Local and Imported Ceramics in the Roman Province of Scythia (4th – 6th centuries AD) 9781841716275, 9781407326955

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Foreword
Introduction
Chapter I. The Pottery
Chapter II. Considerations on the production of local ceramics
Chapter III. The ceramic centres of the Black Sea and Mediterranean and their relations with the province of Scythia
Chapter IV. The economic relations of the province of Scythia with the ceramic centres of the Late Roman Empire
Chapter V. Instead of conclusions: the scale, the nature of the trade and the pattern of pottery distribution
Selected Bibliography
Plates

Citation preview

BAR  S1274  2004   OPAIŢ   LOCAL AND IMPORTED CERAMICS IN THE ROMAN PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA

B A R

Local and Imported Ceramics in the Roman Province of Scythia (4th – 6th centuries AD) Andrei Opaiţ

BAR International Series 1274 2004

Local and Imported Ceramics in the Roman Province of Scythia th th (4 – 6 centuries AD) Aspects of economic life in the Province of Scythia

Andrei OpaiĠ

BAR International Series 274 2004

ISBN 9781841716275 paperback ISBN 9781407326955 e-format DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781841716275 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

BAR

PUBLISHING

Contents

Foreword ...............................................................................................................................................................iii Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................ 1 Chapter I. The Pottery Storage pottery ............................................................................................................................................... 2 Amphoras ....................................................................................................................................................... 6 Carthage LRA1 ......................................................................................................................................... 8 Carthage LRA2 ....................................................................................................................................... 10 Aegean amphoras .................................................................................................................................... 13 Levantine and Cretan amphoras .............................................................................................................. 20 Pontic amphoras ...................................................................................................................................... 26 North African amphoras.......................................................................................................................... 33 Spanish amphoras.................................................................................................................................... 39 Local amphoras of TeliĠa type................................................................................................................. 41 Unassigned amphoras.............................................................................................................................. 42 Cooking wares.............................................................................................................................................. 44 Vessels for drinking ..................................................................................................................................... 59 Vessels for oil............................................................................................................................................... 70 Vessels for eating ......................................................................................................................................... 72 Miscellaneous ware ..................................................................................................................................... 81 Chapter II ............................................................................................................................................................. 85 Chapter III ............................................................................................................................................................ 95 Chapter IV.......................................................................................................................................................... 101 Chapter V-Conclusions ...................................................................................................................................... 104 Selected bibliography......................................................................................................................................... 121

i

ii

Foreword This monograph is the result of many years of reflection on the Roman ceramics either discovered in my excavations, in fieldwalks, or deposited in many storerooms of different museums. My interest in Roman ceramics began in the early ‘70s when I participated as a student in the archaeological excavations conducted by my late regretted professor Nicolae Gostar, at Tropaeum Traiani. During the next twenty years I continued to think about this topic in parallel with conducting or taking part in many archaeological excavations in fortified cities, such as Aegyssus, Argamum, Troesmis, Halmyris, Ibida, or small fortifications such as the quadriburgium at Mihai Bravu and the fortified horreum at Topraichioi, the early Byzantine monastery near Ibida or Roman villages such as Slava Rusă and Slava Cercheză, Camena. In addition to this archaeological activity, which helped me collect and analyse many ceramic vessels, I had to amass much bibliographical information, a difficult task in a then communist country like Romania. I am therefore deeply grateful to Uwe Fiedler, Jean Yves Empereur, Carolyn Koehler and Henry S. Robinson for sending me photocopies to help me keep up to date with the literature on Roman ceramics. I executed the pottery drawings and photos, while for the inking I am indebted to my good friend Teodor Banică. Very helpful advice was received from P. Alexandrescu and I had interesting discussions on Roman amphoras with C. Scorpan. Many colleagues helped me with ceramic material, allowing me to draw and take pictures of it. Consequently, I am very grateful to my colleagues from the Archaeological Museum of Tulcea, G. Simion, V. H. Baumann, M. Mănucu Adameúteanu, F. Topoleanu, V. Lungu, and to those from the Archaeological Museum of ConstanĠa, A. Rădulescu, M. Bucovală, Gh. Papuc, Z. Covacef, C. Chera, V. Lungu, T. Cliante. The same gratitude goes to my colleagues from the Archaeological Institute of Bucharest, M. Coja, Al. Suceveanu, and Al. Barnea, who allowed me to study the ceramic material discovered at Argamum, Histria and Dinogetia. I also acknowledge the help of D. Gh. Teodor with whom I had many useful discussions regarding the contact between the local people and the migratory populations. My appreciation goes also to P. Roman who encouraged me and helped me publish the first edition of this monograph. For this second edition, I am deeply grateful to R. Tomber, and K. Slane who encouraged me to publish the second edition in English, to E. L. Will and P. Arthur who read some chapters and made useful comments, and to the BAR editors R. Makjanic and D. Davison. My special thanks go also to Ch. Vernou, the chief curator of the Archaeological Museum of Dijon, who allowed me to reproduce the famous stele of the wine merchant. Last but not least, my gratitude is to L. Aicken and especially to J. Higgens who spent a lot of time checking my English manuscript with exceptional care and offered corrections and suggestions.

iii

Map of Scythia showing the sites mentioned in text (Dobrudja in today’s Rumania).

iv

Introduction connect the abstract existence of a ‘type’ with the physical evidence from the many workshops of a certain region. In fact this is the main raison d'être in building typologies, to attribute a certain product to a certain productive area. Unfortunately, this is not always an easy task, and I will discuss these difficulties in my typological presentation of the pottery. However, even if for the time being it is difficult to assign some products to specific workshops, for many of them we can suggest the main geographical areas of manufacture. The functional groups have therefore been grouped into several productive areas, such as Pontic, the Aegean, Levantine or North African. This allows, on the one hand, a better understanding of the main commercial routes that supplied the province of Scythia with various goods. We do not need to see the merchandise only in terms of ceramic products, but must try and correlate this pottery with other available documents such as marble, coins or lead seals which came from the same region as the ceramics. In this way we can assume that many ceramic vessels arrived in Scythia through importation of other, high value, commodities such as clothes, spices or agricultural products, the pottery being only space-filler or profitable ballast that protected the more expensive and water-sensitive goods. The classification has also permitted me to better characterize the local pottery production which seems to have played an important role in the economic history of this province, at least during the flourishing fourth century A. D.

The English edition of my monograph “Aspecte ale vieĠii economice din provincia Scythia (secolele IV-VI p. Ch.). ProducĠia ceramicii locale úi de import” (Aspects of Economic Life in the Province of Scythia (4th-6th c. A.D.). Local and imported ceramics), Bucureúti 1996, is not a simple translation from the Romanian. In general, I have kept the same structure, for the monograph, which is divided basically into two parts. In the first I discuss the typology of the ceramic vessels while in the second I analyse in details the economic implications of the ceramic finds. However, some introductory considerations on Roman ceramic production in the first publication, addressed principally to Romanian students, were only partially discussed in the second edition. Other recent ceramic discoveries have now been added to the typology. Various other ceramic categories, such as building materials or lamps have not been included, as they deserve separate treatment. Some methodological approaches to Roman ceramics presented in this monograph need to be clarified from the very beginning. The classification is based on the functional criteria: the function fulfilled by a certain vessel determining its form, fabric and sometimes its decoration (von Petrikovits 1972, 131). Ceramic vessels are divided into functional groups (storing, transporting, cooking, eating and drinking vessels), further divided into functional forms (dolia, amphorae, pots, casseroles, dishes etc. Each form has been divided into types, sub-types and variants, and for each of them a brief description of the fabric, dimensions and morphological characteristics is provided, together with an appropriate illustration.

My ceramic analysis has also been based on some statistics from the ceramics discovered in the fortified horreum at Topraichioi and at Murighiol. Naturally, these statistics cannot be extrapolated for the entire province of Scythia. However, they give us an idea of the main commercial trends that affected this corner of the Roman Empire.

In defining the concept of ‘Type’, I agree with Hautumm’s definition that sees in a type nur die in der Abstraction kombinierten gemeinsamen Merkmale formal ähnlicher Gefässe das Bild des Typus schaffen konnen, ohne dass ein real existierendes Gefäss in allen Einzelheiten mit diesem „Modell“ ubereinstimmen muss bzw. wird. Als Varianten eines typus sind alle Gefässe zu verstehen, die abhanging von diesem entstanen sind und sich nicht unabhängig voneinander weiterentwickeln, sondern lediglich in einzelnen Elementen beabsichtigte Unterschiede aufweisen (Hautumm 1981, 89).

It is also worth pointing out that, in the foreword to my first edition, I urged my colleagues to start creating local pottery typologies for the main ancient cities of Dobrudja. I can only be pleased to see that my advice has been listened to, as we now have a monograph for the ceramics discovered at Murighiol and another one for the pottery unearthed at Capidava is in press. I can only hope that the two edition of my book will continue to be a stimulus for other ceramic publications.

However, in my classification, the evolution of a type is subdivided horizontally into variants and vertically into subtypes. For example, subtype no.1 evolved during the 2nd century, creating many variants which often correspond to many workshops; in the next century the first subtype is improved in one of the workshops and creates the second subtype. This ‘improvement’ is adopted by other workshops that manufactured pottery in the region, and so on, until the last sub-type is no longer improved, or its physical characteristics decline and it is finally abandoned. By using this classification, I try to

In conclusion, this monograph is a first attempt to present a general outline of the economic evolution of the province of Scythia from a ceramic point of view. I am trying to fill a gap that existed in the Romanian archaeological research, where ceramic studies had focus more on the form and decoration of the ceramic vessels than on the economic inferences that can be drawn from this ubiquitous archaeological material. I hope that this study will be of interest not only to the specialists in Roman ceramics but also to historians of the ancient economy. 1

Chapter I The Pottery A) Storage pottery Dolia. This type of receptacle seems to gradually replace the large bell-shaped pits used in this area from the Neolithic until the beginning of the Roman period for preserving grain. It is worth stressing that, even if this area had very close economic relations with the Greek colonies, the local population did not adopt the Greek pithos as a method for preserving grain. The excavations at TeliĠaAmza, Revărsarea or Sarichioi in rural settlements show that this method of stocking grain in large pits was still in use during the second and third centuries, while in the next century the local population preferred large pithoi (Baumann 1995, 198, pl.9). From the 4th c. AD until the beginning of the 7th c AD, these pithoi, deposited in a special storeroom (pitheon) become customary for every rural or urban settlement and were used principally for preserving grain. It seems to be a method of grain conservation more compatible with a strict administrative control (Garcia 1997, p. 88-95).

Murighiol-Dolia 1989; London et Alii 1990, 69-70; Cullen & Keller 1990). These dolia were sunk to their neck or shoulder in the ground (Pliny, N H. 14. 133-135: People in milder zones store their wine in jars that they bury in the earth either completely or only partially covering the belly, to protect them from the elements). Many dolia have been found in private or public storage rooms in cities like Aegyssus (unpublished), Murighiol (OpaiĠ 1991b, fig. 49A), Ibida (OpaiĠ 1991d) Histria (Condurachi 1954), or in villages like TeliĠa-Amza (Baumann 1995, pl.13). One dolium fragment discovered at Histria bears an incised crux monogrammatica on the shoulder (Popescu 1994, 392, no.15, fig. 108a). Sometimes they can be found extra muros, as it is the case for Topraichioi. Because they do not have pitch on the inner side, perhaps they were used for storing grain and not wine. It is worth noticing that the dolia from the wharf of Marseille have been covered with pitch inside, (Hesnard, 1997, 130). In my excavation at Aegyssus, I found over 130 Kg of grain in a large dolium found in the horreum, but it had no pitch inside. It was one of the main methods of storing wine or grain in bulk during the late Roman period in the province of Scythia, precious capital for a farmer as they were included separately in contracts for the lease of vineyards, the proprietor being required to provide such pithoi in good condition (T. Drew-Bear, Chiron 10, 1980, 522, Note 67 and 68).

There are two types, which can be distinguished by dimensions, form and fabric:

Type I

Histria-apud Popescu 1994 The fabric is brick-red, hard; a scatter of rounded and sub-rounded quartz grains is the main inclusion used as temper. The walls are thick (ca.3-4cm.). There are high variants of ca. 1.80-2 m with diameters of 1.50-1.60 m (Pl.1.1) and low variants with a height of ca. 1m and a diameter of ca. 0.70 m. The body has an ovoid shape; the rim and the knob base seem to be shaped in a mould. Sometimes, they can have geometric decoration like circles in relief applied on the maximum diameter of the body, or wavy lines incised under the rim. This extra band of clay serves both to strengthen and to decorate the body (Baumann 1995, 40, fig. XVI/4). Similar dolia continued to be made in Cyprus until recently (London

Due to the remarkable strength of their walls, many dolia were reused for, such as small domestic kilns, as shown by a discovery made at Murighiol.

2

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA

Type I

Murighiol-Dolium used as oven Aegyssus

Type II

This type has so far been identified at Topraichioi, where its fabric has a brick-orange colour (Pl. 2.1), and many brown and white inclusions, while at Aegyssus the fabric has a dark brown core and grey exterior with many lime particles and grey quartz, both discoveries proving the existence of two independent workshops that made this type. Its main characteristics are a large mouth with an almond shaped rim, two massive handles attached directly on the rim and on the maximum diameter of the ovoid body; the example from Aegyssus has a slightly convex base (Pl.). This type is dated to end of the 4th c., and the first half of the 5th c. AD. Histria-Dolium (apud Popescu 1995)

Type II The fabric is grey, rarely brown, and by comparison with the previous type is much finer and more compact. Its shoulder can sometimes have geometric motifs. The height can vary from 0.50 to 0.90 m. (Pl.1.2-5). Unlike type I, this storage jar was not sunk but moveable; perhaps this is the kind of jar mentioned by Columella as seria. This vessel was used for short-term storage, mainly within the family. It has been discovered at Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 1991c, 253, pl. 11.2), and Histria (Popescu 1995, 392, No.16, fig. 109 a, b). This last fragment belonged to a small dolium that also had an incised crux monogrammatica and the letter H (ristos) on its shoulder. This type of dolium is frequently found in the Crimea during the late Roman and early Byzantine period (Yakobson 1979, fig.5).

The fabric of the second type also differs from site to site, as it is grey at Murighiol, with a lot of angular quartz, brown and white particles, and beigegreyish pyroxene (?), with traces of brown paint on the exterior of the body of an example discovered in a late Roman rural settlement overlaid by the modern Sălcioara village of Sălcioara (unpublished). The rim is everted and has an internal bevel (Pl.2.4). The Murighiol example still preserves the lower attachment of the handles (OpaiĠ 1991b, Pl. 35.208) while the Sălcioara example lacks the handles; the latter has a concave base.

Pots These pots do not differ too much from cooking pots, but their large dimensions, thick walls, the lack of a secondary firing or soot indicate that these vessels were used for storage. They were used by a family only for short or medium term conservation of dry materials: grain, vegetables or fruit. The general form has a wide mouth and a globular, rarely ovoid body with or without two massive handles.

Type III This fabric is brown with a lot of crushed shell used as filler. The mouth is very wide; the rim is vertical with alveoli on the external face (Pl. 2.3). The body is ovoid, lacks handles, and the base is flat. This type has been found at Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 1991c, 233, pl. 47.6), Sacidava (C. Scorpan, Pontica 11, 1978, 165, pl. 7.31), 3

ANDREI OPAIğ Although, during the 1st and beginning of the 2nd c AD, it still has a height of c. 50-60 cm, in the next two centuries the height is around 20 cm. (Baumann 1995, pl. XI/10-11). Usually, this type is found mainly in remote, conservative areas, up to the end of the 4th c. AD.

and Castelu, where it occurs among the products made in that workshop (personal communication, T. Cliante). It seems to be typical of the 4th and perhaps the first half of the 5th c. AD.

Type IV

Sarichioi

“Table” amphora This functional form has a long evolution that started during the first century A.D. and continued until the end of the province of Scythia. This vessel, locally made, is one of the most representative ceramic products of Roman Dobrudja. During the early Roman period, it had a strong competitor in another container of a similar capacity, the so-called “table pitcher”, but starting with the 4th c AD, the ”table amphora” gained supremacy (see A. OpaiĠ ‘“Table” Amphora versus “Table” Pitcher in the Roman Dobrudja’ RCRF.Acta, 38, 2002, in press).

Telita-Valea Morilor This type was manufactured in the TeliĠa-Valea Morilor workshop (Baumann 1995, 406, Type 6, Pl.I/13,14). The wide mouth (22,5 cm.) has a rim, which is flat on top, thickened at the exterior; the conical neck can hardly be distinguished from the ovoid body. The rim diameter and the thickness of the walls seem to indicate a large container. It is dated in the second half of the 4th c. AD.

Type V This is also a product made at TeliĠa-Valea Morilor (Baumann 1995, 406, Pl.III/5). The fabric is beige and it is covered with slip on the exterior. The wide mouth has a slightly everted rim, which is flattened on top; is remarkable the neck, a quite unusual feature for storage vessels (Pl.2.5). The hardness of the fabric and the external self-slip may indicate a liquid or semi liquid (dairy produce?) for storage.

Type VI

Tomis territory

This type has a long tradition in Scythia from the Iron Age onwards. It is hand made and its body has an elongated ovoid form with the rim pulled toward the exterior and a flat base; usually it is decorated with four buttons or a cordon applied to the maximum diameter of the body. This cordon may be decorated with incisions or with alveoli. From the first century AD, it decreases in size.

Troesmis

The body of this amphora is globular, being quite similar to that of some transport amphoras but its base is wide, flat or concave. The height is ca. 40-45 cm, and the diameter ca. 25-30 cm. The fabric varies from red-orange to brown and grey, is fine, quite soft and compact. On the exterior, three- quarters of the body may be covered by a red-brown or black paint. It is one of the vessels most frequently made by the local workshops. During the late Roman period at least two main types can be identified.

4

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA 24/293-294) and Odarþi (Donþeva-Petkova 1989, pl. 3/6,8) and Marcianopolis (Minchev & Georgiev 1990, 224, fig.17). The frequency of this subtype suggests that it is a favourite design for the table amphora. It is dated to the 4th and 5th centuries AD.

Type 1 This container had a long development from the 2nd century until the first half of the 5th century, being found not only on military sites but also civilian, especially in the countryside. Subtype 1A An everted rim with external bevelling, a conical neck with shallow horizontal scored lines at the point where two flat handles with a central groove are attached, an ovoid body and a hollowed base characterize this container. It has been discovered at Troesmis and is dated in the 2nd century A.D. (OpaiĠ 1980, 294, pl. I.3). Subtype 1B The fabric has a grey colour with plenty of white mica, fine texture and hard at Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 1991b, 225, pl. 28/3) (Pl.4.4), and brick-beige at TeliĠa-Amza Pl.4.6) (Baumann 1995, 103, pl. 65/10, 66/6,8,10). The rim is thickened, and the lip is bevelled on the inner edge; the neck is conical or cylindrical. It is dated in the first half of the 5th century AD.

TeliĠa-Valea Morilor

Subtype 2b This has a fine beige fabric, with silver mica and self-slip on the walls. The rim has a trapezoid profile, slightly bevelled inside or with a small concavity on its top; the neck is cylindrical or slightly bulging with three or four grooves at the exterior that help the upper attachment of the handle; the body is globular, and the base is Sacidava moulded (Pl.3.7). It is interesting that this subtype occurs, almost unchanged, in three fortified towns on the Lower Danube limes, at Sacidava, Altinum (Scorpan 1977, fig. 17. 2,3) and Murighiol (Topoleanu 2000, pl. 52.416). This type is dated to the 6th c. AD. This table amphora represents the final stage of the previous subtype, and is characteristic of the 6th century. It was made in a workshop specializing in this type of amphora, which distributed its products along the Danube.

Topraichioi

Type 2 Subtype 2a This subtype has the same globular body as the previous types, but its rim has been pulled, bent towards the exterior, and pressed against the neck, while its top has a small concavity. The handles can be twisted or ellipsoid (Pl. 3.1-3, 5-6). The base is slightly concave at TeliĠa, but a false ring foot at Iatrus. There are other minor variations on the same theme (Pl. 3. 4, 6). It seems to be a favourite product of the TeliĠa-Valea Morilor workshop (Baumann 1995, pl. 8). It can also be found at Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 1991b, pl. 28/1,2), Murighiol/ Halmyris (OpaiĠ 1991a, 151, pl. 23, nos. 139-141), TeliĠa-Valea Morilor (Baumann 1995, 102, pl. 65/6,10), NiculiĠel (Baumann 1991a, pl. 5/6), FrecăĠei (Baumann 1991b, pl. VIII/15), and in Moesia Secunda at Iatrus (Böttger 1982, pl. 5

ANDREI OPAIğ

morphological details, like handle attachments, the treatment of the exterior of the walls, or the type of base. By ascertaining the morphological practices of certain workshops, we can define a type and assign it to a certain production area. In order to achieve this goal, however, we must not only locate the amphora kilns, but must also excavate them. A simple survey is not enough, and sometimes it can even be misleading, as we will be likely to find on the surface of the soil the ceramic products that were made during the last period of that workshop; at other times a simple amphora deposit can be mistaken for an amphora workshop. It is also important to consider the condition of the soil surface and whether the soil has been ploughed deeply or frequently, for cultivating cereals, or more superficially, as in the case of olive groves. In all these cases, trial trenches are necessary. But instead of studying the histories and practices of the individual kilns, we tend to draw hasty economic and historical conclusions from them, like those regarding the decentralised system of production and exportation of North Africa after the Vandal conquest, basing our conclusions only on superficial surveys. Only when we can be certain of the origin of particular amphora fabrics can we try to find out which fabrics discovered in the consuming centres match those of the producing centres. In addition, from my own experience at Leptiminus, I can say that sometimes there can be a chronological difference between the amphoras discovered in the producing sites and those uncovered at the consuming sites. Unfortunately, study of Late Roman amphoras is very unbalanced. Studies of finds in the western Mediterranean are more advanced than in the eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea, since the former area has made more progress in analysing either the production sites or the consuming sites. Production areas that made amphoras like Riley’s LRA  and 2, the most frequently found amphoras in the province of Dobrudja, still are not completely identified. There are also some doubts even about the kind of product carried by these amphoras. Some progress has been made in the Black Sea as a result of the recent excavations of the workshops of Sinope. Worth noticing is the appearance of some amphora-imitation during the late Roman period, a phenomenon well known since the period of the Roman Republic, when the Coan amphora was imitated both in the western Mediterranean (at Brindisi, Pompeii, and Cosa) and in the Black Sea. In the case of Sinope, we need to determine whether a Sinopean amphora type was imitated at Seleucia in Pieria, or vice versa. The study of these late Roman amphoras made in the East also becomes more pressing, as increasing evidence becomes available that this region played a very active role not only with regard to Constantinople and the Black Sea, but also to the western Mediterranean (Ward-Perkins 2000; Kingsley & Decker 200). There is still, however, a large developmental gap between Late Roman amphora studies undertaken in the western Mediterranean and those done so far in the eastern Mediterranean. Perhaps it was with the western progress in amphora studies in mind that Simon Keay urged amphora specialists to address broader

Amphoras The study of commercial amphoras started with simple epigraphic analyses during the late nineteenth and most of the twentieth centuries, when typological tables were created in order to help identify the amphora shapes on which stamps or dipinti or graffiti occurred (H. Dressel CIL XV, 2, Pl. II; R. Schoene, CIL IV, Vasorum Formae; A. Mau, CIL IV, Suppl. 2. pl. II-III). Such studies became increasingly sophisticated, especially after the early 930s, when specialists, in particular Virginia Grace of the Agora Excavations in Athens, began to focus on morphology, fabrics, and workshops. Amphoras were considered important artefacts not only for dating archaeological sites but also for correlating producing areas with consuming areas. Amphoras thus became important indicators of the chief commercial trends of a certain epoch. That was particularly true for the Greek and Hellenistic periods and for the Republican and early Imperial periods of Rome, when there were many producing centres and when, in the case of the Romans, potters stamped their products. It is more difficult, however, to identify and evaluate Late Roman amphoras, as the custom of stamping amphoras had become less and less common by the Late Imperial period. Specialists concerned with that period must therefore rely on study of shapes and fabrics, the latter nowadays often-involving heavy dependence on thin-section petrological analysis. However, such analysis clearly permits one to draw only very tentative conclusions. For instance, to say that a certain type of amphora comes from an area composed of ultra-basic and sedimentary rocks does not help us too much. When fabric analysis is done on amphoras discovered in excavated workshops, however, we are able to go a step further. Quite frequently, we have situations where many kilns are located on similar geological deposits, and add the same inclusions to the fabric, as is the case with Tunisian amphoras. It becomes quite obvious that in such a case microscopic fabric analysis is futile, and for these North African amphoras it is less important to analyse the clay matrix and more important to determine the percentage of inclusions; i.e., the manufacturing technique used by the potters in question (Peacock & Tomber, 99). This process of mixing clay with temper follows certain rules, certain recipes, learned by the potter from his ancestors and then taught to his successors. These inherited procedures will lead potters to make their pots in culturally ‘correct’ fashion (Blinkborn, P. ‘Habitus, social identity and Anglo-Saxon pottery’ in C. G. Cumberpatch & P. W. Blinkborn, Not so much a pot, more a way of life, Oxbow Monograph 83, 997, 9 (3-24)). This is, for example, the reason why the Roman potters of Sullectum made amphoras with a black outer zone, while only 30 km. away, at Leptiminus, the same amphora-type had a white, self-slipped surface as a result of saline water. We can go even further and improve our typologies by giving more attention to the study of certain 6

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA questions and to avoid becoming ‘merely technicians who amass data, leaving its interpretation to others’ (Keay 992, ‘The Siena Amphora conference: Part : Amphoras and the Roman economy’, in JRA 5, 992, 353-60). Studies of Late Roman amphoras discovered in the eastern Mediterranean and the Black Sea need more typological refinement, and more accuracy in assigning certain types to certain workshops. As the results of archaeological excavations made in Dobrudja demonstrate, Asia Minor produced a large variety of amphora types especially during the late Roman period. Of course, it will be a prodigious task to establish the typology and chronology of these amphoras, and it will undoubtedly take a tremendous amount of time, determination, and effort to do so. A first step must involve our coming to a realization now of how little we actually know.

7

ANDREI OPAIğ

nipple base. The amphora from Topraichioi has a height of 53 cm, a rim diameter of 7.5 cm and maximum diameter of 30 cm.(Pl.5.)

Carthage LR Amphora 1 This is one of the amphora types most frequently found in Dobrudja. The most recent typological essay is by Pieri (998, 98-99) who divides this type into three variants (LRA  A-C). The discoveries made in Dobrudja allow us to refine this typology. It has been possible to identify at least six subtypes (LRA 1A-F), each of it divided into many other variants.

LRA 1A3

LRA 1A1

Dinogetia The evolution of this subtype continues during the second half of the 5th c. AD. The neck of this amphora becomes even shorter, and the body becomes more barrel-shaped; it does not end in a small knob. This variant is well illustrated by a fragmentary neck discovered at Aegyssus (unpublished), Murighiol (Topoleanu 2000, 35, pl.4/336), and a complete amphora discovered at Dinogetia (OpaiĠ 984, pl.3/5). This amphora has a height of 53 cm, rim diameter of 8 cm and maximum diameter of 33.5 cm. (Pl.5.2).

Northern Sinai

The fabric varies from very pale-brown to pinkish with abundant inclusions of pyroxene.

LRA 1A4

This first subtype has been identified in Northern Sinai where it looks like a jug with a tall neck and handles during the 3rd c. AD, a thickened or slightly rounded rim, a long neck and an ovoid body covered with ridges and a basal knob during the 3rd c. AD and beginning of the 4th c. (Arthur & Oren 998, 20-203, fig.6/).

This is the classical LRA known all around the Mediterranean and the Black Sea. Starting with the 6th c AD, the rim changes from a plain band to a thickened lip with a flange below; its neck continues to be short but it is wider and the body becomes more elongated without a nipple base; on the middle of the body the ridges become more widely spaced

LRA 1A2

Troesmis Topraichioi This second subtype that has been discovered in the province of Scythia dates only from beginning of the 5th century at Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 99c, 27, pl. 2/-3); it also occurs in Egypt (Bonifay & Leffy, in press, nos. 64-76; Egloff 977, , type 69), and Marseille (Bonifay 986, Fig. 7/20-2). By now, this amphora has a thicker rim, a shorter neck and a wider body ending in a Histria 8

(Pl. 5.3). There are different sizes of this subtype known. Usually its height is smaller than that of the previous subtype (c. 46 cm). The dipinti and calculations indicate capacities that vary, usually, between 5 and 26 litres. A fragment of this amphora subtype, dis-

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA Yassi Ada shipwreck (van Alfen 996, 98, fig. 9, type VI), where, although the lip has a small ridge, the general shape of the neck and body clearly place this amphora within this subtype. This subtype seems to have a small capacity (the Yassi Ada example is only 4.580 l). It also occurs at Chersonesos (Golofast L. A., Steklo Rannevizantijskovo Hersonesa-in MAIET, VIII, 200 fig.74.3).

covered at Histria, bears a round stamp with a monogram, read by Popescu as: ȀȫȡȣțȠȣ, a personal name (Popescu 976, 70, no. 5), but we should not forget that Korikos is also the name of two cities, one in Cilicia and the other one in Pamphylia, though the evidence for the latter is equivocal (RE XI, 2, coll. 45-452; Jones 97, 04, 3, 99; Trombley 987; Cohen G. M. The Hellenistic Settlements in Europe, the Islands and Asia Minor, Berkeley, Los Angeles, Oxford 995, 52, 337-38). This stamp seems to be an important confirmation for the location of certain workshops in coastal Cilicia.

LRA 1C This subtype has a cream to pinkish buff, sandy fabric, with pyroxene and muscovite mica, a gritty surface, and is harder than the previous subtypes (Pl.5.4).

LRA 1B1 During the second quarter of the 5th c AD, some fragments discovered in the fortified horreum at Topraichioi indicate the Topraichioi occurrence of another subtype, closely related to LRA A. The fabric of this subtype is also yellowish, sandy, with silver mica and occasional limestone and pyroxene. It differs from the previous variant in its rim, which is slightly thickened, and without a clear separation from the truncated conical neck, as there is no separation between neck and shoulders; the mouth is funnel-shaped; the body of the 5th century subtype is not known. Exact parallels can be found at Marseille (Bonifay & Piéri 995, 08, fig. 6/47-48).

It is found at Tomis (OpaiĠ 984, pl. 5/2), Murighiol/ Halmyris (OpaiĠ 984, pl.4/3,4; Topoleanu 2000, 35, pl.4/338), at Corinth (Williams & Zervos 983, 29, pl./78) on the levels dated during the middle and the second half of the 6th c. AD, and is also present on the Yassi Ada shipwreck (van Tomi Alfen 996, 200, type, IX, fig.2). Its main characteristics are a long neck, and a pointed lip underneath; a quite sharp angle marks the attachment of the shoulders to the narrow, cylindrical body. Its height is c. 23 cm, the rim diameter is 9 cm and the maximum diameter is 22cm.

LRA 1B2 This subtype continues to be made during the 6thc. AD, when it preserves the same mouth and its body is cylindrical, with wheelMurighiol ridges like those of the previous subtype. The example illustrated was discovered at Capidava and it has a height of 50 cm, rim diameter of 0 cm and maximum diameter of 22 cm. This variant is well represented at Murighiol (OpaiĠ 99, pl. 8/0608; Topoleanu 2000, pl. 42/343) and at Capidava during the 6thc. AD. It also seems to be present on the

This subtype does not seem to be so widespread as the previous two subtypes. LRA 1D This subtype is not very widespread either. It has a rounded lip and its lower side is slightly bulged internally but externally the ridge below the rim is not well defined. It occurs at Murighiol Murighiol/ Halmyris at the end of the 6th c. AD. (OpaiĠ 99b, 46, pl.7/03, 8/04). Also it can be found in the first

Tomi 9

ANDREI OPAIğ quarter of the 7th c. AD on the Yassi Ada shipwreck (van Alfen, 996, 97, type V, fig. 7,8).

pronounced offset. The handles are attached under this offset, which makes them closer to the shoulder. The body has the same shape as the previous subtype, having grooves on both upper and lower parts. The example illustrated comes from Aquae (Bjelajac 996, fig. 25.44) and it has a rim diameter of c. 8 cm, a height of 60 cm and a maximum diameter of 34 cm.

The capacities of the Yassi Ada amphora subtype vary between 2,5 and 4,8 litres. Its origin is supposed to be in the Cilicia-N. Syria Cyprus area (Empereur & Picon 989, 236), but we still do not have a clear fabric definition for all these areas. Other examples discovered in the harbours of Marseille (Bonifay 986, 279) and Caesarea (Oleson et Alii 994, 22, nos. A35-36, fig.5), also support this hypothesis. The laboratory analysis seems to exclude oil as contents of this amphora (Rothschild-Boros 98, 86, pl. 6/VII). Böttger (982, 90-92) considers that this amphora was used for wine, while Williams (982, 02-3) regards it as an oil amphora. It is remarkable that this amphora occurs very frequently at Carthage (20%), at the beginning of the 6th c. (Peacock 984, fig. 33); Peacock’s explanation that it could have contained oil of a different quality than the N. African oil, is difficult to accept (Peacock 984, 9). Some sherds of this type discovered in the harbour of Carthage, still have traces of pitch on the inside (OpaiĠ 998, 22, pl.3/48).

Argamum It occurs at Argamum and Murighiol at the end of the 6th c. AD (OpaiĠ 99b, 46, type I3, pl.9/29, 09, 0). It is also found at Aquae (Jankovic 98, 49, fig.63/A; Bjelajac 996, 76, fig. XXV/44).

Carthage LR Amphora 2

LRA 1E The fabric is light grey-pale brown, or yellowish with silver mica, lime and self-slip. This is a subtype not very well known in the province of Scythia. A narrow mouth and a neck made from two truncated cones characterize it; the handles are very angular, and the body is less cylindrical but more ovoid, ending in a small button. The body is wheel ridged on the upper side and on the lower side. The amphora illustrated comes from Aquae, and has a height of 62 cm, and a maximum diameter of 33 cm. (Bjelajac 996, 76, no.45).

The fabric has colours which vary from brown-beige to brick and pinkish red which seems to suggest a large variety of workshops. The origin of this type could be in the southern Aegean area, where since the 5th c B.C. was produced an amphora with a mushroom rim and low knob toe, and the Nikandros group of the 2nd c B.C. it is only one of the subtypes developed in this area. Lawall suggests labelling this large class of amphoras as “Southeast Aegean Mushroom rim” (M. Lawall,” An Addendum to Joehrens Ath M.itt 999, on the amphoras of Erythrai”, draft circuEupatoria lating at the Danish Institute Conference, Transport Amphorae and Trade, Sept. 29 2002). The st c. B.C. subtype is indicated by the jars discovered at a workshop excavated at Erythrai. This workshop produced amphoras with cup-shaped rims (O. Özyigit in KST IX, , 989, 25-46). These amphoras seem to have good

Aquae

It occurs on the levels of the second half of the 6th c at Murighiol/ Halmyris, and it has been discovered also on the middle Danube at Aquae (Jankovic 98,50, fig. 63/B; Bjelajac 996, 76, fig. XXV/45), and Chersonesos (Sazanov 997, 87-88, fig./). It could have an Aegean origin. LRA 1F The fabric is very pale brown to light grey, sandy, gritty and very hard. The rim is vertical, separated from the neck by a 0

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA basal knob also disappears. It continues to be produced at least until the middle of the 7th c. AD, as the discoveries from Bodrum and Samos have shown.

parallels at Eupatoria and Kalos Limen (Uzhentsev & Yurochkin 998, 998; Uzhentsev 200,”Kalos Limen v I v. do n.e”.in Poznie Skifi Krima Moscow 200, 56-66, fig. 4.5).

The capacity of this type was quite high in the 4th c. AD, the Novae amphora being c. 64.5 l, while in the next centuries its volume is reduced to half, but sometimes and amphoras of 40, 48 or 55 l. can also be found. Fractional amphoras are occasionally found, as is the case at Murighiol/ Halmyris at the end of the 6th c (OpaiĠ 99b, 40, no.63, pl.0/63) or North Sinai in the 7th c. AD. (Arthur & Oren 998, fig. 6/4). The author has published a sketch of the evolution of this type (OpaiĠ 984).

North Dobrudja Production of this type in Chios (Tsaravopoulos 986, figs. 36 and 37), the Argolid (Kounoupi) (Zimmermann Munn 985, 342-43) and Cnidos (N. Tunna, J. - Y Empereur, M. Picon, E. Döger, “Rapport préliminaire de la prospection archéologique turco française des ateliers d’amphores de Resadiye-Kiliseyani sur la Péninsule de Datça” in Anatolia Antique 987, 49), seem to be indicated by recent discoveries of kilns. The petrographic analysis indicates an area with volcanic rocks: many Greek islands, the Bodrum region and the northwestern area of Asia Minor (Williams 982, 02). For the island of Chios Tsaravopoulos’ paper documented only the existence of a workshop that made the early subtype, Zeest 90. If future research uncovers subtypes of late Roman date, i.e., LR2 that will offer support to the theory of development described above.

Chersonesos-Chornorychens’kiiy The evolution of this type continues in early Roman times (Zeest 960, Form 90; Riley 979, 205, MRA 8, fig. 87/288, 289). Some authors (Riley 979, 29) deny so early a date for the beginning of this amphora, laying stress on the different colours of the paste. But these variations in colour are present also in Early Roman times. At the beginning of the 4th c. AD the body has a deep horizontal grooving placed on the shoulder and the lower part, while the middle is decorated with broad ribs; it ends in a basal knob. This variant is present at Torone (Papadopoulos 989, 83, fig.), Thasos (Abadie-Reynal & Sodini 992, 56, fig. 24.CC284), and Novae (Gacuta & Sarnowski 98, 22-23, fig. 54/); the last one is dated to AD 36/7. Towards the second half of the 4th c. AD the body is decorated only with grooves only on the shoulder (Pl.6. , 3-4), which become undulated by the end of the 6th c. AD Novae (Pl. 6. 2, 5, 6, 8) when the

This amphora is very frequent at Topraichioi (5%) by the end of the 4th and the first half of the 5th c. AD, while at Murighiol it varies between 9-29% in the second half of the 5th and beginning of the 7th c. AD.



Tomi

ANDREI OPAIğ

The contents, of this amphora seem to be both wine and olive oil. An amphora fragment of an early Roman subtype, discovered at Romula, bears the word oleum (Popilian 976, 40). While on the one hand, we have to take into account the lack of pitch inside some amphoras discovered in the harbour of Carthage (OpaiĠ 998, 22) on the other hand, at Torone this amphora bears traces of resin (Papadopoulos 989, 85). At Carthage, a famous olive oil producing area, it occurs in a much reduced percentage (Peacock 984, 9, fig. 33). A multiple use of this type might be indicated by the difference that exists between the figures indicated by the sextarii and the real capacity of the containers (Avram & OpaiĠ 987, 49). Also, there have been found olive stones and grape seeds at Bodrum (van Doorninck 989). Both types, LR  and LR 2, are found in all Late Roman and Early Byzantine farms, villages and cities of the province of Scythia.

Tomi

Aegyssus

Murighiol

2

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA inside the amphora walls discovered at Topraichioi, Murighiol and Caesarea (Oleson 1994, 17, nos. A25, A27, fig.4; 108, no. A62, fig. 34). The origin of this type is probably Aegean (Riley 1979, 192; Hayes 1983, 155).

Aegean amphoras Berenice MRA 7/Robinson M237/Peacock & Williams Class 47

Carthage LR 3 This amphora is quite frequently found in Dobrudja from the 2nd to the 4th centuries. The fabric is red or orangebrown, very hard, with abundant quartz. The production of this type seems to begin in the second half of the 2nd c. AD (Panella 1973, 59697; OpaiĠ 1980a, 293-301) and it flourishes especially during the 3rd c. AD. (Riley 1979, fig. 34). We do not know very much about the production of this type during the 5th c. AD. At Berenice the occurrence of this amphora is considered a survival (Riley 1979, 191). In Dobrudja it occurs at Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 1991c, 221, Tomi type V, pl. 27/1,2), Murighiol (OpaiĠ 1991b, 91, type V; Topoleanu 2000, 140, pl.44/355-56), and in the rural village at TeliĠa-Amza (Baumann 1995, 91, pl. LVII/1,3) during the 4th century. As the discoveries made at Athens (Robinson 1959, K113, L33, M237, M274, M303) and Corinth (Williams & Zervos 1982, 22-26, pl. 10/70) indicate, the dimensions of this type seem to decrease from the 2nd c. when it could have heights of 0,75-0,80m (personal communication M. Brudiu; also Panella 1973, 631, no. 39), to the 5th c AD when an example discovered at Athens is only 0.43m high (Pl.8.5) (Robinson 1959, M303). Calculations from an early Roman subtype, discovered at Galati (personal communication M. Brudiu), indicate a capacity of ca. 9 litres. A fragment discovered at Tomi without a stratigraphic context, but in the late Roman cemetery area (Pl. 8.6), seems to represent one of the latest variants of this type similar to those discovered at Athens and Corinth (OpaiĠ 1991b, pl.20/A). Also, according to our discovery made at Topraichioi, in the 4th c the deep concavity and sharp flange that is under the rim, become less sharp, and the base of this amphora is not conical, but rounded, while the foot continues to be tubular (Pl. 8.7,8) (OpaiĠ 1991c, pl.27/2).

NiculiĠel

Tomi

Tomi

Tomi

The long evolution of this type has been described by many scholars (Lang 1955; Robinson 1959; Hautumm 1981; Peacock & Williams 1986; Lemaître 1997; Pieri 1998). Not only its slender, more or less conical and wheel-ridged body with thin walls, but also its almost unmistakable fabric, characterize it: red-brown, brown, or dark brown, with a soapy surface and smooth fracture. This type appears in Dobrudja from the 2nd century (Pl. 7.2) to the beginning of the 7th c. AD. (Pl.7.3-6). Based on different kind of fabrics, many subtypes have been differentiated (Lang 1955). The discoveries from Topraichioi confirm the appearance of the second handle at the end of the 4th c. AD. Three small amphoras discovered at Tomi (Bucovală & Paúca 1988-89, pl.9/e), Beroe (OpaiĠ 1996, pl. 9/4), and Ibida (Pl.7.1) (OpaiĠ 1991b pl. 21/40302) prove that factional amphoras (LRA 3B, or sous-modules in Pieri’s classification) were well in use during this time. This type, without being found in excessive quantities, is widespread from the western Mediterranean (Peacock & Williams 1986, fig.108; Bonifay 1986, 279, fig. 7/22-23), to Scythia (Troesmisunpublished; TeliĠa-Pod: Baumann 1984, 54, pl. XII/2; NiculiĠel: Baumann 1977, pl. I/1; Dinogetia: Barnea 1966, 250, fig. 12/1; Noviodunum: Barnea I. & Al. 1984, pl. 4/3; Aegyssus: unpublished; Murighiol: 1991b149-50, fig. 21/ 123-24; Topraichioi: OpaiĠ 1991c, 221, type E VII), Bulgaria (Kuzmanov 1985, 113-14, pl.5; Doncheva-Petkova 1989, pl. III/2), the northern and eastern Black Sea (Zeest 1960, 118-119, type 5;

Contrary to the early Roman period when this type seems to be quite frequently found in Dobrudja (Suceveanu 2000, type LX, pl. 84) it becomes more rarely found during late Roman times. However, it is still remarkable that it occurs even in the rural contexts at TeliĠa -Amza and Slava Rusa-Kurt Baiîr (unpublished), during the 3rd and 4th centuries, which suggests that its contents, probably wine, were extremely appreciated. Wine as contents seems indicated by the pitch traces usually found 13

ANDREI OPAIğ

ovoid body that ends in a solid spike. The earlier subtype (OpaiĠ VIII) has a funnel-shaped mouth, a long truncated conical neck, with handles that are attached directly to the mouth and the lower part of the neck. This fragile design was perhaps the reason that many examples have been found either without the mouth or without the spike. The earliest example has been discovered in an amphora depot at Aegyssus that is dated to the end of the 1st c BC – beginning Troesmis of the 1st c. AD (OpaiĠ 1987, fig.6/1). It occurs at Viúina also without a mouth, being dated perhaps to early Roman times; some examples have been discovered at Troesmis (OpaiĠ 1980 1980, 306, type VIII, fig. 8/3-4) where it is dated to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AD. The only complete example comes from a necropolis, Sovhoz 10, in the neighbourhood of the Tauric Chersonesos (Vysotskaja 2000, 83-84, pl.1/1).

Yakobson 1979, 11, type 6, fig.22). This type occurs at Topraichioi in percentages which vary between 2,8 and 5,3% in the first half of the 5th c. AD. At Murighiol its proportion is reduced from 3,8% in the 4th c. to 1,2% in the first half of the 5th c. AD, a percentage which is preserved also in the 6th c. AD. A similar pattern can be seen at Carthage (Riley 1981,118; Peacock 1984, fig.33). It is notable that in Dobrudja, Caesarea (Oleson 1994, fig.34/A61), and in France (Bonifay 1986) these amphoras have pitch on the inner side of the walls. That points toward wine as the main contents of this amphora. The biggest module varies between 6 and 8 litres and the small module varies between 1-2 litres (U. Outschar, “Amphoren Peacock Class 45” in RCRFragmenta, Beiträge zur Keramik in Epessos”). This amphora may originate in western Asia Minor, especially in the Hermos Valley (Aphrodisias), or in a wider region, between Ephesus and Sardis (Pieri 1989, 101). The interesting occurrence of a bronze amphora at Ballana (Emery & Kirwan 1938, 355, pl. 93B), is considered by Hautumm as a ȈȪμȕȠȜȠȞ of an Egyptian productive centre (Hautumm 1981, 161-62).

The second subtype occurs perhaps in the fourth century. It keeps the same body and solid spike, but the mouth is narrowed with the rim bevelled on the external side and its neck is bulbous; the handles are small and attached on the bulbous zone of the neck and on the shoulder. Quite a few examples have been discovered in Scythia at Nifon (OpaiĠ 1980 1980, pl. VIII/5), Beroe (personal communication D. Paraschiv), Medgidia, Axiopolis, Sacidava (Scorpan, Pontica 8, 1975, 271, pl.2/5) and Tomi (Scorpan 1977, 272, fig.6/3,4; fig.39/6). It occurs also at Odessos, in Moesia Secunda (Kuzmanov 1985, pl.5/A43), and in Chersonesos (Romanchuk et Alii 1995, pl.17, 37, Class 17, no. 73).

Scorpan IV / OpaiĠ VIII

Chersonesos Sovhoz 0

Viúina

This amphora type starts its evolution very early and ends probably in the very late fourth century. A beigereddish fine fabric, slightly micaceous with a whitish slip is characteristic of this type. Its main features are an

Beroe

14

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA

Tomi

The dimensions of this type decrease over time. The maximum diameter is 28 cm. (Aegyssus), 23 cm. (ChersonesosSovhoz 10) 21 cm. (Troesmis, and in the fourth century, its maximum diameter is between 14-17 cm. The height of the early Roman subtype is known only for the amphora discovered at Chersonesos-Sovhoz 10, 86 cm., while for the late Roman subtype the height varies between 35-45 cm.

Tomi

Il’ichevskoe

published by Grace (1991, fig. 66, right), and completed in the 5th and 6th c. AD by some amphoras discovered at Tomi (Scorpan 1977, fig. 5/4), Iatrus (Böttger 1982, 11415, type I 4, no. 243, pl.20), Chios (Boardman 1989, fig. 38, no. 228). One remarkable amphora discovered at Il’ichevskoe, and dated by the author in the third quarter of the 6th c. AD, still preserves the ring around the toe (Sazanov 1997, fig. 1/10). Surprisingly, this amphora is found north of the Danube at Cireúanu (Teodorescu 1984, fig.19.30). Calculations indicate for the amphora discovered at Tomi a capacity of c. 35 litres.

Calculation indicates a capacity of 17,862 litres for the amphora discovered at Aegyssus, a capacity of 14,9 litres for Sovhoz 10, a capacity of 7,87 litres for Troesmis, and a capacity of 1,891 litres for that found at Beroe, while for the Tomitan amphora only 1,537 litres. It may be that the standard capacity used for this amphora was that of a xestes of 0.728 l., i.e. 25, 20, 10, 2.5 and 2 xestai. There is every reason to suppose that the content of this amphora was also wine as the coated internal surface of the amphora walls discovered at Troesmis indicates. A hoard of Theodosius I, discovered in an amphora of this type at Medgidia, suggests a date between the end of the 4th c. and the beginning of the 5th c. AD.

Böttger I 3 / OpaiĠ 980 F X Two fragments discovered at Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 1991c, 255, pl. 17/1) and Murighiol (OpaiĠ 1991b, 151, no. 131, pl. 22/131) represent this type. While the former has beige-yellowish fabric, with many lime inclusions and is soft, the latter is whitish and has some dark particles and gold mica, which gives it much more hardness. It has a large mouth (c. 12 cm.), a thickened bevelled rim on the outer edge and a slightly ovoid or cylindrical body (Pl.12.6-8; 14.2-3). The example from Iatrus has a height of 67 cm and a maximum diameter of 32 cm. (Böttger 1982, 104, type I 3, pl. 11/c; unfortunately the author does not give any drawing and the example is lost now). Taking into account its fabric, it seems to be made in at least two workshops. It appears at Topraichioi and Murighiol at the end of the 4th c. and the second quarter of the 5th. c. Iatrus Besides Iatrus, good parallels can be found at Tyras (Savostina 1984, Pl.III.4), Yassi Ada (Bass & van Doorninck 1971, 34, type II, pl.2/9) and Marseille (Bonifay 1986, 284, fig. 9.37). The traces of pitch from the inside of this amphora suggest wine as the main content. This amphora type seems to be the latest subtype of an early Roman

The blackish traces of coating on the internal side of the walls suggest wine as the main content of this amphora also. An Aegean origin is not ruled out, but, so far, the discoveries are more concentrated in the province of Scythia, on the Danube line. Late Cnidian type? The fabric is reddish-brown, moderately hard, rather sandy, self-slipped. The height is 70 cm, the diameter of the mouth is 14 cm, and its maximum diameter is 37 cm. (Pl. 12.1-2). I have previously considered this type as being a late variant of Robinson M273 type (OpaiĠ 1980, 996, 62). Now, I am inclined to consider it as a different type which is a late variant of a well-known Cnidian type. Its main characteristics are the egg-shaped body and ring around the toe that does not occur every time, perhaps its thin tip being broken. It seems to be one of the last links of the evolutionary chain suggested by V. Grace (1979, fig. 64). To this chain should be added an amphora from Bodrum (Alpözen et alii, 1995, 91), dated probably in the 3rd c. AD, followed in the 4th c. AD by an amphora 15

ANDREI OPAIğ

Pl.4). Its fabric matches some fragments discovered at Berenice/Benghazi (Riley 1979, fig. 95, no. D390) and Caesarea (Oleson 1994, fig. 42/ A88); two other fragments discovered at Chios (Boardman 1989, 109, no. 239, Fig. 38), and Corinth (Slane 2000, 304, fig.6b), match the shape but the fabric is slightly different. The upper part of an amphora seems to have been discovered also in Spain (Vegas, 1973, fig. 51/4).

amphora discovered at Brescia (Bruno B., ‘Importazione e consumo di derrate nel tempio: l’evidenza delle anfore” in Rossi F. (ed.) Nuove ricerce sul Capitolium di Brescia. Scavi, studi e restauri. Milano 2002, 277-306, fig. 72). This amphora type might be an eastern Mediterranean imitation of a N. African amphora. OpaiĠ E-III The fabric is beige or pinkish, black inclusions (pyroxene?), iron oxide, limestone which occasionally left small holes in the texture, rare gold mica, soft when the fabric is beige but hard when the fabric is pinkish, yellowish slip outside. It has a bead rim, short neck, which toward the middle of the 5th c., becomes slightly bulged; the body is conical, very ridged. The diameter of the mouth varies between 8.5 and 10.5/11 cm (Pl.14.1,47). The examples of smaller capacity have a slender body.

On the shoulders of some examples from Topraichioi and Murighiol appear diverse dipinti, which indicate variable capacities (between 16 and 24 sextarii). An east Mediterranean origin is not excluded.

It occurs in Scythia at Murighiol, especially during the second half of the 4th c. (9,6%) but it diminishes in the first half of the 5th c. (5,6%) (OpaiĠ 1991b, 148, type E-III, Pl.20.120). The same Murighiol pattern is observed at Topraichioi where, in the first quarter of the 5th. c. it is 8,5%, but falls in the second quarter of the 5th c. to 4,7% (OpaiĠ 1991c, 220, type E-III, Pl.26.1-3,5). The recent excavations from Murighiol seem to indicate that this type was also in use during the 6th c AD, but the author illustrates only examples that are dated in the 4th and the 5th c. AD (Topoleanu 2000, 142, nos. 360-362); the example that is dated in the 6th c. AD is included in this type wrongly (Topoleanu 2000, 142, no. 363, pl. 45; it seems to be closer to LRA3). This uncertainty in identification suggests caution in accepting his statistics for the frequency of this amphora at Murighiol during the 6th c. AD.

The fabric is beige, small, greyish rounded quartz and self-slip. The truncated conical neck ends with a bevelled rim towards the exterior. The body is conical and ends in a long, hollow, foot and a ring base, that recalls the LRA3.

The traces of pitch on the inner side of the walls suggest wine as the main contents. Aegean-carrot amphoras?

This type is not very frequently found in the province of Scythia. There are only three fragmentary pieces discovered at Beroe (Paraschiv 2000, in press, figs. 4-6), one at Dinogetia (Gh. Stefan, Dacia VII-VIII, 1937-1940, 412, fig. 17/2). To the South it occurs at Odessos (A. Minchev, Izvestija, Varna, 19 (34), 1983, 11-12, pl. I/3, V/1), and to the North at Tyras (A. Bortoli-Kazanski & M. Kazanski, “Les sites archéologiques datés du IVe au VIIe siècles au nord-est de la mer noire: état des recherches «, Travaux et mémoires 0, 1987, 441, fig. 2/2). This type seems to be in use until the beginning of the 7th c, as one amphora discovered at Yassi Ada displays similar morphological characteristics, although it ends in a tubular foot. (Bass & van Doorninck 1982, 186, no. P 81, fig. 8-20). Beroe

The maximum diameter varies between 13-16 cm and its height between 33-43 cm., indicating different capacities. The completely preserved example from Beroe is c. 1 litre while the example discovered at Dinogetia is bigger.

Topraichioi

Torone VII/ OpaiĠ C-I The fabric is beige-pale brown, soft, very fine dense clay with some black and white impurities, white mica, and rare dull red iron ore. A large, thick rounded rim is set on a cylindrical neck. The body is bag-shaped and ends in a spike (Pl. 9.4-7).

This type occurs also at Niculitel in a level that was destroyed in 378 (V. Baumann, Peuce X, 1991, 123, 16

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA thin-walled; it is ovoid at the beginning of the 4th c. at Novae (Gacuta & Sarnowski 1981, fig.54.2), Torone (Papadopoulos 1989, Fig.13a), and becomes bag-shaped (Pl.10,11). This amphora is quite frequently found in Dobrudja at TeliĠa-Valea Morilor (Baumann 1995, 423, type IV, pl. X/2), Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 1991c, 216, pl.18; 19/1,3), Murighiol (OpaiĠ 1991b, 145, pl. 16/96), Tomi (Rădulescu 1976, 107, pl. Tomi VII/3; another two examples in the museum’s storeroom, inv. no. 8044, 8045), and Noviodunum (I & Al. Barnea 1984, pl. IX/1,2); in the North it occurs at Tyras (Kravtschenko & Korpusova 1975, fig. 5/4), in Bulgaria at Iatrus (Böttger 1982, 104, no. 112, pl. 19) and Odessos (Kuzmanov 1985, pl.3/A27-28), and in the Mediterranean at Chios (Garnet & Boardman, BSA 56, 1961, Fig.2) and Thasos (M. Picon & J. -P. Sodini BCH 96, 1972,941-49).

Torone An early variant occurs at Torone, its body being only half wheel-ridged, and dated perhaps around the middle or the second half of the 4th c. (Papadopoulos 1989, 98100, fig.17). This amphora varies between 1,3-1,7% during the first half of the 5th c. at Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 1991c, 216, pl.17/2-6). It occurs at some other sites like Murighiol (OpaiĠ 1991b, 144, pl.16/93; Topoleanu 2000, 143, pl. 45/365), Dinogetia (Al. Barnea, personal communication), Iatrus (Böttger 1982, 43, type I-3, pl.19/112). Some examples are present at Marseille (Bonifay & Villedieu 1989, 36, fig.14.16.17). The capacity of the Dinogetia amphora is ca. 52 litres, while the amphora from Torone is ca. 17 litres. The traces of pitch from the inner side of the walls suggest wine as a possible content. The fabric and the bag-shaped body are surprisingly similar to that of Dressel 6, but only detailed laboratory analyses can confirm such a hypothesis. On the other hand, no Torone VII/ OpaiĠ C-I amphoras have been found in Apulia or the Istrian peninsula. A bronze amphora Dinogetia with a height of 55 cm has been discovered at Ballana (Emery & Kirwan 1938, 355, pl. 93 C, room 1 of tomb 95). This amphora has also caught Hautumm’s attention, but he considered it a bronze imitation of a North African amphora (Hautumm 1981, 104). The widening of the lower part of the body, the tall neck and the handles that are not too close to the neck, does not seem to indicate a North African amphora, but rather an Aegean one.

Tomi Topraichioi

Torone III/ OpaiĠ CII-2 The fabric is brick-pinkish or gray with pyroxene, rare gold mica, iron inclusions and sometimes it has a laminated fracture. The rim is either slightly thickened outside and inside or only bevelled outside; the neck is short, the body is ridged and ends in a short spike and is

Topraichioi 17

ANDREI OPAIğ

capacities of c. 30 litres for the amphora discovered at Thasos (Abadie-Reynal & Sodini 1989, fig. 26, CC 344), and the amphoras discovered on the Yassi Ada shipwreck have capacities of 37-40 litres (Bass & Doorninck 1971, 34, type I, pl. 2/8).

It bears quite frequently graffiti and dipinti with Greek characters indicating capacities between 22 and 32 l. An example discovered at Topraichioi has on its handle the stamp EYT (yche). An amphora discovered at Tomi, which can be dated probably during the 6th c. AD, has an oval stamp, which seems to represent a human head. An earlier variant discovered also at Tomi bears a dipinto on the shoulder: KA (21 sextarii). All these elements point towards an Aegean area. An amphora fragment discovered at Elée seems to belong to this type, but the authors do not describe the texture of this fragment (Empereur & Picon, Figlina 7, 1986, 14, Fig.2). The traces of pitch on the inner side of the walls suggest wine or fish sauces as contents.

Topraichioi

OpaiĠ C III-2 The fabric is brown-brick, iron oxide, quartz, rare gold mica, hard, and fine (Pl.13.4). The rim diameter is 12 cm. The special care shown in fixing the upper side of the handle and the thickness of the walls seems to suggest a large amphora with a capacity of at least ca. 35 l. It was discovered at Topraichioi and it is dated to the beginning of the 5th.c. (OpaiĠ 1991c, 217, pl. 20.2). We do not know of any parallels for this amphora and its contents are unknown.

Robinson M273/ OpaiĠ C III-

Palestine

Topraichioi

Sardis type?

Thasos

The fabric is brown-dull red, hard, or beige-brown, rather sandy, and quite soft, which seems to suggest the presence of at least two production centres. This type of amphora undergoes the same transformation as the previous two types, that is, an ovoid body in the 4th c. modified to a bag-shaped form in the 5th c. AD (Pl.12.35). It occurs in the second half of the 4th c. and beginning of the 5th c. at Callatis (Preda 1980, Pl.73. M208.2), Tomi (Rădulescu 1976, Pl.VII.2), Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 1991c, pl.19/5) and Murighiol (OpaiĠ 1991b, Pl.16.97, 98). Outside Scythia, it appears at Chersonesos (Belov KS, 116, 1969, fig.24), Athens (Robinson 1959 Pl.29/ M273), Yassi Ada (Bass & Doorninck 1971, Pl.2/8), Thasos (Abadie-Reynal & Sodini 1989, fig.26, CC 344-346) Shikmona (Zemer 1977, pl. 15.42), and Marseille (Bonifay 1986, 284, fig. 9/38). At Marseille (Bonifay 1986) these amphoras have pitch on the inner side of the walls, which seems to indicate wine or fish as the main contents.

A small amphora has been discovered at Histria, and summarily published by E. Popescu because it happened to bear dipinti on its body (a cross having on both sides Ȑ and ȫ). We are informed that the container has a height of 28 cm., and, probably, its maximum diameter is c. 12 cm. The amphora is dated in the 5th –6th c A.D. (Popescu 1994, 389, no.9, fig. 103). So far, this amphora seems to be the only one discovered in Dobrudja. I decided to call this amphora “Sardis type”, because some Histria examples of this type have been discovered in the Byzantine shop at Sardis, which was destroyed in the first quarter of the 7thc. A.D. (Crawford 1990, fig. 245, 484, 532).

Quite frequently on this type graffiti occurs, indicating probably different capacities, as is the case for Topraichioi where figures of 35, 38, 47 sextarii occur (OpaiĠ 1991c, 216-17). Similar graffiti occur at Thasos (Abadie-Reynal & Sodini 1989, 59, nos. CC 344-346). But the mathematical calculations seems to indicate

This type seems to have a micaceous, pink-red, fabric, with cream slip on exterior. The thickened, vertical lip is 18

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA separated from the conical neck by a small retreat, and between neck and shoulder there is a continuous line. The body is ovoid and ends in a spike; its upper part is ribbed. A striking characteristic is the fact that this type possesses only one handle attached under the lip and its lower attachment is at a point where the shoulder should begin. The maximum diameters vary between 16 and 21 cm. These examples seem to have a bigger capacity than the Histrian example. We can see, in the shape of this amphora, some influences of the earlier subtype of the famous LRA 3, which was probably made in the vicinity. Therefore, it is not excluded that this type was made in the neighbourhood of Sardis.

19

ANDREI OPAIğ

century. The capacity also increases from 3 to 5-6 litres. To this variant probably belongs an amphora discovered at Tomi (personal communication C. Chera) (Pl.7.). and some sherds from Murighiol (OpaiĠ 99b, 43, nos. 80, 82).

Levantine and Cretan amphoras Carthage LRA 4 (Gaza/Ashkelon) This is a very well known amphora found from Palestine to Britain and from Egypt to the Crimea (Riley 979, fig. 46). It has been well described by many specialists such as Riley (975 and 979), Peacock & Williams (986, Class 48 & 49), (995) and Pieri (998). The last seems to be the most comprehensive analysis, establishing five forms that are divided into two sub groups. Tomi

Majcherek established the same evolution, but he identified only four main ‘forms’ (Majcherek 995). It was manufactured in southern Palestine, along the coast between Ashkelon and Gaza (Kingsley 200, 49-50), but some imitations of this type have been discovered East of the Nile (Empereur & Picon, in Cahiers de la céramique égyptienne 3, 992, 45-52).

In my opinion, the first subtype continues to evolve during the 5th c. AD, becoming cylindrical, but preserving a squarish rim. So far this variant has not been found in Scythia. LRA 4 A3 sometimes has an angle at the transition between shoulder and body, and the inner side of the rim has a groove. It occurs not only in Scythia, but also in France (Alessandri et Alii 998, fig. 4/-2), Rome (Whitehouse 9892, fig.2/64), Tarragona (Keay 984, fig. 2.2-4), N. Sinai (Arthur & Oren 998, fig.8.3), and Corinth (Williams II & Zervos, 982, 404, fig. 3/74, pl. 44). During the second half of the 6th c. the rim and the body become more elongated, but the rim still continues to be squarish; it occurs at Berenice (Riley 979, fig. 92/352), Corinth (Williams II & Zemer 982, fig.3/73), Tanis (Bavay et Alii, 2000, fig. 27.), and Caesarea (Oleson 994, 08, no. A64, fig. 34; Tomber 999, fig. 4.75).

In the province of Scythia it has been possible to identify all these subtypes. From the 4th century, when this type seems to start, until the 6th century, the body of this amphora type undergoes some modifications, passing from a short, ovoid body to a slender, cylindrical shape. The shoulders from almost flat become steeper, the base from a rounded shape to more conical; the ridging from the shoulders and upper part of the body is replaced by a small band of fine combed striations. All the subtypes still preserved clay accretions on the neck during their evolution.

Murighiol

Palestine- Zemer 53

According to Pieri (998, 0, fig. 5), this variant continues to be used throughout the 5th century, and only at the beginning of the 6th century does a transition variant occur (B) followed by other two variants (B2 and B3).

The first subtype (LRA 4A1) that occurs during the 4th c AD could be identified with an amphora published by Zemer (977, 6, no. 53). A short, squarish rim, an ovoid body and a rounded base characterize it (Pl.7.8). Some scholars consider this subtype as a separate type, the precursor of LRA4 (Peacock & Williams 986, 96-97, Class 48). In my opinion this amphora represents only the beginning of LRA4 type, as it seems to be typical only for the 4th c. AD. The next variant (A2) has a more elongated body, a squarish but taller rim and a less rounded base. This variant could probably be dated to the beginning of the 5th

A fourth variant (LRA 4 A4) seems to be attested probably in the second half of the 5th c and in the 6th century. It differs from the previous variants by its rim which ends in a small hook on the inner side of the lip. The Murighiol main differences can be seen in the body’s morphology, as an example discovered at Novae shows; in addition to the hooked rim this amphora has an offset between the middle and the top quarter of the body, and another one just under the lower attachment of the handles. Above this upper offset, and towards the conical base, the body is very well ridged; a very fine band of striations delimit the main body from the conical base. The handles seem to be more massive than those of other subtypes, more flattened and with a central rib (Pl.7.2). The example published by Zemer (977, no.49) has only the upper offset and a more conical base, perhaps marking a later variant, which can be dated at the beginning of the 6th century AD. I will not exclude a 20

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA The rim is short, thickened and slightly differentiated from the shoulders. It was discovered at Topraichioi in a level dated in the third decade of the 5th century (Pl. Topraichioi 7.9), Ibida (OpaiĠ 99d, fig. 6. 30, 32, 33), and at Ampurias (Almagro 955, 320, fig. 305), Rome (Whitehouse 982, fig.2/ 6), Demetrias (Eiwanger 98, pl. 27. II.467-469), and Heletz (Zemer 977, 6, no. 50). The last amphora has a capacity of 24.9 litres and was discovered in a grave together with an amphora of the previous subtype A.

dating of Novae example in the very early decades of the 5th century AD. Examples of this subtype have been discovered at Ibida (OpaiĠ 99d, fig. 6. 27), Tomi (OpaiĠ 99b, pl.4/A), Novae (P. Dyczek Archeologia 33, Warsaw 98, fig. 7), North Sinai (Arthur & Oren 998, 207, fig. 8.2), Spain (Keay 984, fig. 2.9), Demetrias (Eiwanger 98, pl. 27.II.470), and Kellia (Egloff 977, type 82).

This subtype continued to be made also during the 6th c. AD, this variant (B2) having mainly a rim that is even less differentiated from the shoulder, as is the case with some discoveries made at Ibida (OpaiĠ 99d, fig. 6/ 25, 30, 3), and Ashdod (Zemer 977, 6, no. 5).

Novae

A third subtype (LRA 4C1) starts its evolution during the second quarter of the 5th c., as is documented by a rim fragment discovered at Topraichioi (Pl. 7.0) (OpaiĠ 99c, pl.6.). The rim is not differentiated from the shoulders, but its lip is thickened and sharply bevelled towards the interior. The shoulder seems to make an angle with the body, similar to Palestine-Zemer 52 subtype LRA 4A3. A variant of this subtype continued to be made until the second half of the 6th c, when it is found at Ibida (OpaiĠ 99d, fig. 6.3). It is well dated at Marseille (Bonifay 986, fig. 7/24) during the first half of the 5th c. AD. It occurs also in Spain (Keay 984, fig. 22. 3, 8), Ephesus (V. Gassner Das Südtor der TetragonosAgora.Keramik und Kleinfunde. Forschungen in Ephesos XIII//, Wien 997, pl. 60.764a). A completely preserved example has been discovered on the seabed between Atlit and Caesarea (Zemer 977, 6, no.5; Tomber 999, fig. 4. 73).

Palestine-Zemer 49

In my opinion, during the second quarter of the 5th century, or even earlier, a second subtype seems to emerge, LRA 4B.

The 6th century variant (LRA 4C2) has a more elongated rim and body, but the rim continues to be bevelled towards the interior. It occurs at Ibida (OpaiĠ 99d, fig. 6. 35), Murighiol (Pl.7.7) (OpaiĠ 99b, 43, fig. 4/78a,b), and Berenice (Riley 979, fig. 92/355), Kellia (Egloff 977, type 83), Caesarea (Adam-Bayewitz, 986, fig..4), and Spain (Keay 984, fig. 2. ). This subtype seems to be one of the most exported Palestinian amphoras in Scythia during the second half of the sixth century.

Palestine-Zemer 50

Palestine-Zemer 51 2

ANDREI OPAIğ

Regarding the morphological evolution of this amphora, the discoveries made at Topraichioi and Murighiol clearly show that in the second quarter of the 5th c. AD the rim is short, Murighiol thickened, knobbed or bevelled on the inner edge, and slightly differentiated from the shoulders. In the 6th century the rim becomes fairly upright or slightly everted (Pl.7.9-0, 2). As we can see from the evolution of this type, there was a parallel evolution of many variants during the fifth century. This multitude of variants could correspond to a multitude of workshop centres that had their own evolution during the fifth and sixth century.

Murighiol

It is worth noting that some amphoras have pitch on the inner side of the walls and others do not. Probably during the 5th century AD occurs another subtype, LRA 4D, which has only a small, vertical lip, rounded on top. A fragmentary example Dinogetia has been discovered at Dinogetia (OpaiĠ 99b, fig. 3/ 33539). Parallels can be found at Caesarea (Oleson 994, 08, no. A63, fig. 34; Tomber 999, Fig. 4. 74), and Tanis (Bavay et Alii, 2000, fig. 27.3). In the next century this rim becomes more Murighiol elongated, being vertical or slightly pulled towards the exterior, as it is the case with some examples discovered at Ibida (OpaiĠ 99d, fig. 6/ 29, 34), and Murighiol (OpaiĠ 99, fig. 4/79, 83; Topoleanu 2000, pl.43/349). Good parallels are also found at Caesarea (Oleson 994, 7, no, A 74, fig. 40), in Egypt (Majcherek 995, pl.8. 5), and in Spain (Keay 984, fig.22. ).

Dipinti are not often found on this amphora type, but they are not totally absent either. A dipinto on an amphora of this type discovered at Histria indicates a capacity of 2 xestai i.e., .466 litres (Popescu 976, 73, no.57). Calculations suggest for this type a capacity of .3 l and 4.7 l at Murighiol, 8.2 l at Ampurias and 28 l at Alexandria. Zemer (977, 64) points out a capacity of 25 l. Most commonly they are considered wine amphoras (Kingsley 200). However, the geometry of this amphora indicates fish products as the main content. Also Riley (979, 222), does not exclude fish; this content is indicated also by fish remains discovered in some amphoras found in Palestine (Zemer 977, 6). Some sherds discovered at Marseille had pitch inside, others not. In the province of Scythia this type occurs especially in cities: Troesmis (Baumann in Peuce 8 980, 84, pl. 7.2), Noviodunum (Barnea 984, pl. 8.2), Aegyssus (unpublished), Murighiol (OpaiĠ 99b, 42-43, nos. 7883, pl.3-4), Ibida (OpaiĠ 99d, 30, fig. 6.27-35), Tropaeum Traiani (Catăniciu & Barnea 979, 87, fig. 64.3,5), Histria (Condurachi 954, fig. 389; Suceveanu 982b, 7, pl. 6/9), Tomi (Rădulescu 973, 93, fig. 5), at the fortified horreum of Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 99c, 24, type II, pl. 6.,2) and rarely in villages like TeliĠa (Baumann 984, pl. XIII.2). At Murighiol its percentages oscillate between 2 and 4% in the second half of the 5th century and the 6th c. AD to reach 4,5% at the end of the 6th c. AD.

Another subtype, LRA 4E, seems to have during the second half of the 5th century a rim that has been pulled out and its top pressed, still with a small ridge, the best example being discovered at Caesarea (Riley 975, 3, no.2). During the 6th century, the body follows the same tendency as other subtypes, becomes slender and the shoulders are steeper. The rim also becomes more elongated and flattened at its top, as is shown by a fragmentary amphora discovered at Murighiol (Topoleanu 2000, 37, pl.43/ 347). Parallels can be found at Caesarea (Adam-Bayewitz, 986, fig. .8, 9). 22

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA believe that the end of production of this type coincides with the beginning of the production of Carthage LR 1, since these two types are contemporary at least during the first half of the 5th c. A marked degradation in the production of this type can be seen towards the middle of the 5th c. at Topraichioi (Pl.11.1-3).

Amphora of Cyprus/Anemurium type The fabric is beige, fine, self-slipped. This amphora is known from the 1st until the 4th c. AD in the Mediterranean area: Pompeii, Ostia, Berenice, Halicarnassus Ephesus, Knossos (CIL IV, 2, type XXVIIXXVIII; Panella 1986b, Note 2), and Anemurium (Williams 1989, 92), Atlit (Zemer 1977, 52, no. 41), Athens (Böttger 1992), Demetrias (Eiwanger Tomi 1981, pl. 61/III-553), but it is sporadic in the Pontic basin at Tomi (Pl.8.9), Tanais (Savostina 1984, pl. LXXIV/24) and Sozopol (Kuzmanov 1985, type V, pl.4/A 36a). The buff fabric of the Tomitan example (Pl. 8.9) suggests perhaps a Cypriote origin (Hayes 1977, 100) and not an Anemurium one (Williams 1989, 91-93). Its capacity varies between 36 l suggested for the amphora discovered at Pompeii, and 45 l. suggested for the amphora discovered at Tomi.

Carthage LR 5 The fabric is brownishorange, soft. The height is around 40cm and the maximum diameter is c. 33 cm. Capidava

This type seems to have a Palestinian origin. Although it occurs in many sites, at Histria (Condurachi 1954, 458, fig.385), Capidava (personal communication Z. Covacef), Murighiol (Pl. 8.1,2) (OpaiĠ 1991b, 145, pl.16/99), Ibida (OpaiĠ 1991c, 37, fig.10/83) and Sacidava (Scorpan 1977, 273), in levels dated to the 6th c AD, it does not seem to be imported in large quantities into Scythia. North Sinai Usually the inner side of the walls is lined with pitch and that seems to prove the presence of wine as the main product transported by these amphoras (Bonifay & Pieri 1995, 112-13; Kingsley 2001, 51). But not all sherds belonging to this type are lined as we can infer from the discoveries made at Marseille (Bonifay & Pieri 1995, 112) and Carthage (OpaiĠ 1998, 22). Zemer indicates the discovery of this amphora type in some Palestinian winepresses. The lack of pitch on some amphoras suggests that olive oil could be another product exported in this amphora type, as there is a large concentration of oil presses in central and northern Israel (Kingsley 2001, 45). The origin of this amphora has been suggested as North Palestine, probably around Caesarea (Riley 1975, type 1, 26, Hayes 1992, type 8, 65-66; Landgraf 1980, fig.22, 78-79), but recent discoveries indicate that it was manufactured throughout Palestine, although all published kilns have been discovered only around Tel Aviv and in the western Akko valley (Kingsley 2001, 50). It occurs also in North Sinai (Arthur & Oren 1998, fig.7.4). Also we should not forget that this type has been imitated in Egypt at Abu Mina (P. Ballet (1994) Chronique d’Égypte 69.138, 353-65; Ballet (1997), 55, fig. 4).

Conical amphora of Seleucia in Pieria type

Topraichioi

The fabric of this type is brick red with a lot of iron oxide, very hard, self-slip, or whitish-pink. The mouth is narrow, only 6-8 cm. The body of a complete preserved example is slightly ridged with a small constriction at its middle; its height is 57cm, and the maximum diameter is 18.5 cm. (Pl. 9.1-3). The capacity of this type is small, varying between 4 and 7 litres.

It seems to be a well known type on the Lower Danube since it occurs at Topraichioi between the end of the 4th c. and mid 5th c. in a percentage which oscillates between 10 and 14%; it reaches 7,6% at Murighiol/ Halmyris in the second half of the 4th c and at Iatrus it grows from 3,4% in the first half of the 4th c. to 16% in the first half of the 5th c. Further south it occurs at Athens (Böttger 1992, 350, fig.3/14; pl. 102/4), Ephesus (personal observations), Tarsus (Jones 1950, 278, no. 831, pl.166), Lebanon (Zemer 19778, 49, no. 40), Bodrum, Adana, Ras el Bassit and Egypt (Empereur & Picon 1989, 232, note 22). An amphora workshop discovered at Seleucia in Pieria seems to indicate a Syrian origin for this type of amphora (Empereur & Picon 1989, 232). We do not

Calculations made for a complete amphora discovered at Capidava indicate a capacity of c. 23 l., while the amphora published by Zemer (1977, no.54) is only 20 l. 23

ANDREI OPAIğ

(M. Coja, personal communication) at the beginning of the 7th c. In the South, this amphora appears at Constantinople (Hayes 1992, 104, type 22, fig. 49/195196; dated in the second half of the 7th c.) and Berenice (Riley 1979, 232, type LRA 14, pl. 94.376).

Kingsley (2001, 50) indicates even capacities of 26,5 litres.

Berenice LR 5

The amphora illustrated has been discovered at Tomi and the calculations indicate a capacity of c. 1.8 l, while an amphora discovered at Murighiol is c. 3 l (OpaiĠ 1991a, 150, no.125, pl. 22; Topoleanu 2000, 141, no.357, pl. 44).

The fabric is brick-orange, some gold mica, limestone, and self slip (Pl.8. 2). Riley (1979, 224) (Pl.8.3) indicates an origin in the Levant where it seems to be quite frequent (Zemer 1977, 73, nos. 60-62, pl.22). It occurs also at Kellia (Egloff 1977, 118, no. 188, pl. 61.5), Berenice and Apollonia (Riley 1979, 224, type LRA 5 fig. 92/357-58; pl. XXXVI a). This Palestine-Zemer 61 type appears in Dobrudja, found so far only at Murighiol (OpaiĠ 1991b, 145, pl.16/99), and Ibida (OpaiĠ 1991c, 37, fig.10/86) at the end of the 6th century AD.

Its texture and also some morphological details suggest a possible Cretan origin. These amphoras could be a possible late variant of the “amphore crétoise 1a” type (Markulaki, Empereur & Marangou 1989; Empereur, Kritzas & Marangou 1991, fig.17). If the Cretan origin of these 7th c. amphoras is confirmed by other discoveries, we will have proof that Cretan wine production lasted a considerable period.

Zeest 99/ Sazanov 11 The texture is beige-grey; fine quartz, hard, compact, self-slip (Pl.15.4-7). The height is about 40 cm and the maximum diameter is c. 18 cm.

Zemer indicates capacities that vary between 6, 7 and 10 litres (Zemer 1977, nos. 60-62). The origins of this type seems to be in the same region as the previous type, North Palestine, probably the Beth Sh’ean area on the Jordan river (Riley 1975, type 3, 31; Hayes 1992, type 7, 65). Also, an Egyptian version was made at Abu Mina and Térénouthis (Ballet 1997, 58, fig. 16-17).

Cretan amphoras Riley LRA 14 The fabric is cream, a few white inclusions, slightly micaceous, soft, fine, beige whitish slip. A slightly everted rim and a conical body ending in a small knob characterize this type (Pl.15.1-3). The height varies between 44 and 52 cm and the maximum diameter between 8 and 14 cm.

Tomi

Tomi

It occurs in Dobrudja at Murighiol (OpaiĠ 1991b, 150, type E IX, pl. 22.127-128; 23.136; Topoleanu 2000, 144-45, nos.369-70, pl. 46), Histria (Condurachi et Al. Materiale VI, 1959, 278, Fig.4.2), Tomi (MIANC, inv.no.28384), Ibida (OpaiĠ 1991c, fig.10/82) and Argamum (unpublished). It is dated to the last quarter of the 6th c. in all these sites. In the northern Black Sea, it is frequent at Chersonesos, Tyritake, Il’chevskoe and Panticapaeum (Sazanov 1989; Savostina 1984, pl. 74.29).

In addition, this type by its texture and morphological characteristics recalls an earlier Roman type, namely the “amphore crétoise 1b” (Markoulaki et Alii 1989, fig.16; Empereur et Alii 1991, fig.43; Frend & Johnston, BSA 57, 1962, 228, fig.19.101- dated in the 6th c.). The contents of this amphora also seem to have been Cretan wine.

OpaiĠ E IV/ Böttger II-2 (Lebanese type?)

It occurs in Scythia at Murighiol (OpaiĠ 1991b, 150, type E-VIII, pl. 22.125-26, 132), Histria (Condurachi 1954, 461, fig. 387), Axiopolis (I. Barnea, O. Iliescu, C. Nicolescu, Cultura Bizantina in Romania, 1971, 161, no. 188; Popescu 1976, 208, no. 196) and Argamum

The fabric is beige-brick, very much fine limestone, hard, relatively compact. The height is c. 48 cm., the rim diameter is 12 cm, and the maximum diameter is 33 cm. (Pl. 13.2,3) It occurs in Dobrudja at Topraichioi and Troesmis (OpaiĠ 1991c, 220, type E IV, Pl. 26.4). There are exact parallels at Iatrus (Böttger 1982, 47-48, type II-2, pl. 23.276). It is 24

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA In view of the hardness of the fabric and the ovoid shape of the body it is quite possible that this amphora was used for olive oil.

also found in the South at Quasrawet, where it is also dated to the late 4th c AD (Arthur & Oren 1998, 201, fig. 7/2). Probably the 6th century subtype is represented by an amphora published by Zemer (1977, 70, No.58). The body is more pear-shaped; its capacity is only 14.2 litres. An amphora discovered at Caesarea (Adan-Bayewitz 1986, 104-105, type 10, fig. 3.1) and another one at Crypta Balbi in Rome (Saguì 1998, 318, fig. 10.1) seems to indicate the last subtype of this amphora which is dated to the 7thc. AD. Iatrus

Rome-Cripta Balbi

Some amphora rims discovered at Beirut, dated in the 2nd c AD, and considered as being “Coan imitation” (P. Reynolds RCRF.Acta36, 2000, 394, nos. 41, 42, fig. 8/4142) show a conspicuous resemblance to the rim fragments discovered in Dobrudja.

Palestine-Zemer 58

Bonifay 1986, nos. 27, 28 / OpaiĠ F II The fabric is beige-brown, with a grey core, extremely sandy, white mica, rare gold mica, hard, compact, slip white-yellowish. It has a wide mouth, large thick rim with a threshold on the inner side. The body can be carrot-shaped (Pl. 13.5, 6).

Calculations made for the amphora discovered at Quasrawet indicate a capacity of c. 18 l.

At Murighiol two examples are dated during the 4th c. AD (Topoleanu 2000, 143, pl.45/ 365-366), but at Topraichioi, it is dated in the second quarter of the 5th. c. AD (Pl.13.56) (OpaiĠ 1991c, 222, Pl. 29). It has excellent parallels at Odessos, where many fragments of this type were found in its ancient harbour (personal Topraichioi communication G. Tonceva). In the West this type occurs at Marseille, Rome, Canosa and Port-Vendres and is dated in the first half of the 5th. c. AD (Bonifay 1986, 282, no.27, 28, notes 64, 65, fig. 7/ 28). The traces of pitch on the inner side of the walls attest to wine or a fish product as the main contents.

Quasrawet

This type seems to have in common features with an amphora manufactured at Aqaba in the 7th c AD (Melkawi et Alii 1994, 460, fig.10.d; I am indebted to R. Tomber for drawing my attention to this discovery).

If the parallels are correctly established with the sherds discovered at Beirut, we could assume that this amphora type has an origin in Lebanon.

25

ANDREI OPAIğ

fig. 25/90), Ostia (Panella 968, p. 97-6), Berenice and Apollonia (Riley 979, 88, fig. 83/240; 84/24).

Pontic Amphoras Zeest 80/Riley MRA 5

The last subtype, of the second half of the 4th c. to the 6th c., does not have those characteristic deep grooves on the exterior of the rim, but the external face of the rim is smooth, forming a line continuous with the neck. Its dimensions lessen: the diameter of the mouth from 7 cm, in the 3rd c., to 6 cm in the 4thc, while the maximum diameter decreases from 66 cm to 58 cm. It is documented for the moment only in the Pontic basin (Pl.6/4-6). This type occurs in the province of Scythia at Topraichioi (OpaiĠ 99c, 22, pl. 3/-3), Murighiol (OpaiĠ 99b, 39, type I, pl. 8/5), Histria (OpaiĠ 987, 248, fig. 3/4), Sacidava (Scorpan 973, 288, fig. 36/4), Dinogetia (Barnea 966, 244, 257, fig. 8/6; 3/; 5/6-7), and Tropaeum Traiani (Cătăniciu & Barnea 979, 90, fig. 68/3.7). Identical examples appear further south at Varna (personal communication G. Tonceva), Odarci (Donceva-Petkova 989, pl. III/) and Constantinople (Hayes 992, 63, type 4, fig. 47/58-60).

The fabric is orange or brown, sometimes with a grey core, abundant quartz and iron oxide, rare gold mica, very hard. It is an amphora with a long evolution from at least the st c. A.D. to the 6th c. The body has kept its form more or less ovoid; the mouth is large; the neck is high, conical; massive hanAgighiol dles covered with fine ridging on the outside. The transition from the shoulder to the body and that from the body to the conical base is marked by regular grooves. The position of these grooves suggests that they were made by a rope that wrapped up and supported those areas during the drying process. Its evolution was described earlier by the author (OpaiĠ 987, 247-50, Sacidava type II). The earlier variants occur not only in the Pontic basin but also in the Mediterranean at Athens (Robinson 959, 69, K 5), Corinth (Williams & Zervos 983, 5, pl. 7/27), Demetrias (Eiwanger 982), Knossos (Hayes 983, 55,

Riley (979, 88) considers a north Aegean or Black Sea origin for this type. But the appearance of the late variant of this type only in the Black Sea area could indicate a Pontic origin. A massive, fragmentary spike, perhaps belonging to an amphora of this type has been discovered at Heraclea Pontica (Arsen’eva et Alii 997, 90, fig. 23). The capacity of this amphora is large, the earlier variant being over 00 l, while the later vary between 60 and 80 l. A graffito on an amphora of this subtype discovered at Dinogetia indicates a capacity of either 45-46 litres (Barnea 966, 244, fig. 8.6; 3.), or 92 sextarii (50.237 litres) (Popescu 976, 266, no. 250). The second reading seems more appropriate for the large dimensions of this subtype. The general trend is that of a constant decrease in volume.

Antonova 9/Zemer 67 The fabric is light brown, yellowish, with white inclusions, hard, yellowish slip outside. This type seems to imitate the type LR 2. It differs from LR 2 in its mouth and neck, which are particularly large, two massive handles, and the body ends in an “umbo” (Pl.6/-3). A point to notice is that, when the potter has fixed the upper attachment, his finger created a small hollow on the inner side of the neck. Sometimes, this area is marked on the exterior of the neck by two incised lines. Two amphoras discovered at Capidava show a rim diameter that varies between 2 and 3 cm and a maximum diameter between 30 and 32 cm. Zemer indicates a volume of 4.7 l for an amphora discovered in Palestine (Zemer 977, 79, pl. 23/67). The amphora discovered at Chersonesos has a height of 47 cm, a rim diameter of 4 cm and a maximum diameter of

26

ASPECTS OF ECONOMIC LIFE IN THE PROVINCE OF SCYTHIA There are still some minor morphological differences between these two variants. Some amphoras discovered in Italy display a rolled lip like those from the eastern Mediterranean, but others have an expanded lip, which is very unusual for those discovered in the Black Sea and the eastern Mediterranean. The neck of the former is almost cylindrical, while the latter have a more truncated cone shape; the oriental variant has a small hollow on the internal side of the neck, which is missing on the occidental variant. The oriental variant has on the external side of the neck two incised lines which mark the place of the upper handle attachment. In addition, the umbo of the base seems to be more accentuated on the occidental variant. Of course, these peculiarities should be better defined by future research. An interesting variant which occurs on the Yassi Ada shipwreck has all the morphological characteristics of the occidental variant, except the ribbing of the body (Bass & Doorninck 982, 86, fig. 8-20, P 78).

33 cm. Calculations indicate for this amphora a capacity of c. 7.7 litres.

Chersonesos This Chersonesos amphora seems to be slightly larger than other two fragmentary amphoras of this type discovered at Capidava that have rim diameters of 23 cm, and maximum diameters of 30 and 32 cm (one of them is Capidava illustrated here). It is possible that the amphora discovered in Palestine could have a capacity of 8 sextarii (4.368 litres), and the Chersonesos amphora could be four times bigger, being 32 sextarii (7.472 litres), or 2 regular Roman modii. The examples discovered at Capidava could have intermediate capacities, as both amphoras preserve fragments of dipinti and graffiti indicating the same fragmentary notation: …H