Local Administration in Roman Spain A.D. 14-212 9781407332154, 9780860542209

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Copyright
PREFACE
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABBREVIATIONS
PART ONE ORGANISATION
CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER II. THE ADMINISTRATIVE UNITS
CHAPTER III. CITIZENS AND INCOLAE
CHAPTER IV. LOCAL ELITES
CHAPTER V. APPOINTMENTS
PART TWO ACTIVITY
CHAPTER VI. AUTONOMY
CHAPTER VII. BUILDINGS AND SERVICES
CHAPTER VIII. PATRONAGE AND BENEFICIA
CHAPTER IX. SERVICE TO ROME
CHAPTER X. PEOPLE AND MAGISTRATES
CHAPTER XI. CONCLUSION
APPENDICES
APPENDIX I. MILITARY FORCES, PUBLIC PROPERTY, AND INDIRECT TAXES
APPENDIX II. THE CONTENT OF THE LATIN RIGHT UNDER THE PRINCIPATE
APPENDIX III. VESPASIAN'S GRANT OF THE LATIN RIGHT TO SPAIN
APPENDIX IV. COLONIAL AND MUNICIPAL CHARTERS
APPENDIX V. INCOLAE AS CITIZENS OF NO COMMUNITY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
MAP

Citation preview

Local Administration in Roman Spain A.D. 14-212

Nicola Mackie

BAR International Series 172 1983

B.A.R.

122 Banbury Road, Oxford OX2 7BP, England

GENERAL EDITORS A.R. Hands, B.Sc., M.A., D .Phil. D .R • Walker, M.A.

B.A.R.-S172,

©

1983: 'Local Administration 1.n Roman Spain, A.D. 14-212'

Nicola Mackie,

1983

The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9780860542209 paperback ISBN 9781407332154 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9780860542209 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com

P REFACE T his

b ook i s

i nstitutions

c oncerned w ith

i n t he

c ommunities

t he n ature a nd w orking o f

p olitical

o f

u nder

t he

I berian

p eninsula

t he

P rincipate. I t i s d esigned t o e lucidate h ow l ocal i nstitutions o perated , a nd h ow s uccessfully t hey s erved l ocal p urposes a nd t hose o f t he R oman g overnment. I t i s n ot i ntended t o b e a s tudy o f s ocial a nd e conomic l ife i n t he S panish c ommunities, n or o f t he s tructure o f R oman p rovincial a dministration ; a nd t hese t opics a re d ealt w ith o nly i nsofar a s t hey h ave a b earing o n t he c entral t heme . T he b asic p olitical u nit i s t aken t o b e t he s mall s elf-governing c ommunity, r ecognised a s s uch b y t he R oman a dm inistration : o f t hese u nits t here w ere o ver f ive h undred i n t he e ntire p eninsula. P rovincial c ult a ssociations a re t reated n ot a s a n i ndependent p henomenon , b ut a s o ne f acet o f l ocal a dministration . T he p eriod c overed i s t hat b etween A .D . 1 4 a nd t he b eginning o f t he t hird c entury A .D .. T he f irst d ate m arks t he e nd o f A ugustus' m ilitary a nd a dministrative r eorganisation o f t he S panish p rovinces: t he s ystem o f g overnment t hen i n f orce r emained e ssentially t he s ame t hroughout t he s ucceeding t wo c enturies. T he e nd o f t he p eriod i s d etermined m ore b y p aucity o f e vidence t han b y l ogic : t he C onstitutio A ntoniniana o f A .D . 2 12 p rovides a c onvenient t urning-point, g overnment i n t he p eninsula .

b ut d id n ot i tself a lter t he s ystem o f

P art O ne d eals w ith t he c haracter o f t he p olitical u nits a nd t heir i nstitutions. H ere I d iscuss t he i nternal a dministrative s tructure o f t he c ommunities; t he d istribution o f r ights a nd d uties a mong t heir r esidents; t he n ature o f a dministrative e lites a s s ocial e ntities; a nd t he m achinery o f a ppointment t o o fficial p ositions. P art T wo i s c oncerned w ith t he o peration o f p olitica l i nstitutions i n f urtherance o f t he c ommunities' o wn a ims a nd i n s atisfaction o f R ome's d emands. T his p art e mbraces t he q uestions h ow a utonomous t he c ommunities w ere, w hat a mbitions t hey t hemselves e ntertained , a nd h ow t hey s et a bout p rocuring t he f inancial a nd o ther r esources n ecessary f or t he w ork o f g overnment. I n P art O ne I h ave t aken a s e stablished t he r esults o f e arlier s tudies o f t he d istribution o f R oman c olonies a nd R oman a nd L atin m unicipia i n t he p eninsula; a nd h ave t ried i nstead t o c onstruct f rom l ocal e vidence t he d etails o f i nternal o rganisation i n c ommunities o f a ll t ypes. P art T wo r epresents a n a ttempt t o e lucidate t he w orkings o f l ocal g overnment s pecifically i n t he S panish p eninsula ; a nd t hereby t o p resent t he S panish e vidence b oth a s a c ontribution t o m ore g eneral s tudies a nd a s a p ossible c ontrast t o e vidence f or o ther a reas o f t he E mpire. W ith t he a im o f a n i ndependent s tudy i n m ind , I h ave t ried t o a void i mporting t o S pain t he c onclusions o f g eneral w orks o n m unicipal a dministration , o r o f t hose r elating t o s pecific t owns a nd p rovinces e lsewhere. Ih ave u sed s uch c onclusions a s s upport o nly w hen t hey s eemed t o c ohere w ith i ndications i n t he S panish e vidence ,

o r w hen t hey s eemed b y n ature t o b e o f s uch g eneral

a pplication t hat t o d oubt t heir t ruth f or S pain w ould b e p erverse.

F or t he s ubjects d iscussed i n b oth p arts o f t he b ook, e vidence i s e pigraphic.

t he p rimary

T he a reas a nd d ates f or w hich t he e pigraphic

e vidence i s m ost d etailed r eflect t he p rogress o f c ivilisation i n t he p eninsula. T his i s d ue t o t he f act t hat c ivilisation w as a ssociated , n ot w ith l iteracy a lone, w hich

b ut w ith t he d evelopment o f a dministrative c omplexity

p romoted t he u se

t ended

o f

b oth t o r eward ,

p ublic

r ecords.

S ince R oman a nd L atin s tatus

a nd t o e ncourage,

c ultural s ophistication ,

m uch o f

t he e vidence f or t he o rganisation a nd a ctivity o f S panish c ommunities r elates t o p rivileged c ommunities. A lthough t he m ajority o f S panish c ommunities r emained p eregrine u ntil A .D . 7 3-4, t he p eregrine s tage o f t heir h istory

i s

o nly

s parsely

r epresented i n t he

e pigraphic

s ources.

I h ave

n ot, t herefore , e xcluded p eregrine c ommunities f rom t he d iscussion ; b ut i t h as b een i mpossible t o u ncover t heir a dministrative c haracteristics i n a nything

a pproaching

p referred

t he

d etail

a vailable

t o a dmit a n o verwhelming b ias

f or

p rivileged

t owards

o nes.

I h ave

t he p eriod A .D.

7 3-4 ,

a nd

t owards c ommunities w hich h ad R oman o r L atin s tatus b efore t hat d ate , r ather t han a ttempt b y c onjecture o r b y e xtrapolation f rom o ther p rovinces t o r each c onclusions n ot j ustified b y t he S panish e vidence i tself. T he b ook i s b iased i n r espect, n ot o nly o f f ormal s tatus, b ut a lso o f g eographical r egions. t he

T he a ccessibility a nd e conomic a dvantages o f t he e ast a nd s outh o f

p eninsula

c ulture ,

m eant

t hat

t hese

a reas

w ere

a nd p articularly w ell-equipped t o

l ife.

p articularly

E ven a fter V espasian's g rant o f t he L atin r ight,

t he e ast

c oast a nd A ndalusia

e xposed

d evelop a f lourishing

f urnish f ar m ore

t o R oman c ultural

t he c ommunities o f

r ecords

t han

d o

t hose

e lsewhere. T he c ivilisation a bsorbed b y t he S paniards w as o f a s pecifically R oman k ind:

R oman,

r ather t han G reek o r C arthaginian,

c ulture w as t he c hief

e nduring i nfluence w hich w orked o n t heir l ack o f n ative s ophistication . t oo ,

S o ,

d eveloped a dministrative i nstitutions a nd p rocedures i n S pain i mitate

R oman o nes.

F or p eculiarly n ative f orms a nd t erminology,

i s a vailable:

i t i s n ot p ossible,

t o t race i n S pain a t ransition f rom i ndigenous i nstitutions.

R oman a nd L atin m unicipia ,

b etray t heir n ative o rigins;

l ittle e vidence

a s i t i s f or e xample i n G aul a nd A frica , t o R oman-style g overnmental

a lmost w ithout e xception , f ail t o

a nd s uch g overnment o f p eregrine c ommunities

a s c omes t o l ight t ends a lready t o h ave b een i nfluenced b y R oman p ractice, o r a t a ny r ate d isguised b y R oman t erminology. R oman g overnmental i nstitutions,

i nterestingly

T his i s n ot t o s ay t hat n ond ifferent

f rom R oman o nes,

w ere o bsolete i n S pain a fter A .D. 1 4; b ut o nly t hat t heir n ature, i ndeed t heir v ery e xistence, m ust r emain l argely o bscure. T he

s tate

o f

t he

o ther ,

m ore

L atin

i nscriptions

f ragmentary , A rchaeology

g eneral, o r e lse

e vidence p roblems

o f

s u:vive

f rom

i rrevelant

c an t hrow l ight

c ultural a ssimilation , L iterary

s ources

f or

f or

t he t he

n ot

t he e nd

A lthough

p eninsula, q uestion

o n t he c onditions

b ut

S pain u nder

f rom S pain c ease b efore

l ocal a dministration i n S pain c reates

o bscurity.

t o

o n t he

o f

o f

t he

o ver s ix t housand

m any l ocal

l ife,

o f

t hese

f ew.

a re

a dministration .

a nd t he e xtent

i nner w orkings

t he P rincipate a re o f

a nd

o f

L ocal

J ulio-Claudian p eriod.

o f

g overnment. c oinages A rguments

f rom s ilence , t hen , c arry n o w eight. A lthough t he e vidence f rom S pain f ails t o s how , f or e xample, t hat i n t he c ourse o f t ime t he c ommunities' f inances b ecame

i ncreasingly

s trained ,

o r p ublic o ffice

i ncreasingly u npopular ,

i t

d oes n ot f ollow t hat t hese d evelopments d id n ot o ccur . I t f ollows m erely t hat t he S panish e vidence d oes n ot s ettle t he q uestion o ne w ay o r t he o ther ; a nd t hat i nferences d rawn f rom s uch d evelopments e lsewhere h ave a pplication t o S pain o n t he b asis o f a nalogy o nly.

A mong t he s urviving i nscriptions ,

t he c haracters o f U rso ,

M älaca ,

a nd

S alpensa r epresent a s pecial c ase. S ince t hey r ecord , n ot e vents, b ut o nly r ules w hich t he c ommunities c oncerned w ere m oved t o a dvertise , t hey c annot b e r egarded u ncritically a s e vidence f or a ctual p rocedure. I n d iscussing t he c harters, I h ave a ttempted t o a llow b oth f or t heir d ecorative a spect a nd f or t he p ossibility o f d eviation f rom t he a ccepted r ules. A s w ith t he e pigraphic r ecords i n g eneral , I h ave e xtrapolated f rom t he c harters t o o ther d ates, a nd o ther p laces i n t he p eninsula , o nly w hen t his a ppeared j ustifiable i n t erms o f i ndependent e vidence. I n b oth p arts o f t he b ook , b ut p articularly i n t he d iscussion o f m unera i n C hapter X , I h ave u sed p assages f rom t he D igest t o s upport, a nd o ccasionally t o s upplement,

t he e pigraphic s ources.

M ost o f t he p assages

c ited c an b e r egarded a s , a t b est , s ecure e vidence o nly f or t he e nd o f t he p eriod i n q uestion . W hen n ot c orroborated b y S panish r ecords , t he e vidence o f t he D igest i s d oubly i nsecure , a s f urnishing g eneral t heories w hich d id n ot n ecessarily s ecure t he a dherence o f a ny p articular c ommunity , i n S pain o r e lsewhere. T he c itations a re i ntended t o c onfirm t he p lausibility o f a n i nterpretation , o r t o s uggest p ossible d evelopments, r ather t han t o s tand o n t heir o wn a s t estimony f or l ocal g overnment i n S pain . T his b ook i s ar evised v ersion o f a t hesis w hich w as s ubmitted f or t he d egree o f D octor o f P hilosophy a t O xford i n M arch 1 982. I ts c ompletion w as f acilitated b y t he t enure o f a R esearch L ectureship a t C hrist C hurch, O xford.

Ia m m uch i ndebted t o m y f irst s upervisor,

t he l ate M r. M .W.

F rederiksen , w ith w hose h elp t he s ubject g radually d eveloped a round t he o bstacles p osed b y r efractory m aterial. I a m a lso v ery g rateful t o D r . A .K . B owman , w hose s upervision a nd e ncouragement e nabled m e t o s tart , a nd f inish , t urning t he s ubject i nto o rganised w ritten f orm , a nd w ho w ent b eyond t he r equirements o f d uty i n a ssisting w ith r evision f or p ublication . F inally,

I s hould l ike t o t hank m y e xaminers,

D r.

P .D .A .

G arnsey a nd

P rofessor P .A . B runt , f or t heir c omments: e specially P rofessor B runt , f or h is d etailed c riticisms, o f w hich I h ave b een o bliged t o t ake s eriously a ll , a nd a ccepted m any .

2 1. v . 1 983 .

44 4

C ONTENTS P reface A bbreviations

v ii

P ART O NE O RGANISATION I I I

I ntroduction . T he A dministrative U nits

. .

.

3 2 1

II I I V

C itizens a nd I ncolae L ocal E lites

. .

. .

. .

4 0 5 4

V

A ppointments

.

.

.

7 8

P ART NO A CTIVITY V I V II

A utonomy . B uildings a nd S ervices .

. .

. .

9 9 18

V III I X X X I

P atronage a nd B eneficia S ervice t o R ome . P eople a nd M agistrates . C onclusion .

. . . .

. . . .

1 33 1 52 1 63 1 76

A PPENDICES M ilitary F orces , P ublic P roperty, a nd I ndirect T axes

1 83

I I I II

T he C ontent o f t he L atin R ight u nder t he P rincipate V espasian 's G rant o f t he L atin R ight t o S pain

2 01 2 15

I V V

C olonial a nd M unicipal C harters . I ncolae a s C itizens o f N o C ommunity

2 20 2 28

B ibliography I ndex M ap

.

. .

. .

2 37 2 49

A BBREVIATIONS A E

L 'annge

g pigraphique.

R evue

g pigraphiques r elatives P aris, 1 888 A lbertini

E .

A lbertini,

F asti

G .

p ublications

A lföldy,

P aris,

u nd

d e

1 923.

F asti h ispanienses:

R eichsbeamte

r omaine.

L es D ivisions a dministratives

l 'Espagne r omaine. A lföldy,

d es

ä l 'antiquitg

O ffiziere

i n

s enatorische d en

s panischen

P rovinzen d es r ömischen R eiches v on A ugustus b is D iokletian . A lföldy, F lamines

G .

W iesbaden ,

A lföldy,

1 969 .

F lamines p rovinciae H ispaniae

c iterioris. A nejos d e Archivo a rqueologia , 6 . M adrid, 1 973. B runt,

I talian M anpower

C arta A r c l eologica

e spanol

d e

P .A . B runt, I talian M anpower 2 25 B .C.-A D. 1 4. O xford , 1 971. C arta a rqueologicade E spana. d e

C onsejo s uperior

i nvestigaciones c ientificas,

V elazquez.

V ol.

I

( Soria).

I nst.

E d.

B .

D iego

T aracena

A guirre. M adrid, 1 941. V ol. I I. ( Barcelona). E d. M . A lmagro B asch e t a l. M adrid , 1 945. 1 863 -

C IL

C orpus I nscriptionum L atinarum . B erlin ,

E E

E phemeris E pigraphica. C orporis I nscriptionum L atinarum S upplementum . 9 v ols. B erlin , 1 8721 913.

E J

D ocuments

2

I llustrating

a nd T iberius.

E d.

J ones. 2 nd e d. O xford , F IRA I

t he R eigns o f A ugustus

V .

E hrenberg

a nd

F ontes I uris R omani Anteiustiniani. L eges.

E d.

S .

A .H.M.

1 955.

R iccobono.

V ol.

2 nd e d.

I .

F lorence ,

1 941. G alsterer

H .

G alsterer.

S tädtewesen

a uf

D eutsches A rch. F orschungen , 8 .

U ntersuchungen z um r ömischen d er

i berischen

H ispania a ntiqua e pigraphica:

H A E pig

d e A rchivo e spanol d e

S ix R oman L aws

E .G.

H ardy,

S ix R oman L aws.

i n R oman L aws a nd C harters.

v ii

M adrider

S uplemento a nual

a rqueologia.

s uperior d e investigaciones M adrid , 1 950 H ardy,

H albinsel.

I nst., A bt. M adrid , B erlin , 1 971.

C onsejo

c ientificas.

O xford , O xford,

1 911. R pt. 1 912.

H ardy, T hree S panish C harters

H enderson ,

1 942

E .G.

H ardy,

D ocuments. 1 912. M .I.

H enderson ,

S pain ." H irschfeld

0 .

T hree S panish C harters a nd O ther I n R oman L aws a nd C harters.

" Julius

J RS x xxii

H irschfeld,

C aesar a nd L atium i n

( 1942), D ie

O xford ,

1 -13.

K aiserlichen

V erwaltungsbeamten b is a uf D iocletian . B erlin , 1 905. I GR

e d .

I nscriptiones G raecae a d r es R omanas p ertinentes. E d. P aris, 1 911-27.

I LS

R .

C agnat e t a l..

I nscriptiones L atinae S electae. 3v ols.

J ones,

2 nd

" Occupation"

R .F.J.

B erlin , J ones,

A .H .M .

K ubitschek,

I RTD

J .W.

L egio V II G emina

J RS l xvi ( 1976),

4 5-66.

T he G reek C ity f rom A lexander t o

O xford ,

1 940 .

K ubitschek,

d iscriptum .

D essau .

" The R oman M ilitary O ccupation o f

J ones,

J ustinian .

H .

1 892-1916.

N orth-West S pain ." J ones, T he G reek C ity

E d.

4 v ols.

I mperium R omanum t ributim

V ienna ,

L egio V II G emina.

1 889 .

C atedra d e S an I sidoro ,

I nst.

L eones d e e studios r omanos-visigoticos. J .C. B aroja e t a l.. L eon , L iebenam

W .

L iebenam,

S tädteverwaltung i m r ömischen

K aiserreiche. M cElderry I

R .

M cElderry I I

R .

J RS v iii ( 1918),

J . M arquardt,

S taatsrecht

T h.

d 'Ors, E pigrafia J uridica

A .

d 'Ors,

P flaum , C arrieres

H .G.

R ömisches S taatsrecht.

E pigrafia

M adrid ,

P flaum,

3 rd e d .

3

1 887-8.

j uridicos.

a ntiguos.

2 nd

1 881-5.

j uridica

P ublicaciones

e studios

8 6-94.

R ömische S taatsverwaltung.

L eipzig ,

r omana.

J RS i x ( 1919),

L eipzig,

M ommsen ,

v ols.

5 3-102.

" Vespasian's R econstruction

A ddenda."

e d. 3 v ols. M ommsen ,

1 900.

" Vespasian's R econstruction

K nox M cElderry,

o f S pain : M arquardt

L eipzig,

K nox M cElderry,

o f S pain ."

E d.

1 970.

L es

5 th

d el s er.

d e

I nst. T extos

l a E spana n ac.

d e

j uridicos

1 953. c arrieres p rocuratoriennes

g questres s ous l e H aut-Empire r omain .

I nst. f r .

d 'archgol. d e B eyrouth , B ibl. a rchgol. e t h ist., 5 7. 3 v ols.

v iii

P aris,

1 960-1.

P flaum , P rocurateurs

H .G. P flaum , L es p rocurateurs g questres s ous l e H aut-Empire r omain . P aris , 1 950 .

P IR1 2

P rosopographia I mperil R omani , s aec . I . I I. I II. 1 st. e d.. E d. E . K lebs e t a l.. B erlin , 1 897-8 . 2 nd e d . E d . E . G roag e t a l .. B erlin , 1 933 -

R E

P aulys R ealEncyclopädie d er c lassischen A ltertumswissenschaft. S tuttgart , 1 894 -

R old an H ervas

J .M . R oldan H ervas, H ispania y e l e jgrcito r omano : c ontribucion a l a h istoria s ocial d e l a E spana a ntigua . A cta S almanticensia , f ilosofia yl etras , 7 6 . S alamanca , 1 974 .

R uggiero, D izionario E pigrafico

D izionario e pigrafico d i a ntichitä r omane d i E ttore d e R uggiero . R ome , 1 895 -

S herwin-White , R C

A .N . S herwin-White , e d . O xford , 1 973 .

T he R oman C itizenship.

S herwin-White , T he L etters o f P liny

A .N. S herwin-White, T he L etters o f P liny : a H istorical a nd S ocial C ommentary. O xford , 1 966 .

S IG 3

S yllo _ ge I nscriptionum G raecarum. E d. W . D ittenberger . 3 rd e d . 4v ols. L eipzig , 1 9 152 4 .

S yme , " Conquest"

R . S yme , " The C onquest o f N orth-West S pain". I n L egio V II G emina, p p. 8 3-107. R pt. i n R oman P apers, I I , 8 25-54 .

S yme , R oman P apers

R . S ync , R oman P apers. O xford , 1 979 .

E d . E . B adian .

2 nd

2v ols.

T itles o f p eriodicals a re a bbreviated i n a ccordance w ith t he s ystem u sed i n L 'annge p hilologique . N umbers w ithout o ther s pecification r efer t o i nscriptions i n C IL 2 .

P ART O NE

O RGANISATION

1

CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION (i) Geography From Augustus' reign onwards the Iberian peninsula was divided into O f these Baetica corresponded roughly to modern three provinces. Andalusia, while Lusitania was a broader and shorter version of modern Portugal. The remaining area, including the Balearic Islands, belonged to Tarraconensis, which was by far the largest of the three provinces. The greater part of the peninsula consists of a large central plateau, which is cut off by mountainous country from the peripheral coastal regions. Only in the south and south-west -- in Baetica and southern Lusitanf.a -- are there coastal lowlands of substantial proportions. Another large inroad into the central plateau is made in the north-east by the Ebro valley, which is itself cut off by mountains from the interior and from the Mediterranean coast. In spite of these mountain barriers, the Ebro valliy formed for the Romans the principal route into northern and central Spain. Climate and fertility vary greatly from region to region. 2 In the north and north-west of Tarraconensis the c limate resembles that of Brittany, in contrast to the Mediterranean climate of the east coast and Baetica. Strabo thought little of the area's agricultural potential: it was too cold to grow vines or olives, and the natives used beer and butter in place of wine and oil. However, judged by criteria other than suitability for Mediterranean crops, the region is relatively productive. AlLhough the terrain is rough, where fertile soil is available there is an advantage rare in the peninsula: the rainfall is adequate. In modern times maize is grown along the coast and in the river valleys inland; and the population is as dense as that of the east coast and Andalusia. The language in which Pliny states the census f igures for north-west Tarraconensis suggests that its population was impressively large in the first century A.D •• The central plateau which constituted most of inland Tarraconensis suffers from extremes of temperature and chronic shortage of water. In ancient, as in modern, times it was agriculturally poor and sparsely populated. The Ebro valley is better irrigated, and the river and its tributaries were relatively well-settled. The east coast of Tarraconensis is today a fertile and populous region. Strabo records that it was given up to the cultivation of vines, olives, and figs; and a string of Roman towns down the coast confirms that the ancient pattern of settlement resembled the modern one. The case of the Balearic Islands is similar. 3 Lusitania north of the Tagus is rich enough in the coastal areas vineyards are widespread there today - but its eastern part consists of mountainous and barren country. Strabo notes the agricultural potential and large population of northern Lusitania, but claims that the natives were too bellicose to apply themselves to cultivating the soil. The large plain south of the Tagus is regarded by Strabo as reasonably productive; and it contained a number of important settlements under the Principate. Inland the terrain was more mountainous and poorer.4 3

B aetica's f ertility e xcited u nqualified a dm iration a mong a ncient w riters.

V ines,

o lives,

a nd w heat

a ppear t o h ave

b een

t he

m ain

c rops,

a lthough a ccording t o S trabo t here w as n o p roduct i n w hich t he p rovince d id n ot e xcel. I t w as t he p lain a round t he B aetis i tself w hich w as t he p rincipal s ource o f B aetica's r eputation : t he h ills w hich r ise t o n orth a nd s outh o f t he r iver s uffer f rom s hortage o f w ater a nd a re l ess s ettled.

B aetica w as

f ar

t he

m ost

h eavily

p opulated

o f

t he

d ensely S panish

p rovinces i n R oman t imes. A part f rom a griculture, m ines w ere t he m ost i mportant n atura l o f t he p eninsula.

r esource

T he m ain m ining r egions l ay i n t he s outh a nd i n t he

e xtreme n orth-west. G old , s ilver , a nd c opper w ere m ined i n B aetica , i n t he m ountains w hich f ormed t he n orthern b order o f t he p rovince; s ilver a nd l ead n earby i n s outh-east T arraconensis, b etween t he B aetican b order a nd C arthago N ova. o f

U nder t he P rincipate t hese m ines w ere o vershadowed b y t he g old m ines

A sturia-Callaecia i n n orth-west T arraconensis.

L ess

i mportant

m ining

o perations w ere c arried o n e lsewhere. T here w as, f or e xample, g old i n n orthern L usitania , a nd c opper s outh o f t he T agus. I ron w as m ined a round t he E bro , a nd i n t he C antabrian M ountains w hich l ined t he n orth c oast o f T arraconensis. 6

( ii)

P olitical a nd c ultural d evelopment

D evelopment t o t he e nd o f A ugustus' r eign T he p olitical s ystem i ndigenous r elatively s mall t ribes, I n

t he

c ase

o f

t he

t o

I beria a ppears

e ach e mbracing a n umber o f

l arger

t ribes,

s uch

a s

t he

T arraconensis o r t he A stures o f t he n orth-west, s ubdivisions

l inked

t ogether

i n

a l oose

t o h ave b een o ne o f

s eparate V accaei

s ettlements. o f

c entral

t here m ight b e t ribal

c onfederation .

T ypically,

t he

b reakdown o f t ribal o rganisation w as b rought a bout a s i ndividual s ettlements a cquired i ncreasing p olitical i mportance a nd i ndependence: g rowth i n t he p hysical s ize o f s ettlements w as a k ey f actor i n t his p rocess. T he p rocess w as a lready u nder w ay i n t he M editerranean a reas o f S pain a t t he e nd o f t he t hird c entury B .C., w hen t he R oman o ccupation b egan. c onsequence o f t he e arlier G reek a nd C arthaginian p resence i

T hat w as a t hose a reas:

p rincipally G reek i n t he n orth , a nd C arthaginian i n t he s outh. T he n atives o f t he p eninsula h ad l ittle s ophisticated c ulture o f t heir o wn . T he " Iberian" c ulture w hich i s f ound i n t he e ast c oast a nd A ndalusia f rom t he e nd o f t he s ixth c entury B .C. o nwards a rose, l ike t he b reakdown o f t ribal o rganisation,

f rom t he i mpact o n t he n atives o f

C arthaginian p resence.

t he G reek a nd

S ince i t w as t hese s ame a reas w hich w ere m ost

a ccessible t o t he R omans, G reek a nd C arthaginian i nfluence h ad b y A ugustus' r eign b een o verlaid b y R oman c ulture. 8 A t t he e nd o f A ugustus'

r eign t he R omans h ad o ccupied t erritory i n t he

p eninsula f or o ver t wo h undred y ears.

B y 1 33 B .C.

t hey h ad c onquered t he

e ntire m ainland a rea e xclusive o f t he n orth-west a nd L usitania t o t he n orth o f t he T agus. T he B alearic I slands w ere c onquered i n 1 21 B .C., a nd r emained a p art o f t he S panish p rovinces t henceforth.

A fter 1 21 B .C. t here

w as l ittle e xtension o f t erritory u ntil J ulius C aesar's e fforts n orth o f t he T agus

i n h is

p ropraetorship

o f

6 1

B .C ..

J ulius

C aesar

l eft

t o A ugustus

o nly t he r egion n orth o f t he r iver D urius a nd t he C antabrian M ountains a long

4

t he

n orth c oast.

T hese a reas w ere s ubdued b y

1 9 B .C.,

w hereupon t he

c oaquest o f t he p eninsula w as c omplete. U ntil t he r ising o f M äternus i n e r evolts a part f rom s ome t rouble w ith A .D . 1 87 t here i s n o r ecord o f n ativl t he n orthern t ribes i n N ero's r eign . D uring t he R epublic a n umber o f p ermanent s ettlements o f R omans a nd I talians -pr incipally v eteran s oldiers -had b een f ounded , t he f irst s uch s ettlement b eing t hat a t I talica i n 2 06 B .C.. B ut t he g reat a ge o f c olonisation i n S pain d id n ot c ome u ntil t he t ime o f J ulius C aesar a nd A ugustus, w ho b etween t hem f ounded n o f ewer t han t wenty-one c olonies. T he s ites o f c olon ies i n S pain t ended t o b e c hosen f or e conomic r ather t han s trategic r easons. H ence m ost o f t hem w ere c oncentrated i n t he m ost f ertile a nd a ccessible a reas o f t he p eninsula : t hat i s, B aetica a nd e astern T arraconensis. N ative f oundations r ather t han R oman c olonies w ere t he u sual m ethod o f p acifying t he w ilder r egions. T here a lso a ppears t o h ave b een s ome i ndependent e migration o f R omans a nd I talians t o S pain . T hose c oncerned w ere p robably g enerally a ttracted b y t he e conomic o pportunities w hich w ere t he m ore a ccessible r egions p rovided . R oman r oad-building u nder t he R epublic s eems t o h ave b een c onfined l argely t o t he M editerranean a reas o f S pain : 1 Uj t w as V espasian w ho f irst b uilt a r oad a cross t he c entre o f t he p eninsula. R oman s ettlement a nd -to a l esser d egree -contact w ith R oman o fficials a nd 3 a ldiers, a nd s ervice i n t he R oman a rmy , h elped t o d isseminate R oman c ulture , .

T he e arliest a nd m ost w idespread c onsequence o f t he R oman

o ccupation i n t his r espect w as t he u se o f L atin o n c oins a nd i nscriptions. O ther a spects o f R oman c ulture w ere l ess r eadily a cquired : f or t hese w ealth a nd p eace w ere p rerequisite , b ut n ot i n t hemselves s ufficient. T o a ppear r ecognisably R aman o ne h ad t o u se R oman a menities s uch a s b aths,

d ress i n

t he t oga , a nd h ave a n e ducation a long R oman l ines. R oman c itizenship w as i tself r egarded a s a c omponent o f c ivilisation . N ot u ntil t he J ulian a nd A ugustan g rants o f R oman a nd L atin s tatus t o c ommunities d id R oman c itizenship b ecome a t a ll w idespread a mong t he n atives o f S pain .1 t he d ifferent r egions d isplay v arying d egrees o f p olitical a nd c ultural d evelopment a t t he e nd o f A ugustus' r eign . A sturia-Callaecia a nd C antabria c onstituted t he m ost r emote, a nd m ost r ecently c onquered, a rea. T he n atives w ere s till l iving i n h ill-top f orts b elonging t o a n I ron A ge c ulture w hich p ersisted l onger i n t he n orth-west t han e lsewhere i n t he p eninsula. A ugustus' p olicy o f m oving t he n atives d own t o t owns o n l ower g round w as f ar f rom h aving a u niversal e ffect: a lthough s ome o f t he f orts w ere a bandoned a t t he t ime o f t he c onquest , o thers c ontinued t o b e o ccupied w ell i nto t he f irst w ell ,

c entury A .D .. P liny's A ugustan s tatistics , a nd i nscriptions a s r eveal t hat d ecentralised t ribal g overnment w as t ypical o f t he a rea ,

a nd w as p reserved i n t he s ystem o f a dministrative u nits d rawn u p b y R ome. T he a ttested p ublic a ctivity i s l imited t o t he e stablishment o f h ospitia a nd 2 S trabo's d escription o f d edications t o t he n ewly-acquired R oman r ulers. 1 t he n atives' p rimitive l ife-style i s p robably n ot i nappropriate t o t he A ugustan p eriod ; a lthough h e n otes t hat b y T iberius' r eign t he n atives w ere p acified , i f n ot c ivilised . I n a ddition t o f ounding n ative t owns -one o f w hich, A sturica A ugusta , w as a pparently i ntended t o b e as how-piece o f R oman c ulture -A ugustus b uilt a n umber o f r oads i n t he m ining r egion o f A sturiaC allaecia. B oth r oads a nd t owns a re t o b e e xplained i n t erms n ot o nly o f p acification b ut a lso o f a d esire t o e xploit t he m ines e fficiently . T he p resence o f l egions,

a s w ell a s h eavy r ecruitment o f a uxiliaries,

5

h elped t o

e nsure t he l oyalty o f A sturia-Callaecia a nd C antabria.

1 3

I n c entral T arraconensis h ill-top f orts h ad b y t he e arly P rincipate b een r eplaced b y r ecognisable t owns w hose p opulation w as l arge e nough f or t he R oman g overnment t o c ount t hem i ndividually a s a dministrative u nits. T ribal c onnexions, a t l east a s a s ocial p henomenon , s till p ersisted b etween t he t owns,

h owever ;

a nd i t m ay b e t he c ase t hat w ithin t he a dministrative

u nits g overnment w as n ot a lways c ompletely c entralised.

I nscriptions w hich

s urvive f rom t he l ate R epublic a nd e arly P rincipate s how s ome a dvance o n t he a dministrative a ctivity o f t he n orth a nd n orth-west; a nd a h andful o f t owns h ad t he L atin r ight b y A .D 1 4. a nd o ne o f

t he L atin t owns,

B ut t he a rea r emained c omparatively r emote; T ermes,

w as n ot w essively c ivilised w hen a

R oman l egate w as a ssassinated t here i n A .D . 2 5. T he E bro v alley w as t he r egion w hich h ad f ormed S ertorius' m ain b ase i n t he s eventies B .C.. l ooked

t o

S ertorius

A t t o

t hat c onvey

R oman a nd L atin m unicipia

d ate

t he

l eading m en o f

R oman c ulture

t o

t he c ommunities h ad

t heir s ons.

A n umber o f

p romoted b y J ulius C aesar a nd A ugustus s how t hat

b y t he e nd o f t he c entury t he n atives h ad t o s ome e xtent a chieved t heir a im . T he E bro v alley w as a lso t he s ite o f t he R oman c olony C aesaraugusta. T hese a re t he p eople w hom S trabo d escribes as5

" ToyaroL"

,r emarking o n t he

t ransformation f rom t heir o riginal s tate. T he c ivilised c haracter o f t he e ast t he n ature o f t he i nhabitants'

p ursuits:

c oast i n S trabo's d ay i s s hown b y a griculture a nd t rade w ith I taly.

P liny's d escription o f t he a rea s hows t hat t ribal n ames i n h is s ource m erely d esignated g eographical r egions, w ithout a ny c onnotation o f t ribal o rganisation . O nly i n t he e xtreme n orth o f t he c oast, n ear t he P yrenees, d o t ribal c onnexions s eem t o h ave p ersisted i nto t he P rincipate. T he I ndicetes

a re

f oun ddu 6 ring V espasian's

r eign e ngaging i n a d ispute w ith a

n eighbouring t ribe. T his w as a p art o f S pain w hich h ad b een h eavily e xposed t o f oreign i nfluences: t here w ere G reek s ettlements s uch a s E mporion, a nd t he C arthaginian f oundation C arthago N ova. T o a l ater d ate b elonged t he R aman s ettlement V alentia. T he R epublican s enator Q . V arius H ibrida b elonged t o a f amily w hich h ad s ettled i n t he c ountry n ear V alentia. Q . F abius o f S aguntum w as e nfranchised i n t he s eventies B .C.

b y M etellus P ius a s B albus

o f G ades w as b y P ompey. H is n ative t own w as, l ike G ades, a R oman m unicipium i n t he e arly P rincipate. R oman c olonies o n t he c oast i ncluded C arthago N ova a nd T arraco. T he B alearic I slands w ere s imilarly p eaceful a nd c ivilised. T he R oman s ettlements P alma a nd P ollentia o n M allorca 7 e njoyed R oman c itizenship b y A .D . 1 4. 1 I n n orthern L usitania t he l ife-style o f

t he n atives w as,

a ccording t o

S trabo, l ittle m ore a dvanced t han t hat o f t he n eighbouring A stures a nd C allaeci. H ill-top f orts w ere a f eature o f t his r egion a lso. A s i n n orthern T arraconensis,

s ome a ttempt w as m ade b y Augustus

t o

t ransfer t he

n atives t o l ess s ecure a nd m ore e asily s upervised s ettlements: h e m oved n umbers o f t hem t o t he s outh o f t he T agus. I n n orthern L usitania , a s i n t he n eighbouring p art o f T arraconensis a cross t he D urius, t he t ribal s ubdivisions s urvived a s a dministrative u nits i nto t he s econd c entury .A .D .. S outhern

L usitania w as

p eaceful:

b y A ugustus'

p rivileged t owns, a s w ell a s f ive R oman c olonies.

6

lr eign b i

i t

c ould

s how f our

T he p eople o f B aetica , l ike t hose o f t he e ast c oast, d evoted t hemselves t o t he

p eaceful

p ursuits

o f

a griculture

a nd

t rade

w ith

I taly.

Any

s uggestion o f t ribes a s p olitical o r s ocial u nits h ad d isappeared w ell b efore t he e nd o f t he R epublic :

t he p olitical s ystem o f B aetica w as o ne o f

c ommunities g overned b y s enate a nd m agistrates f rom a c entral t own.

B aetica

c ontained I talica , t he f irst I talian s ettlement i n S pain ; a nd a lso G ades, t he f irst R oman m unicipium o utside I taly. B aetica f urnished , t oo , t he f irst R oman s enator o f i ndigenous

S panish s tock.

J ulius

A ugustus f ounded a n umber o f R oman c olonies i n t he p rovince, R oman a nd L atin m unicipia.

A ccording t o

C aesar a nd

i n a ddition t o

S trabo L atin h ad b y

P rincipate a ltogether s upplanted t he n ative l anguage.

t he

e arly

1 9

E ven i n B aetica a nd e astern T arraconensis i t m ay b e d oubted t hat R oman c ulture

h ad

i nhabitants m ores

b een a bsorbed

t horoughly b y

t he e arly

P rincipate.

o f E mporion r etained t heir G reek a spect i n 4 5-44 B .C..

s urvived a t

G ades u ntil

6 1

B .C .,

a ssistance o f a R oman g overnor.

T he P unic

a nd w ere e xtirpated o nly w ith t he

A wareness o f t he a menities w ith w hich a

R oman-style t own s hould b e p rovided p robably d id n ot b ecome g eneral e ven i n t he M editerranean a reas a ppeared a s m odels.

o f

S pain u ntil

t he

J ulian

a nd

A ugustan

c olonies

A t t he t ime o f t he c ivil w ar b etween C aesar a nd P ompey

t he t ypical t own i n t he m ountainous r egions o f B aetica h ad a h ill-top s ite w hich w as i n crasistent w ith a n o rderly a nd s pacious l ay-out. o ccupied s uch a s ite i n V espasian's r eign.

S abora s till

A lthough R oman and L atin

m unicipia i n t hese a reas c onfirm t hat b y t he e nd o f A ugustus' n atives h ad u ndergone c ertain a mount o f c ultural a ssimilation ,

r eign t he t he c ivil

w ars h ad h astened p romotions t o p rivileged s tatus. T he L atin r ight i n a ny c ase n eed s uggest o nly t hat t he r uling c lasses a ppeared r ecognisably R oman . 2° D evelopment u nder t he P rincipate E conomic a dvantages a nd a ccessibility c ontinued t o p romote t he c ultural a ssimilation o f B aetica a nd e astern T arraconensis, o f S pain ,

u nder t he P rincipate.

p resence o f R oman c olonies, m unicipia:

b oth

A fter A ugustus'

t hese

a nd a lso

f actors

i n c ontrast t o t he r est

T heir p redominance w as c ompounded b y t he b y t he

w ere

e xistence

a s timulus

r eign t he R oman g overnment

t o

s howed

o f

R oman a nd L atin

c ultural

d evelopment.

l ittle i nterest

i n

c ivilising t he n atives o utside C antabria a nd A sturia-Callaecia.

H ere r oad-

b uilding

t he

a nd

t he

C laudian e mperors,

f oundation

o f

n ative

t owns

w as

c ontinued

b y

a nd r eached a c limax i n V espasian 's r eign .

s ecurity i s i ndicated b y t he g radual w ithdrawal o f t he l egions.

J ulio-

I ncreasing T he t hree

educed l egions p resent e arly i n T iberius' r eign w ere b y N ero's r eigpi r o ne , a nd a s ingle l egion g arrisoned t he n orth-west t henceforth. '

t o

V espasian's g rant o f t he L atin r ight t o t he e ntire p eninsula i s a n e xception t o t he e mperors' g eneral l ack o f i nterest i n t he s tatus o f S panish c ommunities. A lthough i t p oints t o a d egree o f c ultural a ssimilation a mong t he u pper c lasses w hich r endered t heir p ossession o f R oman c itizenship n ot a bsurd , t he

c ultural a ssimilation d id n ot b y i tself c ompel t he g rant.

J ulian a nd A ugustan g rants o f p rivileged s tatus,

m otive f or V espasian's g enerosity: i n p articular t o h is d ynasty.

A s w ith

t here w as a p olitical

t he L atin r ight b ound t he r uling c lasses A lthough t he L atin r ight s eems

t o h ave

s purred o n t he d evelopment o f S panish c ommunities, e specially w ith r egard t o s ocial a menities, t he p oorer a nd m ore r emote a reas o f t he p eninsula n ever c aught u p w ith t he r est.

A lthough I ron A ge f orts w ere a bandoned b y t he e nd

7

of the first century A.D. in northern Lusitania and Tarraconensis, tribal consciousness persisted. By the second century A.D. the most remote regions of Tarraconensis were furnishing provincial flamines to the capital at Tarraco. But Roman senators and high-ranking equites are attested as coming only fram the east and south of the peninsula. 22 (iii)

Provinces and conventus

Tarraconensis and Lusitania were imperial provinces, while Baetica belonged to the Senate. Of the three provinces Tarraconensis was by far the most important so far as the Roman goverrnnent was concerned: it was not only the largest, rut also contained the most profitable public mines, as well as the only Roman legions in the peninsula. This concentration of resources and troops in Tarraconensis was quite deliberate. It was a consequence of boundary changes which robbed Lusitania and Baetica of territory during the course of Augustus' reign. The provincial capitals the main bases of the Roman adm��istration -- were at Tarraco, Emerita Augusta, and Corduba respectively. For purposes of jurisdiction, each province was divided by Augustus into judicial conventus: seven in Tarraconensis, three in Lusitania, and four in Baetica. Roman justice was made available at the conventus capitals, of which the capital town of each province was one. Otherwise the conventus and their capitals seem to have had little administrative The conventus boundaries appear to significance for the Roman govermnent. have been drawn up fairly arbitrarily, with little concern even that all communities in a conventus should have easy access to the conventus capita1.2 4 (iv) The Roman Administration Roman officials in the Spanish provinces had three types of function: to exercise jurisdiction and supervise the internal affairs of provincial communities; to supervise the comm unities in the discharge of their obligations to Rome; and to command troops and administer public property and indirect taxes. These different types of function could overlap in the duties of any one official. Provincial governors might command troops as well as exercising jurisdiction and a general supervision of affairs. In the imperial provinces the provincial procurator was in charge both of public property under the emperor's control and of collecting the taxes In addition to the main officials which the communities paid to Rome. governors, legates, quaestors, and provincial procurators -- there were others such as lesser military officials, procurators of individual public mines, and procurators (and their staffs) in charge of the· collection of indirect taxes. 2 5 Jurisdiction and general supervision In Baetica the proconsul had a single legate to assist him, as did the imperial legate who governed Lusitania. The large size of Tarraconensis, Under and the presence of legions there, led to more complex arrangements. the system which was in force at the end of Augustus' reign, and preserved 8

by T iberius, there were three legates subordinate to the provincial governor. Two were in coo:mand of armies stationed in the remoter� parts of the province, near Asturica Augusta and south of the Cantabrian Mountains; while the third, without an army, supervised the civilised area around Caesaraugu sta. From Vespasian 's reign onwards only a single legionary legate was present, in addition to the unarmed legate: he was stationed, in command of the Seventh Legion, just north-east of Asturica. By the reign of Antoninus Pius another change had taken place: from about A.D. 140 the unarmed legate appears to have operated exclusively in the three north-west conventus of Tarraconensis, with the title "legatus iuridicus Asturiae et Callaeciae". This post was for a period u�1,er Septimius Severus combined with the command of the Seventh Legion there. The existence of subordinate legates merely lightened the governor's burden: it did not relieve him of responsibility for the entire province, or even confine his personal attentions to certain areas. The governor of Tarraconensis was obliged to make an annual tour of the province. Nor, even in Tarraconensis were subordinate legates necessarily restricted to prescribe d areas, so far as juridical duties at least were concerned. Before the reign of Antoninus Pius, the unarmed legate of Tarraconensis did not confine his attentions to the region around Caesaraugusta. He is found dispensing j �tice at Carthago Nova, presumably in the governor's absence; and assisting the governor in judging a dispute between the Indicetes, who lived on the c0ast north of Tarraco, and another tribe.27 The judicial activity of governors and legates was generally confined to the conventus capitals. But in the performance of their wider supervisory duties they were drawn beyond towns designated as administrative centres. In A.D. 119 a legatus iuridicus of Tarraconensis was dispensing advice from Calagurris, an undistinguished Roman municipium in the Ebro valley. Late in Augustus' reign one of the provincial governors of Tarraconensis visited the region north of the conventus capital Asturica, between the mountains of Asturia and the coast. It may be conjectured that he was on his annual tour of inspection of the province. His presence at that spot in particular may be e� ained in terms of special concern for the quietude of a troublesome region.

8

From the late second century A.D. onwards a number of curatores appear, charged with responsibility for the internal finances of individual conm:unities. Appointed by the emperor himself, they are found in all three But the evidence does not suggest that they were a widespread provinces. phenomenon, and in two cases at least the post of curator was combined with a regular post in the provincial administration. Most of the Roman jurisdiction exercised in Spain is attested as the work of governors and legates. But other judges, of civil suits at least, are on occasion attested. The emperor, if appealed to, might delegate judicial authority to some private individual who otherwise held no official position. Hadrian appears to have done this in the case of a boundary dispute between three connnunities in Baetica. Provincial procurators, as well as governors and legates, exercised jurisdiction from Claudius' reign onwards. But their authority was, in theory at least, limited to fiscal cases; and restricted even in these by some emperors.29 9

T he f inancial a dministration I n i mperial p rovinces t he p rovincial p rocurator p aid t he t roops a nd h ad c harge o f t he c ollection o f d irect

t axes;

b ut

w ere p erformed b y t he p rovincial q uaestor.

i n B aetica

t hese

f unctions

T hat m eant t hat o nly i n B aetica

d id t he g overnor, t hrough h is q uaestor , h ave a ny c ontrol o ver t he c ollection o f d irect t axes.

T he l arge s ize o f T arraconensis i s r eflected i n t he f act

t hat t here w as a s pecial p rocurator o f A sturia-Callaecia i n a ddition t o t he p rocurator r esponsible f or t he

r est o f t he p rovince.

P ublic p roperty i n

L usitania a nd T arraconensis l ikewise f ell t o t he c harge o f t he p rocurators. I n B aetica p ublic p roperty a dministered b y t he S enate w as t he q uaestor's r esponsibility ; b ut i t a ppears t hat m ost o f t he p ublic p roperty i n B aetica s oon c ame u nder t he e mperor's c ontrol, h is r epresentatives. V espasian's

a nd t hereby f ell i nto t he h ands o f

B aetica h ad a p rovincial p rocurator a s e arly a s

r eign.

T he

m obility

o f

t hese

f inancial

o fficials

i s

d emonstrated b y t he t emporary p resence o f a q uaestor a t M unigua i n B aetica , a nd o f ap rovincial p rocurator a t C astulo i n T arraconensis. U ntil t he r eign o f S eptimius S everus p ublic p roperty i n S pain c onsisted l argely o f m ines a s o pposed t o a gricultural e states. p ublic m ines

A sturia-Callaecia ,

s outh-east

T here w ere i mportant

T arraconensis,

a nd B aetica.

T here w ere a lco p ublicly-owned m ines i n L usitania, a lthough o perations t here m ay h ave b een l ess i ntensive.

F reedmen i mperial p rocurators o f i ndividual

m ines s eem t o h ave b een i ntrodu

e b y V espasian :

t hey a ppear f rom h is r eign

o nwards i n a ll t hree p rovinces. P ortoria w ere

c ollected

a t

t he

p rovincial

f rontiers.

I n t he

f irst

c entury A .D. t hey w ere c ollected b y p ublican', b ut b y t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury p ublicani s eem t o h ave b een r eplaced a ltogether b y i mperial p rocurators a nd t heir s taffs.

T he c ollection o f p ortoria i s a ttested e ven

a t r elatively m inor p orts i n B aetica. T he v icesima h ereditatium a nd l ibertatis w ere , t he c ontrol

o f

i mperial

o fficials

b y

t he e nd o f

l ike t he p ortoria, u nder t he

s econd c entury A .D ..

T he a dministration o f t hese t axes w as b ased a t t he p rovincial c apitals.

3 1

M ilitary f orces M ilitary

f orces w ere

n orthern T arraconensis. a t C orduba a s w ell. p raefectus,

a re

f ound

a ttested

t he

l ate

i n

t o b e

f ound o utside

t he

l egionary

T here w as a g arrison a t T arraco , T wo o r t hree c ohorts, o n

t he

f irst

n orth-east

c entury

o f

c ommanded b y a n e questrian

c oast

A .D.,

b ases

a nd p robably o ne

b ut

o f

T arraconensis.

q uite

p ossibly

F irst

e stablished

e arlier , t hey w ere a pparently d esigned f or p rotection a gainst p irates. A s ingle c ohort , a lso c ommanded b y a n e questrian p raefectus, i s f ound i n t he m ining r egion o f

C astulo

b andits

t he m ines,

n ot

B aetica. L usitania h ave

o nly

i n

s outh-east b ut a lso

T arraconensis: t he

r oad

p rotected

f rom

t hrough t he m ountains

i t

i nto

A uxiliary u nits a re f ound s cattered i n n orthern T arraconensis a nd n orth o f

v isited

a bout A .D. 4 0 .

t he T agus.

C lunia ,

t he

T he p raefectus

c onventus

c apital

i n

o f

o ne

c entral

o f t hem a ppears t o T arraconensis,

i n

Am ilitary s tatio o f u ncertain d ate i s a ttested a t S egisamo

n orth-west o f C lunia,

o n t he r oad f rom t he P yrenees t o A sturica.

a t I talica i n B aetica w as p robably a lso a m ilitary

1 0

o ne.

3 2

A s tatio

C onclusion O utside

t he

f inancial a dministration,

w ith i ts d irect r elevance t o

R ome's o wn p ecuniary i nterests, t he n umber o f R oman o fficials i n S pain d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave i ncreased s ignificantly i n t he c ourse o f t he P rincipate. E ven

t he

c uratores,

c ommunities,

d esigned

t o

p rotect

t he

f inances

o f

p rovincial

d o n ot r epresent a n i mportant g rowth o f o fficialdom .

t he p rocuratorships

w hich i ncrease i n n umber ,

i mperial

a nd a long w ith t hem t he

p rovinces,

a dm inistration .

b oth

l ower p osts

T his i ncrease w as d ue i n p art

p ublic p roperty i n t he S panish p rovinces. w as t he g rowth o f i mperial,

I t

i s

i n B aetica a nd i n t he i n t he

f inancial

t o t he e xtension o f

R oman

B ut a m uch m ore i mportant c ause

a s o pposed t o

s enatorial,

c ontrol o ver p ublic

p roperty a nd i ndirect t axes, a long w ith d irect a dministration o f p roperty a nd t axes u nder imerial c ontrol. T hus b y H adrian 's r eign a dministration o f

m ines

b y

s pecial

p rocurators

h ad

t o a l arge

d egree

r eplaced ,

e ven i n

B aetica , t he s ystem o f l etting t o p ublicani. B y t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury p rocurators a nd t heir s taffs h ad t aken o ver f rom t he p ublicani t he c ollection o f i ndirect t axes. O f t he a dm jnistrative c entres i n e ach p rovince ,

t he p rovincial c apital

w as b y f ar t he m ost i mportant. T hat w as w here t he g overnor s pent m ost o f h is t ime. I t w as b y v irtue o f t heir s tatus a s c apital t owns t hat T arraco a nd C orduba h ad g arrisons. c ollection o f

T he c apital t own w as t he

t he v icesima h ereditatium a nd l ibertatis,

p eriod w hen t he s tate h ad t aken o ver t he c ollection o f

c entre

f or t he

a t a ny r ate i n t he t hose t axes.

B ut

o ther t owns t oo , i n v arying d egrees, h ad p ermanent o r t emporary l iaisons w ith o fficials o f t he R oman a dministration. A c ohort w as s tationed p ermanently a t C astulo i n T arraconensis; c ollectors o f t he p ortoria w ere a pparently d iffused a mong a l arge n umber o f t owns, a t l east i n B aetica ; a nd m ilitary s tationes g uarding t he r oads w ere s ometimes p laced a t t owns o f n o s ignificance a t a ll. C onventus c apitals o ther t han t he p rovincial c apital a ttracted

r egular

v isits

f rom

g overnors

a nd

l egates.

T he m ore

g eneral

s upervisory d uties o f t hose o fficials t ook t hem e ven f urther a field , f inancial i nterests t he q uaestors a nd p rocurators. s tationes

o f

t he

p ublic

p ost

h ad

a t

l east

a s d id

T owns w here t here w ere

t ransient

c ontacts

w ith

R oman

o fficials. O n t he o ccasion o f a p rovincial c ensus, e very c ommunity i n a p rovince c ould e xpect t o b e v isited b y a R oman o fficial c ollecting t he r eturns. 33

1 1

N OTES:

C H .

N OTES ( CHAPTER I :

1 .

S pain

a nd

P ortugal

( Naval

h andbook s eries), 3 v ols. 2 .

I

I NTRODUCTION)

i ntelligence d ivision ,

( London ,

1 941-4),

F or d eforestation s ince R oman t imes,

g eographical

I , 1 5-50 .

s ee S pain a nd P ortugal,

I ,

1 35-

6 ; c f. S trabo i ii. 1 -4 , C 1 37-67, p assim . D eforestation a ppears t o h ave d iminished t he f ertility i n p articular o f t he E bro v alley a nd t he p lain o f s outhern L usitania ( nn . 3 -4). 3 .

S trabo i ii.

N orth a nd n orth-west T arraconensis: C 1 37;

3 .

f igures:

7 ,

C 1 55;

P liny N H i ii.

2 8.

4 .

I II,

S pain a nd P ortugal,

1 6 ,

C 1 64 ;

8 4-95.

1 . 2 , C ensus

( The c ensus c oncerned m ay b e e ither

A ugustan o r V espasianic . S ee .R . S yme , " Pliny t he P rocurator ," H SPh l xxiii ( 1969), 2 01-36 ( rpt. i n R oman P apers, I I , 7 42-73), p . 2 16 ; A .B. B osworth , "Wspasian a nd t he P rovinces: S ome P roblems o f t he E arly 7 0's A .D .," A thenaeum N .S. l i ( 1973), 4 9-78 , p p . 7 6-7.) B ut h eavy r ecruitment f rom t his a rea ( below , n . 1 3) c ould i mply m erely a p olicy o f p acifying t he n atives. C entral p lateau : S pain a nd P ortugal, I II , 9 8106 . S trabo i ii. 4 . 1 2 , C 1 62, c f. i ii. p opulation). E bro v alley: 1 61.

i ii. 4 .

1 . 2 , C 1 37 ( poverty);

S pain a nd P ortugal ,

II , I

1 06-8 ;

1 3 , C 1 62 ( sparse

S trabo i ii.

4 .

1 0 ,

C

F or s ettlement i n R oman t imes, s ee e .g. H . K iepert, A tlas

A ntiquus ( Berlin , n .d.), T ab . X . C f. n . 2 . E ast c oast: S pain a nd P ortugal , I II , 9 5-8 ;

1 09-112;

S trabo i ii. 4 .

1 6, C 1 63-4; c f. in. 1 . 2 , C 1 37. S ee K iepert, T ab. X , f or t he R oman t owns. B alearic I slands ( including t he P ityussae): S pain a nd P ortugal , I II , ; S trabo i ii. 5 . 17-8 4 .

1 -2, C 1 67-8 .

N orthern L usitania: S pain a nd P ortugal , I I , c hs. i v a nd v ii; S trabo ii. 3 . 4 -5, C 1 53-4 ; c f. P olyh . x xxiv . 8 . 4 = A thenaeus v iii , p . i 30c. S outhern L usitania : S pain a nd P ortugal , I I , c hs. i v a nd v ii; 3 S trabo i ii. 1 . 6 , C 1 39 ( coast); ii. 2 . 3 , C 1 42 ( inland). C f. n . i 2 .

5 .

B aetica : S pain a nd P ortugal , I II , 12-7. 4 , C 1 42; 2 . 6 , C 1 44; c f.iii. 1 . 6 , M ountains t o n orth : ii. 2 . 1 , C 1 41 i

F ertility : S trabo i ii. 2 . C 1 39 ; P liny N H i ii. 7 .

S trabo i ii. 2 . 3 , C 1 42. f.; P liny N H i ii. 7 ; f

P opulation : S trabo 1 8; i v. 1 17 ( 175

c ommunities a s o pposed t o 4 5 i n L usitania, 2 93 i n T arraconensis, w hich w ere n early t wice a nd f ive t ines t he s ize r espectively . C f. J . B eloch, D ie B evölkerung d er g riechisch-römischen W elt ( Leipzig , 1 886), p p. 4 46-8.). 6 .

0 . D avies , R oman M ines i n E urop _ e _ ( Oxford ,

1 935), c h. i v .

7 .

N ative t ribes a nd c ulture:

" Hispania" ,

A .

2 046 , 2 013 f f., e sp . 2 022 f f.; P rehistory o f

t he

S chulten ,

R E V III ,

1 965-

H .N . S avory, S pain a nd P ortugal:

I berian P eninsula

1 2

( London ,

1 968),

c h.

x .

C f.

t he E .

N OTES: C H . I P hilipon , L es I beres ( Paris, 1 909), p p. 2 38-43, f or p olitical i nstitutions i n t he t ransition p eriod. S ee C hapter I I f or t he c haracteristics o f t ribal g overnment a nd e volution o f c entralised c ommunities u nder t he P rincipate . G reeks a nd C arthaginians: C .H .V . S utherland , T he R omans i n S pain 2 17 B .C. A.D . 17 ( London , 1 939) , c h . i . 8 .

" Iberian" c ulture : A . A rribas , T he I berians ( London , c . 1 964) , c hs. i v-x . I berian c oins: A . V ives y E scudero , L a m oneda h ispanica , 4 v ols. ( Madrid , 1 924-6), I -III ( Republic); I V ( Principate). I berian i nscriptions: E . H übner , M onumenta L inguae I bericae ( Berlin , 1 893) , p . 1 43 f f.; c f. A . S chulten I berische L andeskunde , I ( Strasbourg , p 1 955), 1 28 f f.. G reek c oins: V ives. G reek i nscriptions: A . S chulten , ' Tle G riechen i n S panien ," R hM l xxxv ( 1936) , 2 89-346 , p p . 35-40. P unic c oins: V ives. P unic I nscriptions: S chulten , 3 L andeskunde , I , 1 30 . T he u se o f I berian , G reek a nd P unic o n c oins a nd i nscriptions s carcely s urvived t he e nd o f t he R epublic .

9 .

E xpansion u nder t he R epublic : S utherland , c hs . i i f f ., w ith m ap a t e nd s howing t he c hanging p rovincial b oundaries. F or t he B alearic I slands, s ee R E I I 2 826-7; c f. A ppendix I n . 5 . A ugustus' c ampaigns : S yme , " Conquest." N orthern t ribes: C IL 1 3 95 = I LS 2 648 ; J ones , " Occupation ," p . 4 6. M äternus: H erodian i . 1 0 . 2 ; E .A . T hompson , " Peasant R evolts i n L ate R oman G aul a nd S pain ," P ast a nd P resent i i ( Nov . 1 952), 1-23. T here w ere , o n t he o ther h and , i nvasions o f B aetica a nd T arraconensis b y M äuretanian t ribes i n t he m id-second c entury A .D .: R E X IV 2 376 ; c f. C IL 2 120 ; 2 015 .

1 0 .

R oman a nd I talian s ettlements t o A .D. 1 4: B .D . H oyos, " The R omanization o f S pain : a S tudy o f S ettlement a nd A dministration t o A .D. 1 4," D . P hil. t hesis O xford 1 971, c hs. v -vii; B runt, I talian M anpower , p p . 2 15 f f.; 5 90-3 . A s trategic p urpose c an b e c laimed f or C elsa a nd L ibisosa i n T arraconensis , a nd p ossibly a lso f or t he L usitanian c olonies. N ative f oundations: H oyos, " The R oman ization o f S pain ," c hs. p ( Republic); p . 1 35-7 ( Augustus). E migration : A .J .N . W ilson , E migration f rom I taly i n t he R epublican A ge o f R ome ( Manchester e tc., 1 966), p p. 2 2 f f.; B runt, I talian M anpower , p p . 2 09 f f.. R oads: J .J . V an N ostrand , " Roman S pain ," i n A n E conomic S urvey o f A ncient R ome , e d . T . F rank , I II ( Baltimore , 1 937) , 19-224 , p p . 1 41-3 ( Republic); 1 93-6 ( 2rincipate).

1.

S pread o f L atin : A ., G arcia y B ellido, " La L atinizacion d e H ispania ," A EA x l ( 1967) , 3 -29 ; c f. n . 8 . W ealth a nd p eace p rerequisite: T ac. A nn. x i. 2 4; H ist. i v. 7 4; S trabo i ii. 2 . 1 5 , C1 51; 3 . 8 , C1 56 ; 5 . 1 , C1 67 ; P liny N H i ii. 3 1. R oman a menities e tc .: T ac . A nn . x i. 2 4 ; A gr . 2 1; S trabo I ii. 2 . 1 5 , C 1 51; 4 . 2 0, C 1 67; P liny N H i ii. 3 1; P lut. S ert. 1 4. R oman c itizenship a c omponent: P liny N H i ii. 3 1 ( "virorum d ignatione"). 1 3

N OTES: C H . J ulian a nd A ugustan g rants R omanization o f

S pain ,"

o f R oman a nd L atin s tatus:

c h .

x v .

and A ugustus r espectively, p p.

M anpower ,

5 84-8 ;

T owns:

O bscurities,

4 39-71,

p p.

I H oyos,

( For t he r esponsibility o f

s ee H enderson,

1 942;

B runt,

" The C aesar

I talian

B .D. H oyos,

" Pliny t he E lder's T itled B aetican

E rrors

O rigins,"

4 62-9 .)

C f.

a nd

B runt,

x xviii

H istoria

p p.

I talian M anpower ,

( 1979) ,

6 02-5

f or

R oman m unicipia. 1 2.

A sturia-Callaecia , C antabria: " North-western c astros:

f or h ill-top f orts,

e xcavation,

s ee C .F.C. H awkes,

a rchaeology,

a nd h istory"

( Separata d as a ctas d o I I c ongreso n acional d e a rqueologia, C oimbra , 3 1 971); S avory, p p. 2 54-9. A ugustus' p olicy; F lorus i i. 3 ( Astures); D io l iv . 1 1. 5 ( Cantabri). T he n ative t owns o f A ugustus i n t his r egion a re B racara A ugusta, L ucus A ugusti,

A sturica

A ugusta ( Asturia-Callaecia); a nd I uliobriga ( Cantabri) ( Hoyos, " The R omanization o f S pain ," p . 1 36). T ribal g overnment: P liny N H i ii. 2 7-8 ( see n . 2 3 f or t he A ugustan d ate o f h is s tatistics); C hapter I I p p. 2 1-3. H ospit a :

2 633 ( A .D. 2 7);

D edica i ons: 2 422; 1 3.

S trabc i ii.

3 .

A E 1 961 9 6 ( A .D.

2 8).

I LS 8 895; A E 1 974 3 92 ( all A ugustan). C 1 55-6 ( on h is s ources f or i ii.

7 -8 ,

D ie

Q uellen v on S trabons d ritten B uch ( Philologus, 1 8 , H eft 3 ) ( Leipzig , 1 926), p p. 7 0-89). A sturica: P liny N H i ii. 2 8 ; c f. C hapter V II n . 6 . R oads:

3 ,

s ee J . M orr ,

S upplementumband

" Occupation ," p p. 4 6-7.

J ones ,

A ppendix I p p. 1 83-4; 1 85ff.. i ii. 3 . 8 , C 1 56 ( written e arly r eign); R oldan H ervas, p p. 2 65 f f..

M ines a nd l egions: R ecruitment:

1 4.

S trabo

C entral T arraconensis:

i n T iberius'

f or h ill-top f orts h ere i n t he e arlier

p eriod, s ee S avory, p p. 2 54 f f.; c f. L ivy x xxiv. 1 6. 9 . T owns: A rribas, c h. v ; P liny N H i ii. 2 6-7. E xamples a re T ermes a nd U xama ( Carta A rqueologica ( Soria), p p. T ribal c onnexions: C entralisation :

6 093 ,

1 02 f f.;

1 25 f f.).

" Vaccaeus".

C hapter I I p p.

2 3 f f..

I nscriptions: A E 1 967 2 39 ( "civitas h onoraria", A .D . 1 3); F atas, " Noticia d el n uevo b ronce d e C ontrebia ," B oletin d e A cademia

d e

l a H istoria c lxxvi.

3 ( Sept.

-Dec.

1 979),

c f. G . l a R eal

4 21-38 ,

e vidence o f f amiliarity w ith L atin a nd R oman l egal p rocedure B .C..

f or

i n 8 7

( Kiepert, T ab. X , C e f or C ontrebia's l ocation .)

L atin t owns: t hey a re C lunia , T a mes, U xama ( n . 1 1). A ssassination : T ac. A nn . i v. 4 5 ( a l egatus i uridicus a ccording t o A lföldy , F asti, p . 6 7). 1 5.

E bro v alley: 1 0 ,

f or S ertorius,

s ee P lut.

S ert.

1 4;

c f.

S trabo i ii.

4 .

C 1 61.

1 a nd L atin p romotions: n . 1. F or R omanisation a s a c ondition o f p romotion , s ee S herwin-White, R C , p p. 2 25 f f., e sp. 2 33. " Toy säto t , " : S trabo i ii. 2 . 1 5, C 1 51; c f. 4 . 2 0, C 1 67. S trabo R oman

( iii.

2 .

1 5,

a dvertisement

C 1 51)

r egards

t he

c olony

C aesaraugusta

a s

a n

o f R oman c ulture c omparable t o P ax and E merita i n

L usitania. 1 4

N OTES: 1 6 .

C H . I

E ast c oast: f or a griculture a nd t rade w ith I taly , 1 6 , C 1 63-4; 4 . 6 , C 1 58 f f..

s ee S trabo i ii.

4 .

G eographical r egions: P liny N H i ii. 1 9 f f.; c f. L ivy x xxiv . 2 0 . 1 f or t he S uessetani a s at ribe i n t he e arly s econd c entury B .C .. ( On P liny's s ources f or t he p eriplus , s ee R E X XI ( i) 3 03 f f..) I ndicates: A E 1 952 1 22; c f. R E I X 1 368 , a nd n . 2 7. 1 7 .

G reek a nd C arthaginian s ettlements: S utherland , c h . i . V alen tia : B runt , I talian M anpower , p p . 2 15-6 , 5 91-2. I t a ppears t o h ave b een a R oman c olony b y 6 0 B .C .. V arius H ibrida : T .P . W iseman , N ew M en i n t he R oman S enate 1 39 B .C . . 2 1 a nd n o . 4 65 ( "Sucronensis"). A .D . 1 4 ( Oxford , 1 971), P Q . F abius: C ic . P ro B albo 2 2 , 5 0 ; n . 1 f or S aguntum 's s tatus. B alearic I slands: S trabo i ii. 5 . 1 -2, C 1 67-8. F or P alma a nd P ollentia , s ee B runt , I talian M anpower , p p . 2 16 , 5 92-3.

1 8 .

N orthern L usitania : S trabo i ii. 3 . 6 , C1 54 ; c f. n . 1 3 f or S trabo's s ource . F orts: H awkes , " North-western c astros" ; S avory , p p . 2 54-9 . M oveme ' lts: S trabo i ii. 1 . 6 , C1 39 ; 3 . 5 , C . 1 54 . P resumably t o t he n ative t owns A ugustobriga a nd C aesarobriga , o n t he T agus ( on t hese s ee H o " ) s , " The R omanization o f S pain ," p . 1 36). ( Strabo i ii. 2 . 1 5 , C 1 51 d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply t he a dmission o f n atives t o t he c olonies P ax a nd E merita .) S outhern L usitania: S trabo i ii. 2 . 1 5, C 1 51. F or c olonies a nd m unicipia b y A .D . 1 4 , s ee P liny N H i v . 17 f ., a nd n . 1.

1 9 .

B aetica : f or p ursuits, s ee S trabo i ii. 2 . 4 , C 1 42 f f.. P olitical s ystem : P liny N H i ii. 7 f f.; C aesar B C i i. 1 9-20 ; c f . L ivy xxiii. 2 1 f or " reguli" i n 1 97 B .C .. x I talica : A ppian I ber . 3 8 ; c f. B runt , I talian M anpower , p p . 2 15 , 6 02; G alsterer , p . 1 2 . G ades: D io x li. 2 4. 1 ; c f. B runt, I talian M anpower, p . 6 02; G alsterer , p p . 1 7-9 . B albus a s t he f irst ( known) n ative S paniard i n t he S enate : W iseman , p . 2 1 f . J ulian a nd A ugustan c olonies a nd m unicipia : n . 1 011. n L anguage: S trabo i ii. 2 . 1 5 , C1 51; c f. n . 1.

2 0 .

E mporion : A ppendix V p . 2 31. G ades: C ic. P ro B albo 1 9, 4 3. c ompare t he P unic n ames ( transliterated) i n 1 087 , 1 585 f f., 2 067 ( all f rom B aetica). F or G reek a nd P unic c oins a nd i nscriptions , s ee n . 8 . C olonies a s m odels: C hapter V II n . 6 . H ill-top t owns : [ Caesar ] B ell. H isp. v iii. 3 -5 ; 1 423 ( Sabora). C ulture a s a c ondition o f p romotion t o R oman a nd L atin s tatus: S herwin-White , R C , p p . 2 25 f f ., e sp . 2 33. P romotion a s ar eward f or l oyalty : D io x liii. 3 9 . 5 . ( Caesar) ; l iv . 2 5 . 1( Augustus). T he L atin r ight's c ontent u nder t he P rincipate : A ppendix I I .

2 1.

l C olonies a s m odels; R o l i n a nd L atin s tatus m an isation : C hapter V II n n . 6 -7 . R o-

1 5

a s

a s timulus

t o

N OTES: R oads i n t he n orth-west:

C H .

J ones,

I

" Occupation ," p p. 4 6-7.

N ative t owns: C laudionerium ( Ptolemy i i. 6 . 2 2, C laudius); A quae F laviae a nd s ix o ther t owns w ith F lavian n ames ( Ptol. i ii. 6 . 4 -5 ; 2 4;

2 6;

2 9 ;

C IL 2 I ,

10 ; w ith S yme , 1

p .

3 44);

a nd a lso F laviobriga.

( Pliny N H i v .

" Conquest," p . 8 8 f or F laviobriga's l ocation , o n t he

c oast n ear R oman i ron w orkings i n t he v icinity o f B ilbao ( Davies,

p .

9 8). T he s uffix " -briga" i ndicates a n ative f oundation -as i n " Augustobriga", " Brutobriga", " Caesarobriga" -not a R oman c olony ; c f. a bove, n .

1 0.

" Colonia" i n N H i v.

10 p robably m eans m erely 1

" settlement".) 2. 2

V espasian's g rant:

A ppendix I II.

T here a re o therwise v ery f ew k nown p romotions o f t owns i n S pain a fter A .D .

1 4.

S ee G alsterer ,

p. p

3 1-2

a nd t he m id-third c entury A .D .); p . 3 5 ( Clunia , G alba);

p .

( Dertosa , p .

b etween T iberius'

r eign

3 4 ( Baelo i n B aetica , C laudius);

1 2 a nd A ul. G ell. N A x vi.

1 3. 4

( Italica ,

H adrian) ( all t o t he s tatus o f R oman c olony):-L atin r ight a nd t he d evelopment o f s ocial a menities: 7 . P ersis ;ing t ribal

C hapter I I p .

c onsciousness:

o f t ri a l n ames o f a dministrative u nits; 6 940

( cf.

A lföldy,

p p.

F lamines,

2 3 f or t he s urvival

a nd e .g.

8 5-6;

C hapter V II n .

4 240;

6 3 ( nos.

5 7;

4 233

= I LS

5 )) f or t he

s urviv z_ o f t he d esignation " Cantaber" , w hich c oincided w ith n o R oman a dministrative d ivision . F lamines: A lföldy , F lamines, p p. 2 0 f f.. S enators a nd e quites: 2 3.

C hapter V III n . 3 .

A ugustan b oundary c hanges: p p.

p p.

A lbertini,

" Conquest," p p.

1 -5; S yme,

3 3 f f.;

H enderson ,

1 942,

1 04-6.

B aetica o riginally s tretched e astwards a lmost t o C arthago N ova; w hile L usitania w as b ounded b y t he o cean t o t he n orth . r epresented o n t he m ap o f A grippa, d eath i n

1 2 B .C..

b oth c hanges;

T hey w ere s o

p ublished s ome t ime a fter h is

A grippa's m ap p rovides a t erminus p ost q uem f or

a lthough i t d oes n ot n ecessarily f ollow f rom A grippa's

m ap a nd i ts p ublication t hat t he c hanges m ust h ave o ccurred a fter c . 7B .C.. F or B aetica ,

P liny N H i ii.

1 6-17

( old b oundary);

4 701 = I LS 1 02;

4 703;

c f.

s ee

( new b oundary).

4 721

( A .D .

6 ,

8 -10 ,

1 9

9 0) s how t he

c hange h ad o ccurred b y 2B .C., a nd i t m ay i n f act b elong t o t hat y ear ( cf.

I LS 1 03).

T arraconensis,

F or m ines ( and b andits) i n t he r egion t ransferred t o 1 1.

s ee A ppendix I n ,

w anted t o c ontrol t he r evenues

o f

I t s eems l ikely t hat A ugustus t he m ines h imself,

and t hat

i ntervention o f t hat s ort i n a s enatorial p rovince s eemed i ndelicate a t t hat d ate ( ci. A ppendix I p . 1 86). T he n eed f or a s pecial c ohort a t C astulo p rotecting t he a rea ( below , p . 1 84) m ay h ave b een a n a dditional m otive ,

1 0 a nd A ppendix I p .

w hether i ts p raefectus w as

r esponsible t o t he p rovincial g overnor o r t o t he e mperor h imself ( n . 2 5). F or L usitanla , 1 12-3.

s ee S trabo i ll.

4 .

2 0 ,

C 1 66 ;

1 4.

A ugustan d ate o f P liny's s tatistical s ource s ee R E XXI H enderson,

1 942,

h ypothesis

t hat

p p. t he

1 -5.)

E conomy

c hange w as

1 6

g ives

18 ,

P liny N H i v.

T he o nly s ecure t erminus a nte q uem i s A .D.

c f.

( On t he 1 303 f f;

s ome s upport

t o t he

c ontemporaneous w ith t he B aetica/

N OTES :

C H . I

T arraconensis b oundary c hange , a nd o ccurred b etweeen c . 7B .C. a nd 2 B .C .. F or m ilitary s ecurity a s t he m otive , s ee A lbertini , p p . 3 3 f.; S yme , " Conquest ," p p . 1 04-6 . C f. b elow , p . 1 0 a nd A ppendix I f p. 1 83 f f. f or l egions i n S pain u nder t he P rincipate. L ater p b oundary c hanges : M cElderry I , p . 8 5 ; I , p p . 9 2-4 . H e a rgues t hat I t he V ettones w ere p laced b y A ugustus i n T arraconensis, a nd t he p rovincial b oundary a ltered b y V espasian t o p lace t hem i n L usitania t henceforth . T here i s n o d oubt t hat f or P tolemy , i n t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury A .D ., t he V ettones w ere i n L usitania ( ii. 5 . 9 ). B ut S trabo a nd P liny d o n ot n ecessarily i ndicate t hat t he V ettones w ere p laced i n T arraconensis b y A ugustus. S trabo i ii. 3 . 3 , C 1 52 d oes n ot n ecessarily r elate t o R oman p rovincial b oundaries ( as o pposed t o t ribal b oundaries) ; a nd t he r eference o f"To t 5TouG" i n t he s entence . x ` y r ceva A rdwg 8 To % I dev ( " ta . vO l a) TCR ITCMJ C AX I GLIXXV O i k &v OI AL OLKYL V I i s i n a ny c ase u nclear . P liny N H I v . 16 s hows t hat t he d istinction o f " Vettones" f rom " lusitani" i n i v. 1 12 d oes n ot e xclude t hem f rom t he p rovince L usitania. H is c iting o f t he V ettones i n ag eographical d escription o f T arraconensis ( iii. 1 9) c annot w eigh a gainst h is p lacing o f " Vettones" i n L usitania i n i v. 1 16, a nd t heir a bsence f rom h is f ormal d escription o f t he c onventus o f T arraconensis. I t s eems p robable t hat t he V ettones w ere i n L usitania f rom t he s tart , p laced t here b y A ugustus. A s i n t he c ase o f L usitania/Tarraconensis, M cElderry a rgues t hat t he B aetica/Tarraconensis b oundary e stablished b y A ugustus w as f urther a ltered b y V espasian ( I , p . 8 5). P liny c onsistently p laces S isapo a nd t he s urrounding t owns i n B aetica ( iii. 1 4 ; x xxiii. 1 8) ; w hile P tolemy h as a S isapo l isted a mong t he " Oretani" , u nder T arraconensis ( ii. 6 . 5 9). ( For t he l ocation o f S isapo , s ee t he m ap a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I , M I). B ut P tolemy 's c itation i s n ot g ood e vidence f or a t ransfer . N ames o f t owns i n t his a rea a re s ometimes d uplicated ( e.g . I Mirobriga" , P tol . i i. 4 . 1 3 a nd 6 . 5 9 ; " Salaria" , i i. 6 . 5 9 a nd 6 1). E ven i f t he s ame S isapo i s m eant, i t w ould b e e asy f or P tolemy , n ot f ollowing o fficial l ists , t o c lass a mong t he O retani a nd t hereby i n T arraconensis a t own w hich l ay o n B aetica's s ide o f t he p rovincial b oundary. I t s eems l ikely t hat t he r eg ion a round S isapo w as p laced b y A ugustus i n B aetica , a nd r emained t here t hroughout t he P rincipate . P rovincial c apitals: t he o nly o ne w hich i s i n a ny d oubt i s C orduba , o n w hich s ee C IL 2 I , p p . 3 06-7 . 2 4 .

J udicial c onventus: P liny N H I ii. 7 f f; i v . 17 f f.; A lbertini , p p . 8 3-104 a nd m ap a t e nd. ( Hübner i n C IL 2 b adly m isplaces t he c onventus b oundaries i n B aetica , o wing t o am isunderstanding o f N H i ii. 9 f f.; c f. A lbertini , p p . 8 5-94.) T he c onventus o f T arraconensis , i n p articular , t end t o b e d ivided i n t wo b y m ountain r anges ( compare A lbertini's m ap w ith S pain a nd P ortugal , I , F ig . I ). O ne e xample o f d ifficult a ccess i s p rovided b y C omplutum , 2 00 k ilometres s outh-west o f i ts c onventus c apital C aesaraugusta , a cross t he I beric M ountains. C onventus c apitals: C orduba , G ades, A stigi,

H ispalis

( Baetica);

E merita A ugusta , P ax I ulia , S callabis ( Lusitania); T arraco , C arthago N ova , C aesaraugusta , C lunia , A sturica A ugusta , L ucus A ugusti , B racara A ugusta ( Tarraconensis). 1 7

N OTES:

C H .

I

A ll t he k nown l ocations o f a g overnor's o r l egate's e xercise o f c riminal o r c ivil j urisdiction a re c onventus c apitals. T he l awsuit o f t he I ndicetes ( n . 2 7) i s n o e xception . A lthough i t w as r ecorded a t E mporiae , t he r eference t o " legati" o f t he t ribe s hows t hat t he d ecision t ook p lace e lsewhere: p resumably a t T arraco , t he c onventus c apital f or t he r egion . 2 5.

O n m ilitary f orces, I .

p ublic p roperty a nd i ndirect t axes,

s ee A ppendix

T he r elation o f m ilitary o fficials t o p rovincial g overnors i s n ot a lways c lear. T he g overnor o f B aetica c ontrolled t he c ohort w hich g arrisoned

t he

T arraconensis

p rovince

( Appendix

I n .

1 4);

( ultimately) t he l egions t here

t he g arrison a t T arraco

( n .

t he

g overnor

o f

2 7), a nd c ontrol o f

( Appendix I n . 4 ) i s t o b e i nferred f rom t he

e vidence f or B aetica. B ut t he p raefectus o rae m aritimae i n T arraconensis, a nd t he p raefectus i n c harge o f t he c ohort a t C astulo , c ould h ave b een d irectly u nder t he o rders o f t he e mperor h imself ( Appendix I 5 88). T hat

1 84;

c f.

p rocurators w ere

p rovinces, ii. i

p .

4 .

i s c ertain 2 0,

i ndependent

T he L etters o f P liny ,

o f g overnors,

( Pflaum ,

P rocurateurs, p p.

A s

t he

C 1 67).

p rocurators t o o thers,

S herwin-White ,

r egards

t he e vidence t ends

p .

e ven i n i mperial

1 57-60 ;

r elation

o f

c f.

S trabo

p rovincial

t o s uggest t hat

t here w as

n o h ierarchy o f a uthority, a h ierarchy b eing u nnecessary, s ince t heir r esponsibilities

d id

n ot

i n

g eneral

o verlap.

C ertainly

t he

p rocurator o f A sturia-Callaecia s eems t o h ave b een i ndependent o f t he p rovincial p rocurator : P flaum ,

P rocurateurs,

t he t wo p osts h ad t he s ame s tatus p .

1 55).

( n .

3 0 a nd

T he l etter t o t he p rocurator o f t he

m ine a t V ipasca i n L usitania c ould w ell c ome d irect f rom t he e mperor h imself ( FIRA I 1 04; d 'Ors, E pigrafia J uridica, p p. 12 f f.; c f. A ppendix I n . 2 1). 9 56 ( cited i n A ppendix I n . 2 1) g ives s ome i ndication t hat p rocurators o f m ines w ere r esponsible d irectly t o t he e mperor.

1 085

( Appendix I p .

1 88 a nd n .

3 9) i s n ot n ecessarily

e vidence t hat a p rocurator i n c harge o f p ortoria ( and h is s taff) w ere u nder t he a uthority o f t he p rovincial p rocurator o f B aetica. 2 6 .

B aetica a nd L usitania: f. f

( Lusitania);

c f.

A lföldy,

F asti,

S trabo i ii.

4 .

p. p

2 0 ,

1 49 f f. C 1 66.

s ubordinate l egate t o t he l egate o f L usitania , c ertain s pecific i nstance. T arraconensis: S trabo i ii. A ppendix I p p .

1 83 f f.

l ater c hanges.

C f.

( legionary l egates);

( Baetica);

1 31

S trabo a scribes a

a lthough t here i s n o

4 . 2 0 , C 1 66-7 ; c f. i ii. 2 .

1 5 , C 1 51.

f or t he o riginal l ocations o f t he a rmies a nd

A lföldy, 6 7 f f.

A sturiae e t C allaeciae" :

F asti,

p. p

3 f f.

( governors);

( legati i uridici).

A lföldy, F asti,

p . p

f. 14 f

" Legatus i uridicus

2 36 f f;

p. p

2 39 , 2 43-

4f or c ombination w ith t he c ommand o f t he S eventh L egion. T he t itle " iuridicus" i s n ot a pplied t o t he u narmed l egate o f T arraconensis u ntil a bout t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury A .D. -nor a t a ny t ime t o t he l egate o f B aetica ( Alföldy, F asti, p p. 2 37-8 ,

2 78-9).

P resumably t he t itle c ame t o b e u sed a s a w ay o f d istinguishing t he o fficial f rom t he g overnor , o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he l egionary l egate o n t he o ther . T he i ntroduction o f t he t itle d id n ot m ark a ny c hange i n t he u narmed l egate's f unctions:

1 8

i n S trabo's t ime t he u narmed

N OTES :

C H . I

l egate m ust a lready h ave e xercised j urisdiction , u noccupied a s h e w as w ith a n a rmy. T he f irst s pecific e vidence o f t he u narmed l egate's e xercising j urisdiction b elongs e arly i n V espasian 's r eign ( Larcius L icinus , c ited i n A lföldy , F asti, p p . 7 0 , 2 37 ; c f. R . S yme , " Pliny t he P rocurator ," H SPh l xxiii ( 1969) , 2 01-36 ( rpt. I n R oman P apers , I I , 7 42-73) , p p . 2 15-6). 2 7 .

S trabo i ii. 4 . 2 0 , C 1 66 m akes i t c lear , s hould o ne d oubt i t , t hat a ll t hree p rovincial g overnors h ad a uthority o ver t heir l egates , a nd t he l egions i n T arraconensis w ere u nder t he c ontrol u ltimately o f t he g overnor h imself. T he g overnor 's t our : S trabo i ii. 4 . 2 0 , C 1 67. 2 703 ( cited i n n . 2 8) s hows t he g overnor p resent i n n orth-west T arraconensis. C f. 6 08 w ith A lföldy, F asti, p . 1 38 f or t he p resence o f t he L usitanian g overnor a t M etellinum i n t hat p rovince. T he u narmed l egate a t C arthago N ova : P liny N H x ix . 3 5 , c f. x xxi. 2 4 , w ith A lföldy , F asti , p . 2 37 . c f. S trabo i ii. 4 . 2 0 , C1 67 -in t he w inter t he g overnor d ispenses j ustice a t C arthago N ova a nd T arraco . I ndicetes: A E 1 952 1 22 ; c f. A lföldy , F asti , p p . 1 9 f f .; 7 1 f f.. ( For E mporiae a s a t own o f t he I ndicetes , s ee S trabo i ii. 4 . 8 , C 1 60 ; P liny , N H i ii. 2 1-2 . C f. A ppendix V p p. 2 30-1: t he n ative S panish p opulation h ad b een m erged w ith R oman c itizens w hen J ulius C aesar f ounded a R oman m unicipium o n t he s pot.) I n v iew o f t he d ifferent f unctions o f l egionary a nd u narmed l egates , S trabo's a ccount ( iii. 4 . 2 0 , C 1 66-7) n eed n ot b e t aken t o i mply t hat t he u narmed l egate w as c onfined t o t he i nland p art o f T arraconensis. H is d escription o f t he u narmed l egate's a rea o f a ctivity i s v ague , a nd c onsistent w ith h is b eing i n t he a rea a round C aesaraugusta m ost o f t he t ime , b ut e xercising a uthority i n t he o ther r egions a t t imes. S ince S trabo i s n ot d escribing a d ivision o f T arraconensis i nto a reas o f j udicial a uthority, t here i s n o r eal d ifficulty i n t he f act t hat t he s pheres o f a ctivity a scribed b y h im t o t he l egates c annot b e c orrelated w ith t he c onventus b oundaries o f T arraconensis. ( On t his q uestion , s ee M cElderry I I , p p. 8 6-9 ; A lbertini , p p. 4 4 f f.; G .P . B urton , " Proconsuls , A ssizes , a nd t he A dministration o f J ustice u nder t he E mpire ," J RS l xv ( 1975), 9 2106 , p . 9 4 7 . ) p

2 8 .

J udicial a ctivity: n . 2 4 ( conventus c apitals); C hapter V I n . 1 7 ( individual c ases). L egatus i uridicus a t C alagurris: 2 959 ; c f. A lföldy , F asti , p p . 7 98 1. O n t he t wo t owns c alled C alagurris , s ee P liny N H i ii. 2 4 a nd C IL 2 , I , p . 4 04 . T hat t nis i s t he R oman m unicipium i s a n i nference f rom t he l ack o f a ny q ualification t o t he n ame . B ut t he i nference i s n ot c ertain . T he l ocation o f t he o ther C alagurris i n u nknown . G overnor : 2 703 ( A .D . 9 10). F rom G ijon o n t he n orth c oast; c f. J ones , " Occupation ," p . 5 0 f or a v exillatio o f L egio I V s tationed t here i n t he e arly P rincipate. S ee R . S yme, " A G overnor o f T arraconensis," i n E pigraphische S tudien , v iii ( Sammelband) ( Düsseldorf , 1 969), 1 25-33 ( rpt. i n R oman P apers, I I , 7 32-41), f or a n a rgument t hat t he e rasure c ontained t he n ame o f C n . C alpurnius P iso ,

1 9

N OTES: c os. 1 ). 2 9 .

C H .

I

7B .C. a nd g overnor o f S pain u nder A ugustus

C uratores:

C hapter V I n .

( 1966),

P .

A . B runt,

4 61-89 .

A nn .

ii. i

1 3.

1.

O ther j udges: 2 349 w ith A E 1 913 3 , c f. P rocurators:

( Tac.

I LS 2 06.

" Procuratorial J urisdiction ," L atomus x xv

T he p rocurator's a ssistance t o t he g overnor i n t he

l awsuit o f t he I ndicetes i n V espasian 's r eign ( n .

2 7) m ay b e s een i n

t erms o f h is f unctioning a s p art o f t he g overnor's c onsilium, r ather t han a s

a j udge

i n p ropria p ersona.

J urisdiction ," p . 4 79 . ( The e xpression . To-C g

P lut.

G alb.

B ut

c f.

4f or

B runt,

" Procuratorial

p rocurators a s j udges.

X at abil iC .0 0. 1 1 , 6V OL G

1 4 .0 (1

T ECOÄ OUI JA V O I .G"

n eed r efer o nly t o c onfiscation a fter f iscal, r ather t han c riminal c ases.) C f. A E 1 973 3 17 f or a c ommunity's d ispute w ith t he f iscus. R estriction o f

j urisdiction e ven i n f iscal c ases:

5 368 f rom I talica

a ppears t o r ecord a n ( unknown) e mperor's d ecision t hat f iscal c ases a re t o b e d ecided b y a b oard o f d isinterested j udges ( Hübner i n C IL " Procuratorial J urisdiction ," p p. 4 80 f f.).

2a d l oc., c f. B runt, 3 0.

A lföldy, F asti, p p.

Q uaestor:

1 80 f f..

P rovincial p rocurators: P flaum , C arrieres, 1 049-50

( Lusitania);

( Brugge,

1 949),

s enatorial

1 048

p .

( Baetica).

I II ,

S ee

1 048 ( Tarraconensis);

S .J.

d e L aet,

3 76 f or t he e arly s pread o f

p rovinces.

A ppendix

I p .

1 85

f .

P ortorium

p rocurators

o n

t he

t o

i mperial

a ssumption o f r esponsibility f or m ines i n B aetica. P rocurators o f A sturia-Callaecia: A E

1 971

1 89.

A ugustus' a lready

P flaum , C arrieres,

S trabo i ii.

r eign.

i n A ugustus'

4 .

2 0,

c f.

P flaum ,

P rocurateurs,

p ayment

o f

p p.

1 51 f f..

C f.

t roops;

B runt,

a nd

D evelopment,"

i ts

c lear t hat

t han o ne

e questrian

S ee n . 2 5 f or t heir i ndependence o f t he

p rovincial p rocurator . F unctions o f q uaestors a nd p rocurators:

p rocurators

1 047;

C 1 67 m akes i t

r eign t here w as m ore

p rocurator i n T arraconensis.

' Fiscus'

I II,

B ut t his p ost n eed n ot h ave b een i ntroduced a fter

M arquardt,

S trabo i ii.

" Procuratorial J RS

c ollecting m oney a nd p roperty

4 .

5 28 f f.;

I ,

2 0 ,

C 1 67 f or

J urisdiction ,"

l vi

( 1966),

o n b ehalf

a nd

/ 5-91,

o f

t he

" The f or

f iscus;

n . 2 9 f or d isputes w ith t he f iscus. P rocurators o f m ines a nd e states: 3 1.

P ortoria e tc.:

3 2.

M ilitary f orces:

A ppendix I p p.

3. 3

G overnors: ( Tarraco);

1 83 f f..

C hapter V III n .

S trabo i ii.

4 .

2 0,

7 .

C 1 66-7 a nd C IL 2 I ,

C IL 2 I , 3 06-7 ( Corduba).

M ilitary s tatiOnes: P ublic p ost, c ensus:

1 85 f f..

1 87-8.

A ppendix I p p.

P raefectus a t C lunia:

A ppendix I p p.

A ppendix I n . 3 7. C hapter I X p p.

2 0

1 56 ;

1 53-4.

p p.

5 51 f f.

C HAPTER I I T HE A DMINISTRATIVE U NITS ( i)

E ach o f t he t hree a dministrative p urposes,

I ntroduction

S panish p rovinces w as d ivided b y R ome, f or i nto a n umber o f d istinct c ommunities. T hese

c ommunities s erved a s i nstruments f or t he d ischarge o f c ertain o bligations, m ost n otably t he p ayment o f t axes, w hich R ome i mposed o n t he p rovincials. T heir a dministrative i nstitutions h ad a nother r ole a s w ell, i n l ocal g overnment.

T he c ommunities a lso f ormed t he b asis f or t he s ystem o f l ocal

c itizenship, w hereby f or e ach f ree p rovincial, w hether o r n ot h e p ossessed R oman c itizenship , t here w as i n t heory s ome p rovincial c ommunity o f w hich h e w as a c itizen. a dministrative

T he s ystem o f l ocal c itizenship w as i mportant t o t he f unctions o f t he c ommunities, i nsofar a s i t h elped t o

d etermine t he f ocus o f a n i ndividual's o bligations a nd p olitical r ights. B ut i t h ad a s pecial i mportance f or t he i ndividual a s w ell : c itizenship o f a c ommunity c onstituted a c laim t o e xercise p rivate r ights t here; a nd i n a p rivileged c ommunity c ould g ive a ccess t o t he R oman c itizenship i tself. ' T o e ach c ommunity, a s a n a dministrative u nit, t here b elonged a t erritory w hose b oundaries w ere o fficially r ecognised , a nd w ithin w hich t he c ommunity's m agistrates h ad a uthority.

O fficial

b oundary-stones

d atine

f rom A ugustus' r eign o nwards d efine t he l imits o f S panish c ommunities. C haracteristically, t he c ommunity h ad a s i ts f ocus a s ingle t own , i n w hich w ere l ocated t he a dministrative i nstitutions f or t he s urrounding t erritory. I n

t he

m ore

P rincipate ,

r emote

p arts

t here w ere

o f

s ome

S pain ,

h owever,

a t

c ommunities w hich w ere

l east

i n

t he

e arly

o rganised d ifferently.

T o t hem w as a pplied t he t itle " civitas", u sed i n as trict s ense, and i t a ppears t hat t hey h ad n o o ne a dministrative c entre o f o verriding i mportance. F urther,

e ven i n c ommunities w here a s ingle t own p rovided

a dministrative

c entres

o f

a k ind m ight

e xist

e lsewhere

I t i s t he o bject o f t his c hapter t o e xamine t he s tructure o f b oth t ypes o f c ommunity.

( ii)

f ocus,

i nstitutions

a nd i nternal

a s a g eneral t erm ,

t o a ny s elf-

T ribal c ommunities

T he w ord " civiLas" c ould b e a pplied, g overning c ommunity.

t he

i n t he t erritory.

T he i nstances w here i t f unctions a s as pecific t erm ,

s uggesting a p articular

f orm

o f

g overnment,

a re

t o

b e

i dentified

b y

t he

a ssociation o f t he w ord " civitas" w ith t he n ame o f a t ribe : a s i n " Civitas A ravorum" o r " Civitas L imicorum". T he c ivitates d etectable i n S pain b elong t o n orth-west T arraconensis a nd n orthern L usitania.

T hey r epresent f ormal

r ecognition b y R ome o f t he p olitical o rganisation e ndemic t o t hose a reas. . P re-existing t ribal o rganisation w as n ot i n a ll c ases p reserved i n t he s ystem o f a dministrative u nits e stablished b y R ome. W here a t ribe a lready c ontained

i ndividual

s ettlements

2 1

o f

c onsiderable

s ize

a nd

p olitical

i mportance,

R ome

p referred

t o

d eal w ith

t he s ettlements

o verlooking any c ontinued l inks b etween t hem.

s eparately,

R ome a lso,

a s a r ule,

i gnored t he e xistence o f l arge t ribal c onfederations, s imply t reating a s a dministrative u nits t he s maller t ribes w hich m ade t hem u p. E ven i n t he a reas w here c ivitates a re f ound i n t he e arly P rincipate, n ot a ll c ommunities t ook t his f orm. S ome c entralised g overnment a lready e xisted a mong t he n atives a t t he t ime o f t he R oman c onquest, f or e xample a t L ancia , t he l ast s tronghold o f t he A sturian r ebels.

A ugustus

e ncouraged

c entralised

g overnment f urther b y f ounding n ative t owns i n L usitania and n orthern T arraconensis. W hile h e d id n ot n ecessarily c onvert t ribes i nto c ommunities c entred o n a s ingle k own, h e d id a t a ny r ate c arve s uch c ommunities o ut o f t he t ribal a reas. P liny,

w hen

l isting

t he

c ommunities

o f

T arraconensis,

u sed

t he w ord

" oppidum" t o p ick o ut t hose g overned f rom a c entral t own .5 T he r est , h e i mplies, h ad a d ifferent f orm o f o rganisation : t hat i s, t hey p ossessed t he c haracteristics o f " civitates" i n a s trict s ense o f

t he w ord.

T he n ature

o f t he d istinction b etween c ivitates a nd o ther c ommunities h as b een d ebated. S ome o f t he d ifferences w hich h ave b een d etected a re m erely t itular o nes, b ut o thers s eem t o p oint t o r eal d ifferences i n i nternal o rganisation . I n p articular , F rere h as a rgued t hat c ivitates i n G aul a nd B ritain t ended t o h ave a n u nusually l arge t erritory, c ontaining a n umber o f s ettlements e ach o f w hich h ad a d eveloped a dministrative o rganisation.

A lthough o ne

s ettlement m ight p rovide t he l ocation o f s uch c ommon g overnment a s e xisted , t his s ettlement w ould a lso h ave i ts o wn o fficials w ith n o a uthority o ver t he r est o f t he c ivitas. 6 T he

e vidence

f or

c ivitates

i n S pain t ends

a dministrative r esponsibilities w ere

t o s uggest

t hat

d istributed a mong t he

h ere a lso

c onstituent

s ettlements t o a n u nusual e xtent, t he r ole o f t he c ommon g overnmental i nstitutions b eing m uch m ore l imited t han i n t he c ase o f o ther c ommunities. " Vici" a nd " castella" a re a ttested i n t he t erritory o f c ivitates i n S pain . T hat i n i tself p roves n othing a boet a dministrative o rganisation . A " vicus" o r " castellum" c ould b e a p urely p hysical p henomenon ; a nd i ndeed t he w ords a re m ost c ommonly u sed t o i dentify a n i ndividual's p lace o f o rigin . i s

n otable

t hat

s uch

c ivitas a reas o f s ignificance t here

i dentification i s

Y et i t

c onfined a lmost e xclusively t o t he

S pain , a s i f t hese s mall s ettlements had g reater t han e lsewhere. M ore i mportantly, a t l east o ne s uch

s ettlement a ppears t o h ave h ad i ts o wn p olitical i nstitutions, a nd t o h ave e njoyed a c onsiderable d egree o f a utonomy. I n A .D. 2 8 t he " Lougei C astellani

T oletenses" h ad

m agistrates

w ho

c oncluded

a n h ospitium w ith

a

c ertain " Tillegus A mbati f ilius". T he i nscription w as f ound a t t he e astern e dge o f G alicia. P resumably t he c ommunity r eferred t o i s " the L ougei o f C astellum T oletum":

t hat

i s,

o f a c astellum w hich w as a c onstituent

s ettlement o f t he t ribe o f t he L ougei. I f s o , i t s hows t he i nhabitants o f t he c astellum a cting i ndependently o f t he r est o f t he t ribe ; a nd n ot m erely i nformally,

b ut

t hrough m agistrates o f t heir o wn .

C astellum T oletum m ay

t heref9re b e i ndicative o f a d iffuse s ystem o f g overnment w ithin t he c ivitas a reas. A part

f rom

t he

d iffusion

o f

a dministrative

r esponsibility,

t here

l ittle t o d istinguish t he c ivitates f rom o ther S panish c ommunities. t erritories

w ere,

o n

c ommunities e lsewhere. w ords

a verage,

o nly

m arginally

T ribal s ubdivisions,

" gentilitas" a nd " centuria",

l arger

t han

t hose

o f

t ranslated i nto L atin b y t he

m ay h ave b een o f m ainly s ocial,

2 2

i s

T heir

a s

o pposed

t o

p olitical ,

b arely a ttested : f rom t he e arly

s ignificance.

t he t itle

N ative

t itles

f or

m agistrates

a re

" magistratus" i s s tandard e ven i n i nscriptions

P rincipate.

I t i s p ossible ,

h owever ,

t hag t hese o fficials

a re s imply t he o ld t ribal o fficials u nder a d ifferent n ame. A lthough t itles s uch a s

" C ivitas L imicorum" c ontinued t o b e u sed w ell

i nto t he s econd c entury A .D .,

i t d oes n ot

f ollow t hat t he o riginal

o rganisation s urvived a long w ith t he t itles.

t ribal

T here i s n o f irm e vidence f or

a c haracteristically " tribal" s ystem o f a dministration l ater t han t he r eign o f T iberius. T he c ivitates, l ike a ll o ther S panish c ommunities , b enefited f rom V espasian's g rant o f t he L atin r ight. T he C ivitas L imicorum , i ndeed, m arked i ts p romotion b y t he i nstitution o f a p air o f c hief m ag istrates t o w hom t he t itle " duovir" w as a pplied. W hile n one o f t hese c hanges n ecessarily p oints t o r adical r eform o f i nternal o rganisation , t he p ersistence m erely o f a t ribal n ame d oes n ot p rove a c ontinuing a bsence o f c entralised g overnment. 9 ( iii)

C entralised c ommunities

I n c ommunities s uch a s P liny t erms " oppida" , t he m ain a dministrative i nstitutions w ere l ocated i n a s ingle t own : t ypically t his t own g ave i ts n ame t o t he e ntire c ommunity. c ommunities,

A s i n t he c ivitates,

1 0

b oth p rivileged a nd u nprivileged ,

m agistrates c onstituted t he m ain o rgans

o f

g overnment.

s tatus a re r eflected i n t itular d istinctions:

s o i n t he o ther

i n S pain a l ocal c ouncil a nd D ifferences

h ave b een a pplied t o t he c ouncil o nly i n R oman a nd L atin t owns, b eing u sed e lsewhere.

i n

t he t itle " ordo" a ppears t o " senatus"

T he c omparable r estriction o f t he t itle " duovir" t o

m agistrates o f R oman a nd L atin t owns w as o f m ore t han t itular s ignificance: i t m ight m ark a d ifference i n t he d istribution o f p ower a mong m agistrates, i nsofar a s

i t

u nprivileged

p resupposed t he i nstitution , t owns,

o f

a p air

o f

c hief

n ot

n ecessarily

m agistrates.

f ound T he

i n

t itle

" quattuorvir" ( likewise c onfined t o R oman a nd L atin t owns) i s v ery r are i n S pain . D uoviri a re t he n orm , i n R oman a nd L atin m unicipia a s i n R oman c olonies.

F ree a nd f ederate t owns s eem a lso t o h ave m arked t heir s tatus

w ith s pecial m agisterial

t itles.

T hus

" decemviri" a re f ound a t

t he f r??

t own O stippo i n B aetica , a nd " praetores" a t f ederate B occhori o n M allorca. " T he c oncept o f t own s urrounded b y t erritory d oes n ot n ecessarily r eflect p recisely t he a ctual p attern o f s ettlement. P eople c ould l ive p ermanently

o utside

t he

s cattered d wellings. i nsignificant

i n

t own i tself,

N or w ill a ll

c omparison w ith

i n n ucleated t hese

t he

s ettlements

a s w ell a s

n ucleated s ettlements

p rincipal

t own .

1 2

T he

h ave

b een

p attern

o f

s ettlement w as c apable o f c omplicating a c ommunity's i nternal o rganisation . O ther

c entres ' o f

t own's t erritory.

a dministration ,

a lbeit s ubordinate,

m ight e xist w ithin a

T he e xistence o f r esidents o utside t he t own a lso r aises

t he p ossibility o f a d i3tinction b etween t own-a nd c ountry-dwellers a s r egards t he p rivileges a nd b urdens o f c itizenship.

F urther , w hat t he R oman

g over ment c hose t o r egard a s a n a dministrative u nit c entred o n ap articular t own c ould i n f act c omprise a n umber o f c ommunities e ach o f w hich h ad p reviously a cted a s as eparate u nit. f rom

o ne

a nother

w ere

c ombined ,

s ubordinate a dministrative

c entres

W here c ommunities p reviously d istinct

t here

a rises

e xisted

a s pecial

i n t he

p ossibility

n ew c ommunity,

n ot a ll c itizens o f t he n ew c ommunity w ere f ormally o n a l evel.

2 3

t hat

a nd t hat

V iel a nd c astella " Vici"

a nd

c ommunities, c ivitates,

" castella"

a s w ell a s

a re

o f

t he t erms d o n ot

o rganisation.

f ound

n ative

w ithin

t he

c ivitates.

t erritory A s

o f

i n t he

c entralised

c ase

o f

n ative

n ecessarily i ndicate a ny f ormal a dministrative

I t i s t rue t hat i n o ne c ase a t

l east a v icus

i s

f ound

a cting a s a n a dministrative u nit i ndependently o f t he c ommunity t o w hich i t b elonged ; b ut t his c ase m ay b e u nrepresentative . T he ' Dercinoassedenses v icanii C luniensium" a re r ecorded a s h aving s ecured c itizen r ights a t T ermes, a t own s ome f ifty k ilometres s outh-east o f C lunia i tself. T he d ate w as p robably b efore t he F lavian p eriod ; a nd t he i nscription m ay s how t hat t he D ercinoassedenses f elt t hat t hey b elonged m ore n aturally t o T ermes t han t o t he

c ommunity

t o w hich R ome h ad a ttached t hem.

I f

t his

i s

r ight,

t he

i nstance i s n ot g ood e vidence f or i ndependent a ctivity o n t he p art o f v iel i n g eneral. I n a ny c ase , t he a rea w as a r emote a nd m ountainous o ne; a nd o ne w ould e xpect t o f ind a g reater t endency t o i ndependence a mong v iel i n a reas w here c ommunications w ere d ifficult. I ncreasing c ivilisation w ould w ork a gainst t his t endency ; t he p aucity 3 v ici. 1

o f

a c onsideration w hich p erhaps h elps t o e xplain

i nscriptions

r ecording

e laborate

a ctivity

o n

t he

p art

o f

P agi T he a ctivity o f v iel and c astella o wed l ittle o r n othing t o R oman i nterference. T he s ettlements t hemselves w ere a n atural p henomenon , a nd a ny a dministrative o rganisation w as p resumably d ue e ntirely t o l ocal i nitiative.

B ut t he c ase i s d ifferent w ith t he p agi.

A ll t he p agi

m entioned i n S pain b elong t o B aetica a nd t he c ivilised r egions o f L usitania a nd T arraconensis. N one c an r epresent t he a pplication o f t he L atin w ord t o a p re-existing s ubdivision o f t ribal t erritory. R ather , t hey m ust d erive f rom an i ntroduction s ubdivisions

o f

t o

S pain

t erritory

o f

t he

s ame

i n c entralised

s ystem

i ntroduced t o I taly i n c onnexion w ith t he c ensus. d id

i ndeed h ave

t he t itle

" Pagus

A ugustus" ,

o f

p agi

( that

i s,

c ommunities) w hich A ugustus a s

O ne o f t he B aetican p agi d id a nother a t

t he c olony

E merita i n L usitania. A t hird p agus a ppears i n a d escription o f t he l ocation o f a f arm w hich f ollows v ery c losely t he f ormula p rescribed f or t he r egistration o f p roperty a t t he c ensus. p agi f ormed p art o f

I t s eems

l ikely t hat

t he S panish

t he c ommunities' m achinery f or c ensus r egistration a nd

t ax-collection . O nce c onstituted , a p agus c ould o f c ourse r ise a bove i ts s trictly f inancial f unction . A S panish p agus h onoured V espasian i n A .D . 7 4, a nd a l awsuit s ettled b y t he g overnor o f T arraconensis i n A .D. p agus a s o ne o f t he p arties.

B ut i t s eems i mprobable,

t hat s uch a ctivity w as v ery c ommon ; a n o fficial o f ap agus.

1 93 h ad a

f rom t he e vidence ,

a nd t here i s n ot a s ingle r eference t o

1 4

C ontributio T he

w ord

" contribuere"

i mplies

a n a ttachment

t o

o ne

another

o f

c ommunities w hich c ould b e c onceived a s s eparate: s eparate e ither i n a p olitical s ense, a s h aving p reviously b een i ndependent, o r i n ap urel p hysical

s ense ,

a s

c onsisting

o f

s ettlements

d istant

f rom o ne

a nother.

T he e vidence o f P liny and o f i nscriptions r eveals a n umber o f s pecific i nstances i n w hich t he w ord w as a pplied t o c ommunities i n S pain . P liny d escribes C astra S ervilia a nd C astra C aecilia i n L usitania a s " contributed" t o t he c olony N orba.

H is c itation o f a c ommunity i n B aetica

2 4

c alled

" Contributa

I ulia"

i nscriptions.

( "cum

q ua

e t

C uriga

n unc

e st n ) i s

b orne

o ut

b y

I nscriptions a lso d isclose t he e mergence i n t he F lavian

p eriod o f a nother B aetican c ommunity c alled " Contribute I psca". 1 6 A ll

t hese

s pecific

i nstances

a ppear

t o

r epresent

t he

c ombination o f

p reviously i ndependent c ommunities. C astra S ervilia a nd C astra C aecilia w ere m ost p robably R epublican s ettlements, p re-dating t he f oundation o f t he c olony N orba . T he t itles o f t he B aetican c ommunities s eem t o r ecord a n a ct o f c ombining c ommunities w hich h ad b een a utonomous i n t he p ast. I t i s a lso n otable t hat a ll t he i nstances c oncern p rivileged c ommunities. C ontributa I ulia w as a R oman o r L atin m unicipium , p romoted b y e ither J ulius C aesar o r A ugustus; w hile t he c reation o f C ontributa I psca a ppears t o h ave b een a c onsequence o f V espasian's g rant o f t he L atin r ight t o S pain . A s w ith t he c olony N orba i n L usitania , t he B aetican a rrangerrnts a re t o b e r eferred t o R oman i nterference r ather t han l ocal i nitiative. E lsewhere , R oman a ttachment o f o ne c ommunity t o a nother t ook v arious f orms. T he w ord " contributio n r ecalls t he a dtributio o f t he A lpine r egion , b ut L affi w ould d istinguish t he t wo t erms, c laiming t hat c ontributio , i n c ontrast t o a dtributio , a lways i mplies a malgamation , n ot s ubordination . T he d istinction m ay b e t oo r igorous, a lthough c ertainly t he w ord " contributio" d oes s uggest a c loser f orm o f a ttachment. T o t he e xample o f t he A lpine t ribes ,

g overAed

b y

n eighbouring m unicipia ,

c an b e a dded

c ertain G allic

t ribes w hich yh ave l acked p olitical r ights i n t he s ettlements f rom w hich t hey w ere g ov t med , a nd a lso a n umber o f c ommunities o f R oman c itizens i n A frica , a ppareatly s upervised f rom a d istance b y m agistrates o f C arthage. A ll t hese e xamples a re m arked b y c ontinuing p eculiarities o f a dministrative o rganisation , i n t erms o f p olitical s ubordination o r s pecial g overnmental a rrangements. A s a n i nstance o f s imple a malgamation , s uch t hat a s ingle c ommunity, a dministratively i ndistinguishable f rom a ny o ther , a rose o ut o f t he a ttachment , m ay b e cued t he f usion o f t he G racchan c olony N eptunia w ith t he m unicipium T arentum . A s p arallels f or t he S panish i nstances , t he A lpine a nd G allic t ribes a re n ot c onvincing. A dtributio i n t he A lps w as a c onvenient m ethod o f s upervising u ncivilised t ribes. E mployed i n 8 9 B .C . a nd a gain b y A ugustus, i t h ad i ts p recedents, b ut d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een u sed i n o ther r egions t hereafter . T he c ase o f t he A nauni a t T ridentum c annot h ave h elped t o i nspire c onfidence i n t he m ethod .

U ncivilised t ribes w ere n ot a f eature

o f B aetica i n t he l ate R epublic, l et a lone t he F lavian p eriod. I t i s s carcely m ore l ikely t hat C astra S ervilia a nd C astra C aecilia w ere uncivilised c ommunities i n n eed o f s upervision : t hey m ay i ndeed h ave o riginated a s s ettlements o f R oman a nd I talian v eteran s oldiers. T he a rrangements i n G aul h ave l ittle m ore r elevance t han t hose i n t he A lps t o t he c ases i n S pain . N ot o nly w ere t ribes i nvolved h ere a lso , b ut t he G allic c ommunities r epresented h :storical u nities w ithin w hich s ome s ettlements h ad a cquired p rivileged s tatus; a nd h istorical u nity c annot b e a dduced a s a n e xplanation o f t he c ases o f c ontributio i n B aetica a nd L usitania . T he A frican i nstances

c onstitute a m ore

c onvincing p arallel.

H ere

t he a ttachment s eems t o h ave b een d esigned s imply t o p rovide g overnment f or c ommunities t oo s mall t o g overn t hemselves. T he i nhabitants o f t he c ommunities w ere R oman c itizens, l ike t hose o f C arthage i tself. T he S panish c ases o f c ontributio, i nvolved

i n B aetica a t l east,

c ommunities w hich w ere a ll o f

2 5

s eem a lso t o h ave

t he s ame s tatus.

W hat m akes

t he

A frican

c ases

u nsatisfactory

a s

a p arallel

i s

t he

f act

t hat u nusual

a dministrative a rrangements w ere t here n ecessitated b y t he c ommunities' d istance f rom o ne a nother a nd f rom C arthage. T he c ommunities i n B aetica a nd L usitania w ere n ot,

s o f ar a s i s k nown ,

f ar d istant f rom o ne a nother.

T here i s n o o bvious g eographical r eason w hy c omplete f ygion , a fter t he m odel o f N eptunia a nd T arentum , s hould n ot h ave t aken p lace. A unitary e xplanation o f t he S panish c ases o f c ontributio i s n ot e ssential. Amalgamation i n B aetica m ight h ave b een a ccompanied b y s ubordination i n L usitania. B ut i n e ach c ase h istorical p robability p oints t o c omplete f usion o n p olitically e qual t erms. t wo

s mall

s ettlements

w hich a lready

e xisted

T he c olony N orba a bsorbed

i n t he v icinity.

G rants

o f

p rivileged s tatus i n B aetica l ed t o t he a malgamation o f s everal s mall c ommunities i nto a l arger o ne.

T hat w as,

p erhaps,

m ore s uited t o t he

d ignity o f ap rivileged c ommunity. A lso , i n t he c ase o f L atin c ommunities, i t r estricted t he e xcessive p roliferation o f R oman c itizenship a cquired t hrough m agistracy. F usion o f c ommunities o n t he o ccasion o f g rants o f p rivileged s tatus -i n p articular o n t he o ccasion o f V espasian's g rant m ay i n f act h ave b een n ot u ncommon i n S pain .

A t l east o ne o ther c ommunity

i n B aetica, C ar hla, V espasian's r eign .

i ts

s eems

t o

h ave

l ost

I n a dditl3n t o m entioning p articular c ases P liny

r efers

i n

p assing

t o

a n

c ommunities i n T arraconensis.

u nspecified

i ndependent

s tatus

i n

i n B aetica a nd L usitania, n umber

o f

" contributed"

R oman i nterference m ay h ave l ed t o s ome

a malgamation o f c ommunities i n t his p rovince a lso.

A lthough t he e vidence

f or s pecific i nstances i n S pain s uggests t hat s uch i nterference w as c onfined t o

p rivileged

c ommunities,

i t

i s

n ot

i mpossible

t hat

t he

A ugustan

a rrangements i nvolved s ome f usion o f u nprivileged c ommunities a s w ell. i t i s n ot n ecessarily t he c ase t hat h ere

i ndicates

a ny

k ind

o f

P liny's u se o f

r eadjustment.

t he w ord

T he w ord

c ould

B ut

" contribuere" r easonably

b e

u sed , i n a n on-technical s ense , t o d escribe t he e xistence o f s ettlements s uch a s v ici a nd c astella i n t he t erritory o f a c entralised c ommunity, w ithout any i mplication o f p revious a utonomy o r u nusual a dministrative a rrangements.

I t

s eems

i mprobable

t hat

t he

" contributed" c ommunities

T arraconensis r epresent a ny s pecial f orm o f a ttachment w hich w as o rigin .

S erfs

o f

a c ommunity,

l iving

i n a s eparate

o f

o f n ative

s ettlement

o f

t heir

o wn , a re r ecorded i n 1 89 B .C.. I n t hat y ear t hey w ere f reed b y t he R oman g overnment , a nd i t i s u nlikely t hat a ny s imilar a rrangement s urvived b eyond t he f irst c entury B .C.. d uring

t he

T wo c ommunities i n T arraconensis a cted i n c oncert

c ivil w ar b etween P ompey a nd C aesar ,

and b y m utual a greement.

a pparently o n e qual t erms

E ach r eceived R oman c itizenship f rom J ulius

C aesar , a nd t hereafter t hey w ere c ounted a s s eparate a dministrative u nits. C ontributio i n S pain ,

i n a t echnical s ense o f t he w ord ,

h ave r esulted i n t he f ormation o f a s ingle n ew c ommunity ,

s eems o nly t o

i ndistinguishable

i n i ts i nternal s tructure f rom a ny o ther c entralised c ommunity. c ases d o n ot s upport a n h ypothesis t hat c ontributio l ed i nequalities o f c itizen r ights,

2 1

t o

T he k nown s pecial

a ny m ore t han t hese c ases s uggest

t hat

i t

l ed t o t he c reation o f s pecial a dministrative c entres o utside t he o ppidum . S o f ar a s t he r elations b etween r esidents o f t he c entral s ettlement a nd t hose o utside i t a re c oncerned,

" contributed" c ommunities a re t o b e r egarded

a s o n a l evel w ith o ther c entralised c ommunities i n S pain . T he i ncidence o f a malgamation i s u nknown , b ut i t s eems t o h ave b een d ue t o R oman i nterference r ather t han l ocal i nitiative, a nd w as p robably n ot c ommon e xcept i n t he c ase

2 6

o f p rivileged c ommun ities. A part h andful

o f

f rom t he c ases o f a malgamation a lready r eferred t o , S panish

c ommunities

-all

o f

c olonial

o r m unicipal

t here i s a s tatus

-

w hich f urnish s ome e vidence o f f ormal i nternal d ivision . T he e vidence f or d ivision i s n ot c ompelling i n e very c ase ; a nd e ven i n t he c learer i nstances t he d ate o f o rigin , a nd t he p recise n ature, o f t he d ivision c annot b e d etermined . I n t he c ase o f t he c olonies , t he d ivision c ould g o b ack t o t he f oundation o f ac olony a longside a n e xisting t own : ap artial a dministrative m erging o f t he t wo c ommunities m ight t hen h ave t ime. T he m unicipal i nstances c ould p erhaps a malgamation o f e xisting c ommunities, o f t he " contribution. H owever , t he e xamples s eem t oo

o ccurred i n t he c ourse o f h ave r esulted f rom R oman t ype d escribed a bove a s f ew , a nd t oo o bscure , t o

c onstitute i mportant e vidence a gainst t he g eneral p icture o f c ommunities w ith a s iTylc c entralised o rganisation i n t he c ivilised a reas o f t he p eninsula. T own a nd t err itory A lthough P liny u ses t he w ord " oppidum" t o d istinguish c entralised c ommunities f rom t ribal c ommunities, w ithin t he c entralised c ommunites t hemselves t he w ord a ppears t o h ave h ad n o p olitical c onnotation . T he " oppidum" i n t he c harters o f U rso a nd M alaca i s s imply t he b uilt-up a rea. T he s ame s ense i s c lear i n i nscriptions f rom o ther S panish c ommunities. F or t he c ommu .nity a s ap olitical e ntity, t he t erms " civitas" a nd " res p ublica" a re u sed, a nd ( where a pplicable) t he t itles " colonia" a nd " municipium". E ven d edications m ade " genio o ppidi" h ave a l ess o fficial a ir t han t hose m ade " genio m unicipii" o r " genio c oloniae". T his u sage r eflects t he f act t hat a lthough t he t own w as t he c entre o f g overnment , a nd u sually g ave i ts n ame t o t he w hole a dministrative u nit , t he u nit c omprised t own a nd t erritory t ogether. 2 3 T he c onception o f t own a nd t erritory a s a u nified w hole c reates a p resumption t hat t here w as n o s ystematic d iscrimination a gainst r esidents o utside t he t own, a t l east w ith r egard t o f ormal c itizen r ights. A ny a dministrative o rganisation f ound w ithin v ici, c astella , a nd p agi s hould n ot i n i tself b e t aken t o r eflect o n t he c itizen r ights o f c ountry d wellers. C ontributio i n S pain d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave i nvolved p ermanent f ormal d istinctions b etween d ifferent g roups o f r esidents. T he o nly i nscription w hich g ives a c lue t o t he s tatus o f i nhabitants o f a c ountry d istrict d escribes t hem a s " municipes e t i ncolae": t hat i s, a s w ith t he t ownd wellers t hemselves , t here w ere b oth c itizens a nd r esident a liens a mong t hem .2 4 T hat t he p rivate r ights o f c itizens w ere s ystematically d enied t o c ountry-dwellers i s n ot . L o b e s upposed . P rivate r ights w ere t he b asic c omponent o f c itizenship, w ithout w hich a p erson w as c onceived t o b e a ttached t o n o c ommunity a t a ll. P ersonal p rivileges , s uch a s t he R oman c itizenship , w hich w ere a ssociated w ith m embership o f p rivileged c ommunities s eem t o h ave b elonged i n t heory t o a ll m embers o f a c ommunity. M ore p lausible i s t he h ypothesis t hat p olitical r ights w ere f ormally r estricted t o r esidents o f t he t own : i n t he R oman E mpire. 25

t his p henomenon i s o ccasionally f ound e lsewhere

T he e vidence f rom S pain d oes n ot s uggest a ny f ormal e xclusion o f

2 7

c ountry r esidents f rom p olitical r ights. t hat

d istance

f rom

t he

t own

s everely

B ut i t d oes i ndicate v ery c learly a ffected

t he

p ractical

e xercise

o f

r ights t o v ote a nd h old o ffice. T he o rdo m et i n t he t own , a nd t he a ctivity o f m agistrates w as c oncentrated t here. A t U rso, i ndeed , al ocal r egulation c ompelled d ecurions a nd p riests t o h ave a

p ermanent r esidence w ithin a m ile

o f t he o ppidum . E ven t hose w hose a mbitions w ere l imited t o p articipation i n e lectoral a ssemblies w ould f ind i t i nconvenient t o l ive f ar f rom t he t own.

F ormal l egislative a ssemblies m ay n ot h ave b een o f a ny g reat

i mportance

i n

S pain .

B ut

e ven i nformal

p opular a gitation c ould

o nly b e

6 e ffective i f i t t ook p lace u nder t he e yes o f d ecurions a nd m agistrates. L

A l ack o f p olitical i nfluence o n t he p art o f c ountry r esidents m ay h ave l ed t o s ome f inancial e xploitation o f t hem , i n t he f orm o f a n u nfair a pportionment o f R oman t axation .

T he i nstitution o f p agi a s a dministrative

u nits

t his

e specially

r espect

l ent

c ountry

i tself

t o

r esidents w ere

r esidents o f t he t own :

f orm

o f

e xploitation .

R esidents t o

d wellers. w ith

o utside

h ave

a nother

o ne h ad t o h ave e asy a ccess t o t he t own i n o rder t o

e njoy f ully t he s ocial b enefits o f c itizenship.

a ppear

I n

c ertainly d isadvantaged i n c omparison t o

t he

l acked

c entral

f ormal

o ppidum

c itizen

2 7

i n

r ights

S panish

c ommunities

w hich w ere

a llowed

d o n ot

t o

t own-

B ut i t s eems c lear t hat t hey w ere i n p ractice a t a d isadvantage

r egard t o t he p rivileges

a nd b urdens

o f

c itizenship .

T he

l arger a

t own's t erritory, t he g reater t his d isadvantage w ould b e f or t hose l iving o n t he

o utskirts.

R oman

g rouping

t ogether

o f

p reviously

c ommunities i ncreased t he s ize o f t he t erritory w hich w as s ingle c entral t own .

f rom a

C ommunities l ike C uriga i n B aetica ( itself a utonomous

u ntil i t b ecame a p art o f C ontributa I ulia) m ight f ormer i ndependence a nd e ventually s eek t o s ecede. ith 1 96 p ortrays C uriga a s a " res p ublica n w i s,

a utonomous

g overned

w ell r emember t heir A n i nscription o f A .D.

d ecurions

o f i ts

o wn .

T hat

a t s ome t ime b etween V espasian's r eign a nd t he l ate s econd c entury

C uriga h ad b een a llowed b y t he R oman g overnment t o r evert a utonomous s tatus.

( iv)

f rom a s ingle

o riginal

C onclusion

T he s tandard a dministrative u nit d efined t erritory,

t o i ts

2 8

i n S pain w as a c ommunity o ccupying a

a nd p rovided w ith a c ouncil a nd m agistrates w ho g overned

l ocation .

I n t his

r espect

p rivileged c ommunities a nd o thers.

t here w as

n o

d ifference

b etween

I n t he r emoter p arts o f t he p eninsula -

i n n orth-west T arraconensis a nd n orthern L usitania -there w ere i n t he e arly P rincipate s ome c ommunities w ith a m ore d iffuse s ystem o f g overnment. T hese c ommunities,

i dentifiable b y t he t itle " Civitas" i n c onjunction w ith a

t ribal n ame, p robably d eveloped a c entralised s ystem o f a dministration i n t he c ourse o f t he f irst c entury A .D ., w ithout n ecessarily a bandoning t he t ribal t itle. A lthough s ettlements

c ommunities

i n

t heir

g overned

t erritory ,

f rom a s ingle

t hese

p olitical o rganisation o f a ny i mportance. t he f orm o f p agi,

w hich a ppear t o h ave

l ocation h ad

s ubordinate

s ubordinate

s ettlements

h ad

l ittle

B est a ttested i s o rganisation i n f unctioned p rimarily a s

c ensus r egistration a nd t he c ollection o f R oman t axes.

u nits

f or

C ountry r esidents

in t heory e njoyed t he s ame c itizen r ights a s r esidents o f t he c entral s ettlement.

A lthough a l ack o f p olitical i nfluence m ight l ead t o i nformal

2 8

d iscrimination a gainst

t hem ,

n o l egal d istinction d ifferentiated c ountry-

d wellers f rom t hose w ho l ived i n t he t own . W ith a f ew , s ometimes a mbiguous, e xceptions t his u nified s tructure w as u biquitous o utside t he c ivitates; e ven i n c ommunities w hose s hape h ad b een a ltered b y R ome . I n t he e xceptional c ases d ivision t ook t he f orm o f s eparate a dministrative i nstitutions f or d ifferent g roups w ithin a c ommunity, n ot o f p olitical s ubordination o f c ountry t o t own .

2 9

N OTES: N OTES

1 .

( CHAPTER I I:

C itizenship:

C hapter

C H .

T HE A DMINISTRATIVE U NITS)

I II;

u nattached i ndividuals.

I I

c f.

A ppendix V f or t he q uestion o f

( The s ystem o f l ocal c itizenship w as b asic

e ven t o t he c onception o f m unera: c itizens

t o

t heir

c ommunities

i t w as t hat

f rom

t he

t he o bligations

l iability

o f

o f

i ncolae

d eveloped.) P liny's

f ormal s tatistics

i n N H i ii.

7 f f.;

1 8 f f.;

a nd i v.

16-8

d erive f rom o fficial l ists o f a dministrative u nits d rawn u p A ugustus' r eign ( RE X XI 1 303 f f.; H enderson , 1 942 , p p. 1 -5). 2 .

B oundaries o f c ivitates: E spana r omana, L uggonum":

2v ols.

J . V ives,

I nscripciones L atinas

( Barcelona,

C laudius);

C IL

1 971-2),

2 4 60;

A E

n o.

1 976

1 781

2 73

S almantica:

A .D.

2 ,

A .D.

6 );

n o.

d e l a

( "Civitas

( Igaeditani:

A ugustus). ( See n . 3f or t he L uggones a nd I gaeditani.) B oundaries o f o ther c ommunities: V ives, n os. 1 782-3 M irobriga,

d uring

1 784

( Bletisa,

( Iuliobriga,

S egisamo: n ot l ater t han C laudius' r eign , c f. A . G arcia y B ellido , " Exploraciones a rqueologicas e n l a p rovincia d e S antander ," A EA x xix ( 1956),

1 74-99 , p p.

1 84-94); n o.

t he " fines" i n U rso's c harter : 3 .

1 786 ( Ucubi, E merita: D omitian). C f. F IRA I 2 1 L YYVIII.

F or t he d ifferent m eanings o f " civitas" ,

s ee t he w orks c ited i n n . 6 .

" Civitates" i n S pain : L usitania: 4 29 ( "Civitas A ravorum" ( A .D. ( A .D . 1 05-6)). T arraconensis: V ives, n o. L uggonum"

( Claudius),

( "Civitas L imicorum"

c f. ( A .D .

P tol.

i. i

1 32-3 ,

6 .

A .D .

f. 7 60 18), c 1 781 ( "Civitas

3); 3 1 41),

C IL 2 2 516-7 c f.

2 477

( A .D .

7 9), P liny N H i ii. 2 8). O ther c ommunities i n t hese a reas a re i dentified b y w hat i s e vidently t he n ame o f at ribe ( but w ithout t he t itle " civitas"): L usitania: A E 1 967 1 44 ( 16 B .C.), C IL 2 4 60 ( Augustus), 1 976

2 73

( Augustus)

( Igaeditani);

( Igaeditani, T alon , C olarni, T arraconensis:

2 633

( "gens

c f. 2 606 , N H i ii. 2 8); ( Coelerni,

c f.

2 477

7 60

P aesures,

Z oelarum"

( A.D.

c f. N H i v.

( A .D .

2 7,

1 05-6) 18).

A .D .

1 52) ,

A E 1 972 2 82 = A E 1 973 2 95 ( A .D.

( A .D.

7 9),

N H i ii.

2 8);

2 477

A E

( A .D .

1 32) 7 9)

( Biballi, Q uarquerni, T amagani, c f. N H i ii. 2 8). ( On t he a uthenticity o f 7 60 , s ee A ppendix I II n . 6 ). 4 .

F or t he S panish t ribes i n g eneral, s ee C hapter I p .

4a nd n .

7 .

D ivision o f t ribes i nto s eparate s ettlements: e .g. t he C erretani I uliani a nd A ugust-ni o f e astern T arraconensis ( Pliny N H i ii. 2 3). T he I ndicetes o f n orth-east T arraconensis m ay b e a nother e xample. P liny d oes n ot s uggest t hat t hey s urvived a s a n a dministrative u nit; a nd i ndeed s ome E mporiae.

Y et

( at l east) o f t hem b elonged t o t he R oman m unicipium t he p ersistence o f t ribal c onnexions i s

b y t heir p articipation i n a l awsuit i n V espasian's n . 2 7). T ribal c onfederations:

e .g.

d emonstrated

r eign

( Chapter I

t he V accaei a nd C antabri o f c entral a nd

n orthern T arraconensis, w ho w ere n ot r ecognised b y any R oman a dministrative d ivision ( NH i ii. 2 6-7 ; c f. C IL 2 6 093; 4 240 ; 4 233 =

3 0

N OTES:

C H . I I

I LS 6 940). T he C allaeci o f n orth-west T arraconensis w ere s plit i nto t he t wo j udicial c onventus o f L ucus A ugusti a nd B racara A ugusta: t hey a re l ast f ound a cting a s au nit l ate i n A ugustus' r eign ( Chapter I n . 2 4; 2 422: " C. C aesari A ug . f . p ontif. a uguri C allaecia" , s hown b y D i° l v. 9 . 4 . t o b e i n o r a fter 5 B .C.). T he A stures, b y c ontrast, c onstituted a s ingle j udicial c onventus t hroughout t he P rincipate ( Chapter I n . 2 4 ; c f. C hapter V III p p . 1 37-9 f or t he c onventus c ult). L ancia: D io l iii. 2 5 . 8 ; F lorus i i. 3 3 ( iv . 1 2. 5 7) ; O rosius v i. 2 1. 1 0; c f. 4 223. B rigiaecium a ppears t o h ave b een a nother s uch c ommunity ( Florus i i. 3 3 ( iv . 1 2. 5 6); c f. 6 094). A ugustan f oundations: C hapter I p p. 5 -6. I t i s n ot c lear w hether a ny o f t hem r eplaced a p articular t ribe. T he s ources s eem t o r egard A sturica a t l east a s b eing i n s ome s ense t he p roperty o f t he w hole c onfederation o f t he A stures, o ne o f i ts c onstituent t ribes 2 8).

r ather t han a s imple s ubstitution f or ( Florus i i. 3 3 ( iv . 1 2. 6 0); N H i ii.

F or t he c haracteristics o f c entralised c o mmunities, s ee b elow p p . 2 3 f.. f 5 .

P liny N H i ii.

1 8:

" accedunt

i nsulae q uarum m entione

s eposita

c ivitates p rovincia i psa p raeter c ontributas a liis C CXCIII c ontinet o ppida C LXXVIIII , i n us c olonias X II , o ppida c ivium R omanorum X III , L atinorum v eterum X VIII , f oederatorum u num , s tipendiaria C XXXV ." T he f igures f or c oloniae e tc . a dd u p t o 1 79 ( i.e. t he t otal n umber o f " oppida"). B ut T arraconensis c ontained m ore s eparate c ommunities t han t his , s ince t he f igures P liny p roceeds t o g ive f or t he d ifferent c onventus ( iii. 2 3 f f.) t otal 2 93. S o t he f igure 2 93 i n i ii. 1 8 r efers n ot t o t he n umber o f " civitates c ontr ihutae a liis" ( for w hich n o f igure i s g iven), b ut t o t he t otal n umber o f s eparate c ivitates ( = " communities") i n T arraconensis. A mong t hese c ivitates t here a re 1 79 " oppida".

T here s eems t o b e n o a lternative t o t he

i nterpretation o f

t his p assage g iven i n t he t ext, a ccording t o w hich P liny i s p icking o ut f rom a mong c ivitates i n g eneral t hose ( "oppida") w hich h ave a c entralised g overnment. ( Cf. T h. M ommsen , T he P rovinces o f t he R oman E mpire f rom C aesar t o D iocletian , t rans. W . P . D ickson ( London , 1 909), I , 7 3.) 6 .

C haracteristics o f c ivitates M yth?" A ntiquity x xxv ( 1961),

e lsewhere: S . F rere , " Civitas -a 2 9-36 ; J . M . R eynolds, " Legal a nd

C onstitutional P roblems," i n T he C ivitas C apitals o f R oman B ritain , e d. J .S. W acher ( Leicester , 1 966), p p. 7 0-5. F or a n a rgument a gainst t he d istinction b etween c ivitates a nd o ther c ommunities , s ee J .C. M ann , " Civitas: A nother M yth ," A ntiquity x xxiv ( 1960), 2 22-3. C urious t itles f or t he c ommunity a nd i ts o fficials ( Frere , p . 3 5), d o n ot n ecessarily i ndicate a ny r eal d ifference i n o rganisation b etween c ivitates a nd o ther c ommunities. O n t he o ther h and , t he e xistence , f or e xample , o f as ingle c hief m agistrate ( ib id.) m ay h ave b een t ied u p w ith a r eal d ifference i n t he d istribution o f g overnmental a uthority . F rere's s tatements t hat t he t ribal c apital " was n o m ore t han a v icus i n t he c ivitas," a nd t hat " the e ssence o f t he p eregrine c ivitas w as n ot t he t own i tself b ut t he w hole t ribal a rea ( the c heflieu b eing

3 1

N OTES:

C H .

I I

b ut t he r epository o f g overnment w ithout s pecial s tatus o f i ts o wn)" s eem t o h ave c oherent s ense o nly w hen i nterpreted i n t erms o f a d evolution o f a dministrative r esponsibility. T hat i s, t he a ctivities o f c ommon g overnmental i nstitutions w ere v ery l imited, w ith t he r esult t hat i ndividual s ettlements ( including t he s ettlement r egarded a s t he c apital) w ell . 7 .

n eeded a dministrative

i nstitutions

o f

t heir o wn a s

" Vicus", " castellum": 2 520 ( "castellum M eidunium ," t erritory o f L imici); 6 287 ( "Iov i m axim° v icani A tucausernses]," t erritory o f T amagani ( cf. C IL 2 I , p . 3 50)). A s i dentification : 3 65 ( "de v ico B aedorogentis P inton(um)"); 5 353 ( "castello B erens' L imicus"). ( See C hapter I n n. 1 2 a nd 1 8 f or t he a rchaeological e vidence f or s ettlements i n n orthern L usitania a nd T arraconensis.) A c astellum i n a c entralised c ommunity i s u sed a s i dentification i n 5 320, b ut t hat p articular c ommunity m ay b e a n u nrepresentative e xample ( n . 1 3). L ougei C astellani T oletenses: A E 1 961 9 6 . A ctivity o n t he p art o f t ribal a dministrative u nits, a cting a s a w hole, i s i n f act b arely a ttested u ntil t he s econd c entury A .D. ( n .3). V ives, n o. 1 781 ( Claudius) ; C IL 2 4 60 ( Augustus); A E 1 976 2 73 ( Augustus) a re b oundary s tones. A E 1 967 1 44 ( 16 B .C.) r ecords a g ift m ade t o t he I gaeditani. 2 477 ( A .D. 7 9) r ecords j oint r oadb uilding , w hich m ay h ave b een c arried o ut a t t he i nstigation o f R ome ( Chapter

I X n .

1 6).

I t

i s

n ot

u ntil

t he

s econd

c entury

t hat

d edications t o e mperors ( 429 , 2 516-7) a nd a n h ospitium i nvolving a w hole t ribe ( AE 1 972 2 82) a ppear . S ee n . 8 . f or a nother h ospitium c oncluded A .D . 2 7). 8 .

A rea:

J .

b y

a s ubdivision

B eloch,

o f

a t ribal

a dministrative

u nit

( 2633 ,

D ie B evölkerung d er g riechisch-römischen W elt

( Leipzig , 1 886), p p. 4 46-8 ; P liny N H i ii. 1 8 ; 2 8. T he a verage a rea o f a c ommunity i n t he 3 n orth-west c onventus o f T arraconensis w as 1 393 k m .'; i n t he r emaining 4 c onventus 1 271 k m .

2.

" Gentilitas" , " centuria": A . S chulten , L os C antabros y A stures y s u g uerra c on R oma ( Madrid , 1 943), p p. 5 8 f f.. ( It i s p ossible t hat m any o f S chulten 's " centuriae" a re r eally " castella" ; a nd t hat o nly t hose i dentified b y ap ersonal n ame i n t he g enetive a re c enturiae.) S chulten w ould i dentify g entilitates a nd c enturiae; J .C . B aroja ( "Organizacion s ocial d e l os p ueblos d el n orte d e l e p eninsula I bb "rica e n l a A ntiguödad ," i n L egio V II G emina , p p. 1 3-62) c laims ( p . 4 4) t hat a g entilitas w as a s ubdivision o f a c enturia . F rom t he f act t hat p ersonal n ames a re u sed t o d escribe c enturiae b ut n ot g entilitates i t s eems m arginally m ore l ikely t hat t he c enturia w as t he s maller u nit. 2 633 ( cf. n . 3 ) r ecords t wo g entilitates o f t he Z oelae a s c onclud ing h ospitia , f irst i n A .D . 2 7 t hrough t he a gency o f a m ag(istratus) Z oelarum, a nd a gain i n A .D. 1 52. I t i s u nclear w hether t hese g entilitates h ad m ore g eneral a dministrative r esponsibilities. T he t itle " princeps" ,

a pparently

i ndicating a n ative

f ound o nce i n w estern A sturias ( AE a nd o nce a t U xama i n t he " Princeps A rgael ( orum)" ;

c f.

c hieftain ,

C IL 2 I , p . 3 87 a nd C hapter I n .

3 2

i s

1 946 1 21, " Princeps A lbionum"), c onventus C luniensis ( 5762, 1 4).

C H . I I

N OTES:

A gain t he r elation t o f ormal a dministrative a rrangements i s u nclear. " q v iag(istratus)": 9 .

A E 1 967 1 44 ( 16 B .C.); 2 633 ( A.D. 2 7).

C ivitates a nd t he L atin s eem

t hat

t here

w as

A ppendix I II

r ight: n o

e ssential

p p.

c onflict

2 16-7.

( It w ould

b etween

" tribal"

o rganisation a nd t he L atin r ight.) " Ilvir": o f

7 60

4 215. ( n .

C f.

3 ).

1),

c ommunities ( n . a dministration . 1 0.

T he

t he " ordo Z oelarum" i n 2 606,

A lthough t hese

e xpression

t hey

d o

" centralised

t itles w ere

n ot

a nd t he " municipia"

r eserved t o p rivileged

n ecessarily

c ommunity"

i s

i ndicate

h ere

u sed

p articular f orm o f a dministrative o rganisation , t he a ctual p att2rn o f s ettlement ( cf. n . 1 2).

c entralised

t o

i ndicate

a

w ithout r eference t o A lthough g overnment

f rom a s ingle l ocation w as m ore l ikely t o b e f ound w here o ne s ettlement w as n otably l arger t han i ts n eighbours, t his w as n ot a p rerequisite o f c entralised g overnment.

P liny's s tatistics f or

T arraconensis ( NH i ii. 2 3 f f.) s how t hat c ommunities n amed a fter t owns, r ather t han t ribes, w ere u sual o n t he e ast c oast o f T arraconensis, a nd b ecame p rogressively l ess c ommon i n t he r emoter r egions.

B ut a t ribal n ame d oes

o rganisation. f or example,

n ot

n ecessarily

( NH i ii.

c haracteristics o f t ribal g overnment 2 0 , S trabo i ii. 4 . 1 0 , C 1 61). 1 1.

" Senatus":

i ndicate

" tribal"

T he A usetani a nd I acetani o f e astern T arraconensis, c ould b y Augustus' r eign have l ost a ll t he

e .g.

1 343 ( Lacilbula ,

A .D.

5 );

2 3-4;

c f.

L ivy x xxiv.

A E 1 955 2 1 ( Iptuci, A .D.

3 1: t he s ite s hows t his t o b e t he u nprivileged t own o f P liny N H i ii. 1 5 r ather t han t he c olony o f i ii. 1 2, c f. C IL 2 I , p . 2 41); 1 569 ( Ipsca , A .D. 4 6; c f. n n. 1 6-7). " Mag(istratus)": 5 763 ( Intercatia o r P allantia,

2 . B .C.);

1 72

( Aritium , A .D . 3 7). A ll t hese w ere u nprivileged c ommunities a t t he r elevant t ime. f rom

P liny,

V espasian's

t he

m ain e vidence

r eign

i s

f or

e nrolment

u nprivileged

i n t he

t ribe Q uirina;

i ndicates p romotion b y J ulius C aesar o r A ugustus p p.

1 67-9 ;

( Apart

s tatus

b efore G aleria

( Kubitschek ,

I RTD ,

c f. M cElderry I , 6 8-79).)

F or t he t itles " ordo", " duovir" , " quattuorvir" , s ee C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p 1 p. 1 162-4; 166; 1 168. T here i s n o k nown c ase o f a S panish c ommunity w hich u sed t hese t itles b efore t he F lavian p eriod , w ithout b eing o therwise a ttested a s R oman o r L atin b efore V espasian 's g rant. U se o f t he t itle " municipium" i s s imilarly r estricted.

( For e vidence

o f d elayed a ssumption o f t hese t itles i n p rivileged c ommunities,

s ee

A ppendix I V n . 2 3.) O n t he t itles " duovir" a nd " quattuorvir", s ee A . D egrassi, Q uattuorviri i n c olonie e i n m unicipi r etti d a d uoviri ( Rome, 1 950), a lso i n h is S critti v ani d i a ntichita ,

I ( Rome,

1 962), p p. 9 9-177.

A f ew S panish i nscriptions u se t he w ord " quattuorviri" t o r efer l oosely t o ab oard c omposed o f t wo a ediles a nd t wo d uoviri ( e.g. ( Sabora,

A .D.

7 8);

S panish e vidence

1 727,

d oes

n ot,

c f.

1 731

e xcept

( Gades); i n o ne

4 466

( Aeso)).

i nstance,

1 423 T he

c ontradict

D egrassi's h ypothesis t hat c olonies h ad q uattuorviri o nly w hen t hese w ere a l egacy o f p ast m unicipal s tatus ( 1305,

3 3

1 315 ( Asido);

c f.

N OTES: H enderson,

1 942,

1 3).

P .

p ositive h ypothesis

C H . I I

B ut i t d oes n othing t o s upport a m ore

t hat m unicipia t ypically h ad q uattuorviri.

W hether t he t itles e ver m arked a r eal d ifference i n t he d istribution o f a uthority a mong m agistrates o f c olonies a nd m unicipia i s u nclear . F rom A ugustus' r eign , a t t he l atest, a ll n ew L atin c ommunities i n S pain b ore t he t itle " municipium", n ot " colonia" R C ,

p. p

3 64-6 ;

B runt,

I talian M anpower ,

p. p

( cf. S herwin-White, 5 84-8).

C arteia i n

B aetica i s t he o nly l ikely i nstance o f a L atin c olony w hich s urvived a s s uch i nto t he P rincipate. B ut t here i s a s trong p robability t hat i t h ad b ecome a R oman m unicipium b y t he e nd o f A ugustus' r eign. e vidence o f c oins d oes n ot p rove t he c ontrary

( R.

W iegels,

T he " Zum

R echtsstatus v on C arteia w ährend d es P rinzipats," M DAI(M) x v ( 1974), 2 03-8 ; c f. G alsterer , p p. 7 -9 ). " Decemviri": 5 048 ( Ostippo, A .D .

1 5-20).

O therwise , u nexampled, s ave

a t C artima , w hich i s t herefore u nder s uspicion o f b eing o ne o f t he 5 m issing f ree a nd f ederate t owns i n B aetica ( 1953; A .D . 5 3-4; P liny N H i ii.

7f f.).

( Another o f t he m issing t owns i s S ingilia, f ree l ike O stippo a nd A stigi V etus ( NH i ii. 1 2; C IL 2 I , p . 2 72); c f. n . 2 2.) " Praetores":

3 695 ( Bocchori,

ii. 7 7). i S ee C hapter V I p .

1 02 f .

A .D .

6 ;

c f.

A E 1 957 3 17 ( 10 B .C.);

N H

f or t he c ontent o f f ree a nd f ederate s tatus

u nder t he P rincipate. 1 2.

C f.

M .W .

F rederiksen ,

" Changes

H ellenismus i n M ittelitalien ,

i n t he P atterns

e d.

P .

Z anker

o f

S ettlement," i n

( Göttingen ,

1 976),

I ,

3 41-55 , p p. 3 41 f f.. 1 3.

" Vici" ,

" castella":

5 320 ( "D(is) m (anibus) s (acrum) G r(anii) P ateni ( ?) Q uir(ina) C ae(sarobrigensis) e x c as(tello) C iseli") 1 70 ( Ammaia , 7 43 ( Norba,

" Iovi o ptumo m axumo v icani C amaloc .. i n") " Iovi v icani T ongobri[g] e ses")

D ercinoassedenses:

A E 1 953 2 67

( the t ablet w as f ound a t P eralejo d e

l os E scuderos, i n t he i mmediate v icinity o f T ermes ( Montejo d e L iceras, S oria), a nd t herefore g ives n o c lue t o t he l ocation o f t he v icus). B oth C lunia a nd T ermes p robably s ecured t he L atin r ight l ate i n A ugustus' r eign ( McElderry I , p . 7 4 n . 3 ). T ermes h as " IVviri" a nd a " senatus" a t t he t ime: t hat i ndicates t hat T ermes w as a lready L atin ,

b ut t he

" senatus" t ells a gainst t he s econd c entury d ate

s uggested b y d 'Ors ( Epigrafia J uridica , n o. 2 5 , p . 3 75 ; c f. n . 1). C aesarobriga ( 5320 , a bove) w as a n ative t own f ounded b y R ome o n t he T agus

i n L usitania

( Chapter

I n .

1 8).

A lthough

t he

t ribe

Q uirina

s hows t he i nscription t o b e o f F lavian d ate a t t he e arliest ( n .

1),

i t i s p ossible t hat C iseli r epresents a r esidue o f s elf-consciousness o n t he p art o f c astella i n ap reviously t ribal a rea, a nd i s t herefore n ot r epresentative o f c entralised c ommunities i n g eneral ( cf. n . 7 ). 1 4.

P agi: 4 125 ( Tarraco , A .D . A E 1 915 9 5 ( Emerita,

1 93 ,

" compagani r ivi L arensis")

" Pagus A ug(ustus)")

3 4

N OTES: 1 041

( Curiga

i n

C H ,

I I

B aetica,

" Pagus

T ranslucanus

e t

P agus

S uburbanus") 1 043 ( near C uriga, 2 194 ( Corduba,

" compagani m armorienses")

" Pagus A ug(ustus)")

2 322 ( "Pagani P agi C arbulensis" , A .D . 5 042 ( near H asta ,

7 4)

" Pagus O lbensis")

( See t he m ap o f R aetica a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I , N f, O h, O f,

f or

t he l ocations o f

a nd

C uriga ,

C arbula

( = A lmodovar d el R io),

H asta.) P agi a s s ubdivisions o f c ensus b y A ugustus:

t ribal t erritory,

a nd a s i ntroduced f or t he

F rederiksen , p p. 3 43 f f..

U sed t o d escribe t he l ocation o f a f arm :

5 042,

c f.

D ig.

L 1 5.4 p r.

( Ulpian) f or t he c ensus f ormula. D edication t o V espasian : n . 2 0). L awsuit:

4 125.

2 322

( in h is c ensorship o f A .D .

T he l ocation o f

t he p agus

i tself

7 3-4 ,

i s u nknown .

i nscription o f 8 7 B .C. f rom C ontrebia ( Chapter I n . 1 4) d ispute o ver w ater-rights a bout 1 50 m iles w est o f T arraco. N ot

a ll

t hese

a dmin istrative

p agi,

h owever,

d ivisions.

n ecessarily

4 125 a nd

1 043,

c f. T he

r ecords

r epresent

a

f ormal

i n p articular,

l ack

i -sounding t o fficid itles, a nd t he g iven d escriptions o f t hem i ndicate g rounds

f or

a c ommunity

a dm inistrative f unction . p p. 1 53 f f.. 1 5 .

o f

i nterests

i ndependent

o f

any

F or t he c ensus a nd t axation , s ee C hapter I X

T he w ord " contribuere" c ould o f c ourse b e u sed o f a ttachments o ther t han t hose o f c ommunities t o o ne a nother ;

a nd e ven i n t he c ase o f

c ommunities i t d oes n ot a lways h ave a t echnical s ense ( cf.

U .

L affi,

966), p p. 1 49-51). T wo i nstances i n A dtributio e c ontributio ( Pisa . 1 S pain w here i t a ppears t o b e u sed i n a n on-technical s ense a re P liny N H

ii. i

1 9 a nd F IRA I 2 1 C III.

N H i ii. 1 9 ( from t he p eriplus, n ot t he A ugustan f ormula, c f. n . 1 ) " reliqua i n o ra f lumen T ader , c olonia i mmunis I lici, u nde I licitanus s inus;

i n e ar n c ontribuuntur I cositani." -seems t o r efer s imply t o

t he t ransfer o f p eople f rom I cosium o n t he M auretanian c oast ( Pliny NH v . 2 0) t o t he A ugustan c olony I lici i n T arraconensis. T o t he s ubsequent s tatus a t n o

c lue,

t he w ord

p assage.

( See

N .

I lici o f

t hese p eople f rom I cosium P liny g ives

" contribuere" M ackie,

f orthcoming , H istoria.) I n F IRA I 2 1 C III ( Urso's

l acking a t echnical s ense

" Augustan c harter)

c olon(os)

i ncolasque

c ontributos

i n t his

i n

M auretania,"

- "Quicumque -

i n c ol(onia)

G enet(iva)IIvir p raef(ectus)ve i (ure)

C olonies

d (icundo)

q uocumque

p raerit, eum>

t empore

c olon(iae)

f in(ium) < defen Oendorum c ausa .." " contribuere" s eems t o h ave a s imilar m eaning. T hat i s, n ative i nhabitants ( "incolae" i n a n ont echnical s ense,

c f.

C IL 4 4 520) w ere a dded ( "contributi" ,

a lso i n a

n on-technical s ense) t o t he c olony. U rso's f oundation l aw , t hen , d raws a c onceptual d istinction b etween s ettlers a nd i ndigenous i nhabitants,

a nd

l ays

d efence o f t he c olony.

u pon

b oth

g roups

F rom t he w ords

i nference c an b e m ade a s

t he

o bligation t o m ilitary

" incolae" a nd " contributi" n o

t o t he f ormal s tatus

i n t he c olony o f t he

n ative i nhabitants a ttached t o i t. F ull c itizenship i s n ot e xcluded ; n either i s i t i mplied. ( For t he a dmission o f n atives t o R oman

3 5

N OTES :

C H . I I

c olonies i n S pain , s ee A ppendix V p p . 2 29 f f..) I t i s p ossible t hat N H i ii. 1 8 ( quoted i n n . 5 ; c f.below , p . 2 6) i s a nother i nstance o f t he u se o f " contribuere" i n a n on-technical s ense. I t m ay i ndicate s imply t he ( long-standing) p resence o f m ore t han o ne s ettlemen t i n a c ommunity's t erritory , w ithout i mplying a ny a ct o f r eorganisation , o r s uggesting a nything a bout t he f ormal s tatus o f s ettlements w ith r egard t o o ne a nother . 1 6 .

C astra S ervilia , C astra C aecilia : N H i v . 17 . C ontributa I ulia : i ii. 1 4 ; c f. 1 029 , 1 030 ; a nd 1 040 f or C uriga. C ontributa I psca : 1 569 ( "Ipsca" , A .D . 4 6); 1 572; 1 597 .

1 7.

N orba w as a J ulian o r A ugustan c olony ( see t he w orks c ited i n C hapter In . 1 0). T he C astra a re o therwise a ttested o nly i n I t. A nt. 4 33 . 4 ( "Castra C aecili" , o n t he r oad f rom E merita t o C apera) a nd R ay . C osm . 4 , 4 5 ( "Castris"). T he I tinerary g ives t he p osition o f " Castra C aecili" a s 4 6 m iles n orth o f E merita , w hich m eans t hat i t m ust h ave b een v ery c lose t o N orba i tself. C f. G alsterer , p . 2 4 f or i ts i dentification w ith a s ettlement 2 1 -km . n orth o f N orba . T o j udge b y t heir n ames a nd t he r egion t o w hich t hey b elong , t he C astra w ere f ounded b y Q . S ervilius C aepio ( 140-139 B .C.) a nd Q . M etellus P ius ( c. 7 2 B .C.) r espectively. T he n ames a lso s uggest m ilitary o utposts r ather t han n ative t owns ; a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat t he s oldiers s ettled w ere a uxiliaries r ather t han R omans a nd I talians ( B.D. H oyos, " The R omanization o f S pain : a S tudy o f S ettlement a nd A dministration t o A .D . 1 4 ," D . P hil . t hesis O xford 1 971, p p. 1 5 , 2 7). C ontributa I ulia : H enderson , 1 942 , p . 6 ; c f. t he t ribe G aleria i n 1 029 , 1 030 . C ontributa I psca's t ribe w as Q uirina ( 1597). ( See n . 1 f or G aleria a s i ndicating p romotion b y J ulius C aesar o r A ugustus , Q uirina b y V espasian o r h is s ons .) T he s imple n ame " Ipsca" i s f ound i n A .D. 4 6 ; t he p refix " C(ontributa)" d oes n ot a ppear o n i nscriptions e xcept i n c onjunction w ith t he t itle " municipium" a nd a " IIvir" e nrolled i n Q uirina ( 1569 , 1 572 , 1 597 , c ited i n n . 1 6 ; c f. n . 1 f or t he s ignificance o f t he t itles).

1 8 .

A lpine a nd G allic t ribes:

L affi , p p.

1 9-43;

c f. S herwin-White , R C ,

p . 3 56-7. ( The c ase f or s ubordination i n G aul i s i n f act n ot c lear . p C f. B .D. H oyos, " Civitas a nd L atium i n P rovincial C ommunities: I nclusion a nd E xclusion ," R IDA ( 3rd s eries) x xii ( 1975) , 2 43-77 , p p . 2 57-67 .) A frica : L affi , p p . 8 1-6 ; S herwin-White , R C , p p . 3 58-9 . N eptunia : L affi , p p. 1 09-17 . 1 9 .

P recedents f or a dtributio: e .g. t he L angenses V iturii a t G enua ( Laffi, p p. 5 5-61; S herwin-White , R C , p . 3 57). A nauni: I LS 2 06 . O rigins o f C astra S ervilia , C astra C aecilia : n . 1 7. P liny's s tatement a bout C uriga ( above p . 2 5 a nd n . 1 6) s uggests t hat C uriga w as j oined t o C ontributa I ulia i n t he F lavian p eriod ( i .e. a s

3 6

N OTES:

C H . I I

s oon a s C uriga o btained t he L atin r ight).

I psca c annot a t t he t ime

o f V espasian 's g rant h ave b een o f h igher s tatus t han t he c ommunities t hen j oined t o i t. F or t he l ocations o f t he v arious c ommunities, s ee t he m ap o f S pain a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I , K f ( Norba : C astra C aecilia w as a pparently a f ew k ilometres n orth o f N orba i tself ( n . 1 7)); a nd t he m ap o f B aetica , O i ( I psca); N f ( Contributa I ulia , C uriga. N ote t he s ite o f t he " pagus m armorarius" i n t he s ame r egion ( Of; 2 0.

c f. n n .

1 4 , 2 0).).

T he o nly i ndication o f a n a dministrative p eculiarity i n t hese t hree c ommunities i s a n i nscription f rom A lbuquerque ,

a bout 6 5 k ilamatres

s outh-west o f N orba , r eferring t o a n " VIIIvir". ( EE I X , p . 4 9 , n o . 19 = C IL 2 7 24. C f. G alsterer , p . 2 4 : A lbuquerque i s e quidistant f rom t he s ites o f N orba a nd E merita , a nd t he m agistrate m ay i n f act h ave b elonged t o E merita .) F or ' VIIIviri" e lsewhere i n t he E mpire , s ee G alsterer , p . 2 4 ; R E X VII 1 877-80 ; S herwin-White , R C , p p. 6 5-6 ; 7 2-3. W hatever t he e xplanation f or t he t itle i n t his i nscription , t here s eems t o b e n o s trong r eason f or a ssociating i t w ith a s pecial t ype o f a dministrative o rganisation a t N orba o r E merita.

( The

" praefecturae" a t E merita d o n ot a ppear t o h ave b een f ormal a dministrative d ivisions: A ppendix V n . 1 4; c f. G alsterer , p p. 2 34 .) T he p ag a ttested a t a nd n ear C uriga ( nn . 1 4 , 1 9) a re e xplicable i n t erms o f ag eneral s ystem o f p agi i n c entralised c ommunities. A malgamation m ay h ave i nvolved t he c reation o f n ew p agi ( cf. C arbula , b elow) b ut i t d oes n ot f ollow t hat t hese p agi w ere i n a ny w ay d istinguishable f rom p agi i n o ther S panish c ommunities. F or o ther p ossibilities o f a dministrative p eculiarity r esulting f rom c ontributio , s ee n . 2 2. L atin c ommunities a nd c itizenship t hrough m agistracy : A ppendix I I. C arbula : a s eparate c ommunity a ccording t o P liny N H i ii. 1 0 , a nd a p agus i n 2 322 ( cited i n n . 1 4). ( Cf. a bove , a nd L affi , p . 1 56.) T he i nscription i s a d edication t o V espasian a s c ensor. I t s eems n ot i mprobable t hat i t r ecords t he c reation o f t he p agus i n c onsequence o f t he g rant o f t he L atin r ight ( see A ppendix I II p . 2 15 f or t he d ate o f t he g rant). 2 1.

N H i ii.

1 8 ,

q uoted i n n . 5 .

S ee n .

1 5 f or n on-technical m eanings o f

" contribuere" . T he D ercinoassedenses a re p ossibly a n e xample o f R oman a male mation o f c ommunities i n T arraconensis ( above , p . 2 4 a nd n . 1 3 : C lunia w as aL atin t own). S erfs: 5 041.

N H i ii.

1 5 ( "Lascuta") s hows t hat t heir c ommunity

b ecame a n a utonomous u nit. T wo c ommunities i n T arraconensis: O sca a nd C alagurris , i n t he r egion o f t he E bro ( Caesar B C i . 6 0 . 1 ( 49 B .C.); N H i ii. 2 4; c f. L affi, p p. 1 17-9). 2 2.

F ormal i nternal d ivision ( Galsterer . p . 5 4): V alentia : a d ual s et o f a dministrative i nstitutions , b elonging t o " veterani" a nd " veteres" r espectively, i s a ttested i n t he t hird c entury A .D.. C f. B runt, I talian M anpower, p p. 2 15-6; 5 91-2. V alentia w as a R oman c olony, w hose t itle p robably d ates f rom t he s ettlement o f R oman s oldiers t here a fter t he S ertorian W ar . T he d ate

3 7

N OTES:

C H . I I

a t w hich t he d istinction w as m ade i n u nknown.

T he

t wo g roups

g enerally a ct i n c onjunction i n t he t hird c entury ; b ut c f. A E 1 933 5 , 1 938 2 3 , w here t he " decuriones V alentinorum v eteranorum" a ct o n t heir o wn . I t i s p ossible t hat t here w ere o riginally t wo q uite d istinct c ommunities ( cf. A ppendix V p . 2 29 f or t he f oundation o f c olonies a longside e xisting t owns); a nd t hat a p artial m erging o ccurred w ith t ime . P ax I ulia: a nother R oman c olony, f rom w hich c omes a d amaged i nscription r eferring t o " utrique s en[atui] ( ?)" ( 52). A s imilar e xplanation m ay a pply . D ertosa: a R oman m unicipium , i n t he e arly P rincipate a t l east ( Galsterer , p . 3 1). I t i s p ossible t hat " universus o rdo" ( 4060) I ndicates m erely t hat t he o rdo o n t hat o ccasion v oted i n f ull s trength . T uriaso : aR oman m unicipium . " Veteres e t i uni(ores)" o n ac oin . S ingilia : a f ree t own w hich r eceived t he L atin r ight f rom V espasian ( CIL 2 I , p . 2 72). A n i nscription f rom t he L atin m unicipium r ecords h onours t o as evir d ecreed f irst b y t he o rdo a s aw hole , a nd t hen b y as ection o f t he o rdo d escribed a s t he " ordo v etus" ( 2026). I nternal d ivisions i n t he c ase o f m unicipia ( Roman a nd L atin) , a s o pposed t o c olonies, c ould p erhaps h ave r esulted f rom a malgamation o f e xisting c ommunities. I f s o, t hese e xamples w ould a dd t o t he r ecorded i nstances o f R oman i nterference. T hey d o n ot s ignificantly a lter t he i nterpretation o f c ontributio: e ven a t S ingilia, w here t he e vidence f or d ivision i s c learest, t here w as a u nified o rdo , a nd t he " ordo v etus" i s n ot a ttested a s h aving h ad a ny r esponsibility f or t he c ommunity a s a w hole. F or a n a lternative e xplanation o f d ivisions a t D ertosa a nd T uriaso , s ee A ppendix V p . 2 31. N H i ii. 1 8 , q uoted i n n . 5 . M alaca: F IRA I 2 1 L XXIII; 2 4 L XII. C f. 5 041 ( Lascuta, 1 89 1 72 ( Aritium , A .D . 3 7); 1 423 ( Sabora , A .D . 7 8). o ppidi" : 3 408 , 1 346 , 2 193. m unicipii" e tc .: 1 362 , 2 126 , 3 228 , 4 071.

2 3 .

P liny: U rso, B .C.); " Genio " Genio

2 4 .

7 Municipes e t i ncolae" ; 1 041 , c ited i n n . 1 4 . C ompare e .g . 2 132 , 1 535-7 , f or t he p hrase a s as tandard e xpression .

2 5 .

P rivate r ights , p ersonal p rivileges: C hapter I II p . 4 1. F or p ossible e xclusions o f c ountry-dwellers e lsewhere f rom p rivate r ights , s ee A .H .M . J ones , " Another I nterpretation o f t he ' Constitutio A ntoniniana'," J RS x xvi ( 1936) , 2 23-35 , p . 2 28 . S trabo x ii. 3 . 4 , C 5 42 ( the M ariandyni a s s erfs o f H eraclea i n P ontus) d oes n ot r ead a s t hough t he s ituation s till e xisted w hen S trabo w as w riting . ( Compare t he s erfs o f H asta i n B aetica , f reed b y R ome i n 1 89 B .C . ( n . 2 1).) A t C yrene a nd P rusias c ountry-dwellers a re d istinguished f rom "Ot n o Urcu ." a nd "o i , gvxexptia[gvotj" ( Josephus A J x iv. 1 15 ( quoting S trabo); I GR I II 6 9 , s econd c entury A .D .). B ut t hat m ay i mply m erely e xclusion f rom p olitical r ights. P olitical r ights: C yrene a nd P rusias , c ited a bove . C f. n . 1 8 f or t he p ossibility o f e xclusion o f c ountry d wellers f rom p olitical r ights i n G aul .

3 8

2 086 ,

N OTES: 2 6.

F or

p olitical

r ights

( and

C H .

f ormal

I I r estrictions

o n t hem)

s ee

C hapter

II p p. 4 2; 4 5. I U rso:

F IRA I 2 1 X CI; c f. C hapter I V n . 6 .

E lectoral a ssemblies:

C hapter V p p. 8 2-3; 8 5.

L egislative a ssemblies a nd i nformal a gitation : C hapter X p p. 1 63-4. T he d istance w hich p eople m ight h ave t o t ravel t o r each t he o ppidum o bviously d epended o n t he s ize a nd s hape o f a t own 's t erritory. O n t he t erritory

( which s eems t o h ave b een u nusually l arge)

o f t he

c olony E merita i n L usitania , s ee R . W iegels, " Zum T erritorium d er a ugusteischen K olonie E merita ," M DAI(M) x vii ( 1976), 2 58-84: s ome p arts o f t he t erritory w ere a pparently 7 0-80 km. f rom t he t own i tself. O n t he t erritory o f o ther c ommunities, s ee R . N ierhaus, " Baedro - T opographische S tudien z um T erritorium d es C onventus C ordubensis i n d er m ittleren S ierra M orena ,"

M DAI(M) v ( 1964),

1 85-

2 12: t he s outh a nd s outh-west b oundaries o f t he c olony B arcino , a nd t he n orth-east b oundary o f t he c olony T arraco, s eem t o h ave b een a bout

2 0 k m .

d istant f rom t he t owns t hemselves;

w hile t he n orthern

b oundary o f t he c olony C orduba i n R aetica ( cf. S trabo i ii. 2 . 1 , C 1 41) w as p robably s ome 4 0 k m e f rom t he o ppidum . C alculation o f t he a verage a reas g ives

o f

r esults

c ommunity L usitania

i n

c ommunities'

r anging B aetica

( Chapter I n .

t erritory

b y

f rom a n a verage t o

o ne

o f

2 889

5w ith B eloch ,

p rovinces a rea

k m.'

p. p

o f f or

46-7; 4

a nd

4 57

c onventus

km.'

f or a

a c ommunity c f.

a bove,

n . n

i n 5 ,

8 ). 2 7.

F inancial e xploitation : c f. F rederiksen , p . 3 53 f .. E xclusion f rom s ocial b enefits:

2 8.

C uriga:

1 040.

C hapter I II p p. 4 2-3.

T he d ecurions a re c onclusive.

C ertain p agi i n A frica

h ad d ecurions w ho p assed d ecrees ( Sherwin-White, R C , p p. 3 55-6). B ut e ven i f C uriga d id -like C arbula i n s imilar c ircumstances -become t he c entre o f a p a us o n a malgamation w ith C ontributa I ulia

( n .

2 0)

t he S panish p agi a re n ot c omparab le t o t hose i n A frica. I nstances o f s ecession e lsewhere i n t he E mpire a re:

T ymandus i n

P isidia

( D.

( ILS

6 090,

s econd

c entury

A .D.

( ?)

Magie,

R oman R ule i n A sia M inor t o t he E nd o f t he T hird C entury a fter C hrist ( Princeton , 1 950), I I , 1 502, a gainst J ones , T he G reek C ity , p p. 8 8 , 2 72)); O rcistus i n P hrygia ( ILS 6 091, f ourth c entury A .D. ( Orcistus a pparently c omplained o f a n u nfair a pportionment o f R oman t axation : c ol.

I II 1 4-23 ,

A .D.

( cf. L affi , p p.

I3 7-8));

M iley i n N umidia ( ILS 6 864 ,

1 35-47)).

39

t hird c entury

C HAPTER I II C ITIZENS A ND I NCOLAE ( i)

I ntroduction

T he f ree r esident p opulation o f e ach c ommunity c onsisted o f t wo m ain g roups: c itizens o f t he c ommunity, o n t he o ne h and , a nd r esident a liens , o n t he

o ther.

E ven m ore

r emote

c lear c onception o f who w as,

c ommunities

i n

o r w as n ot,

a c itizen.

h ereditary, a nd g enerally d epended o n b irth. o n

o utsiders

b y

t he

f avour

o f

t he

t he

e arly

P rincipate

h ad a

C itizenship w as

B ut i t c ould a lso b e c onferred

c ommunity

c oncerned.

T he m ost

c ommon

r eason f or a dlection o f o utsiders a ppears t o h ave b een t heir p ermanent r esidence i n t he n ew c ommunity. B ut i t w as b y n o m eans t he c ase t hat p ermanent r esidence l ed a utomatically t o a dlection ; b e g ranted t o p eople o ther t han p ermanent r esidents, o f t he c ommun ity, a s a n h onorific g esture. A dlectioL c itizenship,

b y

a c ommunity

a mong

i ts

w ithout e liminating t he o ld.

a nd c itizenship

c itizens

m erely

c itizenship

o f

a nother

k ind.

c itizenship:

a s a c orollary o f

g rant.

t he

B y

m iddle

o f

S ome

a n ew

T here w as a lso

p rovincials

t heir l ocal c itizenship ,

A ugustus'

a dded

D ual c itizenship o f p rovincial

c ommunities i s w ell a ttested i n S pain u nder t he P rincipate. d ual

m ight

f or e xample t o ap atron

r eign,

t he

e njoyed

R oman

o r b y i ndividual

p rinciple

o f

t he

i ncompatibility o f R oman a nd l ocal c itizenship s eems t o h ave b een e roded t o s uch

a d egree

t hat

e ven e nfranchised i ndividuals

i n p eregrine

c ommunities

r emained l iable t o l ocal m unera a nd e ligible ( in t heory a s w ell a s p ractice) f or l ocal o ffices. 2 T he

t erm

" incola"

i n

S panish

i nscriptions

s omeone w ho w as a c itizen o f a nother c ommunity , h e l ived.

d enotes

a r esident

a lien :

b ut n ot o f t he o ne i n w hich

T he c harters o f U rso a nd M alaca s how t hat b y t he F lavian p eriod ,

a t t he l atest,

t he w ord h ad a w ell-established t echnical m eaning w hich

e xcluded

c itizens

b oth

a nd

m ere

v isitors

t o

a c ommunity.

P recise

d efinitions o f w hat c onstituted p ermanent r esidence d id n ot h owever b ecome a m atter f or u rgency u ntil t he s econd crtury A .D ., w hen i ncolae b ecame l iable t o m unera i n t heir p lace o f d omicile. C itizenship o f a c ommunity c arried w ith i t c ertain r ights a nd a dvantages, a nd c ertain d uties a s w ell. S ome o f t hese w ere s hared b y i ncolae.

T he

d ivision

i ncolae d oes n ot h owever a nd b urdens.

J f

t he f ree r esident p opulation i nto c itizens a nd

b y i tself

e xplain t he

d istribution o f

p rivileges

W ithin e ach g roup a n umber o f f actors a ffected e ligibility a nd

l iability. W omen , f reedmen , a nd c ountry-dwellers a mong t he c itizens w ere a ll i n c ertain r espects t reated d ifferently f rom f ree-born m ale c itizens w ho l ived i n t he c entral

t own .

W ealth w as

a nother

i mportant

d ifferentiating

f actor. R oman c itizenship, and t he l ack o f i t, c ould c reate f urther d ivisions w ithin t he c itizen b ody. A ll t hese d istinctions w ere r elevant t o t he

p osition

o f

a n

i ncola

a s

w ell.

S ome

4 0

p rivileges w ere

r eserved

t o a

s mall g roup o f c itizens ; c itizens w ere d enied .

a nd s ome i ncolae e njoyed p rivileges w hich s ome

( ii) C itizens P ersonal p rivileges I n m ore p rimitive c ommunities , t he s imple r ight t o a cceptance , a nd p rotection , b y ac ommunity s eems t o h ave c onstituted a n i mportant e lement i n t he c oncept o f l ocal c itizenship . W ith i ncreasing s ophistication , t he b asic a nd e ssen tial c omponent o f c itizenship c ame t o b e t he p ossession o f p rivate r ights i n l aw . P rivate r ights w ere n ot n ecessary f or o wnership o f l and o r v alid m arriage w ith a c itizen o f ac ommunity . T he S panish e vidence r eveals n o r estrictions w ith r egard t o m arriage a nd o wnership o f l and s ave t hose c aused b y t he c omplication o f R oman c itizenship . B ut i n S alpensa's c harter t he r ight t o u se t he l ocal m agistrates f or c ertain p ersonal e nds ( for m anumissions a nd t he a ppointment o f g uardians) i s r estricted t o m unicipes o f t he c ommunity . S ome t ransactions, t hat i s, w hich r equired t he b acking o f l ocal l aw w ere , i n t heory a t l east , a vailable o nly t o c itizens o f S alpensa. T his p henomenon w as p robably c ommon , n ot o nly a mong L atin c ommunities l ike S alpensa , b ut a mong R omanised c ommunities i n g eneral. 5 R oman

c itizenship w as

a p rivilege

e njoyed

b y

c itizens

o f R oman

c olonies a nd m unicipia , a nd b y e x-magistrates a nd t heir f amilies i n L atin c ommunities. T hereby t hey g ained a ccess t o t he p rivate r ights o f R oman c itizens, i ncluding c onubium a nd c ommercium , a nd a lso t o t he r ight o f a ppeal a gainst R oman m agistrates. A n umber o f R oman c olonies i n S pain h ad t he i us I talicum , o r a t a ny r ate t he i mmunity f rom t axation w hich w as i ts m ain c omponent. T hese t oo c onstituted p ersonal p rivileges f or t he c itizens o f t he c ommunities c oncerned . P rivate r ights a ppear t o h ave b een .enjoyed b y a ll c itizens o f a c ommunity. S alpensa's c harter , i ndeed, m akes t he p osition o f w omen c itizens , a t a ny r ate , c lear : t hey a re e ntitled t o s ecure g uardians t hrough t he l ocal m agistrates. R oman c itizenship i n R oman c ommun ities , a nd t he p ersonal p rivileges e ntailed b y i us I talicum a nd i mmunity f rom t axation , w ere l ikewise u niversal a mong c itizens. I n L atin c ommunities, t he r estriction o f R oman c itizenship t o e x-magistrates a nd t heir f amiles l imited t he r ange o f c itizens t o w hom t he p rivilege w as i mmediately a vailable. F reedmen a nd p oor c itizens w ere e xcluded , a s a lso w ere w ealthy c itizens u nwilling t o t ake u p r esidence i n o r n ear t he c entral t own . W omen i n L atin c ommunities c ould s ecure R oman c itizenship o nly t hrough t he m agistracy o f am ale r elative . R oman c itizenship i n L atin c ommunities w as a s ocially d ivisive f actor . T he n on-magisterial c lass i n s uch c ommunities a ppears t o h ave b een c omposed o f p eople w ho w ere m erely p eregrines, s o f ar a s p ersonal s tatus w ent, w ithout e ven t he r ights o f c onubium a nd c ommercium w ith R oman c itizens. T hus t ies o f m arriage, i n p articular , w ill h ave t ended t o u nite t he m agisterial c lass w ithin i tself , t o t he e xclusion o f t he r est o f t he c itizen b ody .

T his w as a c onsequence ,

n ot o f j ocal d iscrimination ,

c haracter o f t he R oman c itizenship i tself.

4 1

b ut o f t he

P articipation i n p ublic a ffairs O ligarchic g overnment a ppears t o h ave b een t he r ule i n b oth p riv ileged a nd u nprivileged c ommunities i n S pain , t he r ole o f p opular a ssemblies b eing i n g eneral l imited t o e lections. T he a ctivity o f p opular l egislative a ssemblies i s a ttested o nly i n a h andful o f i nscriptions; a nd e ven t hen c onsists m erely o f g rants o f h onours t o p rominent i ndividuals. E vidence f or i nformal e xpressions o f g ratitude a nd r espect i s m uch m ore c ommon ; a nd o ccasionally p ressure w as e xerted o n t he l ocal c ouncil b y m eans o f i n formal p opular a gitation . M embership o f e lectoral a nd l egislative a ssemblies w as p resumably l imited t o m ale c itizens, b ut t here s eems t o h ave b een n o e xclusion o f f reedmen o r p oor c itizens. C itizens w ho l ived a t a d istance f rom t he c entral t own w ill h ave f ound i t i n p ractife d ifficult t o p articipate i n e ither f ormal o r i nformal p opular a ctivity. M agistracies

a nd m embership

o f

t he

l ocal

c ouncil w ere

r estricted

t o

w ealthy c itizens: i n c onsequence o f t he e xpenses o f o ffice , q uite a part f rom p roperty-qualifications o r d emands f or f inancial s ecurities . I n p ractice , i f n ot a lso i n t heory, m agistrates a nd m embers o f t he c ouncil h ad t o l ive w ithin e asy r each o f t he c entral t own , w here t heir d uties w ere c arried o ut. W omen w ere n ot e ligible ; n or , i n g eneral , w ere f reedmen . A t s ome t owns m ore s tringent s ocial c riteria m ay h ave o perated, w ith t he r esult t hat n) t f reedmen a nd t hose s imilarly s tigmatised a lone , b ut a lso o ther l a gn o f l ow b irth o r i nferior o ccupations , w ere e xcluded f rom l ocal o ffice. P riesthooJ E ; n umbered a mong t he o fficial i nstitutions o f t he c ommunities b y v irtue o f t he p ublic a ssumption o f r esponsibility f or r eligion . L ike o ther o fficials o f t he c ommunity , p riests c arried o ut t heir d uties i n t he c entral t own . S ome p riesthoods w ere r eserved t o m ale c itizens o f f ree b irth . T hey s eem , i n e ffect a t l east, t o h ave b een a vailable o n ly t o t he c lass o f m en e ligible f or p ublic o ffice; a nd i ndeed f requently f igure a long w ith m agistracies i n r ecords o f p ublic c areers. A lthough w omen a nd f reedmen w ere i neligible f or o ffice,

t here w ere

p riesthoods w hich t hey c ould h old . P riestesses b elonged t o t he s ocial c lass f rom w hich o ffice-holders c ame ; a nd t heir p riesthoods c onstituted a l imited o pportunity f or w omen o f t his c lass t o p articipate i n p ublic a ffairs. T he s evirate , w hich p rovided a n o utlet f or t he e nergies o f w ealthy f reedmen , s imilarly o ffered r estricted p articipaticn i n p ublic a ffairs t o p eople o f s ocial i mportance w ho w ere e xcluded f rom o ffice. O f a ll o fficials i n S panish c ommunities , s eviri p aid m ost h eavily f or t he p rivilege o f a ppointment.

T his p erhaps r eflects p rejudice a gainst f reedmen , a s w ell

a s t heir l ack o f p olitical p ower .

9

S ocial b enefits T he d egree o f R omanisation o f a c ommunity w as t o s ome e xtent r eflected i n t he r ange o f p ublic b uildings w hich i t p ossessed . I t w as i n t he c entral t own t hat p ublic b uildings w ere t o b e f ound : b oth t hose w ith a dministrative f unctions a nd t hose , s uch a s b aths a nd t heatres , w hich w ere d esigned f or s ocial p urposes. J ust a s t he t own w as t he s ite o f p ublic b uildings, s o i t w as i n t he t own t hat p ublic e ntertainments a nd b anquets w ere g iven. D istributions o f m oney b y p ublic b enefactors w ere a nother f eature o f l ife i n

4 2

m ore s ophisticated c ommunities. d istributed f unds

c orn i n t imes

f or b uying c orn .

o f

S ometimes,

s hortage.

A f ew

a lso,

p ublic b enefactors

c ommunities

P ublic d octors a nd t eachers,

p aid o ut o f p ublic m oney, s poradically a ttested.

h ad

p ermanent

w hose s alaries w ere

c onstituted a nother s ocial s ervice w hich i s

T hese s ocial b enefits w ere n ot a vailable t o a ll c itizens i n e qual d egree. T he v alue o f b uildings, p roportional t o t he a ccessibility o f

e ntertainments, a nd b anquets w as t he o ppidum . E ven s portulae w ere

s ometimes r estricted t o t hose a ble t o b e p resent o n t he c orrect o ccasion ; a nd i t m ay b e t he c ase t hat s ome b enefactors s pecifically e xcluded c itizens w ho l ived o utside t he t own i tself. A f ew i nscriptions s tate e xplicitly t hat b oth

d istributions s exes. T he

c itizens w ere

o r p ublic b anquets w ere m ade a vailable t o c itizens o f e xplicitness i n t hese c ases c ould i ndicate t hat w omen

s ometimes

e xcluded.

S portulae w ere

w hich v aried a ccording t o t he o fficial s tatus t ended t o r eceive m ore t han s eviri, t he p opulation . a nd b anquets,

o f

d istributed

t he

i n a mounts

r ecipient:

d ecurions

a nd s eviri m ore t han t he r emainder o f

A s imilar d istinction w as d rawn a t p ublic e ntertainments w here

d ecurions

o ccupied s pecial s eats a part f rom t he r est.

S portulae a nd s eating a rrangements

t hus

c arried o ver i nto s ocial

l ife t he

r estrictions w hich a pplied t o p articipation i n p ublic a ffairs. 1°

O bligations C itizens c ouncil.

' 2 re b ound t o o bey t he l ocal l aws a nd t he d ecrees o f t he l ocal

T hey w ere s ubject t o t he j urisdiction o f l ocal m agistrates w ithin

t he l imits o f

t he j udicial a utonomy w hich R ome a llowed t o t he c ommunities.

I n c ommunities w hich d id n ot enjoy i mmunity f rom R oman t axation, c itizens p aid ,

h ad

t o

c ontribute

i f a t a ll , t o

t axes.

I t

a ll

p robably

p roperty t axes b eing t he

T hat s hould h ave m eant t hat r ich c itizens c ontributed i n t heir

w ealth.

s ubdivisions o f c ommunities' a ppear t o h ave

A s imple p oll-tax w as

o nly i n u nprivileged c ommunities,

r ule e lsewhere. p roportion

t heir s hare.

f ormed

i s

p art

p ossible

T he

p agi

w hich

a re

f ound

o f t hat

t he

m achinery

t he

l ocal

f or

t he

c ouncil,

n ecessarily r esident c lose t o t he t own i tself,

c ollection w hose

f ormal

d id n ot

o t

m embers

R oman w ere

e xploited t he s ystem b y

i mposing a n u nfair b urden o f t axation o n c ountry d istricts. T he R oman g overnment

a s

t erritory i n t he m ore c ivilised a reas o f S pain

1

l ook w ith f avour o n f inancial

e xactions

m ade f or l ocal p urposes. S pecial e xpenditure b y i nd ividuals w as r arely d emanded i n S panish c ommunities. I n t he r ecorded c ases t here i s a t endency f or t he

l anguage

o f

p etition ,

r ather t han c ommand ,

t o

b e u sed;

a nd f or

p opular w ishes, n ot t hose o f t he c ouncil a lone, t o b e c ited a s j ustification . T hus s pecial e xpenditure i s e xplained b y s uch e xpressions a s " petitus a b o rdine" ,

" petente o rdine e t p opulo" , a nd " secundum p etitionem

m unicipum". I t i s p ossibie , h owever , t hat s ome c ommunities h ad a r ight t o e xact r egular t axes f or l ocal p urposes. R evenues a t U rso a nd M alaca d escribed a s

" vectigalia" w ithout

f urther e lucidation n o d oubt i ncluded

r ents o n p roperty o wned b y t he c ommunity. T he c onductor v ectigalium w ho w as e ngaged i n a l egal d ispute w ith M unigua i n A .D. 7 9 m ay h ave b een c ollecting r ents o n p ublic p roperty , r ather t han l ocal t axes. 1 2 T hese t hree c ases, h owever , a ll l eave o pen t he p ossibility t hat t he c ommunities c oncerned l evied t axes s uch a s t he c ustoms d uties a nd m arket d ues s pecifically a ttested i n t he E ast.

F urther ,

4 3

V espasian's l etter t o S abora

o f

A .D .

7 8 s eems

t o d emand a n i nterpretation o f

t he w ord " vectigalia" i n

t erms o f l ocal t axes r ather t han r ents o n p roperty o wned b y t he c ommun ity. T he l etter c onfirms S abora's r ight t o " vectigalia" o riginally g ran ted b y A ugustus; a nd r efers t o ap etition b y S abora f or p ermission t o r aise m ore. T he p riestess o f C artima i n t he s ame p rovince o f B aetica w ho , a mong o ther s ervices

t o h er t own ,

" vectigalia

p ublica

v indicavit" m ay

s imilarly h ave

s ecured , o r r ecovered , f rom t he R oman g overnment t he c ommunity's r ight t o r aise l ocal t axes. L ocal t axes o f t he k ind d escribed , t hen , m ay h ave b een r elatively c ommon i n S pain , a lthough t he e vidence a lso s hows t hat t he i mposition o f n ew t axes, a t l east, w as e ven i n t he f irst c entury A .D. a 3 m atter f or c onsultation w ith t he R oman g overnment. 1 T he i nstitution o f m unera e ntailed f or c itizens o f a c ommunity b oth f inancial e xpenditure a nd p ersonal s erv ice. T he R oman g overnment's c oncern f or i ts o wn f inancial i nterests i s a pparent h ere a lso . I n t heory , o nly m unera w hich u ltimately s erved t he R oman g overnment i nvolved f inancial e xpenditure. B ut i n f act a mbassadors a nd c urators o f p ublic w orks , f or e xample , m ight f ind t he p ublic m oney p rovided i nadequate f or t he t ask . T he v ariety o f l ocal m unera p robably t ended t o i ncrease w ith t he s ophistication o f ac ommunity , a s ag rowing c omplexity o f a dministrative a ctivity c reated a n eed f or p ublic s ervants o ther t han t he r egular m agistrates a nd t heir a ssistants. C ertain m unera

-such -

a s

t hat

o f

a mbassador

-w hich -

i nvolved

r esponsible p ersonal a ttention a ppear t o h ave b een r eserved , b y c onvention a t l east, t o m embers o f t he l ocal c ouncil. O ther m unera -if i t i s r easonable t o a pply t he e vidence o f t he S everan j urists -were a ssigned i n a ccordance w ith d istinctions o f s ex a nd s ocial s tatus. T hus w omen w ould h ave b een e xempt f rom p ersonal s ervice; a nd p hysical l abour f or t he c ommunity's b enefit, s uch a s i s r eferred t o i n U rso's c harter , w as p robably n ot u sually d emanded e xcept o f m en o f t he p oorer c lass. S ince t he l ocal c ouncil s upervised t he a ssignment o f m unera, t here w as, a s w ith t he a llocation o f R oman t axes, 4 t o t he c ounci1. 1

a l ikelihood o f d iscrimination a gainst o utsiders

( iii)

I ncolae

P ersonal p rivileges I ncolae r etained t he p ersonal p rivileges i nherent i n c itizenship o f t heir o wn c ommunity, b ut t hey a cquired l ittle i n t he w ay o f p ersonal p rivileges b y r esidence i n t he n ew c ommunity. T hey d id n ot i n t heory h ave p rivate r ights i n t heir p lace o f d omicile. H owever , l ack o f p rivate r ights d id n ot i n i tself a ffect t heir a bility t o o wn l and i n t he c ommunity, o r c ontract v alid m arriages w ith i ts c itizens. T he o nly s ignificant p roblem i n t his r espect w ould h ave b een t he o bstacle t o i ntermarriage b etween p eregrines w ithout c onubium a nd R oman c itizens: t his w as a c onsequence o f t he p rinciples o f R oman , n ot l ocal , l aw . M arriages b etween m embers o f d ifferent S panish c ommunities w ere c ommon:

l ocal l aws,

t hen ,

d id n ot

o bstruct v alid m arriages b etween c itizens o f a c ommunity a nd f oreigners. I n U rso's c harter i t i s e nvisaged t hat l and i n t he c olony's t erritory m ay b e o wned b y p eople w ho a re n ot c itizens o f U rso , a nd i ndeed d o n ot e ven l ive t here. I n c olonies w hich , l ike U rso , w ere i mmune f rom t axation , i mmunity a ttaching t o t he l and s hould h ave b een a vailable t o a ll o wners, w hether o r

4 4

n ot t hey w ere c itizens o f t he c olony. d ivision e xisted b etween c itizens

o f

I n L atin c ommunities , w here a s ocial p eregrine s tatus

a nd t he m agisterial

c lass, i ncolae w ho w ere g man c itizens w ould h ave f ound t hemselves a mong t he s ocially s uperior g roup.

P articipation i n p ublic a ffairs O ne m ay a ssume t hat i n p rimitive c ommunities o nly c itizens e njoyed p olitical r ights. I t i s c lear t hat i n s ophisticated c ommunities a lso p olitical r ights w ere g enerally r estricted t o c itizens. T he m ajority o f f oreigners w ho a re a ttested a s m agistrates c an b e s hown t o h ave a cquired c itizenship o f t heir n ew c ommunity. T he f ew i nscriptions w hich s eem t o r ecord t he a ctivity o f p opular l egislative a ssemblies r efer t o c itizens r ather t han r esidents i n g eneral. T he r egulations f or t he c onduct o f e lections a t M alaca c ontain a s mall e xception t o t he r ule. I ncolae w ho w ere R oman c itizens o r L atin' I uniani w ere t o b e a ssigned o ne p articular c uria i n w hich t o v ote. T hat s hows h ow t he s tatus o f t hese i ncolae , i n a t own t he m ajority o f w hose c itizens w ere p eregrini, c ould b e t hought t o e ntitle t hem t o m inimal p olitical r ights. T he p ractice p rescribed a t M alaca m ay h ave b een c ommon i n t he L atin t owns o f S pain . I t c onfirms t he g eneral p rinciple t hat i ncolae h ad n o p olitical r ights i n t heir p lace o f d omicile. I nformal a ctivity

o n t he p art o f t he p opulace w as n ot,

h owever,

r estricted t o

c itizens. A n umber o f i nscriptions h onouring p rominent i ndividuals, s et u p j ointly b y t he c itizens a nd i ncolae, r eflect t he i ncola's p articipation i n t he s ocial l ife o f t he t own. A s i n t he c ase o f c itizens, t he i ncolae i nvolved m ust h ave l ived i n o r n ear t he t own i tself.

1 6

T he p riesthoods r eserved t o m en o f f ree b irth , a nd t he s evirate a lso , w ere n ot a vailable t o i ncolae. T he c ase o f p riesthoods h eld b y w omen s eems f w omen h eld p riesthoods o utside t heir t o h ave b een d ifferent. A n umh9A- o n ative t owns , w ithout a pparently h aving a cquired c itizenship i n t he o ther c ommunities. S ome o f t he w omen c oncerned m ay h ave b een i ncolae m arried t o c itizens , a nd t heir p riesthoods m erely a ccessory t o p riesthoods h eld b y t heir h usbands. B ut i t i s f ar f rom c ertain t hat a ll t he i nstances a re t o b e s o e xplained. I t i s p ossible t hat w omen i ncolae ( so l ong a s t hey q ualified o n g rounds o f w ealth a nd s ocial s tatus) w ere , l ike c itizens, e ligible f or p riesthoods; t he p rerogatives.of c itizens b eing g uarded l ess / j ealously i n t heir c ase t han i n t hat o f m en .1

S ocial b enefits I ncolae,

a s r esidents,

a utomatically s hared w ith t he c itizens t he

v arious a menities o f t he t own , i nsofar a s t he t own w as a ccessible t o t hem . T hey a lso e njoyed , w ith t he c itizens, t he p ublic g ames a nd s hows. I ncolae o ccasionally a ttended p ub l ic b anquets a nd s hared i n s portulae , w here t hey r eceived t he s ame a mount o f m oney a s t he p lebs. S ometimes, i ndeed , m ale i ncolae m ay h ave b een t reated m ore g enerously t han w omen c itizens: o ne i nscription r ecords a b anquet w hich w as g iven t o c itizens a nd i ncolae, w ithout e xplicitly m entioning w omen . O ne b enefactor i ncluded , a long w ith t he c itizens , o nly t hose i ncolae w ho l ived w ithin t he t own w alls. T he r estriction s hows h ow r esidents o f t he t own m ight b e t hought t o h ave a s tronger c laim t han o thers t o b elong t o t he c ommunity.

4 5

1 8

A mong t he i nscriptions h onouring b enefactors i s o ne s et u p b y c itizens a nd i ncolae i n g ratitude f or a c orn-distribution w hich w as a pparently m ade t o a ll r esidents w ithout d istinction . I t i s n ot n ecessarily t he c ase, h owever , t hat i ncolae b enefited f rom t he p rovision o f c heap c orn a t t he c ommunity's o wn e xpense. T here s hould h ave b een n o o bjection t o a ny r esident's m aking u se o f p ublic d octors a nd t eachers, s o l ong a s h e c ould a fford t o d o s o. T he s alaries p aid b y t he c ommunities s eem o nly t o h ave e stablished a c laim t o t he s ervices o f d octors a nd t eachers, w ithout b eing a 9 s ubstitute f or t heir r egular f ees. 1

O bligations I ncolae, l ike c itizens , w ere o bliged t o o bey t he l ocal l aws a nd t he c ouncil's d ecisions. T he o bligation t o o bey e xtended t o a n o bligation t o a ccept t he j udicial d ecisions o f a c ommunity's m agistrates. A t M alaca t he d uoviri h ad a uthority , w ithin c ertain l imits , t o s ettle f inancial d isputes b etween t he c ommunity a nd i ndividuals: c itizens a nd i ncolae a like. O f t he R oman t axes w hich c ommunities c ollected , a p art a t l east w as c ontributed b y i ncolae. T axes o n l and w ere p ayable t o t he c ommunity i n w hose t erritory t he l and w as s ituated. A s r egards o ther R oman t axes, i t i s u nclear w hether t he i ncola p aid t hem t o t he c ommunity i n w hich h e w as r esident, o r t o h is n ative c ommunity. I f t axes o n m ovable p roperty w ere i ndeed p ayable t o a n i ncola's n ative c ommunity, i ncolae m ust o ften h ave e scaped t axation o n m ovable p roperty h eld i n t he p lace o f r esidence. I ndirect t axation f or l ocal p urposes w ould h ave a ffected a ll r esidents o f a c ommunity, i rrespective o f c itizen s tatus. T hroughout t he f irst c entury A .D . t he l iability t o m unera r emained t ied t o c itizenship , n ot d omicile: i ncolae w ho l ived a t a d istance f rom t heir n ative c ommunities m ay s ometimes h ave a voided m unera a ltogether . W hen i ncolae b ecame l iable t o m unera, t he s ame d istinctions o f s tatus a pplied i n t heir c ase a s i n t hat o f c itizens. M unera o f t he m ore r esponsible s ort w ere n ot a vailable t o i ncolae, b eing p erformed b y l ocal c ouncillors. T hat l eft t o i ncolae f inancial s ervices a nd ( to m ale i ncolae o f t he p oorer c lass) p hysical l abour. 2°

( iv)

C onclusion

T he p rimitive c onception o f t he r ights a nd d uties a ssociated w ith m embership o f a c ommunity w as n ot c omplicated b y c onflicting c riteria o f w hat i t w as t o b e a m ember . C itizenship w as o riginally a cquired o nly b y b irth, a nd w as v irtually s ynonymous w ith r esidence. W ith i ncreasing m obility, c ommunities c ame t o h ave n umbers o f r esidents w ho w ere n ot c itizens b y b irth .

O ne c onsequence w as t he d evelopment o f t he

1 c itizenship c ould b e c onferred o n o utsiders. 2

A nother w as

i dea t hat

t he e volution

o f at heory o f r ights a nd d uties a s e ntailed b y r esidence a lone. T he

c oncentration o f

p ower i n t he h ands o f l ocal c ouncils m ean t t hat

f or m ost c itizens p olitical r ights w ere n ot a n i mportant c onstituen t o f t heir p rivileges a s c itizens. T he m ore e xclusive t he c ouncils w ere , t he m ore m arked w as t his p henomenon . I ncreasing s ophistication m ultiplied t he a menities a nd s ervices w hich t he c ommunities o ffered. S ome o f t hese w ere o f s uch a c haracter t hat t hey w ere a utomatically a vailable t o n on-citizens a s w ell a s c itizens; a nd m ost c ould b e e njoyed o nly b y t hose a ble t o b e p resent i n t he c entral t own .

T he r esult w as t hat, a mong t he p oorer c lasses

4 6

a t

l east,

p lace

o f

r esidence

a ffected

s ignificantly t han c itizenship o r t he t own a nd

t erritory w as

t he

a vailable

l ack o f

i t.

a dvantages T he

d ivision

r ar m ore b etween

i n t heir c ase m ore r eal t han t hat b etween c itizens

a nd i ncolae. C itizenship p articipation

r emained,

i n p ublic

w ith m inor e xceptions,

a ffairs.

I t

i s

s ignificant

a p rerequisite t hat

m ost

f or

r ecorded

a dlections o f c itizens i n S pain w ere p reliminary t o t he h olding o f o ffices a nd p riesthoods. r espect

i n w hich

T hat i s, e ligibility f or p ublic s ervice w as t he p rincipal i ncolae w ere a t

a d isadvantage

o nly t he d esire f or t his e lgibility t hat, c itizenship i tself. T he

t o

c itizens;

a s a r ule ,

a nd i t w as

d rove t hem t o s ecure

2 2

m ultiplication

o f

t heir

s ocial

d evelopment.

s hows

h ow s ocial b enefits,

m unera T he

w as

f act

a p rice w hich t hat

c ommunities

i ncolae b ecame

r ather t han p olitical r ights,

t he p rincipal s ource o f o bligation t o ac ommunity.

l iable

p aid t o

f or

t hese

w ere r egarded a s

T he d istinctions o f s ex

a nd c lass w hich w ere o bserved i n t he a ssignment o f m unera w ere o f k ey i mportance t o t he i nstitutions o f l ocal g overnment; a nd i nfluenced t he b ehaviour o f p ublic b enefactors a s w ell. M ost o f t he e vidence f or i ncolae,

f or f oreigners a diected a s c itizens,

a nd f or m unera d ates f rom i n o r a fter t he F lavian p eriod. T his f act r eflects t he c onsequences o f i ncreased m obility a nd c ultural s ophistication , r ather t han V espasian's g rant o f t he L atin r ight i n i tself. T here w as n o e ssential c onnexion b etween f ormally p rivileged s tatus a nd t hese f eatures o f l ocal g overnment. " a nd

I n s pite o f t he w idespread p resence o f r esident a liens

t heir p articipation

i n s ome

o f

t he a dvantages

a nd b urdens

e njoyed b y

c itizens, t he f ormal d istinction b etween c itizens a nd i ncolae r emained f irm . B ut a lthough c itizens a nd i ncolae w ere c learly i dentifiable a s g roups,

t he

c omplex n ature o f t heir r ights a nd d uties m eant t hat n o o ne c itizen o r i ncola c ould c ount a s r epresentative o f t he c ategory.

4 7

N OTES: C H .

N OTES ( CHAPTER I II :

1 .

I II

C ITIZENS A ND I NCOLAE)

F or t he e xistence o f f ree i ndividuals w ho w ere c ommunity a t a ll , s ee A ppendix V .

c itizens o f

R emote c ommunities: A E 1 967 2 39 ( A .D . 1 3); A E 1 953 2 67 f rom t he e arly f irst c entury A .D ., c f. C hapter I I n . 1 3).

n o

( probably

F or c itizenship a cquired b y m anumission a nd a doption , c f. D ig . L 1 . 1 p r.; 1 . 6 . 3 ; 1 . 7 ; 1 . 2 7 p r ( Ulpian); 1 . 1 6 ( Hermogenianus). A dlection o f o utsiders: A E 1 967 2 39 ; 1 953 2 67 ; a nd n . 2 2. ( AE 1 967 2 39 s hows e ven c itizenship b y a dlection t reated a s

2 .

h ereditary.) F or t he m ethod o f a dlection a nd r ecords o f c itizens, p. 7 8-80 . p

s ee C hapter V

4 223 = I LS 6 932 ,

3 6 ,

w ith A lföldy ,

F lamines,

p .

7 6 ,

n o .

o riginal c itizenship p ersisting e ven t hrough a doption .

s hows

t he

C f. D ig . L 1 .

1 5 . 3 ( Papinian). C itizers o f m ore t han o ne p rovincial c ommunity: 3 423-4 a nd 5 941 ( Hadrian); 4 218 ; 4 249 ( Hadrian).

e .g .

1 05 ;

1 200 ;

R oman c itizens b y i ndividual g rant: e .g. 1 59 ( the m an w as e nfranchised b y C laudius , a nd h eld m agistracies i n h is n ative t own a fter i t r eceived t he L atin r ight f rom V espasian). T he p rinciple o f i ncompatibility : S herwin-White , 2 71-4; 2 91-313; c f. F IRA i 5 5; 5 6 ; 6 8 ( iii). 3 .

R C ,

p . p

1 59-/3;

U rso : F IRA I 2 1 X CV , C XXVI. ( For t he F lavian d ate o f t he e xtant c opy o f U rso's c harter , s ee d 'Ors, E pigrafia J uridica, p . 1 71. H . N issen , " Zu d en r ömischen S tadtrechten ," R hM N . F . x lv ( 1890) , 1 001 0 , p . 1 09 f .; O . G radenwItz, " Nochmals: D ie r ömischen S tadtrechte ," Z RG x liii ( 1922), 4 39-55 , p p. 4 41 f f. s uggest t hat C XXVI i s a p ostC aesarian i nterpolation , b ut c ast n o d oubt o n X CV .) M alaca: F IRA I 2 4 L III , L XIX . ( The w ord " incola" c ould a lso o f c ourse b e u sed i n a n on-technical s ense , t o m ean s imply " inhabitant" ; c f. C hapter I I n . 1 5 a nd C IL 4 4 520 .) " Incolae" i n a t echnical s ense i n S pain : 6 0.

I ncolae a nd m unera :

C hapter X n .

C IL 2 I I ,

1 6 ; c f.

I ndex ,

p . p

159-

S herwin-White , R C , p .

3 12 n . 2 . 4 .

W omen ,

f reedmen ,

c ountry-dwellers a nd t he p oor w ere n ot a s s uch

e xcluded f rom c itizenship a ltogether . T he c ase o f w omen i s n ot i n q uestion : c f. 8 13 ( n . 2 2) f or t he a dlection o f aw omen a s ac ivis. F reedmen m ay h ave b een a ltogether e xcluded f rom c itizenship i n s om e c ommunities i n t he E ast ( Appendix V n . 3 ). F or f reedmen a s c itizens i n S pain , s ee n . 7 ( political r ights, a f ortiori, i mply c itizenship); a nd e .g. 3 419 ( Carthago N ova: " colon' e t i ncol[ae] l ibertini" ; c f. or t he i ntegral n ature o f t he e xpression " coloni e t i ncolae"). 176 f F or c ountry-dwellers , s ee C hapter I I p p . 2 7-8 . F or t he e xclusion o f

4 8

N OTES:

C H . I II

p oor c itizens f rom p olitical r ights i n t he E ast, n o i ndication t hat,

o utside E gypt,

s ee n .

7 .

T here i s

t he p oor w ere e xcluded f rom

c itizenship a ltogether. N othing s uggest t hat t heir e xclusion S pain w ent b eyond i neligibility f or o ffices a nd p riesthoods. 5 .

i n

A cceptance a nd p rotection : A E 1 967 2 39 ( n . 1 ). C ontrast 2 960 ( n . 2 2), w here t he a dlected c itizen h imself b ecomes a p atronus o f t he c ommunity. E njoyment o f s ocial a menities m ay h owever h ave b een a m ore i mportant e lement o f t he c oncept o f c itizenship i n A E 1 953 2 67 ( n . 1 ) , s ince t he c itizen r ights w ere a pparently r ecompense f or t he D ercinoassedenses' c onstruction o f s ome p ublic w ork . O wnership o f l and ; c onubium : n . 1 5 . R estriction o f p rivate r ights a t S alpensa: F IRA I 2 3 X XVIII ,

X XIX .

( Not t hat t here w ould n ecessarily h ave b een a ny o bjection i n p ractice t o a n i ncola's m aking u se o f l ocal m agistrates f or h is o wn p urposes.) S ee A ppendix I V p p. 2 20-2 f or t he f requency o f c harters a mong L atin c ommunities i n S pain . T he R oman g overnment r egarded p rivate r ights a s t he b asic a nd e ssential c omponent o f l ocal c itizenship : A ppendix V p . 2 28 a nd n . 2 . 6 .

I mmunity

a nd i us

I talicum :

C hapter V I n .

4 ( It a ppears

t hat

b oth

g enerally e ntailed p ersonal i mmunity f or t he c itizens, a nd a lso i mmunity f or t he l and w ithin t he t erritory; t he d istinction b eing t hat J u t , I talicum g ave t he t erritory t he l egal s tatus o f I talian l and , a nd a lso m eant t hat t he c itizens h ad t he l egal s tatus o f R aman c itizens i n I taly). X S alpensa : F IRA I 2 3 X XIX . C f. XVIII , w here w omen a re a mong t he " Latini" m anumitting s laves, t he " Latini" i n q uestion p robably b eing L atini I uniani, r ather t han c itizens o f S alpensa w ithout R oman c itizenship ( Appendix I I p p. 2 05-6). R oman c itizenship u niversal i n R oman c ommunities: A ppendix V pp. 2 29 f f. a nd n . 1 6. I mmunity a nd i us I talicum u niversal: t hese p rivileges ( above) s hould h ave h ad t he c onsequence t hat c itizens w ere t axed o nly o n l and o wned o utside t he t erritory; c f. 4 514 ( A .D . 1 618 0); 4 617 ( both c itizens o f B arcino). L atin c ommunities: A ppendix I I ; b elow , p . 4 2 a nd C hapter I V p p. 5-7 ; 5 9-60 f or t he q ualifications f or o ffice. 5 C onubium a nd c ommercium : A ppendix I I p p. 2 02 f.. T he r ight f i nherit f rom R oman c itizens w as a lso d enied t o p eregrines. 7 .

U nprivileged c ommunities: P lut. S ert. i. 1 9-20; c f. C hapter I I n . 1. i 1

t o

1 4. 2 ; c f. 6 . 4 ; C aesar B C ( The e xpression " senatus

p opulusque" i n i nscriptions ( e.g. 1 343, A E 1 955 2 1) b y n o m eans i mplies t hat a p opLlar a ssembly p articipated i n t he t ransaction .) P rivileged c ommunities: C hapters V ; V II -X. P opular l egislation a nd i nformal a ctivity: C hapter X p p. 1 63-4. M embership o f a ssemblies: f or w omen a nd p olitical r ights , s ee n . 8 . N o e xclusion o f f reedmen o r p oor c itizens: f or f reedmen , s ee F IRA I 2 4 L IV ; w here t he r estriction o f o ffice t o i ngenui w ould s eem t o s uggest t hat f reedmen r emained e ligible t o v ote. ( FIRA I 2 1 C V, i ndeed , s hows f reedmen e ligible e ven f or o ffice a t U rso ; b ut t hat i s p resumably a p eculiarity t o b e c onnected w ith t he e xistence o f a

4 9

N OTES:

C H .

I II

c onsiderable n umber o f f reedmen a mong t he o riginal c olonists a t U rso , a nd p robably a pplied o nly d uring t he e arly y ears o f t he c olony ( Chapter I V p . 5 6 a nd n . 9 ).) N o e vidence f rom S pain s uggests t hat p oor c itizens o r c ountry r esidents w ere f ormally e xcluded f rom p olitical r ights. F or e xclusions e lsewhere , s ee C hapter I I n . 2 5 ( country r esidents); J ones , T he G reek C ity, p p . 1 73-4 a nd p . 3 39 n . 3 5 ( Dio C hrys. O r. x xxiv . 2 1-3: p oor c itizens a t T arsus); c f. I GR I II 4 09 ( Pogla i n P isidia), 8 001 8 .

M agistrates

a nd

c ouncillors:

( Sillyum i n P amphylia).

C hapter

I V p p .

5 5-7 ;

5 9-60 .

( The

e vidence r elates t o p rivileged c ommunities. B ut t he n eed f or a n i ndependent i ncome ; f or a r esidence c lose t o t he t own ( cf. C hapter I I p . 2 8); a nd t he e xclusion o f w omen s hould h ave b een o f m ore g eneral a pplication .) F IRA I 2 1 X CI

( Urso) f ormally e nforces r esidence n ear t he t own .

T wo

d amaged i nscriptions f rom M ago i n M inorca s eem t o d escribe a w oman , p robably t he w ife o f a p rovincial f lamen o f T arraconensis, a s " honoribus o mnibus f uncta" ( CIL 2 3 712-3 a nd p . 9 63; c f. 3 711 = A lföldy, F lamines, p . 7 8 n o. 4 1). I t i s p ossible t hat h onorary m agistracies a re a t i ssue; b ut e ven o n t hat i nterpretation t he i nscriptions a re w ithout p arallel i n S pain . ( Women a re f ound h olding h onorary m agistracies i n t he G reek E ast; b ut M ago's c ultural h istory w as P unic r ather t han G reek ( Jones, T he G reek C ity , p . 1 75 ; R E X IV 4 95).) I t s eems m ore p robable t hat a s et p hase, o ften u sed a s a b rief d escription o f t he p ublic c areers o f m en ( cf. A lföldy, F lamines, p p. 6 1 f f.), w as h ere a pplied s imply t o p riesthoods h eld b y aw oman . 9 .

P riesthoods: C hanter I V p p. 6 2-4. ( As a n e xample o f a p ublic p riesthood i n a n u nprivileged c o mmun ity m ay b e c ited t he " pontufex" a t A nticaria i n A .D .

1 4-29

( 2038-40 , c f. M cElderry I , p .

7 1).)

D uties i n t he c entral t own : c f. t he " dom icilium" e nforced o n p riests, a s o n d ecurions , a t U rso ( FIRA I 2 1 X CI). E xpenses o f s eviri: C hapter V p . 8 6 . 1 0 .

Social b enefits:

C hapters V II-VIII.

S portulae r estricted t o t hose p resent: 1 2/6 ( "dumtaxat p raesentibus"); 1 282b ( "praestantibus" ( = " praesentibus"?)); 4 511 ( decurions a nd s eviri, " qui p raesentes e runt"); c f. n . 1 8 . O n t he a ccessibility o f o ppida , s ee C hapter I I n . 2 6 . W omen s pecifically i ncluded: 1 267; 1 378 ( banquets);

1 276

( spo _ rtulae) ( all t hree i nscr iptions u se t he e xpression " utriusque s exus"). T hese e xamples d o n ot n ecessarily i ndicate t hat w omen w ere e xcluded i n o ther c ases. I ndeed , 1 282b ( above) b egins, a ccording t o o ne r eading , " plebeis s ingulis i ncolis v iris e t m ulieribus ..", w hich w ould s uggest t hat w omen w ere h eld t o b e i ncluded a utomatically a mong t he p lebei. B ut t here i s n o p arallel f or t his r eading i n I LS , a nd t he a lternative w hich b egins " incolis v iris e t m ulieribus .." s eems p referable. ( The i nscription w as n ot s een b y H übner , h aving b een l ost b efore t he l ate n ineteenth c entury.) V arying a mounts i n s portulae: 1 047 ; 1 276 ; 2 011; 4 511. S eating a rrangements: F IRA I 2 1 C XXV , C XXVII ( decurions); c f. ( pontifices a nd a ugurs) ( entertainments); 2 156 ( banquets).

5 0

L XVI

N OTES: C H . I II 1. 1

L ocal l aws a nd d ecrees: J urisdiction :

F IRA I 2 1, e sp. X CVIII-C; C XXIX ; C XXXIII.

C hapter X p .

1 65;

c f.

C hapter V I p p.

1 05-6 f or t he

l imits o f a utonomy. T axation : C hapter I X p p. 1 54-5 ; c f. b elow , n . 2 0. P agi: C hapter I I p p. 2 4; 2 8. F or t he g eneral q uestion o f s ee C hapter V n . 1 4. 1 2.

t he

o rdo's

T he R oman g overnment's a ttitude:

e xploitation o f

C hapter V I n .

i ts p owers ,

1 0.

S pecial e xpenditure d emanded:

1 359

( "petente o rdine e t p opulo");

2 100 a nd 3 364 ( seviri,

( "petitus

a b o rdine"); c f.

6 339

C hapter V

n . 2 8: " petente p opulo", " secundum p etitionem m (unicipum)"). ( For e xpenses a ssociated w ith o ffices a nd p riesthoods, s ee C hapter V p. 8 1-2; 8 3-4; 8 5-6. ) p R evenues a t U rso , M alaca : F IRA I 2 1 L XV

( "Quae p ecunia p oenae n omine

o b v ectiga[l]ia, q uae c olon(iae) G (enetivae) I ul(iae) e runt, i n p ublicum r edacta e rit .."); F IRA I 2 4 L XIII ( "Qui I Ivir i (ure) d (icundo) p (raeerit), v ectigalia u ltroque t ributa , s ive q uid a liut c ommuni n omine m unicipum e iius m unicipi l ocari o portebit, l ocato."); c f. H ardy , M unigua:

T hree S panish C harters, p p. 2 8 ; 7 8 ; A E 1 962 2 88 ;

c f.

C hapter V I n .

1 7

1 09 .

( "reditus v ectigaliorum

v estrorum q uae c onducta h abuisse P ollionem i ndicatis .."). ( 1438 , s et u p a t O stippo i n B aetica i n A .D. 4 9 , p robably r efers t o p ublic l and o wned b y R ome, 3 0.) 1 3.

C ustoms

d uties

n ot b y t he c ommunity;

a nd m arket

T he G reek C ity, p p. 2 44-5 , S abora :

1 423

d ues:

c f.

L iebenam ,

c f.

p. p

A ppendix I n .

2 1 f f.;

J ones,

1 35.

( "vectigalia q uae a b d ivo A ug(usto) a ccepisse d icitis

c ustodio s i q ua n ova a dicere v oltis d e h is p roco(n)s(ulem) a dire d ebebitis e go e nim n ullo r espondente c onstituere n il p ossum .") C ompare t he " ius v ectigalium" w hich T iberius c onfiscated f rom c ertain ( unspecified) p rovincial c ommunities ( Suet. T ib. 4 9 .2). m etallorum" i n t he s ame p assage o f S uetonius,

c f.

2 0.

o wned m ines

f rom

S panish c ommunities m ay u nder t he P rincipate h ave w hich t hey d rew r evenues,

a lthough p ublic o wnership b y R ome a nd

o wnership b y p rivate i ndividuals a ttested. C artima:

1 956

F or t he " ius

A ppendix I n .

a re t he o nly t ypes o f h olding

( after V espasian's g rant o f

t he L atin r ight,

and

p erhaps d uring t he F lavian p eriod , c f. C hapter V II n . 7 ). H übner ( ad l oc.) s uggests t hat t he p riestess o f C artima s ecured t he r ecovery o f p ublic l and ( and t he r evenues t herefrom) a fter i t h ad f allen i nto t he h ands

o f

p rivate

i ndividuals.

B ut t he e xample o f

S abora o pens t he

w ay t o t he p ossibility o f l ocal t axation a t C artima a lso. 1 4.

M unera :

C hapter X p p.

1 67-8. F or p hysical l abour a t U rso, s ee F IRA I

2 1 X CVIII a nd C hapter X n . 1 5.

1 5.

I ncolae d enied p rivate r ights: M arriages b etween m embers a vailable t o i ncolae): 6 940) a nd C IL 2 6 093; 1 1

and

1 294

o f

e .g.

n . 5 . d ifferent C IL 2 2 14;

C IL 2 4 275 ;

c ommunities

( and a f ortiori

4 231 a nd 4 241;

4 233

(= I LS

c f. A E 1 955 4 2, w ith P liny N H i ii.

( a w oman f rom B aetica a nd a m an f rom V olubilis

5 1

i n

N OTES:

C H . I II

M auretania). U rso:

F IRA I 2 1 X CVIII .

F or U rso's i mmunity ,

s ee N H i ii.

1 2 a nd

C hapter V I n . 4 . L and i n a c ommunity's t erritory w as r egistered a t t he c ensus i n t hat c ommunity, n ot i n t he o wner's p lace o f c itizenship ( n . 2 0). ( Since t he i us I talicum e ntailed t hat l and i n a c olony's t erritory w as, l ike I talian l and , s usceptible o f d ominium , t here m ight h ave b een s ome p roblems f or p eregrine i ncolae o f c olonies w ith t his r ight. B ut l ack o f c ommercium d id n ot n ecessarily e ntail i nability t o a cquire t he l and b y i nformal p rocedures , a nd e njoy, a lbeit w ithout d ominium ,

a ll i mportant r ights o ver i t

W .W . B uckland , p p. 1 87-8).)

AT extbook o f R oman L aw ,

S ocial d ivision i n L atin c ommunities: 1 6.

F oreigners a s m agistrates:

( Sherwin-White, 3 rd

e d.

R C ,

p .

( Cambridge ,

3 19 ; 1 966),

n . 6 .

3 423-4 ( Hadrian); 4 218 ;

4 244 ( both p ost-

F lavian); 4 249 ( Hadrian -A ntoninus P ius); 4 514 ( A .D . T he c itizenship o f t he l ast o nly i s i n d oubt.

1 61-9);

4 263.

4 F oreigners a s d ecurions: 1 055; 463 ( both p ost-Flavian ); 4 263; 6 153. C f. 4 262 , HAE pi _g. 8 09 , w here t he t ribes a re w rong f or t he t own , a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat t he m en w ere d escended f rom o thers p reviously a dmitted a s c itizens ( Chapter V n . 1 0 ; c f. a bove , n . 1 ). A ll s ave 1 055 r efer t o a dlection i nto t he o rdo, b ut t hey o mit t o m ention a dlection a s c itizens. I t i s p ossible t hat t he t wo e vents o ccurred s imultaneously, s ince i t w as b y d ecree o f t he o rdo t hat n ew c itizens a nd ( specially e nrolled) d ecurions w ere c reated ( 2 1 a L l oter V p p . 7 9 ; 8 01). 1 055 ( "ex i ncolatu d ecurio") d oes n ot c onstitute e vidence t hat a n i ncola c ould b e a d ecurion , s ince t he p ossibility o f a dlection a s a c itizen i s n ot e xcluded. P opular l egislative a ssemblies: 1 294 ; 1 347 w ith a ddendum , C IL 2 I , p . 7 01;

1 364 ( all c ited i n C hapter X n . 2 ).

M alaca: F IRA I 2 4 L III, w ith A ppendix I I p p. 2 05-6 f or i nterpretation o f t he w ord " Latin!" . A ppendix I V p p. 2 20 f f.

t he f or

c harters i n L atin t owns. J oint a ctivity o f c itizens a nd i ncolae: 6 0 ; c f. C hapter X n . 1 . 1 7.

C IL 2 I I ,

I ndex ,

p p .

159-

A part f rom L . L icinius S ecundus, a ccensus t o T rajan's f riend L . L icinius S ura , w ho w as a warded a n h onorary s evirate a t T arraco a nd a t B arcino ( Chapter I V n .

3 6),

o nly o ne m ale f oreigner i s r ecorded a s a

p riest. H e w as m ade a c itizen a t t he t ime o f a ppointment ( 2026). W omen : e .g. 3 2; 1 572; 3 278 ; 4 241. F or w omen's m unicipal p riesthoods a s c ounterparts t o t hose o f t heir h usbands, i ndependent , s ee C napter I V n . 3 5. 1 8.

I ncolae a ttending t he g ames:

a nd p riestesses a s

F IRA I 2 1 C XXVI.

A t b anquets a nd s portulae: 2 100 ( banquet); 1 276 ; 1 282b ; c f. n . 1 0. " Incolis i ntra m uros h abitantibus" : 1 282b . C f. I LS 6 818 ( Sicca i n A frica , A .D . 1 69-80). S ome o f P liny's b enefactions a t M ediolanum w ere r estricted t o t he " plebs u rbana" ( ILS 2 927).

5 2

N OTES: 1 9 .

Corn d istribution : 2 044. S ubsidised c orn ;

2 0.

C H . I II

d octors a nd t eachers:

I ncolae a nd t he l aw :

C hapter V II p p .

F IRA I 2 1, e sp. C XXIII ; X CVIII ;

1 21-3.

X CV .

J udicial d ecisions: F IRA I 2 4 L XIX ; c f. n . 1. T axation : C hapter I X p p. 1 54-5. T axes o n l and p aid t o t he c ommunity w ithin w hich t he l and w as s ituated: D ig. L 1 5. 4 . 2 ( Ulpian). F or t he p ossibility t hat s ome o ther t axes w ere p aid b y t he i ncola t o h is c ommunity o f r esidence , s ee E . S chürer , T he H istory o f t he J ewish P eople i n t he A ge o f J esus C hrist, 1 75 B .C.-A.D. 1 35, r evised a nd e d. b y G . V ermes a nd F . M illar , I ( Edinburgh , 1 973), 4 11-3. T his w ould b e c onsistent w ith t he i ndications t hat c olonies w ith i mmunity o r t he i us I talicum c ontinued t o c ollect s ome t axes ( RE X 1 247; c f. n . 6 ). L ocal t axation : w ere n ot

a bove ,

p p.43-4.

A ppendix I p p . 1 87-8 .) M unera: C hapter X p p. 1 67-8. 2 1.

( For R oman i ndirect t axes ,

c ollected t hrough t he a gency o f

A E 1 967 2 39 a nd 1 953 2 67 ( n .

w hich

t he c ommunities,

L iability o f i ncolae t o: i bid ., n .

s ee 1 6.

1 ) u se t he t erm " civitas h onoraria" a nd

s pell o ut t he a dlection i n t erms o f a " ius" o r " condicio" o f c itizens; a s i f t he c oncept o f c itizenship h ad n ot y et b een f ully d issociated f rom n ativity. C ompare t he s imple c reation o f n ew " cives" i n 3 423-4; 2 026 ; 8 13; 2 960 ( n . 2 2). 2 2.

O vert a dlections o f n ew c itizens, a part f rom t hose i n l ess s ophisticated c ommunities ( n . 1 ): 3 423-4 ; 4 249 ; 4 514 ( magistrates, c f. n . 1 6); 2 026 ( sevir); 4 277; 8 13; 2 960 ( A .D. 1 85). 4 277 i s a mbiguous a s t o t he p lace i n w hich a d uovirate w as h eld; 8 13 c oncerned a w oman ; a nd 2 960 a p atron o f t he c ommunity g ranted c itizenship a s a n h onorific g esture.

2 3.

F or V espasian 's

g rant a s

( incidentally)

s ee C hapter V II n . 7 .

5 3

e ncouraging s ophistication ,

C HAPTER I V L OCAL E LITES ( i)

I ntroduction

F rom a mong t he r esidents o f a c ommunity w ere d rawn t he m embers o f i ts g overnmental i nstitutions. T he l east e xclusive o f t hese i nstitutions w as t he p opular a ssembly. J ust a s t he a ssembly w as t he l east e xclusive o f t he l ocal i nstitutions, s o i t w as i nferior t o t he r est i n p ower a nd r esponsibility. I ts a ctivities w ere i n g eneral l imited t o e lections o f m agistrates a nd p riests , c arried o ut u nder m agisterial g uidance. T he o rdo ( with t he a nnual m agistrates a s i ts e xecutive o fficers) e xercised a n o verall c ontrol o f a dministration i n t he S panish t owns. T he d uoviri a lso e njoyed s ome i ndependent a uthority , n otably w ith r egard t o j urisdiction a nd t he e nrolment o f c itizens a nd d ecurions. P riesthoods, b oth a nnual a nd p ermanent, s tood s lightly a part f rom t he o ther i nstitutions. A lthough p riests w ere o fficials o f t he c ommunity , t heir r esponsibilities w ere l imited t o t he r eligious s phere ; a nd u nlike m agistrates t hey w ere n ot e ntitled , e x o fficio , t o m embership o f t he o rdo.

1

D ecurions , m agistrates , a nd p riests a ll c onstituted e lites i n t he s ense o f r epresenting o nly a s mall p roportion o f t he l ocal p opulation . B ut t hey w ere a lso e lites i n t hat m embership w as r estricted t o t hose w ho c ould s atisfy c ertain c riteria. T he c riteria w ere n ot n ecessarily a lways e nshrined i n w ritten r egulations , s uch a s a re f ound i n t he c harters o f U rso , S alpensa, a nd M alaca. L ocal c onstitutions c ould c onsist o f u nwritten r ules; a nd c riteria o f e ligibility m ight s ometimes d erive i ncidentally f rom t he d emands o f a n o fficial p osition , r ather t han b eing f ormulated e xplicitly S ome o f t he r estrictions o n m embership h ad a p urely i n t heir o wn r ight. 2 p ractical b asis , s ince t hey a rose f rom a n eed t o e nsure t he r esponsible p erformance o f l ocal d uties. B ut t he r estrictions a re n ot t o b e e xplained s olely i n p ractical t erms:

s ocial p rejudices, t oo , e ntered i nto c onceptions

o f s uitability f or o fficial p ositions. T he s ocial a spects o f t he r estrictions g ave t o e lites a n a ura o f s ocial s uperiority, a s w ell a s a uthority.

T heir s ocial s uperiority w as r einforced

b y t he u se o f o vert i ndications o f s tatus t o m ark o ff e lites f rom t he r est o f t he p opulation. I ndications o f s tatus c ould b e s eparated f rom m embership i tself, a nd g ranted t o o utsiders i n a g esture w hich c onferred p restige w ithout p ower o r r esponsibility . T his c hapter i s c oncerned w ith t he g overnmental i nstitutions o f t he c ommunities, a nd w ith t he c haracter o f a dministrative e lites a s s ocial T he a ssembly a part, e ligibility f or p articipation i n p ublic e ntities. 3 a ffairs d id n ot b y i tself c onstitute a c laim t o a ppointment; n or w ere r estrictions a lways o bserved i n p ractice. I n t he f ollowing c hapter a re d iscussed m ethods o f a ppointment, a nd i ndividual e xceptions t o t he g eneral r ules a nd c onventions.

5 4

( ii)

T he a ssembly

T he p opular a ssembly w as i n t heory c omposed o f a ll a dult m ale c itizens o f t he t own . A t U rso t he c olonists w ere t o c ast t heir v otes a t e lections b y t ribes, a nd M alaca's C harter e nvisages t he p ermanent a ssignment o f c itizens t o c uriae f or e lectoral p urposes.

A cinipo i n B aetica

( a t own w hich ,

l ike

M alaca , r eceived t he L atin r ight f rom V espasian) a lso h ad c uriae w hich w ere p ermanently e stablished . T he c uriae a t A cinipo m ay h ave h ad a l egislative , a s w ell a s a n e lectoral, f unction : t he " plebs" t here i s f ound " decreeing" a n h onoril li c s tatue t o a p ublic b enefactor w ho w as a p rominent c itizen o f C orduba.

( iii)

T he o rdo

T he o rdo w as a b ody m embership o f w hich w as b y f ormal a ppointment: a ppointment w as f or l ife. T he l ower m agistracies g ave a ccess t o t he o rdo ; b ut d ecurions m ight a lso b e r ecruited b efore a ny m agistracy h ad b een h eld , e ither a s a r outine m easure t o f ill u p t he n umbers, o r a s as pecial g esture t o p articular i ndividuals. T he e vidence f or d ifferent r anks w ithin t he o rdo i n S pain s hows t hat, a s a t C anusium i n I taly a t t he b eginning o f t he t hird c entury A .D ., t here w as a n o rder o f p recedence r anging f rom m en w ho h ad h eld t he c hief m agistracy t o t hose w ho h ad h eld n o m agistracy a t a ll . I t w as n ot n ecessarily t he c ase t hat a ll d ecurions, s hort o f p remature d eath , e ventually r e ched t he t op r ank. S ome d ecurions , i ndeed , m ay h ave s pent a l ifetime a s m ere p edani. B ut t he e vidence f rom S pain s uggests t hat t his w as u nusual , a t l east i n t he c ase o f d ecurions r outinely e nrolled. F our s uch d ecurions a re r ecorded t o h ave d ied w ithout h olding a ny m agistracy . T he n t heir m id-twenties , a nd h ad n ot h ad a ges o f t wo a re g iven : b oth w ere5 i m uch o pportunity o f h olding o ffice.

Q ualifications T he q ualifications f or m embership o f t he o rdo h ad t wo m ain s ources: d esire

t hat

d ecurions

s hould w ield

t heir

a uthority

r esponsibly ;

a nd

a a n

i ntention t o m aintain t he p restige o f t he b ody b y e xcluding p ersons o f l ow s ocial c lass. T o t he f ormer , m ore u tilitarian , c oncern m ay b e a scribed q ualifications o f a ge, r esidence, a nd ( to s ome e xtent) o f w ealth. Q ualifications o f r esidence a nd w ealth w ere n ot n ecessarily f ormulated e xplicitly i n a ll c ommunities. B ut i n t he a bsence o f f ormal q ualifications , t he d uties a nd e xpenses r equired o f d ecurions m ust b y t hemselves h ave i mposed c onsiderable l imitations o n e ligibility. T he

s tandard a ge q ualifying o ne

f or o ffice a nd t he o rdo i n t he

l ate

R epublic w as t hirty. U r4er t he P rincipate i t s ettled d own t o t wenty-five , a nd t his i s t he m inimum a ge f ound i n M älaca's c harter . R egular a ttendance , a s w ell a s r esponsible j udgment, w as d emanded o f d ecurions. A t b oth U rso a nd M alaca q uorums w ere e stablished f or m eetings o f t he o rdo . A t U rso a r esidence / equirement w as e xplicitly l aid d own: d ecurions h ad t o b e d omiciled w ithin a m ile o f t he t own i tself. T his r egulation n ot o nly e nsured t hat d ecurions w ould b e a vailable f or r egular a ttendance ,

b ut a lso

f acilitated r eprisals i n t he e vent o f a d ecurion's n eglecting h is d uty t o a ttend. T he d omicilium c onstituted , i n e ffect , a n a ssurance o f ad ecur l .on 's g ood b ehaviour :

am agistrate c ould s eize t he p roperty i n o rder t o e nforce

5 5

p erformance o f p ublic d uties.

6

T he n ature o f t he d ecurionate i n i tself m eant t hat w ealth , a s w ell a s r esidence n ear t he t own , w as r equired . N ot o nly c ould p roperty s erve a s a g u arantee o f r esponsible b ehaviour: i t w as a lso n eeded t o s et a m an f ree f or e ngagement i n p ublic a ffairs. Ad esire t o m ake t his p ragmatic n ecessity f ormally b inding c ould h ave l ed t o t he i nstitution o f s traightforward p roperty-qualifications f or t he o rdo: t hese a re n ot a ttested i n S pain , a lthough

t hey m ay h ave

e xisted.

E ntry-fees,

l ike

t hat

r ecorded f or

a ldlected d ecurions a t C ollippo i n L usitania i n A .D . 1 67 , w ere a n i ncidental e xpense w hich d ecurions m ight i ncur. A lthough e ntry-fees r epresent f inancial e xploitation o f m en w ho f or o ther r easons c ould b e p resumed t o b e r ich, r ather t han d eliberate e xclusion o f t he p oor, t heir e xistence r einforced t he r estriction o f t he d ecurionate t o m en o f p roperty. I n a ddition t o t he p roperty a nd e xpenditure r equired o f d ecurions a s s uch , t here w ere a lso f inancial d emands a ssociated w ith o ffice. D uoviri a nd q uaestors a t M älaca h ad t o p rovide f inancial s ecurities i n a nticipation o n t heir h andling o f p ublic m oney. E xpenses a ssociated w ith e lection t o m agistracigs a re a ttested f or d uoviri a nd a ediles a t U rso , a nd o ccasionally e lsewhere. Q ualifications o f a ge,

r esidence ,

a nd w ealth c an b e e xplained i n t erms

o f p ractical c onsiderations. B ut p ractical c onsiderations d o n ot e xplain a ll t he r estrictions o n e ligibility f or t he o rdo. I t w as a lso t hought n ecessary t o s afeguard t he p restige w hich s upported t he d ecurions' a uthority. T here w as a f eeling t hat i t w as i nappropriate f or c ertain p ersons, h owever r ich t hey m ight b e , t o h ave a p lace i n t he o rdo. R egulations

e xisted

t o

p rotect

t he

d ecurions'

s ense

o f

s ocial

s uperiority. T he c harters o f U rso a nd M älaca r efer t o p rovisions w hich m ust , l ike t hose o f T abula H eracleensis, h ave e xcluded m en w ho p ractised c ertain p rofessions o r b ore a s tigma s uch a s t hat o f j udicial c onviction . L ack o f f ree b irth c an b e a dded t o t he d isqualifications. I t i s t rue t hat t he c harter o f U rso s tates t hat f reedmen , a s s uch , a re n ot t o b e e xcluded f rom t he o rdo. B ut t his p rovision a lso s hows t hat n ormally f ree b irth w as r egarded a s a n e ssential q ualification . T he s pecific e xemption a t U rso c an b e c onnected w ith t he e xistence o f a c onsiderable n umber o f f reedmen a mong t he o riginal c olonists.

T here w as

n o

n eed

t o m aintain

i t

i n s ucceeding

g enerations. P robably U rso f ell i n w ith t he p rovisions o f t he L ex V isellia o f A .D . 2 4 , w hich e xplicitly d ebarred f reedmen f rom t he d ecurionate , a nd i s r eflected i n M alaca's c harter . C ertainly t here a re n o i nstances o f f reedmen d ecurions a t U rso o r a nywhere e lse i n S pain . T wo t owns i n B aetica , S ingilia a nd S uel , t ook i t f or g9nted , w hen h onouring f reedmen , t hat t hey c ould n ot b e a dmitted t o t he o rdo. T he d isqualification o f f reedmen d id n ot i n i tself h ave a ny b earing o n t he e ligibility o f

f reedmen 's

s ons;

a nd u ndisguised

f reedmen 's

s ons

c an

i ndeed b e f ound i n t he o rdo i n S pain , a s e lsewhere i n t he E mpire. I t d oes n ot f ollow , h owever , t hat i nformal p rejudice d id n ot e xist, c omplicating t he p osition o f t hose n ot c ategorically e xcluded b y t he r egulations. F lattery o f r ich f reedmen b y p remature a dmission o f t heir s ons t o t he o rdo s uggests a q uid p ro q uo. F reedmen's s ons m ay h ave h ad t o o ffer m ore t han o ther w ouldb e d ecurions i n o rder t o s ecure a cceptance.

5 6

1 °

S ocial

p rejudice

m ay,

a t

r estrictions m ore s evere t han

s ome t hose

d ates

a nd

m entioned

p laces, i n t he

h ave

i mposed

t own c harters.

S ingilia i n B aetica, i n t he l ate s econd c entury A .D., c onferred t he o rnamenta d ecurionalia o n am an o f f ree b irth w hose f ather w as o f e questrian s tatus. I ndicating i neligibility f or t he o rdo i tself, t he g rant i n t his c ase i s p robably t o b e e xplained b y r eference t o t he f act t hat t he r ecipient's m other w as a f reedwoman . I t w ould f ollow t hat, a t S ingilia a t t hat t ime , o nly m en b oth o f w hose p arents w ere o f f ree b irth w ere c onsidered t o q ualify f or t he d ecurionate. A t D ertosa , a R oman m unicipium i n T arraconensis, a f reedman 's s on a ppears s imilarly t o h ave b een e xcluded f rom t he o rdo. T he d ate m ay h ave b een a s e arly a s t he f irst c entury A .D .. A t endency t o r eject, o n s ocial g rounds, m en w ho w ere n either f reedmen n or i nfames i s d etectable e lsewhere. I n B ithynia a t t he b eginning o f t he s econd c entury t he l ocal m agistrates p referred n ot t o r ecruit d ecurions f rom t he " plebs" i n g eneral ; a nd a p assage i n t he D igest, w hile a dmitting t hat i t i s i nfamia w hich i s t4 , insuperable o bstacle , s tates a s imilar p rejudice i n f avour o f " honesti". 1 T he e mployment o f m ore s tringent c riteria d id n ot n ecessarily i nvolve a p rejudice i n f avour o f d ecurions' s ons a s s uch . B ut i t c ould e asily l ead t o a s ituation i n w hich f ew a cceptable m en r emained o utside t he o rdo , a nd d ecurions' f am ilies w ere i n f act t he m ain s ource o f n ew r ecruits. T he u se o f t he w crd " plebs" i n S panish i nscriptions t o r efer s imply t o t he p opulace a part f rom t he o rdo s uggests t hat t he l ocal o rdines , l imited i n s ize t hough t hey w ere , t ended t o e mbrace a ll r esident c itizens o f s ocial i mportal y . E pigraphic e vidence f or h onesti w ho r emained o utside t he o rdo i s s light. T he e xtent t o w hich m embership o f

t he o rdo c ame t o b e r egarded a s a n

o bligation , r ather t han a p rerogative , o f d ecurions' s ons d epends p artly o n t he q uestion o f e nthusiasm f or o ffice i n S pain . T he e vidence r elating t o t his q uestion i s n ot c onclusive. I t i s c lear , h owever , t hat t he a uthority a nd p restige a ttached t o t he d ecurionate p rovided c onsiderable c ompensation f or t he a ssociated b urdens. F amily c onnexions c ould f acilitate , r ather t han e nforce , m embership ; a nd e ven t owards t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury d ecurions' s ons i n S pain w ere n ot n ecessarily u nwilling t o s atisfy e xpectations t hat t hey w ould j oin t he o rdo. '

S ize a nd s tructure I n t he W est ,

1 00 s eems t o h ave b een r egarded a s t he s tandard n umber o f

d ecurions, a nd m ost o f t he t owns o utside S pain f or w hich t here i s e vidence h ad an o rdo o f t his s ize. B ut n umbers a s l ow a s 5 0, o r e ven 3 0, a re 4 T here a ttested u nder t he P rincipate i n t owns s hort o f w ealthy r esidents. 1 i s l ittle s pecific e vidence f or t he s ize o f t he o rdines i n S pain . A n i nscription r ecording a d istribution a t B arcino i ndicates a n o rdo t here o f r ather m ore t han 1 30 i n t he s econd c entury A .D.. B ut B arcino w as a

f lourishing t own , w hose d ecurions w ere n ot o versensitive t o c onstitutional a nomalies. T he c harter o f U rsa , w hen s tipulating q uorums f or m eetings, m entions

n umbers

o f

3 0,

4 0,

and 5 0.

T he f act

t hat w hen q uorums a re

d escribed i n t erms o f ap roportion o f d ecurions , a t U rso a nd e lsewhere , t hey c onsist o f n ot l ess t han a m ajority , s uggests t hat t hese c lauses i n t he c harter a re d esigned f or a t own w ith f ewer t han 1 00 d ecurions. A ccording t o l ocal p opulation a nd w ealth, d ecurions. 1 5

S panish t owns c ould h ave h ad a s f ew a s 3 0

5 7

U rso's c harter , b y c iting q uorums i n t erms o f s pecific n umbers, b etrays a n e xpectation t hat t he t otal n umber o f d ecurions w ill r emain t he s ame a s t hat o riginally e stablished . O ther t owns i n S pain m ay b e o bserved t o h ave t aken m easures t o e nsure t hat a p articular s ize o f o rdo w as m aintained ; t hus g uarding a gainst a p articular d ecline t o u nacceptably l ow n umbers. S ome o f t he d ecurions r ecruited i n S pain s eem t o h ave b een a ppointed b efore t hey h eld a ny m agistracy, w ithout a ny s pecial g rounds f or t he a ppointment. R outine r ecruitment o f n on-magisterial d ecurions w ill h ave b een d esigned t o m aintain a m inimum s ize f or t he o rdo , w hatever t hat s ize , i n a ny p articular c ommunity, h appened t o b e. T he c ounterpart t o m aintaining a f ull c omplement o f d ecurions w as t he l imitation o f t he o rdo's s ize t o n o m ore t han t he e stablished n umber . O bservance o f an umerus c lausus i s e njoined b y t he T abula H eracleensis, w hich r estricts a dmissions o f n ew d ecurions t o t he f illing o f e xisting v acancies. T he a lbum o f C anusium s hows t hat t he n umber o f 1 00 f unctioned t here a s a n u pper l imit, a s w ell a s am inimum ; t he a lbum l ists p recisely 1 00 d ecurions, i ncluding d ecurions s pecially a dlected . A r estriction o n n umbers h elped t o p reserve t he s elect q uality o f t he o rdo , a nd t hereby i ts p restige; a nd i t a lso c ombated i ntrigue b y p articular f actions t o s ecure i ncreased i nfluence. A part f rom t he q uorums i n U rso's c harter , n o e vidence s urvives o f a n umerus f ollow t hat r estrictions o n n umbers d id n ot n umerus c lausus a t B arcino , f or e xample , l east f or t he p urpose o f s pecial a dlections

c lausus i n S pain . I t d oes n ot e xist ; a lthough i f t here w as a i t w as p robably d isregarded a t t o t he o rdo. 1 6

W ithin t h2 o rdo i tself t here w ere g radations o f o fficial s tatus a nd a uthority, d ependent u pon w hat m agistracies a m an h ad h eld. T hese g radations a re r eflected i n t he p ractice o f c onferring o n i ndividuals w ho h ad n ot h eld m agistracies t he h onorary s tatus o f e x-magistrates. G rants o f t he h onores o f a ediles a nd d uoviri i n S pain b etray a n a wareness o f t he d iffering r anks o f t he e x-magistrates t hemselves, a s d oes t he t itle " duoviralis" i n a pplication t o f ormer d uoviri.

A d amaged i nscription f rom

T arraco a ppears t o r efer t o a y lcurion a dlected h ad b een d uovir q uinquennalis.

w ith t he s ame r ank a s i f h e

I ndications o f s tatus C ertain p restigious s ymbols m arked d ecurions o ff f rom t he r est o f t he p opulation . U rso's c harter p rescribes f or t hem s pecial s eats a nd d ress a t p ublic e ntertainments; a nd a n i nscription f rom E pora i n B aetica s hows t hat d ecurions t here w ere s eated a part f rom t he r est o f t he p opulation a t p ublic b anquets. T he o rnamenta d ecurionatus, w hich e nabled o ne t o s hare s uch m arks o f s tatus w ithout m embership o f t he o rdo i tself, w ere s ometimes g ranted t o m en w hose s ocial o rigins e xcluded t hem f rom t he d ecurionate . T he h onorary s tatus c ould a lso b e c onferred p osthumously o n m en w ho w ould h ave b een e ll§ible f or t he o rdo,

b ut

d ied b efore t hey w ere o ld e nough

t o

q ualify. T he h onores o f a ediles a nd d uoviri h ad t wo a spects.

L ike t he o rmamenta

d ecurionatus, t hey c ould b e c onferred o n o utsiders w ho w ere d isqualified f rom o ffice. B oth a f reedman a nd a f ree-born c itizen o f t he a ge o f f ourteen a re r ecorded t o h ave h eld t hem . A gain l ike t he o rmamenta d ecurionatus , t hey c ould b e c onferred p osthumously : a f ree-born m an a t T arraco w as d ecreed a edilician h onours a fter h is d eath . I n t hese c ases t he h onores p resumably e ntailed , b y a nalogy w ith t he o rnamenta d ecurionatus, t he s ocial p rivileges

5 8

c onnected w ith r ank o f a edile o r d uovir:

m eaning,

i n t he c ase o f a

p osthumous g rant, t he r ight t o a f uneral i n a ppropriate s tyle. B ut s ince n ot a ll d ecurions h ad h eld t hese m agistracies , t he h onorary s tatus c ould a lso b e g ranted t o m embers o f t he o rdo. S o g ranted, i t d id n ot m erely e ntail s ocial p restige , b ut a lso d etermined a m an 's r ank w ithin t he o rdo ; a nd ,

i n t he c ase o f t he h onores a edilicii,

c ursus h onorum .

e xempted h im f rom a s tage i n t he

1 9

( iv)

M agistrates

T he s tandard m agistracies i n S pain w ere t he a edileship a nd t he d uovirate: t ogether a ediles a nd d uoviri f ormed a b oard t o w hich t he t itle I n R oman c olonies a nd m unicipia t he " quattuorviri" c ould b e a pplied. 20 d uoviri h ad t he t itle " duovir q uinquennalis" ( and a dditional f unctions) e very f ive y ears. R eferences t o t he q uaestorship a re f ound a t a ll c ategories o f p rivileged t own i n S pain ; b ut t hey a re f ar f ewer t han r eferences t o t he a edileship a nd d uovirate , a nd i t i s p ossible t hat i n s ome t owns t he o ffice , a s s uch , d id n ot e xist. I n a ddition t o t hese r egular m agistrates, p raefecti ' w ere o n o ccasion a ppointed : a s e mporary s ubstitutes f or a bsent d uoviri,

o r a s s ubstitutes t hroughout t he y ear f or p rominent m en

o utside t he c ommunity w ho h ad b een e lected t o a n h onorary d uovirate.

Q ualification

,

a nd c ursus

T he m imi l L m a ge f or m agistracies , t wenty—five.

I n a ddition ,

t he

a s f or m embership o f t he o rdo ,

c harters

o f b rso a nd M alaca a pply

w as t o

m agistracies a ll t he o ther r estrictions o n e ligibility f or L he o rdo. T hereby q ualifications o f r esidence a nd w ealth , a nd a lso o f s ocial s tanding , 1 w ere e nforced o n m agistrates a s o n d ecurions t hemselves. 2

A s i n t he S enate a t R ome , r anking i n t he o rdo a ccording t o o ffic . ? _s h eld w ent w ith t he p reservation o f a p rogression f rom l ower t o h igher cf fices. O ne c ould n ot b ecome d uovir w ithout h aving h eld a l ess p restigious a nd a uthoritative o ffice f irst.

M älaca's c harter r equires t hat c andidates f or

t he a edileship a nd q uaestorship s atisfy t he c riteria f or e ligibility f or t he o rdo, w ithout s tating t his c ondition i n t he c ase o f c andidates f or t he d uovirate. I t w as a ssumed , t hat i s, t hat c andidates f or t he d uovirate h ad h eld o ne o f t he l ower o ffices , a nd w ere c ertain t o b e i n t he o rdo a lready. T he S panish i nscriptions c onfirm t hat a n o rder o f o ffices w as p reserved. T he a edileship w as n ever h eld a fter t he d uovirate .

I t c annot b e p roved t hat

n o o ne e ver b ecame d uovir w ithout h olding a l ower o ffice f irst. M any i nscriptions d escribe m en s imply a s " duovir". B ut t his i s c onsistent w ith a m an 's h aving h eld a l ower o ffice w hich w as n ot t hought w orth r ecording . A c omparison o f i nscriptions r eveals a d uovir q uinquennalis o f T arraco w ho o n o ne o ccasion d id n ot b other t o r ecord t hat h e h ad b een a edile a nd q uaestor a lso.

T here m ay,

n everthless,

h ave b een o ccasions w hen t he d uovirate w as

p receded n either b y t he a edileship i tself, n or b y a g rant o f a edilician s tatus. T hat d oes n ot a ffect t he c haracter o f t he c ursus h onor = a s a s tandard r ule.

T he c ursus h onorum w as o bserved e qually i n a ll c ategories o f

p rivileged t own -Roman c olonies, R aman m unicipia , a nd L atin m unicipia i n S pain . E ven a dm ission t o t he o rdo b efore a ny m agistracy h ad b een h eld d id n ot ee x mpt, o 2n e f ro m te h rq e uirement ta h t a lw o er o ffice b e hl e d bf e ore t he d uovirate. 1

5 9

M alaca's c harter t reats t he a edileship a nd q uaestorship a s s imple a lternatives: b oth e qually l eading t o m embership o f t he o rdo, a nd e ach s ufficing o n i ts o wn a s a q ualification f or t he d uovirate. B ut t he e vidence f or p articular c areers i n S pain s uggests t hat t he t wo o ffices w ere i n f act r egarded v ery d ifferently. T he a edileship f ollowed b y t he d uovirate i s b y f ar t he m ost c ommon f orm o f c areer r ecorded . N ot o nly a re t here v ery f ew r eferences t o q uaestors i n S pain : i n l ess t han a t hird o f t hese i nstances d oes t he q uaestorship f igure o n i ts o wn , a long w ith t he d uovirate. U sually t he a edileship i s m entioned a s w ell , t he q uaestorship b eing h eld e ither b etween t he a edileship a nd d uovirate , o r a fter t he d uovirate. T hese v ariations i n t he t reatment o f t he q uaestorship d o n ot c orrespond t o d ifferences i n c ategory o f t own , n or i s t reatment a lways c onsistent w ithin a 3 s ingle t own .2

T he p aucity o f r eferences t o t he q uaestorship i s p robably d ue p artly t o t he a bsence o f t he o ffice f rom t he a dministrative i nstitutions o f s ome t owns. T he f unctions o f t he q uaestorship a lso h elp t o e xplain t he d ivergences b etween a edileship a nd q uaestorship a s t hey a ppear i n t he e pigraphic e vidence. Q uaestors w ere r esponsible f or t he t own c hest , a nd f or t he c ollection o f t axes f or R ome. T he o dium o f t he q uaestors' r ole i n t ax c ollection w ould t end t o r ub o ff o n t he m en t hemselves; a nd i t m ay b e t hat p eople w ha h ad h eld t he o ffice p referred , o n t he w hole, n ot t o m en tion i t. W here t he q uaestorship i s m entioned, i ts p lace i n t he c ursus m ay i ndicate a s hortage o f c andidates , o wing t o t he u npopularity o f a n o ffice w hich e ntailec b oth f inancial l iability a nd u nwelcome d uties.

A t O stia t he

as a n o ptional e xtra, a dditional t o t he a edileship a nd q uaestorship ,4 d uovirate. E ven t hough M alaca's c harter a ppears t o d esign t hat t he a edileship a nd q uaestorship b e s imple a lternatives , i t i s e asy t o s ee h ow t he a edileship m ight b ecome t he s tandard l ower o ffice , w ith t he q uaestorship s upererogatory, a s a t O stia. Ap reference o f c andidates f or t he a edileship w ould l eave t owns w ith a s hortage o f p rospective q uaestors. C andidates m ight b e s ought, n ot f rom t he c ommon r un o f m en s tanding f or t heir f irst o ffice, b ut f rom a mong t hose w ho, f or o ne r eason o r a nother, c ould b e p ressurised i nto h olding t he o ffice. H ence t he u sual p osition i n t he c ursus o f t he q uaestorship : a fter t he a edileship o r a fter t he a edileship a nd d uovirate t ogether. T he p osition b ears w itness t o m en's h opes o f e scaping w ith t he a edileship a nd d uovirate a lone.2 4 A s w ell a s p rescribing a m inimum a ge a nd c ursus

h onorum , M alaca's

c harter e njoins a n i nterval o f f ive y ears b etween d uovirates.

O ne c annot

a ssume t hat t he s ame i nterval w as i ntended t o h old f or t he s uccessive t enure o f d ifferent o ffices: f or e xample, t he a edileship a nd d uovirate. T he m inimum a ge f or t he d uovirate a t M älaca w as t wenty-five: t he s ame a s t hat f or t he a edileship a nd q uaestorship. L ater o n , t he R oman g overnment t ended t o a llow m ore l atitude i n c ases o f s uccessive t enure o f d ifferent o ffices t han i n t hose w here t he s ame o ffice w as r epeated . 25

A ediles a nd q uaestors N either t he a edileship n or t he q uaestorship a ppears t o h ave b een a p articularly p restigious o ffice. A part f rom t he f act t hat i n L atin t owns i t s ecured R oman c itizenship f or t hose n ot a lready e njoying i t, t he a edileship's c hief i mportance f or t he i ndividual s eems t o h ave l ain i n i ts

6 0

r ole

a s

t he

s tandard l ower o ffice

t he c ursus

h onorum :

a n ecessary

p reliminary t o t he d uovirate. T he m unicipal q uaestorship w as n ot a s tandard c omponent o f l ocal c onstitutions a s c onceived b y R ome i n t he l ate R epublic. T hat i s i n l ine w ith i ts a bsence f rom t he c harter o f t he C aesarian c olony o f U rso. I t m ay b e t he c ase t hat i n s ome S panish t owns ( among t hem U rso i tself) t he q uaestorship w as n ever i ntroduced . I n o thers i t m ay h ave b een i ntroduced a nd t hen a llowed t o l apse b ecause i t w as n ot s ufficiently p opular , t he d uties b eing t aken o ver b y o ther m agistrates o r e lse t reated a s m unera. W here i t e xisted , t he o ffice p robably c arried e ven l ess p restige t han t he a edileship. N o r eferences s urvive t o h onores o f q uaestors, c onferred a s a n h onorific g esture i n t he s ame w ay a s t he h onores o f a ediles a nd d uoviri. 26

D uoviri T he a lso

d uovirate ,

a s

t he h ighest a nd m ost a uthoritative m agistracy,

t he m ost p restigious.

h olding m ore t han o nce :

I t w as s ufficiently p restigious

w as

t o b e w orth

a lone o f m agistracies i n S panish t owns.

I n S icily

u nder t he R epublic a nd i n B ithynia t he c ensorship a ppears t o h ave b een a s eparate o ffice f rom t he a nnual c hief m agistracy. T he o ffice o f d uovir q uinquennalis, o n t he o ther h and, w hich a ppears i n R oman c olonies a nd m unicipia u nder t he P rincipate , c ombined t he c ensorship w ith t he a nnual c hief m agistracy , m erely p roviding t he d uoviri w ith a n a dditional f unction a nd t itle e very f ive y ears. D uoviri q uinquennales e njoyed p restige a bove t hat o f a n o rdinary d uovir. E mperors a nd o ther p rominent i ndividuals t ended t o b e g : tven h onorary d uovirates b y S panish t owns i n t he q uinquennial y ears. A m an m ight c rown a f irst d uovirate b y b ecoming d uovir q uinsuennalis l ater ; a lthough o ne d id n ot n eed t o b e a n o rdina f irst, a nd r epetitions o f t he o rdinary d uovirate a re a lso a ttested.

d uovir

P raefecti P raefecti

o f

d uoviri

i n S pain a ppear t o h ave

b een o f

t wo t ypes:

s ubstitutes f or t emporarily a bsent d uoviri, o n t he o ne h and , a nd s ubstitutes f or p rominent m en m ade h onorary d uoviri, o n t he o ther. T he t itle " praefectus" w as

n ot

a pparently u sed w hen a d uovir

d ied

i n o ffice.

A t

O stia t he d escription " duovir p ronuntiatus" w as a pplied t o t he m an w ho t ook t he p lace o f ad ead d uovir ; a nd M älaca's c harter e nvisages e xtra e lections t o a ppoint a r egular m agistrate i n t he e vent o f d eath i n o ffice. S alpensa's C harter p rescribes a s pecial a ge l imit f or a p raefectus c overing a d uovir's t emporary a bsence: h e m ust b e n ot l ess t han t hirty-five y ears o f a ge. T he r egulation p robably r eflects a d esire t o e nsure r esponsibility i n a n o fficial n ot r egularly e lected , a nd w hose s election l ay s olely w ith t he d eparting d uovir. T he e vidence o f i ndividual c areers i ndicates t b§t p raefecti o f b oth t ypes h ad u sually h eld t he d uovirate i tself b eforehand. 4 ' H onorary d uoviri d id n ot a lways h ave p raefecti w ho p erformed t he a ctual d uties i n t heir p lace. T he M äuretanian p rinces J uba a nd h is s on P tolemy w ere e ach m ade d uovir q uinquennalis o f C arthago N ova. T heir m agistracies m ust h ave b een h onorary ; y et e ach i s n amed o n c oins a s t he s imple c olleague o f a n o rdinary d uovir q uinquennalis, n o r eference b eing m ade t o a p raefectus. T he c oins o f S aguntum , w here m embers o f t he i mperial f amily

6 1

w ere a ppointed d uovir q uinquennalis b oth s ingly a nd i n p airs, o ffer a c ontrast. W here t hey f orm a p air , t heir n am es a re a ccompanied b y t he n ames o f t wo p raefecti. B ut e qually, w hen o nly o ne w as a ppointed d uovir q uinquennalis, t he n ames o f t wo p raefecti a ppear , t here b eing n o a ttempt t o a ppoint a c olleague f rom a mong t he l ocal c itizens. T he r eason f or t he c ontrast p robably l ies i n t he d ifference i n s tatus b etween t he i mperial f amily a nd t he M auretanian p rinces. A t own c ould i n f act f unction a dequately w ith a s ingle m agistrate p erforming t he d uties o f a d uovir ; a s i ndeed i s s hown b y S alpensa's c harter , w hich e nvisages a s ingle r f h e w ere s ole d uovir . I n s pite o f raefectus o f t he e mperor , a cting 2S i t he p urely h onorary c haracter o f J uba's a nd r tolemy's m agistracies , t here w as n o n eed f or t hem t o h ave p raefecti. T he o ther d uovir q uinquennalis, t echnically a c olleague a lthough a l ocal c itizen , c ould d o t he w ork o f b oth ; a nd i t d id n ot s eem d isrespectful t o a ppoint a l ocal c itizen a s t he c olleague o f a M äuretanian p rince. I t w as o therwise w ith m embers o f t he i mperial f amily . M . A grippa , A ugustus, a nd T iberius c ould n ot, a s h onorary m agistrates , b e a ssigned c olleagues f rom a mong t he l ocal c itizens. H ence e ven w hen o nly o ne w as d uovir q uinquennalis, h e h ad n o c olleague , b ut o nly p raefecti w ho p erformed t he f unctions i n h is p lace. H onorary d uoviri , t hat i s, h ad p raefecti o nly w hen b oth d uoviri w ere h onorary o nes, o r w hen a s ingle h onorary d uovir w as o f as tatus t oo e levated t o a llow t he a ppointment o f ac olleague w ho c ould u ndertake t he d uties o f b oth .

( v)

P riests

T he p riesthoods w hich e xisted i n S panish t owns c an b e d ivided i nto t hree c ategories ,

d efined b y r eference t o t he r ules o f e ligibility.

w ere h eld b y f ree-born m en o f t he s ame c lass a s d ecurions; a nd s ome b y w ealthy f reedmen.

S ome

s ome b y w omen ;

T he t itles b orne b y p riests v aried i n

a ccordance w ith t hese d ifferences o f c ategory. P riesthoods w ere u nlike t he o ther m unicipal i nstitutions i n t hat t heir h olders d id n ot e njoy p olitical a uthority. T his i s r eflected i n t he a vailability o f p riesthoods t o w omen , w ho w ere n ot e ligible f or m embership o f t he a ssembly o r o rdo; a nd t o f reedmen , w ho w ere e xcluded f rom p olitical o ffice. I t i s a lso s hown b y t he f act t hat p riesthoods o f a ll t hree t ypes c ould b e c onferred f or l ife , a s w ell a s f or t he s pace o f a y ear , t hus e levating i ndividuals t o p ermanent p ositions o f a k ind n ot t olerated i n t he p olitical s phere. o f m unicipal p riesthoods -e ven a part f rom s pecifically a ssociated w ith t he i mperial c ult. g eneral a pplication , b eing d irected t owards w ell a s t he c ult o f t he A ugusti. 3°

t he B ut

A l arge n umber

s evirate -w ere o thers h ad a m ore

t raditional R oman r eligion a s

P ontifices, a ugurs a nd f lamines T he p riests

t o w hom U rso's

c harter r efers a re p ontifices a nd a ugurs.

B ut a ugurs a re i n f act e xtremely r are i n S panish t owns; e ven i n c olonies w hich w ere, l ike U rso, C aesarian f oundations. T he a rt o f d ivination f ailed,

i t w ould s eem ,

t o a chieve p opularity.

T he p ontificate and

f laminate w ere t he t ypical p riesthoods f or m en o f f ree b irth . A t R ome, p ontifices a nd f lamines w ere p riests o f d ifferent t ypes, p ontifices h aving a n o verall s upervision o f r eligious a ffairs, a nd f lamines b eing t he p riests a ttached t o p articular d eities. B ut t his d istinction w as n ot p reserved i n

6 2

S pain .

A lthough a t own m ight h ave ,

f or e xample ,

p ontifices c oncerned w ith

t he " sacra" i n g eneral a longside f lamines a ttached t o t he i mperial c ult, t he t itulature c ould b e r eversed. 31 T he t wo t itles a re n ot o f e qually w idespread o ccurrence : t hat o f " pontifex" t ends t o b e c onfined t o B aetica a nd t he r egion t o t he e ast w hich B aetica l ost t o T arraconensis i n t he c ourse o f A ugustus' r eign . T hat a rea h ad b een h eavily e xposed t o R oman c ulture u nder t he R epublic , a nd t he s urvival o f t he t itle " pontifex" m ay b e am ark o f c onservatism . E lse w here t he t itle " flamen" o nly i s u sed , a lmost w ithout e xception . A p riesthood u nique i n S pain i s t hat o f t he s alii a t S aguntum , a t own w hich , h aving b een f ederated w ith R ome u nder t he R epublic , w as a R aman m unicipium b y A ugustus' r eign . P resumably m odelled o n t he R oman p riesthood w ith t he s ame t itle , t he s alii o f S aguntum m ay b e a R epublican 2 s urvival. 3 A lthough t here a re i nstances o f f ree-born m ale p riests w ho w ere n ot d ecurions, t he g reat m ajority h eld o ffice a s w ell. M agistracies a nd p riesthoods a re i nterspersed w ith o ne a nother i n c areer i nscriptions a s t hough , s o f ar a s p restige w ent , t hey w ere d istinctions o f s imilar t ypes. T he p resumption t hat t he s ame s ocial s tatus w as r equired a s f or m embership o f t he o rdo i s c onfirmed b y a c lause i n U rso's c harter w hich e nvisages t he d eposition o f p riests o n g rounds o f u nworthiness, a fter t he m anner o f d ecurions t hemselves. T he a pproximation o f t hese p riests t o d ecurions i n o fficial p restige i s i ndicated a t U rso b y t heir r ight, e x o fficio , t o w ear t he t oga p raetexta a nd t o s it w ith t he d ecurions a t p ublic e ntertainments. B arcino t reated t he o ffical s tatus o f f lamines, l ike t hat o f d ecurions a nd m agistrates, a s s eparable f rom t he p riesthood i tself, a nd c onferred " honores 3 f laminales" o n am agistrate o f t he t own a fter h is d eath .3

T he p riesthoods r eserved f or m en o f f ree b irth w ere a pparently t he e arliest t ype o f p riesthood t o b e i nstituted i n S pain . t he o nly t ype m zntioned i n U rso's c harter : t hey a re

N ot o nly a re t hey a lso w ell a ttested

o utside R oman c olonies a s e arly a s T iberius' r eign . T o t heir h olders w ere e ntrusted r esponsibilities n ot a llowed t o w omen p riests o r t o s eviri. P ontifices a nd f l i nes a lone c ould b e c harged w ith a n o verall s upervision o f l ocal r eligion .

P riestesses T he m ost w idespread t itle " sacerdos" w as u sed a s w ell.

f or p riestesses w as " flam ipica" , a lthough T hese p riesthoods d iffer f rom a ll t he

p riesthoods r eserved f or m en i n t hat i t m ay h ave b een p ossible t o h old t hem w ithout b eing a c itizen o f t he t own c oncerned. I n s ome c ases w omen w ere p erhaps g iven p riesthoods a s c ounterparts t o p riesthoods h eld b y t heir h usbands, b ut o thers s eem t o h ave b een a ppointed e ntirely i n t heir o wn r ight. T he s ocial s tatus o f t he w omen c oncerned w as c omparable t o t hat o f f ree-born m ale p riests ,

a nd p erhaps i n s ome c ases h igher.

A p riestess a t

I liberris i n B aetica w as t he m other o f a R oman c onsul. T here w ere f ewer d istractions f or w omen i n t he f orm o f o pportunities b eyond t he m unicipalities. 3 5

S eviri T he

s evirate

a s

a p riesthood a ssociated w ith t he i mperial c ult w as

6 3

i ntroduced i n I taly d uring A ugustus' r eign .

I t i s w ell a ttested i n S pain ,

a lthough t here a re n o c lear i ndications o f t he d ate o f

i ts e stablishment.

S eviri i n S pain , s ometimes b earing t he t itle " Augustalis" i n a ddition o r o n i ts o wn , w ere a lways f reedmen . T he o ne e xception c an b e r econciled w ith t his r ule. H e w as a n A ugustalis p erpetuus o f O lisipo i n L usitania w hose f ather w as a f reedman . T he f ather's p atron w as h imself a f reedman a nd A ugustalis p erpetuus: t hat i s, t he s evirate r epresented t o t he s on a h igh a chievement, e ven t hough h e WIRE o f f ree b irth . I n s ome c ases s eviri m ay b e i dentified a s t he l iberti o f i nfluential f ree-born c itizens. B ut f ormer p ublic s laves o f t he t own a re a lso r epresented. T hat s eviri h ad t o b e r ich a s i ndicated b y t he m any e xpenses , b oth v oluntary a nd o bligatory , w hich i nscriptions s how t hem t o h ave i ncurred . T he w illingness o f t he o rdo t o g rant s eviri t he o rnamenta o f d ecurions a nd m agistrates s hows t hat t heir s ocial s tanding , d espite t heir s ervile o rigins, t ended t o b e h igh. T he s evirate c ould b e t reated , l ike t he d uovirate , a s a n h onorary p osition t o b e c onferred o n p rominent m en o utside t he t own. L . L icinius S ecundus, a f reedman o f T rajan 's . f riend L . T arraco a nd B arcino. 3 6

L icinius

S ura ,

h eld h onorary

s evirates a t

I t s eems l ikely t hat i n S pain , a s e lsewhere, t he i nstitution w as r eformed n ear t he b eginning o f t he s econd c entury A .D ., w ith t he r esult t hat e ven s eviri a ppointed f or t he s pace o f ay ear , r ather t han f or l ife , e njoyed l ifelong m embership o f a r ecognised o rganisation m odelled o n t he o rdo i tself. A d amaged i nscription f rom M irobriga i n B aetica a ppears t o r efer t o a n " ordo" o f " seviri e t A ugustales" t here i n A .D . 1 58 . A t B arcino i n t he s ame p eriod t he " Augustales" w ere c omparable i n n umbers t o d ecurions , a nd a p ublic b enefactor t hought i t a ppropriate t o t reat t he t wo g roups s imilarly. 37

( vi)

C onclusion

T he a dministrative i nstitutions f ollowed a s tandardised p attern ,

o f

p rivileged c ommunities

i n S pain

i n w hich t here w as l ittle v ariation e ven

b etween d ifferent c lasses o f p rivileged t own . T he s tandardised n ature o f a dministrative i nstitutions d oes n ot i mply t hat a ll p rivileged c ommunities h ad w ritten c onstitutions i ssued b y R ome. W hen C harters w ere i ssued , t heir r egulations d id n ot n ecessarily r eflect a ny c oncern o n R ome's p art f or h er o wn i nterests. E ven r egulations e nsuring t hat d ecurions b e r ich c an b e e xplained a dequately i n t erms o f c oncern f or t he c ommunities' o wn w ellb eing, w ithout t he s upposition t hat t he R oman g overnment l ooked t o d ecurions' w ealth a s s ecurity f or t he p ayment o f t axes. S ocial e xclusiveness w hich i mproved o n f ormal r egulations f rom l ocal p rejudice t han f rom R oman i ntervention . 38

d erived

m ore

p robably

T he k ey i nstitution i n e very c ommunity w as t he o rdo i tself. I t w as w ith t he o rdo , n ot t he a ssembly , t hat p olitical p ower l ay; a nd m agistrates a nd m any p riests b elonged t o t he o rdo . T he o rdo's p ower a nd p restige m ade i t t he p rincipal m odel f or l ocal h onours. T he f act t hat d ecurions w ere w illing t o s hare s ome o f t heir p rerogatives w ith o utsiders s hows,

n ot t hat

t he p rerogatives w ere v alued l ightly , b ut t hat a b ody s ecure i n i ts p restige c ould a fford a l imited g enerosity w hich p reserved t he e xclusiveness o f t he b ody i tself. T he

c hanges w hich

t ook p lace i n t he c ourse o f

6 4

t he P rincipate -the

i ntroduction o f p riesthoods f or w omen a nd f reedmen ,

t he c reation o f a

s pecial o rganisation f or s eviri, a nd a n i ncreasing e xclusiveness o n t he p art o f t he o rdo - did n ot r adically a lter t he s tructure o f l ocal a dministration . T heir e ffect w as t o m ake o fficial p restige m ore w idely a vailable , a t l east t o w ealthy m embers o f t he c ommunity ; b ut t o c onserve t he p ower a nd s pecial s tatus o f t he o rdo i tself.

6 5

N OTES:

N OTES

1 .

C H . I V

( CHAPTER I V :

L OCAL E LITES)

F unctions o f a ssembly: C hapter V p p . 8 2-3 ; 8 5 ( elections Xp p. 1 63-4 ( legislation). O rdo C hapters V II-X . M agistrates: C hapter V p p . 7 ( other f unctions). F unctions o f p riests:

7 9 ; 8 01

C hapter V II p .

c 7 19pter

C hapt r X p p ,

( enrolment);

1 64-

1 21.

A ppendix I V p p. 2 20-3.

2 .

C harters a nd l ocal c onstitutions:

3 .

F or m unera, s ee C hapter X p p. 1 67-8. T hey d iffer f rom t he o ther a dministrative i nstitutions i n t hat t hey d id n ot t ypically i nvolve e ither a uthority o r o fficial p restige. E ven t he m unera d ecurionatus ,

w hich w ere m ost

c losely

a ssimilated

t o

m agistracies,

c ontinued t o b e d istinguished f rom h onores. 4 .

A dult m ale c itizens:

C hapter I II p .

4 2 a nd n .

7 .

P .

4 5

a nd n .

1 6

f or t he l imited a dmission o f i ncolae a t M älaca. U rso : F IRA I 2 1 C I. M alaca :

F IRA I 2 4 L I f f..

T he p ermanence o f t he c uriae i s i nferred

f rom t he s pecial s election o f o ne f or i ncolae ( LIII). A cinipo: 1 346 ( "sacra c uriarum"); c f. 1 347 w ith a ddendum , C IL 2 I , p . 7 01, a nd C hapter X n . 2 . F or t he " plebs", c f. b elow , p . 5 7. A cinipo's s tatus: M cElderry I , p . 7 1. ( For t he " sacra", c f. R uggiero , D izionario E pigrafico , I I ( ii), 1 395-6.) T he " centuriae" a t A rva a re p robably o nly t hose o f ac ollegium, a ssembly ( 1064 , w ith M ommsen 's n ote a d l oc . E pigrafico , I I ( 1), 1 89). 5 .

C anusium :

I LS 6 121 ( A .D . 2 23).

n ot o f ap opular

a nd R uggiero , D izionario

P recisely 1 00 d ecurions a re l isted ,

b y g rades f rom " quinquennalicii" d own t o " pedant" ; a nd i n a ddition ( at t he b eginning a nd e nd o f t he a lbum r espectively) 3 9 p atroni o f s enatorial a nd e questrian r ank , a nd 2 5 p raetextati. T he p atroni a re p resumably p urely h onorary m embers o f t he o rdo; t he p raetextati s ons o f d ecurions n ot o f a n a ge t o b elong t o t he o rdo, b ut a llowed t o a ttend i ts m eetings ( Marquardt, I , 1 87 f f.). T he p resence o f t he p raetextati d oes n ot p oint t o t he e xistence o f a n h ereditary o bligation a t C anusium a t t his d ate : s ee S uet. A ug . 3 8 , D io l ix . 9 , a nd S tatius S ilvae i v . 8 . 5 9 ( all c ited b y M arquardt) f or s uch a ttendance a s a p rivilege. ( The l ater a lbum o f T hamugadi ( c. A .D . 3 67) a lso l ists t he d ecurions b y r ank , b ut t here a ppears t o b e n o m aintenance o f ap recise n umber , a nd p raetextati m ay

b e l acking

( A .

C hastagnol , L 'album m unicipal d e T imgad ( Bonn , 1 978), c h. 3 , w ith t ext a t e nd).) P edan t w ho d ied w ithout h olding a m agistracy : 1 729 ; A E 1 957 3 0 ( no a ges g iven) ; 1 088 ( 26) ; 4 531 ( 24 , c f. D ig . L 4 . 8 ( Ulpian)). A dlected d ecurions s hould b e c onsidered s eparately f rom t hose r egularly e nrolled, s ince o ne c an i n t heir c ase a ssume n either a s imilar a mbition t o h old o ffice n or ( necessarily) s imilar p ressures

6 6

N OTES : t o a ccept i t.

C H . I V

A t l east t hree o f t he e ight a dlected d ecurions

r ecorded i n S pain d ied w ithout h olding a ny m agistracy ( 1055 ; 4 463 ; E pie . 8 09 : n o a ges g iven) ; c f. C hapter V n . 1 0 . T he S panish e vidence d oes n ot s how w hether p edani o f e ither t ype b ecame l ess c ommon a s t ime w ent o n . F or d ecurions w ho r ose n o h igher t han t he a edileship , c f. C hapter V n . 1 7. F or r anking w ithin t he o rdo i n S pain , c f. b elow , n . 1 7 . 6 .

3 0 : C ic . V err . i i. 2 . 1 22 ( senate a t H alaesa i n S icily); F IRA I 1 3 8 9 f f. ( Tabula H eracleensis: m agistrates , w ith r em issions i n r ecognition o f m ilitary s ervice); P liny E p. x . 7 9 . 3( prescribed b y l ex P ompeia f or m agistracies a nd s enates i n B ithynia ; r educed b y A ugustus f or m agistrates t o 2 2 , b ut r etained b y T rajan f or a ll t hose e nrolled i n t he s enates w ithout h aving h eld a m agistracy). 2 5 : D ig . L 2 . 6 . 1 ( Papinian , " decuriones"); 4 . 8 ; 5 . 2 p r. ( Ulpian , r eferring t o o ffice i n g eneral, a nd t o " honores"). T he l atter p assage r ecognises t hat c ommunities m ight n ot a lways o bserve t his m inimum a ge. M inimum a ge a t M alaca : F IRA I 2 4 L IV ( magistracies). T he a bove p assages i ndicate t hat t he m inimum a ge f or t he o rdo w as n ever l ower t han t hat f or m agistracies. Q uorums: n . 1 5 . D omicile a t U rso : F IRA I 2 1 X CI ; c f. T h ., M ommsen , " Lex C oloniae I uliae G enetivae U rbanorum s ive U rsonensis ," i n G esammelte S chriften , I A bt. ( Juristische S chriften), B d. 1 ( Berlin , 1 905) , 1 94-264 , p p . 2 23-4 ; H ardy , T hree S panish C harters , p p . 3 7-8 n . 6 6 . F or t he e xaction o f Agnora f rom s enators a t R ome , s ee e .g . L ivy i ii . 3 8 . 12 ; C ic. P hil. i . 5 , 1 2 ; C ic. D e O ratore i ii. 1 , 4 .

7 .

H ow o ften t he o rdo m et , a nd f or h ow l ong , i s n ot k nown . B ut s ee a bove , n . 6 , f or p rovisions f or r egular a ttendance ; a nd C hapters V , V II -X f or t he r ange o f t he o rdo's r esponsibilities. Property-qualifications: R . Duncan-Jones, T he E conomy o f t he R oman E mpire , 2 nd e d . ( Cambridge , 1 982) , p p . 1 47 , 2 43. H S 1 00 ,000 a ttested a t C omum ( Pliny E p. i . 1 9) a nd m entioned b y P etronius ( xliv . 1 4); a p roperty-qualification a t T ergeste u nder A ntoninus P ius ( ILS 6 680) a nd a s uspicion o f o ne a t A misus ( Pliny E p. x . 10). D io l xxiii. 1 6 . 3s eems t o i ndicate t hat d ecurions' w ealth w as r egarded a s b eing i n a 1 :10 r atio t o t hat o f R oman s enators. F or t he R epublic c an b e c ited L ivy x xxiv . 5 1.6 ; P ausanias v ii. 1 6. 9 ( Greece , s econd c entury B .C .). B ut L ivy a nd P ausanias s tate t hat R ome i mposed a p roperty-qualification h ere i n o rder t o d estroy d emocratic g overnment; a nd i t i s p robably n ot l egitimate t o e xtrapolate f rom t his i nstance t o o ther d ates a nd p laces. T here w as a lso a p roperty-qualification i n S icily u nder t he R epublic ( Cic . V err . i i. 2 . 1 20 , 1 22). . 1 9 ; P etronius; H S 1 00 ,000 i s t he o nly f igure m entioned ( Pliny f i p !.. i D io ( ?)). I t a ppears e lsewhere a s " the s um n eeded t o m ake o ne c omfortable" ( Catullus x xiii. 2 6-7 ; P liny E p. x . 5 8 . 5 ). A lthough i t m ight b e c laimed t hat t his i s b ecause H S 1 00 ,000 w as a w idespread p roperty-qualification f or t he d ecurionate , i t s eems m ore p robable t hat t he c ausation w as i n t he r everse d irection , a nd t hat H S 1 00 ,000 t ended t o b e f ixed o n a s ap roperty-qualification b ecause i t w as

6 7

N OTES: r egarded

a s

a c omfortable

C H . I V a mount

o f

w ealth.

( Cf.

R .

E llis,

AC ommentary o n C atullus, 2 nd e d. ( Oxford , 1 889), a d l oc..) T his e xplains t he p assages o f P etronius a nd D io i n a w ay t hat a voids t he a ssumption o f

H S

1 00 ,000 a s a u niversal p roperty-qualification f or

t he d ecurionate i n I taly. P roperty-qualifications a t t owns p oorer t han C omum , i n I taly a nd e lsewhere , c ould h ave s tood a t w ell b elow H S 1 00 ,000 . S ince t he e vidence f or p roperty-qualifications i s l argely l iterary , t heir a bsence f rom t he S panish r ecords d oes n ot n ecessarily c ount a gainst t heir e xistence i n S pain . E ntry-fee a t C ollippo : 5 232; c f. C hapter V p . 8 2. 8 .

S ecurities:

C hapter X n . 3 .

E xpenses a ssociated w ith e lection : 9 .

C hapter V p p. 8 3-4.

T abula H eracleensis: F IRA I 1 3 9 5-7; 1 ). U rso , M alaca :

1 08-23 ( cf. C ic. A d F am . v i. 1 8 .

F IRA I 2 1 C I ; 2 4 L IV.

F reedmen a t U rso :

F IRA I 2 1 C V ;

c f.

p . 4 9 n . 16 , c iting P liny N H i ii. v ii. 6 . 2 3 , C3 81 ( Corinth). —

H ardy ,

1 2 ,

L ex V isellia : C od. l ust. X 2 1 a nd 3 1;

S uet.

T hree S panish C harters, I ul. x lii ,

a nd S trabo

F IRA I 2 4 L IV .

S ingilia , S uel: 2 023 , 2 026 ; 1 944. I nstances o f f reedmen d ecurions e lsewhere i n t he E mpire a re v ery r are. T o e arly m agistrates o f C aesarian c olonies i n A frica ( Hardy , T hree S panish C harters, ( Larinum). 1 0 .

F reedmen 's

p .

s uns i n t he o rdo :

4 9 n .

16) m ay b e a dded A E 1 966 7 5 1

4 527 ,

c f.

497 4

( Barcino);

3 703 ,

c f.

3 715, 3 717 ( Mago i n M inorca). ( The f irst c annot b e d ated; t he s econd i s a fter A .D . 7 3-4.) T he t ribe P alatina o ccurs i n s everal S panish i nscriptions, s tage a t w hich t he

i ndicating s ervile e xtraction -but n ot f amily g ained a dmission t o t he o rdo

G arnsey ,"Descendants o f F reedmen i n L ocal P olitics:

t he ( P.

s ome C riteria ,"

i n T he Ancient H istorian and h is Materials, e d. B . L evick ( Farnborough , 1 975), p p. 1 67-80). I n a ddition t o 4 527 ( above) m ay b e c ited 4 229

( from G erunda) a nd 4 231 = 4 275,

4 232

( Numisii o f

T arraco). T he d ates a re r espectively c . A .D . 1 20-80 ; c . 4 0 ( Alföldy , F lamines, p . 7 9 n o. 4 4; p p . 8 1-2 n os. 4 8-9). F lattery o f r ich f reedmen :

4 527

( above),

s on o f a s evir.

G ordon , " The F reedman 's s on i n M unicipal L ife ," J RS x xi 7 , p p. 6 6-7. 7 1 1.

A .D .

1 20-

C f.

M .L .

( 1931),

6 5-

S ingilia: 2 017, c f. 2 016, 2 018-20. T he m an's m other, A cilia P lecusa, m ade a d edication t o ap rocurator w hich i s d ated t o t he p eriod A .D.

1 80-98 ( 2029 ;

P flaum , C arrieres,

I, I

p. p

6 33-8 ( no.

2 36)). D ertosa : 4 060 a nd n . 1 9 . B ithynia : P liny f _ 1 _ . x . 7 9 . 3 . 1 D igest: L 2 . 1 2 ( Callistratus); c f. 4 . 4 . 1 4 ( Callistratus q uoting S eptimius S everus); 4 . 7p r. ( Marcianus); 2 . 7 . 2 ( Paulus). II 2 I f or i nfamia,

c f. H ardy, S ix R oman L aws, p .

c orrespondence b etween t hese

6 8

1 59 n . 2 0, n oting t he

i nfames a nd t hose

e xcluded f rom t he

N OTES:

C H . I V

s enates i n t he T abula H eracleensis. 1 2.

" Plebs" c annot ,

i n t he l egal s ources a t l east ,

m ean n on-decurions b y

d efinition , s ince " horesti" , a s o pposed t o " plebeii" , w ho w ere n ot d ecurions w ere a c onceptual p ossibility , a nd i ndeed w ere r ecognised t o e xist ( P .D .A .

G arnsey ,Social S tatus a nd L egal P rivilege i n t he

R oman E mpire ( Oxford, 1 970), c hs. i x-x). S o t he e xclusion o f p lebeii i n t he l egal s ources ( n . 1) m ore p robably p oints t o s imple s ocial d iscrimination t han t o a n h ereditary p rinciple. T he B ithynian c ensors ( n. 1 1) d rew a d istinction b etween h onesti a nd p lebs, n ot b etween d ecurions a nd p lebs. F or t he s ignificance o f t he p raetextati a t C anusium , s ee n . 5 . " Plebs" i n i nscr iptions: C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p . 165 ; c f. n o . 1 276 ( n . 3 7). H onesti o utside t he o rdo i n S pain : a part f rom i ncolae , a nd m en d rawn a way f rom m unicipal a ffairs b y m ilitary s ervice , m ay b e c ited 3 362 ( Aurgi : f lamen a nd p ontifex , a ged 3 8); 6 339 ( Oretum : a n ative w hose f ather w as o f f ree b irth , a nd w ho b uilt a b ridge a t t he c ost o f H S 8 0 ,000). B oth a re t o b e d ated a fter A .D . 7 3-4. I ncolae Mien g ranted c itizenship) c onstituted a nother s ource o f n ew r ecruits ( e.g . 1 055 , 4 263; c f. C hapter I II n . 1 6). D ecurions w ere a lso r ecruited f rom a mong m en ( whether n atives o f t he t own o r n ew i mmigrants) w ho h ad p erformed m ilitary s ervice ( e.g. H A E pig . 8 09 4 ( Tarraco : e questrian ); 463 ( Barcino , a fter c . A .D . 7 0 ( Legio V II G emina): 5 438

p rimus p ilus);

( Urso:

c enturion);

4 514 5 232

( Barcino , ( Collippo,

A .D . A .D.

1 61-9 : 1 67:

c enturion); e vocatus a nd

s oldier o f t he p raetorian g uard); 2 853 ( an u nidentified t own i n i nland T arraconensis, a fter c . A .D. 7 0 : " veteranus")). C f. G arnsey , " Descendants o f F reedmen ," p p. 1 67-8. 1 3.

E nthusiasm f or o ffice :

C hapter V p p. 8 1-2; 8 3-4.

F amily c onnexions: e .g. A lföldy, F lamines, p p. 8 0-1 ( Numisii o f C arthago N ova); 8 1-2 ( Num isii o f T arraco); C IL 2 2 188 ( Acilii o f S acili i n B aetica); 4 528 ( Manlii o f B arcino); 5 354 ( Aufidii , a n u nidentified t own i n B aetica); c f. 3 557 ( Ilici). F or t he e xploitation o f f am ily c onnexions, c f. 5 232:

1 4.

Q .

T alotius

A llius S ilonianus a dlected t o t he o rdo i n ay ear w hen Q . M aximus a nd C . S ulpicius S ilonianus w ere d uoviri.

A llius

L iebenam , p . 2 29 .

" Costs,

T he s ize o f o rdines:

C f. R . D uncan-Jones ,

O utlays a nd S ummae H onorariae f rom R oman A frica ," P BSR x xx , N .S. x vii ( 1962), 4 7-115, p p. 7 0-2; a lthough c alculations b ased o n d istributions a nd t he s ize o f c uriae a re n ot n ecessarily r eliable. ( Interest-rates a re u ncertain , a nd a n o ver-large c uria m ight, l ike a t heatre o r a mphitheatre o f u nnecessary s ize, b e e rected s imply o ut o f c onceit.

C f.

R . D uncan-Jones,

" City P opulation i n R oman A frica ,"

J RS l iii ( 1963), 8 5-90 , p . 8 5.) " Centumviri" a t C ures a nd V eii: L iebenam , p . 2 29 n . 3 . 1 00 d ecurions a t C anusium i n A .D . 2 23 :

I LS 6 121, c f. n . 5 .

9 2 d ecurions a ttend a m eeting a t P uteoli: E xceptions i n t he W est a re M assilia ( 600 :

C IL X 1 783. V al. M ax . i i.

6 .

7 );

a nd

C astrimoenium i n L atium ( 30 : C IL X IV 2 458 ; c f. 2 466 w ith D essau 's n ote a d l oc.). I t i s d oubtful w hether t here w ere r eally 6 00 d ecurions a t T huburbo M aius i n A frica . S igus i n A frica , w here t here

6 9

N OTES: m ay h ave b een 3 0 d ecurions,

C H . I V

w as m erely a p agus o f C irta .

( Duncan-

J ones , " Costs , O utlays a nd S ummae H onorariae ," , p p . 7 0-1; c f. C hapter I I n . 2 8 f or t he A frican p agi.) T he e mperor c ountenanced a n o rdo o f 5 0 a t T ymandus i n P isidia , a lthough h oping t hat t he n umber o f e ligible c itizens w ould i ncrease ( ILS 6 090 , w ith C hapter I I n . 2 8 f or t he ( second-century?) d ate). 1 5.

I M 4 40 f or t he d ate ( c. A .D . 1 50-70); c f. B arcino : 4 511 w ith P IR 1 I R . D uncan-Jones , " Human N umbers i n T owns a nd T own-Organisations o f t he R oman E mpire: T he E vidence o f G ifts, " H istoria x iii ( 1964), 1 992 08, p . 2 05. H S 5 ,000 a y ear t o b e d istributed t o d ecurions a nd A ugustales a t d ifferent r ates. T he r ate f or d ecurions i s l ost, b ut D uncan-Jones' r estoration " quinos" f its m ore e asily i nto t he s pace t han " quaternos" , w hich i s s uggested b y H übner , a d l oc .. D uncanJ ones a ssumes a n o rdo o f 1 00 , a nd o n t hat b asis c alculates t hat t he n umber o f A ugustales w as 2 50. B ut i t s eems m ore r easonable t o s uppose t hat b uth d ecurions a nd A ugustales w ere r ather m ore n umerous t han u sual a t B arcino , a lthough o ne c annot d etermine t heir r espective n umbers f rom t his i nscription . S ince d ecurions r eceived m ore t han A ugustales, t he t otal n umber o f d ecurions a nd A ugustales d ecreases t he m ore d ecurions o ne p osits. O n B arcino's p rosperity, s ee C hapter V II n . 2 8. C onstitutional a nomalies a t B arcino :

C hapter V p .

8 3.

F or a n umerus c lausus

f or

t he o rdo , s ee b elow , n . 1 6. Q uorums o f 3 0 , 4 0 , 5 0 : F IRA I 2 1 L XIX , C , L XXV , X CVII. Q uorums a s p roportion : i bid . X CII , X CVI , X CVIII , X CIX , C XXXI ( major p ars); L XIV ( 2/3); C XXX ( 3/4); F IRA I 2 4 L XI , L XIV , L XVII , L XVIII ( 2/3); D ig. L 1 . 1 9 ( maior p ars); 9 . 3 ( 2/3 s pecified b y a l ex m unicipalis). I t i s p ossible t hat t he c lauses a t U rso w ere t ranscribed u nintelligently f rom a m odel c harter. ( Cf. L XII a nd M .W. F rederiksen , l v ( 1965), 1 6.

" The R epublican M unicipal L aws:

E rrors a nd D rafts," J RS

1 83-98.)

R outine r ecruitment:

C hapter V p p. 8 0-1.

N umerus c lausus i n t he T abula H eracleensis: F IRA I 1 3 8 5-8. C anusium : n . 5 . T he p recise n umber o f 1 00 i ncludes t he " allecti i nter q uinq(uennales)". P rusa , C laudiopolis , a nd p erhaps o ther c ommunities i n B ithynia s ought t he p ermission o f N erva a nd T rajan t o r ecruit d ecurions " super l egitimum n umerum". T hat a ppears t o h ave b een a q uestion o f s udden i ncrease o n a l arge s cale , a nd d oes n ot s how t hat i mperial p ermission w as r equired i n a ll c ases o f s upernumerary r ecruitment ( Pliny E p. x . 12. 1 ; D io C hrys. B arcino :

1 7.

O r . x lv . 7 ;

f or t he s ize o f t he

P liny E p. x . 3 9 . 5 ). o rdo ,

s ee a bove,

d ecurions i n g eneral,

s ee C hapter V p p .

B arcino : C hapter V n .

1 0 .

8 0-1.

n .

H onores o f a ediles , d uoviri: n . 1 9 . 4 " Duoviralis" : 468 , A E 1 952 1 17. " [Adlectus I nt]er q uinqu[en ]na[les1" :

A E 1 928 1 95.

C f. n . 5f or g radations i n s tatus a t C anusium .

7 0

1 5.

F or a dlected

A dlected d ecurions a t

N OTES: 1 8.

Seats a nd d ress:

C H . I V

F IRA I 2 1 L XVI; C XXV ; C XXVII ( Urso);

O rnamenta : 1 066 ( Arva), 1 286 ( Salpensa), A E 1 953 2 1 ( "ornamenta d ecurionatus"); 2 017 ( Singilia:

2 156 ( Epora). ( Lucurgentum) " ornamenta

d ecurionalia"). 1 286 i s ap osthumous g rant t o ac itizen o f t he t own , a ged 1 8 , o f f ree b irth t o f our g enerations; 1 066 a nd A E 1 953 2 1 a re g rants t o s eviri. F or t he s ignificance o f e xclusion f rom t he o rdo i n 2 017 ,

s ee a bove ,

p . 5 7 a nd n . 1; c f. 4 060 ( n . 1 9). F or t he i mplications o f t he o rnamenta , c f. R E X VIII 110 f f. a nd 2 156 ( Epora :

a s evir g ranted t he l imited r ight o f

j oining t he d ecurions

a t p ublic b anquets). 1 9 .

H onores o f a ediles,

d uoviri:

4 062 ( Dertosa :

" aedilic(ii) h onores" ,

a s evir ; 4 060 ( Dertosa : " aedilicii e t d u[ovi]rales h onor(es)" , s on o f a s evir , c f. 4 061); 4 061 ( Dertosa : " aedilicium i us i n p erpetuu ce% a s evir); A E 1 957 3 6 ( Barcino : a d ead c itizen a ged 1 4); 4 268 p osthumous g rant).

" aedilicii e t I Ivirales h onor(es)" , ( Tarraco : " ornamenta a edilicia" , a

W ith t he e xception o f 4 060 , a ll t hese c ertainly c oncern r ecipients w ho w ere n ot, a nd c ould n ot b ecome , d ecurions. 4 060 i s p robably t o b e c lassed w ith t he r est, o n t he g rounds t hat t he c ombined g rant o f a edilician a nd d uoviral h onours i s n ot p aralleled i n t he c ase o f d ecurions; c f. a bove p . 5 7 a nd n . 1 f or a n e xtension a t S ingilia o f t he p rinciple o f e xcluding f reedmen f rom t he o rdo. ( The d ate o f 4 060 i s n ot c lear , a lthough t he d escription o f t he m an 's f ather a s " sevir p rimus" ( 4061 a nd n . 3 6) c ould s uggest a d ate n ot l ater t han t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury A .D ..) T o d ecurions: 4 216 = 6 095 ( Tarraco , s econd h alf o f t he f irst c entury " aedilicii h onor(es)"); 4 514 ( Barcino , A .D . 1 61-9 : " honores a edilicii"). I t i s p ossible t hat t hese r epresent t he o ffice o f a edile i tself, r ather t han t he h onorary s tatus; c f. 4 261, 4 272 ( Tarraco) w here t he s ame p hrases a ppear t o b e u sed o f t he o ffice i tself. B ut c f. C hapter V p . 8 2 a nd n . 1 6. I n 4 216 = 6 095 a nd 4 514 t he h onores w ere s ucceeded b y t he d uovirate.

S uch h onours a re

p resumably t o b e d istinguished f rom a dlection w ith t he r ank o f e xa edile ( cf. n . 1 7 a nd e .g. I LS 5 553) i n t hat t he " honores" w ere g ranted t o p ersons w ho w ere a lready m embers o f t he o rdo. B ut e ven t hat i s u ncertain . F or s uch h onours a s ag eneral p henomenon , s ee R E X VIII 1201; f or t he S panish i nstances, R E I4 47. F or a f uneral i n a ppropriate ( aedilician) s tyle , c f. C IL 2 4 268. 2 0.

" Quattuorviri" a pplied t o ab oard o f a ediles a nd d uoviri:

C hapter I I

n . 1 ( Use o f t he w ord a s t he s ole m agisterial t itle i n S panish t owns, r ather t han a s a l oose d escription f or f our m agistrates m ore p recisely e ntitled " duoviri" a nd " aediles" , i s v ery r are.) T he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M älaca r efer t o a nnual q uaestors i n t he p lural : p resumably t here w ere t o b e t wo q uaestors, a s w ell a s t wo d uoviri a nd t wo a ediles 2 1.

( FIRA I 2 3 X XVI ;

2 4 L II-LIV).

M inimum a ge: n . 6 . O ther q ualifications:

F IRA I 2 1 C l ; 2 4 L IV ; c f. n n . 7 -9 .

7 1

N OTES: 2. 2

C ursus a t M alaca:

C H .

I v

F IRA I 2 4 L IV.

( On t he m inimum a ge

o f

2 5,

s pecified i n t he s ame c hapter f or a ll o ffices a like, s ee n . 2 5.) C ursus i n i ndividual i nscriptions: n o a djustment o f t he o rder o f i nscriptions i s n eeded t o a chieve t his r esult. T he a edileship i s a lways l isted b efore t he d uovirate , w ithout e xception . D uovir q uinquennalis o f T arraco :

4 071, 6 072.

G rants o f a edilician s tatus: n . 1 9 . P edani a ppointed t o t he a edileship: d ecurions);

3 606,

4 272

4 262-3,

c f. 4 244 ( adlected

( ordinary d ecurions).

F or a edilician

h onores, c onferring e xemption f rom t he a edileship i tself, s ee n . 1 9 . B . G alsterer-Kröll , " Zum i us L ath i i n d en k eltischen P rovinzen d es I mperium R omanum ,"

C hiron I ii

( 1973),

2 77-306 ,

a rgues t hat i n t he

C eltic p rovinces ( the A lpine a rea, G aul a nd N oricum) t he t ypical c ursus i n a L atin m unicipium c onsisted o f a s ingle m agistracy a nd a s ingle p riesthood. B ut t he e vidence f or c areers i n L atin m unicipia i n t hese a reas i s n ot g ood ; a nd a mong t he c areers r ecorded t here a re s everal i nstances o f t wo d ifferent m agistracies i n a c ursus , a s w ell a s r epeated o nes ( e.g. G alsterer-Kröll , p . 2 85 n . 3 3; 2 95 n n . 7 2-3). A lthough i n L atin m unicipia t he r eward o f R oman c itizenship m ay h ave b een a n a dditional i ncentive t o h old o ffice ( for t hose w ho d id n ot a lready p ossess R oman c itizenship b y r ight o f d escent, c f. F IRA I 2 3 X XI), i t d oes n ot f ollow t hat t he i ncentives p resent i n R oman c olonies a nd m unicipia w ere a bsent, a nd t hat c itizens o f L atin m unicipia w ere t herefore s atisfied w ith a s ingle o ffice.

I n S pain ,

t he p roportion o f c areer i nscriptions r ecording t wo d ifferent o ffices ( typically t he a edileship a nd d uovirate), a s o f t hose r ecording r epeated d uovirates, i s a s g reat i n L atin m unicipia a s i n R oman c olonies a nd m unicipia. R ecords o f t he q uaestorship a re r are i n a ll c ategories o f c ommunity , b ut t he q uaestorship c ould b e a dded t o t he t ypical c ursus o f a edileship a nd d uovirate i n aL atin a s w ell a s i n a R oman t own ( e.g. 8 96 ; 2 3.

c f. n . 2 3).

M älaca : F IRA I 2 4 L IV ; c f. H ardy, T hree S panish C harters, p . 1 02 n . 1 5. I t s eems c lear t hat t hey e ach s ecure a dmission t o t he o rdo , a nd t hat t hey f unction i n a p arallel w ay a s a p reliminary t o t he d uovirate.

W hat i s d ebatable i s w hether e ach w as o n i ts o wn a

s ufficient p reliminary q ualification f or t he d uovirate , o r w hether o ne h ad t o h old b oth a edileship a nd q uaestorship ( in w hichever o rder) b efore t he d uovirate. T hat e ach w as o n i ts o wn s ufficien t a ppears t o b e t he m ost n atural i nterpretation o f t he p assage, t aken i n i solation f rom o ther e vidence . Q uaestors i n L atin m unicipia :

1 59 ,

8 96

( Ammaia ,

C aesarobriga i n

L usitania). I n a R oman m unicipium ; 3 864-5 ( Saguntum). I n a R oman c olony: 4 212 , 4 216 = 6 095 , 4 275 , 6 072 ( Tarraco). 4 028 i s p robably a lso f rom S aguntum ;

E E I X p .

4 9 n o.

19 = C IL 2 7 24 f rom o ne o f t he

t wo R oman c olonies N orba a nd E merita i n L usitania ( cf. C hapter I I n . 2 0). 4 139 , 4 244 , 4 264 , 4 279 w ere p robably q uaestorships a t T arraco a lso,

i n

t hat

t he

t ribe

i s

a ppropriate

a nd

t hat

t here

i s

n o

i ndication t hat t he q uaestorships w ere h eld e lsewhere t han a t T arraco , w here t he i nscriptions w ere s et u p . B ut 4 253 c oncerns a m an w hose q uaestorship a nd i ntital d uovirate m ay h ave b een h eld e lsewhere t han a t T arraco , w here h e w as d uovir q uinquennalis. H is p lace o f o rigin w as i n a ll p robability S igarra ( Alföldy , F lamines , p p. 9 0-1

7 2

N OTES: n o.

6 9).

C H . I V

I f h is q uaestorship w as h eld t here ,

S igarra w ould t hen b e

a nother e xample o f aL atin m unicipium e quipped w ith q uaestors.

227, 2

h esitantly p laced b y H übner a t C orduba , i s p robably s imply 4 212 f rom T arraco , b adly r ead a nd w rongly a ssigned. 1 59 , 4 139 , a nd 4 264 m ention o nly q uaestorship a nd d uovirate.

I t d oes

n ot o f c ourse f ollow t hat t he a edileship w as n ot h eld i n a ddition : i n p articular , 4 264 p laces t he q uaestorship a fter t he d uovirate. 2 4.

A bsence o f q uaestorship i n s ome t owns: F unctions:

C hapter X p .

b elow p . 6 1 a nd n . 2 6.

1 66.

O dium : c f. E . B adian , P ublicans a nd S inners: P r ivate E nterprise i n t he S ervice o f t he R oman R epublic ( Oxford , 1 972), p . 1. O stia: R . M eiggs, R oman O stia , 2 nd e d. ( Oxford , 1 973), p . 1 76. T he q uaestorship a ppears i n t hese t wo p ositions a t O stia a lso. M eiggs a rgues ( pp. 1 76, 1 85-6) t hat i t w as n ormally h eld b etween a edileship a nd d uovirate, b ut w as h eld a fter t he d uovirate i n a p eriod o f

f inancial d ecline,

a ttention . A t T arraco , e stablish a ny p attern .

w hen O stia's f inances n eeded e xpert

o n t he o ther h and , i t s eems i mpossible t o I t i s l ikely t hat t here w as n one, b ut o nly

i rregular v ariations a ccording t o t he a vailability o f c andidates. 2 5.

M alaca:

F IRA I 2 4 L IV.

H ardy,

T hree S panish C harters,

p .

1 01 n .

1 3

s uspects t he f igure o f 2 5 f or t he d uovirate , a nd w ould s ubstitute 3 0. B ut a lthough t he r equirements o f t he c ursus h onorum a t M alaca ( above, p. 5 9-60 m ust h ave m eant t hat t he d uovirate c ould n ot i n f act b e p h eld a s e arly a s t he a ge o f 2 5 ,

H ardy's s ubstitution i s u nnecessary.

I t d epends o n a n u nsupported a ssumption t hat t he f ive-year i nterval s pecified b etween d uovirates w as a lso t o hold b etween q uaestorship/aedileship a nd d uovirate. p raefectus ( 23 X XV) i s b elow p . 6 1 a nd n . 2 8.)

n ot

r elevant

( The m inimum a ge o f 3 5 f or a t o t he

d uovirate

G reater l atitude i n t he c ase o f d ifferent o ffices: 2 ; c f. D ig . L . 1 . 1 7. 3 . O ne m ight i n a c harter d uovirate ,

a s

b eing t he

p rescribe s tandard

c f.

C od. l ust.

a m inimum a ge

m inimum a ge

i tself;

o f

2 5

X 4 1.

f or t he

f or m agistracies

a nd

m embership o f t he o rdo , a lthough i n f act t he n eed t o h old a l ower o ffice f irst w ould p ostpone t he d uovirate u ntil t he a ge o f 2 7 a t l east. 2 6.

C itizenship C hapter

t hrough

X n .

1 1

m agistracy

f or

i n

L atin

d edications

b y

t owns:

a ediles

A ppendix

I ; I

c elebrating

c f.

R oman

c itizenship 2 er h onorem . S ome e x-aediles m ay h ave b een c ontent n ot t o h old f urther o ffice ( Chapter V n . 1 7); c f. a bove, n . 1 9, f or t heir l imited m arks o f s tatus. Q uaestorship : M eiggs, p . 1 76. A bsent a t U rso: F IRA I 2 1. F or t he d istribution o f d uties

i n t owns w ithout

q uaestor , s ee C hapter X p p. 1 66-7. Q uaestor's l ack o f p restige: c f. n n . 2 7.

1 9 ,

t he o ffice

2 4.

D uovirate h eld m ore t han o nce: C IL 2 I I, I ndex , p p. 165-8. S icily, B ithynia: C ic. V err. i i. 2 . 1 31 f f., 1 39 ; P liny c f. S herwin-White, T he L etters o f P liny , p . 6 72.

7 3

o f

X 7 9 .

4 ,

N OTES:

C H . I V

T he i nstitution o f d uovir q uinquennalis:

M eiggs,

p .

1 75 ( first

a ttested a t V enusia i n 2 9 B .C.). F or s pecial f unctions a ssociated w ith t he o ffice, s ee C hapter X p . 1 65. Q uinquennales

n ot

f ound

i n L atin

c ommunities:

T h.

M ommsen ,

S tadtrechte d er l atinischen G emeinden S alpensa u nd M alaca Provinz

Baetica, "

( Juristische S chriften),

in

Gesammelte

B d.

1 ( Berlin ,

G alsterer , p p. 5 6-7. H onorary q uinquennales: ( Cambridge ,

M .

G rant,

S chriften,

1 905),

2 65-382 ,

I

p .

Abt.

3 23;

c f.

F rom I mperium t o A uctoritas 1 969), p p.

1 946; r pt. w ith c orrections, C ambridge ,

2 15-6 ; C IL 2 3 417. C f. M eiggs, p . D uovir , t hen d uovir q uinquennalis:

" Die

i n d er

1 74. 4 275 , 4 530 , 4 616 ,

1 58-9 ,

6 072 = 4 071.

I t c annot b e p roved f rom t he S panish e vidence t hat o ne d id n ot h ave t o b e a n o rdinary d uovir f irst; b ut c f. L . V idman , F asti O stienses ( Prague, 1 957), p p. 1 2-4 ( P. P aetinus D exter i n A .D. 1 6 a nd 3 0; Q . F abius L ongus i n A .D. 3 1 a nd 3 7). 2 8.

T emporary s ubstitutes: C f.

2 I I ,

C IL

I ndex ,

2 3 X XV.

F IRA I 2 1 X CIII ; F IRA I 2 3 X XIV.

S ubstitute f or e mperor : p .

1 167 f or p articular i nstances.

I t i s n ot

a lways c lear i nto w hich o f t he t wo c ategories p raefecti f all. F or

i ndisputable

1 58-9 , 2 15-6; =5 617.

s ubstitutes

a nd C IL 2 1 534 ,

f or

h onorary

d uoviri,

p p.

s ee G rant ,

1 558 , 5 120 , E E V II p . 3 56 n o. 4 = 2 479

B ut a n umber o f i nscriptions s tate o nly t hat a m an w as " praefectus" ; a nd a lthough t he b revity s uggests a t emporary r ole , n ot c ertain . O n

t he

" praef(ectus)

i ur(e)

d ic(undo)

G ades ( 1731), s ee C hapter V p . 8 4. D eath i n o ffice: M eiggs, p . 1 75.

a b

t he i nference i s

d ecurionibus

c reatus"

a t

( The s uccessor c ounted a s a n

o rdinary ( suffect) d uovir , a lthough " pronuntiatus" c ould s uggest ( but d oes n ot n ecessarily i mply) a n i rregular m ethod o f a ppointment ( cf. L ivy x xiv . 2 7. 3 ; S uet. l ul. 4 1. 2 ).) A t M alaca : F IRA 2 4 L II. F or m ethods o f a ppointment o f p raefecti, s ee C hapter V p p. 8 4-5. M inimum a ge f or t emporary p raefectus a t S alpensa:

F IRA I 2 3 X XV ( the

p raefectus w as a lso t o b e c hosen f rom a mong t he d ecurions). A ll

t he a ttested p raefecti

i n S pain a re

r ecorded t o h ave h eld

t he

d uovirate f irst, w ith t he e xception o f 5 525 a nd E E V III p . 3 56 n o. 4 , o f w hich t he f ormer i s n ot a c areer i nscription , w hile t he l atter m entions n o o ther m unicipal o ffice. 2 9 .

J uba a nd P tolemy: S aguntum :

G rant, p p. 2 15-6 ;

G rant, p p.

c f. C IL 2 3 417.

1 58-9 .

S ingle p raefectus a t S alpensa: F IRA I 2 3 X XIV. C ompare M eiggs, p . 1 75. I n A .D. 3 6 T . S extius A fricanus and A . E grilius R ufus w ere d uoviri q uinquennales, R oman s enator. E grilius d ied. C arthago N ova

S extius p robably b eing a

P raefecti w ere a ppointed w hen , and o nly w hen , S extius, t hat i s, h ad -like J uba a nd P tolemy a t - b een a ppointed an h onorary d uovir q uinquennalis

a long w ith a c olleague w ho w as t o p erform t he f unctions o f b oth. 3 0.

A nnual 131-3;

a nd p ermanent

p riesthoods

168-9 .

7 4

i n S pain :

C IL

2 I I , I ndex ,

p p.

N OTES: F or t he a ssociation o f

C H .

I V

f ree-born p riests w ith

t he

c ult

o f

A ugusti,

c f. n . 3 1. 3 1.

U rso :

F IRA I 2 1 L XVI-LXVIII, X CI.

A ugurs:

A f ree-born c itizen d escribed a s " aug." a t C arthago N ova w as

p robably a n a ugur , n ot a n A ugustalis. 3 6 f or A ugustales a s f reedmen). R oman

i nfluence

a t

C arthago

( 3426;

c f. b elow p . 6 4 a nd n .

T hat w ould b e c onsonant w ith s trong N ova,

t he

R epublican

c apital

o f

T arraconensis ( CIL 2 I , p . 4 62; c f. B runt, I talian M anpower , p . 5 92, a nd b elow , n . 3 7). E lsewhere t he t itle " aug." i s a ttributed t c f ree-born m en o nly i n s uccession t o " pont." ( 1188, 1 380, 2 132, 2 149a , 5 547), a nd i n o ne o f t hese c ases t he t own d efinitely h ad a n i nstitution w ith t he f ull t itle " pont(ifex) d ivi A ug(usti)" ( 1380 , 5 120).

( For o ther p ontifices a ssociated w ith t he i mperial c ult, s ee

C IL 2 I I ,

I ndex , p p.

136 f f. u nder A nticaria , A urgi, T ucci, U rgavo.) 1

I t s eems l ikely t hat a ll t he o ccurrences o f

" pont.

a ug." r elate t o a

p ontifex o f A ugustus o r t he A ugusti. A ugurs a nd d ivination : c f. F IRA I 2 1 L XVI. P ontifices a nd f lam ines a t R ome: M ommsen , S taatsrecht, I I , 2 2. I n S pain : e .g . 1 534 ( "pont(ifex) s acrorum , f lamen d iv i A ugusti"); 2 105 ( "flamen s acr(orum) A ugustae"). 3 2.

T itle

p ub(licorum) m unicip(ii),

p ontifex d omus

" pontifex" c onfined t o B aetica a nd t he e astern b order r egion :

e xceptions a re p ontifices S aguntum ,

a nd i n t he

a t

r egion o f

P ax J ulia i n L usitania, C arthago N ova

( 55 ,

T arraco,

4 272 ,

3 853

f., f

5 945: a ll c olonies o r a reas e arly e xposed t o R oman c ulture). F or A ugustan b oundary c hanges, s ee C hapter I n . 2 3. S alii a t S aguntum :

3 853-4 ,

2 8-9 . R epublican s urvival:

3 859 ,

3 864-5 ,

6 055;

c f.

G alsterer ,

p. p

c f. C IL 2 I , p . 5 12.

S alii a t R ome: R E IA 1 874 f f.. F or t he t itle " sacerdos", s ee n . 3 5. N ot u sed o f m ale m unicipal p riests, i t o ccurs a s at itle o f w omen p riests i n t he s ame a rea w here " pontifices" a re

f ound -p resumably i n d efault

o f a n a ccepted

f eminine e quivalent o f " pontifex". 3 3.

C areer i nscriptions:

e .g. 2 126 ,

2 129 ,

3 174 ,

B ut n ot a ll f ree-born m ale p riests w ere 2 159,

3 859),

e ntertainments). H onores f lamines:

E arly 1 4-29 ; o f

a ttestation o utside c f.

C hapter I II n .

d ivus A ugustus,

2 115 ( Urgavo :

2 103 ,

( 3362, c f. n . 1 2). ( deposition); L XVI

3 8

( public

r evising 4 523;

c f.

1 8-9 f or t heir c ontent.

c olonies: 9 );

f ormerly

( 2025 ,

r eached t he a ge o f

C IL 2 I , A uctarium , p . X LVIII ,

R E X VIII 120-1 a nd a bove n n .

3 856-7 , 4 272.

( yet) d ecurions

and o ne i s r ecorded t o h ave

w ithout a pparently e ntering t he o rdo U rso: F IRA I 2 1 L XVII, c f. C V

3 4.

3 853-4,

e .g.

1 534 ,

2 038-40

5 120

p raefecti

( Ulia ,

( Anticaria , C armo :

( pro d uoviro) o f

A .D.

p ontifices C .

C aesar);

p ontifex o f d ivus A ugustus).

R esponsibilities:

e .g.

s acrorum i n m unicipio").

1 534 , C f.

2 105

( n .

p ontifices a nd a ugurs, a s o f d ecurions;

7 5

3 1);

F IRA I 2 1

A E 1 974 3 73

X CI

( domicile

c f. n . 6 ).

( "pontufex r equired o f

N OTES: F ree-born m ale p riests,

C H . I V

u nlike w omen a nd s eviri

( n .

3 5),

n ever h eld

a ppointments i n t wo t owns s imultaneously. 3 5.

T he

t itle

" sacerdos"

i s

e ast a round C astulo ( cf. ( See 2 229 ,

p riests.

C itizenship

n ot

c onfined

t o B aetica a nd t he

n .

I t i s n ever u sed o f m ale m unicipal

3 2).

r egion

5 521 f or m ale " sacerdotes".) C hapter I II p .

r equired:

4 5

a nd n .

1 7.

W ives o f

f lam ines o f t he p rovincial c ult w ere t hemselves f laminicae p p.

F lamines,

t o t he

9 4 f f.).

( Alföldy ,

1 954 a nd 1 958 c onstitute a p robable e xample

o f a h usband a nd w ife b oth h olding m unicipal

p riesthoods.

B ut t he

h usband o f t he s acerdos i n 1 956 s eems t o h ave h eld n o p riesthood ; a nd 1 471, 1 278 p rovide f urther i nstances o f i ndependent b ehaviour o n t he p art o f w omen p riests. 1 572 r efers t o aw oman w ho h eld p ermanent p riesthoods i n t hree t owns s imultaneously;

c f.

3 2,

( all c ited i n C hapter I II n .

4 241

1 7).

C ompare t he s evir w ho h eld p ermanent a ppointments a t b oth C orduba a nd c f. C hapter I II n .

S ingilia ( 2026 ; P riestess

1 7).

C f. n . 3 4.

t he m other o f a R oman c onsul:

a nd P flaum , C arrieres,

I , p . 6 34, I

2 074 ,

II V 1 50 w ith P IR 1 I

f or Q . V alerius V egetus, c os. A .D .

9 1 o r 1 12. T here i s n o c ertain c ase o f a m agistrate o r m ale m unicipal p riest w ith a s on i n t he R oman s enate. S ee A lföldy, F lamines, p p. 6 3-4, n o . 3 6.

6 ; p p. 7 6-7, n o. 3 7 f or t wo s uggestions.

O n t he s evirate i n g eneral, s ee L .R. T aylor, A ugustales, 2 31-53; A . E pigrafico ,

a nd

S eviri:

a C hronological

v on P remerstein , I , 8 24-77.

S eviri i n S pain :

C IL 2 I I ,

S tudy,"

" Augustales" ,

I ndex , p p.

" Augustales, S eviri T APA x lv

i n R uggiero ,

( 1914),

D izionario

. 168-9

" Sevir" , " sevir A ugustalis" , a nd " Augustalis" a re a ll a pplied t o t he p riests t hemselves ( e.g. 1 479 , 1 944 , 2 116). " Sevirales" , " Augustales" a re a pplied t o c urrent a nd f ormer p riests, c onceived o f a s a g roup ( 1276, 4 511; c f. n . 3 7); a nd i t s eems p robable f rom 4 539 t hat " seviri A ugustales" w as a lso s o u sed. D ate o f

e stablishment:

t he e arliest

t he R oman m unicipium O lisipo). t emporal,

t he

i ntroduction o f

I f

s ecure

t he p riesthood

V espasian 's g rant o f t he L atin r ight.

d ate

i s

A .D .

" primus" i n 1 944 C f.

5 7

( 183:

( Suel) i s

t here w ould p ost-date

4 061 f or a " first" s evir

a t t he R oman m unicipium D ertosa. F or t he e arly i ntroduction o f t he L ares A ugustales a nd t heir a ssociated m agistri, s ee n . 3 7. A ugustalis o f f ree b irth : L iberti o f c itizens:

1 96 ,

P ublic s laves: 364 , 4 497. 3 E xpenses: C hapter V p . 8 6. a t B arcino ( n . 1 0). L . L icinius S ecundus

1 83.

e .g. 3 362-3;

c f. 4 514.

C ompare t he s evir's s on i n t he o rdo

a n h onorary

s evir :

4 536-48 ,

6 148-9 ;

c f.

A E

1 957 2 6. 3 7.

R eform o f

t he i nstitution :

T aylor ,

" Augustales," p p.

P remerstein , p p. 8 48 f f.; c f. M eiggs, p p. 2 17 f f..

2 42 f f.;

v on

S ince A ugustales

a re o ccasionally f ound a s a g roup i ncluding f ormer p riests i n t he e arly f irst c entury ( e.g. C IL X I 3 805 , V I 2 9681), t he m ost s ecure e vidence o f t he r eorganisation i s t he i ntroduction o f g rades a nd o fficials, n either o f w hich a ppear i n t he S panish e vidence.

7 6

N OTES: M irobriga:

A E 1 913 9 .

B arcino:

4 511

and

n .

C H . I V

1 5.

C ompare

t he

d istribution m ade

t o

d ecurions, s evirales, a nd p lebs a t S iarum i n B aetica ( 1276 , n o d ate). D istinct

f rom

A ugustales, " Augustales,"

t he

i nstitution o f

s eviri w as

p laced i n t he c harge o f p p.

2 31

f f.,

c f.

t he

c ult

o f

t he L ares

f reedmen m agistri

( Taylor,

T he D ivinity o f t he R oman E mperor

( Middletown , C onn ., 1 931), p p. 1 84 f f.; C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p . 169). T he m agistri i n q uestion s eem a s a r ule t o h ave b een o f m ore h umble s tatus t han s eviri;

a lthough s eviri w ho w ere a lso m agistri L a mm a re

f ound a t T arraco ( 4303-4, 4 289 , 4 293, 4 297; c f. T aylor , p .

2 44:

" Augustales,"

w hether t he o ffices w ere e ssentially c onnected i s u nclear).

T he c ult o f t he L ares i s f irst r ecorded i n I taly i n 1 2 B .C..

A n

i nscription f rom a n u nidentified t own i n B aetica ( 2181) s hows t hat i t e xisted t here i n A .D. 2 8. 5 929 r ecords t he i nstitution o f t he c ult a t C arthago N ova. T he i nscription r efers, i n t he d ative o r a blative, t o " C. L aetilius M . f . A [ palus] I Ivir q uinq(uennalis)", w ho i s o therwise k nown a s a c olleague o f t he h onorary q uinquennalis P tolemy

o f M auretania

( see H übner's n ote a d l oc.,

G rant,

p .

2 16 ,

a nd a bove , n . 2 9). I t i s p ossible t hat, s ince P tolemy's m agistracy w as p urely h onorary, L aetilius' n ame w as u sed ( in t he a blative) t o d ate

t he

c onstruction

o f

t he

L ares,

w ithout

t he

a ddition

o f

P tolemy's. I f t his i s r ight, t he d ate o f t he i nscription i s t he s ame a s ( and n ot l ater t han) t he d ate o f t he c oins n aming L aetilius a nd P tolemy a s q uinquennales: t hat i s, w ithin t he l ast t wo d ecades o f t he f irst c entury B .C. ( Grant, a t C arthago N ova, c f. n . 3 1.

p . 2 16). F or s trong R oman i nfluence T he o ther S panish t owns m ay n ot h ave

b een s o q uick t o e stablish a c ult o f t he L ares. 3 8.

C harters:

A ppendix I V.

T he r ationale o f r egulations:

a bove, p p. 5 5 f f.

( cf. C hapter I X p p.

1 52-3 f or t he q uestion o f d ecurions' f ormal l iability w ith r egard t o R oman t axes i n t his p eriod). T he i dea o f e xcluding t he p lebs f rom t he B ithynian s enates c ame f rom t he B ithynians t hemselves, P liny ( 52. x . 7 9 . 3 , c ited i n n .

7 7

1).

n ot f rom

C HAPTER V A PPOINTMENTS ( i)

M ethods

o f

a ppointment

p ractice a chieved. t owns

w ere

o f

a ppointments

s how h ow m embership

M ost o f

p ractical

w ere

I ntroduction

o f

o fficial

b odies

w as

i n

t he o fficial p ositions i n t he g ift o f S panish i mportance

g enerally

m ade

t o

l ocal

s imply

t o

a dministration ; s atisfy

and

a dministrative

r equirements. B ut s ince e ven o rdinary o fficial p ositions c ould c arry p restige o r o ther p ersonal a dvantages, a ppointments t o t hem w ere s ometimes a m atter

o f

h onouring

p articular

i ndividuals

r ather

t han

o f

r outine

r ecruitment. I n a ddition , t here w ere s ome o fficial p ositions w hich c onferred h onour w ithout s erving a ny d efinite u tilitarian p urpose. M odes o f a ppointment v aried: p osition ,

t hey d epended n ot o nly o n t he n ature o f t he o fficial

b ut a lso o n w hether t he a ppointment w as r outine o r e xtraordinary.

A s i n o ther a spects o f m unicipal a ctivity, l ocal r estricted b y i nterference f rom t he R oman g overnment. T he e vidence f or p articular a ppointments r eveals t he t heoretical r ules o f e ligibility a lready o utlined .

a utonomy

c ould

b e

s ome d eviations f rom I t a lso t hrows s om e

l ight o n t he e xtent t o w hich o fficial p ositions w ere s ought a fter ,

a nd w hy.

D ifferent p ositions c arried w ith t hem d ifferent r ewards a nd o bligations. T he b alance o f a dvantages a nd d isadvantages i s r eflected i n t he d egree o f e nthusiasm s hown b y e xploit

i ndividuals,

e nthusiasm b y

a nd

d emanding

i n

t he

a bility

o f

t he

c ommun ity

a r eturn f or t he a ppointment.

t o T he

d esirability o f o fficial p ositions f rom t he i ndividual's p oint o f v iew h as a b earing

o n

t he

q uestion

o f

e fficiency

i n

a dvantages o utweighed t he d isadvantages,

l ocal

t he

a dministration .

I f

t he

c ommunity o btained w illing

r ecruits t o p erform a dministrative f unctions.

( ii) T he s ame

p ractical

f or a ll

i mplications

c itizens.

C itizens

o f

c itizenship w ere

T he m ost

i mportant

v arious,

f eatures

p ersonal p rivileges ( among t hem p rivate r ights),

o f

a nd

t hat

f or a p articular p urpose w ithout T he v oting f ormal

d ivisions

r ecords

o f

m entioned a t

U rso ,

q ualified v oters.

M älaca , B ut

s ince

a nd

c itizen b ody -men , w omen , a nd c hildren t ogether. w ill h ave m eant

7 8

t hat,

a t

e lsewhere

t he t own.1 p resuppose

o nly a dult m ale t hese

e xcluded w omen a nd c hildren a mong t he c itizens. e vidence t hat S panish c ommunities k ept r ecords w hich p rovincial c ensus

a l arge T he

r ecords o f c itizens c ould b e c ompiled

i ncluding a ll t he c itizens o f

w ere e ntitled t o m embership o f t he a ssembly,

t he

t he

and p olitical r ights.

S ocial b enefits, a nd a lso o bligations t o t he c ommunity , w ere t o e xtent d etermined b y r esidence r ather t han b y c itizen s tatus. c omplexity o f t he c oncept m eant

n ot

c itizenship w ere

r ecords

c itizens

w ill h ave

T here i s n o d irect i ncluded t he e ntire

B ut t he r equirements o f i rregular i ntervals ,

t hey

f urnished l ists o f m en ,

w omen a nd c hildren w ho w ere c itizens t o t he R oman

g overnment. I n v iew o f t he c ommunities' o wn a wareness o f t he d istinction b etween c itizens a nd i ncolae, e ven w here w omen a nd c hildren w ere c oncerned , i t s eems r easonable t o s uppose t hat t hey r etained , q ualified v oters, A nalogies d ecurions,

w ith

c ensus

p rocedures,

a nd

a lso

w ith

t he

r ecords

o f

s uggest t hat r esponsibility f or c ompiling r ecords o f v oters a nd

o ther c itizens R oman

i n a ddition t o l ists o f

c omplete l ists o f c itizens w hich w ere k ept u p t o d ate. 2

l ay w ith t he

s tatus,

i t

w as

o ne

d uoviri. o f

t he

I t

i s

s pecial

p robable

t hat ,

f unctions

i n

o f

t owns

t he

o f

d uoviri

q uinquennales t o r evise t he r ecords a t f ive-yearly i ntervals. A lthough t he R oman g overnment a ppears , i n d efence o f i ts o wn f inancial i nterests, t o h ave e xercised s urveillance o ver r eturns a t t he p rovincial c ensus,

t here i s

n othing t o s uggest t hat i t i nterfered i n t he c ompilation o f r ecords f or t he c ommunities' o wn u se. T hose w hose c laim t o c itizenship d epended o n b irth r equired n o s pecial a ppointment a s c itizens. I nclusion i n t he c itizen r ecords w as a r ecognition o f t heir c laim t o c itizenship r ather t han a w ay o f c onferring c itizenship u pon t hem .3

T he p rocedure w as

w ho w ere n ot c itizens b y b irth . o utsiders,

d ifferent i n t he c ase o f t hose

W hen a c ommunity c onferred c itizenship o n

r esponsibility l ay, n ot w ith t he d uoviri, b ut w ith t he o rdo.

M ost o f t he r ecorded c ases i n w hich o utsiders w ere a dlected a s c itizens b y t he o rdo c oncern m en w ho p roceeded t o h old m agistracies a nd p riesthoods i n t he n ew c ommunity. T hat w ould s uggest t hat c itizenship a ppeared d esirable p rincipally i nsofar a s i t e nabled r esidents t o b elong t o t he a dministrative e lites a ppropriate t o t heir s ocial c lass.

B ut a w oman

a ppointed a c itizen o f C apera i n L usitania s eems t o h ave r egarded t he c itizenship a s v aluable i n i tself, r ather t han a s am eans o f a ccess t o o ther l ocal i nstitutions. E njoyment o f p rivate r ights, a nd a lso e ligibility f or p ublic d istributions w hich w ere r estricted t o c itizens, m ay h ave b een a t i ssue h ere. B ut i t i s p ossible, a s w ell , t hat t he c itizenship w as v alued s imply a s am ark o f a cceptance.

T hat c itizenship c ould b e c onsidered a s a n

h onour i n i tself, i n d etachment f rom a ny p ractical i mplications, i s s hown b y t he g rants o f c itizenship w hich c ommunities m ade t o n on-resident p atrons. 4 I n t he c ase o utsiders

m ight

o f p articular t owns,

s eek

t o

o btain

t here w ere s pecial

c itizenship.

C itizenship

i mmune f rom t axation c arried w ith i t p ersonal i mmunity.

r easons w hy

o f

c ommunities

A dlected c itizens

o f B arcino w ere m oved t o r ecord t he p ersonal f reedom f rom t axation s ecured b y t heir a ppointment i ncidental

g rants

o f

( whether o r n ot t he R oman g overnment c ontrolled t hese i mmunity

i s

u nclear).

I t

i s

p ossible ,

a lso ,

t hat

c itizenship o f R oman c olonies h ad a s pecial v alue a s a s tatus s ymbol,

t he

p restige

i ts

o f

t he

c ommunity

t en eng

t o

a ffect

t he

l ight

i n w hich

i ndividual c itizens w ere r egarded. R oman c itizenship w as a c orollary o f c itizenship o f R oman c olonies a nd m unicipia;

w hile c itizenship o f

R oman c itizenship p er

h onorem.

L atin c ommunities

c onferred t he

E lsewhere i n t he E mpire,

r ight

t o

t he R oman

g overnment a ppears t o h ave r estricted t he a dmission o f p eregrines

t o R oman

c itizenship a nd L atin r ights. I t i s u nderstandable t hat t he R oman g overnment s hould h ave g uarded i ts o wn p rerogative i n t his r espect. B ut i t w ould s eem t hat,

a lthough R oman c olonies a nd R oman a nd L atin m unicipia i n

S pain m ay h ave b een u nable t o a dlect p eregrines a s c itizens a t w ill ,

7 9

S panish

c ommunities w ere n ot o therwise p revented f rom a dmitting n ew c itizens a s t hey c hose.

J ust t wo i nscriptions,

r ecording a dlections t o t he

C aesaraugusta and T arraco,

s how e mperors

r espectively)

i n t he

c oncerns

p laying a p art

a m an w ho

c ertainly

t ransaction .

p ossessed

c olonies

( Hadrian a nd A ntoninus P ius f irst

i nscription

R oman c itizenship

T he

b efore h is

a dlection t o C aesaraugusta; t he s tatus o f t he m an i n t he s econd i nscription b efore h e b ecame a c itizen o f T arraco i s u ncertain . T he t wo i nscriptions d o n ot h owever i ndicate t hat i mperial p ermission w as r equired f or t he a dlections. M ore p lausibly, t hey a re e xamples o f i nformal i mperial p atronage: t hey s how h ow a n e mperor's s upport o f a n i ndividual , w hile n ot f ormally

e nforcing

t he

c ommunity's

a cquiescence,

% ould i n f act

l end

i rresistible w eight t o ap etition f or l ocal c itizenship. E ven a fter i ncolae b ecame l iable t o m unera i n t heir p lace o f r esidence , i ncolae m ay h ave e njoyed a p ractical

a dvantage

-namely,

t he

a bility

t o

e vade s ome R oman t axation -w hich w ould n ot h ave b een a vailable t o t hem a s c itizens.

E vasion o f t axes ( and o f m unera ,

b efore H adrian's r eign) a part,

c itizenship d id n ot i n g eneral i mpose a ny o bligations t o w hich i ts h olders, a s r esidents, w ould n ot h ave b een s ubject i n a ny c ase. Against t he d isadvantages o f c itizenship a re t o b e w eighed i ts a ttractions; t he m ost s ignificant o f w hich w as i ts i ndispensability a s a q ualification f or p ublic o ffice. I f t he a ttractions o f c itizenship w ere r eflected i n f inancial p ayments, n o e vidence f or t his s urvives. b ody a re n ot r ecorded ,

F ees f or a dmission t o t he c itizen

e ven f rom a dlected c itizens;

n or c an a ny i 9dividual

b e s hown t o h ave p aid s pontaneously f or t he p rivilege o f a dmission .

( iii) T he

c harters

m agistracies

m ust

o f

U rso

s atisfy

a nd

t he

D ecurions

M alaca

s tipulate

r equirements

f or

t hat

c andidates

e ligibility

f or

t he

f or o rdo.

T his s eems t o r eflect a n a ssumption ( whether o r n ot t he r ule w as e xplicitly s tated

e lsewhere

i n

t he

c harters)

t hat

t he

l ower m agistracies w ould

a utomatically g ive a ccess t o t he o rdo. M odelled o n t he a utomatic r ecruitment o f q uaestors t o t he R oman S enate, t his r ule f igured a mong P ompey's r egulations f or B ithynia, e arly s econd c entury A .D..

w here i t w as s till b eing o bserved i n t he

A t T ergeste i n t he r eign o f A ntoninus P ius i t

w as a ssumed t hat t he C arni a nd C atali w ould s ecure e ntrance t o t he o rdo " per a edilitatis g radum" .8 A n umber o f i nscriptions f rom S pain r efer t o d ecurions a dmitted t o t he o rdo w ithout f irst h olding m agistracies.

G arnsey h as d rawn a d istinction

b etween t wo t ypes o f a dmission i n s uch c ases.

H e a rgues t hat o ne g roup ,

t he " adlecti" , c onsisted o f m en a dm itted a s as pecial p rivilege b y d ecree o f t he d ecurions;

w hile t he s econd g roup w as c omposed o f m en e nrolled b y l ocal

m agistrates a s a r outine p rocedure, o f t he o rdo.

C onsideration o f d istinction .

s imply i n o rder t o f ill u p t he n umbers

9

t he

" adlecti" i n S pain s eems t o c onfirm G arnsey's

O ut o f t he f ive c ases w here t he w ord i tself i s u sed ,

t he a dlected d ecurions a re e xplicitly s tated t o b e f oreigners;

t hree o f

w hile i n t he

o ther t wo c ases t heir t ribe i s n ot t hat o f t he t own . T heir a dmission , t hat i s, a ppears t o h ave b een a m atter o f h onouring a s pecific i ndividual, r ather t han o f r outine r ecruitment o f n ecessary p ersonnel. b een a dlected b y

t he o rdo,

O ne i s s aid t o h ave

t he o thers f ailing t o s tate t he m ethod o f

8 0

a dlection .

T o t he f ive a ctually d escribed a s " adlecti" m ay b e a dded t wo m en

m ade d ecurions a dmitted

a t

b y t he o rdo:

C ollippo

i n

o ne a f oreigner,

L usitania

o n

e specially

a nd t he o ther a n ative f avourable

t erms.

e vidence c ombines t o s uggest t hat d ecurions i n S pain w ho w ere

T he

a dmitted b y

d ecree o f t he o rdo , a nd t o w hom t he w ord " adlectus" w as a ppropriate , w ere a dmitted a s as pecial p rivilege a nd n ot a s p art o f t he s tandard p rocedure o f r ecruitment. G arnsey's d istinction a ccepted ,

t he d ecurions i n S pain a dmitted w ithout

f irst h olding m agistracies f all i nto t wo g roups. t hose a lready m entioned ,

T he f irst i s c omposed o f

a dmitted a s a s pecial p rivilege a nd b y d ecree o f

t he d ecurions. T o t hem m ay b e a dded a n ative o f C orduba , d escribed a s " ex i ncolatu d ecurio" a t t he t own o f A xati a bout s eventy k ilometres a way. T he s econd g roup ,

h owever ,

c onsists o f m en d escribed s imply a s " decurio" ,

w hose

a dm ission i s t o b e e xplained s olely i n t erms o f a n eed t o m aintain t he U n umbers o f t he o rdo. ' I n

S pain ,

a s

e lsewhere,

b oth e x-magistrates

a nd o ther

d ecurions

r outinely a dmitted w ere p robably s imply e nrolled b y l ocal m agistrates. I n t he c ase o f m en w ho h ad h eld o ffice , e nrolment b y t he d uoviri w ould h ave i mplied p owers n o g reater t han t hose a llowed t o d uoviri o ver e xisting d ecurions b y U rso's c harter . t o t he d uoviri's p laces).

j udgment

E nrolment w ould h ave b een a utomatic , o f e ligibility

s ubject

( and t o t he a vailability o f

S ince a dmission b y d ecree o f t he o rdo a ppears t o h ave b een

c onfined t o d ecurions w ho w ere a dmitted a s a s pecial h onour , n on-magisterial d ecurions r outinely e nrolled w ere p resumably a lso t he r esponsibility o f t he d uoviri r ather t han o f t he o rdo a s a w hole. i t i s p robable t hat r evision o f t he r ecords

A s w ith t he c itizen r ecords, o f d ecurions w rf i n t owns o f

R oman s tatus a s pecial f unction o f t he d uoviri q uinquennales. T he R oman g overnment a ppears n ot t o h ave e xercised a ny f ormal c ontrol o ver t he a ppointment o f d ecurions i n S pain .

T wo i nscriptions r eferring t o

" decuriales" e xcused f rom s ervice o n i mperial a uthority a re p robably n ot t o b e a ssociated w ith t he o rdines o f S panish t owns. t o d ual c itizenship o f

S panish c ommunities,

J ust a s t here w as n o b ar

s o a m an m ight h old o ffice i n

h is n ative t own b efore m oving e lsewhere a nd j oining t he o rdo o f t he n ew c ommunity. Any l ocal r egulations l imiting t he s ize o f t he o rdo w ere p robably d esigned s imply t o p rotect t he o rdo's p restige, a nd t o p revent i nternal

p olitical

i ntrigue.

S ome

o f t he a dlected d ecurions i n S pain -

n otably t hose a t B arcino -m ay h ave b een s upernumerary. I f t his i nvolved v iolation l ocal r egulations, i t w ent u nregarded b y t he R oman a uthorities. M embership o f t he o rdo w as n ot w ithout i ts d isadvantages. a d ecurion i nvolved s acrifice o f t ime. o rdo t ended t o c reate a p resumption m agistracies,

S ervice a s

F urther , s ince m embership o f t he t hat a m an w as a vailable t o h old

t he e xpenses a nd l iabilities a ssociated w ith m agistracies

c ould b e s een a s a d isadvantage a ttendant u pon m embership o f t he o rdo. C ertain t ypes o f m unera w ere r eserved t o d ecurions; a lthough i t b y n o m eans f ollows t hat t heir s hare o f l ocal m unera w as d isproportionately l arge. T he d ecurion a dlected a t C ollippo i n L usitania i n A .D . 1 67 w as a bsolved a t t he t ime o f a ppointment f rom t he " munera e t o nera r ei p ublicae": t hat i s, f rom t he m unera d ecurionatus a nd p erhaps f rom m agistracies a s w ell. E ven

a t

C ollippo,

h owever ,

o ne

c annot

8 1

n ecessarily

c onclude

t hat

t he

d isadvantages w ere

s o

g reat

a s

t o m ake m embership o f

t he o rdo u ndesirable

e xcept o n s pecial t erms.

W eighed a gainst t he d isadvantages

c onsiderable p restige w hich

d ecurions

e njoyed,

w ere t he

a nd t heir p ower o ver l ocal

a ffairs: p ower w hich t hey c ould u se t o p rotect t heir o wn i nterests a s w ell a s f or t he g ood o f t he c ommunity a s aw hole. D ecurions w ere a ble t o s ecure r elatively i nnocuous p erquisites s uch a s f ree u se o f t he t own's w aters upply,

a nd a lso t o e ngage i n m ore d ishonourable p roceedings:

u nfair a pportionment o f m unera a nd t axes, a nd 4 s eviri a nd o ther r ich m en o utside t he o rdo. 1 A t C ollippo a dlected d ecurions, c harged a s tandard f ee f or a dmission .

f inancial

f or e xample

e xploitation

o f

i f n ot o thers, w ere i n A .D . 1 67 b eing T hat s uggests t hat m embership o f t he

o rdo w as c onsidered t o b e w orth p aying f or.

I n t he c ase i n q uestion t he

e ntry-fee t oo w as r emitted : l ike t he r emission o f t he " munera e t o nera r ei p ublicae" , t hat s hows o nly t hat t he t erms o f a ppointment w ere i n t his c ase e specially f gvourable,

n ot t hat a ppointment w ould o therwise h ave b een

i ntolerable.

( iv)

M agistrates

R egular m agistrates P opular e lections o f m agistrates a t O stia a ppear t o h ave c eased a t s ome t ime

d uring

T iberius'

t he

f irst

c entury

p rincipate.

A .D .,

p erhaps

I n c ontrast t o t his,

s oon a fter

t he

b eginning o f

t he F lavian c harter o f M alaca

n ot o nly d escribes a n e laborate p rocedure f or t he c onduct o f e lections, a lso

l ays

d own p enalties f or o bstruction o f

t hem .

b ut

I t s eems u nlikely t hat

t hese p rovisions i n t he c harter w ere r egarded a s p urely d ecorative f rom t he s tart;

b ut i t r emains a q uestion h ow l ong t he p rocedure w as f ollowed.

N or

c an i t b e a ssumed t hat a ll t he L atin t owns i n S pain p romoted d uring t he F lavian p eriod p ossessed a c harter l ike M alaca's c ontaining s imilar p rovisions. C harters w ere n ot a n e ssential a ccompaniment o f t he L atin r ight; a lthough t hey m ay h ave b een c ommon a mong t he n ew L atin t owns , i n B aetica a t l east. A cinipo i n B aetica, a nother F lavian c reation , c uriae w hich r ecall t he e lectoral c uriae o f M alaca's c harter. A part s how

f rom t he

t hat

p opular

P rincipate.

e vidence

e lections

f rom M alaca a nd A cinipo , o f m agistrates

t ook p lace

t here

i s

d id h ave

l ittle t o

i n S pain u nder t he

N o i nscription d escribes a m agistrate a s a ppointed b y p opular

e lection .

T he C aesarian c harter o f U rso a ssumes p opular e lections w ith t he

c olonists v oting b y t ribes; P rincipate.

b ut t hat i s n o e vidence f or p ractice u nder t he

O n t he o ther h and,

e vidence t hat t he o rdo c ame t o a ssume

r esponsibility f or t he e lection o f r egular m agistrates i n S pain i s f ar f rom c ompelling.

A n a edile a t C arthago N ova i n H adrian 's r eign c ommemorated h is

a ppointment w ith a n e xhortation t o h armony w ithin t he l ocal o rdo.

B ut t hat

c ould h ave b een i nspired b y o bservations m ade a fter h e h ad e ntered t he o rdo , r ather t han b y t he c ircumstances o f h is e lection . M ost c onvincing i s a r eference

t o

" aedilicii

h onores"

T arraco t owards t he e nd o f a mbiguous,

t he

c onferred

f irst

o n a d ecurion

c entury A .D ..

B ut

b y t he

t he

o rdo

o f

l anguage i s

a nd i n t he a bsence o f o ther c onfirmation i t s eems r easonable t o

s uppose t hat a edilician s tatus,

r ather t han t he o ffice i tself,

w as a t

i ssue. 1 6 T here

i s

n o r eference

t o

i nterference b y t he R oman g overnment i n t he 8 2

c onduct

o f e lections o f m agistrates.

L ocal r egulations a bout e ligibility

s eem o n o ccasion t o h ave b een v iolated.

A lthough t here i s n othing t o s how

t hat t he c ursus h onorum w as e ver d isturbed,

a ge-limits w ere s ometimes

o verlooked. A ediles b y t he a ges o f s eventeen a nd e ighteen a re r ecorded a t B arcino: o ne w as t he s on o f as evir , a nd i t i s p ossible t hat i n b oth c ases t he

a ppointment

w as

a

r eturn

f or

e xceptional

p ublic

g enerosity.

C onversely, n ot a ll c areers r epresented a f ull e xploitation o f t he o pportunities l egally a vailable. I t w as n ot t he c ase t hat e veryone h eld o ffices a s s oon a s h e w as q ualified t o d o s o , o r t hat e veyone r eached t he d uovirate. Am an f rom O lisipo i n L usitania h ad p rogressed n o f urther t han t he a edileship b efore h is d eath a t t he a ge o f f orty. A nother f rom O bulco i n B aetica w as a bout t o h old t he d uovirate f or t he f irst t ime w hen h e d ied 7 a ged s ixty-five. 1 L ike a lso,

t he

d ecurionate,

m agistracies

i nvolved

s acrifice

i n t he c ase o f t he q uaestorship a nd d uovirate,

r espect o f t he p ublic f unds.

F or d uoviri,

o f

t ime;

a nd

f inancial l iability i n

t hese b urdens w ere t o s ome

e xtent c ompensated f or b y t he p restige a nd p ower o f t he m agistracy.

L ack

o f s imilar c ompensation -i ndeed , p ositive d isadvantages s o f ar a s p restige w ent -m ay h elp t o e xplain t he a pparent u npopularity o f t he q uaestorship. A ediles

d id n ot e njoy a uthority o r s tatus a pproaching t hat o f d uoviri;

b ut

t he o ffice d id n ot i nvolve t he f inancial r esponsibility o f t he q uaestorship. I t w as p referable a s a m eans o f a ccess t o t he o rdo , a nd ( for p eregrines i n L atin c ommunities) t o t he R oman c itizenship a s w ell.

F ailure t o r each t he

d uovirate a mbition .

r ather t han l ack o f t he l asting , t hough

m ay i ndicate i nability t o s ecure e lection , B ut s ome m en m ay h ave b een c ontent w ith

l imited , a dvantages w hich t he a edileship e ntailed.

1 8

U rso's c harter a ssumes t hat b oth a edileship a nd d uovirate a re o ffices w hich i ndividuals w ill b e a nxious t o o btain ,

f inancial e xpenditure b eing a n

a ppropriate r eturn f or t he p rivilege o f e lection . o bliged

t o

2 ,000.

g ive

p ublic

P rovisions

c andidates

d o n ot

e ntertainments

i n M alaca's p rove

t hat

e xpected t o b e u npopular. e xpenditure

u nder

t he

o ffice w as n ot i ntense. A t

a t

A ediles a nd d uoviri w ere

a p ersonal

c harter t o

d eal w ith

c ost a n

o f

a t

l east H S

i nsufficiency

o f

b y t he F lavian p eriod m agistracies w ere

O n t he o ther h and , t he e vidence f or m agistrates'

P rincipate

s eems

t o

i ndicate

t hat

c ompetition

f or

'

t he m unicipium C armo i n B aetica m agistrates m ay h ave b een f ormally

r equired , a s a t U rso , t o p rovide p ublic e ntertainments a t t heir o wn e xpense. O therwise,

t he o nly p ayments f or o ffice a ttested a re " voluntary" o nes:

n ot e ntirely s pontaneous,

i f

t hey w ere a r esponse t o i nformal p ressures r ather

t han s tandard p ayments i mposed b y l ocal r egulation . A t C arthago N ova d uring t he r eign o f H adrian a c ertain L .

A emilius

R ectus c elebrated h is a edileship w ith a s hrine d edicated t o t he " concordia d ecurionum" a nd s ome o ther p ublic w ork. " ob h onorem a edilitatis",

i t

i s n ot

A lthough t he e xpense w as i ncurred c ertain t hat i t

r esulted f rom a n

e lectoral p romise: t he w orks w ere c arried o ut o nly a fter A emilius R ectus' d eath , b y t estamentary p rovision . E ven i f t he w orks a re t o b e r egarded a s a q uid p ro q uo ,

r ather

t han

s imple

s elf-advertisement,

t his

c ase

m ay

b e

u nrepresentative. A emilius R ectus w as a r ich a dlected c itizen o f C arthago N ova, w hose e lection t o t he a edileship w as p erhaps r egarded a s a s pecial c oncession ,

t o b e p aid f or a ccordingly.

N o i nfere me c oncerning a ediles i n

g eneral c an b e d rawn f rom t his p articular i nstance. 8 3

F or d uoviri,

e xpenditure i s m ore c ommonly a ttested ,

a nd m ay h ave c ome

t o b e e xpected b y t he c ommunity. C ommunities a ppreciated t he e rection o f s tatues i n p ublic p laces: p urely, i t w ould s eem, f or t heir d ecorative v alue.

P rominent c itizens

t hemselves , d uoviri,

s ometimes

s pontaneously e rected s tatues

t ypically a s a t estamentary p rovision . u nderstandably

m agistracy.

S ome

r egularly d o s o.

c ommemorating

t heir

o f

A mong t hem w ere f ormer t enure

o f

t he

h ighest

c ommunities m ay h ave c ome t o a ssume t hat d uoviri w ould A t A runda i n B aetica a f ormer d uovir

b uild h imself a t omb.

l eft

H S

4 ,800 t o

T he o rdo a sked h is h eir t o s pend t he m oney o n

s tatues o f t he m an a nd h is s on i nstead. p roposed c ost o f t he t omb s uggestive,

T he o rdo m ay have f ound t he

a s b eing r oughly w hat a d uovir s hould

h ave s pent o n as tatue. A f ormer d uovir a t a nother t own i n B aetica l eft H S 3 ,200 , u nprompted , t o p ay f or a s tatue o f h imself. E xcept a t U rso a nd C armo , t he p ayments a ssociated w ith m agistracies w ere n ot s tandard p ayments i mposed b y r egulation. N or c an any o f t he " voluntary" p ayments d efinitely b e

c onnected w ith an e lectoral

p romise.

T he e vidence s uggest t hat c ompetition f or m agistracies w as n ot i n g eneral s o i ntense a s t o m ake s tandard p ayments a n o bvious s ource o f g ain f or t he c ommunity,

o r e lectoral p romises n ecessary t o s ecure an i ndividual's

e lection.

B ut

a bsence

o f

c ompetition c ould p oint

t o

a s hortage

o f

q ualified c itizens a s w ell a s t o l ack o f e nthusiasm o n t he p art o f t hose w ho w ere

e ligible.

A emilius

R ectus,

a t

a ny

r ate ,

s eems

t o

h ave

v alued h is

e lection a s a edile. T he e xpenditure e xpected o f d uoviri d oes n ot p rove t hat t he i ndividuals c oncerned t hought t he m agistracy w orth t he c ost ; b ut i t d oes s how t hat c ommunities 1 p rivilege r ather t han a b urden .2

c ontinued t o r egard t he d uovirate a s a

P raefecti O ne t ype o f p raefectus s erved a s a s ubstitute t hroughout t he y ear f or a p rominent m an a ppointed t o an h onorary d uovirate. a ssigns t o t he h onorary d uovir h imself

S alpensa's c harter

( in t his c ase t he e mperor) t he r ight

t o a ppoint a p raefectus w ho w ould p erform t he a ctual d uties

o f t he o ffice.

A s econd t ype o f p raefectus r eplaced a n o rdinary d uovir w ho w as t emporarily a bsent f rom t he t own .

I n t his c ase a lso, a ccording t o t he c harters o f U rso

a nd S alpensa , t he d uovir h imself a ppointed h is p raefectus. O ut o f l ine w ith t hese m ethods o f a ppointment i s a " praef(ectus) i ur(e) d ic(undo) a b d ecurionibus c reatus" a t G ades. a ppointed a ppointment

b y

t he

d ecurions

a re

f ound

I nstances o f p raefecti

e lsewhere.

i s a ssociated w ith a " lex P etronia",

I n

o ne

c ase

t he

w hich h as b een t hought t o

p rovide f or t he o rdo's e lection o f p raefecti w hen t he o rdinary e lections o f d uoviri f ailed t o t ake p lace.

B ut t his i s p ure c onjecture:

i t m ay b e t he

c ase n either t hat t he l ex P etronia h ad a ny p articular c onnexion w ith a ppointment b y t he o rdo, n or t hat p raefecti s o a ppointed w ere s tandardly t he e quivalent o f i nterreges. T here i s e vidence t hat p raefecti o f h onorary d uoviri w ere i n f act s ometimes c hosen b y t he d ecurions, and n ot b y t he h onorary d uoviri t hemselves.

I t s eems m ore e conomical

t o

r efer t he

p raefecti a t G ades a nd e lsewhere t o t his p ractice t han t o e nvisage a t hird t ype o f p raefectus. I f t his i s r ight, t he i nscription f rom G ades s hows t he d ecurions t hemselves, r ather t han t he h on wry d uovir, a ppointing a s ubstitute t o p erform t he d uties o f t he o ffice.

8 4

A lthough p raefecti h ad , f or t heir p eriod o f o ffice, a ll t he p owers o f d uoviri, i t d oes n ot f ollow t hat t hey w ere e ntitled t o t he p ersonal a dvantages w hich

d erived

f rom h olding t he

d uovirate.

S alpensa's

c harter

e xplicitly s tates t hat a t emporary p raefectus i s n ot e ntitled t o R oman c itizenship i n c onsequence o f h olding o ffice. I t s eems l egitimate t o a ssume, a lso , t hat t he p osition o f t emporary p raefectus d id n ot h ave a ny p ermanent b earing o n a m an's r ank w ithin t he o rdo. d ifferent y ear.

w ith

p raefecti

o f h onorary

d uoviri,

A ccording t o S alpensa's c harter ,

a s d uoviri,

w ithout q ualification .

T he c ase m ay h ave b een

w ho h eld

o ffice

f or a f ull

t hey w ere t o h ave t he s ame r ights

T he f act t hat p raefecti o f b oth t ypes

w ere u sually t hemselves f ormer d uoviri w ill h ave m eant t hat q uestions a bout t heir s ubsequent s tatus r arely a rose i n p ractice. p raefecti w ere u n

e p ressure

t o s how p ublic

I t d oes n ot a ppear t hat

g enerosity i n r ecognition o f

t heir a ppointment.

( v)

P riests

P ontifices, a ugurs, a nd f lamines U rso's c harter p rescribes p opular e lection o f p ontifices a nd a ugurs, a s o f m agistrates.

O therwise t he S panish e vidence g ives n o c lue t o t he w ay i n

w hich m ale p riests o f f ree b irth w ere a ppointed. L ike d ecurions, p ontifices a nd a ugurs a t U rso c ould b e r emoved f rom t heir p osition b y t he d uoviri i f t hey f ailed t o a cquire a d omicile w ithin a m ile o f t he t own. T hat i s,

l ike d ecurions,

p ontifices a nd a ugurs w ere o bliged ,

i f t hey w ished

t o r etain t heir p osition ,

t o b e a ble a nd w illing t o p erform t he a ssociated

d uties.

t heir

I n r eturn f or

d istinction : c lassed

i f

a mong

p riesthoods

t hey

t he

d id

r esponsibilities

n ot h appen t o b e

d ecurions

f or m en o f

p ublic

f ree

a t

p ublic

d ecurions

a s w ell ,

e ntertainments.

b irth s eem a lso

c onferring e xemption f rom l ocal m unera. p articular m ay h ave b een s ought a fter , n ot

t hey

a cquired t hey w ere M unicipal

t o h ave h ad t he a dvantage o f P ermanent p riesthoods i n o nly f or t he s ake o f l ifelong

4 d istinction , b ut f or t his r eason a lso. 2

R ecords

o f

e xpenses

i ncurred i n c onnexion w ith

t hese

p riesthoods

a re

r are, b ut m ore c ommon t han t hose a ssociated w ith m agistracies. N o s tandard f ees a re a ttested; b ut i ndividuals w ere p repared t o p romise e xpenditure i n o rder t o s ecure a ppointment. A p ontifex o f C artima i n B aetica b cught h is p riesthood o utright b y r elieving t he t own o f d ebt a t a c ost o f H S 2 0 ,000 . A t a nother t own i n B aetica, a c andidate f or t he f laminate p romised t o p ay H S 4 ,000 i f h e w ere a ppointed:

t he m oney w as u sed t o e rect a s tatue o f t he m an

a fter h is d eath. I f m en w ere m ore w illing t o p ay f or p riesthoods t han f or m agistracies, t hat m ay h ave b een i n p art i l ncause t he a dvantages o f p riesthoods m ore c learly o utweighed t he b urdens. P riestesses T here i s

n o e vidence f or t he w ay i n w hich p riestesses w ere a ppointed.

A t t hree t owns p riestesses c elebrated t heir a ppointment b y e recting p ublic s tatues. I n e ach c ase t he p riestess a lso p rovided a p ublic b anquet o r e ntertainment

t o m ark t he

d edication o f

t he s tatue.

T wo

o f

t he s tatues

w ere m ade o f s ilver : t he s ilver a lone w as w orth u pwards o f H S 4 0 ,000. T he s pecial g enerosity o f p riestesses m ay s how t hat t hey p laced a p articular

8 5

v alue o n t he o nly m unicipal d istinction w hich w as o pen t o t hem . B ut i t i s p ossible, a lso , t hat e xceptionally w ealthy w omen , l acking o utlets f or t heir e nergies e lsewhere , w ere m ore Hadily a vailable t han t heir m ale c ounterparts t o h old m unicipal p riesthoods.

S eviri S eviri w ere a ppointed b y t he d ecurions. T he p restige w hich t he p riesthood c onferred i s r eflected i n t he b ehaviour o f p ublic b enefactors, w ho t ended t o t reat c urrent a nd f ormer s eviri a s a g roup m idway i n i mportance b etween d ecurions a nd t he r est o f t he p opulace. S ome s eviri a cquired a dditional p restige i n t he f orm o f t he o rnamenta d ecurionatus. B y h olding t he p riesthood , a m an m ight a lso p romote h is s ons' c areers. A s evir a t B arcino h ad a s on w ho w as e lected a edile a t t he a ge o f e ighteen . S eviri a t A urgi a nd D ertosa i n T arraconensis m entioned t heir s ons i n d edications m ade " ob h onorem" , a s t hough te e xpenditure c ould s ecure p ublic n otice f or t heir s ons a t s ome f uture d ate. T he a dvantages w hich t he s evirate e ntailed w ere a cquired o nly a t a c ost. T here a re n umerous r eferences t o s tatues , a ltars , a nd o ther w orks e rected b y s eviri " ob h onorem" . S ometimes a s evir g ave a p ublic b an quet o r e ntertainment a s w ell. T his e xpenditure m ay s ometimes h ave b een e ntirely v oluntary, h aving b een p romised b efore a ppointment b y m en a nxious t o s ecure t he p riesthood. B ut p ublic o pinion r equired e xpenditure o f s eviri e ven w hen n o p romises h ad b een m ade. T wo o f t he g ifts m ade " ob h onorem" r esponded t o p ublic r equests. A t B arcino, e xpenditure w as s tandardly i mposed o n s eviri b y t he a uthorities. O ne s evir e xpressed g ratitude a t b eing a bsolved f rom t he e xpenses o f h is p riesthood. I n t he l ate s econd c entury a p ublic b enefactor m ade a l egacy t o t he t own d ependent u pon t he e xemption o f s eviri a mong h is f reedmen f rom t he " munera s eviratus" . I t i s p ossible t hat s ome s eviri, a t B arcino a nd e lsewhere, h ad n ot s ought a ppointment;

a nd t hat t he d ecurions u sed t heir p ower t o a ppoint s eviri a s a

w ay o f e xploiting t he w ealth o f f reedmen t o t he p ublic a dvantage. 28

( vi)

H onorary p ositions

T he d uovirate a nd s evirate c ould b oth b e t reated a s p urely h onorary p ositions. S tripped o f t heir a ctual d uties, t hey s erved a s aw ay o f s howing t he c ommunity's r espect f or p owerful m en o utside t he s phere o f m unicipal a ffairs. I n s uch c ases e ven t he d uovirate, a ccording t o S alpensa's c harter a t l east , w as c onferred b y d ecree o f t he d ecurions r ather t han b y p opular e lection. A lthough S alpensa's c harter r efers t o t he e mperor a lone i n t he c ontext o f h onorary d uovirates ,

i t w ould a ppear t hat,

d uring A ugustus' r eign a t l east, t he c ommunities' c hoice w as n ot r estricted t o t he e mperor h imself, o r e ven t o m embers o f h is i mmediate f am ily . M . A grippa, C .Caesar, a nd T iberius b efore h is a ccession a ll h eld h onorary d uovirates i n S panish t owns; a nd s o a lso d id t he M auretanian p rinces J uba a nd P tolemy. C itizenship, w hen g ranted t o p atrons n ot r esident i n t he c ommunity, h ad a s imilarly h onorary c haracter . H onorary c itizenship w as c onferred b y t he o rdo , w hich h ad r esponsibility f or a dlections o f c itizens i n g eneral. O n

r esidents

o f

t he

c ommunity w ere 8 6

c onferred

t he h onorary s tatus

o f

d ecurions, t he

f ormer m agistrates,

p opular

a ssembly,

w as

a nd p riests.

t he

d onor.

H ere t oo t he o rdo i tself, S uch

g rants

r ecognition o f t he r ecipients' p ublic g enerosity ; m ay i n s ome t owns h ave b een ,

a s

B arcino

o cca

a re

s tated

o n

o ne

a r ule , Wn

m ight

b e

m ade

n ot i n

i ndeed , p ublic g enerosity

p rerequisite.

t o h ave

T he d ecurions o f

c onferred

" aedilicii

e t

d uovirales h onores" w ithout c harge. P atrons o f t he c ommunity w ere a lso a ppointed b y t he o rdo. w ere m erely l ocal n otables. t he R oman a dministration .

S ome p atrons

O thers, h owever , w ere m en o f h igh s tanding i n T he p osition o f h ospes, w hich a ppears t o h ave

b een s lightly l ess d istinguished t hat t hat o f p atronus, w as s imilarly i n t he o rdo's g ift.

N o s pecific d uties w ere i mposed o n p atrons a nd h ospites,

a lthough t hey h ad a g eneral o bligation t o p rotect t he i nterests o f t he A r egulation o f A .D. orbade p rovincials t o d ecree a ny 1 f c ommunity. 3U h onours t o g overnors u ntil a t l east s ixty d ays a fter t heir d eparture f rom t he p rovince.

T his r egulation ,

p erhaps d esigned t o p revent f avouritism o n

t he p art o f g overnors a s w ell a s u ndue p ressure o n t he c ommunities, i s r eflected ( presumably a s a l ater i nterpolation) i n U rso's c harter. I t s eems t o h ave b een o bserved b y t he S panish c ommunities w ith r egard t o R oman o fficials

i n

p atronatus

c oncerning

g eneral.

N early

o fficials

a ll t he s urviving h ospitia a nd t abulae o f

t he

p rovincial

a dministration

m ake

i t

ad a lready l eft t he p rovince a t t he t ime w hen t he c lear t hat t he o ffic Vil h a ppointment w as m ade.

( vii)

C onclusion

T he o rdo w as t he b ody r esponsible f or t he w idest r ange o f a ppointments i n S panish t owns;

b ut n ot a ll t he a ppointmer s c arried o ut b y t he o rdo h ad

a d irect e ffect o n l ocal a dministration . t o

h onorary

a ppointments

p ositions, o f

d ecurions

s ome a nd

o f

t o

e lect

l ocal

c itizens.

p raefectus o f a n h onorary d uovir, a ssigning m agisterial p owers. c ontinued

T he o rdo c ontrolled ,

t he

p riesthoods,

O ccasionally ,

i n

i n a ddition a nd

s pecial

s electing

t he

t he o rdo w as d irectly r esponsible f or B ut p opular a ssemblies s eem t o h ave

r egular m agistrates,

a nd

t hey

p erhaps

e lected p riests

o ther t han s eviri a s w ell. R egular e nrolment o f c itizens a nd d ecurions w as i n t he h ands o f t he d uoviri, t heir c hoice o f n ew d ecurions b eing t o s ome e xtent d etermined b y t he p opular e lections o f m agistrates. Except i n t he c ase o f t he s eviri,

t he e vidence g ives n o c ause f or

s uspicion t hat c ommunities f orced a ppointments

o n u nwilling r ecipients.

B ut t he a pparent a bsence o f s trong c ompetition f or m agistracies, t o p riesthoods, e xhausted;

i n c ontrast

s uggests t hat t he p ool o f e nthusiastic c andidates w as e asily

and

t he

s econd-century

r eference

t o

t he

b urdens

o f

t he

d ecurionate a t C ollippo s hows t hat i t w as p ossible f or m unicipal o ffice m embership o f t he o rdo a s w ell a s t he m agistracies i n t hemselves -to l ose i ts a ttraction .

A s a s ource o f p rofit t o t he c ommunity , o nly p riesthoods -

n otably t he s evirate -w ere o f g reat i mportance. d ecurionate,

t he

b urdens

B arcino a t

l east,

o f

t he s evirate

L ike t he b urdens o f t he

s eem i n

t he

s econd

c entury,

a t

t o h ave a roused a c ertain d istaste a mong i ndividual

c itizens. T he

R oman

g overnment

d id

n ot

s ignificantly

r estrict

t he

c ommunities'

a utonomy i n t he m atter o f p ublic a ppointments. A part f rom l ending i nformal s upport t o i ndividual p etitions f or l ocal c itizenship , t he e mperor d id n ot

8 7

i nterfere w ith t he n ormal p rocess o f s election .

A lthough r estrictions o n

g rants o f h onours t o R oman o fficials c onstituted a l imitation o f l ocal a utonomy, t he r estrictions w ere n ot s evere, a nd t ended t o p romote , r ather t han t o h arm , t he i nterests o f t he c ommunities t hemselves. O ther r egulations s afeguarded, i n t he p rimary c ase, l ocal r ather t han R oamn i nterests,

a nd s eem o n o ccasion t o h ave b een d isregarded w ithout a ny a ppeal

t o h igher a uthority.

I nsofar a s R ome i nterfered i n l ocal a ffairs,

s he w as

c oncerned w ith t he s ubstance o f a dministrative a ctivity, n ot w ith t he c hoice o f p ersonnel. T he s ubject o f m unicipal a utonomy i n g eneral w ill b e d iscussed i n t he f ollowing c hapter.

8 8

N OTES:

C H . V

N OTES ( CHAPTER V : 1 .

T he m eaning o f

c itizenship :

f or i ncolae. R ecords o f c itizens ( voters o f T arsus,

A PPOINTMENTS)

C hapter I II p p.

e lsewhere: c . A .D .

e .g.

1 00 ;

D io

c f.

4 1-4.

C hrys.

I bid.

O r.

C hapter I II n .

p p.

x xxiv .

7 ,

4 4-6

2 1

f f.

a nd L iebenam ,

oypCu poL" , s ometimes c o-existent w ith p p. 2 59-60 f or o ther unoXL -r "iL unio .C"); I LS 6 858 ( Cirta , A .D . 1 80 -c. 2 00: a " matrix p ublica n u sed t o d etermine e ligibility f or a d istribution); I LS 6 199 ( Lanuvium :

a longside t he c uriae o f m ale c itizens,

a c uria o f w omen

s haring i n ap ublic b enefaction). 2 .

V oting d ivisions a t U rso e tc.: C hapter I V n . 4 . P rovincial c ensus: C hapter I X p p. 1 52 f f.. D istinction b etween c itizens a nd i ncolae: ( both w omen a nd c hildren ,

a s

C hapter

c itizens,

a re

II , I

e sp.

e ntitled

n .

6

t o s ecure

g uardians t hrough t he l ocal m agistrates a ccording t o F IRA I 2 3 X XIX). F or p ublic r ecords i n g eneral, s ee F IRA I 2 1 X CI ( decurions a nd p riests);

L XXX1

( accounts);

C XXX f .

( decrees

o f

t he

d ecurions);

1 480 ( Astigi), A E 1 972 2 68-9 ( Munigua) ( public t abularia, n ot d ated). 3 .

D uoviri a nd t he c ensus:

C hapter I X p p.

D uoviri a nd r ecords o f d ecurions:

1 53-4.

b elow , p . 8 1.

S pecial f unctions o f d uoviri q uinquennales: T heir a bsence f rom L atin c ommunities:

C hapter X p .

1 65.

C hapter I V n . 2 7.

C itizens b y b irth ( or a doption , m anum ission , c f. C hapter I II n . 1 ): s ince n o a dditional q ualifications w ere r equired i n t he f orm o f w ealth,

p lace o f r esidence,

o r f ree

b irth

( Chapter I II n .

4 ),

i nclusion m eant n o m ore t han r ecognition o f a s imple a nd c ompelling c laim,

a nd c ould n ot

w itheld . 4 .

b e

r egarded a s

a f avour t o b e g ranted o r

N o f ees f or i nclusion i n t he r ecords a re a ttested ( n .

A dlection b y t he ( Barcino , A .D.

o rdo:

1 61-9);

2 026

( Singilia

i n B aetica);

4 249 ( Caesaraugusta , A .D .

C haracter o f a dlecti: C hapter I II n . 2 2. W oman a t C apera: 8 13 ( " .. o b h onorem q uot

7 ).

c f.

4 514

17-38).

[ sic] c ivis r ecepta e st

. 1 t).

F or p rivate r ights a nd d istributions, 4 5-6. P atrons:

2 960

a ppointed p atron

( Pompaelo ,

A .D .

s ee C hapter I II p p.

1 85);

c f.

3 423-4 a nd

a nd c itizen o f A sso i n T arraconensis,

4 1;

5 941

4 2-3; ( a m an

e arly s econd

c entury A .D .). 5 .

B arcino: o riginal

4 514

( n.

4 );

c itizenship a t

9 0)). P restige o f c olonies: d rift t owards c olonies,

c f.

4 617

( the t ribe A niensis i ndicates

C aesaraugusta

( Kubitschek ,

S herwin-White , R C , p p. 4 11-5. a nd o ther r easons f or i t,

I RTD ,

p. p

1 89-

F or t he g eneral

s ee C hapter V II n .

2 8. 6 .

R estrictions o n a dmission o f p eregrines:

I LS 6 680 ( admission o f t he

C arni a nd C atali t o L atin r ights a t T ergeste,

8 9

A .D .

1 38-61);

c f.

I LS

N OTES: 2 06

( Tridentum ,

A .D .

4 6).

C H . V I n B ithynia

w ithin t he p rovince w as f orbidden

d ual

( Pliny E p.

w as a r egulation o f t he l ate R epublic; o ther p rovinces. S ee S herwin-White, ( concern f or c ivic r esponsibility).

o f

14-5).

t owns

B ut t hat

a nd i t i s n ot p aralleled i n R C ,

p .

F or a dlections o f n ew c itizens i n S pain , A part f rom 4 249 a nd 4 277

c itizenship x .

3 03 f or a n e xplanation

s ee C hapter I II n n .

( on w hich s ee b elow),

1 ,

2. 2

t he r ecords s how

a dmissions o f: ( a) c itizens o f p eregrine t o p eregrine c ommunities ( AE 1 967 2 39) ( b) c itizens o f L atin t o L atin c ommunities I n . 1 3), C IL 2 2 960 ) I

( AE

1 953 2 67

( c)

c itizens o f R oman c ommunities t o L atin c ommunities

( d)

R oman c itizens t o R oman c ommunities ( 3423-4 ,

( cf.

C hapter

( 813 , 2 026)

4 514).

C aesaraugusta: 4 249 ( "M . V alerio M . f il. G al(eria) A niensi C apelliano D amanitano a dlecto i ncoloniam

[ sic]

C aesaraugustanam e x b enefic(io)

d ivi H adriani .."). T he m an's d ouble t ribe ( Galeria, A niensis; c f. n . 5 ) s hows t hat h e h ad R oman c itizenship b efore h is a dlection t o C aesaraugusta. T arraco:

4 277

t ranslato

a b

( "C.

d ivo

V alerio P io

e x

A vito

c ol(oniam) T arrac(onensem).")

V al.

F irmina

A ugust(obrigensi

f il. ? )

i n

O n t he i dentification o f " munic.

A ugust." s ee H übner i n C IL 2 a d l oc. h ave

Ivir(o) I

m unic(ipio)

a nd C hapter V II n .

b een t he L atin t own A ugustobriga

i n T arraconensis

o ne o f t he R oman m unicipia G ades a nd S aguntum .

I f s o ,

2 8.

I t m ay

r ather t han m an 's s tatus

b efore a dlection t o T arraco c annot b e d etermined ; a lthough h e w ould c ertainly h ave h ad R oman c itizenship a lready i f h e h ad h eld o ffice ( "IIvir(o)") i n A ugustobriga. F or i mperial s upport o f a n i ndividual e lsewhere s ee S IG' I I 8 38 ( admission t o t he c ouncil o f E phesus, A .D . 7 .

1 29).

F or t he r espective o bligations o f c itizens a nd i ncolae,

s ee C hapter

I II p p. 4 3-4; 4 6. F or f ees e lsewhere, s ee D io C hrys. O r. x xxiv. 2 3 ( cf. C hapter I II n n. 4 , 7 ); w hich s hows t hat a t T arsus a f ee w as p aid , a t l east b y a dlected c itizens, f or m embership o f t he a ssembly. 8 13 ( cited a bove, n . 4 ) d oes n ot s how p ublic e xpenditure u ndertaken b y a n a dlected c itizen i n g ratitude: o ne

s et

u p

i n h onour

o f

t he i nscription w as a p rivate

a n i ndividual w ho

n egotiated

t he g rant

o f

c itizenship. 8 .

U rso a nd M alaca:

F IRA I 2 1 C I c f; C V;

2 4 L IV , c f. C hapter I V n .

2 3.

T he s ame s tipulation i s f ound i n t he T abula H eracleensis ( FIRA I 1 3 1 35-40). B ithynia: T ergeste: 9 .

p _ . x . 7 9-80 . P liny f I LS 6 680 i i. 6 .

D ecurions w ho h ad h eld n o m agistracy: n . 1 0 . P . G arnsey, " Honorarium E ecurionatus," H istoria x x ( 1971),

3 09-25.

G arnsey a rgues t hat t he p ayment o f a f ee w as i nstituted f irst i n t he c ase o f t he a dlecti;

c f. P liny E p x .

a dlecti w ere s upernumerary,

12-3, a nd b elow , n .

( Garnsey, p p. 3 09 f f., a nd C hapter I V n . 1 0 .

" Adlectus a b o rdine":

1 5 .

S ome

b ut t his w as n ot t rue o f a ll o f t hem 1 6).

4 463 ( Barcino , af oreigner :

9 0

p ost F lavian).

N OTES:

C H . V

" Adlectus" : 4 244 ( Caesaraugusta: p ost-Flavian); 4 263 ( Tarraco) ( both f oreigners); 4 262 ( Tarraco); HA E pig . 8 09 ( Tarraco) ( the t ribes V elina a nd Q uirina , i n p lace o f T arraco's G aleria , p oint t o o riginal c itizenship i n t he B alearic I slands a nd o ne o f t he F lavian L atin m unicipia i n S pain r espectively ( Kubitschek , I RTD , p p . 1 992 00 ; 2 01-2; M cElderry I , p p . 6 8 f f.)). " Ordo h onorem d ecurionatus d edit" : 6 153 ( Barcino , a f oreigner). C f. C hapter I II n . 1 6 . " Nomine o rdinis q uod d ecurionem e um r emisso h onorario e t m uneribus e t o neribus r (ei) p (ublicae) f ecerint" : 5 232 = I LS 6 898 ( Collippo , A .D . 1 67). " Ex i ncolatu d ecurio": 1 055 ( Axati); c f. C hapter I II n . 1 6 . " Decurio" : 9 54 ( Illipula i n B aetica); 1 088 ( Ilipa i n B aetica); 1 729 ( Gades); 4 531 ( Barcino); A E 1 957 3 0 ( Barcino). T here i s n o r eason t o d oubt t hat a ny o f t hese f ive w as a n ative o f t he t own . F or s ubsequent t enure o f m agistracies b y d ecurions o f b oth t ypes , s ee C hapter I V n n . 5 , 2 2 . 1.

E nrolment b y m agistrates e lsewhere : G arnsey , p p . 3 15 f f.. P owers o f d uoviri a t U rso o ver e xisting d ecurions: F IRA I 2 1 X CI . F or r estrictions o n t he s ize o f t he o rdo , s ee C hapter I V p p . 5 7-8 . R ecords o f d ecurions: n . 2 . D uovir iquinquennales: C hapter X p . 1 65 .

1 2.

" Decuriales" : 4 227 ( Tarraco : " T ritiens(i) M agall(ensi) d ecuriali a llecto I talicam e xcusato a d ivo P io .."); J . V ives, I nscripciones L atinas d e l a E spana r omana , 2v ols. ( Barcelona , 1 9712 ), n o . 6 398 ( Emerita : " T ritiensi a llecto E merita e xcussato T raiani d ecuriali [ sic ]"). C f. S .H .A . M arc . 1. 7 a nd R . S yme , " Hadrian a nd I talica ," J RS l iv ( 1964), 1 42-9 ( rpt. i n R oman P apers, I I , 6 17-28) , p p . 1 47-9 ; J . G age , "Italica a dlectio': A p ropos d e c ertaines f ormes d u ' ius I talicum ‚ e n E spagne a u t emps d e T rajan ," R EA l xxi ( 1969), 6 5-84 . S ince " decurialis" i s n ot s ynonymous w ith " decurio" , i t s eems v ery u nlikely t hat e ither i nscription r efers t o m embership o f a m unicipal o rdo. I t i s p ossible t hat b oth i nscriptions , a s w ell a s S .H .A . M arc., 1. 7 , r efer t o r ecruitment t o t he d ecuriae o f j urors a t R ome ( Ruggiero , D izionario E pigrafico , I I ( ii), 1 513 ; c f. C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p . 115). ( 4227 i s n ow l argely i llegible , a nd V ives n o . 6 398 i s l ost. I n t he f irst o ne m ight u nderstand " decuriam" a fter " Italicam" , a nd i n t he s econd d issociate a dlection a s a c itizen a t E merita f rom t he s ubsequent p hase " excussato T raiani d ecuriali".) O n S .H .A . H adr . 1 2 . 4s ee C hapter V I n . 1 9 . D ual c itizenship : C hapter I II n . 2 ; c f. a bove , n . 6 . D ecurions j oining t he o rdo o f a nother c ommunity : e .g . 2 133 , 4 218 , 4 244 , 4 249 , 4 267 , 4 616 . T he r estrictions o n m embership o f t he o rdo s hould b y t hemselves h ave p recluded s imultaneous s ervice i n t wo t owns ; c f. D ig L 1 . 1 7. 3 -4 ( Papinian). L ocal r egulations l imiting t he s ize o f t he o rdo : C hapter I V p p . 5 78 . F or B ithynian c ommunities w hich s ought i mperial p ermission f or s upernumerary r ecruitment , s ee C hapter I V n . 1 6 .

9 1

N OTES: B arcino:

t he

l arge s ize

o f

C H . V t he

o rdo

( Chapter

I V n .

w ith t he e vidence f or a dlections t here ( above,

n .

1 5),

t ogether

1 0),

t ends t o

s uggest t hat ( if t here w as a n umerus c lausus) s ome o f t he a dlecti , a t l east, w ere s upernumerary. 1 3.

S acrifice o f t ime ( and p rovision f or r egular a ttendance): p. 5 5-6. p E xpenses a ssociated w ith m agistracies:

C hapter I V

b elow p p. 8 3-4.

L iabilities o f m agistrates: C hapter X n . 3 . M unera d ecurionatus: C hapter X p p. 1 67-8 . C ollippo: 1 4.

n .

1 0 .

P restige o f d ecurions:

C hapter I V p . 5 8 .

F ree u se o f t he w ater s upply : w ith t he s evirate);

1 643

( conferred o n a f reedman a long

c f. F IRA I 2 1 C ;

I LS 6 296.

U nfair a pportionment o f t axes a nd m unera : C hapter X p .

C hapter I II p . 4 3-4;

1 68.

F inancial e xploitation o f s eviri:

b elow , p . 8 6.

O f o ther r ich m en o utside t he o rdo:

6 339;

c f. C hapter V I n .

1 0,

C hapter I V n . 1 2. R ulings t hat t he c onductores v ectigalium m ust c ome f rom o utside t he o rdo r eveal ( like t he e xclusion o f s enators f rom p ublic c ontracts a t R ome) a d anger t hat t he o rdo w ould f avour i ts i ndividual

m embers a t

t he c ommunity's e xpense: D ig. L . 2 . 6 . 2 . ( Papinian); 2 . 4 . ( Marcianus); 8 . 2 . 1( Ulpian); c f. W .V . H arris, W ar a nd I mperialism i n R epublican R ome 3 27-70 B .C. ( Oxford , 1 979), p . 8 0 n . 2 , p p. 9 0-1. ( See A E 1 962 2 88 , C IL 2 5 120 , a nd H . N esselhauf, " Zwei B ronzeurkunden l igua ," a us I v ir i

M DAI(M)

i ( 1960),

1 42-54 ,

p .

1 53 f .

f or a c onductor

v ectigalium d rawn f rom o utside t he l ocal o rdo). 1 5.

C ollippo: b y

n .

d ecurions

1 0.

I t i s n ot c lear w hether t he f ee w as a lso p ayable

o ther t han t he a dlecti.

S ee n .

9 f or a dlecti a s t he

o riginal a nd p rincipal p ayers o f e ntry-fees. r eference t o a n e ntry-fee f or t he o rdo i n S pain . s tated.

F or t he a mounts o f e ntry-fees e lsewhere, a nd t he d istinction

b etween s tandard a nd " ob h onorem" e xpenses, 1 6.

P opular

e lections

( Oxford ,

1 973), p .

A t M alaca: A cinipo: U rso:

T his i s t he o nly T he a mount i s n ot

a t

O stia:

R .

s ee n .

M eiggs,

1 9.

R oman O stia,

2 nd

e d.

1 83.

F IRA I 2 4 L I-LX . C hapter I V n . 4 .

F IRA I 2 1 C I.

A edile a t C arthago N ova:

3 423-4, c f. 5 941.

" Aedilicii h onores" a t T arraco: P opular e lections

4 216 = 6 095;

c f. C hapter I V n .

i n A frica c ontinued t hroughout

A .D. and b eyond ( J. G ascou,

1 9.

t he s econd c entury

L a p olitique m unicipale d e l 'Empire

r omain e n A frique P roconsulaire d e T rajan ä S eptime-Sevare ( Rome, 1 972), p p. 5 4 f f.).Cf. I LS 6 190 ( Bovillae n ear R ome, A .D. 1 57-8). 1 7.

C ursus h onorum p reserved: A ediles b y t he a ges o f 1 8 ,

C hapter I V p p.

1 7 a t B arcino:

5 9-60. 4 527, A E 1 972 2 97.

P ostponement o f d uovirate a t O lisipo a nd O bulco:

2 61;

2 131.

N one o f t hese f our i nscriptions c an b e d ated w ith a ny p recision .

9 2

N OTES: 1 8.

C H . V

M agistrates' d uties a nd l iabilities:

C hapter X p p.

1 64-7.

R elative p restige o f t he d ifferent m agistrates: C hapter I V p . 6 0 f .. I bid p . 6 0 f or t he u npopularity o f t he q uaestorship. A ccess t o t he o rdo: a bove, p p. 8 0-1. A ppendix I I;

T o t he R oman c itizenship:

c f.

1 1

C hapter X n .

f or

d edications b y a ediles c elebrating R oman c itizenship p er h onorem . F ailure t o r each t he d uovirate: 1 9.

E ntertainments a t U rso:

a bove, n .

F IRA I 2 1 L XX-LXXI.

I nsufficiency o f c andidates a t M alaca: W hite , R C , p . 2 56. F or

t he a mounts

o f

1 7.

e ntry-fees

F IRA I 2 4 L I;

f or t he

o rdo,

c f.

S herwin-

m agistracies,

a nd

p riesthoods e lsewhere , s ee R . D uncan-Jones, T he E conomy o f t he R oman E mpire, 2 nd e d. ( Cambridge , 1 982), p p. 8 2-7 , 1 0810 ( Africa); 1 475 , 5

2 15-6 ( Italy):

t he u pper l imit s eems i n g eneral t o h ave b een

H S

2 0 ,000 , b ut t he a mount c ould b e a s l ow a s H S 4 ,000 , o r e ven H S 1 ,000 . E xpenses d escribed a s u ndertaken " ob h onorem" a re t o b e d istinguished f rom " summae h onorariae" o r " legitimae": t hey r epresent c elebrations o f a ppointment w hich m ight r espond t o i nformal p ressures, a ny l ocal r egulation . o f

a n e lectoral

b ut n ot t o

S ometimes t hey w ere u ndertaken i n f ulfilment

p romise.

( R .

D uncan-Jones,

" Costs,

O utlays ,

a nd

S ummae H onorariae f rom R oman A frica ," P BSR x xx , N .S. x vii ( 1962), 4 7-115, p . 6 6.) F or t he a mounts o f " ob h onorem" p ayments, s ee D uncanJ ones ,

E conomy o f t he R oman E mpire,

p. p

8 6-8 ,

1 07-8 ( Africa);

1 50-3,

2 16-7 ( Italy). T hey t end t o b e h igher t han t he s tandard c harges: a lthough t hey t oo m ight b e a s l ow a s H S 1 ,000 , t hey r ise a s h igh a s H S

9 0 ,000.

N either k ind o f p ayment

i n i tself f urnishes a g uide

t o

t he e xtent o f e nthusiasm f or o ffice. F ixed c harges s uggest t hat t he c ommunity, a t t he t ime w hen t he c harge w as i nstituted , t hought t he o ffice l ikely t o b e s ought a fter ,

a nd t herefore a n a ppropriate m eans

o f s upplementing t he c ommunity's f inds. B ut o ne c annot i nfer f rom t he s urvival o f c harges, o nce i nstituted , t hat i ndividuals w illingly u ndertook t he o ffice w ith i ts a ssociated e xpense. C f. C atalogue o f

t he G reek P apyri i n t he J ohn R ylands L ibrary,

d e M . J ohnson ,

V . M artin ,

a nd A .S.

I I

H unt,

M anchester ,

( Manchester ,

e d.

1 915),

J . n o.

7 7. P ayments m ade " ob h onorem" m ight b e t hought t o i ndicate t hat t he i ndividuals c oncerned w ere a nxious t o s ecure a ppointment. B ut p ublic p ressures c ould l ie b ehind t hese p ayments a lso; c f. b elow , n . 2 8 a nd D ig. L 1 2 ( Ulp ian e tc.). A lthough p ayments d o n ot n ecessarily i ndicate e nthusiasm f or o ffice , a bsence o f p ayments d oes s eem t o i ndicate a bsence o f c ompetition f or o ffice.

T hat

i s,

i t

d id

n ot

o ccur

t o

c ommunities

t o

e xploit

i ndividuals' a nxiety t o b e a ppointed b y d emanding p ayments; n or d id i t o ccur t o i ndividuals t o p romise e xpenditure i n o rder t o s ecure a ppointment. F or t he a ctual

i nstances

o f m agistrates'

b elow, p p. 8 3-4 a nd n n. 2 0-1.

e xpenditure i n S pain ,

s ee

T he a rgument t hat c ompetition f or

m agistracies w as n ot i ntense d oes n ot d epend s imply o n s ilence: e xpenditure u ndertaken i n c onnexion w ith p riesthoods

i s

m uch b etter

a ttested ( below , p p. 8 5-6 a nd n n . 2 5-8). 2 0.

E ntertainments a t

C armo:

1 380 ,

c orrected i n n ote

9 3

t o

5 120

( "IIIIvir

N OTES:

C H . V

q uattuorvirali p otest(ate) m uneris e dendi c ausa" , I ndex , p p. or p rivate 169-70 f T he d ate i s u ncertain .

i ndividuals

S tandard a nd v oluntary p ayments: A edile a t C arthago N ova:

n .

n .

1 6.

c f.

C IL 2 I I,

g iving e ntertainments).

1 9 .

T he a edileship w ould h ave s ecured

a dmission t o t he o rdo f or A emilius R ectus. 2 1.

C ommunities a nd s tatues:

U rso's

c harter

f orbids

t he u se

o f p ublic

m oney t o b ribe anyone t o e rect a s tatue ( FIRA I 2 1 C XXXIV).

T he

c ustom o f h onouring i ndividuals w ith s tatues w hose c ost t hey w ere t hen e xpected t o r eimburse s eems s imilarly t o p oint t o p ublic a ppreciation o f s tatues f or t heir o wn s ake ( "honore a ccepto i mpensam r emisit": C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p . 176). C f. 1 569 . D uoviri a nd s tatues:

1 947,

2 098 ,

2 150 ,

4 275.

D uovir a t A runda: 1 359 . A t a nother ( unidentified) t own i n B aetica :

2 150 .

F or t he i mplications o f p ayments a nd t heir a bsence, s ee n . 2 2.

T wo t ypes o f p raefecti:

C hapter I V n . 2 8.

M odes o f a ppointment:

F IRA I 2 3 XXIV ( Salpensa:

h onorary

d uovir);

F IRA

I 2 1

X CIII;

X XV

2 3

1 9 .

p raefectus o f

( Urso;

S alpensa:

t emporary s ubstitutes). G ades:

1 731.

v iew o f

F or o ther " praefecti i ure d icundo" s ee 1 477 ,

t he d escriptions

" iure

p raeerit" a pplied t o d uoviri

d icundo" a nd

( and p raefecti)

" qui

i ure

2 225 .

I n

d icundo

i n t he c harters,

t here

s eems n o r eal r eason t o s uppose t hat t hese p raefecti a re o f as pecial t ype , e xercising p urely j udicial a uthority X XV , X XVI , X XVIII , X XIX ; 2 4 L IV , L XIII). P raefectus a ppointed b y d ecurions:

e .g.

( FIRA I 2 1 L XI ,

I LS 6 342 ,

6 359 ( "praef(ectus) i (ure) d (icundo) e x d (ecreto) P etron(ia)"). F or t he l ex P etronia, c f. 6 518 , 6 125.

6 527,

C III ;

6 552 ,

2 3

6 874;

d (ecurionum) l ege

F or t he t heory a bout t he l ex P etronia, s ee T h. M ommsen , " Die S tadtrechte d er l atinischen G emeinden S alpensa u nd M alaca i n d er Provinz

B aetica, "

in

Gesammelte

Schriften,

( Juristische S chriften), B d. 1 ( Berlin , 1 905), H ardy, T hree S panish C harters, p p. 8 7-8 n . 1 4.

2 65-382,

P raefecti o f h onorary d uoviri c hosen b y d ecurions:

p p.

I

A bt.

3 39 f f.;

C IL 1 4 2 964 w ith

p . 2 89 f or t he t itle " senatus" a pplied t o t he o rdo o f P raeneste. 2 3.

T emporary

s ubstitute

n ot

e ntitled

t o R aman c itizenship:

F IRA I 2 3

X XV . P raefectus o f e mperor t o h ave t he s ame r ights a s a d uovir: X XIV

( "eo

< i)u

P raefecti n ormally f ormer d uoviri: 2 4.

E lections o f p riests a t U rso: d oes

n ot

F IRA I 2 3

ee e sto"). C hapter 1 V n . 2 8.

F IRA I 2 1 L XVIII;

c f. C I.

1 957 ( n . 2 5)

n ecessarily p reclude t he p ossibility t hat t he m an w as

a ppointed b y p opular e lection . D istinction a nd r esponsibilities:

C hapter I V n n . 3 3-4.

E xemption f rom m unera: F IRA I 2 1 L XVI ( the s ame ( limited?) e xemption a s w as e njoyed b y a p ontifex a t R ome, f or p ontifices, a ugurs , a nd t heir c hildren a t U rso).

T hat

9 4

e xemption f rom l ocal m unera a t U rso

N OTES:

C H . V

w as i ncluded s eems t o b e c onfirmed b y D ig. L 4 . C harisius).

C ontrast L 5 .

1 3 p r.

1 8.

2 4

( Arcadius

( Ulpian o n t he m unus i udicandi),

w hich m ay r efer o nly t o p riests a t R ome. 2 5.

P ontifex o f

C artima:

1 957

( "pontif(ex) q ui p ro h on(ore) H S XX

n (ummum) d (edit) u t a es a lien(um) r ei p (ublicae) C artimitan(ae) l ib(eraret)"); c f. n . 2 4. 1 936 ( Lacippo?):

" C. M arcio C ephaloni r es p (ublica) e x X cu q uos

c averat o b h onorem f lamon i"; f laminate a t t he s ame t own .

c f. 1 935 f or a nother p ayment f or t he F or t he v alue p laced o n s tatues, s ee n .

2 1. 2 6.

P riestesses " ob h onorem": ( Iliberris).

1 278 ( Salpensa);

1 471 ( Astigi);

5 514

T he f irst t wo h ad a lso e ntertained t he p opulace o n

p revious o ccasions. S ilver s tatues: 1 278 ( 100 p ounds); 1 471 ( 150 p ounds). T he v alue o f t he s ilver i n m onetary t erms d epends o n t he d ate

o f

t he i nscriptions.

1 278 ,

f rom t he F lavian L atin m unicipium

S alpensa, i s u nlikely t o b elong t o t he p eriod w hen t he t own w as s till u nprivileged ; 1 471 ( "sacerdos d ivarum A ugustarum") i s p robably n ot e arlier t han H adrian 's r eign .

I n t he m id-second c entury t he v alue o f

t he s ilver w ould h ave b een a bout H S 4 5 ,000 a nd H S 7 0 ,000 r espectively ( T. F rank , A n E conomic S urvey o f A ncient R ome , V ( Baltimore , 1 940), c f. D uncan-Jones, E conomy o f t he R oman E mpire , p p.

9 0-3;

C hapter I V n . p riestesses. 2 7.

3 5

f or t he h igh s ocial s tatus

S eviri a ppointed b y t he d ecurions: A s ag roup:

C hapter I V n n .

1 5 ,

o f

1 944 , A E 1 957 3 4;

1 26-7). C f.

s ome m unicipal

c f. n . 2 8.

3 7.

O rnamentn : C hapter I V n n . 1 8-9 . S on o f s evir a t B arcino e lected a edile: 4 527, c f. 4 497; c ited i n 3 C hapter I V n . 1 0. S eviri a t A urgi a nd D ertosa m ention s ons: 358 ( Aurgi:

" ob h onorem V Ivir(atus) s ui a diutorio Q .

A nn! F abiani f ili

s ui"); 4 056 ( Dertosa : " ob h onorem s eviratus s ui e t i n h onorem C . T erenti U rsi f ili"). ( See C hapter I V n . 1 9 f or t he p ossibility t hat f reedmen 's s ons w ere e xcluded f rom t he o rdo a t D ertosa;

a nd a g rant

o f p ublic h onours t o t he s on o f a s evir t here.) 2 8.

S eviri " ob h onorem": r equests:

C IL 2 I I ,

I ndex ,

2 100 ( Ossigi i n B aetica:

p .

169.

R esponses t o p ublic

" ob h onorem V Ivir(atus) e x

d (ecreto) o rdinis s oluta p ecunia p etente p opulo");

3 364 ( Aurgi:

" ob

h onorem V Ivir(atus) s ecundum p etitionem m (unicipum) m (unicipii) o ptimi p atron' .. e x d uplici p ecunia d ecreto o ptimi o rdinis"). I n t he s econd c ase t he o rdo s eems t o h ave i mposed t he e xpenditure b y d ecree;

b ut i n t he f irst t he w ords

" ex d ecreto o rdinis" c ould r efer

o nly t o t he m ethod o f a ppointment. C f. 9 84 ( an u nidentified t own i n B aetica : " ob h onorem I IIIIIvir(atus) e x d ecreto d ecurionum"), a nd n . 2 7.

F or t he o rdo's r eluctance t o i mpose s pecial e xpenditure o n

i ndividuals, s ee C hapter V I p p. 1 03-4. B arcino : A E 1 957 3 4 ( "ob h onor(em) I IIIIIvir(atus) q uem i lli o rdo B arc(inonensium) g ratuit(o) d ecrevit"); c ondicione l iberti q uos

4 514 ( A.D.

1 61-9:

" ea

u t l iberti m ei i tem l ibertorum m eorum l ibertarumque h onor s eviratus c ontigerit a b o mnibus m uneribus

9 5

N OTES: s eviratus e xcusati s int"); m unus"). 2 9.

C H . V

c f. A E 1 962 3 95

( "ob h onorem V Ivirat(us)

H onorary d uoviri: F IRA I 2 3 X XIV ( Salpensa); M . G rant, F rom I mperium t o A uctoritas ( Cambridge, 1 946; r pt. w ith c orrections, C ambridge, 1 969), p p., 1 58-9 ( Saguntum: A ugustus, M . A grippa, T iberius); 1 534, 5 120 ( Ulia and C armo i n B aetica: C . C aesar); G rant, p p. 2 15-6 c f. 3 417 ( Carthago N ova: J uba , P tolemy); A vienus O ra M aritina 2 75 f f. ( Gades: J uba). H onorary s evir: C hapter I V n . 3 6. C itizenship g ranted t o p atrons: n . 4 . H onorary s tatus o f d ecurions e tc.:

3 0.

C hapter I V n n .

1 8-9 ,

3 ( that t he 3

o rdo w as t he d onor i s

r epeatedly s tated).

C onferred i n r ecognition

o f p ublic g enerosity :

4 062.

A E 1 957 3 6.

P atrons: 3 67-80.

" Gratuit(o)":

C IL 2 I I, I ndex , p . 167; ( From t hose l isted i n C IL

d 'Ors, E pigrafia J uridica , p p. 2 m ust b e e xcepted p atrons o f

c ollegia ( e.g. 2 211), a nd i t i s a lso p ossible t hat s ome m en a cclaimed a s " patronus" b y t he i nhabitants o f a t own m ay n ot h ave b een f ormally a ppointed a s s uch b y t he o rdo ( e.g. 1 054 , 1 348 , 1 597; c f. C hapter X n .

1 ).

I n s pite o f

t hese r eservations,

2 159 s eems

t o b e a c ertain

e xample o f a l ocal c itizen f ormally a ppointed a s p atron b y t he o rdo. H ospites: C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p . 165; d 'Ors, E pigrafia J uridica , 3 77 f f., c f. H ardy, T hree S panish C harters, p . 5 8 n . 1 54.

3 1.

p p.

P atrons a nd h ospites a ppointed b y t he o rdo: F IRA I 2 1 C XXX-CXXXI; L XI. F unctions o f p atrons a nd h ospites: C hapter V III n . 6 .

2 4

A ugustan r egulation :

H .

N issen , 1 0 , p .

D io l vi.

2 5.

6 ;

F IRA I 2 1 C XXX-CXXXI ,

" Zu d en r ömischen S tadtrechten ," R hM N .

F .

c f.

x lv ( 1890),

1 00-

1 08 .

I ndividual h ospites a nd p atrons: A E 1 962 2 87 ( c. 2 7 B .C. A.D . 4 0 , c f. N esselhauf, p p. 1 45-8); 5 792 ( A .D . 4 0); A E 1 972 2 82 ( A .D. 1 32, c f. A E 1 973 2 95) ( all h ospites); A E 1 936 6 6 , c f. 4 226 ( A .D. 9 8); 6 1 454 ( A .D . 2 22) ( both p atrons). A ll s ave C IL 6 1 454, w hich w as f ound a t R ome, i dentify c ommunities a s " Hispaniae U lterioris" a nd " ex H ispania C iteriore".

9 6

C IL t he

P ART T WO

A CTIVITY

9 7

C HAPTER V I A UTONOMY (0 I ntroduction A s a dministrative u nits, t he

o ne

h and

t he m anagement

t he c ommunities h ad t wo t ypes o f f unction :

o n

o f

o f

l ocal

j urisdiction b y l ocal m agistrates, o bligations t o t he R oman g overnment.

a ffairs,

i ncluding

t he e xercise

a nd o n t he o ther t he d ischarge o f I t w as w ith r egard t o j urisdiction

t hat t heir f reedom i n l ocal a ffairs w as m ost s everely l imited ; b ut o ther a spects o f l ocal a ctivity w ere a lso s ubject t o c ontrol b y R ome. T he e xistence o f o bligations t o t he R oman g overnment c onstituted i n i tself a r estriction o f l ocal a utonomy ; a nd t hese o bligations c ould a lso b e c arried o ut w ith a g reater o r l esser d egree o f s upervision f rom t he R oman a uthorities. T he a mount o f f reedom w hich t he c o nmunities e njoyed v aried , w ith r egard t o b oth t ypes o f f unction . T he f ormal s tatus o f c olonies , m unicipia , a nd f ree o r f ederate c ommunities c ould a ffect t he e xtent o f l ocal a utonomy, a s c ould i nformal f actors s uch a s t he d egree o f a c ommunity's s ophistication

o r

t he

e xistence

o f

p articular

p roblems

i n

i ts

a dministration. N ot a ll i nterference w as i nitiated b y R ome: b oth g overnments a nd i ndividuals m ight s pontaneously s eek R oman i ntervention i n p ursuit o f t heir o wn a mbitions. T he

R oman g overnment w as

c oncerned

t o m aintain p eace i n t he S panish

p rovinces, a nd t o d raw f rom t hem m en a nd m oney t o s upport i ts a dministration t here a nd e lsewhere. T hese a mbitions a re a pparent i n , f or e xample , t he d enial o f m ilitary f orces t o l ocal g overnments, a nd t he i mposition o f t axes a nd o ther o bligations o n t he c ommunities. R ome's c oncern f or h er o wn f inancial i nterests m ay a lso b e a dduced i n p artial e xplanation o f h er i nterference i n t he c ommunities' f inancial a ffairs. B ut s elfish m otives d o n ot e ntirely e xhaust R ome's r easons f or s howing a n i nterest i n l ocal g overnment. A d egree o f p aternalism m ay l ie b ehind h er c oncern f or t he c ommunities' f inancial w ell-being ; a nd s he i nvented r egulations a bout t own g overnment w hich b etray a m ore g eneral i nterest i n t he c ompetent m anagement o f a ffairs. A lthough R ome w elcomed t he r elief f rom a dministrative r esponsibility w hich t he e xistence o f t he l ocal g overnments p rovided , h er p reference w as, o ther t hings b eing e qual , t hat t he c ommunities b e g overned w ell.

1

( ii) C onstitutions a nd g uarantees o f a utonomy C onstitutional i nterference i s a ttested o nly i n t he c ase o f p rivileged c ommunities;

a nd i t i s w ith r egard o nly t o p rivileged c ommunities ,

t hat t he q uestion a rises o f f ormal g uarantees o f a utonomy.

I n A .D .

a lso , 1 4 m ost

o f t he S panish c ommunities, b oth c ivitates a nd t hose g overned f rom a c entral t own ,

w ere u nprivileged .

t hree

p rovinces,

m unicipia.

B ut t here w as a lso a t t hat d ate ,

a c ertain n umber

o f

R oman c olonies

i n e ach o f t he

a nd R oman a nd L atin

S ix o f t he c olonies w ere r ecorded b y P liny's A ugustan l ists a s

9 9

e njoying

i mmunity

f rom t axation o r

t he

i us

t hey d id n ot h ave t hese p rivileges i n A .D .

I talicum ,

1 4 ,

a nd f our o thers,

i f

h ad a cquired t hem b y a l ater

d ate. T here w ere i n a ddition n ine f ree o r f ederate c ommunities i n B aetica , a nd t hree f ederate c ommunities i n T arraconensis. V espasian's g rant o f t he L atin r ight i n A .D .

7 3-4 c onverted a ll t he e xisting u nprivileged c ommunities

i nto L atin c ommunities. T he g rant a lso a pplied t o t he f ree a nd f ederate c ommunities, s uch a s M alaca i n B aetica , a nd t heir 2p revious s tatus m ay h ave s urvived c oncomitantly w ith t heir n ew L atin s tatus.

R oman c olonies C olonies

d iffered

f rom o ther p rivileged c ommunities

i n t hat

t he

p rocedure o f c olonisation t raditionally i nvolved t he f oundation o f an e ntirely n ew c o munity, o r c onventions o f l ocal e ssential.

U rso's

f or w hich , i n t he a bsence o f a ny p re-existing l aws g overnment, t he f ormulation o f a c onstitution w as

c harter e xemplifies t he c onstitutional a nd o ther

r egulations w ith w hich c olonies w ere p rovided a t

t heir f oundation .

S ince

c olonial c harters o riginally h ad a p ractical p urpose, t heir e xistence d oes n ot s how t hat t he R oman g overnment w as a nxious t o o verrule l ocal p references w ith r egard t o m ethods o f g overnment. I t r emains p ossible t hat R ome w elcomed t his o pportunity t o d etermine l ocal c onstitutions, a nd r equired t hat c olonies m aintain c ontinuing o bedience t o t he r egulations i n t he c harters.

B ut

l ater

i nterpolations

i n U rso's

c harter

s uggest

t hat

a lterations m ight b e m ade o n l ocal a uthority. I t i s p robable t hat t he p ublication o f U rso's c harter i n t he F lavian p eriod r eflects l ocal p ride i n c olonial s tatus r ather t han a d esire o n t he p art o f R ome t o e mphasise t he r egulations. R oman

c olonies,

l ike

o ther

p rivileged

c ommunities,

d istinctive t itles f or t he c ommunity a nd i ts o fficials. t itular d istinctions

b y

n o m eans

i mplies

c olonies t o c onform i n t his r espect.

t hat

R ather ,

m ade

u se

o f

T he e xistence o f

t he R oman g overnment f orced t he t itles s eem t o h ave b een

v alued b y t he c ommunities t hemselves a s s ymbols o f c olonial s tatus; a nd t he r ole o f t he R oman g overnment w as p robably n ot s o m uch t o r equire t heir a doption a s t o p revent t heir u nauthorised u se. 3 R oman c olonies, a s s uch, m ay h ave b een c onsidered t o b e e ntitled t o a s pecial d egree o f f reedom f rom i nterference b y t he R oman g overnment. B ut i f

s o,

i t

i s

g uarantees,

v ery

d oubtful

t hat

t heir a utonomy

r ather t han o n c onvention.

a utonomy w hich a ppear i n m unicipal j udicial a utonomy o f

b ased

o n f ormal

T he o nly f ormal g uarantees o f

r egulations

r elate

c ommunities i n f inancial d isputes;

e ven o f t his s pecific k ind, o utside I taly.

w as

s pecifically

t o

t he

a nd n o g uarantee,

i s t o b e f ound i n t he e vidence f or c olonies

M ore p robably,

c olonies -a nd i ndeed R oman a nd L atin

m unicipia a s w ell -w ere r egarded a s b eing, i n g eneral, m ore r eliable s ervants o f R ome t han p eregrine c ommunities; a nd t his m ay h ave m eant t hat t hey r eceived l ess r outine a ttention f rom p rovincial o fficials i n m atters s uch a s t he c ollection o f d irect t axes. A mong

c olonies,

a s pecial

c ase i s

c onstituted b y t hose w hich e njoyed

i mmunity o r t he i us I talicum . B oth t hese p rivileges e ntailed f reedom f rom t axation f or a c ommunity's l and a nd c itizens; a nd t he i us I talicum s eems t o h ave m eant i n a ddition a g eneral a ssimilation t o t he s tatus o f c ommunities ( and t heir c itizens) i n I taly. C olonies i n S pain w ith t he i us I talicum ,

1 00

t hen ,

m ay h ave b een e ntitled t o c laim f reedom f rom i nterference b y t he

p rovincial g overner, i nsofar a s I talian t owns w ere n ot s ubject t o s uch i nterference. T he r eservations o f A pamea i n B ithynia a bout i ntervention i n l ocal f inance w ere m ost p robably b ased o n ac laim o f t his n ature .

I mmunity

a lone, h owever, a lso s ecured a d egree o f f reedom , i n p ractice, f rom i nvolvement w ith t he p rovincial a dministration : f reedom f rom t axation r educed t he f requency o f o bligatory d ealings w ith R oman o fficials. T he R oman g overnment m ay a lso h ave b een m ore i nclined , a gain a s a p ractical m atter , t o t olerate e xploitation o f p rivate w ealth f or l ocal p urposes i n c ommunities w hich w ere i mmune f rom t axation . F inally,

d espite

c onventional a utonomy ,

s pecific

l egal

p rivileges

a nd

p ractical

o r

i t w ould s eem t hat a ll c olonies r emained s ubject i n

t heory t o a ny l egislation W hich R ome c ared t o a pply t o t hem .4

R oman a nd L atin m u rdcipia G rants o f R aman o r L atin m unicipal s tatus i n S pain s ometimes i nvolved t he a malgamation o f a n umber o f p reviously d istinct c ommunities t o f orm a s ingle l arger o ne. F urther , c harters s imilar t o t hose o f c olonies w ere s ometimes p ossessed b y R oman a nd L atin m unicipia. T he e xtant m unicipal c harters f rom S pain a re t hose o f t he F lavian L atin m unicipia S alpensa a nd M alaca. T here i s, h owever, a n i mportant d ifference b etween c olonial c harters a nd c harters i ssued t o m unicipia. I n t he c ase o f m unicipia , an ew c onstitution w as n ot u sually a p ractical n ecessity ; a nd t here a re g ood r easons f or b elieving t hat t he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca w ere p rovided a t t he r equest o f t he c ommunities t hemselves, r ather t han o n t he i nitiative o f t he R oman g overnment a s a n e ssential a ccompaniment o f m unicipal s tatus. C harters l ike t hese m ay h ave b een r elatively w idespread a mong t he F lavian L atin c ommunities u niversal; c ommunities

o f

S pain .

B ut

i t

i s

f ar f rom c ertain t hat

t hey w ere

n or i s i t n ecessarily t he c ase t hat t he e arlier L atin o f S pain t ypically h ad m unicipal c harters , o r t hat t he R oman

m unicipia d id s o. A s i n t he c ase o f c olonies, i t d oes n ot f ollow f rom t he i ssue o f c harters t hat t he R oman g overnment w as c ommitted t o s ecuring l ocal a dherence t o t he r egulations. T he i nadequacy o f t he p rovisions i n M alaca's c harter a s a d etailed g uide t o c onstitutional p rocedure m akes i t i mprobable t hat t he c harter w as e ver c onceived o f a s e nforcing a c onstitution w hich t he R oman g overnment t hought a ppropriate t o aL atin c ommunity. L ike c olonies, T o

t hem w as

R oman a nd L atin m unicipia e mployed d istinctive t itles.

r eserved

t he

d escription

" municipium",

a nd

t heir

c hief

m agistrates s hared w ith t hose o f c olonies t he t itle " duovir". A gain a s i n t he c ase o f c olonies, t hese t itles s hould n ot b e c onsidered o bligatory f or t he c ommunities c oncerned. T hey a ppear t o h ave b een s ymbols o f s tatus v oluntarily a dopted;

a nd i ndeed s ome o f t he y .avian L atin c ommunities

f ailed t o a ssume t hem i mmediately u pon p romotion . M alaca's c harter r efers t o f inancial d isputes b etween t he c ommunity a nd i ndividual c itizens o r i ncolae w hich c oncern s ums t oo s mall t o r equire ( apparently) t he j udicial i ntervention o f t he p roconsul o f B aetica. H owever , i t i s n ot c lear f rom t his r eference t hat t he p roconsul w as a ctually f orbidden t o i nterfere i n c ases w here t he s um d id n ot e xceed t he s tated a mount. T he c lause s uggests r ather t hat w hat i s a t i ssue i s s imply a n u pper l imit o n t he a uthority o f l ocal m agistrates: t his b y n o m eans i mplies

1 01

t hat t he p roconsul h ad n o r ight o f i ntervention i n l esser c ases. c omment o n N emausus i n G allia N arbonensis

c onstitutes

S trabo 's

t he o nly

c lear

s tatement i n t he s ources o f a s pecial a utonomy a llowed t o L atin c ommunities. A ccording t o S trabo , t he f act t hat N emausus p ossessed t he L atin r ight m eant t hat N emausus w as e xempt f rom t he " t o f t he p rovincial g overnor. T he d egree,

a nd s cope ,

o f a utonomy i mplied b y

t his

i s

e quivalent

t o t hat

t heoretically e ntailed b y f ree o r f ederate s tatus, o r b y p ossession o f t he i us I talicum . O ther c ommunities i n G aul -the V ocontii a nd M ässilia -to w hich

S trabo a ttributes

a s imilar a utonomy a re k nown t o h ave b een i n f act

f ederate c ommunities. I t i s p ossible, t hen , t hat S trabo i s m istaken i n e xplaining a utonomy a t N emausus b y r eference t o t he t own's p ossession o f t he L atin r ight:

r ather,

N emausus m ay h ave

b een ,

l ike

t he

V ocontii

a nd

M assilia , f ederate , a nd t he a utonomy w hich S trabo d escribes a c onsequence o f N emausus' f oedus a nd n ot o f i ts L atinity. H owever , i t m ay a lso p lausibly b e a rgued t hat t he c onnexion w hich S trabo m akes b etween L atinity a nd a utonomy i s c orrect; b ut t hat h e h as e xaggerated t he e xtent o f t he a utonomy c oncerned , a nd a lso m isleadingly i mplied t hat t his a utonomy h ad a n e xplicit f ormal b asis.

S o r egarded ,

S trabo's c omment o n N emausus c eases t o b e s ound

e vidence f or a n a ssociation b etween L atinity a nd f ormal p rivileges o f a utonomy; b ut i t d oes p rovide s upport f or t he h ypothesis t hat L atin c ommunities e njoyed b y c onvention

a f reedom f rom s urveillance i n s ervice t o

R ome g reater t han t hat c ommonly a llowed t o p eregrine o nes. T he e vidence f or N emausus a part,

i t i s p robable t hat R oman m unicipia ,

a nd L atin o nes a lso ( those, a t l east, w hich c ould b oast o f s ome c ultural s ophistication), t ended t o b e r egarded a s m ore c ompetent a nd t rustworthy t han p eregrine c ommunities i n s ervice t o R ome.

T hus R oman a nd L atin

m unicipia m ay, w ithout f ormal g uarantees , h ave e njoyed i n p ractice s ome r eduction o f d irect n egotiations w ith p rovincial o fficials, i n c onsequence o f

t heir

p romotion.

B ut

t he

R oman

g overnment

r etained a r ight

o f

i ntervention , e ven i n m atters w hich w ere p rimarily o f l ocal r elevance; n or d id i t r enounce t he r ight t o l egislate a bout m unicipia o n s ubjects w hich i t c onsidered i mportant.

F ree a nd f ederate c ommunities E xamination o f

f ree a nd f ederate

c ommunities u nder

t he

l ate R epublic

a nd P rincipate r eveals t hat t heir s tatus h ad a v ariable c ontent,

a nd c ould

i n f act a mount t o v ery l ittle. T hey w ere n ot n ecessarily p rotected f rom t axation and o ther i mpositions; n or d id R ome a lways r efrain f rom i nterfering

w ith

t heir

c onstitutions.

J udicial

a utonomy,

a nd

t he

f ree

c onduct o f l ocal a ffairs i n g eneral, w ere s ecured m ore b y R ome's l ack o f i nterest i n i ntervening t han b y t he f ormal g uarantees o f t hese p rivileges. T heoretical p rivileges d id n ot p revent R ome f rom e xerting p ressure o n f ree a nd f ederate c ommunities w hen h er o wn i nterests w ere a t s take. N o t race r emains o f s pecial p rivileges e njoyed b y t he f ree a nd f ederate c ommunities i n S pain ; r eign ,

o r a fter t hat

s tatus

o f

e ither i n t he p eriod b etween A .D. t ime,

w hen t hey p erhaps

f ree a nd f ederate c ommunities,

r etained a t

1 4 a nd V espasian 's l east t he

a long w ith L atin s tatus.

f ormal T hese

c ommunities a re r emarkable o nly f or t heir u se, i n t he p eriod b efore V espasian 's r eign , o f m agisterial t itles w hich a re u nexampled e ither a mong t he o ther p eregrine c ommunities i n S pain , c ommunities.

T he t itle

o r a mong t he R oman a nd L atin

" decemvir" w as e mployed i n R aetica ,

1 02

a nd t he t itle

" praetor"

a t

B occhori o n M allorca .

T his

m ay

s uggest

t hat

t he f ree a nd

f ederate c ommunities w ere a nxious t o a dvertise t heir s pecial s tatus. I t b y n o m eans f ollows t hat t he e mployment o f t he t itles c onstituted a s pecial p rivilege i n i tself , d enied t o o ther c ommunities ; o nly t hat t he u nusual t itles w ere ren b y t he c ommunities c oncerned a s s ymbols o f d ifference , a nd s uperiority.

( iii) L ocal A dministration I n l ocal a dministration , t he c ommunities c oncentrated o n p roviding t hemselves w ith a menities w hich c ontributed t o a c ivilised , a nd c haracteristically R oman , l ife-style . T he a menities c onsisted n ot o nly o f b uildings, b ut a lso o f p ublic e ntertainments a nd o ther s ervices w hich p romoted t he c omfort, a nd e ducation , o f t he r esidents. P ride w as o ne m otive l ying b ehind t he d esire f or a c ivilised l ife-style ; a nd p ride c an a lso b e d etected i n t he c ommunities' c oncern t o a dvertise , a nd o ccasionally t o a dvance , t heir f ormal s tatus a s c olony o r m unicipium . A s hortage o f p ublic m oney, a nd a lso o f a dministrative o fficials, m eant t hat t he c ommunities r elied h eavily o n t he p ersonal a nd f inancial a ssistance o f i ndividual r esidents. A ssistance w as s ought f rom p eople o utside t he c ommunity a s w ell : i n p articular , f rom n atives w ho h ad a dvanced b eyond t he s phere o f l ocal a ffairs, a nd f rom o fficials o f t he p rovincial a dministration . E xternal p atrons n ot o nly p rovided f inancial a id , b ut c ould a lso p rotect a c ommunity's i nterests w hen c ommunication w ith t he R oman g overnment b ecame n ecessary. T he s cale o f p ublic a menities t ended t o i ncrease w ith t he s ophistication o f a c ommunity, a s d id t he n eed f or c ommunication w ith t he R oman g overnment. 8 T he u nadventurous n ature o f t he c ommunities' a mbitions i s p artly t o b e e xplained b y r eference t o t he r estrictions p laced o n t heir f reedom b y t he R oman g overnment. T he m ost s triking r estriction o n l ocal g overnments' c ontrol o f a ffairs w as t he f act t hat t hey w ere a llowed n o p ermanent m ilitary f orces f or t he p rotection o f t he c ommunity a gainst i nternal d isruption a nd o utside a ttack . T he c ommunities' s ecurity d epended o n t he p resence o f m ilitary f orces c ommanded b y o fficials o f t he R oman a dministration. I nternal d isruption w as m ade l ess l ikely b y t he R oman g overnment's d iscouragement o f u nauthorised a ssemblies: t his p olicy s erved t o b olster t he o rdo's c ontrol. M ore g enerally , c ommunities w ould t end t o h esitate b efore e mbarking o n a ny a dventurous e nterprise, e ven i f i t w ere n ot e xplicitly d isallowed . T hus S abora a pplied f or i mperial p ermission b efore v enturing t o c hange t he s ite o f t he

t own .

9

T he a vailability o f m oney f or p ublic p urposes w as l imited n ot o nly b y c ircumstances, b ut a lso b y t he R oman g overnment's c oncern f or i ts o wn f inancial i nterests. S ince R ome r elied o n t he c ommunities f or t axes , a nd i mposed o n t hem o ther d uties i nvolving f inancial e xpenditure, s he w as u nwilling t o a llow t hem f ull f reedom t o e xploit p rivate w ealth f or l ocal p urposes. S abora's p etition o n t he s ubject o f l ocal t axes s hows t hat t he c ommunity w as a ware o f R oman c oncern a bout l ocal l evies . V espasian a dmitted s uch c oncern : a lthough p rofessing h imself u nable t o s ettle t he q uestion o f n ew t axes , h e r eferred i t t o t he p rovincial g overnor o f B aetica . T he l ocal m unera w hich a re d etectable i n S pain w ere o f ak ind w hich , i n t heory a t l east, r equired p ersonal s ervice r ather t han f inancial e xpenditure. E xcept i n t he c ase o f s eviri , c ouncils d o n ot a ppear t o h ave

1 03

i mposed e xtraordinary e xpenditure o n i ndividuals b y f ormal d ecree;

a nd a s

j ustification o f a ny d emand f or e xtraordinary e xpenditure, e ven f rom s eviri, t hey t ended t o c ite t he w ishes o f t he p opulace a s aaw hole.10 A lthough t he p ower o f t he l ocal g overnments t o e xploit p rivate w ealth w as r estricted , t heir f reedom i n f inancial m atters w as p erhaps n ot o therwise l imited b efore t he l ast h alf o f t he s econd c entury A .D .. S trabo a scribes g eneral s upervisory d uties t o t he g overnor o f T arraconensis; b ut i n t he e arlier p eriod a l aissez-faire a ttitude m ay h ave p revailed w ith r egard t o t he c ommunities' m anagement o f t he f unds a t t heir d isposal. T owards t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury t he R oman g overnment b egan t o t ake a s lightly g reater i nterest i n t he f inancial w ell-being o f t he S panish c ommunities; a n i nterest t o w hich c ontributed.

p aternalism,

C uratores

a re

a s w ell a s s elfish m otives,

a ttested a t

a n umber

e vidence c oming f rom t he r eign o f M . A urelius. L atin m unicipium A rva i n B aetica , a ll o f t he c olonies. a pparently p ost o f

o f

t owns,

m ay h ave

t he

e arliest

W ith t he e xception o f t he t owns c oncerned w ere R oman

I n m ost c ases t he c uratores w ere o f e questrian s tatus, o ne c ombining t he p rovincial p rocuratorship o f L usitania w ith t he

c urator o f E merita.

B ut o ne a t U rso i n B aetica m ay h ave

b een o f

s enatorial s tatus: i n f act, n one o ther t han t he p roconsul's l egate h imself. L ittle e vidence o f t he c uratores' s pecific a ctivities e merges f rom t he i nscriptions,

a lthough

t he U rso

s urveillance o f a ll t hese

c uratores

i ndicate a n i ncreasing a nxiety o n t he p art o f R ome a bout t he

e fficiency o f r ecorded i s

t he

c ommunity.

c arried o ut

d o

b y

i nscription i ndicates

p ublic w orks

l ocal a dministration ,

A lthough

r eferences

t he n umber o f t owns a t w hich

i n f act e xtremely s mall.

T he e vidence d oes n ot

c onclusion t hat i nterference i n f inancial m atters w as w idespread , b y t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury A .D . • 11

t o

t hey a re j ustify a

u niversal ,

o r

e ven

L ocal f inance a part, t he c ommunities' p ursuit o f t heir a mbitions w as i n a v ariety o f w ays a ffected b y t heir s ubjection t o , a nd d ependence o n , t he R oman g overnment. T hey w ere u nable t o e xploit e ven t he p ersonal s ervices o f i ncolae u ntil R ome g ranted t he p rinciple t hat l iability f or m unera w as e ntailed

b y

r esidence.

T he

i nstitution

o f

p ublic

d octors

a nd

t eachers

d epended t o s ome d egree o n t he f act t hat t hese w ere e xempted f rom t axation b y t he R oman g overnment. P atrons m ight n ot b e a ppointed f rom a mong R oman o fficials s erving i n t he p rovince: a r ule p erhaps d esigned t o s ecure i mpartiality i n p rovincial a dministration, f reedom o f c hoice.

a s w ell a s t he c ommunities'

A n a mbition t o a dvance t he f ormal s tatus o f a c ommunity

c ould b y i ts v ery n ature R oman g overnment. 12

b e

s atisfied

o nly w ith

t he

a cquiescence

o f

S ome i nterference w as p rovoked b y t he l ocal g overnments t hemselves , b y i ndividuals w ho e nlisted R ome's h elp i n p ursuit

o f

t he

o r

t heir o wn a mbitions.

19 t I n A .D . he d uoviri o f t he L atin m unicipium P ompaelo i n T arraconensis a ppealed t o a l egate f or c onfirmation o f t heir r ight t o c ompel f ormer m agistrates o f t he t own t o a ccept l iability i n r espect o f t he p ublic f unds. T wo

i nscriptions

r ecord

h ow

i ndividuals

e mployed

c ompelling , s upport o f H adri n a nd A ntoninus c itizenship o f R oman c olonies.

P ius

t he

i nformal,

i n t heir p etitions

b ut f or

( iv) J urisdiction T he f ormal s tatus o f a c ommunity h ad s ome b earing o n t he s ystem o f l aw

1 04

w hich i t e mployed.

C olonies w ould a t t heir f oundation n aturally h ave b een

g iven l aws m odelled o n R oman o nes; b ut t here i s a part f rom t his a s trong p robability t hat t he R oman i us c ivile w as h eld t o a pply a utomatically t o a ll R oman c itizens i n t he E mpire. I f t his i s r ight, t hen n ot o nly c olonies, b ut R oman m unicipia a lso s hould h ave a dopted t he i us c ivile a s t heir o wn . T o c itizens o f c olon ies w ith t he i us I talicum s ome s tatutes m ay h ave a pplied w hich o therwise a pplied o nly t o R oman c itizens i n I taly. T hat R oman p rivate l aw o perated i n L atin c ommunities a s w ell i s m uch m ore d oubtful. T he r elevant s ections o f S alpensa's c harter p robably r epresent o nly i mitation

o f

R oman

l aw

b y

a c ommunity

a nxious

t o

a chieve

c ultural

a ssimilation . B ut a lthough t he i us c ivile d id n ot a pply t o p eregrines i n L atin c ommunities, i mitation o f i t, a s a t S alpensa, m ay w ell h ave b een c ommon a mong t he L atin c ommunities o f S pain . T he c ivil

1 4

S panish c harters c ontain r eferences t o l ocal

a nd

c riminal

c ases.

T he m agistrates

o f

j urisdiction i n b oth

S alpensa a re e nvisaged a s

s upervising m anumissions a nd a ppointing t utors. F inancial d isputes b etween t he c ommunity a nd i ndividual r esidents a t M alaca a re t reated a s am atter f or a l ocal c ourt.

T he C aesarian c harter o f U rso s eems t o h ave p rovided f or a

r elatively w ide

r ange

o f

c riminal

j urisdiction .

A t

S alpensa a nd M alaca

l ocal j urisdiction w as n ot u nrestricted e ven i n t he t ypes o f c ase m entioned. T he m anumissions a t S alpensa w ere n ot t o i nclude m anumissions b y R oman c itizens. A t M alaca, d isputes i nvolving s uns a bove a c ertain l imit w ere t o g o t o t he p roconsul o f B aetica. P owers o f c riminal j t ediction a t U rso w ere p robably e roded d uring t he c ourse o f t he P rincipate. R ome's

a rrogation

o f

a uthority i n

j udicial a ffairs,

e ven b efore t he b eginning o f t he P rincipate , l ack o f

i nterest i n p articular l ocal c oncerns.

t ightened

u nder

t he

P rincipate ,

l ocal

w ell-established

i s a n e xception t o h er g eneral H er c ontrol o f l itigation

m agistrates

c riminal j urisdiction t o t he r epresentatives o f R ome.

c eding

b oth

c iv il

a nd

I n s ome c ases R oman

i ntervention c an b e s een a s d esirable f rom t he p rovincials' p oint o f v iew : d esigned t o b reak a d eadlock w hen a d ispute a rose b etween t wo c ommunities, o r t o p rotect i ndividuals f rom i njustice w hen l ocal m agistrates h ad t he c ommunity's o wn i nterests a t h eart. I ndeed , t he p rovincials t hemselves m ust s ometimes h ave i nvited i ntervention b y a ppealing t o R ome a s a h igher a nd m ore i mpartial a uthority. B ut t hese e xplanations c annot a ccount e ntirely f or R oman e ncroachment o n l ocal j udicial a utonomy. R ome w ould n ot e ntrust t o l ocal m agistrates p rocedures o f c ivil l aw w hereby n ew R oman c itizens w ere c reated.

H er i nterest i n c riminal j urisdiction p robably a rose

f rom c oncern f or o rder a s w ell a s f or j ustice. o fficials t o a djudicate i n d isputes 6 i nterests. 1 A s

r egards

c ivil

j urisdiction ,

a doptions b y R oman c itizens.

S he n aturally w ished R oman

w hich a ffected h er o wn f inancial

R ome

c ontrolled m anumissions

a nd

B oundary d isputes b etween c ommunities w ere ,

n ot s urprisingly, s ettled b y R oman o fficials. T he r estriction o n f inancial d isputes i nvolving t he c ommunity a t M alaca h as a lready b een m entioned. W hen i n A .D . 7 9 a c ollector o f M unigua's r evenues s ued t he t own , t he c ase w as d ecided b y t he p roconsul o f B aetica. B ut R oman o fficials j udged c ivil d isputes b etween i ndividuals a s w ell a s t hose i nvolving c ommunities: c ases w here a c ommunity's o wn i nterests w ere n ot a t s take,

a nd w here t here w ould

p robably h ave b een n o c ompetition b etween c ommunities f or j urisdiction . I n A .D. 1 93 a l awsuit b etween s ome v illagers a nd a l ocal l andowner w as s ettled b y t he p rovincial g overnor o f T arraconensis.

1 05

D isputes b etween c ommunities

a nd t he f iscus w ere a lso d ecided b y R oman r epresentatives. w hich c ame b efore g overnors i n S pain r anged s laves ,

m anslaughter ,

a nd m urder.

C riminal c ases

f rom f raud t o m altreatment

G alba w hen g overnor o f

t ried p eregrines a s w ell a s R oman c itizens o n c apital c harges. e xceptions, w as

t he

o f

T arraconensis W ith s ome

t he m ost n otable b eing f iscal c ases, R oman j urisdiction i n S pain

p reserve

o f

p rovincial

g overnors

a nd

t heir

l egates.

S ince

g overnors a nd l egates g enerally c onfined t heir j udicial a ctivity t o t he c onventus c apitals, p rovincials w ho w ished o r n eeded t o s eek o ut R oman j ustice m ust o ften h ave b een p ut t o c onsiderable t rouble a nd e xpense.

1 7

( v) S ervice t o R ome S ome o f R ome's a dministrative a ctivity t ook p lace i ndependently o f t he l ocal g overnments.

I t d id n ot a ffect t heir m anagement o f i nternal a ffairs,

n or d id i t d irectly i nvolve t heir s ervices. T he c ommunities d id n ot p lay a ny i mmediate p art i n t he m aintenance o f p eace, o r i n t he a dministration o f p ublic p roperty a nd i ndirect t axes. B ut i n o ther a reas o f a ctivity R ome c alled , f or h er o wn p urposes, o n t he s ervices o f l ocal a uthorities. T hus t hey p aid t axes t o R ome, f urnished r ecruits f or t he R oman a rmy, a nd p erformed o ther f unctions w hich f acilitated R ome's T he e xistence o f t hese o t he p rovincials' a utonomy.

g ations

a dministrative t ask.

c onstituted a n i mportant

d iminution o f

S ome c ommunities w ere e xempt f rom s ome o f t hese d uties.

I n c olonies

w ith i mmunity o r t he i us I talicum b oth t he c itizens a nd t he l and w ere f ree f rom t axation ,

a nd t he l ocal a uthorities w ere t hus a bsolved f rom a ny

o bligation t o c ollect t axes o n t hese. T hese s ame p rivileges m ay a lso h ave e ntailed f reedom f rom o ther d uties, s uch a s r oad-building , w hich e ntailed f inancial e xpense.

F rom t he o bligations

c onnected w ith

t he

p ublic p ost,

h owever , t here c an h ave b een n o s pecial e xemptions: e ven I talian t owns w ere s ubject t o t his d uty. I f t he S panish c olonies w ith t he i us I talicum m aintained t o H adrian t hat t hey s hould b e r elieved o f t he b urden o f m ilitary r ecruitment, t heir c laim d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een t aken s eriously b y t he R oman g over n ment. 1 9 F urther , i n d ischarging t he d uties i mposed , s ome c ommunities m ay h ave e njoyed g reater f reedom t han o thers. I t i s l ikely t hat R oman a nd L atin s tatus

t ended

t o

e ntail

a l esser

d egree

o f

s urveillan g

f rom R oman

o fficials, s o l ong a s t he r equisite f unctions w ere p erformed.

( vi) F ormal s tatus a nd a utonomy R oman c olonies T he c harters w hich c olonies r eceived f rom R ome a t t heir f oundation w ere p robably n ot b inding o n t he c ommunities a gainst t heir w ill.

O n t he o ther

h and, c olonies w ere, n o l ess t han o ther c ommunities, s ubject t o a ny r egulations w hich t he R oman g overnment w ished t o a pply t o t hem . T hus t he A ugustan

r estriction

o n

t he

a ppointment

o f

p atrons

a pplied

t o

t he c olony

U rso, a nd i ndeed b ecame e nshrined i n U rso's c harter. N or d id c olonies, a s s uch , e njoy a ny s pecial s cope f or e nterprise i n l ocal a dministration , o r a ny p rotection f rom i nterference i n t heir a ffairs. p rivileged,

C olonies, u nless s pecially

o wed t o R ome t he s ame s ervices a s o ther c ommunities, b eing

1 06

d istinguished,

i f a t

a ll,

p rovincial o fficials. R ome

i n

t he

o nly

b y a g reater

T he r ecords o f c uratores

i nternal

f inancial

a dministration

f reedom f rom c ontrol

b y

s how t hat i nterference b y

o f

c olonies

w as

c onsidered

r easonable. I t d oes n ot n ecessarily f ollow , h owever , t hat R ome i ntervened f rom s elfish m otives; n or i ndeed t hat t he c uratores w ere i nstituted w ithout t he c onsent o 2 t he c ommunities c oncerned. C olonial s tatus d id n ot d eter 1f rom a ttempting t o i nfluence a c ommunity's a ppointment o f n ew e mperors 2 c itizens. A lthough

U rso's

c harter

c ontains

i ndications

j urisdiction w as e xercised b y l ocal m agistrates, R ome's

a ttitude

a t t he t ime o f t he c olony's

t hat t his

e xtensive

c riminal

p robably

r eflects

o riginal f oundation ,

a nd d oes

n ot p oint t o a ny s pecial j udicial a utonomy a llowed t o c olonies u nder t he P rincipate. I n s ome r espects c olonies, b eing c ommunities o f R oman c itizens, e njoyed e ven l ess j udicial a utonomy t han L atin o r p eregrine c ommunities. T hey w ere p robably o bliged t hemselves t o e mploy t he R oman i us c ivile.

T heir c itizens c ould n ot

u nder t he s upervision o f w ere

a lso

R oman

c arry o ut a doptions o r m anumissions

l ocal m agistrates.

c itizens

n ecessarily

T he f act t hat t heir c itizens

p recluded

t he

e xecution

o f

c apital

s entences b y t he c ommunitY.22 C olonies

w ith

i mmunity

o r

t he

i us

I talicum

c onstitute

t he

c learest

e xample o i 7 c ommunities w hose f ormal s tatus s ecured f or t hem a c ertain f reedom o f a ction.

T hose w ith t he i us I talicum m ay h ave b een a ble t o

c laim, i f t hey s o d esired, a g eneral e xemption f rom d irection b y t he p rovincial g overnor. I n a ddition , i mmunity i tself e ntailed s ome f reedom , i n p ractice , f rom t he a ttentions o f p rovincial o fficials. I mmunity m ay a lso h ave b rought a bout u nusual l atitude i n t he m anagement o f l ocal a ffairs. R ome's r estricted f inancial i nterest,

t hat i s,

p erhaps m ade p ossib le a m ore

e nergetic e xploitation o f p rivate w ealth f or l ocal p urposes: t he i mmune c olony B arcino i s n otable f or t he e xpenses i mposed o n s eviri b y t he l ocal a uthorities. N either t he i us I talicum n or i mmunity, h owever , g uaranteed c omplete e xemption f rom f inancial o bligations t o R ome. C uratores a re a ttested i n t hree S panish c olonies w hich w ere i mmune f rom t axation ; c uratores

a nd a t l east o ne o f t hese, E merita , h ad t he i us I talicum . T hese d o n ot s how t hat R ome w as p rotecting h er o wn ( limited) f inancial

i nterests;

n or

i nterference

i n

t hat

t he

i nternal

c olonies

a ffairs

i n

c oncerned

w ere

c ontravention

o f

f orced t heir

t o

a ccept

w ishes

-or -

t heir r ights. A s i n t he c ase o f c olonies i n g eneral, t he p resence o f c uratores i ndicates R oman c oncern a bout t he m anagement o f l ocal f inance; b ut i t t hrows n o l ight o n t he g rounds f or R ome's c oncern, o r o n l ocal a ttitudes t o t he a ppointment o f c uratores. I t i s c lear , h owever , t hat a gain a s

i n t he

p erhaps

t hn l ocal

c ase

o f

c olonies

g overnments

i n g eneral a s

w ell,

-the R oman g overnment, -

a nd

c onsidered s uch i nterference

r easonable.

R oman m unicipia T here i s n o s urviving e xample o f a c harter i ssued t o aR oman m unicipium i n S pain ;

a nd i t i s i n a ny c ase i mprobable t hat c ommunities w hich r eceived

s uch c harters w ould h ave b een o bliged unwillingly t o a dhere t o t heir p rovisions. T he d istinctive t itles e mployed b y R oman m unicipia s imilarly f ail t o i ndicate e nforced o bedience t o r ules i mposed b y R ome.

1 07

O n t he o ther

h and , R oman m unicipia s eem t o h ave e njoyed n o s pecial p rivileges w ith r egard t o a utonomy i n l ocal a dministration o r s ervice t o R ome, g reater

f reedom

c ommunities.

f rom

s urveillance

t han

A s w ith R oman c olonies,

t hat

s upervise

m anumissions

o r

a doptions

b y

t o

p eregrine

t he a utonomy o f municipia

j udicial m atters w as l imited b y t heir c itizens' s tatus. b ound t o e mploy t he i us c ivile , a nd t heir m agistrates r egards c riminal j urisdiction ,

s ave p erhaps a

a llowed

c itizens

R oman m unicipia,

o f

i n

T hey w ere p robably l acked a uthority t o

t he

m unicipium .

A s

l ike R oman c olonies, h ad n o

4 p ower o f c apital p unishment o ver t heir c itizens. 2

L atin m unicipia T he

c harters

o f

S alpensa a nd M alaca a ppear t o h ave

v oluntarily b y t he c ommunities c oncerned , t o

t hem

d id

m unicipia,

n ot

r equire

R ome's

c onsent.

T he

l ike t hose u sed b y R oman m unicipia,

c ommunities'

o wn

d esire

c olonies a nd m unicipia ,

t o

u nderline

b een a dopted

a nd i t i s l ikely t hat a lterations

t heir

t itles

u sed

b y

L atin

p robably r epresent t he

s uperior s tatus.

L ike

R oman

L atin m unicipia m ay o ften h ave b een t reated a s m ore

r esponsible s ervants o f R ome t han p eregrine c ommunities,

i n r ecognition o f

t heir c ultural s ophistication ( and o f t he p ossession o f R oman c itizenship b y t he g overning c lass).

N o t echnical p rivileges o f a utonomy, h owever , c an b e

d educed e ither f rom t he a ccount o f f inancial

j urisdiction i n M alaca's

c harter o r f rom S trabo's d escription o f N emausus i n G a llia N arbonensis. i n t he c ase o f c olonies a nd R oman m unicipia ,

A s

p rivileged s tatus a ctually l ed

t o a d iminution o f t he c ommunities' j udicial a utonomy,

s ince t he c reation o f

R oman c itizens p er h onorem i n L atin c ommunities t o a n e xtent t ied t he h ands o f

l ocal

m agistrates

e verywhere, s upervise

i n

j udicial

a ffairs.

L ike

l ocal

m agistrates

t hey w ere n ot e ntitled t o i mpose c apital s entences o n,

a doptions

a nd m anumissions

b y,

R oman

c itizens;

R oman c itizens i n q uestion w ere a lso c itizens

o f

e ven w hen

o r t he

t he l ocal c ommunity.

S alpensa's c harter r eflects t he f act t hat m anumis ems w ere b eyond t he c ompetence o f t he l ocal m agistrates.

b y

R oman

c itizens

O ther c ommunities T he

e vidence

f or

t he

a dministration o f

t he

p eregrine

c ommunities

o f

S pain i s s light. N o c ommunity r etained p eregrine s tatus a fter V espasian's g rant o f t he L atin r ight i n A .D. 7 3-4. A lthough t hose p eregrine c ommunities w hich h ad f ree o r f ederate s tatus m ay h ave e njoyed c oncrete p rivileges, o nly t itular d istinctions r emain t o m ark t heir s pecial p osition . P eregrine

c ommunities

t he a ppointment g overnment, p rovincial

o f

a re

f ound

p atrons.

c onforming t o t he A ugustan r estriction o n W hen p erforming s ervices

f or t he R oman

p eregrine c ommunities m ay h ave b een m ore c losely s upervised b y o fficials

t han w as

c ustomary

f or

R oman

a nd

L atin

c ommunities.

P eregrine s tatus p rotected t hem f rom t he r estrictions o n j udicial a utonomy w hich i n R oman a nd L atin c ommunities , a rose f rom t he c omplication o f R oman c itizenship. f reedom w ith p eregrine

T his d id n ot, r egard t o

c ommunities w ere

T arrac gensis w as

h owever,

m ean t hat t hey e njoyed u nlimited

j udicial a ffairs. s ettled

t rying p eregrines

b y o n

R oman

B oundary d isputes b etween o fficials.

c apital

r eign.

1 08

c harges

T he

g overnor

o f

a s e arly a s N ero's

( vii) C onclusion T here i s l ittle t o s uggest t hat p rivileged s tatus e ntailed a n i mportant e xtension o f a c ommunity's a utonomy. R oman o r L atin s tatus d oes n ot s eem t o h ave g iven c ommunities g reater s cope f or e nterprise , o r t o h ave e xempted t hem f rom g eneral r egulations m ade b y R ome. O nly t he i us I talicum ( and p ossibly f ree a nd f ederate s tatus) s eems t o h ave e ntailed a ny t heoretical f reedom f rom R oman s upervision. A utonomy w hich d erived f rom s imple i mmunity w as a p ractical, r ather t han a t heoretical, m atter. I f t heoretical i ndependence w as i ndeed a c omponent o f t he i us I talicum , i t w as s ometimes d isregarded; a lthough t his m ay h ave o ccurred o nly w ith t he c onsent o f t he c ommunity i tself. T he p ersonal s tatus o f t he c itizens o f R oman a nd L atin c ommunities a ctually r estricted t he j udicial p owers o f l ocal m agistrates. R oman a nd L atin c ommunities m ay, b y c onvention , h ave b een t reated a s m ore r esponsible t han p eregrine o nes. B ut t here i s n o r eason t o s uppose t hat t his d ifference i n t reatment e xteaded t o i nternal a ffairs. N ot t hat a ll c ommunities, b oth p eregrine a nd p rivileged , s uffered c onstant i nternal i nterference . I t w as s imply t hat R oman a nd L atin s tatus m ade n o p ractical o r t heoretical d ifference . I nsofar a s R ome f ollowed a p olicy o f l aissez-faire w ith r egard t o i nternal a ffairs, s he a pplied i t i ndiscr iminately t o a ll c ommunities; a nd R oman o r L atin s tatus c onstituted n o p romise o f s pecial t reatment s hould t he p olicy b e a bandoned. F urther , t he c onnexion b etween c ultural s ophistication a nd p rivileged s tatus m eant t hat R aman a nd L atin c ommunities w ere i n s ome r espects m ore d ependent t han o thr .rs o n t he a ttitudes o f t he R oman g overnment. I t w as a m ark o f c ivilisation t hat M unigua a nd S abora w ere r aising l ocal r evenues , a nd t hat P ompaelo w as c oncerned w ith a c omplicated a spect o f m agistrates' f inancial l iability. T he f 9nsequent a uthority o f R ome.

p roblems

r endered

n ecessary

a n a ppeal t o t he

A lthough t he e vidence d oes n ot i ndicate t hat R ome w as i n t he h abit o f i nterfering s pontaneously i n t he a ffairs o f p articular c ommunities, i t d oes s how t hat t here w ere c onsiderable r estrictions o n t he p rovincials' f reedom o f a ction . T hey w ere u nder f inanzial a nd o ther o bligations t o t he R oman g overnment , a nd w ere s ubject t o R om pn j urisdiction : t he j udicial s ubjection i ntensified d uring t he c ourse o f t he P rincipate. E ven i n l ocal a dministration , t heir f reedom w as l imited b y t he R oman g overnment's c oncern f or i ts o wn p erquisites: i nterference i n l ocal f inance a lso t ended t o i ncrease a s t ime w ent o n. T hey w ere d ependent o n R ome f or m ilitary p rotection , a nd b ound t o o bey a ny g eneral r egulations, s uch a s t hat c oncerning t he a ppointment o f p atro n s , w hich R ome c ared t o m ake. T heir h esitancy t o e mbark o n u nusual a ctivity w ithout p ermission s hows t hat t he p ower o f R ome ,

h owever l ittle i n e vidence ,

r emained i n t he b ackground a s a

s erious c heck o n l ocal i nitiative. A lthough R ome m ight a s a r ule a bstain f rom i ntervention , a nd , w hen c onsulted , b e t olerant o f t he c ommunities' a mbitions,

t his d id n ot d etract f rom h er p osition a s f inal a rbiter o f t he

c ommunities' a ffairs. T he s ubjection o f t he p rovincials t o R oman r ule m eant t hat t hey h ad t o t olerate t he p resence o f R oman o fficials, a nd t hat t heir w ell-being w as t o s ome e xtent d ependent o n t he q uality o f t he o fficials w hom R ome p rovided. T he n umber o f R onan o fficials i n S pain i ncreased d uring t he P rincipate , i n c onsequence o f t he e mperors' t ightening c ontrol o ver p ublic p roperty a nd i ndirect t axes. T he e ffects o f t he p resence o f R oman o fficials c ould e xtend b eyond a ny f ormal b usiness w hich t hey h ad w ith a c ommunity o r i ts

1 09

i ndividual

r esidents.

T hey

s erved t o r emind t he p rovincials o f t he

a uthority o f R ome; a nd t hey m ight a lso i ndulge i n i llicit e xactions, a s r egularly o ccurred o n a m inor s cale a t s tations o f t he p ublic p ost. w as n ot o nly h igh—ranking o fficials w ho

d ared

t o g o b eyond

t he

s uch I t

l aw :

t he

8 p resence e ven o f s oldiers g ave c ause f or f ear. 2

I llicit e xactions, a ccomplished t hrough a uthority o r t hreat o f v iolence a lone ,

d id n ot c onstitute t he s um o f m alfeasance o n t he p art o f o fficials.

T heir f ormal p owers g ave t hem o pportunities f or f inancial g ain , i ndulgence

o f

c ruelty

a lso.

p rocurators a re t he b asis a ttested

i n

S pain .

p rocurators

p unishments. i t w as b e

f or t he m ost

s erious

G alba ,

p owers

o f

i nstances

g overnor

c ould

i n T arraconensis,

w as h imself

a nd f or t he

g overnors a nd

o f

m isgovernment

n ot

w ho e xpressed s ympathy f or t he

c ontrol v ictims

g overnors

t he i nnocent. a nd

t ell h ow m uch m isgovernment w ent c oncern g overnors o f

A n umber

t heir s atellites

o f

s uccessful I t

10 1

B ut

p rosecutions i s

o f

i mpossible t o

T he k nown p rosecutions a ll

t he s enatorial p roviyge o f B aetica:

i mperial l egate o r p rocurator i s r ecorded.

o f

a nd b y a b ad g overnor m ight

i s a ttested.

u npunished.

t he

n oted f or h is c ruel

R oman j ustice m ight h ave t he a dvantage o f i mpartiality.

d ifficult o f a ccess w hen o ne n eeded i t,

t urned a gainst

S panish

j uridical

E ven a w ell-meaning

p rovincial p rocurator. N ero's

T he

n o a ttempt o n a n

N OTES:

C H . V I

N OTES ( CHAPTER V I : 1 .

P aternalism i n f inancial m atters: R egulations:

e .g.

C hapter

m embership o f t he o rdo); 2 .

A UTONOMY) n .

I V p p.

c f.

1. 5 5 f f.

( qualifications

f or

A ppendix I V p p. 2 20-3.

S tatus o f t he c ommunities i n A .D . 1 4 : s ee , i n g eneral , P liny N H i ii. 7 f f.; 1 8 f f.; a nd i v. 1 16-8, w ith C hapter I I n .l. R oman c olonies: C hapter I n . 1 0 . Immunity a nd i us I talicum : b elow , n . 4 . R oman a nd L atin m unicipia : C hapter I n . 1. F ree a nd f ederate c ommunities: P liny N H i ii. 7 -8 ; 1 0 ; 1 2; 1 8 ; 2 4 ; 7 6-7 ; a nd C hapter I I n . 1. V espasian 's g rant: A ppendix I II. F ree a nd f ederate c ommunities a nd t he L atin r ight: n . 7 .

3 . 4 .

C olonial c harters a nd t itles: F ormal

g uarantees

G aul , 4 9-2 B .C .);

A ppendix I V .

o f a utonomy : I2 0 5 -23

F IRA I 1 9 X XI

-X XII

( Cisalpine

( Fragmentum A testinum), 4 9 B .C .) ,

T he

g uarantees g iven t o t he c ommunities o f C isalpine G aul w hen t he a rea b ecame p art o f I taly d o n ot n ecessarily c onstitute e vidence f or t he t reatment o f R oman c olonies a nd m unicipia i n t he p rovinces. U rso's c harter ( FIRA I 2 1) c ontains n o r eference t o ag uarantee. O n F IRA I 2 4 L XIX s ee n . 6 . A utonomy

i n s ervice

t o R ome

o f

t owns w ith R oman o r L atin s tatus:

c f. A . v on P remerstein , " Ius I talicum ," R E X 1 238-53 , c ols. 1 248-9 ; a nd C hapter I X f or t he s ervices p erformed. O n S trabo i v . 1 . 2 , C 1 86-7 ( Nemausus) s ee b elow , p . 1 02. I mmunity a nd i us I talicum: w ith t he i us I talicum w ere P ax a nd E merita i n L usitania . V alentia a nd I lici -in T arraconensis ( Dig . L 1 5. 8 p r. ( Paulus), c f. P liny, N H i ii. 1 9); a nd A cci a nd L ibisosa , a lso i n T arraconensis ( Pliny , N H i ii. 2 5). W ith i mmunity, B arcino i n T arraconensis ( Dig. L 1 5. 8 p r ., c f. 4 514 ( A .D . 1 61-80), 4 617). P liny d escribes a s i mmune A stigi, T ucci , I ptuci, U cubi, a nd U rso , a ll i n B aetica ( NH i ii. 1 2). T he d escription i s p erhaps a mbiguous, g iven t hat I lici, a lso c alled i mmune b y P liny, i s l isted i n t he D igest a s h aving t he i us I talicum ( above). P liny's t estimony i n N H i ii. 1 2 a nd i ii. 2 5 d ates t he p rivileges c oncerned t o b efore A .D. 1 4 ( cf. C hapter I I n . 1 ). T he d ate o f p rivileges l isted i n t he D igest i s u ncertain : m ost p robably t hey a lso d erived f rom A ugustus. T he m eaning o f i mmunity a nd t he i us I talicum : v on P remerstein ; S herwin-White , R C , p p. 2 75-7,316-22. C f. n . A pamea: P liny E p. x . 4 7; c f. R E X 1 248 f f.;

1 9 . S herwin=White , R C , p p .

3 20-1. C olonies s ubject t o R oman l egislation : D . N örr , I mperium u nd P olis i n d er h ohen P rinzipatszeit ( Munich, 1 966), p p. c f.

M .

H umbert ,

M unicipium e t c ivitas s ine s uffagio

( Rome ,

2 6-30; 1 978),

p p. 2 96-9. T he A ugustan r egulation a bout t he a ppointment o f,p atrons i s r eflected i n U rso's c harter ( Chapter V n . 3 1). C f. n . 6 o n m unicipia a nd R oman l egislation .

1 11

N OTES : 5 .

M unicipia a nd a malgamation : C harters a nd t itles:

6 .

C H . V I C hapter I I p p. 2 4 f f..

A ppendix I V .

F inancial d isputes i n

M alaca's c harter :

F IRA I 2 4 L XIX ( "Quod

m (unicipum) m (unicipii) F lavi M alacitani n omine p etetur a b e o ,

q ui

e ius m unicipi m unic4 (eps> i ncolave e rit, q uodve c um e o a getur q uod p luris H S C ID s it n eque t anti s it, u t [ de e a r e p roconsulem i us d icere i udiciaque d are e x h ac l ege o porteat: d e e a r e I Ivir p raefectusve ..]"). T he p assage i s i ncomplete, a lthough t he r estoration o f t he r espective a uthority o f p roconsul a nd d uovir i s c onvincing . C ompare t he p ositive a ssertions, i n C isalpine G aul , t hat m agistrates a t R ome h ave n o j udicial r ights i n c ases i nvolving s ums b elow t he s tated a mounts ( n . 4 ). N emausus: S trabo i v . 1 . 1 2 , C 1 86-7 , q uoted i n A ppendix I I n . 1 . V ocontii: S trabo i v . 6 . 4 , C2 03 ; c f. P liny N H i ii. 3 7. M assilia : S trabo i v . 1 . 5 , C 1 81; c f. P liny N H i ii. 3 4 , S herwin-White , R C , p p . 1 89 , 2 001. T aken a t i ts f ace v alue , S trabo's s tatement a bout N emausus s eems u nacceptable : n ot o nly i s i t c ontradicted b y t he f ormal p rovision c oncerning j urisdiction i n M alaca's c harter ; b ut i t w ould a lso p lace s evere t heoretical l imitations o n t he a uthority o f ag overnor i n ap rovince w hich c ontained a n a ppreciable n umber o f L atin c ommunities. A utonomy i n s ervice t o R ome: n . 4 . M unicipia a nd R oman l egislation : N örr , p p . 2 6-30 ; c f. H umbert , p p . 2 96-9 . O n A ul. R C , p p . 3 62-3;

G ell. N A x vi. 1 3. 4 -9 s ee f urther S herwin-White , 4 13-4. T he R aman g overnment m ight o f c ourse b e

w illing t o m ake a llowance f or m unicipal l aws. ( See e .g . U lpian i n D ig. L 5 . 2p r. o n t he m inimum a ge f or o ffice.) I t d oes n ot, h owever, f ollow t hat i t t hereby r enounced i ts r ight t o o verride m unicipal l aws i f i t w ished . ( Cf. U lpian i n D ig . X LVII 1 2. 3 . 5 , w here e xemption f rom a n i mperial r escript c oncerning f unerals i s a dmitted i n t he l ight o f a c ontradictory " lex m unicipalis"; b ut o nly i f t he l ex m unicipalis p redates t he r escript.) 7 .

C ontent o f f ree a nd f ederate s tatus:

A .H.M. J ones,

" Civitates

l iberae e t i mmunes i n t he E ast," i n A natolian S tudies P resented t o W illiam H epburn B uckler , e d . W .M . C alder a nd J . K eil ( Manchester , 1 939), p p. 1 03-17; S herwin-White, R C, p p. 1 74-89. F rom R oman i ncursions o n t he

l ibertas o f f ree c ommunities i t b y n o m eans

f ollows t hat l ibertas i n t heory i mplied n o m ore t han f reedom f rom m ilitary o ccupation ( D. K ienast, " Entstehung u nd A ufbau d es r ömischen R eiches," Z RG l xxxv ( 1968), 3 30-67 , p p . 3 60-2). O n t he p rivileges e ntailed b y G ades'

f oedus

( before ,

i n 4 9 B .C .,

t he t own

b ecame a R oman m unicipium) s ee L ivy x xxii. 2 . 5 ; C ic. P ro B albo ; E . B adian , F oreign C lientelae ( 264-70 B .C .) ( Oxford , 1 958), p p . 18-9 ; S herwin-White , R C , p p. 1 85 , 1 88-9 . R etention o f f ree a nd f ederate s tatus a fter V espasian's g rant: a lthough g rants o f R oman c itizenship s eem t o h ave a bolished a ltogether t he p revious s tatus o f c ommunities ( e.g. S herwin-White , R C , p p. 1 50 f f.), t he s ame d oes n ot n ecessarily h old o f g rants o f L atin s tatus. O n o ne i nterpretation ( above, p . 1 02 a nd n . 6 ) o f S trabo

o n N emausus ,

N emausus d id i ndeed r etain f ederate a long w ith

112

N OTES: L atin s tatus.

C H . V I

H owever , r etention o f t he t itle " free" b y S ingilia i n

B aetica a fter i t r eceived t he L atin r ight C iM(unicipium) F lavium L ib ( erum) S ing(iliense)" , 2 025 ; c f. 2 021) d oes n ot p rove t hat i ts f ormal s tatus w as a lso r etained: t he t itle c ould b e a n e mpty r eminder o f p revious s tatus n o l onger h eld. T he m ost p ersuasive e vidence a gainst t he r etention o f f ree a nd f ederate s tatus i s p rovided b y M alaca's c harter. M alaca , l isted b y P liny a s af ederate t own ( NH i ii. 8 ; c f. C hapter I I n . 1 ), r eceived a c harter a pparently b ased o n a c ommon m odel f or L atin t owns i n g eneral ( Appendix I V n n . 1 0 , 1 5). H owever , t hat c ould p erhaps b e a scribed t o a n e rosion o f M alaca's p rivileges a s af ederate t own , r ather t han t o a n a utomatic l apse o f f ederate s tatus w hen M alaca b ecame L atin . U nusual m agisterial t itles: C hapter I I n . 1. A ll t he i nstances d ate f rom b efore t he F lavian p eriod. 8 .

L ocal a dministration :

C hapters V II -VIII .

9 .

D enial o f m ilitary f orces t o l ocal g overnments:

A ppendix I n .

1 2.

R oman m ilitary f orces: C hapter I p . 1 0 a nd A ppendix I p p. 1 83 f f.. D iscouragement o f u nauthorised a ssemblies: S herwin-White, T he L etters o f P liny , p p. 6 08-9 . A n i nscription f rom H ispalis a ppears t o s how A ntoninus P ius g iving n ecessary p ermission f or t he f ormation o f a c ollegium t here ( 1167 w ith n ote a d l oc.). A g eneral b an o n u nauthorised a ssemblies a ppears i n U rso's c harter ( FIRA I 2 1 C VI); b ut t his c ould m erely e cho R epublican a ttitudes t o t he g overnment o f 1), w R ome ( cf. L ivy x xxix . 1 5 . ithout n ecessarily r epresenting R oman p olicy w ith r egard t o p rovincial g overnment u nder t he P rincipate . S abora's r equest: C hapter V III n . 1 0 . A lthough t he t own m ay a lso h ave h ad f inancial r easons f or c onsulting t he e mperor ( ibid.). 1 0 .

R oman t axes a nd o ther i mpositions: C hapter I X . F or t he R oman g overnment's g eneral a ttitude

t o

f inancial

e xploitation f or l ocal p urposes, s ee e .g. P liny E p. x . 2 4; D ig. X XXIX 4 . 1 0 p r. ( Hermogenianus); L 1 2 ( Ulpian e tc.). L ocal t axation i n S pain : C hapter I II p p. 4 3-4. L ocal m unera: E xtraordinary

C hapter X n . 1 5. e xpenditure i mposed

c ited i n C hapter V n .

o n s eviri:

s ee

2 100 a nd

3 364 ,

2 8 ( "ob h onorem V Ivir(atus) e x d (ecreto)

o rdinis s oluta p ecunia p etente p opulo" ; " ob h onorem V Ivir(atus) s ecundum p etitionem m (unicipum) m (unicipii) .. e x d uplici p ecunia d ecreto o ptimi o rdinis"). O ther d emands f or e xtraordinary e xpenditure : p opulo"). 1.

1 359 ( "petitus a b o rdine");

6 339 ( "petente o rdine e t

F or p rovincial g overnors ( and t heir s taffs) s ee C hapter I p p . 8f f.. S upervisory d uties:

S trabo i ii.

4 .

2 0 ,

C 1 67

( he u ses t he w ord

" gwopay") .Until t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury A .D ., t he o nly s pecific e vidence f or g overnors' o r l egates' i ntervention i n l ocal a dministration i s P ompaelo's a ppeal ( 2959 ( A .D . 19), c f. C hapter X n . 3 ). T hat d epended o n t he t own's o wn i nitiative, a nd t he a ppropriate o fficial w as s ome s eventy k ilometres a way, a t C alagurris. ( For C alagurris , s ee C hapter I n . 2 8 , a nd t he m ap o f

1 13

N OTES:

C H . V I

S pain a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I , D o.) F or

a l ater

v iew

o f

t he

g overnor's

d uties,

w hich

s tresses

r esponsibility f or t he c ommunities' L 1 6 . 7 . 1 ; 1 8 . 7 ( Ulpian): c f.

f inancial w ell-being , s ee D ig . G .P . B urton , " The C urator R ei

P ublicae: 4 74-7 . C uratores:

C hiron i x

T owards a R eappraisal ," 180 ,

c f.

A E 1 965 2 37 ( Arva :

A .D .

( 1979),

4 65-87 ,

e sp.

1 61-9);

A E 1 972 2 50 ,

C IL 2 , 1 115-6 ( Italica: A .D. 2 08-11 a nd t he l ate t hird c entury A .D .); 1 673 ( Tucci: l ate t hird c entury A .D .); 4 84 ( Emerita : n ot e arlier t han S eptimius S everus ( see H übner's n ote a d l oc .)); 1 405 65); ( urso : C ommodus ( ?), c f. H übne es n ote a d l oc. a nd P IR 2 I B 1 6 283 ( Hispalis: d ated b y t he t erminology ( "e(gregius) v (ir)") n ot e arlier t han M . A urelius ( RE V I 3 08)); 4 112 ( Tarraco: b y t erminology ( "praeses") p ost-Diocletianic). F or t he a ppointment o f c uratores b y t he e mperor , s ee B urton , p . 4 66 . S tatus o f c uratores: a ll i n S pain a re e questrian ( 484 i s t he p rovincial p rocurator o f L usitania), s ave 1 405 , w hich a ppears t o r efer t o a l egate ( of t he p roconsul) w ho w as s imultaneously c urator o f U rso ( see H übner's n ote a d l oc.). F unctions o f c uratores: b y a nalogy w ith 115-6 a nd 1 673 , t he U rso i nscription ( 1405) a ppears t o s how t he c urator s upervising t he e rection o f ap ublic s tatue . S ee B urton f or t he l iterature o n c uratores a nd a d oubt t hat, b efore t he f ourth c entury A .D., t hey w ere a s w idespread a s h as b een s upposed. A nother o fficial s upervising t he f inances o f a p articular t own i s t he e questrian " curator k alendarii G aditanorum" m entioned b y U lpian ( Vat. F r. 1 87). T his o fficial p resumably h ad a l ess w ide r ange o f d uties t han a n o rdinary c urator , b eing a ppointed s pecifically t o k eep t he a ccounts o f t he t own ( the G ades). A lthough t he c urator k alendarii w as n ominee o f t he p rovincial g overnor ( Dig. L 8 . I ustus)), i n t his c ase t he m an w as a ppointed b y t he P aternalism a r eason f or t he a ppointment W hite , T he L etters o f P liny , p . 5 27. 1 2.

I ncolae a nd m unera:

C hapter X n .

o f

R oman m unicipium a t s ome t owns a 1 2. 4 ( Papirius e mperor h imself.

c uratores:

S herwin-

1 6.

P ublic d octors a nd t eachers: C hapter V II n . 1 9 . P atrons: C hapter V p . 8 7. I talica's p etition f or c olonial s tatus: C hapter V III n . 1 0 . 1 3.

P ompaelo :

C hapter X n ..3;

c f.

a bove , n .

P etitions f or c itizenship o f c olonies: 1 4.

1 1.

C hapter V n . 6 .

A pplication o f i us c ivile i n R oman c olonies a nd m unicipia: H .F . J olowicz a nd B . N icholas, H istorical I ntroduction t o t he S tudy o f R oman L aw , 3 rd e d. ( Cambridge, 1 972), p p. 7 3-4; 3 47; 4 69-71. ( For c olonies, c f. A ppendix I V p . 2 22.) I us I talicum a nd p rivate l aw : S herwin-White, R C p p. 3 16-22. L atin c ommunities a nd t he i us c ivile:

1 5.

S alpensa :

F IRA I 2 3 X XVIII - X XIX ;

A ppendix I I p p . 2 08-9 . c f.

A ppendix I I p p .

t he i dentity o f t he " Latini" i n X XVIII. a doptions b y R oman c itizens, s ee n .

14 1

1 7.

2 05-6 f or

F or m anumissions a nd

N OTES: M alaca:

C H . V I

F IRA I 2 4 L XIX , q uoted i n n . 6 .

T he c lause c oncerns s uits

b y t he c ommunity t o r ecover m oney f rom a n i ndividual , m uniceps o r i ncola; a nd, m ore g enerally, f inancial d isputes b etween t he c ommunity a nd a n i ndividual , m uniceps o r i ncola. T he f inancial l imit o f t he d uoviri's c ompetence i s n ot s tated i n t he e xtant c lauses o f t he c harter . U rso: F IRA I 2 1 X CV-XCVI , C II; c f. H ardy , T hree S panish C harters, p p. 1 8-9 . W ide p owers o f c riminal j urisdiction w ere a pparently a llowed t o t he I talian t owns i n t he l ate R epublic ( W . S imshäuser , I uridici u nd M unizlpalgerichtsbarkeit i n I talien ( Munich , 1 973), p p. 1 58 f f.). P owers o f c riminal j urisdiction e roded u nder t he P rincipate : 1 6 .

R ome's t ightening c ontrol:

1 6 .

J olowicz a nd N icholas, p . 3 49 .

P rovincials p referring R oman o fficials t o l ocal c ourts: M on 8 15 A -B . 1 7 .

n .

M anumissions a nd a doptions b y R oman c itizens:

S uet.

c f.

G alb .

P lut.

1 0 ( cf.

P lut. G alt. 5 ) s hows G alba p reparing t o p reside o ver m anumissions d uring a c onventus a t C arthago N ova ( A .D . 6 8). C f. S herwin -White , R C , p . 3 30 ; D ig . I1 6 . 3 ; 1 8 . 2 ( Ulpian). B oundary d isputes: A E 1 954 8 8 , c f. A lföldy , F asti, p . -A.D . 1 4); 2 349 w ith A E 1 913 3 ( A .D . 17-38). M alaca : n . 1 5 . M unigua: A E 1 962 2 88 ,

c f. H .

N esselhauf ,

1 34 ( 2 B .C.

" Zwei B ronzeurkunden a us

M unigua ," M DAI(M) i ( 1960) , 1 42-54 , p p. 1 48-54. T he c onductor v ectigalium i n q uestion w as p robably n either a c itizen n or a n i ncola o f

M unigua,

b ut

a c itizen

o f

( Nesselhauf , p . 1 53 f .). L awsuit i n A .D. 1 93: 4 125.

C a me,

s ome

3 0 k ilometres

a way

T hat t he v illagers a nd l andowner

b elonged t o t he s ame c ommunity i s o nly a n a ssumption : i t i s p ossible t hat t hey b elonged t o d ifferent o nes. D isputes w ith t he f iscus: A E 1 973 3 17 , 5 368 ; c f. C hapter I n . 2 9 . C riminal c ases: S uet. G alb. 9 ( fraud , a nd m urder o f a w ard b y a t utor). B aetica ,

C oll. I 1 1. 1 ; D ig. I 6 . 2 ( Ulpian) ( proconsuls o f u nder H adrian a nd A ntoninus P ius r espectively , c onsult t he

e mperor a bout c ases o f m anslaughter a nd c ruelty t o s laves). S uet. G alb . 9 s hows t he g overnor t rying p eregrines o n c apital c harges. F or t he p rotection o f R oman c itizens f rom c apital s entences i mposed b y l ocal c ourts ( and t heir r ight o f a ppeal t o t he e mperor), s ee A .H . M . J ones, " I A ppeal u nto C aesar ," i n S tudies i n R oman G overnment a nd L aw ( Oxford, 1 960), p p. 5 1-65; P . G arnsey, " The L ex I ulia a nd A ppeal u nder t he E mpire ," J RS l vi ( 1966), 1 67-89 ; c f. P . G arnsey , " The C r im inal J urisdiction o f G overnors ," J RS l viii ( 1968), 5 1-9 . O fficials e xercising j urisdiction i n S pain : G overnors a nd l egates a t c onventus c apitals:

C hapter I p p. 8 -9 . C hapter I n . 2 4. F or

d ifficulties i n s ecuring R oman j ustice, c f. G .P. B urton , " Proconsuls, A ssizes, a nd t he A dministration o f J ustice u nder t he E mpire," J RS l xv ( 1975), 1 8 .

9 2-106 , p p . 9 9-102 .

M ilitary f orces , p ublic p roperty , T he c ommunities' s ervice t o R ome :

115

a nd i ndirect t axes: C hapter I X .

A ppendix I .

N OTES: 1 9 .

I mmunity a nd i us I talicum :

C H . V I

f or t he m eaning o f t hese p rivileges, a nd

t he S panish c olonies e njoying t hem , s ee n . 4 . F or t he p ossibility o f s ome t ax-collection i n s uch C hapter I II n . 2 0 . F reedom f rom o ther d uties:

v on P remerstein ,

P ublic p ost:

1 7.

C hapter I X n .

c olonies ,

s ee

1 246 .

O pposition t o m ilitary r ecruitment: S .H.A . H adr. 1 2. 4 ; c f. R . S yme , " Hadrian a nd I talica ," J RS l iv ( 1964) , 1 42-9 ( rpt. i n R oman P apers, I I , 6 17-28), p p . 1 47-9 ; J . G age , "Italica a dlectio': A p ropos d e c ertaines f ormes d u ' ius I talicum ' e n E spagne a u t emps d e T rajan ," R EA l xxi ( 1969), 6 5-84 , e sp. p p . 6 6 f f.; S herwin-White , R C , p . 3 17 n . 4 . T he S paniards, m eeting H adrian a t T arraco i n t he w inter o f A .D . 1 223 , v oiced c omplaints a bout t he m ilitary l evy , t he " Italici" m ore v ehemently t han t he r est ( "Italicis v ehementissime c eteris p rudenter"). H adrian r esponded b y t aking r estrained m easures ( "caute c onsuluit"). I t s eems n ot i mprobable t hat t he " Itali a" r eferred t o a re m embers o f t he S panish c olonies w hich h ad I talicum, a nd t hat t hey c laimed s pecial e xemption f rom r ecruitment o n t he g rounds o f t heir a ssimilation i n s tatus c itizens i n I taly. ( For t he f alling o ff o f r ecruitment i n

t he i us m ilitary t o R oman I taly i n

t his p eriod , s ee G . F orni , I i r eclutamento d elle l egion' d a A ugusto aD iocleziano ( Milan e tc ., 1 953), c h. v .) S .H .A . M arc. 1. 7 p robably h as n o b earing o n m ilitary r ecruitment ( Chapter V n . 1 2). 2 0 .

S ee n . 4 .

2 1

C olonial c harters:

A ppendix I V .

C olonies s ubject t o R oman l egislation :

2 2.

n . 4 .

F reedom f rom c ontrol i n s ervice t o R ome: C uratores: n . 1. A ppointment o f c itizens: n . 1 3.

n • 4 •

C riminal j urisdiction a t U rso :

O n g uarantees o f j udicial

n .

1 5.

a utonomy ( in f inancial c ases) i n C isalpine G aul , s ee n . 4. I us c ivile: n . 1 4. A doptions , m anumissions , a nd c apital s entences: 2 3.

n .

1 7.

I mmunity a nd i us I talicum : n . 4 . E xploitation o f s eviri a t B arcino : O bligations t o R ome: n . 1 9 .

C hapter V n . 2 8 .

n C uratores a t c olonies w ith i mmunity : n . 4 , 1. E merita , U rso , a nd T ucci w ere a ll i mmune , E merita h aving t he i us I talicum . 2 4.

C harters a nd t itles i n R oman m unicipia : F reedom f rom s urveillance :

n . 4 .

R estrictions o n j udicial a utonomy : 2 5.

A ppendix I V .

n n .

C harters a nd t itles i n L atin m unicipia : R esponsibility : n . 4 . M alaca's c harter ; S trabo o n N emausus:

1 4 ,

1 7.

A ppendix I V . n . 6 .

R estrictions e ntailed b y p resence o f R oman c itizens:

116

n n .

1 5 ,

1 7.

N OTES: 2 6 .

C H . V I

V espasian 's g rant: A ppendix I II. F ree a nd f ederate c ommunities: n n . 2 , 7 . P eregrine c ommunities a nd p atrons : C hapter V n . 3 1 1 962 2 87) w as p eregrine a t t he r elevant t ime). C loser s upervision : n . 4 . B oundary d isputes b etween p eregrine c ommunities:

( Munigua

n .

1 7

( AE

( the

L usitanian c ommunities ( AE 1 954 8 8) w ere a lmost c ertainly p eregrine ccording t o P liny's A ugustan s tatistics a t t he r elevant t ime: — a t here w ere n o p rivileged c ommunities i n t he a rea n orth o f t he T agus ( Pliny N H i v . 1 17 , w ith m ap a t e nd o f C IL 2 I I , a nd C hapter I I n . 1 ). P eregrines t ried o n c apital c harges:

n .

1 7.

2 7.

C ultural s ophistication a nd p rivileged 19 f f.; c f. C hapter V III p p . 1 35-6. 1

s tatus:

C hapter

2 8 .

R oman o fficials i n S pain : C hapter I p p. 8 f f.. I llicit e xactions: s ee, i n g eneral, P .A. B runt,

V II p p.

" Charges

o f

P rovincial M aladministration u nder t he E arly P rincipate ," H istoria x ( 1961), 1 89-227. O n t he p ublic p ost, e .g. S . M itchell, " Requisitioned T ransport i n t he R oman E mpire : A N ew I nscription f rom P isidia ," J RS l xvi ( 1976), 1 06-31. S oldiers: G . W ebster , T he R oman I mperial A rmy, P ublicani: 2 9 .

2 nd e d.

( London,

1 979),

p. p

2 61

f.. f

T ac . A nn . x iii. 5 01.

M isuse o f j uridical p owers: T ac. A nn . i v . 1 3 , P liny E p . ii. 9 i ( Vibius S erenus a nd C aecilius C lassicus, g overnors o f B aetica); S uet. G alb . 9 ( Galba , g overnor o f T arraconensis) ; P lut. G alb . 4 ( procurators i n T arraconensis, c f. C hapter I n . 2 9). P rosecutions: A lföldy, F asti, p p. 1 49 ( Vibius S erenus);

1 61

( Baebius M assa a nd G allus); 1 62 ( Caecilius C lassicus , c f. P liny p . ii. 9 . 1 2 f f. f or h is a ssociates). A nother g overnor o f B aetica , i U mbonius S ilo , w as d isgraced n ot f or m altreating t he p rovincials, b ut f or u nsatisfactory b ehaviour t owards t he R oman g overnment ( Dio l x . 2 4. 5 , c f. A lföldy, F asti, p . 1 53). A g overnor o f T arraconensis w as p unished i n A .D . 1 45 ; b ut t hat w as f or a lleged a cts o f t reachery i n t he p rovince , n ot f or m altreatment o f t he p rovincials ( S.H .A . A nt. P . 7 . 4 , c f. A lföldy , F asti , p . 2 8). T he c harge o f m isgovernment i n T arraconensis b rought a gainst C n . C alpurnius P iso i n A .D . 2 0 i s n ot r elevant:

t he f act

t hat i t w as

b rought h ad n o c onnexion w ith a ny

m isgovernment o f t he p rovince ( Tac. A nn . i ii. 1 3 , c f. A lföldy, F asti, p . 1 0 f .). I n T arraconensis i n A .D . 2 5 a l egate w hose b ehaviour w as i ntolerable w as k illed o n t he s pot ( Tac. A nn . i v . 4 5 , c f. A lföldy, F asti , p . 6 7). F or p atronage a nd a ssociations b etween c ommunities a s am eans o f p rotection a gainst R oman o fficials, s ee C hapter V III .

117

C HAPTER V II B UILDINGS A ND S ERVICES

( i)

I ntroduction

O n a m inimal v iew o f l ocal a dministration ,

i t w as t he d uty o f t he

g overnments t o d eter r esidents o f a c ommunity f rom a ntisocial b ehaviour a nd t o s upervise a ny p ublic m oney a nd p roperty.'

T he p erformance o f e ven t hese

b asic f unctions c ould b e c onsiderably c omplex , s hould t here b e al arge a mount o f p ublic p roperty. M oreover , b y a dopting a m ore p ositive a ttitude t o a dministration , t he l ocal g overnments c ould e xtend t heir o wn o bligations. T hey m ight p romote a n i ncrease i n t he a mount o f p ublic p roperty t o b e s upervised , a nd t ake r esponsibility f or p roviding e ntertainments a nd o ther p ublic s ervices. B enefactions b y p rivate i ndividuals c ould c omplicate t he g overnments' r esources. T he

t ask,

c harters

a s

w ell

a ssign

t o

a s

s upplementing t he c ommunities'

t he

o rdo

a n

o verall

c ontrol

p ublic

o f

l ocal

a dministration. T he o rdo i s m ade r esponsible f or p ublic w orks, f or r eligion , a nd f or t he p rovision o f e ntertainments a t p ublic e xpense. R ecords o f a ctivity c onfirm t he p icture g iven b y t he c harters. T he r ole o f t he p opulace i n l ocal a dministration w as e xtremely l imited , a nd m agistrates w ere a llowed l ittle s cope f or p ersonal i nitiative.

I t w as o n t he a uthority

o f t he o rdo t hat p ublic w orks w ere c arried o ut. E ven h onours p aid t o a 9 i ndividual d id n ot c ount a s o fficial p olicy w ithout t he o rdo's c onsent. T he p ower w hich t he o rdo e xercised i n l ocal a ffairs i s r eflected i f t he q ualifications f or m embership o f t hat b ody ; a nd a lso i n i ts p restige. P ublic m oney a nd p ersonnel w ere b oth l imited. T he c hief s ource o f p ublic m oney i n t he S panish c ommunities w as p robably p ublic l and w hich w as r ented o ut. F reedom t o r aise t axes f or l ocal p urposes w as r estricted. G ifts,

l egacies,

a nd f ines w ere n ot r egular s ources o f r evenue.

p ayments f or p ublic o ffice a re n ot w ell a ttested i n S pain ; u ndertaken b y m agistrates a nd p riests

i n c onnexion w ith

t ended t o b e i n k ind r ather t han i n c ash.

4

S tandard

a nd e xpenditure t heir a ppointment

A l arge p roportion o f t he

p ublic m oney m ust h ave g one o n g eneral a dministrative e xpenses s uch a s s alaries f or m enial o fficials a nd t he m aintenance o f p ublic s laves. L ocal o fficials t hemselves h ad g eneral a dministrative d uties, a nd w ere n ot a lways a vailable t o s upervise s pecific p ublic w orks a nd s ervices. I n c onsequence , t he c ommunities w ere h eavily r eliant u pon t he w ealth a nd e nergies o f p rivate i ndividuals,

o r o f m agistrates a nd p riests i nspired o therwise t han b y

o fficial r equirements.

S ince t he

c ommunities w ere

u nable

i n

g eneral

t o

e xact f rom r esidents f inancial e xpenditure , a s o pposed t o p ersonal s ervice , g enerosity h ad t o b e s timulated b y i ncentives o f v arious k inds, a nd o f v arying d egrees o f e fficacy. 5

1 18

( ii) B uildings T he R omans c onceived o f a c ivilised t own a s p ossessing , i n a ddition t o w alls f or d efence a nd t emples f or r eligious w orship, a r ange o f p ublic s tructures

s uch

a s

f ora,

b aths,

a nd

t heatres

f or

t he

s upport

o f

a

c omfortable l ife-style. I t w as p robably n ot u ntil t he e xtensive c olonisation u nder J ulius C aesar a nd A ugustus t hat t he S paniards b egan t o a cquire a f irm c oncept o f R oman t own-planning. E ven t he e ast c oast a nd A ndalusia s eem t o h ave h ad l ittle i n t he w ay o f R oman a rchitecture b efore t he i mperial p eriod . I t w as t he c olonies , l aid o ut a ccording t o p lan a nd e quipped w ith t he b asic a menities, w hich p rovided t he S paniards w ith m odels o f h ow a R oman t own s hould l ook. 6 R oman-style t owns h ad a n a esthetic a ppeal , a nd w ere a lso c omfortable t o l ive i n.

B ut t hey h ad a nother a ttraction a s w ell:

a t own o f R oman

a ppearance s ymbolised a c ommunity's c ultural a ssimilation . M uch o f t he e vidence f or b uildings a nd o ther a menities i n t he S panish t owns d ates f rom V espasian 's r eign o nwards. C ompetition b etween c ommunities m ay w ell h ave b een a n e lement i n t he p rocess. T he d evelopment w as n ot e qually f ast i n a ll a reas. B aetica a nd e astern T arraconensis, t he a reas m ost e xposed t o R oman c ulture u nder t he R epublic, c ontinued u nder t he P rincipate o vershadow t he r est o f S pain i n t heir d egree o f c ivilisation .7

t o

B uilding a ctivity f inanced f rom p ublic m oney i s o nly r arely a ttested , a nd w hen i t t ook p lace t he m oney w as p robably e ked o ut b y t he i mposition o f l abour o n t he l ower c lasses i n t he f orm o f m unera.

N or w ere p ublic

o fficials t o s upervise b uilding a ctivity a lways r eadily a vailable . I n s ome c ases t he d uoviri o f t he y ear a ppear t o h ave t aken r esponsibility f or p ublic c onstructions. B ut o ther i nscriptions s how t hat r ecourse w as h ad t g c uratores, t he d ecurions p erforming t heir s hare o f m unera i n t his c apacity. M any p ublic w orks

d epended o n t he g enerosity o f p rivate i ndividuals.

S uch g enerosity r equired m otivation .

S ome

a llowance

s hould b e m ade

f or

a ltruism , o r a t a ny r ate a d esire t hat t he t own t o w hich o ne b elonged b e p roperl - e quipped . R elatively d isinterested m otives w ill h ave h ad m ost f orce w ith t hose w ho h ad p lenty o f m oney t o s pare; a nd b enefactions o n a l arge s cale f rom l ocal c itizens a re a ttested. A p riestess o f C artima i n B aetica g ave t he t own l and o n w hich t o b uild b aths, a nd s tatues,

a nd e rected c olonnades

a s w ell a s r epairing e xisting c olonnades.

r ichest c itizens t ended t o h ave o ther d emands o n t heir w ealth.

B ut e ven t he O ne o f t he

m ore g enerous l ocal b enefactors w as m oved t o a dorn h is c ommunity b y t he f act t hat h e h ad n o c hildren t o i nherit h is p roperty. A ltruism c ould b e r einforced b y t he f act t hat t he c onstruction o f p ublic b uildings e nabled o ne t o l eave a l arge a nd p ermanent m emorial t o o neself a nd o ne's r elatives. A w oman w ho b uilt a n a queduct a t I lugo i n T arraconensis d id s o i n m emory o f h er h usband a nd s on. F urther i ncentives g overnments t hemselves: t hey m ight r eward s tatue, o r e ven t he t itle " patronus". O n s pecific e xpenditure o f p rivate i ndiviudals:

w ere p rovided b y t he l ocal a b enefactor w ith a p ublic o ccasion t he o rdo d emanded a r ich c itizen o f O retum i n

T arraconensis s pent H S 8 0 ,000 o n ab ridge i n r esponse t o p ublic r equests.

9

E xpenditure u ndertaken b y m agistrates a nd p riests i n c onnexion w ith t heir a ppointment w as a nother s ource o f p ublic c onstructions. B oth s pecific p romises a nd p ublic e xpectations a re o f r elevance t o e xpenses i ncurred

" ob

h onorem".

I t

d oes

n ot

119

a ppear

t hat

m agistracies

a nd

p riesthoods w ere g enerally c onsidered t o b e w orth m ore t han a s tatue o r a n a ltar.

B ut l arger b uildings a re o n o ccasion a ssociated w ith a ppointment:

a n a edile a t C arthago N ova c ommemorated h is e lection b y e recting a s hrine. T he o rdo w as c apable o f d emanding p ublic c onstructions o penly f rom s eviri: t wo s eviri a t A urgi i n T arracepensis b uilt s eats i n t he t heatre o n t he i nstructions o f t he l ocal o rdo. G ifts o f b uildings, w hether s pontaneous o r e nforced , w ere n ot p ure g ain t o t he c ommunity.

B uildings h ad t o b e r epaired ,

f or t he c ost o f u pkeep.

a nd f ew d onors

p rovided

N or w ere b enefactors a s w illing t o r epair e xisting

b uildings a s t hey w ere t o c onstruct n ew o nes. A f resh w ork , e ntirely o ne's o wn , h ad g reater a ppeal; a lthough l arge-scale b enefactors m ight c arry o ut r epairs a s a s ide-line t o t heir m ore m emorable a ctivities.

P ublic b aths

h ad n ot o nly t o b e r epaired f rom t ime t o t ime, b ut a lso h eated d aily. O ne d onor m ade p rovision f or t he h eating a s w ell; o thers d id n ot. A dministrative a rrangements,

a s w ell a s p ublic m oney,

w ere p ut t o t he t est

b y t he a cquisition o f p ublic p roperty. R epairs a nd g eneral s upervision r equired t he a ttention o f a r esponsible p e fon: h ere a lso c ommunities s ometimes r esorted t o a ppointing c uratores.

( iii)

E ntertainments

T heatres, a mphitheatres, a nd c ircuses w ere p ointless p ossessions u nless t hey w ere p ut t o s ome u se. w ere o f R oman o rigin :

E ntertainments,

t he c olony U rso ,

l ike t he b uildings t hemselves,

a nd p robably o ther t owns a s w ell ,

e ven c opied R oman r egulations f or s eating a rrangements. t he p ublic f unds a re e vident h ere a lso.

T he l imitations o f

E ntertainments w hose f ull c o3t w as

p aid o ut o f p ublic m oney a re r arely r ecorded.

A n i nscription f rom C astulo

i n T arraconensis i s u nusual i n m entioning t he g iving o f g ames i n t he c ircus a t p ublic e xpense. p erformances,

A t U rso ,

w here p rovision w as p ublicly m ade f or r eguiar

a s tatute i mposed m uch o f L he c ost o n t he a nnual m agistrates.

D uoviri a nd a ediles a t U rso w ere a llowed a c hoice b etween g ames i n t he c ircus a nd t heatrical s hows.

O ther t owns,

h ave i mitated t he p ractice a t U rso.

s uch a s C armo i n

B aetica,

m ny

1 2

P rivate i ndividuals c ommonly g ave e ntertainments t o m ark t he c ompletion o f s tatues a nd o ther w orks w hich t hey h ave c onstructed f or t he c om mnity. I n c ontrast t o t hese o ccasional p erformances, a t estator a t B arcino p rovided f or t he a nnual c elebration o f g ar .-s i n t he t own . d id t he s ame.

A nother a t E busus

1 3

00-= e ntertainments w ere p aid f or b y l ocal p riests, w ho u ndertook t hem i n r ecognition o f t heir o wn a ppointment. L ike p rivate i ndividuals, p riests o ften m ade

g ames

o r s hows

a n a ccompaniment

t o t he

d edication o f

s tatues.

B ut a p riestess o f A stigi i n B aetica g ave s eparate c ircus g ames " ob h onorem s acerdoti", a s w ell a s o nes t o m ark t he d edication o f a s tatue.

1 4

G ames a nd s hows f requently h ad r eligious c onnotations. T hose g iven b y t he m agistrates a t U rso w ere t o b e i n h onour o f t he R oman g ods. T he r eligious c onnotations o f e ntertainments m ade t heir c elebration b y p riests, " ob h onorem" , p articularly a ppropriate.

1 5

1 20

( iv) T he

a ssumption

t hroughout U rso's

o f

p ublic

c harter.

R eligion

r esponsibility

f or

r eligion

i s

c lear

E lsewhere i t i s p roved b y t he w idespread

e xistence o f m unicipal p riesthoods,

i n t he g ift o f

t he c ommunity a nd

c onferring a s ense o f o bligation t o t he c ommunity a s aw hole. S ome p riests w ere a ttached t o p articular d eities , w hile o thers w ere c harged w ith a m ore g eneral r esponsibility f or r eligious a ffairs. R eligion h ad a n i mpact o n t he s ocial l ife o f t he c ommunity, i nvolving a s i t d id e ntertainments, s acrifices , a nd f estivals i n t he g ods' h onour. I t h ad a p olitical a spect a s w ell. A n i nscription f rom A cinipo i n B aetica s uggests t hat r eligious r ites a ccompanied m eetings o f t he p opular a ssembly t here.

1 6

T o p ublic r esponsibility f or t raditional R oman r eligion w as a dded r esponsibility f or t he i mperial c ult. W orship o f t he t raditional g ods s erved a s a s ymbol o f c ivilisation a nd p erhaps a lso a s a s ource o f c onfidence t o s ome c itizens. T he i mperial c ult i ntroduced a m ore p owerful m otivation . T o p ractise i t w as t o d emonstrate t he c ommunity's l oyalty t o R ome i n g eneral , a nd t o t he c urrent d ynasty i n p articular . T he S panish c ommunities w ere q uick t o r espond t o, a nd e ven t o a nticipate, t he d eification o f e mperors a nd t heir f amilies. S o f ar a s p ublic r eligion w ent, t he i mperial c ult o vershadowed t he w orship o f t he t raditional R oman g ods i n S pain . S pain d erived f rom R ome n ot t he i mperial c ult a lone, b ut a lso t he d etails o f i ts o rganisation. A lthough f ree-born p riests w ere o ften i nvolved i n t he i mperial c ult,

t he i nstitution o f

t he s eviri

e ngaged t he

s ervices o f f reedmen s pecifically i n t hat c onnexion. T he c ult o f L ares A ugustales, w hose m agistri w ere a lso f reedmen , w as a nother i nstitution b orrowed f rom I taly . I t h ad m ade i ts w ay t o S pain a s e arly a s T iberius' r eign .1 7

( v)

O ther s ervices

T wo f eatures o f l ife i n c ivilised c ommunities w ere p ublic b anquets a nd d istributions o f m oney. B anquets w ere g iven b y p rivate i ndividuals, a nd a lso b y p riests i n c elebration o f t heir a ppointment. C ommunities t hemselves s ometimes p aid f or b anquets, w hich t hey u sed a s am eans o f r ewarding n otable b enefactors. B oth b anquets a nd s portulae t ended t o i nvolve d istinctions o f s ocial s tatus, d ecurions b eing s eated a part f rom t he r est o f t he p opulation a t b an vets, a nd r eceiving l arger a mounts o f m oney o n t he o ccasion o f s portulae.

l ö

I n a ddition ,

c ertain o ther s ervices a re

s poradically a ttested. P ublic d octors a nd t eachers a re f ound i n s ome c ommunities, a nd t here a re a lso r eferences t o p ublic d istributions o f c orn . T he R oman g overnment f rom V espasian's

r eign o nwards

e ncouraged t he

i nstitution o f p ublic d octors a nd t eachers i n t he m unicipalities, b y g ranting t hem i mmunity f rom t axation . T here i s o nly a s ingle c ase o f a s alaried p ublic t eacher i n t he S panish t owns; a lthough o thers a re a ttested w orking i n a p rivate c apacity. T he g rammaticus a t T ritium i n n orthern T arraconensis p erhaps r eceived a s alary b ecause i t w as d ifficult o therwise t o a ttract a g rammaticus t o s o r emote a s pot. C orduba a nd S aguntum , b y c ontrast , c ould a fford t o r ely u pon p rivate e nterprise. D octors, o n t he o ther h and , m ay h ave b een l ess n umerous; a nd t heir s ervices m ore h ighly

1 21

v alued. C or Nba h ad a s alaried p ublic d octor , i n L usitania.

a s d id t he c olony P ax I ulia

I mmunities g ranted t o d octors a nd t eachers, a nd t he c ommunities' p ayment o f s alaries t o t hem , a re n o e vidence t hat t he R oman a nd l ocal g overnments w ere c oncerned f or t he h ealth a nd e ducation o f t he p oorer c lasses w ithin t he c ommunities. T he s alaries d id n ot m ean t hat t he p oorer c lasses , w ho c ould n ot a fford t o p ay, r eceived t he s ervices o f d octors a nd t eachers f or n othing . D octors a nd t eachers c harged f ees o n t op o f t he s alary, w hose f unction w as o nly t o r etain t heir s ervices f or t he r esidents o f t he t own . T he R oman g overnment d id n ot g rant i mmunity t o e lementary s chool t eachers; a nd a uammaticus w as o f n o u se t o c hildren w ho h ad n ot r eceived a n e lementary e ducation . S alaried p ublic d octors a nd t eachers s b etray t he d ecurions' c oncern f or t he w ell-being o f t heir o wn s ; a nd t he i mmunities R ome's d esire t hat t he g overning c lass b e c ontent. F rom a n umber o f S panish t owns c ome r ecords o f d istributions o f c orn t o t he c itizens, f ree o r a t a s ubsidised r ate. T he i dea o f r ich m en's p roviding c orn i n t imes o f s hortage m ay b e o ne t hat c ould h ave a risen s pontaneously i n a ny c ommunity , w ithout b eing d erived f rom e lsewhere . O n t he o ther h and , p ermanent p ublic f unds t o b uy c orn a re a m ore s ophisticated p henomenon , a nd a ppear t o r equire f urther e xplanation . I t s eems p robable t hat t he c oncept w as n ot o f l ocal o rigin , b ut d erived f rom R ome. P ermanent f unds a re a ttested o nly f or t he L usitanian c olony P ax I ulia , a nd f or i psca n t he p rovince o f B aetica. 2 1 ( and p ossibly I psca's n eighbour O bul u,) i I t h as b een a rgued t hat d istr'butions o f c orn w ere n ot t ypically d esigned t o b enefit o nly t hose i n g reatest n eed , b ut r ather c ould b e e njoyed b y a ll c itizens e qually. N one o f t he S panish i nscriptions p roves t hat t he d istribution w as r estricted t o p oorer c itizens.

I t m ight b e s uggested t hat

i t w as o tiose t o p rovide t he r icher c itizens w ith c orn , s ince t hey w ould b e l andowners w hose e states c ould p roduze s ufficient c orn , e ven i n t imes o f s hortage. H owever , i t w as n ot n ecessarily t he c ase t hat w ealth w as a lways i nvested i n c orn-producing l and , o r t hat t he p ossession o f c orn-producing l and w as a lways a dequate p rotection a gainst a f amine. M oreover , t he o tios_ f c haracter o f d istributions i ncluding t he r ich w ould c onstitute n o a rgument t hat t hey d id n ot t ake p lace. D ecurions a ppear t o h ave b een e ager r eceive t heir s hare o f 9 9ortula-, e ven t hough t he s ums o f m oney c oncerned w ere r elatively t rivial. N evertheless, e ven w ithout d iscrimination b etween r ecipients,

t he v alue

o f d istributions w ould t end t o b e g reater f or a p oor m an , w ho h ad l ess m oney t o b uy c orn w hen i t b ecame s carce a nd p rices r ose. T o t his e xtent c orn d istributions c an b e s een a s e specially b enefiting t he p oorer c lasses. A lthough

s ome

o f

t he

S panish

i nscriptions

r ecord

p rofit

b y

c itizens

( or

r esidents) i n g eneral , o thers s uggest t hat t he l ower c lasses i n p articular 3 b enefited , a nd d uly d isplayed t heir g ratitude .2 I n s pite o f t his , c orn d istributions a re n ot i mpressive a s e vidence o f o fficial c oncern f or t he p oor , a nd p ublic p rovision f or t hem . T hey a ppear t o h ave b een r estricted t o t he a griculturally p oorer a reas; l east w ere i nspired b y a n u nusual s hortage a t t he t ime.

a nd s ome a t

N o p rovision w as

m ade w here n eeds w ere l ess s erious; a nd i nsofar a s p ressure w as a pplied t o p rivate b enefactors , i t m ay h ave c ome r ather f rom t he p lebs t han f rom t he o rdo. O nly t he p ermanent p ublic f unds f or b uying c orn r eveal a s erious o fficial c oncern , a nd a w illingness o n t he p art o f t he o rdo t o d evote p ublic

1 22

m oney t o t he p urpose.

E ven t he f ew p ermanent p ublic f unds w ere e ked o ut b y

c ontributions o f c ash f rom i ndividuals. L ike o ther f eatures o f t he a dministration , t he c orn s upply , w here i t e xisted, r elied o n a ssistance f rom p rivate w ealth.

( vi)

C onclusion

T he a menities w ith w hich t he c ommunities p rovided t hemselves w ere s uch a s t o p romote a s tyle o f l ife w hich w as a greeable a nd c ivilised. T he c ivilisation w hich a ppealed w as o f s pecifically R oman c haracter: i t c onferred d istinction , o ver a nd a bove i ts i ntrinsic m erits. L ocal a ctivity i n t his

d irection p resupposed t he p rivate p ossession o f w ealth s ufficient

f or c omfortable s ubsistence i ndependently o f w hat w as p ublicly p rovided. I t w as n ot g enerally c onsidered t hat t he a ssistance o f t he p oor w as a p ublic c oncern . A f ail w-e t o a ssist t he p o.r i s p artly t o b e e xplained i n t erms o f t he c oncentratio l

c l p ower i n t he o rdo's h and .

I t w as n atural f or t he o rdo t o

f avour te h i n eLests o f is t on w m embers. Sm i ilar s es os b er wbie fishness i i n t he d ecurions' e xploitation o f s eviri a nd o ther r ich m en o utside t he o rdo. M ore g enerally , e ven w here s elfish m otives w ere i rrelevant , h e a mbitions w hich t he o rdo h ad f or t he c ommunity r eflected t he c onceptions o f g ood e ntertained b y w ealthy m en o f t he u pper c lass. 25 E ven t he r ichest t owns w ere h eavily r eliant u pon p rivate w ealth. I f p ublic b uildings w ere a n i mportant f eature o f c ivilised c ommunities t hat w as n ot o nly b ecause t hey a ppealed t o t he t : ipe o f m en w ho c onstituted t he o rdo. I t w as i n p art b ecause t hey a ppealed t o t he t ype o f p eople -m any o f t hem d ecurions a cting i n ap rivate c apacity -who c ould a fford t o c onstruct t hem a t t heir o wn e xpense. D ependence o n t he g enorosity o f b enefactors h ad t he d isadvantage t hat t he o rdo c ould n ot n ecessarily c ontrol t he d irection w hich g enerosity t ook. T hat w as p erhaps h ow C astulo i n T arraconensis c ame t o h ave a t heatre w hile t he t own w alls w ere d ecaying a nd h ad n ot b een r epaired. 2 6 T he

a vailability

o f

p ublic

a nd

p rivate

m oney

n aturally

v aried

f rom

p lace t o p lace. C orduba m ay h ave o wned e xtensive p ublic l and w hose r evenues a ssisted t he s upport o f a l arge n umber o f p ublic s laves. C olonies l ike C orduba p erhaps t ended t o b e b etter s upplied w ith p ublic l and t han o ther t owns,

a p ortion o f t he t erritory b eing d efined a s p ublic p roperty a t

t he t ime o f t heir f oundation . B ut o ther t owns ( Munigua i n B aetica m ay b e a n e xample) m ust h ave o wned p ublic l and : i ndeed , i t w ould b e p lausible t o s uppose t hat i n m any c ommunities s ome l and o f r elatively p oor q uality h ad n ever g one i nto p rivate o wnership. C orduba w as a lso i n a n e xtremely f ertile l ocation : t he s ize a nd f ertility o f i ts t erritory w hich S trabo p raises a re r elevant t o t he a vailability o f p rivate , a s w ell a s p ublic , w ealth. A l arge a nd r ich t erritory i ncreased t he p robability o f t here 7 b eing w ealthy c itizens w ith m oney t o s pend o n b enefactions t o t he t own .2 S o

d id

a s ituation w hich

p rofitability

o f

t he

e ncouraged

s eviri a t

t he

d evelopment

B arcino m ay h ave

o f

t rade:

b een d ue i n p art

t he t G

f lourishing m ercantile a ctivity i n t he t own . T he i mmunity o f B arcino f rom R oman t axation c ould h ave e ncouraged m ore g enerous p ublic s pending b y i ts c itizens. I t c ertainly a ttracted r ich m en f rom e lswhere , a nxious t o s ecure a dlection a s c itizens a nd d isplaying a ppropriate g ratitude. 2 8

1 23

A lthough t he g eneral c haracter o f a ctivity, r ecords,

w as c ommon t o a ll c ommunities,

v aried.

U nprivileged

c ommunities

d egrees

o f

a s

i t a ppears

i n t he

c ultural s ophistication

i n L usitania

a nd

B aetica w ere b y

C laudius' r eign d emonstrating t heir l oyalty t o t he e mperor , a nd d isplaying a c lear c onception o f p ublic p roperty. B ut i t w as n ot u ntil V espasian's r eign t hat p ublic b uildings a nd s ervices a long R oman l ines b ecame w idespread i n

S pain.

E ven a fter

t hat

d ate

c ultural

d evelop

wt

t ended

t o

b e

r estricted t o t he m ore a ccessible a reas o f t he p eninsula. V espasian's r eign a lso b rought t he i ntroduction o f i mmunities f or p ublic d octors a nd t eachers; e nergies

o f

w hile t he c ommunities'

r ight

i ncolae w as e stablished b y t he e nd o f H adrian 's

t o

e xploit t he

r eign .

B oth

t hese i nnovations h elped t o i ncrease t he s cope a nd i ntensity o f l ocal a ctivity. p rocess

i s

T hat s ome c ommunities o verstretched t heir r esources i n t he s uggested

b y

t he

a ppearance

o f

i mperial

c uratores

a t

S panish

t owns t owards t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury A .D.. T he f act t hat s uch c uratores a ppear m ainly a t c olonies i n S pain i s n ot n ecessarily s urprising. M unicipal a ctivity t ended t o b e i nflationary: g reater

c osts

o f m aintenance,

a nd a m ore d ispersal o f b enefactors' w ealth. 3°

1 24

m ore p ublic b uildings m eant c omplex

l ife-style

a w ider

N OTES:

N OTES

1 .

( CHAPTER V II :

B UILDINGS A ND S ERVICES)

Antisocial b ehaviour: e .g. F IRA j urisdiction , s ee C hapter X p . 1 6 T : ) P ublic m oney a nd p roperty : L XVIII .

2 .

C H . V II

I 2 1

L XXIII,

e .g. F IRA I 2 1 L XXX

L XXIV.

L XXXII ;

( For

2 4

L XVII ,

P ublic w orks: F IRÄI 2 1 X CVIII , X CIX . R eligion : F IRA I 2 1 L XIV , C XXVIII ; c f. L XIX . E ntertainments:

F IRA I 2 1 L XX .

R ole o f p opulace a nd m agistrates: C hapter X p p. P ublic w orks c arried o ut o n a uthority o f o rdo : 3 557 , 6 021; c f. n n . 8 , 1. L (oco) d (ato) d (ecreto) d (ecurionum):

C IL 2 I I ,

1 63-7. 3 167 , 3 425-6 , I ndex , p .

3 541,

164 .

C hapter I V p p. 5 5 f f..

3 .

Q ualifications a nd p restige:

4 .

T he c learest r eference t o p ublic l and o wned b y t he c ommunity i n S pain i s F IRA I 2 1 L XXXII ( Urso); c f. 2 242 ( Corduba). O ther r eferences t o p ublic l and p robably s ubsist u nder c over o f t he w ord " vectigalia" : F IRA I 2 1 L XV ( Urso); I 2 4 L XIII ( Malaca); A E 1 962 2 88 ( Munigua , A .D. 7 9); C IL 2 1 956 ( Cartima). F or t he p ossible m eanings o f " vectigalia" i n t hese c ontexts, a nd f or l ocal t axation , s ee C hapter I II p p . 4 3-4. A c ommunity m ight o wn b uildings w hich c ould b e r ented o ut,

a s w ell a s l and :

f or e xample t he s hops p resented t o

O bulco ,

p resumably a s a s ource o f r evenue , i n 2 129 ( cf. A ppendix I n . 3 9). C harges f or t he u se o f t he w ater-supply w ould b ring i n s ome m oney ( 1643 ( Iliturgicola e t I polcobulcola , A .D . 1 39-61); c f. F IRA I 2 1 C ). G ifts o f m oney: 3 270 ( Castulo : f rom a p rocurator A ugusti , c f. n . 2 6). ( See C hapter V III p p. 1 33-4 f or b enefactors f rom o utside t he t own.) L egacies: 3 167 ( an u nidentified t own i n s outhern T arraconensis). F ines: F IRA I 2 1 p assim ( although i n s ome c ases t heir u se m ight b e r estricted t o c ertain p urposes, i bid . L XV); XVI; 2 4 L VIII , L XI, L XVI , L XVII. X P ayments f or p ublic o ffice: C hapter V p p. 8 2; 8 3-4 ; 8 5 f f.. F or t he d istinction b etween s tandard a nd " ob h onore e p ayments, C hapter V n . 1 9 . 5 .

S alaries f or m enial o fficials:

2 3

s ee

c f. F IRA I 2 1 L XII.

P ublic s laves a re w idely a ttested ( CIL 2 I I , I ndex , p . 168). I t d id n ot n ecessarily c ost a nything t o a cquire t hem , s ince t hey m ight r eproduce t hemselves ( compare 4 325 , 6 071, w ith 2 229); a lthough t he m aintenance o f s lave c hildren w ould h ave i nvolved e xpense ( cf. B runt , I talian M anpower, p . 1 43). 1 423 ( the i nscription o n b ronze o f V espasian 's l etter t o S abora) p rovides a n e xample o f a n i ncidental a dministrative e xpense. C ommunities u nable t o e xact f inancial e xpenditure: C hapter V I p p . 1 03-4 . 6 .

R oman c onception o f a c ivilised t own :

M .W . F rederiksen ,

" Changes i n

t he P atterns o f S ettlement," i n H ellenismus i n M ittelitalien , 1 25

e d .

P .

N OTES: Z anker ( Göttingen , V itruvius, ( iii-iv), p roceeds t heatre

1 976),

C H . V II

I , 3 41-55 ,

i n D e a rchitectura v ,

3 41.

P .

h aving d iscussed t emples s eparately

d escribes t he " publicorum l ocorum

d ispositiones".

f rom t he f orum a long w ith b asilicae a nd c uria ( 3-9),

b aths

( 10-1),

w alls,

a nd h arbour

( 12 ,

H e

( 1-2) t o t he

c f.

i 4f f.).

C ompare t he l ist i n i 3 . R oman a rchitecture i n S pain : ( Madrid,

1 947);

R .

B .

T aracena A guirre, A rs H ispaniae,

T houvenot,

E ssai s ur l a p rovince

I I

r omaine

d e B gtique, 2 v ols. ( Paris, 1 940-73). S ome o f t he m ore r ecent a rchaeological e vidence i s c ollected i n t he v olumes o f t he C arta a rqueologica d e E spana. C f. A . G arcia y B ellido , " Esculturas hispano-romanas d 'archbologie,

d e

epoca

r epublicana, "

d 'gpigraphie e t d 'histoire o fferts

in

e d. J . H eurgon , G . P icard, a nd W . S eston ( Paris, 1 966), c ataloguing R oman s culpture o f R epublican d ate i n S pain . C olonies

a s m odels:

J .B.

W ard-Perkins,

Mélanges

J greme C arcopino , p. p

4 19-31,

t o

E mpire:

" From R epublic

R eflections o n t he E arly P rovincial A rchitecture o f t he R oman W est," J RS

l x ( 1970),

a rchitecture

1 -19, a ssociates t he a bsence o f R epublican R oman

i n t he w estern p rovinces w ith

t he

f act t hat R ome m ade

f ew n ew u rban f oundations t here u ntil t he t ime o f J ulius C aesar a nd A ugustus. T he R oman t own-planning d isplayed b y t he n ew f oundations c ould a lso b e a s ource o f i nspiration t o o ther c ommunities. R oman c olonies 1 0.

( and n ative

f oundations)

J ulius C aesar a nd A ugustus

c olonies

i n

S pain ,

a s

s ee

f ounded u nder

E .T .

S almon ,

O n

s ee C hapter I n .

b etween t hem f ounded

o pposed t o f our

F or t own-planning i n c olonies,

i n S pain ,

t wenty-one

t he

R epublic.

R oman C olonization

u nder t he R epublic ( London , 1 969), p p. 2 7-8. S trabo's r emark a bout P ax I ulia, E merita , a nd C aesaraugusta m ay h ave b een i nspired i n p art b y t he p hysical a ppearance o f t hose c olonies ( iii. 2 . 1 5 , C 1 51; c f. C hapter I n . 1 8). N ative t owns f ounded b y R ome, t hough l ess n umerous t han t he c olonies, p lanning.

T arraconensis; d escribed b y

m ight a lso s erve a s m odels o f t own-

E xamples a re A ugustobriga a nd a nd

P liny a s

A sturica

A ugusta,

" urbs m agnifica"

( rebuilt) N umantia i n

a lso

i n

T arraconensis,

( Carta A rqueologica ( Soria),

p p. 1 18 f f.; 6 7 f f.; P liny N H i ii. 2 8 , c f. J .M . L uengo M artinez, " Astorga r omana," i n N oticiario a rqueologico h ispanic° , V ( 1956-61) ( Madrid, 7 .

1 962),

1 52-77.

L atin r ight a s pur t o p ublic b uilding:

C ontributa I psca i n B aetica

c elebrated i ts a cquisition o f t he L atin r ight b y b uilding a t emple t o V espasian ( 1570; c f. C hapter I I p . 2 5). T he " sacerdos p erpetua e t p rima i n m unicipio C artimitano", w ho w as r esponsible f or c onsiderable b uilding i n t he t own , m ay w ell h ave b een a ppointed a t t he t ime o f V espasian's g rant ( 1956 , c ited i n n . 9 ). ( For C artima's p romotion b y V espasian, s ee K ubitschek, I RTD, p . 1 72. T he i nscription ( "municipium" , " ordo") c learly p ostdates t he p romotion ; c f. C hapter I I n .

1.)

C ompare t he r ebuilding a t C onimbriga i n L usitania w hich

f ollowed t he F lavian g rant ( J. d e A larcao a nd R . E tienne,

F ouilles d e

C onimbriga , I ( Paris, 1 977), 8 7 f f.), a nd a lso S abora's p roposal t o b uild a n ew t own i n A .D. 7 8 ( 1423, c f. C hapter V III n n. 1 0-11). A part

f rom R oman f oundations

t he L atin r ight e vidence

f or

b y J ulius

p ublic

w orks

a nd

t owns

g iven R oman c itizenship a nd

C aesar a nd A ugustus, a nd

t heir

1 26

m ost o f

a dministration

i n

t he

d atable

S pain c omes

N OTES: f rom V espasian's e vidence; e vidence.

C H . V II

r eign o nwards.

a nd C IL 2 I I,

S ee

I ndex, p p.

C ompetition b etween c ommunities:

c f.

n .

6 f or

t he

a rchaeological

191 f f., 1

f or t he e pigraphic

T ac.

x iv .

A nn .

1 7;

H ist.

i. i

2 1 ( involving j ealousy o f a n a mphitheatre); i ii. 5 7; i v . 5 0 ; S uet. G alb. 7 . A ll t hese e xamples c ome f rom t he w est o f t he E mpire. ( For r ivalry b etween c ommunities i n t he E ast,

s ee D io C hrys. O r.

xxviii -xlviii, p assim .) F or S pain , c f. [ Caesar ] B ell. A lex . 6 2. x 2 . T he a ssociation o f c oloniae i mmunes i n B aetica , w ith i ts o wn p riesthood,

a ppears

t o h ave

b een a n a ttempt

b y

t hose

t owns

t o

e mphasise t heir s uperiority t o t he r emaining c ommunities ( Chapter V III p . 1 40 f .). I n t he r eign o f M . A urelius a l egacy w as l eft t o B arcino o n c ertain c onditions, w hich b eing u nfulfilled t he m oney w as t o g o t o T arraco i nstead ( 4514 , c ited i n n . 1 3). T hat m ay w ell h ave b een a n e xploitation o f r ivalry b etween t hose t wo c olonies, n ot f ar d istant f rom o ne a nother. s eems f.). f

t o h ave

T he L atin t owns' a cquisition o f c harters

i nvolved a n e lement

o f

r ivalry

( Appendix

I V p p.

20 2

C ontinuing c ultural s uperiority o f B aetica a nd e astern T arraconensis: C IL 2 I I ,

I ndex , p p.

191 f f., w ith t he a rchaeological e vidence c ited 1

i n n . 6 ; c f. C hapter I pp. 8 .

B uilding

f inanced

7 -8.

f rom

p ublic

m oney:

3 167

u nidentified t own i n s outhern T arraconensis); C arthago

N ova);

5 354

( baths

d ated w ith a ny c ertainty. 1 1.)

a t

( road

( ?)

3 425-6

a t own i n B aetica).

a t

N one

c an b e

( For r epairs a t p ublic e xpense,

L abour i n t he f orm o f m unera:

C hapter X n .

D ecurions p erforming m unera a s c uratores: r estriction t o d ecurions, s ee C hapter X p p.

1 5;

a n

( walls a t s ee

n .

c f. F IRA I 2 1 X CVIII.

f or t he m unus, a nd i ts 1 67-8. I t i s n ot a lways

c lear f rom t he i nscriptions w hether t he m en i n c harge a re c uratores o r m agistrates i n o ffice. O nly 5 354 u ses t he t itle " curator". T he r est o f t he i nscriptions r efer s imply t o " duoviri", c onsistent w ith t he m en's b eing e x-magistrates,

b ut t his i s

r ather t han d uoviri

i n o ffice. ( The p recise t erm " duoviralis" d enoting a f ormer d uovir i s r are i n S pain , c f. C hapter I V n . 1 7.) O n t he o ther h and, r eferences t o t he j o int a ctivity o f a p air o f

" duoviri"

( e.g .

3 541,

6 021, c ited i n n . 1) m ay p oint t o m agistrates i n o ffice. P resumably t he i nstitution o f c uratores f or p ublic w orks d erived f rom t he u nwillingness f unction .

o r

i nability o f m agistrates

t o p erform t he e xtra

T he a ediles a t U rso w ere t o b e i n c harge o f p ublic w orks,

b ut i t i s s uggested t hat t hese w ould b e o n a r elatively s mall s cale ( FIRA I 2 1 L XXVII, X CVIII; c f. n . 1). C ommunities w ere r eluctant e ven t o p ay t he c ost o f p ublic s tatues: l ocal r esidents h onoured w ith s tatues w ere g enerally e xpected t o r eimburse t he m oney s pent

( CIL 2 1 I,

I ndex ,

p .

176 ;

c f.

C hapter V

n . 2 1). ( Compare t he s tatues e rected i n h onour o f t he i mperial f amily, f or w hich t he c ommunity d id p ay: e .g. 1 640 ( Iliturgicola e t I polcobulcola:

T rajan ,

A .D .

1 03-17);

1 86

( Hadrian ,

A .D .

5 221 ( Sabina A ugusta , A .D. 1 21-2), 4 993 ( Matidia A ugusta), A urelius, A .D . 1 78-80) ( all f rom O lisipo i n L usitania).)

1 27

1 21-2), 1 87

( M .

N OTES: 9 .

P riestess o f C artima: C f.

3 361

p raised

1 956;

7f or t he d ate.

( Tarraco):

g enerosity

o ffspring o f h is o wn . B uildings a s m emorials:

V II

c f. n .

( Aurgi) a nd 6 102 f or h is

C H .

e .g.

t o

t he

3 240

i n t he l atter t he m an i s

t own

i n

( Ilugo :

1 478 ( Astigi) a nd P liny N H x xxvi. 1 21); c obulcola: t emple, s tatue , a nd f orum).

t he

a bsence

o f

f or t he " ornamenta" c f.

1 649 ( Iliturgicola e t I pol-

B enefactors r ewarded w ith p ublic s tatues:

e .g.

1 956,

5 961 ( even

t hough o ne m ight f eel o bliged t o r eimburse t he c ost ( n . 8 )). T itle " patronus": C hapter V n . 3 0 ; c f. C hapter V III p . 1 34 . n n.

1 2,

1 8,

a ny

C f.

f or t he u se o f p ublic e ntertainments a nd b anquets t o

h onour b enefactors. O retum:

6 339 ;

c f.

C hapter V I n .

1 0.

T he d emand w as p erhaps

i nspired b y t he f act t hat t he m an w as e ligible f or t he o rdo , o f i t ( Chapter I V n . ( On b enefactors

1 0 .

f rom o utside

" Ob h onorem" e xpenditure: A edile a t C arthago N ova: S eviri a t A urgi:

b ut n ot

1 2).

364; 3

t he

t own ,

n . 4 . 3 423-4 ( A .D .

s ee

C hapter V III p p.

17-38);

c f. C hapter V n . 2 8.

1 33-4 . )

c f. C hapter V p . 8 3. F or o ther b uilding b y

s eviri " ob h onore e , s ee e .g. 9 84 ( an u nidentified t own i n B aetica: a p odium i n t he c ircus); 2 083 w ith 5 507 ( Iliberris i n B aetica: f orum ( ?)). 1.

R epairs

f inanced b y b enefactors:

d ate); 3 270 ( Castulo; c f. n n . 4 ,

1 956

( Cartima;

c f.

n .

7 f or t he

2 6).

P rovision m ade f or h eating o f b aths: 361 ( Aurgi). ( The c ost o f 3 h eating b aths m ight b e d efrayed b y c harging u sers, c f. A E 1 953 2 1 ( Lucurgentum).) C f. 5 489 ( Murgi: t he d onor p romises H S 6 00 p er a nnum d uring h is l ifetime f or t he u pkeep ( "tutela") o f t he b aths h e h ad b uilt). R epairs c arried o ut b y t he c ommunity : 3 541 ( aqueduct a t a t own i n s outhern T arraconensis); 3 557 ( temple o f J uno a t I lici); 6 021 ( walls a t S aguntum). 3 541, 6 021 r efer t o t he j oint a ctivity o f a p air o f " duoviri"; 3 557 m entions n o a gent. S ee n . 8 f or

t he p ossibility t hat

s upervise s uch w ork. o ut r outine w ork o n

c uratores w ere s ometimes a ppointed t o

2 992 s hows a n a edile a t C aesaraugusta c arrying t he w ater-pipes;

c f. F IRA I 2 1 L XXVII, X CVIII.

C urator s upervising a p ublic b ath: 4 610 ( Baetulo; l ate s econd c entury A .D . ( ?)); c f. D ig. L 4 . 1 8. 5 ( Arcadius C harisius). 1 2.

S eating a rrangements a t U rso :

C hapter I II n .

1 0 ;

c f.

R E

I V 2 330.

2 156 r eveals s eparate s eating f or t he d ecurions a t p ublic b anquets a t E pora i n B aetica. G ames a t C astulo: 2 6).

3 270 ( given i n h onour o f a b enefactor ;

c f. n n . 4 ,

( But r ecords w ould n ot n ecessarily r emain, w here g ames w ere

g iven r egularly a t p ublic e xpense.

A t U rso, p art o f t he c ost w as t o

b e c ontributed b y t he c ommunity.) P ublic p rovision a t U rso a nd C armo: C hapter V n n . 1 9-20. T he d ocument, f ound a t I talica i n B aetica, r elating t o a s enatus c onsultum o f c . A .D. 1 77 w hich l imited t he c ost o f g ladiatorial s hows i s n ot s pecific a bout t he r elative i mportance o f t he v arious s ources o f

m oney;

a lthough i t i s

c lear f rom i t

1 28

t hat b oth l eading c itizens

N OTES: C H . V II a nd t he p ublic f unds c ontribute t owards m unicipal ( as o pposed t o p rovincial) e ntertainments C hapter V III n . 1 3).

( ILS

5 163,

1 1.

2 3 f f.;

4 7 f f.;

c f.

1 3 .

P rivate i ndividuals g iving e ntertainments: C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p p. 169-70. B arcino a nd E busus: 4 514 ( A .D. 1 61-9 : " spectacula 1 p ugilum"); 3 664 ( "ludi").

1 4.

E ntertainments g iven b y p riests, " ob h onorem" : 1 169-70 . W ith t he e xception o f 1 471 ( Astigi; t he p riests c oncerned a re s eviri

1 5.

R eligious c onnotations:

F IRA I 2 1 L XX ,

C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p p. c f. C hapter V n . 2 6) ,

L XXI;

c f. L .C.

P urser,

" Ludi," i n AD ictionary o f G reek a nd R oman A ntiquities, e d. W . S mith , W . W ayte, a nd G .E. M ärindin , 3 rd e d ., I I ( London , 1 891), 8 4-9 . 1 6 .

R eligion i n U rso's c harter: C XXVIII. L XXII .

F IRA I 2 1 p assim;

e sp. L XIV , L XIX ,

F inancial s upport f or r eligion i s d ealt w ith i n L XV , L XIX ,

M unicipal p riesthoods: C hapter I V p p . 6 2-4 ( types); C hapter V p p . 8 5-6 ( appointments). P ublic f estivals a nd s acrifices: F IRA I 2 1 L XIV , L XVI , L XX , L XXI , C XXVIII. P olitical a spect: I2 4 L IX . 1 7.

1 346 ( Chapter I V n . 4 ) ;

c f. F IRA I 2 1 L XXXI , F IRA

I mperial c ult a s d emonstration o f l oyalty : C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p p. 1 095 f f.. C f. t he n on-religious d edications c ited i n n . 8 . A nticipation : e .g . 3 555 , 5 182 ( cf. L .R . T aylor , T he D ivinity o f t he R oman E mperor ( Middletown , C onn ., 1 931), p . 2 83); c f. Q uint. I nst. v i. 3 . 7 7. O vershadows w orship o f o ther d eities: s ee C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p p . 1313 f or t he n umerous p riests o f t he A ugusti , a nd e .g . 2 105 , 2 121 f or t he a ssimilation o f o ther d eities t o t he i mperial c ult. S eviri a nd L ares A ugustales: C hapter I V n n . 3 6-7.

1 8 .

B anquets g iven b y p rivate i ndividuals: A E 1 958 4 ( Castulo); 5 489 ( Murgi: a n a ccompaniment t o t he d edication o f b aths). B y p riests " ob h onorem" : 1 278 ( priestess a t S alpensa). B y t he c ommunity i n h onour o f b enefactors: 1 046 ( Iporca);

c f.

1 721

( Sosontigi). S portulae : C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p . D istinctions o f s ocial s tatus: 1 9 .

Encouragement o f p ublic R oman R ule i n A sia M inor C hrist, 2 v ols. ( Princeton ,

195. C hapter I II p . 4 3. d octors and t eachers: D . M agie, t o t he E nd o f t he T hird C entury a fter

1 950),

I , 5 72;

I I ,

1 430-1, n .

1 5 .

S alaried g rammaticus a t T ritium : 2 892. 2 G rammatici a t C orduba a nd S aguntum: 236, ( grammaticus a t A sturica , f or w hich t own s ee n . G raecus" a t G ades). P ublic d octors a t C orduba a nd P ax I ulia:

1 29

2 348 ,

2 1.

3 872. C f. 5 079 6 ); 1 738 ( "retor

N OTES:

C H . V II

( None o f t he e vidence f or p ublic d octors

a nd

t eachers

c an b e

d ated

p recisely.) 2 0 .

D octors

a nd t eachers c harge f ees:

A .R .

A id i n

G reece a nd R ome

1 968),

( London ,

E ducation i n A ncient R ome

( London ,

H ands,

C harities a nd S ocial

p. p

1 977),

1 37-41;

p. p

1 56

S .F.

f.. f

B onner ,

D ig L 9 .

1

( Ulpian) t akes i t f or g ranted t hat t he " ordo e t p ossessores" a re t he m ain b eneficiaries o f t he s ervices o f p ublic d octors. N o i mmunity f or e lementary s chool t eachers: o n t he s tages o f e ducation , s ee B onner , p p. 1 65 f f.. T he o nly c ase k nown i n w hich R ome m ade c oncessions t o e lementary s chool t eachers i s t hat o f t he m ining c ommunity o f V ipasca i n L usitania, w here t hey w ere g iven i mmunity f rom t axes i mposed b y t he p rocurator ( FIRA I 1 05 1 . d 'Ors, t hat

E pigrafia J uridica, t he

c hildren

o f

p. p

t he

7 1 f f.). p oor

b e

5 7;

c f.

T hat d oes n ot s how c oncern e ducated,

b ut

o nly

R ome's

a dministrative e fficiency w ith r egard t o a c ommunity u nder h er d irect c ontrol. A w ell-run c ommunity s hould b e p rovided w ith t he b asic r equisites o f a c ivilised e xistence, a nd i t w as unlikely t hat e lementary s chool t eachers w ould o therwise f ind i t w orth t heir w hile t o c ome t o a r emote m ining c ommunity.

S hoemakers,

b arbers, a nd

f ullers a t V ipasca w ere g ranted m onopolies f or t he s ame r eason ( FIRA I 1 05 1 1.

3 2 f f.).

C f.

S pain a nd P ortugal ( Naval i ntelligence

d ivision , g eographical h andbook s eries), 3 v ols. ( London , 1 941-4), I , 5 1 f f. f or t he s parse p opulation i n m odern t imes a round V ipasca I ( modern A ljustrel). 2 1.

C orn

d istributions

A .D.);

2 044

b y

i ndividuals:

( Anticaria);

( Aeso); 5 961 ( Dianium). s hortage. P ermanent p ublic f unds:

2 782

1 534

( Clunia ,

( Ulia,

m id-first

c entury

f irst c entury A .D.);

468 4

2 782 a nd 5 961 a re s tated t o b e i n t imes o f 5 3 ( Pax I ulia);

1 573 ( Ipsca);

2 129 ( Obulco ,

p robably l ate s econd c entury A .D. ( Appendix I n . 3 9): t he " posthorreum" i s p erhaps d esigned t o s tore p ublic c orn). F or t he l ocations

o f

I psca a nd O bulco s ee t he m ap o f B aetica a t

t he e nd

o f

C IL 2 I I, 0 i, O k. T here c ould h ave b een a n e lement o f mutual i nspiration h ere; c f. n . 7 . F or t he h istory

o f

p ublic

s chemes

a t

R ome,

s ee R E V II

1 72-82.

P ublic d istributions ( and s ome p rivate o nes, e .g. 4 468) p erhaps c oncerned c heap r ather t han f ree c orn , l ike t hose i nstituted b y C . G racchus a t R ome ( RE V II 1 73). 2. 2

C orn d istributions n ot d esigned f or p oor a lone: H ands, c h. v ii. S ee C . D omergne, " Les ' ingots d e p lomb r omains d u m usge a rchgologique d e C arthagane e t d u m usge n aval d e M adrid," A EA x xxix ( 1966), p. p

6 4 f f.

4 1-72 ,

f or e vidence o f d ecurions a t C arthago N ova w ith m oney

i nvested i n t he l ocal m ines

r ather t han l and .

A r ich m an a t A eso

h ad t o b uy c orn a t a ny r ate f or p urposes o f d istribution ( 4468). S portulae: 2 3.

n .

1 8.

E ven d ecurions n ever r eceive m ore t han 5 d enarii.

V alue g reater f or p oor : c f. H ands, p p. L ower c lasses i n p articular b enefit:

1 01-2. i n c ontrast t o 2 782,

5 961, a nd 2 044 , w hich r efer t o t he " populus" , e t i ncolae" a s b eneficiaries

1 534,

" municipes", a nd " cives

( 5961 b eing s et u p b y d ecree o f t he

1 30

N OTES :

C H . V II

o rdo), 5 3 w as s et u p b y t he p lebs, a nd 4 468 b y t wo c ollegia i n h onour o f am an " qui a nnona f rumentaria e mpta p lebem a diuvit". C f. 1 599 . ( On t he m eaning o f " plebs" , s ee C hapter I V n . 1 2. F or t hese a nd o ther e xamples o f p opular a ctivity , s ee C hapter X p p .

1 63-4 .)

2 4 .

R estricted t o a griculturally p oorer a reas: f or t he l ocations o f t he t owns s ee t he m aps o f S pain a nd B aetica a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I. T hey a re i n t he p oorer r egions o f B aetica ( 2024 , 1 534 , 1 573 , 1 599 , 2 129 ; c f. S pain a nd P ortu _gal, I II, 12 f f.; 15 f f.); t he 1 f oothills o f t he I beric M ountains a nd P yrenees ( 2782, 4 468; c f. S pain a nd P ortugal , I II , 1 06 f f.; 8 0 f f.); t he l east f ertile p art o f t he s outhern c oast o f T arraconensis ( 5961; c f. S pain a nd P ortugal , II , 1 09ff.) a nd a n i nfertile r egion o f s outhern L usitania ( 53 ; c f. I S pain a nd P ortugal , I I , 5 0 f f.). S ome i nspired b y u nusual s hortage : n . 2 1. P ressure a pplied t o p rivate b enefactors: c f. n . 2 3 . O nly 5 961 w as s et u p b y d ecree o f t he d ecurions , i n g ratitude . F or p ressure f rom t he p lebs e lsewhere , s ee e .g . D io C hrys. O r . x lvi. P ermanent f unds a ssisted b y i ndividuals: 5 3 , 1 573 ; c f. n . 2 1. O ne o ther i nscription f rom S pain r efers t o ad istribution w hich m ight b e s een a s e specially b enefiting t he p oor . A n a limentary s cheme i s r ecorded a t H ispalis , o n t he m odel o f t hose i n I taly w hich r eceived o fficial e ncouragement f rom t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury A .D . o nwards ( 1174 ; c f. R E I1 484-9 ; a nd H ands, p p . 1 0815 , f or a d iscussion o f m otives a nd b eneficiaries). T he s cheme a t H ispalis w as i nstituted a nd f inanced b y a p rivate i ndividual : t here i s n o s uggestion t hat t he o rdo w as i n a ny w ay i nvolved .

2 5 .

E xploitation o f s eviri a nd o ther r ich m en o utside t he o rdo : n . 9 n 1 0 ; c f. C hapter V I n . 1 0 . F or o ther e xamples o f t he o rdo's t endency t o f avour i ts o wn m embers, s ee C hapter V n . 1 4 . N ature o f t he o rdo's a mbitions: n ot t hat t he i nterests o f r ich a nd p oor w ere a lways c ompletely a t v ariance. F or e xample, t he p oor m ight a ppreciate t he p rovision o f p ublic b uildings , e ven t hough o ther u ses o f t he m oney w ould h ave b een m ore b eneficial t o t hem . 364 , 3 6 339 r efer t o p ublic c onstructions f or w hich t he e nthusiasm o f t he p opulace i n g eneral w as a t a ny r ate a lleged ( nn . 9 10 ( seats i n t he t heatre a nd a b ridge); c f. C hapter X n . 1 ).

2 6 .

C astulo: 3 270 ( cf. R .P. D uncan-Jones, " The P rocurator a s C ivic B enefactor ," J RS l xiv ( 1974), 7 9-85 , w ho s uggests a d ate b etween A .D . 2 0 a nd 1 60 ( p. 8 4)). 3 269 = A E 1 973 2 80 ( A .D. 4 1-54) p ossibly r ecords t he c onstruction o f t he t heatre.

2 7 .

C orduba:

f or p ublic l and, s ee S trabo i ii. 2 .1, C 1 41 w ith 2 242.

P ublic s laves: 229 s hows a f amilia o f p ublic s laves l arge e nough t o 2 h ave i ts o wn m agistri a nd s acerdotes, l ike a c ollegium. ( See H übner's n ote a d be., w ith R E 1 V 4 18. R . D uncan-Jones, " Human N umbers i n T owns a nd T own-Organisations o f t he R oman E mpire : T he E vidence o f G ifts ," H istoria x iii ( 1964), 1 99-208 , p p . 2 04-5 , n otes n umbers o f 2 50 u pwards i n c ollegia ; c f. P liny E p . x . 3 3 . 3( 150).) C olonies a nd p ublic l and : c f. F IRA I 2 1 L XXXII , a nd n . 4 ( Urso). O ther t owns: n . 4 . L and o f p oor q uality : c f. C hapter I p p . 3 f f.. C orduba's t erritory : S trabo i ii. 2 . 1 , C 1 41. F or a n e xample o f a w ealthy c itizen a t C orduba , s ee 5 523 ( a f ormer d uovir a nd p rovincial f lamen , w ho h ad H S 4 00 ,000 t o s pend o n s tatues). 1 31

N OTES: 2 8.

B arcino:

C H . V II

n ot a pparently a n i mportant t own i n t he e arly f irst c entury

A .D ., i t l ater c ame t o r ival T arraco i n p rosperity ( CIL 2 I , c f. p . 5 39 ; C arta A rqueologica ( Barcelona), p p . 6 4-78). S eviri a t B arcino: C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p . 140. p rofitability t o t he t own , s ee C hapter V n . 2 8.

p .

5 99 ;

F or t heir w ealth a nd 4 511, s et u p b y t he

s eviri i n h onour o f t he y ounger M inicius N atalis, f orms t he b asis f or a r ough c omputation o f t heir n umbers i n t he l ate s econd c entury A .D . ( Chapter I V n . 1 5). I mmunity o f B arcino :

C hapter V I n .

4 ( cf.

C hapter V I p p.

1 01,

1 07

f or i ts p ossible c onnexion w ith t he e xploitation o f s eviri t here). A dlected c itizens o f B arcino: 463 ( cf. C hapter I II n . 1 6); 4 514 4 ( cf. a bove, n .

1 3); 4 617 ( cf. C hapter V n .

5 ).

I n 4 514 a nd 4 617 t he

m en r efer t o t he i mmunity t hey h ave a cquired. 4 514 r ecords a l egacy t o t he t own f or t he a nnual c elebration o f g ames. O n a dlected c itizens, C olon ies

i n

g eneral

f rom e lsewhere.

s ee C hapter I II p . s eem

t o

h ave

4 0;

C hapter V p p.

a ttracted

S ome a dlected c itizens ,

r ich w ould-be

o f c ourse ,

7 9-80 . c itizens

h ad a s pecific

m otive n ot d irectly r elated t o t he c haracter o f t he p articular t own : e .g.

4 263 ( Chapter I II n .

1 6) c oncerns a m an w ho h ad c hanged h is

d omicile f rom A frica t o S pain ; 2 960 ( Chapter I II n . 2 2) c oncerns a p atron g iven h onorary c itizenship. B ut e ven w hen a llowance h as b een m ade f or s uch m otives,

t here i s a n u nexplained d rift t owards t he

c olonies. S ee e .g. 1 200 ( Ilurco C orduba); C aesaraugusta); 4 249 ( Damania C aesaraugusta); ( ?)

T arraco

( the m an's o riginal t own,

4 244 ( Grallium 4 277 ( Augustobriga

" munic.

A ugust.",

w as

p robably A ugustobriga i n T arraconensis, w hich w ould h ave b een a L atin m unicipium i n t he m id-second c entury, u p)).

O nly

( Corduba

1 055

r ecords

A xati).

T he

e xplanation

m ust o f c ourse b e c omplex . i nteresting a nd

w hen t he i nscription w as

a m ovement P erhaps

c omfortable

i n t he o f

t he

s et

r everse

d irection

c olonies'

a ttraction

t he p rincipal f actors w ere t he

l ife-style w hich t hey p rovided

( coupled

w ith r ich m en's d esire t o t ake t heir p lace i n t he o rdo o f t he t own i n w hich t hey l ived), a nd t he s heer s tatus o f b eing a c itizen o f a c olony.

T he e vidence d oes n ot s uggest t hat c olonies, a s s uch,

o ffered b etter prospects o f advancement a dministration ( Chapter V III n . 3 ). 2 9 .

U nprivileged c ommunities:

i n

t he

i mperial

A E 1 969/70 2 38 ( annual v ow a nd d edication

t o C laudius a t A mmaia i n L usitania, A .D. 4 4-5 ( ?); c f. C IL 2 1 72 ( Aritium i n L usitania , A .D . 3 7)); 1 569 ( Ipsca i n B aetica , A .D . 4 6: as tatue d edicated b y ac itizen t o C laudius, a nd d ecreed b y t he l ocal s enate t o b e a " bonum p ublicum"). D evelopment i n a nd a fter V espasian's r eign : 3 0 .

I ntroduction o f i mmunities:

n .

n . 7 .

1 9 .

C ommunities p ermitted t o i mpose m unera o n i ncolae: I mperial c uratores: w ere

n ecessarily a bsent

c ommunity i n 1 957

C hapter V I n .

( Cartima,

J ones,

1 573

( Ipsca);

c f.

1.

e arlier o n: a nd

C hapter V n .

t he

C hapter X n .

1 6.

N ot t hat f inancial p roblems s ee

t he

r eferences

2 5) a nd 3 270

p ublic

( Castulo ,

" The P rocurator a s C ivic B enefactor ," p p.

c laim o f p ublic p overty a t M unigua i n A .D .

l oan m ade t o t o

8 1-2).

c f.

d ebts

t he i n

D uncan-

C ompare t he

7 9 ( AE 1 962 2 88 ; c f. C IL 2

1 423 ( Sabora, A .D. 7 8), a nd C hapter V III n . 1 0). A nother d evelopment w hich m ight b e e xpected a s

a dministration g rew

m ore c omplex i s t he i ncreasing u se o f l ocal c uratores ( as o pposed t o m agistrates i n o ffice) t o s upervise p ublic b uilding a ctivity. B ut t he e vidence ( nn . 8 ,

1) i s n ot p recisely e nough d ated t o p rove t his. 1 32

C HAPTER V III P ATRONAGE A ND B ENEFICIA ( i)

I ntroduction

A lthough e ach c ommunity f unctioned a s a s eparate u nit,

a nd w as t o s ome

d egree s elf-sufficient, t he s atisfaction o f l ocal a mbitions d epended i n a n umber o f w ays o n c ontacts w ith t he w orld o utside. L ocal r esidents w ere n ot t he o nly a vailable s ource o f p rivate w ealth:

t he p rovision o f b uildings

a nd s ervices m ight b e f acilitated b y b enefactions f rom i ndividuals w ho l ived e lsewhere.

C ommunication w ith t he R oman g overnment

t o t he d uties w hich R ome i mposed:

d id n ot r elate s olely

j udicial a nd o ther d ecisions m ade b y R ome

h ad a b earing o n t he c ommunities' p ursuit o f t heir o wn a ims. I n a ddition t o t heir d ealngs w ith i ndividuals o utside t he c ommunity a nd w ith t he R oman g overnment,

l ocal g overnments h ad r elations,

w ith o ne a nother. c ommunities,

b oth h ostile a nd c o-operative,

C onnexions w ith i ndividuals,

a nd a lso w ith o ther

c ould b e am eans o f e xerting i nfluence o n R ome.

F or t his a spect o f t he a dministration , a s f or p ublic w orks a nd s ervices, t he o rdo t ook r esponsibility. I t w as t he d ecurions w ho a ppointed p ublic p atrons.

A mbassadors w ere d espatched b y t hem ,

f rom a mong t heir n umber .

a nd i ndeed s elected

I nsofar a s e xternal r elations r eveal c oncerns o ver

a nd a bove t he p rovision o f l ocal a menities, t hey t end t o c onfirm t he p icture o f

m unicipal

o rdo.

1

H ere,

a mbitions

a s

d etermined b y

a s e lsewhere ,

t he u pper

c lasses w ho

f ormed t he

t he o rdo's t ask w as c omplicated b y a s hortage

o f p ublic m oney a nd p ersonnel.

( ii)

P atronage a nd b eneficia

B enefactors f rom o utside t he c ommunity C ertain i nscriptions s how t hat c ommunities w ere i ndebted f or a menities n ot

t o l ocal i nhabitants,

b ut

t o r esidents

o f n ear-by t owns.

O ther

b enefactors w ere m en o f h igh s tanding i n t he R oman a dministration. C itizens w ho r ose a bove t he t own t o e questrian p rocuratorships o r t he R oman S enate d id n ot a lways f orget t heir n ative c ommunity. T he b enefactions o f t he y ounger B albus t o G ades a nd o f M inicius N atalis t o B arcino d emonstrated t heir p atriotism a nd c elebrated

t heir

p ersonal s uccess. 2

S enators a nd

h igh-ranking e quites d id n ot a rise e qually s wiftly f rom a ll p arts o f S pain . T he t owns o f B aetica a nd t he e ast c oast o f T arraconensis p roduced t hem f irst,

a nd m aintained t heir s upremacy,

a lthough o ther a reas b egan t o f ollow

s uit i n t he c ourse o f t he s econd c entury A .D .. T hat w as t o a l arge e xtent t he c onsequence o f t he e arly R oman p resence i n t he m ost f ertile and a ccessible p arts o f S pain , c ompounded b y t he c oncentration o f c olonies i n t hose

s ame a reas.

R ich a nd

c ivilised

t owns

p roduced

r ich

a nd

c ivilised

m en , s uch a s a ppealed t o t he R oman g overnment. 3 R oman o fficials s tationed i n t he p rovince w ere a nother s ource o f o utside a ssistance.

T hey m ight c onfer f avours o n t he t owns w ith w hich t hey

1 33

b ecame f amiliar ,

l ike t he " praefectus C ohortis B aeticae" w ho w as p raised b y

a B aetican c olony f or h is e xpenditure o n n umerous p ublic w orks d uring h is p eriod o f o ffice. T he t owns w hich b enefited w ere n ot n ecessarily t he p rovincial c apitals.

I mperial p rocurators -even p rovincial o nes -might

b e f ound o utside t he c apital a t t owns i n w hose v icinity t he e mperor h ad s pecial i nterests. T he p rovincial p rocurator o f B aetica m entioned i n a n i nscription

f rom

T arraconensis,

C astulo,

j ust

a cross

t he

p rovincial

b oundary

i n

m ay h ave b een t here o n b usiness c onnected w ith s ilver m ines

u nder i mperial c ontrol.

H is b enefactions

t o C astulo w ere o n a r emarkably

g rand s cale. W ealthiest

o f

a ll

p otential b enefactors w ere t he e mperors

T here w as n o o ne k ey t o a n e mperor's g enerosity, h elped.

t hemselves.

b ut c ertain l ocations

P rovincial c apitals n aturally a ttracted t he a ttention o f an

e mperor , e specially i f h e w ere o n t our. H ence H adrian w as m oved t o r estore t he t emple o f A ugustus a t T arraco a nd t he t heatre a t E merita i n L usitania. L ike C laudius b efore h im , H adrian s howed p articular c oncern f or t he o therwise u ndistinguished t owns o f t he m ining r egion o f C a%tulo. H is r ebuilding o f I talica h ad o f c ourse a m ore p ersonal m otivation .

P atrons O ne

w ay

i n w hich

l ocal

g overnments

c ould

e ncourage,

f inancial e xpenditure w as t o c onfer o n i ndividuals p atron o f

t he

c ommunity.

t he

o r

o fficial

o f

S ome o fficial p atrons w ere m erely o f m unicipal

d istinction , b eing d rawn f rom t he c ommunity i tself o r i ts v icinity. h owever ,

r eward,

s tatus

w ere o f s enatorial o r e questrian r ank:

i ndeed ,

O thers,

t he y ounger B albus

a t G ades i s a n e xample. I n a ddition t o s pending m oney l ocally, s enatorial a nd e questrian p atrons m ight a ssist t he t own b y u sing i nfluence i n h igh p laces

t o

f urther i ts

p etitions.

T heir a dvocacy

c ould h elp

t o

s way t he

e mperor w hen a f avour w as r equested , a ng m ake a ll t he d ifference i n d isputes w here t he l egal p osition w as d ebatable. A s

i n o ther a spects

o f m unicipal a ctivity,

s o

i n

t he a cquisition o f

i nfluential p atrons s ome t owns w ere m ore s uccessful t han o thers. c andidates w ere n atives o f

t he t own :

h ospitium w ith t he e lder B albus d uring h is a cquired

t heir

f ounders

c andidates w ere R oman

( and

O bvious

G ades d id n ot n eglect t o c onclude a n

t heir

r ise

t o

d escendants)

i mportance. a s

C olonies

p atrons.

O ther

o fficials w hom a t own c ame t o k now d uring t heir

s ervice i n t he p rovince ; a lthough t he f ormal a ppointment a s p atron m ight h ave t o w ait u ntil t hey h ad r etired h ome t o I taly. A s w ith a ssistance o n t he

s pot,

t owns

w hich

w ere

a dministratively

i mportant

t o

t he

R oman

g overnment t ended t o b e a t a n a dvantage i n t his r espect. T hey w ere m ore l ikely t o i dentify , a nd b e i nspired t o a ppoint, t he r epresentatives o f R ome. I n T arraconensis, m ost o f

t he

t heir t ime,

t owns

o f o f

o f

p rovincial

g overnors

l esser o fficials w ere a pt

M unigua i n B aetica , a ttention

c oast,

w here

t he

g overnors

s pent

s eem t o h ave b een b etter p laced t han t he r est f or

a cquiring t he p atronage a ctivities

o n t he e ast

w hile

a p assing

s till a p eregrine q uaestor;

a nd

a nd

t heir

f amilies.

T he

t o b e m ore w idely d ispersed. i n

t own ,

m anaged

A .D.

4 0

t o

C lunia

e ngage i n

t he

c entral

T arraconensis c oncluded a n h ospitium w ith a n a rmy o fficer w ho h ad b een s tationed n ear-by.

7

T he e lection o f p atrons f rom o utside t he c ommunity g enerally i nvolved a

1 34

j ourney

o f

s ome

u ndertaken b y T he m unus

d istance

t o

c ontact

l egati w ho w ere

t he

s pecially

i ndividual a ppointed

i ncluded o nly p ersonal s ervicg ,

c oncerned.

t o

p erform

T hat t his

w as

m unus.

a nd n ot t he c ost o f t he j ourney,

w hich t he c ommunity w as s upposed t o p ay.

( iii)

R epresentations t o R ome

T he r estrictions o n l ocal a utonomy m eant t hat o n av ariety o f o ccasions g overnments w ere o bliged , w ith R oman

i n f urtherance o f t heir o wn a ims,

t o c ommunicate

a uthor ities i n t he p rovince o r a t R ome i tself.

T hey r equired

R ome's p ermission b efore e mbarking o n p otentia lly d isruptive a ctivity; a n a mbition s uch a s I talica's t o r aise t he t own's d epended f or i ts a chievement o n R oman a pproval. j uridical p owers h ad t he

c onsequence

t hat

a nd

f ormal s tatus n aturally L imitations o n l ocal

d isputes

i n w hich

t he

c ommunity

f ormed o ne p arty c ould o ften b e s ettled o nly b y R oman o fficials. P ompaelo's a ppeal o f A .D . 1 19 s hows h ow R oman o fficials m ight b e b rought i n b y

t he p rovincials

t hemselves

t o s ettle p roblems

i n l ocal a dministration .

M ore g enerally, a wareness o f R ome's p ower i nspired c ommunities, a s af orm o f i nsurance, t o d emonstrate t heir l oyalty t o t he r eigning e mperor. R epresentations, n ot

a lways

m ade w hether t o t he e mperor o r t o o ther o fficials ,

r eveal n ovel c oncerns.

A nxiety f or t he p ublic f unds i s

p redominant f eature , a nd p ublic f unds w ere m erely a m eans t o t he o ther m unicipal a ims: c omfortable w ay o f

t hat i s,

l ife.

B ut

t he

o rdo

t here w as

p ursuit o f

t he p rovision o f a menities w hich p romoted a s ome p etitions d isclose p reoccupations o ver

a nd a bove t hose w hich h ave b een d escribed a lready. t hat

d o

t heir

c oncerned

I talica's p etition s hows

f or t he s heer s tatus

o f

t he

c ommunity ;

a nd d isputes o ver b oundaries m ay h ave i nvolved l ocal p ride a s w ell a s f inancial c onsiderations.

T he n eed f or c ommunication w ith t he R oman

g overnment t ended t o i ncrease w ith a c ommunity's d egree o f s ophistication : f or e xample , t he p etitions o f S abora, M unigua a nd P ompaelo a ll c oncerned p roblems r elating t o t he a dministration o f t he p ublic f unds.

9

C ommunication w ith t he e mperor C ommunication w ith o utside t he c ommunity ,

t he

e mperor ,

l ike

t he a ppointment o f p atrons f rom

g enerally n ecessitated t he u se o f

t he i mposition o f t his m unus o n c itizens o f t he t own.

l egati,

a nd h ence

I n a ddition t o

e mbassies w ith t he g eneral p urpose o f w elcoming a n e mperor a t h is a ccession , c ommunities s ent e mbassies w ith s pecific r equests a nd p roblems. S abora i n A .D.

T hus

7 8 a sked V espasian f or p ermission t o c hange t he s ite o f t he

t own , w hile I talica p etitioned H adrian f or e levation t o c olonial s tatus. S abora, o n t he s ame o ccasion, a lso r aised t he q uestion o f h er r ight t o c ertain l ocal r evenues.

M unigua i n A .D.

7 9 a sked T itus

t o r evise a

j udgment m ade b y t he g overnor o f B aetica r egarding m oney o wed t o ac ollector o f t he t own's r evenues.

1 °

I t m ay b e s ignificant t hat t he e xtant p etitions t o e mperors, a s o pposed t o p rovincial o fficials,

a ll c ome f rom t owns i n t he s enatorial p rovince o f

B aetica. T hese t owns w ere m ore s ophisticated o n a verage t han c ommunities e lsewhere, a nd t heir n umbers w ere o ut o f p roportion t o t he s mall s ize o f t he p rovince. i mperial

I t

i s p ossible a lso t hat t he d istinction b etwen s enatorial a nd

p rovinces

w as

r elevant

i n

i tself.

1 35

I n a n

i mperial

p rovince

i t

p erhaps

r equired

g reater

a ppeal a gainst h is

s elf-confidence

d ecisions.

t o

b y-pass

W here i mperial

t he

g overnor ,

a nd

t o

p rerogatives w ere n ot

c oncerned , c ommunities i n L usitania a nd T arraconensis m ay h ave b een m ore i nclined t o a pproach t he g overnor , a nd t o a bide b y h is v erdict. I n a nother s ense, t oo, t he s urviving p etitions f rom S pain are p ossibly u nrepresentative

o f

t he

u sual

b ehaviour

o f

c ommunities

i n

t he

p eninsula.

S abora and M unigua m ay h ave b een m oved t o a pproach V espasian a nd T itus r espectively i n c onsequence o f t he t emporary l imelight s hed o n S pain b y t he 1 dr ian's n ative c ommunity , h ad a g rant o f t he L atin r ight; a nd I talica , asHa s pecial c laim o n t he e mperor's a ttention.

C ommun ication w ith o fficials i n t he p rovince U nless

t he

r equisite

o fficial

h appened

t o

b e

o n

t he

s pot,

e ven

c ommunication w ithin t he p rovince g enerally i nvolved t he u se o f e mbassies. W hen i n A .D. 19 t he d uoviri o f P ompaelo i n T arraconensis s ought 1 c onfirmation o f t he f inancial l iability o f m agistrates, g ive

j udgment

w as

s ome

s eventy

t he n earest o fficial

q ualified

t o

k ilometres

d isputes,

a t a ny r ate w hen a g overnor o r l egate w as t he j udge,

a way.

J udicial a lso t ended

t o n ecessitate t he s ending o f r epresentatives: i n t his c ase t o t he n earest c onventus c apital. I n a ddition t o b oundary d isputes, a nd f inancial d isputes w ith p rivate i ndividuals,

l ocal g overnments s ubmitted f or j udgment

b y R oman o fficials s uits b etween t he c ommunity , o n t he o ne h and , a nd t he f iscus, o n t he o ther. F or l itigation , l egal r epresentation w as r equired: t he

p osition

o f

a dvocate

o f

t he

c ommunity

w as

a nother

l ocal m unus.

A n

i nscription f rom I nteramnum i n T arraconensis s hows t he c ommunity e xpressing i ts g ratitude t o a m an o wing t o w hose e fforts w ith t he f iscus. 1 2

( iv) T he

c ommunities'

i t h ad s ettled i ts a ccounts

R elations b etween c ommunities

c haracter a s

a dministrative u nits m eant

t hat

i t w as

m ore n atural f or t hem t o d eal s eparately w ith i ndividuals a nd w ith R ome t han t o

c ombine w ith

o ne a nother

f or

t ended t o a ffect o nly i tself, d irectly,

o n

p articipated,

a n

i ndividual

s eparately ,

t he p urpose.

A t own's

p rivate

c oncerns

w hile i ts o bligations t o R ome w ere d ischarged b asis.

I t

i s

t rue

t hat

t he

c ommunities

i n c ommon e xperiences w hich m ight h ave g iven r ise

t o s ubstantial c o-operative a ctivity. T hey s hared b urdens i mposed b y R ome s uch a s t ribute, t he e xpenses o f t he p ublic p ost, a nd t he o bligation t o p rovide t roops. c ommon c oncerns: e xample.

S imilarities i n i nternal a dministration a lso c reated t he e xpenses o f m unicipal e ntertainments c onstitute o ne

B ut c oncerted a ction , g iven t he a dministrative s tructure ,

a p ositive e ff9rt;

r equired

a nd m utual r ivalry t ended t o l imit t he p ossibilities o f

c o-operation. T he m ost i mportant a ssociations b etween c ommunities w ere t he p rovincial and c onventus a ssociations. I n e very c ase t hese w ere, o r c ame t o b e, c entred r ound a nd s ustained b y t he i mperial c ult.

A lthough t heir p olitical

p otential w as c onsiderable , i t w as l ess t han f ully e xploited. I n a ddition t o t he p rovincial a nd c onventus a ssociations, t here w ere v arious o ther c oo perative o rganisations, o f b oth a t emporary a nd a p ermanent k ind. T hese t ended t o i nvolve o nly a s mall n umber o f c ommunities, b rought t ogether b y a p articular c ommon i nterest; a nd n one w as o f s erious p olitical s ignificance.

1 36

Communities also had a variety of other relationships with one another, besides co-operative ones. The existence of hostility and competition helps to explain the ineffectiveness of the joint organisations. Provincial and conventus associations Prov!-nG.iaJ and conventus associations in Spain developed at different time.sin different places. In the four conventus of northern Tarraconensis they appear to have been instituted by the Roman government itself. Inscriptions reveal the existence of a cult of Rome and Augustus in each of these four conventus. Reminiscent of the cult of the Three Gauls which was established in 1 2 B.C., the conventus cults of northern Tarraconensis were probably instituted during Augustus' reign, and in tended as a means of pacif yin g a newly-conquered region. They persisted throughout the Principate, the objects of worship apparently unchanged. At least as early as the Flavian period the areas embraced by the four conventus were participating in the provincial cult of Tarraconensis; and in the second century A.D. the conventus cults themselves constituted subsidiary parts of the provincial organisation. 14 Elsewhere, provincial and conventus organisations seem to have been initiated by the Spaniards themselves. The provincial cult of Tarraconensis was not established until A.D. 15, when the provincials asked Between for permission to build a temple in honour of divus Augustus. A.D. 1 5 and the appearance of epigraphic evidence in the Flavian period the recipients of worship increased in number. Livia and Claudius had presumably, when they died, been added to divus Augustus. Not only was worship accorded all deified Augusti, in the plural, in the later period: the attested titles of provincial priests may show that from Vespasian's reign onwards the living emperor featured alongside the divi as an object of cult. Subsidiary conventus cults served to simplify the provincial organisation. Established in the four northern conventus even before the provincial cult itself existed, conventus cults were also, at a later date, set up in the three other, more civilised, conventus of the province. The new conventus cults had certainly been added to the old by the middle of the second century A.D., and probably arose well before that time. As well as contributing to the provincial organisation, conventus assoc½�tions existed in their own right, and could engage in independent activity. When the successful petition of Tarraconensis in A.D. 15 set an example, as Tacitus would have it, to all the provinces, one province which responded was Lusitania. Inscriptions show that a provincial cult existed there in Claudius' reign. By that date divus Augustus, as in Tarraconensis the original beneficiary, had been joined by Livia, whom the Senate defiled in A.D. 41. This cult too survived into and after the Flavian-period. Baetica is the earliest of the Spanish provinces to be found acting as a unit. It was also the last to institute an imperial cult at a provincial, as opposed to municipal, level. The small size and high degree of civilisation of the province seem to have facilitated temporary concerted action by its constituent communities, without any formal organisation or the c ommon o bject of imperial worship. Late in Augustus' reign the province demonstrated its gratitude to Augustus as bringer of peace by setting up a gold statue at Rome. In A.D. 23 it successfully prosecuted a

137

p rovincial g overnor ; a nd t wo y ears l ater p roposed t o i nstitute a p rovincial c ult i n c elebration . B ut i t w as n ot u ntil t he F lavian p eriod t hat B aetica f inally e stablished a n i mperial c ult, a nd t hereby a cquired a p ermanent a ssociation w ith r egular m eetings. E ither d uring t he r eign o f V espasian o r ( more p r eably) a fter h is d eath , a p rovincial c ult o f t he d ivi A ugusti w as s et u p. T here i s l ittle e vidence f or t he p recise w ay i n w hich f ormal p rovincial a nd c onventus a ssociations w ere o rganised. E ach o f t he p rovincial a ssociations h ad a n a nnual p riest, a ppointed b y ac oncilium w hich m et a t t he p rovincial c apital. P resumably t he c oncilium w as c omposed o f d elegates s elected b y l ocal ö rdines, a lthough t his i s n ot s pecifically a ttested. I n T arraconensis -the o nly o ne o f t he t hree p rovinces t o h ave c onventus a ssociations a s w ell -the c onventus a ssemblies m ay h ave e xercised a p res election o f d elegates t o t he p rovincial c oncilium . T he c onventus c ults o f T arraconensis w ere b ased a t t he c onventus c apitals. T hey t oo h ad t heir o wn p riests , a nd t heir o wn c oncilia. F inancial a rrangements a re u nclear , b ut i nscriptions s how t hat, a s i n l ocal g overnment, c ommunal f unds w ere l imited , a nd t here w as a h eavy r eliance o n t he g oodwill a nd f inancial r esources o f i ndividuals. T hus l iberality w as e xpected o f a nnual p riests, i n t he f orm o f e ntertainments a nd o ther e xpenditure; a mbassadors d espatched b y t he c oncilium s ometimes o ffered t o p ay t he c ost o f t he j ourney t hemselves; w hile i n B aetica i ndividuals a re f ound r eimbursing t he c oncilium f or 8 h onorific s tatues. 1 T he a ctivities o f p rovincial a nd c onventus c oncilia e xtended b eyond t he c elebration o f

t he

i mperial

c ult.

T hey

m ade

l oyalty t o t he r eigning e mperor a nd h is f am ily ,

s ecular

d emonstrations

o f

b oth i n S pain a nd i n I taly

i tself. T hus i n A .D . 4 3 T arraconensis r esponded t o C laudius' c onquest o f B ritain w ith t he g ift o f a g old c rown. I n A .D. 7 7-8 t he p rovincial a ssociation o f L usitania e rected a s ecular g old s tatue a t E merita i n h onour o f T itus. B oth B aetica a nd T arraconensis w ere a ctive i n t his s phere i n t he s econd c entury A .D .. B aetica i n A .D . 1 35 s et u p a s tatue a t T ibur a s a d emonstration o f g ratitude f or H adrian 's g enerosity t o t he p rovince ; a nd u nspecified l egationes f rom t he c oncilium o f T arraconensis t o s econd-century e mperors m ay w ell h ave b een s alutatory o nes. 19 T he c oncilia a lso, l ike i ndividual c ommunities, t ook a dvantage o f c ontacts m ade w ith R oman o fficials i n S pain , a nd a ttempted t o e xploit t he p atriotism o f n atives w ho h ad a chieved d istinction . T he c onventus A sturum l ate i n T rajan 's r eign m ade a d edication i n h onour o f af ormer p rocurator o f A sturia-Callaecia. T his w as s et u p i n t he m an 's n ative t own , V ienna i n G allia N arbonensis, w ith t he p ermission o f t he l ocal o rdo. T arraco's c onventus s imilarly p aid r espect, p erhaps d uring V espasian 's r eign , t o a p raefectus o rae m aritimae w ho h ad b een a ctive i n t he a rea. T he c oncilium o f L usitania a ttempted t o p reserve a c onnexion o f a d ifferent k ind w hen i n t he r eign o f H adrian i t p assed &0 d ecree h onouring a R oman s enator w hose i f amily o riginated i n t he p rovince. T hese a ttentions t o m en o f s tanding i n t he R oman a dministration m ay b e s een , l ike a ppointments o f m unicipal p atrons, a s e vidence o f a d esire t o h ave i nfluential c onnexions i n h igh p laces. I n h onouring o fficials w ho h ad s erved i n S pain , t he c oncilia m ay a lso h ave h ad a m ore d irect p olitical p urpose: t o d iscourage m isgovernment b y a dvertising t heir g ratitude t o h onest o fficials.

O ccasionally t he c oncilia m ade d irect c riticisms o f t he

1 38

q uality o f

R oman g overnment,

p rovincials. r ecorded

I n B aetica ,

t hanks

t o

t he

a nd o f

t he b urdens w hich R ome i mposed o n t he

as eries o f p rosecutions i n t he n ineties A .D .

B aeticans'

r equests

t hat

t he Y ounger P liny a ct

i s a s

t heir a dvocate. I n t he s econd c entury A .D . t he c oncilium c omplained t o H adrian t hat t he p rovincial g overnor w as n ot p unishing c attle-rustlers s ufficiently s everely.

T he e mperor's r eply w as u nhelpful;

a nd h opes t hat

A ntoninus P ius w ould r eply d ifferently w ere n ot f ulfilled. F rom T arraconensis c omes a r ecord o f a p rovincial e mbassy w hich w as a pparently s ent t o M arcus A urelius a t S irmium w ith t he p urpose o f c riticising t he b urden o f R oman t axation. " T he i mportance o f p rovincial a nd c onventus a ssociations a s p urely r eligious o rganisations s hould n ot b e u nderestimated. a n o pportunity t o d emonstrate b elief, a nd

( to

t he a mbitious

i ndividual)

t he

p riesthood o f p rovince o r c onventus. f or

r eligious

p urposes

T arraconensis,

t he

l ifelong h onour

o f

h aving

h eld

t he

B ut t he f ormal a ssociations o rganised

c ould a lso b e p ut

r eligious

T hey o ffered, i f n ot

a t a ny r ate o ccasions f or c eremonial

t o

p olitical u ses.

a ssociations

p rovided

N otably

a m achinery

i n a nd

j ustification f or j oint m eetings w ithout w hich i t i s l ikely t hat n either t he p rovince n or i ts i ndividual c onventus w ould h ave t aken c oncerted a ction . P olitical a ctivity w as f ormation

o f

n ot,

a r eligious

h owever,

a n ecessary

a ssociation.

c onsequence

I n L usitania,

o f

t he

t he p olitical

p otential o f t he p rovincial c ult s eems h ardly t o h ave b een e xploited a t a ll. N or i s i t t rue i n a ll c ases t hat t he r eligious o rganisation w as a p rerequisite o f c oncerted p olitical a ction. B aetica w as s mall a nd c ivilised e nough t o u nite i ndependently o f a ny f ormal o rganisation . T he f irst o f t he t hree p rovinces t o f orm a p olitical u nit, t o

i nstitute a p rovincial

c ult;

a nd t he p rovincial

i t w as a lso t he l ast c ult

a ppears

t o h ave

m ade l ittle d ifference t o t he n ature o r i ntensity o f i ts p olitical a ctivity. T he

p rincipal p reoccupation o f p rovinces a nd c onventus o utside t he

r eligious s phere w as t he q uality o f R oman g overnment.

T hey g enerally

c onfined t heir a ttention t o R oman o fficials' a ctions w ithin t he e stablished s ystem , w ithout c riticising t he s ystem i tself. b ased

o n

R oman a dministrative

d ivisions,

i t

S ince t he a ssociations w ere i s u nderstandable

t hat

t heir

m embers s hould h ave t aken d efensive a ction a gainst t he R oman o fficials s ubjection t o w hom t hey s hared. e nough , t he m eans b y w hich t hey

B ut i f t heir p rincipal a im w as s imple s ought t o a chieve i t w ere m ore c omplex .

P rosecution a fter t he e vent s ecured s ome c oncrete r edress, a s w ell a s p sychological s atisfaction; a nd i t a lso p erhaps s erved a s a d eterrent a gainst f uture w rong-doing. M ore c autious m eans ( and o nes p ossibly m ore a dvisable i n a n i mperial p rovince) w ere t he l avishing o f p raise o n h onest o fficials, t he e stablishment o f c ontacts w ith p owerful m en , a nd 22a ppeals t o t he e mperor's g ood-will i n t he f orm o f d emonstrations o f l oyalty.

S maller a ssociations A part f rom t he p rovincial a nd c onventus a ssociations,

t here i s l ittle

e vidence o f c o-operation b etween t he S panish c ommunities o f t he P rincipate. F rom t he e arly f irst c entury A .D . c ome t wo r ecords o f h ospitia c oncluded b etween c ommunities. I n e ach c ase a n i nsignificant t own i n B aetica -o ne o f L atin , a nd o ne o f p eregrine, s tatus -sought t he f riendship o f a d istant c olony. U gia M a nia i n A .D . 6e stablished a n h ospitium w ith t he L usitanian c olony E merita; a nd i n A .D . 3 1 p eregrine I ptuci c oncluded o ne w ith t he

1 39

B aetican c olony U cubi. t o

c all u pon t he

j ust

P resumably t he l ess d istinguished c ommunities h oped

c olonies

t o p rotect

t heir o wn

i nterests

w hen

a s w hen a c ommunity a ppointed a p owerful i ndividual a s

T hey m ay a lso h ave e xpected s ome r eflected g lory f rom t he

n ecessary;

i ts p atronus.

c onnexion .

I n

f act, U gia M artia a ppears t o h ave r egarded i ts n ewly-acquired L atin r ight a s a q ualification f or e stablishing t he r elationship. d istinction , a s w ell a s p rotection , w as a t i ssue.

T hat m ay s uggest t hat T he s econd t own , n ear-by

I ptuci, w aited t wenty-five y ears t o a cquire s imilar e vidence o f a p owerful p rotector. 2 3 S uch h ospitia m ay i mply a l ack o f s ophistication , o r o f p ride. N o e xample i s f ound a fter A .D . 3 1. L ater , c ommunities a ssociate a s a g roup o f e quals,

n ot

i n a p air a s

i nferior a nd s uperior.

T en c ommunities i n t he

c onventus B racaraugustanus i n t he n orth-west T arraconensis c o-operated i n a p ublic w ork t here i n A .D . 7 9 . T hat m ay h ave b een u nder t he g uidance , a s w ell a s f or t he b enefit, o f t he R oman g overnment;

r ather t han s pontaneously

a nd b y m utual a rrangement. B ut t he b ridge b uilt a t A lcantara b y c ertain L usitanian c ommunities i n A .D . 1 05-6 a ppears t o h ave b een c onstructed , i f n ot

a lso

i nitiated ,

w ithout

i nterference

f rom

a bove.

T he

c elebrating t he c ompletion o f t he c o-operative e nterprise,

i nscriptions

f inanced f rom a

c ommon f und, g ive n o h int o f s urveillance b y R oman o fficials i n t he p rovince. T he f ormal a ssociation f or t he p rovincial c ult i n L usitania, e stablished

n early

a c ent t g

b efore ,

m ay

h ave

f acilitated

t his

t emporary

c ombination o f c ommunities. P robably

a lso

d ifferent w ay ,

w as

i nspired

b y

t he p rovincial

a p ermanent

c ult

o rganisation o f

a ssociation ,

c ertain

t owns

b ut

i n

i n a

B aetica.

T he c oloniae i mmunes i n t hat p rovince ( all, a s i t h appened , b elonging t o t he c onventus A stigitanus) s eem w orship o f t he d ivi A ugusti,

t o h ave h ad t heir o wn o rganisation f or t he e quipped w ith a s pecial f lamen. S imilar t o

t he p rovincial a ssociation o f B aetica, b ut m ore s elect,

t he o rganisation m ay

i ndicate t hat t he c oloniae i mmunes d isliked t he e galitarian i mplications o f t he p rovincial a ssembly. T hey i nvented a w ay o f r easserting t heir s uperiority t o t he o ther c ommunities o f t he p rovince, a nd o f d emon grating t heir l oyalty t o t he e mperor i n t he e levated c ompany o f t heir p eers. O ne f inal t ype o f a ssociation b ears w itness t o t he f act t hat a lthough c ommunities m ight a s a r ule k eep a loof f rom o ne a nother , t heir i ndividual c itizens w ere m ore b road-minded. I nscriptions s how h ow i ndividuals l iving i n S pain c onferred f avours o n, w hich t hey w ere n ot c itizens, c ommunity

t o

r equite

a nd w ere e lected p atroni b y, o r e ven r esidents.

g enerosity

b enefactor i n h is n ative t own.

w as

t o

e rect

c ommunities o f

O ne r ecognised w ay f or a

a n h onorific

T wo b enefactors

s tatue

o f

t he

d istributed t heir f avours

s o w idely a s t o b e r ewarded b y a n umber o f c ommunities a t o nce, o perative, i f t emporary, v enture. 26

i n a c o-

O ther r elations A ssociations

b etween c ommunities,

w hether

t emporary o r p ermanent ,

d o

n ot e xhaust t he a ccount o f r elations b etween t hem. R elations m ight b e h ostile a s w ell a s c o-operative, a nd a n umber o f g rounds f or h ostility e xisted. e ngage a lso

C ommunities w ith t erritories b ordering o n o ne a nother m ight

i n a crimonious

a roused

t he

b oundary

i nterest

o f

d isputes. l ocal

O ther ,

g overnments.

1 40

l ess T hey

c oncrete, c ould

c oncerns

c ompete

t o

a cquire,

n ot l and ,

b ut m arks o f d istinction s uch a s m unicipal c harters;

o r

c ertain p ublic b uildings a nd s ervices a s e vidence o f c ulture. T he d ifferent g rades o f f ormal s tatus i nspired s ome c ommunities t o a ssert t heir s uperiority, a nd o thers t o e nvy t hem . c ommunities

t hat

s uspicion a nd

I t w as n ot o nly b etween n eighbouring

j ealousy a rose,

c oloniae

i mmunes i n B aetica ,

s hows.

B ut p roximity c ould s harpen r esentments,

t he p rizes

t o b e w on .

a s

t he e xample o f

d istinguished f rom t he r est o f

t he

t he p rovince,

a s w ell a s a wareness

I t m ay b e s ignificant t hat U gia a nd

o f

I ptuci p assed

o ver t he n ear-by c olonies i n f avour o f o nes a l ong d istance a way.

2 7

( v) C onclusion T he a ccount o f l ocal g overnments' r elations w ith R ome, w ith i ndividuals o utside

t he

c ommunity ,

a nd

w ith

d ependence o n R ome's g oodwill;

o ne

a nother ,

r eveals

v arying

d egrees

o f

a nd i t i ndicates a n umber o f d ifferent w ays

i n w hich e xternal i nfluence a nd r esources m ight b e e xploited. n ear-by t owns, d istinguished n atives, R oman o fficials, a nd

R esidents o f i ndeed o ther

p rovincial c ommunities c ould a ll h elp t o p romote a c ommunity's w ell-being. B oth d ependence o n R oman c o-operation a nd e xternal o pportunities t ended t o i ncrease w ith t he p rocess o f c ivilisation;

a lthough t here i s n o c lear

c orrelation b etween f ormal s tatus a nd i ntensity o f a ctivity i n t his r espect. S o f ar a s r ecognition a nd i nfluence i n h igh p laces w ent, f actors o ther t han f ormal

s tatus

c ommunities; t he e mperor ;

c ut

a cross

t he

d ivision

b etween

c olonies

a nd

o ther

L atin t owns, a s w ell a s t he c olony I talica , c orresponded w ith a nd a ll c ommunities p articipated e qually i n t he a ctivities o f

p rovincial a nd c onventus a ssociations. B aetican c ommunities

d isplayed

T he s pecial e nergy w hich t he

i n c ommunicating w ith t he e mperor and

c riticising R oman o fficials m ay b e a scribed i n p art t o t he f act t hat B aetica w as a s enatorial, a s o pposed t o i mperial, p rovince. E xternal r elations r eveal, o ver a nd a bove t he d esire t o s ecure t he m eans f or a c omfortable l ife-style , a nxiety a bout t he d ignity o f i ndividual c ommunities a nd c oncern f or t he q uality o f R oman g overnment. T he c ommunities' a bility t o e xert p ressure o n R ome w as l imited b y t he d ifficulty w hich

t hey h ad i n c o-operating w ith o ne a nother.

T his

d ifficulty w as

a

p roduct b oth o f t he a dministrative s ystem i tself a nd o f t he m utual r ivalry w hich g rew o ut o f i t. W eakened

b y

i nternal

r ivalries

t hough

t hey w ere,

p rovincial and

c onventus a ssociations h ad t he a dvantage o f n umbers w hich h elped t o o bscure p articular e nmities.

S maller a ssociations w ere m ore d ifficult t o m aintain .

M ost o f t he s mall a ssociations w ere t emporary a ffairs d esigned f or a p articular p urpose: t o b uild a b ridge o r t o h onour a b enefactor h eld i n c ommon . T he o ne p ermanent s mall a ssociation i n S pain -a part f rom t he h ospitia w hich w ere e stablished b etween c ommunities i n t he e arly y ears o f t he P rincipate -w as u nited p recisely b y c ommon c ontempt t he p rovince.

1 41

f or

t he

r est

o f

N OTES: C H . V III

N OTES ( CHAPTER V III:

1 .

P ATRONAGE A ND B ENEFICIA)

D ecurions a ppoint p ublic p atrons: D espatch a mbassadors:

C hapter V n . 3 0.

F IRA I 2 1 X CII ( Urso);

A E 1 962 2 88 ( Munigua , A .D .

1 423 ( Sabora , A .D . 7 8);

7 9).

A mbassadors s elected f rom a mong d ecurions: C hapter X n . 1 8. A mbitions i n e xternal r elations t ypical o f u pper c lasses: n . b elow , 2 .

p .

9 ;

c f.

1 41.

B enefactors f rom n eighbouring t owns: I , p . 7 01; c f. n . 2 6.

e .g.

1 347 w ith a ddendum ,

C IL 2

Y ounger B albus a t G ades: S trabo i ii. 5 . 3 , C 1 69 ( a " Neapolis"). L . M inicius N atalis, c os. 1 06 ( and h is s on) a t B arcino : 4 509 ; 4 510-1 a nd P IR 1 I I M 4 39-40 ( baths). C ompare t he p rocurator a nd f ormer d uovir o f O bulco ,

w ho

c f.

( probably i n

t he l ate s econd c entury A .D .) g ave t he t own s hops a nd a g ranary ( 2129 ; c f. C hapter V II n n . 4 , w ho i n A .D .

w ith R . S yme, T acitus, 3 .

2 1);

a nd t he R oman s enator , p robably a n ative,

1 08 r emembered C orduba i n h is w ill I ( Oxford , I

H igh-ranking e quites f rom S pain : c hevaliers

r omains

1 958), p . H .G .

o riginaires

( CIL 6 1 0229 ,

7 84 a nd n .

P flaum ,

ä l 'administration

e d. A . P iganiol a nd H .

T errasse ( Paris, 1 965), p p. 8 7-121. ( In t he c hart o n p p. 1 2, 1 3 , a nd 1 5 c ome f rom i nland T arraconensis.) S enators f rom S pain : l xxxii

( first

R .

16-7 n os.

I I, c h. x liii a nd a pp. l xxx ,

S yme, T acitus,

c entury A .D .);

3 1

" La p art p rise p ar l es

d 'Espagne

i mpgriale," i n L es e mpereurs r omains d 'Espagne ,

1 .

9 ).

E tienne ,

" Les

s enateurs

e spagnols

s ous T rajan e t H adrian ," i n L es e mpereurs r omains d 'Espagne, p p. 5 5-85 ( Nerva, T rajan , H adrian); P . L ambrechts, L a c omposition d u s bnat r omain d e l 'accession a u t röne d 'Hadrien ä l a m ort d e C ommode ( 117-92) ( Antwerp e tc., 1 936), p p. 1 83 f f. ( A .D . 17 o nwards). I n f act n o s enators a t a ll a re a ttested a s c oming f rom i nland T arraconensis o r L usitania. O n t he R oman p resence a nd c olonisation u p t o A .D . 1 4 , s ee C hapter I p f p. 4 ' f.. T he e xplanation i s o f c ourse b y n o m eans a c omplete o ne. I t w as n ot e nough f or a m an t o b e m erely s uitab le: h e h ad t o a ttract a ttention

a s

w ell.

A s

a m ode

o f

a dvancement,

municipal

r ecommendation d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een v ery i mportant: t he o nly e xample o f a m unicipal r ecommendation o f a c itizen f rom S pain m erely c onfirms t he m an's r ecommendation f rom a c onsular u ncle ( 1282 a & c : S alpensa , m id-second c entury A .D .). ( Cf. B irley , " The E questrian O fficers o f t he R oman A rmy," i n R oman B ritain a nd t he R oman A rmy ( Kendal, 1 953), p p. 1 30-53 , e sp. p p. 1 41-2: S uet. A ug. 4 6 t here c ited i mplies t hat A ugustus' p ractice w as s urprising t o S uetonius.) F or p ersonal r ecommendations, s ee B irley , l oc. c it.; R . S yme , " Pliny's L ess

S uccessful

F riends,"

R oman P apers, I I, 4 77-95); l xxiii ( 1969), 2 01-36 ( rpt. 2 28 f f..

H istoria

i x

( 1960),

3 62-79

( rpt.

i n

S yme, " Pliny t he P rocurator," H SPh i n R oman P apers, I I, 7 42-73), e sp. p p.

T he i mportant r ole p layed b y r elatives a nd f riends i n h igh

1 42

N OTES:

C H . V III

p laces m eant t hat t he p redominance o f c ertain a reas t ended t o b e s elfp erpetuating . I t m ight b e p ossible t o s ecure a dvancement b y m aking t he a cquaintance o f R oman o fficials i n t he p rovince: t he f riendship o f V oconius R omanus , af ormer p rovincial f lamen o f T arraconensis , w ith t he Y ounger P liny c ould h ave a risen d uring P liny's p rocuratorship t here.

B ut i n

f act h e h ad k nown P liny b efore ( Syme, " Pliny's L ess S uccessful F riends," p p . 3 65 f f.); a nd i t s eems i mprobable t hat s uch c ontacts w ould r ival o ther p ersonal c onnexions i n s ignificance. T here i s n ot, t herefore , a s trong b asis f or a rguing t hat p rovincial a nd c onventus c apitals, f or e xample , p rospered b ecause i t w as e asier t o m eet R oman o fficials t here. A lthough c ertain t owns ( naturally , g iven t he s ystem o f p ersonal r ecommendations) m ight e xpand a n o riginal s uccess , t hey c ould b e m unicipia ( e.g . G ades, I liberris) a s w ell a s c olonies ( e.g . B arcino) ( see, f or c onvenience, P flaum , " La p art p rise p ar l es c hevaliers r onains" a nd E tienne , 4 .

" Les s enateurs e spagnols").

" Praefectus C ohortis B aeticae": C IL 5 5 127 ( cited b y B irley , " The E questrian O fficers," p . 1 51). F or t his c ohort , s ee A ppendix I n . 1 4 : t he c olony c oncerned w as p robably C orduba. F or p rocurators w ith s pecial s pheres o f i nterest , s ee C hapter I p . 1 0 ( procurator o f A sturia-Callaecia), a nd A ppendix I p p. 1 85 f f. ( procurators i n c harge o f p ublic p roperty a nd i ndirect t axes). P rovincial p rocurator o f B aetica a t C astulo : 3 270 ; c f. R .P . D uncanJ ones, " The P rocurator a s C ivic B enefactor ," J RS l xiv ( 1974), 7 9-85. D uncan-Jones s uggests ( p. 8 1 a nd n . 2 4) t hat Q . T orius C ulleo w as a n ative o f C astulo. W hether o r p robable t hat t hese b enefactions o fficial p osition a s p rocurator T he R omans i n S pain 2 17 B .C.-A .D .

n ot h e w as a n ative , i t a lso s eems t o C astulo w ere c onnected w ith h is o f B aetica ( cf. C .H .V . S utherland , 17 ( London , 1 939) , p . 1 40). ( For

b enefactions a ssociated w ith t enure o f p ositions i n t he R oman a dministration , c f. C IL 5 5 127, c ited a bove; a nd B irley, " The E questrian O fficers," p p. 1 49-51.) C astulo l ay i n am ining r egion o n t he b orders o f B aetica w hich i n t he l ast y ears o f t he f irst c entury B .C. w as t ransferred t o T arraconensis. ( For t he m ines, s ee A ppendix I n . 1; f or t he b oundary c hange , C hapter I n . 2 3.) I t i s l ikely t hat t he p urpose o f t he b oundary c hange w as t o f acilitate i mperial c ontrol o f " public" m ines -less i nvidious i f t hey w ere l ocated i n a n i mperial p rovince ( cf. A ppendix I p . 1 86). G eographically t he a rea a round C astulo w as m ore e asily m anageable b y a p rocurator o f B aetica t han b y o ne o f T arraconensis. I t i s t herefore q uite e xplicable t hat a p rocurator o f B aetica s hould b e f ound t here. 5 .

E mperors a s b enefactors: t he r estoration o f E merita's t heatre i s d ated ( probably) A .D . 1 35 ; w hile t he r estoration o f t he ( provincial) t emple o f A ugustus a t T arraco i s s aid t o h ave t aken p lace d uring H adrian 's s tay t here i n A .D . 1 22-3 ( 478 ; S .H .A . H adr . 1 2. 3 ). F or C laudius a t C astulo ,

s ee 3 269 = A E 1 973 2 80 ;

c f.

C hapter V II n .

2 6 a nd a bove , n . 4 ( a t heatre ( ?)):. I lugo i n T arraconensis , w here H adrian a ppears t o h ave b een h ailed a s " restitutor m unicipii" , w as a bout t wenty-five k ilometres n orth-east o f C astulo ( 3239 w ith t he m ap a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I , N 1). F or H adrian 's r ebuilding o f h is n ative t own I talica , s ee D io l xix . 1 0 . 1 ; A . G arcia y B ellido , C olonia A elia

1 43

N OTES: A ugusta I talica s pecial

( Madrid,

i nterest

a re

C H . V III

1 960).

T rajan's

L ess e xplicable i n t erms o f a

" beneficia"

( which

m ay

h ave

i ncluded

b uildings) t o I liturgicola e t I polcobulcola i n B aetica ( 1640-1). F or i mperial b uilding i n t he p rovinces i n g eneral , " Roman I mperial B uilding i n t he P rovinces,"

s ee R .

M acMullen ,

H SPh l xiv ( 1959), 2 07-35.

H ow f ar t he e mperors' b uilding i n S pain w as s pontaneous i s u nclear . T he e xtant p etitions t o e mperors c onsist o f a ppeals t o t he e mperor's a uthority

r ather

t han r equests

f or p ecuniary a ssistance.

B ut

c ommunities m ay, w ithout p etitioning o penly f or b uildings, h ave h inted t hat t hey w ould b e w elcome. ( See b elow, p p. 1 35-6 a nd n . 1 0.) D istinguished p atrons c ould a lso h ave h elped t o s ecure

i mperial

b enefactions ( n . 6 ). 6 .

P atrons ( and h ospites) i n S pain :

C hapter V p . 8 7

a nd n . 3 0 .

I bid. f or t he d istinction b etween t he t wo t itles. Y ounger B albus: n . 2 . ( See n . 7 f or G ades' h ospitium w ith t he e lder B albus,

a nd d 'Ors,

E pigrafia J uridica ,

p. p

3 66-80 f or t he h ereditary

c haracter o f p atronatus a nd h ospitia.) O n t he f unctions o f p atrons, c f. B .H. W armington , P atrons

o f R oman N orth A frica ,"

P BSR x xii

( N.S.

" The M unicipal

i x)

( 1954),

3 9-55 :

i n A frica , a s i n S pain , t he f unctions o f p atrons t end t o b e s omewhat o bscure. A s a n e xample o f f inancial e xpenditure i n S pain , a part f rom t he c ase o f t he y ounger B albus, m ay b e c ited 5 941,

c f. 3 423-4:

a r ich

a dlected c ivis a nd p atron o f A sso i n T arraconensis d uring H adrian 's Axati i n B aetica: " munificentissimo c ivi") w ould b e r eign . 1 054- ( e vidence f or f inancial e xpenditure b y a l ocal p atron ,

i f i t c ertainly

r eferred t o a n o fficial p atronus. B ut c f. C hapter V n . 3 0 . S omewhat e xceptional i s t he c ase o f a p rocurator o f M auretania , h ailed a s a p atron b y S ingilia i n B aetica b ecause h e s aved t he t own f rom a n i nvasion ( 2015; c f. C hapter I n . 9 ( c. A .D. 1 75-6)). G ades' h ospitium w ith t he e lder B albus ( n. 7 ) s eems t o s uggest a n e xpectation o f i nfluence i n h igh p laces:

t hat i s, i t w as B albus' r ise

t o p olitical i mportance w hich c aused t he t own t o v alue, a nd s eek t o p reserve, i ts c onnexion w ith h im. ( For p etitions t o t he R oman g overnment, s ee b elow , p p. 7 .

G ades

1 35-6.)

a nd t he e lder B albus:

C ic.

P ro B albo

1 8 ,

4 1

( concluded b y

5 6

B .C.). C olonies a nd t heir f ounders:

F IRA I 2 1 X CVII, w ith H ardy,

S panish C harters, p p. 4 2-3 n . 8 7. I lici s oon a fter i ts f oundation ,

Three

S tatilius T aurus, h onoured b y m ay b e an e xample ( 3556 ( 26-16

B .C.)). F or p atronage a s h ereditary, s ee n . 6 . T owns

o n e ast

c oast

o f

T arraconensis:

3 414

( Saguntum) ( cf. A lföldy, F asti, p p. 7 , 1 2). g overnor o f L usitania , p atron o f E merita ( AE F asti, p .

1 47).

B ut n ote 2 820

( Carthago

N ova);

3 837

C ompare t he p rovincial 1 952 1 16; c f. A lföldy ,

( a p rovincial g overnor p atron o f U xama

i n T arraconensis; c f. A lföldy , F asti, p . 1 2 a nd m ap a t e nd o f C IL 2 I , F m). ( For t he h abits o f g overnors, s ee C hapter I p p. 8 -9 .) I Q uaestor a s h ospes o f M unigua: A lföldy, F asti, p . 1 82 f .. " Praefectus a lae A ugustae"

A E 1 962 2 87;

a s h ospes o f

C lunia :

h ospitium w hich t he C oelerni o f n orth-west

1 44

c f.

C hapter V n . 5 792.

T arraconensis

3 1 a nd

C ompare t he c oncluded

N OTES:

C H . V III

w ith a " praefectus c ohortis I C eltiberorum" i n A .D . A E b y

1 32 ( AE 1 972 2 82 =

1 973 2 95 , w ith C hapter I I n . 3f or t he C oelerni). It - i s a ssumed N esselhauf a nd A lföldy t hat C urvius S ilvinus o f A E 1 962 2 87 w as

q uaestor o f B aetica ;

a nd i ndeed t he a bsence o f f urther s pecification

m akes t his p robable. I t p raefecti w ere a ctually " Occupation ," p p. 4 9-59 ,

i s l ess c ertain t hat s tationed i n S pain ;

t he t wo m ilitary b ut s ee J ones,

6 2-6 , a nd b elow , A ppendix I n . 2f or m ilitary

f orces i n t he r egions o f C lunia a nd t he C oelerni a t t he r elevant t imes. I t s e ms i mprobable t hat c ommunities a s i nsignificant a s t hese

s hould h ave

s ecured

c onnexions w ith R oman a rmy o fficials

o therwise t han b y t heir s ervice i n t he p rovince. c onventus c apital a nd p robably L atin b y A .D . v ery r emote i n A .D . 6 8 ( Pliny N H i ii.

( Clunia, a lthough

a

1 4 , w as s till r egarded a s

1 8 ; 2 6; M cElderry I , p .

7 4 n . 3 ;

P lut. G alb. 6 . 4 ).) F or a nother o fficial a ppointed p atron b y a c ommunity i n h is a rea o f s ervice,

s ee

A E

6 6

1 936

w ith

4 226

a nd

A ppendix

p raefectus o rae m aritimae a ppointed p atron i n A .D . t he c oast o f n orth-east T arraconensis. 8 .

I p .

1 84:

a

9 8 b y B aetulo

o n

J ourney o f s ome d istance r equired: e ven w hen p rovincial o fficials w ere a ppointed,

t he a ppointment h ad

p rovince ( Chapter V p . 8 7 " Legati" :

A E

1 962 2 87 ;

t o w ait

u ntil

t hey h ad

l eft

t he

a nd n . 3 1). C IL 2 5 792;

A E

1 972 2 82 = A E

1 973 2 95 ;

A E

1 936 6 6 ; C IL 6 1 454 . F or t he p osition o f

l egatus a s a ( personal) m unus,

s ee C hapter X n .

1 5. 9 .

R estrictions o n l ocal a utonomy: I talica's p etition : t here w ould

d isplayed , a ppear

t o

n .

c f. b e

1 0 .

C hapter V I.

O n t he c oncern f or t he c ommunity's s tatus

C hapter X I p . s ymptomatic

1 77. o f

T his

t he

t ype o f p reoccupation

o rdo's

c ontrol

i n

l ocal

g overnment , a lthough i t i s p ossible t hat t he l ower c lasses a lso c ared t o s ome e xtent a bout t he s heer s tatus o f t he c ommunity. T he o ne c ase w here c ompetition b etween c ommunities i n t he W est c an c learly b e s hown t o h ave e xtended t o t he l ower c lasses d id n ot i nvolve r ivalry o ver f ormal s tatus ( Tac. A nn . x iv. 1 7, c ited i n C hapter V II n . 7 : t he t wo c olonies N uceria a nd P ompeii). D isputes o ver b oundaries: C hapter V I n . 1 7. F or v alue p laced o n t he s heer s ize o f a c ommunity's t erritory , s ee e .g. S trabo i ii. 2 . 1 , C 1 41

( Corduba).

S abora, M unigua:

n .

1 0 .

P ompaelo : n . 1 2. F or j oint r epresentations t o R ome, 1 0.

s ee b elow , p p.

L egati u sed f or c ommunication w ith e mperor: M unus o f l egatus: C hapter X n .

1 37 f f..

1 423.

1 5.

O n s alutatory e mbassies i n g eneral , t he R oman W orld ( 31 B .C. -A.D. 3 37)

s ee F .G.B. M illar , ( London,

1 977),

T he E mperor i n p p.

4 10 f f..

T hey c ould a lso b e u sed s imultaneously t o s eek t o c onfirm o r a cquire p rivileges. 4 057 ( Dertosa, A .D. 1 38) i s a l ikely e xample o f s alutatory m unicipal e mbassy f rom S pain ; c f. n . 1 9 . S abora's

r equest t o c hange t he s ite o f

S abora's r eason f or w anting t o

t he t own :

1 423.

a

P resumably

c hange t he s ite f rom h ill t o p lain w as

1 45

N OTES:

C H . V III

ad esire f or m ore s pace ( needed e specially ,

p erhaps,

t o b uld a R oman-

s tyle t own a ppropriate t o i ts n ew L atin s tatus; c f. C hapter V II n . 7 ). T here m ay i n f act h ave b een a c overt s uggestion t hat V espasian s hould a ssist i n t he r ebuilding ( cf. a bove , n . 5 ). I f s o , h e d id n ot r espond . S abora's " vectigalia": 1 423 , c f. C hapter I II p p.43-4 . I talica: A ul. G ell. N A x vi. 1 3. 4 ; c f. R . S yme, " Hadrian a nd I talica ," J RS l iv ( 1964) , 1 42-9 ( rpt. i n R oman P apers, I I , 6 17-28), p . 1 45 . M unigua: A E 1 962 2 88; c f. C hapter V I n . 1 7. ( For a c onsequent r emission o f t axes , p erhaps a nticipated b y t he t own w hen i t a sserted i ts p overty , s ee C hapter I X p . 1 55.) ( Not t hat t he e mperor a lways a ccepted t he c harge l aid u pon h im . H e r eferred t o t he g overnor S abora's r equest f or p ermission t o r aise n ew r evenues, a nd r egarded M unigua's a ppeal a gainst t he g overnor's o riginal d ecision a s i llegitimate.) 1. 1

P etitions

t o e mperors a ll f rom B aetica:

f or B aetica's

c ultural

s ophistication , s ee C hapter I p p . 7 -8 a nd C hapter V II n . 7 . F or a c omparison o f t he n umber o f c ommunities w ith t he s ize o f t he p rovince , s ee C hapter I n . 5 . D istinction b etween s enatorial a nd i mperial p rovinces: c f. P . A . B runt, " Charges o f P rovincial M aladministration u nder t he E arly P rincipate ," H istoria x ( 1961), 1 89-227 , p p . 2 11-2. F or S abora a nd M unigua a s F lavian p romotions , s ee M cElderry I , p . 7 0. I talica H adrian 's

n ative

c ommunity :

S yme ,

" Hadrian a nd

I talica" ;

S ee C hapter X n .

3f or t he

c f. n . 5 . 1 2.

P ompaelo: 2 959 ; c f. C hapter V I n . 1 1. m agistrates' a ttempt t o e vade l iability. J udicial d isputes:

C hapter V I n .

1 7.

F or t heir j udgment a t c onventus

c apitals , s ee C hapter I n . 2 4 . P osition o f a dvocate a m unus: C hapter X n . A dvocate a t I nteramnum : A E 1 973 3 17. 1 3 .

C ommunities a s a dministrative u n its: O bligations t o R ome: C hapter I X .

1 5 .

C hapter I I. F or a p rotest f rom a ll t hree

p rovinces a bout m ilitary r ecruitment -at a m eeting o rganised n ot b y t he p rovincials, b ut b y t he e mperor -see C hapter V I n . 1 9 . I bid. f or t he c laim o f t he " Italici" o n t hat o ccasion t o s pecial t reatment. S imilarities i n i nternal a dministration : f or t he s enatus c onsultum o f c . A .D . 1 77 , l imiting t he c ost o f g ladiatorial s hows, s ee I LS 5 163. T he d ocument , f ound a t I talica i n B aetica , d eals w ith b oth p rovincial a nd m unicipal e ntertainments ( 11. 1 2 f f.; 2 3 f f.; 4 7 f f.). I t d oes n ot n ecessarily s how t hat t he B aetican c ommunities m ade a j oint p rotest a bout t he c ost o f s hows. C orduba, n ot I talica, w as t he c entre o f t he p rovincial c ult o f B aetica ( below , n . 1 8); a nd I talica's i nterest i n p ublishing t his g eneral d ecree p robably a rose f rom t he p rovisions c oncerning m unicipal g ames. M utual r ivalry: 1 4.

C hapter V II n . 7 ;

c f. b elow , p p.

1 401.

F or t he s even c onventus o f T arraconensis , s ee C hapter I n . 2 4. C ult o f R ome a nd A ugustus i n c onventus o f A sturica A ugusta, L ucus

1 46

N OTES :

C H . V III

A ugusti, B racara A ugusta , a nd C lunia : E . K ornemann , " Zur G eschichte d er a ntiken H errscherkulte ," K ilo i ( 1901), 5 1146 , p p . 19 f f.. F or t he i ndividual i nscriptions, s ee R . E tienne, L e c ulte i mperial d ans l a p eninsule i berique d 'Auguste ä D iocletien ( Paris, 1 958) , p p . 1 82 f f., n os. 1 -IV ; V I-VIII ; X -XII . O n t he t itle " sacerdos R omae e t A ugusti" ( possibly a djusted t o " sacerdos R omae e t A ugustorum" a t a l ater d ate) s ee K ornemann , p p. 1 19 f f.. M ost o f t he r ecorded s acerdotes a re R oman c itizens , b ut t his d oes n ot n ecessarily r epresent ar ule. I n p articular, E tienne n o. I II = C IL 2 2 426 i s p robably p eregrine . F or t he c ult o f t he T hree G auls ( and t hat o f G ermany a t t he a ra U biorum ) , s ee R E I V 8 0910 . C onventus c ults o f n orthern T arraconensis i s e stablished b y A ugustus: K ornemann , p p . 1 201. ( The a rgument i s f rom a nalogy : t he e arliest i nscription ( Etienne n o. I = C IL 2 2 637) b elongs i n o r a fter V espasian 's r eign .) T he p recise d ate w ithin A ugustus' r eign r emains u ncertain. P resumably t he c onventus c ults p ostdated t he L usitania/Tarraconensis b oundary c hange ( on w hich s ee C hapter I n . 2 3). 2 422 ( "Callaecia": c ited i n C hapter I I n . 4 ) m ay g ive 5 B .C . a s at erminus p ost q uem f or t he e stablishment o f t he c onventus c ults. I t i s p ossible t hat I LS 8 895 ( "Bracaraugustani" , 3 -2 B .C .) r efers t o t he c onventus r ather t han t he t own , a nd r ecords t he e stablishm ent o f t he c onventus o rganisation . ( Cf. C IL 2 2 581, r ecording t he a ctivity o f t he p rov incial l egate o f t he t ime a t L ucus A ugusti.) B ut t hat i s f ar f rom c ertain . F or A ugustus' p acification o f n orthern T arraconensis s ee S yme, " Conquest." C onventus c ults a bsorbed i nto p rovincial o rgan isation : n . 1 5 . 1 5 .

P rovincial c ult o f T arraconensis: f or i ts e stablishment i n A .D . 1 5 , s ee T ac . A nn . i . 7 8 . 1 ( Cf. i . 1 0 . 8 ). E pigraphic e vidence a ppearing i n F lavian p eriod : E tienne , p p. 1 31 f f.; A lföldy , F lamines , e sp . p p . 1 4 f f.; 6 1 f f.. O n t he r ecipients o f w orship, c f. D . F ishwick, " Flamgn A ugustorum ," H SPh l xxiv ( 1970) , 2 99-312. A lthough i t i s p ossible t hat t he d escription " divorum e t A ugustorum" i s s imply a h endiadys, i t i s l ikely t hat t he p rovince w ould h ave w orshipped V espasian d uring h is l ifetime, o ut o f t act i f n ot g ratitude. ( Compare t he m unicipal f lamen o f t he l iving V espasian a t T arraco ( AE 1 965 2 36 = A lföldy , F lamines, p . 8 6 n o . 5 9).) W orship o f t he l iving e mperor, o nce i ntroduced, c ould w ell h ave c ontinued. F or t he a ddition o f L ivia , a fter h er d eath , t o t he c ult o f d ivus A ugustus, c f. n . 1 6 o n L usitania. C ults o f c onventus o f T arraco, C arthago N ova, C aesaraugusta ( cf. n . 1 4): E tienne, p p. 1 77 f f.. 3 412 ( conventus C arthaginensis) b elongs t o t he r eign o f A ntoninus P ius. 4 13 8 ( conventus Tarraconensis) r efers t o a p raefectus o rae m ariti me w ho m ay h ave s erved i n V espasian 's r eign ; b ut t hat i s n ot c ertain ( McElderry 1 , p . 6 0 ; c f. A ppendix I n . 9 ). F or t he p articipation o f t he c onventus a ssociations i n t he p rovincial o rganisation , s ee 4 072-4 ( dedications m ade a t T arraco, " genio c onventus" , r epresenting t he c onventus o f A sturica , C aesaraugusta , a nd T arraco). T he p articipation m ay h ave m eant t hat d elegates t o t he p rovincial c oncilium w ere s elected a t i nitial a ssemblies i n t he c onventus c apitals. ( The i dentification o f p rovincial f lamines b y c onventus ( Alföldy, F lamines, p p. 6 1 f f.) d oes n ot i n i tself

1 47

N OTES:

C H . V III

c onstitute g ood e vidence t hat t he c onventus c ults w ere i ntegrated i nto t he p rovincial o rganisation.) F or t he i ndependent a ctivity o f c onventus a ssociations, s ee n n. 1 8-20 . 1 6.

P rovincial c ult i n L usitania: s ee T ac. A nn. i . 7 8. 1 966 1 77

( A.D.

1 .

4 8),

f or t he e xample s et

b y T arraconensis,

I nscriptions d ating f rom C laudius' r eign : A E

c f. E J2 1 12 = C IL 2 4 73 a nd D .

F ishwick,

" On

C .I.L ., I I, 4 73 ," A JPh x ci ( 1970), 7 9-82. T he s ame i nscriptions s how t he a ddition o f L ivia t o t he c ult. F or L ivia's d eification b y t he S enate i n A .D. 4 1, s ee D io l x. 5 . 2 ; S uet. C laud. 1 1. 2 ; S eneca A pocol. 9 . 5 . T he l ater e pigraphic e vidence i s s et o ut i n E tienne , p p. 1 22 f f.; c f. n n . 1 8-20 . 1 7.

B aetica: o n t he c haracter o f t he p rovince, c f. a bove, n . D edication t o A ugustus: I LS 1 03 ( the d ate i s i n o r a fter 2 B .C .;

1. a nd

t he s tatue m ay i n f act m ark A ugustus' b oundary a djustment o n t he e astern s ide o f t he p rovince ( Chapter I n . 2 3)). P rosecution a nd p roposal t o e stablish a c ult: T ac. A nn . i v . 1 3 ; 3 7; c f.

1 5.

on

t his

P rovincial c ult n ot e stablished u ntil question,

s ee

J .

D eininger,

t he

" Zur

F lavian p eriod:

B egründung

P rovinzialkultes i n d er B aetica," MDAI(M) v ( 1964), F ishwick,

" The

I nstitution

o f

t he

P rovincial

d es

1 67-179 ;

C ult

i n

D .

A frica

P roconsularis," H ermes x cii ( 1964), 3 42-63 , p p. 3 50 f f.; F ishwick , " The E questrian C ursus i n C IL 2 , 3 271," H istoria x ix ( 1970), 9 6112; F ishwick , p p.

" The A nnexation o f M auretania," H istoria x x ( 1971),

4 84-7.

T he i nscription C IL 2 3 271,

F lavian d ate,

i s n ot r eliable e vidence,

f irst p rovincial f lamen a t a ll.

w hich a ppears

4 67-87,

t o b e o f

s ince i t m ay n ot r efer t o t he

A part f rom t he m an i n C IL 2 3 271,

t he e arliest a ttested p rovincial f lamen o f B aetica h eld t he p ost i n A .D. 9 8 ( 2344). Analogies w ith G allia N arbonensis a nd A frica P roconsularis g ive f orce t o t he s uspicion , b ased o n t he r ebuff o f A .D . 2 5 a nd c orroborated b y t he a bsence o f e vidence u ntil ( late i n?) t he F lavian p eriod , t hat t he B aeticans' r eligious s entiments w ere r evived o nly

b y

t he

t herefore ,

a rrival

p robably

n ecessarily

d uring

o f

a n ew

o riginated

d ynasty.

i n

V espasian's

d eification m ay h ave m arked

t he

t he

r eign.

a s

t here m ay

w ere w orshipped ( cf. n . 1 8 .

b e

c ult

p eriod,

i n

p p.

d eath

T he o bject

1 26 f f.):

i n T arraconensis,

t hat

E tienne,

p p.

E tienne,

1 26 f f.;

D eininger, p .

C IL 2 I I,

I ndex ,

5 20 n o. 3 02 ( Lusitania); i n T arraconensis,

1 74;

146

p .

p p .

1 22 f f.

A lföldy,

( Lusitania) ;

A E 1 971 1 83 ( Baetica).

( Tarraconensis);

E E V III p .

C IL 2 2 344 ( Baetica).

M eetings a t p rovincial c apital: s ee A lföldy,

o f c ult i n L usitania:

e mperors

1 5).

p assim ( Tarraconensis);

" Concilium":

a nd

o f t he

t here i s n o

l iving

P rovincial a ssociations e quipped w ith a nnual p riests: F lamines,

B aetica,

a lthough n ot

V espasian's

s tarting-point.

c ult w as t he " divi A ugusti n ( Etienne, i ndication ,

T he

F lavian

f or T arraco a s t he c entre o f t he c ult F lamines,

p assim .

E merita t he c entre

i t i s t he s ite o f d edications

; ( 473 = E J 2 12

5 264), a nd a d ecree o f t he c oncilium i s r ecorded t here ( EE V III p . 5 20 n o. 3 02). C orduba t he c entre o f c ult i n B aetica ( cf. C hapter I n . 2 3):

s ee e .g. 5 523; D eininger, p .

1 74.

S election o f d elegates: c f. C IL 1 3 3 162 ( ii) ( Three G auls). P re-selection b y c onventus a ssemblies i n T arraconensis: C onventus

c ults o f T arraconensis: 1 48

n .15.

f or a nnual p riests a nd c entres a t

N OTES : c onventus c apitals

( cf.

C H . V III

C hapter I n .

2 4) ,

s ee E tienne ,

p p .

1 77 f f..

T he o nly e xplicit r eference t o a c onventus " concilium" i s C IL 6 1 454 ( Cluniensis , A .D . 2 22). B ut s ee b elow , n n . 1 9-20 , f or o rganised a ctivity o n t he p art o f c onventus. 5 L iberality e xpected o f p riests: e .g . 4 221 ( Tarraconensis); 523 ( Baetica). ( On t he s enatus c onsultum o f c . A .D . 1 77 , s ee n . 1 3.) A mbassadors p ay t he c ost o f j ourneys : 4 201 = I LS 6 927 ; 4 208 = I LS 6 928 ( cf. n . 2 1) ( Tarraconensis). C ost o f s tatues r eimbursed i n B aetica : D eininger , p . 1 74 ; A E 1 971 1 83 . 1 9 .

G ift o f g old c rown i n A .D . 4 3 : P liny N H x xxiii. 5 4 . S ecular g old s tatue a t E merita : 5 264 ( five p ounds o f g old). C ompare t he s ecular s tatues e rected b y t he c onventus C arthaginensis i n h onour o f m embers o f t he i mperial f amily : 3 412 ( Antoninus P ius); 3 413 ( mother o f S everus A lexander). B aetica i n A .D . 1 35 : I LS 3 18 . ( The o nly a ttested c ase o f H adrian 's g enerosity t owards c ommunities i n B aetica i s t hat o f I talica ( nn . 5 ,10). B ut s ee n . 5 f or i mperial b uilding i n S pain g enerally , a nd C hapter I X n . 1 3 f or H adrian's r emission o f t ribute t o p rovincial c ommunities.) L egationes f rom c oncilium o f T arraconensis: 4 201 = I LS 6 927 ( Hadrian); 4 055 = I LS 6 925 ( a m an f rom D ertosa s erved o n e mbassies , a pparen tly a longside o ther m embers o f t he c oncilium , t o o ne o f t he A ntonines ) 4 057, a lso f rom D ertosa p robably s hould n ot b e a ssociated w ith 4 055 , b ut m erely r ecords a m unicipal e mbassy f rom t he t own , n ot t he p rovince , i n A .D . 1 38 ( cf. n . 1 0). O n s alutatory e mbassies , s ee n . 1 0 .

2 0 .

C onventus A sturum : C IL 1 2 1 855 ( cf. P flaum , C arri kes , I , 1 75-6 , n o. 7 9). C onventus T arraconensis: 4 138 ( cf. A ppendix I n . 9 ). C oncilium o f L usitania : H E V III p . 5 20 n o . 3 02 ( cf. A lföldy , F asti, p . 1 48 ).

2 1.

P rosecutions i n n ineties A .D .: B aebius M assa , A .D . 9 3 ( convicted); G allus , A .D . 9 7-8 ( result u nknown) ; C aecilius C lassicus , A .D . 9 9 ( convicted) ( all c ited i n C hapter V I n . 2 9). ( See P liny E p. i ii. 4 , 2 ; 9 . 2 9 f f. f or t he l egati o f t he p rovince, o ne o f w hom h ad b een a ppointed i nquisitor b y t he c oncilium .) C omplaints a bout p unishment o f c attle-rustlers: C oll. x i. 7 . 1 -2; D ig . X LVII 1 4 . 1p r . ( Ulpian). ( For t he d efinition o f t he c rime , s ee d oll. x i. 8 . 1 ; D ig . X LVII 1 4 . 1 -2 ( Ulpian).) E mbassy t o M . A urelius a t S irmium : 4 208 = I LS 6 928 , c orrected b y G . A lföldy , " Eine s panische G esandschaft i n P annonien ," A EA x liii ( 1970), 1 69-74 , w ho d ates t he e vent t o ( ?) A .D . 1 73-4. M ommsen 's a rgument f or t he i nvolvement o f t he c oncilia i n p rovincial c ensuses i s n ot c ogent ( Römische G eschichte , 5 th e d ., V ( Berlin , 1 904) , 8 5 n . 1 ; c f. H irschfeld 's n ote t o C IL 1 3 1 694).

2 2 .

L ifelong h onour o f h aving h eld p riesthood:

c f.

( Tarraconensis: " flaminales v iri");

9 83 ( Baetica :

C oncrete r edress f rom p rosecution :

P liny E p.

i ii.

4 248 = I LS 6 937

" vir f laminalis"). 9 .

1 7

C lassicus , c f. n . 2 1). D ifferent b ehaviour o f i mperial a nd s enatorial p rovinces: p . 1 35 a nd n . 1. 1 49

( Caecilius c f. a bove ,

N OTES: C H . V III 2 3.

H ospitia 1 8

b etween c ommunities:

( Ugia M a nia -Emerita ,

d 'Ors,

A .D.

6 );

E pigrafia J uridica , 3 71

P .

n o.

2 0

p .

( Iptuci

3 70 n o. -Ucubi ,

A .D . 3 1). F or t he l ocations o f t he t owns c oncerned, s ee t he m ap o f B aetica a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I , Q g ( Iptuci); Q f ( Ugia , n ot m arked b ut o n t he r oad f rom G ades t o H ispalis, 2 7 m iles n orth-east o f H asta ( It. A nt. 4 10)); O i ( Ucubi). E merita i s t he L usitanian c olony : s ee t he m ap

o f

S pain ,

4 10 ( above),

i bid.,

d 'Ors,

M f.

A part f rom t he r eference i n I t. A nt.

E pigrafia J uridica n o.

1 8 i s t he o nly e xtant

r eference t o U gia. T he t itle " Martia n , a nd i ndeed t he c itation o f " decuriones" a nd " municipes", s hows i t t o b e a p rivileged t own , p robably o f L atin s tatus ( Henderson , 1 942 , p p. 1 f f.; c f. C hapter I I n . T he d escription " Martienses, q ui a ntea U gienses f uerunt" 1). s eems t o i mply t hat t he p romotion f rom p eregrine s tatus w as r elatively r ecent. c olony

T his I ptuci,

l ocated a t C abeza d e H ortales,

i n t he c onventus A stigitanus

i s n ot t he 1 2),

b ut

t he

u nprivileged t own i n t he c onventus G aditanus

( Pliny N H i ii.

1 5 ;

c f.

C IL

p opulusque n i n

2 I ,

p .

2 41).

T he w ords

( Pliny N H i ii.

" senatus

E pigrafia J uridica n o. 2 0 c orroborate t his ( cf. C hapter F or U cubi, E merita , s ee e .g. P liny N H i ii. 1 2; i v. 17.

d 'Ors,

I n . I

1).

I n e ach c ase t he l ess i mportant c ommunity s ent a mbassadors t o t he c olony

t o

c onclude

h ypothesis

t hat

t he

h ospitium w here

t he

h ospitium.

T his

r elationship w as

t he

a n

r elationship w as,

t ends

u nequal

t o

o ne.

c onfirm

t he

( For a nother

w ithout e xplicit s tatement,

u nequal, s ee d 'Ors, E pigrafia J uridica , p . 3 73 n o . 2 1.) I t s eems i mprobable t hat t here w as a ny q uestion o f a n e xchange o f c itizenship , s ince t he c ommunities w ere o f u nequal s tatus. I t i s p ossible t hat E merita a nd U cubi w ere a lso ,

l ike i ndividual p atroni, e xpected t o s how

f inancial g enerosity t owards U gia a nd I ptuci.

F or m utual i nspiration

i n t he c ase o f t owns c lose t o o ne a nother , s ee C hapter V II n n . 7 , 2 1. F or t he r elationship o f a v icus o f C lunia i n c entral T arraconensis t o t he n ear-by t own T ermes, s ee C hapter I I p . 2 4. 2 4.

T en c ommunities i n c onventus B racaraugustanus: n .

1 6.

( The

c onventus,

w hich

2 8).) A lcantara: n .

6 .)

c ommunities c ontained

7 59-61. M ore

d id

n ot

e xhaust

t wenty-four

2 477;

c ommunities

i n a ll

( For t he a uthenticity o f 7 60 ,

c ommunities

t han

t he

c f.

C hapter I X

t he m embership o f t he ( Pliny N H

s ee A ppendix I II

e leven n amed m ay h ave

b een

i nvolved , s ince t hree c ompanion i nscriptions t o 7 60 a re m issing. t he l ocations o f t he c ommunities c oncerned , s ee C IL 2 I , p . 9 5 f . t he m ap a t ( 760).

t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I.

" Caesari" ,

t o T rajan ,

F or a nd

T he w ork w as d one " stipe c onlata n

" h fervae n i n 7 59 s how t hat t he b ridge w as d edicated

n ot m erely

d ated b y h is

t itles.

T he f act t hat t he

c ommunities t hemselves a ppear t o h ave o rganised t he c onstruction d oes n ot o f c ourse p rove t hat t hey c onceived t he i dea s pontaneously. W hether t he R oman g overnment p rovided e ncouragement, o r i ndeed i nstructions, f or t he b uilding o f t he b ridge m ust r emain u nclear . I t i s p ossible t hat t he b ridge w as d emanded

b y

t he

R oman g overnment

p art o f t he R oman m ilitary r oad s ystem i n L usitania.

a s

A rchaeological

t races d o e xist o f a r oad s tretching n orth-west f rom A lcantara t o t he P ortuguese b order ( J.M. R oldan H ervas, I ter a b E merita A sturicam : e l C amino d e l a P lata ( Salamanca, 1 971), p p. 1 56-7). B ut, s ince n o m ilestones f or t he r oad h ave b een f ound , i t c ould a s w ell b e a s

l ocal

a s

a R oman

r oad

( cf.

1 50

C IL

2 I ,

p p.

8 3,

9 5).

( The

N OTES :

C H . V III

a ccompanying t emple ( 761) m ight b e t hought t o s how t hat t he w ork h ad r eligious c onnotations. B ut t hat i s n ot s o: i t w as b uilt b y t he a rchitect i n c ommemoration o f h is s kill , n ot b y t he c ommunities w ho p aid f or t he b ridge.) F or t he e stablishment o f t he p rovincial c ult i n L usitania , s ee a bove , p . 1 37 . 2 5 .

T he f ive c oloniae i mmunes o f B aetica w ere : A stigi , T ucci , I ptuci , U cubi, U rso ( Pliny N H i ii. 1 2; c f. C hapter V I n . 4 ). F or t heir l ocations , s ee t he m ap o f B aetica a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I . ( That o f I ptuci i s u nknown , c f. a bove , n . 2 3.) T hey w ere n ot a ll i mmediate n eighbours , a lthough A stigi a nd U rso m ay h ave b een . T he f act t hat t hey a ll b elong t o t he s ame c onventus i s p robably n ot s ignificant , e xcept i nsofar a s i t f acilitated c ommunications. T wo i nscriptions r efer t o t he o rganisation o f t he c oloniae i mmunes. 163 f rom T ucci w as s et u p b y a c itizen o f t hat t own w ho w as a lso 1 " flamen c ol(oniarum) i mmunium p rovinciae B aeticae". 1 475 f rom A stigi r eads: " Sex. A llio M a[merco] p ontifici p erpe[tuo] c ol(oniae) A stigitanae e t f lamini d ivor(um) A ugust(orum) c oncili i mmunes I lienses I lipenses d ecuriones v iritim s tatuam d (ono) d (ederunt)" . ( The w ords u nderlined a re k nown o nly f rom a n o ld c opy .) F or t he t own n amed " Ilipa I lia", s ee P liny N H i ii. 1 1 ( despite H übner's n ote t o C IL 2 1 475). ( For o ther t itles i n B aetica r ecalling t he m ythical h istory o f t he J ulian f amily , s ee H enderson , 1 942 , p . 7 .) T he d ecurions o f I lipa w ere h onouring a b enefactor o f t heir t own w ho w as a c itizen o f A stigi ( cf. n . 2 6), a nd a lso " flamen d ivor(um) A ugust(orum) c oncili i mmun(ium) ( ?)": t hat i s, f lamen o f t he c oncilium o f t he c oloniae i mmunes, t he s ame p ost a s t hat h eld b y t he m an i n 163 . F or t he p rovincial c oncilium , a nd i ts w orship o f t he d ivi A ugusti, s ee a bove , p p . 1 37 f f..

2 6 .

B enefactors o f c ommunities n ot t heir a wn : P atrons o f c ommunities n ot t heir o wn :

n . 2 , a nd b elow . e .g. 3 695 = d 'Ors,

E pigrafia J uridica, p . 3 67 n o. 1 6 ( Bocchori, P ollentia); 2 960 = d 'Ors, E pigrafia J uridica , p . 3 76 n o . 2 6 ( Pompaelo , D amania). T he l egati i n e ach c ase p rove n on-residence. F or p atronage a s a n i nstitution , s ee n . 6 . B enefactors h onoured i n n ative t owns: e .g . 3 351 ( the p lebs o f O ssigi i n B aetica ( cf. C IL 2 I , p . 2 93) h onour a m an i n a n u nidentified t own a cross t he b order i n T arraconensis); 1 475 ( cited i n n . 2 5). B enefactors h onoured b y ag roup o f c ommunities: 3 251-2 ( citizen o f B aesucci, h onoured s imultaneously b y B aesucci , L aminium , T ugia, a nd V ivatia); I LS 6 920 ( "Callensis", h onoured s imultaneously b y I talica , H ispalis, A sido , S iarum , a nd t he C allenses t hemselves). F or t he l ocations o f B aesucci e tc., s ee t he m ap o f S pain a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I , N i, M m , O m , 0 1: a ll t owns w ithin a r elatively s mall r adius i n s outh-east T arraconensis. F or t he C allenses e tc ., s ee t he m ap o f B aetica a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I , P fg ( Italica ,

H ispalis) ;

R g ( Asido);

Q g ( Siarum ,

C allenses) :

r elatively c lose t o o ne a nother . 2 7 .

B oundary d isputes: n . 9 . C ompetition f or m unicipal c harters: A ppendix I V p p . 2 20 f f.. O ver b uildings a nd s ervices: C hapter V II , e sp . n n . 7 , 2 1. V alue p laced o n f ormal s tatus: n . 9 . U gia a nd I ptuci: n . 2 3 . 1 51

a lso

C HAPTER I X S ERVICE T O R OME

( i)

I ntroduction

I n p rovincial a dministration ,

R ome's c hief a ims w ere t o p reserve p eace

a nd t o u se t he p rovincials' e nergies a nd r esources i n s upport o f h er g overnment o f t he E mpire a s a w hole. N ot a ll o f R ome's a dministrative a ctivity i nvolved t he m ediation o f l ocal g overnments. S ome a spects o f t he a dm inistration n either a ffected d irectly t he c ommunities' o wn a mbitions, n or r elied u pon t heir s ervices. T hus l ocal g overnments w ere n ot c alled u pon t o c ontrol m ilitary f orces , a nd p ermanent a rmy b ases a t a ny r ate s eem t o h ave l ain o utside t he b oundaries o f a ny p rovincial c ommunity. M ines a nd o ther p roperty i n t he p ossession o f R ome w ere s imilarly t reated a s e xtraterritorial, a nd t he c ommunities d id n ot p articipate i n t heir m anagement. A lthough t he l ocal g overnments w ere r esponsible f or t he c ollection o f d irect t axes ,

i ndirect t axes w ere c ollected o n am ore g eneral

b asis, w ithout t he a ssistance o f l ocal a uthorities. T he

s ervices

w hich

t he

c ommunities

p erformed

f or

R ome

r equired

t he

e xpenditure o f e nergy a s w ell a s m oney. T hus t hey t hemselves c ollected t he d irect t axes w hich t hey w ere o bliged t o p ay, a nd a lso p articipated i n c ompiling t he c ensus r ecords w hich f ormed t he b asis f or d irect t axation . M ilitary r ecruitment i s a nother e xample o f s ervice t o R ome w hich c alled u pon t he o rganising a bility o f l ocal g overnments. I n s ervice t o R ome , a s i n l ocal a dministration , o verall c ontrol l ay i n t he h ands o f t he o rdo. I t w as t he o rdo w hich s upervised t he m agistrates' p erformance o f t he r elevant d uties , a nd s aw t o t he d istribution o f m unera w hich a ssisted a c ommunity's d ischarge o f i ts o bligations. F rom t he o rdo's r esponsibility f or t he c ommunity's s ervice t o R ome i t d oes n ot n ecessarily f ollow t hat d ecurions w ere d uring t he f irst t wo c enturies A .D . u nder a c ommunal f inancial l iability t o t he R oman g overnment. A r egulation s uch a s t hat i n U rso's c harter e njoining t hat d ecurions o wn p roperty l ocally i s c ompletely e xplained b y r eference t o t he n eed t o e nsure r esponsible p erformance o f d uties ( both i n s ervice t o R ome a nd i n l ocal a dministration). T here i s n o c ause t o i nfer f inancial l iability a s w ell. T he t heory t hat

d ecurions w ere

p ersonally

l iable

f or

s hortfalls

i n R oman

t axation s eems n ot t o h ave d eveloped u ntil t he t hird c entury A .D .. T he e vidence f or t heir l iability i s u nsatisfactory e ven a t t hat d ate. T his i s n ot t o d eny t hat , a s am atter o f f act , d ecurions m ight h ave h ad t o m ake u p t he a mount t hemselves, a s al ast r esort, i n t he e arlier p eriod. I t w as o n t he d ecurions , i n v iew o f t heir l ocal a uthority , t hat t he R oman g overnment w ould e xert p ressure.

T he f act t hat t hey h ad t he m oney t o p ay m ade t hem

v ulnerable. B ut t here i s a d ifference b etween l iability i n t heory a nd l iability i n f act. S o l ong a s t he l iability w as n ot t heoretical, r ecourse w ould n ot i mmediately b e h ad t o d ecurions' w ealth, a nd t hey c ould

1 52

l egitimately a dopt o ther m ethods o f d ealing w ith t he p roblem .3

( ii) I n

t he

c ase

b oth

o f

t he

T he c ensus c ensus

o f

R oman

c itizens,

a nd

o f

t he

p rovincial c ensus w hich f ormed t he b asis f or a n a ssessment o f t axes, c ommunities s eem t o h ave h ad r esponsibility f or c ompiling l ocal r ecords. U nder

t he

P rincipate

n either

t ype

o f

c ensus

a ppears

t o h ave

o ccurred

a t

r egular f ive-yearly i ntervals; a nd t here a re g rounds f or b elieving t hat t he d uoviri q uinquennales, a ppointed e very f ive y ears i n R oman c olonies a nd m unicipia,

h ad

n o

e ssential c onnexion e ven w ith

t he

c ensus

o f

R oman

c itizens. T hese o fficials h ad a s ufficient r aison d 'etre i n t erms o f p urely l ocal r esponsibilities. 4 N evertheless,

t he T abula H eracleensis m akes i t c lear t hat,

o ccasion o f t he R oman c ensus, t he c ompilation o f l ocal r ecords w as o f t he l ocal m agistrates w ith t he h ighest a uthority. a nd t he m unicipia , T he R oman c ensus,

b oth R oman a nd L atin , a s s uch ,

i n S pain ,

o n t he

t he d uty

I n t he R oman c olonies t hese w ere t he d uoviri.

a ppears t o h ave t aken p lace o nly t wice -u nder

C laudius a nd V espasian -after t he r eign o f A ugustus;

a lthough i t d oes n ot

n ecessarily f ollow t hat c ommunities w ere, a fter V espasian's r eign ,

r elieved

a ltogether o f r esponsibility f or k eeping r ecords o f R oman c itizens. P rovincial c ensuses, o n t he o ther h and, c ontinued t o t ake p lace t hroughout t he P rincipate. A fter A ugustus' r eign , p rovincial c ensuses i n S pain a re r ecorded u nder V espasian , i n t he m id-second c entury A .D ., a nd o nce o r t wice a t t he e nd o f t he s econd a nd b eginning o f A n i nscription f rom O sset p rovincial c ensus a lso ,

i n

B aetica

i ndicates

t he t hird c entury A .D ..

t hat,

i n t he

c ase o f

t he

r esponsibility f or c ompiling l ocal r ecords l ay w ith

t he d uoviri a s t he h ighest m agistrates. 6 T he

a rrangements

f or

t he

R oman

c ensus

d escribed

i n

t he

T abula

H eracleensis s uggest t hat i nformation r eceived b y m agistrates i n t he I talian t owns w as n ot c hecked l ocally b y R oman o fficials, b ut s ent d irectly t o t he c ensors a t R ome. I t i s p ossible t hat a s imilar t rust w as p laced i n t he S panish

c ommunities w ith

r egard t o r ecords o f R oman c itizens:

h ave r elieved R ome o f a c onsiderable a dministrative b urden .

t his w ould B ut t he s ame

d egree o f a utonomy c ould n ot b e t olerated w here R ome's f inancial i nterests w ere o f c entral i mportance; a nd w here l ocal m agistrates, a s w ell a s p rivate i ndividuals, h ad a s trong m otive f or f alsifying t he r ecords. I n c ontrast t o

t he

R oman

c ensus,

t he

p rovincial

c ensus

s eems

t o

h ave

i nvolved

s urveillance o f i ndividual c ommunities: n ot o nly f rom t he g overnor h imself, b ut a lso f rom o ther o fficials s pecially d etailed t o a ssist h im a nd t o d eal .? w ith p articular a reas o f t he p rovince. R ecords

c ompiled b y l ocal m agistrates w ere d elivered b y t hem t o R oman

o fficials a ctive i n t he v icinity. o fficials c arrying o ut t he c ensus

T he s urviving r eferences t o R oman i n T arraconensis s uggest t hat t hey

o perated i n a h ierarchy h eaded b y t he p rovincial g overnor. E questrian o fficials, a s w ell a s m en o f s enatorial r ank, w ere a mong t hem. A t t he l owest l evel a m inor o fficial c ollected r eturns f rom a s mall n umber o f c ommunities. A t ribunus l aticlavius i s m entioned o perating a t t his b asic l evel ,

p robably i n t he m id-second c entury A .D .:

h e h ad r esponsibility f or

f ewer t han t hirty c ommunities j ust s outh-west o f t he P yrenees.

1 53

T he r eturns

w ere

t hen

p assed

p rogressively

o n ,

l arger

r esponsibility

f or

p robably a reas,

t he

t hrough

t o

t he

i ntermediaries

p rovincial

e ntire p rovincial

c ourse a v ery l arge p rovince, t here w ere m ore n umerous,

r ecord.

i n

c harge

g overnor,

w ho

o f h ad

T arraconensis w as o f

a nd i t i s l ikely t hat t he o fficials o perating

a nd t he h ierarchy m ore c omplicated,

t han i n t he

o ther t wo S panish p rovinces. N evertheless, o ne m ay a ssume t hat t he g eneral p attern o f o perations i n B aetica a nd L usitania w as t he s ame. 8

( iii)

D irect t axation

T he n ature o f t he t axes T he p rovincial c ensus w as u sed t o f ix t he a mount o f t ribute w hich w as p ayable t o R ome b y t he c ommunities. T here i s v ery l ittle e vidence f or t he w ay i n w hich t ribute w as a ssessed f or S pain : w hether p roperty-taxes o r p oll-taxes, o r b oth , w ere p aid , a nd a t w hat r ate. A s r egards t he t ype o f t ribute,

t here m ay h ave b een v ariations,

e specially i n a ccordance w ith t he

s ophistication o f c ommunities. h ave b een r egarded a s m ore

A t a ny r ate a s imple p oll-tax a ppropriate t o l ess R omanised

d egree o f s eems t o

c ommunities, a nd p erhaps w as n ot i mposed o n R oman c itizens. w ere p robably w idespread i n t he m ore c ivilised a reas o f n ot u nlikely t hat m ovable p roperty , a ssessment.

a s w ell

a s

l and ,

P roperty-taxes

S pain ;

w as

a nd i t i s

i ncluded i n t he

9

A n umber

o f

c olonies

i n

S pain

( all

t hree

p rovinces

a re

r epresented)

e njoyed i mmunity f rom t axation . B oth t he i us I talicum a nd s imple i mmunity f rom t axation s eem t o h ave e ntailed c omplete f reedom f rom t axation f or a c ommunity's

l and

a nd

c itizens.

B ut

s uch

t owns

c onstituted

a n

e xtremely

s mall p roportion o f S panish c ommunities. E lsewhere t he l ocal a uthorlAies w ere o bliged t o c ollect t axes a nd d eliver t hem t o t he R oman g overnment.

M ethods o f p ayment T he i ntervals o f p ayment,

l ike t he n ature o f t he t axes,

m ay h ave

v aried. E busus i n t he B alearic I slands m ade a s ingle a nnual p ayment, i n t he p ost-Flavian p eriod a t a ny r ate. B ut s ome p rimitive L usitanians m entioned b y t he E lder P liny a pparently p aid i n t wo i nstalments e ach y ear.

I n

p rivileged c ommunities t he r eceipt a nd s upervision o f t ribute-money a ppears t ypically t o h ave b een t he t ask o f t he q uaestor. B ut s ome p rivileged c ommunities i n S pain l acked ,

i t w ould s eem ,

t he o ffice o f q uaestor ;

a nd i t

i s p ossible t hat h ere t he s ame w ork w as t reated a s am unus t o b e i mposed b y t he o rdo o n i ndividual r esidents. I n t he m ore c ivilised p arts o f S pain , p agi m ay h ave a ssisted i n t he c ollection o f a c ommunity's t ri b ute. I t

i s

n ot

c lear h ow t he m oney m ade

i ts w ay t o t he R oman o fficial

r esponsible f or c ollecting i t f rom t he c ommunities: t he p rovincial q uaestor i n B aetica , a nd i n L usitania a nd T arraconensis t he p rovincial p rocurator . E lsewhere i n t he E mpire R oman o fficials,

i ncluding s oldiers,

a re s ometimes

f ound o n t he s pot e xacting t ribute f rom a c ommunity. B ut t hat p robably o ccurred o nly w hen a c ommunity f ailed t o p ay s pontaneously. A n i ncident a t T ermes

i n

T arraconensis

d uring

T iberius'

m oney h ad b een d espatched d irectly t o t he

r eign m ay p rovincial

t ransferred t o aR oman o fficial v isiting t he t own.

1 54

1 2

s uggest c apital,

t hat

t ribute-

r ather

t han

D efault a nd r emission o f t axes F ear o f R oman o fficials,

a nd d esire f or R ome's g oodwill ,

i ncentives t o s pontaneous p ayment. n ecessarily a s hort-sighted p olicy :

w ere p owerful

B ut n on-payment o f t axes w as n ot p rolonged n on-payment m ight c onvince

t he R oman g overnment o f a t own's p overty, a nd l ead e ventually t o ap ermanent r emission o f t he s um o wed. H adrian d id t his f or a n umber o f p rovincial c ommunities. M ethods m ore i ngenious t han s imple d efault m ight b e e mployed t o s ecure r emission o f p ast o r f uture t axes. I n A .D . 7 9 M unigua i n B aetica r efused t o p ay a c reditor o f t he t own ,

a lleging p ublic p overty a nd t aking

t he c ase a s f ar a s t he e mperor h imself. T itus' r esponse w as t o d eclare t hat t he c reditor m ust b e p aid , b ut, i n r ecognition o f M unigua's p overty , t o r emit H S 5 0 ,000 i n t axation t o t he t own .

( iv)

1 3

O ther s ervices

E xtraordinary e xactions T he o nly c ertain e vidence f or e xtraordinary e xactions w ithout p ayment i n S pain u nder t he P rincipate b elongs t o N ero's r eign . I n A .D . 6 4 t he t o p lunder t he p rovincial c ommunities,

a nd

T arraconensis i s o ne o f t he p rovinces w here t heir a ctivity i s a ttested.

e mperor's

a gents w ere

s ent

I n

u nusual c ircumstances a t

o ut

t he b eginning o f C laudius'

r eign ,

t he c ommunities

o f B aetica a ppear t o h ave b een r equired t o s upply g rain t o t he R oman a rmy. U mbonius S ilo w as l ater e xpelled f rom t he S enate f or f ailing , o f

B aetica,

M auretania. f rom t he

t o

s end

s ufficient

g rain

t o

t he

R oman

w hen g overnor

army

s erving

i n

U mbonius S ilo's i nstructions w ere p resumably t o o btain g rain

B aetican

c ommunities,

o ver

a nd

a bove

t he

t ribute

p aid

b y

t hem .

B ut t he e xtraordinary d emand d id n ot n ecessarily i nvolve t he s imple e xact en o f g rain : t he p lan m ay h ave b een t o r eimburse t he c ommunities c oncerned.

R oad-a nd b ridge-building T he o bligation o f c ommunities t o a ssist i n b uilding R oman r oads a ppears i n t he D igest. S ome o f t he r eferences t o c ommunities' c onstructing r oads i n S pain c oncern m unicipal, r ather t han R oman, r oads. B ut i n t hree i nstances i t i s p ossible t hat r oads a nd b ridges b uilt b y c ommunities w ere c onstructed f or t he b enefit o f i nscriptions

r efer ,

t he R oman g overnment.

T wo o f t he r elevant

n ot t o b uilding b y i ndividual c ommunities,

j oint e ffort o f a n umber o f c ommunities.

b ut

t o t he

1 5

T he b ridge b uilt o ver t he T agus b y s ome L usitanian c ommunities e arly i n T rajan's e mperor.

r eign w as p aid f or w ith t heir o wn m oney a nd d edicated t o t he Ay ear o r t wo p reviously A quae F laviae i n T arraconensis h ad b uilt

a b ridge a t i ts o wn e xpense: A quae F laviae w as o ne o f t he c entres o f t he R oman r oad s ystem i n t he n orth-west. T he f irst o f t hese c onstructions m ay i n f act h ave b een a v oluntary e nterprise, u ndertaken f reely a nd o n

l ocal

i nitiative.

a nd t he s econd w as p erhaps a lso T hat

a t hird

w ork ,

a gain a t

A quae F laviae , w as u ndertaken v oluntarily b y t he t en c ommunities c oncerned i s l ess p lausible. T he i nscription r ecording i ts c ompletion i n A .D . 7 9 i s d ated n ot o nly b y t he e mperor's t itles, b ut a lso b y t he n ames o f i mportant R oman o fficials i n t he p rovince. T hat i n i tself p oints t o i nstructions f rom a bove. T he n ame o f t he S eventh L egion a ppears o n t he s ame

1 55

i nscription ;

a nd i t m ay b e c onjectured t hat y ge t en c ommunities w ere

a ssociated w ith t he a rmy i n c arrying o ut t he t ask .

T he p ublic p ost I t i s p ossible t hat i mmunity f rom t axation g ave t owns , i n a ddition , s ome p rotection f rom e xtraordinary b urdens i mposed b y R ome. F rom t he o bligations c onnected w ith t he p ublic p ost, h owever , t here c an h ave b een n o s pecial e xemptions: e ven I talian t owns w ere s ubject t o t his d uty . T he p ublic p ost s eems t o h ave r emained b oth a f inancial a nd a n a dministrative b urden o n c ommunities, i n s pite o f e mperors' e fforts t o a lleviate i t. A n o therwise i nsignificant t own i n B aetica , s ituated o n t he p ublic r oad f rom M alaca t o A nticaria , a ppears t o h ave m aintained a s tatio o f t he p ublic p ost s taffed b y s laves w hom t he t own i tself o wned.17

M ilitary r ecruitment T he m ain r ecruiting g rounds o f a uxiliaries i n S pain w ere L usitania a nd n orthern a nd n orth-west T arraconensis. L egionaries w ere r ecruited l argely f rom B aetica a nd e astern T arraconensis t hroughout m ost o f t hre f irst c entury A .D .; b ut f rom t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury o nwards t hey w ere d rawn f rom t he m ore r emote a reas o f S pain a s w ell . E nlistment i n t he a uxiliary f orces m ay h ave b een l argely v oluntary , a nd t he l ocal a uthorities t hus n ot i nvolved . B ut i n t he e arly y ears o f t he f irst c entury A .D . t he R aman g overnment w as u sing r ecruitment i n n orthern T arraconensis n ot o nly a s am eans o f o btaining t roops b ut a lso a s am ethod o f s uppressing r ebellious i mpulses a mong t he c onquer,ed t ribes o f t he r egion . I t i s p ossible t hat a t t hat t ime a t l east a c onsiderable a mount o f c onscription t ook p lace ; a nd t hat t he l ocal m agistrates w ere c ompelled t o c ontribute r ecruits t o t he a rmy , t hus d raining t heir o wn c ommunities o f m anpower .1 8 F or t he l egions ,

c onscription m ay n ot h ave b een u sed c ontinuously ,

b ut

t here i s e vidence t hat i n H adrian 's r eign i t w as t aking p lace , a nd c ausing r esentment. I n t he w inter o f A .D. 1 22-3 r epresentatives f rom a ll t he c ommunities i n t he p eninsula w ere s ummoned b y H adrian t o T arraco . T hey s eized t he o pportunity t o p rotest a gainst t he m ilitary l evy , a nd a chieved a m oderate a lleviation . I t i s i nteresting t o n ote t hat , o n t hat o ccasion , t he c olonies w hich h ad t he i us I talicum m ay h ave e xpressed s pecial o pposition t o c onscription . I f s o , t hey p resumably c onsidered t hat t heir s tatus e ntitled t hem t o b e t reated , e ven w here n o f ormal p rivilege w as a t i ssue , l ike t owns i n I taly. W hether o r n ot s uch a c laim w ould h ave b een a cceptable t o t he R oman g overnment r emains o bscure.

( v) T he

d emands

m ade

b y

t he

1 9

C onclusion

R aman g overnment

o n t he S panish

c ommunities

i nvolved t hem i n b oth f inancial e xpenditure a nd a dministrative a ctivity . C hief a mong t heir o bligations w as t he v irtually u niversal d uty o f p aying t axes t o R ome. A n a ccompaniment o f d irect t axation w as t he p rovincial c ensus ,

w hich t ook p lace a t -apparently i rregular -i ntervals t hroughout

1 56

t he P rincipate; t he

a nd w hich i tself d epended o n t he a dministrative s ervices o f

c ommunities.

E xtraordinary

w ithout r eimbursement,

o n t he c o m munities' r esources. t ime a nd m oney.

e xactions

o r

k ind ,

a t

a ny

r ate

O ther s ervices t o R ome c ost t he c ommunities

T here i s e vidence t hat t hey w ere r equired t o a ssist i n t he

b uilding o f r oads a nd b ridges; p ublic p ost,

i n m oney

d o n ot a ppear t o h ave c onstituted a n i mportant d rain

a nd t hey a dministered s tationes o f t he

t o f acilitate t he t ravel o f R oman o fficials.

B oth t hese

s ervices w ere d irected t owards t he e fficient a dministration o f t he p rovince c oncerned.

A t hird s ervice w as

c onscription

t ook

a ssistance.

p lace

L ike

e fficiency

o f

w as

t he p ayment o f

R oman

r ecruitment f or t he a rmy,

a pparently

c arried

t ribute,

a dministration

n ot

c oncerned,

b ut i n t he E mpire a s a w hole.

i mplacable

i n e xacting t he

b urdens

w hich

o ut

w ith

t he

w hich w hen c ommunities'

r ecruitment c ontributed t o t he s pecifically

i n

R ome w as n ot, s he

i mposed

o n

t he

p rovince

h owever , t he

a lways

p rovincials.

T itus r emitted a s um o f t ribute t o M unigua i n B aetica, a nd H adrian's r emission o f t ribute m ay w ell h ave a ffected s ome S panish c ommunities. T he S paniards' p rotests a gainst c onscription i n A .D. 1 22-3 l ed t o s ome a lleviation o f t he b urden . I n

d ischarging

a dministration ,

o bligations

t o

R ome,

t he

o rdines,

r elied o n i ndividual r esidents a s w ell a s

a s

i n

l ocal

o n p ublic m oney

a nd p ersonnel. T hus t axes w ere r aised b y m eans o f c ollection f rom l oca l r esidents, a nd t he m achinery a t l east o f t he p ublic p ost p robably i nvolved t he i mposition o f m unera o n t he c ommunities' i nhabitants.

S ervice t o R ome,

h owever , d iffers f rom l ocal a dministration i n t hat f inancial o bligations, a s w ell a s p ersonal a ssistance, w ere a utomatically i mposed b y t he o rdo. T he n eed f or f inancial c ontributions f rom r esidents i n t his a rea o f a ctivity h elps t o e xplain t he R oman g overn mnt's d isapproval o f t he e xploitation o f p rivate w ealth f or l ocal p urposes. D uring

t he

c ourse

o f

t he

P rincipate,

s ome

c hanges

t ook p lace

i n t he

n ature a nd i ntensity o f t he b urdens w hich t he c ommunities s ustained.

T he

R oman c ensus, a s s uch , b ecame d efunct; a nd l egionary r ecruitment, i n t he s econd c entury, b ecame d ispersed o ver t he e ntire p eninsula. P oll-taxes p robably g ave w ay t o p roperty-taxes w ith t he s pread o f c ultural s ophistication a nd p rivileged s tatus. T he s ame p rocess o f c ivilisation m ay : n7 i nterference f rom R oman a lso h ave m eant t hat c ommunities e ndured 1 o fficials i n d ischarging t he r equisite d uties. T hat R ome's d emands b ecame i ncreasingly d ifficult t o s atisfy, p ressed e specially h ard o n t he w ealth o f d ecurions, d emonstrated

b y

t he

e vidence.

I ndeed ,

a s

i n

m ay b e t rue,

l ocal

a nd

b ut i s n ot

a dministration ,

t he

c ommunities' t ask w as f rom t he f irst h a lf o f t he s econd c entury A .D. o nwards f acilitated

t o

s ome

d egree b y

t he

e stablishment

o f

t heir r ight

t o

i mpose

m unera o n a ll l ocal i nhabitants. A c omparison o f t he e xtraordinary e xactions w hich a re a ttested b riefly i n N ero's r eign , a nd t he r emissions o f t axes b y b oth T itus a nd H adrian , s uggests t hat o bligations w eighed m ore o r l ess

h eavily a ccording t o

t he

c haracter a nd n eeds

r ather t han i ntensifying i nexorably a s t ime w ent o n .

1 57

g

t he c urrent e mperor ,

N OTES:

C H .

N OTES ( CHAPTER I X : 1 .

R ome's a mbitions:

I X

S ERVICE T O R OME) 9 9 .

C hapter V I p .

M ilitary f orces, p ublic p roperty, a nd i ndirect t axes:

s ee e .g.

A .

G arcia

p rovincia

d e

( Legio

I V

y B ellido ,

S antander,"

A EA

M acedonica); A E x xxiv C laudius). 2 .

" El

" Exploraciones

a rqueologicas

x xix

1 74-99 ,

( 1956),

e n

p p.

l a

1 84-94

' exercitus h ispanicus' d esde A ugusto a V espasiano ," 14-60 ,

( 1961),

p p.

1 50-8

C hapter X p p.

( Cohors

I V G allorum ,

C hapter X p p.

T he o rdo's c ontrol o f m agistrates: M unera:

3 .

A ppendix I .

F or p ermanent a rmy b ases w ith t heir o wn t erritoria,

1 64

r eign o f

f f..

1 67-8.

O wnership o f p roperty a t U rso: 3 4.

c f. C hapter I V n n . 6 ,

F IRA I 2 1 X CI;

F or R ome's c oncern f or g ood g overnment i n p rovincial c ommunities, s ee C hapter V I p . 9 9 . T heory o f d ecurions l iability f or T he G reek C ity , p p. 1 39-40 ; p . 3 27 n . 8 6.

R oman

O ther m ethods o f d ealing w ith t he p roblem:

f or m unicipal d ebts p aid

o ff

b y a b enefactor a nd b y a c andidate f or a p riesthood ,

1 957 ( both c ited i n C hapter V II n . t he R oman g overnment, s ee b elow , p . 4 .

3 0). 1 55.

J ones,

s ee 3 270 ,

F or r emissions o f t axes b y

D istinction b etween R oman a nd p rovincial c ensus: 8 .

t axes:

I I ,

M arquardt,

2 17-

T he t wo k inds o f c ensus w ere n ot n ecessarily h eld s imultaneously ;

n or t he p rovincial c ensus s imultaneously i n a ll p rovinces ( Marquardt, I I , 2 18 , 2 11 f f.; c f. A .B. B osworth , " Vespasian a nd t he P rovinces: S ome P roblems o f t he E arly 7 0's A .D .," 7 8,

p p.

5 7-8).

M arquardt, M arquardt,

I I , I I ,

N either h eld a t 2 11

f f.;

A thenaeum N .S.

i i ( 1973) 4 9-

r egular f ive-yearly

B osworth ,

p p.

5 7-8

i ntervals:

( provincial

c ensus);

( Cf. b elow , n n . 5 -6.)

2 18 n . 2 ( Roman c ensus).

D uoviri q uinquennales n ot e ssentially c onnected w ith t he c ensus: t heir l ocal r esponsibilities, s ee C hapter X p . 1 65. f ailure t o c oincide w ith t he y ears o f R oman c ensuses, I talian M anpower ,

p .

4 1 n .

1 .

f or

F or t heir c f. B runt,

I t s eems m ore r easonable t o s uppose

t hat q uinquennales w ere n ot e ssentially c oncerned w ith t he r egistration o f R oman c itizens ( but o nly w hen a R oman c ensus h appened t o c oincide w ith a q uinquennial y ear) t han t o a rgue t hat s imultaneous r egistration n ever b ecame e ffective. ( For t he a bsence q uinquennales f rom L atin c ommunities, s ee C hapter I V n . 2 7.) 5 .

T abula H eracleensis: A lthough

s ome

L atin

F IRA I 1 3 1 42 f f.; c ommunities

c f. C hapter X p .

i n S pain ,

b eing

o f

1 65.

s low t o a dopt

t he

t itles " municipium" a nd " duovir", m ay h ave p articipated t hrough c hief m agistrates o f a nother t itle

( Appendix I V n .

2 3).

R oman c ensus o ccurs o nly t wice a fter A ugustus' S taatsrecht, I I , 3 37-8 . C ontinuing r esponsibility M omnsen ,

S taatsrecht,

I I,

f or

r ecords

3 70 ; 4 15-7.

1 58

o f

r eign:

M ommsen ,

R oman c itizens:

c f.

F or i ndividual r egistration o f

N OTES :

C H . I X

R oman c itizenship u nder t he P rincipate , 3 14-6 . 6 .

s ee S herwin-White ,

R C ,

p. p

P rovincial c ensuses i n S pain a fter A ugustus' r eign : f or e vidence f or c ensuses i n T arraconensis, s ee n . 8 . T he e vidence l eaves t he f requency o f c ensuses v ery u nclear, b ut i ndicates a t a ny r ate c ensuses u nder V espasian ( no . 4 ; c f. B osworth, p p . 5 7 f f.), i n t he m id-second c entury ( no . 1 ) , a nd o ne o r t wo a t t he e nd o f t he s econd a nd b eginning o f t he t hird c entury ( nos. 5 , 3 ). F or L usitania , C IL 1 0 6 80 m entions a n e ques " leg[ato a b i mp .] C aesare A u eusto m isso p ro] c ensore a d L us[itanos]" . T hat m ay r efer t o a n o riginal c ensus o f L usitania i n A ugustus' r eign ( cf. M arquardt, I I, 2 15 n . 4 ). P hlegon o f T ralles' i nformation a bout c entenarian L usitanians p robably c ame f rom r ecords o f ac ensus i n V espasian's r eign ( F. J acoby , D ie F ragmente d er g riechischen H istoriker , I I B ( Berlin , 1 929) , n o . 2 57 F 3 7 6 2 f f.; c f. M ommsen , S taatsrecht, I I , 3 70 n . 3 ). 1 256 ( below) c onstitutes t he o nly e vidence f or a p rovincial c ensus i n B aetica . O sset i n B aetica : " L . C aesio L . f . P ollioni a ed(ili) I Ivir(o) c ensu e t d uomviratu b ene e t e r (e) p (ublica) a cto m unici[p(es)]" ( 1256). T his s hould a lmost c ertainly b e c onnected w ith t he p rovincial, r ather t han t he R oman , c ensus: O sset w as i n a ll p robability o nly a L atin m unicipium ( Henderson , 1 942, p p. 5 -8); a nd y et t he c ensus a ppears t o h ave a ffected a ll m unicipes ( cf. A ppendix I I). I t i s p ossible t hat t he c ensus w as a p urely l ocal o ne, n ot s imultaneous w ith a p rovincial c ensus, a nd d esigned s imply t o r eapportion l ocally t he e stablished s um o f R oman t ribute . B ut t he p aucity o f r eferences i n S pain t o l ocal m agistrates' e ngagement i n c ensuses ( this i s t he o nly o ne) s uggests t hat i t w as n ot t he p ractice f or c ommunities t o c arry o ut t heir o wn c ensuses i ndependently o f t hose o rganised b y R ome. T he r ecords m ade f or t he p rovincial c ensus w ould p resumably h ave e stablished t he d istribution l ocally o f t he b urden o f t ribute , a s w ell a s e nabling R ome t o d etermine t he t otal s um p ayable b y t he c ommunity . T hat w as w hy i t w as i mportant t o t he c itizens , a s t he i nscription s hows , t hat t he c ensus b e c arried o ut f airly . ( See C ic . 2V err . i i. 5 3 , 1 31-3; 5 6 , 1 39 f or t he c oncern o f t he S icilians u nder t he R epublic t hat l ocal c ensors p erform t heir s hare o f t he p rovincial c ensus f airly .)

7 .

T abula H eracleensis: F IRA I 1 3 1 42 f f .. I n t he c ase o f a p rovincial c ensus a ll m embers o f a c ommunity, i ncluding m agistrates , w ould a utomatically w ish t o k eep t axes l ow . B ut w ith r egards t o r ecords o f R oman c itizens m agistrates w ould o nly i ncidentally ( through b ribery o r p ersonal a cquaintance) h ave a d esire t o a ccept i llegitimate c laims. S urveillance f rom g overnor a nd o ther o fficials: n . 8 .

8 .

R oman o fficials c arrying o ut c ensus i n T arraconensis: ( 1) C IL 6 1 463 ( Hadrian-Antoninus P ius?): " tribunus l aticlavius .. a t c ensus a ccipi[en ]dos c ivitatium X XIII[..] V asconum e t V ardulorum" ( cf. P liny N H i ii. 2 6 , P tol . i i. 6 . 6 6-7). ( 2) C IL 8 1 9428, c f. 7 070: " censi t or [c onve ]n tus C ae [ saraugusta ]n[i] " . ( 3) C IL 6 3 32 ( c. A .D. 2 00): " leg(atus) A ug(usti) c ens(ibus) a cc(ipiendis) H isp(aniae) C it(erioris)" ( praetorian , a nd t herefore p robably n ot r esponsible f or t he w hole p rovince ; c f. A lföldy , F asti, p . 9 8). 1 59

N OTES :

C H . I X

( 4) A E 1 939 6 0 ( Vespasian ): " adiutor l eg(ati) A ug(usti) p ro p r(aetore) i n c ensibus a ccipiendis H ispaniae C iterioris" ( equestrian). ( 5) C IL 2 4 121 ( c . A .D . 2 00): " leg(atus) A ug(ustorum) p rov (inciae) H (ispaniae) C (iterioris) i tem c ensit(or) H (ispaniae) C (iterioris)". F or t he d ates o f n os. 1 , 3 , 4 , a nd 5 , s ee A lföldy , F asti , p p . 1 28 , 9 8 , 1 8 , a nd 4 7 . T he p hrase " ad c ensus a ccipiendos" , o r a v ariant , i s u sed o f R oman o fficials a t a ll l evels. P resumably t he l owest l evel w as t he r eceipt o f r ecords f rom l ocal m agistrates. F or t he r ole p layed b y p agi i n t he c ommunities' i nternal m achinery f or c ompiling c ensus r ecords , s ee C hapter I I p . 2 4 . F or p rovincial c ensuses i n L usitania a nd B aetica , s ee n . 6 . 9 .

P roperty-taxes , p olltaxes: M arquardt , I I , 1 93 f f.; A . M . J ones, T he R oman E conomy , e d. P .A . B runt ( Oxford , 1 974), p p . 1 64 f f .. S imple p oll-tax m ore a ppropriate t o p rimitive c ommunities: M arquardt, I I , 1 97-8 ; J ones , p p . 1 73-4. M ovable p roperty i ncluded i n a ssessment o f t ributum s oli: J ones , p . 1 64 . F or e vidence o f t he a mounts o f t axes , a nd o f p ayment i n k ind , s ee n . 1.

1 0 .

I us I talicum a nd I mmunity: C hapter V I n n. 4 , 1 9. ( Not t hat t he c ommunities s o p rivileged w ere n ecessarily r elieved o f a ll r esponsibility f or c ollecting t axes ( or c ompiling r ecords f or t he p rovincial c ensus); c f. C hapter I II n . 2 0 .) O nly t welve t owns w ith i mmunity o r t he i us I talicum a re m entioned o ut o f at otal o f o ver 5 00 c ommunities ( Chapter I n . 5 ; c f. C hapter I I n . 5 ).

1.

S ingle a nnual p ayment a t E busus: 3 664 . ( For t he p ost-Flavian d ate , c f. 3 363). [the k ermesberry] P rimitive L usitanians: P liny N H x vi. 3 2 ( " pensionem a lteram t ributi p auperibus H ispaniae d onat" . C f. N H x xii. 3 ; x . 1 41 f or t he i dentification o f t he " pauperes" a s L usitanians.) 364 ( above) c onstitutes t he o nly e vidence f or t he a mounts o f t ribute 3 p aid b y S panish c ommunities. T he t estator l eft t he t own H S 8 4 ,000 , t he i nterest o n w hich w as t o b e d evoted t o p aying t ribute t o R ome . C f. R . D uncan-Jones , %bran N umbers i n T owns a nd T own-Organisations o f t he R oman E mpire : T he E vidence o f G ifts," H istoria x iii ( 1964) , 1 99-208 , p p . 2 02-3. D uncan-Jones s uggests t hat t he a nnual t otal o f t ribute w as H S 1 0 ,080 = X 2 ,520 . B ut t hat c alculation d epends p artly o n a n ( unsupported) a ssumption t hat t he t ribute t ook t he f orm o f a p oll-tax ; a nd a n i nterest-rate o f t welve p er c ent i s r ather h igher t han o ther e vidence f or i nterest-rates w ould i ndicate ( Duncan-Jones , p . 2 02). N or i s i t c lear t hat t he m oney w as i ntended t o c over t he f ull s um o f t ribute e ach y ear: t he w ording i s c onsistent w ith p artial a ssistance a t n ormal t imes a nd t otal p ayment i n b ad o nes. F or p ayment i n k ind ( in p rimitive c ommunities a t l east), s ee P liny N H x vi. 3 2 ( above). F or q uaestors ( and a m unus i n p lace o f t he q uaestorship) , s ee C hapter Xp . 1 66 f .. P a g: C hapter I I p . 2 4 .

1 2.

R oman o fficials r esponsible : C hapter I p . 1 0 . R aman o fficials e xacting t ribute: H irschfeld , p p . 7 4-6 . 1 60

N OTES :

C H . I X

T ermes: T ac . A nn . i v . 4 5 ( A .D . 2 5) , w ith A lföldy , F asti , p . 6 7 f or L . P iso a s al egatus i uridicus. I t s eems m ost p robable t hat P iso w as r ecovering t ribute-money w hich h ad b een l ost o r m islaid ( see c ontra H . F urneaux ( ed .), T he A nnals o f T acitus, 2 nd e d ., I ( Oxford , 1 896) , a d l oc.). 1 3 .

H adrian : S .H .A . H adr. 7 . 6( "etiam e x r eliquiis"). M unigua: A E 1 962 2 88. I t i s n ot c ertain w hether r emission a t M unigua c oncerned p ast o r f uture t axes. G eneral p robability w ould i ndicate f uture o nes, w hose r emission S .H .A . H adr . 7 . 6 s uggests w as m ore c ommon ; c f. T ac . A nn . i i. 4 7 . I t i s n otable t hat n o c ommunity i s r ecorded o penly t o h ave r equested a r emission o f t axes, j ust a s n one c an b e s hown t o h ave a sked t he e mperor f or a ssistance i n b uilding ( Chapter V III n n . 5 , 1 0).

1 4 .

E xtraordinary e xactions u nder N ero : T ac . A nn . x v . 4 5 ( suggesting t hat c ommunities, a s s uch, w ere a ffected). P lut. G alb. 4 s hows N ero's a gents a ctive i n T arraconensis. G rain f or t he a rmy i n C laudius' r eign : D io l x . 2 4 . 5 ( the e xpulsion i s r ecorded u nder A .D . 4 4). T he w ar i n M auretania r an f rom A .D . 4 0 t o A .D . 4 4 a t t he l atest ( Dio l ix . 2 5 . 1 ; c f. l x . 9a nd R E X IV 2 3723 ). T he g rain p erhaps p aid f or : c f. P liny P anegyricus 1 §7 A lthough i t i s p ossible t hat s ome r egular t axes , a t a ny r ate i n a reas w here t roops w ere p ermanently s tationed , w ere p aid i n t he f orm o f g rain , n o e vidence r emains ( cf. n . 1). F or e xtraordinary s upplies o f o il f rom S pain d uring t he r eign o f M . A urelius , s ee A ppendix I n . 3 3 .

1 5 .

M unicipal r oads: e .g . 3 167 ; c f. 3 270 ; 6 339 . O bligation t o a ssist w ith R oman r oads: e .g. D ig. X LIX 1 8.

4p r.

( Ulpian); L 4 . 1 . 2 ( Hermogenianus); L 4 . 1 8. 1 5 ( Arcadius C harisius). T he s ame p assages s how c ommunities e nlisting t he p ersonal a nd f inancial a ssistance o f i ndividuals f or t he w ork ( cf. C hapter X p p. 1 67 f f.). 1 6 .

L usitanian c ommunities: 7 59-61 ( A .D . 1 05-6); c f. C hapter V III n . 2 4. A quae F laviae: 2 478 = AE 1 966 2 16 ( A .D. 1 03). F or t he R oman r oad s ystem i n t he n orth-west , s ee J ones , " Occupation ," p p . 4 6-7 . T en c ommunities a t A quae F laviae : 2 477 ; c f. 5 616 a nd P liny N H i ii. 2 8 . P erhaps a b ridge o r ar oad ( see H übner 's n ote t o 2 477). 1 L l. 7 -8 n ame t he p rovincial g overnor; 1. 9 -10 a l egatus ( iuridicus?), a nd a p rocurator ( of A sturia-Callaecia ? ). ( For t hese l ast t wo i dentifications, s ee A lföldy, F asti, p . 7 5 ; P flaum , C arriAres, I , 9 7 ; I II , 1 047.) T he c ase o f " Leg. V II G em. F eb." ( 1. 1 1) i s u ncertain . I t i s p erhaps m ore p robable t hat i t i s a n ominative r ecording t he a rmy 's p articipation , r ather t han a n a blative r eferring t o t he l egion 's m ere p resence a t t he t ime.

( See A lföldy , F asti ,

p .

7 5 ,

a gainst H übner's

n ote t o 2 477 .) F or t he p articipation o f t he a rmy i n r oad-building e lsewhere , s ee T ac . A nn . i . 2 0 ( A .D . 1 4); c f. x i. 2 0 ( canal , A .D . 4 7); M arquardt, I I , 5 69 . 1 7 .

I mmunity a nd e xtraordinary b urdens: C hapter V I n . 1 9 . P ublic p ost: R uggiero , D izionario E pigrafico , I I ( ii), 1 404 f f.; c f. S . M itchell , " Requisitioned T ransport i n t he R oman E mpire : A RS l xvi ( 1976), 1 06-31. N ew I nscription f rom P isidia '11 J 1 61

N OTES: C B.

I X

S tatio a t N escania i n B aetica: N escania.

C IL 2 2 011;

c f.

F or t he p ublic r oad, s ee C IL 2 I , p .

A ppendix I n . p ublic p ost. B illeting

3 7

( of

f or t he a rgument

t roops o r o fficials)

t hat

i bid.

p .

2 69 f or

6 26 , a nd n os. 4 692-3.

t his

s tatio

b elongs

t o t he

i s h ere o mitted f rom t he l ist o f

s ervices p erformed b y p rovincial c ommunities b ecause t here i s h ardly a ny e vidence f or i ts o ccurrence i n S pain . B illeting o f t roops m ay n ot h ave b een c ommon, g iven t hat t here w ere f ew m ilitary f orces o utside

n orthern T arraconensis,

a nd

t hat t he l egions a nd a uxilia

t here h ad t heir o wn t erritoria ( n .1). B ut c ommunities p resumably h ad t o e ntertain o fficials ( and e mperors) o n t our. S ee S .H .A . H adr. 1 2. 5f or H adrian's " hospes" a t T arraco i n t he w inter o f A .D. ( Cf., i n g eneral , J ones, T he G reek C ity, p . 1 8.

1 41;

1 22-3.

p . 3 28 n . 8 9 .)

R ecruiting-grounds o f a uxiliaries: R oldan H ervas, p p. 2 65 f f.. O f l egionaries:

R oldan H ervas,

p. p

2 38 f f..

O n e ligibility f or t he

l egions, s ee A ppendix I I p p. 2 01-2. F or t he u se o f S panish r ecruits H ervas, p p. 6 5 f f., 2 50-2.

o utside

R ecruitment

i n

n orthern T arraconensis

S trabo i ii.

3 .

8 ,

t he p eninsula,

a m eans

o f

s ee

R oldan

p reserving

C 1 56 ( written e arly i n T iberius' r eign);

p eace: c f.

G .

F orni, " L'occupazione m ilitare r omana d ella S pagna n ord-occidentale: A nalogie e p aralleli," i n L egio V II G emina , p. 2 05-26 , p . 24. p 2 ( For o ther m ethods

o f p reserving p eace i n t his a rea ,

s ee C hapter I

p. 5 -7.) p F or c onscription a s i nvolving t he s ervices o f l ocal a uthorities, c f. J ones, T he G reek C ity , p . 3 29 n . 9 3. 1 9 .

T he S paniards' p rotest t o H adrian : V I n .

S .H .A . H adr.

1 9 f or t he i nterpretation.

p robably

d oes

n ot

r efer

t o m ilitary

1 2.

4 , w ith C hapter

( On S .H.A. M arc. r ecruitment,

1. 1

s ee

7 ,

w hich

C hapter V n .

1 2.) 2 0 .

R oad-building

d esigned

C hapter I p . 5 ;

t o

f acilitate

M arquardt,

t he

R oman a dministration :

c f.

I , 5 59 .

U se o f m ilitary r ecruits o utside t he p eninsula : n . 1 8. M unera i mposed i n c onnexion w ith t he p ublic p ost ( and t ax-collection , r oad-building , r ecruitment): C hapter X n . 1 5. F or t he d istinction b etween p ersonal m unera,

w hich

s erved

t he

c ommunity, a nd p atrimonial m unera , w hich s erved ( ultimately) R ome , s ee C hapter X n .

1 5.

R ome's d isapproval o f f inancial e xploitation f or l ocal p urposes: C hapter V I p p. 2 1.

1 03-4.

R ecruitment a nd t he L atin r ight: r ecruitment

m ay h ave

L atin r ight, honorem)

w hich

( through

i ncreased

n .

b een c onnected t he

t he

1 8.

T he d ispersion o f l egionary

w ith V espasian's

p rivilege

availability

o f

g rant

o f

t he

R oman c itizenship p er

o f

r ecruits

who

w ere

a utomatically e ligible f or l egionary s ervice. L ess i nterference f rom R ome w ith i ncreasing c ivilisation : p p. 2 2.

1 00-2;

C hapter V I

1 06 f f..

B urdens o f t he d ecurionate:

C hapter V p p.

8 1-2;

c f. a bove,

p p.

3 . F or e vidence o f p roblems i n l ocal f inance s ee C hapter V II n . C hapter V I n .

1. 1 62

1 523 0;

C HAPTER X P EOPLE A ND M AGISTRATES ( i) I ntroduction

I n s pite o f t he o rdo's o verall c ontrol o f a ffairs,

b oth

a nd t he m agistrates h ad a r ole t o p lay i n a dministration . i ndependent

p owers

e xercised

b y

t he

p opulace

l ocal a ppointments a nd t o j urisdiction .

a nd

t he

p opulace

T he m ost n otable

m agistrates

r elated

e xerted p ressure o n t he o rdo w ith r egard t o a dministrative a ctivity; f ew i nscriptions e ven r ecord d ecrees o f p opular l egislative, e lectoral,

a ssemblies.

t o

O ccasionally, h owever , t he p opulace

E xamination o f

t he

d uties

o f

a s o pposed t o

m agistrates

t hat, o ver a nd a bove t heir i ndependent r esponsibilities j urisdiction a nd l ocal a ppointments, t hey h ad i mportant

a nd a r eveals

i n t he f ields o f f unctions a s t he

e xecutive o fficers o f t he o rdo. T he a dministrative f unctions o f m agistrates h elp t o e lucidate t he m achinery w hereby t he c ommunities c arried o ut t heir a ims

i n

l ocal

g overnment

a nd

i n

s ervice

t o

R ome.

D istinct

f rom

m agistracies, b ut s imilarly a p art o f t he a dministrative m achinery , w ere t he m unera a ssigned t o l ocal r esidents.

T o t hese m unera b oth d ecurions a nd n on-

d ecurions w ere l iable.

a nd s ocial c lass w ere a ll t aken i nto

A ge,

s ex,

a ccount i n t he a ssignment o f t he v arious t ypes o f m unera; a nd s ome t ypes o f m unera, i ndeed , s eem t o h ave b een r estricted t o m embers o f t he o rdo i tself.

( ii) P opular a ctivity T he S panish c harters d etail t he r esponsibilities o f t he d ecurions w ithout g iving a ny h int t hat t he p opular a ssembly h ad a ny f unction e xcept a t e lections.

R eferences t o p opular a ctivity i n S panish t owns a re f ew i n

c omparison w ith t he r ecorded d ecrees o f d ecurions. O f t hese r eferences, t he majority a ppear t o c oncern i nformal a ctivity, r ather t han d ecrees o f a f ormal l egislative a ssembly. G enerally t his i nformal a ctivity w as o f av ery u nambitious k ind: t he e rection o f s tatues i n h onour o f p rominent c itizens. B ut o n s everal o ccasions p opular a gitation h elped t o s ecure c oncessions f rom i ndividuals a nd f rom t he o rdo i tself. p opulace, c itizens.

i n a lliance w ith t he o rdo,

A f ourth , f rom L ucurgentum i n B aetica ,

, as evir b y t he l ocal o rdo T hree

s how

o f

t he w ords

" decrevit" a nd

" consensus"

o f

a nd a re e xceptional i n t hat t hey a ppear t o r efer t o t he

f ormal

l egislative

r ecords h onours d ecreed t o

.' i n r esponse t o p opular d emand

o ther i nscriptions u se

p opular a ctivity, d ecisions

T hree i nscriptions s how h ow t he

e xtorted p ublic e xpenditure f rom r ich

l egislative a ssemblies.

a ssemblies

p laying

a n

E ven

i mportant

t hese , r ole

h owever ,

d o n ot

i n a dministration .

T he s ubject-matter , a s w ith m ost o f t he r ecords o f i nformal a ctivity, i s m erely t he g ranting o f h onours t o p rominent m en a nd w omen ; a nd i n o ne c ase a t l east t he o rdo c onfirmed t he a ssembly's d ecree.

T he f act t hat o ne o f t he

i nscriptions c omes f rom A cinipo i n B aetica , a t own w here a nother i nscription r efers

t o

" curiae",

m ay h owever i ndicate t hat

1 63

f ormal a ssemblies m et

t here

r egularly f or t his l imited p urpose. 2

( iii) T he f unctions o f m agistrates U rso's c harter a sserts f irmly t hat a ll m agistrates o f t he c olony a re t o o bey t he d ecrees o f t he d ecurions.

I t d oes n ot f ollow ,

h owever ,

t hat t he

m agistrates l acked a ll r ight o f i nitiative , o r t hat t hey w ere n ot a llowed t o a ct a utonomously w ithin c ertain l imits. F urther , t he d uties o f m agistrates a s e xecutive o fficers o f t he o rdo m eant t hat t heir e fficiency w as i mportant t o t he c ommunity, a nd t hat l arge s ums o f p ublic m oney w ere s ometimes e ntrusted t o t heir c are. T he r esponsibility o f m agistrates f or p ublic m oney i s r eflected i n t he f act t hat M alaca's c harter o bliges c and idates f or t he d uovirate a nd q uaestorship t o p rovide s ecurities f or t heir p rospective h andling o f p ublic f unds. I mplicit i n t he p rovision o f s ecurities b y m agistrates i s f inancial l iability i n r espect o f t he p ublic f unds. A l etter , d ated A .D. 1 19 , f rom C laudius Q uartinus, l egatus i uridicus o f T arraconensis , t o t he d uoviri o f t he L atin t own P ompaelo r elates t o t he f inancial l iability o f m agistrates t here. T he l etter c onfirms t he l iability o f m agistrates w hose c olleagues h ave a ccepted i nadequate c autiones; a nd r eassures t he d uoviri o f t heii r ight t o t ake a ction a gainst t hose w ho a ttempt t o e vade r esponsibility .

D uoviri I n s pite o f t he s ubjection o f t he d uoviri t o t he o rdo's a uthority , t he d uoviri h ad c ertain p owers t o d irect a nd s elect o fficial b odies. A lthough t hese p owers w ere i n t hemselves o f a n o rganisational k ind , t heir e ffect w as t o g ive t he d uoviri c onsiderable i nfluence o ver t he b ehaviour b oth o f t he d ecurions t hemselves a nd o f t he m agistrates, p riests, a nd p opular a ssembly. I t w as t he d uoviri w ho w ere r esponsible f or s ummoning t he d ecurions a nd p roposing m otions t o t hem . T hese w ere t hings w hich a l arge c ouncil c ould n ot d o f or i tself: t he s ervices o f i ndividuals w ere n ecessary , e ven t hough the d ecurions' d ecisions , o nce m ade , w ere b inding o n t hem . A t M alaca ( and a t U rso) a ll p opular e lections w ere t o b e p resided o ver b y a d uovir; a nd p resumably d uoviri a lso p resided o ver p opular l egislative a ssemblies. A s w ell a s p residing o ver m eetings o f t he o rdo a nd a ssembly , t he d uoviri e xercised s ome c ontrol o ver t he m embership o f t hese b odies . A t U rso t he d uoviri h ad t he p ower o f e xpelling d ecurions w ho f ailed t o s atisfy t he c ondition o f l ocal d omicile, a nd o f g iving j udgment i n c ases w here e ligibility w as d isputed f or s ome o ther r eason . A lthough t here i s n o d irect e vidence , t here a re r eliable i ndications t hat d uoviri w ere r esponsible f or t he e nrolment o f n ew d ecurions a s w ell a s f or t he e jection o f u nsuitable o nes. I t i s l ikely t hat r ecords o f l ocal c itizens w ere s imilarly i n t he c harge o f t he d uoviri. F urthermore , t he d uoviri s eem t o h ave h ad a g eneral r esponsibility f or e nsuring t hat p ublic o fficials a dhered t o t heir o bligations. A t U rso , p riests a s w ell a s d ecurions m ight b e d eposed b y t he d uoviri f or f ailing t o a cquire a l ocal d omicile : t he p owers o f d eposition , t hen , e ntrusted t o d uoviri w ere f ramed w ith a v iew t o e nsuring c ivic r esponsibility i n g eneral, a nd d id n ot r elate s olely t o c ontrol o f m embership o f t he o rdo. T he l etter o f C laudius Q uartinus t o t he d uoviri o f P ompaelo s hows d uoviri s eeking t o e nsure t hat f ormer m agistrates o f t he t own a dhere t o t heir p ublic o bligations: i n t his c ase f inancial l iability i ncurred w hile t hey w ere i n o ffice.

C laudius Q uartinus c onfirmed t hat t he 1 64

d uoviri h ad t he r ight t ? e xact f inancial r ecompense o n t he c ommunity's b ehalf f rom t hose l iable. T o

r evise

t he

c ensorial f unction ; w as

r ecords

p erformed a t

f ive-yearly

p erformed

d uoviri

w ork

o f

d ecurions a nd c itizens w as

a nd i t i s p robable t hat

b y

i ntervals

q uinquennales

w ould h ave

f allen o n o rdinary d uoviri

t itle

h ave

m ay

m ade

b y

s ome

i n t owns

t he d uoviri q uinquennales. i n

R oman

c olonies

i n L atin t owns.

p ractical

a t ypically

o f R oman c itizens

d ifference,

a nd

i t T he

m unicipia

T he a bsence o f t he

i n

t he

f orm

o f

l ess

r egularity i n t he d ischarge o f c ensorial d uties. A nother f unction o f d uoviri

q u inquennales

m ay h ave

b een t o

p ublic l and a nd o ther p roperty b elonging t o t he c ommunity.

l ease

o ut

T his w ork,

a ssigned t o t he d uoviri a t U rso a nd M alaca, w ould a t a ny r ate h ave b een c onsonant w ith c ensorial c ommunity w ere t hose f or t hese t oo ,

a t M alaca ,

d uties.

t he

O ther c ontracts

c onstruction a nd

r epair

i n t he g ift o f t he o f

p ublic

w ere t he r esponsibility o f t he d uoviri.

b uildings:

A lthough t he

d ecurions' a uthorisation w as n ecessary f or b uilding a ctivity, M alaca's c harter a ssigns t o t he o rdo n o r ole i n t he a ctual m aking o f c on 9acts s ave t hat o f d etermining w here p ublic r ecords o f t hem a re t o b e p osted. T he s upervision o f c ontractors c onstructing and r epairing p ublic b uildings d uty;

i s

t reated i n

t he

D igest

a s

a m unus

r ather

t han a m agisterial

a nd s o i t a ppears i n a t l east o ne i nscription f rom S pain .

B ut t his

m ay h ave b een a p rocedure w hich w as i nstituted i n o rder t o r elieve t he d uoviri o f i ncreasing r esponsibilities. T wo i nscriptions f rom t he e ast c oast o f T arraconensis p erhaps s how t he d uoviri i n o ffice s upervising r epairs

t o

p ublic b uildings. T o

t he

d uoviri

a lso

f ell v arious m inor a dministrative t asks,

c arried

o ut o n t he o rdo's i nstructions. T he d uoviri o f S abora a rranged f or V espasian's l etter t o b e i nscribed o n b ronze, a t p ublic e xpense. A t s everal S panish t owns t he d uoviri s aw t o t he e rection o f h onorific s tatues w hich t he o rdo h ad d ecreed. 6 I n

a ddition

t o

p articipated i n t he g overnment.

a ssisting

d uties

i n

w hich

l ocal

t he

a dministration,

c ommunities

p erformed

t he f or

d uoviri

t he

R oman

W hen a p rovincial c ensus w as h eld i t w as t he d uoviri w ho

c ompiled l ocal r ecords.

T he c ensus p erformed b y a d uovir o f t he L atin t own

o f O sset i n B aetica w as p robably a c ensus o f t his t ype. T he d uoviri w ould a lso h ave b een r esponsible f or c ompiling r ecords o f R oman c itizens f or t he R oman c ensus, O n t op o ne.

s o l ong a s t hat c ontinued t o t ake p lace. 7 o f

t heir a dministrative

f unctions

t he

d uoviri

h ad

a j udicial

W hat l ocal j urisdiction e xisted w as p rincipally t heir p reserve, t heir

p owers b eing l imited b y t he a uthority o f t he R oman g overnment r ather t han b y t hat o f t he o rdo.

A t S alpensa t he d uoviri a re c harged w ith t he s upervision

o f m anumissions a nd a ppointment o f t utors, w hile M alaca's c harter r efers t o t heir j urisdiction i n f inancial c ases c oncerning t he c ommunity. U rso's c harter m ay h ave a ssigned t o t he d uoviri r elatively w ide p owers o f c riminal j urisdiction :

t hat w ould b e i n l ine w ith t he e vidence f or t he I talian t owns

i n t he l ate R epublic. T he r ange o f j urisdiction a llowed t o d uoviri a ppears t o h ave b een r educed u nder t he P rincipate , a uthority b eing c oncentrated i n t he h ands o f R oman o fficials i n

t he p rovince.

1 65

F inally,

t he d uoviri,

a s t he i ndividuals w ith s upreme l ocal a uthority,

k ept a g eneral w atch o ver t he a ffairs o f t he c ommunity; w ould b e

e xpected

t o

t ake

c harge

i n a n e mergency.

d uoviri i n t his r espect i s s hown b y t he f act o f b oth d uoviri w as n ot t o b e t olerated,

t hat

a nd i t w as t hey w ho

T he i mportance o f t he t he s imultaneous a bsence

e ven f or a s ingle d ay,

w itho l t he

a ppointment o f ap raefectus c hosen b y t he d uovir w ho w as l ast t o l eave.

A ediles U rso's c harter i ndicates t hat t he a ediles a re t o b e e ngaged i n t he t asks

a ssociated

e ssential, t own .

w ith

m unicipal

a ediles

e lsewhere;

p erforming

t he

i f u nexciting , f unction o f s upervising t he p ublic s ervices o f t he

A l ead p ipe f rom t he c olony C aesaraugusta i n T arraconensis b ears t he

n ame o f a ediles.

a p ublic s lave a ttached, F our c hapters o f

9

l ike t hose a t U rso,

U rso's

c harter

s uggest

t o o ne o f

t hat

t he

t he l ocal

f unctions

o f

a ediles a re t o b e m ore w ide-ranging , e ncroaching u pon t hose o f d uoviri. B ut i t i s l ikely t hat t he p hrase " IIvir a edilis p raefectus" i n t hese c hapters

h as

b een t ranscribed u ncritically f rom a g eneral r egulation ,

a nd

h as n o b earing o n t he p owers o f a ediles a t U rso. R ecords

o f

a edileship c omparable

t he a dministration o f

S panish c ommunities s uggest t hat t he

d id n ot c arry w ith i t a uthority a nd p restige i n a ny w ay t o t hat o f t he d uovirate. N o i nscriptions s et u p b y t he

c ommunity

i n h onour o f a ediles

f unctions

o f

a ediles

i s

e xist.

T he

r elative

u nimportance

o f

t he

r eflected i n t he f act t hat n o r ecords o f o fficial

a edilician a ctivity s urvive o n s tone. A n a edile a t I gabrum i n B aetica , w hich r eceived t he L atin r ight f rom V espasian , d id m ake a d edication t here o n b ehalf o f l ocal c itizens w ho h ad o btained R oman c itizenship p er h onorem . S imilar d edications

m ade b y a ediles a t M alaca a nd S egobriga m ay r eflect t he

a cquisition b y t hose t owns r espectively.

o f t he L atin r ight

f rom V espasian a nd A ugustus

B ut s uch d edications d o n ot r epresent o fficial a ctivity o n

b ehalf o f t he t own , o r e ven t he o rdo , a s a w hole. T hey m erely c elebrate t he p romotion t o R oman c itizenship o f a s mall g roup o f m agistrates a nd t heir f amilies.

,T he

p rivate c haracter o f t he d edications

f act t hat t hey w ere m ade a t p rivate e xpense.

i s

u nderlined

b y

t he

N or i s i t t he c ase t hat

a ediles w ere a lways d elegated, a s j unior m agistrates, t o m ake t hese d edications o n b ehalf o f a ll b eneficiaries. M en s omiiimes r ecord t heir o wn p romotion a lone, a nd d uoviri a re a mong t he d edicants.

Q uaestors T he

f unctions

o f

t he

m unicipal

q uaestorship w ere

f inancial,

a s w ere

t hose o f t he R oman m agistracy w ith t he s ame n ame. Q uaestors o f t he t own o f O stia w ere e ntitled " quaestor a erarii" , a nd a dministered t he p ublic f unds. A p assage f rom A puleius'

A pologia s hows a l ocal q uaestor r eceiving p ayment

o f t axes a t O ea i n A frica i n t he m id-second c entury A .D .. d uties o f q uaestors a re c onsonant w ith t he

f act

t hat

T hese f inancial

a t M alaca q uaestors,

l ike d uoviri b ut u nlike 1 5diles, h ad t o g ive s ecurities f or t he p ublic f unds w hich t hey w ould h andle. I t may b e t he c ase t hat i n s ome S panish t owns t he q uaestorship w as n ever i ntroduced;

o r e lse i ntroduced a nd t hen a llowed t o l apse b ecause i t

w as a n u npopular o ffice.

I f t he o ffice i tself d id n ot e xist,

1 66

t he w ork o f

q uaestors s till r emained t o b e p erformed. a ppears

n ever

t o h ave

r esponsibilities o f

b een

t he d uoviri.

U rso t han a t o ther t owns c ollection o f a dministration .

i nstituted ,

A t U rso, t he

w here t he q uaestorship

a ediles

s hared

t he

f inancial

T hat w ould h ave b een l ess b urdensome a t

i n S pain .

U rso w as a c olonia

i mmunis,

a nd t he

t axes w ould n ot h ave p layed a n i mportant p art i n i ts A n a lternative t o s haring t he q uaestors' r esponsibilities

a mong t he o ther m agistrates w as t o r etain t he q uaestorship ,

b ut m ake i t a

m unus r ather t han a n o ffice. W e a re t old t hat i n s ome t owns 3 q uaestorship w as t reated , n ot a s a n o ffice , b ut a s am unus p ersonale. 1

t he

( iv) M unera T he i nstitution o f m unera a dded t o t he a dministrative p ersonnel a vailable, a nd r elieved t he m agistrates o f s ome o f t heir d uties. M unera c ould b e d efined ,

i n c ontrast t o m agistracies,

a s a dministrative d uties t o

w hich n o h onorific t itle a ttached. B ut t he a bsence o f a n h onorific t itle w as n ot t he o nly d ifference b etween m unera a nd m agistracies. M unera l acked ,

a long w ith

t he t itle,

t he

i nsignia

o f

o ffice;

a nd t hey

d id n ot

s erve a s a q ualification f or h igher o ffice o r d etermine r anking w ithin t he o rdo. W hereas p opular a ssemblies i n S pain m ay h ave c ontinued t o e lect m agistrates,

m unera

w ere

p r eably

f rom

t he

s tart

a ssigned

b y

n omination

u nder t he o rdo's s upervision . M unera f or t he l ocal c ommunity d etectable i n S pain , s upervision

o f

p ublic

c onstruction w ork

s upervision o f a p ublic b ath, a dvocate. r ight

t o

a nd

r epairs,

m unus in S pain.

t hat

t he

d ay-to-day

a nd s ervice a s a n a mbassador a nd a s a p ublic

T o t hese m ay b e a dded t he c harge o f s uspect

i n a ddition t o t he a re

l ocal

f inances,

i f

i t

i s

t he d uties o f q uaestors w ere s ometimes t reated a s a

S ervice a s an a ctual l abourer i n t he c onstruction o f

p ublic w orks, s uch a s i s r eferred t o i n U rso's c harter, m ay w ell h ave c onstituted a m unus o f a m ore h umble k ind. T he c ommunities' s ervice t o R ome

p robably

i nvolved o ther m unera a s w ell:

f or e xample,

t he

c ollecting R oman t axes a nd p roviding v ehicles f or t he p ublic p ost. L iability

f or m unera,

u nlike

d uties

o f

l b

e ligibility f or o fficial p ositions ,

w as

s hared b y a ll c itizens -or , f rom t he f irst h alf o f t he s econd c entury A .D . a mwards, a ll r esidents -of a c ommunity. B ut, a ccording t o t he l egal s ources

a t

i mportant

a ny

r ate,

h ere

a lso.

m unera i n g eneral,

c onsiderations T hese

o f

a ge,

s ex ,

c onsiderations

a nd

a ffected ,

s ocial n ot

s tatus

w ere

l iability

f or

b ut t he p articu lar t ype o f m unus w hich w ould b e a ssigned

t o a ny i ndividual. W omen w ere d isqualified b y t heir s ex f rom a ll m unera i nvolving p ersonal s ervice. M unera s ordida, w hich c onsisted o nly o f p hysical l abour , w ere r eserved f or m en o f h umble s ocial s tanding. F or m unera i nvolving r esponsible p ersonal a ttention , t he l egal s ources p rescribe a m inimum a ge o f t weygy-five:

t he s ame a s

t hat f or a dmission t o t he o rdo

a nd m unicipal o ffice. T o

t hese v arious

c riteria m ay

b e a dded t he s imple f act o f m embership

o r n on-membership o f t he l ocal o rdo. c onvention a t l east,

C ertain m unera s eem t o h ave b een ,

r estricted t o d ecurions a s s uch.

t he s ources f or municipal a dministration i n t he E mpire a s a w hole, c onfirmed

b y t he e vidence f rom S pain .

b y

T his i s s uggested b y

A S panish i nscription o f A .D .

a nd 1 67

r efers t o a v eteran w ho w as a dlected t o t he l ocal o rdo a nd s pecifically e xempted f rom a ll " munera e t o nera r ei p ublicae": a s i f a dlection b y i tself 1 67

m ade h im l iable t o c ertain m unera. T he i nscription r ecalls a p assage f rom t he D igest i n w hich i t i s s tated t hat , a lthough v eterans a re g uaran teed i mmunity f rom b oth h onores a nd m uneri, l iability t o m unera f ollows i f t hey c onsent, a fter a ll , t o j oin t he o rdo . T he m ost n atural i nterpretation o f t his a ssociation b etween m embership o f t he o rdo a nd l iability t o m unera i s t hat t here w ere s ome m unera t o w hich d ecurions a lone w ere s ubject , b y v irtue o f t heir o fficial p osition . T his i s n ot t he o nly p ossible e xplanation . T he e vidence m ight b e e xplained i n t erms o f a p rinciple t hat e njoyment o f m unicipal d ignities e ntailed , b y c ompensation , a n o bligation t o p erform s ervices, a nd t hereby c ancelled i mmunity f rom m unera. B ut t here a re o ther i ndications t hat c ertain m unera a ttached s pecifically t o t he d ecurionate . I t i s i mplied b y s ources f or t he E mpire a s a w hole t hat d ecurions a lone s erved a s m unicipal a mbassadors. T he S panish e vidence s uggests t hat m unicipal a mbassadors a nd c urators o f 8 p ublic w orks , a t l east , w ere d rawn f rom t he l ocal o rdo .1 I t i s c haracteristic o f t he m unera w hich a ppear t o h ave b een t he p reserve o f d ecurions t hat t hey r equired p ersonal a ttention o f ar esponsible k ind. B ut i t i s i mpossible t o e xplain t heir c onfinement t o d ecurions s imply b y t he h ypothesis t hat t he r equisite r esponsibility w as t hought t o b e d ependent o n a c ombination o f a ge, s ex , a nd s ocial s tatus s uch t hat d ecurions w ere , a s am atter o f f act , t he o nly p eople a vailable t o p erform t hese m unera . I ncolae , w ho w ere i neligible f or t he o rdo , i n t he c ourse o f t he s econd c entury A .D . b ecame e verywhere l iable t o m unera i n t heir p lace o f d omicile. T here m ust h ave b een i ncolae w ho b y a ge , s ex , a nd s ocial s tatus w ere a s w ell q ualified a s d ecurions t o p erform r esponsible m unera . I f a mbassadors a nd c urators o f p ublic w orks w ere d rawn f rom t he o rdo i tself , t hat m ust h ave b een b ecause t hese t asks w ere c onceived t o c onstitute a f orm o f p articipation i n l ocal g overnment. T hey b elonged p roperly o nly t o 9 m embers o f t he o rdo : n ot t o o utsiders a nd a mateurs. 1 I t s eems , t hen , t hat t here w ere p articular m unera w hich w ere a ccepted t o b e r eserved t o d ecurions ; e ven i f n o f ormal r egulations e xisted t o t hat e ffect. T he e xpenditure o f p ersonal a ttention w as a n e ssential c haracteristic o f t hem , a nd t hey s ometimes i nvolved f inancial o utlay a s w ell . I t d oes n ot f ollow , h owever , t hat d ecurions' l iability t o t hese m unera m eant t hat t he b urden o f m unera i n g eneral r ested m ore h eavily u pon t hem t han u pon t he r est o f t he i nhabitants o f ac ommunity . M unera s ordida r emained t o b e p erformed b y t he l ower c lasses. M unera w hich r equired o nly w ealth c ould b e a ssigned t o r ich w omen , m inors, a nd i ncolae. M oreover , t he ut ts o rdo's a uthority p laced i t i n a n i deal p osition t o c ompensate f or 2 s pecial m unera b y i mposing o ther m unera a s f ar a s p ossible o n o utsiders.

( v) C onclusion R ecords o f a ctivity o n t he p art o f t he p opulace a nd m agistrates c onfirm t he p icture a lready g iven o f t he o rdo's r ole i n a dministration . T he c hief p owers l acking t o t he o rdo w ere t hose o f j urisdiction a nd o f m aking a ppointments t o o fficial p ositions . O therwise , t he o rdo m aintained a c lose c ontrol o ver a dministrative a ctivity , b oth w ithin t he c ommunity i tself a nd i n r elation t o t he w orld o utside . E xceptions t o t his r ule t end o nly t o p rove i t. P opular a gitation o r l egislation , w hen i t o ccurred , w as a imed o nly a t e xerting p ressure , o r c onferring h onours , o n p rominent i ndividuals. 1 68

T he p owers o f d uoviri o ver o fficial b odies,

e xtensive t hough t hey w ere,

h ad

a s t heir r ationale a n eed t o e nsure e fficient w orking o f g overnmental i nstitutions.

A ny

i nfluence w hich

d uovi i

t hereby s ecured o ver p ublic

p olicy w as i ncidental t o t his p rimary p urpose. O f t he m agistrates ,

t he d uoviri w ere b y f ar t he m ost i mportant, b oth i n

t he r ange o f f unctions w hich t hey p erformed , w hich

t hey

e xercised .

T he

a edileship

a nd i n t he e xtent o f a uthority

( like

t he

q uaestorship ,

w here

i t

e xisted) w as b y c omparison a n i nsignificant o ffice. T he i mportance o f t he f unctions o f d uoviri w as r eflected b y t he p restige a ssociated w ith t he o ffice a nd b y i ts p lace a t t he t op o f t he c ursus h onorum . T he m ost i mportant c hange w hich t ook p lace i n t he p owers o f m agistrates u nder t he P rincipate -that i s, t he d iminution o f t heir j uridical p owers d id n ot a ffect r elations b etween o rdo a nd m agistrates. R ather , i t c hanged t he b alance o f a uthority b etween t he c ommunities' o fficials, o n t he o ne hand,

and R ome's r epresentatives,

o n t he o ther.

T he u se o f m unera t o

a ssist a dministrative a ctivity d id n ot s o m uch d erogate f rom m agisterial a uthority a s l essen t he b urden o f a dministrative t asks w hich m agistrates w ere o bliged t o p erform o n t he o rdo's i nstructions. T he i nstitution o f m unera d oes n ot b etray a w illingness o n t he p art o f l ocal o rdines t o a bandon a dministrative r esponsibility.

N ot o nly w as t he

a ssignment

i nvolving d uties

o f

m unera

s upervised b y

t he

o rdo,

b ut m unera

c omparable t o t hose e ntrusted t o m agistrates w ere r eserved t o t he d ecurions t hemselves.

T he p ractice o f r estricting c ertain m unera t o m embers o f t he

o rdo i ntensified t he r esemblance b etween s uch m unera a nd m agisterial o ffice. B ut t he p restigious c onnotations o f m agistracies, a nd t he r ole w hich t hey p layed i n d etermining t he o rdo's i nternal s tructure , p revented t he c omplete a ssimilation o f m unera t o m agistracies.

M unera o f a ll k inds c o einued t o

c onstitute a d istinguishable p art o f t he a dministrative m achinery.

1 69

N OTES:

N OTES 1 .

( CHAPTER X :

P opular e lections:

C H . X

.

P EOPLE A ND M AGISTRATES)

C hapter V p p. 8 2-3;

8 5.

I nformal p opular a ctivity : C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p p. 164-5 . I II n . 1 6 f or t he p articipation o f i ncolae ( e.g . 2 025 ,

C f. C hapter 2 044 , 1 054 ,

1 286). A lmost a ll t he i nscriptions h onour p rominent c itizens: s everal e mploy t he e xpression " (ex) a ere c onlato" ( e.g . 3 4 , 5 3 , 1 348 , 2 025 , 2 044); a nd w here a v erb i s u sed i t i s " dederunt" o r " habiti" ( 1054 , 2 025 , 1 286). 2 100 , 3 364 , 6 339 a re r equests f or e xpenditure , " petente p opulo" ( see C hapter V I n . 1 0). A E 1 953 2 1 s hows t he o rdo a t L ucurgentum i n B aetica d ecreeing h onours t o as evir a t p opular r equest. 2 .

F ormal l egislative a ssemblies:

1 364 ( an u nidentified t own i n B aetica :

aw oman h onoured " d(ecreto) d (ecurionum) e t p opuli"); 1 294 ( Nabrissa i n B aetica: a m an h onoured " ex c onsensu p opuli"); 1 347 w ith a ddendum , C IL 2 I , p . 7 01 ( Acinipo i n B aetica: t he p lebs " decrevit" a s tatue t o a m an w ho w as a p rominent c itizen o f C orduba). F or t he " curiae" o f A cinipo , s ee C hapter I V n . 4 ; f or b enefactors a nd p atrons f rom n ear-by t owns, C hapter V III p p. 1 33-4. N one o f t hese t hree i nscriptions c an b e d ated w ith a ny c ertainty . 3 .

M agistrates a t U rso :

F IRA I 2 1 C XXIX .

P rospective d uoviri a nd q uaestors a t F IRA I 2 4 L X . P ompaelo : 2 959 ( cf. C hapter V I n . 1; f or C laudius Q uartinus):

M alaca

t o

p rovide

s ecurities:

a nd A lföldy , F asti, p p . 7 9-81

" et i us m agistratus v estri e xequi a dversus

c ontumaces p otestis e t n ihilominus q ui c autionibus a ccipiendis d esunt s ciant f uturum u t n on p er h oc t uti s int. n am e t n on a cceptarum c autionum p ericulum a d e os r espiciet e t q uidquid p raesentes q uoque ( Mommsen " quique" , a d l oc .) e gerint i d c ommunis o neris e rit." T he l etter d oes n ot s pecify f rom w hom t he c autiones i n q uestion h ad b een a ccepted . F or s ecurities r eceived f rom m agistrates, s ee F IRA I 2 4 L X , c ited a bove; c f. e .g . D ig . L 1 . 2 4 ( Scaevola); 1 . 1 3 ; 8 .5.3 ( Papinian); 1 . 3 8 . 4 ( Papirius I ustus ) . F or s ecurities r eceived f rom c ontractors , s ee F IRA I 2 4 L XIII a nd e .g. D ig . L 8 . 3p r.; 8 . 3 . 1 ( Ulpian); c f. b elow , n . 5 . C urators o f p ublic w orks a lso p rovided s ecurities ( e.g. D ig. L 8 . 1-2 ( Papirius I ustus); c f. b elow , n . 1 5). A t M alaca t he m agistrates a ccepting s ecurities a re e nvisaged a s d uoviri

( FIRA I 2 4 L X ( cf.

L II);

L XIII):

p resumably t he d uoviri o f

P ompaelo h ad c omplained t o C laudius Q uartinus a bout p redecessors o f t heir o wn , w hose o ffice h ad e xpired . F or t he f inancial l iability o f am agistrate w hose c olleague h ad b een d ishonest o r i ncompetent, a ffirmed b y ( Papinian). 4 .

C laudius

Q uartinus,

s ee

e .g.

D ig.

L 1 .

1

h ere

a nd

1 3

1 L XIV , L XIX , F IRA I 2 he a ppearance o f X CII , X CVI , X CVII , X CIX , C , C XXX , C XXXI , C XXXIV ( for t 66); F IRA I 2 4 a ediles i n t he l ast t hree c hapters , s ee b elow , p . 1 II ( the d uovir L XVIII. P opular e lections: F IRA I 2 4 L I f f., e sp. L

D uoviri s ummon d ecurions a nd p ropose m otions:

m aior n atu i n t he f irst i nstance ; a d l oc .) ( Malaca);

c f. H ardy,

F IRA I 2 1 L XVIII , 1 70

c f.

panish C harters, T hree S F or t he g eneral

C I ( Urso).

N OTES:

C H . X

q uestion o f p opular e lections, s ee C hapter V p p. 8 2-3; 8 5. F or p opular l egislative a ssemblies , s ee a bove , n . 2 . P owers o f d uoviri a t U rso o ver d ecurions: F IRA I 2 1 X CI ( cf. C hapter I V n . 6 ); C V . D uoviri r esponsible f or e nrolling c itizens a nd d ecurions: p. 7 9-81. p

C hapter V

P riests a nd l ocal d omicile: F IRA I 2 1 X CI; c f. C hapter I V n . 3 4 . P ompaelo : 2 959 , q uoted a bove , n . 3 . F rom t he l anguage ( "tuti" , " periculum" , " communis o neris") t he " ius m agistratus v estri" w ould a ppear t o i nclude t he r ight t o e xact r ecompense o n t he c ommunity's b ehalf; 5 .

c f. F IRA I 2 4 L XVII f f. a nd C hapter V I n .

1 5.

T he o ffice o f d uovir q uinquennalis: C hapter I V n . 2 7. C ensorial f unctions a ttached t o i t: e .g. R . M eiggs, R oman O stia, 2 nd e d. ( Oxford ,

1 973), p p.

1 74-5.

O n t he r elation o f d uoviri q uinquennales

t o t he R oman a nd p rovincial c ensuses , s ee C hapter I X p . 1 53 . L eases o f p ublic l and a nd o ther p roperty: F IRA I 2 1 X CIII, c f. L XXXII; F IRA I 2 4 L XIII; c f. C hapter V II n . 4 . ( The f ive-year l imit o n o ccupation o f p ublic l and i n F IRA I 2 1 L XXXII d oes n ot h owever n ecessarily i mply a c oncentration o f l ocationes e very f ive y ears, o r e ven t hat f ive y ears w as t he s tandard l ength o f c ontract. C ontracts m ight b e f or a s horter p eriod t han t hat; c f. 2 242 ( Corduba).) F or t he l easing o f c ontracts a s a t ypically c ensorial d uty, s ee M ommsen , S taatsrecht, I I ( i), 4 24 f f.. C ontracts f or c onstruction a nd r epair o f p ublic b uildings: L XIII.

F IRA I 2 4

F or t he d istinction b etween t hese c ontracts a nd t hose w here

public property was l eased out, s ee e .g. Hardy, T hree S panish C harters, p . 7 8 f .. D ecurions' a uthorisation n ecessary f or p ublic b uilding : 6 .

C hapter V II n . 2 ;

S upervision o f c ontractors a m unus: I ustus);

c f. n .

c f. i bid. n n . 8 , e .g. D ig. L 8 .

1. 1 1

( Papirius

1 5.

O n t hd q uestion o f t he d evelopment o f t his m unus i n S pain , s ee C hapter V II n . 3 0 . D uoviri i n o ffice s upervising r epairs: C hapter V II n n . 8 , 1 1 ( aqueduct a nd w alls). D uoviri o f S abora: 1 423 ( A .D . 7 8); c f. C hapter V II n . 5 . D uoviri s ee t o e rection o f h onorific s tatues: 1 5 ( Myrtilis i n L usitania); 1 330 ( Oba i n B aetica); a nd a s eries a t O lisipo i n L usitania t o m embers o f t he i mperial f amily ( Chapter V II n . 8 ). 7 .

D uoviri c ompile r ecords f or p rovincial c ensus:

C hapter I X p p.

1 53-4.

I bid. f or t he R oman c ensus, a nd t he p ossibility t hat r ecords o f R oman c itizens c ontinued t o b e k ept b y l ocal m agistrates a fter t he c ensus i tself h ad l apsed. 8 .

J udicial f unctions o f d uoviri:

c f.

t he d escriptions i n t he c harters

" lure d icundo" a nd " qui l ure d icundo p raeerit"; a nd t he t itle " praefectus l ure d icundo" a pplied t o p raefecti o f d uoviri ( Chapter V n .

2). 2

F or t he d etails o f t heir j urisdiction ,

a nd t he r eduction

o f t heir a uthority , s ee C hapter V I p p. 1 05-6 . S ome j urisdiction w as a lso a ssigned t o a ediles, p resumably i n c onnexion w ith t heir

171

N OTES: d uties

( FIRA I 2 1 X C1V ;

p . 3 9 n .

6 1 f ..

C III:

2 4 L XVI;

c f.

H ardy ,

T hree S panish C harters,

7 2).

G eneral s upervision: I V p .

C H . X

F IRA I 2 4 X XV ;

c f.

2 1 X CIII,

X CIV ,

F or t he d uoviri's r ole i n a n e mergency ,

a nd C hapter

c f.

F IRA I 2 1

a lthough t his s pecific a scription o f m ilitary a uthority m ay b e

t ralatician , t he c hapter s hows t he k ind o f r esponsibility w hich w ould n aturally b e a ssumed b y d uoviri i n a c risis ( Appendix I n . 1 2; c f. I LS 6 882 ( Cartenna i n M auretania C aesariensis; m id-second c entury A .D .)). 9 .

A ediles

a t

U rso:

F IRA I 2 1

L XII,

L XXVII,

X CVIII;

c f.

H ardy,

T hree S panish C harters, p . 2 6 n . 1 4 ; L iebenam , p p. 4 02 f f.. P ublic s lave a t C aesaraugusta: 2 922; c f. F IRA I 2 1 L XII. F or t he j uridical p owers o f a ediles, s ee n . 8 . 1 0 .

F our c hapters o f U rso's c harter: C XXXIV .

F IRA I 2 1 C XXVIII, CXXX, C XXXI,

( Aediles a re c ited a long w ith t he

d uoviri a nd p raefecti

h aving r esponsibility f or t he a ppointment o f m agistri f anorum , b eing e ntitled t o p reside o ver m eetings o f t he d ecurions.)

a s

a nd a s

T he c hapters f rom C XXVI t o t he e nd o f t he c harter d iffer f rom t he r est i n r eferring t o t he m agistrates w hose a uthority t hey d escribe b y t he s imple p hrase " IIvir a ed(ilis) p raef(ectus)".

I t h as b een s uggested

t hat t he f our c hapters r epresent l ater i nterpolations i n t he c harter , a nd

t his

m ay

i ndeed

S tadtrechten," G radenwitz,

b e

t rue

( H.

R hM N .F.

x lv

( 1890),

" Nochmals:

" Zu

1 00-10,

d en

p p.

c f. A ppendix I V n .

1 9).

r ömischen

1 07

D ie r ömischen S tadtrechte,"

( 1922), 4 39-55 , p p. 4 49 f f.; i ndicates c opying

N issen ,

f f.;

O .

Z RG x liii

B ut t he w ording

f rom a g eneral r egulation r ather t han a d eliberate

a lteration o f t he p owers o f a ediles a t U rso. S ee M .W . F rederiksen, " The R epublican M unicipal L aws: E rrors a nd D rafts," J RS l v ( 1965), 1 83-98 ,

f or c harters a s a dapted m ore o r

r egulations;

i bid. p .

l ess

s kilfully

f rom

g eneral

1 91 f or r edundant m agistracies i n t he L ex

T arentina. 1.

N o

i nscriptions

s et u p

n earest i s 4 529

b y

t he

c ommunity

i n h onour

o f a n e x-aedile.

a ediles:

t he

i n h onour

B ut t hat w as a p rivilege w hich c ould b e g ranted t o

t hose w ishing t o h onour e ven a p rivate c itizen C hapter V II n .

o f

( "1(oco) d (ato) d (ecreto) d (ecurionum)"),

2 ).

C ontrast,

f or e xample,

5 3,

a ctivities o f d uoviri. A edile a t I gabrum : 1 610

( A .D .

M alaca:

c f. M cElderry I , p . 7 0.

1 967 ( undated);

S egobriga:

3 103-4

b eing A .D.

1 2).

7 5);

( e.g.

1 256 ,

c f. M cElderry I , p .

( a p air s et u p b y t he s ame m an ,

4 553;

c f.

c elebrating t he 7 1.

t he d ate o f 3 104

S egobriga w as a t own w hich i s l isted b y P liny a s

s tipendiary, b ut w hich r eceived t he L atin r ight a t s ome t ime b etween a bout t he t urn o f t he c entury a nd A .D . 1 4 ( Henderson , 1 942, p p. 1 -5 ; M cElderry

I ,

p .

7 4

n .

3 ;

a nd E E V III p .

4 35

n o.

1 82

f or

t he

i dentification o f C abeza d el G riego w ith S egobriga). I nscriptions c elebrating R oman c itizenship p er h onorem : A .D .

7 5);

1 631

( Igabrum ,

9 5); 2 096 ( Cisimbrium , p robably b e a dded 1 967 7 );

3 103-4

u ndated);

1 610 ( Igabrum ,

1 945 ( Iluro i n B aetica,

A .D .

8 4-

A .D. 7 5) e xplicitly d o s o. T o t hese s hould ( Malaca , u ndated), 2 041 ( Anticaria, A .D . 7 6-

( Segobriga, c f. a bove), b y d ate a nd a nalogy. 1 72

N OTES : P rivate e xpense d eclared :

C H . X

1 945 , 2 096 ,

1 697 , 3 103-4 .

2 096 , w hich i s d amaged , m ay s tate ( like 1 610) t hat t he d edication i s o n b ehalf o f a g roup o f m agistrates a nd t heir f amilies. 1 631 a nd 1 945 c elebrate t he p romotion o f t he d edicants a lone , w hile t he r est g ive n o h int e ither w ay . 1 945 , 2 041, w ere s et u p b y d uoviri. 1 2 .

F or t he m unicipal q uaestorship i n t he l ate R epublic , a nd i ts a bsence f rom t he c harter o f t he C aesarian c olony U rso , s ee C hapter I V p p.601. Q uaestors a t O stia: M eiggs, p . 1 76. Q uaestor a t O ea i n A frica: A puleius A pol . 1 01. ( Cf. M ommsen , S taatsrecht, I II ( i) , p . 7 50 n . 3 ; H irschfeld , p . 7 4 n . 6 , f or t he i dentification o f t his m an a s a m unicipal , n ot p rovincial , q uaestor . ) Q uaestors a nd s ecurities a t M alaca : n . 3 .

1 3 .

A bsence o f q uaestorship i n s ome S panish t owns: C hapter I V p p . 6 01. A ediles a t U rso s hare f inancial r esponsibilities o f d uoviri: F IRA I 2 1 L XYYI . U rso's i mmunity : C hapter I V n . 4 ; c f. C hapter I II n . 2 0 . Q uaestorship a m unus p ersonale : D ig . L4 . 1 8 . 2( Arcadius C harisius) ; c f. n . 1 5 .

1 4 .

D efinition o f m unera : D ig . L . 4 . 1 4 . 1( Callistratus). F or t he i nsignia o f o ffice , a nd t he c ursus h onorum , s ee C hapter I V p p. 5 8 f f.. P opular e lections o f m agistrates: C hapter V p p . 8 2-3. A ssignment o f m unera : a mbassadors w ere d espatched b y t he o rdo ( FIRA I 2 1 X CII ( Urso); 1 423 ( Sabora , A .D . 7 8); A E 1 962 2 88 ( Munigua , A .D . 7 9)). M en p laced i n c harge o f p ublic w orks r egarded t hemselves a s r esponsible t o t he o rdo, w hich a uthorised t he w orks c oncerned ( 3425-6 ; 3 541; c f. C hapter V II n . 8a nd b elow , n . 1 5). S ince t he o rdo w as t hus i n c ontrol o f t he b usiness w hich i nvolved m unera , i t s eems m ost u nlikely t hat p opular e lection t o m unera f ollowed. U rso's c harter ( FIRA I 2 1 X CII) r efers t o al ocal o rder o f l iability f or m unera , a nd p rovides f or t he n omination o f av icarius b y a n u nwilling a mbassador a ccording t o t his o rder o f l iability : " Quamque l egationem e x h (ac) 1 (ege) e xve d (ecurionum) d (ecreto) , q uot e x h (ac) 1 (ege) f actum e rit , o bire o portuerit n eque o bierit q ui l ectus e rit , i s p ro s e v icarium e x e o o rdine , u ti h ac l ege d e(curionum )ve [ decreto ] d (ari) o (portet), d ato ." ( For a l ocal o rder o f l iability , c f. D ig . L4 . 1 4 . 3 ( Callistratus).) I t s eems r easonable , t hen , t o c onclude t hat m unera w ere a ssigned b y n omination ( cf. U lpian i n D ig . X LIX 1 0 . 1 ), a ccording t o a n o rder o f l iability , u nder t he o rdo's s upervision ( cf. U lpian i n D ig. X LIX 4 . 1 . 3 ). W ho w as u sually r esponsible f or t he i nitial n omination r emains u nclear . A nother d istinction b etween m agistracies a nd m unera w as t he f act t hat , e ven a fter i ncolae b ecame l iable t o m unera, m agistracies ( and m embership o f t he o rdo) w ere r estricted t o c itizens o f a c ommunity ( n . 1 6 ; C hapter I II p . 4 5). F or t he u se o f t he w ord " munus" i n al oose s ense, t o m ean s imply " obligation" o r " burden" , s ee e .g . C hapter V n . 2 8 a nd D ig . L 1 6 . 1 8 ( Paulus); L 4 . 9 ( Ulpian ). T his u sage w as c onsistent w ith a wareness o f t he d istinction d enoted b y p recise t erminology .

1 5 .

M unera

d etectable

i n

S pain :

f or

t he

c onstruction w ork a nd r epairs , s ee 3 425-6 ; 1 73

s upervision

o f

p ublic

5 354 ( building o f w alls a t

N OTES:

C H . X

C arthago N ova , o f b aths a t at own i n B aetica);

3 541, 6 021 ( repairs t o

a n a queduct i n s outhern T arraconensis, t o w alls a t C hapter V II n n . 8 , 1; a nd D ig . L 4 . 4p r. ( Ulpian).

S aguntum);

c f.

D ay-to-day s upervision o f ap ublic b ath: 4 610 ; c f. C hapter V II n . 1. A mbassadors: C hapter V III n n . 8 , 1 0 , 2 3; 2 132; 4 057 ( cf. C hapter V III n . 1 9); c f. D ig. L 5 . 1 2 ( Paulus) f or t he m unus. A dvocate: C hapter V III n . 1 2; c f. D ig . L . 4 . 1 . 2 ( Hermogenianus). C harge o f l ocal f inances: a bove, p . 1 66 f .. S ervice a s a l abourer : c f.

F IRA I 2 1 X CVIII

( Urso).

P erhaps n ot s trictly a m unus,

s o m uch

a s a n o bligation t o m aintain t he r oads i mposed o n a ll p ropertyh olders, e ven n on-resident o nes. ( Cf. F IRA I 1 3 , 2 0 f f. ( Tabula H eracleensis).) T he c hapter e nvisages t he p rovision o f d raught a nimals f or t he w ork , 8 . 4 ( Papinian). C ollection

o f

a s w ell a s p ersonal l abour.

R oman t axes:

p ossibly

S ee a lso D ig.

c ompatible

e ven w ith

L 5 . t he

i nstitution o f t he q uaestorship a s a m agistracy, s ince i t i s c onceivable t hat q uaestors m erely c ollected t axes f rom t hose w ho p aid s pontaneously, l eaving a s a m unus t he e xaction o f m oney f rom r eluctant t ax-payers ( n. 1 2; c f. e .g. D ig. L 4 . 1 . 1 ( Hermogenianus) a nd F IRA I 5 6 1 9-23 ( 31 B .C .)). M unera i n c onnexion w ith p ublic p ost ( and r oad-building, a rmy r ecruitment): c f. D ig . L4 . 1 8 . 4 ; L 4 . 1 8 . 1 5 ; L . 4 . 1 8. 3 ( Arcadius C harisius) a nd C hapter I X p p. 1 55 f f.. T he d istinction b etween m unera w hich s erved t he l ocal c ommunity a nd t hose w hich s erved t he i nterests o f t he R aman g overnment c oincided r oughly ( at l east s o f ar a s t he l egal s ources a re c oncerned) w ith a d istinction b etween m unera i nvolving p ersonal a ttention a nd m unera i nvolving f inancial o utlay. ( E.g. D ig . L . 4 . 1 ( Hermogenianus); c f. 4 057 ( " c urante l egato .. l egatione g ratuit[a]"), w here t he a mbassador h as a n e ntitlement t o p ublic p ayment, b ut w aives i t.) 1 6 .

I ncolae b ecome l iable t o m unera : t o m unera s tated b y G aius

( Dig.

t he u niversal l iability o f i ncolae L 1 .

2 9) s eems

t o h ave

e xisted b y

H adrian 's r eign ( Dig. L 1 . 3 7 p r. ( Callistratus); c f. C od . l ust. X 4 0. 2 a nd 7 ). C f. S herwin-White, R C, p . 3 12 n . 2 . S ee I LS 1 374 ( Aquileia , A .D . 1 05) f or a s pecial c ase o f l iability d uring T rajan 's r eign . O n F IRA I 2 1 C III s ee C hapter I I n . 1 5 : i t c annot b e a dduced t o d emonstrate l iability o f i ncolae , i n a t echnical s ense , t o m ilitary m unera a t U rso. D istinctions o f a ge, s ex , a nd s ocial s tatus: e .g. D ig. L 4 . 3 . 3 ( Ulpian : w omen); L 5 . 8 . 4 ; 1 . 1 7. 7 ( Papinian : m unera s ordida); L 4 . 8 ( Ulpian : m inimum a ge o f t wenty-five, c f. C hapter I V p . 5 5). N one o f t hese d istinctions, a s s uch, i s d etectable i n t he S panish e vidence. F or a ge, s ex , a nd s ocial s tatus a s d etermining e ligibility f or p ublic o ffice i n S pain , s ee C hapter I V , p assim . 1 7.

M unera r estricted t o d ecurions: V p .

8 1.

5 232 = I LS 6 898 ( A .D .

1 67);

C hapter

I t w ould s eem t hat " munera" i s h ere u sed i n a s trict s ense

( cf. a bove, n . 1 4), s ince " munera e t o nera" i s a s omewhat r edundant w ay o f d escribing m erely t he b urdens o f o ffice. V eterans i n D igest: X LIX 1 8. 5 . 2 ( Paulus). T he r eference t o " honores" s eems t o g uarantee a s trict s ense f or t he w ord " munera" h ere a lso. 1 74

N OTES: 1 8 .

C H . X

O ther e vidence f or m unera a ttached a s

t o d ecurionate:

d rawn f rom t he d ecurions a lone,

( Concordia, m id-second c entury A .D.); D ig. L 7 . ( Ulpian);

I LS 6 680,

a nd c f.

f or a mbassadors

s ee F ronto A d A micos i i.

i i.

1 5

7 .

3

7 .

1

5 . 5 ( Marcianus);

( "munera d ecurionatus" a t

T ergeste i n t he r eign o f A ntoninus P ius). A mbassadors a nd c urators o f p ublic w orks i n S pain:

a ll t hose w ho

s upervised p ublic b uildings w ere d ecurions, a s w as t he c urator o f a p ublic b ath a t B aetulo ( Chapter V II n n . 8 , 1). T he o nly a mbassador o f w hom p ersonal d etails a re g iven h ad h eld t he d uovirate ( 2132, c ited a bove, n . 1 5). 1 9 .

F or

t he

t endency

c andidates, a bove, o rdo.

n .

o f

o rdines

s ee C hapter I V p . 1 6.

F or

S ee n .

t o

e xhaust

5 7.

t he

p ool

o f

e ligible

L iability o f i ncolae t o m unera:

1 4 f or t he i neligibility o f i ncolae f or t he

r esponsible

munera

a s

c onstituting

a f orm

o f

a dministration , c f. D ig. L 4 . 1 4. 1 ( Callistratus). N ot t hat a ll m unera r equiring r esponsible p ersonal a ttention w ere n ecessarily

r eserved t o d ecurions:

( Ulpian) ( tax-collection ; 2 0 .

c f. n .

s ee e .g.

D ig.

L 4 .

3 .

1 0-1

1 5).

N one o f t he e vidence f or m unera r eserved t o d ecurions p roves t hat t heir r eservation w as a m atter o f l ocal

t radition

( nn .

a mbassador o r c urator ,

1 7-8).

f ormal

r egu lations,

F or f inancial

o utlay,

e ven i f h e d id n ot w aive h is

a s c f.

o pposed n .

r ight

1 5 :

t o a n

t o p ublic

p ayment, m ight f ind t he m oney p rovided i nadequate f or t he t ask. O rdo a ble t o c ompensate f or i ts s pecial m unera: 3 . 2 1.

F or

1 5

n .

1 4;

c f.

D ig.

L 4 .

( Ulpian).

t he o rdo's

r esponsibility

f or s ome o fficial a ppointments,

C hapter V . 2 2 .

P restige o f d uovirate:

C hapter I V p p. 5 9 f f..

M unera a nd m agistracies r emain d istinguishable:

175

a bove, n n .

1 4 ,

1 7.

s ee

C HAPTER X I C ONCLUSION T he s ystem c enturies A .D.

o f g overnment i n t he S panish p eninsula d uring t he f irst t wo w as b ased o n a d ivision o f t he t hree p rov inces i nto a l arge

n umber o f r elatively s mall a dministrative u nits. f ormal r ecognition a s s uch f rom t he R oman g overnment;

T hese u nits r equired b ut t heir b oundaries

a nd

t han

c haracter

o wed

m ore

c onstruction b y R ome.

t o

n atural

d evelopment

A part f rom f ounding n ative t owns

t o

a rtificial

i n t he l ess s ecure

a reas, a nd c olonies f or h er o wn c itizens i n t he m ore d eveloped o nes, R ome t ended t o l eave u ntouched t he e xisting a rrangement o f s elf-governing c ommunities. A s mall e xception t o t his w as h er a malgamation o f c ertain p reviously d istinct c ommunities o n t he o ccasion o f t heir p romotion t o R oman o r

L atin

s tatus.

A lthough

t he

t ypical

f ormal

s tructure

o f

a n

a dministrative u nit w as t hat o f a n a rea o f t erritory g overned c entrally f rom a s ingle s ettlement, R ome a lso t olerated a s tructure n ative t o t he l ess c ivilised r egions,

w hich i nvolved a g reater d iffusion o f

r esponsibility w ithin t he u nit, d escription " tribal o rganisation".

a nd

h as

b een

T he f ormal s tructure o f a n a dministrative u nit

a dministrative

c haracterised

b y

t he

d id n ot n ecessarily d o

j ustice t o t he p attern o f s ettlement w ithin i ts t erritory.

I n c ommunities

g overned c entrally f rom a s ingle s ettlement, p eople c ould h ave p ermanent r esidences o utside t he s ettlement w here t he g overnmental i nstitutions w ere l ocated. B ut i t d oes n ot f ollow t hat t hese s ubsidiary s ettlements h ad a ny a dministrative s ignificance. V ici a nd c astella w ere a n atural p henomenon i n t he

t erritory

o f

O nly i n i nland

c entralised,

a s w ell a s

T arraconensis

c entralised

c ommunity

a ccount.

P agi

a s

f ound

d uring t he e ngaging

s ubdivisions

i ntroduced b y t he R oman g overnment p eninsula.

B ut t he f unctions

i n

o f

" tribal" ,

e arly

c ommunities

P rincipate

s ubstantial

t he

i s

a ctivity

c ommunities'

i n S pain.

a v icus o n

o f a

i ts

t erritory

o wn w ere

t o t he m ore c ivilised a reas o f t he

o f p agi s eem t o h ave a dvanced

l ittle

t hose c onnected w ith c ensus r egistration a nd t ax-collection ;

b eyond

t hat i s,

t he

p urposes f or w hich p agi w ere o riginally i ntroduced . I t w as,

t hen ,

a t

t he

l evel o f

t hese c entralised a dministrative u nits

t hat m ost o f t he g overnment o f t he S panish p rovinces t ook p lace. t heir

p olitical

a dministration,

i nstitutions

a ttention t o p ractical a dministration . T he

t ook

r esponsibility

a ffairs,

c oncerned w ith

t he

d etails

o f

d ay-to-day

c onnexion b etween c ivilisation a nd p rivileged s tatus m eans t hat f or t he

c ommunities'

a ctivities c omes f rom R oman a nd L atin c ommunities. r ight

l ocal

o f R oman

b etween t hem a s e xisted , n otably f or t he w ere n ot, e ven w hen t hey d irected t heir

o f t he s urviving e vidence

i ncrease

I t w as

f or

a nd d ealt w ith t he d emands a nd i nterventions

o fficials. S uch a ssociations p urpose o f t he i mperial c ult,

m ost

w hich

i n

t he

a vailable

e vidence

t o t he p eninsula i n A .D.

a fter

7 3-4. 1 76

i nstitutions a nd

T here i s a s ubstantial

V espasian's

g rant

o f

t he

L atin

B ut p rivileged s tatus i s n ot a n

i nfallible i ndicator o f c ultural s ophistication . e xclude c ommunities o n t he g rounds

V espasian's g rant d id n ot

o f b ackwardness;

a nd a ccessibility a nd

e conomic a dvantages, b oth i ndependently a nd i n c onjunction w ith t he s timulus o f f ormal p romotion , g reatly f acilitated t he d evelopment o f c ultural s ophistication. E ven a fter A .D. 7 3-4, t he c ommunities m ost a ctivl i n r ecording t heir a ffairs w ere t hose o f B aetica a nd e astern T arraconensis. I n t he p olitical i nstitutions o f R oman a nd L atin c ommunities t here w as a v ery

h igh

d egree

o f

s tandardisation:

s pecifically R oman m odels. p rovincials'

T his

s eems

o wn d esire t o d emonstrate

a s tandardisation

t o h ave

b ased

b een a c onsequence

t heir a ssimilation ,

o n

o f

t he

r ather t han o f

a n a mbition o n R ome's p art t o i mpose u niformity. W ithin e ach c ommunity i t w as t he o rdo w hich h ad o verall c ontrol o f b oth i nternal a nd e xternal a ffairs. c hief m agistrates,

e xercised ,

B ut

t he a uthority w hich

w as c onsiderable;

a ble t o e xert s ome i nfluence o ver l ocal a ctivity, i ts e lectoral r ole. T he

q ualifications

d emanded

o f

t he

d uoviri,

a s

a nd t he p opulace t oo w as

m agistrates

b oth d irectly a nd t hrough

a nd

d ecurions

m eant

t hat

l ocal p olicies w ere t o a l arge e xtent d etermined b y t he u pper c lass i n e ach c ommunity.

T his c orrelation b etween s ocial c lass a nd p olitical p ower s eems

t o h ave b een m ore p ronounced a s t ime w ent o n , a nd w as p ublicly a dvertised i n t he

i nsignia

c ommunities'

a nd

s ocial

p rerogatives

p reoccupations

t he u pper c lass.

o f

d ecurions a nd m agistrates.

i n l ocal a dm inistration r eflect

T he

v alues

o f

J ust a s p olitical i nstitutions w ere h ighly s tandardised ,

s o t he n ature o f l ocal p reoccupations v aried a nother: h ere s ophistication. n eglected:

t he

l ittle

f rom o ne

c ommunity

t o

t oo t he p rovincials e mulated R oman s tandards o f I t w as n ot o nly t he i nterests o f t he p oor w hich w ere

c ommunities t ended a lso t o i gnore,

o r t o e xploit,

o ther p eople

w ho w ere f or o ne r eason o r a nother e xcluded f rom t he o rdo. T hus t he a mbition t o a cquire t he a menities o f a c ivilised t own f ailed t o t ake i nto a ccount r esidents o utside t he c entral s ettlement; a nd t he w ealth o f s eviri w as h eavily e xploited i n t h is s ame p ursuit o f b uildings a nd s ervices. T he s ubjection o f t he p rovincials t o R oman r ule i s e vident i n t he u nimaginative c haracter o f m unicipal a mbitions. g eneral u nable a chievment

t o

c ontemplate a ny

u ltimate

T he c o mmunities w ere i n

e nd m ore

a dventurous

o f a d ignified a nd c omfortable w ay o f l ife.

f or e xample,

t han

t he

T hey w ere u nable ,

t o s eek p olitical d ominance o ver t heir n eighbours;

a nd e ven

m unicipal c ompetition o ver t he a cquisition o f b uildings w as c onstrained b y r estrictions

o n

l ocal

f und-raising.

C oncern

f or

t he

c ommunity's

f ormal

s tatus, s uch a s a ppears i n I talica's p etition t o H adrian , i s n ot a ttested i n o ther p etitions f rom S pain . V espasian's g rant o f t he L atin r ight t o t he e ntire p eninsula m ay b e s uspected o f h aving b lunted t he g overning c lasses' a ppetite f or t he p romotion o f c ommunities.

Y et a t t he t ime o f t hat g rant

g ratitude

r eveals

d isplayed

b y

t he

o rdo a s

a w hole

t hat

L atin s tatus w as

a ppreciated i n i tself, a nd n ot m erely f or t he r ight t o R oman c itizenship p er h onorem. T he d esire f or c harters d isplaying t he R oman c haracter o f t he,new L atin t owns a lso b ears w itness t o t he i ntrinsic a ppeal o f f ormal s tatus. T he

a ppeal o f f ormal a tatus d id n ot

c orrelation b etween R oman o r L atin s tatus a utonomy.

T he o nly

L

d epend s ignificantly o n a ny a nd

a n

e xtension

o f

l ocal

i mportant c orrelation b etween f ormal s tatus a nd

a utonomy w as t hat w hich a ppears i n t he c ase o f c olonies w ith i mmunity o r t he 1 77

i us I talicum .

H ere t he c olonies' f reedom f rom s ome o bligations t o R ome d id

r elease l ocal w ealth a nd e nergies f or t he p ursuit o f t he p rivate p urposes o f t he c ommunities c oncerned. s ome

f reedom

f rom

O therwise R oman o r L atin s tatus m eant, a t m ost,

s upervision

c ertain g uarantees o f

b y

p rovincial

j udicial a utonomy.

o fficials

a nd

p ossibly

a lso

T he t houghts o f t he p rovincials

t hus r emained f ixed o n t he p ersonal a dvantage o f R oman c itizenship f or t hemselves, a nd s ymbolic d istinctions f or t hier c o munities. F ormal s tatus d id n ot b ecome a ssociated w ith t he i ssue o f p olitical a utonomy. R ome's m ain a im i n p rovincial a dministration w as t o m aintain a p eaceful b ackground a gainst w hich t o e xploit t he r esources w hich t he p rovinces h ad t o o ffer.

A lthough s he d id n ot u sually r enounce h er r ight t o i nterfere ,

n ecessary,

i n t he c ommunities' o wn a ffairs,

f act e xtremely r are. a ctivity

i n t he

i f

s pontaneous i ntervention w as i n

T he P rincipate s aw a n i ntensification o f R oman

S panish p rovinces;

b ut

t his w as

l argely

d irected

t owards

e fficiency i n t he f inancial a dministration , a nd d id n ot i n g eneral a ffect t he l ocal g overnments. D evelopments w hich h ad a n i mmediate e ffect o n t he c ommunities - Rome's t ightening o f j udicial c ontrol , a nd h er i mposition o f c uratores o n c ertain t owns -were o n a l esser s cale t han t he

i ncrease i n

t he n umber o f p rocurators a dministering p ublic p roperty a nd i ndirect t axes. T he

p rovincials'

p ower t o

c ontest

t he

d emands

a nd

r estrictions w hich

R ome i mposed w as l imited b y t he n ature o f t he a dministrative s ystem .

T he

s mall u nits o n w hich t he s ystem w as b ased w ere i ncapable i ndividually o f e xerting s erious p ressure o n R ome; a nd t heir a bility t o e ngage i n c oncerted a ction w as l imited b y m utual j ealousies.

T here a lso s eems

t o h ave b een a

d istinction b etween i mperial a nd s enatorial p rovinces i n t his r espect: c ommunities i n B aetica w ere m ore r eady t han t hose i n L usitania a nd T arraconensis t o a pproach t he e mperor a nd t o c riticise t he q uality o f p rovincial o fficals. I n b oth l ocal a dministration a nd s ervice t o R ome,

t he c ommunities

s uffered f rom a s hortage o f a dministrative p ersonnel w hich w as r emedied b y t he i mposition o f m unera o n r esidents. T his s hortage o f p ersonnel w as i ntrinsic t O t he s ystem : e xacerbated , o f

t he

i t w as n ot i nitiated ,

a lthough i t m ay h ave b een

b y u npopularity a ttaching t o p ublic o ffice.

p opularity

i nconclusive.

o f

p ublic o ffice,

t he

S panish

O n t he q uestion

e vidence

i s

l argely

O nly i n t he c ase o f r esponsibility f or m unicipal f inances c an

i t b e s uggested w ith a ny c onfidence t hat a p ublic o ffice a ppeared w idely u nattractive. O therwise , h ow f ar t he a dvantages o f m agistracies a nd t he d ecurionate w ere f elt t o b alance t he d isadvantages, a nd w hether t he b alance c hanged a s t ime w ent o n , i s v irtually i mpossible t o d etermine. T he

d emands w hich

r estricting p urposes.

R ome

i mposed

o n t he

c ommunities h ad

t he

e ffect

o f

t he a vailability o f m oney, b oth p ublic a nd p rivate, f or l ocal H ere a lso t he e vidence d oes n ot s how w hether t he c ommunities

b ecame i ncreasingly h ard-pressed a s t ime w ent o n .

A gainst t he a ppearance

o f c uratores t owards t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury A .D.

m ay b e p laced

r eferences t o m unicipal d ebts a t a n e arlier p eriod. L ike t he s hortage o f p ersonnel, f inancial s tringency w as a n i ntegral p art o f t he s ystem ; a nd i f f inancial

p9 iblems

i ntensified

i n t he

c ourse o f

t ime,

t he s ources

d o n ot

r eveal t his. I n t he o thers.

p ursuit

o f m unicipal a mbitions

s ome

t owns h ad a dvantages o ver

A lthough n o d istinction o f a ims o r a ctivity,

1 78

s o f ar a s t heir

g eneral c haracter w ent , c an b e d etected a mong t he v arious f ormal c ategories o f c ommunity , c olonies s tarted f rom a f avoured p osition , a nd t ended t o b e b etter e quipped f or f uture s uccess. T hey h ad f rom t heir f oundation n ot o nly t he d istinction o f t he t itle , b ut a lso t he b asic l ay-out o f a R oman t own . F or t he f uture , t hey w ere l ikely o n a verage t o h ave m ore m oney t han o ther c ommunities; n ot o nly i n t he f orm o f p ublic f unds, b ut a lso u nder t he d isguise o f p rivate w ealth e ncouraged b y t he e conomic p ossibilities o f t he c olony's s ituation . N ot a ll o ther c ommunities , h owever , l aboured u nder a s evere d isadvantage i n t heir i mitation o f t he c olonies' e xample . S ome w ere a ble t o c ompete i n p rosperity w ith t he m ost f lourishing c olonies; a nd s ocial a nd e conomic s etting i s af ar s urer g uide t han f ormal s tatus t o s ophistication i n l ocal g overnment.

1 79

N OTES:

C H . X I

N OTES ( CHAPTER X I :

C ONCLUSION)

1 .

C ultural s ophistication a nd p rivileged s tatus:

c f. C hapter V II n . 7 .

2 .

C ompetition o ver b uildings: C hapter V II n . 7 . f und-raising : C hapter V I p p . 1 03-4 .

R estrictions o n l ocal

I talica's p etition :

C hapter V III n n .

9 -10 .

F or e vidence o f o ther

p romotions i n S pain u nder t he P rincipate , a part f rom V espasian 's g rant, s ee C hapter I n . 2 2 . V espasian 's g rant: A ppendix I II. G ratitude o f t he o rdo a s aw hole : t he d edications s et u p p rivately b y m agistrates w ho h ad a chieved R oman c itizenship p er h onorem a re n ot h ere i n q uestion ( Chapter X n . 1). B ut t here a re a lso i nscriptions p osthumously h onouring V espasian a nd T itus a s " censor" s impliciter , s et u p p ublicly , w hich a re p robably t o b e c onnected w ith t he g rant o f t he L atin r ight, a s m ade d uring V espasian 's c ensorship ( CIL 2 1 049 = I LS 2 56 , C IL 2 1 050 ; c f. A ppendix I II n . 1 ). C harters: A ppendix I V p p. 2 20 f f.. 3 .

4 .

P opularity o f p ublic o ffice :

C hapter V p p. 8 1-4.

C uratores a nd m unicipal d ebts:

C hapter V II n . 3 0 ;

F avoured p osition o f c olonies:

C hapter V II p p .

Ip .

19 ,

C hapter V I n .

1.

1 23; c f. C hapter

5f or t heir t endency t o b e p laced i n e conomically a dvantageous

s ituations. F or a bility t o s ecure i nfluence i n h igh p laces , s ee C hapter V III p . 1 41. C ompare t he R oman m unicipium G ades w ith c olonies s uch a s T arraco a nd B arcino f or p rosperity ( Strabo i ii. 1 . 8 , C 1 40 ; 5 . 3 , C 1 68 f f.; R . T houvenot, E ssai s ur l a p rovince r omaine d e B gtique , I ( Paris , 1 940), 2 44-5 ; C hapter V II n . 2 8).

1 80

A PPENDICES

1 81

A PPENDIX I M ILITARY F ORCES , P UBLIC P ROPERTY , A ND I NDIRECT T AXES

( i)

o f

I ntroduction

T he R oman g overnment's m anagement o f t he a rmy , o f p ublic p roperty , a nd i ndirect t axes t ook p lace w ithout t he a ssistance o f l ocal g overnments.

B ut a lthough t hese a ctivities d id n ot i nvolve R ome i n f ormal d ealings w ith l ocal g overnments , t heir e xistence i s o f r elevance t o t he a dministration o f t he S panish c ommunities. M ilitary f orces h elp t o e lucidate t he m eans w hereby R ome m aintained c ontrol i n t he p eninsula. P ublic p roperty a nd i ndirect t axes t hrow s ome l ight o n t he r ewards w hich R ome o btained f rom g overning S pain , a nd o n t he n ature o f h er a ims i n p rovincial a dministration . T he m ere p resence o f R oman r epresentatives i n c harge o f t hese a ctivities h ad s ome i mpact o n t he p rovincials.

C ommunities m ight s ucceed i n e nlisting t he

a id o f R oman o fficials a s p atrons o r b enefactors. A m ore s inister a spect o f t he p resence o f R oman r epresentatives w as t heir a bility t o d o h arm b y m isusing t heir a uthority . F or

f inancial

e xploitation ,

R ome m ade u se o f

t he s ervices

o f p ublic

c ontractors a s w ell a s o f a dministrative o fficials. T his i s t rue p articularly o f t he e arly P rincipate. A s t ime w ent o n , R ome's c ontrol o ver h er f inancial i nterests t ightened . T he f irst t wo c enturies A .D . s aw a n i ncrease i n t he n umber o f p rocurators a nd o ther f inancial o fficials i n S pain. B y t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury A .D . p rocurators a nd t heir s taffs h ad t o a l arge e xtent r eplaced t he p ublicani i n t he f inancial a dministration .

( ii)

M ilitary f orces

T arraconensis F rom t he m iddle o f A ugustus' r eign o nwards,

T arraconensis w as t he o nly

S panish p rovince t o c ontain l egions. T he t hree l egions p resent i n A .D . 1 4 w ere a ll s tationed i n t he n orth a nd n orth-west o f t he p rovince , g uarding t he a rea c onquered i n t he c ampaigns o f 2 7 t o 1 9 B .C.. L egio I V M acedonica w as b ased i n t he s outhern f oothills o f t he C antabrian M ountains , t hreatening t he C antabri; a nd X G emina a nd V I V ictrix w ere r anged a gainst t he A stures a nd C allaeci , p robably a t a j oint b ase n ot f ar s outh o f A sturica A ugusta. T he w ithdrawal o f I V M acedonica a nd X G emina f or t he b enefit o f C laudius' i nvasion o f B ritain a nd C orbulo's e astern c ampaigns r espectively l eft T arraconensis w ith o ne l egion o nly a t t he e nd o f N ero's r eign . A fter t he u pheaval o f t he c ivil w ars V espasian i nstalled a s ingle l egion , V II G emina , w hich c onstituted t he g arrison f rom t hat t ime o nwards. I ts b ase w as a bout t wenty

m iles

n orth-east

o f

A sturica ,

c lose

t o

t he m ountains

C allaecia , b ut w ithin r each o f t he C antabrian M ountains a s w ell.

1 83

i o f

A sturia-

T he

p ositioning

o f

t he

l egionary

b ases

r eveals

a d esire

t o k eep

t he

t roops o n t he b orders o f t he p eaceful p lain o f t he N orth M eseta;

n ot

i solated a mong t he t ribes w ho o ccupied t he m ountainous r egions b etween t he N orth M eseta a nd t he c oast. B ut s ome t roops ( subdivisions o f l egions a s w ell

a s

a uxiliary

u nits) w ere

t o b e

f ound w ithin t he m ountainous

r egions

t hemselves. T hus a v exillatio o f L egio I V w as s tationed o n t he c oast d irectly n orth o f A sturica ; a nd a n a uxiliary c ohort c an p erhaps b e d etected a t L ucus A ugusti i n a nd a fter t he s econd c entury A .D..

L ike t he

l egions,

t he a uxiliary u nits w ere c oncentrated i n t he n orth a nd n orth-west o f t he T he f orces i n t hat a rea w ere u nder t he c ommand o f l egionary p rovince. 2 l egates

( only o ne f rom V espasian's r eign o nwards) a nd r egular a rmy o fficers

s ubordinate t o t hem .

I n a ddition ,

p raefecti s uch a s

t hose w ho s upervised

t he A frican t ribes m ay, a t l east f rom t ime t o t ime, h ave b een p resent. 3 T here w ere f ew p ermanent g arrisons e lsewhere. S oldiers w ere d rawn f rom t he l egions t o f orm a g arrison a t t he p rovincial c apital, T arraco .4 T here

w ere

a s

w ell

s ome

c ohorts

p rotecting

t he

n orth-east

c oast

o f

T arraconensis; n ot a gainst r ebellious t ribes, b ut a gainst r aiders f rom t he s ea. F inally, a s ingle c ohort s afeguarded f rom b andits t he m ountain p asses b etween T arraconensis a nd B aetica. 5 I nscriptions c ohorts

r ecord

a f orce

o f

d esigned f or t he p rotection o f

P yrenees.

t wo

-perhaps -

e ventually

t he c oast b etween t he

t hree

E bro a nd

T hey w ere u nder t he o verall c ommand o f a p raefectus

6

m aritimae w ho w as

a pparently b ased a t

T arraco;

b ut

t here

i s

n o

t he

o rae

e vidence

t hat t he s ame o fficial w as i n c harge o f a f leet w ith w hich t he c ohorts w ere a ssociated. 7 T he e xistence o f a l and f orce w ith t he f unction o f p rotecting t he c oast i s n ot i nexplicable.

W hile u nable t o d rive p irates f rom t he s ea ,

t he c ohorts c ould p rotect t he c oastal t owns f rom r aids a nd p revent p irates f rom u sing t he a rea a s a b ase. 8 T he d ate o f e stablishment o f t his f orce i s u ncertain .

T he " praefectus

o rae m aritimae H ispaniae C iterioris b ello A ctiensi" d id n ot n ecessarily p rovide t he m odel o r i nspiration f or t he p ermanent f orce w hich i s a ttested u nder t he P rincipate. I t i s p ossible t hat a c onsiderable p eriod e lapsed b etween 3 1 B .C. a nd t he c reation o f a p ermanent p raefectus o rae m aritimae. T he e arliest e vidence f or t he l ater f orce a ppears t o b e V esp isianic ,

b ut i t

i s f ar f rom c ertain t hat i t w as f irst e stablished a s l ate a s t he s eventies A .D.. O ne p raefectus a t l east m ay b elong t o N ero's r eign ; a nd t he p eriod b efore A .D.

7 0 i s g enerally u nder-represented i n t he s urviving S panish

i nscriptions.

9

T he p ost

o f p raefectus o f t his

f orce s eems t o h ave h ad a

s tatus i n t he e questrian s 1 U e rvice b etween t hat o f t he m ilitiae e questres a nd t he m inor p rocuratorships. A s ingle c ohort s tationed a t C astulo i n t he f ar s outh o f T arraconensis h ad a r oughly c omparable f unction t o t hat o f t he m aritime o nes. t he

m ining

a rea

o n

t he

b orders

o f

B aetica

w hich

T arraconensis b y A ugustus' b oundary a djustments. m ilitary m ines,

f orces

o f

T arraconensis,

t he

r egion

h ad

b een

T his w as a dded

t o

F ar f rom t he o ther

c ontained n ot

o nly

v aluable

b ut a lso b andits w ho t hreatened t he l and r oute b etween T arraconensis

1 L ike t he m aritime c ohorts, t he c ohort a t C astulo w as a nd B aetica. 1 c ommanded b y a n e questrian p raefectus; a lthough h is s tatus p resumably

r eflected t he l esser m ilitary i mportance o f a s ingle c ohort.

1 84

1 2

L usitania

T he l egions, E ven f or

b oundary

a djustments

o f A ugustus'

r eign r obbed L usitania o f

a nd t henceforth o nly a uxiliary u nits a re a ttested i n t he p rovince. t hese

e vidence

i s

s light.

T wo

c ohorts

c an p erhaps

b e

l ocated

t here w ith r easonable c ertainty. B oth w ere s tationed i n t he m ountainous, l ess c ivilised , p art o f t he p rovince , n orth o f t he T agus. 1 3

B aetica P liny's

l etters

s how

t hat

i n t he n ineties A .D .

B aetica c ontained a t

l east o ne c ohort u nder t he g overnor's c ontrol. A " Cohors m aritima" r eferred t o i n a n i nscription f rom C orduba m ay o r m ay n ot b e i dentical w ith P liny's c ohort.

T he c ohort m entioned b y P liny w as p resumably i ntended a s a

b asic g arrison i n a n o therwise u narmed m ilitary u nits i n B aetica i s s light.

p rovince .1 4 O ther e vidence f or S oldiers o f L egio V II G emina a t

I talica m ay m erely h ave b een o perating a s tatio t here , r ather t han f orming p art o f a c omplete u nit w ith a s trictly m ilitary p urpose. A lternatively , t hey m ay r epresent a s pecial , a nd t emporary, r esponse t o o ne o f t he M oorish i nvasions o f t he s econd c entury A .D .. C ertainly t hose i nvasions r evealed B aetica t o b e i ll-protected b y h er o wn f orces. O n o ne o ccasion a t l east t he t owns o f t he p rovince , I talica i ncluded , o wed t heir s alvation t o t he t roops c ommanded b y ap rocurator o f M auretania .

( iii)

1 5

P ublic p roperty

M ines a nd q uarries O f

t he p roperty w hich t he R oman g overnment o wned i n S pain ,

w ere t he m ost p rofitable.

1 6

t he m ines

S panish m ines h ad b egun t o y ield r evenues i n

1 95 B .C ., w hen C ato i mposed v ectigalia o n t he m ines w ithin t he t erritory t hen o ccupied b y R ome. T hese w ere t he m ines o f A ndalusia , C arthago N ova , a nd t he E bro r egion -all t he i mportant m ines i n S pain , s ave t hose o f t he C antabrian M ountains a nd t he n orth-west, w hich w ere n ot a dded u ntil t he A ugustan c onquest.

1 7

T he " vectigalia" i nstituted b y C ato m ust h ave c ome t hrough t he l easing o f t he m ines t o p rivate o perators. T hat w as t he o nly e fficient w ay o f e xploiting t hem , R ome l acking t he a dministrative m achinery t o w ork t hem h erself. L ack o f a dministrative m achinery a lso p recludes t he p ossibility t hat l eases w ere g iven t o s mall-scale o peygtors, r ather t han t o c ompanies o f p ublican' a ble t o t ake o n a n e ntire m ine. U nder t he P rincipate t he m ost p rofitable m ines i n S pain w ere t he g old m ines o f A sturia-Callaecia. T he m ines a round t he E bro d isappear f rom t he p icture , s o f ar a s t he p ublic r evenues a re c oncerned .1 9 B ut t he m ines o f s outhern S pain r etained t heir i mportance. I n t he s outh t he R oman g overnment r evived o ld m ines, a nd b y c onfiscation a nd o ther m eans a cquired , o r r ecovered,

o nes

w hich h ad b een i n p rivate

o wnership

i n t he

l ate

R epublic. 2° T he P rincipate b rought c hanges i n t he a dministration o f p ublic m ines ,

1 85

i mperial

o fficials

c oming

t o

r eplace t he p ublican' a nd t heir s taffs.

B y

H adrian's r eign, f reedmen i mperial p rocurators, e ach i n c harge o f a p articular m ine, w ere a w ell-established p henomenon i n B aetica a s w ell a s i n T his

1 t he t wo i mperial p rovinces. 2

d evelopment

p resupposed

t he

e mperor's

a ssumption o f r esponsibility f or p ublic m ines i n t he s enatorial p rovince. T iberius' c onfiscation , i n A .D . 3 3 , o f t he m ines w hich S extus M arius o wned i n B aetica m arked

a s tage

i n t his

e xtension o f i mperial r esponsibility. 2 2

B ut i mperial r esponsibility f or m ines w as n ot o n i ts o wn s ufficient t o m ake t he

p ublicani

r edundant.

P ublicani

a re

s till

f ound

i n

s outhern

T arraconensis i n t he f irst c entury A .D.; a nd t hey m ay n ever h ave b een o usted a ltogether. T he i mperial a dministration c ould n ot m anage t he m ines i tself u ntil i t w as a ble t o p rovide e ach m ine w ith a s taff o f i ts o wn. P robably i t w as n ot u ntil V espasian's r eign t hat t he b ureaucracy w as s ufficiently d eveloped i ndividual m ines. 23

c ommonly

t o

f urnish

i mperial

p rocurators

E ven t he i nstitution o f p rocurators o f i ndividual m ines

t o

d id n ot,

h owever , e nsure u niformity i n t heir a dministration . A t V ipasca i n s outhern L usitania t he m ining w as d one b y p rivate i ndividuals, e ach w orking o ne o r m ore s hafts, a nd p aying t he p rocurator a n i nitial f ee a s w ell a s o ne h alf o f t he o re p roduced. T he p rocurator w as r esponsible f or t he s mooth r unning o f t he c ommunity, a s w ell a s f or t he s upervision o f t he m ine i tself. A s a dministrative a ssistants t he p rocurator h ad s laves a nd f reedmen , a nd a lso a n umber

o f

s oldiers;

t he

l ast

p resumably

t o

g ive w eight

t o h is

a uthority

o ver m ining o perations, a s w ell a s t o p olice t he c ommunity. B ut a lthough t he s ystem f ollowed a t V ipasca m ay h ave b een w idespread b y t he H adrianic p eriod ,

i t w as

n ot

4 s uited t o a ll t ypes o f m ine. 2

I t h as

b een s uggested t hat t he p rocurators o f t he m ines i n A sturia-Callaecia a ssumed f ull r esponsibility f or m ining o perations, w ithout r elying u pon p rivate e nterprise. h ypothesis

T he

p lausible.

c haracter o f

s ome m ines

i n t he a rea m akes

t his

A ny a ny r ate t hey c ould n ot b e s plit u p i nto

s eparate s hafts w ith s eparate o perators. T hey r equired i nstead l arge-scale c oncerted e fforts t o b reak d own g old-bearing r ock c lose t o t he s urface. I n t he s econd c entury A .D .

h eavy c oncentrations o f

s uch m ining r egion s outh o f A sturica: u nder f reedmen p rocurators o f m ines. p rovided

i mpossible. 25 t he a rea o r

T hat

t he Y et

s oliders

i n o ne

I t h as b een a rgued t hat t he s oliders

t echnical e xpertise a s w ell a s

p roduce.

s oldiers a re f ound

t he s oldiers w ere a pparently w orking

p rovided

e ven i f u nskilled

g uarding t he m ines a nd t heir u nskilled

l abour w as

l abour

t oo

i s

n ot

f urnished b y n atives o f

( less p lausibly) b y d amnati a d m etalla,

t he u sefulness

o f

t he

s oliders w ould h ave e xtended b eyond p rotective a nd a dvisory f unctions.

I f

t he s tate a ssumed d irect r esponsibility f or m ining , t hat c reated a n eed f or am uch l arger s taff t han w as r equired a t V ipasca. W hen p rivate i ndividuals d id n ot p articipate, d irect,

t he s tate i tself w as o bliged t o s upply m en w ho c ould

o ign t o t he m ost t rivial l evel o f o perations,

t he u nskilled l abour

e mployed. F or p ublicly o wned q uarries, e vidence.

A r eference

t o

a s o pposed t o m ines,

ns errarii

A ugusti n a t

t here i s l ittle

I talica

i n

B aetica

i ndicates t hat t here w as a n i mperially-owned q uarry i n t he v icinity. P robably t he s tone w as m arble:

2 7

t here i s s ome e vidence t hat B aetica p roduced

s tone o f s ufficient q uality t o b e w orth e xporting t o R ome. 28

1 86

A gricultural l and A gricultural l and i n S pain o wned b y t he R oman g overnment d oes n ot a ppear t o h ave b een e xtensive d uring t he A lthough i t i s s aid t hat T iberius c onfiscated a gricultural l and -from S paniards , t here i s m ight h ave b een . P roperty w hich N ero o wned

f irst t wo c enturies A .D.. p roperty -perhaps i ncluding n o i ndication a s t o w here i t i n T arraconensis w as s old b y

O ne i nscription , f rom O stippo i n B aetica, g ives a p recise G alba. 29 l ocation f or p ublic l and i n C laudius' r eign . T he l and h ad t hen b een p ublic l ong e nough f or t he b oundary-stones t o r equire r estoration . I n A .D . 4 9 i t w as s till b eing l et o ut f or a t ithe , w hich w as p resumably c ollected u nder c ontract n eotiated a t R ome- 3° A lthough B aetica h ad a n i mperial p rocurator a t l east a s e arly a s V espasian's r eign , i t d oes n ot f ollow t hat t he n ew d ynasty h ad a cquired c ontrol o f e xtensive a gricultural l and i n t he p rovince. P ublic p roperty c ontrolled b y t he e mperor m ust b e t he e xplanation f or h is p resence; b ut m ines a nd t he o ther g rowing i nterests o f t he f iscus p rovide a n a dequate e xplanation , w ithout t he h ypothesis o f a gricultural e states. 3 1 N ot u ntil t he m iddle o f t he s econd c entury A .D . i s t here e vidence f or p ublic o wnership o f l and o n a ny n otable s cale . A t t hat t ime t he f iscus a cquired t he p roperty o f as enator o f S panish o rigin n amed V alerius V egetus. I t c onsisted o f e states i n B aetica w hich w ere e xtensive e nough t o o ccupy t he a ttention o f a s pecial p rocurator . T he m eans b y w hich t he e states w ere a dministered u nder t he o verall c ontrol o f t he p rocurator a re u ncertain . P arallels f rom A frica a nd e lsewhere s uggest r enting t o t enants t hrough c onductores

a s

p rivate

2 i ntermediaries. 3

Y et

d espite

t he a cquisition o f

V egetus' e states, t he e vidence o f c ontainers d iscarded a t R ome s uggests t hat u p t o t he e nd o f t he s econd c entury A .D . t he a gricultural e xports o f t he S panish p rovinces, i ncluding B aetica , t o R ome c onsisted v ery l argely o f t he p roduce o f p rivate e states.

I t w as n ot u ntil S eptimius S everus' r eign t hat

t he e mperors c ame t o o wn c onsiderable a gricultural e states i n S pain. T henceforth t e i s s ubstantial e vidence o f e states i n b oth B aetica a nd T arraconensis.

( iv)

I ndirect t axes 34

P ortoria A n i nscription f ound n ear I liberris i n B aetica i ndicates t hat p ortoria w ere c harged a t t he i nternal f rontiers o f t he S panish p rovinces,

a s w ell a s

F or e xports f rom t he o n g oods c oming t o a nd f rom t he p eninsula. 35 p eninsula B aetica w as o f p rime i mportance. A ll t he r ecorded t owns i n S pain a t w hich d uty w as c harged p rior t o e xport w ere i n B aetica. F rom A .D . o nwards c ollection o f p ortoria i s w ell a ttested a t C orduba , A stigi,

1 49 a nd

H ispalis. T hese w ere a ll c onventus c apitals. T hey a lso l ay o n t he B aetis a nd i ts t ributaries, a nd w ere n atural p oints o f c ontrol f or e xports. T he f ourth c onventus c apital , C ades, w as a lso a p ort , a nd p robably a nother s ite o f o perations. 36

B ut p ortoria w ere c ollected a t l esser p orts t oo,

a ddition t o t he c onventus c apitals: t he s outh c oast. T he p ortoria i n S pain ,

a t I lipa o n t he B aetis,

a s e lsewhere i n t he E mpire ,

i n

a nd M alaca o n

a ppear t o h ave b een

c ollected b y p ublican" u ntil t he e arly s econd c entury A .D ..

T he p ublican'

m ay h ave b een s uperseded f or a t ime b y i ndividual c onductores w ith s pecial

1 87

p rocurators t o w atch o ver t heir a ctivities. s econd c entury i n S pain ,

a s i n o ther a reas,

I n a ny c ase , b y t he e nd o f t he t he s tate s eems t o h ave a ssumed

d irect r esponsibility f or t he c ollection o f p ortoria. T here i s e vidence t hat i n t he r eign o f S eptimius S everus e ven t he h umbler o fficials e ngaged i n A nalogy w ith o ther t he c ollection o f p ortoria w ere i mperial s laves. 38 a reas s uggests t hat a s ingle p rocurator i n S pain s hould h ave s upervised t he p ortoria o f t he e ntire p eninsula.

B ut t he i mportance o f t he t ax i n B aetica

m ay h ave l ed t o s pecial a rrangements f or t hat p rovince. A p rocurator " ad r ipam B aetis" i s f ound b ased a t H ispalis, t he e arliest d atable o ccurrence b elonging t o t he r eign o f M arcus A urelius. T his o fficial's f unction m ay w ell h ave b een t o s upervise t he c ollection o f t he p ortoria a t t he t hat r iver.

U nder S eptimius S everus

t he

p rovincial

p orts o n

p rocurator h imself

s eems t o h ave h ad s ome r esponsibility f or t he c ollection o f p ortoria. 39

V icesima h ereditatium T he i ncidence o f

t he v icesima h ereditatium i n S pain m ust h ave b een

i ncreased g reatly b y V espasian 's g rant R ecords

o f

i ts

p ayment

o f t he L atin r ight t o t he p eninsula.

a re w idespread

i n

B aetica:

t he

e arliest

d atable

A t t he e nd o f t he s econd p ayment r ecorded b elongs t o H adrian's r eign .° c entury t he p eninsula was d ivided i nto t wo a reas f or i ts c ollection: B aetica a nd L usitania o n t he o ne h and , a nd T arraconensis o n t he o ther. I n c harge o f e ach a rea w as a n e questrian p rocurator , a ssisted b y a s taff o f i mperial f reedmen . T he c entres o f a dministration w ere p robably a t t he p rovincial

c apitals

T arraco a nd

C orduba;

w hile a f reedman s ubprocurator ,

s ubordinate t o t he e questrian p rocurator a t C orduba, w as b ased a t E merita i n L usitania. 4 1

V icesima l ibertatis T wo i nscriptions f rom T arraco s how t hat t he a dministration o f t he v icesima l ibertatis f or t he p rovince t ook p lace f rom t here. a s

t reasurers

a re

f reedmen :

p robably

s tage w hen t he c ollection o f t his t ax ,

i mperial

a s o f o thers,

f rom p rivate c ontractors t o i mperial o fficials. o ther c entre o f a dm inistration , r eferences

t o

a t

r epresenting

h ad b een T he

T he o perations o f

w ere p robably n ot s o e xtensive a s t hose o f

a

t ransferred

O ne m ay a ssume a t l east o ne

C orduba i n B aetica. 42

t he t ax i s n ot s uprising.

T he m en n amed

f reedmen ,

t he o fficials

p aucity o f

t he o fficials

i n c harge o f t he

v icesima h ereditatium . T he t ax w as c harged o n m anumissions o f s laves b y R oman c itizens o nly; a nd p robably l imited t o s uch o f t hose a s w ere f ormally c arried o ut.

F ormal m anumissions i n t he p rovinces c ould b e p erformed o nly

i n t he p resence o f t he p rovincial g overnor , w ho s pent m uch o f h is t ime i n t he p rovincial c apital. M any s laves o f R oman c itizens i n t he p eninsula w ere p robably f reed i nformally ,

s ecuring t he

w ithout p ayment o f t he v icesima l ibertatis. 43

1 88

s tatus

o f

L atini

l ibertini,

N OTES:

N OTES ( APPENDIX I :

A PP . I

M ILITARY F ORCES , P UBLIC P ROPERTY ,

A ND I NDIRECT T AXES)

1 .

A ugustan c ampaigns a nd m ilitary a rrangements t o A .D. " Conquest." L egions a nd b ases f rom A .D . R oldan H ervas, p p . 1 84 f f..

1 4 o nwards:

J ones ,

1 4:

S yme,

" Occupation" ;

c f.

S trabo i ii. 4 . 2 0 , C 1 66-7 c learly d escribes t he d isposition o f t he l egions i n t he p eriod w hen I V , V I , a nd X w ere a ll p resent. 2 .

V exillatio o f L egio I V n ear G ijon:

J ones,

" Occupation," p .

5 0.

C ohors I II L ucensium a t L ucus A ugusti: J ones, " Occupation ," p . 5 5 ; R oldan H ervas, p p. 2 22-3. A uxiliary c ontingents i n g eneral: J ones , " Occupation ," p p. 5 5-60 ; R oldan H ervas, p p . 2 12 f f.. 3 .

L egionary l egates:

A lföldy , F asti, p p .

f.; 14 f

c f.

S trabo i ii. 4 .

2 0 , C 1 66-7. P raefecti: 4 616 a nd 3 271 r espectively r ecord a " praefectus A sturiae" a nd a " prae(fectus) G alleciae [ sic r. I t i s n atural t o c ompare t hese o fficals w ith t he m ilitary p raefecti u sed t o s upervise n ewlyc onquered o r t roublesome a reas ( Hirschfeld , p p. 3 82 f f.; c f. A .H .M . J ones,

" Procurators

a nd P refects

i n t he E arly P rincipate," i n

S tudies i n R oman G overnment a nd L aw ( Oxford , 1 960), p p . 15-25 , p . 18). T he e xample o f A frica s hows t he d evice u sed w ithin p articular 1 d istricts o f a p rovince w hich h ad a n o verall g overnor a s w ell ( Hirschfeld , p . 3 83 ; R . C agnat, L 'armge r omaine d 'Afrique ( Paris, 1 913), I , 2 63 f f.). T he d ate o f e ach i nscription i s u ncertain , T he m an i n 4 616 w as a lso t ribunus m ilitum o f L egio I I A ugusta: i f t hat p ost c an b e a ssociated w ith h is p osition a s p raefectus A sturiae i t w ould s uggest a d ate b efore A .D . 9 , w hen I I A ugusta l eft S pain ( Syme , " Conquest," p . 1 04). B ut i t i s f ar f rom c ertain t hat h e h eld t he t wo p osts s imultaneously. T he f act t hat h e w as a lso " IIvir q uinquennalis

p rimus" a t

I luro i s

l ikewise l ittle h elp. A lthough I luro w as a R oman m unicipium o f n ot l ater t han A ugustan d ate ( Pliny N H i ii. 2 2), i t d id n ot n ecessarily a ppoint i ts f irst d uoviri q uinquennales s oon a fter p romotion . A " first d uovir q uinquennalis" a t L una i n E truria b elongs t o C laudius' r eign

( ILS 8 902).

( The a lternative i nterpretation o f

" primus" ,

a s

i ndicating s imple p riority i n r ank o ver t he o ther q uinquennalis o f t he y ear , e liminates a ny t emporal i ndication .) 3 271 i s e ven m ore p roblematical t han 4 616 . S ee H .G . P flaum , " La p art p rise p ar l es c hevaliers r omains o riginaires d 'Espagne ä l 'adm inistration i mpgriale ," i n L es e mpereurs r omains d 'Espagne , e d . A . P iganiol a nd H . T errasse ( Paris, 1 965), p p. 8 7-121, p p. 9 1-100 ; D . F ishwick , " The E questrian C ursus i n C IL 2 , 3 271," H istoria x ix ( 1970), 9 6-112; D . F ishwick, " The A nnexation o f M auretania," H istoria x x ( 1971) ,

4 67-87 ,

p. p

4 84-7.

T he r eading g iven i n C IL 2

i s d ubious, a nd t he s tone i s l ost. T here i s i nsufficient a greement e ven o n t he o rder a nd n ature o f t he r est o f t he m an's c areer. T he

1 89

N OTES:

A PP .

I

i nscription c ontains a n umber o f o ddities p .

9 9 ;

F ishwick ,

" The

w ell a s i lliteracies,

( Pflaum ,

" La p art p rise,"

A nnexation o f M auretania ,"

a nd s uspicious r epetitions

p p.

4 84-7),

a s

( "in B aetica",

" fisci"). I t i s d oubtful w hether o ne c an i nfer t hat t he m an w as a g enuine " praefectus G allaeciae" , o f w hatever d ate. 4 616 p erhaps s hows a p raefectus a ppointed f or a b rief s pace a fter t he A ugustan c onquest o f A sturia. 3 271, o n t he o ther h and , c ould m erely c ontain a g arbled r eference t o o ne o f t he p rocurators o f A sturiaC allaecia ( on w hom s ee C hapter I n . 3 0). B ut a c onfident c onclusion a s t o t he i mpossible. 4 .

d ates

a nd

i mplications

Garrison

a t

V ergilius

o rator a n p oeta,

T arraco:

i nscriptions

C IL

r ecord n ot

o f

2 I ,

2 .

8 -9

t he

p . and

t wo

5 40, C IL

i nscriptions

c iting

2 4 142

i s

F lorus,

f.. f

T he

o nly b eneficiarii a nd o thers f orming t he

g overnor's s taff, b ut a lso e nough o rdinary s oldiers t o s uggest t he p resence o f a g arrison ( cf. A . v on D omaszewski, D ie R angordnung d es r ömischen H eeres,

2 nd e d.

( Cologne e tc.,

1 967),

p. p

2 9-37.

A lmost

a ll t he s oldiers c ome f rom l egions s tationed i n t he p rovince: m ainly L egio V II G emina, b ut c ompare f or e xample 4 151 ( Legio X ), w hich i s p resumably o f J ulio-Claudian d ate. 5 .

T here a re s everal r eferences t o a " praefectus B aliarum"): N ero's

I LS

r eign);

2 33;

8 902

9 196 ;

A E

9 0-1;

J ones,

M cElderry I , p p.

( pro l egato) i nsularum

( concerning t he s ame m an ,

1 956

2. 2

w ho s erved i n

S ee H irschfeld ,

p. p

3 90

" Procurators a nd P refects,"

f.; f

p .

. 18

T he t itle " pro l egato" s eems t o i mply a ltogether s eparate g overnment, r ather t han m ilitary s ervices s ubsidiary t o g overnment b y t he l eagte o f T arraconensis

( cf.

n .

3 ).

W hy t his p raefectus w as a ppointed i s

n ot c lear. T rouble w ith b andits o r p irates i s ap ossibility, d espite t he t itle " pro l egato": a p raefectus a ppointed f or m ilitary r easons m ight n aturally b e g iven t he j udicial a nd s upervisory r ole o f a g overnor a s w ell,

i n t he c ase o f

( cf. ' v on D omaszewski,

p .

1 37 ;

i slands

d istant

M cElderry

I ,

p .

f rom t he m ainland

9 1 n .

4 ).

M cElderry

c onnects t he p ost w ith t he u se o f t he B alearic I slands a s a p lace o f e xile u nder N ero. p ossibility

S imple a dministrative c onvenience i s a t hird

( cf.

C IL 1 0

6 785 w ith M ommsen's n ote a d l oc.

f or

s eparate g overnment o f s mall i slands i n t he T yrrhenian S ea). I t s eems r easonable t o c onclude t hat

t he B alearic

I slands w ere

g overned

f or

d uring N ero's

s eparately

f rom

T arraconensis

r eign ( for a n u nknown r eason),

a p eriod

t he p raefectus p erforming t he j udicial

a nd s upervisory r ole o f a g overnor a s w ell a s a ny n ecessary m ilitary s ervices.

B ut

i t

b rief i ncident.

i s

P liny

l ikely

t hat

( NH i ii.

t heir

1 8 ;

2 5;

s eparate c f.

g overnment

w as

a

7 6 a nd M cElderry I , p p.

9 0-1) u nquestioningly r ecords t he i slands a s f orming p art o f t he c onventus o f C arthago N ova ( cf. C hapter I n . 2 4). 6 .

O n t hese c ohorts, R E X XII ( ii) 1 333;

s ee M cElderry,

I ,

p .

R oldan H ervas, p p.

6 0 ;

M cElderry I I ,

27-9 . 2

p. p

8 9-92;

T he i nscriptions, w ith

t he e xception o f A E 1 956 2 2, a re c ollected i n R oldan H ervas, p p. 4 423 ( nos. 4 86-95i-- n o. 4 94 = A E 1 929 2 34 c omes f rom T arraco, n ot C orduba). t ironum".

T hey m ention C ohors I ,

C ohors I I ,

a nd a lso

" Cohors n ova

I t i s d ebatable w hether t his l ast r epresents t he o riginal

1 90

N OTES :

A PP . I

f ormation o f C ohors I o r I I , o r c onstitutes a t hird c ohort. O ne i nscription ( Roldan H ervas n o . 4 88 = C IL 2 4 226) e mploys t he f ull d escription " praefectus o rae m aritimae L aeetanae". S trictly s peaking L aeetania c omprised o nly t he a rea f rom B arcino t o B landa i nclusive , e xcluding T arraco a nd E mporiae ( RE X II 3 99). B ut t he i nscriptions a ll c ome f rom T arraco, n ot B arcino ( cf. n . 1 4). T he a djective " Laeetana" i s n o g ood r eason f or p referring B arcino a s t he b ase , o r d oubting t hat t he c ohorts p rotected t he e ntire a rea f rom t he E bro t o t he P yrenees. " Laeetania" c ould e asily f orm , b y e xtension , a c onvenient d enomination f or t he l arger a rea . 7 .

T he p raefectus b ased a t T arraco : n . 6 . T he a bsence o f af leet: M cElderry I I , p . 8 9 f . a rgues c onjecturally f or a f leet, s uggesting t hat t he F orum I uli f leet w as t ransferred t o T arraconensis a fter A .D . 6 9 ( cf. C .G . S tarr , T he R oman I mperial N avy 3 1 B .C .-A .D . 3 24 ( Ithaca , N .Y ., 1 941; r pt. W estport , C onn ., 1 975), p . 1 3). B ut t here i s n o p ositive e vidence f or a f leet u nder t he p raefectus o rae m aritimae L aeetanae. T he p raefectus o rae P onticae , w ho p resumably p erformed a s imilar f unction , d oes n ot s eem t o h ave h ad a f leet ( Sherwin-White , T he L etters o f P liny , p . 5 88). M cElderry's c laim ( p . 9 0) t hat t he M äuretanian f leet w as c ommanded b y a " praefectus o rae" i s v ery i nsecure ( CIL 1 5 744 ; c f. C agnat , p . 2 77).

8 .

T he p urpose o f t he f orce : c ollection o f p ortoria m ay b e r ejected a s f or t he p raefectus o rae P onticae, o n t he s ame g rounds ( SherwinW hite, T he L etters o f P liny, p . 5 88 ; S .J. d e L aet, P ortorium ( Brugge , 1 949), p p . 4 03 f f ; a nd t he f orce s eems t oo l arge f or t he m ere a ssistance o r s upervision o f t ax-farmers ( see d e L aet , p p. 3 70 f f. f or o fficial s upervision i n t he p eriod b efore t he s tate a ssumed d irect r esponsibility ) . M ommsen 's c onjecture o f j uridical p owers i n c ases o f s hipwreck i s p lausible , b ut t hat c an h ardly h ave b een t he s um o f t he p refect's d uties ( Roldan H ervas, p . 2 27). T he i nterpretation g iven i n t he t ext i s p lausible f or a n umber o f r easons. T he a rea f rom T arraco u p t o E mporiae w as, u nlike t hat s outh o f t he E bro , w ell p rovided w ith h arbours ( Strabo , i ii. 4 . 8 , C 1 59). T hat c ould h ave e ncouraged t he e stablishment o f p irate b ases , a s w ell a s i ncreasing t he v olume o f s hipping o n w hich p irates c ould p rey. T rade w ith I taly a nd G aul , a t a ny r ate , w ould n aturally h ave b een c oncentrated i n t his a rea ( cf. M . B eltran L ion s , L as a nforas r omanas e n E spana ( Zaragoza , 1 970) , p p . 6 02 f f.). T he c oast n orth o f t heEbro w as n ot o nly r ich i n h arbours, b ut a lso f ertile ( and p opulous) a nd e xposed t o t he s ea ( Spain a nd P ortugal ( Naval i ntelligence d ivision , g eographical h andbook s eries), 3 v ols. ( London , 1 941-4), I II , 9 5-8 ; c f. S trabo i ii. 4 . 8 -9 , C 1 59-60). I n t he M iddle A ges p irates l urked i n t he n eighbourhood o f t his c oast, a nd a s ystem o f c oast-guards h ad t o b e f ormed t o c ombat d escents ( H .J. C haytor , AH istory o f A ragon a nd C atalonia ( London , 1 933) , p . • 2 59). F or p iracy i n a ncient t imes, s ee L ivy x xii. 1 9 . 6 -7 .

9 .

" Praefectus c f. 4 85 . L ater f orce :

b ello A ctiensi" : M cElderry I , p .

I LS 2 672 = R oldan H ervas n o .

4 84

6 0 a rgues f or V espasian a s t he a uthor .

1 91

N OTES: H ervas n o.

A PP . I

4 90) i s v ery u ncertain ;

a nd s ee a bove,

a ssociated i nterpretation o f " Cohors t he f ormation o f t he f irst c ohort.

n ova t ironum" a s

n .

6 ,

o n t he

r eferring t o

P raefectus p erhaps b elonging t o N ero's r eign : C IL 2 4 217 = R oldan H ervas n o. 4 86 ( "flam(en) d ivi C laudi"); c ontra M cElderry I , p . 6 0 . Q . L icinius S ilvanus G ranianus e stablishes a t erminus a nte q uem i n t he v icinity o f V espasian 's r eign ( CIL 2 4 226 = R oldan H ervas n o . 4 88 ; c f. M cElderry I , p . 6 0). P eriod b efore A .D . 7 0 u nder-represented i n s urviving i nscriptions: a side f rom t he c onsiderations o f R omanisation a nd c hance o f p reservation , i t i s p ossible t hat t he o fficial p rovincial f lamen i nscriptions -t o w hich r ecords o f a n umber o f p raefecti o rae m aritimae a re o wed -were n ot i nstituted u ntil t he F lavian p eriod ( Chapter V III n . 1 5 ; A lföldy , F lamines, p . 1 5). 1 0 .

S tatus 4 92-4

o f p raefectus: (= C IL 2 4 138;

c f. R oldan H ervas, p . 2 27. N os. 4 90 , 4 264; A E 1 929 2 30; 2 34) s eem t o r ecord

p romotion f rom c ommand o f a s ingle c ohort t o t he s upreme c ommand . 4 87-8 ( = C IL 2 4 225-6) r ecord a p raefectus w ho w ent o n t o b ecome a . I, p rocurator Ag u usti ( of uk n nown fn u ction , c f. P flaum , Cr a ri 6 res, I I 102). 1 1.

C ohort a t C astulo :

3 272 ( the o nly r ecord): "

S erviae I uvenalis" .

l onen . e t cehortis

F or t he e pithet

" Iuvenalis" a s a pplying t o

C astulo s ee A . d 'Ors a nd R . C ontreras , d e C astulo ," A EA x xix ( 1956), 18-27 , 40 . 4

" Nuevas i nscripciones r omanas p. 1 21-2; c f. C IL 2 I , p . p

A ugustus' b oundary a djustments: C hapter I n . 2 3. M ines: R .P . D uncan-Jones , " The P rocurator a s J RS l xiv ( 1974), 7 9-85; •( Oxford , 1 935), p p . 1 35-8 . B andits: C ic. A d F am . x .

c f.

O .

D avies,

3 1.

1 ( 43 B .C.).

C ivic

B enefactor ,"

R oman M ines i n E urope S trabo r ecords a n o ld

r oad f rom B aetica i nto T arraconensis, r unning n orth-east f rom C astulo t owards t he c oast ( iii. 4 . 9 , C 1 60). T his m ay h ave b een t he r oad o f A d F am . x . 3 1. 1 ; b ut s ee C IL 2 I , p . 6 27 f or t he s uggestion t hat i t

w as J ulius

A ugusta".

C aesar w ho

U nder

t he

r eplaced t his

P rincipate

T arraconensis d iverged a t C astulo.

t he

o ld r oad w ith t he r oad

O ne b ranch ,

f rom

B aetica

" via i nto

t he " via A ugusta" ,

l ed n orth-east t owards t he c oast a t S aetabis: i n t he s ame d irection a s t he o ld r oad , b ut a voiding t he c entre o f t he " Spartarian P lain" ( Strabo i ii. 4 . 9 , C 1 60). ( Despite R E I II A 1 537, S trabo's " Spartarian P lain" h as n o c onnexion w ith P liny ' s p lain o n t he c oast n ear C arthago N ova w hich p roduced l arge q uantities o f e sparto g rass ( Pliny N H x ix . 3 0 ; c f. S pain a nd P ortugal , I , 1 45 a nd N H x ix . 2 6) .) As econd r oad l ed f rom C astulo s outh-east t owards C arthago N ova , a nd t hence u p t he c oast t o j oin t he " via A ugusta" a t S aetabis ( It. A nt. 3 97. 7 -402. 5 ; c f. C IL 2 I , p . 6 54). 1 2.

I t

s eems

i mplausible

t hat

t he c ohort w as a m unicipal f orce i n t he

s ense o f b eing c ontrolled ( or o rganised) b y t he m unicipal a uthorities o f C astulo . F IRA I 2 1 C III ( cited b y R oldan H ervas, p . 2 29) i s n ot

1 92

N OTES :

A PP . I

g ood e vidence f or p ractice a t U rso o r e lsewhere u nder t he P rincipate; n or i s t he f orce t here d escribed c omparable t o t he " Cohors S ervia I uvenalis", w hich w ould a ppear t o h ave h ad a m ore p ermanent e xistence . U nder t he P rincipate a rmed f orces c ontrolled b y l ocal a uthorities w ere r are, e specially i n t he W est. E irenarchs a nd p araphylaces i n t he E ast d id n ot a pparently c ommand f orces a pproaching t he s ize o f ac ohort; a nd t he a ppointment o f e irenarchs a t l east w as c ontrolled b y t he g overnor ( Liebenam , p p. 3 57-9 ; J ones, T he G reek C ity, p p. 2 12-3; D . M agie, R oman R ule i n A sia M inor t o t he E nd o f t he T hird C entury a fter C hrist, 2 v ols. I ( Princeton , 1 950), I , 6 47-8 ; I , 1 514-6 , n n . 4 6-7). T he a rgument f or p ermanent a rmed f orces u nder t he c ontrol o f l ocal g overnments i n S pain ( cf. P .A. B runt, " Did I mperial R ome D isarm H er S ubjects?", P hoenix x xix ( 1975), 2 60-70) r ests o n p robability : t he p ossession o f w eapons b y p rovincials, a nd e ven t heir o rganisation o f m ilitary d efence i n e mergencies ( cf. F IRA I 2 1 C III , c ited a bove , a nd C hapter Xn . 8 ), a re n ot a rguments f or t he e xistence o f p ermanent a rmed f orces u nder t he p rovincials' c ontrol . ( For m ilitary s tationes a s a m eans o f p eace-keeping , s ee n . 3 7.) T he r ecorded c areer o f t he m an i n 3 272 c onsisted o therwise o nly o f c ommand o f u nits o f t he R oman a rmy. T he d escription o f h is c apacity w ith r egard t o t he " Cohors S ervia I uvenalis" i s l ost f rom t he i nscription . I t i s h ere a ssumed t hat h e w as p raefectus o f t his , a s o f t he o ther , u nits. 1 3.

B oundary a djustments: C hapter I n . 2 3. A uxilia i n L usitania : M cElderry I , p . 6 1; R oldan H ervas , p p . 2 192 0 . C ohors I I G allica h as n o r eal s upport ( McElderry I , p . 6 1 n . 2 ; N ot. D ig . O cc . 4 2. 2 8). B etter a ttested a re C ohors I II G allorum a nd E C ohors I I L usitanorum ( CIL 2 4 03 , E E I X p . 2 7 n o . 4 6 ; E V III p . 3 60 n o. 1 4, C IL 2 5 238). T he t wo a uxiliary u nits s uggested f or L usitania b y J ones , " Occupation ," p . 5 5 ( Ala I S ingularium ; A la I I T hracum) a re d oubted w ith r eason b y R oldan H ervas , p p . 2 24 , 2 16 .

1 4 .

P liny's c ohort: E p. i ii. 9 . 1 8; c f. C hapter V III n . 2 1 ( " [ Stilonius P riscus], q ui t ribunis c ohortis s ub C lassico f uerat .."). " Cohors m aritima": I LS 6 905 = R oldan H ervas n o. 4 96 ( Corduba) ( commanded b y a " tribunus m ilitum"). S ince I LS 6 905 c omes f rom C orduba , a nd d oes n ot s pecify t he " Cohors m aritima" f urther , i t i s l ikely t hat t he c ohort c oncerned w as s tationed i n B aetica , r ather t han b eing i dentical w ith o ne o f t he m aritime c ohorts o f T arraconensis ( cf. a bove, n . 6 ; M cElderry I , p p. 6 0-1; R oldan H ervas , p . 2 29). T he f act t hat b oth P liny's c ohort a nd t he " Cohors m aritima" w ere c ommanded b y a t ribunus m ilitum r ather t han a p raefectus h as b een r egarded a s g rounds f or i dentifying t he t wo ( McElderry I , p . 6 0 n . 8 ; R oldan H ervas, p p . 2 29 , 1 55). B ut s ee b elow o n t he t itles " praefectus" a nd " tribunus". F or a " praefectus C ohortis B aeticae" , s ee C IL 5 5 127 , w ith a ddendum , p . 1 082; R oldan H ervas , p p . 1 54-5 ; E . R itterling , " M ilitary F orces i n t he S enatorial P rovinces," J RS x vii ( 1927), 2 8-32, p . 2 8. D espite R itterling 's h esitation ( p. 2 8 n . 2 ) , i t s eems m ost p lausible t hat t he n ame i nd icates a c ohort s tationed i n t he p rovince : i n a ll p robability t he c ohort t o w hich P liny r efers. ( The n ame " Cohors B aetica" w ould b e a wkward , i mplying t hat t he c ohort w as n amed a fter

1 93

N OTES :

A PP . I

t he r iver r ather t han t he p rov ince. B ut t he n am , 2 " Cohors B aeticae" w ould b e c onsistent w ith C IL 5 5 127 .) O n t he t itles " praefectus" a nd " tribunus m ilitum" , s ee E . S tein , D ie k aiserlichen B eamten u nd T ruppenkörper i m r ömischen D eutschland u nter d em P rinzipat ( Vienna, 1 932), p p. 1 82; 2 26-7. T here i s n ot c omplete a greement o n t he r ationale f or t he d ifference i n c ommanding o fficer; a nd t ribuni a nd p raefecti d o a ppear i n t he e vidence a s c ommanding t he s ame u nit a t d ifferent t imes. I f t he t hree c ohorts w hich a re a ttested f or B aetica a re n ot i dentical, i t s eems m ost p robable t hat i t i s t he " Cohors m aritima" w hich s hould b e r egarded a s s eparate , t hose o f P liny E p . i ii. 9 . 1 8 a nd C IL 5 5 127 b eing o ne a nd t he s ame , a nd c onstituting a b asic g arrison . 1 5 .

125-6 E L egio V II G emina a t I talica : ; E V III p . 3 88 n o . 9 2 . 131 r O n s tationes i n g eneral, s ee n . 3 7. ecords a " station a t I talica . M oorish i nvasions : C hapter I n . 9 . R esponse t o t hese i nvasions i s J ones' i nterpretation o f t he p resence o f s oldiers f rom L egio V II a t I talica ( "Occupation ," p . 5 4).

1 6 .

F ame o f t he S panish m ines: e .g . P liny N H i ii. 3 0 ; J osephus B J 3 74; S tatius S ilvae i ii. 3 . 8 9 ; P liny N H x xxiii. 7 8; S ilius I talicus i . 2 31-3; F lorus i i. 3 3 ( iv. 1 2. 6 0) ( the l ast t hree p assages r efer t o t he m ines o f t he n orth-west). A s r egards " public" p roperty u nder t he P rincipate t he v iew o f P .A . B runt, " The ' F iscus' a nd i ts D evelopment," J RS l vi ( 1966) , 7 5-9 1, a s a gainst t hat o f F . M illar, " The F iscus i n t he F irst T wo C enturies," J RS l iii ( 1963), 2 9-42 , i s h ere a dopted . I t i s a ssumed t hat t he e mperors' f ailure t o p reserve a c lear d istinction b etween t heir p rivate p roperty a nd t he p ublic p roperty u nder t heir c ontrol l ed t o a s ituation i n w hich a ll t he p roperty u nder i mperial c ontrol c an r easonably b e c ounted a s " public" .

1 7.

C ato i n 1 95 B .C .: L ivy x xxiv . 2 1. 7 . C ato i n h is O rigines m entioned t he i ron a nd s ilver m ines n orth o f t he E bro ( Aul . G ell. N A I I. 2 2. 2 9), a nd i t h as b een i nferred t hat t he v ectigalia m entioned b y L ivy w ere d erived o nly f rom t he m ines i n t hat a rea ( e.g . P .A . B runt , " The E quites i n t he L ate R epublic ," i n T he C risis o f t he R oman R epublic , e d . R . S eager ( Cambridge , 1 969), p p . 8 3115 , p . 1 05). B ut C ato a s c onsul i n 1 95 B .C . h eld t he c ommand o ver b oth U lterior a nd C iterior ( T .R .S. B roughton , T he M agistrates o f t he R oman R epublic, I ( New Y ork , 1 951) , 3 39-40); a nd L ivy's n otice a bout t he v ectigalia c omes r ight a t t he e nd o f h is a ccount o f C ato's e xploits i n S pain , i ncluding t he s uppression o f r evolts i n b oth U lterior a nd C iterior . T he m ines o f A ndalusia a nd C arthago N ova m ust h ave b een k nown t o t he R omans i n 1 95 B .C . ( Davies , p p . 11 f f.; c f. P liny N H x xxiii. 9 67 ). V ectigalia w ere c ertainly b eing d erived f rom t he s ilver m ines a t C arthago N ova b y a bout 1 40 B .C . ( Polyb . x xxiv . 9= S trabo i ii . 2 . 1 0 , C 1 47). F or t he l ocations o f S panish m ines i n g eneral , s ee D avies , p p . 9 41 39 .

1 94

N OTES: 1 8.

A PP.

L easing t o p rivate o perators:

I

B runt,

" The E quites

i n t he L ate

p R epublic ," p. 1 04-7; E . B adian , P ublicans a nd S inners: P rivate E nterprise i n t he S ervice o f t he R oman R epublic ( Oxford , 1 972), p p. 3 1-2. J .S. R ichardson ,

" The S panish M ines a nd t he D evelopment o f P rovincial

T axation i n t he S econd C entury B .C.," a rgues

f or

s mall-scale

o perators,

J RS l xvi

( 1976),

e ach w orking n o m ore

1 39-52,

t han a f ew

s hafts, o n t he m odel o f V ipasca u nder t he P rincipate. B ut V ipasca h ad a p rocurator t o m ake t he i ndividual a greements a nd e nsure t hat m iners

d id n ot

d ig s hafts

t o t he

d etriment

o f

o ne a nother a nd t he

f uture p rofitability o f t he m ines ( FIRA I 1 04-5 , e sp. 1 04 , 3 0 f f.; c f. A E 1 908 2 33). T his w ould h ave b een t oo m uch w ork f or a p rovincial q uaestor

( Richardson , p .

1 47).

T here w as n o a lternative

t o l easing t o c ompanies o f p ublican' u ntil t he i nvention , P rincipate , o f p rocurators i n c harge o f s tate-owned m ines. 1 9.

u nder t he

G old m ines o f A sturia-Callaecia: s ee t he p assages c ited i n n . 1 6 , e sp. P liny N H x xxiii. 7 8. R . S yme, " Pliny t he P rocurator," H SPh l xxiii ( 1969), 2 01-36 ( rpt. i n R oman P apers, I I , 7 42-73), p . 2 18 s uggests t hat t heir e xploitation b egan u nder A ugustus; c f. F lorus i i. 3 3 ( iv. 1 2. 6 0). O ther m ines t oo w ere a cquired i n c onsequence o f t he A ugustan c ampaigns i n t he n orth-west.

T here w ere m etals b esides

g old i n A sturia-Callaecia, a nd i ron i n t he C antabrian M ountains ( Davies, p p. 9 7-9 , 1 03-5). M ines

a round E bro:

D avies,

p p.

9 6-7,

1 06-7

( although p rivate

p roduction h ere c ontinued). 2 0.

M ines o f

s outhern S pain :

S trabo i ii.

2 .

1 0 ,

C 1 48 s tetes t hat t he

s ilver m ines a t C arthago N ova a nd e lsewhere i n t he s outh h ad b y h is t ime g one o ver i nto p rivate o wnership, a lthough m ost o f t he g old m ines

w ere p ublicly o wned.

( See C .

D omergue,

" Les l ingots d e p lomb

r omains d u m usge a rchgologique d e C arthagene e t d u m usge n aval d e , M adrid ," A EA x xxix ( 1966), 4 1-72, f or p rivate o wnership o f s ilver m ines n ear C arthago N ova i n t he e arly P rincipate.) i t f or g ranted

( loc. c it.)

t hat

S trabo a lso t akes

l ead m ines a re p rivate.

H owever ,

t he e vidence f or t he P rincipate s hows p ublic c ontrol e xtending w ell b eyond t he g old m ines,

e ven i n t he f irst c entury A .D..

A c ompany o f

p ublicani i s f ound o perating a s ilver m ine a t I lucro i n s outhern T arraconensis i n t he e arly P rincipate ( Domergue , " Les l ingots d e p p.

p lomb ," l eased 1 65).

6 2-3).

L ead m ines

i n B aetica w ere

b eing r evived a nd

o ut f or p ublic p rofit i n t he E lder P liny's t ime ( NH x xxiv. I n P liny's t ime, a lso, a m inium m ine a t S isapo i n B aetica w as

b eing l eased o ut t o a c ompany o f p ublican'

( NH x xxiii.

18-21;

c f.

C IL 1 0 3 964). S uet. T ib. 4 9 . 2 r ecords T iberius' c onfiscation o f m ines ( locations u nspecified) f rom c ommunities a nd i ndividuals. T he c ase o f

S ex.

M arius

( n.

2 2)

c onstitutes

o ne i nstance i n w hich

T iberius c onfiscated S panish m ines f rom a n i ndividual. S ome S panish m ines m ay a lso, a t l east u p t o T iberius' r eign , h ave b een o wned b y c ommunities;

a lthough t he o nly s pecific e vidence i s f or o wnership b y

R ome a nd b y p rivate i ndividuals. A n e mperor's i nheritance o f m ines b y l egacy o r i n d efault o f h eirs c ould a lso h ave l ed t o p ublic o wnership;

c f. n .

1 6.

1 95

N OTES: 2 1.

A PP.

I

F reedmen i mperial p rocurators o f m ines: s ee 2 958 ,

c f. N H x xxiii.

8 0

f or n orth-west T arraconensis,

( "Ulpius");

C .

D omergue,

" Introduction

ä l 'gtude d es m ines d 'or d u n ord-ouest d e l a p gninsule i bgrique d ans l 'antiquitg,"

i n

L egio

V II

p p.

G emina,

p p.

2 53-86,

f f.

2 72

( Antoninus P ius -Commodus). F or s outhern L usitania ( Vipasca), s ee F IRA I 1 04-5 ( Flavian p eriod ; H adrian); c f. d 'Ors, E pigrafia J uridica,

p p.

f f.

7 1

a nd

A E

1 908

2 33.

F or

B aetica,

( "Fodinae A erariae" = R io T into , A .D . 9 7; c f. G .D .B . R oman M ines a t R iotinto ," J RS l xx ( 1980), 1 46-65). A part f rom t hese p articular e xamples,

s ee

J ones,

9 56 " The

F IRA I 1 04 a ppears t o b e a

r egulation a pplying n ot j ust t o V ipasca, b ut t o m ines i n g eneral, a nd a ssuming

ap rocurator i n c harge o f e ach

J uridica , p . 2 2.

S ex.

( cf. d 'Ors,

E pigrafia

7 5).

M arius:

T ac.

D evelopment,"

p .

A nn . 8 2.

v i. T he

1 9 ;

c f.

B runt,

l ocation

o f

" The

S ex.

' Fiscus' a nd i ts

M arius'

m ines

i s

u ncertain . F or t he t heory t hat t he M ons M arianus ( = S ierra M orena) w as s o n amed b ecause S ex . M arius o wned i t a nd t he m ines t here, s ee R E X VI 2 00. ( For a p rocurator ( "Flavius") i n c harge o f t he m ines o f t he S ierra M orena , s ee 179 .) B ut i t i s s uggested b y D avies ( p. 14 a nd n . 5 ) t hat t he n ame i s u nconnected w ith S ex. M arius, a nd g oes b ack a s f ar a s t he f ourth c entury B .C.. S ex . M arius' m ines w ere i n a ny c ase m ost p robably l ocated s omewhere i n B aetica. N ot o nly w as B aetica t he p rincipal l ocation o f g old m ines i n S pain o utside t he n orth-west

( Davies,

c ome

f rom

C orduba

e d.,

I ( Oxford ,

p p.

9 4 f f.),

( H.

F urneaux

1 896), p . 5 33

( ed.),

n .

2 3.

P ublicani i n f irst c entury A .D .: c f. H irschfeld , p p. 1 50 f f..

2 4.

V ipasca :

T he A nnals o f T acitus,

a ssistants:

2 nd

1 , w ith C IL 2 2 269). s ee t he e xample o f I lucro

d 'Ors, E pigrafia J uridica, p p.

F IRA I 1 04-5 ;

A dministrative

b ut M arius h imself a ppears t o h ave

F IRA

I

1 05

" Introduction ä l 'gtude d es m ines d 'or,"

2 3;

7 1 f f..

c f.

p . 2 74.

( n . 2 0);

D omergue,

D 'Ors ( p. 9 3)

s uggests t hat t he s oldiers w ere e mployed i n g uarding d amnati a d m etalla

( on w hom s ee n .

d amnati a d m etalla;

2 6).

i ndeed ,

B ut F IRA I 1 04-5 m ake n o r eference t o t he

s ystem

t here

d elineated

s eems

t o

p reclude s tate-run o perations u sing d amnati. S ystem a t V ipasca p erhaps w idespread b y t he H adrianic p eriod: n . 2 1. 2 5.

M ines

i n A sturia-Callaecia:

m ines d 'or" ;

J ones,

T ype o f m ining:

D omergue,

" Introduction ä l 'gtude d es

" Occupation".

P .R .

L ewis a nd G .D .B.

J ones,

" Roman G old-Mining i n

N orth-West S pain ," J RS l x ( 1970), 1 69-85 ; R .F.J. J ones a nd D .G. B ird , " Roman G old-Mining i n N orth-West S pain , I I: W orkings o n t he R io

D uerna,"

m ethod

o f

J RS

l xii

m ining w ith

( 1972), t he

5 9-74.

s ystem

o f

f ound a t V ipasca i s n oted b y D omergue,

T he

i nconsistency

s mall-scale

p rivate

o f

t his

o perators

" Introduction ä l igtude d es

m ines d 'or ," p . 2 77. H eavy c oncentrations o f s oldiers o n t he R io D uerna: D omergue, " Introduction ä l 'etude d es m ines d 'or," p p. 2 74-5; J ones, " Occupation ," p .

6 2;

J ones a nd B ird.

u nskilled l abour, c f. T ac. A nn. x i.

1 96

2 0.

F or t he u se o f s oldiers a s

N OTES : 2 6 .

2 7.

A PP . I

For d amnati a d m etalla, s ee T h. M ommsen , R ömisches S trafrecht ( Leipzig , 1 899), p p . 9 49-51. T here i s n o e vidence f or t heir u se i n t his a rea . N ative l abour w hich w as t echnically f ree i s s uggested b y F lorus i i. 3 3 ( iv. 1 2. 6 0). F or t he u se o f n ative l abour e lsewhere , s ee D avies , p p . 1 4-5 a nd J .J . W ilkes, D almatia ( London , 1 969), p p . 1 73-4 . I n v iew o f t he f act t hat n o t ribal u prisings a re r ecorded a fter o ne o f t he A sturians l ate i n N ero's r eign ( Chapter I n . 9 ) , J ones f inds t he c ontinued p resence o f t roops i n t he n orth-west i nexplicable i n p urely m ilitary t erms , a nd a rgues t hat t heir p resence w as r equired b y t he d emands o f m ining ( "Occupation ," p p. 6 0-2). B ut t he f act t hat n o r ebellions a re r ecorded a fter A .D . 6 9 m ay i tself b e d ue t o t he p resence o f t roops. T he a ssociation o f s oldiers w ith m ining i n t he n orth-west i s l argely e xplicable b y t he f act t hat i t w as d esirable t o e ngage s oldiers i n s ome o ccupation d uring p eacetime ( cf. G .R . W atson , T he R oman S oldier ( Lo rkkm , 1 969) , p . 1 43 ; T ac. A nn . x i. 2 0 ; x iii. 5 3). I t m ay b e t rue t hat t he w ay i n w hich t he m ines o f A sturia-Callaecia w ere w orked , a t l east i n t he s econd c entury A .D ., r equired t he s ervices o f a l arge n umber o f s oldiers. B ut i t d oes n ot f ollow t hat t he m ines w ould h ave b een w orked i n p recisely t his w ay, h ad t he s oldiers n ot b een p resent f or o ther r easons. " Serrarii A ugustin :

131

C 1M .

C aelius A lexander t abulum m armoream

d (ono) d (edit) s tationi s errariorum A ugustorum"). T he " station p resumably h ad n o e ssential c onnexion w ith t he s tone-cutters, b ut w as s imply n amed a fter t hem b ecause i t h appened t o b e i n t he s ame p lace ( cf. a bove , p . 1 85 a nd n . 1 5). F or " serrarii" a s s tone-cutters , s ee R E I I A 1 742 a nd C IL 1 1 108 = 6 9 888 . 2 8 .

A lthough s tone m ight b e u sed f or i mperial b uilding p rojects i n t he p rovinces ( cf. R . M acMullen , " Roman I mperial B uilding i n t he P rovinces," H SPh l xiv ( 1959), 2 07-35, p . 2 12), e mperors w ould . presumably n ot h ave g one t o t he t rouble o f r unning a q uarry u nless t hey h ad a u se f or t he s tone a t R ome. M arble i s t he o nly s tone a ttested f or B aetica b y R oman w riters ( L .C . W est , I mperial R aman S pain : t he O bjects o f T rade ( Oxford, 1 929), p p. 6 7-8; a lthough P liny N H i ii. 3 0 m ay n ot s pecifically r efer t o B aetica). T he t ext o f 131 t ends t o c onfirm t hat t he s tone c oncerned w as m arble. O n t he a dministration o f p ublicly-owned q uarries , s ee H irschfeld , p p . 1 62 f f..

2 9 .

T iberius' c onfiscations: S uet. T ib . 4 9 . 2 . N ero's p roperty: P lut. G alb. 5 . I t s eems i mprobable t hat G alba a ttempted t o s ell t he m ines o f T arraconensis , a nd t he p roperty s old t herefore p resumably c onsisted o f a gricultural e states. I t i s u nknown w hether V espasian a ccepted t he s ales a s v alid.

3 0 .

O stippo : 1 438 ( A .D . 4 9); c f. R uggiero , D izionario E pigrafico , I , 3 59 f or t he i dentification a s l and o wned p ublicly b y R ome , n ot b y O stippo . T he d escription " agri d ecumani" i ndicates a t ithe : f or c ensorial l ocatio o f t he r ight t o c ollect t ithes o n s uch l and , s ee M arquadt, I I, 2 47 f f.. T he r estoration o f b oundary-stones i n C laudius'

1 97

N OTES:

A PP .

I

c ensorship s eems t o c onfirm t hat t hese t ithes p rovince) B runt,

w ere " The

( ad l oc.)

s till b eing t reated a s ' Fiscus'

s uggests

a nd

D evelopment,"

p .

8 2).

H übner

t hat J ulius C aesar o r A ugustus a cquired t he l and

f or t he s tate. B ut i t w ent b ack e ven e arlier . 3 1.

i ts

( in a s enatorial

c ensorial r esponsibility ( cf.

i s

p ossible

I mperial p rocurator i n B aetica:

t hat

P flaum ,

i ts

o riginal

C arriares,

a cquisition

I II,

1 048 .

F or

t he e arly s pread o f p rocurators t o s enatorial p rovinces, s ee d e L aet, p . 3 76 ; c f. B runt, " The ' Fiscus' a nd i ts D evelopment," p . 8 8. 3 2.

" Kalendarium V egetianum": L ambase e t d e Z ana 5 4 , p p.

1 23-33;

H .G. P flaum ,

( Diana

" Deux c arriares 6 questres d e L ibyca i ii

V eteranorum)," I I ,

c f. P flaum , C arriares,

( 1955),

1 23-

6 30 .

T he e arliest k nown p rocurator d ates f rom s hortly b efore A .D . 1 66. A dministration o f a gricultural e states: H irschfeld , p p. 1 25 f f.; D .J. C rawford , " Imperial E states," i n S tudies i n R oman P roperty , e d. M .I. F inley ( Cambridge , 1 976), p p. 3 5-70 , p p. 4 4-54. 3 3.

A gricultural e xports S panish H arbors," 1 180 = P flaum ,

t o R ome:

T .

F rank,

" On t he E xport T ax o f

A JPh l vii ( 1936) 8 7-90.

C arriares,

I ,

5 04-7,

n o.

1 85 r ecords a p ost

" adiutor

p raef(ecti) a nnon(ae) a d o leum A frum e t H ispanum r ecensendum". t he d ate i s b etween A .D. r egarded a s

1 61 a nd A .D.

a t emporary o ne ,

1 69 ;

B ut

and t he p ost m ay b e

c onnected w ith

t he

t riumph

a fter

t he

P arthian W ar i n 1 66 ( Pflaum , C arriares, I , 5 06; c f. R E I 2 294-5). 180 d oes n ot, t herefore, c onstitute e vidence f or p ermanent s upplies o f

o il f rom i mperial e states i n S pain .

T he S panish o il,

a t l east,

r eferred t o i n t he i nscription w as p robably t he p roduce i n t he m ain o f p rivate e states, b ought o r e xacted f rom t heir o wners; p roduce o f e states o wned b y t he R oman g overnment.

n ot

t he

E states a cquired b y S eptimius S everus' c onfiscations: C IL 1 5 4 097 f f.. , T o j udge f rom t he d ates o n t he j ars, t he t urn ing-point w as n ot l ater t han A .D .

2 17 ( cf. F rank, p .

c onfiscations, p resumably o ccurred b y A .D. 2 11. 3 4.

t he

9 0 n . 5 ). o rigin o f

B ut S eptimius S everus' t he

c hange,

F or i ndirect t axes i n g eneral, s ee H irschfeld , p p.

m ust h ave

9 2 f f..

O nly t he

p ortoria a nd t he v icesima h ereditatium a nd l ibertatis

a re w ell

a ttested i n S pain . 3 5.

F or p ortoria i n S pain , s ee g eneral d e L aet, p p.

2 86-94.

5 064 r ecords t he p resence o f " socii q uinquagesimae" a t I liberris. T he

i nscription

g ives

s upport

t o

d e

L aet's

w ere m ade o n i nternal e xports a nd i mports C .H .V. 1 939),

S utherland , p .

1 45).

a ssertion ( p.

t hat

2 86 n .

3 ;

c harges c ontra

T he R omans i n S pain 2 17 B .C.-A .D.

1 17

T he

I liberris

p resence

o f

t he

s ocii

a t

( London , i s

i nexplicable s ave i n t erms o f t he t ransport o f g oods b y r oad b etween t he p rovinces o f B aetica a nd T arraconensis ( see t he m ap o f B aetica a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I, P l; a nd R . T houvenot, E ssai s ur l a p rovince r omaine d e B gtique, I ( Paris, 1 940), 4 81-3 , 4 93 f or t he r oad f rom A cci t o I liberris).

1 98

N OTES : 3 6.

Baetica 's i mportance :

A PP . I

W est, p p. 4 1 f f..

C ollection o f p ortoria a t C orduba e tc .:

C IL 1 5 I I , p p . 5 60 f f..

T he e arliest d ate o f t he M onte T estaccio j ars i s A .D . 1 44 ( ibid ., p . 5 64). C orduba a nd A stigi a re m entioned f rom 1 49 o nwards ( e.g . n os. 4 181, 4 207); H ispalis f rom 1 54 o nwards ( no . 4 007). C onventus c apitals: C hapter I n . 2 4. L ocations o f C orduba e tc .: s ee t he m ap a t t he e nd o f C IL 2 I I , O i; P h ; P g ; R f. F or t he n avigability o f t he r ivers a s f ar a s t hese t owns, s ee P liny N H i ii. 1 2; S trabo i ii. 2 . 3 , C1 41-2 . G ades: " Portus" a ppears o n t he j ars f rom A .D . 1 49 o nwards ( e.g . n o . 3 976); c f. d e L aet , p p . 2 90-1 a nd C IL 1 5 I I , p . 5 62. B ut i dentity w ith I lipa i s a lso a p ossibility ( cf. n . 3 7). 3 7.

I lipa :

C IL 2 1 085 r efers t o a " dispensator p ortus I lipensis" u nder

S eptimius S everus; c f. d e L aet , p p . 2 87-8 . M alaca : t he t own a ppears o nce o n t he M onte T estaccio j ars, i n A .D . 1 49 ( CIL 1 5 4 203 ; c f. I bid . p . 5 62). I nscriptions a lso r eveal t he e xistence o f t hree u stationesn i n S pain : Italica); 2 011 ( Nescania); 2 915 ( Segisamo). B ut n one o f 131 ( t hese a ppears t o b e as tatio f or t he c ollection o f p ortoria . 2 9 15 i s r evealed b y t he c ontent o f t he i nscription a s am ilitary s tatio f or t he c ontrol o f w rong-doers , o n t he r oad f rom t he P yrenees t o A sturica ( cf. M omnsen , R ömisches S trafrecht, p p . 3 11 f f.; R E I II A 2 213 ; S herwin-White, T he L etters o f P liny, p p. 6 60-1; w ith S yme, 1 " Conquest," p . 8 9 f or t he r oad). 131 i s p robably a m ilitary s tatio a lso ( cf. a bove, p . 1 85 a nd n . 1 5). I n 2 011, t he " servi s tationarii n a re r egarded a s a n i ntegral p art o f t he p opulation o f N escania , s haring i n ap ublic d istribution t here . T his w ould s eem t o b e a n i nd ication t hat t he s laves w ere o wned b y t he t own , a nd t he t own r esponsible f or r unning t he s tatio: t hat i s, t he s tatio b elonged t o t he c ursus p ublicus, a nd w as u nconnected e ither w ith p olicing t he r oads o r w ith p ortoria ( cf. S herwin-White , T he L etters p 6 o f P liny, p. 60-1; w ith C hapter I X p . 1 56 f or t he c ursus p ublicus). 3 8.

D e L aet ( pp . 3 70 f f.) p laces t he c hange f rom p ublican' t o i ndividual c onductores , a s ag eneral p henomenon , i n T rajan 's r eign . F or S pain , s ee d e L aet, p p. 2 86-7. ( 5064 f rom I liberris ( cited i n n . 3 5) c onstitutes t he o nly e vidence f or p ublican" c ollecting p ortoria i n S pain : t he s econd-century d ate g iven b y H übner a d l oc . i s b ased o nly o n t he l ettering , a nd i s v ery u ncertain .) T he c hange t o d irect a dministration b y t he s tate i s d ated , a gain a s a g eneral p henomenon , t o t he r eigns o f M . A urelius a nd C ommodus ( de L aet , p p . 4 03 f f.). F or t he p ossibility t hat p rivate e nterprise p ersisted i n s ome a reas o f t he E mpire b eyond t he S everan p eriod , s ee A .H .M . J ones , T he R oman E conomy , e d. P . A . B runt ( Oxford , 1 974), p p . 1 65-8 . 1 085 ( Septimius S everus , c ited i n n . 3 7) s hows a n i mperial s lave a s s teward a t t he p ort o f I lipa , p robably d ealing w ith t he p ortoria . F or d irect a dministration o f t he S panish p ortoria u nder ( probably) C aracalla , s ee d e L aet, p p. 2 86 , 4 10 , a nd C IL 1 4 4 708 .

1 99

N OTES : 3 9 .

A PP . I

O ther a reas: d e L aet, p p . 4 05 f f.. " Procurator a d r ipam B aetis" : P flaum ,

C arriares,

II , I

1 049 .

( The

t itle v aries f rom " proc(urator) A ug(ustorum ) a d r ipam B aetis" ( 180 : 1 A .D. 1 61-9) t o " proc(urator) B aetis" ( 2129) a nd " proc(urator) A ug(usti) r ipae p rov(inciae) B aeticae" ( 1177). 180 a nd 177 1 s uggest t hat t he b ase w as H ispalis. A c onnexion w ith t he p ortoria i s s uggested b y T houvenot ( p . 1 72) , b ut r ejected b y d e L aet ( p . 2 94 n . 2 ). P flaum's a nalogy w ith t he p rocurator " ad r ipas T iberis" ( Carriares , I , 5 06) s eems m isplaced . P rovincial p rocurator r esponsible f or p ortoria : 1 085 ( nn . 3 7-8) r eveals t hat t he s teward r egarded t he p rovincial p rocurator o f B aetica a s " praepositus s uus" ( see d e L aet, p . 2 88 n . 3 ; P flaum , C arriares, I I , 6 32). 4 0 .

V icesima h ereditatium a nd V espasian 's g rant: c f. M cElderry I , p p . 9 1-2. F or t he a dministration o f t he t ax i n g eneral , s ee H irschfeld , p p . 9 6-105 . R ecords o f p ayment: C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p . 119 . ( All t he p laces w here p ayment i s r ecorded w ere i n B aetica , w ith t he e xception o f 3 424 ( cf. 5 941 : C arthago N ova , H adrian 's r eign).)

4 1.

F or p rivate e nterprise i n t he e arlier p eriod , s ee H irschfeld , p . 9 8 f .. A rrangements a t e nd o f s econd c entury : C IL 2 I I , I ndex , p . 119 ; A E 1 972 2 50 ; I GR I II 1 81. P flaum , C arriares , I I , 6 33 f f.; 7 35 f f. ( nos. 2 36 ; 2 77) d ates t he p rocurator ( "per H isp(aniam) B aet(icam ) e t L usitan (iam )") o f 2 029 t o t he y ears 1 80-98 , a nd h is c ounterpart i n I GR I II 1 81 t o t he r eign o f S eptimius S everus. C f. A E 1 972 2 50 ( Septimius S everus). F or t he s eparate a dministration o f t he t ax i n T arraconensis , s ee C IL 24 184 ( no r ecord o f a n e questrian p rocurator s urvives). A dministrative c entres a t C orduba a nd T arraco : 214 ; 4 184 . 2 F reedmen s ubprocurator a t E merita : 4 87 .

4 2 .

A dministration o f v icesima l ibertatis a t T arraco: H irschfeld , p p . 1 06-9 .

4 3 .

V icesima l ibertatis l imited t o R oman c itizens: i ntrinsically v ery l ikely , t his s eems t o b e c onfirmed b y D io l xxvii. 9 . C f. R . C agnat , E tude h istorique s ur l es i mpöts i ndirects c hez l es R omains ( Paris , 1 882), p . 1 71 f or t he i napplicability o f t he t ax i n t he c ase o f L atin' l ibertini. M any s laves o f R oman c itizens f reed i nformally : c f. S herwin-White , R C , p . 3 30 , a nd A ppendix I I p p . 2 05-6 .

2 00

4 186-7.

C f.

A PPENDIX I I T HE C ONTENT O F T HE L ATIN R IGHT U NDER T HE P RINCIPATE

( i) E xplicit o nwards

d escriptions o f

m ention a lmost

m agistrates ( and,

I ntroduction

t he L atin r ight

e xclusively

t he

f or t he p eriod

p romotion

i n t he c ase o f " Latium m aius",

t o

R oman

f rom 8 9 B .C.

c itizenship

o f

d ecurions a s w ell) i n

c ommunities w hich p ossessed t he r ight. I f t he L atin r ight u nder t he P rincipate e ntailed a ny p rivileges i n a ddition t o t his, s uch p rivileges m ight h ave t aken t he f orm e ither o f p ersonal p rivileges f or i ndividual m embers o f L atin c ommunities s uch a s c ould b e e xploited e ven o utside t he c ommunity ; o r o f a dditional p rivileges f or t he c ommunity s uch a s c ould b e e njoyed b y i ts m embers o nly i nsofar a s t hey w ere a ctive w ithin i t. T hat t here w as u nder t he P rincipate n o s pecial p ersonal s tatus o f " Latin", i n b etween t hat o f p eregrines a nd R oman c itizens, w hich w as e njoyed b y v irtue o f m embership o f aL atin c ommunity , h as b een s uggested b y M illar : o n t his a ccount c itizens o f L atin c ommunities w ho h ad n ot o btained R oman c itizenship

( and w ho w ere n ot

L atini I uniani, o f s lave o rigin) w ould s imply h ave h ad t he p ersonal s tatus o f p eregrines. A s r egards c ommunal p rivileges e ntailed b y t he L atin r ight, i t i s u nclear -the r ight t o R oman c itizenship t hrough m agistracy a part -w hat c onnexion t here w as , c onstitution .' ( ii)

i f a ny ,

b etween L atinity a nd a p articular t ype o f l ocal

I us L ath i a s ap ersonal s tatus u nder t he P rincipate

F our p ersonal p rivileges w hich h ave b een s uggested i n c onnexion w ith t he L atin r ight u nder t he P rincipate a re t hose o f a s pecial n omenclature , o f e ligibility f or t he R oman l egions,

a nd o f c onubium a nd c ommercium w ith R oman

c itizens. N omenclature a nd e ligibility f or t he R oman l egions M illar h as s uggested t hat " Latins" , i f t here w as s uch a p ersonal s tatus, m ight h ave b een i n a s pecial p osition a s r egards n omenclature a nd a rmy r ecruitment. I t i s s aid t o b e s urprising t hat w hat k ind o f n ames " Latins" u sed , o r w hether t hey s erved i n t he l egions , i s u nknown ; a s e vidence t hat n o s uch c lass o f p eople e xisted.

a nd t his i s t aken

I t i s t rue t hat t he e vidence p rovides n o c lear a nswer t o t he q uestion w hat k ind o f n ames m embers o f L atin c ommunities u sed. I t c an b e s hown t hat a t l east s ome m embers o f L atin c ommunities u sed n on-Roman n ames;

y et l ikely

c ases c an a lso b e a dduced o f s uch p eople w ith t he t ria n omina.

B ut i t i s

n ot

n ecessary

t o

s uppose t hat

t he n omenclature o f

" Latins" m ust h ave b een

u niform . T here i s r eason t o b elieve t hat p eregrines u sed b oth n on-Roman n ames a nd t he t ria n omina. C ertainly u nder t he R epublic p eregrines u surped t he t ria n omina.

T hat t hey c ontinued t o d o s o u nder t he P rincipate i s s hown 2 01

b y t he f act t hat C laudius " peregrinae c ondicionis h omines v etuit u surpare R omana n omina d um t axat g entilicia." I t i s n ot c ertain t hat C laudius w as o beyed , o r t hat l ater e mperors e nforced t he p rohibition . N or i s i t c lear t hat C laudius f orbade t he u se b y p eregrines o f t he t ria n omina , r ather t han m erely t he u se o f d istinctively R oman g entilicia. " Latins", l ike p eregrines, m ight h ave t ended t o u surp t he t ria n omina f or t he s ake o f t heir s tatus-value , w hile b eing n ot s trictly e ntitled t o d o s o. A t t he r oot o f M illar's d isquiet i s t he a ssumption t hat " Latins" , h ad t hey e xisted , m ust h ave p ossessed s ome f ormal p rivilege w ith r egard t o n omencla9 ire w hich w as d enied t o p eregrines.

B ut t his i s n ot a n ecessary a ssumption .

W ith r egard t o t he a rmy ,

t he a nswer w ould a ppear t o b e t hat o nly R oman

c itizens w ere e ligible f or t he l egions. " Latins" w ould , l ike p eregrines, s imply n ot h ave b een f ormally e ligible. B ut i n t he c ase t hat t he r equirement o f R oman c itizenship w as m et b y a g rant o f c itizenship a t t he t ime o f e nlistment -a p ractice w hich w as a lready e stablished i n t he f irst c entury A .D. - "Latins" w ould o f c ourse h ave b een r ecruited a long w ith p eregrines. T he p osition o f t he t wo c lasses w ith r espect t o r ecruitment w ould h ave b een p recisely t he s ame. A s w ith t he q uestion o f n omenclature , t his s hould n ot i n i tself b e t aken a s e vidence t hat s uch a c lass o f " Latins" d id n ot e xist. F or o ne n eed n ot a ssume t hat t heir p rivileges s hould h ave h ad a ny b earing o n a rmy r ecruitment. 3 C onubium a nd c ommercium I f

o ne

l ooks

f or p ersonal p rivileges w hich m ight h ave b een p ossessed b y

i ndividual m embers o f L atin c ommunities u nder t he P rincipate ,

t wo p lausible

c andidates a re c ommercium a nd c onubium . C ommercium w ith R oman c itizens h ad c ertairly b een p ossessed b y L atins i n I taly u nder t he R epublic. T he e vidence t hat L atins h ad a lso p ossessed c onubium w ith R oman c itizens i s l ess c ompelling , a lthough c ertainly s ome o f t he I talian s ocii a ppear t o h ave h ad c onubium w ith R aman c itizens a t t he t ime o f t he S ocial W ar .' C onubium i s d efined a s " uxoris i ure d ucendae f acultas" . T he e ssential c onsequence o f c onubium w as t hat c hildren t ook t heir f ather's s tatus: o ther c onsequences o f c onubium i n t he p articular c ase d epended o n t he r espective s tatuses o f t he t wo p arties t o a m arriage. A i ustum m atrimonium i n R aman l aw c ould t ake p lace o nly i f c onubium e xisted b etween t he p arties c oncerned , a nd t he h usband w as a R oman c itizen:

t he c hildren t hen a cquired t heir

f ather's R oman c itizen s tatus , a nd b ecame s ubject t o p atria p otestas i n R aman l aw . W hen , o n t he o ther h and , a w oman w ho w as a R oman c itizen m arried a p eregrine w ith w hom s he h ad c onubium ,

t he c hildren d id i ndeed a cquire t heir

f ather's ( peregrine) s tatus; b ut t he m arriage w as a p eregrine m arriage r ather t han a i ustum m atrimonium i n R oman l aw , n or d id p atria p otestas i n R oman l aw r esult f rom i t. C onubium w as n ot, t hen , a r ight w hich a n i ndividual p ossessed i n v acuo , e nabling h im o r h er t o c ontract a m arriage r ecognised a s a i ustum m atrimonium i n R oman l aw , E ven i f i t w ere t rue t hat " Latins" u nder t he P rincipate h ad c onubium w ith R oman c itizens, i t w ould n ot n ecessarily f ollow t hat " Latins" w ho m arried o ne a nother c ould e njoy i usta m atrimonia a nd p atria p otestas o ver t heir c hildren w hich R oman l aw w ould r ecognise a s v alid. 5 C ommercium i s d efined a s " emendi v endendique i nvicem i us" :

t hat i s ,

b y

t he m ethod o f m ancipatio, w hich a pplied t o a l imited r ange o f o bjects i ncluding I talian l and ( and l and i n p rovincial c ommunities w ith t he i us 2 02

I talicum),

s laves,

a nd b easts o f b urden .

C ommercium w as,

l ike c onubium ,

e ssence a c oncept w hich d efined r elations b etween p ersons, r ights

o f a p erson i n i solation.

A s w ith c onubium ,

r ather

i n

t han t he

w hat l egal s ystem

a pplied t o d ealings b etween p ersons w ho h ad c ommercium w ith o ne a nother w as n ot

b uilt

i nto

t he

c oncept

o f

c ommercium

i tself:

t he

s tatus

o f

t he

i ndividuals i nvolved i n a ny p articular t ransaction h ad a b earing o n t he s ystem o f c itizens,

l aw w hich a pplied t o i t. i t w ould n ot n ecessarily

I f " Latins" h ad c ommercium w ith R oman f ollow t hat t hey w ere e ntitled t o m ake

c ontracts w ith o ne a nother w hich w ould b e r ecognised a s v alid i n R oman c ivil l aw. U lpian's d efinition o f c ommercium s uggests t hat i t w as e xtremely l imited i n s cope, a nd b y n o m eans e ntailed t hat t he w hole o f t he R aman i us c ivile w as a pplicable t o r elations b etween R omans a nd t hose w ho p ossessed c ommercium w ith R omans;

l et

c ommercium a nd o ne a nother.

a lone t o r elations

b etween s uch p ossessors o f

T his i s c onfirmed b y a p assage f rom L ivy w hich

s hows t hat t he L atins i n 1 93 B .C., w hile p ossessing c ommercium w ith R oman c itizens, w ere n ot a utomatically s ubject t o t he s ame l aws g overning u sury i n c ases o f l oans m ade t o R o rn c itizens a s R oman c itizens w ere i n c ases o f l oans m ade t o o ne a nother. T he

l egal

c oloniarii", I uniani

s ources

r efer

t o

a c lass

o f

p ersons

c alled

" Latini

w ho f urnished t he m odel f or t he c reation o f t he e x-slave L atini

i n t he e arly P rincipate.

T he

" Latini c o loniarii" a re e xplained a s

b eing m embers o f L atin c olonies f ounded b y t he R omans. 7 t heir p rivileges i s a lso p rovided b y t he l egal s ources. L atini c oloniarii

I nformation a bout

( like L atin' I uniani) p ossessed c ommercium w ith R oman

c itizens.

W hether t hey a lso p ossessed c onubium w ith R oman c itizens i s

d oubtful.

G aius i mplies t hat t he " alii L atini," " qui p roprios p opulos

p ropriasque c ivitates h abebant," d id n ot h ave c onubium w ith R oman c itizens; r s ince t he s ubsequent d escription " et e rant p eregrinorum n u rero" s uggests t hat t he L ex M inicia t reated t hem a s p eregrines w ithout c onubium .

F urther ,

t he

L atini I uniani w ere m odelled o n t he L atini c oloniarii, a nd i ndeed b oth L atini c oloniarii a nd L atini I uniani p ossessed c ommercium . B ut " Latini" -c ertainly L atini I uniani, i f n ot L atini c oloniarii a s w ell -are s tated n ot t o h ave L atini

c or iubium e xcept b y s pecial g rant.

8

I f i t c ould b e s hown t hat

c oloniarii h ad t estamenti f actio w ith R oman c itizens, t hat w ould m ake

i t m ore p lausible t o s uppose t hat t hey a lso h ad c onubium. d iscussing t he r ight o f L atini t o m ake a w ill, d oes i mply c oloniarii

h ad

t he r ight

t o m ake w ills,

w hereas

G aius, w hen t hat L atini

t he L atini I uniani

( in t he

i nterests o f p reserving t he r ights o f t heir f ormer m asters) w ere e xpressly f orbidden t o d o s o. H owever, i t b y n o m eans f ollows t hat t he L atini c oloniarii p ossessed t estamenti f actio w ith R oman c itizens. A p assage f rom U lpian r ecognises t hat e ven p eregrines c ould m ake w ills, a lbeit n ot R oman w ills. t o

W hatever t he p osition o f L atins i n I taly b efore 8 9 B .C.

t estamenti f actio

a nd

c onubium ,

w hether

t he

" Latini

w ith r egard

c oloniarii"

o f

t h

l egal s ources h ad t hese p rivileges i s n ot c lear f rom t he s ources t hemselves. T he

" Latini

c ommercium ,

c oloniarii"

i f n ot

o f

c onubium a lso ,

t he

l egal

s ources,

w ith R oman c itizens.

t hen,

p ossessed

T hey d o

t herefore

c onstitute a c lass o f " Latins" o f f ree o rigin w ho e njoyed a p ersonally p rivileged s tatus b etween t hat o f p eregrines a nd R oman c itizens. B ut t he r elevance o f t hese " Latini c oloniarii" t o t he q uestion o f i us L atii a s a p ersonal

s tatus

u nder

t he

P rincipate

i dentification .

2 03

d epends

o n

t heir

m ore

p recise

T he i dentity o f t he " Latin' c oloniarii" A n i nitial p roblem i s w hether t he " Latini c oloniarii" c an b e a ssumed t o h ave e xisted a t a ll a s l ate a s t he i mperial p eriod .

T he f act t hat t hey a re

e xplained a s b eing m embers o f L atin c olonies a ctually f ounded b y t he R omans w ould s eem t o c ount a gainst t heir e xistence u nder t he P rincipate. L atin c olonists w ho w ere p hysically s ettled b y t he R omans c an h ardly b e e quated e ven w ith t he m embers o f t itular L atin c olonies,

l et a lone w ith m embers o f

o ther L atin c ommunities o f t he P rincipate. G aius r efers t o t he f oundation o f L atin c olonies a s b elonging t o p ast h istory , a nd i ndeed s eems t o i mply t hat a ll " Latins" w ho w ere m embers o f d einct L atin' I uniani , w ere b y h is t ime e xtinct. H owever ,

c ommunities,

t hese p roblems a re n ot i nsuperable.

a s

o pposed t o

T he f act t hat t he L atin'

c oloniarii a re d efined b y r eference t o t he o ld L atin c olonies d oes n ot n ecessarily m ean t hat s uch a c lass o f i ndividuals b ecame e xtinct w hen , i n 9 0 B .C., t hese c olonies c eased t o e xist. I n 8 1-80 B .C., a t a t ime w hen A riminum h ad r eceived R oman c itizenship, S ulla d efined t he r ights o f V olaterrae b y r eference t o t he r ights A riminum h ad p ossessed a s aL atin c olony. M embers o f L atin c ommunities o f t he P rincipate m ay s imilarly h ave h ad t heir r ights d efined b y r eference t o t hose o f t he o ld L atin c olonies b efore 8 9 B .C .: h ence t he t itle " Latini c oloniarii" a nd t he e xplanation i n t erms o f t he o ld f oundations. N or d oes G aius, w hen w riting o f t he " alii L atini" i n t he p ast t ense , n ecessarily i mply t hat t hey n o l onger e xisted : t he p ast t ense m ay b e d ue t o t he a ntiquity o f t he L ex M inicia , w ith w hich l aw G aius i s h ere c oncerned. F urther,

1

i t s eems t hat a t l east s ome L atini

c oloniarii m ust h ave

e x isted i n t he e arly P rincipate. G aius s tates a s a p rovision o f t he L ex A elia S entia t hat " minores t riginta a nnorum m anumissi e t L atini f acti s i u xores d uxerint v el e lves R omanas v el L atinas c oloniarias v el e iusdem c ondicionis. .." T his p assage s hows t hat L atini c oloniarii s till e x isted i n t he e arly P rincipate, w hen t he L atini I uniani w ere c reated. I t c ould p erhaps b e a rgued t hat t he c lause w as s imply c arried o ver f rom s ome e arlier l aw . B ut t he c lause w as a t l east n ot c arelessly c arried o ver. B efore t he i nvention o f L atini I uniani t here w as n o s uch c lass a s t he " Latini c oloniarii" : t hey w ere c alled s imply " Latini". S imilarly , a p assage f rom U lpian w hich s tates t hat " mancipatio l ocum h abet i nter c ives R omanos e t L atinos c oloniarios L atinosque I unianos .." a lso i mplies t hat L atini c oloniarii c ontinued t o e xist a fter t he c reation o f L atin' I uniani. T he t hought r equired t o m ake t he q ualification " coloniarii" w ould , i f t he c lass 2 n o l onger e xisted , h ave l ed t o t he o mission o f t he c lass a ltogether .1 " Latini c oloniarii" ,

t hen , w ith t heir p ersonally p rivileged s tatus,

d id

e xist i n t he e arly P rincipate a t l east. T heir i dentity , h owever , r emains p roblematical. T hat t hey w ere i dentical w ith t he m embers o f L atin c ommunities i n g eneral i s o nly a c onjecture, s ince t he p hrase " Latini c oloniarii" i s n ever a pplied t o t hese: i ndeed , i t d oes n ot o ccur a t a ll o utside t he l egal s ources. P liny d oes h owever r efer , i n h is d escriptions o f S pain ,

G aul,

a nd M auretania ,

t o " Latini" ,

w here w hat i s m eant i s i ndubitably

t he m embers o f c ommunities w hich h ad t he L atin r ight.

T o t his c an b e a dded

S trabo's s tatement t hat m ost o f t he i nhabitants o f B aetica h ave b y h is

d ay

' i cra\m DL" . b ecome " l P liny ' s f ormulae f or S pain a nd G aul a re t hought t o b e m id-Augustan , 2 04

a nd

h is

f ormula

t herefore,

f or M auretania

C landian.

T hese

d erive f rom t he A ugustan p eriod a t

r eferences

t o

t he e arliest.

" Latini",

M oreover t he

t owns c oncerned , i n S pain a t l east, a re o nes w hich a re k nown t o h ave b een n ot e ven t itular L atin c olonies, H owever ,

i t

r emains

b ut m erely m unicipia.

d oubtful

w hether

1 3

t hese

" Latini" c an b e i dentified

w ith t he L atini c oloniarii o f t he l egal s ources.

I t s eems e ntirely n atural

t hat t he m embers o f a c ommunity w hich p ossessed t he L atin r ight, b ut w ho w ere f or t he m ost p art, s o f ar a s p ersonal s tatus w ent, m erely p eregrines, s hould n evertheless b e r eferred t o a s " Latini" i n a c ontext w here t he i mport o f t he t erm w as o bvious. " Latinus"

t o

W hat i s w anted i s

c onvey

p rovincials.

p ersonally

I n t hat c ase,

e vidence o f

p rivileged

s tatus

t he u se o f

t he t erm

e njoyed

b y f reeborn

t he e xhaustive d ivision o f L atin'

i n t he l egal

s ources i nto L atin' c oloniarii a nd L atin' I uniani w ould f orce o ne t o c onclude t hat

t he

f reeborn

p rovincials

c oncerned

w ere

n one

o ther

t han

L atini

c oloniarii. T he

c harters

o f

S alpensa

a nd M alaca

a ppear t o p rovide

s uch e vidence.

S alpensa's c harter d escribes t he p rocedure f or m anumission o f s laves b efore t he d uoviri b y a ny " municeps m unicipi F lavi S alpensani, q ui L atinus e rit": s laves s o m anumitted a re t o b e f ree l iberi s unt e runt".

" uti q ui

o ptumro]

i ure L atin' l ibertini

L atinity a s ap ersonal s tatus i s c learly a t i ssue h ere.

I n M alaca's c harter, i t i s p rescribed t hat a t e lections o ne c uria b e s elected b y l ot " in q ua i ncolae , f erant."

q ui c ives R (omani) L atinive c ives e runt,

t he R epublic o f v oting a t R oman a ssemblies, H ere a lso ,

t hen ,

H owever, d ebatable. L atini

s tatus

1 4

w hat p articular k ind o f p ersonal L atinity t his i s r emains T he c onclusion t hat

I uniani,

t o m embership

p roblem

i n as ingle t ribe c hosen b y l ot.

L atinity a s a s tatus e ntailing c ertain p ersonal p rivileges

w ould s eem t o b e i n q uestion .

n ot

s uffragi

T his p rovision r ecalls t he r ight e njoyed b y L atins i n I taly u nder

a rises

f rom

b ut o f t he

t hese

" Latin i" a t

S alpensa a nd M alaca a re

L atini c oloniarii

w ho

o we

a L atin c ommunity,

m ay

s eem i rresistible.

r esultant

s tatus

o f

t he

t heir

s laves

" Latin" m unlceps o f S alpensa. " Latini l ibertini" 5 e xpression u sed b y G aius t o r efer t o L atini I uniani. 1

s pecial

p ersonal B ut

m anumitted i s

a

b y

t he

p recisely

t he

O n t he a ssumption t hat t he " Latin" p erforming t he m anumission i s a f reeborn p rovincial o ne m ight d eal w ith t he d ifficulty i n e ither o f t wo w ays. O ne m ight, p rovincial

f irstly, L atin

d id

c onclude i ndeed

a ppear t o b e u njustifiable: p rovincial

L atin t o b ecome,

s tatus

h is

a s

m aster,

n ot

t hat

b ecome

t he m anumitted a L atinus

s lave

I unianus.

o f

a f reeborn

B ut

t his

o ne w ould e xpect t he s lave o f o n m anumission , a L atinus

a f ree

I unianus

i ndividual w ith

w ould

a f reeborn o f

s everely

t he

s ame

l imited

t estamentary r ights. O r , s econdly, o ne c ould r egard t he e xpression " Latinus l ibertinus" a s a n atural d escription f or t he m anumitted s lave o f a f reeborn L atin ; t he a mbiguity c aused b y t he e xistence o f L atini I un iani b eing s imply u nfortunate. H owever , t he p oint i s n ot s o m uch t hat t he L ex S alpensana , i f t he m anumitted s laves a re n ot L atini I uniani, o ught t o h ave e mployed d ifferent l anguage;

a s t hat i t i s s urprising,

o n t he h ypothesis

t hat G aius

k new o f a s ubstantial c lass o f s laves f reed i n p rovincial t owns w ith t he L atin r ight, w ho w ere " Latini l ibertini" o f a d ifferent s ort, t o f ind h im a pplying t he e xpreigion " Latini l ibertini" t o L atin' I uniani w ith n o a pparent f ear o f a mbiguity.

2 05

T he

d ifficulty

d oes

n ot

p rove

c onclusively

t hat

t he

" Latins"

o f

t he

c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca a re n ot f reeborn p rovincials w ith p ersonally p rivileged s tatus.

I t c ould b e s aid t hat t here i s n o r eal a mbiguity i n t he

p assages o f G aius a nd t he L ex S alpensana , t he c ontext i n e ach c ase m aking t he m eaning c lear . B ut a d oubt m ay w ell a rise a s t o t he d egree o f c ertainty w ith w hich o ne c an t ake t he " Latins" o f t he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca t o b e f reeborn p rovincials. A nd t his d oubt w ill b e r einforced b y t he c onsideration t hat t here i s n o o ther e pigraphic e vidence o f f reeborn p rovincial L atin', n or l iterary e vidence e ither. E ven t he r eferences i n t he l egal s ources t o L atini c oloniarii a re v ery f ew. T he " Latini" o f t he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca ,

t hen ,

a re p robably m erely L atini I uniani:

t he c harters d o n ot p rovide e vidence f or t he e njoyment o f a p ersonal L atin s tatus u nder t he P rincipate b y m embers o f L atin c ommunities i n g enera1 .1 7 T he i dentification o f t he " Latini" i n t he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca a s L ati n ! I uniani h as c ertain c onsequences. A s p eregrines w ithout c onubium w ith R oman c itizens, t he o rdinary c itizens o f L atin c ommunities w ill h ave b een s ocially , a s w ell a s p olitically, c ut o ff f rom t he m agisterial c lass. T he p osition o f L ati n ! I uniani i n t hese t owns i s i tself n otable. T he c harters s how t hat L atini I uniani c ould b e c itizens o f a L atin m unicipium . N ot o nly t his, b ut t hey s how t hat L ati n ! I uniani h ad a s tatus a kin t o t hat o f R oman c itizens w hich e nabled t hem t o b e e xempted , a long w ith R oman c itizens, f rom t he g eneral r ule t hat i ncolae h ad n o p olitical r ights i n t heir p lace o f r esidence. F inally, t his e xemption a ppears t o d erive u ltimately f rom a p rivilege a llowed t o t he L atins i n I taly u nder t he R epublic. I n a c ommunity m ost o f w hose c itizens w ere m erely p eregrines , t he e qual , a nd i ndeed f avoured , p olitical s tatus o f t he L atini I uniani i n t heir m idst i s n ot n ecessarily s urprising. T he p rivileges o f t he L atini I uniani d er ived ,

t hrough s uccessive s tages

o f

i mitation ,

f rom t hose o f

t he L atins

b efore 8 9 B .C .. T he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca c onfirm t he s pecial p ersonal s tatus, a nd a lso t he u ltimate o rigin , o f t he L atini I uniani. C onclusion : i us L ath i w ithout p ersonal L atinity I t

s eeds

r easonable

t o

c onclude

t hat

L atini c oloniarii,

w ere m odelled o n , a lthough n ot n ecessarily i dentical w ith, L atins i n I taly b efore 8 9 B .C ., P rincipate.

d id i ndeed e xist a t

w hose

r ights

t hose o f t he

t he b eginning o f t he

T hey w ere t he m embers o f t hose p rovincial c ommunities w hich w ere

t itular L atin c olonies. T he o nly s uch c ommunities k nown t o h ave s urvived i nto A ugustus' r eign a re t hose o f T ransalpine G aul w hich J ulius C aesar p romoted. F rom A ugustus' r eign o nwards n o m ore L atin c olonies o f a ny t ype a ppear t o h ave b een c reated. I cosium i n M auretania , w hich r eceived t he L atin r ight f rom V espasian , i s n o e xception t o t his r ule. T he n umber o f L ati n ! c oloniarii w ill h ave d iminished f urther w ith t he p romotion t o f ull c itizenship o f t he c ommunities o f T ransalpine G aul. E ven i f t he L atini c oloniarii d id n ot d isappear e ntirely , i t i s n ot s urprising t hat t he s econdc entury l egal s ources t reat t hem s o p erfunctorily , o r t hat o ther l iterary a nd e pigraphic e vidence o f t hem i s l acking . A fter t he i ntroduction ,

a t

1 9

t he e nd o f t he R epublic,

o f t he L atin

c ommunity w hose m embers, o utside t he m agisterial c lass, w ere m erely p eregrines , i t i s d oubtful w hether t hese p eregrines w ere s ubstantially l ess p rivileged t han t hey w ould h ave b een a s L atini c oloniarii. T he o nly p ersonal p rivilege w hich t he L atini c oloniarii a re k nown t o h ave h ad i s c ammercium w ith R oman c itizens, a nd t his w as a v ery l imited p rivilege . O ne 2 06

m ight,

i ndeed , b egin t o w onder w hether e ven m embers o f t he o ld L atin c olonies

h ad, a t l east t owards t he e nd o f t heir e xistence, p ersonal p rivileges s ubstantially g reater t han t hose o f p eregrines. T he d enial o f t he e xistence o f f reeborn p rovincial L atini t hesis. 2 ° M ore t o t he p oint ,

s eems

h owever ,

n ot,

a fter a ll,

a v ery s tartling

t han t he p rivileges a ctually p ossessed b y

t he o ld L atin c olonists i s t he f act t hat t hey e xisted a s a d istinct c lass t o w hich p ersonal p rivileges m ight a ppropriately b e g iven . T he c hief p ersonal p rivilege w hich t hey e njoyed , a part f rom c ommercium ( and p erhaps c onubium) w ith R oman c itizens w as t he i us m igration's. B ut i t w as a lso, f or e xample , p roposed b y t he e lder L ivius D rusus t hat t hey s hould h ave t he r ight o f p rovocatio; a nd t hey w ere f avoured a bove t he s ocii w hen i n 9 5 B .C. t he s ystem o f r ewards f or s uccessful p rosecution b ecame r estricted . T he m embers o f t he L atin c ommunities o f t he P rincipate, o n t he o ther h and, w ere n ot r egarded a s p ersonally e ntitled t o s pecial p rivileges. H ad t hey e xisted a s a c lass i ntermediate b etween p eregrines a nd R oman c itizens , d istinguished e ven b y t he p ossession o f c ommercium a lone , t hey m ight h ave c ome t o p ossess o ther

p rivileges

a s w ell.

T he

r efusal

t o

i dentify

t he m embers o f L atin

c ommunities i n g eneral w ith t he L atin' c oloniarii i s n ot s tartling b ecause t he L atin' c oloniarii a re k nown t o h ave p ossessed p rivileges s ubstantially g reater t han t hose o f p eregrines.

I t i s s tartling b ecause t he p resumption

i s t hat, h ad t he L atin' c oloniarii b een n umerous u nder t he P rincipate -had t hey, t hat i s, b een i dentical w ith t he m embers o f L atin c ommunities i n g eneral a nd n ot m erely t he m embers o f t itular L atin c olonies -they m ust h ave c ome t o p ossess o ther p rivileges b esides t he r ight t o c arry o ut l egal t ransactions w ith R oman c itizens. A nd t he f act t hat i t s eems i mpossible t o f ormulate t he p recise n ature o f t hese o ther p rivileges d oes t end t o c onfirm t he c onclus yn t hat f reeborn p rovincial L atin' w ere n ot n umerous u nder t he P rincipate. ( iii)

P rivileges o f L atin c ommunities u nder t he P rincipate

T he c ontent o f t he L atin r ight u nder t he P rincipate h as s o f ar b een r estricted'to t he r ight t o c itizenship t hrough o ffice.

B ut a lthough

m embership o f aL atin c ommunity d oes n ot s eem t o h ave e ntailed p ersonal p rivileges o ther t han t his, i t r emains a p ossibility t hat t he c ommunity a s a w hole p ossessed a dditional p rivileges w hich a ctive m embers o f i t c ould s hare. T hree w idespread , a lthough n ot u niversal , f eatures o f L atin c ommunities u nder t he P rincipate w ere a s pecial d egree o f a utonomy, a nd t he r ight t o a d istinctive t itulature a nd t o m unicipal c harters. T hese t hree f eatures d epended o n t he R oman g overnment's a cquiescence , a nd w ere n ot t o b e f ound i n p eregrine c ommunities. A f ourth c haracteristic o f L atin t heir i mitation o f t he R oman i us c ivile. T his l ast s eems b een a m atter o f i ndependent l ocal c ustom : i t w as n ot a c onfined t o L atin , a s o pposed t o p eregrine , c ommunities, a nd

c ommunities w as m erely t o h ave c haracteristic i ts a ssociation

w ith L atinity r epresents o nly a g eneral d istinction b etween w hat e xpected i n L atin , a nd i n p eregrine , c ommunities.

c ould b e

A utonomy, t itles a nd c harters W hether o r n ot S trabo's c omment o n N emausus i s r ightly t aken a s e vidence f or a c onnexion b etween a utonomy a nd L atin s tatus, c ommunities

( and

R oman m unicipia

a nd

c olonies

a s

i t i s p robable t hat L atin w ell)

t ended

t o e njoy a

g reater f reedom f rom s urveillance b y p rovincial o fficials t han w as u sual f or

2 07

p eregrine c ommunities. m atter o f

t itles w idely o f

t he

E qually i t i s p robable t hat t his f reedom w as a

c onvention r ather

C onsideration o f

t he

( although n ot u niversally) e mployed b y L atin c ommunities,

a nd

c harters

o f

t han

S alpensa

f ormal

a nd

g uarantee.

M alaca ,

s uggests

t hat

R ome

r egarded

b oth

t itles a nd c harters a s a ppropriate t o L atin s tatus, a nd w as p repared t o a llow t hese d istictions t o

2 L atin c ommunities w hich d esired t hem .2

I mitation o f t he i us c ivile T he f ourth f eature o f L atin c ommunities, R oman i us c ivile, f ormal s tatus.

r eflects

t heir

c ultural

t hat i s,

t he i mitation o f t he

s ophistication r ather

I t d id n ot r equire R ome's p ermission ,

t he p rovincials' o wn d esire t o a ssimilate l ocal i nstitutions S een i n t his l ight,

t han t heir

b ut s prang m erely f rom t o R oman o nes.

i mitation o f t he i us c ivile w as n ot a p henomenon c onfined

t o L atin c ommunities,

b ut w as t o b e f ound i n p eregrine c ommunities a s w ell;

i ncluding p eregrine c ommunites w hich s ubsequently b ecame L atin.

I ndeed ,

t he

i m itation b y L atin c ommunities o f t he i us c ivile i s e vidence a s m uch o f t heir p rior d egree o f R omanisation a s o f a f eeling t hat R oman-style l aws were a ppropriate

T hat

3 t o L atin s tatus. 2

L atin

c ommunities

t ypically

i mitated

t he i us c ivile i s i mplied b y G aius, a nd c onfirmed b y t he L ex S alpensana. A ccording t o G aius,

t here i s o ne w ay i n w hich t hose w ho c ome t o t he

R oman c itizenship i ure L atii

d iffer f rom o ther n ewly-enfranchised c itizens.

T heir c hildren a utomatically b ecome s ubject i mplied p atria

t hat

i t

i s

p otestas

n atural

t o p atria

p otestas.

f or n ewly-enfranchised c itizens

o ver t heir

c hildren ,

a nd

t hat

t hose

I t

i s

t o w ant t o h ave

w ho

r eceive

t he

c itizenship b y t he b eneficium o f t he e mperor c ommonly p etition f or t he p rivilege o f p atria p otestas i n a ddition. . c itizens f rom L atin c on 4 ties e njoyed w hat

T he q uestion i s w hy t he n ew a ppears t o h ave b een s pecial

t reatment i n t his r espect. O ne a nswer m ight b e t hat R ome w as p roud o f t he d istinctively R oman c haracter o f p atria p otestas, a nd d id n ot w ant t he i nstitution t o b e d evalued b y p romiscuous g rants t o a ll n ew c itizens. T hat i n i tself w ould i mply t hat R ome r egarded t he L atin c ommunities a s e ntitled t o s pecial t reatment. S ince t he a nnual m agistrates

i n t hese c ommunities w ould p robably c onstitute a f ar

l arger n umnber o f n ew c itizens t han t hose e nfranchised o therwise, a rgue,

i f

t he

e xclusiveness,

m otive

f or

r estricting

t hat t he d ifferent

w as p rompted s imply b y c onsi

g rants

o f

t reatment o f m embers

a tions o f c onvenience,

o ne c annot

p atria p otestas

was

o f L atin c ommunities

t he n umber o f s uch n ew

c itizens b eing i nsignificant. H owever ,

w hile e xclusiveness,

e njoying a s pecial s tatus,

a nd a v iew o f t he L atin c ommunities

a s

m ay h ave b een p artly r esponsible f or t he p olicy ,

a nother e xplanation i s s uggested b y G aius' s tatement o f t he c onditions u nder w hich s pecial g rants o f p atria p otestas w ere m ade t o n ew c itizens: i ta d emum i s

[ imperator]

" ... q uod

f acit s i c ausa c ognita a estimaverit h oc f iliis

e xpedire." T he i mplication i s t hat t he c hildren c ould n ot b e a ssumed t o h ave b een s ubject, u nder t he l ocal l aws o f t he p eregrines c oncerned , t o a ny c onstraints r esembling p atria p otestas; a nd t hat f or t his r eason a g rant o f p atria

p otestas

a long w ith

t he

c itizenship m ight

m ake a s igni pcant,

a nd

p ossibly u ndesirable, d ifference t o t he p osition o f t he c hildren . I t w ould s eem t o f ollow t hat, L atii

a utomatically

i f t hose w ho c ame t o t he c itizenship i ure

r eceived p atria p otestas 2 08

o ver

t heir

c hildren ,

t his

w as

b ecause

t he

l ocal

l aws

o f

L atin c ommunities c ould g enerally b e e xpected t o

c opy t he R oman i nstitution o f p atria p otestas, a nd h ence t he r elations b etween c hildren a nd p arents w ould n ot b e a ltered s ignificantly b y t he g rant o f

p atria p otestas

a long w ith

t he

c itizenship.

A n

i nstitution

o f

p atria

p otestas a pplying t o a ll m embers o f t he c ommunity i s p recisely w hat i s f ound i n t he L ex S alpensana.

T he L ex S alpensana a lso r eflects t he R oman c ivil l aw

i n o ther r espects. T he p assage c oncerning t he i ura l ibertorum s uggests t hat t he r ights o f n on-citizen m unicipes o f S alpensa o ver t heir f reedmen w ere m odelled o n , l aw.

i f n ot i dentical w ith ,

t he r ights o f R oman c itizens u nder R oman

A nd t he p assage c oncerning t he a ppointment o f t utors d efines t he

r ights o f a ll m unicipes o f S alpensa In t his r espect b y r eference t o t he / r ights o f R oman c itizens i n R oman l aw .2

A ll l aw . t he

t his

s hows

t hat t he l ocal l aws o f

S alpensa c opied t he R oman c ivil

I t d oes n ot s how t hat t he m unicipes o f S alpensa w ere u sing R oman l aw i n s ense

t hat

c ontracts

c oncluded

u nder

t he

l aws

o f

n ecessarily h ave b een r ecognised a s v alid i n a R oman c ourt, c itizen m unicipes

o f

S alpensa

c ould

R oman c ourts w ithout t he a id o f c oncluding

t hat

t he

L ex

t ake

a dvantage

l egal f ictions.

S alpensana

c ivil

p rocedures

T here a re n o g rounds

i llustrates

p ossessed b y m embers o f L atin c ommunities,

o f

S alpensa w ould o r t hat t he n on-

c onubium a nd

a nd s hows

i n f or

c ommercium a s

t hat a " Latin" w as

i n

p recisely t he s ame p osition a s aR oman c itizen w ith r egard t o t he R oman c ivil l aw. F or t he p ossession o f c onubium a nd c ommercium w ould h ave h ad n o b earing o n t he l egal s tatus o f t he d ealings o f " Latins" w ith o ne a nother ; a nd

t he

p ossession

o f

c ommercium c ould

n ot

i n a ny

c ase

e xplain

p rovisions

c oncerning t utors a nd t he i ura l ibertorum w hich r esembled t hose o f R oman l aw . T he L ex S alpensana d emonstrates a n i mitation o f R oman l egal p ractice w hich w as n ot c onnected w ith a ny s pecial p ersonal s tatus b elonging t o t he m unicipes o f

S alpensa.

A lthough t his

i mitation o f R oman l egal

c onfined t o n or u niversal i n L atin c ommunities, e xpected o f L atin c ommunities,

p ractice w as

n eithPr

i t w as g enerally t o b e

w hereas t his w as n ot t he c ase w ith p eregrine

c ommunities. 28

( iv) T he

L atin

r ight

u nder

t he

C onclusion P rincipate

c ontained

i ngredient t he r ight t o R oman c itizenship p er h onorem .

a s

a n

e ssential

I n t he v ast m ajority

o f L atin c ommunities u nder t he P rincipate, i us L atii d id n ot c arry w ith i t a s pecial p ersonal s tatus, i n b etween t hat o f p eregrines a nd R oman c itizens, f or c itizens o f t he c ommunity. t ended t o h ave,

T he e vidence s uggests t hat L atin c ommunities

o n t op o f t he r ight t o R oman c itizenship t hrough m agistracy ,

o ther f eatures d istinguishing t hem f rom p eregrine o nes: a ffected

e ven t hose

c itizens

o f

t hem w ho ,

f eatures w hich

s o f ar a s p ersonal s tatus w ent,

w ere m erely p eregrines. T hese w ere a s ystem o f l ocal l aw w hich c opied R oman l aw ; t itles a nd c harters w hich , r esembling t hose f ound i n c ommunities o f R oman c itizens, c onferred a c ertain d istinction ; a nd a g reater d egree o f a utonomy ( in p ractice) t han p eregrine c ommunities h ad. T hese a dditional f eatures w ere n ot, h owever , a n e ssential a ccompaniment o f t he L atin r ight; a nd i ndeed i mitation o f R oman l aw w as a s pontaneous p henomenon w hich d id n ot r equire a uthorisation f rom R ome a nd w as n othing m ore t han a m atter o f

l ocal

c ultural s ophistication . I n

t his

i mitation o f

c ultural

s ophistication w hich w as

R oman l aw l ies

t he

e xplanation o f 2 09

t he

r esponsible o ther

f or

s pecial

t heir

f eatures

w hich w ere w idespread a mong L atin c ommunities. c harters,

T he p rivileges o f

t itles,

a nd a utonomy d o n ot s how t hat t he L atin r ight h ad o ther a utomatic

i mplications b esides t he r ight t o c itizenship t hrough m agistracy.

T hey s how

o nly t hat i n g eneral t he L atin r ight w ould n ot b e g ranted t o ac ommunity w hich w as n ot t o s ome d egree R omanised, a nd t hat R ome w as p repared t o r ecognise t his c ultural a ssimilation b y a llowing o ther p rivileges b esides t he r ight t o c itizenship t hrough m agistracy. A c ommunity

i s

n ot

R omanised

u nless

i ts

i ndividual m embers

a re a lso.

A lthough t he L atin r ight d id n ot c onfer p ersonal p rivileges o n t he n on— m agisterial c lass i n a c ommunity, i t d id i mply t hat t his c lass h ad c ome t o r esemble t he R omans t hemselves.

T his,

p erhaps,

i s

t he i mport

o f

S trabo's

T he r emark t hat m ost o f t he i nhabitants o f B aetica h ave b ecome "Aa -a voL". a ssociation o f t he L atin r ight w ith R omanisation e xplains J osephus' s tatement t hat t he S paniards ( after V espasian 's g rant) " Twu c troL

x caoGyTaL." n o

p ersonal

M embers o f t he L atin c ommunities o f t he P rincipate h ad p rivileges o utside t heir c ommunities; b ut t hey d id h ave t he

s atisfaction o f c laiming t hat R ome h ad r ecognised t heir c ultural s uperiority t o p eregrines i n g eneral. 29

2 10

N OTES :

N OTES ( APPENDIX I I :

1 .

A PP . I I

T HE C ONTENT O F T HE L ATIN R IGHT U NDER T HE P RINCIPATE)

E xplicit d escriptions o f t he L atin r ight: 3 ;

A ppian B C i i.

2 6 ,

9 8 ;

G aius I nst.

A sconius I n P isonianam 2 i .

9 5-6 .

T he

e xception i s

S trabo i v. 1 . 1 2 , C 1 86-7 o n N emausus, w here h e s tates n ot o nly t hat m agistrates i n N emausus b ecome R oman c itizens, b ut a lso " 05 1 .6 , 5 Tot ito . O e iV

t e m b Torg upocruf tyl uc to t , Ta ) bt AV OC T OO CO" ; on which see

b elow , p p. 2 07-8 . D oubt t hrown o n L atinity a s

Tf iC er ) ( 1 3 1 . JAG c iTpuTnyc Zy C hapter V I p . 1 02 a nd

p ersonal

s tatus:

F .G.B.

M illar,

T he E mperor i n t he R oman W orld ( 31 B .C.-A .D. 3 37) ( London , 1 977), p p. 4 01-6; 4 85-6; 6 30-5. L atinity d issociated f rom t ype o f c onstitution : M illar , p p. 4 01-6 . F or o ther v iews o f t he L atin r ight u nder t he P rincipate , s ee e .g. H . B raunert, " Ius L atii i n d en S tadtrechten v on S alpensa u nd M alaca ," i n C orolla M emoriae E rich S woboda D edicata ( Graz e tc., 1 966), p p . 6 8-83 ; S herwin-White , R C , p p. 3 60-7 ; 3 75-9 . 2 .

N omenclature: ( Oxford ,

M illar ,

1 941), p .

p .

7 1;

6 35 ;

c f.

G .E.F .

G . A lföldy ,

C hilver ,

C isalpine G aul

" Notes s ur l a r elation e ntre l a

d roit d e c ite e t l a n omenclature d ans l 'Empire r omain ," L atomus x xv ( 1966), 3 7-57 , p p. 4 8-9 . P eregrines u surp t he t ria n omina u nder t he R epublic : E . B adian , F nreign C lientelae , 2 64-70 B .C. ( Oxford , 1 958), p p . 2 56-7. U nder t he P rincipate : 3 .

S uet. C laud. 2 5. 3 .

" Latins" a nd t he l egions: M illar , p . 6 35. E ligibility c onfined t o R oman c itizens:

e .g.

G .

r eclutamento d elle l egion" d a A ugusto a D iocleziano 1 953) ' , p p . 1 03 f f.. G rants o f c itizenship o n e nlistment: 4 .

L atins a nd c ommercium u nder t he R epublic : 1 4. C ic.

1 0 .

L atins a nd c onubium :

P ro C aecina 3 5 ,

x xxvii. 5 .

F orni , p .

1 02 ,

L ivy v iii.

a nd b elow ,

n .

9 .

1 0 ;

8 .

1 0 ;

i x . 4 3.

v iii.

2 3 .

I talian s ocii:

1 5. 2 . C f. S herwin-White , R C , p p. 3 -118 , e sp.

D efinition o f c onubium :

I i

15 .

L ivy x li. 1 4.

F orni,

( Milan e tc.,

C f. D iod .

1 08-10 .

U lpian L iber s ingularis r egular = 5 . 4 .

R elation b etween c onubium , i ustum m atrimonium , a nd p atria p otestas: U lpian 5 . 1 -2; G aius I nst. i . 5 5-7; 7 6 . E ffect o f c onubium w here t he h usband w as n ot a R oman c itizen : G aius I nst. i . 5 5-6 , 7 6-7 , 8 0 ; U lpian 5 . 1 -4 , 8 -9 . F or t he i mplications o f F IRA I 2 3 X XI f f., s ee b elow , p p. 2 08 f f.. 6 .

D efinition o f

c ommercium :

U lpian

T extbook o f R oman L aw , 3 rd e d.

1 9 .

1 -6 ;

( Cambridge ,

c f.

W .W .

B uckland ,

1 966), p p . 2 35-41.

F or i mitation o f R oman l aw i n t he L atin m unicipium S alpensa X XI f f.), s ee b elow , p p . 2 08 f f.. L atins i n 1 93 B .C.: L ivy x xxv . 7 .

5 .

( FIRA I

O n t estament' f actio ,

t he L atins i n I taly m ay h ave h ad w ith R oman c itizens, 2 11

A

s ee n .

9 .

w hich I t

A PP. I I

N OTES: w as

m ore

n aturally

a c orollary

o f

c onubium

t han

a n

i ntegral

c onstituent o f c ommercium . 7 .

L atini c oloniarii

a s

m embers

F ragmentum D ositheanum 6 ; 1 . P rovide m odel

f or L atini

F ragmentum D ositheanum 6 ; C f. B uckland , p p. 7 8 f f.; 8 .

o f

c olonies f ounded b y t he R omans:

G aius I nst. i ii. 5 6 ; I uniani:

G aius

C od. l ust. V II 6 . 9 2-6.

C od. J ust. V II 6 .

I nst. 1 .

i .

2; 2

ii. i

1 . 5 6;

1 .

L atin' c oloniarii a nd L atini I uniani p ossess c ommercium :

U lpian 1 9.

4 .

I nst. i . 7 9

G aius i mplies t hat L atini c oloniarii l acked c onubium :

( the p assage i s c orrupt). " Latini" l ack c onubium u nless s pecifically g ranted i t: i . 5 6-7, 8 0-1; U lpian 5 . 4 ; 5 . 9 . 9 .

F or t estamenti f actio ,

s ee e .g.

W here c onubium e xisted,

U lpian 2 2.

2 ;

G aius

G aius I nst.

i. i

I nst.

10.

a n atural c orollary w ould s eem t o b e t he

r ight t o b equeath t o , o r i nherit f rom , r elatives o f a d ifferent c ivil s tatus; a lthough t he c onverse, t hat t estamenti f actio c onubium , d oes n ot n ecessarily h old. G aius o n t he r ight o f L atin' t o m ake a w ill:

I nst. i ii. 5 6 f f.;

I nst. i . 2 3 , U lpian 2 0. 1 4. P eregrines e ntitled t o m ake w ills:

U lpian 2 0.

L atins

c onubium,

b efore

89

B .C.:

f or

i mplies c f.

1 4. s ee

n .

6 .

F or

t estamenti f actio , s ee C ic. P ro C aecina 3 5, 1 02, w ith S herwin-White , R C , p p. 1 02 f f. a nd W .V. H arris, R ome i n E truria a nd U mbria ( Oxford , 1 971), p p. 2 80-1. 1 0.

M embers o f L atin c olonies f ounded b y t he R omans: n . F oundation o f L atin c olonies b elongs

i . 1 31. L atins a s m embers o f d istinct c ommunities e xtinct: ( "

s ed

a d

a lios

L atinos

7 .

t o p ast h istory:

p ertinet,

q ui

G aius

I nst.

G aius I nst. i . 7 9 p roprios

p opulos

p ropriasque c ivitates h abebant e t e rant p eregrinorum n umero.") C f. C od. l ust. V II 6 . 1 . 1 , w here t he " antiqua L atinitas" w hich p rovided t he m odel f or J unian L atinity i s t he p eriod b efore t he S ocial W ar ; 1.

c onceived o f a s d ating t o

a nd M illar , p . 6 32.

R ights o f V olaterrae d efined b y r eference t o t hose o f A riminum : P ro C aecina 3 5 , 1 02; c f. n . 9 . G aius o n t he " alii L atini":

I nst.

i .

7 9

( n.

1 0).

C ic.

F or t he L ex

M inicia, s ee B uckland , p p. 9 9-100. 1 2.

G aius o n t he L ex A elia S entia:

I nst. i . 2 9.

( The d oubt w hether t his

p rovision a ctually b elonged t o t he L ex A elia S entia o r t he L ex I unia ( cf. t he

U lpian 3 .

3 ) d oes n ot a ffect

t he f act

t hat

t he p assage s hows

L atini c oloniarii s till e xisting i n t he e arly P rincipate,

w hen

t he L atini I uniani w ere c reated.) U lpian o n m ancipatio : C f. M illar , p p. 6 34-5. 1 3.

P liny's

r eferences

1 9 . 4 .

t o " Latini":

2 12

N H i ii.

1 5,

1 8,

2 0 ,

2 3-4

( Spain);

N OTES : i ii. 3 2 ( Gallia N arbonensis); 6 31. S trabo : i ii. 2 . 1 5 , C 1 51.

A PP . I I v . 2 0

( Mauretania);

c f. M illar , p .

D ate o f P liny's f ormulae f or S pain : C hapter I I n . 1 . F or G allia N arbonensis: R E X XI 1 303 f f.. F or M auretania: L . T eutsch, D as S tädtewesen i n N ordafrika i n d er Z eit v on C . G racchus b is z um T ode . 2 17 . d es K aisers A ugustus ( Berlin , 1 962 ), P S tatus o f t he t owns c oncerned : R E I V 5 14-20 . I cosium i n M auretania w as p robably, l ike t he S panish t owns, a m unicipium ( n . 1 9). T he G allic c ommunity , R uscino , s eems t o h ave b een a c olonia ( cf. n . 1 9). 1 4 .

S alpensa's c harter : F IRA I 2 3 X XVIII . M alaca's c harter: F IRA I 2 4 L III. F or t he v oting r ights o f t he L atins a t R ome, s ee L ivy x xv. 3 . 1 6; A ppian B C i . 2 3; a nd T h. M ommsen , " Die S tadtrechte d er l atinischen G emeinden S alpensa u nd M alaca i n d er P rovinz B aetica," i n G esammelte S chriften , IA bt. ( Juristische S chriften), B d . 1( Berlin , 1 905) , 2 65-382 , p . 3 01.

1 5.

G aius I nst. i ii. 5 5 .

1 6 .

L imited t estamentary r ights o f L atini I uniani: n . 9 . F or G aius' a wareness o f t he i us L ath i w hich b elonged p rovincial c ommunities , s ee I nst. i . 9 3 f f., e sp . 9 6 .

t o

s ome

1 7.

N o o ther e vidence o f f reeborn p rovincial L atin': M illar , p p . 6 30-5 . F or a n a rgument t hat L atini I uniani w ere i n g eneral c ommon i n t he p rovinces, s ee S herwin-White , R C p p . 3 28-30 ; A ppendix I n . 4 3 . O n t he i nterpretation o f t he " Latins" a t S alpensa a nd M alaca , c f. M illar , p . 6 33 .

1 8 .

. 4 1. ( The C onsequences o f l ack o f c onubium : C hapter I II P c onsequences o f t he l ack o f c ommercium w ere l ess s erious i n p rovincial c omm unities w ithout t he i us I talicum ; c f. C hapter I II n . 1 5 .) P olitical r ights d enied t o i ncolae : C hapter I II p . 4 5 . D erivation f rom r ights o f L atins b efore 8 9 B .C .: n . 7 , 1 0 ; c f. n b elow , p . 2 06 .

1 9 .

S urvival o f t itular L atin c olonies: R E I V 5 14-20 . I cosium : f or i ts r eceipt o f t he L atin r ight, s ee P liny N H v . 2 0 . C IL 8 2 0853 = S elect D ocuments o f t he P rincipates o f t he F lavian E mperors, e d. M . M cCrum a nd A .G . W oodhead ( Cambridge , 1 961) n o . 4 82 ( Kai. I ul. 7 4 -K ai. I ul. 7 6: " a ed(ilis) I I v ir [ qui]n eu lenna(lis) p ontife[x] [ p]rimus i n c olonia " ) a lmost c ertainly b elongs n ot t o I cosium b ut t o t he n ear-by R oman c olony R usguniae ( cf. C hapter I V n . 2 7 ; C IL 8 I I , p . 7 92). P romotions t o f ull c itizenship i n T ransalpine G aul: R E I V 5 17-8 .

2 0 .

I ntroduction o f t he L atin m unicipium : c f. C hapter I I n . 1.

2 1.

L atins u nder t he R epublic : S herwin-White , R C , p p . 1 08 f f.; c f. n . 4 . O n t he i us m igration's , s ee a lso P . A . B runt, " Italian A ims a t t he T ime o f t he S ocial W ar ," J RS l v ( 1965) , 9 0109 , p . 9 0 n . 1 . 2 13

S herwin-White , R C , p p .

3 64-6 ;

N OTES :

A PP . I I

( For t he v oting r ights o f t he L atins a t R ome , s ee n . 1 4 .) P rovocatio: P lut. C . G racch. 9 . 3 ; c f. T .R .S. B roughton , T he M agistrates o f t he R oman R epublic , I ( New Y ork , 1 951) , 5 17 ; B runt, " Italian A ims ," p . 9 1 n . 9 , p . 1 05 . F avouring o f L atins a bove s ocii: C ic . P ro B albo 2 4 , 5 4 ; c f. B .M . L evick , " Acerbissima L ex S ervilia ," C R l xxxi ( N .S. x vii) ( 1967), 2 568 . 2 2 .

S pecial d egree o f a utonomy : C hapter V I p p. 1 00-2 , T itles a nd c harters: A ppendix I V .

1 06 f f..

2 3 .

R omanisation a s ac ondition o f e nfranchisement: c f. C hapter I n . 2 0 . F or e nfranchisement a s as timulus t o R omanisation , s ee C hapter V II n . 7 .

2 4 .

G aius o n p atria p otestas:

2 5.

E xclusiveness:

2 6 .

C onditions:

2 7 .

P atria p otestas i n t he L ex S alpensana : I ura l ibertorum : F IRA I 2 3 X XIII . T utors: F IRA I 2 3 X XIX .

2 8 .

L egal f ictions : c f. G aius I nst. i v . 3 7 ; B uckland , p . 9 7 . F or t he t heory t hat t he L ex S alpensana s hows t he m unicipes, h aving a s " Latins" a s pecial p ersonal s tatus , t o b e l iving u nder R oman c ivil l aw , s ee S herwin-White , R C , p p . 3 78-9 . n D efinitions o f c onubium a nd c ommercium : n . 5 -6 .

2 9 .

S trabo o n t he i nhabitants o f B aetica : i ii. 2 . 1 5 , C 1 51; c f. n . 1 3. J osephus: C ontra A pionem i i. 4 . 4 0 .

I nst. i . 9 3-5 .

c f. G aius I nst. i . 5 5 .

G aius I nst. i . 9 3 .

2 14

F IRA I 2 3 X XI.

A PPENDIX I II V ESPASIAN'S G RANT O F T HE L ATIN R IGHT T O S PAIN ( i)

D ate a nd m otives

T he e xact d ate a t w hich V espasian m ade t he g rant i s d isputed. h as r ejected t he c onventionally a ccepted d ate o f A .D.

7 3-4,

B osworth

a nd a rgued

i nstead f or l ate 7 0 o r e arly 7 1. H e p oints o ut, r ightly , t hat t here w as n o e ssential c onnexion b etween V espasian ensorship o f A .D 7 3-4 a nd t he 's c . g rant o f t he L atin r ight t o S pain;

o r b etween t hat c ensorship a nd t he

p rovincial c ensus i n S pain . H is d ating o f t he g rant t o A .D. 7 0-1 i s b ased o n a rguments o f g eneral p robability; a long w ith a n i nterpretation o f P liny N H i ii. 3 0 ( "universae H ispaniae V espasianus i mperator A ugustus i actatum p rocellis

r ei

p ublicae L atium t ribuit."),

r eading " iactatus" f or " iactatum" , o f

t he

w idespread

t rouble

i n

w hich s ubstitutes t he v ariant

a nd e xplains

t he E mpire

P liny's s tatement i n t erms

e arly

i n V espasian's

B oswor t h a lso d ates t he p rovincial c ensus o f T arraconensis,

r eign.

i n w hich V ibius

C rispus p articipated a s l egatus p ro p raetore, t o b etween 7 1 a nd 7 3. T hat t he p rovincial c ensus i n S pain f ollowed , r ather t han p receded , t he g rant o f t he L atin r ight,

i s i ndeed p robable,

B osworth's

o f

d ating

V ibius

C rispus'

a lthough n ot c ertain. l egateship

i s

f ar

f rom

H owever, c ompelling :

e ven a s econd c onsulship h eld b y V ibius C rispus a t R ome b etween M arch a nd M ay o f 7 4 d oes n ot p reclude h is c onducting a c ensus i n T arraconensis i n o r a fter V espasian's c ensorship o f A .D . 7 3-4. T he m ost c oncrete e vidence f or t he d ate o f t he g rant c onsists o f i nscriptions f rom S pain i tself.

I nscriptions s et u p b y l ocal m agistrates

c ommemorating t heir a cquisition o f R oman c itizenship o n t he e xpiry o f t heir t erm o f o ffice r un f rom A .D. T he

s ame

d uring f ound

i nscriptions

t he

7 5 o nwards.

T his m eans t hat t he g rant i s

h ave b een m ade l ater t han V espasian's c ensorship o f A .D .

u nlikely t o

c ensorship

i tself.

C onfirmation o f

t his

p resumption

i n a n i nscription f rom M unigua i n B aetica w hich r eads

A ug(usto) V espasiano c ensori. p osthumously,

7 3-4.

c reate a s light p resumption t hat t he g rant w as m ade

.."

i s

t o

b e

" divo C aesari

T hat i s, w hen h onouring V espasian

t he t own n eglected t o r ecord h is o ther t itles,

b ut r egarded

t he c ensorship a s b eing o f s pecial s ignificance. A .D. 7 3-4 t herefore f f irm i ndications t o t he c ontrary, t he m ost p robable r emians, i n d efaultl o d ate f or t he g rant. I nterpretations

o f

P liny N H i ii.

3 0 a re t oo u ncertain t o c onstitute

p ositive e vidence f or o ne d ate o r a nother.

I t m ay b e i n p lace , h owever ,

o ffer

P liny's

an

a lternative

i nterpretation

o f

c onsistent w ith t he d ating o f t he g rant t o A .D . w ars,

R oman

c itizenship

a nd

t he

L atin

r ight

7 3-4. h ad

t ext

( as

i t

I n t he r ecent c ivil

b een a mong t he

b enefits

b estowed b y t he c ontestants i n t he h ope o f r etaining s upporters' l oyalty , o f w inning

b ack r enegades f rom t he o pposing s ide.

s et V espasian's a ction a gainst t his b ackground ,

t o

s tands)

o r

I t s eems r easonable t o

a nd t o a ttempt t o i nterpret

P liny's d escription " iactatum p rocellis r ei p ublicae" i n t he l ight o f i t. V itellius i n p articular h ad b een g enerous w ith L atium : a ccording t o T acitus h e

" lavished i t" o n f oreigners,

a lthough T acitus d oes n ot s tate w ho t hese 2 15

f oreigners w ere. A t t he p oint w here T acitus r ecords V itellius' g enerosity w ith t he L atin r ight, S pain h ad a lready e mbraced V espasian's c ause. O tho , i n a s ituation s imilar t o V itellius',

h ad t ried t o w in b ack S pain a nd G aul

w ith v arious g ifts s uch a s R oman c itizensh ip: g ifts w hich w ould r emain n ominal unless t hose c oncerned r econciled t hemselves t o s upporting t he d onor. I t i s n ot i mpossible t hat V itellius' g enerosity w ith L atium i ncluded S pain , a nd t hat h is a ction p rovided t he o riginal i nspiration f or V espasian's g rant o f A .D . 7 3-4. 2 I f

i t w as V itellius w ho p rovided t he o riginal i nspiration ,

e xplanation p ublicae":

e merges

t he

o f

P liny's

S paniards'

d escription

e ntitlement

" iactatum

t o L atium ,

t hat

a p ossible

p rocellis

i s,

w as

r ef

p recarious

u ntil V espasian c onfirmed i t. V espasian d ecided t o g rant t he L atin r ight t o t he S paniards a fter a ll; o r r ather , h e " let t hem h ave i t" ( "tribuit"). V espasian m ade a ctual a g rant w hich V itellius h ad c onceived i n d esperation , a nd h ad l ittle e xpectation o f c arrying o ut. e nemy's d efeat, a nd b ound S pain t o h is o wn s ide. T his M ore

i nterpretation

i mportant

g eneral p oint p olitical.

t han t he t hat

P liny's

s tatement o f

m ay

h e

e mphasised h is

o r m ay n ot

t he

g rant,

b e

c orrect.

h owever ,

i s

t he

V espasian's m otives m ust h ave b een t o s ome d egree

T he g rant

l oyalty o f

o f

p recise a etiology

T hereby

b etrays

a n i ntention t o

t he S panish p eninsula.

r ecently b een p ut w ould h ave m ade i t

r eward,

a nd m aintain ,

t he

T he u ses t o w hich s uch g rants h ad i mpossible

f or V espasian

t o

o verlook

t he a dvantages f or h imself o f h is b enefaction. T he e xistence o f a p olitical m otive, s ubsidiary o r n ot, h as a b earing o n t he q uestion o f t he s cope o f t he S panish g rant.J

( ii)

T he s cope o f t he g rant

A ccording t o P liny, V espasian g ave t he L atin r ight t o t he w hole o f S pain . I f h is s tatement i s t aken a t i ts f ace v alue, t here s hould f rom t he F lavian p eriod o nwards h ave b een n o p eregrine c ommunities l eft i n t he p eninsula. T he t rustworthiness o f P liny's s tatement h as b een d oubted. " Civitas" o rganisation s eems t o h ave s urvived i n s ome a reas i nto

t he

s econd c entury A .D.,

o f

S pain w ell

a nd i t h as b een c laimed t hat

" civitas"

o rganisation w as t echnically i ncompatible w ith p ossession o f t he L atin r ight.

A nother r eason f or d enying t hat t he g rant w as u niversal m ight b e

t he c onnexion

w hich h as b een m ade i n A ppendix I I b etween t he

a nd R omanisation .

g ranted t o c ulturally u nsophisticated c ommunities, t ribal

L atin r ight

I f i t i s c orrect t hat t he L atin r ight w as n ot i n g eneral

o rganisation

i n

s ome

p arts

i ncompatible w ith L atin s tatus,

o f

S pain ,

t hen t he p ersistence o f

e ven i f

n ot

d oes s eem t o s uggest t hat n ot

c ommunities w ould h ave b enefited f rom V espasian 's

t echnically a ll

S panish

g rant. 4

I t h as b een a rgued t hat i n A ppendix I I t hat t he o nly e ssential f eature o f

t he L atin r ight u nder t he P rincipate w as t he r ight t o R oman c itizenship

p er h onorem . t herefore

E njoyment

r equired v ery

o f

t he

l ittle

e ssential

p rivilege

s ophistication .

o f

a L atin

c ommunity

A ll t hat w as n eeded w as a

m achinery f or e lecting t he a ppropriate n umber o f m agistrates e ach y ear , a nd f or a uthenticating e x-magistrates' c laims t o R oman c itizenship. T his s hould h ave b een w ithin t he s cope o f e ven t he m ost b ackward c ommunity i n S pain . N or d oes t he c onnexion b etween t he L atin r ight a nd R omanisation n ecessarily s how t hat V espasian i s u nlikely t o h ave i ncluded t he e ntire p eninsula i n h is 2 16

g rant.

E ven

i f

t he L atin r ight w as,

g enerally

s peaking ,

o nly

g iven t o

c ommunities i n t he l ight o f t heir c ultural a ssimilation , o ther r easons c ould s upervene , e specially i n u nsettled t imes. V espasian h ad a p olitical m otive w hich w as c apable o f o vershadowing t he c onsideration t hat s ome a reas o f S pain w ere s till c omparatively u ncivilised. 5 T he s urvival o f " civitas" o rganisation , t he

t hen ,

t rustworthiness o f P liny's s tatement.

t he e pigraphic e vidence t hat a t l east s ome d id i ndeed b enefit f rom V espasian 's g rant. t hat t he s cope o f V espasian's g rant w as,

i n n o w ay c asts d oubt o n

F urther ,

i t

c an b e s hown f rom

o f t he m ore r emote c ommunities T he c onclusion w ould s eem t o b e

a s P liny s ays,

u niversal,

a nd t hat

f rom t he F lavian p eriod o nwards n o p eregrine c ommunities r emained i n S pain . E ven t he " Civitas L imicorum" i n t he f ar n orth-west o f T arraconensis c an s how a n e x-magistrate e nrolled i n t he t ribe Q uirina. t he t owns L ancia a nd B rigiaecium i n t hat a rea. b enefit

f rom V espasian's

g rant,

e xcluded t hrough b ackwardness.

i t s eems

i mprobable t hat o thers w ere

T hese c ommunities p reserved t heir

i dentity t hrough t he g rant o f L atium ,

e xisting

w ithout a ny d ivision o r a malgamation ;

a nd e ven t heir n ames r emained u nchanged. A sturum i n t he n orth-west,

T he s ame i s t rue o f

I f t hese c ommunities c ould

T he Z oelae,

o f t he c onventus

a ppear -like t he C ivitas L imicorum -to h ave

p reserved t he t ribal n ame, a t l east, w ell i nto t he s econd c entury A .D ..

I t

i s u ncertain w hether t he p reservation o f t he t ribal n ame i n t hese i nstances p oints t o t he c ontinuation o f a ny d istinctively " tribal" f eatures o f o rganisation .

B ut i t

i s n ot i mpossible t hat

h ave s urvived t he g rant o f t he L atin r ight.

" tribal" o rganisation s hould

N or a re t here a ny g rounds f or

h olding t hat t he s urvival o f s uch o rganisation , l et a lone t he p ersistence o f t he m ere n ame o f a t ribe, m ust h ave b een i ncompatible w ith t he a ssumption o f t he t itle " municipium" b y L atin c ommunities i n S pain. p rovinciae T agus,

L usitaniae" w hich i n A .D .

1 05-6

b uilt

a nd o f w hich f ive h ave t ribal n ames,

a re n ot a c onstitutional a nomaly;

T he " municipia

a b ridge

o ver t he

m ay b e a c uriosity.

r iver

Be t hey

a nd t here a re p arallels e lsewhere.

T he a ssumption b y S panish c ommunities o f t he a dditional f eatures o f t he L atin r ight b esides c itizenship p er h onorem v aried w ith t he d egree o f R omanisation o f a c ommunity. S ome, l ike M alaca a nd S alpensa i n t he c ivilised p rovince o f B aetica , w ere p robably a lready u sing R oman-style l aws, i mmediately a ssumed t he t itles " duovir" a nd " municipium", a nd e ven r equested f ormal c harters a s as ymbol o f t heir n ew s tatus. C ommunities s uch a s t hese w ere p robably a llowed a g reater d egree o f a utonomy t han t hey h ad e njoyed a s p eregrine t owns,

i n r ecognition o f t heir L atinity.

O ther ,

m ore b ackward ,

c ommunities s eem t o h ave b een s lower t o a ssume t he o ptional f eatures a ssociated w ith t he L atin r ight. B ut t his s lowness s hould n ot a ppear s urprising o r a nomalous.

I t w as n ot s olely i n t he l ight o f t he c ountry's

s tandard o f R omanisation t hat V espasian g ave t he L atin r ight t o t he w hole o f S pain . A ll S panish c ommunities, h owever r emote , b enefited f rom t he g rant a nd

r eceived

P rincipate:

t he

e ssential

i ngredient

o f

t he

L atin

t he r ight t o R oman c itizenship p er h onorem .

2 17

/

r ight

u nder

t he

N OTES:

N OTES ( APPENDIX I II: 1 .

A PP.

II I

V ESPASIAN'S G RANT O F T HE L ATIN R IGHT T O S PAIN)

T he d ate o f t he g rant:

A .B. B osworth ,

" Vespasian a nd t he P rovinces:

S ome P roblems o f t he E arly 7 0's A .D .," A thenaeum N .S. 7 8 .

l i

( 1973) ,

I nscriptions c ommemorating R oman c itizenship p er h onorem : n .

4 9-

C hapter X

1.

T hat t he g rant t ook p lace d uring V espasian 's c ensorship i s n ot p roved s imply

b y

t he

e xistence

o f

i nscriptions

f rom

S pain

h onouring

V espasian a nd T itus a s c ensors ( e.g. C IL 2 2 322, 3 250 ; c f. B osworth, p p. 5 2-3). B ut C IL 2 1 049 = I LS 2 56 ( quoted i n t he t ext; a nd c f. C IL 2 1 050) d oes s uggest t hat M unigua a ttached s pecial s ignificance t o V espasian's c ensorship ( see M cElderry I , p . 7 0 f or M unigua's p romotion b y V espasian). 2 .

V itellius a nd L atium :

T ac.

i ii.

H ist.

5 5;

c f.

i .

8 ( Galba);

i .

7 8

( Otho). S pain 's d efection t o V espasian : O tho:

T ac.

H ist.

i .

7 8 ( cf.

T ac. H ist. i ii. 5 3; i ii.

i .

5 4;

i .

7 6):

7 0.

" ostentata m agis q uam

m ansura". 3 .

A s t he t ext s tands,

P liny a lludes d elicately t o as ensitive s ubject.

" Iactatus" , u nderstood a s r eferring t o t he s ituation i n A .D . ( despite B osworth ,

p. p

5 4-5 n .

7 0-1,

i s

2 6) o n t he c ontrary d isconcertingly

e xplicit. F or P liny's u se o f " tribuit" r ather t han " dedit",

c f.

R C,

m eaning

p. p

3 66-7.

H e

i nterprets

" tribuit"

a s

S herwin -White, " made

an

a llowance , a ssignment, o r o ffer", i n l ine w ith h is t heory t hat n ot a ll S panish c ommunities t ook t he s teps n ecessary t o a ccept i t ( on w hich s ee b elow , p p. 2 16-7). R ecent u ses:

n .

2 .

P olitical m otive: 4 .

c f. B osworth , p . 5 5.

L atin r ight g iven t o t he w hole o f

S pain :

P liny N H i ii.

3 0

( quoted

a bove, p . 2 15). " Civitas"

o rganisation

i n

S pain :

C hapter

I I

p p.

2 1-3.

A llegedly

i ncompatible w ith t he L atin r ight: S herwin-White, R C , p p. 3 60-79 . C onnexion b etween t he L atin r ight a nd R omanisation : 2 07-10 . 5 .

A ppendix I I p p.

A ppendix I I.

C ontent o f t he L atin r ight:

F or t he l imit o n t he n umber o f m agistrates a llowed t o r eceive R oman c itizenship i n a ny c ommunity e ach y ear , s ee F IRA I 2 3 X XI.

T here h as

b een

t hat

s ome

d ispute

a s

t o

w hether

t he

p rovision m eant

s ix

m agistrates ( and t heir r elatives) c ould r eceive R oman c itizenship e ach y ear , o r t hat t he l imit w as s ix p eople a ltogether ( e.g. H ardy, T hree S panish C harters, c redible:

i t i s

p .

6 6).

O nly

t he

f irst

a lternative s eems

s carcely p lausible t o m aintain t hat a m agistrate's

c laim t o c itizenship v aried a ccording t o t he n umber o f r elatives w hich a nother m agistrate h ad. M achinery f or a uthenticating e x-magistrates' c laims: c f. C hapter I X p . 1 53. T here i s v irtually n o e vidence f or t he w ay i n w hich c laims

2 18

N OTES:

A PP.

I II

w ere a ctually e stablished. V espasian's p olitical m otive: 6 .

a bove, p p. 2 15-6.

A s S herwin-White h as p ointed o ut,

" there i s a s ingular l ack o f p ost-

F lavian c reations i n S pain"

p .

( RC ,

3 67).

A ny c ommunity w hich w as

n ot o f R oman o r L atin s tatus b y t he F lavian p eriod i s l ikely t o h ave r emained p eregrine t hroughout t he s econd c entury A .D ..

O n t he s tatus

o f S panish c ommunities i n A .D. 1 4 , a nd s ubsequent p romotions ( apart f rom V espasian 's g rant) s ee C hapter V I n . 2a nd C hapter I n . 2 2. A ll c ommunities n ot p rivileged b y A .D. 6 9 w hose s ubsequent s tatus i s i ndicated a ppear f rom t heir t ribes a nd t itulature t o h ave b een p rivileged l ater :

m ost p lausibly f rom t he F lavian p eriod.

s ignificance o f t ribes a nd t itulature, s ee

C hapter I I n .

( For t he

1.)

T he o nly k nown p ost-Flavian p romotion i s I talica, p romoted b y H adrian f rom t he s tatus o f R oman m un icipium t o t hat o f R oman c olony ( Chapter In . 2 2). " Civitas L imicorum" : 4 215; c f. C hapter I I n . 3 . L ancia,

B rigiaecium :

4 223

=

I LS

6 932 , C IL 2 6 094; c f. C hapter I I

n . 4 . Z oelae:

c f. C hapter I I n . 3 .

2 606 ( "ordo Z oelarum");

" If tmicipia p rovinciae L usitaniae": 7 60 . S ee G alsterer , a pp. A , p p. 7 60.

6 2-4 ,

f or d oubts a bout t he a uthenticity o f

T he c laim t hat t he i nscription i s a f orgery d epends p artly o n

t he w ord a re n ot

" municipia",

a nd p artly o n a rchaeological a rguments w hich

b y t hemselves c ompelling.

C f.

B .D .

H oyos,

" In D efence

o f

C IL I I 7 60 ," A thenaeum N .S. l vi ( 1978), 3 90-5. F or t he " municipium corum" " municipium I asorum" i n P annonia, a nd t he L ato l,i " municipium B odontiacorum" i n t he M aritime A lps, R C , p p. 3 72-4. 7 .

s ee S herwin-White ,

C ivilisation i n B aetica : c f. C hapter I p . 7f .. F or R oman-style l aws a t S alpensa , s ee A ppendix I I p p. 2 08 f f.. S alpehsa's c harter s hows t hat t he t itle " duovir" w as i n u se b efore t he c harter w as i ssued ( FIRA I 2 3 X XVI; 23-4). 2 A utonomy:

C hapter V I p p.

1 00-2,

1 06 f f..

2 19

c f.

t here

A ppendix I V p p.

A PPENDIX I V C OLONIAL A ND M UNICIPAL C HARTERS ( i)

I ntroduction

I t i s a rgued i n t he t ext t hat c olonial c harters a re t o b e r egarded i n a d ifferent l ight f rom t hose b elonging t o m unicipia. i s, h ad t heir o rigin i n t he p ractical c onstitution f or a n ewly-founded c ommunity ;

C olonial c harters, t hat

n ecessity o f e stablishing a w hile i n t he c ase o f m unicipia

c harters w ere n ot s trictly n ecessary. A lthough c olonies w ould t ypically h ave b een f urnished w ith a c harter a t t heir f oundation , i t i s p ossible t hat m unicipia w ere o ften u nchartered .1 T his d istinction b etween c olonial a nd m unicipal c harters n eeds t o b e a rgued i n g reater d etail. q uestion w hich a rises w ith r egard t o c harters i s h ow f ar t he

A f urther c ommunities

c oncerned w ere b ound t o o bey t he r egulations i nitially s et o ut. B oth R oman a nd L atin c ommunities m ade u se o f d istinctive t itles:

n ot

o nly t he t itles " colonia" o r " municipium" f or t he c ommunity i tself, b ut a lso t hose o f " duovir" o r " quattuorvir" f or i ts m agistrates. T hese t itles ( with t he e xception o f " quattuorvir", w hich i s r arely f ound) w ere w idespread a mong t he R oman a nd L atin c ommunities o f S pain.

2

W hether t hese t itles w ere

o bligatory f rom t he R oman g overnment's p oint o f v iew i s, h owever , d ebatable. T he q uestion h ow o bligatory t he t itles w ere i s t o a n e xtent t ied u p w ith t he q uestion o f t he c harters' n ature a nd d istribution .

( ii)

C olonial a nd m unicipal c harters 3

M unicipal c harters T he m unicipal c harters w hich s urvive f rom S pain a re t hose o f t he F lavian L atin m unicipia S alpensa a nd M alaca. S alpensa a nd M alaca , l ike t he c olony U rso, w hose c harter a lso s urvives, b elonged t o t he p rovince o f B aetica ; a lthough n one o f t he t hree t owns w as p articularly c lose t o e ither o f t he o thers. 4 I n d ealing w ith t he q uestion o f m unicipal c harters, c onsider t he r easons w hich c ould h ave

i t i s h elpful t o

l ain b ehind t heir c omposition.

M unicipia w ere u sually c ommunities w hich h ad a lready p ossessed a s ystem o f g overnment b efore t heir a cquisition o f R oman o r L atin s tatus.

I n t he c ase

o f m ost m unicipia , t here w as n o p ractical r eason w hy e xisting a dministrative p rocedures s hould n ot h ave s urvived t he p romotion l argely u nchanged .5 I f p eregrine c ommunities h ad s tandardly o wned w ritten c onstitutions, i t n ight h ave b een n atural , a lthough n ot n ecessary , f or p romotion t o b e a ccompanied b y am unicipal c harter r eplacing t he o ld c onstitution o f t he p eregrine c ommunity.

B ut i t w ould b e m istaken t o a ssume t hat t he c ommunities o f t he

R oman E mpire r equired t he g uidance o f r egulations f ormally s pelt o ut i n a c harter f or t he m anagement o f t heir a ffairs. C ustom , a s w ell a s w ritten r egulations , c ould p rovide a s atisfactory b asis f or l ocal a dministration ; a nd c ustom c ould r eadily s urvive a c ommunity's p romotion t o R oman o r L atin s tatus. 6 I f c harters w ere a n e ssential , o r u sual , c oncomitant o f p romotion

2 20

t o m unicipal r ank , t he r eason i s p ractical c onsiderations.

l ikely t o l ie m ore i n c onceptual t han i n

F rom t he f act t hat t he s ources r efer , n ot t o g rants o f c harters o r t he t itle " municipium" , b ut o nly t o g rants o f R oman c itizenship a nd t he L atin r ight,

i t h as

b een a rgued

t hat

n either t itle n or c harter w as a n ecessary

B ut s ince c harters a nd t he t itle c orollary o f t hese p rivileges. 7 " municipium" a re f ound i n b oth R oman a nd L atin c ommunities, r eferences t o c harters a nd t he t itle " municipium" w ould i n a ny c ase h ave b een a mbiguous. M ore d amaging t o t he t heory t hat c harters n ecessarily a ccompanied p romotion a re t he e xtant r eferences t o r eorganisation o f l ocal g overnment. A lthough i n s ome c ases g rants o f R oman c itizenship o r t he L atin r ight t o c ommunities w ere f ollowed b y a r eorganisation o f l ocal g overnment d escribable b y t he t erm " constitutio", t he e vidence g oes n o w ay t owards s howing t hat s e r eorganisation w as a f amiliar p rocedure w hich u sually f ollowed p romotion . I n t he p articular c ase o f L atin c ommunities, M alaca,

i nstances

c an

b e

c ited

w here

s uch a s S alpensa a nd

p romotion

w as

a pparently

n ot

a ccompanied b y t he g rant o f am unicipal c harter . I n s ome L atin c ommunities i n G aul a nd t he A lpine p rovinces, a s tandardised p attern o f m unicipal T he f act d etracts f rom t he g overnment s eem t o h ave b een a bsent. 9 p lausibility o f t he h ypothesis t hat c harters w ere a n a utomatic a ccompaniment o f t he L atin r ight, s ince i t i s d ifficult t o u nderstand w hy a s pecial e xemption s hould h ave b een a llowed i n t he C eltic a reas f rom w hat w as r egarded a s e ssential e lsewhere. E xamination o f t he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca t hemselves p rovides a rguments a gainst t he v iew t hat t he R oman g overnment n ormally g ave c harters o f i ts o wn a ccord t o n ewly p romoted L atin c ommunities. T he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca s eem t o r epresent a n a daptation f or t he p articular

c ommunities

c oncerned

o f

s ome

m ore

g eneral

r egulations

o n

l ocal g overnment: i ndeed , t he t wo c harters w ere p robably b ased o n ac ommon ° C onstruction f rom a c ommon m odel i n i tself p oints t o s ome d egree m odel. 1 o f R oman i nvolvement i n t he c harters' c omposition , s ince t he R oman g overnment w ould b e t he m ost l ikely s ource o f t he m odel r egulations. I n f act , R ome n ot o nly p rovided a ssistance , b ut a lso b acked t he c harters w ith h er o wn a uthority: t he L ex S alpensana h as a uthority t o g uarantee t he c lai m s o f e x-magistrates

t o R oman c itizenship .

1

H owever ,

t his c onclusion d oes

n ot a nswer t he q uestions w ho i nitiated t he c omposition o f t he c harters,

a nd

w hat t heir s tatus w as a s r egulatory d ocuments. I ndications

o f

l ocal c o-operation i n t he

c harters'

c omposition c ould

g ive s ome s upport t o t he h ypothesis t hat t hey w ere g iven a s ar esult o f l ocal i nitiative. B ut l ocal c o-operation c annot b e p roved f rom t he p rovision i n t he L ex S alpensana t hat m unicipal m agistrates t ake a n o ath w ithin f ive d ays " post h anc l egem d atam"; n or f rom t he e rrors m ade i n e ngraving t he c harters o n b ronze. I t i s c ertain o nly t hat t he c harters w ere e ngraved i n S pain: w here t hey w ere o riginally c omposed r emains u nclear .i 2 A m ore c onvincing a rgument f or l ocal i nitiative l ies i n t he i nadequacy o f t he t wo c harters a s a d etailed g uide t o m anagement o f t he c ommunities' a ffairs. E ven w hen a llowance h as b een m ade f or t he f ragmentary s tate o f t he c harters, t here a re o missions w hich s how t hem t o b e u nreliable a s a f oundation f or l egal a nd c onstitutional p rocedures. T hus, f or e xample , t he L ex S alpensana p resupposes a n i ndependent k nowledge o f R oman c ivil l aw , b y r eference t o w hich t he r ights o f t utores a re d efined.

21 2

T he L ex M alacitana a ssumes,

w ithout e xplicitly s tating ,

t he e xistence o f a

c ursus h onorum : a c ursus h onorum w as s urely a m ore b asic e lement i n t he c onstitution t han s ome o f t he d etails o f e lectoral p rocedure w hich a re d escribed

i n

t he

l aw .

1 3

I f

t he

l aws

w ere

a n u nreliable

f oundation

f or

p rocedure, t hey c an h ardly h ave s erved t o e nforce, o r t o s uggest, a c onstitution a ppropriate t o aL atin c ommunity. T his w ould s uggest t hat t he c harters' p rimary f unction w as n ot p ractical, b ut s ymbolic: t hey w ere i ntended , t hat i s, c hiefly a s as ymbol o f p rivileged s tatus. A nd a s s uch , i t s eems p robable t hat t hey w ere d emanded b y t he c ommunities t hemselves r ather t han i ssued o n t he i nitiative o f R ome. ' 4 T he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca , t hen , a ppear n ot t o h ave b een a n e ssential a ccompaniment o f L atin s tatus , b ut t o h ave b een i ssued b y t he R oman g overnment a t t he r equest o f t he c ommunities t hemselves. T hey s eem t o h ave b een b ased o n ac ommon m odel , a lthough t he d egree ( if a ny) o f l ocal c o-operation i n a dapting t he m odel f or t he p articular t owns c oncerned r emains u nclear . T hat t he c harters' p rimary f unction w as s ymbolic r ather t han p ractical d oes n ot s how t hat n o p ractical u se w as m ade o f t he r egulations i n t he c harters; b ut i t d oes i ndicate t hat t he R oman g overnment d id n ot i tself v iew t he c harters a s i nstruments o f c ontrol. I t s eems p lausible f rom t he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca t hat t he R oman g overnment d id , o n r equest , p rovide s ome d ocument w hich w as g enerally a pplicable t o t he n ew L atin c ommunities o f S pain . I t i s, t herefore , n ot i mprobable t hat a n umber o f F lavian L atin c ommunities, i n B aetica a t l east, h ad c harters c omposed o n t he s ame m odel a s t he L ex S alpensana a nd L ex M älacitana. T his c onjecture r eceives c onfirmation f rom t he c onsiderations t hat n o s pecial l ink b etween S alpensa a nd M alaca i s k nown , a nd t hat S alpensa a t a ny r ate w as n ot a t own o f a ny i mportance. 1 5 W hether m unicipal c harters w ere a lso w idespread a mong t he e arlier R oman a nd L atin m unicipia o f S pain m ust r emain u ncertain . T he o nly i ndication t hat t hey e xisted c onsists i n t he f act t hat t owns l ike S alpensa a nd M alaca m ust h ave a cquired f rom s ome s ource t he i dea t hat c harters w ere a ppropriate t o t heir n ew s tatus. T he m ost o bvious s ource w ould b e c harters p ossessed 6 b y e xisting R oman a nd L atin m unicipia. 1

C olonial c harters O riginally,

t he f oundation o f c olonies,

i n c ontrast t o m unicipia,

i nvolved t he e stablishment o f n ew c ommunities w ithout a ny p re-existing s ystem o f l ocal g overnment. I t i s o nly r easonable t o s uppose , o n p ractical g rounds,

t hat d irections f or g over n mental i nstitutions a nd p rocedures w ould

t hen h ave b een e nshrined i n s omething o f t he n ature o f a f oundation l aw o r c harter . S ome o f t he c olonies f ounded f rom t he l ate R epublic o nwards w ere a lso e ntirely n ew c ommunities; w hile o thers w ere p urely t itular p romotions, o r e lse f ormed b y t he a ddition o f n ew s ettlers t o a c ommunity's e xisting i nhabitants. T hus I talica's p romotion b y H adrian t o c olonial s tatus p robably i nvolved a c hange o f t itle w ithout a ny a lteration t o t he c itizen p opulation ;

a nd w hen T arraco a nd C arthago N ova i n T arraconensis w ere m ade

c olonies i n t he s econd h alf o f t he f irst c entury B .C., t he l ocal p opulations m ay w ell h ave b een i ncorporated a long w ith n ew s ettlers.

1 7

O nce t he

c onnexion b etween c olonies a nd c harters h ad d eveloped o ut o f p ragmatic n ecessity, i t w as o f c ourse p ossible f or t he l ink t o b e r egarded i n

2 22

c onceptual s tatus. h ave b een g overnment

t erms, a nd c harters t reated a s o ne o f t he p rivileges o f c olonial T hus c olonies s uch a s I talica , T arraco , a nd C arthago N ova c ould f urnished w ith c harters e ven w hen a n a dequate s ystem o f l ocal e xisted a lready .

T he o nly c olonial c harter w hich s urvives f rom S pain i s t hat o f t he C aesarian c olony U rso i n B aetica: U rso w as f ounded o n t he s ite o f a P ompeian t own , p robably w ithout f ormal i nclusion o f t he n ative p opulation . T he c harter s eems t o h ave d erived o riginally f rom a c ompilation o f l aws m ade a t t he t ime o f t he c olony's f oundation , a nd t o t his e xtent p robably r epresents c ommon p rocedure i n t he c ase o f d eductio. 1 8 T he e xtant c opy o f U rso's c harter w as i nscribed o n b ronze i n t he F lavian p eriod , a nd c ontains a dditions m ade a fter t he c olony's f oundation . B oth t he o riginal t ext, a nd s ome o f t he l ater a dditions a lso, s how s igns o f c opying f rom g eneral r egulations n ot a pplicable t o U rso a lone ; j ust a s t he c harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca b etray t he i nfluence o f am ore g eneral d ocument. 1 9 I n o ne i nstance a t l east, a l ater a ddition t o U rso's c harter -on t he s ubject o f t he a ppointment o f p atrons a nd h ospites -contradicts a n e arlier c lause w hich w as r etained a nd a lso i nscribed o n t he b ronze. T his t ends t o s uggest t hat t he i nscription o f t he c harter o n b ronze h ad a p urpose a s m uch d ecorative a s f unctional. T reatment o f t he c harter a s a d ecorative o bject d oes n ot o f c ourse s how t hat t he r egulations c ontained i n i t f ailed t o c ontrol l ocal a dministration. B ut t hat t he r egulations r epresent a n a ttempt b y t he R oman g overnment t o d irect a dministration i rrespective o f l ocal w ishes s eems i mplausible. T he a ddition t o t he c harter c oncerning p atrons a nd h ospites d oes i ndeed s how t he c ommunity c onforming t o t he w ill o f t he R oman g overnment: i t r eflects a g eneral r egulation m ade b y A ugustus. B ut o ther a dditions -s uch a s t he c hapters e choing t he l ex I ulia t heatralis -betray l ocal p reoccupations, a nd a re m ore e asily e xplained a s h aving b een m ade o n l ocal i nitiative. 2° U rso's c harter , t hen , i nitially s erved t o d irect t he a ffairs o f an ewly o rganised c ommunity . C ontinued a dherence t o t he c harter p robably w as n ot e nforced b y R ome, b ut w as r ather a m atter f or d etermination b y t he c ommunity. O n t his v iew o f t he c harter , U rso w as a t l iberty t o a lter t he r egulations i nitially s et o ut , s o l ong a s s he o bserved t he g eneral l imits o n a utonomy w hich R ome l aid d own .2 1

( iii)

T itulature

T he t itulature u sed b y R oman a nd L atin c ommunities d id n ot r equire t he i nspiration o f a n i ndividual c harter .

T he m ere e mployment o f t itles w as a

r ealtively s imple m atter; a nd i ndeed S alpensa's c harter s hows t hat " duoviri" e xisted t here b efore t he c harter w as i ssued. T he e xistence o f t he t itle " duovir" a t S alpensa b efore t he r eceipt o f t he c harter a lso s hows t hat

t he

c harter w as

n ot

n eeded

t o

s anction

t his

t itle's

u se.

A

c ommunity's e mployment o f c olonial o r m unicipal t itulature , t hen , c annot b e t reated a s e vidence f or t he p ossession o f ac harter . C onversely , h owever , c hartered c ommunities m ight b e e xpected t o m ake u se o f t he s pecial t itulature , s ince i t a ppears i n t he c harters t hemselves. T he a ppearance o f t he t itulature i n t he c harters s hows t hat t he R oman g overnment e xpected p rivileged c ommunities t o m ark t heir s tatus b y t he e mployment o f t itles s uch a s

" duovir" a nd

" municipium" .

T he

e pigraphic

2 23

e vidence

f rom S pain a s

a

w hole c onfirms

t hat p rivileged c ommunities u sually d id s o ;

a nd a lso t hat

2 B ut t here i s n o t hese t itles w ere r estricted t o p rivileged c ommunities. 2 i ndication t hat t he t itles w ere c onsidered o bligatory f or t he c ommunities c oncerned : a ny m ore t han t hey w ere o bligatory f or L atin c ommunities i n G aul a nd t he A lpine p rovinces , o r f or t he m unicipium L epcis i n A frica. S ome o f t he F lavian L atin c ommunities i n S pain n eglected t o a dopt t he t itle 3 " municipium" , a t l east, a t t he t ime w hen t hey r eceived t he L atin r ight. 2

( iv)

C onclusion

T here i s n o d oubt t hat t here w as a v ery h igh d egree o f s tandardisation i n t he a dministrative i nstitutions o f R oman a nd L atin c ommunities i n S pain u nder t he P rincipate ; a nd t hat t his s tandardisation w as b ased o n R aman c onceptions o f t he a ppropriate i nstitutions a nd t itulature. I t d oes n ot f ollow , h owever , t hat c onformity w as i mposed b y t he R oman g overnment: m ore p robably, i t w as d ue t o c ommunities' o wn d esire t o e mbrace R oman i nstitutions a nd t he l anguage d escribing t hem.

2 4

T he a ssimilation o f

R oman f orms o f g overnment d id n ot n ecessarily i nvolve a s ingle b rief a ct o f r eorganisation , f ollowing i mmediately u pon p romotion a nd m arked b y t he c omposition o f a c harter . T he f eature o f p rivileged c ommunities w hich i s m ost s trikingly u niversal , t hat i s, t he e mployment o f as pecial t itulature, d id n ot r equire r adical r eorganisation o r aw ritten c harter . A lthough s ome c olonial c harters -at l east i n t he e arly y ears o f a c olony -served a n e ssential a nd p ractical p urpose , t hose p ossessed b y m unicipia i n S pain s eem t o h ave b een v alued p rimarily a s s ymbols o f p rivileged s tatus, a nd t o h ave b een a cquired f rom t he R oman g overnment o n l ocal i nitiative. P robably n either t ype o f c harter r epresents a n a ttempt b y R ome t o e xercise c ontrol o ver l ocal a dministration . R ivalry

b etween

c ommunities

w as

a c ontributory

f actor

t o

t he

s tandardisation o f a dministrative i nstitutions. N ot o nly w ere c ommunities a nxious t o a dopt t he s ymbolism a ppropriate t o t heir a wn s tatus; b ut t hey w ere a lso i nclined t o e mulate c ommunities o f s uperior r ank . T hus m unicipia c ame t o h ave " duoviri" , l ike c olonies, a nd t o i mitate c olonial c harters. S uch e mulation c ould l end a s ymbolic v alue t o a rrangements w hich h ad b een c onceived o riginally w ith a p urely p ractical p urpose.

W hen U rso p ublished

h er c harter i n t he F lavian p eriod, s he w as p robably r esponding t o V espasian 's g fgnt o f t he L atin r ight b y r easserting h er o wn s uperiority a s a R oman c olony.

24 2

N OTES: N OTES ( APPENDIX I V :

A PP . I V

C OLONIAL A ND M UNICIPAL C HARTERS)

1 .

D istinction b etween c olonial a nd m unicipal c harters: 1 00-1.

2 .

T itles:

3 .

O n t he s ubject o f c olonial

C IL 2 I I ,

I ndex , p p.

159-68 ;

C hapter V I p p .

c f. C hapter I I n .

a nd m unicipal

c harters

1.

i n g eneral ,

s ee

e .g. M .W . F rederiksen , " The R epublican M unicipal L aws: E rrors a nd D rafts," J RS l v ( 1965), 1 83-98; H . B raunert, " Ius L ath i i n d en S tadtrechten v on S alpensa u nd M alaca," i n C orolla M emoriae E rich S woboda D edicate ( Graz e tc ., 1 966), p p. 6 8-83 ; S herwin-White , R C , p p. 3 60 f f.; F .G .B. M illar , T he E mperor i n t he R oman W orld ( 31 B .C. -A.D . 3 37) ( London , 1 977), p p. 3 94-410 ; a ll w ith r eferences t o o ther l iterature . 4 .

C harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca :

F IRA I 2 3-4.

F or t heories a bout

t he r elation b etween t hese c harters a nd L atin s tatus, s ee e .g. B raunert; S herwin -White , R C , p p. 3 60 f f.; M illar , p p. 4 04-5 . L ocations o f U rso , M alaca , a nd S alpensa: H . K iepert, A tlas A ntiquus ( Berlin , 2 22-3 . 5 .

n .d.),

T ab .

X ,

E c ,

E b .

O n U rso's c harter s ee b elow ,

p p.

E xceptions a re m unicipia f ormed b y a malgamation o f s maller p eregrine c ommunities ( chapter I I p p. 2 4-7); a nd a lso m unicipia s uch a s E mporiae , w hich a ppears t o h ave b een a n ew f oundation ( Appendix V p p. 2 30 ,

2 31).

F or t he o peration o f R oman l aw i n R oman ( but n ot L atin)

m unicipia , s ee C hapter V I p .

1 05;

A ppendix I I p p. 2 08 f f..

6 .

F or c ustom a s t he b asis, s ee e .g. F IRA I 2 0 ,

7 .

M illar ,

p p .

3 98-406.

O n t he t itle

1 012.

um uncipium" ,

s ee f urther b elow ,

p. 2 23-4 . p 8 .

" Constitutio": e .g. F IRA I 8 , 2 2; I 1 2 K L . I II , V ; 1 5; C ic. A d F am. x iii. 1 1. 3 . C f. F rederiksen ,

C aesar B C i . p. 1 89-97; p

M illar , p . 3 99 . 9 . 1 0 .

S herwin-White , R C , p p. 3 67-75. C harters o f S alpensa a nd M alaca p robably b ased o n ac ommon m odel:

i t

i s g enerally a ssumed t hat t he t wo l aws, w hich w ere f ound i n t he s ame p lace ( n . 1 5) c an b e p ut t ogether t o s upplement o ne a nother , t he o nly d ifference b etween t he o riginal t exts h aving b een t he n ames o f t he

t owns

( e.g.

H ardy,

T hree

S panish

C harters,

p. p

6 7-8).

R eferences t o " id m unicipium" ( rather t han t o t he p articular c ommunity) p oint t o r eliance o n a d ocument o f m ore g eneral a pplication ( FIRA I 2 3 X XIV-XXVII ; I2 4 L II-LIII , L X , L XVI -LXVII ; c f. b elow , n .

1 9).

25 2

N OTES: A PP . I V 1 1.

1 2.

F IRA I 2 3 X XI -

L ex S alpensana g uarantees c laims o f e x-magistrates: X XIII . " Post h (anc)

F IRA I 2 3 X XVI.

1 (egem) d atam" :

T he p rovision d oes

n ot s how t hat ( as a rgued b y M illar , p . 4 05) t he c harter w as c omposed o n t he s pot; n or, a f ortiori, d oes i t s peak i n f avour o f l ocal c o-operation . T he e xpression " legem d are" d oes n ot h ave t he p recise l egal m eaning o f " issuing a l aw" ( Frederiksen , p p. 1 89-90). E rrors: e .g. " natalis" f or " natis", F IRA I 2 3 X XI; " dium" f or X " divum" , i bid. XVI ; " municepii" f or " municipii" , F IRA I 2 4 L VIII . ( Cf. F rederiksen , p p. 1 87-9 .) O n t he p ublication o f l aws, s ee F rederiksen , p p . 1 3.

L ex S alpensana a nd R oman c ivil l aw : F IRA I 2 3 X XIX ; c f. A ppendix I I p p . 2 08-9 . C ursus h onorum i n L ex M alacitana : F IRA I 2 4 L IV ; c f. C hapter I V n . 2 2.

1 4.

F IRA I 2 4 L I f f..

E lectoral p rocedure:

F or t he i mportance o f

s ymbolism ,

c f.

F or l ocal i nitiative , c f. F rederiksen ; 1 5 .

1 84-7.

S herwin-White ,

R C ,

p p.

4 11-5 .

M illar , p p. 4 03-5.

N o s pecial l ink b etween S alpensa a nd M alaca :

c f.

" Zu d en s panischen S tadtrechten ," W S x xiv ( 1902),

n .

4 .

H . p p .

2 40-7,

D essau , 2 40-2 ,

p lausibly e xplains t he d iscovery o f t he L ex S alpensana t ogether w ith t he L ex M alacitana i n t he n eighbourhood o f M alaga b y a t heory t hat t he L ex S alpensana w as e ngraved a t t he o fficinae a erariae o f M alaca . T he p ublication o f U rso's c harter i n t he F lavian p eriod p rovides s ome s upport f or t he h ypothesis t hat c harters w ere r elatively w idespread a mong t he F lavian L atin c ommunities o f B aetica: t hat i s, U rso w as r eminded o f, c f. n . 1 4). 1 6 .

1 9 ;

H istory o f c olonisation : E .T . S almon , R oman C olonization u nder t he R epublic ( London , 1 969), p p. 1 3 f f., 1 28 f f.. T itular c olonies: c f. p. 3 50-2. I talica : p A ppendix V n . 1 0 .

C hapter I n .

2. 2

T arraco

F or U rso's f oundation , s ee A ppendix V p . 2 30 . U rso's c harter : c f.

1 9 .

( n .

1 89 f f..

S herwin-White , R C , a nd C arthago N ova: 1 8 .

h er c olonial c harter

F or c harters b elonging t o R oman m unicipia i n I taly , s ee F rederiksen , p. p

1 7.

a nd i nspired t o d isplay,

S almon , p p .

D ate o f

F IRA I 2 1.

F or p rocedure i n t he c ase o f d eductio ,

1 9 f f..

t he e xtant

c opy o f U rso's

c harter :

e .g.

d 'Ors,

E pigrafia

J uridica , p . 1 71. F or p ost-Caesarian i nterpolations i n t he c harter , s ee H . N issen , " Zu d en r ömischen S tadtrechten ," R hM N . F . x lv ( 1890), 1 00-10; O . G radenwitz, " Nochmals: D ie r ömischen S tadtrechte ," Z RG x liii ( 1922), 4 39-55. C opying f rom g eneral r egulations: s ee t he r eferences t o " ea c olonia" i n e .g.

X CVI -XCVII ,

C XXVIII f f. n .

a nd t he c areless c itation o f m agistracies i n

( Chapter X n .

1 0);

c f. F rederiksen ,

1 0 .

26 2

p .

1 91,

a nd a bove ,

N OTES: 2 0 .

P atrons

a nd

h ospites:

A PP . I V

C XXX

-C XXXI

c ontradict

t he

e arlier

p rescription i n X CVII ( Frederiksen , p p. 1 94-5). C ompare t he d iscrepancy b etween C XXVII a nd C XXV . C XXX -C XXXI r eflect A ugustan r egulation o n t he a ppointment o f p atrons:

C hapter V n .

3 1;

c f.

F rederiksen ,

p p.

1 94-5.

C hapters

e choing t he L ex I ulia t heatralis: C XXVI -CXXVII ; c f. N issen , p . 10 , G radenwitz, p p. 4 41 f f., F rederiksen , p . 1 95. F or t he o rdo's 1 p reoccupation w ith i ts o wn s tatus , s ee e .g . C hapter I V p p. 5 6-7 , 6 4 . 2 1. 2 . 2

F or t he g eneral l imits o n a utonomy , s ee C hapter V I p p. 9 9 f f.. " Duoviri" a lready e xist a t S alpensa :

F IRA I 2 3 X XVI ;

p . 8 1. T itulature i n t he c harters: F IRA I 2 1; E pigraphic e vidence f rom S pain a s aw hole : n . 2 . 2 3 .

c f.

B raunert,

2 3-4;

p assim.

G aul a nd A lpine p rovinces: S herwin-White, R C, p p. 3 67-75; c f. a bove, p . 2 21. L epcis : S herwin-White , R C , p p. 3 63-4 , p . 3 77 n . 4 . D elayed a ssumption o f t itle " municipium" : A ppendix I II p . 2 17. A E 1 967 1 97 s eems t o s how t ransition f rom t he t itle " mag(istratus)" t o t hat o f " duovir" a t C apera i n L usitania.

2 4 .

F or t he d esire t o a dopt R oman-style i nstitutions,

c f. S herwin-White ,

R C , p p. 4 11-5. 2 5 .

I mitation o f c olonies b y m unicipia: W hite, R C , p p. 4 11-5. U rso : n . 1 5.

27 2

c f.

C hapter I I n .

1;

S herwin-

A PPENDIX V I NCOLAE A S C ITIZENS O F N O C OMMUNITY

( i)

I ntroduction

I t i s a ssumed i n t he t ext t hat f or e very f ree i ndividual r esident i n S pain t here w as s ome c ommunity o f w hich h e o r s he w as a c itizen . H ence r eferences t o " incolae" i n S panish i nscriptions, i n at echnical s ense o f t he w ord w hich p recludes c itizenship, a re i nterpreted s imply a s c oncerning i ndividuals w ho w ere c itizens n ot o f t he c ommunity i n w hich t hey l ived , b ut o f s ome o ther c ommunity . T he b asic c omponent o f c itizenship ( that w hich w as b oth a n ecessary p art o f, a nd s ufficient t o c onstitute , c itizenship o f ac ommunity) i s t aken t o b e t he p ossession o f p rivate r ights i n l aw .' T his v iew i s t he s ame a s t hat t aken b y t he R oman j urists, w ho i mply t he e xistence o f u niversal l ocal c itizenship . A lthough t hey a dmit a f ew e xceptions t o t he p rinciple ( the " ( j 116ÄLÖCC H o r " nullius c ertae c ivitatis c ives" , w ho l ack p rivate r ights i n a ny c ommunity) t he p eople c oncerned a re n ot a ny w idespread g roup o f u nprivileged n atives, b ut s pecifically e xiles, s ervi p oenae, a nd d editicii. 2

t here

H owever , i n s pite o f t he j urists' t heory , o ther e vidence s uggests t hat d id e xist i n t he R oman E mpire s ome f ree n atives w ho w ere e xcluded

a ltogether f rom c itizenship . E xamples a re f reedmen i n c ertain c ommunities i n t he E ast, a nd p ossibly a lso c ountry—dwellers a t C yrene a nd a t P rusias i n B ithynia . T his e vidence d oes n ot n ecessarily c onflict r adically w ith t he l egal s ources. T he a cceptance o f a p rinciple o f u niversal l ocal c itiz v .ship ' could b e c onsistent w ith a wareness o f m inor e xceptions t o t he

N o s imilar c ategories

o f f ree n atives w ho l acked c itizenship c an b e

d etected i n t he W est o f t he E mpire. T he a ttributi o f t he A lpine r egion h ad t heir o wn c ivitates, o f w hich t hey w ere c itizens. I t m ay b e a ssumed t hat i n t he p roblematic G allic t ribes a ll i ndivduals e njoyed a t l east p rivate r ights w ithin t he c ivitas. I n S pain , a lthough f reedmen , b y r egulation , a nd t he p oor, i n e ffect, w ere e xcluded f rom o ffice, a nd a lthough i nformal d iscrim ination o perated a gainst t he c ountry p opulation , n one o f t hese g roups l acked t he p rivate r ights o f c itizens. P rivate r ights w ere a ssured e ven t o w omen. T he p henomenon o f " contributio" i n S pain s eems o nly t o h ave i nvolved t he c reation o f as ingle a malgamated c ommunity , w ithout i ntroducing i nequalities o f c itizen r ights. 4 I f f ree n atives w ithout c itizenship e xisted i n S pain ,

t hey c annot h ave

b een t he p roduct o f s ystematic d iscrimination a gainst c ertain g roups i n t he p opulation. T hey m ust h ave o riginated, i f a t a ll, f rom m ore v aried p rejudices;

o r e ven a s t he a ccidental v ictims o f e vents.

I t m ust b e

a ssumed t hat t hey e xisted u nder c over o f t he g eneral t erm "incolae" f ound i n

2 28

i nscriptions:

a t erm w hich a pplied a lso t o r esidents o f a c ommunity w ho h ad

c itizenship e lsewhere. T he f act t hat n o s pecial t erm c an b e f ound t o d escribe f ree n atives w ithout c itizenship t ends t o c onfirm t he h ypothesis t hat i f t hey e xisted t hey w ere a v aried g roup , a nd n ot t he p roduct o f t heory o r s ystem .5

( ii)

R easons f or e xclusion

R oman p olicies m ight h ave b een r esponsible , i n c ertain c ases, f or t he e xclusion o f p eople f rom c itizenship o f t he o nly c ommunity t o w hich t hey h ad a ny c laim t o b elong a s n atives. C ases w orth c onsidering a re t he f oundation o f R oman c olonies , a nd t he c reation o f R oman m unicipia. A nother p ossible c ause o f e xclusion w as l ocal p rejudice, u nsanctioned b y t he R oman g overnment. T his c ould h ave o perated e ven i n u nprivileged c ommunities, b ut p erhaps w as m ost l ikely t o o ccur w hen a c ommunity o btained R oman c itizenship .

R oman c olonies N ot u ncommonly ,

w hen a c olony w as f ounded ,

t he o riginal c ommunity l ost

o nly a p art o f i ts t erritory , a nd c ontinued t o e xist s ide b y s ide w ith t he T his c olony a s a s eparate a nd o fficially r ecognised a dministrative u nit. 6 p ractice i s a ttested f or t wo A ugustan c olonies i n B aetica. A t T ucci a nd A stigi t owns b y t he n ame o f " Tucci V etus" a nd " Astigi V etus" c ontinued t o e xist a longside t he n ew c olonies. T he c ase o f t he R epublican c olony V alentia i n T arraconensis m ay h ave b een s imilar. T here a d ual s et o f a dministrative i nstitutions, b elonging t o " veterani" a nd " veteres" r espectively , i s f ound i n t he t hird c entury A .D .. A t t hat d ate t he t wo o rdines w ere t ending t o a ct i n c onjunction . B ut . he d ivision m ay h ave d erived f rom a c omplete s e ieration o f t he o riginal c ommunity f rom t he c olony i n t he f irst c entury B .C..' S uch c ases h ave n o b earing o n t he q uestion o f u nattached n atives a s a c onsequence ä f c olonisation . C itizens o f t he o riginal c ommunity m ight l ose l and t o t he c olonists, a nd b e e xcluded f rom c itizenship o f t he c olony , b ut t hey w ould r etain a ll t he r ights o f c itizens i n t heir n ative c ommunity. A p roblem a rises o nly w here t he o riginal c ommunity c eased t o e xist a ltogether a s a n a dministrative u nit. H ere t he e xtent t o w hich n atives w ere a dmitted olony a s c itizens o f t he 8c d ifferent o ccasions.

a ppears

t o h ave

v aried

a t

d ifferent

p laces

o n

I t w ould a ppear t hat t o b ecome a c olonus w as t o h ave a p iece o f l and i n t he c olony a ssigned t o o ne. T hus w hen t he L atin c olony C arteia w as f ounded i n S pain i n 1 71 B .C .

t hose n atives w ho w ished t o r emain w ere a llowed " uti

n umero c olonorum e ssent, a gro a dsignato". S ometimes, i rrespective o f s ocial o r p olitical p rejudices a gainst t he n atives, t here c annot h ave b een e nough l and a vailable t o i nclude t hem a ll a mong t he c oloni. T he t o m a , vopeC Lr a.,Xe x coe /ad r nitted t o t he s ettlement a t C orduba i n 1 52 B .C. a re e vidence f or e xclusion o f n atives a s w ell a s a cceptance o f t hem .9 N or w as s hortage o f l and t he o nly p ossible r eason f or e xclusion : o ne's s uitability a s a c olonus c ould b e t hough t o d epend o n o ne's s ocial o r p olitical s tanding, h owever m uch l and w as a vailable. I n 4 5 B .C. i t w as t hose S paniards w ho h ad b een l oyal t o h im w hom J ulius C aesar a dmitted t o h is

2 29

c olonies i n H ispania U lterior. J ulius C aesar a ppears t o h ave h ad c ertain s ocial p rejudices a s w ell. I n t he c ommunity w hich h e f ounded a t E mporiae t he n ative S paniards a ppear t o h ave b een i ncluded f rom t he s tart, o n e qual t erms w ith t he R oman s ettlers. Y et i n s pite o f t his t olerance, i t i s a s a n e xample o f p rejudice t hat E mporiae i s i nteresting . F or t he p rivileged c ommunity t here w as o nly a R oman m unicipium : i t n ever h ad t he t itle o f c olony. T he l arge-sca h i nclusion o f S paniards, " colonia" i nappropriate.

t hat i s,

S hortage o f l and a nd s ocial a nd p olitical p rejudices

m ade t he t itle

w ere a ll f actors

w hich c ould w ork a gainst t he i nclusion o f n atives i n a c olony, a nd l eave t hem, i f t heir o riginal c ommunity d isappeared, w ith c itizenship o f n o c ommunity a t a ll. o f P ompeian t owns, e n m asse a s c oloni.

U rso a nd H ispalis i n B aetica w ere f ounded o n t he s ites w hose i nhabitants a re u nlikely t o h ave b een w elcomed Y et t here i s n o m ention , a s t here i s f or e xample a t

M unda , o f a l arge-scale s laughter o r s ale o f t he o riginal p opulation ; a nd t here i s n o e vidence t hat c ounterparts t o t he c olonies s urvived, a s a t A stigi

a nd T ucci.

A t U rso,

i n f act,

t wo s eparate t owns i n t he s ame

n eighbourhood a re a n i mpossibility: n o w ater w as t o b e f ound i n t he v icinity, s ave i n t he n ative t own i tself. " T he L usitanians i n t he r egion o f P ax , N orba , a nd E merita a re u nlikely t o h ave b een s ufficiently R omanised t o b e e nrolled i ndiscriminately a mong t he c oloni. S trabo n otes t he t ransformation o f t he n atives w hich P ax a nd E merita d isplay . T hat p oints t o t he s ocial e ffects w hich o bservation o f a c ivilised l ife-style c ould h ave. I t d oes n ot s how t hat t he n atives o f t he r egion e njoyed c itizenship o f t he c olonies. T here w as p lenty o f l and a vailable f or d istribution a t E merita. I t w as s quandered o n a llotments o f e normous s ize, o r l eft u noccupied u ntil s uitable r ecipients c ould b e f ound. 1 2 I t m ight b e a rgued t hat f ailure t o b e r egistered a s a c olonus d id n ot n ecessarily m ean c omplete e xclusion f rom c itizenship. N atives m ight p erhaps b e d eprived o f t heir l and a nd f ail t o o btain R onan c itizenship a nd p olitical r ights i n t he c olony, y et s till b e e ntitled f ormally t o t he p rivate r ights o f c itizens. T hat m ight b e d ifficult t o a rrange i n a c ommunity o f R oman c itizens w hich h ad t aken o ver t he R oman i us c ivile. F urther , i f s uch f ormal a rrangements d id t ake p lace, o ne w ould e xpect t hem t o b e r eflected i n as pecial t erminology d ifferentiating t he u nderprivileged n atives i n q uestion b oth f rom c oloni a nd f rom t hose w ith n o c itizen r ights 3 a t a ll. Y et n o s uch t erminology c an b e d etected .1 S ome o f t he n atives e xcluded f rom c itizenship m ight l eave t he a rea a ltogether , a nd e ventually e stablish t hemselves a s c itizens o f o ther c ommunities. I n o ther c ases , e specially w here a l ivelihood w as r eadily a vailable , t he n atives m ight s imply r emain o n t he s ite , l acking c itizenship , b ut i ndistinguishable a mong t he " incolae" o f t he i nscriptions. A t E merita i n L usitania t he a llotments w ere s o l arge t hat n o c olonist w ith h is f amily c ould h ave w orked h is a llotment a lone. T here w ould h ave b een p lenty o f u se f or n ative l abour; a nd t his m ay e xplain r eferences t o p eregrines a t T urgalium , o ne o f t he p raefecturae o f E merita , i n i nscriptions w hich c annot d ate f rom e arlier t han t he f irst c entury A .D .. C ontinued p resence m ight l ead t o s ocial a ssimilation , o f t he c olony.

a nd i n t he e nd t o a dmission a s a f ull c itizen

1 4

A lthough t he p rocess m ight b e g radual , i t i s r easonable t o s uppose t hat e ventually m ost o f t hose w ho w ere d eprived o f c itizenship i n t he c ourse o f

2 30

c olonisation ,

o r t heir d escendants,

I n

c olonies

S pain ,

n o

s ecured c itizenship o f s ome c ommunity.

o ther t han t itular

o nes

s eem

t o

h ave

b een

f ounded

Jd id a fter t he t ime o f A ugustus. • B ut t hat i s n ot t o s ay t hat t he e ffects 1 n ot o ccur a t t he t ime, a nd p ersist f or a c onsiderable p eriod a fterwards.

R oman m unicipia G enerally, o f

i t a ppears,

a c ommunity

s hould

c itizenship. 1 6 a d ivision e xcluded. S paniards

t he R oman g overnment i ntended t hat a ll m embers

b enefit

f rom

t he

c ollective

B ut t he c ase o f E mporiae s hows t hat,

e xisted a lready ,

a c ertain s ection o f

t he

g rant

o f

R oman

a t l east w here a

p opulation m ight

b e

A t E mporiae i n t he l ate R epublic t here w as a d ouble c ommunity o f a nd G reeks. A fter t he C ivil W ar , J ulius C aesar p laced R oman

s ettlers o n t he s ite a nd f ounded a R oman m unicipium. E ventually b oth S paniards a nd G reeks w ere a dmitted t o t he m unicipium , t he S paniards f irst a nd t he G reeks l ater. S ince i t w as t he S panish t own w hich w as r azed t o m ake w ay f or t he R oman o ne, i t w ould s eem t o f ollow t hat t he a malgamation o f S paniards a nd R omans t ook p lace a t t he s tart, a nd n ot m erely a fter s ome t ime h ad e lapsed. T his i s c onfirmed b y e arly c oins o f t he m unicipium a t E mporiae.

B earing

I berian l ettering ,

t hey p oint

t o i nitial i nclusion o f

t he S paniards o n e qual t erms w ith t he R oman s ettlers; t he

S pa

erds

a s a n a fterthought,

n ot

t o a dmission o f

w hen t he R oman s ettlers w ere a lready i n

c ontrol. T he S paniards a t E mporiae, R oman s ettlers, w ere

l ess

a nd s hared w ith t hem t he n ew m unicipium .

s ocially

c ommunity.

a cceptable ,

P olitical

1 8

r esponsible c itizenship.

t hen, w ere t reated a s t he e quals o f t he B ut

t he

G reeks

a nd f or a w hile m aintained t heir s eparate

m otives,

a s

w ell

a s

s ocial

p rejudice,

m ight

b e

f or t he e xclusion o f s ome n atives f rom a g rant o f R oman I t i s p ossible t hat t he p romotions o f S panish c ommunities b y

J ulius C aesar a nd A ugustus i nvolved t he e xclusion o f s ome p olitically u ndesirable e lements. C onsiderations o f e ither o f t hese t wo s orts m ay a ccount

f or

a n

T arraconensis,

a pparent

d ivision

D ertosa a nd T uriaso ,

o f

t he

k nown a s

p opulation

o f

t wo

R oman m unicipia

t owns

i n

p romoted

b y

J ulius C aesar o r A ugustus. A s a t t he R oman 9c olony V alentia , s ome d egree o f 1 a malgamation i s d etectable a t a l ater d ate. T he

e xamples

c ited -E mporiae,

D ertosa,

a nd T uriaso

-a re -

n ot

t hemselves e vidence f or t he c reation o f u nattached n atives a s a c onsequence o f

g rants o f R oman c itizenship.

t o e xist a longside a c olony,

J ust a s w hen t he o ld c ommunity c ontinued

s o t he G reeks a t E mporiae c ontinued t o e njoy

c itizenship i n a l ess p rivileged c ommunity o f t heir o wn. o f D ertosa a nd T uriaso,

T he s ame i s t rue

i f i ndeed i t i s r ight t o s ee i nternal d ivision h ere

r esulting f rom o riginal e xclusion f rom t he m unicipia. s uggest t hat p rejudices d id e xist, d isenfranchisement, a t l east w hen t he

T he e xamples c an o nly

a nd c ould h ave n umbers o f t hose

l ed t o c omplete e xcluded w ere n ot

s ufficient t o w arrant t he e stablishment o f a s eparate c ommunity. i n t he

c ase o f

c olonies,

d iminished o ver t ime.

A gain a s

t he e ffects o f a ny d isenfranchisement w ould h ave

T here i s n o

k nown c ase o f t he c reation o f a R oman ,

a s o pposed t o L atin , m unicipium i n S pain a fter A ugustus' r eign. 20 T o

p rejudices

o n

t he

p art

p rejudices w ithin t he n ewly

o f

t he

R oman

g overnment

m ay

p romoted c ommunities t hemselves.

b e

a dded

P robably

d iscrimination b y t he m agistrates r esponsible f or c itizen r ecords c ould h ave

2 31

o perated u nchecked b y t he R oman g overnment,

b oth i mmediately a fter t he

o riginal g rant,

P resumably,

a t

t he o utset

a nd p ermanently t henceforth. t hat

h owever ,

i t w as

1B oman c itizenship w as m ost v alued , t he p rivilege o f2

a nd

d iscrimination m ost l ikely t o o ccur.

O ther c ommunities A mong m ost

p rivileged

c onvincing

a bout

t he

w hy

R oman m unicipia

t he

d isenfranchisement

c ommunities, i nspired

c ommunities,

r easons

R oman o f

l ocal

a nd

c olon ies

a uthorities

n atives.

T he

o f

a L atin,

o r

N evertheless,

i ndeed

i t

i s

a p eregrine,

o ffer

s hould

c reation

m ost o f w hose c itizens w ere p eregrines,

s imilar e xclusiveness.

g overnment

o r

o f

t he

b ring L atin

s hould n ot h ave

c onceivable

c ommunity

t hat t he

m ight

h ave

c onsidered c itizenship a p rivilege w hich s ome n atives d id n ot d eserve. C ertainly, e ven i n t hese c ommunities, c itizenship w as c onsidered a p rivilege 2 w hen g ranted t o o utsiders. 2

H owever , i t i s u lclear , o fficial

l ist

o f

c itizens

i n t hese c ommunities, w hether o mission f rom t he w ould

s eriously

h ave

r estricted

t he

p ractical

e xercise o f t he p rivate r ights o f c itizens. W hereas i n R oman c ommunities t he l ack o f R oman c itizenship e ntailed b y o mission f rom t he c itizen r ecords w ould h ave c reated l egal p roblems, L atin a nd p eregrine c ommunities. a nd c ommercium w as

n ot

t here s hould h ave b een n o p arallel

a n ative i nstitution i n S pain .

L ocal g overnments

m ight h ave w anted t o p reserve t he d istinction o f t he t itle o f c itizen , t o r estrict p olitical r ights.

i n

T he e xclusion o f f oreigners f rom c onubium a nd

B ut i t i s v ery d oubtful w hether t hey w ould

h ave o bjected t o t he e xercise o f p rivate r ights, i ncluding t he u se o f m agistrates f or t heir o wn p urposes, b y n atives w hom t hey r efused, t echnically,

t o r ecognise a s c itizens.

c itizenship i n t heo5 y

S uch n atives,

a lthough t hey l acked

s hould n ot h ave s uffered a ny g reat i nconvenience i n

t heir p rivate l ives.

( iii)

C onclusion

T he e vidence f or i ncolae a s c itizens o f n o c ommunity a t a ll s hows t hat t he j urists' d isregard o f t hem i s, s o f ar a s S pain a t l east i s c oncerned, n ot o ut o f p lace. E ven i n c ases ( the c reation o f R oman m unicipia a nd c olonies) w here t he R oman g overnment m ay h ave b een d irectly r esponsible f or d isenfranchisement, i t w as t he c onsequence n ot o f c onsistent p olicy , b ut o f p articular a ttitudes a dopted o n p articular o ccasions. d isenfranchisement o n t hese o ccasions e ver a n e nd i n i tself,

N or w as t he b ut m erely a n

a ccidental c orollary o f o ther p urposes. W here d isenfranchisement w as t he w ork o f t he l ocal, r ather t han R oman , a uthorities, t he j urists h ad e ven l ess c ause t o t ake n ote o f i t:

t his w as n ot d escribable a s o fficial R oman p olicy

a t a ll. I t

s eems u nlikely t hat d isenfranchisement a ssociated w ith t he c reation

o f R oman c olonies a nd m unicipia i n S pain h ad e ffects w hich l asted b eyond t he e nd o f t he f irst c entury A .D .. A fter t hat d ate , a ny u nattached p ersons i n t he S panish p rovinces p robably r epresented o nly t he c onsequences o f s poradic l ocal d iscrimination .

E ven i n t he e arlier p eriod ,

i t s eems u nreasonable t o

s uppose t hat u nattached p ersons w ere s o n umerous

a s

t o

i mportant c ategory a mong t he " incolae" o f t he i nscriptions.

2 32

c onstitute an

N OTES:

N OTES ( APPENDIX V : 1 .

A PP . V

I NCOLAE A S C ITIZENS O F N O C OMMUNITY)

F or d iscussion o f t he q uestion o f u nenfranchised n atives i n t he W est, s ee F .

V ittinghoff,

R ömische K olonisation u nd B ürgerrechtspolitik

u nter C aesar u nd A ugustus ( Wiesbaden , 1 952), p p. 2 2, 2 5; M .I. H enderson , r ev . o f R ömische K olonisation u nd B ürgerrechtspolitik u nter C aesar u nd A ugustus, b y F . V ittinghoff , J RS x liii ( 1953), 1 38-41, p p. 1 40-1; M . R ostovtzeff, E mpire , 2 nd e d ., 2 v ols. 2 .

T he S ocial a nd E conomic H istory o f t he R oman I ( Oxford , 1 957), I , 2 15 ; I , 6 32 n . 3 3 .

T hat u niversal l ocal c itizenship w as a ssumed b y t he j urists c annot b e d educed f rom t he u se o f t he t erm " origo" i n c ertain c ontexts a s t hough i t w ere e quivalent t o " place o f c itizenship" ( e.g . D ig. L 1 . 1 7. 4 ( Papinian)). T hat t erm w as i ntroduced i n o rder t o d istinguish t he c ommunity o f w hich a m an w as a c itizen b y b irth f rom o thers t o w hich h e m ight b elong t hrough a dlection o r a doption. I ts u se i s n o e vidence t hat t he j urists w ere u nable t o e nvisage t he d enial o f c itizenship t o n atives o f a c ommunity ( cf. A .H .M . J ones, " Another I nterpretation o f t he ' Constitutio A ntoniniana'," J RS x xv1 ( 1936), 2 23-35 , p p. 2 23 f f.; S herwin White , R C p p. 3 80-3). T hat e very f ree i ndividual i s a c itizen o f s ome c ommunity r emains i n t he j urists o nly ag eneral i mplication . t ' l e au5A .L f tg" , " nullius c ertae c ivitatis c ives": D ig. X XXII 1 . 2 ( Ulpian); X LVIII 1 9. 1 7 ( Narcianus); U lpian L iber s ingularis r egularum 2 0 . 1 4 . F or d editicii, c f. S herwin-White , R C , p p. 3 88 f f..

3 .

F reedmen i n t he E ast: J ones, " Another I nterpretation ," p . 2 28; J ones , T he G reek C ity , p . 1 72 a nd p . 3 38 n . 3 2. C yrene a nd P rusias: C hapter I I n . 2 5.

4 .

nd G allic t ribes: A lpine sa

C hapter I I n .

1 8 .

F reedmen e tc. i n S pain r etain p rivate r ights:

C hapter I II n . 4 .

" Contributio" i n S pain : C hapter I I p p . 2 4-7. 5 .

" Incolae" i n S pain : h ad

c itizenship

C IL 2 I I ,

e lsewhere ,

I ndex , p p.

s ee

e .g .

1 05;

. 159-60 1 643.

F or " incolae" w ho " Incola"

c ould

o f

c ourse, w hen n ot u sed i n c ontradistinction t o " civis" o r a n e quivalent t erm , s imply m ean " inhabitant": e .g. C IL 4 4 520 . O n F IRA I 2 1 C III , s ee C hapter I I n . 1 5 a nd b elow , n . 1 3. 6 .

C o-existence o f c olonies a nd o riginal c ommunities: e .g . a t H eraclea a nd S inope i n P ontus ( Strabo x ii. 3 . 6 , C5 42; 3 . 1 2 , C5 46), a nd a t C irceii a nd M inturnae i n I taly ( B. M . L evick, R oman C olonies i n S outhern A sia M inor ( Oxford ,

7 .

1 967), p . 6 9).

T ucci , A stigi: P liny N H i ii. 1 0 ; 1 2. V alentia: C IL 2 3 733-7 ; 3 739 ; 3 741; 1 972 2 84 ;

c f. C hapter I n .

1 7.

2 33

A E 1 933 5 ;

A E 1 938 2 3-4 ;

A E

N OTES :

A PP . V

8 .

E xtent t o w hich n atives a dmitted a s c itizens v aries: L evick , p p . 6 9 f f.. F or t otal i nclusion a t C arthage i n t he f irst c entury B .C ., a nd a t C olonia A grippinensium u nder C laudius, s ee L evick , p p . 6 9-70 ; T ac . H ist. i v. 2 4; 6 4-5. C ontrast T ac. A nn. x iv. 3 1 ( Levick, p . 7 1: C amulodunum ).

9 .

C arteia : L ivy x liii. 3 . 1 -4 ; c f. E .T . u nder t he R epublic ( London , 1 969), p . 2 6 .

S almon ,

R oman C olonization

C orduba : S trabo i ii. 2 . 1 , C 1 41. I t w as p robably u nder A ugustus t hat C orduba r eceived t he t itle " colonia" ( Brunt, I talian M anpower , p p . 2 15 ; 5 90). 1 0 .

J ulius C aesar i n 4 5 B .C.: D io x liii. 3 9. 5 . ( The p assage r efers s pecifically t o H ispania U lterior , a nd t herefore h as n o b earing o n t he n ature o f t he c olonies a t T arraco a nd C arthago N ova: o n t hese s ee S almon , p . 1 37 ; B runt, I talian M anpower , p . 5 92 .) E mporiae : n . 1 7.

1.

U rso: [ Caesar ] B ell . H isp. 4 1; c f. S trabo i ii. 2 . 2 , C 1 41. H ispalis: [ Caesar ] B ell. H isp . 3 5 ; S trabo i ii. 2 . 1 , C1 41. M unda: R E X VI 5 57 ; c f. [ Caesar ] B ell. H isp. 4 1; S trabo i ii. 2 . 2 , C 1 41; P liny N H i ii. 1 2 ( where " inter q uae f uit M unda" a ppears t o m ean t hat M unda h ad b een o ne o f t he P ompeian t owns i n t he c onventus o f A stigi , b ut e xisted n o l onger). T he t own s eems t o h ave d isappeared a ltogether a fter i ts c apture : p resumably t he l and w as r edistributed a mong o ther c ommunities ( cf. D io l iv . 2 5 . 1 ; x liii. 3 9 . 5 ). M unda d oes n ot a ppear l ater a s a ny f orm o f s ettlement , e ven i n P tolemy a nd t he i tineraries , w here v illages a s w ell a s a utonomous c ommunities a re l isted .

1 2 .

T ransformation o f n atives: S trabo i ii. 2 . 1 5 , C 1 51. E merita's t erritory : H yginus G romaticus, C onstitutio l im itum , i n O puscula A grimensorum V eterum , V ol . If asc. 1 o f C orpus A grimensorum R omandrum , e d . C . T hulin ( Leipzig , 1 913), p . 1 35 ; A gennius U rbicus , . 4. C f. R . W iegels, " Zum 4 D e c ontroversiis a grorum , i bid. , p T erritorium d er a ugusteischen K olonie E merita ," M DAI(M) x vii ( 1976) , 2 58-84 . F or l ater r ecipients o f l and a t E merita , s ee T ac . H ist. i . 7 8 ( A .D . 6 9).

1 3 .

C ommunities o f R oman c itizens t ake o ver R oman i us c ivile: C hapter V I n . 1 4 . A bsence o f as pecial t erminology: F IRA I 2 1 C III i s n o e xception ( Chapter I I n . 1 5).

1 4 .

E merita : n . 1 2 . T urgalium a p raefectura o f E merita : H yginus G romaticus , C onstitutio l imitum , i n O puscula A grimensorum V eterum , p . 1 36 . ( On p raefecturae i n c olonies , s ee I ulius F rontinus, D e a rte m ensoria , i bid., p . 1 5 ; S iculus F laccus, D e c ondicionibus a grorum , i bid ., p . 1 24.) T he s ite o f t his p raefectura i s i dentified b y t he m odern n ame " Trujillo" a nd C IL 2 6 18 ( cf. C IL 2 I , p p . 7 4-5). P eregrine n ames: e .g . 6 20 , 6 23-7 . V ery f ew p re-Augustan L atin i nscriptions f rom S pain s urvive i n a ny

2 34

N OTES: c ase.

I t

i s

m ost

A PP . V

i mprobable

t hat

t hese

L atin

d edications

p eregrines s hould d ate f rom b efore t he f irst c entury A .D .. G radual a ssimilation o f n atives: c f. L evick , p p. 7 5-6 A ntioch). 1 5.

F oundations a fter A ugustus' r eign :

1 6.

A ll m embers i ntended t o b enefit:

b y

( Pisidian

C hapter I n . 2 2. B .D .

H oyos,

" Civitas a nd L atium i n

P rovincial C ommunities: I nclusion a nd E xclusion ," R IDA ( 3rd s eries) x xii ( 1975), 2 43-77. L egal d ifficulties i n p articular w ould h ave b een c reated b y t he s eparation o f l ocal c itizenship m unicipium ( cf. n . 1 3). 1 7 .

E mporiae :

f rom

L ivy x xxiv . 9 ( 195 B .C .);

R oman

c itizenship

i n

a R oman

P liny N H i ii. 2 2; S trabo i ii. 4 .

8 , C 1 60. L ivy a lone m entions t he " tertium g enus R omani c olon' a b d ivo C aesare p ost d evictos P ompei l iberos a diecti". A rchaeological e vidence: M . A lmagro , A mpurias: H istory o f t he C ity a nd G uide t o t he E xcavations ( Barcelona , 1 956), p . 3 3 a nd f ig. 4 . C oins: M . G rant, F rom I mperium t o A uctoritas ( Cambridge , 1 946 ; r pt. w ith c orrections , C ambridge , 1 969), p p. 1 54-7. G rant's p recise d ating o f t he c oins i s i nsecure ( cf. B runt, I talian M anpower , p p. 6 03-4), b ut t hat d oes n ot a ffect t he a rgument. 1 8 .

F or R oman p rejudice a gainst G reeks,

c f.

S herwin-White ,

R C ,

p p.

4 02

l iv .

2 5 .

f f.. 1 9 .

P olitical m otives: c f. D io x liii. 1( Augustus, 1 6-13 B .C .).

3 9 .

5 ( Caesar ,

4 5 B .C .);

D ertosa a nd T uriaso: G alsterer, p . 5 4. F or o ther p ossible e xplanations o f t he e vidence , s ee C hapter I I n . 2 2. K nown a s R oman m unicipia: B runt, I talian M anpower, p . 6 03. ( For D ertosa a s a ( titular) c olony l ater o n , s ee C hapter I n . 2 2.) V alentia : a bove, n . 7 . 2 0 .

I t

i s

a ssumed

t hat

t he

G reek

c ommunity

r ecognised s eparate c ommunity u ntil m unicipium . D ertosa a nd T uriaso : c f. n . 1 9 . C reations a fter A ugustus' r eign : 2 1.

p .

E mporiae

r emained a t he

R oman

C hapter I n . 2 2.

A utonomy w ith r egard t o c itizen r ecords: C hapter I X

a t

i ts a malgamation w ith

C hapter V p p. 7 8

-

1 53.

2. 2

I ndividual s tatus o f c itizens o f L atin c ommunities: A ppendix I I. C itizenship a p rivilege w hen g ranted t o o utsiders: C hapter V p . 7 9 .

2 3 .

L egal p roblems:

c f. a bove, n .

1 3.

C onubium a nd c ommercium i n S pain : C hapter I II p p. 4 1; 4 4-5. E xercise o f p rivate r ights: c f. C hapter I II p p. 4 1, 4 4.

2 35

8 0;

B IBLIOGRAPHY T he b ibliography l ists a ll b ooks a nd a rticles c ited i n t he n otes, w ith t he e xception o f w orks l isted u nder " Abbreviations" ( p. v ii). ( i) d e

A larcao ,

J .,

a nd

R .

E tienne.

L 'architecture . M ission a rchgol. C onimbriga. P aris, 1 977 . A lmagro,

M .

E xcavations.

c .

A rribas , 1 964 .

Ampurias:

B arcelona , A .

R adian , E .

B ooks

f r .

F ouilles d e C onimbriga. a u P ortugal ,

H istory o f t he C ity a nd G uide t o t he

A ncient P eoples a nd P laces,

F oreign C lientelae ( 264-70 B .C.).

B adian , E . P ublicans a nd S inners: o f t he R oman R epublic. O xford , 1 972. J .

B eltran

L loris,

I .

1 956 .

T he I berians.

B eloch,

V ol

M üseg m onographique d e

O xford ,

3 6.

L ondon ,

1 958.

P rivate E nterprise i n t he S ervice

D ie B evölkerung d er g riechisch-römischen W elt.

L eipzig ,

1 886 .

C aesaraugusta , 8 .

M .

L as a nforas r omanas e n E spana.

M onograf las a rqueologicas, 8 .

B onner, S .F. E ducation i n A ncient R ome: Y ounger P liny . L ondon , 1 977. B roughton , N ew Y ork ,

T .R.S.

Z aragoza ,

A nejo

d e

1 970 .

f rom t he E lder C ato t o t he

T he M agistrates o f t he R oman R epublic.

V ol .

I .

1 951.

B uckland , W .W. A T ext-Book o f R oman L aw f rom A ugustus t o J ustinian . 3 rd e d . R evised b y P . S tein . C ambridge , 1 963. R pt. C ambridge , 1 975 . C agnat, R . P aris,

E tude h istorique s ur l es i mpöts i ndirects c hez l es R omains.

1 882.

C agnat, R . L 'armge r omaire d 'Afrique e t l 'occupation m ilitaire d e l 'Afrique s ous l es e mpereurs. 2 n1 e d . P aris, 1 913. V ol. I . C asson ,

L .

S hips a nd S eamanship i n t he A ncient W orld.

P rinceton ,

1 971. C hastagnol , A . 2 2. B onn ,

L 'album m unicipal d e T imgad.

A ntiquitas, R eihe 3 , B and

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