SERVICE PROGRAMS STANDARDS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WOMEN’S CATHOLIC LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES

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Sponsoring Committee: Professor Leonard A. Larson, Professor Alonzo F. Myers and Professor Martha Hill

SERVICE PROGRAM STANDARDS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WOMEN1S CATHOLIC LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES

IRMA SCHALK

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education in the School of Education of New York University

1950 ^

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Acc^pfcpd,

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The student herby guarantees that no part of the dissertation w h i c h she has submitted for publication has been hertofore published and (or) copyrighted in the United States of America, except in the case of passages quoted from other published sources; that she is the sole author and proprietor of said dissertation; that the dissertation contains no matter which, if published, will b e libelous or otherwise injurious, or infringe in any w a y the copyright of any other party; and that she will defend, idemnify and hold harmless New York University against all suits and proceedings wich may be brought and a g a i n s t all claims which may be made against New York University by reason of the publication of said disserta­ tion.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In writing a document of this nature, it is diffi­ cult If not impossible to rely upon one's own resources. There, have been many who have generously cooperated in pre­ paring the manuscript in all stages of its pre-publication life. The author wishes to express a deep feeling of in­ debtedness to Dr. Alonzo P. Myers and Professor Martha Hill of the sponsoring committee for their suggestions iand guid­ ance. Grateful acknowledgment is also made to the many authors whose publications are quoted.

It was especially a

privilege to have received permission to cite statements from the text on "College Facilities for Physical Education, Health and Recreation" of the College Physical Education Association and the publication "A Guide for Planning Facili­ ties for Athletics, Recreation, Physical and Health Education® by the Athletic Institute. It is a pleasure also to mention Monsignor Frederick G. Hochwalt, Secretary of the National Catholic Education Association and Monsignor Edward Dillon, College Department of the National Catholic Education Association, whose belief in the need for this study led them to endorse and sign the ii

questionnaires sent to the institutions. In addition, the author is obliged to the group of fifteen experts who served willingly to evaluate a detailed list of standards. A word of thanks is due to the physical education directors and college administrators who gave generously of their time to respond to a lengthy inquiry form.

It is by

such cooperation that advancement in health, physical educa­ tion and recreation can more substantially be made. In particular, the author will always attribute a large part of whatever success she may have attained in pre­ senting this material to Dr* Leonard A. Larson, Chairman of the Sponsoring Committee.

His assistance and encouragement

from its inception to the final stages of the study have been especially appreciated. The author is especially grateful to Professor Eleanor D. Kilcoyne for having carefully read and edited the manu­ script. If by any measure this research document can be con­ sidered worthwhile, it has been due largely to the many pro­ fessional friends who have knowingly or unknowingly made contributions• Irma Schalk

iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter

to

Page

I

SCOPE OF THE PROBLEM Factors Underlying the Present Study . . . . Purpose of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . Delimitations. . . . . . ................... Significance of the Problem................ Procedure...................................

1 1 3 4 4 6

II

THE RELATIONSHIP OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO GENER­ AL EDUCATION 14 History of Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women. . .......... 15 Financing Catholic Colleges................... 19 Purposes of Catholic Education . . . . . . . 21 The Place of Physical Education in the Col­ lege Curriculum. .............. 23

III

THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES FOR WOMEN Historical Background. Physical Education in Colleges for Women . . Changing Concepts of Physical Education. . . Changes in Staff in Physical Education . . . Curricular Changes in Physical Education . . Recent Trends in Program, Staff and Facili­ ties ................ Progress of Professional Physical Education Associations . . . . . ...................

36 37 42 46 53 55 59 72

IV

PRESENT PRACTICE 75 Personnel Status • • • • • • • ........ • • 77 Facilities................................... 82 Program. . . . . . . ....................... 91 Intramurals. • • • • • ..................... 108

V

STANDARDS IN PHYSICAL EDUCATION FOR CATHOLIC LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES FOR WOMEN Preparation of Staff ....................... Teacher Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Instructor-Student Ratios. • • • • • • • • • Time Requirements. • • • • .............. Credit for Physical Education. Grades for Physical Education. . . . . . . .

iv

115 119 120 128 136 144 147

Page

Chapter

Made-Ups in Physical Education ............ 148 Achievement in Physical Education............150 Classification of Students . . . . . . . . . 152 Physical Education for the Restricted Stu­ dent ......... 156 Women’s Recreation Association ........ . . 160 Intramurals........ '....................... 162 Extramurals.............. 164 Activities . . . . . . . . . . . . ........ 166 Facilities................................ 170 Main Gymnasium . . . 175 Auxiliary Gymnasia . ..................... 176 Storage and Equipment Maintenance Rooms. . . 181 Director and Staff Offices . . . . . • .. . 181 Swimming Pool.................. 182 Outdoor Facilities.................. 183 VI

RECOMMENDATIONS FOR PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CATHO­ LIC LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES FOR WOMEN 186 General Recommendations. . . . • • • • • • • 187 Staff Recommendations. 188 Program Recommendations............. 190 Recommendations for Credit, Make-Ups and Grades in Physical Education . . . . . . . 192 Achievement Recommendations. . . . . . •• » 193 Women’s Recreation Association Recommenda­ tions. ......................... 195 Recommended Activities . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Recommendations for Facilities . . . . . . . 200 Recommendations for Indoor Facilities. . . . 203 Recommendations for Outdoor Facilities . . . 204

VII

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 207 General Recommendations. . . . . . . . . . . 208 Staff.....................................209 Program.............................. . . 210 Time Requirement.......................... 210 Credit in Physical Education .............. 212 Achievement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . 210 Correctives........... 214 Intramurals and Extramurals................. 215 Activities...................... 215 Facilities................................ 216 Outdoor Facilities ....... . . . . . . . * 2 1 8 APPENDIX

221 v

TABLE OF TABLES Table

Page

I

The Student Enrollment in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for W o m e n ................ 77

II

Personnel Status In Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women . . . . • .............. 78

III

The Degree Status of Physical Education Personnel in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women . . . . . . . . . . . • • • . . . • •

80

The Number and Size of Physical Education Facili­ ties in Sixty-eight Catholic Liberal Arts Col­ leges for W o m e n ..............................

84

The Number of Incidental Facilities in Sixty-eight Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women- . . .

89

Yearly Requirements in Physical Education in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

92

Weekly Requirements in Physical Education in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for W o m e n ................

92

VIII The Factors Used in Determining Grades In Physical Education in Sixty-five Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

93

IV

V VI

VII

IX

X

XI

The Frequency in Types of Activity Offered in the Correctives Program in Thirty-six Catholic Lib­ eral Arts Colleges for Women.

97

The Time Allotted to Dressing, Activity and Show­ ering in Seventy-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women. . . . . . • • • • * . . • •

98

The Frequency Distribution of Achievement Require­ ments According to the Number of Catholic Lib­ eral Arts Colleges Offering Such Tests. • • • • 100

vi

Table

Page

XII

Various Organizational Plans for Physical Educa- . tion in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Col­ leges for W o m e n . . . 101

XIII

The Required and Elective Activity Offering in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women 105

XIV

The Season When Activity Is Offered, the Length of Season, the Size of Class at Peak Load and the Intramural and Extramural Offerings in Eightyseven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women* 106

XV

Standards Concerning Teacher Load in Physical Edu­ cation for the Instructor in Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women . . • • • » . * • ...

XVI

126

The Essential, Advisable and Optimum Standards for Instructor-Student Ratios for the Various Acti­ vities Offered in the Physical Education Pro­ gram in Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for W o ­ men ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134

XVII The Number of Minutes to be Allotted to Showers, Dressing and Changing of Classes. . . . . . . .

143

XVIII The Essential, Advisable and Optimum Standards in Regard to Classification Tests for Entering Students in a Catholic Liberal Arts College for ............ 156 Women < . XIX

XX

Jury Evaluation As To the Minimum, Advisable and Optimum Standards Regarding the Activities Which Should Be Offered in the Physical Educa­ ........... tion Program.

168

Minimum Standards Concerning the Number of Facili­ ties and the Size of Each According to Various Institutional Enrollments

173

vii

CHAPTER I SCOPE OP THE PROBLEM Factors Underlying; the Present Problem In many of* the Catholic Liberal Arts colleges seek­ ing to develop the girl spiritually, intellectually, socially and physically, there is serious neglect of the physical edu­ cation needs of the individual.

In many of the Catholic col­

leges, the religious and intellectual factors have been con­ sidered the two essential, if not the only aims of education. The general idea the religious administrator has of physical education is that it gives the girl a good workout, has nealtnful benefits and is relaxing after intellectual fatigue. Sel­ dom does she anticipate such values as leadership, respect for the rights of others, self control, developing' and maintaining organic fitness and understandings relating to body movements and skills. These outcomes are derived through physical educat­ ion activity and represent the contribution which this subject makes to the total education of the individual. As a result of a lack of understanding, interest and administrative support, the physical education program has been denied or thwarted in many of the Catholic Liberal Arts colleges for women. There are some institutions totally

lacking in equipment and staff and therefore offer no program in physical education.

In instances where adequate staff and

facilities are provided, often there is not sufficient time allotted for the program. activity to be offered.

This further limits the scope of It is in many cases true that defi­

ciencies in time allotment, facilities or staff have led to an attitude of indifference on the part of the student in re­ gard to the program of physical education.

The direction

which physical education takes in an institution, depends upon such factors as personnel, budget, facilities and admin­ istrative support.

Inadequacies in any of these essentials

handicap the program and limit the contribution which physi­ cal education can make to the individual. At present there is considerable variation in the character and quality of the physical education program in Catholic Liberal Arts colleges for women due to organization, staff and facilities.

Because of such variations it is ad­

visable to establish standards for physical education pro­ grams in these colleges.

It is the writer*s intention to

present conditions of practice which will be in accord with professionally accepted standards, and which will be suffi­ ciently determined to meet the needs of the Catholic colleges. A survey of existing conditions will enable the investigator to determine deficiencies in program, staff and facilities. The proposed standards will then be used for the purpose of recommending conditions necessary for instituting improvement in the area of physical education.

- 3 Purpose of the Study This study is designed to develop standards in phy­ sical education, including staff, program and facilities for women*s Catholic Liberal Arts colleges.

It is the writer*s

plan to ascertain first, what are existing conditions of or­ ganization, administration and curriculum of physical edu­ cation in Catholic colleges, second, what should constitute acceptable standards for Catholic Liberal Arts colleges and third, what recommendations should be made for improving existing conditions in the three areas above.

Such factors

as number and qualification of staff, teacher load, insti­ tutional size, geographic location, organizational plans, administrative procedure and curricula, and size and number of facilities are the major items to be considered. This research project is intended for those who wish to formulate a program of physical education as well as for those who desire to evaluate the existing administrative practices in an institution.

While the study Is designed

for women*s Catholic Liberal Arts colleges, nevertheless it is the hope of the writer that non-church related institu­ tions with similar problems will find the information useful for their purposes.

Although there are, in professional

publications, numerous articles dealing with the service program of physical education, these are of a general nature and do not claim to apply specifically to institutions with administrative problems such as those of the Catholic college. This text is an attempt to put into practical and useful form

- 4 the inaih ideas and standards gathered from expert opinion, research, observation and analysis. Delimitations

Although questionnaire forms were sent to 102 Womenfs Catholic Liberal Arts colleges the writer has chosen to study only the 87 four year, degree granting colleges that responded in complete form.

Although the standards recommended in this

study may be applicable to independent and public or other religious colleges, it has been considered advisable to limit the scope of the problem to the Catholic institutions in which little or no research previously has been done.

An attempt

has been made to include only those institutions reported as Liberal Arts colleges.

However, it is a well known fact that

many of the institutions, as well as being "liberal arts" colleges, also offer professional education.

Furthermore,

the survey has been limited to the general areas of program, staff and facilities, such as number and qualifications of staff, teacher load, institutional size, geographic location, organizational plans, administrative procedures and curricula, size and number of facilities in physical education.

In the

appendix, page 230, is a listing of the institutions used in this study. Significance of the Problem Many administrators within the religious orders, nei­ ther understand nor appreciate the factors necessary for a well-rounded program in physical education.

As a consequence,

- 5 these programs are below standard In terms of content, staff and facilities*

Curriculum expansion in other areas of the

educational program has been based upon research done for the most part by members of the religious orders.

At the present

time there is an increasing awareness on the part of the ad­ ministrator in the religious institution, for the need to expand and improve programs in physical education.

Since a

majority of the nuns lack the training and experience in phy­ sical education, little has been done for the woman1s program in this area.

Expansion in the field of physical education

for Women’s Catholic Liberal Arts colleges should prove more effective If based upon an objective analysis of current prob­ lems and evaluated by accepted program standards.

It is the

purpose of this study, therefore, to establish national stand­ ards, so as to stimulate institutions to improve their pro­ grams.

It is further believed that such improvement will

equalize educational opportunities for women in Catholic Liberal Arts colleges. While there have been some changes In the status of physical education in Catholic colleges, these have not been adopted in all Catholic institutions, nor have the changes always been in light of professionally accepted standards. Some of the major problems in the opinion of the writer are: (l) lack of knowledge on the part of the administrators as to the purpose and functions of physical education, (2) a serious inflexibility of the curriculum, (3) constant demands on the time allotted for physical education in order that

- 6 extraneous student meetings may take place, (4) inadequate or poorly planned facilities, (5) required participation without granting credit, (6) insufficient budget allotment, (7) lack of experienced, full-time, teaching personnel, (8) neglect of the measurement and evaluation phase of physical education*

The problems of other areas of education com­

parable to those suggested above are often brought to light and find their solution in conferences in which leaders in education analyze and discuss similar conditions of prac­ tice.

Unfortunately, up to the present time, physical educa­

tion has not been represented in the Conference,of the Na­ tional Catholic Education Association*

While a majority of

the subject fields of education are considered and compose sections of this convention, for reasons unknown to the investigator, physical education has not been included.

It

is the opinion of the writer that this indicates a "lacka­ daisical attitude" on the part of college administrators in regard to this area of education.

It is more disturbing,

however, to discover that physical educators in Catholic colleges are so indifferent as to allow their profession to be disregarded in a conference which aims at improvement in all phases of Catholic education. It is the writer1s sincere hope that this study con­ tributes information to the solution to some of the above problems. Procedure In order to survey existing conditions in staff, pro-

- 7 gram and facilities for determining standards in these areas, the following procedure was used. The first step consisted of designing a check-list questionnaire relative to each phase to be studied, namely items of program, staff and facilities.

In regard to staff there were

included such factors as, status and training, academic respons­ ibilities and teacher-pupil ratios.

The information sought

relative to program concerned in general, requirement as to activity offering, testing and achievement requirements, and the types of intramural and extramural activities. In general, inquiries as to facilities were limited to the size and number both indoor and outdoor facilities.

The above items are sugges­

tive of the final items which were included in the main body of the check-list.

The validity of each of the items listed was

checked by a group of three experts in the field of physical education to determine any necessary revisions in the questio­ nnaire. A list of these experts may be found in the Appendix, page 249a.

The check-list was then sent to the director’s of

physical education in four non-church related colleges to determine whether it would produce the desired results. Furthur substantiation was made through current professionally accepted literature dealing with synonomous items. A listing of the institutions surveyed, as well as a copy of the questionnaire, will be found on pages 230, 234 and the analysis of the data may be found in Chapter IV. The inquiry form was sent to the deans of the colleges and directors of physical education of 102 Women’s Catholic

- 8 Liberal Arts colleges though analysis of data was confined to the 87 institutions sending complete responses.

The

questionnaires were endorsed and signed by Monsignors Hochwalt and Dillon of the National Catholic Education Associa­ tion.

These signatures of influential Catholic leaders

carried much weight, thus there was an 85 percent return to the inquiry form.

Follow-up letters were sent three times

at four month intervals to those few institutions1not re­ plying to the questionnaire.

In ten instances there was

acknowledgment of the materials sent along with a report that the institution did not offer a program of physical educa­ tion.

Of a total of 102 institutions to whom questionnaires

were sent, this group represents 10 percent of the total re­ plies. In addition, the validity of the questionnaire was determined by personal visit to fifteen of the Catholic Lib­ eral Arts colleges.

The institutions selected for visitation

were representative of all sections of the country and ranged in size of student enrollment from 125 to 780 women.

Prior

to the visit, a study was made of the catalogues and bulle­ tins of the colleges, in order to acquaint the investigator, as much as possible with each institution.

During the inter­

view the researcher discussed the items which appeared on the questionnaire with both the administrator of the college and the director of physical education.

The facilities and equip­

ment were inspected, intramural and extramural schedules were explained and program content was discussed and checked against

- 9 the returns to the inquiry forms.

The visitation represents

a cross-section sampling of fifteen Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges throughout the East, West, Middle West and South. In the letter requesting an interview and observation of the physical education plant, assurance was given that institu­ tions would not be identified individually in the research project.

It was the belief of the investigator that indivi­

dual identification might lead to a reticence in response or a concealment of fact in those institutions where there were deficiencies in any of the elements of program, staff or facilities.

In the Appendix, page 243, there is listed

the names of the colleges visited including the minor dis­ crepancies found in each case.

For the most part there was

substantial agreement with the interview data as compared with the response to the questionnaire.

Where there were

differences they pertained to facilities only and concerned quality rather than the quantity of units. A second step in the procedure, that of determining the standards, was to secure an expression of expert opinion of a jury, based on their experience and leadership in the field of physical education.

In order to qualify for jury

membership, each woman must have had a minimum of ten years1 experience in either, or both, administration and teaching. Selection was made on a national geographic basis.

A list

of the jury will be found on page 248. A detailed study was made of the professional litera­ ture and recent studies on activities, staff and facilities

- 10 in physical education with a view to preparing program stand­ ards which would be professionally acceptable and considered essential, advisable or optimum.

These three levels were

designed to meet the varying conditions found in Catholic colleges.

The standards were prepared on an Institutional

group basis rather than in terms of individual institutions. Before sending the list of standards to the jury for their evaluation, they were reviewed by three leaders in physical education, in order to determine whether they would produce the desired information.

For purposes of completeness and

clarity of the standards, revisions were made wherever neces­ sary. The evaluation form, as the questionnaire, concerned itself with the service areas of program, staff and facilities. After an investigation of present practice in regard to teach­ ing personnel in Catholic colleges, the investigator deemed it necessary to include such items as, preparation of staff, teacher-student ratios, and teacher loads.

It was believed

essential also to deal extensively with the standards rela­ tive to program, since Catholic colleges have limited the length and breadth of the activity offering.

The experts

were asked to rate items concerned with time requirement, credit in physical education, classification of students, and types of program for the handicapped student.

The intra­

mural and extramural offerings were also considered and com­ posed another body of the list of standards to be rated. A very careful study was made of current literature

- 11 and source material to determine the categories and special care was taken to include those items which would he functional and applicable to Women’s Catholic Liberal Arts colleges.

In

the section of the rating sheet pertaining to facilities, there appear arbitrary standards as to size and number of indoor and outdoor units.

Here again, the most recent professional

literature was consulted in devising these standards.

A copy

of the evaluation form appears in the Appendix, and a computa­ tion of the data is to be found in Chapter V. The final phase of the procedure was the development of recommended programs in physical education in Women’s Cath­ olic Liberal Arts colleges •

The information obtained con­

cerning existing conditions in religious institutions and the program standards determined by current and professionally accepted literature and substantiated by Jury opinion has been used for the purpose of recommending the conditions necessary for instituting improvement in activity, staff and facilities. The recommendations have been made in terms of essential, ad­ visable and optional components, considering such factors as number and qualifications of staff, teacher load, institutional size and geographic location, organizational plans, admin* istrative procedure and curricula, and size and number of facilities.

The proposed programs are, in the opinion of the

investigator, sufficiently determined to reach all of the institutions used in this study* It is believed essential to this study briefly to describe the setting in which the designed physical education

- 12 programs are to exist. This is discussed in conjunction w i t h the relationship of physical education to general education in Chapter II, Before determining the place of physical education in general education, it was deemed necessary to determine first the purposes for which the institutions exist. Physical education like other phases of education, must estab­ lish its objectives and outcomes in light of the general goals of the college,

A careful study was made of Catholic litera­

ture and periodical materials, treating with philosophy and purposes of Catholic education.

The recommended materials

were selected on the advice of Catholic college librarians and were found to be most frequently mentioned as primary sources according to departments of education in four of the Catholic colleges in which the investigator used research materials.

Chapter II then plays a significant role in this

study, for upon the foundation of purposes of education and the educational objectives of physical education, the forthcoming standards are to be determined. Present trends in physical education have been in­ cluded in order to provide a framework for the recommended service programs.

The historical background centers around the

non- Catholic colleges since little is known concerning the origin and growth of physical education in the Catholic college. Every effort is made in tracing the historical development, indicate the educational aspects of physical education.

The

influence of educational and scientific thinking and wr i t i n g

to

- 13 on the concepts of physical education are mentioned.

Through­

out Chapter III the intent Is to follow the general pattern established in this study, that is, to discuss development and trend in program, staff and facilities.

The material to

be discussed in this chapter does not lend itself to cate­ gorizing within the items of staff, program and facilities. For example, a changing concept in the type of activity of­ fered in a college program effects equally the instructor, the curriculum and the physical unit.

Furthermore, the dis­

cussion has taken into consideration that physical education like other phases of education, is constantly changing to give maximum effectiveness to the students.

CHAPTER II THE RELATIONSHIP OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION TO GENERAL EDUCATION IN THE CATHOLIC LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGE FOR WOMEN

In suggesting what should be the relationship of physical education to general education, it is necessary to prefix the purposes for which the college exists.

If phy­

sical education is to make maximum contributions to the indi­ vidual then its efforts must be compatible with the educa­ tional goals of the institution.

Before beginning the dis­

cussion of the place of physical education In the Catholic college, there is need for a description of the institutions used in this study.

Without such an account, it may appear

that the investigator is unaware of the significant differ­ ences in the aims of education in the sectarian and non­ sectarian institutions.

The major differences in the Cath­

olic and the non-Catholic colleges are found in the histori­ cal development, the means of financing and the purposes of education.

Therefore, in discussing these factors, the

relationship of physical education to general education is prefaced by a setting of the nature and types of colleges relative to this study.

- 15 History of Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women "The first religious congregation of women estab­ lished for the purpose of educating young girls was the Order of Saint Ursula or Ursulines, founded by Saint Angela Merici (1474-1540) , a native of Desenzano, a small village in Lom­ bardi."1 The founding and organization of this religious com­ munity marks the beginning of what is now known as Christian education for women.

From then on the various religious

orders in Europe and elsewhere considered the education of women of necessity to warrant following the patterns set by the Ursulines.

"The first Ursuline establishment in North

America was founded in 16S9 and one in United States in 1727 in New Orleans, where It still flourishes."^ Sometime after the arrival of the Ursuline sisters in this country there came representatives of other orders and within the next half century the following religious orders were founded in the United States:

Sisters of the

Third Order of Saint Dominic, the Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin, the Sisters of Saint Joseph, the Sisters of Providence, the Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur, the Sisters of the Holy Cross, the Sister Servants of the Immaculate Heart and the Sisters of Charity.

1. 2. 3.

3

Over a period of years

Pierre J. Marique, History of Christian Education, p. 130. Loc. clt. Loc. cit.

- 16 each community, in.addition to doing the so-called "temporal works of mercy," established its own Catholic college for women.

Thus it is today, that each religious community is

represented by at least one Catholic college.1 The Catholic college for women did not spring into existence until after the Catholic academy for women had been long established.

The Catholic institution of higher edu­

cation for men as well as secular colleges for men and women preceded the religious college for women by at least fifty years.

In the early nineteenth century the need for higher

education for women was not felt, thus the religious orders turned their endeavors to conducting and teaching in their academies.

The earliest academy for ladies was founded in

1816 in Georgetown, D. C.2 There then followed a rapid succession and growth of these academies in the United States.

The history of such

institutions suggests that there was doubt in the minds of administrators as to the value of education and of its ef­ fect on women.

It was believed in the first quarter of the

nineteenth century that such an education was mentally too taxing or that the student would lose her femininity and thus jeopardize her chances for marriage.3

In spite of this

skeptical attitude the academies continued to flourish and the need for courses beyond those devoted to reading of his-

1. Mother Grace Dammann, The American College for Women, p. 185. 2. Loc. cit. 3. Loc. cit.

- 17 tory and classics, needlework, household management, reli­ gion end theology did not suffice for the woman who wished advanced study and variety in curricular offerings.

With

the inclusion of additional subjects, a period of concen­ trated study longer than that formerly offered was required. The post-graduate type of education came into being and the range of curriculum was still further extended.

The popu­

larity of the one or two years of advanced education in the Catholic academy became widespread.

It was evident to the

administrators of the academies and the religious communi­ ties that there was a growing demand on the part of women for Catholic institutions of higher education patterned after those secular colleges and Catholic colleges for men which were already in existence.

Finally, in 1895 the Sis­

ters of Notre Dame established in Baltimore the College of Notre Dame of Maryland, the first four-year degree-granting college for women.1 The early colleges that followed evolved rapidly and yet it is significant to note that only a few of the Catho­ lic colleges for women established during this period have ceased to exist while the same is not true of the Catholic colleges for men.

Mother Grace Dammonn writes,

They [the Catholic colleges for women] began much later than the Catholic college for men and therefore the mor­ tality in their institutions has been negligible. Out of ninety-three Catholic colleges for men founded be­ tween 1789 and the close of the Civil war, only twenty-

1.

Ibid. . p. 182

- 18 nine are in existence today, whereas of the colleges for women founded in a roughly corresponding period, 1899-1938, almost all are carrying on more or less successfully.^ For many years the curriculum was limited, as Burns and Kohlbrenner have said, to mathematics, religion, philos­ ophy, Latin, Greek, English, French, German, history and a little science and music.

With the passage of time the curri­

culum was broadened to include metaphysics, natural theology, logic, ethics, cosmology, ontology and epistomology.

Pay-

chology was offered as early as 1915 and shortly after this, modern languages, science and social studies took their places as course offerings.

The last subjects to have been

added were vocational subjects, health and physical educa­ tion and commercial courses.^ The liberal arts curriculum, the method of instruc­ tion and the course content have, through the span of time, undergone changes in order that the Catholic college for women might meet the needs of an ever changing world.

A

broad view of the structure of the Catholic college, and its development over recent years, reveals a continuous growth in efficiency and a gradual improvement in educational stand­ ards.

Yet, the purpose for which the Catholic institution

has always existed viz., to educate the woman in the re­ ligious way of life remains constant.

1. S.

This obscure and yet

Ibid.. p. 181. J. A. Burns and B. J. Kohlbrenner, A History of Catholic Education in the United States, pp. S78-279.

- 19 perdurable quality may be attributed to the underlying phi­ losophy which is based on the teachings of Christ and which gives both goal and direction to education.

In speaking of

the continuity of Catholic philosophy of education Defarrarl has this to say, If we understand by the philosophy of education an or­ ganized body of convictions dealing with such matters as aims, goals, purposes and values in education; in other words the what and why of education, it is quite evident that Catholic thought on these points has varied little in the course of centuries, and that such modi­ fications as have been introduced affect only second­ ary objectives. The ultimate aim of education has re­ mained unchanged.1 Financing Catholic Colleges in 1948 the National Catholic Welfare Conference re­ ported, as of a 1944-45 survey, that there were 102 four year colleges, 1 university and 23 junior colleges exclusively for women.2

These statistics are impressive only when viewed

in light of the origin, growth and development of these colleges.

One factor stands out however, in a consideration

of the historical evolution of the Catholic college.

There

has been a lack of adequate financial and material resources which have characterized the church-related college from its inception to the present time.

Many faithful Catholics

have sacrificed and contributed to the various causes spon­ sored by the Church, yet the majority make no effort to

1. 2.

Roy J. Defarrari, Essays on Catholic Education in the United States, p. 7. Most Rev. Hugh, L;. Lamb, "Summary of Catholic Education, * Sermon, Proceedings Bulletin. N.C.E.A.P., pp. 16-19.

- 20 assist the cause of higher education.

As Mother Grace Dam-

mann states, Owing to the general lack of endowment, we are more dependent than any other group on income from tuition fees for support. Our Catholic public has not become aware of the good that could be done by contributing to higher education and particularly to higher education for women, and the problem of administering colleges without an endowment to supplement income from tuition is a very acute one.1 Its development then, when compared with secular institutions of its kind is remarkable in view of the lack of financial means for support. It is doubtful that federal or state aid to private education will be realized at the present time if it is ever to be accomplished.

The recent legislative action on such

bills as the Thomas Bill (S 246) and its companion bill in the House of Representatives indicates that the government Is not willing to extend appropriations to even the health and welfare benefits of individuals in non-public schools. The hope of federal or state support or maintenance of pri­ vate institutions then seems to lie in the future.

The

financial future of Catholic colleges does not seem secure if judged by the Report of the Presidents Commission on Higher Education, *. . . any diversion by government of pub­ lic funds to the general support of non-publicly controlled institutions tends to deny the acceptance of the fundamental responsibility and to weaken the program of public education.11^

1. 2.

Dammann, o p . cit.. p. 185. Financing Higher Education, p. 57.

- 21 The recommendation made by this committee limits its capital outlay therefore to public institutions.

Since these recom­

mendations made in the publication dealing with financing of public education has not yet become a reality, the effects of such action on church-related colleges takes the form of assumptions.

However, should the plan be acceptable and pri­

vate and church-related colleges find themselves facing a reduction in student enrollments, it will then be more ap­ parent than ever that the financial status of the Catholic college in the future, as it was in the past, is in the hands of the Catholic laity. Purposes of Catholic Education The purpose of education in the Catholic -college is based on the philosophy underlying the Roman Catholic reli­ gion.

The role of the educator in the Catholic institution

is simply to continue the teachings promulgated by Christ from the time when He instructed the Disciples in the truths of Faith and the way of life.

The importance of education

was so vital that Christ did not delegate It to one agency, i.e., the State, but instead made it the prerogative and obligation of the Family, the Church and the State.

Pope

Pius XI states that education n. • .is essentially a social and not merely an individual activity.*1!

His Holiness, Pope

Pius XI, speaks first of the responsibility of the family

1.

Pope Pius XI, Sixteen Encyclicals o£ gig. Holiness Pope Pius XI - 1926-1957: National Catholic Welfare Confer­ ence, Washington, D. C. P. 6.

-

22

-

toward the education of the child and says, "the right of parents to control their children*s education comes to them directly from the Creator by the natural law."l The family, not completely equipped to take care of the education of the child, calls upon supplementary agen­ cies to fulfill the duty established by the law of God and the attendance law of the land.

The state supplies the op­

portunities and material resources in order that the indi­ vidual may obtain the knowledges and culture necessary for civic welfare and the common good.

The Church, also engag­

ing in the education of the individual received its authority from the mandate of Christ, "going therefore, teach ye all nations (Matt. 28:19)."

The interest of the Church is essen­

tially related to the truth and moral teaching.

However,

She encourages and promotes all activities that serve to affect Her primary purpose, that of the salvation of souls. "Accordingly, the Church promotes literature and the arts and sciences, so far as they are necessary or useful to Christian education and to Her general purpose of the salvation of souls this She does by founding and maintaining schools and insti­ tutions of Her own in which every branch of learning is taught and any degree of culture may be attained."^ The purpose of education in the institutions estab­ lished by the Catholic Church is derived from the final goal

1. 2.

p. 7. Rev. Otto Cohauz, The Pope and Christian Education, p. 47.

- 23 of man as is determined by his philosophy of life.

In the

eyes of Catholics education cannot be complete where there is not the proper understanding of the ultimate aim of human life or where there is no clear conception of what the indi­ vidual is to become through the process of earthly existence or where the moral or spiritual values are denied or thwarted in his day to day living.

The Catholic edu c a t o r

directs

his goals of education to the shaping of m a n ’s destiny for useful citizenship not only in his earthly community but also for his destiny in God’s world.

To quote Rev. Franz de

Hovre and Rev. Edward J. Jordan, the certaintude that is characteristic of Catholic thought alone is due to that fact that it deals with man as a whole, sees the whole of reality and of life, and aims at the transformation not only of m a n ’s ideas (which is instruction) but also his impulses, his interests, and his will (which is his education) . It aims to free him first from the domination of his lower nature; it pro­ vides him with a firm support for his will and a safeguide for his actions; it sets beforehim as a goal the attain­ ment of a supernatural destiny. It offers him a new con­ cept of integration; a new order of things; proposes to him an ideal of life that is something more than human; and leads him to the One who is the Way, the Truth and the Life.1 The Place of Physical Education in the College Curriculum In an address to the National Catholic Education Association conference, an authority on higher education has suggested the goals in the Christian college to be:

physical

fitness, social virtue, cultural development and moral and

1 • Catholicism in Education, p • 137•

- 24 spiritual perfection.1 as

The speaker defined physical fitness

. . habits of healthful living based on an understand­

ing of the body and its needs, and right attitudes toward everything that contributes to good health."2

This concept

agrees with that of Thompson2, Burton4 and Pope Pius XI2 . In ascertaining the physical phase of the individual’s college experience as one of the goals of education, the author does not suggest that physical education is a separate or partially related factor.

Man as he is, made up of body

and soul, Is an organic whole which includes the physical, mental, social and spiritual natures.

The total aspect of

man’s development must be considered in educating the entire individual.

Physical education through the development of

organic power, neuro-muscular skills, interpretive-cortical responses and social attitudes makes its contribution toward enriching the college experience of the individual and con­ tributes to the goals of education.

References to the im­

portance of the physical aspect of man’s nature are numerous in the Encyclical of Pope Pius XI. ness states, " . . .

As an example, His Holi­

Christian education takes in the whole

aggregate of human life, physical and spiritual, intellectual and moral, domestic and social, not with a view of reducing

1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Rev. Robert B. Slavin, "The Relationships of Government, Religion and Education," Proceedings. p. 384. Loc. cit. Merritt M. Thompson, An Outline of the History of Educa­ tion. pp. 141-145. William G. Burton, Introduction to Education, pp. 19. Pope Pius XI, op., cit.. p. 36.

- 25 it in any way, but in order to elevate it, regulate and per­ fect it, in accordance with the example and teaching of Christ."1 To those who would question the views of the Cath­ olic Churfch in regard to physical education, Father Cohauz, in interpreting the Encyclical of the Pope responds that the Holy Father opposes two concepts which restrict the scope of education.

First, that of the materialist who denies the

spiritual elements in man and adversely, the spiritualist who regards all that pertains to the body as being evil or considers it of little account.

Father Cohauz further sug­

gests that accusations made that the Catholic Church condemns all bodily activity and opposes physical education are totally unjust.

The Catholic Church, on the contrary approves activ­

ity which develops the individual physically, but requires that they be consistent with the laws of God.2 Other authorities on the subject of Catholic educa­ tion recognize that physical education is a means of preparing for responsible and intelligent citizenship in a democracy. Such concepts as respect for rights of others, willingness to abide by the laws of the gang, respect for the rules, co­ operation with members of a group, the values of sacrifice of self for the group, respect for the abilities of an op­ ponent, experience in leadership and followership are but a

1. 2.

Loc. cit. Rev. Otto Cohauz, The Pooe and Christian Education, pp. 78-79.

- 26 few of the aspects common to the democratic way of life and realized through physical education activities.

Perhaps

it was the recognition of this phase of the social develop­ ment of the individual, that inspired Reverend Furfey to write that extra-curricular activities should be expertly planned and consciously unified.

Thus instead of permitting

such activities to spring up haphazardly they must consciously be chosen and integrated within the scheme of education, ac­ cording to the needs of the particular college.

"The impor­

tance of these activities," in the words of the author, "for the social education of the student is so great that they deserve the maximum degree of intelligent consideration on the part of the administration and faculty."1 Administrators of Catholic colleges are many times prone to overlook the social values to be derived from the physical education program.

"A sound mind and a sound body"

is its prime justification in the design of general education. Health is one of the Seven Cardinal Objectives of secondary education, a byword from 1918 until today in the vocabulary of some who attempt to place physical education as belonging to the educative process.

Juvenal’s dictum certainly should

not be underestimated, nor is it the writer’s purpose to minimize the health contributions of physical education, but rather to point out the concomitant benefits physical educa­

1.

Reverend P. H. Furfey, The Philosophy of Catholic Higher Education, p. 100.

- 27 tion has to offer the aims and purposes of general education. The social derivatives as seen by a Catholic educator are: "Unselfishness and subordination of one’s own ambition to the interest of the team develop the spirit of modesty and correct the tendency to individualism.

Man is made to be

a member of society; he can fulfill himself only in the frame­ work of society."1 In recognizing the numerous educational outcomes to the individual, John Julius Ryan has suggested that physical education be given during the entire four years a student is in a Catholic college.

The author speaks of the neuro-mus-

cular phase* of development when he suggests, "Here [in the physical education program] the student would be trained to do things with and through his body, as do good ballet dancers. He would be trained to master the art of performing skill­ fully certain inevitable actions such as lifting, jumping, tugging, climbing, walking, etc."2

In acquiring the motor

skills of which the quotation speaks, the individual Is able to satisfy himself through the medium of motor activities as well as to carry over certain learnings to life situations. The much quoted World War II rejection statistics point out the pertinent fact that large numbers of men were found to be unfit for service because of physical defects.

An almost

equally large number without serious defects were found to

1. 2.

Edward Leen, What is Education, p. 62. J. J. Ryan, The Idea of a Catholic College, p. 31.

- 28 lack skill* strength and endurance to the degree that the military training programs were retarded.

Large numbers

were unable to climb ropes, or to perform the simple coor­ dinations demanding agility, strength or speed so necessary to military life.1 Where requirements involving balance, agility, strength, power and endurance, were demanded of wo­ men, they too made a significantly poor showing.

Tests such

as those administered to the women*s services to determine physical fitness ratings2 and physical fitness tests devel­ oped for high school girls3 indicate the performance level of women to be relatively low in items concerning arm and shoulder, girdle and abdominal strength. John Dewey, quoting Rousseau, gives a basis for dis­ cussion of interpretive development through physical educa­ tion activities: To learn to think we must accordingly exercise our limbs, our senses, our bodily organs, for these are the tools of our intellect . . . . The current idea was that the senses were a sort of gateway and avenue through which impressions travelled and built up knowledge pictures of the world. Rousseau saw that they are the part of the apparatus of action by which we adjust ourselves to our environment, and that instead of being passive re­ ceptacles, they are connected with motor activities.^ The number of situations in a game in which the indi-

1. 2. S. 4.

Peter V. Karpovich, "Physical Fitness of-Men Entering the Army Air Forces," Research Quarterly. Vol. 17, No. IS (October, 1946), p. 184. WAC Dept., Training Circular No. 4£> WA£> "Physical Fit­ ness Rating," June 16, 1944. Committee Report, "Physical Proficiency Levels for High School Girls," Education £o£ Victory. Vol. 3,(May 3, 1945). Schools of Tomorrow, p. 11.

- 29 vidual is called upon to analyze and make correct judgment is indeed numerous.

Mental power is summoned when an indivi­

dual finds it necessary to respond to a command in gymnastics, or the musical rhythm of the dance, the play a captain calls in a team sport or the judgment necessary to out-score an opponent in an individual sport.

Every move an individual

makes in a play situation is a move of choice, one that must be made immediately and accurately.

If the judgment is poor

there is an immediate penalty imposed.

For example, the

opponent gets the ball, a foul is called or the game is lost. In physical education it has been said that, "we have incor­ porated into our thinking an enlarged view of stimulus-response or bond psychology.

We know that individuals do learn re­

sponse to command, imitation and routine drill, but we know that they learn on a higher level as well, if freed to do so, the level of self-direction, understanding and purposeful action."3Not only must the judgment, alertness and accuracy of response be the boundaries of learnings brought about through physical education. •Through her activity program, the girl is to increase her knowledge about her own body abilities and capacities against an opponent.

It gives her insight as to

her own condition of health as determined by endurance,

1.

Report of Second Workshop for College Women Teachers of Physical Education, "Building the General Curriculum in Physical Education for College Women," p. 15.

- so strength, skill and the like.-*-

Through the program of sports

and games she learns about the activity, its rules, tech­ niques and coordination requirements.

As a participant as

well as a spectator these knowledges may be considered worth while.

It has been said that physical education activities

sensitize the nervous system thus bringing the individual into more intimate relationships with his environment.

In

bringing the body under more perfect control of the mind it insures a better mastery of the e n v i r o n m e n t . 2 The unique contribution physical education has to make to the total education of the individual is, of course, that of promoting the health and well-being of the student. Some of the factors in the health of the student are organic power, strength and endurance.

Schneider, Karpovich3 and a

score of other physiologists have written in support of the contention that'organic power is developed through activity. Physiologists in the field of muscular activity generally agree that in the power-building process, certain chemical reactions cause the body to be supplied with heat and energy. As suggested by a committee^ studying the role of exercise in physical fitness, the normal heart and circulatory system

T. Elizabeth 2. 3. 4.

Powell Solit, "The Development of Fundamental Sport Skills in College Women of Low Motor Ability," Research Quarterly (May, 1944), p. 530. G. E. Dawson, "The Educational Content of Physical Educa­ tion," Physical Education Review, p. 190. E. C. Schneider and P. V. Karpovich, Physiology o£ Mus­ cular Activity, p. 19. Committee Report, "The Role of Exercise in Physical Fit­ ness," Journal of Health and Physical Education, p. 299.

- 31 become more efficient in the task of furnishing nutrition to the corpuscles and removing waste products from the "blood when repeatedly called upon to function.

The "building of

strength, power and endurance makes demands upon the circula­ tory system primarily as a result of regular, extended exer­ cise.

Prolonged inactivity has an opposite effect on the

circulatory system.

Other such contributions in bodily func­

tion and status are seen in the strengthening of size and growth of the muscles when maximal voluntary pulling power is put upon muscle groups* weaken.

With disuse the muscle tends to

Therefore vigorous activities carried on long enough

make demands on the cardio-respiratory apparatus.

In situa­

tions where the activity is satisfying, or the constitution is strong, the individual drives himself to the extent of his physiological limits with the result of a more complete de­ velopment of heart, lungs and muscles.

Such development has

beneficial effect on the strength, and endurance-capacity of the individual, provided the activity is carried on under intelligent direction and by participants who are physiologi­ cally sound.

In order to carry out the demands of everyday

living greater emphasis needs to be placed on the organic vigor, sind on the levels of strength and endurance of the modern woman.

In developing body structure and functions, a

number of associated outcomes are likely to emerge.

The

healthy individual has a fresh outlook on life and her intel­ lectual efficiency, her self confidence, her poise as well as

- 32 many other mental, physical and social characteristics are benefited. The purposes of Catholic education can best be sum­ marized by quoting from an address given by The Most Rever­ end Hugh L. Lamb at the 1949 National Catholic Education Associ­ ation meeting: Education has been defined as the preparation for com­ plete living, but for us Catholics, life is not complete on this side of the grave. TWe have not here a lasting city but seek one that is to come.’ Therefore, any sys­ tem of education that leaves out this life to come, that omits God, the soul: and eternity is always incomplete and will never satisfy our Catholic conscience. This in a few words is our Catholic philosophy of education and this is the reason for our separate system of schools.1 The secular institutions in omitting religion from the curriculum assume that the things of God are not essen­ tial as the utilitarian or the material things in the well­ being of mankind.

Catholic education aims to extend a con­

genial relationship with the natural environment, the Church, other human beings and with God.

True education according

to the Catholic concept will prepare the student not only for effective membership in society, but will also consider the religious needs as well as those related to human affairs. Education must, in order to fulfill its purpose also take into consideration the duty of man to his fellow-man.

The teach­

ings of Christ stress love of neighbor and ask that men work together for the common good.

On the subject of community

relations, the Holy Father has this to say, "Let it be loudly

1.

Sermon

- S3 proclaimed and well understood and recognized by all that ...

Catholic educators do not intend to separate their

children either from the body of the nation or its spirit, but to educate them in a perfect manner most conducive to the prosperity of the nation."1 The goals of education as stated previously include the physical development of the individual.

Contrary to the

belief that physical education is not in keeping with the Catholic philosophy of education, the Encyclical of Pope Pius XI makes it clear that educational institutions have a re­ sponsibility to physical education and in turn, physical edu­ cation has an equal responsibility to contribute to Catholic education.

"Even physical culture is not to be regarded as

outside the range of her [Catholic institutions] maternal and fostering care, since it also may serve as a means to Chris­ tian education, or on the contrary be a hindrance to it."^ The curriculum in Catholic colleges would be sparse indeed should it include merely religion, philosophy, logic and other subjects bearing on man*s spiritual welfare.

Edu­

cation in a Catholic college considers the whole man, his intellect, his will, his emotions and his physical powers and it aims to cultivate a balanced development in all of these essentials.

Provided that physical education activi­

ties are carefully planned and selected to meet the needs of

1. 2.

Pope Pius XI, 0]3> cit.« p. 14. Ibid., p. 47.

- 34 the individual and at the same time harmonize with the goals of education this subject can make its contribution toward educating for effective living in an American democracy. Through the medium of activities, physical education attempts to achieve its objectives, viz., organic development, neuro­ muscular skills, interpretive-cortical responses and social attitudes.

Physical education attempts to improve the health

and well-being of the individual.

"Health is a God-given

Characteristic and a Catholic viewpoint expresses the necessity of guarding and promoting and preserving the health of the individual so that he might achieve the purposes of life."1 This contribution of physical education to supernatural ism alone should justify its place in the scheme of education. However, physical education does not limit its scope to the development of the individual without concerning itself with his welfare, behavior and practice in social situations. Physical education furnishes an effective means for under­ standing and respecting the rights- of others, for cooperating in group situations and for following and leading.

Descri-

mination and prejudice have no place in the game or sport played as part of the activity life of the individual. As John S. Herron has said: Physical education can be made the vehicle for develop­ ing future Americans, not only physically but morally and spiritually as well. The teacher who strives only

1.

William F. Cunningham, The Pivotal Problems of Educa­ tion. pp. 166-167.

- 35 for the physical perfection, of his students, however, models his program on pagan standards which so often typify Hollywood, fbathing beauty1 parades, night clubs and some aspects of the American theatre. If physical education or any area of education is to be influencial in improving human relations and establishing brother­ hood, it must, through the teaching of intangible out­ comes, reach the heart and the mind in the development bf morally sound youth. All physical education in the world, and all the science, mathematics, literature and social studies in the world will not develop 1brotherlylove’ in youth unless the home and the church together do their share in helping to establish these moral and religious concepts upon which democratic living rests. The ’inalienable rights,1 which the,Constitution pro­ claims come from God, will not be respected in practice if only a materialistic philosophy of life is held be­ fore the nation and its youth.1 The contribution which physical education makes to the general education of the individual depends upon such factors as provision for adequate facilities and equipment, careful selection of the curriculum content, time allotment, an adequate, well-trained staff and an acceptance of the val­ ues of physical education by the administrators of the college. Without a careful consideration of these essentials, intel­ ligent direction and a recognition of their importance to achieving the objectives of physical education, the contri­ bution which this phase of education can make to the goals of general education is questionable.

1.

John S. Herron, "Human Relations, Democracy and Physical Education,” Journal of Health and Physical Education, Vol. 6, No. 2 (May, 1947), p. 575.

CHAPTER III THE DEVELOPMENT OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN THE LIBERAL ARTS COLLEGES FOR WOMEN

The discussion so far has centered around the con­ tributions physical education makes to the individual and the justifications of this subject in the scheme of educa­ tion.

It is upon the foundation of educational purposes that

programs of physical education are constructed.

In order to

establish the framework for this study, it is apparent that the development and trends in the field need to be recog­ nized.

The purpose of the material to follow is to give an

account of the historical background of physical education indicating its growth and development from mere "muscle train ingn to the present day concept of physical education as an educational subject.

The details throughout are pointed to

development and change in program, staff and facilities.

It

is difficult, if not impossible, to separate and treat the items of program, staff and facilities singularly in such an analysis.

Events and changes in one factor effects equally

all phases of each of the others.

For example, the construc­

tion of a new physical education plant would ordinarily ne­ cessitate a reorganization of program and possibly the addi­ tion of staff members to teach the program.

- 37 The scope of the material to follow has been limited to those considered of primary importance to the factors of this study, viz., program, staff and facilities. Historical Background Physical education, like general education, reflects the political, social and economic changes in its historical development.

Likewise, the pedagogical theories and newer

concepts of the purposes of education have determined the quantity and quality of the physical education offering.

The

social forces of a nation have their impact on the type and kind of education that a community, state or nation is to promote.

Compare for example, the education of Communist

Russia and the satellite countries where education is domi­ nated by the Kremlin with that of the United States and other countries where there is freedom of education.

The Greek and

Roman heritage in literature, art, government and architec­ ture has shaped and directed many phases of education.

Phy­

sical education in particular has been influenced by the cul­ ture of these societies.

For many years physical education

in this country strove to meet the standards of body perfec­ tion and physical development maintained and promoted by the Greeks• History has recorded the persistent application of the culture of the nation to that of education within the state.

Early Athens, living In peace devoted its education

to training the mind, the body and the morals to their capa-

- 38 city.

Games and sports were designed to symmetry and grace

of the body.

The Athenian woman had no provisions made for

her education, hence her physical education activities, too, were neglected.

The Spartans, on the other hand, were a war­

like people who trained for military purposes.

Ancient Sparta

recognized the need for physical education for its girls and women, although the ultimate objectives differed from those of modern physical education programs for women. to Emmet A. Rice:

According

"The girls were given physical training

somewhat comparable to that of the boys under supervision of women.

They exercised publicly in running, jumping, throw­

ing the weights and javelin and wrestling.

The aim was to

develop robust healthy mothers of sturdy children. The Roman physical training may be compared with that of Sparta.

Rome was to become a world power and in those

days this necessitated conquest and success in battle. young Roman was trained to become a strong soldier.

The

The wo­

man had little or no education, save what was handed down from her parents.

History relates that after Rome became the

conqueror nation she also became a spectator nation thrilling to the excitement of the gladiatorial contests, chariot races and other gruelling events.

During the peace that followed,

Rome failed to develop a fitness level adequate for a strong army or an economy necessary for prosperity, or the intellec­ tual, moral or spiritual values important to the advancement

1.

A Brief History of Physical Education, p. 22.

- 39 of civilization.

The physical and moral decay that followed

made Rome easy prey to the invasion of the stronger barbarian nations. With the decline of pagan Rome there arose the doc­ trines of Christianity.

The early Christians renounced all

worldly and material things and turned their attention to the spiritual life.

During the period of asceticism, physi­

cal education has no place in the scheme of education.

"So

long as the spirit of asceticism remained in the ascendent there could be no such thing as physical training in the schools conducted by the church.

The soul was the one object

of solicitude and the body was regarded with contempt."^

The

alternatives for the young man of wealth during the Middle Ages were to pursue a monastic life or to be trained in Chi­ valry.

The young man who chose the latter career was trained

in combat, to engage in sports and to serve as a knight to preserve and protect himself, the lady of his choice or his noble family.

The education of the knight did not concern

the intellectual, but was pursued in an endeavor to train the body in skillful feats as riding, thrusting, hurling, fencing, boxing and swimming.^ The thoughts of man during the Renaissance turned again to a study of the classics, philosophy and art.

1. 2. 3.

In

Rice, op., cit.. p. 45. F. G. Leonard and R. Tait McKenzie, A Guide to the His­ tory of Physical Education, p. 41. Rice, pp. cit., pp. 50-56.

- 40 studying the civilizations of the Greeks and Romans, the im­ portant part that physical education played in these societies was recognized and influenced the writings of contemporaries of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries.

It was during this

period that the concepts concerning Mbody-mind relationships” came into being.

Montaigne, Locke and Rousseau are names

associated with the theory that exercise not only rests the mind after periods of study, but also furthers the learning process.

Rice, quoting Montaigne, has said:

. . . it is not enough to fortify his [the individuals] soul; you must also make his muscles strong. The mind will be oppressed if not assisted by the body . . . . Wow to be inured to labor is to be able to bear pain . . . . Our very exercises and recreations, running, wrestling, dancing, hunting, riding and fencing will be a part of his study. I would have his manners, behavior and bearing cultivated at the same time with his mind. It is not the mind, it is not the body we are training; it is the man, and we must not divide him into two parts •

•

It is difficult, if not impossible, to determine the contri­ butions these writers have made to the present status of phy­ sical education.

Certainly through their literary contribu­

tions physical education, formerly called physical training, became recognized as something more than a mere training and developing of the body. Of the various developmental phases of physical educa­ tion, most enduring were those of German, Swedish and Danish origin.

1.

The theory of physical training for purposes of mili­

Rice, 0£. cit.. p. 78. A

- 41 tary fitness and national regeneration in Germany and in the Scandinavian countries, were transplanted in the curricula of the early colleges in America.

The Turnnvereine, promoted

by Freidrich Ludwig Jabn in Germany during the first half of the nineteenth century, still functions in the United States today.

The gymnastics of Per Henrik Ling of Sweden and Niels

Bukh of Denmark composed and dominated the programs of physi­ cal education in the pioneer American colleges.^

So firmly

were the roots of gymnastics attached and imbedded that even in the curriculum of today*s colleges, there may be found phases of these command-response types of activities.

The

contributions of Ling and Bukh need not be underestimated for each has done much to enrich the field of physical education in both theory and practice.

In addition to proposing physi­

cal education for military preparedness, Ling also saw the corrective and medical values of exercise.

He advocated exer­

cise for the weak as well as the strong, a theory previously unrecognized before the nineteenth century.

Bukh, In re­

interpreting the Ling system of gymnastics saw postural changes possible through a rhythmical set of exercises.^ In spite of the remarkable advances made by the Ger­ mans, Swedes and Danes, it is questionable whether activities designed primarily for nationalistic purposes should have a place In the training of individuals for a democratic society.

1. 2.

Norma Schwendener, A History o£ Physical Education ia ijag. United States, pp. 6-10. Rice, oj>. cit.. pp. 114-123.

- 42 In a text, School Program of Physical Education. the author suggests, "Elements that are common to life of humanity will work satisfactorily in any nation, but a system which has drawn the breath of life from a foreign culture radically different in its purposes from anything in the life of .Amer­ ica, cannot be transplanted."1

Vaughn S. Blanchard2

also

writes in opposition to the practice of superimposing the gymnastics of Germany, Sweden and Denmark on the youth of this country.

It is his belief that physical educators make

a serious mistake in accepting activities designed for a na­ tion whose aims are primarily for military purposes.

These

opinions, of course, are based on the nineteenth cpntury concept of physical education.

In the pioneer period in the

United States, college administrators of physical education, many of whom were trained in European institutions, had only the methods and materials advocated by their professional education.

The far reaching effect of the German, Danish and

Swedish systems on the college for women, can readily be seen in reviewing the history of these colleges. Physical Education in Colleges £or WojsfiB History relates that the women in early colonial days had little time for activities other than those concerned with domestic duties and labors which assisted in providing comfort

1. 2;

Clark W. Hetherington, p. 9. Curriculum Problems in Health and Physical Education, pp. 45-50.

- 43 and food for her family*

These physical labors undoubtedly

satisfied the exercise requirement of the pioneer woman.

Her

other activities took the form of recreational pursuits.

In

a later century, however, the need for exercise and the de­ sire to correct physical defects resulted in the acceptance of two types of physical education.

Dancing, an English in­

novation was believed to develop poise, while back boards strapped to the woman* s back were said to have corrective value In the middle of the nineteenth century there were three women who added materially to the advancement of physi­ cal education in the college.

Each had a different view as

to the purposes of activity and the form exercise was to take. Emma Willard favored dancing as being helpful and beneficial and introduced it in her schools in Troy, New York.

Cather­

ine Beecher *s school in Hartford offered calisthenics set to music, believing it to have postural and corrective values as well as to develop poise, and grace of movement.

Mary

Lyon, at Mt. Holyoke Seminary, approved only those exercises which had practical value to the woman who was to engage in household or domestic duties.^ Higher education for women during the second decade of the nineteenth century met with skepticism.

Course offer­

ings were weighed carefully to determine whether they added

1. 2.

Dorothy Ainsworth, The History of Physical Education la Colleges for Wog.ea, p. 2 . Ibid.. pp. 4-6.

- 44 mental fatigue or had a deleterious effect on the feminity of the woman.

It is no wonder then that physical education

for the lady during pioneer college days was met with con­ siderable objection.

Once the "firm-believers" established

activity courses in the college, they adhered to the gymnas­ tic patterns of the day.

At that period in the development

of physical education, German gymnastics and the Dio Lewis systems held sway.

The Dio Lewis proponents believed that

simple rhythmical exercises, done with bags, rings, wands and dumbbells were the answers to the problems of agility, flexi­ bility and grace of movement.1

The Dio Lewis fad was short

lived for women physical educators had their attention drawn to the new training school at Harvard where Dr. Dudley Sar­ gent was advancing his theories about individualistic types of physical education.

It was his belief that the individual

had to be measured and compared with standards for a given age.

Strength tests had to be given and the heart and lungs

examined.

On the basis of results from these tests and exami­

nations, the exercise was prescribed according to individual need.

p About the time that Sargent was training men and wo­

men in his methods and techniques, German gymnastics again became popular in the women*s college.

The Swedish and Danish

systems made their appearance almost simultaneously and soon

1. 2.

Leonard and McKenzie, 4 Guide to the History o£ Physical Education, p. 264. Rice, A Brief History of Physical Education, p. 212.

- 45 received scores of followers.

Not to be denied of the phy­

sical culture fad of the late nineteenth century, the Delsarte system received acceptance in many of the institutions of higher education of the day.

This, like many of the other

systems which arose- "over-night" had only a temporary exist­ ence in the college program.

In considering the development

of physical education in the colleges, it should be recog­ nized that team and individual sports, swimming, intramurals and correctives were almost unheard of in the early programs. Up to the nineteenth century, it was almost universally true that two types of activities were required of all students, regardless of their needs, interests or abilities.1 The discussion so far has concerned the development of physical education in the non-Catholie colleges for women. Unfortunately the dearth of materials concerning the history of physical education makes it impossible to analyze previous conditions and historical trends In the early Catholic col­ leges for women.

An extensive survey of the literature rela­

tive to the historical status of physical education revealed the following sources where this subject is mentioned. Burns and Kohlbrenner speak generally of physical education in these terms, Intercollegiate athletics which today,constitute such an important part in the life of colleges and universi­ ties were quite unknown in the early Catholic colleges. It was not until near the turn of the last century that *

1.

Ainsworth, op. cit., pp. 8-10.

- 46 the organization of teams to engage in contests with other schools began. And it was all very simple in the beginning, a few players and a coach. . . . . Physical exercise and development which are now secured by col­ lege students were frequently obtained in the early col­ leges in manual labor around the college. Work on col­ lege farms was one means of paying tuition in some of the primitive schools. Calisthenics was introduced in some colleges and military training also offered a means of physical development. But well-rounded programs of physical education are a very recent development.1 In reviewing Sister Mary Bowler1s^ history of Catho­ lic colleges for women, there is little to be found which would indicate the nature and type of physical education in the early sectarian colleges.

The author does however, men­

tion the various subjects which make up the curriculum of the pioneer institutions and physical education as a credit sub­ ject, has not been included.

Until such time as a history

of physical education in Catholic colleges is accurately de­ termined, any statements made by the investigator would be merely assumptions without valid basis for judgment of the past events in this area of education. Changing Concents of Physical Education The twentieth century saw an advance in the quality and quantity of the physical education offering.

From the

limited scope of activity courses emerged the variety preva­ lent in the college of 1950.

The emphasis on rest to combat

mental fatigue has been replaced by the phrase, "activity in

1. 2*

J. A. Burns and B. J. Kohlbrenner, A History of Catholic Education in the United States. pp. 270-271. A History of Catholic Colleges for Women in the United States of America, p. 18.

- 47 order to insure complete development of the individual."

The

sports program, once considered incidental to gymnastics, has completely engulfed the formalized program in practically all college departments. transformation.

Many factors have contributed to this

Undoubtedly the altruistic promoters of

physical education must be not overlooked, for it was their faith in the value of activity and their enthusiastic labors that led college administrators to accept this subject as a phase of general education.

However, the social change in

American life brought about through urbanization of the popu­ lation, growth of the cities, mechanization of industry and of agriculture and increased standards of living played no small part in the demands of education to keep pace with these varying conditions.

An increase in leisure time with all of

its perplexing problems influenced leaders to realize and re­ spect the need for directed play.

The Playground Movement

of the early nineteenth century, especially significant to the elementary school, also influenced the colleges to consider the merits of physical education activities in the life of the college girl.1

"By 1921," says Meylan, in his “Status of Phy­

sical Education in American Colleges," "physical education was given credit on the same basis as other subjects, larger numbers of its personnel were given academic rank, athletics were largely controlled by departments of physical education,

1.

C. W. Hetherington, School Program la Physical Education, p . 11.

- 48 intramurals were ‘beginning to be popular, with equipment pro­ vided for these activities, and student enrollments in elec­ tive courses had increased•,**!

The draft statistics of World

War I brought about a further realization of the needs for activities which would improve the health and physical status of the individual. It is impossible to ascertain how long it might have taken physical education to assume its present status had it not been for the scientific and literary accomplishments of philosophers, physiologists and psychologists.

Experimenta­

tion, the use of scientific methods in testing and evalua­ tion of educational outcomes as well as research and study of the field have raised the level of physical education from that of "muscle training" to the present general acceptance of this subject as a meaningful educational experience. The traditional theories expressed the individual as composed of a number of segments, the mind, body, memory, emotions and the like, each requiring different developmental needs.

The newer concept views the man as an integrated

whole and he reacts as such to situations in his environment. Studies relating to the origin and nature of man, the motiva­ tion of behavior, the learning process, the principles of learning and habit and instincts have enlarged the knowledge of the needs, capacities and abilities of the human organism.

1.

G. L. Meylan, "Status of Physical Education in American Colleges," Report of Committee of the Society of Directors of Physical Education in Colleges. p. 6.

- 49 Notable contributions made by Thorndikel, Gates2 and Allport2 among others have served to shape and direct thinking and research in the field of physical education.

It is now gen­

erally accepted that physical education, as a pattern which calls upon all phases of behavior, has an effect on the modi­ fication of the individuals behavior. Educational philosophy of the past combined with that of the present serve as a sound foundation for the present principles of physical education.

Especially significant

are the social and educational theories of D e w e y ^ , Kilpat­ rick®, Russell®, to name but three of a long series of pub­ lications which have influenced present concepts of physical education.

These authorities brought to light the knowledge

regarding the unity of the individual, an appreciation of growth as a purpose of life, the relationship of the indivi­ dual to his environment and the values fundamental to demo­ cratic tradition and to the democratic way of life.

Physi­

cal educators took heed of the inspirational viewpoints ex­ pressed by these philosophers and came to realize that they, too, had a part to play in educating for effective citizen­ ship.

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

In its principles democracy came to mean more than a

E. L. Thorndike, Principles of Teaching, p. 22, A. I. Gates, Psychology for Students of Education, pp. 208-209. G. M. Allport, Personality. Psychological Interpretstlons.» p. 75. John Dewey, Democracy in Education, pp. 5-26. W. H. Kilpatrick, Source Book in the Philosophy of Educa­ tion. pp. 16-18. Bertrand Russell, Education and the Good Life, pp. 3-15.

- 50 form of government, it became a way of life which recognized the dignity and worth of the individual.

Through the medium

of motor experiences, games, sports, dance- and self-testing activities, physical educators planned to meet the needs of each individual in the program.

Thus the new concept, that

of individual differences, became the password.

The writings

of present day educational philosophers as James B. Conant, Ordway Tead, Howard Mumford Jones and others have further influenced change in the interpretations of the goals of phy­ sical education*

It has become apparent that the welfare of

the individual depends upon collective action.

Physical edu­

cators now realize the necessity of bringing about a better balance between the individualistic and social aims of edu­ cation. Today studies in the measurement of outcomes of edu­ cation have led colleges to question the contribution they are making to the general education of the individual*

The

new philosophy speaks of maintaining a balance between the general and special areas of education and a better integra­ tion of subject matter within the institution.1

The present

program of St. Johns College, Sarah Lawrence College, the University of Chicago and many others are attempts on the part of administrators to bring purpose, meaning and useful­ ness to the educative process.

1.

The colleges of today have

"General Education in a Free Society," Report of the Har­ vard Committee. pp. 4-20.

- 51 had such a tremendous gain In knowledges and subject matter that the most pressing problem has come to be that of integra­ tion.

The question in the minds of educators is how they can

present to the student this social inheritance so that his experience with it will be an integrated whole.

In a re­

port to the American Council of Education attention is called to the integrative needs of the individual in this statement: The major functions of formal education are found to pertain to the ego or integrative needs. These needs demand for the individual rich experience of all the as­ pects of reality with which he must deal, assistance in symbolizing these experiences so that relationships and generalizations can be understood, and, finally the or­ ganization of mental outcomes of experience into a uni­ fied well-knit personality, woven about and tied together by a set of fundamental life values .3In seeking unity in the curriculum, educational phi­ losophy has not lost sight of the educational goals relating to democratic living.

It simply demands a means by which

the process of education may lead to a greater appreciation of the meaning of life and a broader application of the re­ sults of education to everyday living.

Many of these the­

ories concern and are directed to general education in insti­ tutions of higher education.

However, in order to justify

its existence in the college, physical education must apply these concepts to the objects and outcomes of its program. The efforts of Clark W. Hetherington2, J. F. Williams3,

1. 2. 3.

D. A. Prescott, Emotion and the Educative Process, pp. 217-218. C. W. Hetherington, o p . cit.. p. 22. J. P. Williams, Principles of Physical Education, p. 309.

- 52 J. B. Nash1 and a score of others have added materially to the educational acceptance of physical education.

These

three authorities have established a sound set of objectives on which programs for every age level in physical education may be based.

The proposed objectives are stated in terms

of development on the organic, neuro-muscular, impulsive and interpretive levels.

Although authorities write in agree­

ment as to objectives, each interprets them in order to I

explain more fully and to give meaning to the author *s own philosophy of education. Educators are no longer willing to accept subjects unless they are able to show results which have educational implication.

Fields of study are constantly being scrutinized

and analyzed in an endeavor to find the contributions they are making to the goals of education.

Physical education,

too has found need to justify its place in the scheme of edu­ cation.

While this field has just begun its quest for results

and outcomes, there have been a number of effective studies which give sound arguments for objectives, methods and pro­ gram content.

However, there is need for a still greater

number and variety of research contributions which actually indicate the values to be derived from the activity program. Physical education is ever seeking to improve its standards and to keep pace with the changing concepts in

1.

Nash. 16-29.

Interpretations of Physical Education, pp.

-

education and in society.

53

-

Judging the advancement over the

period of years of its historical development tends to indi­ cate that physical education, too, is constantly making an effort to meet the needs of the individual and to prepare Trim to function effectively in a democratic society. Hhanges in Staff in Physical Education Professional education in physical education has come a long way since its advent in the Dio Lewis era of physical culture.

The training of physical educators in the late

nineteenth century consisted of a nine weeks course.

From

the first physical training school there were graduated four­ teen men.

Later in the same century the training period was

extended to one year in the Sargent School of Physical Culture and included women candidates.*

Such a short period of study

obviously limited the preparation in professional courses and completely ignored a background in general education.

After

World War I, there was a felt need for individuals with more extensive training and a broader cultural background.

Leg­

islation in many states created a demand for teachers in physical education who were graduated from a four year degreegranting institution.

There had been, however, a few colleges

granting degrees in physical education as early as 1889.2 The .number of individuals prepared each year in

1. 2.

Rice, op. cit*. p. 25. Ruth Elliot, The Organization o£ Professional Training in Physical Education in State Universities. pp. 7-16.

- 54 physical education is almost two thousand and is surpassed only by English and Social Studies.1

The quantity of pro­

fessional physical education courses has undergone considerable change over a period of years.

Of the recent studies devoted

to curriculum content in this area, a significant one was developed by T. Erwin Blesh2 of Yale University.

As he inci-

cated, a degree in physical education should consist of courses in the general academic area ranging from 21-25%; in the pro­ fessional education area, 15%-17%; in the foundation sciences, 1&%-2U% and in the professional physical education area from 50%-40%.

It is generally agreed furthermore that more time

should be devoted to professional preparation.

The Report

of the Commission on Higher Education confidently predicts that more states will require a Master 1s degree before certi­ fication is given to the high school teacher .3 In training the potential teacher in physical edu­ cation, the trend observable in many institutions is to extend the period of education to five years.

The five year curri­

culum thus provides adequate time for the acquisition of broad areas of culture along with sufficient preparation in the field of endeavor.

1.

2. 3.

Ray C. Maul, "Teacher Supply and Demand in the United States" as quoted by C. M. Stinnett, "The Conference Report and Professional Standards," Journal of Health and Physical Education. Vol. 20: 6 (July, 1949), p* 364. T. Erwin Blesh, Evaluative Criteria In Physical Education. (Doctorate Thesis, Yale University, 1945) p. 40. Report of the Commission on Higher Education, Staffing Higher Education: Washington, D. C., December, 1947, Vol. IV.

- 55 Curricular Changes in Physical Education Since World War I there have been marked changes in the curricula of physical education in the women’s college. The activity program, composed almost entirely of formalized activities and conducted for its therapeutic and postural values gave little attention to individual differences of the students*

A static program in physical education had no

place in an education system that was being challenged by the writings of educational and social philosophy of the day. All had revolted against the traditional type of subject mat­ ter and the traditional methods of teaching.

The emphasis

was on materials which would lead to the self-expression and self-direction designated by the democratic way of life.

To

meet this demand, physical education programs turned to acti­ vities which would produce skills useful in daily life.

The

term used to define this type of activity was "a natural program *1 of physical education.

Dr. Williams and others be­

lieved that there should be included such activities as self­ testing materials, dramatics, rhythms, hunting, plays and games, athletics, personal-combatives, water sports and winter activities .1 Just prior to the early depression years, the economic prosperity of the nation made it possible for many institu­ tions of higher education to expand their building program. Physical education enjoyed new facilities as did other areas

1.

Williams, Principles of Physical Education, p. 283.

- 56 of education. New gymnasia, additional outdoor areas and swimming pools provided opportunities for the colleges to enlarge the scope of course offerings.

Studies1 * 2 * 3 re­

lating to curriculum requirements and the status of physical education in woman’s colleges during the second decade of the nineteenth century indicate that sufficiently large numbers of courses which appear in the present day catalogues could be found in the woman’s college at least fifty years ago.

The intramural program present in the women’s college

for a number of years, though not completely developed re­ ceived additional impetus during the pre-depression years. The increase in leisure time placed a greater demand on the schools for physical education skills and recreational pur­ suits which could be used during the non-working hours.

A

survey made by Wilma Haynes^ as to the activities used most frequently in after college life, it was found that swimming, walking, golf, hiking, tennis and dancing were mentioned most frequently.

The swing was then to those activities

which would have the greatest amount of carry-over value.

In

many instances, it was not possible for the college girl to

1. 2. 3. 4.

Georgia B. Johnson, The Organization of the Required Program of Physical Education for Women ia State Universities, p. 24. Elizabeth Halsey, “The College Curriculum in Physical Education for Women,” American Physical Education Review. 2 (November, 1925), pp. 490-500. Ruth Glassow, "Basic Considerations in Planning the Col­ lege Program for Women,” Research Quarterly. 4 (May, 1926), p. 116. "After College What,” Research Quarterly. 2 (March, 1931), p. 215.

-

57

-

gain sufficient knowledge and proficiency in the activity taught during class periods, for a high degree of carry-over value to result.

An attempt was made by college departments

to include a majority of sports in the intramural program. "Activity for all and all in an activity,” became the key­ note in a profession that had seen the evils and mal-practices of intercollegiate sports for women.

In 1930 a proposal was

made by the Society of Directors of Physical Education for College Women to the effect that the college graduate should have: Average Average Average Average Ability

ability in two individual sports ability in one team sport ability in body control and fundamental rhythms ability in swimming to assume a good standing position^

These suggestions were made during a period when the elective program was given widespread attention.

Many leaders

in physical education wrote in opposition to the practice of requirements at the college level.

It was felt by some that

all courses should be on an elective basis and a good number of colleges organized their programs in this respect.

Such

a plan called for a larger number of enthusiastic,; welltrained staff members, excellent equipment and facilities, the support of the college administrators and the interest of the student body.

Obviously, departments of physical edu­

cation were not equipped to meet these requirements, and as

1.

Proceedings of Sixth Annual Conference at Wellesley Col­ lege, March, 1930, as quoted by Mable Lee, The Conduct of Physical Education, p. 118.

- 58 a consequence, this practice became just another developmental phase in the history of most colleges. During the period of the second World War there was again an amazing transition in the curriculum of physical education in institutions for higher education of women.

Mil­

lions of women went into employment for the war effort.

The

types of work they were called upon to perform required a high degree of organic vigor, strength, endurance and body control.

The term physical fitness, though it took on a new

meaning and certainly a variety of interpretations, never­ theless was included almost universally in the objectives of programs of physical education during the war period.

Con­

ditioning exercises, obstacle events, setting-up exercises and marching were but a few of the devices used to bring about body conditioning for the college girl.

Physical educators

went nall out for the war effort” in program planning.

Drake

University, for example, had its college girls carrying and lifting sand bags, ranging in weight from fifteen to seventy pounds in order to develop hand, arm, leg and trunk strength .1 An article in a professional journal in 1942 recommended flag swinging as a worth-while activity to develop coordination, poise and grace.2

1. Ruby A. Holton, "A Program Supplement— A Toughening One," Journal of Health. Physical Education and Recreation. 8 (October 1942), p. 473. S. Betty Walters, "Flag Swinging as a Physical Education Activity,” Journal of Health and Physical Education. 8 (October, 1942), p. 494.

- 59 The physical fitness of men had been fairly accurately determined as a result of testing done by the Air Force-*-, Army and Navy, as well as by college physical educators in the men's division.

There was not, however, the same data available to

indicate the fitness level or needs of the college women. is no wonder

It

then that the approach to this problem took on a

variety of forms.

In addition to the exercises and events

for physical fitness, the women*s colleges saw a greater em­ phasis on team sports, swimming and other activities which would have a

bearing on improvement of physical status of the

individual.

Shortly before the end of the war, the condi­

tioning types of activity were eliminated from most college programs• Recent Trends in Program. Staff and Facilities The recent changes in curricular content, methods and objectives in physical education have been brought about through pressures from many directions.

The industrial and

scientific sources have necessitated a different emphasis on knowledges and skills than was needed two decades ago.

New

potentialities for power emerged through the work of the atomic scientists.

Advances in radar and speed in transportation have

imposed an interdependence previously unknown to this nation. Administrators with vision are looking ahead and planning for future international as well as domestic developments.

1.

R^-y.vKai^ovj.ch,iM>IU*A: i-%eiss, "Physical Fitness of Men Entering the Army Air Forces." The Research Quarterly. 17 (October, 1946), p. 184. ----

- 60 In speaking of citizenship, writers and philosophers enlarged its scope beyond the community or the nation to include "world citizenship.”

New responsibilities have been placed on the

physical educator as a result of an effort to educate for world society.

New techniques are required for living to­

gether, working together and planning together. recent publications in physical education^-*

In surveying 3 , most fre­

quently mentioned are points of emphasis In the new curricula which are related to a fuller integrated curriculum.

Learn­

ing experiences, activities which involve a deeper understanding and have longer lasting values, knowledges about other cultures as well as those of this nation, appreciation of self achieve­ ment, respect for the rights of others, maintenance of health and the development of physical efficiency— these are the es­ sentials which seem to be influencing the post-war policies and the directions of physical education. Another factor influencing present change in physical education is the growing heterogeneity of the college popula­ tion.

The Commissioni s Report on Higher Education estimates

that college enrollments have increased and that colleges will continue to attract students.

1.

The minimum they set Is 4,600,000

D. K. Brace, "The Contribution of Physical Education to Total Education," Journal of Health and Physical Edu­ cation. 20 (December, 1949;, p. 635. 2. Rosalind Cassidy, "New Directions in Physical Education," Journal of Health and Physical Education. 19 (Decem­ ber, 1948;, p. 646. 3. Jane Cotton and Marjorie Wilson, "Post-War Planning in Physical Education," Journal of ggaJ-tji a M Physical Education. 15 (October, 1944;, p. 435.

- 61 students in non-profit colleges by 1960.^

With the increase

in enrollment there comes a greater range of abilities and interests, a wider variety of social and economic backgrounds. As before, physical education must take into consideration all individuals and adapt its program to the needs, interests and abilities of its participants.

This requires a better bal­

anced program, a wider range and variety of subject matter offerings, a larger and better trained staff, and additional facilities for program administration. Physical educators in the college of today are seeking to learn more about the students they have enrolled in their classes and the various outcomes of the program on the phy­ sical, social and emotional levels.

They are also trying to

ascertain and weigh the extent to which they are meeting their objectives.

Measurement and evaluation, a recent trend

and certainly a needed one, has been comparatively neglected on the college level for women.

This statement is borne out

by the National Research Council of the Research Section in a studyS in which an evaluation was made of existing tests in the field of physical education.

Chief among the areas

In which there is further research needed are found to be the organic and neuro-muscular phases of physical education.

1. 2.

In

"Establishing the Goals," Report of the President*s Com­ mission, Higher Education for American Democracy, I, p. 39. Measurement and Evaluation Materials in Health. Physical Education and Recreation: American Association of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, Washington, D. C., 1950.

- 62

-

addition it was revealed that tests concerning attitudes and appreciations are especially needed since there are none which meet all of the rigid criteria for selection and evaluation of tests adopted by the Research Council. Tests used for classification of students, according to abilities, have already been developed^-» % and seem to meet the criteria of satisfactory tests for practical purposes. The physical fitness testing developed during the war was de­ vised primarily for men.

However, when the physical fitness

programs in colleges were being challenged and the profession was anxious to have information and knowledge of the factors which contributed to body efficiency, several useful and easily administered tests were devised by research experts.

Most

frequently used were the functional tests provided by Harriet Clark3 and Gladys Scott .4 While suitable material in testing is indeed scarce, the greatest advances in this area are represented by numerous tests on women’s sports and sport skills.

By way of example,

in the October 1949 publication of the Research Quarterly, two experts in the field of evaluation and measurement reported a

1. 2. 3. 4.

Lucille Ha ties tad, ’’Motor Educability for Women College Students,” Research Quarterly. 13 (March, 1942), pp. 10-15. Gladys Scott, "Motor Ability Tests for College Women," Research Quarterly (December, 1943), pp. 402-405. "A Functional Physical Fitness Test for College Women," Journal of Health. Physical Education and Recreation, 14 (September, 1943)7 P- 358. "Physical Efficiency Tests for College Women,” Research [, 19 (May, 1948), pp. 62-69.

- 65 studyl of the skill tests in badminton for college women.

A

survey was made of all of the tests previously published and the researchers on this project have made an effort to improve and supplement the existing badminton test materials.

Tennis,'

basketball, hockey, swimming and softball, to mention but a few, are receiving similar attentions by testing experts. The materials mentioned thus far are certainly not exhaustive of all that has been published within the past twenty years.

They have received mention in this study since

each has been able to meet the criteria established by the National Research Council.2

However, in surveying the litera­

ture relating to measurement and evaluation, it was

amazing

to find how few materials are available on other necessary phases of physical education for college women.

It is the

opinion of the investigator that since women have been repre­ sented on the various committees relating to testing, their interest and enthusiasm will stimulate research in the much neglected areas of this subject.

It has been said b y some .

in the profession that the first to evolve will be tests relating to the physiological status of the individual. Re­ sults of research in this area will then make it possible for physical education claims as to the physical development that accrues from activity and exercise based on scientific fact

1. 2.

Esther French and Evelyn Stalter, “Study of Skill Tests in Badminton for College Women," Research Quarterly. 20 (October, 1949), pp. 256-272. National Research Council, o£. cit., p. 1-50.

- 64 rather than assumption.

The need for testing of a valid,

reliable and scientific nature is too great to determine the direction which such a program is to take.

It would suffice

to say that the trend is toward an enlarged program of mea­ surement and evaluation in all phases of physical education. In striving to accomplish the aims and objectives of physical education in view of present meanings in general education, a number of various experimental types of programs have emerged.

It is possible to cite many physical education

departments, seeking through planning and function, to con­ tribute to the "search for unity," the balance of relation­ ships of subject matter of which current educational philosophy speaks.

In so far as research would reveal, only a few such

plans appear in published form.

The directdr : of physical

education at the State University of Iowa, in an article showing the relationship of physical education and general education briefly describes how their physical education de­ partment attempts integration with the general education program.1

The Liberal Arts College of the University of Iowa

requires basic skills which consist of communication, mathe­ matics, and physical education as well as for courses, one in each, of the areas of literature, natural science, social science, historical and cultural studies.

Students may be

exempted from any one of the skill courses on the basis of

1.

Elizabeth Halsey, "How Shall We Grow," Journal of Health. Physical Education and Recreation. 19 (May, 1948), pp. 222-225.

- 65 competence as indicated by testing.

Students who are able

to pass the knowledge and performance tests in team sports, dancing, swimming, body mechanics and efficiency may take advanced courses in these subjects for college credit*

While

this plan has been in effect since 1945, there is no report showing the success of the venture.

Miss Halsey explains

that limitations as to facilities have handicapped the variety of program offerings for those who wish to elect courses for advanced credit.

However, the author is convinced that the

philosophy of such a program is sound and that the students and staff alike, should benefit from such a program. The so-called ^minimum requirement"1 curriculum, em­ ployed at the University of Texas again indicates the awareness on the part of certain administrators that the methods used in building a curriculum are of prime importance in achieving the outcomes of general education.

The University

of Texas plan, in keeping with the basic skill requirements, exempts students from the required program after they have successfully passed a certain number of the advanced classi­ fications of the activity.

The students must, in addition,

have a satisfactory health grade and must have formed regular exercise habits.

In this institution, students who are exempt

from the established requirement, may under guidance, elect

1.

Anna Hiss, et. al, "A Minimum Requirement Plan in Phy­ sical Education for College Women,n Journal of Health and Physical Education. 6 (June, 1947), pp. 366-567.

- 66 activities of their own choice for their remaining years in physical education .1 It is not the suggestion of this thesis that all colleges are to follow the plans described by the University of Iowa or Texas.

The variance in educational objectives of

the college as well as facilities, program, staff and budget of the physical education department, make uniformity of curriculum impossible.

Judging from a survey of recent lit­

erature, it seems evident that women physical educators will, in the future, attempt to re-evaluate, re-plan and modify their programs in such a way as to make their purposes com­ patible with those of general education.2 , 3 That the subject matter is no longer thought to be an end in itself, but a tool useful in achieving the desired outcomes of the program, is certainly not a new thought in education.

This idea has received re-emphasis in current

planning of curriculum content for physical education pro­ grams.

As a result of a workshop for college women teachers

of physical education in 1947, the following statement briefly describes what authorities consider to be the basic needs of of the curriculum: We want a general curriculum for college women in which the unique contributions of physical education to edu-

1. 2.

3.

Loc. cit. Elizabeth Halsey, "How Shall We Grow," Journal of Health and Physical Education. 19 (March, 1948), p . 182. James E. Rogers, "Physical Education in Education," Journal of Health and Physical Education. 19 (Decem­ ber, 1948X, p. 650.

- 67 eating them [the college women] for living In today’s world is made better than in the past. We want a curri­ culum through which each girl is helped better to under­ stand, respect, treat well and use effectively her body as an instrument for living. At the same time, we want this curriculum to be one that will help students to meet other basic needs they have in common, a curriculum designed to achieve values Americans have in common, and one designed to contribute to developing individuals able and willing to move toward solving personal and group problems of living.! The subject matter in the curriculum of today is more carefully selected and evaluated in order more completely to meet the needs of the individual.

There is now provided a

wider range of activities than ever beoore.

In 1890 Vassar

offered a variety of eight activities, in 1934 the list of activities offered in the women* s college was estimated at s ix ty .^

At present there is no study available to indicate

the number of departmental offerings in physical education. Touch football, though in an experimental stage, is having a trial period in one or two women’s colleges.

Individual fig­

ure skating and rhythmical group skating have now been intro­ duced in a few of the institutions throughout the country.3 Ice skating, usually offered, where lake, pond or outdoor water areas existed, has received a growing interest in many institutions where ice skating was previously impossible.

1.

2. 3.

"Building the General Curriculum in Physical Education for College Women,1* Report of the Second Workshop for College Women Teachers, Estes Park, Colorado, June 1827, 1947. Mabel Lee, The Conduct of Physical Education, p. 122. Carlita Robertson, "Skating As a Physical Education Acti­ vity, ** Journal o£ Health. Physical Education & Recrea­ tion. 20 (January, 1940), pp. 34-36.

- 68 Tennis courts and other outdoor play areas have been flooded during the winter seasons in order to provide improvised skating rinks for college physical education classes.

Some

more fortunate institutions, as the University of Illinois and Renasselaer Polytechnic Institute^-, have built indoor rinks and provided equipment and instruction for the activity.

These

and many illustrations of recently accepted or experimental types of activities may be mentioned.

However, the trend

toward newer types of activity is not as usual in the college woman 1s physical education department as are the changes in content and methods of teaching of the traditional types of activities. In a college the demands on a student's time for academic courses and credit points often made it impossible for institutions to reach the ideal of daily participation in the required program of physical education for all students. In situations where institutions fall below this optimal re­ quirement, departments of physical education have found it difficult to accomplish the aims and objectives of their pro­ grams in one or two weekly periods of activity.

Also, student

demand for activity beyond the regular class periods has necessitated planning extracurricular activities to meet the needs of all students.

This planning has in American women's

colleges taken the form of intramurals, extramurals, and recreational association programs.

1

.

The intramural program

- 69 for women, patterned in its infant stages from the men’s intramurals, has been directed by the departments of physical education.

It has gradually come to be an essential part of

the required physical education program.

The present trend

is to give the student greater experiences in planning and formulating the policies under which the program is to be conducted.*

Recreational programs as a relatively new de­

parture in extracurricular activities, which are of a recrea­ tional nature, as well as intramural competition, playdays and intercollegiate events, dancing and games of low organi­ zation, have adopted the term Women’s Recreational Associa­ tions.

The all-inclusiveness of the word “recreation” in

contrast to ’’athletics” allows for greater variety in offer­ ings of the program.^

The extramurals or varsity activity

programs, which were frowned upon and completely abolished from most colleges before the second World War have seen an amazing "comeback” in the college woman’s activity life. With the second World War there came an increased interest in team and individual team sports.

Student’s interest and

akill ability improved, and as a result, the intramural and recreational types of programs did not satisfy those of above average ability in sports. commercial leagues.

Students sought competition in

The conditions under which the out-side

games were played were considered most undesirable for the

1. 2.

Norma M. Leavitt and Hartly D. Price, Intramural and Recreational Snorts for Men and Women, pp. 16-56. Ibid.. p. 57.

- 70 college students.

Examples may be seen in girls playing

boy*s rules basketball, or other sports where the student had competitors who had not been sufficiently trained and experienced to meet the level of competition.

Women instruc­

tors in physical education, in order to meet the needs of the student and to insure a controlled and well directed com­ petitive program in the college, sought assistance from the National Section of Women 1s Athletics.3- At the present time the various committies of this organization have spent hours of time in research, planning and evaluation and have estab­ lished standards for competition in almost every sport played extramurally.

It is the opinion of the experts in the field

of women*s sports, that competition guided by these standards eliminate the dangers of exploitation of the participants and promote the mental, social, physiological and safety values of the activities.2 In discussing trends in physical education, it would be remiss to neglect an area which has been the center of attention in current educational thought.

Improvement in

college instruction has received a new and growing interest, and colleges are called upon to re-examine and improve their teaching methods and practices.3

1. 2. 3.

The recent survey made by

Josephine Fiske, "Standards for Basketball Competition," Sports Bulletin. National Section on Women* s Athletics, "Standards in Athletics for Girls and Women," p. 56. Russel M. Cooper, Educational Trends, Fortnightly Letter: Supplement to Educator *s Washington Dispatch* Sept. 1949.

- 71 Rutgers University! in which students evaluated the instruc­ tional practices of the faculties of that institution, has been an attempt on the part of one institution to improve the quality of teaching.

In 1947, Brooklyn College conducted

the Rutgers survey2 and a majority of the departments of the college were requested to cooperate in the experiment to improve teaching methods and materials. In keeping with the trend to improve instruction in general education, departments of physical education are likewise attempting to improve methods and techniques of pre­ senting materials to the students they service.

Instructors

in physical education will have to adopt procedures which will interest the student in the activity and will motivate the student to recognize the importance in learning the skills involved and will stimulate the student to greater partici­ pation in the intramural, recreational or extramural program.** This, for many teachers, will require a revision of the tra­ ditional methods of teaching.

College personnel might find

the student's comments a helpful means of evaluating the success of their teaching procedures .4

The future improvement

in teaching in physical education departments, will depend

1.

A. S. Goodhartz, "Student Attitudes and Opinions Relating to Teaching at Brooklyn College," School and Society, 68 (November 20, 1948), pp. 345-349. 2 . Loc. cit. 3. Helen Manley, "In-Service Training of Physical Education Teachers," Journal of Health and Physical Education. 20 (November 1949; , pp. 5.70-571. 4. Cooper, op,, cit.. p. 2.

- 73 largely upon the resourcefulness and interest of its faculty in discovering the means of producing better teaching. Progress of Professional Physical Education Associations In reviewing the trends, perhaps it is the proximity of time that makes it seem so, but the post-war years appear to have placed an ever greater responsibility on the women's departments of physical education.

The women conducting the

activity programs in institutions of higher education have become increasingly aware of the shortcomings of their pro­ f e s s i o n . I n addition to individual contributions to the improvement of all phases of physical education, a number of organizations, committies and groups have directed their efforts to providing worth-while materials, studies and in­ formation which have greatly aided professional growth.

The

national Association of Physical Education for College Women has dedicated its interest and resources for improving the status of physical education in institutions of higher educa­ tion.

Publications In the National Conference on Undergradu­

ate Professional Preparation. Building Curriculum in Physical Education for College Women and College Facilities for Phy­ sical Education. Health and Recreation indicate the valuable contribution of group studies of this nature.

In light of

the rapid professional acceptance of such materials, the

1.

Gertrude Baker, Else Bockstruck et al., "The Physical Education Program for College Women, Journal of Health and Physical Education. Vol. 18, No. 6 (June, 1947), p. 377.

- 73 future should see a greater number of group projects.

The

dimensions of the problems of physical education in today's world call upon the combined action of all physical educa­ tors toward the solution of problems in the field.

It is

encouraging to note that the American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation is the largest professional association of its kind in the world.

With the increase in

membership, it is believed that the various committies, work­ shops and meetings will bring new plans for professional betterment.-* If nothing more, the development and historical status presented here should indicate the responsiveness of physical educators to social and educational change.

Recent

trends in the field of physical education indicate a constant effort on the part of the profession to analyze, evaluate and improve the service area of physical education.

The neglected

phases, measurement and evaluation, methods and techniques of teaching and balance of subject matter are now being consid­ ered in studies and research projects.

The profession now,

as ever, seeks to learn more about the individual.

The di­

rection education has taken In recent years appears to be to educate the student for personal and social competence, in a world society.

The present emphasis in physical education is to

organize and administer the program in such a way as to

1.

Carl A. Troester, "Professional Progress," Journal of Health. Physical Education and Recreation. IUctober. 19491, p. 435.

- 74 contribute to the goals of general education.

Perhaps the

committee of college women in a workshop at Estes Park more clearly defines the task that lies ahead for physical educa­ tion in this statement: There is coming into existence a widespread conviction that the aims of physical education must be seen and stated in terms of the contribution physical education can make to educating young people for living and work­ ing together in today1s world. We are more aware than ever before that we haveaumique contribution to make in our concern with helping students learn to understand, respect, treat well and use effectively the body, which is their instrument for living. We are developing an increasing awareness that this unique contribution can best be made and must be made within the context of helping to educate the individual as a person, as a deni­ zen of her world and as a citizen.!

1.

Report of the Second Workshop for College Women Teachers, p. 17.

CHAPTER IV PRESENT PRACTICE

In order to secure the desired information concerning present practice, a survey was made of the 102 Catholic col­ leges which according to the listing in the Catholic Directory of Colleges1 were designated as Liberal Arts Colleges for Women.

Inquiry forms were sent to each of these institutions

and eighty-seven (85 percent) of the institutions responded in complete form.

Of the remaining fifteen Institutions, ten

replied by letter, stating that in each case, either there was no program of physical education or that the program was not fully enough developed to respond to so detailed a ques­ tionnaire.

A total of 5 percent of the colleges did not reply

to the inquiry form.

According to the Summary of Catholic

Education2 , at least two or three of the institutions had suspended operation before the survey was made. It was found that the majority of the replies were answered in as accurate and complete form as possible.

This

belief is based on the fact that the questionnaires were

1. 2.

Directory of Catholic Colleges and Schools: National Catholic Welfare Conference, Washington, D. C., 1948. fhifflmarv of Catholic Education: National Catholic Welfare Conference, Washington, D. C., 1948.

- 76 filled in by the lay individual directing the program and reviewed and supplemented by the religious in charge of the department.

This statement was made in sixty-five of the

responses sent by the colleges.

In addition, in order to

substantiate the validity of the questionnaire, the investi­ gator made fifteen personal visits and held interviews with four deans of the college and thirteen directors of physical education.

The institutions visited ranged in enrollment

from 125 to 780 students and in number of faculty from one to three part-time instructors and one to five full-time staff.

They were representative of the Western, Middle-

Western, Eastern and Southern sections of the country.

The

length of each visit was from two to four hours and was ade­ quate for the investigator to ask questions about the areas previously surveyed and to observe what actually existed as to staff, facilities and program.

The analysis of these

visitations may be found in the Appendix, page 244.

In some

cases, methods of organizing and conducting classes were discussed, forms and blanks were examined and the measuring and evaluating phases of the program were reviewed.

In

fcefri&wihgg the data with the responses from other institu­ tions, It was found that the accuracy of response to the questionnaire compared favorably in all items except for the phase concerned with budget.

No successful conclusions could

be reached in regard to financing due to the many variations in budgetary controls.

The phase relative to budget was

therefore eliminated in the final analysis of the form.

- 77 Personnel Status The questionnaire was divided into three parts, namely staff, program and facilities.

The Information sought re­

lating to staff and student enrollments included factors pertinent to the number of instructional staff, their degrees, rank, experience, teaching loads and additional responsibi­ lities.

These, as well as the items to follow, are suggestive

of those which appear in the main body of the questionnaire, a copy of which may be found in the Appendix, page 234. It was found that the range in enrollment (Table I) in the eighty-seven institutions used in this study was from 36-802 students with a mean score of 400 students. TABLE I The Student Enrollment in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women Range in Stu­ dent Enrollments All Classes Freshmen Sophomores Juniors Seniors Unclassified

36-802 15-275 10-205 1-140 5-160 5-20

Mean Scores 400 150 100 90 50 10

It was found that there were ninety-four full- or part-time instructional staff members in physical education in all institutions reporting (Table II) •

In determining the

range in the number of staff the lowest was found to be none, while the greatest number in departments of physical education was found to be five. Five percent of the institutions have

- 78 two or more full-time staff members; 80 percent have one full-time instructor and 15 percent have none.

It was found

that a large percentage of part-time instructors are hired in Catholic colleges*

TABLE II . Personnel Status in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges

Staff Physical Education a) full-time b) part-time Medical a) doctors 1 . full-time 2 . part-time b) nurses 1 . full-time 2 * part-time

Range

Mean Score

Total in All Institutions

0-5 0-5 1-4

1.5 1.3 2.0

94 42 52

0-1

1.1 1.0 1.3 1.4 1.2 1.3

15 5 10 76 25 51

0-1 0-2 0-3 0-1 0-3

Present practice relative to instructional staff appears to parallel the history of the evolution of engaging personnel in Catholic colleges.

The first physical education

classes were conducted by instructors from other departments with the institutions hiring on an hourly basis those needed to teach highly specialized phases of the program.

Today,

in many instances instructors from other departments share the physical education responsibilities according to their qualifications.

There is a prevalence of part-time personnel

in such courses as riding, golf, skiing, hockey, basketball

- 79 and social dancing.

It was found both in the visitation and

in the interview that many of the institutions follow one of three plans (Appendix, page 244) •

First, institutions located

in or near urban areas supplement deficiencies in staff by engaging coaches and professionals to teach on a part-time basis.

Secondly, the institutions offer a minimum curriculum

in instances where there is personnel limitation.

And last,

there are institutions, usually those with larger enrollments, which find it possible to engage more than one individual to devote full-time to the program of physical education.

As a

general rule, these colleges are able, as well, to employ a number of part-time staff members. As is indicated in Table II, page 78, only five insti­ tutions are reported as having a full-time college physician. In ten colleges it was said that a part-time doctor was engaged.

The remaining seventy-two institutions depend upon

the medical personnel from a nearby city or community in which the college is resident.

A majority of the colleges

have a full-time or part-time nurse.

Since many of the nuns

are trained for nursing as well as teaching, there is not too great a problem in this regard. While the religious and lay faculty of a majority of the colleges used in this study have a fair share of academic degrees, above the "Bachelors," the same is not true for those in departments of physical education.

It was found that

fifty-nine of the ninety-four instructors in physical edu­ cation hold only a Bachelor of Science or a Bachelor of Arts

- 80 degree, while fourteen were said to have no degrees (Table III) .

Twenty-one of the total number are in possession of

a Masterfs degree.

It is significant to note that there is

not a single instance of an individual in physical education in Catholic Colleges having attained the doctorate. TABLE III The Degree Status of Physical Education Personnel in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women

Degrees

Number of Staff

Percentage of Total of 94 Instructors

Doctorate Bachelors Masters No Degree

0 59 21 14

0 63# 23# 14#

It is generally agreed that academic rank and salary -m

are contingent upon the educational background and experience of the Individual instructor.

While some authorities believe

it is desirable for members of departments of physical educa­ tion to have the same number of degrees as in other depart­ ments or educational fields, there are those who allege that it is not necessary to have a degree beyond the Bachelor1s. If the latter is acceptable, is it possible also to justify engaging an administrator who has only a Bachelor’s degree? As has been indicated (Table III), this practice is followed in a majority of Catholic Women’s colleges. There is a general tendency in Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for women for the physical educator to assume responsibilities beyond those of instruction and administra-

- 81 tion. For example, the additional duties listed in the questionnaires were as follows:

chaperoning student affairs,

supervising student dormitories, proctoring examinations for academic subjects, assisting in special school programs (May­ day festivals, dramatic productions, etcetera), providing transportation in cases of emergency and the like.

A report

on ninety-four teachers in physical education shows that 80 percent of the total have certain assignments aside from those specifically related to their department.

This practice may

be accounted for by the fact that many of the instructional staff reside in dormitories on campus and are therefore called upon to perform some service not expedient of undertaking by the religious staff. In the "twenty-eight institutions reporting full-time physical education personnel, the teaching load, including intramurals and extramurals, was found to range from ten to thirty hours per week.

Nineteen of the total number were

said to teach a minimum of twenty hours weekly.

The part-time

Instructional staff, of which there were sixty-six, carry a teaching schedule of from one to six hours per week.

The

greatest frequency tabulation was six hours in a given week. The daily teaching load for full-time physical educators, was found to range from three to eight hours.

While it may

appear that there is contradiction in the data concerning teaching load as compared with the quantity of curricular offering, it must be remembered that in many cases the phy­ sical educator is salaried by the college, but must also

— 82 — assume teaching responsibilities in the college academy. From an analysis of the above data, it may be furthur recognized that a majority of Catholic colleges for women supplement deficiencies in staff by employing part-time teachers to conduct the essentials of the program of physical education. Facilities As was described previously, ten of the institutions are at the present time not able to offer a program of phy­ sical education. Through rental of facilities, however, these institutions are able to offer a limited program of physical education. It was not unusual then, to find written in the margin of the inquiry forms, such comments as, "We have no gymnasium, therefore no physical education program," or "Lim­ ited facilities, expect to build a gymnasium very soon," and "Gymnasium under-sized, can only offer limited program."

The

Catholic academic centers with small enrollments do not stand alone in this need, for insufficiencies may also be found in the institutions with large student bodies.

Furthermore, the

inadequacies are not limited to one unit, as is indicated in Table IV, but include such items as gymnasia, swimming pools, locker rooms, out-door facilities and numerous others.

In

spite of this exigency, it was encouraging to learn that a large percentage of the institutions, lacking an activity laboratory, are preparing and planning for the construction of a physical education plan!.

- 83 Many of the institutions credited with a gymnasium are restricted in their program offering due to the fact that this unit is located in a building with academic classes.

It

was found that in forty-three instances, the gymnasium had been placed in a building in which academic subjects are taught.

In twenty-five institutions (Table IV) the gymnasium-

auditorium combination is in effect.

This serves as a further

impediment to effective program planning and administration. It is also significant to note that the range in size of the gymnasium is from twenty feet by fifty feet to eighty feet by one hundred feet, and the height of the ceilings varies from fifteen feet to seventy-three feet.

Because of these limita­

tions, only a few of the Catholic colleges are able to offer the variety of activities desirable for college students. Although a comparison of the data in Table IV and Table V, concerning locker rooms and the number of lockers available, might imply a discrepancy, each set of figures represents the facts as they exist.

In Table IV, which deals

with the size of facilities, there is recorded thirty-nine institutions having locker rooms, while Table V, which de­ scribes the number of additional facilities, lists fifty-five institutions as having lockers.

This seeming contradiction

is due to the fact that many of the colleges used in this study have physical education facilities located in a building with academic classes where the lockers are used for general purposes.

In many cases the lockers are placed in halls,

club or recreation rooms and in locations removed from the

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- 86 swimming pool or gymnasium*

Thus the unit could not he con­

sidered as a locker room unless specifically designated and used for physical education purposes. It is significant to note that there are but twentysix colleges equipped with a swimming pool.

Of this total

number, only seventeen had pools sufficiently large to war­ rant offering swimming as a required course.

Many of the

colleges claimed that this unit was available for classes only during the Spring and Fall seasons. An interview with the directors of physical education, at the time of visitation, revealed a number of reasons for this practice.

In several cases, it was stated that since

the pool was out of doors, climatic conditions did not permit the activity to be carried on during the winter months.

Oth­

ers disclosed that the temperature of the water was not kept sufficiently high during the winter months for swimming.

Some

individuals indicated that the drying room was not adequate to service classes during the months when it was necessary to dry hair before leaving the pool unit. In the discussion which follows, it will be found that although there is no pool on campus a relatively large number of Catholic colleges offer swimming as an elective activity.

It is the practice for many of the institutions

to rent those facilities necessary to supplement their defi­ ciencies (Table V) • Most frequently use was made of either privately owned pools or those belonging to the Young Women's Christian Association.

While the rental of facilities is a

- 87 possible remedy, there are many problems created as a result of such practice.

For example, the distance to the off-campus

facility often makes it necessary to offer the activity in­ volved on an elective basis.

Then, as was suggested by a

large number of the institutions studied, the cost of rental of the pool must be defrayed by a student fee for the activity. In such instances, this would limit the enrollment to those who were financially able to afford the activity.

Also, the

schedule for such classes, arranged to the convenience of the owner or manager of the facility, would place further limi­ tation on student registration for the class.

In spite of

these disadvantages, it is expedient in some instances, for colleges located on or near a community to augment deficien­ cies in facilities through the rental of facilities.

In the

writer's opinion, this is especially true for such units as riding stables, golf courses and other facilities in which the cost of installation and maintenance would overtax the department budget.

However, it is not advisable to continue

the practice of rental of units, such as gymnasia, swimming pools, tennis courts, hockey fields and other items necessary for effective operation of a complete program. i t

In many of the Catholic institutions surveyed, the lack of shower rooms was analogous to the insufficiencies found in all phases of facilities.

In fact, over half

of

the total number of Catholic colleges do not have shower or dressing rooms.

The data in Tables IV and V show that where

shower rooms are reported, the size of theseunits and the

- 88 number of shower heads per class load leave much to be de­ sired.

The dressing room needs again parallel this, in that

only thirty-one institutions provide this facility.

In

discussing the problem with the physical education adminis­ trators interviewed during personal visitation, it was disclosed that in many colleges the students dress in the dormitory before class and return to their rooms for shower and dressing after the activity.

The administrators in

making such declarations, added that this was most unhygienic and undesirable, but nevertheless unavoidable until such time as shower and dressing facilities could be secured.

It was,

however, consolatory to learn from response to the question­ naire that thirty-eight institutions had the shower and dressing rooms adjacent to either the swimming pool and/or gymnasium.

In many cases the shower and dressing rooms ad­

join and in combination form they service both the pool and gymnasium.

In such cases the shower-dressing room is one

large enough in size to accommodate, at peak load, classes from one or several activities.

This is by no means a typical

occurrence for in only eleven institutions are the facilities so arranged.

In fifteen instances, it was found that the

swimming pool was subjacent to the gymnasium, with the shower and dressing rooms on the gymnasium level. It is interesting to note (Table IV) that sixty-nine of the colleges used in this study provide outdoor playing areas for the activity program.

In all but one of the insti­

tutions visited by the investigator, was there enough acreage

- 89 -

*■ TABLE V The Number of Incidental Facilities in Sixty-eight Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women

Type of Facility

Number of Sixtyeight Institutions Having Facility

Lockers for: Gymnasium Swimming Pool Shower Heads for: Gymnasium Swimming Pool Toilets for: Gymnasium Swimming Pool DirectorTs Shower for: Gymnasium Swimming Pool Directorfs Dressing Booms Gymnasium Swimming Pool Kitchens Basketball Courts Outdoor Bridle Paths Crew Houses Diving Boards Golf Courses Ice Skating Rinks Outing Cabins Riding Rings Roller Skating Rinks Shuffleboard Courts Ski Trails Stables Tracks

Range in Number

Mean Score

29 26

60-350 30-50

180 45

20 26

2-35 2-25

25 15

54 19

1-10 1-10

6.2 4.4

12 5

1-2 1-2

1.0 1.0

20 7 18 15 2 2 26 6 16 3 4 3 22 3 3 4

1-2 1-2 1-3 1-3 1-2 1-2 1-3 1-2 1-3 1-2 1-2 1-2 1-8 1-2 1-2 1-2

1.0 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.2 1.5 1.2 1.3 1.5 1.4 1.3. 2.2 1.2 1.0 1.0

- 90 for the placement of at least one hockey field, one softball diamond, four tennis courts, two volley ball courts, an archery range and several badminton courts, all of which could be regulation size.

While many of the colleges had the

space available, few were fortunate in having the ground sur­ faced or prepared for all of the activities mentioned.

The

surfacing, for the most part was limited to a hockey field, an archery range and two or three tennis courts.

Other nec­

essary courts and fields were superimposed on the hockey-soccdr field.

It was found that in sixty-seven institutions, the

playing fields were adjacent to the gymnasium.

Nine of the

colleges stated that the playing areas were on campus, but a five minute walk from the gymnasium.

Of all the outdoor

facilities studied, as Table IV indicates, there is a pre­ dominance of tennis courts.

Sixty-one institutions report

that they have at least one tennis court.

The range in

number of tennis courts in all institutions surveyed is from zero to five, with a mean score of three.

This number is

far from impressive when it is learned that tennis is one of the most frequently required activities and the peak load for classes ranges from ten to thirty students.

In visiting

many of the Catholic colleges the investigator was disturbed on seeing the deplorable condition of many of the tennis courts.

It was not unusual to find clay courts overrun by

grass and weeds or ragged volleyball nets stretched across the courts or backstops that were badly worn.

- 91 Program Of the factors which have limited the quantity and quality of the program in Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for women, none have been more universal than the lack of faci­ lities.

As was indicated in Table IV, a relatively high

percentage of institutions have neither gymnasium, swimming pool, corrective room, dance studio nor other units through which an extensive program could be offered.

Table IV fur­

ther reveals that where these facilities are available, the size of each, in most colleges, further limits the variety of activities offered.

The data In previous paragraphs

disclose the Insufficiencies in the number and experience of the physical education staff in Catholic colleges.

In

the light of present practice in these two phases of phy­ sical education, it Is to be expected that the third phase, that of program, too, is in many cases underdeveloped. Of the eighty-seven colleges studied, eleven have no program of physical education.

Fifty-nine of the total

number offer physical education as part of the graduation requirement while eighteen colleges make it necessary for students to attend physical education classes, but do not grant credit for the activity.

The range in number of credit

points allowed for graduation is from one-fourth to one point per semester with the greatest frequency of thirteen colleges allowing or requiring one-half credit each semester.

The

mean number of hours allowed by thirteen colleges is one-half credit point.

In only eleven of the Catholic colleges is

- 92 this cped.it averaged in the student*s academic index. As is indicated in Tables VI and VII there is a degree of consistency as to the number of years and the number of days per week physical education is required in the Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for women.

The greatest frequency in

practice is 60 percent of the colleges requiring physical education for two years.

The data in Table VI.' reveal the

requirement in terms of the number of class periods per week. It is indicated that 6§ percent of the colleges offering a program of physical education make it necessary for students to attend classes in physical education two times per TABLE VI Yearly Requirements in Physical Education in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women Number of Total of 87 Colleges

Number of Years of Required Physical Education

46 20

2 1 O 3 4

11 5 5 TABLE VII

Weekly Requirements in Physical Education in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women Number of Total of 87 Colleges !

Number of Times per Week Physical Education. Is Required

50 24 2 11

2

1 3 0

-

93

-

To the question, "Are1grades given in physical education?" fifty-nine institutions replied affirmatively and six replied negatively. There was space provided on the questionnaire for the inclusion of items not suggested by the researcher. Those institutions.replying negatively wrote in this space to the effect that they did not offer physical education a sufficient number of times per week for an adequate judgement of the students they serviced. TABLE VIII The Factors Used in Determining Grades in Physical Education in Sixty-five Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women Factors Basic to Grading No. of Institutions 55 52 50 43 30

Skill Interest

Attend- Attiance tude Effort

Improv- Testement ing

x x x x

x x

x

As is suggested in Table VIII, there is a high degree of uniformity in the items considered in grading in physical education. It is significant to note, however, that class attendance is most frequently considered in determining a student's grade, while achievement as a result of testing ranks lowest -with only thirty institutions regarding this item. As was suggested previously, only eleven institutions average the physical education mark in the student's academic index.

- 94 Present practice indicates divergencies in the policy in regard to absences and excuses, and make-up in physical education.

In ten institutions, a statement from the dean

of the college or the medical department, excuses the student from the physical education class for the period.

In these

instances, all unanimously agreed that such an absence need not be made up.

Twenty-six colleges allowed up to three un­

excused absences per semester.

Of this number, eighteen

stated that any absence beyond three must be made up by the end of the term or semester or the student* s grade would be lowered.

The remaining eight did not permit make-ups, but

simply lowered the student*s grade when the absences were in excess of three.

Six institutions responding, agreed that all

absences must be made up before the end of the term or semes­ ter in order to complete the activity course satisfactorily. In five colleges, it was found that students were permitted to be absent from two classes, any in excess of this number requiring student observation of the class, provided she is not able to participate in the activity.

Here the policy is

to lower the student's grade in the event of excessive ab­ sences.

It was indicated on seven questionnaires, that one

absence or excuse per month was permitted without penalty. Any absence beyond this number must be made up within the month if the student wishes to pass the course.

Fifteen col­

leges reported that the policy in regard to absences and excuse in physical education was the same as for academic subjects.

For example, absences or excuses one hour or more

- 95 -

than the number of semester hour allowed, automatically re­ sults in a failure for that semester.

In the remaining five

institutions, it was declared that there was no policy in this regard. Again, it was found that there was a high degree of uniformity in regard to tardiness.

It has been the investi­

gator's experience in teaching in Catholic colleges, to find in most instances there is no real problem as to tardiness in institutions of the size and type described in this study. This conjecture was confirmed not only by replied to the questionnaire, but also by responses during personal inter­ views with physical education administrators of the colleges visited.

It was found in fifty-seven institutions there is

no policy regarding tardiness since there is not sufficient practice to warrant a regulation.

In seven colleges, tardi­

ness in excess of three constitutes one absence.

Four insti­

tutions claimed that any tardiness requires a note from the dean before a student is admitted to class.

Strangely enough,

in one institution students are required to pay a fee each time they enter class after roll call.

In the remaining

eight colleges, the policy as to tardiness is consistent in all departments. The practice in regard to medical examinations by the family physician has been a cause for concern to most physical educators in Catholic colleges.

Many times, students who

wish to have the physical education requirement waived, have

- 96 been known to induce the family physician to recommend an exemption from participation in the activity program.

Cer­

tainly this is not always true, for a good many physicians understand and appreciate the philosophy basic to physical education.

It is traditional in Catholic colleges to use

only the pre-entrance medical examination without further supplementation and follow-up by the college physician.

Ac­

cording to interview statements, many of the physical educa­ tion personnel in Catholic colleges agree that the pre-entrance medical examination is many times a cursory one and, what is worse, the only one required of the student during the four year college period. Eighty-three percent of the institutions used only the medical examination by the family physician.

As was sug­

gested in Table II, page 78, fifteen institutions stated that they used either the full-time or part-time services of a college physician.

The above evidence then, is sufficient

to indicate that the follow-up phase of the medical examina­ tion is almost completely neglected in Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for women. Although thirty-six institutions have a program of corrective activity, there was an almost equal number not offering physical education to. the restricted student (Table IX) •

Of the forty institutions not offering a program of

activities for students whose activity is restricted, at least 20 percent of these colleges wrote in the margin of the questionnaire that the number of students permanently or tem-

- 97 porarily handicapped was almost too small to warrant such a program.

There is variance as to how the thirty-six insti­

tutions cared for the activity needs of the restricted student. As is presented in Table IX the tendency in Catholic colleges is to offer activity of a limited type depending upon the nature and extent of the handicap as well as the need of the individual for activity.

Sixteen institutions claim to allow

participation in the regular program as the limitation per­ mits.

As was pointed out by those administrators partici­

pating in the interview their institutions preferred to offer a combination of possible choices of program to the physically handicapped.

This was not possible either because the insti­

tution had insufficient facilities and/or equipment, or lacked additional personnel for the supervision of such classes. Several administrators failed to justify the presentation of a single offering for all restricted students. TABLE IX The Frequency in Types of Activity Offered In the Correctives Program in Thirty-six Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women Activity Rest Periods Groups consistent with limitation Regular Program as limitation permits Hygiene Class Prescribed Correctives

No. of 36 Institutions 5 18 8 4 1

The time allotment for dressing before activity, length

- 98 of activity and showering is presented in Table X.

It is

the researcher1s opinion that the time for these items dif­ fers respectively for indoors, outdoors and swimming.

This

supposition was based on the fact that the outdoor class time is usually shorter in situations where the playing fields are not within close proximity to the gymnasium.

In so far

as swimming is concerned, it is customary to allow additional time for dressing and drying hair after class, thus the actual time for participation would ordinarily be reduced.

With

these factors in mind, this phase of the questionnaire was devised so as to educe all possible variations in practice, and at the same time to allow the investigator to determine more accurately the actual time devoted to activity. TABLE X The Time Alloted to Dressing, Activity and Showering in Seventy-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women Number of Institutions

Time Allotted (in Minutes)

Indoors Dressing Activity Shower

26 25 10

5-10 35-40 15-10

Outdoors Dressing Activity Shower

29 26 10

5-10 30-35 5-10

Swimming Dressing Activity Shower

21 20 21

15-10 25-30 15-20

The total length of the physical education period

- 99 for all activities ranged from thirty to fifty-five minutes with a mean score of thirty-five minutes.

The divergencies

in practice as to the actual time of participation appear to be a direct result of the following:

l) the activity

s) the

number and type of facilities available, as shower room, dressing room etcetera

3) the location of the facility to

the gymnasium or pool

4) the placement of the physical edu­

cation period in the schedule

5) the location of the gym­

nasium, pool or playing field in relation to other campus buildings• In Chapter I, it was suggested that the general ad­ ministrator in Catholic colleges neither appreciates nor understands the purposes and objectives of the physical edu­ cation program.

On the other hand, there are those physical

educators who have done little to enlighten the uninformed as to the contribution of physical education to the general education of the student.

It is the investigator's opinion

that one effective means of justifying the place of physical education in the curriculum Is through the results of students' progress in activity.

Yet, according to the survey the medium

of achievement requirements and measurement has scarcely been touched by the physical education personnel in Catholic col­ leges.

While health examinations as well as knowledge and

proficiency tests have been administered, in a good many colleges, Table XI suggests that the general motor ability tests, sports motor development tests, organic tests and social-adaptation and adjustment tests are seldom used.

- 100 TABLE XI The Frequency Distribution of Achievement Requirements According to the Number of Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges Offering Such Tests Tests

Number of Twenty Institutions

Health Examination General Motor Ability Sports Motor Development hockey soccer volleyball softball badminton fencing tennis archery diving swimming golf riding bowling modern dance folk dance Organic Development Proficiency and Knowledge (covering rules and techniques) Social Adaptation

15 2 9 3 13 7 12 1 12 11 2

12 3 3 3 5

2 0 20

It was found that of eighty-seven institutions four offer an orientation course In physical education.

Those

responding to the questionnaire claim that the time allotted to physical education in their institutions is not sufficient to allow for extraneous courses of a non-activity type.

It

is believed however, that orientation courses are desirable for colleges in which the time factor is less limited. /

As is to be expected, the physical education curri­ culum in Catholic colleges is as prone to variations in prac­ tice as the facilities, personnel and time allotment which

- 101 control them.

In Table XII, there is suggested alternative

organizational plans as well as the range in the number of institutions following such a procedure.

Of the choices to

be found in this table, it should be noted that the greatest number of institutions offer free electives at all times. In an interview with those who administer this type of pro­ gram, the question was asked regarding the number of times a student may continue to elect the same activity.

The reply

was that wherever possible, through guidance in such an elec­ tive program, students were advised to elect according to need and interest within categories of team, individual, aquatic and rhythmic activities.

It was disclosed however,

that there was little time to confer with the students so as to discover need and interest, with the result that many students continue to elect the same or a similar activity numerous times. TABLE XII Various Organizational Plans for Physical Education in Eighty-seven Catholic Liberal Arts Colleges for Women Number of 87 Institutions 27 1 44 9 6

Organizational Plan First year prescribed, remainder elective Electives for those ranking high on tests Free electives at all times First two years prescribed, remainder elective Electives within the requirement which consists of team sports, individual sports, rhythmics and aquatics v

-

102

-

As was described in Tables VI and VII, approximately forty-three colleges used in this study, require physical education two days a week for two years.

Of these institu­

tions, SO percent require physical education the first year and allow students to select activities of their choice the second year.

Sixty percent of the colleges allow the student

to elect activities freely both years.

The remaining 10 per­

cent prescribe activities throughout the two required years. Table XIII shows the frequency with which either the required or elective activities appear in the curriculum of physical education in Catholic colleges.

Basketball, soft­

ball, volleyball, archery, badminton, tennis, folk dancing, gymnastics and stunts and tumbling are those most frequently required of all students.

In only four institutions were

all students required to take modern dance, while in twelve colleges swimping was a necessary course.

Freshmen are most

frequently required to take basketball, volleyball, tennis, body-mechanics and gymnastics.

The required Sophomore courses

most often mentioned were basketball, tennis, badminton, folk dance and archery.

In those institutions where an either

partial or freely elective program is in effect, the activity offering occurring in most institutions combines hockey, tennis, archery, ballet and golf.

It is significant to note

that those colleges in which a one or two year required pro­ gram is in effect, emphasis is placed on activities which involve the large muscles, as group team sports, gymnastics

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