two other small hollows.
Also in this deposit were 3 body-fragments of red fabric with chalky-white surface, a type found in other second century contexts at Shakenoak (see Part II. no. 265, and Part I, p. 31).
508 509 510 511
Rhenish beaker, decorated with rouletting. Another similar. Another rather thicker example with different rim-form. A very unusual vessel with double-beaded rim. Reconstruction is difficult but it looks as if it is expanded beneath a tight neck to form a jar. Fine white unpainted fabric. Lower part of a sieve; red-buff fabric with dense black coating.
487 488 489 490 491
(7)
Pottery from on the heavy pitched floor to the east of Building A. (Fig. IV.9, Section B-B). This deposit is contemporary with Building A.1 (c. 120-180).
492 493 494
Pie-dish; buff fabric with black coating. Lid with upward pointed rim; coarse red fabric. Jar with plain out-turned rim and girth-groove; coarse grey fabric. Larger and heavier jar with triangular rim; coarse grey fabric. Jar with plain but slightly thickened rim; grey fabric with black coating. Jar of similar form to last; buff fabric with black coating.
495 496 497 (8)
498 499 500
512
Pottery on the intermediate floor to the east of Building A (Fig. IV.9, Section B-B). This group dated from the period of the A.2 building, c. 180-250, a date confirmed by nos. 498, 499 and 500.
(12)
Pottery from the southern black level. (Fig. IV.11, Section D-D, deposit 20). The Coins from this level are discussed on p. 35 with Fig. IV.19 (deposit (a)). They show that the greater part of the group, three-quarters or more, was deposited in the second half of the third century, although a certain amount may be later.
513 514
Mortarium in cream fabric. Mortarium with flange bent sharply downwards; orange fabric. Small jar with everted rim; black-burnished ware. Jar with beaded rim and sharply formed shoulder; coarse grey fabric. Fine, thin-walled jar with plain slightly thickened rim; hard red fabric. Jar with plain rim pointed upwards and very pronounced shoulder, with groove just below shoulder; dark grittygrey fabric. Large jar with beaded rim; dark grey fabric.
515 516 517
Pie-dish with rudimentary flange; black-burnished ware with cross-hatched decoration. See no. 476 above and Part II, no. 258. Another rather similar, but without cross-hatching. Rough-cast beaker with cornice rim; cream fabric with black colour-coat; cf. no. 456 above.
518 519
317
Plain dish with slightly curved wall and groove just below the rim; very coarsely made grey fabric. See also nos. 569-570 below. For another example from the same period see Part I, no.24, which was certainly fifthcentury. Another example very similar; coarse grey fabric. Plain lid; coarse grey fabric. Large jar with thickened and triangular rim; hard orange fabric with slightly darker surface.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
318
Excavations at Shakenoak
319
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Fig. IV. 30 (13)
Pottery from the black deposit above Fishpond I (Fig. IV.11, Section D-D, deposit 1). This deposit contained, as well as 161 legible coins (see p. 302), 12,300 sherds of pottery. The coin evidence shows clearly that virtually the whole of the deposit can be dated to within the 60-year period 330-390 and that well over half of it, and probably almost the whole of it, bearing in mind that pottery has a shorter life than coins, was deposited in the 25-year period c. 365-390. It therefore gives us a good idea of the types of pottery in use during this period and the relative frequency of occurrence of the different fabrics.
542 543 (ii)
Mortaria The mortaria from this deposit are of three fabrics only: (i)
Mortaria in unpainted cream-white fabric. These are the final products of the kilns of the Oxford region, which had been in use since the early second century. With the exception of nos. 541-542, which continue the thirdcentury type and may be survivals they are all of a single basic type with plain flanged rim. There are however many variations in the form of the flange from an almost round lump (nos. 520-521) to a fairly long curved flange (nos. 532-534) with a considerable number exhibiting a flange which is almost rectangular in section (nos. 535, 537). A number also show a groove on the outside surface of the flange.
544 545 546 547
Mortaria in this fabric make up 1.8% of the total deposit.
548
520 521 522 523 524
549
525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534
Plain round flange; cream fabric. Flange more stubby and rounded; white gritty fabric. Flange almond-shaped; cream fabric. Smaller rounded flange; white fabric. flange rather more rectangular, with a groove on the outside; cream fabric. Flange almost rectangular; cream fabric. Flange rounded and pointed downwards. As last, but flange more oval; cream fabric. As no. 526, but rather heavier flange with groove on the outside; buff fabric. Plain flange, curved downwards; cream fabric. As last, but turned downwards more sharply; cream fabric. Larger, but as last two, with a groove on the flange and another on the top of the rim; white fabric. As last, but with a smoother curved flange, less pointed downwards; cream fabric. As last, but the flange more rounded at the tip; white fabric. Very like no. 532, but larger; pinkish-cream fabric.
550 551
type; they may well be survivors rather than products of this period. Cf. Part I, no. 75 (A.D. 150-350) and Part II, nos. 341 and 343 (late third century), and above no. 479. As last, but flange longer and straighter; cream fabric. See note to last. Mortarium of very unusual form, with two grooves on the external surface; cream fabric. Mortaria in red fabric with cream colour-coat. This fabric was shown on Site A to be later in date than A.D. 350, there being six examples from the A.3b levels (Part I, no. 76, p. 36). The evidence of Site A suggested that it continued in use well into the fifth century, but this deposit makes it clear that it was already common in the Valentinianic period. There were also two examples from the F.2 deposit (Part III, nos. 382-383). Mortaria of this fabric accounted for 0.5% of the deposit. With the exception of no. 554, they are all of one basic form which is exactly similar in its variations to the cream fabric mortaria described above, the flanges varying from short and thick to longer and thinner, with some displaying a rectangular flange. External grooves on the flanges are also common. Plain oval flange, pointed downwards; orange-pink fabric, white colour-coat. Very similar to last, with groove on exterior surface of flange; orange-red fabric with white colour-coat. As last but flange more pointed; orange-pink fabric, white colour-coat. Similar to last, but flange more pronounced; orange-red fabric with white colour-coat. Flange more rounded and pointed downwards; red fabric with white colour-coat. Thinner flange, pointed slightly downwards; orange-red fabric, white colour-coat. As last but flange turned sharply downwards, ending in a point, with a groove on the external surface; orange-red fabric with white colour-coat. As last, but even more sharply turned down; orange-red fabric, white colour-coat.
Fig. IV.32 552 As last, but flange flattened underneath; red fabric with white colour-coat. 553 As last but longer flange; red fabric with white colourcoat. 554 Unusual mortarium, Probably a very poor copy of nos. 555-559 below, ultimately derived from samian form 45; very coarse orange fabric with traces of white colourcoat. The fabric does not seem to be quite the same as that used in the vessels above; perhaps it has a different origin. (iii) Mortaria in red colour-coated ware (Oxford ware). 555 Mortarium copying sarnian form 45; red fabric with red colour-coat. See Part I, nos. 69-72, p. 36. The six examples of this form from Site A were confined to the A.3b (post-350) levels. There was a single example only from the late third-century levels of Site B, but it had a lion-mask spout and was of a fabric unlike Oxford ware (Part II, p. 131, no. 330). None of the examples from the later levels seems to have had a spout at all. For a further example from the F.3 levels see Part III. no. 384. 556 Form as last; red fabric with red colour-coat. 557 Form and fabric as last. 558 Form and fabric as last. 559 Form and fabric as last.
Fig. IV.31 535 Mortarium with rectangular flange with concave end; cream fabric. 536 Short flange with flat bottom; cream fabric. 537 Rectangular flange; cream-buff fabric. 538 As no. 536; cream fabric. 539 As last, but upper surface of flange more rounded; cream fabric. 540 Somewhat as no. 536, but with much larger flange with groove on external face; cream fabric. 541 Long flange turned very sharply downwards; cream fabric. This and the next are of the usual third century
320
Excavations at Shakenoak
321
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
322
Excavations at Shakenoak
560
561
562 563 564
Flanged mortarium; orange-red fabric with black colourcoat. This may not be Oxford ware. It is the only mortarium of this form, with either red or black colourcoat, to be found at Shakenoak. Flanged mortarium, the flange having a distinctive concave outer surface; red fabric with blue core, red colour-coat. This and the next two form a group not seen before at Shakenoak. They may copy the earlier form seen in cream fabric (no. 514 above). Form as last; red fabric with red colour-coat. Form and fabric as last. Mortarium with long flange turned sharply downwards;
cream fabric with traces of pale brown colour-coat. This vessel does not fit into any of the above groups and may be imported from a kiln beyond the villa’s usual range. The form looks earlier than the later fourth century but the colour-coat suggests that it may be contemporary with the rest of the group. Coarse grey ware This fabric accounts for 44.5% of all the pottery from this deposit. 565
323
Straight-sided dish with rudimentary flange; coarse grey
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
566 567 568 569
570
fabric. This and the next three form a group. The form is always late; see Part I, nos. 53-54, with references given there. Form as last; coarse grey fabric. Form as last; coarse grey rather gritty fabric. Form as last; coarse grey fabric. Straight-sided dish with two grooves, just below lip; very hard grey fabric. This forms a group with the next four. See Part II, nos. 23-24 (after A.D. 250 and after A.D. 350 respectively, and nos. 504 and 505 above, both after 350). Form as last but only one groove; coarse grey fabric.
595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605
Fig. IV.33 571 Dish with curved side, decorated with short slashed lines; coarse grey fabric. 572 Dish with curved side and single groove under rim; coarse grey fabric. 573 Form as last; coarse grey fabric. 574 Mug with beaded rim; coarse grey fabric, burnished on the upper surface. 575 Plain rimmed mug; coarse grey fabric. Mugs are almost exclusively of the second and early third century at Shakenoak, but there was one from the Period A.3 (post250) levels of Site A (Part I, no. 83). The presence of two from this level suggests that a few may genuinely be of the fourth century. 576 Lid; grey fabric. This is the only example from this deposit. 577 Jar with plain rim and sharply curved shoulder; grey fabric. 578 Jar with rim similar to last and girth-groove; grey fabric. 579 Jar similar to last but with slightly thickened rim; grey fabric. 580 Plain-rimmed jar with two girth-grooves; coarse grey fabric. 581 Jar similar to last, slightly more out-turned; coarse grey fabric. 582 Similar to last, with girth-groove; grey fabric. 583 Jar with rim slightly thickened and single girth-groove; grey fabric. 584 Jar with plain but thickened rim; grey fabric. 585 Plain-rimmed jar; coarse grey fabric. 586 Jar with rim more sharply out-turned and thickened; grey fabric. 587 Jar, only slightly bulbous, with thickened and sharply outturned rim; grey fabric. 588 Jar with rim very similar to last; grey fabric. 589 Jar very similar to last but with rim slightly less sharply out-turned, and with two girth-grooves; grey fabric. 590 Jar similar to last; grey fabric.
606
607 608 609
As last, more markedly beaded, coarse grey fabric. As last; dark grey fabric. As last; grey fabric. As last but smaller and with girth-groove; dark grey fabric. As last; grey fabric. As last, with two girth-grooves; grey fabric. As last; grey fabric with darker surface. As last; grey fabric. As last. As last, with girth-groove; grey fabric. Jar with thickened and slightly everted rim; grey fabric with slightly pink surface. Narrow-necked jar with ornate rim decorated with short slashed lines; grey fabric. This forms a group with the next three. For two examples from Site A see Part I, nos. 125 and 126 (post 250 and post 350 respectively). The presence of one in the unsealed late third-century deposit on Site B suggests that the type may not be entirely of the late fourth century (Part II, no. 345). As last but with slashed lines on the upper band and thumb impressions on the lower band; grey fabric with darker surface. As last; grey fabric. Form uncertain, but perhaps a necked jar like the last three; decoration as last; soft buff fabric.
Fig. IV.35 610 Necked jar with double-beaded rim and two small cordons on neck; grey fabric. 611 Form as last but without cordons; grey fabric. 612 Necked jar with plain rim, slightly thickened; grey fabric. 613 Form as last, rim slightly more thickened; grey fabric. 614 Form as last, rim unthickened; grey fabric. 615 Form as last, with handle; grey fabric. 616 As last; grey fabric. 617 As last; grey fabric with darker surface. 618 Necked jar with rim slightly beaded and cordon, girthgroove and burnished decoration of hooks; grey fabric. For another similar see Part III, no. 397 (unstratified). 619 As last, but with rim more heavily beaded; cordon and burnished decoration of vertical lines; grey fabric. 620 Necked jar with plain sharply everted rim and cordon; grey fabric. 621 Plain jar with beaded rim; grey fabric; this is probably a survivor. 622 Titula; grey fabric.
Black-coated ware Except for worn sherds this fabric (described in Part I, p. 30) is absent from this deposit, except for the single vessel below which is certainly a stray.
Fig. IV.34 591 Jar with slightly beaded rim; grey fabric. 592 Jar with upright neck, beaded rim and girth-groove on neck; grey fabric. 593 Jar very similar to last, without groove; grey fabric. 594 Jar with beaded rim, slightly out-turned; grey fabric with darker surface.
623
324
Jar with slightly thickened rim; gritty grey-brown fabric with traces of black coating.
Excavations at Shakenoak
325
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
326
Excavations at Shakenoak
327
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker Calcite-gritted ware
641
This fabric made up 15% of the sherds from this deposit. Its importance lies in the fact that jars of exactly similar form to those published here are known to have continued in use until the middle of the fifth century (see below). As well as jars there are also dishes and bowls of the same hard and fine calcite-gritted fabric, some of them also showing rilling. Since jars of this distinctive type are found throughout south-east England, the fabric is unlikely to be of local origin. There are, however, in addition to these, other jars of a much coarser fabric, never rilled, and with plainer rim-forms (nos. 660-668). These are more probably of local origin, and are the last in a series which goes back to hand-made examples in the first century. 624 625 626 627 628
629 630 631 632 633 634
642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651
Dish with rim flattened at the top; calcite-gritted ware. Dish with rounded rim and rilled decoration; calcitegritted ware. See Part I, no. 25 (post 350). As last but without rilling; calcite-gritted ware. As last; calcite-gritted ware. Bowl with rudimentary flange; undecorated calcite-gritted ware. See Part II, nos. 377-381, from Site A. This type seems to go back before A.D. 350, since there were three examples from Site A from the A.3a levels. They all had a flange similar to this one. The Site C examples seem to show a successive elongation and sagging of the flange and it maybe noted that rilling only occurs on examples which for this reason maybe the latest. None of the Site C examples is similar to nos. 380-381, which come from the A. 3b levels. It is therefore possible that they represent a development later than the date of the Site C deposit. Bowl similar to last in form and fabric. As last but flange rather more square cut. As last. As last, but with flange beginning to sag. As last. As last, with more pronounced sagging,
(Part III, p. 192).1 Jar with more triangular rim; fabric as last, decorated with rilling. As last. As last, but with a wavy line superimposed on the rilling. Form and fabric as last; no rilling. Small jar, nearer to no. 640 in rim-form; rilled calcitegritted ware. Similar to last. As last but rim very sharply pointed downwards; no rilling. Similar to 644, but rilled. Very similar to 645. Similar to 641. As last, but thinner.
Fig. IV.37 652 As last, but rim more sharply everted; fine, hard calcitegritted ware with rilling. 653 As last, but rim very similar to no. 644; calcite-gritted ware with rilling. 654 Very similar to last. 655 As last, but rim similar to no. 641. 656 Similar to no. 651. 657 Similar to no. 655. 658 As last. 659 As last but with ruling. 660 Jar with plain but thickened rim; coarse calcite-gritted ware with large grits. Nos. 660-668 are of a distinctly coarser fabric than nos. 640-659. Nos. 663-664 seem to be copying the triangular rims seen on those of finer fabric, but the majority have much plainer rims (e.g. nos. 666-668). 661 Jar very similar to last; coarse calcite-gritted ware. 662 Jar with slightly hanging rim; coarse calcite-gritted ware. 663 As last. 664 Jar with triangular rim turned sharply downwards and decorated with rough indentations; coarse calcite-gritted ware. 665 Jar with beaded and everted rim; fabric as last. 666 Jar with plain rim; fabric as last. 667 As last. 668 Jar with plain rim very sharply everted; very coarse calcite-gritted ware.
Fig. IV.36 635 As last but flange more sagging; calcite-gritted ware. 636 As last; longer flange, decorated with rilling; calcitegritted ware. 637 As last but with thicker flange. 638 As last. 639 As last. 640 Thin-walled jar with slightly beaded rim; hard and fine calcite-gritted ware decorated with rilling. Nos. 640-659 display a remarkable uniformity of both form and fabric and clearly all come from the same centre. The rim is always triangular in section to a greater or lesser degree (no. 649 shows the triangularity at its most marked). Rilling is usual but not universal. The fabric is of great interest in that it is now realised that it continued to be used as late as the middle of the fifth century, after all other wheel-made pottery had gone out of use (Part III, p. 192 and nos. 388 to 396). This knowledge must, however, be used with the very greatest caution, for this deposit shows quite clearly that the fabric goes back to the Valentinianic period. Also calcite gritted ware as a whole accounts for 15% of the total pottery from this level. In other words, in order to be able to show a fifth century date for pottery of this fabric it must make up a very large proportion indeed of the total wheel-made pottery from a deposit, preferably 100%, as was the case in Period F.3
Black-burnished ware 669 Plain straight-sided dish; black-burnished ware. There were several other examples of this type, which is much thicker-walled than earlier examples. See Part I, no. 17, for a similar late example. 670 Plain dish with handles; black-burnished ware. 671 Straight-sided dish; black-burnished ware. See Part I, nos. 26 and 27. The four examples from Site A were all from after 250.
1
At Latimer villa (K. Branigan, Latimer, 1971, p.188) it has been suggested that the increased percentage of calcite-gritted sherds in “postvilla phases 1-3” indicates a very late date for these phases. In fact the 810% of this fabric in these phases (p.129) corresponds perfectly well with a date in the later fourth century. Nor can it be said that the presence of this fabric has any connection with Germanic occupation (p.188). It seems that Latimer’s “post-villa phases 1-4” date from the second half of the fourth century, particularly as “villa phase 3b” probably ended by A.D. 350. Coins 641 and 642 are much more likely to have been lost in 325 than in 350.
328
Excavations at Shakenoak
329
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
330
Excavations at Shakenoak common in the Valentinianic period. For what it is worth it should be noted that the late third-century example from Site B has a rim form different from and generally neater than that of any of the examples illustrated here. With one exception all the vessels are carinated bowls; the rims are uniform but with much variation in detail. In all cases the paint round the rims and carinations was barely visible.
Fig. IV.38 672 Straight-sided dish with two deep exterior grooves; blackburnished ware. There was another example of this type (unpublished) from Site A, Period A.3b (post 350). 673 Flanged pie-dish; black-burnished ware with exterior decoration. This is the only strictly orthodox example of this form, which is so common in the century 250-350 (Part I, p. 34, nos. 47-50). It is evident that the form in its original state had almost died out by the date of this deposit, and has been succeeded by more degenerate varieties. 674 Flanged Pie-dish; black-burnished ware with exterior decoration. The rim is abnormal. 675 Flanged Pie-dish with double chin; rather coarse blackburnished ware. There were two examples of this form (unpublished) from the Site A. Period A.3b levels. 676 Flanged Pie-dish with a very short flange; coarse blackburnished ware. Part I, no. 51 (post 350) for an exactly similar example. 677 Jar with everted and slightly beaded rim; black-burnished ware. This and the next are the only examples from this deposit of the black-burnished cooking-pot series, which was quite evidently very near to the end of its life. 678 Smaller jar with everted but unbeaded rim; blackburnished ware. See Part I, no. 101 and Part II, no. 361, after c. 350).
691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698
Unpainted orange ware Nearly 10% of the sherds fell into this category, but most of them were small sherds which were probably colourcoated ware from which the colour-coat had vanished. However, there were also two distinct groups: (a) A number of wide-necked jars in hard orange fabric (nos. 679-685) were probably the successors of the late thirdcentury group described in Part II, (p. 131 and nos. 309315); (b) Three narrow-necked jars with double-beaded rim in very hard orange-red fabric (nos. 686-688). 679
680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690
699 700 701
Carinated bowl with reeding on both the top and the side of the rim, and a cordon above the carination; cream fabric with traces of red paint on the rim and carination. Somewhat similar to the last but smaller and with less reeding; fabric as last, but more orange. Rim rectangular in section, reeding on the top and side; fabric as last. Rim rectangular in section with reeding on the side only; dirty cream fabric with no traces of paint. As last; cream fabric with slight traces of red paint on the rim. Rim more rectangular in section with double reeding on the top; fabric as last. Rim square in section, with single reeding on side and top; cream fabric with slight traces of red paint on the rim. Rim rectangular in section, hollowed on the top and with single reeding on the side; cream fabric, red paint on the rim. Pie-dish rim, curved on the upper surface; cream fabric with red paint on the upper surface of the flange. Rim square in section with single reeding on top and side, and with cordon above the carination; cream fabric with red paint on the rim and carination. Neck of flagon; white fabric with red paint.
Castor ware Late Castor ware and New Forest ware have previously been very rare at Shakenoak, but they represent 1.6% of the total pottery from this deposit, which is nonetheless one-tenth the proportion of Oxford ware. It is clear that at this time this fabric had replaced black-burnished ware as the main source of straight-sided dishes, of which there are 11 examples. The period in which they were in use must be very short, since there was not a single example from Site A. There was, however, one example from the earliest deposit on Site F (Part III, no. 386). Site A also produced one example of the flanged dish (Part I, no. 135: post 350). This deposit produced only one rim-sherd of a plain jar, and it proved to come from the same vessel as Part I, no. 136; the large jar in this fabric from Site F (Part III, no. 387) remains unique.
Jar with slightly everted and beaded rim, oblong in shape; orange-red fabric. This is almost exactly like the late third-century example, Part II, no. 309, and may therefore be a survival. Form as last, but with rim triangular in section; hard orange-red fabric. As last but with single girth-groove; very hard brick-red fabric with blue core. Jar with plain sharply everted rim; very hard orange fabric. Form as last; orange fabric with blue core Jar with everted and thickened rim; orange-red fabric. Jar with thickened and rounded rim; hard red fabric. Narrow-necked jar with double-beaded rim; very hard orange-red fabric. As last. As last. Amphora; coarse orange fabric. Flagon-top; red fabric.
702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712
Fig. IV.39
Parchment ware This fabric, which made up 0.5% of the total sherds, has only been represented at Shakenoak before by two vessels (Part II, p. 138 and no. 353). The fabric has always been considered to be of the late third century, and it is remarkable to find that at Shakenoak it is at its most 331
Straight-sided dish; white fabric with purple-black colour-coat. As last; pinkish-cream fabric with deep slate colour-coat. As last; white fabric with dark brown colour-coat. As last; white fabric with bright cherry-red colour-coat. As last; white fabric with black colour-coat. As last; pale pink fabric with cherry-red colour-coat. As last; cream fabric with red colour-coat. As last; cream fabric with bright brick-red colour-coat. As last; white fabric with deep purple colour-coat. As last; cream fabric with red colour-coat. As last; white fabric with dark brown colour-coat on the interior and light brown on the exterior.
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Fig. IV.40 713 Flanged dish; cream fabric with deep purple colour-coat. 714 Flanged dish; cream fabric with black-brown colour-coat. 715 Flanged dish: pale orange fabric with purple colour-coat. 716 Flanged dish; cream fabric with black-brown colour-coat, paler on the inside. 717 Ornate jar with cornice rim and cordon; cream fabric with dark brown colour-coat, decorated with slashed lines on the cordon and circular impressions on the body. 718 Lower part of a box; cream fabric with dark colour-coat, the whole rouletted. 719 Lid of box (not the same as the last). Cream fabric with dark colour-coat, the whole rouletted. This and the last are smaller and rather heavier than the standard Castor box (for which see Part I, no. 124) which is usually cited rather earlier than this deposit. 720 Upper part of flagon; white fabric with deep purplebrown colour-coat. 721 Upper part of flagon (?); white fabric with cherry-red colour-coat. 722 Beaker; white fabric with chocolate slip. 723 Vessel of uncertain form: white fabric with deep purplebrown colour-coat.
738
Flanged bowls. – This was the most plentiful form in this deposit after the bead-rim bowls described above. Together they make up the bulk of the total red colour-coated ware from the deposit. There are three varieties: (i) (ii) (iii)
Bead-rim bowls. - This was the commonest form in red colour-coated ware from this deposit, being represented by some 30 vessels, only half of which are illustrated. None was decorated with either white paint or with impressed decoration, except for some with rouletting on the interior. There was only one nonsense stamp, which could have come either from a vessel of this form or from a flanged bowl.
739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746
It is worth illustrating a large number of these vessels in order to confirm the remarks made in Part II (p. 138). It was stated there that the late third-century levels from Site B produced one class of bead-rim bowl where the rim curled over and drooped (Part II, nos. 318-322), and that this type seemed to be exclusively early. There is little doubt that this is correct, for no example with a rim of this form has been found in this deposit. It was also stated that bowls with a very heavy rim (Part II, nos. 364-366, from Site A, post 350), seemed to be exclusively late. Nos. 736 and 737 below approximate to this form, which tends to confirm this hypothesis.
725 726 727 728
With the flange flattened on the underside (nos. 739-745: see Part I, nos. 66-68). With the flange thickened and rounded at the tip (nos. 746-749. see Part I, nos. 63-65). With the flange Pointed at the tip and turned downwards (nos. 750-751). These last two are the only examples to show white painting on the flange; this may perhaps suggest that they come from a different kiln within the Oxford group. It should be noted that none of the examples from this deposit resembles the single specimen of this form from the late third-century deposit from Site B (Part II, no. 329). This suggests that it was not a later stray but an early example of the series.
Red fabric colour-coated ware (“Oxford ware”) Sherds of this fabric comprise 14.5% of the total, making it ten times as common as Castor ware in this period.
724
As last, but heavier and more triangular beading. As 729. As last, but with much heavier beading. As last but of very unusual form, the beading very large and undercut. As 735.
Flanged bowl with heavy flange, flattened on the underside; red fabric with red colour-coat. As last. As last. As last. As last. As last, but with rather thinner flange. As last. As last, but with the flange rounded at the tip.
Fig. IV.42 747 Flanged bowl with the flange rounded at the tip; red fabric with poorly preserved colour-coat. 748 As last; red fabric with red colour-coat. 749 As last. 750 Flanged bowl with plain and very thick flange, turned downwards; red fabric with red colour-coat and white painted decoration on the flange. 751 Flanged bowl with short stubby rim and short thick flange turned downwards very sharply; red fabric with red colour-coat and white painted decoration on the rim.
Carinated bowls. - Nos. 752-767 are all assumed to be of the same basic form as no. 752, although this is not certain in all cases. Whereas red colour-coated bowls of the type discussed above were only very rarely decorated, it was exceptional for carinated bowls of this period to be undecorated, either with white paint or impressed decoration. This form was entirely absent from the late third-century deposit on Site B (Part II, p. 131 ff.). Site A produced only two fragments (unpublished) both from the A.3b (post 350) levels.
Bead-rim bowl; red fabric with red colour-coat, two rows of rouletting on the interior. Form and fabric as last. As last but with much smaller rim, rounded on the outside only. As 724 but with groove under the rim. As 725.
Fig. IV.41 729 Bead-rim bowl; red fabric with red colour-coat. 730 As last but with much larger and undercut beading. 731 As last, but very small beading. 732 As 729. 733 As last.
752
335
Carinated bowl with thickened and upward pointed rim; red fabric with red colour-coat decorated with a double
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754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763
Part III, no. 385. Two jars of this fabric, though unpainted and without the rim-form noted above, came from the late third-century level on Site B (Part II, nos. 333 and 334). Of these no. 333 bears a close resemblance to no. 782, while no. 334 is fairly close to no. 787.
row of impressed crescents. Form as last but with the rim more square in section; red fabric with red colour-coat, decorated with a line of rouletting below the rim, another above the carination and two more below, and a single row of almond shaped impressions. Form as 752; red fabric with red colour-coat and white painted decoration. Form as last, but with rim more rounded; red fabric with red colour-coat and traces of white painting, apparently forming a series of scrolls. Form exactly like no. 752; red fabric with red colour-coat and white painting. Form as no. 753; red fabric with red colour-coat and traces of a row of impressed crescents. Form as last but with rounded rim; red fabric with red colour-coat with a line of rouletting beneath the rim and traces of white painted decoration. Plain rim, slightly everted; red fabric with red colourcoat, undecorated. Form as no. 752; red fabric with red colour-coat, with traces of white paint, badly flaked. As last. Form exactly like no. 752; fabric as last, but undecorated. Form close to no. 757; fabric as last, undecorated.
775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785
Fig. IV.43 764 As no. 761; red fabric with black colour-coat. 765 Bowl with double-beaded rim; red fabric with red colourcoat. 766 Bowl with rudimentary flange; red fabric with red colourcoat and barbotine decoration. 767 Form somewhat as last; brick red fabric with faint traces of red colour-coat. 768 Beaker (?) with thickened rim; red fabric with red colourcoat and traces of white painted decoration. 769 Beaker with beaded rim; red fabric with red colour-coat and white painted decoration. 770 Beaker as last; red fabric with red colour-coat. A similar (unpublished) example came from the A.3b (post 350) levels of Site A. 771 Flagon; red fabric with traces of red colour-coat.
786 787
Fig. IV.44 788 Jar similar to no. 781; red fabric with red colour-coat, decorated with two rows of rouletting beneath the rim and with traces of white paint. 789 Jar with beaded rim; red fabric with red colour-coat. 790 Bowl of unusual form with rudimentary flange; red fabric with red colour-coat. 791 Jar of very unusual form; soft buff fabric with little sign of colour-coating and with impressed decoration. Perhaps not Oxford ware. 792 Bowl copying samian form 36, with heavily overhanging and beaded rim; red fabric with red colour-coat. This and the next are the first examples of this type seen at Shakenoak. They should be compared with Part II, nos. 331-332 (late third century), which may well represent an earlier stage in the development of the type. 793 Form and fabric as last. 794 Fragment from the neck of a flagon, showing a human face appliqué; red fabric with red colour-coat and white painted dots round the face. 795 Fragment from a vessel of uncertain form, showing the upper part of a human face, formed from the clay of the vessel; orange-red fabric with red colour-coat.
Dishes - Only three examples in this fabric were found; no. 774 is not paralleled at Shakenoak. The A.3b (post 350) levels of Site A produced two examples similar to no. 772 with a single groove, and three examples with a double groove. There were also two examples without a groove, similar to no. 773. See Part I, no. 22. 772 773 774
Jar with thickened and everted rim with bulge immediately beneath the rim; red fabric and red colourcoat, decorated with impressed circles and crescents. Jar of similar form to last; red fabric with red colour-coat decorated with white paint. Form and fabric as last but decorated with small impressed squares. Form and fabric as last, undecorated. Form and fabric as last, decorated with white paint. Form, fabric and decoration as last. Form and fabric as last, but decorated with three lines of rouletting. Jar with plain slightly out-turned rim and sharp shoulder; red fabric with red colour-coat. Plain jar with out-turned rim; orange fabric with cream colour-coat. Not Oxford ware. Plain jar; red fabric with red colour-coat. Jar with sharply out-turned and thickened rim, with cordon just below the neck; red fabric with red colourcoat and white painted decoration. Jar very similar to no. 782, but larger; red fabric with red colour-coat and impressed decoration. Plain bead-rim jar with girth-groove; red fabric with red colour-coat.
Straight-sided dish with single groove; red fabric with red colour-coat. As last but without groove; pile orange fabric with red colour-coat. Dish with rudimentary flange; hard pink fabric with red colour-coat.
Other colour-coated wares
Jars. - White painted and impressed decoration is common on the jars from this deposit. Nos. 776-781 and 788 all show the same rim form, usually with a bulge beneath the lip, giving a double chin (though this is absent on nos. 781 and 788). This was also seen on Part I, no. 73 and on two other examples from Site A, all from the A.3b (post 350) levels. Two jars of this type are published in Part I, nos. 73-74, both with white painted decoration, and a third in
This small group, mainly beakers, usually has a buff fabric and poor black colour-coat. It forms only 0.25% of the total sherds. 796 797 798
338
Beaker; rough orange-grey fabric with very poor black colour-coat. This forms a group with nos. 797-802 below. Beaker; orange fabric with poor black colour-coat. Beaker; reddish fabric with poor black colour-coat,
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799 800 801 802 803
decorated with rouletting. Beaker; rough buff fabric with poor black colour-coat. Beaker; soft red fabric with rather poor black colour-coat. Beaker; rather coarse cream fabric with poor black colour-coat. Beaker; buff fabric with red-brown colour-coat. Straight-sided dish with groove beneath rim; red fabric with blue core with black colour-coat.
804 805 806 807
340
Similar to last; red/orange fabric with poor black colourcoat. Bead-rim jar; red fabric with black colour-coat. Very coarsely made beaker; bluish-grey fabric with black colour-coat. Bead-rim jar with two girth-grooves; grey fabric with black colour-coat.
Excavations at Shakenoak GRAFFITI Figs. IV.45, IV.46 6 Base of bowl of red colour-coated ware. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 7 Base of black-burnished ware. Site as no. 6. 8 Base of bowl of red colour-coated ware. Site as no. 6. 9 Fragment of dark grey storage jar. The shallow incised lettering reads: ]PONIO[ | ]IPRII IVNDIS[ From fourth-century deposit immediately southwest of Fishpond I. 10 Base of red colour-coated vessel, with a maker's name ΛT[ ] DI stamped on the interior and a complete graffito MINΛ on the underside of the base. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I.
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Excavations at Shakenoak PAINTED PLASTER Buildings A and B produced considerable quantities of painted wall-plaster, both from within their rooms and more especially from deposits of builders’ refuse tipped outside the buildings as a result of reconstruction or demolition. However, the plaster from all sources represented considerably less than 1% of the total originally present in the buildings, and consequently it was generally impossible to reconstruct the designs of specific rooms. The sole exception was the large group from the corridor in Building B (Part II, p. 139) which could be reconstructed in detail. The plaster fragments found on Site A and in Building A indicated only very simple designs (Part I, p. 48).
1. PLASTER FROM BUILDING C The deposit of debris to the west of Building C produced more than 10,000 fragments of painted wall-plaster, and in some cases large areas of plaster could be reconstructed to give some idea of the original schemes of decoration. Three such schemes could be partially reconstructed (Figs. IV.47 – IV.49). The first (Fig. IV.47, no. 1) consisted of a broad maroon dado, surmounted by a series of maroon, bright red, and black and white stripes. Above this the white walls were decorated with large rectangular panels outlined in red and black. This scheme could be assigned to room C.II, where the lower part of the maroon dado remained in situ on the southern and eastern walls and on the supposed tank stand (above, p. 279). The height of this dado was at least 2 ft 6 in. At a later date this decoration was covered with a 3/8 in thick layer of plaster which was painted white.
The Period A.1 and A.2 buildings produced too little plaster to deduce anything except that few rooms were painted at all - hardly surprising in an agricultural building - and then only in single colours. The A.3 dwelling house produced far more plaster, and room A.II.3b was probably decorated with an “imitation marble” design of pink splashed with red and cream. Most of the other rooms seem to have been painted in single colours, usually pink or red, or to have had a coloured dado surmounted by white, occasionally with a single stripe of another colour on the white. There were only a very few more complex designs from the bath area (Part I, Fig. I.25). Fragments corresponding to many of these types came from Site C, mainly from areas near Building A and mainly from near the stream.
A second scheme (Fig. IV.48, no. 2) was broadly similar, consisting of a blue-green dado running up to a thin black line, from which rose vertical black bands which divided the white walls into rectangular panels. Inside alternate panels were three bands of red, interspersed with panels of some other design which could not be determined fully but which contained diagonal features in red. A third design (Fig. IV.49, no. 3) did not appear to possess a coloured dado, but resembled the two already described in having a horizontal band of blue edged with black, from which rose similar black and blue vertical stripes to form rectangular panels which were again outlined in black. This pattern contained some non-rectangular features, for a considerable number of fragments showed Y-shaped branching of the black-edged blue stripe (Fig. IV.49, no. 4).
Building B certainly contained more complex designs, at least at its time of greatest prosperity, Period B.3a (Part II, p. 139), but none was found in situ and so far no significant plaster deposits have been found outside the building. The Period B.2 house was probably decorated very simply, for the very large quantity of rubbish and builders' debris found in the cellars, which dated from the end of this period, produced only a few red and white plaster fragments.
It was not possible to relate these two designs to specific rooms in Building C. This was also the case with the many other fragmentary designs, nearly all of which came from simple schemes of predominantly red or blue-green, often with red, green or black stripes. One of the very few indications of any non-geometric design was a few fragments of a pattern showing bright green foliage with red berries (Fig. IV.49, no. 5). In one case a wall had been re-surfaced with plaster made by crushing red and black painted plaster into fresh cement. The new surface was then painted white.
Building C was therefore exceptional in producing more than 10,000 fragments of painted wall-plaster, corresponding to about 5% of the total internal wall surfaces (there is no evidence whatever that any building at Shakenoak was plastered on the outside). The fragments of painted wall-plaster from Site C, more than 13,000 in number, formed three distinct groups: 1. 2. 3.
A notable feature of this deposit was the large number of pieces of painted plaster which came from the intersection of two surfaces, usually to form an interior angle of c. 135º or an exterior angle of 225º. There were also a very few pieces showing an exterior angle of 270º, but these were all painted maroon and came from the exterior angle of the supposed tank-stand in room C.II. Various deductions can be made from the fragments recovered.
Plaster from Building C, found among the debris to the west of that building (plan, Fig. IV.7); Plaster from the make-up of the pebble path running north-east from Building A, and Plaster from Building A found in the late third- and fourth-century deposits on Site C. These groups are considered separately below.
343
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker from room C.II (Fig. IV.47, no. 1). The only window embrasure found at Shakenoak had a sloping sill (room B.VIII, Part II, Fig. 7, no. 3) but as this “room” was a cellar it may not have been typical.
A. Exterior angles (i.e. greater than 180º) (i) Right angles: only four of these have been found at Shakenoak. One was sealed by the pitching in room C.II. This piece fitted exactly on to the north-west corner of the supposed tank-stand, some 9 in up from the cement floor. Three more pieces, one of which fitted on to the first piece, came from the debris levels west of the building. There appear to have been no other plastered 270º exterior angles in any building at Shakenoak. This means that window and door openings must have been constructed in one of three ways (Fig. IV.50, a, b, c). In (a) the wooden door frame is wider than the wall is thick and plastered corners are not needed.
A few pieces of white painted plaster showed at the back the impressions of laths 1 in – 1.25 in wide, and these may indicate that the many laths found in Fishpond I (p. 378) and, as charcoal, in the debris of Building C (p. 379) were used for lath and plaster partitions and ceilings. The junctions of floors and walls were treated in various ways (Fig. IV.50). Type g, as found in room B.II, indicates that the floors were sometimes laid after the walls had been plastered and painted. Type h was found in rooms A.X, C.II and C.VII, and is probably a feature of baths, designed to prevent water from lodging at the foot of the walls. The plaster of the walls generally merges into the harder cement of the floor a few inches above floor level. A third type, l, was found in room A.VII and certainly featured in one of the rooms of Building C, since many fragments of the “quarter-round” fillet in pink cement occurred in the debris deposit. This fillet was probably intended to seal the wall-to-floor joint and make it waterproof, for room A.VII was certainly a cold plunge (Part I, p. 12).
(ii) Exterior angles of c. 225º: these were common at Shakenoak, occurring in Buildings A, B and C. Both systems (b) and (c) (Fig. IV.50) require such angles, but with the difference that in (c) there are two angles which need not be the same but which should add up to a right angle. In this case, a histogram of plaster angles should be symmetrical about 225º, but this is not so (Fig. IV.51). Consequently, we can assume that system (b) was employed. B. Interior angles In all cases where interior angles occurred in situ, they were of type d as shown in Fig. IV.50 (in rooms A.II.3b, B.XII.3a, and C.II. That is, corners were made by plastering one wall before the other, leading to a very weak joint where the two faces met. Consequently, fragments showing an interior right angle, which one might have expected to be common, are in fact very rare, because the plaster breaks so easily at the join. The very few found are mostly of this type. Inner corners of type (e), as shown in Fig. IV.50, could account for the many pieces of interior angle, but in this case the two angles must make a right angle, so statistically the angles on a large sample should average out at 135º, which the histogram (Fig. IV.51) shows they do not.
2. PLASTER FROM THE MAKE-UP OF THE PEBBLE PATH NORTH-EAST OF BUILDING A This group of several hundred pieces definitely did not originate in Building A, for none of the types present matched those known from Site A. They contained “marble” type designs, of red or maroon splashes on a grey or greenish-grey background, and patterns of close-set lines in pink, red and purple, both of which very closely matched the pattern from room B.X (Part II, p. 139 and Figs. II.40 – II.42). It may be concluded that this plaster originated in Building B and probably in room B.X.3a. The function of this path as a link between Sites A and B is discussed in Part V.
If it is assumed, on the other hand, that many of these pieces represent the meeting of roof and walls (f), then any interior angle is possible, depending on the pitch of the roof. In support of this, there is no example from Shakenoak of an interior angle similarly painted on both faces. Usually, one face is coloured and the other left plain white. It is reasonable to suppose that adjacent walls would often be the same colour, but that coloured walls would often be surmounted by white ceilings.
3. PLASTER FROM BUILDING A The late third- and early fourth-century deposits on Site C produced more than 2,000 fragments of painted wallplaster, some of which could be assigned to Building C, but the bulk of which corresponded to types found in Building A (Part I, p. 48). Large quantities of an “imitation marble” design with a pink background splashed with white and dark red paint, which probably originated in room A. II since much was also found in the A.II.3b deposits, occurred immediately to the south-west of Fishpond I.
Some of the “exterior angle” fragments probably came from window embrasures. This is the simplest explanation of the angled area of white plaster in the wall decoration
344
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker GLASS by D.B. HARDEN Site C yielded 918 fragments of glass, of which 647 were window-glass and 271 were fragments of vessels and other items. The matt/glossy and double glossy types of window glass were equally represented, with 319 of the former and 328 of the latter.
178
Only a few pieces of the window-glass were submitted to me, but I have seen all the other glass and the report below lists the most interesting and informative pieces. Those omitted were largely amorphous and revealed nothing about the shape of the vessels from which they came; they were mainly typical late Roman “green” glass of poor, bubbly fabric belonging to the later third and fourth centuries.
179
CATALOGUE
182
1. GLASS OF THE LATER FIRST AND FIRST HALF OF THE SECOND CENTURY
183
180 181
Pillar-moulded bowl: 169 Fragment of side of shallow bowl, cast; parts of two ribs extant; dull greenish glass. Later first century. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I.
184 185
Faceted beaker: 170 Fragment of side of deep bowl, blown; wheel-cut hexagonal facets in closely-set honeycomb pattern; colourless glass. Late first or early second century. For an exact parallel see D.B. Harden and J. Price, “The glass”, in B.W. Cunliffe, Excavations at Fishbourne 1961-1969 (Res. Report Soc. Antiq. London, X-XVII, 1971), 340-2, no. 43, fig. 139; for the growing popularity of colourless cut glass from c. A.D. 70 onward see ibid. 320 f.). From surface of Period A.1 paving, 4 ft east of room A.XXVIII. (Fig. IV.52).
186 187
mould-blown, with stamp; parts of two circles, not wholly concentric, extant; green glass. First half of second century. Late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. (Fig. IV.52). As no. 177, but circles more nearly concentric. From surface of Period A.1 paving east of room A.XXII. (Fig. IV.52). Part of one angle of bottom of four-sided prismatic bottle, mould-blown, with stamp; L-shaped angle-stamp extant, greenish glass. Late first century to A.D. 150, or perhaps a little later. For similar bottles cf. Part I, 73, nos. 3-4, and Part II, 98, nos. 54-67. From surface of early floor, below debris of Building C, west of Building C. Fragment of handle of bottle similar to no. 179. From surface of Period A.2 floor, east of room A.III. Fragment of handle of bottle similar to no. 179. From room C.VII, above Period C.2 pitching. Fragment of shoulder of cylindrical bottle similar to no. 179. From deposit above Period A.3 floor east of room A.III. Fragment of side of prismatic bottle similar to no. 179. From late third- or fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. Fragment of basal angle of cylindrical bottle similar to no. 179. From surface of paving along west side of Fishpond I. Fragment of bottom of bottle similar to no. 179, with trace of stamp. From surface of Period A.3 floor east of room A.III. Fragment as no. 185. From late third- or fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. Fragment as no. 185. From bottom of silt fill of Fishpond I.
II. GLASS OF THE LATER SECOND AND THIRD CENTURIES
Colourless: all c. A.D. 150-250: 188
Bottles: 171 Fragment of lip and upper handle-attachment of prismatic bottle; bluish-green glass. Late first or early second century. From above debris of Building C, immediately west of Building C. 172 Fragment of two-ribbed handle of prismatic bottle; dull greenish glass. First half of second century. From edge of Period A.1 paving east of room A.XXII. 173 Fragment of shoulder of four-sided prismatic bottle, bluish-green glass. Late first or early second century. From fourth-century deposit between Building A and Fishpond I. 174 Fragment of side of four-sided prismatic bottle, mouldblown, with thin walls; pale bluish-green glass. First half of second century. From disturbed area beside well, room C.I. 175 Fragment of side of hexagonal prismatic bottle, mouldblown; pale bluish-green glass. First half of second century. From fill of gully north-east of Building A. 176 Fragment of basal angle and bottom of cylindrical bottle, mould-blown; bluish-green glass. First half of second century. From among paving stones along west side of Fishpond I. 177 Fragment of bottom of four-sided prismatic bottle,
189 190 191 192 193
194 195
350
Fragment of rim and side of cylindrical bowl, “Airlie” type, lip thickened and rounded in flame; no decoration. Diam. 11 cm. For the type cf. Part I, 78, no. 19 and Part II, 102 f., nos. 112-115 and refs. ad loc. From late thirdor fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. (Fig. IV.52). Fragment of rim of dish (?), lip rounded in flame, sides taper sharply downward; colourless with no greenish tinge. From surface of Period C.2 pitching, room C.VII. Fragment of side of beaker, shape uncertain; crisscross wheel-cuts. From late fourth century deposit above Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). Fragment of beaker with vertical wall; three closely-set bands of horizontal wheel-incisions. From surface of Period A.2 paving, east of room A.III. Fragment similar to no. 191. From late third- or fourthcentury deposit, north-east of Building A. Fragment of lower wall of convex-sided goblet; near bottom two horizontal wheel-cuts, close together. From make-up of road, immediately north of enclosure wall. (Fig. IV.52). Fragment of wall of convex-sided goblet; one horizontal wheel-cut. From surface of Period A.1 paving east of room A.I. Fragment of wall of beaker; one horizontal raised trail,
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker partly fused in. Site as no. 194. 196,197 Two fragments, not contiguous, of wall of globular deep bowl, jar, or flask, two thin horizontal raised trails, nipt together at intervals to form a chain pattern. Very fine glass, good workmanship. No close parallel comes to mind, but for similarly nipt vertical trails cf. R.W. Smith, Glass from the Ancient World (1957), 151-3, nos. 305-7. Both from deposits above Period A.1 floor, east of room A.I. (Fig. IV.52). 198 Bottom of body of goblet on footstand; greenish, but intended for colourless. For type see Part I. p. 49, no. 18, Fig. I.26, no. 7, and Part II, p. 148, no. 140, Fig. 45, no. 61.2 From surface of early floor, below late third- or fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 199 Fragment of body of beaker with vertical indents. Dimensions uncertain. For shape see C. Isings, Roman Glass from Dated Finds (1957), 46, form 32. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. 200 Fragment of bottom of unguent-flask with narrow, dropshaped body; pontil-mark. Diam. body 1.7 cm. From debris of Building C, immediately west of Building C. (Fig. IV.52).
210
211
212
213
Coloured: all third-century: 201 Bottom of beaker, flask or jug; on under side a faint mould-blown raised ring, suggesting that the piece comes from a head-vase (cf. Isings, op. cit. s. n. 189, p. 93, form 78b) or one with some other mould-blown design; greenish-colourless glass. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 202 One half of rim (two joining fragments) of deep bowl; rim outsplayed horizontally, lip thickened and rounded in flame, short vertical neck, below which sides apparently expand slightly; green glass. Diam. rim 9.5 cm. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 203 Small fragment, shape in general as no. 202, but shorter neck, below which sides expand downwards; green glass, very bubbly. Diam. rim 8 cm. From late third- or fourthcentury deposit, southern half of Site C. 204-206 Three fragments of bowl or flask, not contiguous, but probably from same vessel; bulbous body, horizontal selfcoloured raised trail, fused into body and tooled downward into loops at intervals; olive-greenish glass. Dimensions uncertain, but from fairly large vessel. All from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 207 Fragment of body of deep bowl or flask with gentle carination; three horizontal trails, two thick, one thin; green glass. From top of silt fill of Fishpond I.
214
215
From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. (Fig. IV.52). Fragment of rim of shallow segmental bowl; rim vertical and knocked off, lip and both surfaces of walls finely ground; two faint incised horizontal bands outside, below rim. Shape as Part I, p. 49, no. 24, Fig. I.26, no. 9. Diam. c. 14 cm. Vessel perhaps bore a wheel-cut facet or pictorial design (cf. the Bellerophon and Apollo bowls, D.B. Harden et al., Masterpieces of Glass (1968), 73 ff., nos. 95-6). From unsealed fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). Fragment of rim, as no. 210; very broad incised band outside, below rim. Diam. c. 15 cm. Again, perhaps, from a decorated bowl. From robbed area, room C.VI. (Fig. IV.52). Fragment of rim, as no. 210; no incised band, and therefore probably from a plain bowl like Part I, no. 24. Diam. c. 15 cm. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. Fragment of body of segmental bowl; freehand-engraved with a bear’s right hind-leg and the front edge of the left in parallel, and part of the bottom edge of the bear’s tail. Dimensions of vessel uncertain. From a bowl of the Wint Hill group, first half of fourth century, decorated with hunting, mythological or Christian scenes in freehandengraving with a flint graver; see, for full account of group, D.B. Harden in J. Glass Studies, II (1960), 44-81. I know of no other bowl of this type showing a bear-hunt, or, indeed, any representation of a bear; but the workmanship of this fragment is identical with that of the Wint Hill group (cf. the enlarged detail of the mounted huntsman, ibid. fig. 6). For a bear on a third-century painted glass of “Airlie” shape from Nordrup, Denmark, see A. Kisa, Das Glas im Altertume (1908), 828, fig. 347. From surface of road, immediately north of enclosure wall. (Fig. IV.52). Fragment of convex wall of bowl; faint mould-blown honeycomb design. Dimensions uncertain. For a similar fragment see Part I, p. 51, no. 25, Fig. I.26, no. 10; for the complete type see Isings, op. cit. s. n. 189, p. 133, form 107a, and F. Fremersdorf, Römisches geformtes Glas in Köln (Denkmäller röm. Köln, VI, 1961), pls. 113-15. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). As no. 214, but from a different vessel. From fourthcentury deposit south-west of Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52).
Coloured: 216 Fragment of rim of shallow segmental bowl; rim outbent and knocked off, lip ground; shape as no. 209; olivegreen glass, completely unweathered. Diam. c. 12 cm. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 217 Fragment of rim of deep bowl, rim and lip as no. 216, constricted neck above slightly bulbous body; three closely-set bands of wheel-incisions on shoulder; pale olive-green glass, bubbly. For shape cf. Isings, op. cit. s.n. 189, pp. 113, 131, form 96. Diam. c. 12 cm. From same deposit as no. 216. (Fig. IV.52). 218 As no. 217; green glass. Diam. c. 10 cm. From surface of road immediately north of enclosure wall. 219 Fragment of rim of deep bowl with vertical sides, rim and lip as no. 217; greenish-colourless glass. Diam. c. 9 cm. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. 220 Fragment of body of bowl; faint traces of indents; greenish-colourless glass. For shape, cf. Isings, op. cit.
III. GLASS OF THE LATE THIRD AND FOURTH CENTURIES Colourless: 208 Fragment of rim of bowl, rim outsplayed, lip folded upward and inward and pressed solid; bubbly with impurities and one strain-crack. Diam. 9 cm. From surface of road, immediately north of enclosure wall. (Fig. IV.52). 209 Fragment of rim of segmental bowl; rim outbent and knocked off, lip ground; metal as no. 208. Cf. Isings, op. cit. s.n. 189, p. 144, form 116a, type 2. Diam. c. 16 cm.
2
The drawing of Park II, no. 140, is, as now I think, upside down, since the thicker wall must belong to the goblet, not to the foot.
352
Excavations at Shakenoak s.n. 189, p. 147, form 177. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 221 Nine fragments of rim and body of beaker; rim outbent and knocked off, lip lightly ground; dull green glass, with many bubbles, impurities and strain-cracks. For shape cf. Isings, op. cit. s.n. 189, p. 129, form 106 c. Diam. rim c. 8 cm. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 222-224 Fragments of rims of vessels similar to no. 221. No. 222 greenish-colourless; nos. 223-4 dull green. No. 222 from fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I; nos. 223-4 from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 225 Fragment of side and basal angle of beaker, as no. 221; three pairs of horizontal bands of wheel-incisions on body; bluish-green glass, bubbly and streaky. Diam. at bottom c. 4 cm. For this shape with wheel-incisions, cf. the beaker from Wint Hill, Harden, op. cit. s.n. 199, p. 51, figs. 8-9. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 226 Fragment of bottom of side and basal angle, as no. 225; no wheel incisions extant; green glass, bubbly. Diam. bottom c. 9.5 cm. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. 227 Fragment of rim of jug with upper handle-attachment, rim outsplayed, folded upward and inward, and flattened on top, handle attached at lip; green glass. Diam. c. 5.5 cm. From an ovoid jug, cf. Isings, op. cit. s.n. 189, pp. 149 ff., form 120. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. (Fig. IV.52). 228, 229 Rim-fragments from vessels similar to no. 227, both green. No. 228 from late third- or fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I no. 229 from surface of road immediately north of enclosure wall. 230 Fragment of bottom of neck of ovoid jug with remains of lower handle-attachment; green glass, very bubbly. Shape as no. 227. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 231 Fragment of rim of jug, rim outsplayed, lip rounded in flame; thick trail on outside, underneath rim; bright green glass, many strain-cracks. Diam. rim c. 8 cm. Shape as Isings, op. cit. s. n. 189, p. 150, form 120b. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 232, 233 Rim, neck and handles and part of shoulder (in two pieces) of tall bottle with “dolphin”-handles at base of neck; rim knocked off and ground with inward bevel, cylindrical neck, constricted at base, horizontal shoulder, cylindrical body; each handle dropped on at neck, worked into ridge at top and folded to form suspension-ring and dolphin-snout at shoulder; bright green glass, very bubbly, some impurities and strain-cracks, and incipient iridescence. Height neck 4.5 cm. Diam. rim 1.7 cm. For the type see Kisa, op. cit. s. n. 199, figs. 60-1; (S. Loeschcke,) Beschreibung röm. Altertümer gesammelt von C. A. Niessen (1911), nos. 399 14, pl. xxxiii, from Cologne, mostly Luxemburgerstrasse; Isings, op. cit. s. n. 189, p. log, form 100. Examples with hexagonal bodies also occur, cf. e.g. (Loescheke,) Niessen, nos. 391-2. From above paved surface, along west side of Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 234 Fragment of lip and neck of vessel similar to no. 232, lip ground but not bevelled; greenish glass. Diam. c. 2 cm. From surface of road, immediately north of enclosure wall. 235 Fragment of upper (ridged) part of handle of vessel similar to no. 232; bluish-green glass. From fourthcentury deposit between Building A and Fishpond I. 236 Fragment of bottom of neck of vessel similar to no. 232,
237
238
with traces of handle-attachment; greenish glass. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. Fragment of bottom of neck and shoulder of vessel similar to no. 232, with part of handle still attached; greenish glass. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. Fragment of shoulder of vessel similar to no. 232; greenish glass. From surface of road, immediately north of enclosure wall.
MISCELLANEOUS Window-glass quarries: 239 Angle of quarry of double glossy glass, one rounded edge and one sheared edge; bright green glass. From surface of paving along west side of Fishpond I. 240 Small rectangular quarry of matt/glossy glass, nearly complete, with one grozed edge and parts of the three others extant; bluish-green glass. Dimensions 1.8 by 1.5 cm., and 5 mm. thick. From surface of Period C.2 pitching, room C.II. (Fig. IV.52). 241 As no. 240, but thinner and parts of only two grozed edges extant; bluish-green glass. Dimensions 1.8 by 1.5 cm., and 2 mm. thick. From above surface of paving along west side of Fishpond I. Inlay: 242 Angle-fragment of inlay, original edges extant on two sides, the third fractured; ground on both faces and on edges; opaque blue glass. Dimensions 1.3 by 1.2 cm., and 5 mm. thick. From above surface of paving along south side of Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). Game-piece: 243 Plano-convex disc; opaque white glass. Diam. 1.8 to 2 cm. (but clearly intended to be circular). For type cf. Part I, p. 51, nos. 46-9, Fig. I.26, no. 27 and Part II, p.148, nos. 142-8, Fig.II.45, nos. 62-5, but all these are darkcoloured and this is the first opaque white example from the site, though they are, of course, common elsewhere (cf. Part I, loc. cit. for refs.). From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. Jewellery-settings: 244 Flat circular setting with bevelled edge, presumably for finger-ring; opaque sky-blue disc set in a wine-coloured base; wheel-ground on both surfaces and on bevel. Diam. 2.2 cm. Shape and technique as Part I, p. 0, no. 50, Fig. I.26, no. 28. Not earlier than the fourth century. From fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 245 Plano-convex circular setting for jewellery; pressed, top downwards, into one-piece mould and fire-polished all over on release; translucent emerald-green glass. Diam. 8 mm., height 4 mm. Cf., for shape, Part I, p. 0, no. 52, Fig. I.26, no. 30, but that piece is wheel-ground all over. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. (Fig. IV.52). Beads: mainly, or perhaps wholly, fourth-century: 246 Cylindrical, knocked off at both ends; clear green glass. Length 2.4 cm. Cf. Part I, p. 51, no. 33, Fig. I.26, no. 15. From fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). 247 As no. 246. Length 2 cm. From above paving, south-west of Fishpond I. 248 As no. 246, fragment only. From fourth-century deposit
353
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
249 250 251 252
253 254 255 256
257 258 259 260
It is probable that some of the fragments in group 2 (later second and third century) may also be re-deposited strays. Mostly they are tiny, and here again it should be noted that very few fragments of this date were set aside and not listed. It is hard to date such tiny pieces at all closely and that is why I spread this group over a century and a half. I believe, however, that many of them, particularly the coloured pieces, nos. 201-7, belong to the second half of the third century and would, therefore, fall within the period in which rubbish was allowed to accumulate on Site C. The colourless pieces, nos. 188-200, are in general parallel to the better-preserved and more numerous late second and third century colourless found on Site B (cf. Part II, p. 143-148). I believe that the majority belong to the third rather than the second century. None needs special comment, except perhaps nos. 196-7, which are of the finest colourless glass and bear a rather unusual chainpattern of relief-trailing.
south-east of Fishpond I. As no. 246; clear dark blue glass. Length 1.6 cm. Cf. Part I, p. 00, no. 32, Fig. I.26, no. 14. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. As no. 246; clear light blue glass. Fragment only. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. As no. 246; opaque light blue glass. Length 1 cm. From surface of Period A.3b floor, east of room A.III. Cylindrical, ground smooth at both ends; opaque light green glass. Length 8 mm. Cf. Part II, p. 148, no. 150, Fig. II.45, no. 67. From surface of road immediately north of enclosure wall. (Fig. IV.52). As no. 252. Hole in one side. From disturbed area northeast of Building A, near edge of modern stream. As no. 252; opaque dark green glass. Length 1 cm. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. As no. 252; clear dark green glass. Length 8 mm. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. Small prism, square in cross-section and with bevelled corners; dark blue glass. Length 3 mm., width 2 mm. From surface of road immediately north of enclosure wall. (Fig. IV.52). As no. 256, fragmentary, and without bevel on corners. Length as extant 2 mm., width 2 mm. From late fourthcentury deposit above Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). Small barrel; clear green glass. Length 5 mm. From fourth-century deposit immediately south of Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52). As no. 258, but larger and with hole in one side. Length 7 mm. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. As no. 258; clear pale blue glass. Length 4 mm. From fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. (Fig. IV.52).
Group 3 (late third and fourth centuries) falls wholly within the period in which extensive deposition of rubbish took place on Site C. In the catalogue this group outnumbers the other two, and it is even more predominant among the pieces not listed. Though the items are for the most part very fragmentary, they illustrate a number of well-recognized fourth century forms: see, e.g., nos. 209, 216-19, 221-6, all fragments of bowls or beakers with characteristic outbent and knocked-off rims; no. 213, the engraved fragment of Wint Hill type; nos. 214-5, fragments of bowls with honeycomb mould-blown pattern; and nos. 232-3 (and 234-8), the rim-to-shoulder fragment of a bottle with two “dolphin”-handles. As pointed out above, most of the miscellaneous group belongs to this period, and we are thus left in no doubt that those who inhabited Building A were as well stocked with fourthcentury glass as the inhabitants of Building B were with glass of the second and third centuries.
DISCUSSION It will be seen that, though the catalogue includes a few pieces belonging to the first and second centuries, the bulk of the vessel-glass belongs to the third and fourth centuries – indeed, mostly to the fourth. The same is true of the miscellaneous items. None is of a type that must be early and many, e.g. the ring-setting, no. 244, and most, if not all, of the beads, nos. 246 ff., are not earlier than the fourth century.
It is very satisfactory to find the internal evidence derived from the glass agreeing so conveniently with the other evidence for dating Site C. There is, however, one potentially discordant note. The equal quantities of matt/glossy and double glossy windowglass recorded on Site C (319 and 328 fragments respectively) might suggest that both were used concurrently during the third- and fourth-century occupation. If this is really so, it may be necessary to revise our view that matt/glossy window-glass belongs mainly, if not wholly, to the first and second centuries, that thereafter it gradually gave way to the double glossy variety, and that double glossy became paramount in the fourth century. It may be noted that the matt/glossy type was common on Site A even in the late fourth-century deposits (Part I, pp. 12, 52), and that double glossy window-glass was found in a sealed deposit on Site B which dated from A.D. 140 (Part II, p. 143).
The items in group 1 (later first and first half of second century) are mainly small fragments (nos. 171-9) of green bottles, and since very few bottle-fragments were set aside among the unlisted pieces, it is clear that these bottles were not numerous on this part of the Shakenoak site. All of them, except for nos. 175 and 178, came from deposits which were either unsealed or which dated from the third or fourth centuries, as did one of the two other early pieces (no. 169). Many could well be re-deposited strays, of no archaeological significance in the context in which they were found. The only piece in this first group which is intrinsically important is the faceted colourless fragment, no. 170. Its Fishbourne parallels (op cit. s.n. 170) show that it must be one of the earliest examples of colourless ware found in Britain. It is probably of north Italian fabric and is a strikingly fine example of glass-making and glasscutting.
LEAD Site C produced 12 lb. 2.5 oz. of lead, mostly as fused lumps, but with a few small clippings from sheets 0.062 in – 0.125 in thick. 354
Excavations at Shakenoak BRONZE OBJECTS Site C yielded 111 bronze objects, of which 51 are illustrated in Figs. IV.53 – IV.55, and a further 26 are discussed below but are not illustrated. The remaining 34 items were too fragmentary, or too corroded for identification.
Fig. IV.54 188 Bracelet. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 189 Bracelet. Site as no. 188. 190 Fragment of bracelet. Site as no. 188. 191 Fragment of bracelet. Site as no. 188. 192 Fragment of bracelet. Site as no. 188. 193 Bracelet. Cf. nos. 195-199 below, and Part I, Fig. I.30, nos. 25, 26; Part III, Fig. III.30, nos. 131, 132. Site as no. 188. 194 Fragment of cast bracelet. Site as no. 188. 195 Bracelet. See no. 193. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. 196, 197 Fragments of bracelets. See no. 193. From late fourthcentury deposit above Fishpond I. 198 Fragment of bracelet. See no. 193. From surface of Period C.2 floor, room C.II. 199 Fragment of bracelet. See no. 193. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. 200, 201 Fragments possibly from the same bracelet. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 202 Bracelet. Site as no. 200.
Fig. IV.53 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183
184 185 186 187
Brooch. For a discussion of this and of the five succeeding brooches see p. 359 below. From late fourthcentury deposit above Fishpond I. Brooch. From surface of Period A.3b floor, 3 ft east of room A.I. Brooch. From late third- or fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. Brooch. Site as no. 177. Brooch. From second-century deposit below debris of Building C. Brooch. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. Ring, inset missing. From fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. Ring of cast bronze, with raised lozenge-shaped bezel showing traces of a design. From surface of Period A.3b floor east of room A.III. Tubular belt-attachment. The function of these attachments has been discussed by Bullinger (H. Bullinger, Spätantike Gürtelbeschläge: Typen, Herstellung, Trageweise und Datierung (Dis. Arch. Gandenses, XII, 1969), and a number of examples are known from British sites, for example the late fourth- or early fifth-century burials at Dorchester, Oxon. (S. C. Hawkes and G. C. Dunning, “Soldiers and Settlers in Britain”, Med. Arch., V (1961), fig. 1, no. 3) and Miltonnext-Sittingbourne, Kent (ibid., fig. 2, d and e). All these, however, are considerably longer than the Shakenoak example, which is complete and perfectly preserved. A similar attachment from a Saxon hut dated to the first half of the fifth century at Mucking, Essex (M.U. Jones, “Saxon Pottery from a Hut at Mucking, Essex”, Berichten van de Rijksdienst het Oudheidkundig Bodmonderzoek, 1969, p. 153 f. and fig. 8, no. 335) is incomplete and the original length is uncertain, but the narrow flat flange and the alternating broad and narrow bands of moulding recall the Shakenoak piece. Since this is the sixth late Roman military belt-fitting to come from Shakenoak (Part I, p. 61 and Fig. I.29, nos. 13, 15; Fig. I.32, no. 58; Part III, p. 207, and Fig. III.30, nos. 136, 137) and since fifth-century occupation of the site has been established (Part III, p. 171), it is reasonable to place this piece in the first half of the fifth century and to regard it as further evidence of the presence of Germanic soldiers at Shakenoak at that period. From the black earth deposit above the robbed area in room C.V (Fig. IV.10, Section C-C, deposit 20). Ferrule? The taper of the upper half makes this identification uncertain. From surface of Period A.1 paving east of Building A. Decorative rivet or bolt. From late third- or fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. Knob of sheet bronze filled with lead in which is embedded a central iron rod. From surface of Period A.3b floor, east of room A.III. Spoon. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C.
Fig. IV.55 203 Pin. The head is a finer version of Part II, Fig, II.49, no. 83. From surface of Period A.1 paving east of room A.XXI. 204 Pin with blue-green glass setting. Cf. this report, Fig. IV.52, no. 245, for a similar plano-convex setting. The purpose of the flanges is uncertain: they are fragile and have inconveniently sharp edges and there may have been a disc of leather or some other perishable material between them, From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. 205 Pin with stylised horse’s head decoration. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 206 Pin or needle, head broken off. Site as no. 205. 207 Needle, broken at the eye. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.30, nos. 30, 31; Part III, Fig. III.31, no. 162. From late third- or fourth-century deposit, southern half of Site C. 208 Pin from brooch. From surface of roadway immediately north of enclosure wall. 209 Uncertain. From late third- or fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. 210 Bracelet? Cf. Part II, Fig. II.48, no. 76. From late fourthcentury deposit above Fishpond I. 211, 212 Loops. Possibly for use with leather or cloth. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.31, no. 44; Part II, Fig. II.49, no. 103. Both from late third- or fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. 213 Uncertain. This resembles the tongue of a buckle of late fourth-century type. It is very similar to the tongue of a Type II A buckle from Colchester (Hawkes and Dunning, op. cit., fig. 17, e), except that it lacks the animal heads. From late fourth-century deposit, above Fishpond I. 214 Key. From surface of paving south of Fishpond I. 215 Uncertain. This object was probably hinged at the top. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 216 Right foot of small statuette. From late third- or fourthcentury deposit, southern half of Site C 217 Uncertain. This object is complete except for the upper right corner which has broken off at the point where the metal was weakened by a small hole similar to that in the upper left corner. The object was probably sewn on to cloth by threads passing through these smaller holes.
355
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
356
Excavations at Shakenoak
357
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
358
Excavations at Shakenoak on into the later part of the same century. Of group three, Part II, Fig. II.47, no. 72 and this report, Fig. IV.53, no. 179, are most likely entirely second-century, while Fig. IV.53, no. 180 in this report is not earlier than the fourth. In groups two and three, regional affiliations are less easy to pick up. However, Part III, Fig. III.30, no. 126 probably belongs to central southern England and Fig. IV.53, no. 178 in this report to the south-west but probably not to the Dumnonian peninsula.
From surface of paving south of Fishpond I. Decorative nail. From surface of roadway, immediately north of enclosure wall. 219, 220 Rings. Both from late third- or fourth-century deposits, southern half of Site C. 221 Ring. For a ring of similar rhomboidal cross-section see Part I, Fig. I.31, no. 43. 222 Waste portion of bronze from casting. For a similar piece from Site B see Part II, Fig. II.50, no. 120, and ibid. p. 00 for a discussion of the evidence for bronze working on that site in the late fourth or early fifth century. 218
What comes out clearly is that out of the twenty specimens which have been found, none belongs to the third and fourth centuries, with the exception of Fig. IV.53, no. 180 in this report, yet there would seem to be enough material belonging to the later Roman period for this to be a little surprising. It might be expected that at least one poor crossbow or plate brooch with a conical glass or frit setting might have been discovered, and perhaps future work will fill this gap.
The following pieces, all from late third- or fourth-century deposits, are not illustrated: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix) (x)
Bronze nail, as Part II, Fig. II.49, no. 94. Bracelet, undecorated, as Part I, Fig. I.30, no, 24. Two incomplete and very corroded bracelets with ringand dot decoration, as no. 202. Three bracelets of twisted wire, one as no. 199 and the other two as no. 198, but without fastenings. Half a spoon bowl as no. 187. Ring, undecorated, as Part I, Fig. I.50, no. 111. Bracelet, as no. 196. Head of a flat-headed nail, diam. head 0.5 in, shank broken off short. Thin plate with tubular sheet bronze rivets, as Part I, Fig. I.32, no. 59. 14 small pieces of thin sheet bronze, many with perforations.
Richborough IV, p. 121, pl. XXXI, 63. 175
It seems likely that the ornament on the bow is a reflection of that on the Aucissa type (Part II, Fig. II.47, no. 69). Close copies of the Aucissa amongst brooches using the four-coil internal chord spring are not known to the writer, but there are a variety of apparent parallels using cruder versions of the bead row and stop, as on the present specimen, or using foot-knobs. How much these decorative traits are taken from the Aucissa rather than from the general late pre-Roman Iron Age repertoire is hard to say, but the latest date for the Shakenoak brooch probably fits that of the end of the Aucissa which was in decline by A.D. 50. A feature which supports an early date is the character of the profile: the bow has a fairly tight curve high up with a long “S” curve below; also, the size of this brooch is larger than most Nauheim Derivatives, which seem to be definitely post-Roman Conquest.
THE BROOCHES by D.F. MACKRETH (Note: The numbering of the brooches is that shown in Fig. IV.53)* The brooches from Shakenoak are varied and their affinities fairly widespread. They may be conveniently divided into three groups: British brooches in type and origin, Continental imports and imitations, and non-bow brooches. It is quite clear that most of the brooches are first century in the first two groups. Amongst those which belong to the Colchester Derivative tradition (Part I, p. 53, Fig. II.27, nos. 2, 3, 5 and 7; Part II, p. 151, Fig. II.47, nos. 66, 67 and 70; Part III, p. 204, Fig. III.30, no. 127), four (Part I, Fig. I.27, nos. 5 and 7, and Part II, Fig. II.47, nos. 66 and 70) belong to the later first century into the second. These brooches also demonstrate the position of Shakenoak as being on the boundary of differing distributions: Part I, Fig. I.27, no. 2 belongs to the southwest, Part I, Fig. I.27, no. 7, and Part II, Fig II.47, no. 70 belong to the West Midlands while Part I, Fig. I.27, no. 3, and Part III, Fig. III.30, no. 127 are to be found more to the east of Shakenoak than to the west. In the second group (Part I, Fig. I.27, nos. 4 and 6; Part II, Fig. II.47, nos. 68 and 69; Part III. Fig. III.30, nos. 126 and p. 355, fig. 53, no. 338, and this report, Fig. IV.53, no. 78) are thee which belong to the middle of the first century (Part I, Fig. I.27, no. 6; Part II, Fig. II.47, nos. 68 and 69), while the rest run *
Nauheim Derivative: as Part III, p. 207, Fig. III.30, no. 126, with half the spring and pin missing. The upper part of the bow was cast with a shallow longitudinal flute with a bead row down the centre. This ornament is stopped at the bottom by four horizontal grooves.
176
We thank Mr. Mackreth for drawing brooches nos. 175, 176 and 177.
359
Aesica type. The body of the brooch is made in two parts. The upper is the bow with small wings which carry the end-plates of the Polden Hill method of spring fastening (Part I, p. 60, and Fig. I.27, no. 7), while the lower carries the catchplate. The bow is riveted through the back-plate which in turn is riveted through the back of the spring case. The bow is wide at the top and tapers outwards to just below the peak of the curve where there are two bosses. Between these are two curves which narrow the bow down to a small rounded pedestal behind which is the rivet through the back-plate. This is in the form of a lozenge with a fantail foot. The top of the lozenge is bent to form the rivet through the spring case, and the lateral corners are finished with bosses. The bottom of the fantail is marked by a ridge. This method of construction was probably used so that simple two-part moulds could be made for mass production instead of a highly complex
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
177
178
“one-off” type. The crest which once secured the chord of the spring is now missing, but the slot into which it was brazed is still to be seen. The brooch as it is now has been fairly carefully finished and it is not possible to be certain where the joint lines of the moulds were. The brooch would undoubtedly have been further elaborated over the bow and foot by repoussé bronze plates which are to be seen on the main parallels. The back-plate was broken in antiquity across the junction of the fantail with the lozenge. Most of the catch-plate and the end of the pin are now missing. This type is easily recognizable but has a wide range of elaboration, from the Aesica brooch itself (Archaeologia LV, p. 186ff., fig. 9) to crude devolutions in standard as exemplified by one from Lydney Park, Glos. (Lydney, p. 78, fig. 12.22). The closest parallels for the Shakenoak brooch come from Hook Norton, Oxon. (P.S.A.L. 2s., 23, p. 406), Ancaster, Lincs. (unpublished, Margidunum Collection, University of Nottingham), Leicester (unpublished, Leicester Museum, 116. 1962/ 997), Winterbourne Basset, Wilts. (Devizes Museum, 975) and Waddon Hill, Stoke Abbott, Dorset. It will be noted that, apart from the one from Aesica, all these are in the Midlands and central southern England. There are more, no doubt, but it is not likely that this distribution will be upset, except to indicate some centre within this area. Only the last example has any date and that seems to be before c. A. D. 60. (Britannia I, 1970, p. 187 and n. 52). The origins of the type lie in the Rosette Brooch. Apart from the general shape, that from Hook Norton shows direct influence in the treatment of the repoussé plate around the point where the bow joins the foot-plate (cf. Hook Norton above with Camulodunum, pl. xciii, 70-76). This being so, the type must start before c. A.D. 55 (Camulodunum, p. 315) when the Rosette in the relevant form seems to have ended its useful life, for there would be little point in copying a type passing out of fashion. More dated examples are, however, needed to make this clear. Colchester Derivative. There is a groove at the end of the surviving wing. The spring, now missing, was fastened as in brooch 3 in Part I (p. 60 and Fig. I.27, no. 3). The projecting plate is carried down the bow for the length of the bordering decoration where it dies out into the bow. It has a series of diagonal cross-cuts at the top. The sides of the upper part of the bow have four rounded steps giving the effect of leaf-like lobes. At the foot are two cross-mouldings with a wide flute between them. This brooch is not a common type and the examples which the writer has collected so far seem to be centred in Wiltshire and Oxfordshire. None is dated; however, three from Wiltshire (Devizes Museum, 992-4) each have a moulded boss on the bow below the lobe ornament somewhat reminiscent of Trumpet brooches. This may mean that the type dates from the latter part of the first century, when there seems to have been some experiment with this feature (cf. Part I, p. 60, and Fig. I.27, no. 5), if not later. Strip bow brooch. This once had a hinged pin whose axis bar was housed in the rolled under head. The bow tapers rapidly to a point about halfway down its length after which it is virtually straight-sided and very thin. The upper part of the bow has three shallow grooves, one on each side and the third in the middle, with rocker arm ornament running down them. Where the tapered section ends are three crosscuts. The catch-plate is damaged and the bow bent.
179
180
360
Although the strip bow brooch was very easy to make, it never enjoyed such popularity as the Nauheim Derivative. This is indicated by its limited distribution and apparently less extended time range. The strip bow brooch belongs very much to the area covered by Somerset, Dorset and Wiltshire – whereas the Nauheim Derivative covers all lowland Britain – and the Shakenoak brooch is really at the northern end of this type’s homeland. As for dating, it would seem to be a product of the Roman Conquest; it is present at Hod Hill, a site which does not run beyond A.D. 50, where most specimens could be said to be imitations of the Langton Down type. The design of the present brooch is not like these, but is a logical outcome of the kind of head needed for a hinged pin and the pointed foot required for a simple catch-plate; it is a hybrid and the lower part owes more to the Nauheim and Colchester Derivatives than to the brooches introduced at the Conquest. Its time range appears to be from the Conquest to c. A.D. 75. Hod Hill I, fig. 7, C 30-2, C 40-2. Plate brooch in the form of the sole of a boot or shoe. The plate is recessed for enamel, most of which is a matrix of bright orange in which was set a series of spots of a different coloured enamel to represent hobnails. Only two of these spots are present. The enamel decoration of this brooch was complete when found, but disintegrated on exposure to the air. There were 15 black studs inset in an orange matrix with red streaks. At the heel end there is part of a wavy line of red enamel running down the middle of the sole. Behind the plate are two lugs between which the hinged pin was mounted. The catch-plate is damaged. Brooches in the form of objects are not too common, but the boot sole pattern is the most common of them. Unfortunately, like many brooches where enamel is the main decorative element, dating is not easy. Enamel is used in the first century fairly widely but brooches enamelled extensively, like the present specimen, are thought characteristic of the second century. In Britain they certainly do occur then but how many types start in the first and how many run into the third is much more difficult to tell. Verulamium Excavations I, p. 118, fig. 31.12 & 23. Chichester Excavations I, p. 113, fig. 5.17.228k. Penannular brooch. The ring is ribbed except for the terminals which are complex and finely worked and only partially zoomorphic in feel. On each there are what might be called “eyes” from which a V opens out towards the end where there are small projections down the sides with groovings. Behind the “eyes” is a small plain curved area which ends in a V “snout”. The pin has the usual expanded wrap-round end and is moulded into three ridges. The centre of the pin has a well defined hump. This brooch, which appears to be in an unworn and unbroken state, belongs to Mrs. Fowler’s type E but with a hint of type F in the spreading terminal decoration and the care bestowed on the head of the pin. The dating of the type is not too clear but appears to be no earlier than the middle of the fourth century while the succeeding type was in being, most probably, half a century later. Arch. J., 1963, pp. 101-4.
Excavations at Shakenoak These examples are not intended as a complete list of lacetags, but they do suggest that tags of this type were in use between the seventh and tenth centuries. Precise dating of individual tags does not seem possible on typological grounds: there is no convincing development in profile, the triangular shape persisting throughout the series, and the rectangular and round examples being, as yet, too infrequent for their dates to be taken as significant; nor is there any chronological distinction between tags with a definite break between plate and hook, the hook normally having a long neck and round section, and those made from one sheet of metal, one end bent to form a hook.
BRONZE LACE-TAGS FROM SITE F by TANIA M. DICKINSON In Part III, p. 207, five small bronze plates, nos. 141-145, found amongst the deposits of Saxon material in the ditch on Site F, were published, putatively, as decorative plates from buckets. In fact, they belong to a class of objects normally described as “lace-tags”. All the Shakenoak specimens are made from triangular pieces of sheet metal, the apex of each bent over in a hook and the base pierced at the corners by two holes. They vary in length between 2.0 cm. and 2.5 cm., the length of lace-tags in general being between 2.0 cm. and 4.0 cm.
The function of these tags has never been established. Their fragile nature implies that they could have been sewn only to delicate fabric, and the hook, which is often sharply pointed, could have taken little stress (three of the Shakenoak tags have broken hooks). They might have been used on clothing like a modern “hook and eye”, and possibly also as fastenings for ribbons. It has been suggested that the pair found in the Winchester grave, from beneath the knees of the skeleton, could have fastened garters, but the other two grave finds shed no clear light: the Burwell one was underneath the skull, whilst the Shudy Camps tag was found by the left hip together with a knife and a small buckle. Whether any of these explanations will serve for the Shakenoak tags is debatable: some form of multiple fastening, perhaps, is suggested by the fact that five, almost identical, tags were found; whilst their manufacture at Shakenoak is also a possibility.
Two seventh-century graves from Cambridgeshire, grave 1 at Burwell1, and grave 67 at Shudy Camps2 each contained a lace-tag of sheet bronze: the former had a rectangular plate with three holes along its base and a long, narrow hook projecting from the opposite side; the latter was structurally the same, except that the plate had an elongated, triangular profile, In neither case were the associated grave goods sufficiently distinctive to give a date closer than that for the cemetery as a whole. The elongated, triangular profile occurs on a pair of silver tags from Tetney, Lincs., found with a coin hoard deposited c. 9703; on three unassociated bronze tags from the monastery at Whitby, Yorks., probably occupied from the middle of the seventh century to the middle of the ninth century4; on another unassociated one, decorated with “bulls-eyes”, from Meols, Cheshire5; and on a pair of Trewhiddle style, ninth-century silver tags from a grave in the Old Minster at Winchester6. The Whitby, Meols and Winchester examples have a scalloped edging to the base of the plate, the attachment holes having lobed borders. This feature appears on an oval example from York7, decorated with a simple interlace, and on a round tag from Southampton (Hamwih)8. Both are unassociated, but Hamwih was occupied probably from the late seventh to the middle of the tenth century. A rounded, triangular tag of almost “bird-like” appearance was found with other material from a possible Late Saxon settlement at Filkins, Oxon. (Ashmolean Museum 1909.495c); another, unpublished tag from Thetford, Norfolk, and one from cremation grave 348 at Birka, Uppland9, have been quoted in previous discussions of these objects.
REFERENCES 1
Cambridge Antiquarian Society, Quarto Publication III (1931), 48, fig, 22,2. 2 Ibid. V (1936), 21, fig. 1, E. 3 D.M. Wilson, Anglo-Saxon Ornamental Metalwork 7001100 (1964), pp. 64, 178, Pl. XXXII, 86, 87. 4 Archaeologia LXXXIX (1943), 60, fig. 12, 10. 5 Transactions of the Historic Society of Lancashire and Cheshire CXII (1960), 6, fig.2.g. 6 Antiquaries Journal XLV (1965), 263-4, Pl. LXXIX, c. 7 Archaeologia XCVII (1959), 80, fig.10, 11. 8 Proceedings Hampshire Field Club XXVI (1969), 70, fig. 27, 6. 9 H. Arbman, Birka, Die Graber I (1943), p. 99, Taf. 99, 4.
361
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker IRON OBJECTS
Fig. IV.57 372 Knife. From surface of paving immediately east of room A.III. 373 Knife. Site as preceding object. 374, 375 Knives. The purpose of the unusually shaped handle is uncertain. Found together in main black deposit, south of Fishpond I. 376, 377 Knives. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 378 Knife. From black deposit north of Building C, with coins nos. 382-385. 379 - 382 Knives. From main black deposit, south of Fishpond I. 383 Knife, forged as a single piece with a solid iron handle. From late fourth century deposit above Fishpond I. 384 Knife, blade broken. From fourth-century deposit, north of Building C. 385 harpened blade, perhaps for a plane or spokeshave, with two holes for attachment to handle. From fourth-century deposit west of Building C. 386 Fragment of billhook blade? From above floor of room C.VI. 387 Large knife or cleaver. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I.
(Figs. IV.56 – IV.65) Site C produced 5,573 iron objects, of which 5,186 were nails of the type illustrated in Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 86. A further 220 objects are described in the catalogue below, and the remaining 167 were too fragmentary or too corroded for identification. A few dozen pieces of “slag”, from iron-working hearths rather than from smelting hearths, were scattered throughout the fourth-century deposits. They are probably to be associated with the late fourth-century hearth in room A.XVIII.3b (Part I, p. 64). Fig. IV.56 354 355 356 357 358 359 360
361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368,
370 371
3
Part of a key. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.34, no. 2; Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 93. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. Part of a lock. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.34, no. 1, and no. 430 below. From cobbled surface outside smaller gateway in enclosure wall. Key. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.34, no. 7; Part II, Fig. II.52, no. 139; Part III, Fig. III.42, no. 208; and no. 358 below. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. Holdfast. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.34, no. 6. Site as preceding object. Key, as no. 356. Site as preceding object. Linch-pin? Cf. Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 40, and note in Part II, p. 158; also nos. 364-366 below. Site as preceding object. Nail. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.36, nos. 66, 68, 69; Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 101; below, nos. 397 and 438. The purpose of the several nails with this unusual type of head is unknown. Both no. 397 below and Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 101 have had their heads distorted by hammering. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. Uncertain. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 39; Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 121, and no. 427 below. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. Uncertain. Site as preceding object. Uncertain. Site as preceding object. Linch-pin. See no. 359 above. From road surface, south of enclosure wall. Linch-pin, shank broken off. See no. 359 above. From cobbled surface outside smaller gateway in enclosure wall. Uncertain, possibly a linch-pin. See no. 359 above. From surface of paving, northwest corner of Site C. Uncertain. Cf. Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 132 for an object with similar hooked ends. From main black deposit, immediately south of Fishpond I. 369 T-clamps similar to Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 63. It is unlikely that these clamps were used at Shakenoak to hold vertical box flue-tiles in position3, since they were generally too short for this purpose. No. 368 from robbed area, room C.V; no. 369 from surface of paving, immediately N. of enclosure wall. Head of a small hammer. Compare the set of small tools, Part II, Fig. II.51. nos. 120-135. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. Uncertain. From surface of paving immediately E. of room A.XX.
Fig. IV.58 388 Chisel or similar tool with sharpened point. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 389 Chisel. Site as preceding object. 390 Chisel with tang of circular cross-section for embedding in wooden handle. Site as preceding object. 391 Chisel. From fourth-century deposit west of Fishpond I. 392 Uncertain, possibly a chisel. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 393, 394 Tools with cutting or engraving edges. Cf. Part II, Fig. II.51, nos. 127, 129. No. 393 from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I, no. 394 from fourth-century deposit west of Fishpond I. 395 Punch? From paved surface immediately north of enclosure wall. 396 Tool of uncertain use. The chisel-shaped point is sharpened and the head may have been spread by hammering. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I 397 Nail. See no. 360 above. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 398 Possibly a punch; too carefully finished to be the shank of a nail. Site as preceding object. 399 Uncertain. From fourth-century deposit north of Building C. 400 Awl? The square-sectioned, pointed end was inserted in a wooden handle. From the fill of the well, Building C. 401-403 Styli. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.36, nos. 78, 79; Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 135. No. 401 from surface of paying east of room A.XIX; no. 402 from main black deposit, southern half of Site C; no. 403 from fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. 404,405 Needles, broken at the eye. Cf. Part III, Fig. III.52, nos. 322, 323, 328-333; Fig. IV.53, nos. 340-341 for Anglo-Saxon examples. No. 404 from the bottom of the silt fill of Fishpond I; no. 405 from north of Building C. 406 Bar of square cross-section, pointed and somewhat flattened at both ends. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 407, 408 Gouges. Cf. Hod Hill I, fig. 13, G37. No. 407 from black deposit north of Building C, with coins nos. 382-5; no. 408 from surface of paving immediately north of enclosure wall.
Fishbourne II, p. 126.
362
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363
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364
Excavations at Shakenoak
365
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker
366
Excavations at Shakenoak Fig. IV.59 409 Ferrule or “shoe” for attachment to a wooden shaft, perhaps from a pick or mattock. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.34, no. 24. From fill of gully east of room A.I. 410 Similar to no. 409. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 411 Uncertain, possibly similar to no. 409. Site as preceding object. 412 Uncertain, possibly similar to no. 409. From paving east of room A.XVI. 413 Socketed spearhead. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.34, no. 32. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 414 Spearhead. From fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. 415 Wedge, or fragment of large blade. Site as preceding object. 416 Uncertain. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 417 Knife, blade broken. Site as preceding object. 418 Triangular wedge or blade. From surface of paving east of room A.I. 419 Wedge? From main black level, southern half of Site C. 420 Possibly a knife, similar to Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 104; very corroded. From fill of well, Building C. 421 Iron collar. From surface of paving immediately north of enclosure wall. 422 Uncertain. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I.
439 440 441
Fishpond I. Probably an incomplete plate, as no. 425 above. From debris of Building C, west of Building C. Fragment of binding, perhaps from a barrel or bucket, broken at a nail-hole. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. Uncertain. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C.
Fig. IV.62 442 Nail. The underside of the head is concave. From surface of latest paving east of room A.I. 443-445 Nails with hollow, hemispherical heads. Large nails of this type are common today in Spain and Spanish America, where they are used to attach leather to wood, for example in chairs. Small nails of similar type are used in England today in upholstered furniture where conventional nails would tear the fabric or leather. Nos. 443 and 444 from paving immediately north of enclosure wall; no. 445 from main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 446 Nail with solid, square pyramidal head. From paving immediately north of enclosure wall. 447,448 Nails with rectangular heads. These appear to be intermediate between normal, circular-headed nails and the spikes or hold-fasts such as Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 63. No. 447 from paving immediately north of enclosure wall; no. 448 from main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 449 Uncertain, perhaps for use with leather. From late fourthcentury deposit above Fishpond I. 450-452 Cleats or staples. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 67; Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 106. Nos. 450-1 from main black deposit, southern half of Site C; no. 452 from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 453-455 Uncertain. No. 453 from main black deposit, southern half of Site C; nos. 454 and 455 from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 456 Boot cleat, similar in function but slightly different in form from Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 118. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 457 Iron strip with rivet. From paving immediately north of enclosure wall. 458 Uncertain. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 459 Uncertain, possibly part of a knife, From above debris of Building C, west of Building C. 460 Wedge with a twisted cutting edge. From surface of latest paving east of room A.III. 461 Uncertain. This object when complete was probably a square plate perforated by a hole of complex shape. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 462 Uncertain. Site as preceding object. 463 Part of a large washer. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 464 Small rod of rectangular cross-section with rounded ends, neatly made and complete. Site as preceding object.
Fig. IV.60 423, 424 Hinges. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 53. Both from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 425 Plate with two nails. Cf. Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 108; nos. 466-471 and perhaps no. 439 below. Site as preceding object. 426 Uncertain. The studs at either end appear to be the heads of rivets rather than of nails. Cf. no. 428 below. From fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. 427 Uncertain. The object may originally have been straight, cf. Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 39, and no. 361 above. From surface of paving east of room A.XX. 428 Uncertain. See no. 426 above. From fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I. 429 Uncertain. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 430 Probably the end of an object as Part I, Fig. I.34, no. 1, or no 355 above. From surface of paving immediately north of enclosure wall. 431, 432 Loops, perhaps for embedding in wood or masonry. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 43. Both from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 433 Probably half of a clinch for driving into wood. Cf. no. 452 below. From surface of paving east of room A.XIX. 434 Uncertain. The identical object from Site A, Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 54, indicates that the curvature of the one arm is intentional. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 435 Binding for wooden object, perhaps a bucket. From debris of Building C, west of Building C.
Fig. IV.63 465 Uncertain, perhaps part of a hinge or binding. From the bottom of the silt fill of Fishpond I. 466-471 Plates with nail or rivet holes. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.35, nos. 50, 52, 55, 56; Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 108; above, no. 425. Nos. 466, 467, 469 and 470 from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I; no. 468 from main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 472 Iron pin with spherical head, point missing. From late
Fig. IV.61 436 Uncertain. The flattened ends are perforated to take rivets or nails. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 437 Uncertain. There are no signs of cutting edges on the central flattened portion. Site as preceding object. 438 Nail. See no. 360 as above. From top of silt fill of
367
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368
Excavations at Shakenoak
369
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370
Excavations at Shakenoak
371
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 473 Uncertain. Site as preceding object. 474-476; 478-480. Washers. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 56. No. 479 is part of a larger plate with at least two square holes. No. 474, site as preceding object; nos. 475 and 478-480 from main black deposit, southern half of Site C; no. 476 from surface of latest paving, north-east of room A.I. 477 Uncertain. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 481 Uncertain, one of two identical pieces, perhaps decorative bosses held in position by small central nails. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.35, nos. 57, 58; also similar bronze bosses, Part II, Fig. II.50, nos. 115, 116. Both from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 482 Uncertain. Site as preceding object. 483 Uncertain. This object may be modern, but in view of the rarity of modern finds at Shakenoak it is included here as possibly Roman. From spoil from ditch cut through Building C in 1961. 484 Uncertain. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C.
514
Fig. IV.64 485, 486 Uncertain, found together and probably parts of the same object. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 487 Uncertain. Site as preceding object. 488 Hook or tankard handle. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.31, no, 45 for a bronze tankard handle of similar appearance. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 489 File. Cf. Hod Hill I, fig. 13, no. G36. Site as preceding object. 490 Uncertain, perhaps the handle of a small bucket-shaped container. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 491 Uncertain. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 492 Hook. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 493,494 Rings, broken and pulled open. No. 493 from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I; no. 494 from paving east of room A.III. 495 Hook. From surface of Period A.1 paving east of room A.XX. 496-503 Rings, some perhaps from harness. Nos. 496, 499, 500 from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I; nos. 498, 501, 502 from main black deposit, southern half of Site C; nos. 497, 503 from paved surfaces east of Building A. 504 Uncertain. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 505 Probably for use with leather. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 45; and Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 113, both of which are, like this piece, made from thin, flat strips of iron. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 506 Uncertain. Site as preceding object. 507 Iron collar. Site as preceding object. 508 Buckle. From surface of latest paving east of room A.I. 509 Uncertain. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I.
(ii)
Handle of a fire shovel. For similar shovels from Verulamium see Verulamium I, fig. 60, no. 6, pl. XXVIIb; from Newstead, P.S.A.S. , xivii (1912 -13), 388, pl. 2, 5; and from Carrawburgh, Arch. Ael., 4s., XXIX, 84, pl. XV, B. An example from a fourth-century well deposit containing pewter and ironwork from Appleford, Berks., is in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. Site as preceding object.
W. Manning has commented on the use of a twisted shaft in Roman times as now for tools connected with the fire and the hearth. It may be that the laminar nature of the wrought-iron bars employed meant that such twisting was needed to prevent them from splitting lengthwise in use. In addition to the items catalogued above, Site C produced the following iron objects which are not illustrated. (i)
(iii) (iv) (v) (vi) (vii) (viii) (ix)
Hobnails: 35, as Part II, Fig. II.52, no. 136 and as found in the boot-sole illustrated in Fig. 75, no. 2. From many deposits, but the majority were found on the various periods of flooring east of Building A. Boot cleats: 13, as Part II, Fig. II.51, no. 118; cf. no. 456 above. Six from the paving east of Building A, the rest from various deposits. Nails with large, circular heads: five, as Part I, Fig. I.36, nos. 84 and 85. All from the main black deposit, southern half of Site C. Nail, as Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 66, with similarly bent shaft; cf. nos. 360, 397 and 438 above. Site as preceding object. Cleat, broken,in half as Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 75. Site as preceding object. Stylus, as Part I, Fig. I.36, no. 78, but very corroded. Site as preceding object. Loop, exactly as Part I, Fig. I.35, no. 45. Site as preceding object. Key, as Part I, Fig. I.34, no. 7, and nos. 356 and 358 above, but with loop for suspension broken off. From paving immediately north of enclosure wall. Blade of knife, tang broken off but otherwise as Part I, Fig. I.34, no, 17.
SLAG Site C produced many pieces of slag, mostly from the late fourth-century deposits (see Part I, pp. 12, 64 for evidence of iron-working in Period A.3b). A typical piece was submitted to Mr. H. Cleere, F.S.A., to whom we are indebted for the following note: “The lump of slag is a forging-hearth bottom. The extruded slag and heating scale tend to fall into the fire during the laborious process of heating and hammering the raw spongy bloom, and collect at the base of the small hearth, where they coalesce, taking up the shape of the hearth. Periodically these would be prised out by the smith and thrown away. They are certain evidence of forging, but less certain so far as smelting is concerned, since they could be formed where metal was being worked up into artefacts, far away from any smelting.”
Fig. IV.65 510 Ring. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 511 Ring, pulled partly open. From paving immediately north of enclosure wall. 512 Buckle. From main black deposit, southern half of Site C. 513 Uncertain. The “head” is a solid piece of iron. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I.
NAILS A statistical examination of the lengths of broken and unbroken nails can lead to conclusions concerning the uses to which they were put (cf. Part III, p. 239). Many nails 372
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Excavations at Shakenoak shape of the object; but often they were without such reinforcement so that when the handle split or rotted, teeth came loose and were scattered about as here at Shakenoak, or, when buried in graves, the teeth are found as a cluster of spikes in a corner as in the example published by Miss V. Evison from Harrold, grave 3 (Beds. Arch. Journ. 5 (1970), 39-42). Once detached from the handle the teeth appear as smooth, round-sectioned spikes, tapering evenly towards the point. The examples at Shakenoak vary between 2.5 in. and 4 in. long. P. Addyman has published similar round-sectioned spikes from Saxon sites at Maxey (Med. Arch. 8 (1964), 60), Southampton (Proc. Hants. Field Club 26 (1969), 65) and the St. Neots area (Proc. Camb. Ant. Soc. 58 (1965) 65), and it seems likely that these were also parts of heckles. For Norway, Jan Petersen lists 141 examples (Vikingetidens Redskaper (1951), 319324). Most are from graves, 102 of them from women's graves. Only 5% of these Norwegian examples are datable before the Viking period, though this may be more an indication of a change in burial custom than of the date of their introduction or development. In England no examples are known from Anglo-Saxon graves (the Harrold grave is Viking); the Shakenoak finds show that they were in use at latest by the first half of the eighth century.
from Site C had the shank bent at right angles some 3 cm. 5 cm. from the head. Nails from the debris of Building C (early second century) and from rubbish deposits (late third or fourth century) were measured (Fig. IV.66), and it was found that in both groups unbroken nails were typically 5.5 ±1 cm. long, and that broken nails were typically 3.5 ±1 cm. long. The conclusion is that these nails were driven through wood c. 3.5 cm. thick, and that they were then clinched by hammering the points flat. This thickness of wood corresponds to a lath 1 cm. thick nailed to a crosspiece 2.5 cm. thick, and oak timbers of these sizes were found in Fishpond I (p. 378) and, as charcoal, in the debris of Building C (p. 379). Whether this mode of construction was used in partition walls or in ceilings or in both could not be determined. LINEN HECKLES We are indebted to Mr. P.D.C. Brown, of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, for the following note: “The correct interpretation of the iron points found in the ditch, Site F, emerged just too late for inclusion in the last report (Part III, p. 239-240), though it is reassuring to find that the speculations which I made then were not far wide of the mark.
Although described as linen heckles, it is hard to be certain that they were used in the preparation of flax rather than of wool. Traces of flax or other vegetable fibres would not be expected to survive, but wool has been identified among the teeth of one of the Norwegian examples. Is it possible that the same tool was used to prepare both animal and vegetable fibres?”
These points are the teeth of linen heckles, combs used in the preparation of flax fibres before spinning. The drawing (Fig. IV.67), of an example from a Viking period grave at Røbstad, Vang, Hedmark, in Norway, shows the way in which the teeth were arranged, in two rows, about a dozen in each row. In this case they were mounted in a wooden handle covered with sheet iron which now preserves the
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker TIMBER, CHARCOAL 3. BEAMS Twenty-six off-cuts, usually only a few inches long, from beams of rectangular cross-section, were the only examples of more massive timbers. They varied in crosssection from 2 in x 2 in to 4 in x 6.5 in. All were oak.
WOOD Large quantities of wood were found lying directly on the bottom of Fishpond I, sealed in by the overlying silt (plan, Fig. IV.68; sections A-A, B-B, D-D, Figs. IV.8, IV.9, IV.11). The waterlogged and anaerobic conditions had protected the timber from bacteria. Examination showed that this material was all worked timber, with the exception of a single hawthorn twig and a short length of a hazel stick. The remaining wood included the following items.
AXE CHIP One axe chip of oak was present. STICKS Sixteen oak sticks, made by splitting roughly trimmed timber of circular cross-section, 1 in – 1.5 in in diameter, in half lengthwise, were found. The lengths varied from 9 in to 3 ft 2 in.
1. PLANKS More than 200 planks were found, typically 3.5 in – 5.5 in. wide and 0.5 in – 0.75 in thick, and varying in length from a few inches to almost 10 ft. Some showed sawmarks on the flat surface, indicating that they had been produced by sawing up logs lengthwise rather than by adze-trimming (compare J. Liversidge, Britain in the Roman Empire, fig. 84). Of 138 planks examined all were oak, and none showed any nailholes or other evidence of use.
DISCS Four oak discs, each 4.75 in in diameter and 1.75 in – 2.25 in thick and with one edge bevelled, appeared to be offcuts from longer poles or beams. The whole group obviously represents the waste timber from some construction near by. It all appeared to have been thrown into the fishpond from the south, immediately before it was abandoned. The fallen stones of the revetting walls lay above the timber. It is not surprising that there were no large timbers in the group, since they would have been too valuable to be discarded, but it is remarkable that planks up to 10 ft long were thrown away. This must reflect the low value of cut timber, and reinforces the view that timber, which was so much more readily available even in this region than cut stone, may have formed a large part of the superstructures of the villa buildings.
2. LATHS More than 1,000 laths were found, all of which were 1 in – 1.5 in by 1 in – 0.375 in in cross-section, and varied in length from a few inches to 5 ft. None showed nail holes, and all but one of the 256 examined were oak. One lath, 1 in x 0.5 in x 11 in was silver fir (abies sp.). Silver fir planks were found at Silchester, where they were considered to have been imported as wine barrels from the Bordeaux region (Archaeologia, LVI, p. 121 ff.; ibid. LVII, p. 253).
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Excavations at Shakenoak Examination of 1,642 pieces of charcoal from the debris of Building C, sampled as before in 10 ft x 10 ft squares, showed that 1,628 were oak and the remaining 14 were hawthorn twigs. At least 722 of the pieces of oak were from worked timbers, and in the 143 cases in which the cross-section could be measured these were in the range 1 in – 1.5 in by 0.25 in – 0.375 in, corresponding exactly to the dimensions of the oak laths from Fishpond I. There is no doubt that these oak laths were part of the superstructure of Building C, since their distribution corresponds very closely indeed to that of the building debris (Fig. IV.71).
CHARCOAL It is commonly assumed that conclusions drawn from statistics obtained from the identification of the charcoals from one area of a site can be extrapolated to cover the whole site. This is not so at Shakenoak, where extreme variations within sampled areas show that conclusions based on small-scale sampling are unreliable. Also, it is sometimes assumed that the frequency with which various species occur in the charcoals is in some way related to their natural occurrence in the surrounding countryside. This is certainly not the case at Shakenoak where variations in the frequency of occurrence of the species reflect only the different purposes for which the timber was collected.
The three samples of second-century date were too small for any useful conclusions to be drawn from their composition. In any case, it is clear that the composition of the charcoals in a deposit reflects the purpose for which the wood was collected and does not throw any light on the local flora. The single piece of viburnum may represent a tree planted for decorative purposes. This is discussed in Part V, in connection with the villa garden.
Samples were collected from 10 ft x 10 ft squares over an area of 5,500 sq ft, all from the main black earth deposit of fourth-century material on Site C (Fig. IV.69). In all, 3,819 pieces of charcoal were identified in this group, of which 3,468 were oak, hawthorn or hazel, an average of 63 pieces from each sampling square. The least number collected from a single square was 28 and the largest was 143. The results of the analysis are given in the table below. However, it was noted that distribution of species within the sampled area was not uniform. The distribution of oak charcoal, for example, showed the highest concentration in an area between Buildings A and C, in an area where there were also deposits of builders’ debris and wall-plaster associated with the mid fourth-century alterations to Building A.
BONE OBJECTS Site C produced 39 bone objects, of which 11 are illustrated in Figs. IV.72 and IV.73. Thirty pins were found, including the following in addition to those illustrated (nos. 122-4): (i)
Out of the 1,107 pieces of oak charcoal, 337 were well enough preserved to show that they came from laths or planks, whereas only 102 pieces were certainly from twigs or sticks. On the other hand, the 1,112 pieces of hawthorn and the 588 pieces of hazel contained 698 and 266 pieces respectively which were certainly from twigs or sticks and none identifiable as coming from worked timbers. Taken with the evidence of the oak timber from Fishpond I (above, p. 378) this is a clear indication that a large part of the oak on the site had come from structural timbers in buildings. This conclusion was confirmed by the charcoals from the debris of Building C considered below.
(ii) (iii) (iv) (v) (vi)
The distributions of hawthorn and hazel were also very uneven (Fig. IV.70). The majority of the fragments were from twigs of 3/8 in. diameter or less, and had the appearance of burned hedge-clippings or brushwood. The simplest explanation is that this represented the periodic clearing of scrub and undergrowth from the abandoned farmyard and its burning in situ. If this were so, the greatest concentration of hazel would be expected nearer the stream and above the former fishpond, whereas hawthorn should predominate on the drier ground further south. Fig. IV.70 shows that this was the case: whereas hawthorn was nearly twice as common as hazel over the sampled area as a whole, hazel was commoner than hawthorn in the wettest areas.
Two pins similar to Part II, Fig II.53, no. 20. One from below the debris of Building C (second century), the other from the surface of the Period A.1 paving east of room A.I (second century). Two pins similar to Part II, Fig. II.53, no. 19. One from the robbed area in room C.V, the other from the make-up of the Period A.3b floor area of room A.XIX. Five pins with spherical heads, as Part III, Fig. III.53, no. 32. All from fourth-century deposits. Two pins with flat heads, as Part II, Fig. II.53, no. 26. Both from fourth-century deposits, southern half of Site C. Sixteen fragments of pins, heads missing, all from fourthcentury, deposits. In addition to these, there was found in the topsoil 25 ft west of Building C. A roughly worked bone splinter, cut from the shaft of a long bone, 3.5 in x 0.25 in x 0.125 in, probably a blank for the manufacture of a pin or similar object.
Fig. IV.72 119 Antler handle decorated on one side only and socketed to take a blade which could readily be removed, perhaps for sharpening or re-tempering. The alternative interpretation of this object as the head of a pick-like implement fitting on to a wooden handle is less probable in view of its fragility and lack of wear. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I. 120
Drilled antler tine, tip sawn off. Cf. Part I, Fig. I.37, no. 1. Site as no. 119. 121 Needle, broken at the eye. Cf. Part III, Fig. III.64 for Saxon examples. From surface of roadway immediately north of enclosure wall. 122-124 Pins. For parallels to nos. 122-3, with globular heads coming to a point at the top, see Part II, Fig. II.53, no. 30. All from late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I.
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We are indebted to Mr. A. Shaw, of the Department of Forestry, University of Oxford, for identifying these pieces.
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Fig. IV.73 125 Antler “chisel”, perhaps for working leather. The tenon at the end fitted into a socketed handle. From late fourthcentury deposit above Fishpond I. 126 Pin-beater. Cf. Part III, Fig, III.62, nos. 82-93; Part III, Fig. III.63, nos. 94-6, 99, 101-3; Part III, Fig. III.64, nos. 114, 118. Possibly Anglo-Saxon. From junction of black earth and modern topsoil, 14 ft south-west of south-west corner of Fishpond I. 127 Bone strip decorated with longitudinal grooves and with rivet-holes. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I.
129 130 131
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Handle of folding clasp-knife. Cf. Fishbourne III, fig. 67, no. 14. It may be noted that the knife illustrated in Part II, Fig. II.52, no. 138, had a similar longitudinal groove in the handle, but had a fixed blade. Site as no. 127. Spindle disc. Cf. Guide to the Antiquities of Roman Britain (British Museum, 1958), p. 50 and fig. 23, III, d, 3. Site as no. 127. Drilled sheep or goat right metacarpal. From debris of Building C, immediately west of Building C. Part of knife handle? From late third- or fourth-century deposit south of Fishpond I.
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker ANIMAL BONES Site C produced a total of 30,549 animal bones and the complete skeleton of a lamb. A group of 24,288 of these bones was examined by the authors, with the results shown in the table below, where the data for other Shakenoak sites is given for comparison.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Both red and roe deer were represented. Part I, p. 72. Identified by Dr. P.A. Jewell (Part I, p. I.71). Part II, p. 162. Part III, p. 251. This figure does not include the bones discussed by Dr. P.A. Jewell or by Professor B.J. Marples (Part III, pp. 252). The figures refer only to the bones identified by the authors.
The rest of the bones, apart from those worked on by Professor Marples (p. 401), were submitted to Mr. C.L. Cram to whom we are indebted for the following report.
ANIMAL BONES by C.L. CRAM THE BONES AND METHODS OF STUDY In addition to the bones examined by the excavators, a further 3,634 were worked on by me and are reported on here. The collection was made up of nine groups: Group A B C D E F G H I
Date A. D. From silt fill of Fishpond I. From debris of Building C, west of Building C. Site C, unsealed late third- or fourth-century deposits, group C from southern half, groups D, E, F, from northern half (group E found together within area in which group F was collected). From surface of road immediately north of enclosure wall. From above Period C.2 pitching, Building C. From late fourth-century deposit above Fishpond I.
c. 200 c. 200 250-400 250-400 250-400 350-400
Each group was studied separately to identify the bones to the skeletal part and species, or to put them as from an animal of cattle or sheep size; to record evidence about the ages at which the animals died, their sizes, diseases and marks of butchery on their remains, and to weigh the bones from the various categories.
The bones in groups C, D, E, F, and G, from a continuous spread of refuse over the open ground, had been eroded by plant roots so that some surface detail, such as cut marks, was obscured. Bones from Building C, groups B and H, had fewer root impressions. The remains from the bottom of Fishpond I, group A, were the best preserved; those from group 1 above it were more like the bones in groups C to G. Despite the erosion by plant roots all the bones were sturdy. Some had been burnt. A few bore marks of gnawing by dogs. 384
Excavations at Shakenoak three clusters.3,6 Previous finds of cattle from Shakenoak have suggested bones of bull being among the food refuse,10 and the eight metacarpals represented in Table 4 give the impression that bulls (those measuring 70 and 66 mm, at the distal end), steers (the measurement of 57 mm.), and cows (measurements of 55 mm. and less) were all kept on the site and used for food. With more metacarpals from future excavations it should be possible to tell more definitely.
THE DATA The “raw data”, of interest more to the specialist than the layman, are set out in seven tables (pp. 390-401). Table 1 gives the evidence, from each dump of refuse, for the minimum numbers of individuals represented, and how many died at each of the various stages of growth shown by the eruption and wear of teeth and fusion of epiphyses. In most cases the dentition gave evidence of more individuals than the bones of the post-cranial skeleton. The ages in months that are included give an idea of how old a modern animal might be at the various stages but these ages may be wrong by half a year or more, especially as modern animals do not all reach the same stage at the same age. Table 2 gives the frequencies of the parts of the skeleton of the animals in each group. Tables 3 and 4 set out the weights of bone and measurements for each species, or category, in each group.
A mandible from groups C to G in Table 1 has the premolars erupting after the third permanent molar has already come into wear. With nineteenth-century cattle, such as described by Silver,12 the latter tooth was the last to erupt, and the order of eruption at Shakenoak, if this mandible is typical, resembles that in twentieth-century animals.
As well as the 2,793 bones in Table 2, there were 841 unidentifiable fragments: group A 4, group B 20, group C 298, group D 40, group E 6, group F 162, group G 12, group H 50, group I 249. Tables 5, 6 and 7 give the data for animal frequencies, carcase weights and butchery.
The measurements in Table 4 show the horses to have been “small animals of pony size” as found in a previous collection from Shakenoak in Roman times.10
Bones of the domestic pig are difficult to identify as the wild pig is the same species, and in medieval and, presumably, in Roman and prehistoric times, the domestic animals foraged for food in the woodlands where they could interbreed with the wild ones.13 However, before modern types of domestic pig were bred, the wild pigs were the larger, although there was probably overlap of sizes between large domestic males and small wild females. Measurements of wild pigs from the Mesolithic are available,4,7 and the measurements of post-cranial bones and some teeth of Shakenoak Roman pigs are smaller than these. So most of the remains are from domestic animals but, from the size of some of the teeth, a few are from pigs caught in the hunt. Mandibles from groups B and C to G in Table 1 have the third permanent molar erupting after the premolars; as with cattle, this is like the order in present day rather than eighteenth-century animals12.
The cattle measurements also agree with previous measurements from the site,10 coming from animals which were on the average larger than the Iron Age cattle in Britain, presumably from stock introduced by the Romans but which no doubt bred with the native stock. The Shakenoak cattle were evidently a little larger than those at the Roman settlement at Corstopitum in Northumberland. Measurements of lengths, and breadths of distal ends, of metacarpals from Shakenoak are inside the range of these measurements from the large collection from Corstopitum, but the means of Shakenoak measurements tend to be greater.
The horn cores show that both sheep and goats were kept at Shakenoak; with other parts of the skeleton it is more difficult to separate them and the two species are referred to as sheep/goat. From the evidence of the horn cores in Table 1 it seems that goats may have been as common as, or more common than, sheep; finds from future excavations should make this clearer. Measurements of sheep/goat bones from Shakenoak are similar to those from contemporary sites, such as in Norfolk.1 A mandible from groups C to G in Table 1 shows the order of eruption of the teeth recorded for eighteenth-century rather than presentday animals.12
Corstopitum5 mean 47.5 53.8 53.4 49.9
As with bones of pigs, it is difficult to distinguish between bones of wild and domestic canids – dog and wolf – except by size, although it is easier with complete skulls. Wolves are usually larger than dogs, but it is not known how large the largest Roman dogs were. Some of the canid bones from Site C, however, are smaller than wolf bones and so most probably come from domestic animals.
INTERPRETATION THE ANIMALS WHEN ALIVE Domestic animals All the common large domestic animals were found, horse, cattle, pig, sheep, goat and dog.
Shakenoak mean Scapula, minimum neck width 50.0 Metacarpal, breadth distal end 58.9 Tibia, breadth distal end 61.3 Metatarsal, breadth distal end 58.7
From a large collection of metapodials, particularly metacarpals, it is possible to tell the sex – cows, steers and bulls – of the cattle represented, as measurements fall into 385
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker We often think at present of farm animals being for one use, often for meat, and to be eaten only when specially slaughtered. In the past, however, as with primitive people today,2 the animals were no doubt often more valuable alive than dead for a variety of uses, and would have been eaten when they died naturally. Alive they could provide labour, milk, perhaps blood, dung, wool and hair, and when dead their hides, horns, intestines, and bones, would have been wanted for tools, clothing, etc., as much as their meat for food.
Wild animals The common large wild mammals are all represented among the bones from Site C, red and roe deer, wild pig and perhaps wolf. Although the fallow deer was apparently introduced into Britain by the Romans, none of the Shakenoak bones is from this animal. Modern red deer, living for instance on the open hills in Scotland, are smaller than the prehistoric animals that lived in their natural environment of woodland and forest.9
The horses were eaten at Shakenoak, as the marks of butchery on their bones show, and as they were at other Roman sites,1, 15 but probably when they were of no further use for labour.
The measurements in Table 4 of red deer bones from Shakenoak in Roman times can be compared with those from the Mesolithic;4,7 the Shakenoak measurements are mainly within the Mesolithic ranges, although at the bottom ends, but some are below. Measurements of a present-day red deer are all below the sizes of the Shakenoak specimens.4
The figures in Table 1 suggest that half or more of the cattle whose remains got into the refuse were over four years old at death and those that died before that age did so at a variety of ages. The cattle eaten on the site were not therefore apparently raised specially to be killed young for their tender meat there; if the villa raised cattle, presumably steers, to be driven elsewhere for slaughter,11 then the inhabitants apparently ate the older animals, such as surplus breeding stock, or beasts that died naturally.
The sizes of some of the third permanent molar teeth of Shakenoak pigs equal those from Mesolithic wild pigs;4,7 these are the measurements of 37 mm. for the upper of these teeth in Table 4 and of 36 mm. and over for the lower. With deer being hunted it is probable that wild pigs were hunted as well, their remains, as shown by these teeth, getting into the food refuse.
Unlike other farm animals, the pig is only valuable for its carcase and to keep it after it is fully grown is uneconomical. About a third of the pigs were well mature, perhaps over three years old, when they died, some of these being wild animals; a third died at about the time they reached maturity, and the others at a variety of ages before then.
The roe deer was probably a little smaller at Roman Shakenoak than in Mesolithic times, as was the red deer, but measurements from both times are scarce. Some of the canid bones are the size of wolf but may be from large domestic dogs.
The sheep and goats also often died when reaching full size, or after this time. But the figures in Table 1 suggest that 30% died when perhaps about 18 months old, possibly in the autumn of their second year of life. This is particularly noticeable in group I from the end of the Roman occupation. These figures may reflect a deliberate farming policy.
Frequencies and ages of farm animals The frequencies in which the animals are represented in the food refuse can be estimated in three ways; by counting the numbers of bones from each species, by weighing the bones, and by working out the minimum numbers of individuals. Table 5 gives the results from each of these methods for three stages during the Roman occupation of the site. The numbers of bones give similar frequencies as found before,11 cattle the most numerous, then sheep/goat, pig, and horse the least common. The weights of bone change this order by putting horse second. But, from the minimum numbers of individuals, sheep/goat are the first in order, cattle and pigs about equally in second place and horse far behind. A possible explanation of this difference is discussed later, but if we take the frequencies from the third method as the most reliable for reflecting the numbers of animals alive in Roman times, it seems that cattle, sheep/goats and pigs were all easily available for food to the inhabitants.
The environment The immediate environment of the site in Roman times, as has previously been discussed,16 would have had vegetation suitable for the domestic animals kept; pasture or open woodland for the horses, cattle, sheep and goats, and woodland and scrub for the pigs. There was probably more open land than woodland as the grazing animals were evidently more numerous than the pigs. The increase of sheep/goat at the end of the Roman occupation suggests an increase in the proportion of pasture where these animals fed.
The bones from Saxon times at Shakenoak, immediately following the end of the Roman occupation, have shown an increase in numbers of sheep/goat and a decrease in cattle.11 The figures from all three methods in Table 5 suggest that this change began during the Roman period between the times of groups C to H and group I.
Away from the site there was forest where the deer and wild pigs were hunted. The large size of the red deer shown by the measurements of their bones suggests that this forest was similar to the forests of Mesolithic times where the animals could grow in their natural environment, without their size being stunted as it is at present on the 386
Excavations at Shakenoak the results from the two methods in Table 6 are largely in agreement. Despite the many pigs, sheep and goats among the total minimum number of individuals, these animals gave little to the total meat supply. By both methods of reckoning cattle supplied most of the meat eaten, the other animals, including deer, giving roughly equal amounts. The weight of bone method gives larger percentages for cattle, while the minimum number of individuals method favours pig and sheep/goat. The decrease in red deer and increase in sheep/goat is shown in this table as in Table 5.
open hills in Scotland. As well as showing an increase in sheep/goat, the figures in Table 5 show a decrease, by all three methods, in the frequency of red deer, but over the whole Roman period. The two changes might both be connected with open land gradually extending out from the site, red deer becoming not so readily available to the hunter. Pathology Evidence of disease was only found on two bones, both metatarsals of cattle; one from group D with a periosteal reaction on the posterior surface of the bottom end of the shaft (the distal end is missing), perhaps from infection or simple trauma, the other from group G with an osteoma on the anterior surface of the shaft, perhaps caused by the ossification of a sub-periosteal haemorrhage, neither being an exceptional pathological condition.
If all the bones from each individual eaten had gone into the refuse, the carcase weights estimated in the table would be about the same, allowing for errors in estimating the carcase weight of one individual and so on. In fact only a fraction of the bones were discarded where they were found in excavation; from groups C to H the carcase weight from the weight of bone is only 5.1% of the amount estimated from the minimum numbers of individuals. This discrepancy might be explained by some of the bone refuse having been discarded elsewhere, or decaying away, but also by not all of each individual having been eaten by the people who threw away their rubbish on Site C.
USE OF THE CARCASE Weights of meat The proportions of meat the various animals gave in the total amount of meat eaten can be estimated in two ways. One is to extrapolate the carcase weights from the weights of bone, by taking the bones of an individual animal as making up 7% of its total carcase weight, and using the formula:-8 carcase weight =
This last explanation may account for the discrepancy between the frequencies of animals as shown in Table 5. Perhaps the cattle tended to be eaten in their entirety by the people who threw away domestic refuse on Site C but the pigs, sheep and goats tended to be shared out with other parts of the Shakenoak estate or even further afield. Then there would be more bones and weight of bone for each of the minimum number of individuals of cattle, but less for the minimum numbers of pig and sheep/goat. The figures in Table 6 agree with this possibility. For groups C to H the carcase weights from weight of bone, given as a percentage of the carcase weights from the minimum numbers of individuals, show the following results:
weight of bone x 100 7
The other is to multiply the minimum number of individuals represented for each species by the carcase weight of one individual. Table 6 gives the results of these two methods, using the following estimated carcase weights (in kilograms):
The figures from groups A and B and group I give similar results, so we can perhaps imagine that parts of one of these smaller animals eaten in Building A whence, so it seems, the Site C refuse came, were often being eaten in other buildings elsewhere.
horse 450, cattle 450, red deer 150, pig 90, sheep/goat 55, roe deer 20.1,14 Edible meat makes up about half the total weight of a carcase so that halving the carcase weights in Table 6 will give an idea of how much edible meat is represented. The percentages would be similar whether given in carcase or edible meat weights.
The diet varied little. Although there were slight changes in the amounts of sheep/goat and red deer meat eaten, the general frequencies of species, and of the parts of the animals eaten, are much the same in each group, as is shown in Tables 2 and 3.
Although the various methods of estimating the frequencies of animals in Table 5 gave conflicting results, Species
Cattle Pig Sheep/goat
Carcase weights (kilograms) A B from minimum from weight B as % of A numbers of of bone individuals 8550 1620 1430
341.0 20.9 19.4
387
4.0 1.3 1.4
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker having used the bones for extracting the fatty marrow material by breaking up those which gave the most, and, presumably, boiling the fragments in water so that the fat rose to the surface where it could be skimmed off.
Butchery Table 7 is drawn up to compare the frequencies in which the various parts of the skeleton are represented in the spread of refuse to the west of Building C, in groups C to G. The bones were put into two categories, larger animals (horse, cattle, red deer and cattle size), and smaller animals (pig, sheep/goat, roe deer and sheep size); this was done assuming that a similar method of butchery was used on animals of a similar size, and after seeing that phalanges were common for the larger species but rare or absent for the smaller. The total number of bones for each part of the skeleton was adjusted by dividing by the frequency of that part in one individual (using the frequencies in the ruminant skeleton) so that if each part was equally represented the adjusted numbers would be all about the same.
The breaking up of the bones was often done by a chopper. Chopper marks are found on the bones of all species, except those of canid, and are particularly common on the shaft fragments of marrow bones: 40% of cattle size, and 49% of sheep size marrow bone fragments had these marks. These conclusions are from groups C to G but other groups, as shown in Table 2, would give similar results. DISPOSAL OF REFUSE The source and dating of the deposits of refuse on Site C are discussed on p. 298.
In fact the adjusted numbers vary from some bones being absent to others being common. The differences may be explained in three ways. One is that some bones were broken in butchery; the top of the humerus and of the femur may have been broken through with an axe in removing the legs from the trunk, a method of dismembering already known for Roman times,15 as both these areas are rare or missing for both categories. Similarly, the back limb may have been broken in two at the femur to tibia joint. The smaller animals may have had their feet removed by chopping through the distal end of the metapodials. This part of the skeleton is more common for larger animals, whose phalanges are also common.
SUMMARY FIRM CONCLUSIONS The large domestic animals used for food were horses, cattle, pigs, sheep and goats. More pigs and sheep/goats were eaten than cattle but cattle provided the bulk of the meat. The bones of all species were chopped and broken up, evidently for boiling in water to extract the fat. The animals were often fully grown when they died. Red and roe deer and wild pig were hunted and eaten and their bones broken up in the same way. The red deer evidently lived in natural, virgin forest where they grew to a large size. Wolves may also have been hunted.
A second explanation is that some parts of the body went elsewhere. The phalanges of smaller animals may be rare because the animals were butchered, and their feet disposed of, elsewhere, a possibility which fits in with the possible explanation of the discrepancies in Table 5. Meat from around the ribs and vertebrae may have been eaten less often by the people who discarded their rubbish on Site C than from the limbs as the former bones are less common than the latter. There are no caudal vertebrae and few horn cores and these bones probably went elsewhere with the raw material for leather and horn working. The horn cores had been deliberately removed from the cattle skull in group A.
The smaller animals were butchered in a different way from the larger; phalanges from the former are scarce but common from the latter. TENTATIVE CONCLUSIONS Hides and horns were taken from the carcases. Carcases of pigs and sheep/goats may have been shared out with other parts of the villa more than cattle carcases. The cattle eaten were surplus breeding stock rather than young steers. Sheep/goats tended to be slaughtered in their second autumn. The increase of sheep/goats and decrease of cattle in Saxon times perhaps began at the end of the Roman period. The size of the cattle and the order of eruption of their teeth hint at good conditions of rearing. The amount of open land round the villa may have increased during the Roman occupation.
Thirdly, of the bones that are common, some are more broken up than others. From a previous collection it was noticed that many bones had been fragmented, presumably for extracting the marrow by boiling.10 In the present collection the shafts of marrow bones (humerus, radius, femur, tibia and metapodials) are usually more common than the articular ends, as shown in Table 7, because the shafts are more broken up, many so they can only be identified as “marrow bone fragments”. Mandible remains are also often only fragments and this bone provides some marrow. The marrow bones which are the least broken up, the metapodials, which are the most frequent among the complete marrow bones, provide less marrow than the others. All these facts point to the inhabitants of the villa
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This report is indebted to the work of Pitt-Rivers as well as to that of present-day workers. I am grateful to Mr. R.A. Harcourt for examining and commenting on the canid and pathological bones, and to Miss B.A. Noddle for comparative osteological specimens and for comments on ages at death and weight of meat.
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Excavations at Shakenoak 7. King, J.E., 1962. “Report on animal bones”, in Wymer, John, “Excavations at the Maglemosian sites at Thatcham, Berkshire”. Procedings of the Prehistoric Society, Vol. XXVIII, pp. 355-61. 8. Kubasiewicz, M., 1956. “Uber the Methodik der Forschung an ausgegrabenen Tierknochenreston”, Materialy Zachodnio-Pomorskie 2, pp. 235-44. 9. Ritchie, J., 1920. The influence of Man on Animal Life in Scotland. 10. Part I, p. 71. 11. Part II, p. 251. 12. Silver, I.A., 1963. “The ageing of domestic animals”, in Brothwell, D. and E.S. Higgs (eds.), Science in Archaeology, pp. 250-68. 13. Trow-Smith, R., 1957. A History of British Livestock Husbandry to 1700. 14. Van den Brink, F.H., 1967. A Field Guide to the Mammals of Britain and Europe. 15. Wheeler, R.E.M. and T.V. Wheeler, 1936. Verulamium, Research Reports of the Society of Antiquaries of London, XI, pp. 91-2. 16. Woodell, S.R.J., 1972. “Changes in the vegetation at Shakenoak”, in Part III. pp. 270-273.
BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. Cram, C.L., 1967. “Report on the animal bones from Hockwold”, in Salway, Peter, “Excavations at Hockwold-cum-Wilton, Norfolk, 1961-2”, Proceedings of the Cambridge Antiquarian Society, Vol. LX, pp. 7580. 2. Cranstone, B.A.L., 1969. “Animal husbandry: the evidence from ethnography”, in Ucko, Peter J., and G.W. Dimbleby (eds.), Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals. 3. Fock, Jonni, 1966. Metrische Untersuchungen an Metapodien einger europäischer Rinderrassen. 4. Fraser, F.C. and J.E. King, 1954. “Faunal remains”, in Clark, J.G.D., Star Carr, pp. 70-95. 5. Hodgson, G.W.I., 1969. “Some difficulties of interpreting the metrical data derived from the remains of cattle at the Roman settlement of Corstopitum”, In Ucko and Dimbleby, op. cit. 6. Howard, M.M., 1963. “The metrical determination of the metapodials and skulls of cattle”, in Mourant, A.E. and F.E. Zeuner (eds.), Man and Cattle Symposium, Royal Anthropological Institute Occasional Paper, 18, pp. 91-100.
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Brodbribb, Hands & Walker TABLE 1. – MINIMUM NUMBERS OF INDIVIDUALS AND AGES AT DEATH. Ages are taken from Silver12 using Chauveaul’s dates for cattle, 1790 dates for sheep/goat, and Old Data for pigs. The ages, given in months, are reckoned as less than the latest fusion date for unfused epiphyses and more than the earliest fusion date for fused epiphyses. Similarly, earliest and latest dates are used in ageing from dentition. Figures given in brackets are relevant for the ages at death but not for the totals of minimum numbers of individuals. Groups C, D, E, F and G were put together for this table as they come from a continuous spread of refuse all of the same date. Other collections were treated separately as they are each of separate dates and from separate places. ABBREVIATIONS MNI Minimum number of individuals L Left R Right C. Approximately Dentition m1, m2, m3 MI, M2, M3 PI, P2, P3 NE E U SW W
Deciduous molar teeth Permanent molar teeth Premolar teeth (pig has P4 also) Not erupted Erupting Unworn Slightly worn Worn (over whole biting surface)
390
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391
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392
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393
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ABBREVIATIONS CRB Circumference round base GDB Greatest diameter at base LDB Least diameter at base L Length B Breadth W Width BP Breadth of proximal end MB Minimum breadth of shaft BD Breadth of distal end MNW Minimum neck width * Without ulna ** With ulna Measurement could not be taken + Actual measurement would be greater c. Approximately
TABLE 4. MEASUREMENTS All measurements are of bones with fused epiphyses, except those of the astragalus and third phalanx, bones which do not have an epiphysis. Measurements were taken with an osteometric board, along or at 90 deg. to the axis of the bone as it rests with its anterior surface upwards, except for the minimum breadth of long bones, and scapula, tooth and horn core measurements which were taken with calipers and tape. The length of the back tooth row was taken at the alveoli. Measurements are in millimetres. (The nine bone groups are indicated in heavy type for clarity: thus “A” refers to group A.
396
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397
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398
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399
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400
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Mr. D. Bramwell identified the following:
MISCELLANEOUS BONES OF SMALL MAMMALS AND BIRDS
? Fieldfare: ulna, 1. ? Redwing: tarsus, 1. Stock Dove: femur, 1; tibia, 1 part. Golden Plover: tibia, 2 parts. Woodcock: tibia, 2 parts; humerus, 1 part; metacarpus, 1.
by B.J. MARPLES This group consists of the bones or a variety of small mammals and birds. There are a number of dog bones, a few of hare and cat and, perhaps most interesting of all, the jaw of a badger.1 Bones of fowls predominate among the birds, but several other species occur. As mentioned below, I am indebted to Mr. D. Bramwell for the identification of some of these.
Birds: Unidentifiable shafts of bones: humerus, 3 (3 sp.); ulna, 2 (2 sp.); tibia, 2; tarsus, 2 (2 sp.). Unidentified fragments: 55.
MAMMALS Dog: At least two individuals. Humerus, 1; radius, 1; pelvis, 1; femur, 2 (both right); tibia, 2 (different lengths); ribs, 12; metapodials, 2; vertebra, 1 fragment; teeth, 5 loose canines and 1 molar; jaw, 1 part. Very immature, probably dog: jaw, 1 fragment; humerus, 1; ulna, 1; tibia, 2. Hare: humerus, 1, distal half, and 1 part; tibia, 1 part; ulna, 1 part. Cat: humerus, 1 part; ulna, 1 part. Badger: jaw, 1 part1. Short-tailed Vole: jaw, 1; femur, 2 (1 immature) (? this species).
The group also contained 2 pig bones and 2 sheep bones. MOLLUSCA by JUNE E. CHATFIELD Samples of large shells of land snails from Site C were washed and the mud within the shells was scanned under a binocular microscope for smaller species and juveniles (1 mm. – 5 mm.). The total list of snails and the number of shells from each of the five samples is shown in Table 1. This list compares well with previous lists from other adjacent sites (Part I, p. 73; Part III, p. 273) and adds a few additional species.
AMPHIBIA Frog: tibiofibula, 1.
The molluscan fauna represented in the samples is largely terrestrial but contains two aquatic species, Planorbis planorbis and P. vortex which would be characteristic of a deep weedy ditch or stream. Of the terrestrial snails listed Arianta arbustorum will live on damp ground. Only one specimen of Acanthinula aculeata suggested woodland or scrub conditions in the vicinity. Many species recorded were those tolerant of a range of habitats and these are not useful to the archaeologist as environmental indicators (e.g. Cochlicopa lubrica). Some snails were representative of dry calcareous grassland (e.g. Vallonia spp., Hygromia hispida and Helicella gigaxi) or of open wayside habitats in the immediate vicinity of human settlement (e.g. Helix aspersa). The small pointed and fragile shell of the subterranean snail Cecilioides acicula was very numerous
BIRDS Fowl: humerus, 1 and 1 part, and 6 immature and incomplete, probably fowl; ulna, 2 and 1 immature (? species); metacarpus, 2 and 1 fragment; coracoid, 3 and 1 part; radius, fragments of 11, ? fowl; femur, 5 and 2 halves, and 1 immature; tibia, 3 and 8 parts; tarsus, 2 fragments with spurs, 5 others smaller, and 1 and 2 parts. Duck: coracoid, 2 and 2 parts; humerus, 1; ulna, 1; metacarpal, 1; tarsus, 2, 1 immature; clavicle, 1 part. Thrush: ulna, 1; tibia, 1 part. 1
cf. Part I, p. 73.
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The banding patterns on the shells of Cepaea were recorded (Table 2). These compare with Cain’s previous records, especially in the overall abundance of 5-banded forms which Cain suggested were similar to the banding frequencies of Cepaea nemoralis in the Oxford district today. The predominance of banded forms further suggests the grassland nature of the habitat.
in two of the samples but as it is a burrowing species it is of little use in archaeological work. An internal shell plate of a slug, Agriolimax sp., was recorded from sample 3. Large numbers of the Common Snail, Helix aspersa, were found. The abundance of this species is interesting as although it is common in Roman deposits, there are no authentic pre-Roman records (Kerney, 1966). The large helicids (H. aspersa and Cepaea spp.) are often common around human settlement and it is possible that the Romans could have utilized some of these for food.
REFERENCE Kerney, M. P. (1966), ‘Snails and Man in Brttain’, J. Conch., Lond., 26, 3-14.
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Excavations at Shakenoak EDIBLE MOLLUSCS Site C produced the following shells of edible molluscs: Oyster (Ostrea edulis L.)
Mussel Whelk (Mutilis edulis L.) (Buceinum undatum L.)
Second-century deposits
884
3
5
Late third- or fourth-century deposits
899
0
0
Since the second-century deposits on Site C were far less extensive than those of the late third- or fourth-century, these figures support the suggestion made earlier (Part I, pp. 13, 73; Part II, p. 162) that the later Roman inhabitants of Shakenoak ate fewer oysters than their predecessors, and that mussels and whelks had almost vanished from their diet.
LEATHER The silt fill of Fishpond I (Section A-A, deposit 16) produced 53 fragments of leather, of which the larger pieces are illustrated and discussed below. The remaining pieces were mostly less than 2 sq in in area and appeared to be waste from cutting. Many were poorly preserved. A number of these were submitted to Mr. J.W. Waterer, R.D.I, F.S.A., F.S.I.A, of the Museum of Leathercraft, to whom we are indebted for the comments that they were vegetable-tanned cattle hide and that the tanning agent was probably oak bark, possibly with an admixture of some other bark.
Fig. IV.75 2 Nail-studded outer sole of a boot or shoe of calceus type (cf. London in Roman Times, pl. XLIII, no. 2; Bar Hill, fig. 36, no. 6). 3 Counter of the heel of no. 2. Fig. IV.76 4 Inner sole of no. 2. 5 Fragment of no. 2. 6 Part of the outer sole of another shoe of carbatina type. 7 Part of the upper and the heel of a shoe probably of carbatina type.
Fig. IV.74 1 Shoe or slipper of carbatina type. For similar examples see J. Curle, Newstead, pl. XX, no. 3; R.E.M. Wheeler, London in Roman Times (1930), pl. XLIV, no. 3; I.A. Richmond, Huddersfield in Roman Times (1925), fig. 35; L. Jacobi, Das Romerkastell Saalburg (1897), taf. LXXX, no. 9. Curle (Newstead, p. 152) uses the term carbatina for a shoe made from a single piece of leather but the sole of the Shakenoak specimen has two thicknesses of leather held together by thonging. G. Macdonald and A. Park (The Roman Forts on the Bar Hill, 1906, p. 102) mention carbatinae with double layers of leather or with inner soles. S.N. Miller (The Roman Fort at Balmuildy, 1922, p. 99 and pl. LVII, no. 12) describes a shoe with two thicknesses of leather “threaded together down the middle with narrow thongs”. For the term carbatina, which is usually taken to mean a smooth-soled shoe without any nails, see F. Haverfield, Classical Review, 1898, p. 142, and A. Gansser-Burckhardt, Das Leder und seine Verarbeitung im römischen Legionslager Vindonissa (1942), p. 61.
Fig. IV.77 8 Part of the nail-studded outer sole of a boot or shoe of calceus type. The hobnails show considerable wear. 9 Fragment of no. 8. 10 Part of the upper of a shoe probably of carbatina type. 11 Part of the sole, with a small piece of the heel, of a shoe probably of carbatina type. 12 Part of another shoe. 13, 14 Shoe latchets. Cf. Balmuildy, pl. LVII, no. 7. 15 Leather skull cap? This object was very poorly preserved, but appeared to be complete.
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Fig. IV.74 – LEATHER OBJECT (1/2)
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HUMAN REMAINS become fused. Other bones where slight degrees of osteoarthritis may have occurred were the acetabulum of the left innominate bone and the contiguous surface of the head of the left femur, and the left patella. (a)(ii) A small exostosis had occurred on the posterior surface of the shaft of the left tibia near the nutrient foramen. (a)(iii) Possible sword cuts were visible on the shafts of the left radius and ulna. There were two main cuts on each bone, with each bone in one instance taking the full force of the blow, the cuts penetrating into the medullary cavity and continuing superficially on to the other bone. The ulna also had a third superficial cut. Small superficial cuts could also be seen on the distal third of the shaft of the left tibia. Marks on the cranium may also have been indicative of two blows from a sword, these also being on the left side. (a)(iv) A proximal phalanx, most likely the third of the right hand, possibly suffered a slight fracture during life. (b) The full quota of 16 permanent teeth were present in the mandible. The maxilla was incomplete, but eight teeth were in situ in the right half, with a portion of the left half with three molars. There were no signs of caries in any of the teeth, but indications of slight periodontal infection or disease were apparent along the alveolar margins of the mandible, and possibly to a medium degree affecting the maxilla. Several teeth had light deposits of calculus. The dentition when occluded had an edge-to-edge bite.
Thirteen fairly complete skeletons and a number of scattered human bones were recovered from Site C (above, p. 298). These were submitted to Mr. C.B. Denston, of the Duckworth Laboratory of Physical Anthropology, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology University of Cambridge, to whom we are indebted for the following report: Skeleton No.10 This individual was represented by a skull, complete long bones, and complete and fragmentary remains of the rest of the post-cranial skeleton. The mandible was in perfect condition but the cranium had various portions missing. The bones indicated that the individual was tall and robust, and possibly died of wounds received from a sword or some similar sharp weapon. All the customary biometric measurements could be taken on the mandible and a few on the cranium, and the long bones also produced some measurements. The biometric measurements were as follows: Cranium: L ?203; B ?158; B' 108. 5; H' ?143; S2 136; S3 129; T' 342; S2 121; S'3 101.Mandible: W1 129; CγL 21.3; RB' 38.2; M2P1 28.6; H1 36.0; ZZ 49.0; CrCr 116; M< 114º; CpL 81.0; RL 69.0; GoGo 111.5: ML 107; CrH 65.5; M2H 34.0. Femur: FeLl (L) 488 (R) 493; FeL2 (L) 487 (R) 491; FeD1 (L) 30.7 (R) 29.0; FeD1 (L) 37.4 (R) 38.0. Tibia: TiLl (L) ? 413 (R) ? 410; TiDl (L) ? 42.0 (R) 41.0; TiD2 (L) 28.0 (R) 28.0. Humerus: HuD1 (L) 28.0 (R) 28.2; HuD2 (L) 22.0 (R) 21.7. Radius: RaLl (L) 284 (R) 288. UlL1 (L) ? 303 (R) 306.
Non-metrical traits. - A routine examination of the remains for traits of this kind revealed two features of interest: (a) the bilateral occurrence of mandibular tori, and (b) a slight palatine torus.
Sex. – There was no mistaking the sex, and a very reliable assessment could be made by anatomical appreciation, the individual being a male. The skull was large and robust, as were the rest of the post-cranial bones.
Skeletons Nos. 11 and 12 These two skeletons were found side by side only some 9 in – 12 in below the modern surface and had been damaged by ploughing, the skulls having been reduced to a few fragments mixed together.
Age at death. – Three criteria were available for study: the degree of dental attrition, the amount of endocranial and ectocranial suture closure, and the general appearance of the post-cranial bones. There was no real conflict between the estimates, and the probable age at death would seem to have been from 35 to 40 years.
On examining the remains in the laboratory, it was found that the post-cranial remains were not mixed, as it would have been obvious had this been so as the bones of one of the skeletons were more robust than those of the other. The cranial fragments were of a uniform thickness, and though remains of two mandibles were preserved these did not display any marked difference in size, robustness, age at death or sex, and so could not be assigned with any certainty to any one skeleton. The dentitions of the two mandibles, and a portion of a maxilla, suggested the possibility that both of the individuals were aged between 30 and 35 years at the time of death. Eleven teeth were in situ in one mandible, seven in the other, and seven in the maxilla, the maxilla possibly belonging with the former mandible. No signs of caries or periodontal infections were observed, but the teeth of the first mandible had medium deposits of calculus attached on the lingual surfaces. This mandible also displayed mandibular tori at the right lingual surface.
Stature. – Where the preservation of the bone surface permitted fairly accurate recordings, all maximum length measurements of the long bones were utilized for the computation of the stature. Employing the regression formulae of Trotter and Gleser, the approximate stature obtained was 6 ft 2.025 in. Pathology – (a) general and (b) dental. - (a)(i) Bone change resulting from one or other form of pneumatic disease, possibly osteo-arthritis, had affected areas of the vertebral column to a slight degree. It was possible that cervical vertebrae had been affected more than the rest, as the surfaces of the articular facets of the left side had 408
Excavations at Shakenoak a medium degree of occurrence. The patella had also, in addition to osteo-arthritis, a very prominent roughened striated anterior surface, possibly caused by a great strain at this knee-cap. A middle phalanx, possibly the fifth of the right hand, was anomalous, and is discussed below (p. 415).
Skeleton No. 11 This individual was represented mostly by fragmentary post-cranial remains, though some bones of the hands and feet were intact. Repair work carried out produced shafts of long bones, one complete femur, one complete radius, and two complete ulnae. The very fragmentary remains of skulls of skeletons No. 11 and No. 12 could not be differentiated. Measurements that could be taken on the long bones were: Femur: FeL1 465 (R); FeL2 463 (R); FeD1 24.3 (L) 24.5 (R); FeD2 36.2 (L) 35.7 (R). Radius: RaL1 255 (R), Ulna: UlL1 273 (L) 279 (R).
Skeleton No. 13 This individual was represented by cranial and post-cranial remains. The mandible was mostly intact, and the cranium rather fragmentary though some reconstruction was possible. The post-cranial remains consisted mainly of long bones, most of these bones displaying some postmortem breakage or erosion. There was no pelvis.
Sex. – The sex of this individual could confidently be assessed as male. Though fragmentary, portions of the pelvis, bones of the feet, long bones, and remains of skull all unanimously suggested male sex.
Only one of the conventional biometric measurements could be taken on the cranium. The mandible produced a nearly full quota. These measurements were as follows:
Age at death. – The age at death was possibly between 30 and 35 years. The main criterion was the degree of attrition of the dentition.
B' 98.5. Mandible: Cγl 20.0; RB' 31.3; M2P1 29.1; ZZ 42.1, CrCr 97.5; ML 129.0º; CpL 73.0; RL 51.0; ML 101.0; CrH 56.0; M2H 23.5. Measurements that could be taken on the long bones were: Femur: FeL1 410 (R); FeL2 ?400 (R); FeD1 23.5 (L) 25.0 (R); FeD2 31.0 (L) 30.0 (R). Tibia: TiL1 ?323 (L) 320 (R); TiL2 ?320 (L) 318 (R); TiD1 33.0 (L) 34.0 (R); TiD2 20.2 (L) 22.0 (R). Ulna: UlL ?250 (L).
Stature. – The reconstructed stature of this individual was approximately 5 ft 9 in, and was computed from the maximum length measurements of one femur, one radius, and two ulnae, using the Trotter and Gleser formulae.
Sex. – Very careful consideration was given to the sexing of this individual. The long bones were small with no prominent features for muscle attachment. The other postcranial remains were also small. The mandible was small and did not display any prominent features. The teeth also were small. The bone of the vault of the cranium was thin, and the relevant anatomical features of the cranium, along with those of the mandible, long bones, and other post-cranial bones suggested that the individual was in all probability a female. Various measurements, though these were few in number, went a long way to confirm the assessment of female sex.
Skeleton No. 12 This individual was also represented by fragmentary shafts of long bones, fragments of other post-cranial and cranial remains. Some bones of the hands and feet were intact. The long bones were large and very robust, with prominent areas for muscle attachment, especially the femoral and humeral shafts. Measurements that could be taken on the long bones were: Femur: FeDl 31.8 (R); FeD2 37.6 (R). Tibia: TiDl 42.1 (L); TiD2 30.5 (L). Sex. – Though the pelvis remains were very fragmentary, their relevant features and also those of the long bones, scapulae, and bones of the hands and feet unanimously suggested a very robust male.
Age at death. – The fact that the epiphyses of the long bones had joined up with the shafts with no signs of where the unions had taken place, indicated that the individual was an adult. For an approximate age, the only criteria available were part of the frontal suture, and the degree of eruption and attrition of the dentition. The suture displayed no evidence of synostosis, indicating a young adult. The condition of the teeth also suggested a young adult. The best estimate of the age at death would seem to be between 20 and 25 years, the lower part of the range possibly being more correct.
Age at death. – The estimate of age at death had of necessity to be based upon the attrition of the dentition of the remains of the skulls, and was possibly between 30 and 35 years. Stature. – Only a fibula was well enough preserved to be utilized for computation of the stature. Using the Trotter and Gleser formulae a reconstructed stature of approximately 5 ft 8 in was calculated. This must be regarded as a very tentative estimate of the stature.
Stature. – One femur, two tibiae, and an ulna were well enough preserved to be utilized for the computation of the stature. A reconstructed stature of approximately 5 ft 2 in was obtained, using the Trotter and Gleser formulae.
Pathology: general. - Osteo-arthritis was detected, though some of the relevant areas of the bones where it occurred were fragmentary, viz., the acetabulum of both innominate bones, the left femoral head, the proximal articular surface of the left tibia, and the right patella. The arthritis affecting the innominate bones would seem possibly to have been of
Pathology, dental. - All the teeth in the mandible had erupted by the time of death, the third right molar having been lost post mortem. The maxilla was not preserved, but 409
Brodbribb, Hands & Walker teeth which came from it were; left and right first molars, four premolars, two canines, and four incisors. None of the teeth displayed any signs of caries.
molars. This cusp pattern is thought to be uncommon in modern and prehistoric man. When occluded the bite was a choice between over-bite and edge-to-edge.
Skeleton No. 14 This individual was represented by skull and post-cranial remains. The cranium was in fragments, but partial reconstruction was possible, and the mandible could be reconstructed completely except for the tips of the coronoid processes. Most of the post-cranial bones were represented, the ribs and scapulae being very fragmentary and the vertebrae and pelvis less so. The majority of long bones were mainly intact.
Evidence of Trauma. – The anterior surface of a rib had been cut into with a sharp-edged instrument, the cut severing the outer compact bone and finishing in the cancellous bone. The appearance of the exposed surface of the bone seemed to suggest that it was not of post-mortem occurrence. Further evidence of cutting by a sharp-edged instrument occurred midway along the acromion process of the right scapula, indicating the possibility of a blow from above into the shoulder.
The biometric measurements were as follows:
Non-metrical traits. – A routine examination revealed three wormian bones along the lambdoid suture.
Cranium: L 203 ? B 158 ?; B 108.5; H 143 ?; S2 136; S3 129; T 343; S2 121; S3 101. Mandible: W1 129; CγL 21.3; RB 38.2; M2P1 28.6; H1 36.0; ZZ 49.0; CrCr 116; M