Palaeoclimates, Palaeoenvironments and Human Communities in the Eastern Mediterranean Region in Later Prehistory, Parts i and ii 9781407390871, 9781407390888, 9780860541646, 9781407327686

Table of contents :
PART I
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Introduction
PART ONE: PALAEOCLIMATOLOGY, DEEP SEA CORES
CLIMATE OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND NEAR EAST
DISCUSSION
PALAEOCLI MATIC INTERPRETATION OF THE LAST 20,000 YR RECORD OF DEEP-SEA CORES AROUND THE MIDDLE EAST
DISCUSSION
MODIFICATIONS DES CLIMATS ET DES ENVIRONNEMENTS EN AFRIQUEDU NORD ET AU MOYEN ORIENT DEPUIS 20.000 B.F.
DISCUSSION
FAUNAL RESPONSES TO ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGES IN THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN DURING THE LAST 20,000 YEARS
DISCUSSION
CHANGES IN THE DISTRIBUTION OF SOME UNGULATES IN THE MIDDLE EAST IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENT CHANGES
FAUNAL EVIDENCE FOR ENVIRONMENTAL/CLI MATIC CHANGEAT FRANCHTHI CAVE (SOUTHERN ARGOLID, GREECE),25,000 BP to 5,000 BP - PRELIMINARY RESULTS
DISCUSSION
THE IMPACT OF DO MESTIC ANIMALS ON THE VEGETATION DURING THE FIRST PHASES OF ANIMAL HUSBANDRY IN THE MEDITERRANEAN AND NEAR EAST
THE CLI MATIC INTERPRETATION OF MACROFAUNAL ASSEMBLAGES IN THE NEAR EAST
THE ENVIRONMENTAL IMPLICATIONS OF A RE-ANALYSIS OF THE LARGE MAMMAL FAUNA FROM THE WADI EL- MUGHARA CAVES, PALESTINE
PART THEE: GEOMORPHOLOGY
GEOMORPHOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR CLIMATIC CHANGE IN IRAN DURING THE LAST 20,000 YEARS
DISCUSSION
GEOLOGIC EVIDENCE OF LATE QUATERNARY CLIMATE CHANGE IN WESTERN SAUDI ARABIA
DISCUSSION
LAKE LEVELS AS AN INDICATOR OF NEAR EASTERN PALAEO-CLIMATES: A PRELIMINARY APPRAISAL
DISCUSSION
PALEO ENVIRONMENTS FROM 25,000 TO 5000 B. P. IN SOUTHERN GREECE AS SEEN FROM SEDIMENTS IN FRANCHTHI CAVE (ARGOLIOOS)
PART II
Cover Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
PART FOUR: PALAEOBOTANY
VEGETATIONAL HISTORY OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND THE NEAR EAST DURING THE LAST 20,000 YEARS
VEGETATIONAL AND CLIMATIC HISTORY OF THE WESTERN PART OF THE KURA RIVER BASIN
THE LATE QUATERNARY VEGETATIONAL HISTORY OFTHE ZAGROS AND TAURUS MOUNTAINS IN THE REGIONS OF LAKE MIRABAD, LAKE ZERIBAR AND LAKE VAN- A REAPPRAISAL
PALYNOLOGICAL RESEARCH OFNEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
DISCUSSION
PART FIVE: ARCHAEOLOGY, HISTORY AND PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN MESOPOTAMIA AND EASTERN ARABIAIN RELATION TO POSSIBLE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
ENVIRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE FOR CLIMATIC CHANGE IN THE SOUTHERN LEVANT
DISCUSSION
PREHISTORIC SETTLEMENT PATTERNS IN THE LEVANT, IN RELATION TO ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS
DISCUSSION
Holozän-Geologie und ArchäologieGedanken und Fragen zur Korrelation der Resultate zweier Wissenschaften
PALAEOCLIMATIC MODELLING OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGESIN THE EAST MEDITERRANEAN REGION SINCE THE LAST GLACIATION
DISCUSSION
PART SIX: CONCLUDING DISCUSSION (FINAL INVITED COMMENTS)
FINAL INVITED COMMENTS

Citation preview

Palaeoclimates, Palaeoenvironments and Human Communities in the Eastern Mediterranean Region in Later Prehistory Edited by

John L. Bintliff and Willem Van Zeist Part i

BAR International Series I 3 3 (i) 1982

B.A.R.,

B.A.R.

122

Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A. R. Hands, E.Se., M.A., D.Phil. D. R. Walker, M. A.

B.A.R.-S133 (i), 1982: 'Palaeoclimates, Palaeoenvironments and Human Communities in the Eastern Med iterranean Region in Later Prehistory', Part i

©

The Individual Authors, 1982.

The authors’ moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted.

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781407390871 (Volume I) paperback ISBN 9781407390888 (Volume II) paperback ISBN 9780860541646 (Volume set) paperback ISBN 9781407327686 (Volume set) e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860541646 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

CONTENTS ONE INDEX INTRODUCT ION PART ONE:

PALAEOCLIMATOLOGY, DEEP SEA CORES

T. M. L. Wigley and G. Fanner - Climate of the Eastern Mediterranean and Near East Discussion B. Luz - Palaeoclimatic Interpretation of the Last 20,000 yr Record of Deep-Sea Cores around the Middle East Discussion P. Rognon - Modifications des Climat et des Environnements en Afrique du Nord et au Moyen Orient depuis 20,000 B. P. Discussion PART TWO: MACROFAUNA E. Tchernov - Faunal Responses to Environ.mental Changes in the Eastern Mediterranean during the Last 20, 000 Years Discussion H. -P. Uerpmann - Changes in the Distribution of some Ungulates in the Middle East in Relation to Environmental Change (Discussion Only)

1 3- 37 38- 39 41- 61 62- 65 67- 97 99-102 103

105-127 129 131

S. Payne - Faunal Evidence for Environmental/Climatic Change at Francthi Cave (Southern Greece), 25, 000 to 5, 000 BP Preliminary Results (Abstract)

133-137

Discussion

139-143

A. T. Clason and J. Glutton-Brock -.The Impact of Domestic l Animals on the Vegetation during 'the First Phases of Anima 145-148 Husbandry in The Mediterranean and Near East s. BtJktJnyi - The Climatic Interpretation of Macrofaunal 149-163 Assemblages in the Near East Reanalysis A. N. Garrard - The Environmental Implications of a a Caves, ughar of the Large Mammal Fauna from the Wadi El-M 165-187 Palestine PART THREE: GEOMORPHOLOGY

atic Change I. A. Brookes - Geomorphological Evidence for Clim in Iran during the last 20,000 Years Discussion C} ate J. W. Whitney - Geologic Evidence of Late Quaternary _!m Change in Western Saudi Arabia (Abstract)

189 191-228 229-230 231

Discussion N. Roberts - Lake Levels as an Indicator of Near Eastern Palaeoclimates: A Preliminary Appraisal Discussion W. R. Farrand - Palaeoenvironments from 2 5, 000 to 5, 000 B. P. in Southern Greece as seen from Sediments in Francthi Cave (Argolidos) (Abstract)

232-233 235-267 269-271

273

TWO PART FOUR:

PALAEOBOTANY

W. Van Zeist and S. Bottema - Vegetational History of the Eastern Mediterranean and the Near East during the Last 20, 000 Years Discussion L. K. Gogichaishvili - Vegetational and Climatic History of the Western Part of the Kura River Basin (Georgia) A. P. El-Moslimany - The Late Quaternary Vegetational History of the Zagros and Taurus Mountains in the Regions of Lake Mirabad, Lake Zeribar and Lake Van - A Reappraisal A. Leroi-Gourhan - Palynological Research of Near Eastern Archaeological Sites Discussion PART FIVE: ARCHAEOWGY, HISTORY AND PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH J. Oates - Archaeological Evidence for Settlement Patterns in Mesopotamia and Eastern Arabia in Relation to Possible Environmental Conditions Discussion P. Goldberg and O. Bar-Yosef - Environmental and Archaeological Evidence for Climatic Change in the Southern Levant Discussion F. Hours - Prehistoric Settlement Patterns in the Levant, in Relation to Environmental Conditions Discussion B. Brentjes - HolozIDi-Geologie und Arch�ologie: Gedanken und Fragen zur Korrelation der Resultate zweier Wissenschaften J. L. Bintliff - Palaeoclimatic Modelling of Environmental Changes in the East Mediterranean Region since the Last Glaciation Discussion PART SIX: . Concluding Discussion (Final Invited Comments)

275 277-321 323 325-341

343-351 353-355 356

357

359-393 395-398 399-414 415-418 419-448 449-452 453-484 485-527 528-530 531 533-540

I NTRODUCTION

T he I n terna t iona l U n ion f or Q ua ternary R esearch ( INQUA ) i s at ru ly i n terna t iona l s cho lar ly o rgan isa t ion t ha t e x ists t o c oord ina te r esearch i n to t he d eve lopment o ft he E ar th 's e nv iron ment d ur ing t he mos t r ecent , o r Q uaternary , g eo log ica l e ra . S ubco m m iss ions w i th in I NQUA f ocus e i ther o n r egiona l Q ua ternary r esearch o r o n ma jor r esearch t hemes s uch a s Q ua ternary S ea-Leve ls , Q ua ternary T ec ton ics . F ro m t he 8 th-11th S ep te mber , 1 980 , t he R eg iona l S ubco mm iss ion f or t he S tudy o ft he H o locene o ft he C ircum- Medi terranean Area , u nder o ur d irec t ion a s C ha irman a nd S ecretary , o rgan ised a S ympos iu m j o in t ly w i th t he B io log isch-Archaeo log isch I ns t i tuut o f t he U n iversi ty o fG ron ingen , a t t he l a t ter u n ivers i ty , a nd e n t i t led : " The E nv iron men ta l E v idence f or C l ima t ic C hange i n t he E as tern Med i terranean a nd N ear E ast d ur ing t he l as t 2 0 ,000 Y ears" . T h is v o lu me c ons is ts p r imar i ly o f t he r ev ised a nd c ons iderab ly e xp anded t ex ts o f mos t o f t he p apers g iven , t oge ther w i th e di ted t ranscr ipts o ft he d iscuss ions f o l low ing e ach p aper . We a lso i nc lude s evera l p apers o f r e levance t o t he t he me o ft he o r ig ina l s ympos iu m wh ich were s ent t o u s l a ter , s pec if ica l ly f or i nc lus ion i n t h is v o lu me .

I na ddi t ion t here a re o ne o r t wo

a bstrac ts o fp apers i n tended f or , o r a ctua l ly p resen ted a t , t he s ympos iu m . I n t hese c ases , a l though f orone r eason o r a nother t he f u l l t ex t was n ot a va i la b le f or p ub lica t ion , we c ons idered t ha t e ven a b r ief s u m mary o f t he d ata d eserved a w ider a udience . I tw i l l b e s een t ha t we h ave o p ted f or a v ery much f u ller p ub l ica t ion o f t he o r ig ina l s ympos iu m d iscuss ion s ess ions t han i s n orma l ly p rov ided .

T h is

s ee med j us t if iab le b ecause o ft he n u merous v a luab le c o m men ts t ha t a rose d ur ing t hese d iscuss ions , d ur ing wh ich w e f e lt t ha t s o me o f t he k ey i ssues o f p a laeoenv iron menta l r esearch were b e ing b rough t t o t he s urface , a nd where s pec ia lists i n d if feren t f i e lds were o bv ious ly p rov iding a n u nusua l d egree o f i ns igh t i n to t he p rac t ica l p rob le ms o f t he irwork .

I tg oes w i thou t s ay ing t ha t

t he e x tended a nd r a ther i n forma l n at ure o f t hese d iscuss ions , a sr endered f a i thfu l ly w i th o n ly minor e di t ing o n o ur p ar t , mus t p reven t t he m b e ing t rea ted a s as ource o f c ons idered , d ef in it ive s ta temen ts b y t hose p ar t ic ipa t ing . On t he o ther h and

t he h ones ty a nd s pon tane i ty r evea led

s ee m w or th t he s acr i-

f i ce o f f orma lg ram mar a nd u n informa t ive h ypercaut ion .

T he E di tors J ohn L . B in t l if f

W i llem Van Z e ist

PART ONE : PALAEOCL I MATOLOGY ,

1

DEEP S EA CORES

CL IMATE OF THE EASTERN MEDITERRANEAN AND NEAR EAST T . M . L . Wig ley a nd G . F armer ( C li ma t ic R esearch U n i t , U n ivers i ty o f E ast A ng l ia , N orw ich , U . K . ) ABSTRACT T he p resen t-day c l ima te o f t he E as tern Med iterranean/Near E ast i s d escr ibed w i th s pec ia l r eference t or ecen t c hanges i n r a infa l l a nd t e mpera ture .

R e la t ionsh ips b e tween l oca l c l ima te a nd l arge-sca le

f eatures o ft he g enera l c ircu la t ion , e spec ia l ly t hose wh ich migh t h ave p a laeoc l i ma t ic s ign if icance , a re d iscussed . T hese r e la t ionsh ips a re of ten p oor ly e stab lished ‚ par t ly b ecause o ft he e x treme v ar iabi li ty o f i mpor tan t f eatures s uch a s t he p o lar f ron t a nd p o lar f ront j e t s tream . R e la t ive ly sma l l-sca le f ea tures ( such a s c hanges i n c yc lon ic i ty , c hanges i n c yc lone t racks , s pa t ia l v ar ia t ions r e la ted t o t opography , e tc . )may b eo f c ons iderab le i mpor tance i nu nders tanding p ast c l ima tes . B ecause o f u ncer ta int ies i n o ur u nderstanding o ft oday 's c l ima te , a nd b ecause o f c o mp lex i t ies r e la ted t o l oca l e f fec ts a nd p oss ib le c hanges i n v ar iab i li ty ,i ti ss uggested t ha t p a laeo c lima t ic r econstruc t ions i nvok ing p hys ica l ly p laus ib le c hanges i n t he g enera l c ircu la t ion s hou ld b e t rea ted c aut ious ly u n less t hey h ave b een t es ted o n modern d a ta .

I NTRODUCT ION Presen t c l ima t ic c ondi t ions a re t he k ey t o u nderstanding p as t c l imates . T he p hys ica l p r inc ip les a nd r u les wh ich a pp ly t oday , a nd wh ich f orm t he b as is f orour u nders tanding o ft he c l ima te s ystem , a pp ly e qua l ly we l l t o t he p as t . B ecause o ft h is , t he l arge s ca le f ea tures o ft oday 's a t mospher ic c ircul a t ion p a t terns w ere a l mos t c er ta in ly p resent i n t he p as t , a l though t hey may h ave b een g eograph ica l ly d isp laced , o fd if feren t i n tens i ty , o r s ub jec t t o d iff erent s easona l o r i n ter-annua l c hanges . S ign if icant c hanges i n t hese l arge s ca le f ea tures h ave o ccurred o ver t he p ast c en tury . E ven l arger c hanges must h ave o ccurred o ver p as t mi l lenn ia , p ar t ly i n r esponse t o t he c ons iderab le v ar ia t ions wh ich h ave o ccurred i n t he a t mosphere 's b oundary c ondi t ions; s ea s ur face t e mpera tures , s now a nd i ce d is tr ibut ion , a nd s o o n . T he most r eadi ly i den t if iab le f ea tures i n t he g enera l c ircu la t ion a re t he ma jor s urface w ind s yste ms ( such a s t he t rade w inds ) , t he s em i-permanen t s ur face h igh a nd l ow p ressure a reas ( such a s t he s ub trop ica l h ighs , t he I ce land L ow , e tc . ) ,a nd v ar ious i mpor tan t f ea tures o f t heupper a t mospher ic c ircu la t ion ( l ong w aves , j e t s treams , e tc . ) . We o f ten a t te mp t t o " understand" p ast c l i ma tes b y f i t t ing al imi ted amount o f s urface p a laeoc lima te d a ta ( i nferred f ro m v ar ious f or ms ,o fp roxy d a ta ) i n to a l arger-sca le r econs truct ion o f t he g enera l c ircu la t ion .

I ft he r econstruc t ion i s c ons isten t w i th a l l a va i lab le d a ta , 3

a nd r epresen ts a p hys ica l ly r ea l ist ic d epar ture f ro m t oday 's c ircu la t ion p a tt erns , we f ee l t ha t o ur u nders tand ing o ft he p as t i s i mproved . I ndeed , s uch ar econs truct ion migh t b eused t o " predic t" t he s urface c l ima te o f s o me o ther r egion , a nd d a ta f ro m t ha t r eg ion c ou ld b e u sed t o t est t he h ypothes ized l arges ca le r econstruc t ion . T he v a lue o ft hese r econs truc t ions i s s o mewha t d if f icu lt t o j udge . T h is i s p ar t icu lar ly s o i n t he E as tern Medi terranean/N ear E as t r eg ion b ecause t he c o mp lex i ty o f t he c l i mate h ere means t ha to ur u nderstanding o ft oday 's c l i ma te i s i nco mp le te .

F ur thermore , e ven t oday t he l arge-sca le c ircu la t ion

f ea tures wh ich i nf luence t he r eg ion a re h igh ly v ar iab le o n a l l t ime s ca les ( mon th-to- mon th , y ear-to-year a nd d ecadeto-decade) . Much g rea ter v ar ia t ions i n t hese f ea tures mus t h ave o ccurred i n t he p ast , e spec ia l ly i n r esponse t o t he d ra mat ic c hanges i n g loba l b oundary c ondi t ions which a cco mpan ied t he e nd o f t he l as t ma jor g lac iat ion . P a laeo c l i ma te s tudies u s ing n u mer ica l g enera l c ircu la t ion mode ls a re p robab ly t he b es t g u ide t o t he g enera l c ircu la t ion p a t terns wh ich migh t h ave o ccurred i n t he p as t ( see , f or e xamp le , Wi l lia ms , 1 978) .

O ther e s t ima tes

o fp as t c ircu la t ion p a t terns must b e v iewed w i th c ons iderab le c aut ion .

T hey

a re , n ecessar i ly , b ased o n wha ti sk nown o fp resen t-day c ircu la t ion p a t terns . A s s uch , u n less t he ir p hys ica l r ea lism i s d e mons tra ted b y r eference t o t wen t ie th c en tury i ns tru menta l d ata , t hey may b e o n ly o f s pecu la t ive v a lue . U ncer ta in t ies i n t he i n terpre ta t ion a nd d a t ing o f p roxy d a ta , a nd i no ur u nders tanding a nd k now ledge o fp resent-day c l ima te , a l low c ons iderab le r oom t o manoeuvre when i n terpreta t ions o f l im ited amoun ts o f p a laeoc l i ma t ic d a ta a re made i n t er ms o f c hanges i n t he g enera l c ircu la t ion . S uch i n terpre ta t ions s hou ld b e c ons idered i more a s p oss ib le i n terna l ly c onsis ten t " scenar ios" r a ther t han r e liab le r econstruc t ions o f t he p as t . I n most c ases more t han o ne s uch s cenar io i s p oss ib le . The c l ima te o ft he E as tern Medi terranean/N ear E ast ( M/NE; s ee F ig . 1 :1) i s i nf luenced b y t he ma in midd le t o h igh l a t i tude wester l ies t o t he n or th a nd n or thwes t , t he midla t i tude s ub trop ica l h igh p ressure s ys te ms wh ich g enera l ly e x tend f ro m t he A t lant ic a cross t he S ahara , a nd t he monsoon c l ima tes o ft he I ndian s ubcon t inen t a nd E as t A fr ica . I nw in ter , t he r eg ion i s a f fec ted b y t he s trong t herma l h igh p ressure s ys te m wh ich c overs a l arge p ar t o ft he As ian c on t inen t ( t he S iber ian h igh ) . A l l o f t hese f ac tors may b e modif ied b y t he Medi terranean i t se lf ( as a h eat a nd/or mois ture s ink o r s ource ) a nd b y l oca l t opograph ic e f fec ts .

A ny d iscuss ion o f M/NE c l ima te , e spec ia l ly

o ne wh ich e nco mpasses p ast c l ima t ic c ondi t ions , must i nc lude a r ev iew o f t hese l arger-sca le f ea tures o ft he a t mospher ic g enera l c ircu la t ion . T oday , much o ft he M/NE r eg ion i s c harac ter ized b y d ry , warm s ummers , a nd wet , mi ld w inters :

f a l ling i n to t he K öppen c lass i f ica t ion C s wh ich r equ ires

t ha t t he r a infa l l i n t he we t tes t mon th i n w in ter i s a t l east t hree t imes t ha t o f t he d r iest s u mmer mon th . T h is s i mp le c lass if ica t ion , h owever , masks t he c ons iderab le v ar ie ty o f c l i ma tes wh ich t he r eg ion embraces; r anging f rom mar i t i me t o c on t inen ta l , mi ld t o c o ld ( as measured b y t he t e mpera ture o f t he c o ldes t mon th , f or e xa mp le ) , a nd f ro m a r id t o w e t . S pa t ia l i nho mogene i ty i s c ons iderab le .

T o s e t t he c on tex t f or t he p resen t c l ima te o f t he r eg ion a nd

t o h e lp e xp la in a nd i n terpret p oss ib le c hanges i n c l ima te i n t he p as t , we b eg in 4

F ig . 1 .1: G eneral m ap o f t hat r eferred t o a s ( M/NE)

r egion i n t he

t he t he

s tudy r egion. T he b oxed a rea i s E astern M editerranean/Near E ast

t ext.

5

w i th a b r ief r ev iew o f s o me a spec ts o f t he g enera l c ircu la t ion o ft he N or thern H em isphere . B efore d o ing s o , h owever , i n o rder t o e s tab l ish t he r e levance o f t he f eatures we w i l l b e d iscussing , we w i l l s u mmar ize t he f ac tors wh ich d e termine t oday 's c l ima te a nd wh ich n eed t o b e c ons idered i n i n terpre t ing p as t c l ima tes ( Tab le 1 ) .

F or a more d eta i led a ccoun t o f p a laeoc lima t ic i n terpre-

t a t ions s ee R ognon a nd Wi l liams ( 1 977 ) a nd N icho lson a nd F lohn ( 1 980 ) . THE GENERAL C IRCULAT ION T here a re many e xce l len t t ex ts wh ich d escr ibe a nd e xp la in t he i mpor tan t f ea tures o ft he g enera l c ircu la t ion . I n t he f o l low ing r ev iew we h ave r e lied l arge ly o n L a mb ( 1 972 ) , B arry a nd P erry ( 1 973) , Barry a nd C hor ley ( 1971) a nd C hang ( 1972 ) , a nd t he r eader i s r eferred t o t hese t ex ts f or f ur ther d e ta i ls . M id troposphere w ester lies T he ma in midtropospher ic ( 500mb ) c ircu la t ion i n t e mpera te l a t i tudes i s a meander ing wes ter ly f l ow wh ich i s ma in ta ined b y t he t e mpera ture d if ference b e tween h igh a nd l ow l a t i tudes , a nd t he E ar th 's r ota t ion . T hese wes ter lies e x tend f ur ther s outh t han t e mpera te l a t i tudes , b ut n ot a s f ar s outh a s t he e qua tor .

I n J anuary t he l im i t o f t he wes ter lies i s a round 9 -12 d egrees N ,

wh i le i n J u ly i ti s a round 2 2-25 d egrees N .

A t l ower l a t i tudes o n t he e quator ia l

f l ank o f t he s ub trop ica l h igh p ressure b e lt t he f l ow i s g enera l ly e as ter ly a nd much weaker . When v iewed a s awho le ( and p ar t icu lar ly a t t he s ur face ) ,t he g loba l c irc u la t ion i s a sym me tr ica l . The "meteoro log ica l e qua tor" , d ef ined a s t he l a t i tude o fl owes t p ressure i n t he t rop ics , v ar ies s easona l ly f ro m 5 d egrees St o 1 5 d egrees N a nd l i es , o n a verage , a round 6 d egrees N ( F lohn 1 967; R ieh l 1 979 ) .

T h is i s l arge ly b ecause o fthe s tronger l a t i tudina l t e mperature

g radien ts a nd s tronger c ircu la t ion i n t he S outhernHem isphere , f ac tors wh ich i n t urn r esu lt f ro m t he v ery d if ferent l and-seadis tr ibut ions b e tween t he h emispheres , a nd t he p resence o f t he Antarc t ic c ont inen t ( F lohn , 1 980 ) . C hanges i n t he p os i t ion o ft he me teoro log ica l e qua tor ( as migh t o ccur i ft here were a ma jor c hange i n A n tarc t ic s ea-ice e x ten t ) migh t i ndirect ly i n f luence t he M/NE r eg ion . Meanders i n t he m idla t i tude u pper a ir f l ow a re a ssoc ia ted w i th a l terna t ing t roughs a nd r idges ( l ong waves ) .

T hey r esu lt p ar t ly f ro m d ynam ica l c on-

s idera t ions , b ut a re a lso i n f luenced b y t opography , b y t he d is tr ibut ion o f l and a nd s ea ( d if feren t ia l h ea t ing e f fec ts ) , a nd b y s urface c ondi t ions s uch a s t he d istr ibut ions o f s eaice a nd o f s now c over .

On t he month ly o r l onger t ime

s ca le , t hey a re s em i-permanen t f eatures o f t he c ircu la t ion .

T he p os i t ions

o ft hese l ong waves a re c lose ly r e la ted t o s ur face c l ima te c ondi t ions , a nd c hanges i n s urface c l ima te c an of ten b e i n terpre ted i n t erms o f c hanges i n t he u pper-a ir l ong w ave p a t tern ( f or d e ta i ls , s ee L amb , 1 972 , e spec ia l ly p p . 1 02-107) .

The ma in f ea tures o f t he l ong wave p a t tern o f t he N or thern

H em isphere t oday a re d escr ibed b e low . T opograph ica l ly i n duced l ee wave t roughs o ccur d ownw ind f ro m t he R ock ies , G reen land a nd c en tra l As ia . T he E ast As ian t rough i s a lso i nf lue nced b y s urface h ea t ing e f fec ts .

T hese f ea tures e x ist t hroughout t he y ear . 7

TABLE 1 : F ac tors i nf luenc ing p resen t a nd p as t c l ima te . R adia t ion a nd a lbedo c hanges C hanges i n r adia t ion i nput ( annua l t o ta l a nd/or s easona l a nd l a t itudina l d is tr ibut ion ) a nd c hanges i n s urface a lbedo ( g loba l ly a nd l oca l ly ) a l ter t he e nergy b a lance wh ich d r ives t he c l ima te s yste m . E qua torto-po le t e mpera ture d if ference R e la ted t o t he s tren th o ft he g enera l c ircu la t ion a nd t o t he p os i t ions o f s em i-permanen t f ea tures ( s uchas t he s ub trop ica l h ighs) . h emispher ic a sym metry C hanges i n t he p os i t ion o f t he me teoro log ica l e qua tor d irec t ly i nf luence l owla t itude r a infa l l a nd c an afec t t he p os i t ions o f s em i-permanen t c ircu la t ion f ea tures a nd t he e x ten t o f i n terac t ion b e tween t he t rop ics a nd midla t i tudes . P os i t ion/ intens i ty o f t he H ad ley C e l l ( F ig . 1 :2 ) A f fec ts t he l oca t ion o f s ub trop ica l h ighs , t he s treng th o f t he S iber ian h igh , t he s treng th o ft he t rade w inds a nd t he e x ten t o f i n terac t ion b e tween t he t rop ics a nd midla t i tudes . N u mer ica l mode ls p oin t t o c ons iderab le c hanges i n t he p as t ;

p oss ib ly weaker i n s u mmer , s tronger i n w in ter

a nd l a t i tudina l ly n arrower d ur ing t he l ast g lac ia l max imu m ( W i l l iams 1 978 ) . P es i t ion/s trength o f wester lies , p o lar f ron t a nd j e t s treams D irec t( bu t c o mp lex ) i n f luence o n c yc logenes is a nd s teer ing o fd epressions . P osi t ion o ft he E uropean t rough I nf luences c yc logenes is a nd , h ence , r a inf a ll p at terns . I n tensi ty o f t he monsoon D irec t ly i nf luences r a infa l l i n l ow l a t i tudes . O n r are o ccas ions may c ause a ir o ft rop ica l o r ig in t o r each midla t i tudes , w i th a ssoc iated u nseasona l p rec ip i ta t ion . Ma jor f ac tor i n d e term ining p reva i ling w inds i n s u mmer . P robab ly weak o r n on-ex is ten t a tg lac ia l maximu m ( W i l liams , 1 978) . Mer idiona lv ersus z ona l c ircu la t ion L inked t o l arge-sca le f l ow v iathe a bove f ac tors . b ut c o mp lex .

R e la ted t o r a infa l l ,

More z ona l f l ow migh t a l low g rea ter p ene tra t ion o f c yc lon ic

d isturbances e as t o f t he Medi terranean . L oca l F ea tures The Medi terranean S ea p rov ides a n i mpor tan t s ource o f mois ture a nd h ea t . The P ers ian G u lf i sa lso a n i mpor tant l oca l mo isture s ource . T he C asp ian a nd B lack S eas a re l ess i mpor tan tbecause o ft he s h ie lding e f fec t o fn earby moun ta ins . Orograph ic e f fec ts a re e x treme ly i mpor tan t i n p roduc ing s harp , sma l l-sca le c on tras ts i np rec ip i ta t ion , a nd i n e nhanc ing c yc logenes is i n t he E astern B asin b y l ee-wave e f fec ts .

Orograph ic e f fec ts

d epend s trong ly o n t he d irec t ion o f p reva i ling w inds , a nd t hese a re d e term ined b y a ny o r a l l o f t he a bove .

8

TABLE 1 ( c ontd .) V ar iab i l i ty C hanges i n mean p os i t ions/ in tens it ies o f t he a bove c ircu la t ion f ea tures may b e masked b y c hanges i n v ar iab i li ty o n y ear-to-year t ime s ca les u pwards . A ssess ing e f fec ts o f c hanges i n v ar iab i l i ty a ppears t o b e mos t d if f icu l t .

9

T rop ica l T ropopluse

20

M id-Lat itude

1 5

E 1 0

T ropopause Po lar T ropopause

5

90 ° N

F ig . 1 .2: S chematic

60 °N

30 °N

r epresentation o f t he m ean c irculation i n

a v ertical, m eridional

( N-S)

p lane b etween e quator

i n t he N orthern H emisphere i n w inter ( after L amb, a nd C horley, 1 971, a nd B oucher, 1 975). S TJ = j et,

P FJ

o °

=p olar f ront j et.

1 0

a nd

p ole

1 972, B arry s ubtropical

I n w in ter , b aroc lin ic d if ferent ia l h ea t ing e f fec ts t end t o p roduce u pper t roughs o ver t he e as tern r eg ions o f a l l c on t inen ts .

T he p osi t ions o fu pper

c o ld t roughs wh ich d eve lop f ro m S eptember/Oc tober o nward o ver e as tern C anada a nd n or theas tern As ia a re s tab i lized b y s now f a l l a nd c hanges i n s urface a lbedo . More r e levant t o t he M/NE r eg ion i s t he mid-tropospher ic t rough wh ich o ccurs i n t he w in ter h a lf-year o ver E urope a nd wh ich e x tends r ough ly f ro m N ovaya Z em lya d own t o t he c en tra l Med i terranean . T he s outhernmos t l ong i tude o f t h is t rough i s h igh ly v ar iab le , w i th mon th ly a verage p os i t ions r ang ing f ro m 1 0 d egrees W t o 3 0 d egrees E . B ecause o f i t s v ar iab le p os i t ion t h is u pper t rough o n ly s hows weak ly o n a verage 5 00 mb c har ts , e ven t hough i t i s o f ten a we l l- marked f ea ture o ft he d ay-to-day c ircu la t ion . T he p os i t ion o f t h is t rough h as b een l i nked t o r a infa l l i n t he e astern Medi terranean ( see b e low ) . T he e as tern f l anks o f u pper t roughs a re of ten p referred r eg ions f or c yc logenes is a t t he s urface , a nd h ence r eg ions o fg rea ter p rec ipi ta t ion ( see L amb , 1 972 , F ig . 3 .13) . I n s u mmer , t he C anadian l ee t rough i s r e inforced b y l and-sea d if feren t ia l h eat ing c on tras ts a round H udsons B ay , a nd t he c ontras ts a round t he B er ing S ea p roduce a n u pper t rough t o t he e as t o f A s ia .

N or th S ea/Ba l t ic S ea r egion

l and-sea c on tras ts c an a lso p roduce a weak t rough o ver E urope . C hanges i n t he wave p a t tern c an o ccur o n a l l t ime s ca les a nd may i nvo lve a ny o r a l l o f t he f o l low ing : ac hange i n t he s treng th o ft he f l ow ; ac hange i n l a t itude o f t he f l ow ; ac hange i n t he n u mber o f waves a round t he h em isphere ; ac hange i nt he N -S amp l itude o ft he waves; a c hange i n t he l ong i tud ina l p os it i onsoftroughs a nd r idges; a nd/or a c hange i n t he e ccen tr ic i ty o f t he c ircu mp o lar f l ow s ys te m r e la t ive t o t he p o le .

F ur thermore , s ign if ican t c hanges may

o ccur i n t he i n ter-annua lv ar iab i li ty o f a l l t hese f ea tures —so t ha t t he e f fec ts o f ac hange i n , s ay , t he mean l a t i tude o ft he ma in f l ow may b e c omp le te ly masked b y ac on te mporary c hange i n v ar iab i li ty . A lthough t he d yna m ics o fl ong waves a re r easonab ly we l l u nderstood , t here a re s t i l l many a spec ts wh ich a re p oor ly d ocu men ted a nd/or i nadequa te ly e xp la ined . F or e xa mp le , we d o n ot k now p rec ise ly why c hanges o n t ime s ca les o fy ears o r l onger o ccur , n or d o we k now why i mpor tan t f ea tures ( such a s b lock ing p a t terns ) o ccur .

T h is i nco mp le teunderstanding i s , p erhaps , b est

e v idenced b y o ur i nab i lity t o f orecast c hanges i n wea ther ( or c l ima te) more t han a f ew d ays a head . N ever the less , c hanges i n t he l ong waves h ave o f ten b een i nvoked t o " exp la in" p ast c l ima tes ! J e t S trea ms T he j e t s trea ms a re z ones o f h igh w indspeed i n t he u pper t roposphere , c lose ly a ssoc ia ted w i th t he l ong waves . T here a re t wo ma in j e t s treams . F irs t , a ssoc ia ted w i th t he z one o f max imu m l a t i tudina l t e mpera ture c on tras t ( t he p olar f ron t z one ) , i st he midla t i tude p o lar f ron t j e t ( PFJ ) . T o i t s s ou th , a nd a t s l igh t ly h igher e leva t ion , l i es t he s ub tropica l j e t ( STJ) ; F igs . 1 :2 a nd 1 :3 The PFJ i s i nvar iab ly i den t if iab le o n d a i ly u pper a ir c har ts .

H owever ,

i t s p os i t ion , e spec ia l ly o ver E urope , i s h igh ly v ar iab le o n t ime s ca les o ft he o rder o f af ew d ays .

T he PFJ a lso f o llows a v ery meander ing p a th a nd may

e ven r un n or th-south i nstead o f e as t-wes t o ver E urope . T he t endency f or s uch mer id iona l ( as o pposed t o z ona l) f l ow may h ave b een more p ronoun ced 1

a t t imes i n t he p as t when s u i tab ly d iferent s urface b oundary c ondi t ions p rev a i led .

B ecause o fi t s v ar iab i li ty , i ti sdecept ive t o t a lk o f a mean p os i t ion

f or t he PFJ o n month ly o r l onger t ime s ca les . T he PFJ h as a w ide b and o f i nf luence s pann ing s o me 3 0 d egrees o fl a t i tude o ver E urope ( t he sma l l l a t it udina l v ar ia t ion i nr a infa l l o ver E urope i s , i n p ar t , a t tr ibutab le t o t h is v ar ia b i li ty ) . T he S TJ , wh i le of ten i den t if iab le o n d a i ly c har ts ( e spec ia l ly i n w in ter ) , i s more r eadi ly d iscerned o n mon th ly o rlonger-t ime-per iod means . A s s uch i ti s more s tab le , l a t i tudina l ly , t han t he PFJ .

T he STJ i sp ar t o f t he

H ad ley c e l l s ystem a nd u sua l ly l i es o ver s ur face s ub trop ica l h ighs a t t he p o leward marg in o ft he H ad ley c e l l , s ee F ig . 1 :2 . A l though t he S TJ a nd t he PFJ a re w e l l-separa ted a nd e as i ly d is t inguished o n mon th ly a nd l onger t ime s ca les , o ver t he M/NE r eg ion t hey may merge o n t he d a i ly t ime s ca le . T here i s at endency f or waves i n t he S TJ a nd t he PFJ t o b e o u t-of-phase , w i th s ou thward e xcurs ions ( and w indspeed max i ma ) o f t he PFJ , a ssoc ia ted w i th midla t i tude u pper t roughs , b e ing l ong i tudina l ly a l igned w i th n or thward e xcurs ions ( and w indspeed max ima ) o f t he S TJ ( see , f or e xamp le , N am ias a nd C lapp , 1 944 ;

R ieh l , 1 979 , p . 5 78) .

T h is f eature i s i dent if iab le , b ut

weak , i n t he M/NE r eg ion a round 4 0 d egrees E :

l arge ly o bscured b ecause

o f t he marked l ong itudina l v ar iab i li ty o ft he u pper t rough o ver E urope . T h is o u t-of-phase r e la t ionsh ip may , o n o ccas ions , p rov ide a c hanne l f orthe i nf lux o fu pper t rop ica l a ir i n to midla t i tudes i n w in ter i n t he r egion o f t he B lack S ea . C hanges i n t he f requency o f s uch e vents migh t h ave s o me P a laeoc limat o log ica l s ign if icance . I n F ig . 1 :3 we s how t he a pprox ima te mean p os i t ions o f t he PFJ i n J anuary ( b ut n ote t ha t t h is i s ah igh ly v ar iab le f ea ture ) a nd t he S TJ i n J anuary a nd J u ly . T he p os i t ions o f t he j e t s treams a nd j e t max i ma a re i mpor tan t i n d e term ining s urface p ressure p a t terns a nd r a infa l l p a t terns b u t t he r e la t ionsh ips a re b y n o means s imp le .

I n v ery b road t erms , r ough ly 1 0 d egrees s outh o f t he

e qua torward margin o ft he PFJ z one marks t he b oundaribe tween s urface c yc lonic a c t iv i ty a nd t he p o leward e x ten tof t he s ub trop ica l h ighs .

R eg ions

t o t he s outhwest a nd n or theas t o f j e t max i ma t end t o b e r eg ions o f g rea ter r a infa l l t han t he s ou theas t a nd n or thwes t s ec tors .

C hanges i n s ur face c l i-

mate c an b e i n terpre ted i n t er ms o f s h if ts i nt he j e t s treams a nd/or j e t max ima , b u t s uch i n terpre ta t ions must b e c ons idered s pecu la t ive b ecause t he l i nks a re p oor ly d ef ined when o ne e xam ines 2 0 th c entury i ns tru menta l d a ta . T he Monsoon a nd t he E as ter ly J et T he I ndian monsoon l i es o n t he e astern b oundary o f t he M/NE r eg ion a nd a f fec ts t he c l ima te o f t he e as tern marg in d irec t ly t hrough t he a ssoc ia ted I ndoP ak istan l ow , a nd t he s outhern marg in t hrough t he e as ter ly j et wh ich i s a n i n tegra l p ar t o f t he monsoon s ys te m . T he b as ic c ause o f t he s ou thwes t o r s u m mer I ndian monsoon i s t he e x is tence o ft he l and-sea c ontras t b e tween t he As ian c ont inen t i n t he N or thern H em isphere a nd t he I ndian Ocean i n t he S outhern H emisphere a t t he s a me l ong itude . I n e ar ly s u mmer t he midd le t roposphere o ver t he v as t e leva ted r eg ion o ft he T ibetan P la teau ( mean e leva t ion o ver 4 ,000 m) i s h ea ted b y r e-radia t ion o f s o lar e nergy r ece ived b y t he s urface o f t he P la teau , p roduc ing a s trong 1 2

F ig .

1 .3 : Mean p ositions o f t he

p olar

f ront

j et

( PFJ)

a nd

s ubtropical j et ( STJ) i n w inter a nd s ummer. T he s ummer P FJ g enerally l ies t o t he n orth o f t he m ap. I ts w inter p osition i s s hown h ere o nly a s a b road r egion o f i nfluence w hich e xtends n orthwards o ff t he m ap: a m ore p recise l ocation w ould b e m isleading b ecause o f t he c onsiderable v ariability o f t he j et o n d aily t o m onthly t ime s cales. C ircles d enote r egions o f m aximum w ind

s peed. 1 3

4 5°

• 11 1 10 1 10

. „ 3 0°

• •

• Mum

+

+

+ S -Hem isphere • N -Hem isphere r e»

1 5

2 0

2 5

3 0

300-700 mb

3 5

4 0

4 5

T ( °C )

F ig . 1 .4 : R elationship b etween t he l atitude o f t he s ubtropical a nticyclone b elt a nd 3 00-700mb e quator to-pole t emperature d ifference f or d ifferent m onths o f t he y ear ( after F lohn, 1 980). A lthough b ased o n m onthly d ata, t here a re e xcellent d ynamical r easons f or e xpecting a s imilar r elationship t o h old f or l ong-term c hanges i n t he s ubtropical h ighs' l atitude. T he l ong-term m ean l atitude w ould b e e xpected t o l ie o n t he d ashed l ine, a nd t o m ove a long i t a s AT c hanged.

1 5

u pper-a ir a nt icyc lone .

As t h is t herma l a n t icyc lone d eve lops t he S TJ ( s outh

o ft he H i ma layas ) weakens , t he PFJ ( nor th o ft he H ima layas )

i sr e inforced,

a nd a s trong e as ter ly j e t f orms a round 1 0-15 d egrees N a t a bou t t he 2 00-100 mb l eve l .

T hese e ven ts a re a ssoc ia ted w i th a b reak-down o f t he n orma l

H ad ley c e l l c ircu la t ion o ver I ndia .

T he S TJ u sua l ly d isappears b y mid-June ,

s oon af ter t he o nset o ft he monsoon a s a" burst" o f mo is t t rop ica l mar i t ime a ir o ver s outhern I ndia , a nd s ynchronous w i th a g enera l r e trea t o ft he w es ter l ies t o n or th o ft he H ima layas ( comp le te b y mid-Ju ly ) a nd t he d eve lopment o f as ha l low t her ma l l ow o ver A fghan is tan , P ak is tan a nd n or thwes t I ndia ( t he I ndo-Pakis tan l ow ) . A s t he monsoon a dvances n or thward o ver I ndia d ur ing J une , t he e as ter ly j e t s treng thens a nd e ven tua l ly e x tends a s a f a ir ly c o mp lex s e t o f j e t c ores o ver I ndia , s outhern Arabia a nd E as t A fr ica f ro m J u ly t o S ep te mber .

T he i n tens i ty o f t he e as ter ly j e t i s d irec t ly r e la ted

t o t he amount o f r a infa l l i n t he u pper N i le v a lley . T he e n trance o f t he e aster ly j e t g enera l ly h as a scending a ir t o i t s n orth ( pro mot ing c onvec t ive a c t iv i ty a nd p rec ip i ta t ion ) a nd d escending a ir t o i t s s ou th ( l eading t o a r id c ondi t ions ) . F ur ther wes t , i n t he e x it r eg ions , t he weaken ing j e t i s a ssoc ia ted w ith u pper a ir c onvergence t o i t s n or th a nd w idespread s ubsidence c harac ter is t ic o ft he M idd le E as tern d eser t a reas .

A s trong e aster ly j e t , h owever , h as s ign if ican t

d ivergence s outh o f i t s e x i t a nd i s , t herefore , a ssoc ia ted w i th i ncreased r a inf a l l i n n or theastern A fr ica . The monsoon s ystem i s f ur ther l i nked t o c ond i t ions i n t he midd le E as t t hrough t he I ndo-Pakis tan monsoon l ow . S ince t h is i s ma inta ined i np ar t b y f eedback w i th t he monsoon s ystem , as trong monsoon i s g enera l ly a ssoc ia ted w i th a d eep I ndo-Pak is tan l ow , wh i le i n d rough t y ears i n I ndia t he I ndo-Pak is tan l ow t ends t o b e weaker . N umer ica l mode l ling s tudies o f t he l as t g lac ia l max i mu m ( W i l l iams , 1 978) i ndica te t ha t t he monsoon was e i ther weak o r a bsen t a t t h is t ime , a nd t h is h as s o me o bv ious i mp lica t ions . S urface Pressure F ea tures T he ma in f ea tures o ft he s urface p ressure p a t tern o f c oncern h ere a re t he b e lt o f h igh p ressure i n midd le l a t i tudes ( t he s ubtropica l h igh p ressure b e lt ) , a nd t he z one o f e as tward mov ing c yc lon ic d isturbances a ssoc ia ted w i th t he s tronges t N -S t e mpera ture g radients ( i .e .t he p o lar f ron t ) t o t he n or th . O n mean s urface p ressure maps t hese s howup a s s em i-permanen t h igh p ress ure a reas a nd l ow p ressure a reas ; t he f ormer m irror ing t he d a i ly p ic ture , a nd t he l a t ter , r esu lt ing f ro m t he a verag ing p rocedure , r epresent ing p os i t ions where t he f requency o fp assage o r i n tens if icat ion o fd epress ions i sg rea test . T hese s urface p ressure s ys te ms , a sa lready men t ioned , a re c lose ly l i nked t o t he u pper a ir c ondi t ions , waves i n t he wester lies a nd t he p os i t ions a nd c onf igura t ions o ft he j e t s treams . T heir p os i t ions c hange o ver t he s easons f o l low ing t he N -S movemen t o ft he u pper a ir p a t terns .

T he s ub trop ica l h ighs

move N -S b y a round 1 0 d egrees l a t i tude o ver t he y ear .

T hey a lso s how s ig-

n if icant c hangeson l ongert ime s ca les :

f or i nstance , t he a nnua l a verage

p os i t ion o ft he A t lant ic ( "Azores" ) s ubtropica l h igh h as v ar ied N -S o ver a r ange o f a bout 4 d egrees l ati tude o ver t he p as tc entury . P ar t o f t h is movement i s , h owever , d ue t o t he u navoidab le i ncorpora t ion o f h igher l a t i tude b lock ing h ighs i n to t he a verages , s o t ha t t he " true" move men t , a s e v idenced b y c hanges i n t he p os i t ion o ft he s ubtrop ica l j e t , h as b een s o mewha t l ess t h an 4d egrees l a t i tude . 1 6

The s easona l N -S movemen t o f t he s ub trop ica l h ighs i s , i np ar t , c ont ro l led b y t he e qua torto-po le t e mpera ture d iference (AT ) . Mon th ly d a ta o ft he mean e qua torto-po le t e mpera ture d iference i n t he 3 00-700 mb l ayer c orre la tes we l l w i th t he l a t i tude o ft he s ub trop ica l h ighs i n b oth h em ispheres ( see F ig . 1 :4 ) : h igher ATgo ing w i th a n e qua torward s h if t o f t he s ub trop ica l h ighs .

I n g loba l ly c oo ler t imes , s ince h igh l a t i tude t e mpera ture c hanges

t end t o b e l arger t han t hose i n l ow l a t i tudes , AT w ou ld b e g rea ter , s o , i n t he N or thern H em isphere t he s ubtrop ica l h ighs s hou ld b e f ur ther s outh . D ur ing t he 2 0 th c entury , d ecada l t ime s ca le c hanges i n AT h ave b een o n ly af ew d egrees C e ls ius a t mos t , a nd t he c orresponding l a t i tudina l s h if t i n t he s ubtrop ica l h ighs w ou ld b e 1o r 2d egrees , c o mpa t ib le w i th a va i lab le d a ta . These a rgu men ts h ave l ed s o me a uthors ( see , f or e xamp le , Bryson a nd Murray , 1 977) t o s uggest t ha t g loba l c oo ling s hou ld b e a ssoc ia ted w ith a s trengthen ing a nd s outhward e x tens ion o ft he N or thern H em isphere wes ter lies , a nd a g enera l e xpans ion o f t he c ircu mpo lar v or tex . A l though p hys ica l ly r ea lis t ic , t his i dea i s a n o versi mp l if ica t ion . I n f ac t , i n t he 2 0 th c entury , t he warmer , l ess l a t i tudina l ly-con trast ing d ecades , were d ecades o f s tronger c ircu la t ion .

P ar t o ft he p rob le m h ere i s i n d ef in ing t he e qua torto-po le

t e mpera ture c on tras t :

e s t i ma tes b ased o n s ur face t e mpera ture c ondit ions

may n o t b e r epresen ta t ive . F ur thermore , o n l ong t ime s ca les , t he e f fec ts w i ll b e c o mp lica ted r eg iona l ly b y c hanges i n s urface b oundary c ondi t ions . Before mov ing o n t o a more d e ta i led d iscuss ion o f t he Medi terranean/ N ear E ast r eg ion , o ne o ther s ur face p ressure c harac ter is t ic n eeds t o b e d ef ined :

t he z ona l i ndex .

T he z ona l i ndex i s a measure o f t he s treng th o f

t he wes ter l ies o r ig ina l ly i n troduced b y C lay ton a nd Wa lker f or t he A t lan t ic r egion , a nd e x tended t o ah em isphe r ic s ca le b y R ossby . F or t he p resen t d iscuss ion , t he r eg iona l , r a ther t han h em ispher ic , z ona l i ndex i s i mpor tant . H igh i ndex s i tua t ions c orrespond t o s trong wes ter lies a t t he s ur face , a nd a s trong z ona l f l ow p a t tern . L ow i ndex s i tua t ions h ave s trong ly mer idiona l f l ow p a t terns , f requent ly a ssoc ia ted w i th b lock ing s i tua t ions . F or E urope ( i nc lud ing t he Med iterranean ) d if feren t t ypes o f mer id iona l B arry a nd P erry ,

( l ow i ndex ) s i tua t ions mus t b e d ist ingu ished (Wa l len , 1 953; 1 973) :

s outh mer id iona l a nd n or th mer idiona l ( ref lec t ing t he c harac ter o f t he

p o lar f ron tje t ) , a nd warm mer idiona l ( assoc ia ted w i th a nt icyc lon ic c ondi t ions o ver E urope ) .

I n t he w in ter h a lf-year t he c orresponding wea ther c ondi t ions

o ver t he Medi terranean a re :

z ona l , d ry a nd warm; s outh mer idiona l , wet

a nd warm; n or th mer idiona l , moist a nd c ool; warm mer idiona l , c oo l . B utzer ( 1961, 1 971) h as i n terpre ted d i f feren t U pper P le istocene c l ima t ic e pochs i n t erms o ft he p redo m inance o r o therw ise o f t hese p ar t icu lar c ircu la t ion t ypes . I n t he t rans i t ion s easons ( spr ing a nd a utu mn ) s ea s ur face t e mpera tures ( SSTs ) i n t he Medi terranean may c ontras t w i th a ir t e mpera tures a nd s ign if ican t ly modify t hese s i mp le r u les .

F or e xamp le , a n e xtended h igh i ndex p er iod c oup led

w i th warm S STs i n a u tumn c an g ive t he p otent ia l f or h eavy c onvec t ive p rec ip it a t ion i n t he E astern Medi terranean ( W instan ley , 1 969; P erry , 1 981) . P a leoS ST d a ta ( e .g . T h iede , 1 978; L uz , 1 979 ) may we l lb e o f v i ta l i mpor tance , t herefore , i n u nderstand ing p a laeoc limates o f t he r eg ion .

1 7

MED ITERRA NEAN CL I MATE The l Oppen d ef in i t ion o f a Medi terranean c l ima te ( one o f many p oss ib le d ef in i t ions ) i s , i n , s i mp le t erms , w in ter r a infa l l more t han t hree t imes s u m mer r a infa l l . Most o f t he s tudy r eg ion s a t isf ies t h is c r i ter ion : i ndeed , f or much o f t he r eg ion s u m mer r a infa l l i s p rac t ica l ly z ero . F igure 1 :5 s hows t he p os i t ion o f t he b oundary o ft he r eg ion o f Medi terranean c l ima te f or f our r ecen t d ecades . The e ar l ier t wo d ecades ( 1930s a nd 1 940s ) h ave b een c hosen b ecause t hey a re d ecades o f warm o r warm ing c ondi t ions i n t he N or thern H em isphere , wh i le t he l a ter t wo ( 1 960s a nd 1 970s ) w ere p er iods o f c oo l o r c ool ing c ondi t ions ( J ones e t a l ., 1 981) .

A l though t here h as b een a t endency

f or t he r egion o f s ign if ican t s u m mer r a infa l l t o move s outhward i nr ecent y ears , t he d iagram i s most i ns truc t ive i n s how ing q u i te w ide v ar iab i li ty f ro m d ecade t o d ecade d ur ing ap er iod o f ( g loba l ly ) r e la t ive ly minor ( b ut s t i l l s ign if icant ) c l ima t ic c hange : t ime s ca le .

minor i n c o mpar ison t o c hanges o n t he mi l lenn ia l

T h is s trong s u m mer-w inter r a infa l l c on tras t i s a ssoc ia ted w i th a we l l p ronounced s easona l c yc le .

B eg inn ing i n mid-summer , J u ly , A ugust a nd

S epte mber a re c harac ter ised b y warm , d ry c ond i t ions a ssoc ia ted w ith a s trong h igh p ressure r idge wh ich p ushes e astwards o ver t he Medi terranean . T h is r idge i s d isp laced s outhward o ver E gyp t b y at rough a ssoc ia ted w i th t he I ndian s u m mer monsoon d epress ion a nd wh ich p roduces p reva i l ing n or ther ly w inds o ver much o ft he r eg ion ( F ig1 :6a ) . I n mid-Oc tober t he r a iny s eason b eg ins , a ssoc ia ted w i th a c hange i n t he wave p a t tern o ft heupper wester l ies f ro m a 4 t o a 3 wave p a t tern o n t he 5 -day t ime s ca le ( Chang , 1 972 ) . W in ter i s c haracter ized b y c yc lon ic d is turbances a nd l ow mean p ressure i n t he Medi terranean , w i th h igher p ressure t o t he e ast a ssoc ia ted w ith t he S iber ian h igh ( F ig . 6 b ) . I n March , A pr i l a nd May , a s t he ma in f eatures o f t he u pper f l ow ( j e t s treams , a ir mass d iscon t inu it ies ) b eg in t o move n or thward f ro m t he ir s outhern most w in ter p osi t ions , t he r a iny s eason c on t inues . B y May , t he p o lar f ron t a nd a ssoc ia ted wes ter ly f l ow i ss uf f ic ient ly f ar n or th t ha t i t s i nf luence i s r e moved , a nd t he s ubtrop ica l h ighs a nd a ssoc ia ted r idges o nce more e xer t t he ir i nf luence . P rec ip ita t ion i n t he M/NE r eg ion , a l though ma in ly a ssoc iated w i th c yc lonic d isturbances wh ichor ig ina te i n t he Medi terranean B as in , i s s trong ly i n f luenced b y l oca l o rograph ic e ffec ts . Very f ew s urface c yc lones c an b e t raced b ack t o A t lan t ic o r ig ins .

T here i s ac om mon m isconcep t ion t ha t

d epress ions mov ing s outh o ft he Br i t ish I s les o f ten move i n to t he Medi terranean a s r ecogn izab le s ur face f ea tures .

H owever , b y f ar t he g rea tes t n u mber o f

d epress ions o r ig ina te w i th in t he B asin . g enes is ,

s hown i n F ig . 1 :7 .

T here a re f our r eg ions o f c yc lo-

The ma in r eg ion l i es i n t he western Medi terranean ,

p roduc ing " Gu lf o f G enoa" d epress ions wh ich o n ly o ccas iona l ly move e as tward f ar e nough t o a f fec t t he e astern Bas in .

A t las Moun ta ins l ee d epress ions ,

wh ich f orm i n s pr ing , d o n ot b r ing r a infa l l : t o t he c ontrary , t hey a re a ssoc ia ted w i th h ot , d ry , w indy c ondi t ions , e spec ia l ly t hose wh ich f o llow a n or th A fr ican t ra jec tory a cross i n to E gyp t . F or t he M/NE r eg ion , c entra l B as in d epress ions a nd e as tern B as in d epress ions ( "Cyprus L ows")—both a re w inter a nd s pr ing p heno mena —are mos t i mpor tan t .

Occas iona l ly c entra l B as in

d epressions may b e t raced b ack t o e i ther G u lf o f Genoa o r A t las Moun tains

1 8

2 0

F ig .

30

40

1 .5 : C hanges

M editerranean

5 0

i n t he n orthern b oundary o f

c limate

( defined b y

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t han 3 ).

1 9

6 0

t he

r egion

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t he r atio w inter r ainfall

l ee d epress ions , b u t t h is i s n ot t he g enera l r u le .

C entra l Bas in d epress ions

t end t o move t o t he n or theas t ( around 1 0 o ccas ions p er y ear ) o r e as twards ( 8p er y ear ) where f ur ther i n tens if ica t ion may o ccur i n t he e as tern Bas in a rea .

E as tern Bas in d epress ions a lso h ave p referred t racks e i ther t o t he

n or theas t o r t o t he e as t .

T he l a t ter , e spec ia l ly when u ndergo ing s ubsequent

i n terac t ion w i th p o lar c ont inenta l a ir f ro m t he I ran ian p la teau , may b r ing r a in t o aw ide a rea f ro m E gypt t o I raq .

The w in ter mean s urface p ressure

p a t tern s hows f ea tures wh ich r esu l t f ro m t hese c yc logene t ic a spec ts ( F ig . 1 :6b ) . On r are o ccas ions , monsoon a ir masses may b r ing s u m mer r a in t o t he e astern Medi terranean t oday . Ga t a nd Magar i tz ( 1980 , p . 8 6) n ote t he f o l low ing e xa mp le :

" the ' once i n ah undred y ear ' f l ood wh ich t ook p lace i n

t he S ina i i n 1 974 a nd whose o r ig in was t raced b y b oth s ynopt ic a nd i sotop ic e v idence ( Carmi , p r iva te c o m munica t ion ) t o af reak n or thward i n trus ion o f at rop ica l ( monsoona l ) a ir mass" .

S uch e ven ts , wh ich migh t b e a ssoc ia ted

w i th t he PFJ-STJ c oup l ing men t ioned e ar lier , may h ave b een more f requen t i n o ther e pochs . The f orma t ion o f Medi terranean d epressions i sp ar t lyde termined b y t rans itory e xcurs ions o f t he p o lar f ron t j et a nd t he E uropean t rough , modif ied b y t he l and-sea t e mperature c on tras t wh ich f avours c yc logenes is o ver t he war m o cean .

E astern B asin d epress ions a re o f ten a ssoc ia ted w i th c o ld

n or ther ly a irf low a nd l ee c yc logenes is .

T hese r e la t ionsh ips p rov ide a l i nk

b e tween t he l oca l r a in-produc ing p ressure s yste ms a nd l arger-sca le a spec ts o f t he g enera l c ircu la t ion o ver E urope . T he move ment o f d epress ions i s n ot we l l u nders tood .

I n t he wes tern

Medi terranean , d epress ions a re f requen t ly " s teered" a long t he "Medi terranean , f ront", t he t e mpera ture c on tras t wh ich r esu lts f ro m c o lder c on t inen ta l a ir mov ing o ver t he warmer s ea ( t h is f ront i s p ar t icu lar ly s trong i n s pr ing ) . R ough ly h a lf o f t he c en tra l B as in d epress ions a re s teered o ver t he B lack S ea , a nd t here i s s o me e v idence o f s teer ing b y t he u pper f l ow a long t he a x is o f t he s ub trop ica l j e t .

Ea stern B as in d epress ions h ave t wo p referred t racks

t o t he n or theas t a nd t o t he e ast ( F ig . 1 :7) . O ccas iona l ly t hey may move f ar ther s outh .

E astward p ene tra t ion may b e d e termined b y t he z ona l i ty o f t he u pper

f l ow a nd/or b y t he s treng th o f t he S iber ian h igh , s o t hese f ac tors may b e i mpor tan t i n e xp lain ing c hanges i n r a infa ll i n a reas l ike t he Z agros Mounta ins . N ote t ha t c ondi t ions f avourab le f or l ee c yc logenes is may we l l b e u nfavourab le f or s ubsequen t e astward move ment o fe as tern B as in d epress ions , b ut migh t f avour s outheastward move men t .

H owever , t h is i s l arge ly s pecu la t ion .

T he e xac t r e la t ionsh ips b e tween f or ma t ion a nd s teer ing f ac tors a re n ot we l l k nown , a nd t hey c er ta in ly d if fer f ro m s i tua t ion t os i tua t ion . Any g enera l is a t ions s hou ld t herefore b e t rea ted c aut ious ly . A lthough t he l i nks a re n ot s trong , n or we l l-unders tood , s o me i n teres t ing s ta t ist ica l r e la t ionsh ips b etween r a infa l la nd t he u pper f l ow h ave b een f ound . A s tudy b y Krown ( 1966) r e la ted t he p os i t ion o f t he E uropean t rough i n Oc tober t o r a infa l l i n I srae l i n t he f o l low ing w inter ( DJF ) .

Krown f ound t ha t ( w i th o ne

e xcept ion) t he more westward t he t rough , t he h igher t he r a infa l l ( F ig . 1 :8) . T he r eason f or t h is l ead r e la t ionsh ip i s u nknown .

T h is e xa mp le i s o f i n terest

b ecause i ta ppears t o c onf lic tw i th t he r e la t ionsh ip p roposed b y L a mb ( 1968) t o e xp la in wet ter c ondi t ions i n S yr ia a nd J ordan wh ich h e b e lieved p reva i led 2 0

20

Mg . 1 .6a : S ummer a nd a utumn m ean s urface p ressure p atterns ( 1900-77 a verage). T he s ummer i s d ominated b y t he A tlantic s ubtropical h igh w ith a h igh p ressure r idge p enetrating w ell o ver t he M editerranean. T o t he e ast t he m onsoon i nfluence i s s een

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>

THE LATE QUATERNARY VEGETATIONAL H ISTORY OF THE ZAGROS AND TAURUS MOUNTAINS I N THE REGIONS OF LAKE M IRABAD , LAKE ZER IBAR AND LAKE VA N - A REAPPRAISAL Ann P . E l- Mos l i many ( Qua ternary R esearch C enter , U n iversi ty o f Wash ing ton , S ea t t le , Wash ing ton

9 8105)

A lthough p a lyno log ists w ork ing i n t he e as tern Medi terranean a nd Midd le E ast h ave r e ma ined a cute ly s ensi t ive t o t he n eed f or f ur ther d iscussion a nd t he p oss ib le v a lidi ty o f i n terpre ta t ions o ther t han t he ir own , f ew q uest ions h ave b een r a ised .

P erhaps t h is i s b ecause o ther s cho lars i n terested i n

c l ima t ic c hange t end t o l ook t o p a lyno logy f or t he f i na l w ord i n d escr ib ing p ast c ondi t ions , u naware o f t he many p i tfa l ls wh ich may o ccur i n d e termining ap as t c l i ma te f ro m a n a sse mb lage o fp o l len g ra ins i n as edimen t s a mp le . S uch u nques t ioning t rust c an l ead t o t he p re ma ture a ccep tance o f w ha t may h ave b een i n tended a s t en ta t ive c onc lusions a nd t ends t o s t if le f ur ther i nqu iry . I n t he i n terpre ta t ion o fp o l len d iagrams t here i s an eed t o g uard a ga inst p oss ib le b ias t owards c l i ma t ic f ac tors a nd t o ma inta in a c onstan t awareness o ft he v ar ious n on-c li ma t ic f ac tors , wh ich a t t imes mus t h ave c o mp le te ly d o mina ted o ver t he i nf luence o f c l i ma te i n d e ter m in ing t he v ege ta t ion .

E daph ic

c ondi t ions , c o mpe t i t ion , s uccession , r a te o f m igrat ion , a nd v ar ious g eograp h ica l b arr iers a re a f ew o f t hese n on-c li ma t ic f ac tors_ Wi th in t he r ea lm o f c l ima te i t se lf

o ne must c onsider t he s eason o f

p rec ip i ta t ion , l eng th o fg row ing s eason , d egree o f c ont inen ta l i ty , w ind c ond i t ions , c loud c over a nd i nsu la t ion , d ep th o f s now a nd d ep th o f f ros t p enet ra t ion , e tc . i n a dd i t ion t o a verage p rec ip ita t ion a nd t e mpera ture . F ur ther more , d if ferent f ac tors may b e l im i t ing t o p lan ts a t d if feren t s tages o f t he ir l i fe c yc les .

A ma ture t ree may t hr ive , b u t t h is i s o f l i t t le

c onsequence i fi ti s p reven ted f ro m s e t t ing f ru i t , i t s s eeds d on 't g er m ina te o r i t s s eed l ings a re u nab le t o r each ma tur i ty . These a nd many o ther f ac tors , i n v ary ing c o mb ina t ions , may h ave p layed ar o le i n d e term in ing t he v ege ta t ion o f t he r eg ion .

A l l t h is i s , o f c ourse , i n

a ddi t ion t o t he t radi t iona l s ources o f e rror o fd if ferent ia l p roduc t ion , d if fere n t ia l t ranspor t , a nd d if ferent ia l p reserva t ion o fp o l len wh ich may c ause d if f icu lt ies i n e qua t ing a p o l len a sse mb lage w i th a s pec if ic k ind o f v ege ta t ion . Th is p aper p resents a modif ied i n terpre ta t ion o f t he c ause o f v ege ta t iona l c hange i n t he r eg ion .

E v idence w i l l b e p resented wh ich i ndica tes a p leni-

g lac ia l wh ich was moist , r a ther t han d ry, a nd a l a te a nd p ost g lac ia l p er iod wh ich f l uc tua ted b e tween e x tre me d ryness a nd r e la t ive ly moister p er iods , b eginn ing a f ter 1 6 ,000 B . P . a nd l ast ing u n t i l o n ly a bou t 5 000 y ears a go .

3 43

We a re f ortuna te t o h ave a t o ur d isposa l, i n t he e x ist ing p o l len d iagra ms , a wea lth o f i nf orma t ion , d ue l arge ly t o t he d e ta i led a nd p rec ise w ork o f Professor v an Z e ist a nd h is c o l leagues a t Gron ingen U n iversi ty . T he a cc u mu la t ion o fd a ta c on t inues , b ut p erhaps t op p r ior i ty s hou ld g o t owards t he e f fec t ive p rocess ing o f t ha t wh ich a lready e x is ts . On ly t he a reas s urrounding L ake Mirabad a nd L ake Z er ibar i n t he Z agros Moun ta ins o f wes tern I ran a nd L ake Van i n t he Taurus Moun ta ins o f e astern A na to lia w i ll b e d iscussed i n d e ta i l h ere .

F or t he d iagra ms o f L ake Z er ibar

a nd L ake Van , p lease s ee p ages 2 97 a nd 2 99 i n t he a r t ic le b y v an Z e ist a nd B ot tema i n t h is v o lu me . According t o v an Z e is t a nd B ot te ma ( 1977 , t h is v o lu me ) t he l ack o f t rees a nd t he h igh v a lues o f Ar te m isia a nd C henopodiaceae d ur ing t he p len ig lac ia l a re i ndica t ive o fd ry a s we l l a s o f c o ld c ond it ions . Many t rees h ave b een p er manen t ly e xc luded f ro m t he a rea b y t he l ong , d ry s u m mer .

T he o n ly o ak i n t he Z er ibar r eg ion t oday i s Q uercus a eg i lops

L . s ubsp . b rant i i

b ran t i i ) .

I ti s as trong ly d rough t r esistant o ak wh ich

c an o ccur where r a infa l l i s o n ly h a lf o f t he r a infa l l wh ich o ccurs a t Z er ibar t oday .

The o ther l eading t ree ,

l eve ls o fp rec ip i ta t ion .

P istac ia s pp . c an a lso s urv ive a t q u i te l ow

T he e l im ina t ion o f t hese t wo t rees d ur ing t he g lac ia l

p er iod, i fa t tr ibu ted t o moisture a lone , w ou ld h ave r equ ired t he u n l ike ly r educ t ion t o

1/4

- 1/2 o f t oday 's p rec ip i ta t ion , e spec ia l ly t ak ing i n to a ccount

t he d ecreased e vapora t ion wh ich must h ave o ccurred . On t he o ther h and Q . b ran t i i i s n o t v ery c o ld-hardy .

I n I raq where i t

o ccurs w i th t wo s pec ies wh ich a re more mesic , Q . b oissier i a nd Q . l i ban i , i ti s n ever f ound a bove 1 800 m a nd r are ly a bove 1 650 m .

A t t he h igher

a lt itudes , a s we l l a s o n n or th a nd wes t f acing s lopes i ti s r ep laced b y t hese t wo o ther s pec ies .

I t may b e t he l ack o f c o mpe t i t ion i n a ddi t ion t o t he l ower

l a t i tude wh ich a l lows Q . b ran t i i t o r each s o mewha t h igher e leva t ions t owards t he s ou th . The u pper t reeline o f 2 300-2500 m , r epor ted b y v an Z e is t a nd B ot tema ( 1977 p . 2 6) , i s a l most c er ta in ly t oo h igh f or t he Z agros r eg ion a s i t was b ased o n f orest a t t he s t i l l l ower l a t itudes o f K huz istan a nd Man ish t K uh .

I f we a ssu me a n u pper t ree l ine o f 2 000 m a t Z er ibar , at e mpera ture

d epress ion o f 5 °C w ou ld h ave b een s uf f ic ien t t o e l im ina te i tf ro m t he a rea b ased o n t he l apse r a te o f 0 .7°C/100 m a s d eter m ined b y Wr igh t ( 1961) .

A t

Mirabad , a ssu m ing a t reeline o f 2 300 m a 1 0°C d rop i n t e mpera ture c ou ld h ave e l im inated t he t rees , i fi ndeed t hey were a bsen t d ur ing t he p len ig lac ia l f ro m Mirabad . As f or t he Ar te m is ia a nd C henopodiaceae p o l len wh ich was s o p reva len t d ur ing t h is t ime p er iod , i tn eed s ign ify n oth ing more t han t ree less v egeta t ion . The d om inance o f t hese t wo g roups may b e e xp la ined b y t wo d if feren t s e ts o f c ircu ms tances , n e i ther o f wh ich r equ ires a d ecrease i n moisture . The r e la t ive p over ty o ft he t ree s pec ies i s a n i mpor tant c onsidera t ion When Q . b ran t i i , P istac ia , a nd o ther l ess i mpor tan t p lants were e l im ina ted d uring t he g lac ia l p er iod , f or wha tever r eason , t rees t o f i l l t he v aca ted n iche were l ack ing a nd i nstead i t was f i l led b y t hose h erbs o r s hrubs wh ich were a va i lab le .

We d o n ot f i nd P icea o r A b ies t ak ing t he p lace o f t he o aks b ecause

t hey h ave b een e xc luded f ro m t he r eg ion b y t he d ry s u mmer . 3 44

Whe ther C henopodiaceae a nd Ar te m isia were a c tua l ly p resen t i n t he a rea i s ad if f icu lt q ues t ion t o a nswer .

The p lan ts o f t he a lp ine a nd s ub-a lp ine

( t ragacan th ic ) v ege ta t ion a re i nsec t p o l lina ted a nd t herefore s upp ly o n ly meagre amounts t o t he p o l len r a in .

F aegr i a nd I versen ( 1975 , p . 6 3 , 1 46) h ave p oin ted

o u t t ha t t her ma lu p-w inds a long moun ta in s ides c ause v er t ica l t ranspor t f ro m l ow land t o s uba lp ine r eg ions . I tc an e asi ly b e c once ived t ha t t he s trong ly p reva i ling n or thwes ter ly w inds wou ld h ave c arr ied t he d eser t ( Chenopodiaceae ) a nd s teppe ( Ar te m is ia ) p o l len u p i n to t he moun ta ins where i t wou ld h ave b een washed d own w i th t he p rec ip i ta t ion . An a dd it iona l f ac tor may h ave b een a t w ork d ur ing t he g lac ia l p er iod . Maher ( 1963) d e monstra ted h ow p heno logy a f fec ts t he i ncorpora t ion o fp o l len i n to l ake s edimen ts a t h igh a l t i tudes .

The e ar ly p o l lina tors s hed t he ir p o l len

wh i le t he l akes a re s t i l l f rozen i n t he s pr ing .

As t he me l t-wa ter f ro m t he

s urrounding s now f l ows o ver t he s urface o f t he f rozen l ake i t washes away a ny p o l len wh ich may h ave f a l len o nto i t .

On ly t he p o l len o f t hose p lan ts wh ich

f l ower i n t he s u mmer o r e ar ly a utu mn a re a b le t o b eco me i ncorpora ted i n t he s edi men ts i n i mpor tan t amounts . t he f ew l a te f l ower ing p lan ts .

C henopodiaceae a nd Ar te m isia a re among

The o n ly s u m mer f l ower ing p lan ts men t ioned

b y G ues t ( 1966, p . 9 0 ) f or t he s uba lp ine r eg ion a re C irs iu m , C ous in ia a nd P rangos , ag ian t Umbe l l iferae .

I t may b e s ign if ican t t ha t b oth Umbe l liferae

a nd C ousin ia p o l len were more p reva len t d ur ing t he g lac ia l p er iod t han l a ter o n . A l though C henopodiaceae a nd Ar te m isia a re c o m mon u nder s im i lar c ond i t ions o fd ry s u m mer—co ld w in ter c l i ma te , t heir n eeds a re s uf f ic ien t ly d if ferent t o a l low t he ir r e la t ive f l uc tua t ions t o b e mean ingfu l .

An i ncrease

i n Ar te m isia s hou ld o ccur u nder more f avourab le moisture c ondi t ions wh i le t he more x erophy t ic c henopods w ou ld i ncrease when l ess moisture i s a va i lab le . Tha t t h is i s t he c ase c an b e v er if ied b y t he r a t ios o f t hese t wo g roups i n s ur face s amp les t aken f ro m Middle E astern r eg ions o f s u m mer-dry c l i ma te . S urface s tudies f ro m wes tern I ran ( Wr igh t e t a l ., 1 967 ) , t he Medi terranean z ones o f T urkey ( van Z e ist , e t a l . ,1 975 ) , L ebanon a nd S yr ia ( Bot te ma a nd B arkoudah , 1 979 ) h ave b een c arr ied o ut .

When s a mp les w i th in e ach r eg ion

a re g rouped a ccording t o moisture-dependen t v ege ta t iona l z ones a nd t he c henopod/Ar te misia r a tio i s d e term ined f or t he s um o f s amp les i n e ach z one , ac lear t rend a ppears .

Wi th in e ach r eg ion t he r a t ios v ary f ro m r e lat ive ly

h igh v a lues i n t he d ry r eg ion t o l ower v a lues i n t he moister r eg ions . When t he c henopod/Ar te m is ia r a t ios a re g raphed f ro m t he p ol len d iagra m o f L ake Z er ibar , t he p len ig lac ia l s tands o u t a s a moist p er iod . 1 6 , 0 00 B . P . c ondi t ions b egan t o b eco me d r ier .

Af ter a bout

S trong f l uctua t ions b e tween

e x tre me d ryness a nd p er iods o f r e la t ive mo is ture c harac ter ised t he n ex t s evera l t housand y ears u n t i l s tab le moist c ondi t ions were e stab lished a bout 5 000 y ears a go .

S ee F igure 1 6 . 1 .

S uppor t ing e v idence f or t h is s equence o f

moisture c ondi t ions c o mes a lso f ro m v ar ious p a leo li mno log ica l e v idence ( Hutchinson a nd C owg i l l , 1 963; Megard , 1 967; Was i likowa , 1 967) . I ft rees were l im i ted b y t e mpera ture r a ther t han b y moisture , a n i ndica t ion s hou ld b e s een i n t he c o mpar ison o f t he Z er ibar d iagra m w i th L ake Mirabad . S ince Mirabad i s warmer b u t d r ier we w ou ld e xpec t t rees t o h ave b een

3 45

e stab lished e ar lier t here i ft hey h ad b een l im i ted b y t e mpera ture a nd t he ir r efuges were a t l ower a lt i tudes a nd/or l a t i tudes .

U nfor tuna te ly t here i s

o n ly o ne d a te f or L ake Mirabad ( 10 ,370 ± 1 20 B . P . )a t t he b ase o f t he c ore . Th is makes i tn ear ly i mposs ib le t o e s t i mate a d a te f or t he e s tab l ishment o f t he o ak f ores t .

The b o t to m s a mp le a t M irabad s hows n o o ak p o l len a t a l l b u t

b y t he s econd s a mp le i th ad a lready r eached 1 0% a l though i tl a ter d ropped a ga in . I t may b e o f s o me s ign if icance t ha t o ak p o llen d id n ot r each t he l eve l o f 1 0% a t Z er ibar u n t i l a t l east 2 000 y ears l a ter . I fo ak was n ot l im i ted b y moisture h ow c an i t s l ong , s low i mm igra t ion i nto t he Z er ibar r eg ion b e e xp la ined ? F irst , i fo ak h ad b een c onf ined t o l ower a lt i tudes , i tw ou ld h ave b eco me s ub jec t t o t he s tr ong f l uctua t ions o f a r idi ty . T oday i td oes n ot o ccur b e low a bou t 5 00 m ( Guest , 1 966 , p . 6 7) .

D ur ing e ach

a r id p er iod i ts hrank b ack i n to t he most f avourab le h ab i ta ts wh ich mus t h ave b een f ew i ndeed .

Th is c an b e s een i n F igure 1 6 . 2wh ich c o mpares t he g raph o f

t he c henopod/Ar te m is ia r a t io a nd t he p ercen tage o ft ree p o l len .

Ap u lse o f

o ak o ccurs e ach t ime t here i s a n i ncrease i n mois ture s ign if ied b y ad rop i n t he c henopod/Ar te m is ia r a t io .

Overa l l , h owever , t he e xpans ion o fo ak i n to

t he h igher a l t i tudes f ro m wh ich i th ad p rev ious ly b een e xc luded c on t inued i n s p ite o ft he a r idi ty . The s lowness was p robab ly d ue n ot o n ly t o t he s e t-backs wh ich o ccurred d ur ing t he d ry p hases a t l ower a l t i tudes , b u t a lso b ecause o f t he d if f icu lty w i th wh ich t he s eed lings a re a b le t o b eco me r ees tab lished ( Zohary , 1 962 , p . 7 5 ) .

I ti s l i ke ly t ha t t he s eed l ings r equ ire s hade i n o rder t o s urv ive t he h ot

s um mers o f t he ir f i rst f ew y ears a nd t herefore s pread v ery s low ly e i ther c lose t o t he e dges o f t he e x is t ing s tand o r a s t he s uccessiona l s tage f o l low ing t he P istac ia-A mygda lus c o m mun i ty . The moistes t p er iod b e tween 1 6,000 a nd 5 000 B . P . o ccurred b e tween a bou t 7 500 a nd 6 000 B . P .

The f i na l t hrust o fo ak i n to t h is r eg ion d id n ot o ccur

d ur ing t h is t ime b u t i n t he d ry p hase wh ich f o l lowed .

D ur ing t he mois t p er iod ,

P istac ia a s we l l a s o ther d ec iduous t ree p o l len r eached i t s p eak .

T he ir

p resence may h ave a l lowed t he o aks t o f i na l ly t ake o ver t he a rea b y p rov iding s hade f or t he e stab lish ment o f t he s eed lings . The s t i l l s lower e s tab lishmen t a t L ake Van c an b e e xp la ined b y ac o mb ina t ion o f s evera l f ac tors .

The most i mpor tant i s p robab ly d ue t o i t s l oca t ion

a t s t i l l h igher a lt itude a nd l a t i tude .

U n l ike L ake Z er ibar n o o bv ious r e la t ion-

s h ip i s s een b etween f l uctua t ions i n t he c henopod/Ar te m is ia r a t io a nd t he p osi t ive p u lses o fo ak .

S ince more t han o ne s pec ies o fo ak i s p resen t a t

L ake Van i t may b e t ha t im m igra t ion was o ccurr ing f ro m more t han o ne d irec t ion a nd i n r esponse t o d if feren t f ac tors .

T he moist p hase d ur ing wh ich

d ec iduous t rees e xpanded a t Z er ibar h ad n o e f fec t a t L ake Van a nd t he d ry p er iod wh ich f o l lowed a ppears t o h ave b een more s evere t han i t was a t Z er ibar , a lthough Quercus p o l len c on t inued t o i ncrease .

I t may b e t ha t Q . b ran t i i

s i mp ly h ad n ot i mm igra ted t ha t f ar n or th o r t o e leva t ions o f t ha t h e igh t , wh i le Q . l i ban i a nd Q . b o iss ier i were l im i ted b y t he l as t a r id p er iod . A l though o ne r e la t ive ly sma ll a rea o f t he Middle E ast h as b een c ons idered h ere , t here i s e v idence t ha t t h is g enera l p a t tern o f moisture t rends was r eg ion-w ide .

The p len ig lac ia l c henopod/Ar te m is ia r a t ios a re l ow f or e very

l oca t ion f or wh ich p o l len d iagrams a re a va i lab le , i nc luding T enagh i P h i l ippon 3 46

( W i j mstra , 1 969 ) , X in ias ( Bot te ma , 1 978) a nd I oann ina ( Bot te ma , 1 974 ) i n Greece;

K ara m ik Ba tak ligi ( van Z e ist e t a l . ,1 975) i n T urkey a nd t he Ghab

v a lley ( N ik lewsk i a nd v an Z e ist , 1 970 ) i n S yr ia .

I n a ddi t ion , f l uc tua t ions

o ccurred af ter a bout 1 6,000 B . P . a lthough t hey were o fg rea ter amp litude i n s o me r eg ions t han i n o thers .

More i n tensive e cologica l i nvest iga t ion o f

t hese o ther s i tes s hou ld h e lp t o f ur ther e luc ida te t he s i tua t ion . REFERENCES B ot te ma , S ., 1 974 . Greece .

L a te Qua ternary v egeta t iona l h istory o fn or thwestern

Thes is .

B otte ma , S ., 1 978 . N ear E ast .

Gron ingen U n iversi ty , The N ether lands .

The L a te G lac ia l i n t he e astern Medi terranean a nd t he

I n : The E nv iron menta l H istory o f t he N ear a nd Middle E ast

s ince t he Last I ce Age

( W . C . Br ice , E d . ) , p p . 1 5-28, Acade m ic Press,

L ondon . B ot te ma , S . a nd Barkoudah , Y ., 1 979 .

Modern P ol len Prec ip ita t ion i n S yr ia

a nd L ebanon a nd i t s r e la t ion t o v egeta t ion .

P o l len e t S pores XX I , 4 27-

4 80 . F aegr i , K . a nd I versen , J ., 1 975 .

Tex tbook o f P o l len Ana lysis .

B lackwe l l,

Oxford , p p . 2 95 . G uest , Evan , 1 966 .

F lora o f I raq , V ol . I .

Agr icu lture , Baghdad , I raq . H u tch inson , C .

I ntroduc t ion .

2 13 p p .

E . a nd C owg i 11 , U . M ., 1 963 .

c ore f ro m L ake Z er ibar , I ran . Maher , L . J ., 1 963 .

Min istry o f

C he m ica l e xa mina t ion o f a

S cience 1 40 :

6 7-69 .

P ol len a na lyses o f s urface mater ia ls f ro m t he s outhern

S an J uan Moun ta ins , C o lorado . Megard, R . P ., 1 967 .

Geo log ica l S oc . o f Am . Bu l l . 7 4 : 1 485 .

L a te Quaternary C ladocera o f L ake Z er ibar .

Eco logy

4 8(2 ) : 1 79-189 . N ik lewski , J . a nd v an Z e ist , W ., 1 970 . f ro m N or thwestern S yr ia .

v an Z e ist , W . a nd B ot te ma , S ., 1 977 . I ran .

Pa laeoh istor ia 1 9 :

A La te Qua ternary p o l len d iagra m

Ac ta B otan ica N eer landica 1 9 :

7 37-754 .

P a lyno log ica l i nvestigat ions i n western

1 9-85 .

v an Z eist , W . a nd B ot te ma , S .,

( Th is v olu me ) .

v an Z eist , W., Wo ldr ing , H . a nd S taper t , D ., 1 975 . v egeta t ion a nd c l i ma te o f s outhwestern Turkey .

L a te Qua ternary P a laeoh istor ia 1 7 :

5 5-143 . Wasy likowa , K ., 1 968 .

L a te Qua ternary P lant Macrofossi ls f ro m L ake

Z er ibar , Western I ran .

R ev . Pa leobot . P a lyn . 2 :

3 13-318 .

Wi j mstra , T . A ., 1 969 . P a lynology o f t he f i rst 3 0 metres o f a1 20 m d eep s ec t ion i n n or thern Greece .

Ac ta B otan ica N eer landica 1 8 :

3 47

5 11-527 .

Wr igh t , H . E ., 1 961. u nd Gegenwar t 1 2 : Wr igh t , H .

P le istocene g lac ia t ion i n K urdistan .

E isze ita lter

1 31-164 .

E ., McAndrews , J . H . a nd v an Z e ist , W ., 1 967 .

Modern p o llen

Ra in i n Western I ran a nd i t s r e la t ion t o p lant g eography a nd Qua ternary v egeta t ion h istory .

J . E co l . 5 5 :

4 15-443 .

Z ohary , M ., 1 962 .

P lant L ife i n P a lest ine , The R ona ld Press , N . Y . 2 62 p p .

Z ohary , M . ,1 973 .

Geobotan ica l F ounda t ions o f t he Middle E ast , G ustav

F isher V er lag , S tuttgar t , V ol . 2 , 6 83 p p .

3 48

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The C henopodiaceae/Ar te m is ia r a t ios f or L ake Z er ibar I .

3 49

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B . P . B . P .

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C AL IBRATED

RAD IO-

(ZER IBAR ) .

C henopodiaceae/Ar te m isia r a t ios a nd p ercentages o f Quercus p o l len .

Da tes a t Lake Van a re b ased o n v arves wh i le Z er ibar

d a tes h ave b een c a libra ted ( S tu iver , p ersona l c o m mun ica tion) t o c oinc ide more c lose ly w i th t hose o f L ake Van .

PALYNOLOG ICAL RESEARCH OF NEAR EASTERN ARCHAEOLOGICAL S ITES Ar le t te L eroi-Gourhan ( Labora toire d e P a lyno log ie , Mus e d e l 'Ho mme , 7 5116 P ar is )

The way i n wh ich p o l len i s t ransferred f ro m a n ther t o s t igma i n af l ower i s o fg rea t i mpor tance f or t he e va lua t ion o fp o l len-ana ly t ica l d a ta . There a re mos t ly t wo k inds o fp o l len : t hose c a l led a ne mogamous , t ranspor ted b y t he w ind a nd t he z oogamous o r e n to mogamous o nes , i nsec ts b e ing t he f i rs t a gen t o f t ranspor t .

I n l akes , marshes , p ea t s edimen ts , o ne c an f i nd :

-p o llen o f a qua t ic s pec ies -p o l len t ranspor ted b y ar iver p roceed ing f ro m u p land r eg ions t hrough d if feren t a l t itudes a nd , a lso , wha t t he r iver h as g a thered a long t he r iver b anks f ro m s ediments t ha t c an b e o fd if ferent a ges -w ind p o l lina ted s pec ies , f orm ing t he c h ief c ons t i tuen ts o ft he p o l len r a in I n t he E uras ia t ic f l ora , t he g rea ter p ar t o f t he t rees a re a nemogamous , t herefore t hey a re o ver-represented i n c o mpar ison w i th h erbaceous s pec ies , i n l akes a nd p ea t s ediments .

Among t he l a t ter , i fs o me o f t hem , l i ke t he

we l l-known Ar te m is ia , a re a nemogamous , ag rea t n u mber o ft hem a re e n to moga mous :

i ti s t he c ase w i th t he C o mpos itae-L igu lif lorae , b e ing t he

d o minan t g roup o n t he W t irm ian s teppes d ur ing t he c o ldes t a nd d r iest p er iods i n E urope a nd s o me r eg ions o f t he M idd le E ast . A l though p o l len g ra ins o f z oog amous s pec ies a re o ccas iona l ly f ound i n p ea ts a nd l akes , t hey a re a lways i nfrequen t a nd t he ir o ccurrence r a ther i rregu lar ; n oth ing c an b e c onc luded f ro m t he ir a bsence . T hus , marsh a nd l ake d iagra ms s how a b road r eg iona l v ege ta t ion , a nd , a s t hey a re v ery r ich i np o l len a nd c an o f fer s o me l ong c ores , t hey a re v ery i mpor tan t f or s how ing c l ima t ic f l uctua t ions . Terres tr ia l s edimen ts a re n ot a s r ich i n p o l len , b u t , i n most c ases , o ne c an g e t e nough f or e s tab lish ing a d iagram .

S uch s pec tra g ive a more

c o mp le te p ic ture o ft he d ry s oi l v egeta t ion t han l ake s pec tra , a s t hey e nc lose t he t wo t ypes o fp o l len d ispersa l . I ns tead o f ar eg iona l v iew o ft he f l ora , d ry s oi l p o l len a na lys is o f fers a l oca l v iew , b u t , d epend ing o n t he g eograph ica l a rea , t he e vo lut ion o ft he v ege ta t ion c an s t i l l b e v ery we l l marked . L akes a nd marshes a re n ot f ound e verywhere , j us t s o i s t he c ase w i th a rchaeo log ica l s i tes : j o in ing t he r esu lts o fb o th c on tex ts i s ab e t ter way t o o b ta in t he max i mu m o fd a ta .

Th is t ype o f a na lys is i s s pec ia l ly i mpor tan t

where t here a re s em i-ar id z ones i n t he N ear E ast . There , t rees a re v ery s carce a nd t he p a lyno log is t h as t o w ork w i th t he f l uc tua t ions o f h erbaceous

3 53

s pec ies .

We a re b eg inn ing , mos t ly i n S outh J ordan , t o s tudy d if feren t ways

o f a dvanc ing w i th t h is k ind o fw ork . The Gron ingen s ymposiu m was c oncerned w i th t he l as t 2 0 ,000 y ears . B u t , f or c o mpar ison , r eference t o o lder p er iods i s d es irab le . I n t he Z agros Mounta ins , i ti s n ow p oss ib le t o s ee h ow i mpor tant a re t he a l terna t ions o f h igh ly f ores ted p er iods , a nd o thers q u i te u nfavourab le f or t ree g ro w th .

A t H ou mian ( I ran ) , a n E ar ly Wt irm Mous ter ian s i te s hows

t he d eve lop ment o f a n o ak f ores t w i th 7 5% o f A . P . ( Arborea l P o l len ) . t he U pper Wt Irm , a t S han idar c ave , t he d iagra m s ugges ts a s teppe .

D ur ing

J ust t he

s a me i s s een i n t he Zarz i U pper P a leo l i th ic s i te , d a ted a round 1 3 ,000 B . P ., where t ree p o l len a re v ir tua l ly a bsent ;

i ti s l a ter o n , d ur ing t he S han idar

Meso li th ic t ha t we c an s ee t he b eg inn ing o f as avannah . s avannah b eco mes a n o ak f ores t i n t he H o locene .

I n Z er ibar , t h is

S o f or t h is r eg ion , t here

i s n ow a b road o verv iew o f t he f l ora l e vo lu t ion a nd t he c l i ma te d ur ing t he L ast G lac ia l b ut , a s y e t , n o s hor t f l uc tua t ion h as b een s een . On t he L ebanese c oas t , t he l ong d iagra m o f N ahr I brah im s hows s o me f l uc tua t ions d ur ing t he E ar ly- Midd le W t irm , w i th h igh ly h um id t imes b r ing ing t he d eve lop ment o f ad ense f orest .

Wi th t he c o ld max i mu m , 2 3 ,000 t o 2 0 ,000

B . P . i n E urope , p robab ly s ynchronous w i th t he d r ies t max imu m i n t he L evan t , a rchaeo log ica l s i tes b eco me r a ther r are h ere , s o i nsuf f ic ien t i nforma t ion i s a va i lab le f or t ha t t ime . r ecorded . B . P .

S ubsequen t ly , s o me f l uc tua t ions i n h um idi ty a re

One c an p robab ly b e c onnec ted w i th K ebaran l eve ls a round 1 7 ,000

Wi th t he e nd o ft h is p a laeo li th ic i ndus try a nd t he b eginn ing o f N atuf ian ,

s i tes s ee m t o g row more n u merous .

E ven i fv ery f ew o ft hem h ave b een

s tudied f or p o llen r esearch , t here i s p oten t ia l i nforma t ion h ere .

The c on tr i-

b ut ion o f a rchaeo logy i n t ha t p er iod i s i mpor tant i n s e t t ing u p ac hrono log ica l s ca le ;

e ven i f ap o l len d iagra m i s o n ly r ecording a 2 o r 3t housand y ear

p er iod , l i th ic a nd b one t ypo logy g ives a r e la t ive d a t ing .

Moreover , a

C arbon 1 4 s er ies c an b e o bta ined . I n I srae l , a t Hayon im t errace , t he e nd o f t he K ebaran s ee ms t o c orresp ond w i th a v ery c o ld-dry t ime , c o ming a f ter a n ame liora t ion .

Then , t he

N a tuf ian b eg ins ( 11,920 B . P ., 9 ,970 B . C . )w i th a n ew f l uctua t ion marked b y a n i ncrease o f t rees a nd a g rea ter v ar ie ty i n h erbaceous s pec ies .

As

f or t he c hrono logy , t hese t wo p er iods o f ame liora t ion l ook s ynchronous w i th t he E uropean B o l ling a nd A l ler0d, b u t l oca l n ames a re n eeded f or t he Midd le E ast , a s we d on 't y e t k now i ft here r ea l ly i s al i nk b e tween t he c l i mat ic b ehav iour o f t he t wo r egions . A t H ayon im a s i n n or thern S yr ia , an ew d ry p hase t akes p lace a round 1 0 ,500 B . P .

( 8 . 5 00 B . C . ) . On t he Mureybe t d iagram , t here i s ar egu lar

d ecrease o f t he c henopods t hrough f ive h undred y ears .

Then , w i th t he f i rst

a ppearance o f t he PPNA i ndus try , a nd w i th t he d eve lop men t o f Gra m ineae a nd a n i ncrease i n t ree p o l len , an ew h um id p er iod b eg ins , s ynchronous w i th t he d a te o ft he H o locene . There a re o ther

p a lyno log ica l s equences o n a rchaeo log ica l s i tes f or t he

V I II a nd V I I th mi l lenn iu m B . C .: S ha mra ...

Te l l Aswad , Ghora if Z e , T e l l R amad , R as

I f , a t Mureybe t , t he p o l len a na lys is h as l ed u s t o p ropose t here

t he p oss ib i li ty o f a" proto-agr icu lture", we k now n ow t ha t—a t t he s ame t ime3 54

a gr icu lture h ad b egun i n Da mascene , a s t he Te l l Aswad s eeds r evea l .

S o

f ro m t h is t ime o nwards , i ft here a re c hanges i n t he v ege ta t ion r ef lec ted b y p o l len d iagra ms , t he q ues t ion i s t o s epara te t hose wh ich a re d e term ined b y c l ima t ic f l uc tua t ions f ro m t hose where t he a c t iv i ty o f Man h as t o b e g iven a s t he ma in c ause .

Ad ecrease i n t he wood land i ndica tors c an b e d ryness , o r

d efores ta t ion a nd g raz ing p ressure , a n i ncrease c an b e a n ame liora t ion o f c l i ma te o r an ew p lan ta t ion o f o live-trees , a l mond-trees , e tc . I n s o me c ases , h u man a c t iv i t ies c an b e s hown b y t he p a lyno log ica l r esu lts : c erea l o r l egu me a gr icu lture ( crop r o ta t ion ) , dwe l ling-p laces w i th r udera l s pec ies ( Te l l Aswad ); a n i ncrease o f h u man i n terference , a move men t o f t he p eop le t o t he s i te o r f ro m t he s i te ( Ras S hamra , R as B ass i t ) . C lass ica l p o l len d iagra m r esu lts a re s u m mar ised a s a n " a lterna t ion o f p er iods i n wh ich s teppe v ege ta t ions e xpanded a nd t hose i n wh ich f ores t i ncreased" ( van Z e ist ) .

B ut , e ven i n t ree less r eg ions , t here was s o me e vo-

l u t ion i n t he v ege ta t ion d ue t o c l i ma t ic f l uc tua t ions .

F or t ha t n ew k ind o f

p a lyno logica l r esearch , d if feren t a pproaches a re b e ing t r ied; w i th t he r o le p layed b y t yp ica l s tepp ic s pec ies , i th as a lready b een n ot iced t ha t b otan ica l f am i lies o rg roups c hange t hrough t ime , a s d oes p ol len s ize .

I fi ti s q u i te

i mposs ib le t o o b ta in p a lyno log ica l e v idence f ro m d eser t s ediments where a l l t he p o l len i s a l loch thonous , t here i s s o me h ope f or s em i-deser t ic a reas w i th d ense-herbaceous c over . Much more work i s r equ ired b efore we c an r econs truc t t he p as t v ege ta t ion i n t he i ndiv idua l r eg ions o f t h is p ar t o f t he world . B ib liography : L eroi-Gourhan , A ., 1 969 .

P o l len g ra ins o f Gram ineae a nd C erea ls f ro m

S han idar a nd Z aw i C he m i . I n : U cko , P . J . a nd D i mb leby , G . W . ( eds .) , The D o mest ica t ion a nd E xp loi ta t ion o f P lants a nd An i ma ls , L ondon , p . 1 43-148 . L eroi-Gourhan , A ., 1 971 .

P o l lens e t t errasses mar ines a u L iban ,

Qua ternar ia XV , p . 2 49-259 , f i g . 4 . L eroi-Gourhan , A ., 1 973 .

L es p oss ib i li tes d e l 'ana lyse p o l linique e n S yr ie

e t a u L iban , P a leor ient I , p . 3 9-47 , 3f i g . L eroi-Gourhan , A ., 1 974 .

E tudes p a lynologiques d es d ern iers 1 1 ,000 a ns

e n S ync s em i-deser t ique , P a lgor ien t I , p . 4 43-451, 2 f i g . 1t ab l . L eroi-Gourhan , A ., 1 975 .

T he f l owers f ound w i th S han idar I V , aN eander tha l

b ur ia l i n I raq , S c ience , 1 90 , p . 5 62-564 , 2f i g . L eroi-Gourhan , A ., 1 980 .

Ana lyse p ol l in iques ' a Te l l Aswad , P a leor ien t V ,

p . 1 70-176, 1 t ab l . L eroi-Gourhan , A ., 1 981 . a u Moyen-Or ien t , I n :

D iagra m mes p o l lin iques d e s i tes a rcheo logiques F rey , W . a nd U erp mann , H .-P . ( eds .) ,

Be i träge z ur Umwe ltgesch ich te d es V orderen O r ien ts , Wiesbaden , p . 1 21-133 . H enry , D . 0 ., L eroi-Gourhan , A ., Dav is , S .

The E xcava t ion o f H ayon im

t errace :

a n e xam ina t ion o ft er m ina l P le is tocene c l i ma t ic a nd a dap t ive

c hange .

J ourna l o f Archaeo log ica l S c ience 8 , p . 3 3-58 .

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D ISCUSSION UERPN iANN: I s i t c orrect t hat t he M ousterian e va luat ing i s h igh up i n t he Z agros mounta ins?

s i te

t hat

y ou

w ere

L EROI GOU RHAN: 1 800 m etres, a l i tt le h igher t han Z eribar, a nd r ather n ear i t . W e h ave o ak f orest, h ere o ne c an f ind Medi terranean o ak, Q . c a ll iprinus, s o r ea l ly r ather w arm a nd p robab ly w et a t t hat t ime. BAR YOSEF: Y ou ment ioned t he p o l len f rom Aswad a s m a in ly a nthropogen ic. S o what i s t he p oss ibi l ity t hat t he m ateria l f rom Ma l laha a nd f rom Hayon im t errace w as a lso i nf luenced by h uman a ct iv i ty a nd t herefore t here wou ld b e n o c ontrad ict ion b etween e .g . M a l laha o n t he o ne h and a nd t he Hu leh p o l len d iagram? LEROI GOURHAN: B ecause t he most numerous p o l len a re n atura l p o llen. And a lso I h ave c ompared t he d om inance o f h erbs b etween l iayonim a nd M a l laha, b ecause a t f i rst i t w as i mp ossib le f or m e t o know h ow t o p lace M a l laha l ook ing a t t he t wo d iagrams. I t 's t he c urve o f h erbs, o f Tubu l if lorae a nd G ram ineae, t hat l eads m e t o t ry a nd p ut t hem t ogether, a nd y ou c an s ee i f i t w orks b ut i t 's v ia t he h erbs, t here a re n ot e nough t rees f or a n a rborea l c urve. BOT TEMA : I n Lyons y ou s howed m e y our i nterest ing r esu lts f rom measurements o f t he L igu l if lorae a nd c henopods , wh ich y ou c onnected w ith a w arm c l imate. I must s ay t hat y ou c onv inced m e t hat i n f act t he s izes w ere d ifferent a nd t hat t hese g ot b igger. But when I l ook a t s ed iments f rom o ther o r ig ins, a s d ist inct f rom s ett lements, t hey d on 't s how t h is i ncrease. O f c ourse I a m n ot r eferring t o s ubtypes, I a m s peak ing o f t he m a in t ype o f c henopod a nd t he ma in t ype o f L igul if lorae. A lthough t h is d ata a lso c overs a p eriod i n wh ich y ou 'd s ay t emperature f luctuated f rom t ime t o t ime , t here i s n o f luctuat ion i n s izes. An e xcept ion i s a s i tuat ion t he Germans c a l l ' Sedimentbed ingt ' o r, a f unct ion o f s ediment v ariat ion. S o when y ou s ay t here i s a c onstant i ncrease i n s i ze i n L igul if lorae a nd c henopods g o ing a long w ith t emperature, d on 't y ou t h ink t hat t here 's a nother f actor h ere t hat i n t he c ourse o f t ime c ou ld h ave h ad a s ort o f c orros iona l e ffect, b ecause i n t he p ara l le ls i n waterlogged s ed iments y ou d on 't s ee t h is v ariat ion? Don 't y ou t h ink t hat i t 's n ot t hat t he p o l len r ea l ly i ncrease i n s i ze, but t hat t he o ldest o nes g et s ma l ler? LEROI GOURHAN: I d on 't t h ink t hat e spec ia l ly t hat f rom Nahr I brah im.

3 56

i s

p oss ib le

f rom

my

d ata ,

PART F IVE : ARCHAEOLOGY , H ISTORY AND PALAEOENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH

3 57

ARCHAEOLOG ICAL EV IDENCE FOR S ETTLE MENT PATTERNS I N MESOPOTA M IA AND EASTERN ARABIA I N RELAT ION TO POSS IBLE ENV IRONMENTAL COND IT IONS Joan Oates

( G ir ton C o l lege , C a mbr idge )

E v idence f or L a te P le istocene man i n t he a rea w i th wh ich t h is p aper i s c oncerned c o mes f ro m t he Z agros a nd f ro m Arab ia . L a ter , w i th in t he H o locene , t hree a reas i n p ar t icu lar o f fer s e t t le men t d a ta wh ich may p oss ib ly b e i n terpre ted a s i nd ica t ing minor f l uc tua t ions o f c l ima te : t he J az irah , a n a rea o fd ry s teppe b e tween t he T igr is a nd t he K habur ; t he Khabur b as in i t se lf i n n or theas tern S yr ia ; a nd t he G u lf C oas t a nd E as tern Prov ince o f S audi Arab ia ( F igs . 1 8 .1, 1 8 .3) . Before c o m men t ing o n t hese d a ta Is hou ld p erhaps warn my n on-archaeo log ica l c o l leagues t ha t s e t t le men t e v idence mus t b e emp loyed w ith g rea t c aut ion . A lthough p resence o f s e t t le men ts i s u ndoub ted ly a u sefu l i ndicator t ha t a n a rea i s " hab itab le", e ven a k now ledge o f t he e cono my p rac t iced a t t he s i te d oes n ot a lways p rov ide r e l iab le c lues t o e nv iron men ta l c ondi t ions .

More i mpor tant ,

t he a pparen t a bsence o f s i tes a t a ny p ar t icu lar p er iod may r ef lec t n o more t han a rchaeo logica l i gnorance o f t he c era m ic o r c h ipped s tone i ndus tr ies c haracter is t ic o f t he r egion a t t he t ime .

F or e xa mp le , we h ave n o " type

f oss i ls" wha tsoever f or t he i den t if ica t ion o f e ar ly f irst mi l lenn iu m B . C . s i tes i n Mesopota m ia; t hus t he a bsence o f s i tes o f t h is d a te i n s e t t le men t s tudies i n n o way n ecessar i ly i ndica tes l ack o f s et t le men t .

E qua l ly , t he a pparen t

a bsence o f e ar ly H o locene s i tes i n l ow land n or thern Mesopotam ia i s a s l i ke ly t o r ef lec t l ack o f a rchaeo log ica l e xp lora t ion a s o fo ccupa t ion .

F or t hese

r easons Is ha l l b e e xam in ing p os i t ive d a ta f or t he mos t p ar t , i .e . d a ta i ndic a t ing p resence r a ther t han a bsence o f s e t t le men t , i n p ar t icu lar i n a reas t ha t a re t oday f ro m a n a gr icu ltura l p oin t o f v iew c l ima t ica l ly marg ina l . Z agros The a rchaeo log ica l e v idence f ro m n or theastern Mesopotamia ( espec ia l ly t ha t f ro m S han idar c ave , S o leck i 1 963 , 1 3 ) h as i n t he p as t b een i n terpre ted a s i ndica t ing t he a bsence o f man i n t he Z agros f or t he p er iod c oinc iding w i th t he mos t i n tensive p hase o f W f irm g lac ia t ion i n E urope a nd p receding t he Z arz ian ( Upper P a laeo l i th ic ) " re-occupa t ion" r ound a bout 1 4 ,000 b .p ., a d a te v ery a pprox i mate ly c oinc iding w i th p a lyno logica l e v idence f or t he b eg inn ing o f c l ima tic ame liora t ion . H owever , more r ecent a rchaeo log ica l d a ta s ee m t o s uggest t ha t man d id i nhab i t t h is r egion , a nd h unt o nagers among o ther a n ima ls , t hroughou t t he U pper P a laeo li th ic , e ven i n t he h igher a nd p resu mab ly c o lder e nv iron ment o f West C en tra l I ran ( e .g . Warwas i c ave , 1 1 km NE o f K er manshah , e xcava ted b y Bruce H owe ) .

A t P a S angar , e leva t ion C . 170 m

i n t he K horramabad V a l ley ( Lur is tan ) , e xcava t ions i ndica te t he d irec t

3 59

development of the Zarzian from the preceding Baradostian (for which radiocarbon determinations range from 21,000 to before 40,000 b.p. , with most samples falling within the range 38-29, 000 b.p.), with no stratigraphical or typological hiatus (Hole and Flannery 1967, 153 ). At the same time the realization that human occupation in the Late Pleistocene was not confined solely to caves has led to the identification of a number of open air sites, inter alia the Zarzian or possibly even earlier sites of Turkaka, where over 1600 artefacts were collected from the surface, and Kowri Khan, both in the Chemchemal Valley not far from Jarmo (Fig. 18. 2; elevation 750 m, B raidwood and Howe 1960, 28, 55-7). In a recent survey of the Holailan Valley, Luristan, Mortensen (1975) found Upper Palaeolithic materials in "7 caves and shelters, 8 open-air sites and a rich scatter of single finds." Faunal studies provide a further indication that climatic changes in the Zagros were not drastic in that Late Pleistocene archaeological sites yield the range of fauna one would expect in the area today were it not for over-grazing and motorized hunting. Thus archaeological data from the Zagros are of little value in assessing climatic fluctuation, but they do indicate that during the Late Pleistocene the region was far from uninhabitable, even at elevations over 1000 m. There is little relevant palaeobotanical evidence but pollen data from archaeological deposits give some useful indications of local flora and environ­ ment. These are discussed in detail by Madame Leroi-Gourhan, but a brief comment on their relative dating may be useful. Shanidar (elevation 765 m) remains the sole published pollen sequence for the period of the Wttrmian glaciation in the Zagros, but this material has presented certain problems and "with a few exceptions the same pollens are found throughout the sequence. However, their frequencies vary, particularly those of the arboreal pollens, which are clearly more numerous in the older levels" (Leroi-Gourhan 1975, 562). Other unpublished Mousterian (Middle Palaeolithic) samples, e.g. .Khoumian (Leroi-Gourhan, this volume), also suggest relatively high per­ centages of arboreal pollens. For the end of the Pleistocene the unpublished data from Ghanim Wahida's 1971 excavations at Upper Palaeolithic Zarzi (elevation 760 m) are of considerable importance. These have also been studied by Leroi-Gourhan and indicate vegetation characteristic of very dry steppe (G. Wahida, pers. comm.). Although there are no radiocarbon determinations from Zarzi, material from the 6 layers excavated appears to be typologically earlier than that from Palegawra, with radiocarbon deter­ minations of 14,400 ± 760 b. p. (UCLA-1703A) and 13,350 ± 460 b. p. (UCLA1714D). That is, Zarzi is likely to be dated no later than 15,000 b.p. Of more than 500 pollen grains from the lowest two levels, not one is arboreal. There is a very high percentage of liguliflorous Compositae. In the later samples both oak and pine occur but are rare; lilac (Syringa persica), almond and Oleaceae appear only sporadically. The number of grains of cereal type is also small. Curiously, only one grain of Artemesia was preserved. However, it should be reemphasized that, although the valley at Zarzi is p.arrow, the site is 100 m above the nearest stream, which flows about a km away; thus it is possible that pollen from trees growing along the stream might not have been carried upslope. At Palegawra, (elevation 990 m, .£· 14,000 b. p.) charcoal of oak, tamarisk, poplar and a conifer has been identified (Braidwood and Howe 1960, 360

5 9) , r ough ly c on te mporary w i th t he f irs t c on t inuous c urves o f o ak a nd p is tach io a t Z er ibar s o me 1 20 km t o t he e as t a nd 3 70 m h igher .

H owever , a t Z er ibar

a t t h is t ime " tree p o l len r e ma ins v ery s carce" ( van Z e ist 1 967, 3 08) .

A t

S han idar B 2 ( e leva t ion 7 65 m, 1 2 ,000 ± 4 00 b .p . W-179 ) as crub s avanna h ad a lready b egun t o d eve lop a nd o ak h ad r eached 6 % ; O leaceae a nd P is tach io a re a lso f ound .

U n like Z arz i , L igu lif lorae C o mpos i tae a re p resent o n ly i n sma l l

q uan t it ies ( G . Wah ida , n .d . )S han idar B 1 ( 10 ,600 ± 3 00 , W-667 ) a nd t he n earby o pen a ir s i te Z aw i C hem i S han idar , which e x tends o ver a n a rea o f a pprox ima te ly 2 15 x 2 75 m ( 10 , 0 00 ± 3 00 b .p . W-681;

e leva t ion 4 25 m;

R . L . S o leck i

1 964 ) w ou ld a ppear t o b e a pprox i ma te ly c on te mporary w i th t he e ar ly "Mesol i th ic" o f A bu H ureyra i n n or th S yr ia ( e leva t ion 2 75 m) .

A t n earby Mureybe t

p o l len d a ta s ugges t s tepp ic c ondit ions i n t he 9 th mi l lenn iu m b . c ., a n o bserv a t ion p erhaps q ua li f ied b y t he v ery p resence o f t hese Meso l i th ic s i tes i n wha t i s t oday a r e la t ive ly a r id z one ( F igs . 1 8 .1, 1 8 .7) , w i th p erhaps a " we t" p hase b eginn ing a bout 8 000 b .c ., i ncreas ing a f ter 7 800 .

T h is i s i ndica ted b y

d im in ish ing C henopodiaceae , wh ich h ad b een a bundan t i n t he Meso l i th ic l eve ls , a nd b y a n i ncrease i n a rborea l p o l len . c ont inue l ow .

P ercen tages o ft he l a t ter , h owever ,

Around 6 500 b . c . n u merous C o mposi tae ( L igu lif lorae ) i nd ica te

an ew s tage , p ossib ly t owards d ryness , " bu t i tr e ma ins u nexp la ined why , a t H amad a s a t Mureybe t , i ti s t he C o mpos i tae t ub if lores t ha t a re p redo m inan t t owards 6 000 b . c ." ( Leroi-Gourhan 1 974 ) .

I th ard ly n eeds emphas izing , o f

c ourse , t ha t p o l len d a ta f ro m a rchaeo log ica l s i tes , i nva luab le a s t hey a re i n r e la t ion t o s pec if ica l ly l oca l c ondi t ions , c an b e l oca l ly i d iosyncra t ic i n r ef lec t ing u nusua l g eograph ica l s i tua t ions , i n t hemse lves p oss ib ly i mpor tan t i n t he c hoice o f s i te l oca t ion , o r t he d egrada t ion o f e nv iron ment t ha t h u man i n terference e f fec ts .

I tw i l l b e s een ( be low ) t ha t s e t t le men t d a ta f ro m t he

I raq i J az irah wou ld s ee m t o i ndica te a marg ina l ly we t ter p hase d ur ing t he p er iod c . 6 500-5000 b .c ., a nd p erhaps e x tending i n to t he 5 th mi l lenn iu m . T o r e turn t o t he Meso l i th ic—in t he l ow land a reas o fn or thern I raq o n ly o ne o r t wo s i tes a re k nown t ha t a re p erhaps c o mparab le w i th Z aw i C he m i a nd E uphra tes s i tes l i ke Mureybe t .

S uch n ega t ive e v idence , u nfor tuna te ly ,

i s a s l ike ly t o r ef lec t l ack o f i n tens ive a rchaeo log ica l e xp lora t ion a s l ack o f s i tes .

Moreover , i n n or thern Mesopota m ia , where o p t i ma l s i te l oca t ions

( espec ia l ly w i th r egard t o wa ter s upp ly ) may h ave b een o ccup ied f or mi l lenn ia , i den t if ica t ion o fp oss ib le Meso li th ic o r e ven e ar ly N eo l i th ic o ccupa t ion , n ow p oss ib ly l y ing we l l b e low modern p la in l eve l , b eco mes a v ir tua l i mpossib i li ty . I ft here a re o ther J er icho 's , t hey w i l l b e d if f icu lt t o d e tec t f ro m s urface c o llec t ions , h owever , s oph is t ica ted t he s a mp l ing t echn iques !

One c an o n ly

h ope t o f i nd s uch s i tes i n t he s i tua t ion o f marg ina l e nv iron men ts , where s e t t le ment h as n ot b een i n tens ive . H owever , i ts hou ld b e r e i tera ted t ha t much o f n or thern I raq r e ma ins u nexp lored; i ndeed l arge ly f or p o li t ica l r easons a rchaeo log ica l s urvey h as r are ly b een p oss ib le i n r ecen t y ears . One c o mpara t ive ly e ar ly s i te , p erhaps c o mparab le w i th Z aw i C he m i , i s Wlefaa t , s i tua ted n o t f ar e as t o f N ineveh ( F ig . 1 8 . 2 ) , e levat ion c . 3 00 m, a t t he j unc t ion o f t he f ooth i l l z one a nd t he r o l ling r a infed p la ins o f l a ter Assyr ia ( Bra idwood a nd H owe 1 960 , 2 7; Oa tes 1 973 , 1 51) .

An ew d iscovery

i s t he 7 th mi l lenn iu m b .c . (? ear lier ) s i te o f Maghza l iyah , i dent if ied b y t he R uss ian e xpedi t ion w ork ing a t Y ar im T epe n ear T e l l A far , at e l l w i th s o me 8m o f a ceram ic d epos i ts , r ich l i th ic i ndus tr ies , c ircu lar s tone h ouse 3 61

foundations, stone bowls, beads, bracelets, figurines, etc. The fact that this tell (to some extent masked by the natural hill beneath it) lies just off the main Mosul-Sinjar road, in an area which is archaeologically well-known, only serves to emphasize the point that absence of evidence in archaeology cannot be assumed to imply the actual absence of the feature being sought. Eastern Arabia and the Gulf In Saudi Arabia recent studies of lacustrine sediments, especially in the Rub'al Khali, indicate two main periods of high water level,�36, 00017, 000 b.p. , with a concentration of dates between 30,000-21, 000, and a "sub-pluvial" ,tv 9,000-6,000 b.p./£..- 7000-4000 b.c. (McClure 1976, 1978), or perhaps beginning as early as 10,000 b.p. on the basis of a new radio­ carbon determination from the currently inactive Wadi Dawasir just to the north (see below). At the same time isotope dating of aquifer ground water in the Kharj Oasis, southeast of Riyadh, averages 35, 000-20,000 b. p., and indicates that some recharge may have taken place as late as 5000 b.p. (Zarins et al. 1979, 10). Active terrace formation within the Central Province has been dated to£..- 8000 b.p. and in the Dawasir hinterland to.£· 6500 b.p. (iLid.). In the Rub'al Khali the earlier "wet" phase appears to have been followed by a period of "intense aridity" during which the first dune systems were deposited in the region; the Holocene lakes, apparently largely playa or "mud lakes", were perched in silty hollows in these dunes, frequently associated with bovid bones and flint tools of "Neolithic" type. Similar evidence comes from the region of Jubbah in the Great Nefud (Parr et al. 1978) where one deposit of lacustrine origin yielded a radiocarbon determination of 25,630 ± 430 b.p. (Q-3117) and a palaeosol or swamp deposit, 6685 ± 50 b.p. (Q-3118) (Garrard n. d.). Here Middle Palaeolithic (Mousterian) sites, pre­ sumably associated with the first wet phase, were found both on the ridges and slopes overlooking valleys and inland basins, and on alluvial surfaces adjacent to drainage channels and sabkha. In the Wadi Dawasir "substantial archaeological remains from the Mousterian period" were also situated on alluvial terraces (Zarins et al. 1979, 10). These data and those from the Rub'al Khali suggest that the Arabian interior was better watered and sup­ ported more vegetation during the periods in question. No unequivocal eviderice of intervening Upper Palaeolithic or Epipalaeolithic occupation has been found in Arabia (Parr et al. 1978, 35; Zarins et al. 1979, 13). These data agree well with those from elsewhere in the Arabian area, e.g. Qatar, Oman, etc., where no typologically identifiable Upper Palaeolithic industries have been discovered, a situation which appears to obtain also in the desert margins of southern Iraq, west of the Euphrates, although the latter area is archaeologically even less well explored. This apparent lack of occupation may possibly be related to the period of Late Glacial aridity c. 15, 000-13,000 b.p.) for which there is evidence, inter alia, in East Africa (Street and Grove 1976, 386). ·one must note, however, the lack of any ·typological sequence of chipped stone materials from Arabia and therefore the lack of certain dating criteria. As we have seen, there is no lack of evidence for occupation in the Zagros at this time, when charcoal of oak, tamarisk, poplar and a conifer have been identified at Palegawra (£. 14,000 b.p.). 362

More archaeologically informative are later sites in the Eastern Province, Qatar and Bahrain at which a type of Mesopotamian pottery known as 'Ubaid has been found (Fig.18. 3). Pottery of this type ('Ubaid 3-4) occurs throughout Mesopotamia and from Western Iran to I\Ortheastern Syria. Relevant radiocarbon determinations are somewhat erratic but suggest that this period is to be dated very approximately between 6500-5500 b.p. /45003500 b.p. (Oates n. d.; Oates and Oates 1976, 138-9). [It should perhaps be remarked that in relation to historically established dates from Mesopotaniia and Egypt, a date as late as 3500 is not acceptable for the end of the 'Ubaid phase; thus, "historically", the calibrated range of.£· 5400-4400 B. C. is to be preferred. However, b.p. /b. c. determinations are used throughout this article for reasons of consistency; approximations of radiocarbon determi­ nations for dates falling within the historical periods (below), and therefore based on calendric as opposed to radiocarbon calculations, are estimated by following Clark's calibration curve (1975) in reverse. ]

..

The coastal distribution of the Arabian 'Ubaid sites is clear from Fig.18. 3 Lack of sweet water explains the absence of sites further north. Indeed the 'Ubaid sites lie in areas that still today provide sweet water, good fishing, abundant shell-fish and good harbours. A few are found inland, especially around Hofuf in the well-watered al-Hasa oasis. The Mesopotamian compo­ nent of these sites (i.e. the painted and plain 'Ubaid pottery) has been shown to be of non-local origin, in that some 50% of sherds so far tested by neutron activation can be shown to have originated not only in Mesopotamia but specifically from the southernmost group of 'Ubaid sites so far identified in Iraq (Ur, Eridu and Tell al 'Ubaid), that is, from those sites closest to the Gulf and the Arabian coast; none of the painted wares tested matched local Arabian clays (Oates et al. 1977). Thus this material evidence seems to represent repeated and short-term incursions by people from Mesopotamia, almost certainly by sea, during the period sometime before and after 6000 b.p. /4 000 b. c. Indeed, most of the Arabian 'Ubaid sites are little more than temporary camping grounds, often with only one or two, at most a handful, of sherds; even at the four larger mound sites evidence for occupation appears to have been intermittent (Masry 1974). Accompanying the 'Ubaid pottery is a local "Neolithic" flint industry dominated by small tanged arrowheads exhibiting fine pressure flaking (Qatar D, Kapel 1967). Comparable flint material has been recovered from numerous sites in the Eastern Province, especially around the major oases at Hofuf and Yabrin. Similar materials are reported also from the Rub' al Khali and from Central Arabia. Indeed chipped stone industries with virtually identical tanged arrowheads have a very broad distribution on the Arabian peninsula and to the east in Africa. In the Central Province recent survey has revealed a number of such "Neolithic" flint sites in the Wadi Dawasir region, associated with radiocarbon determinations of 9790 ± 250 b. p. (GX-5726, "marsh deposit", £· 7840 b.c.) and 8025 ± 260 b.p. (GX-5725, gastropod shells, _£. 6075 b. c.). Shells apparently associated with an active phase of the Wadi Dawasir have provided a further date of 10890 ± 56 Ob.p. (GX-5727, .£· 8940 b. c.) (Zarins et al. 1979, 20). In the Eastern Province some 40 "Neolithic" flint sites have been identified to the east of Abqaiq (Potts et al. 1978, 8), while in the al-Hasa region around Hofuf another 15 or so are known (Adams et al. 1977, 31). 363

The latter were situated "near springs or o verloo king shallo w channels or interi.o r drainage bains". Such sabkha deposits to day contain surface water o nly after the perio dic heavy rains, but they were presumably more regularly supplied at the time the sites were in use. At Al-Hasa "o ccupatio n was apparently asso ciated with the middle and upper reaches of a wadi netwo rk channelling run-o ff from higher, mo re desiccated areas, in which shallow lakes formed at intervals behind aeolian sands then being actively laid do wn. A much larger flo w was added at a lo wer elevatio n by artesian springs within the o asis itself, as it still is to day" (ibid. 27). Undo ubtedy the mo st info rmative o f the spring sites is Ain Qanna�, excavated by Masry in 1972. The site is a "spring-mo und" consisting o f spring-head sediments interspersed with archaeolo gical materials. Of 14 levels the lo west 10 appeared to contain o nly chipped stone artefacts similar to Holo cene materials in Qatar and elsewhere in Arabia; to these in the upper strata was added the distinctive 'Ubaid ceramic. The sediments, analyzed by Butzer (Masry 1974, 206 ff.), sho w considerable climatic fluctuatio nsho rt pluvials interrupting relatively lo ng dry intervals. Unfo rtunately there is no way of estimating the time lag between recharge o f the relevant a_quifer and the actual floo ding o f the spring. Radio carbon determinatio ns place the earliest (apparently aceramic) levels so metime around 7000 b. p. (Masry 1974): level 9 charco al level 11 charcoal level 12 charcoal

7060±445 b.p. 5110 b.c. GX-2821 6655± 320 b.p. 4705 b.c. GX-2823 6885± 325 b.p. 4935 b.c. GX-2824

Radiocarbon determinatio ns o btained from samples asso ciated with the 'Ubaid "intrusio n" in Eastern Arabia are reaso nably consistent with tho se from Mesopotamia itself (Oates, n. d.). The follo wing come from the maj o r Arabian sites (Go lding 1974): Dosariyah Khursaniyah Abu Khamis

surface level 7 surface surface level 8 level 8

shell shell shell shell charco al shell

6135±120 b.p. 6900± 330 b.p. 6157±238 b.p. 5750± 65 b.p. 5565± 255 b.p. 5660±182 b.p.

4185 4950 4207 3800 3615 3710

b. c. b. c. b. c. b. c. b. c. b. c.

I-5786 GX-2818 SM-1263 UGa-315 GX-2819 GX-2820

The 'Ubaid presence alo ng the Gulf co ast and inland around Ho fuf (a single sherd has been repo rted as far so uth as Yabrin) is well-do cumented. It seems likely that this perio d and the earlier phase apparently represented by the aceramic campsites at Ain Qannas must represent a time o f relative climatic amelio ratio n. Perhaps a reflectio n o f increasing aridity in the 4th millennium, fo llo wing the 'Ubaid phase which seems to have ended around 35-3600 b. c., is the apparent absence in Arabia of sites attributable to the succeeding (Uruk) phase . in Mesopo tamia (4th millennium B. C. ; Late Uruk = appro ximately 50004400 b.p. , 3200-2500 b. c.). Altho ugh it is clear througho ut the Gulf area that contact with Mesopo tamia is lo st at this time (??perhaps coinciding with a sea level maximum that may have affected navigatio n in the regio n of the present Shatt al-Arab), the ambiguity and imprecisio n o f dating by flint to o l 364

t ypo logy mus t a ga in b e emphas ized .

I th as o f ten b een a ssu med t ha t a l l

a cera m ic "Neo li th ic" f l in t s i tes a re n ecessar i ly p re'Uba id , b u t t he s e t t lemen t o fA l Markh o n B ahra in d emons tra tes t he p ers istence o f t he "Neo li th ic" c h ipped s tone t radi t ion af ter t he l oss o f c on tac t w i th 'Ma id Mesopota m ia . T hus o ne c annot c er ta in ly a rgue l ack o f o ccupa t ion i n t he p os t- Tba id E as tern P rov ince .

A l l t ha t i s b eyond d oub t i s t ha t c on tac t w i th Mesopota m ia i s l ost

u n t i l , a t t he e ar lies t , p erhaps 3 000-2800 B . C . t he b as is o f r everse c a libra t ion ) .

( rough ly 4 300-4100 b .p . o n

One s hou ld n ote , h owever , t ha t f our th/

t h ird mi l lenn iu m B . C . r adiocarbon d e ter m ina t ions f ro m a rchaeo log ica l s a mp les a re f ar f ro m c ons is ten t ; moreover , t he t ypolog ica l d a t ing o f t h ird mi l lenn iu m ma ter ia ls i n Arab ia r e ma ins c on ten t ious ( c f . e .g . F r ife lt 1 975 , T os i 1 976) . A l Markh i s a lso o f i n teres t i n r e la t ion t o c hanges i n s ea l eve l .

S ugges t ions

o f a max imu m r ise i n t he 4 th m i l lenn iu m o f s o me 3 t o 4m a bove t oday 's l eve l ( i n ter a l ia , N t itze l 1 978)—supposed ly s ubstant ia ted b y t he p resence o f ap iece o fb arnac le-covered p las ter o na n T Uba id c oasta l s i te s o me 5 . 5m a bove p resent s ea l eve l ( Go lding 1 974 , 2 4 ) mus t b e q uest ioned i n v iew o ft he s i tua t ion o f A l Markh , wh ich a t t he t ime o f i t s o ccupa t ion ( probab ly s o me t i me n ot l ong a f ter 5 600 b .p . / 3600 b . c . )l ay o n a sma l l i s land o f ft he west c oas t o f Bahra in ( S i te 2 027 , F ig . 1 8 . 4 ) .

" The c hanne l b etween t hese i s lands s i lted u p a t s o me l a ter

d a te f orm ing a n a rea o f s abkha ... A l Markh l i es a t t he e as tern e nd o f ar ange o f s and d unes wh ich s tre tch u nder t he s ea a l l t he way t o S audi Arab ia .

As

t he s ea l eve l r ose t hese d unes were d rowned , a nd b y c . 4 000 b . c . a l l t ha t r ema ined a bove wa ter was a sma l l i s land e x tending f ur ther t o t he n or th a nd wes t t han t he p resent c oas t line , w i th A l Markh c lose t o i t s e as tern e dge" ( Roaf 1 976 , 1 58) . A l Markh i s n ow c . 1 400 m f ro m t he s hore line .

I t s e ar l ies t

o ccupa t ion

l eve l l ies o n ly s o me 1 -. 40 m a bove p resen t h igh t i de l eve l , wh i le t he u ppermos t l eve l , r epresent ing t he l a ter , p ost'Uba id , f l in t-us ing i nhabi tan ts i s s i tua ted a t l ess t han 2 . 0m a bove p resen t h igh t i de ( F ig . 1 8 . 5 ) .

I ndeed t he

max i mu m h e igh t o ft he s urv iv ing mound s ur face i s o n ly + 2 .35 m .

Th is w ou ld

s ee m t o s uggest a s ea l eve l max i mu m i n t he 4 th mi l lenn iu m n ot much more t han o ne me tre a bove p resen t ( see a lso V i ta F inz i 1 978 , 6 3 ) .

The s he l l mound

o f R as a l J azay ir ( 2051, F ig .18 . 4 ) , e xcava ted b y aD an ish e xped i t ion , wh ich p rovded t o b e o f t he B arbar p er iod ( 2.. 2 000 B . C .,

? ?1650 b . c . )l ay o n t he

western c oas t o ft he o r ig ina l sma l l i s land ( Roaf 1 976 , 1 58-9) .

T he e xac t

d a te o ft he i n-f i l ling o ft he c hanne l i s u nknown , b u t i ti s p oss ib le t ha t t h is c o inc ided w i th t he l a t ter ,a pparent ly p ost- Tba id p hase a t A l Markh when g oa t h erding was i n troduced a nd t he d ugong a nd l arge c arn ivorous f i sh a ppear among t he f auna l r ema ins ( t he e ar l ier Tba id p hase was c haracter ized b y a r e liance o n mediu m-s ized g round f eeding f i sh s uch a s S ea Brea m , R oaf 1 974 ) . Mid t o l a te t h ird m i l lenn iu m B . C . o ccupa t ion i s we l l-a t tested i n B ahra in , Oman a nd A bu Dhab i , e spec ia l ly o n t he i s land o f Um m a n-Nar a nd a t t he i n land o as is o fA l A in/Bura im i .

Wha t a ppear t o b e t h ird mi l lenn iu m c eram ic t ypes

o ccur a round t he A l-Hasa a nd Y abr in o ases a nd s outh o f AN :g ig ( Po t ts e t a l . 1 978 , 8 ) .

L a te t h ird mi llenn iu m " D i l mun r ed-r idged ware" i s f ound i n t he

a rea o f Dhahran a nd t o t he e as t , a l though n ot d irec t ly o n t he c oast ( 2 E

. c i t . ,

E xcept o n B ahra in ( and p oss ib ly B ura im i ) t here i s a n a pparen t a bsence o f

3 65

9 ) .

ceramic material attributable to the period from the early second to the early first millennium B. C. (??3500-2500 b. p.). Present evidence, however, is far too minimal to argue any widespread abandonment of Eastern Arabia during this time, although it does coincide with certain tribal movements out of Arabia attested in Mesopotamian historical sources (Aramaeans, Chaldeans, Arabs, etc. ). Although some Abu Dhabi material may date from the late second, early first millennium B. C. (W. Y. Al-Tikriti, pers. comm.), and a number of Iron Age (first millennium B. C.) cemeteries and settlements are attestaj, especially in the vicinity of Buraimi, it is not until the Hellenistic period, clearly a flourishing time in southern and eastern Arabia, that there is abundant evidence for settlement. To what extent this reflects the ambitions of Alex­ ander and his generals rather than any climatic amelioration cannot of course be ascertained. To sum up, in most respects the archaeological data from Eastern Arabia are too tenuous to argue subtleties of climate. However, the widespread "Neolithic" flint sites and the associated 'Ubaid intrusion would seem to support the suggested subpluvialN9000-6000 b. p. , and indeed probably its extension into the early 6th millennium b. p. (?? down to .£· 3500 b.c.). The apparent absence of late 4th and 2nd millennium B. C. occupation might suggest conditions of greater aridity roughly 5000-4400 b.p. and 3500-2500 b. p., but here one must emphasize the essentially negative nature of the evidence and remark both on the general lack of settlement data and the presence of large numbers of undated tumuli. One should also note the recent radiocarbon determination for recharge of the aquifer ground water in the Kharj Oasis, perhaps as late as 5000 b.p. Settlements of Umm an-Nar attribution on the island itself and at Buraimi might suggest some climatic amelioration around and probably before 4000 b.p. , but here especially there remains an unresolved discrepancy between radiocarbon and assumed calendar dates. Iron Age and Hellenistic data may support a further amelior­ ation of climate in the latter part of the first millennium B. C. , although by this time political factors may well mask the possible relevance of settlement data to climate. Mesopotamia Several agriculturally marginal regions in Mesopotamia offer some insight into possible past fluctuations of climate, in particular the Jazirah of northern Iraq and the Khabur basin to the northeast in Syria. Our own archaeological field work, both excavation and survey, has been concentrated in such regions precisely for this reason (Tell al Rim.ah, Tell Brak, Choga Marni). Hatra: Jazirah sites The Parthian site of Hatra is situated in the Jazirah or dry steppe which extends from the Tigris to the Khabur in northern Mesopotamia (Figs. 18. 1, 18. - 6-8). Today this area consists of many thousands of square km of treeless and salty steppe, with seasonal watercourses and brackish lakes, bitter springs and waterholes. Annual rainfall is in the region of 200 mm or less. When it does rain, storm water drains in the form of sheetwash to form playa lakes in low-lying depressions. A pattern of unconnected playa starts a few km to the west of Hatra and continues far into the Jazirah (Dorrell 1972, 69). 366

Ha tra i t se lf was e ssent ia l ly a t r iba l c a mp ing g round wh ich a ssu med g rea t r e lig ious a nd p o l i t ica l impor tance i n t he Par th ian p er iod .

An u mber o f s wee t

wa ter we l ls a re t o b e f ound a t t he s i te i t se lf—indeed Ha tra r epresen ts t he western most p oin t i n t he J az irah where s wee t wa ter c an n ow b e f ound —wh i le t he n earby Wadi Thar thar p rov ided a p erenn ia l t hough b rack ish wa ter s upp ly ( F ig .18 . 8 ) . Archaeo logica l s urveys c arr ied o ut b y D iana K irkbr ide i n 1 970 a nd more r ecen t ly b y S ayy id J ab ir I brah im o ft he S ta te Organ iza t ion o f An t iqu it ies , B aghdad , h ave r evea led o ver 1 00 sma l l a rchaeo log ica l s i tes i n t he v ic in i ty o f H a tra , b y f ar t he ma jor i ty o f wh ich a re p reh is tor ic .

As c an b e s een f ro m

t he v ar ious r a infa l l maps t he a rea i s we l l o uts ide t he modern l im i ts o f r e liab le a gr icu lture ( re liab le min i mu m 2 00 m m p er a nnu m , wh ich i s a pprox i ma te ly t he 3 00 m m i sohye t ) , i .e . n ot a n a rea i n wh ich o ne w ou ld e xpec t t o f i nd p reh is tor ic v i l lage s e t t lements .

Abou t 2 0 km n or th o f H a tra t he l i ne o f e ar ly

t e l ls d eepens t owards t he wes t a nd n or thwes t , r unn ing i n a n a rc u p t o t he r eg ion o f T e l l A far ( F ig . 1 8 . 9 ) , s cene o f t he R uss ian e xcava t ions a t p reh is tor ic Y ar im T epe a nd t he B r i t ish a t s econd mi l lenn iu m Te l l a l-R i mah . I n g enera l t he p reh is tor ic s i tes a ppear t o i ncrease i n s ize a s o ne moves f ro m H a tra i n to t he r a infa ll z one ; f ro m C . 5 0 km n or th o f H a tra t he p reh istor ic d epos i ts t end t o b e c overed b y l a ter o nes , i .e . s e t t le men t b eco mes more p ers is tent i n l a ter p er iods ( K irkbr ide 1 971, 4 ) .

I n r ecen t t imes t he l and a round Ha tra

h as b een f ar med b y a bsen tee l arge l andowners who c an a f ford t he c ons tan t l oss o f c rops f or t he c o mpensa t ion o f av ery r ich h arves t i n t he o ccas iona l y ear o f h eavy r a in , c er ta in ly n ot a s i tua t ion t ha t c ou ld h ave b een t o lera ted b y p reh istor ic f armers . S even s i tes i n t he H a tra a rea y ie lded s urface ma ter ia l a t tr ibutab le t o a n e ar ly p hase o f t he H assuna c u lture c hrono logica l ly c o mparab le w i th B ouqras ( 6400-5900 b .c ., GrN 8 258-8264; Akkermans e t a l ., n .d . ) . Th is p hase was f i rs t i den t if ied i n n or thern I raq b y t he e xcava t ion o f Um m Dabagh iyah ( F ig . 1 8 . 2 )( K irkbr ide 1 972 ) . S im i lar o ccupa t ion h as b een d iscovered b y t he R uss ians a t Yar im T epe , T e l l e s-Sot to a nd K u l T epe n ear Te l l A far ( Bash i lov , B o lshakov a nd K ouza 1 980 ) , a nd b y t he J apanese a t t he n earby s i te o f Te lu l e th-Tha la tha t .

Wi th t he e xcept ion o f Maghza liyah a nd Wlefaa t ( c f . a bove )

t hese s i tes c onst itu te t he e ar liest p hase o f s e t t le men t s o f ar i den t if ied i n t he n or thern p la in . P a laeobotan ica l d a ta f ro m t he l owes t l eve l e xcava ted a t Umm Dabagh iyah i nc luded l arge n u mbers o f s a lt s wamp s eeds ( Chenopod iaceae , S ea-b lite a nd S a lso la ) ; i ndeed i t wou ld a ppear t ha t t he s i te l ay n ear t he e dge o f ab rack ish l ake wh ich s t i l l s urv ives a s al arge p laya a bou t a km s ou th o f t he s i te .

C onsp icuous ly l i t t le a rborea l c harcoa l was f ound .

F ragmen ts o f

wa l l p las ter i nc luded i mpr ints o fg lu mes a nd i nner d orsa l h usks o f Tr i t icu m d icoccu m , a s we l l a s o ne we l l-preserved s pike le t f ork , s uggest ing t ha t t he em mer was a c tua l ly g rown a nd h arves ted s o mewhere i n t he v ic in i ty ( pace K irkbr ide 1 974 , 8 8) .

E inkorn a nd n aked b ar ley ( Hordeu m v u lgare v ar . n udum)

a re a lso p resen t ( He lbaek 1 972 , 1 7-18) .

Ah igh p ercen tage o fo nager b ones

( 2 . 7 0% o f t he f auna l s a mp les r ecovered) a nd t he p resence o f wa l l p a in t ings t ha t a ppear t o r epresen t h un t ing s cenes a nd wha t s ee m t o h ave b een c o m muna l s torage u n i ts h ave l ed t o t he i nterpreta t ion o f Um m Dabagh iyah a s a n o nagerh unt ing " trading o u tpos t" ( K irkbr ide 1 974 ) .

H owever , i ts hou ld b e n oted t ha t

a l l f ive N eo li th ic d o mes t ic a n i ma ls were r epresen ted among t he f auna ( 10-13% , E t Ik ' ony i 1 973 ) a nd t ha t t he e v idence f or c u lt iva ted f oods may b e sma l l ow ing

3 67

to the very l united number of soil samples actually examined (flotation was not carried out at the site, Kirkbride 1972, 12). None of the numerous other prehistoric sites in the area has as yet been excavated; thus it is not possible to determine how representative is the assumed economy of Umm Dabaghiyah, the furthest south of the known settlements of this early Hassuna phase. Comparable archaeological materials come from Bouqras, to the west in Syria (Fig. 18. 7), where modern rainfall averages only c. 150 mm per annum and, as at Hatra, does not normally permit dry farming (Akkermans, van Loon, Roodenberg and Waterbolk, n.d.). I do not intend to elaborate on Bouqras in the home of its excavators, only to note here the extensive evidence for settled life and the presence, as at Umm Dabaghiyah, of domesticated sheep, goat, cattle and pig. Irrigation of the river valley may explain the situation of Bouqras, as later Baghouz (Euphrates) and Tell es-Sawwan (Tigris) (Fig. 18. 7), in areas of even more limited rainfall (Table 1), but there can be little doubt that the evidence from the Jazirah at this time is suggestive of cliinatic amelioration in the period from..£· 8500-8 000 b. p., and, in the case of the Iraqi evidence, continuing throughout at least the 8th millennium b.p. (Hassuna/Samarra). S>me Halaf and 'Ubaid sites (£. 7000-6000 b.p.) are also found in the Hatra area. However, these are fewer in number (?? though perhaps larger with comparable population) than the Hassuna/Samarra settlemen ts. Of 17 sites recorded by Sayyid Jabir Ibrahim in the immediate vicinity of Hatra, 9 produced materials datable to the 8th millennium b.p./6th millennium b. c. and 7 were attributed to the succeeding 7th millennium b.p. ; only two, however, yielded surface materials of the later 4th millennium B. C. Uruk phase (? 5500-4300 b.p. ). This seemingly striking decrease in settlement numbers coincides very approximately with the assumed abandon­ ment of post-'Ubaid Arabia. Four third millennium (following Clark, roughly 4200-3600 b.p.) and no second millennium B. C. sites were identified, a situation again apparently comparable with the Arabian data. Ten Late Assyrian sites were recorded (900-600 B. C. ; ? 2700-2450 b.p.) and there is also evidence for some Hellenistic, Parthian and Sassanian occupation. To some extent these later settlements must have been influenced by political considerations, but Late Assyrian occupation, for example, is unlikely to have been as extensive if conditions had been comparable with those of today. Kirkbride's survey yielded similar results: of her 87 sites, some 40 were prehistoric, for the most part Hassuna/Samarra. About half of these pre­ historic villages yielded Halaf pottery as well. Most of the sites of historical date were Late Assyrian, with some Parthian (1972, 3). Further evidence in support of a wetter phase in Northern Mesopotamia beginning sometiine after 9000 b.p. comes from Persian Gulf cores recording the varying deposition of sediinents deriving from the Tigris and Euphrates and presumably reflecting conditions of precipitation in the highland areas which are their source. Such cores are not closely dated, but would appear to indicate "dry" conditions..£· 9000 b. p. followed by a "wetter" phase (Diester-Haass 1973 ). By the 6th millennium b.c. the development of irri­ gation techniques permitted extensive settlement in such arid regions as that between Baiji and Samarra on the Tigris and on the Euphrates at Baghouz. 368

Modern r a infa l l f igures f or t hese a reas c an b e f ound i n Tab le 1 .

F ro m t h is

t ime o nward, a nd p erhaps e ven e ar lier ( ?Bouqras ) , t he u se o f i rr iga t ion o bscures t he r e levance o f s e t t lement p a t terns t o e nv iron men ta l c ondi t ions i n t he a l luv ia l r eg ions o f Mesopota mia .

I n t he n or th , h owever , where i rr i-

g a t ion i s p oss ib le o n ly w i th in t he v ery n arrow r iver v a l leys , s o me l ater s h if ts i n p a t tern o f s e t t le men t may b e s ign if ican t . K habur Bas in I n 1 975 a b r ief s urvey o f t he K habur b as in was c arr ied o ut b y Dav id Oa tes a nd K assi m T uwe ir o ft he Depar t men t o f An t iqu i t ies i n Da mascus .

Th is

s urvey was d e libera te ly c onf ined t o t he a rea where r a in-fed c rops a re a t p resen t n ot who l ly r e l iab le , b e tween modern H asake , s ou th o f wh ich c u lt ivat i on i s n ow p oss ib le o n ly b y i rr iga t ion ( now o f c ourse p u mp-ass isted) , a nd C hagar Bazar , s o me 4 5 km t o t he n or theas t , n or th o f wh ich r a in-fed c rops a re a t p resen t r e liab le ( F ig . 1 8 .10 ) .

The s urvey c oncen tra ted o n t he l arger

mounds t ha t o f fer l onger s equences o fo ccupa t ion .

The r esu lts may t hus b e

s o mewha t d is tor ted , b ut a re n one the less i n teres t ing ( D . Oa tes 1 977 ) .

P o t tery

o ft he Ha laf p er iod ( 7 th mi l lenn iu m b .p . )was r are , d esp i te t he f ac t t ha t Ha laf s i tes a re p lent ifu l i n t he n or thern p ar t o f t he K habur r eg ion a nd p ar t ic u lar ly n u merous i n t he Wadi Da m d ra inage s yste m t o t he n or th o f C hagar Bazar ( Me i jer 1 978/79 , 1 74; Dav idson a nd KcKerre l l 1 976) " In t he f our th mi l lenn iu m , h owever , t here s ee ms t o h ave b een a s tar t ling e xpans ion o f s e t t le men t , f or o n ly t hree s i tes f a i led t o y ie ld Uruk p ot tery" ( D . Oa tes 1 977, 2 34) .

Te l l B ezar i , f or e xa mp le , ( F ig . 1 8 . 1 0 ) c onsists o fo ver 1 0 me tres o f

U ruk d epos i ts .

Th is p er iod o f e xtens ive o ccupa t ion s ee ms t o h ave c on t inued

t hrough most o f t he t h ird mi l lenn iu m B . C .

A c ons iderab le c on trac t ion o f

s e t t le ment , h owever , a ppears t o h ave o ccurred i n t he e ar ly a nd midd le s econd mi llenn iu m B . C ., a p heno menon n oted a lso i n t he J az irah i n I raq .

S econd

mi l lenn iu m o ccupa t ion i s c harac ter ized b y al i ne o f mediu m-s ized t owns w i th i rregu lar p o lygona l e nce in tes , s uch a s Te l l Be idar , Te l l B a t i a nd Te l l H am idi i n t he K habur ( F ig . 1 8 .10 ) a nd Te l l a l R i mah , T e l l H adha i l a nd Te l l H uwa ish t o t he s outh o fJ ebe l S in jar ( F ig . 1 8 . 9 ) .

I n b oth a reas t here a ppears t o h ave b een

at ota l b reakdown o f s e t t le men t c . 1 200 B . C .

Obv ious ly i n h is tor ica l t imes

t he a bi li ty o f c o m mun i t ies t o main ta in t he mse lves o n t he f r inges o f t he J az irah h as d epended a s much o n t he e x istence o f as trong c entra l g overn ment a s o n t he v agar ies o f c l ima te ( unfor tuna te ly we a re u nab le t o a ssess t he p oss ib le i mpor tance o f t he f ormer f ac tor i np reh is tor ic t imes ) .

B u t o ne o f t he mos t

c o m mon r easons f or p o li t ica l u nrest i s c rop f a i lure o r t he l oss o f a gr icu ltura l o r g raz ing l and .

As a round Ha tra t here a ppears t o h ave b een a r ev iva l o f

s e t t le ment i n L a te A ssyr ian t imes b o th i n t he K habur a nd s outh o f J ebe l S in jar ( D . Oa tes 1 977, 2 34-5 ) . Wi th t he s ing le e xcept ion o f t he Uruk p er iod i n t he 4 th mi l lenn iu m ( f ro m s o me ti me b efore 5 000 b .p . t o C . 4 300 b .p . )t he d a ta f ro m n or thern Mesop ota m ia a ppear g enera l ly c o mparab le w i th t hose f ro m E as tern Arab ia .

As

we h ave a lready n oted , h owever , i n t he c ase o f 4 th mi l lenn iu m B . C . Arabia l oss o f c on tac t w i th Mesopota m ia , a nd t hereby t he l oss o fp rec ise ly d a tab le s urface ma ter ia ls , may r ef lec t n o more t han t he r ise i n s ea l eve l a t tes ted a t t h is t ime . C er ta in ly i n t he K habur b as in i t wou ld a ppear t ha t r a infa l l was e i ther marg ina l ly g rea ter o r more r e liab le i n Uruk t imes . T he s e t t le men t

3 69

pattern at this period contrasts markedly with that of the earlier Halaf, which is concentrated to the north of Chagar Bazar and along the foothills, and with that in the second millennium B. C. attested along the Beidar, Bati, Barri line. Although Tell Brak, which was undoubtedly a major Uruk and earlier prehis­ toric site (at which time the Jaghjagha flowed much closer to the tell), was still inhabited in the second millennium, it was by this time a settlement of considerably less importance. Hamrin Basin Intensive survey and environmental studies recently carried out as part of a salvage operation in the Hamrin basin, just to the east of Jebel Hamrin and west of .Khanaqin (Figs. 18.2, 18. 7 ), may also add to our knowledge of prehistoric climate in Mesopotamia. This is today an area of agriculturally marginal rainfall (cf. Jalaula, Table 1), Here it would be especially inter­ esting to know whether the absence of 6th millennium b. c. settlement (the earliest sites are very approximately attributable to the Choga Marni 'Trans­ itional' phase, 6846 ± 182 b.p., 4896 b.c., BM-483) and, more unexpectedly, the almost total lack of Uruk sites might reflect a marginal increase in pre­ cipitation at these times, as apparently attested elsewhere, and thus possibly a corresponding extension of the marsh areas which today in the Hamrin prevent settlement over much of the basin (Sumer 34, 1978, 12-13). Certainly there are numerous Samarran and Uruk settlements in the vicinity of Mandali, just to the south (Fig. 18.2; cf. Oates 1966, 1968 ). Conclusions The very considerable limitations of archaeological evidence must be recognized in any attempt to infer associated climatic conditions. Nonetheless there would appear to be some degree of consistency among settlement data from the arid zones of Mesopotamia and Arabia. In both regions archaeolo­ gical data (Middle Palaeolithic and "Neolithic") lend general support to the Late Quaternary 'moist' phases argued on the basis of studies of lacustrine sediments and other geomorphological features in Saudi Arabia and East Africa. However, dating criteria, especially among the chipped stone indus­ tries, are inadequate to establish whether or not there was any abandonment of the desert margins during the postulated period of Late Glacial"intense aridity" (cf. above), and it should be noted that at least in the Zagros at this time not only is there evidence of widespread occupation but at Palegawra ( £· 14, 000 b. p. ) the presence of oak, tamarisk, poplar and a conifer is attested. Although pollen evidence (Mureybet) is interpreted as indicating a 'dry' phase in the 9th millennium b. c. , it is perhaps significant that many 'arid' sites, including Mureybet itself, were actually settled for the first time during this period. From the late 7th throughout the 6th millennium b. c. it is difficult to argue other than a 'moist' phase in both lowland Mesopotamia and eastern Arabia; this is in contradiction to the widely accepted pattern of desiccation proposed elsewhere (e. g. Palestine) at this time. In both Mesopotamia and Arabia a later 'wet' phase can be argued for the 3rd millen­ nium B. C. , while at least in northeastern Syria this phase must have begun at least as early as the mid 4th millennium. During the 2nd millennium B. C. settlement patterns in all areas indicate some retrenchment, and there is a consistent pattern of expansion towards the latter part of the first millennium. 370

B ib liography : Akker rnans , P . A ., v an L oon , M . N ., R oodenberg , J . J . a nd Wa terbolk , H . T ., n .d .

The 1 976-77 E xcava tions a t Te l l B ouqras .

A da ms , R . McC ., P arr , P . J ., I brah im , M . a nd a l- Mughannu m , A . L ., 1 977 .

S audi Arab ian Archaeo log ica l Reconna issance -1976, P re li minary

Repor t o n t he F irs t P hase o f t he C o mprehens ive Archaeo log ica l S urvey Progra m , A t la l 1 , 2 1-40 . Ba ly , D . a nd Tush ingha m , A . D ., 1 971 .

A t las o f t he B ib lica l Wor ld .

N ew Y ork . B ash i lov , V . A ., B o lshakov , 0 . G . a nd K ouza , A . V ., 1 980 .

T he E ar liest

S tra ta o f Yar im T epe 1 i n N or thern I raq , S ov ie t Archaeo logy 1 , 1 06-29 . ( i n R uss ian) . B ököny i , S ., 1 973 .

T he F auna o f Um m Dabagh iyah :

ap re li m inary r epor t ,

I raq 3 5 , 9 -11 . Braidwood , R . J . a nd H owe , B ., 1 960 .

Preh istor ic I nves t iga t ions i n I raq i

K urdis tan , S AOC 3 1. C auv in , J ., 1 978 .

L es Pre miers V i l lages d e S yr ie-Pa lest ine d u D C ' e me

a u V Ir e me Mi lr ena ire a van t J . C . C lark , R . M ., 1 975 .

L yon .

A C a l ibra t ion C urve f or Radiocarbon Dates , Ant iqu ity

4 9 , 2 51-66 . Dav idson , T . E . a nd McKerre l l , H ., 1 976 .

P ot tery Ana lys is a nd Ha laf Trade

i n t he Habur H eadwa ters Reg ion , I raq 3 8, 4 5-56 . D iester-Haass , L ., 1 973 .

H olocene C li ma te i n t he Persian G u lf a s d educed

f ro m g ra in-s ize a nd p teropod d istr ibut ion , Mar ine Geo logy 1 4 , 2 07-23 . D urre l l , P ., 1 972 .

A N ote o n t he Geo morpho logy o ft he C oun try n ear Um m

Dabagh iyah , I raq 3 4 , 6 9-72 . F r ife lt , K ., 1 975 .

A P oss ib le L ink b etween t he J e mde t N asr a nd t he Um m

a n- Nar Graves o f Oman , J ourna l o f Oman S tudies I , 5 7-80 . Garrard , A .

N ., n .d .

E nv iron men t a nd S e t t le ment d ur ing t he U pper P le isto-

c ene a nd H olocene a t J ubbah i n t he Grea t N efud , N or thern Arab ia , w i th c ontr ibut ions b y C . P . D . Harvey a nd V . R . S w i tsur . G o lding , M . ,1 974 .

E v idence f or P re-Se leuc id Occupa t ion o f E astern Arabia ,

Proceedings o f t he S e minar f or Arabian S tudies 4 , 1 9-32 . G uest , E . a nd a l-Raw i , A ., 1 966 . H e lbaek , H ., 1 972 .

F lora o f I raq I .

Baghdad .

Traces o f P lants i n t he E ar ly C era m ic S i te o f Um m

Dabagh iyah , I raq 3 4 , 1 7-19 . H i ll man , G ., 1 975 .

The P lant Re ma ins f ro m Te l l Abu Hureyra , ap re li m inary

r epor t , i n Moore 1 975 , 7 0-73 . H o le , F . a nd F lannery , K . V ., 1 967 .

The Preh istory o f S outhwestern I ran :

ap re li minary r epor t , PPS 3 3 , 1 47-206 .

3 71

Kapel, H., 1967. Atlas of the Stone-Age Cultures of Qatar, Jutland Arch­ aeological s:>ciety Publications VI, Aarhus. Kirkbride, D., 1972. Umm Dabaghiyah 1971: a preliminary report, Iraq 34, 3-15. Kirkbride, D., 1974. Umm Dabaghiyah: a Trading Outpost?, Iraq 36, 85-92. Leroi-Gourhan, A. , 197 4. Etudes palynologiques des derniers 11,000 ans en Syrie semi-desertique, Paleorient 2, 443-51. Leroi-Gourhan, A., 1975. The Flowers Found with Shanidar IV, a Neanderthal Burial in Iraq, Science 190, 7 J\bv. 1975, 562-4. Masry, A. H., 1974. Prehistory in Northeastern Arabia: the Problem of Interregional Interaction. Miami. McClure, H. A. , 1976. Radiocarbon Chronology of Late Quaternary Lakes in the Arabian Desert, Nature 263, no. 5580, 28 Oct. 1976, 755-6. McClure, H. A., 1978. Ar Rub' Al Khali, in Al Sayari, S. S. and J. G. ZOtl (eds.), Quaternary Period in Saudi Arabia, Vienna, 252-63. Meijer, D. J. W., 1978/79. Archllologische Gelllndebegehung C:Jstlich des Gaggag, AfO 36, 172-4. Moore, A. M. T., 1975. The Excavation of Tell Abu Hureyra in Syria: a preliminary report, PPS 41, 50-77. Mortensen, P., 1975. Survey and S>undings in the Holailan Valley 1974, Proceedings of the IIIrd Annual Symposium on Archaeological Research in Iran, 1-12. Ntttzel, W., 1978. To Which Depths are "Prehistorical Civilizations" to be found beneath the present alluvial plains of Mesopotamia, Sumer 34, 17-26. Oates, D., 1968. studies in the Ancient History of Northern Iraq. Oxford. Oates, D., 1965-72. Excavations at Tell al Rimah, Iraq 27-34. Oates, D., 1977. The Excavations at Tell Brak, 1976. Iraq 39, 233-44. Oates, D. and J., 1976. The Rise of Civilization. Oxford. Oates, D. and J., 1976a. Early Irrigation Agriculture in Mesopotamia, in: G. de G. Sieveking, I. H. Longworth and K. E. Wilson (eds.), Problems in Eoonomic and Social Archaeology , London, 109-35. Oates, J. , 1966. First preliminary report on a survey in the region of Mandali and Badra, Simer 22. Oates, J., 1968. Prehistoric Investigations near Mandali, Iraq, Iraq 30, 1-20. Oates, J. , 1973. The background and development of early farming com­ munities in Mesopotamia and the Zagros, PPS 39, 147-81.

372

Oa tes , J ., n .d .

' Uba id Mesopota m ia Reconsidered .

Oa tes , J ., Dav idson , T . E ., Ka m i l li , D . a nd McKerre l l, H ., 1 977 . S eafar ing Merchan ts o f Ur? , An t iqu i ty 5 1, 2 21-34 . P arr , P . J ., Z ar ins , J ., I brah im , M ., Waech ter , J ., Garrard , A ., C larke , C ., B id mead , M . a nd a l-Badr , H ., 1 978 .

Pre l im inary R epor t o n t he

S econd P hase o f t he N or thern Prov ince S urvey 1 397/1977 , A t la l 2 , 2 9-50 . P ot ts , D ., Mughannu m , A . S ., Frye , J . a nd S anders , D ., 1 978 .

Pre li m inary

Repor t o n t he S econd Phase o f t he E astern Prov ince S urvey 1 397/1977, A t la l 2 , 7 -27 . R epub . I raq , Min .

C o mns . D irGen . C iv i l Av ia t ion , Me t . Dept . C li ma t . Xn

( var ious y ears ) . R epub . I raq , Min .

Month ly C li ma to logica l Da ta .

Baghdad .

C o mns . D irGen . C iv i l Av iat ion , Me t . Dept . C li ma t . Xn

C li ma tologica l A t las f or I raq , P ub . N o . 1 3 . R epub . I raq , Deve lop men t B oard, 1 959 . a t S ta t ions i n I raq 1 887-1958.

B aghdad .

S u m mary o f Mon th ly P rec ip i ta t ion

Baghdad .

R oaf , M ., 1 974 .

E xcava t ions a t A l Markh , Bahra in , P a l or ient 2 , 4 99-501 .

R oaf , M ., 1 976 .

E xcava t ions a t A l Markh , Bahra in , Proceedings o ft he

S em inar f or Arabian S tudies 6 , 1 44-60 . S b lecki , R .

L ., 1 964 .

Z aw i C he m i S han idar , aP ost-P le istocene V i l lage

S i te i n N or thern I raq , R epor t o f t he V I th I n terna t iona l C ongress o n Qua ternary , Warsaw , 1 961. S o lecki , R . S ., 1 963 .

Preh istory i n S han idar Va l ley , N or thern I raq , S c ience

1 39 , n o . 1 551, 1 8 J an . 1 963 , 1 79-93 . S tree t , F . A . a nd Grove , A . T ., 1 976 .

Env iron men ta l a nd c l imat ic i mp li-

c at ions o f l a te Qua ternary l ake-leve l f l uc tua t ions i n A fr ica , N ature 2 61, 3J une 1 976, 3 85-9 . A l-T ikr i t i , Wa lid Yas in , n .d .

The Th ird Mi l lenn iu m i n t he Arab ian G u lf

Reg ion , P h .D . d isser ta t ion , U nivers ity o f C ambr idge . T osi , M ., 1 976 .

The Da t ing o ft he Um m a n- Nar C u lture a nd a Proposed

S equence f or Oman i n t he Th ird Mi l lenniu m BC , J ourna l o f Oman S tudies 2 , 8 1-92 . T urnbu l l , P . F . a nd Reed , C . A ., 1 974 .

The F auna f ro m t he Termina l

P le istocene o f P a legawra C ave , F ie ldiana Anthropology 6 3, 8 1-146 . V i ta-Finzi , C ., 1 978 . Wah ida , G ., n .d .

Archaeo log ica l S i tes i n t he ir S e t ting .

L ondon .

The Re-excava t ion o f Zarz i , 1 971 .

Z ar ins , J ., I brah im , M ., P ot ts , D . a nd E dens , C ., 1 979 .

C o mprehensive

Archaeolog ica l S urvey Progra m , p re li m inary r epor t o n t he s urvey o f t he C en tra l Prov ince 1 978, A t la l 3 , 9 -42 . v an Z eist , W., 1 967 .

L a te Qua ternary Vege ta t ion H istory o f Western I ran ,

Rev . o f P a laeobotany a nd P a lyno logy 2 , 3 01-11 .

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Map o f t he u pper K habur b as in , n or theas tern S yr ia , a f ter D . Oa tes 1 977, P l . I V .

3 93

D ISCUSSION COPELAND: F irst a s ma l l p rotest a nd t hen t wo r equests f or c larif icat ion. The p rotest: a t t he o utset, y ou s co lded s ome w orkers f or u sing n egat ive e v idence, s uch a s t he a bsence o f s i tes i n a c erta in a rea, a s n ot n ecessar i ly i nd icat ing l ack o f o ccupat ion. I t 's j ust t hat we h aven 't f ound t hem. However, y ou t hen s howed u s v arious r eg ions, s uch a s s outh o f B rak, where y ou d id e xactly t he s ame t h ing. C larif icat ions: f i rst ly, d id I u nderstand t hat t he 5 0 s i tes i n t he a rea o f Hatra a re o f t he s ame r ange o f d ates a s a t Bouqras? OATES: No , t here a re i dent if ied s ome 7 o r 8 s i tes i n t hat a rea wh ich a re t hought t o b e c ontemporary w ith Umm Dabag iyah, which o n t he e v idence o f t he Russ ian e xcavat ions a s Te l l E s 'Sotto , Y ar im Tepe 1 , Ku l Tepe e tc. c an b e s hown qu ite c lear ly t o b e s imp ly a n e arly p hase o f Hassuna. C omparab le p ottery i s f ound a t B ouqras wh ich i s why I h ave t aken t he Bouqras d ates a s a n a pprox imat ion t o t h is e arly p hase o f Hassuna. M ost o f t he s i tes i n t he a rea a re marg ina l ly l a ter t han t hat. The d iff icu lty i s o f c ourse, r eferr ing t o y our p rotest, t hat o ne f inds i t a lmost i mpossible t o i dent ify t he e arl iest o ccupat ion a t mound s i tes. These a re f ortunate ly r ather s ma l l s i tes where t he p roblem d oesn 't a r ise. As o ne moves f urther n orth o f c ourse o ccupat ion i s much more i ntensive a nd i t b ecomes v ery, v ery d iff icu lt t o i dent ify s i tes o f t h is d ate. Th is i s o ne o f t he r easons why, a s a n a rchaeo log ist o ne i s work ing i n t hese marg ina l a reas, w e 've d one t h is q u ite d el iberate ly a s y ou c an s ee; e verywhere we 've worked we 've b een s i tt ing o n t hat r a infa l l i sohyet. B ecause h ere o ne c an p ick up s i tes t hat r ef lect what w e t h ink a re marg ina l f luctuat ions i n c l imate, a nd t hese o ne c an 't p ick up i n t he b etter r a infed z ones where o ccupat ion i s c ont inuous. But we d o h ave t h is r ecogn it ion p attern: t here a re p robably s i tes t hat we w i ll n ever know a bout s imp ly b ecause o f t he mass o f c over ing d ebr is. COPELAND: The p o int o f a sk ing f or c lar if icat ion i s t hat t here wou ld s eem t o b e a c ont inuous s equence o f c u ltures. There a re t hese 8 s i tes t hat b e long w ith Umm Dab a nd s o o n, a nd t hen w e g o o n t o Ha la l ' , S amarra, s o d o y ou r ea l ly t h ink t hat t here was a wetter p eriod a t t h is s tage t o a ccount f or o ne but n ot t he o ther? OATES: Y es, b ecause t here a re f ar f ewer Ha laf s i tes; t here i s r e lat ive ly l i tt le Ha laf materia l i n t h is r eg ion. The Hassuna Samarra s i tes, a nd I i nc lude i n t hat a ppe l lat ion t he Umm Dabag iyah t ype mater ia l a s we l l , a re e xtens ive a nd c overed w ith masses o f a rchaeo log ica l d ebris , t here a re masses o f s herds o f t h is d ate. One r are ly f inds Ha laf materia l. One a lso f inds a l i tt le Uba id materia l. But g enera l ly s peaking t here i s n ot t he s ame s ort o f e v idence f or o ccupat ion i n t h is a rea a nd I t h ink i t 's a t a i l ing o ff , t o t he p o int where by t he U ruk p eriod t here a re o n ly t wo s i tes a nd t hey may b e t here f or r ather s pec ia l r easons. S o t hat y es, I wou ld a rgue t hat t he c l imate i s d eteriorat ing. The d iff icu lty i s t hat e ven t he most m inor f luctuat ion i n r a infa l l p attern a ffects a n a rea l i ke t h is i n a r ather ma jor w ay a nd t here a re p robably p er iods o f t ens, o r p erhaps 5 0 o r 1 00 y ears, where a m inor f luctuat ion wou ld h ave made p oss ible r eoccupat ion o r a gricu lture. I ' ve g iven y ou a s weep o f d ates f rom 6 400 t o 5 000 f or t hese e arly s i tes, but what w e d on 't 3 95

know, a nd a rchaeo log ica l ly t h is i s i mposs ib le t o d eterm ine, i s whether t here w ere s hort p hases w ith in t hat a lmost 1 500 y ear s pan, where o ccupat ion was i mposs ib le. One w ou ld a ssume t hat t h is i s p robab ly s o. A l l w e c an d o i s g ive y ou t he g ross p icture. But c erta in ly t he g ross p icture i s f or a r ather i mpressive l eve l o f e v idence f or s ett lement i n t hat t ime r ange a nd i ncreasing ly l ess a s o ne g ets l a ter. Aga in I must e mphas ise t hat o ne d oesn 't k now t o what e xtent t h is r ef lects d egradat ion o f t he s teppe, c erta in ly I wou ld a rgue q u i te s trong ly f or c u lt ivat ion a round Umm Dab i n t he p er iod t hat I 'm t a lk ing a bout. COPELAND: The s econd p o int o f c larif icat ion: t he r eg ion n orth o f Chagar Bazar. I wasn 't s ure whether y ou s a id t hat t he f i rst o ccupat ion t here t hat we k now a bout i s t he Ha laf. OATES: The f i rst o ccupat ion t hat w e k now a bout i n a ny e xtens ive way. I t 's a rguab le whether t here a re Neol i th ic materia ls t here e arl ier t han t hat. C erta in ly t here a re d ark burnished s herds. COPELAND: I c ou ld ment ion t he f amous A lt Monochrom d eep a t Te l l Agab a nd p ossib ly s ometh ing a ceram ic e arl ier t han t hat a t T e l l F akhariyah. S o I t h ink t here was p robab ly c ont inuous o ccupat ion o f t h is p art a t l east f rom t he s tart o f P PNB. OATES : Cont inuous o ccupat ion a long t he r a inshadow o f t he mounta ins d oesn 't b other me, o ne w c iu ld e xpect t hat; what I ' ve b een t ry ing t o l ook a t , a nd g iv ing t he Ha laf e v idence a s a c ontrast, i s t he e xtens ion o f t hat o ccupat ion f urther s outh i nto r eg ions t hat a re t oday r ather marg ina l. I t h ink i n t he p ast o ne c an s ee f luctuat ions, f or e xamp le t he v ery c ons iderab le e xtens ion i n t he 4 th m i llenn ium , t hat p robab ly i nd icates s ome c l imat ic amel iorat ion a t t hat t ime, a nd t hen t he r etract ion t o e ssent ia l ly t oday 's l eve ls i n t he 2 nd m i l lenn ium. I i ssued t he warn ings a s I b egan a nd I ' ve g one a long t o p lay t he g ame myse lf. I was a sked t o e xam ine t he a rchaeo log ica l e v idence a nd t hat 's t he b est o ne c an d o w ith i t It h ink. BROOKES: I 'm j ust wonder ing what t he p resent s tate o f Northern Mesopotam ian a rchaeo log ica l t h ink ing i s o n t he p otent ia l f or g eomorpho log ica l mod if icat ion, mask ing o f s i tes, d estruct ion o f s i tes. Has a nyone b een i n t here i nvest igat ing t hose t h ings o r d o y ou g et a f eel ing t hat e nv ironmenta l c ond i t ions a re n ot t he w ay t hey w ere when t he s i tes w ere o ccup ied? OATES : I t h ink p robab ly y ou a re qu i te r ight. We h ave h ad g eomorpho log ists o n t he e xcavat ion w ith u s, e .g. a t Te l l a l R imah. But t here wasn 't t he s ort o f wad i p attern t hat w as i nformat ive f rom t he ir p o int o f v iew. C erta in ly t here h as b een a l luv iat ion, but t h is d oes n ot mask s i tes t o t he e xtent t hat i t d oes i n t he s outhern a l luv ium where o ne h as a v ery c ons iderab le p rob lem i n t h is r espect. A t B rak f or e xamp le I wou ld a ssume t hat we p robably h ave a t l east 8 m etres o f d epos i t b e low t he p la in a t t hat p o int. Th is i s t he n orma l s ort o f p attern, but i t 's n othing l i ke t he d epth o f d epos it ion t hat o ne f inds i n t he s outh. But i t 's n ot a n i dea l a rea f or p eop le i nterested i n t h is s ort o f t hing. I t 's o ne o f t he i nterest ing t h ings a bout B rak t hat t h is i s n ext t o N ineveh, t he ma jor s i te i n n orthern Mesopotamia. I t 's a s l arge a s t he mound a t N ineveh. N ineveh g oes up o n t hrough t he l a te Assyrian / Parthian /

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S assanian p eriods. B rak, h owever, c omes t o a n e nd i n 1 200 BC a nd i t 's qu i te c lear a t B rak t hat a f ter 2 000 BC ( in h istorica l d ates) t he s i te w as n ot i mportant. The l i ne o f s ett lement a t t hat p o int, a nd I t h ink t h is i s p robab ly s ometh ing t o d o w ith a m inor c l imat ic f luctuat ion, moves t o t he n orth a lon g t hat l i ne o f t e l ls t hat I i nd icated. And t he s ame p attern e x ists s outh o f J ebe l S in jar. BAR YOSEF: I wou ld l i ke t o c omment o n y our o pening r emarks wh ich I f ound v ery i nterest ing , p art icu larly t he u se o f s ett lement p atterns by a rchaeo log ists. I b e l ieve t hat o ne s hou ld d ist ingu ish b etween t wo k inds o f s ettlement p atterns. One wh ich i s r e lated t o t he h unter gatherer w ay o f l i fe a nd wh ich i s d irect ly i nf luenced, a s w e c an s ee f rom t he e thnograph ic e v idence, by g eomorpho log ica l a nd c l imato log ica l c hanges, a nd o n t he o ther h and t he o ne f rom h istorica l p eriods. I b el ieve t hat when y ou h ave t he o nset o f t he e stab l ishment o f c h iefdoms, a nd o f c i ty s tates, y ou g et o n t he d eserts ' supported s oc iet ies ' l i ke t he Bedou in, a nd t he ir d istribut ion m ight b e d irect ly i nf luenced by t he amount o f m ateria l g oods, money e tc. wh ich c an b e g iven t o t hem, t hat t hey c an o bta in f rom t he ir s upporters, e i ther c i ty states, c h iefdoms, o r s tates. Therefore o ne s hou ld b e v ery c arefu l t o s eparate s ett lement p attern t ypes f or a rchaeo log ica l s i tes, b etween l et 's s ay e veryth ing wh ich i s b efore 1 0000 o r 8 000 bp , b efore t he e stabl ishment o f agricu ltura l s oc iet ies, a nd e veryth ing wh ich c omes i n l ater p eriods. The e xamp le y ou g ave f rom t he S aud i Arabian s oca l led ' l ate Neol i th ic ' r ecent ly s tud ies by T ix ier i n Qatar i s a g ood e xamp le f or what m ight b e ' Bedou in ' s oc iet ies g ett ing g oods f rom Mesopotam ia , e i ther by c aravans o r by s ea n av igat ion. P erhaps w e s hou ld ment ion a lso t he c ontacts t hat t ook p lace a t t hat t ime w i th I nd ia , w ith t he I ndus Va l ley. Th is materia l p erhaps c an b e u sed t o i nfer c l imat ic c hanges, but w ith much more c aut ion t han a ny k ind o f materia l wh ich c omes f rom t he p reced ing p eriods. When w e c ome t o d iscuss t he c l imat ic c hanges o f l a ter p eriods, wh ich means f rom l et 's s ay t he 4 th m i l lennium o nwards, t he u se o f i n depth g eomorpho log ica l work i s e ssent ia l. B ecause f rom t hat t ime a nd o n i nto a s l a te a s Byzant ine t imes, b roader c ommerc ia l c ons iderat ions c an c ontro l s i te l ocat ion a nd a bandonment. On ly t he e nv ironmenta l ev idence, t he k ind we h ave s een f rom G reece f or e xamp le f rom P aepe 's work, c an c ontr ibute s ecure d ata a bout c l imat ic c hanges. OATES: I c ou ldn 't a gree w ith y ou more. One o f t he d iff icu lt ies i n Mesopotam ia i s t hat w e v irtua l ly n ever f ind e v idence o f h unters a nd c o l lectors o n t he a l luv ia l p la in b ecause o f p roblems o f a l luv iat ion. And y ou m ay r emember t hat I d id r emark t hat p o l it ica l c onsiderat ions m ight w el l b e a f actor i n p reh istoric t imes a s w e l l. One c an o n ly s pecu late a bout t h is. Agreement a lso o n g eomorpho log ica l s tud ies, but i n t he a bsence o f t hese I ' ve d one t he b est t hat I c an. I r u le o ut a t p resent c aravan c ontact b etween S audi Arabia a nd Mesopotam ia; i t s eems t o me t hat t he marine o rientat ion o f t hese s i tes i s f a irly p ersuas ive. A lso w e k now t hat a long t he W adi a l Bat in wh ich i s t he ma in r oute f rom t hat a rea i nto s outhern Mesopotam ia , t here a re n o a rchaeo log ica l materia ls t o b e f ound, a nd c erta inly n o Uba id p ottery. I know t hat t h is was Masry 's i dea , a nd h e a nd I d isagree a bout t h is, a lthough c erta in ly t he p ottery t hat w e h ave e xam ined c omes f rom M esopotamia. I c an 't s ee t he B edou in c arry ing l arge quant it ies o f p ottery b ack t o S aud i

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A rabia, p resents f or t he w ife a nd k idd ies o r s ometh ing l i ke t hat , a nd i t s eems t o me t o make much more s ense, p art icu larly i n r e lat ion t o t he v is ib le p attern o f s ettlement a t t hat t ime ( and t here a re o nly 4 l arge mound s i tes) t hat t h is was s ome mari t ime c ontact. Ik now t h is i s p erhaps a n e xtreme p o int o f v iew but I 'm p ersuaded o f i t myse lf. UERF ' I V IANN: I a gree t hat o ne h as t o s eparate t he d istribut ion o f hunter gatherer s i tes f rom f armer s i tes, but I d on 't a gree t hat t he f ormer a re more u sefu l f or i nferring c l imat ic f actors, b ecause hunter gatherers l ive wherever t here a re a n ima ls, a nd i n t he M idd le E ast t here a re n o ma jor a reas where t here a re n o a n ima ls f or s uch e xp lo i tat ion. Hunter gatherers c ou ld r ange o ver t he who le o f t he a rea w ithout ma jor d ist inct ions b etween t he ir e conomy , whereas e arly f armers w ere much more d ependent o n c l imato log ica l c onsiderat ions i n t he a rea a nd t he ir s i tes a re t hose t hat c an r ea l ly g ive s ome i dea a bout t he d istribut ion o f c l imate. S o i t 's t he p eriod f rom t he b eg inning o f a gricu lture t o t he b eg inn ing o f i rrigat ion where y ou c an b est u se s ett lement p atterns f or c l imat ic i nvest igat ions. OATES: I wou ld a rgue t hat i n Northern M esopotam ia y ou c an c ont inue t o u se t hese s i tes a fter i rrigat ion b ecause i t 's o n ly i n t he s outh t hat i rrigat ion i s ar e levant f actor.

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ENV IRONMENTAL AND ARCHAEOLOGICAL EV IDE NCE FOR CLIMATIC CHANGE I N THE SOUTHERN LEVANT P au l G oldberg a nd O fer Bar-Yosef ( I ns t i tu te o f Archaeo logy , T he H ebrew U n iversi ty o f J erusa le m , I srae l)

P re lim inary R e marks Archaeo log ica l a nd g eo logica l e v idence f or e nv iron menta l c hange i n t he S outhern L evan t , a s e lsewhere , a re n ecessar i ly i n terwoven , af eature t ha t a r ises f ro m t he s y mb iot ic r e la t ionsh ips b e tween a rchaeo log ica l s i tes a nd t he ir s edi men tary t raps .

On t he o ne h and , t he l i th ic a sse mb lages , o rgan ic

a nd i norgan ic r e ma ins ( b ones a nd c harcoa l ) a nd l oca t ions o f s i tes t hrough t ime p rov ide t e mpora l c ontro l a s we ll a s r eg iona l i nf orma t ion a bou t e nv ironmen ts .

On t he o ther , g eo log ica l s tudy o f a ssoc ia ted s edi men ts s upp l ies d a ta

p er ta in ing t o s i te-spec if ic e nv iron men ts , wh ich when i n tegra ted i n s pace a nd t ime p rov ide a r eg iona l p ic ture o f e nv iron menta l a nd c l i ma t ic c hange . R eg iona l s tudies were t he ma in t oo l t hrough wh ich a l arge b ody o fg eog raph ica l ly d istr ibu ted d a ta was a ccu mu la ted d ur ing t he l ast d ecade i n t he S outhern L evan t .

I n an or th-sou th c ross s ect ion t hese i nc lude t he s tudies

made i n t he F azae l-Sa l ib iya Bas in i n t he l ower J ordan Va l ley , t he N aha l B esor/Fara a rea i n t he n or thern N egev , t he N aha l Z in/Avda t a nd H ar Hanf a reas i n t he N egev H igh lands , t he N egev Archaeo log ica l R escue Pro jec t i n t he western N egev , t he Qadesh Barnea i n e astern most S ina i a nd Gebe l Maghara i n n or thern S ina i ( Bar-Yosef e t a l ., 1 974 ; p ress;

S chuldrenre in a nd G o ldberg , i n

P r ice- W i l lia ms , 1 975 ; Marks , 1 976, 1 977;

N . G or ing- Morr is ,

p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion ; G o ldberg , i n p repara t ion ; a nd B ar-Yosef a nd P h i l lips , 1 977 ) .

Al arge n u mber o f s i tes were l oca ted , many were e xcava ted

a nd s evera l p rov ided c lus ters o f r adio me tr ic d a tes .

I n p erhaps a s l igh t ly

e xaggera ted way o ne may s ta te t ha t t he L a te P le istocene / Ear ly H o locene c hronolog ica l a nd c u ltura l f ra mework i s n ow ma in ly b ased o n t he e v idence c o l lec ted t hrough t he s tudies o ft hese a reas . The u se o f a rchaeo log ica l d a ta f or mak ing c l i ma t ic i nferences i nvo lves s evera l a ssu mpt ions c oncern ing b oth t he n a ture o fp reh istor ic r e ma ins a nd t he p ast p a t terns o f h u man b ehav iour .

The mode l u sed i n d ec ipher ing t he

a rchaeo log ica l d a ta p resented h ere i s b ased o n r ecen t s tudies o f t oday 's h unter-ga therers ' modes o f l i fe ( Lee a nd D eVore , 1 968;

B icchier i , 1 972 ) .

T hese s tudies h ave s hown t ha t a s ar u le a g roup o f h un ter-ga therers l i ves b e low t he c arry ing c apac i ty o f t he ir t err i tory . The d egree o f t he ir n o madis m i s d ic ta ted b y t he n a ture o f t he ir p referred s ources o f s ubs is tence .

I n a r id

z ones t h is e qu i libr ium i s q u i te d e lica te b u t d ur ing l ean y ears t hey w i l l move i n to t he l usher t err i tor ies a nd w i l l b e a ccep ted b y t he ir n e ighbours .

T h is

t ype o fg enera l movemen t , o f a bandon ing t he d eser t ic a reas d ur ing s uccess ive

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d rough ts a nd e xpand ing b ack d ur ing r a iny y ears s hou ld b e e xpressed i n t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord . The S outhern L evant , d om ina ted b y Medi terranean a nd a r id c l ima te r egi mes , w ou ld b e a n i dea l r eg ion t o o bserve s uch p ast move ments . T he e xpansion o f h unter-ga therers i n to t he d eser ts u nder f avourab le c l i ma t ic c ondi t ions w ou ld b e e xh ib i ted i n t he n u mber o f s i tes a nd t he ir d is tance f ro m p er manent wa ter s ources , t he l a t ter b eing man ifested b y t raver t ines , wa terl ogged s edimen ts , e tc . T he d ry p er iods w i l l b e t hose w i th n o o r r a ther s carce a rchaeo log ica l d a ta . I n o ther w ords , i ti s s ugges ted t ha t t he n u mber a nd d istr ibu t ion o fp reh istor ic s i tes i n t he N ear E as tern d eser ts i s ad irec t r ef l ec t ion o f c l i ma t ic c ondi t ions . The f o l low ing a ssu mp t ions a re n ecessary i no rder t o f ac i li ta te t he i n terp reta tions o f t he a rchaeo log ica l r ecord p resen ted i n t h is p aper . 1 .

The b ehav iour o fp ast h un ter-ga therers i n s em i-deser t ic a reas was b asica l ly s im i lar t o t hose l iv ing t oday u nder c urrent c ondi t ions .

2 .

The n u mbers a nd d ensi t ies o fp reh istor ic o ccurrences i n d eser t ic a reas a re t aken a s a n i ndica t ion f or c l i ma t ic i mprovement whereas t he d ecrease o r a bsence o f e v idence i s i n terpre ted a s t he r esu lt o f i ncreasing a r idi ty .

Th is w ou ld h ave b een a q uest ionab le a ssu mp t ion

ad ecade a go when much o f t he p reh is tory o ft he C en tra l a nd S ou thern N egev , S ina i a nd t he J ordan Va l ley r eg ions was u nknown . Geo log ica l e v idence o f e nv iron menta l c hange i s man ifest i n av ar ie ty o f ways .

These i nc lude b oth t he t ypes a nd s ty les o f s edi menta t ion , s uch a s

f l uv ia l g rave ls , s i lts a nd s ands , a eo l ian s ands a nd s i lts , l acustr ine s i lts a nd c lays , a nd a ssoc ia ted f ea tures r epresen ted b y g ley ing a nd t raver t ines . G o ldberg ( i n p ress) h as r ecen t ly s u m mar ized t he d a ta f ro m s evera l a rchaeos edimen tary s equences f ro m t he S ina i , N egev a nd J ordan V a l ley a reas a nd c onc luded t ha t a s af irst a pprox i ma t ion f l uv ia l a nd l acustr ine d epos i t ion t ook p lace d ur ing p er iods wet ter t han t oday , whereas d ry i n terva ls , l i ke t he p resen t , a re t yp if ied b y e ros ion;

c ol luv ia t ion was i n terpre ted t o r esu lt f ro m a r idif i-

c a t ion whereby v ege ta t ion c over was r educed a nd l andscape s ur faces b ecame u nstab le ( Tab le 1 ) . When t he d a ted a rchaeo log ica l s equences o f t he S outhern L evan t a re c o mb ined w i th t hose o f t he N or th wh ich a re more s parse ly r adiocarbon d a ted , t he r esu l ting i den t if iab le a rchaeo log ica l e n t i t ies ( or c u ltures) c an b e u sed a s a r easonab ly s ecure means o fd a t ing v ar ious g eo log ica l d eposi ts s uch a s a l luv iu m o r d unes ( Cope land a nd V i ta-F inz i , 1 978) .

E nv iron men ta l c hange a s r epre-

s ented b y p er iods o f i nf i l ling o r e ros ion c an b e d a ted i n e very r egion u sing b o th r ad iocarbon a nd a rchaeo log ica l d a t ing , a ssum ing t ha t t he s pa t ia l d is tance b e tween s i tes d oes n ot e xceed 5 0 t o 1 00 km; t he p roxim i ty o ft he s tud ied r egions i s e ssen t ia l f or ma in ta in ing a rchaeo log ica l c on t inu ity . Be low we p resent t he e v idence b ased o n as er ies o f t ime s l ices t ha t we b e lieve c onform t o n atura l a rchaeo log ic a nd s tra t igraph ic s ubdiv isions .

B y

s uch a p resen ta t ion we h ope t o c onvey a s ense o f c on t inui ty t hrough t ime . I n Tab le 1 we s u m mar ize most o f t he g eo log ica l e v idence t ha t i s d iscussed b e low ( f or g rea ter d eta i l , s ee G oldberg , i n p ress .)

4 00

A

3 0 , 0 00 t o C . 2 2 , 0 00 B . P .

( Upper P a laeo li th ic , F ig . 1 9 . 1 )

Th is p er iod i s we l l r epresented b y wa terla id s edimen ts i n t he S ina i a nd N egev r eg ions .

I n G ebe l Maghara t h is i s s hown b y f ormer a eo l ian s ands a nd

s i l ts r eworked b y t r ibu tary wadis ( Go ldberg , 1 977) .

I n Qadesh B arnea

( Go ldberg , i n p ress; i n p repara t ion ) , f l uv ia l c lays a nd s i l ts g rade u pwards t o s i lty s ands a nd d une s ands; t he l ower h a lf i s e x tens ive ly g leyed a nd s ta ined b y r oot marks .

I n t he N aha l Z in/Avda t a rea , f l uv ia l s andy s i lts g ive way t o

l a ter c o l luv ia l c lays ( Go ldberg , 1 976;

Y a ir e t a l . ,1 980 ) .

The p a laeoenv iron-

menta l i nference f ro m a l l t hese l oca l i t ies i s a we t ter c l i ma te a t t he b eg inn ing o ft he i n terva l w i th i ncreased a r idi ty t oward t he e nd ( 2 . 2 5 , 0 00-22 ,000 B . P . ) . Archaeolog ica l d a ta f ro m t hese a nd o ther l oca li t ies a re we l l r epresen ted . I n Wadi S udr ( western S ina i ) , i n G ebe l Maghara ( t he L aga man s i tes; BarY osef a nd P h i l lips , 1 977) a nd N aha l Z in ( s i tes B oker A , BE ; Marks , 1 976, 1 977) , t he s i tes g enera l ly c onsist o f sma l l o ccurrences o f h igh ly s pec ia lised b lade/b lade le t i ndustr ies , a l l s i tua ted w i th in v a l leys; t hese t ypes o f s i tes a re a s y et u nknown f ro m t he p la teaux .

N ever the less , t he f ac t t ha t most a re

embedded i n e i ther f l uv ia t i le s i l ts , o r s ands u nderscores t he p rox im i ty o f t hese s i tes t o wa ter s ources . Upper P a laeo li th ic a sse mb lages w i th a h igher c ontent o f f l akes ( and t herefore r e la ted b y most s cho lars t o t he L evant ine Aur ignac ian ) were f ound o n t he p la teaux a bove wadi b eds n ear Avda t ( s i tes D 2 7 , D2 2 e tc . - Marks , 1 976 , 1 977) a nd Wadi S udr ( U . Baruch , p ersona l c u m mun ica t ion ) .

S ince

t hese a re s t i l l u nda ted a nd t hey a re n ot g eo log ica l ly i n s i tu , t he ir p a laeoenv iron menta l s ign if icance r e ma ins u nc lear . B

c . 2 2, 0 00 t o 1 8, 0 00 B . P .

( La te U pper Pa laeoli th ic , F ig . 1 9 .1)

Th is p er iod i s v ery p oor ly r epresen ted i n b oth t he g eo log ica l a nd a rcha eo logica l r ecord .

I n t he d eser t r eg ions , w i th t he p oss ib le e xcep t ion o f t he

Wadi Fe iran s equence ( I ssar a nd E cks te in , 1 969; d eposits h ave a s y e t b een f ound .

N ir , 1 970 ) , n o g eo log ica l

S o me p reh is tor ic s i tes , e .g . ,t he " la te

U pper P a laeo l i th ic" s i te o f E in Aqev E as t ( D-34

F err ing , i n Marks , 1 977 )

p robab ly f i t w i th in t h is i n terva l a lthough t h is a ssess men t i s f ar f ro m b e ing u n iversa l ly a ccep ted . I n t he N or th , " la te" U pper P a laeo li th ic s i tes t ha t p oss ib ly b e long h ere a re s o mewha t more n u merous a lthough n o l ess p rob le ma t ic .

I n Wadi F azae l ,

l oca l ized c o l luv ia l d eposi ts y ie lded t hree i n s i tu s i tes : F azae l D C , X , a nd X I ( N . G or ing- Morr is , p ersona l. c o m mun ica t ion ) . O ther p oss ib le c andida tes w i th in t h is t ime-un i t a re N aha l E in Gev I ( Bar-Yosef , 1 978) , E l-Kh ia m X , D C ( Echegaray , 1 964 ) a nd E l Wad C ( Garrod a nd Ba te , 1 937) .

I n a ny c ase ,

t he l ack o fg eo log ica l d eposi ts o f t h is a ge , t he d egrada t iona l mode o f t he wadis a nd t he p auc i ty o f s i tes i n t he S ina i a nd N egev , a s we l l a s i n t he N or th , s trong ly s uggests t ha t t h is was a marked ly a r id i n terva l . C

1 8, 0 00 t o 1 4 ,5 00 B . P .

( Ear ly E p i-Pa laeo li th ic , F ig .19 . 2 )

T h is e ar ly p ar t o ft he E pi-Pa laeo li th ic i s r epresented b y t he K ebaran i ndus try , d a ted t o a bou t 1 8, 0 00 t o 1 4 ,0 00 B . P .

( Bar-Yosef , i n p ress a , b ) .

K ebaran a sse mb lages a re d istr ibu ted i n t he L ebanese moun ta ins ( Hours , 1 976 ) a nd d own i n t he Ga l i lee-Judean H i l ls ( Bar-Yosef , i n p ress a , b ) . 4 01

I n

a ddi t ion , t here a re a l arge n u mber o f r ich o ccurrences , s o me o f wh ich i nc lude a rchi tec tura l r e ma ins , i n t he n or thern c oas ta l p la in ( e .g ., N aha l Had e ra V - S axon e t a L, 1 978) a nd t he J ordan V a l ley ( E in G ev I- B ar-Yosef , 1 970 ; Arensburg a nd Bar-Yosef , 1 974; a nd F azae l - Bar-Yosef e t a l . ,1 974 ) . These s i tes t end t o b e embedded i n s ands a nd a l luv ia l s i lts a nd c lays t ha t p oint t o an arrow b and o f we t ter c l i ma te i n t he n or th-centra l p ar t o f I srae l i n c ont ras t t o t he c o ld a nd d r ier c l ima te t o t he n or th a nd s ou th ( c f . B utzer , 1 978) . Ar idi ty i n t he s ou th i s man ifest b y t he l ack o f s ed imenta t ion a t t h is t ime a nd t he v ir tua l a bsence o f s i tes f ro m most o f t he N egev a nd S ina i , a l though r ec ent ly a f ew s urface s ca t ters o fo ne o f t he K ebaran f ac ies h ave b een r ecorded i n t he western N egev , n ear N aha l N izzana ( N . G or ing- Morr is , p ersona l c o m mun ica t ion) . D

1 4 ,500 t o 1 0 ,500 B . P .

( La ter E p i-Pa laeo li th ic , F igs . 1 9 .3 & 4 )

Th is r epresents a c on t inua t ion o ft he m icro li th ic i ndus tr ies a nd i nc ludes t he G eo me tr ic K ebaran , Mushab ian , N a tuf ian , H ar if ian a nd K h iamian ( BarY osef , i np ress a , b ) . I n t he f i rs t h a lf o f t h is i n terva l t he d istr ibu t ion o f s i tes i ndica tes a d ist inc t p er iod o f c l ima t ic ame l iora t ion o fp redo m inan t ly we t ter c ondi t ions b u t w i th p erhaps minor f l uc tua t ions . F or e xample , s i tes o ft he G eo me tr ic K ebaran c u ltura l c o mp lex a re sma l l a nd o ccur e verywhere b o th o n p la teaux a nd i n wadi s i tua t ions f ro m L ebanon t o t he S uez a nd Wad i F e iran i n s ou thern S ina i . I n Wadi F e iran , f or e xamp le , sma l l s i tes h ave b een l oca ted s tra t igraph ica l ly c lose t o t he t op o ft he mass ive f i ne-gra ined f l uv iolacustr ine s edi men ts t ha t l oca l ly a t ta in t h icknesses o fu p t o 5 0 m . S im i lar ly , i n n or thern S ina i ( Gebe l Maghara - B ar-Yosef a nd P h i l lips , 1 977) t hese s i tes a re f ound a ssoc ia ted w i th l acustr ine d eposits a nd a w idespread, we l l-deve loped p a laeoso l wh ich i sp ar t ly c ontemporaneous w i th o ccupa t ion . A n e ssen t ia l ly c oeva l a rchaeo log ica l e n t i ty n amed t he Mushabian , wh ich c lear ly d isp lays N or th A fr ican t echno log ica l af in i t ies , i s d istr ibuted f ro m n or thern S ina i i n to t he N egev ( Bar-Yosef a nd P h i l lips , 1 977; Va lla e t a l . , 1 979 ) a nd i ta ppears t ha t t he c l ima t ic i mprovemen t e nab led more h uman c on tac t a t t he c lose o ft he P le istocene t han p rev ious ly . F ina l ly , i n t he n or th , i n Wadi F azae l , s evera l Geo me tr ic K ebaran s i tes o ccur w i th in b oth c o l luv iu m a nd f l uv ia t i le c lays a nd s ands ( Bar-Yosef e t a L, 1 974) . L a ter c u ltures s uch a s t he N egev K ebaran o f H anf P hase a nd o f H e lwan P hase h ave a s l ight ly more r es tr ic ted d istr ibu t ion a l though s i te s izes a re r ough ly c o mparab le w i th e ar ly E p i-Pa laeo l i th ic o nes .

S uch a d istr ibut ion

migh t r ef lec t a n i ncrease i n a r idi ty a round 1 2 ,000 t o 1 1,000 y rs B .P .

A t

t h is t ime i n t he n or thern r eg ion ( Ga l i lee a nd J udean H i l ls) l ower N a tuf ian b ase c amps w ere e stab lished ( Bar-Yosef , i n p ress a , b ) . I t was n ot u n t i l 1 1 ,000 B . P . t ha t s uch s i tes a re f ound i n t he N egev H igh lands ( Marks 1 976, 1 977 ) . G eo log ica l i n f orma t ion f or t h is l a ter p ar t i s min i ma l .

I n t he F azae l a rea ,

t he e ar ly N atuf ian i s f ound w i th in c o l luv iu m wh ich r e la tes t o i ncreased a r idi ty ( Bar-Yosef e t a l ., 1 974 ) ;

i n t he a d jacen t S a lib iya b asin , t he r ecen t ly e xposed

L isan mar ls were u ndergoing e x tensive e rosion a t t h is t ime , p resumab ly a f unc t ion o ft he r e trea t o ft he l ake a s we l l a s ag enera l d ry ing o u t o ft he c l i ma te ( Schu ldenre in a nd G o ldberg , i n p ress ) .

4 02

E

1 0 ,500 t o 8 ,000 B . P .

( Neo li th ic , F ig .19 . 5 )

The s oc io-econo m ic c hange t ha t was b rough t b y t he N a tuf ian c u lture c u lm ina ted i n t he d icho to my b etween i nc ipient f arm ing s oc iet ies s uch a s t he S u ltanian ( Pre P ot tery N eo li th ic A ) o fJ er icho , N aha l Oren , N et iv H agdud , G i lga l I , e tc ., a nd c u ltures o f h un ters a nd g a therers s uch a s t he H ar if ian ( Bar-Yosef , i n p ress a , b ) .

Fro m C . 1 0 ,500 B . P . t he c oex istence o f f arm ing

c o m mun it ies a nd h un ter-ga therers i s we l l e stab lished i n t he s ou thern L evan t . Thus , t he b ehav iour o f N eo li th ic b ands i n d eser t ic a reas c an b e i n terpre ted o n t he s a me b as is a s t he ir P a laeo li th ic a ncestors . The o vera l l p ic ture o f t he N eo l i th ic p er iod ( f ro m 1 0 , 0 00 t o 7 ,000 B . P . ) s hows s evera l f l uc tua t ions i n t he d istr ibu t ion o f s i tes .

The t radi t iona l PPNA

p hase i s p robab ly r a ther s hor ter i n t ime t han g enera l ly h e ld a nd l asted o n ly a bou t 5 00 t o 8 00 y ears .

L arge v i l lage s i tes a re k nown f ro m t h is p er iod

( recent ly r e lega ted t o t he S u ltan ian c u lture - C rowf oot-Payne , 1 976; Y osef , i n p ress a , b ) , a s we l l a s i n t he l a ter N eo lith ic o nes .

Bar-

B oth s how t ha t

c ont inuous d epos it ion was t ak ing p lace o n t he a l luv ia l f ans , ap heno menon i n terpre ted a s b e ing a r esu lt o f wet ter c ondi t ions a nd a b e t ter d istr ibu t ion o f a nnua l r a ins .

The p resence o ft raver t ines a nd s edimen t g ley ing a ssoc ia ted

w i th t he N eo li th ic i n t he G i lga l a rea w ou ld s uppor t t h is v iew ( Schu ldenre in a nd G o ldberg , i n p ress ) .

Thus t he b u i lding o f wa l ls a nd t errace wa l ls b y t he

i nhab itants o fJ er icho a nd Be idha ( Kenyon , 1 960; K irkbr ide , 1 966; Bar-Yosef , 1 980 ) i s s een a s a n a t te mp t t o p reven t t he f l ooding a nd s i l t ing u p o ft he ir s i tes . B oth d eser t ic s equences o f N eoli th ic s i tes a nd t he e xcava ted o nes i n t he J ordan Va l ley i ndica te i n terrup t ions o f a rchaeo log ica l d eposi t ion a t v ar ious p o in ts d ur ing t he P re P ot tery N eo l i th ic B s equence ( e .g . ,Be isa moun , Munhat ta , Te l l ' E l i , e tc . ) . Most o f t he S ina i PPNB s i tes a re p resu mab ly c onte mporary w i th t he s equence o f Be idha a nd t herefore , a re b e l ieved t o d a te t o t he S even th Mi l lenn iu m B . C . ( 9000 t o 8 000 B . P . ) . L arge N eo l i th ic c o m mun i t ies e x isted d ur ing t he S even th Mi l lenn iu m B . C .w i th in t he Medi terr anean z one wh i le t he sma l ler s i tes ( up t o 1 000 m 2 )i n t he d eser ts p rac t ised b asica l ly h unt ing w i th a ddi t iona l u se o f v ege ta l f ood s tuf fs . F

8 , 0 00 t o 5 ,5 00 B . P .

( Neo li th ic a nd C ha lco li th ic )

The e ven ts d ur ing t he S ix th Mi llenn iu m B . C . a re a s y e t c on troversia l . The t e mpora l g ap i n most s i tes b e tween t he Pre P ot tery a nd P ot tery N eo li th ic l eve ls was c orrec t ly g iven a s oc io-econo m ic mean ing b ut wrong ly e st i ma ted a s t o d ura t ion ( 1000 t o 1 500 y ears - P errot , 1 968; Moore , 1 973 ) .

The t rans-

i t ion t o p i t dwe l lings i n b oth t he J ordan V a l ley a nd t he c oas ta l p la in i s c orrel a ted w i th t he o nse t o f t he A t lan t ic P er iod, p resu mab ly we t a nd h um id a s s hown b y t he p o l len r ecord ( Horow i tz , 1 971) a nd f l uv ia l/co l luv ia l d eposi t ion i n t he F azae l/Sa l ib iya a rea ( Schu ldenre in a nd G oldberg , i n p ress ) . The p resence o f s i tes o ft h is mi l lenn iu m i n d eser t ic a reas s uch a s Qadesh Barnea a nd t he Uvda Va l ley ( near E i la t ) i s g ood e v idence f or a c on t inua t ion o fb asica l ly as im i lar s et t le men t p a t tern .

Moreover , t he i ncrease i n t he n u mber o f s i tes

d ur ing t he F if th a nd F our th Mi l lenn ia B . C . i n t he d eser ts o f S ina i a nd t he N egev c orrobora tes a ccu mu la t ing d a ta f ro m C ha lcol i th ic s i tes o ver a l l o f I srae l ( Gophna , 1 979;

K oz lof f , 1 972/3 ) .

4 03

I n e very v a l ley more C ha lco li th ic s i tes a re d iscovered e very y ear . Those , e i ther o ft he Wadi R abah P hase o r o f t he

( or t he ir c on-

G hassu lian

t e mporar ies) a re most of ten b ur ied i n s i lts i nd ica t ing l arge s ca le a l luv ia l a nd c ol luv ia l d eposi t ion .

Sma l l o r l arge v i l lages s i tes t urn u p i n t he a l luv ia l

d epos its o ft he J ezree l Va lleys , t he n or thern N egev , a nd wadis d escending f ro m t he J udean H i l ls . These we t c ondi t ions p reva i led a lso d ur ing t he p er iod o f t he E ar ly Bronze I ( 5 ,500-5 ,000 B . P . ) G

5 ,500 B . P . t o t he Present ( Bronze Age a nd H istor ica l P er iods ) The t rans i t ion i n to wha t c an b e d ef ined a s " Today 's" a r id c l ima te t ook

p lace d ur ing t he E ar ly Bronze I a nd I I p er iods ( 5 ,000 t o 4 ,400 B . P . ) . Thus , i n a l l l i ke lihood, i ncreasing d es icca t ion was r espons ib le f or t he c o l lapse o f c i ty-sta tes s uch a s Arad ( around 4 ,600 B . P . )i n s ou thern J udea , d ue t o t he d estruc t ion o f t he ir a gr icu ltura l r esources ( bar ley , o lives , g oa ts , e tc . ) . The n or thward s h if t o f t he c l ima t ic a nd v ege ta t iona l b e lts i n t he s ou thern L evan t d ur ing t he Th ird M i l lenn iu m B .C . was r ecorded b oth i n t he a rchaeolog ica l r e ma ins , t he wr it ten r ecords a nd p erhaps t r iggered t he c o l lapse o f c er ta in p ol i t ica l s ys te ms a nd t he e stab lish men t o f n ew o nes . An a ddi t iona l we t s pe l l c an b e r ecogn ized w i th t he d istr ibut ion o f Midd le Bronze Is i tes a l l o ver t he N egev a nd S ina i ( 4 ,200-4 ,000 B . P . ) . H owever , f or t he f o l low ing S econd a nd Th ird Mi l lenn ia B . C . t he c l i ma te r ecord i s a s y e t u nc lear b oth o n g eo log ica l a nd a rchaeolog ica l g rounds .

T he u se o f a rch-

a eo log ica l e v idence f or t h is i n terva l i s made r a ther c o mp lex s ince t h is i s t he p er iod o f t he r ise a nd f a l l o ft he E gypt ian Emp ire , t he b ui ld u p o f n ew p o li t ica l e n t i t ies , e tc .

F ur thermore , t he B edouin g roups o ft h is p er iod were b as ica l ly

d ependent o n t he a d jacen t p owerfu l s ta tes a nd c i ty-s ta tes .

Theref ore , b ef ore

we c an s epara te n a tura l f ro m h u man i nf luences o n t he d istr ibu t ion o f a rcha eologica l s i tes , much more f i e ld w ork w i l l b e n eeded . F ina l ly , ar e la t ive ly w idespread p heno menon d eserves men t ion t hough i t s c l i ma t ic s ign if icance i s u ncer ta in .

I n much o f n or theas tern S ina i a nd t he

n or thwestern N egev w idespread d epos its o f f l uva t i le s i lts o ccur .

These a re

p ar t icu lar ly pr om inen t a nd we l l e xposed i n t he Qadesh Barnea a rea where t hey a re a t l east 4 m t h ick ( Go ldberg , i n p ress ;

i n p repara t ion) .

C harcoa l

f ro m t wo l oca l i t ies a bout 5 km a par t y ie lded r adiocarbon d a tes o f 6 65 ± 15 B . P . ( QC-491) a nd 1 755 ± 1 05 B . P .

( QC-492 ) c lear ly a n h istor ica l a ge .

S o me 3 0 km t o t he n or th t he s ame s i lts o ccur w i th Byzan t ine c heck d ams t ha t a re b ui lt o n t op o f a s we l l a s b lock t he s i lt b eh ind t he m . Wh i le i ti s r easonab ly c lear t ha t t hese s i l ts r epresen t o r ig ina l a eo lian s i lts ( l oess ) t ha t were l a ter s tr ipped f ro m t he s lopes a nd r eworked b y sma l l a nd l arge wad is a like , t he p rob le m r e ma ins whe ther t h is d eposi t ion i s r e la ted t o c l ima te o r s o me c u ltura l p rac t ice s uch a s c lear ing , f arm ing , e tc . As y e t we d o n ot h ave a ny s o lu t ion t o t h is p rob le m a nd c an o n ly r efer t he r eader t o V i ta-F inz i 's ( 1969) d iscuss ion o f wha t h e c a l ls t he " H istor ica l F i l l ." C onc luding R e marks Ad ecade a go t he s yn thes is o u t lined a bove wou ld n ot h ave b een p ossib le . S ince t ha t t ime , h owever , t he a va lanche o f i nfor ma t ion f ro m n ew e xcava t ions a nd g eo log ica l f i e ld w ork h as i ncreased o ur o vera l l u nders tand ing o f L a te

4 04

Qua ternary p a laeoenv iron ments a nd c l i mat ic c hanges i n t he S outhern L evan t t o t he l eve l where we f ee l t ha t o ur f irst a pprox i ma t ion i s ar easonab le o ne . I n a ddi t ion , i n s p ite o ft he y outhfu lness o f t he d a ta , i ti s e v ident t ha t f or o ur r egion a t l east , e nv iron menta l r econs truc t ions i nferred f ro m s edi menta t ion/ e ros ion p a t terns a nd l andscape c hanges v ary c oncordan t ly w i th t he d istr ibut ion o f a rchaeo log ica l s i tes t hrough s pace a nd t ime .

We h ope t ha t t h is s ynthes is

w i ll s erve a s ab as is f or f uture t es ting a nd r esearch . B ib liography : Arensburg , B . a nd Bar-Yosef , 0 ., 1 973 . J ordan Va lley , I srae l . Bar-Yosef , 0 ., 1 978 . I n :

H u man r e ma ins f ro m E in Gev I ,

Pa leor ien t , 1 , p . 2 01-206 .

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