Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics 0323983413, 9780323983419

Table of contents :
Front Cover
Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics
Copyright Page
Contents
List of contributors
Foreword
Preface
1 An insight into indigenous fermented foods for the tropics
1.1 Introduction
Acknowledgments
References
1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods
2 African cereal-based fermented products
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Biochemistry of cereal fermentation
2.3 Nutritional composition of African cereal-based fermented products
2.4 Health-promoting constituents of African-based cereal fermented products
2.5 Microbiota of African-based cereal fermented products
2.6 Conclusion and future directions
Acknowledgments
References
Further reading
3 Asian fermented cereal-based products
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biochemistry of Asian fermented cereal-based products
3.3 Nutritional composition and functionality of Asian fermented cereal-based products
3.4 Health-promoting constituents of Asian fermented cereal-based products
3.4.1 Food safety and shelf-life extension of Asian cereal-based fermented foods
3.4.2 Potential Prebiotic from cereal-based fermented foods
3.5 Microbiota of Asian fermented cereal-based products
3.6 Conclusion and future directions
References
Further reading
4 South American fermented cereal-based products
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Biochemistry of cereal fermentation
4.3 Nutritional composition of South American fermented cereal products
4.4 Health-promoting constituents of South American fermented cereal products
4.5 Microbiota of South American fermented cereal products
4.6 Conclusion and future directions
References
5 African legume, pulse, and oilseed-based fermented products
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Fermented food products from African legumes, pulses, and oil seeds
5.2.1 Biochemistry of African legume-, pulse-, and oil seed-based fermented products
5.2.2 Nutritional composition of fermented foods from African legumes, pulses, and oilseeds
5.2.3 Health-promoting constituents of African legume-, pulse-, and oil seed-based fermented products
5.2.4 Microbiota of African legume-, pulse-, and oil seed-based fermented products
5.2.4.1 Microbiology of ugba
5.2.4.2 Iru or Dawadawa and Ogiri
5.2.4.3 Sigda
5.2.4.4 Tunganee
5.3 Conclusions and future perspective
References
Further reading
6 Asian fermented legumes, pulses, and oil seed-based products
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Lactic acid bacteria
6.3 Effect of fermentation on legumes and pulse-based fermented foods
6.3.1 Nutritional components obtained from the fermentation legumes
6.3.1.1 Protein and amino acids
6.3.1.2 Carbohydrates and starch fractions
6.3.1.3 Fats and fatty acids
6.3.1.4 Ash and mineral composition
6.3.1.5 Vitamins
6.3.2 Functional components in fermented pulse-based foods
6.3.2.1 Phenolic compounds
6.3.2.2 Protease inhibitors, lectin, and phytates
6.3.2.3 Fiber and saccharides
6.3.2.4 Proteins and peptides
6.4 Conclusion and future prospective
References
7 South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Cauim
7.1.2 Chicha of chontaduro (sweet chicha)
7.1.3 Chicha of morete
7.1.4 Peanut Chicha
7.1.5 Aloja—paraguay
7.1.6 Fermented cocoa
7.2 Biochemistry of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products
7.3 Nutritional composition of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products
7.4 Health-promoting constituents of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products
7.5 Microbiota of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products
7.6 Conclusions and future directions
Acknowledgments
References
8 African fermented fish and meat-based products
8.1 Introduction
8.1.1 Fermentation mechanism and its biochemistry
8.1.1.1 Natural/traditional fermentation (spontaneous)
8.1.1.2 Artificial fermentation (nonspontaneous)
8.2 Microorganisms involved in fermentation
8.2.1 Microorganism in African fermented meat
8.2.2 Microorganisms in fish fermentation
8.3 Meat fermentation
8.3.1 Fermented meat products in Africa
8.3.1.1 Soudjouk/Sucuk
8.3.1.2 Boubnita
8.3.1.3 Pastirma
8.3.1.4 Afo-nnama
8.3.1.5 Beirta, Miriss, and Dodery
8.3.1.6 Gueddid
8.3.1.7 Khlii/khlia
8.4 Fish fermentation in Africa
8.4.1 Fermented fish products in Africa
8.4.1.1 Momoni
8.4.1.2 Feseekh
8.4.1.3 Lanhouin
8.4.1.4 Adjuevan/Adjonfa
8.4.1.5 Guedj
8.5 Factors affecting fermentation in meat and fish
8.5.1 Intrinsic factors
8.5.1.1 pH
8.5.1.2 Meat/fish type
8.5.1.3 Fat content of the sample
8.5.2 Extrinsic factors
8.5.2.1 Temperature
8.5.2.2 Relative humidity
8.5.2.3 Air flow
8.6 Conclusion
References
9 Asian fermented fish and meat-based products
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Production of Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products
9.3 Biochemistry of meat and fish fermentation
9.4 Nutritional composition of Asian fish- and meat-based fermented products
9.5 Biological functions
9.5.1 Probiotics in Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products
9.5.2 Bioactive peptides in Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products
9.5.3 Lipid in Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products
9.6 Microbiota of Asian fish- and meat-based fermented products
9.7 Conclusion and future directions
Acknowledgments
References
10 South American fermented fish and meat-based products
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Fish-based fermented products
10.2.1 Fermentation biochemistry and microorganisms involved in the process
10.2.2 Nutritional composition and sensorial characteristics
10.2.3 Fermented fish for animal consumption and other uses
10.2.3.1 Fish hydrolysates: production of bioactive peptides and silage
10.3 Meat-based products
10.3.1 Salami
10.3.2 Pepperoni
10.3.3 Charqui (Carne seca)
10.3.4 Socol
10.3.5 Colonial sausage
10.3.6 Copa
10.3.7 Dry aged meat
10.4 Future trends
References
11 African fermented dairy-based products
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Biochemistry of dairy product fermentation
11.3 Nutritional composition of some African based fermented-dairy-products
11.3.1 Fermented milk
11.3.2 Amasi
11.3.3 Ergo
11.3.4 Fulani traditional fermented milk
11.3.5 Gariss
11.3.6 Ititu
11.3.7 Kindirimo
11.3.8 Leben/Lben
11.3.9 Nono/Nunu
11.3.10 Mabisi
11.3.11 Omashikwa
11.4 Health-promoting constituents of African based fermented products
11.4.1 Mitigation of lactose intolerance
11.4.2 Antioxidant activity
11.4.3 Immunostimulatory effects
11.4.4 Antihypertensive effect
11.4.5 Anticarcinogenic, antitumorigenic and antimutagenic effects
11.4.6 Probiotic effect
11.4.7 Anti-diabetic effects
11.4.8 Allergy, asthma and hypocholesterolemic effects
11.5 Microbiota of African dairy-based fermented products
11.6 Conclusion and future directions
References
12 Asian fermented dairy-based products
12.1 Introduction
12.2 An overview of fermented dairy products and their health benefits
12.3 Asian fermented dairy-based products
12.4 Dahi
12.5 Misti dahi
12.6 Chhu (Sheden)
12.7 Chhurpi
12.8 Lassi
12.8.1 Philu
12.8.2 Shrikhand
12.8.3 Dadih
12.8.4 Ayran
12.8.5 Kefir
12.8.6 Koumiss
12.8.7 Doogh
12.8.8 Kashk
12.9 Commercialization and internationalization of Asian fermented dairy products
12.10 Conclusion
References
13 South American fermented dairy-based products
13.1 Introduction—overview and background
13.2 Microbiota and biomolecular constituents of fermented dairy products
13.3 Technological processes and nutritional composition of Brazilian Artisanal cheeses
13.4 Health promoting constituents of fermented dairy products
13.5 Microbiota of fermented dairy products: artisanal cheeses
13.6 Conclusion and future directions
References
Further reading
14 African fermented vegetable and fruit-based products
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Different fermented African fruits and vegetables
14.3 Bio−chemistry of fruit and vegetable fermentation
14.3.1 Modification and occurrences occurring during the fermentation process
14.4 Nutritional composition of African fermented fruits and vegetable
14.5 Health-promoting constituents of African fruit and vegetable fermented products
14.6 Microorganisms involved in fermentation
14.7 Conclusion and future trends
Acknowledgment
References
15 South American fermented fruit-based products
15.1 Introduction
15.1.1 Fermented and nonalcoholic apple-based beverage
15.1.1.1 Overview of apple production in Brazil
15.1.1.2 Apple juice
15.1.1.3 Fermentation of apple juice
15.1.2 Kombucha
15.1.2.1 Kombucha market
15.1.2.2 Kombucha production
15.2 Biochemistry of fruit fermentation
15.3 Nutritional composition of fermented fruit-based products
15.3.1 Fermented and nonalcoholic apple-based beverage
15.3.2 Kombucha
15.4 Composition of kombuchas
15.5 Health-promoting constituents of fermented fruit-based products
15.5.1 Health benefits of the fermented and nonalcoholic apple-based beverage
15.5.2 Kombucha’s health benefits
15.6 Microbiota of fermented fruit-based products
15.6.1 Lactobacillus acidophilus
15.6.1.1 Health benefits of Lactobacillus acidophilus fermented fruit-based products
15.6.2 Saccharomyces boulardii
15.6.2.1 Health-promoting Saccharomyces boulardii of fermented fruit-based products
15.6.3 Kombucha microbiota
15.7 Conclusion and future directions
15.7.1 Saccharomyces boulardii
15.7.1.1 Fermented and nonalcoholic apple-based beverage
15.7.2 Future research opportunities of kombucha
References
16 African fermented root and tuber-based products
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Biochemistry of African fermented root- and tuber-based products
16.3 Nutritional composition of African fermented Root- and Tuber-based products
16.4 Health-promoting constituents of African fermented root and tuber based products
16.5 Microbiota of African fermented root- and tuber-based products
16.6 Conclusion and future directions
References
17 Asian fermented root and tuber-based products
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Traditional tubers and root crop-based Asian foods/beverages
17.3 Biochemistry of tuber fermentation
17.4 Prebiotic potential of fermented tubers and root crops
17.5 Health benefits of fermenting microflora—strains used for fermentation
17.6 Value-added fermented products from tubers and root crops
17.7 Safety aspects of fermented root and tuber based products
17.8 Conclusion and future direction
References
18 South American fermented root and tuber-based products
18.1 Introduction
18.1.1 Caxiri
18.1.2 Chicha
18.1.3 Cassava flour (farinha)
18.1.4 Parakari
18.1.5 Sour starch (polvilho azedo)
18.1.6 Tarubá
18.1.7 Tiquira
18.1.8 Yakupa
18.2 Biochemistry of fermentation of South American fermented root and tuber-based products
18.3 Nutritional composition of South American fermented root and tuber-based products
18.3.1 Caxiri
18.3.2 Chicha/Masato
18.3.3 Cassava Flour (Farinha)
18.3.4 Parakari
18.3.5 Sour starch (Polvilho azedo)
18.3.6 Tarubá
18.3.7 Tiquira
18.3.8 Yakupa
18.4 Health-promoting constituents of South American fermented root and tuber-based products
18.5 Microbiota of South American fermented root and tuber-based products
18.6 Conclusions and future directions
Acknowledgments
References
19 Fermented foods and gut microbiome: a focus on African Indigenous fermented foods
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Indigenous African fermented foods and gut microbiome
19.2.1 Indigenous African fermented dairy products and effect on gut microbiome
19.2.2 Indigenous African fermented cereal products and effect on gut microbiome
19.2.3 Indigenous African fermented legumes and effect on gut microbiome
19.3 African fermented foods in relation to the gut microbiome and health
19.3.1 African fermented foods and immune function as modulated by gut microbiome
19.3.2 African fermented foods and brain health as modulated by gut microbiome
19.3.3 African fermented foods and their anticancer effect as modulated by gut microbiome
19.3.4 African fermented foods and effect against cardiovascular diseases as modulated by gut microbiome
19.4 Postbiotics in African indigenous fermented foods and their health implication
19.5 Conclusion and future directions
Acknowledgment
References
20 Fermented foods and immunological effects in humans and animal models
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Purpose and benefits of fermented foods
20.3 Lactic acid bacteria in plant substrate fermentations
20.4 Lactic acid bacteria in animal substrate fermentations
20.4.1 Microorganisms and their growth sequence in fermentation
20.4.2 Types of functional metabolites (primary and secondary) produced
20.5 Postbiotics
20.6 Types of fermented edible plant products produced
20.6.1 Physiological effects (in-vitro/in-vivo) of lactic acid bacteria and mechanisms of action for possible amelioration ...
20.7 Immunological effects of lactic acid bacteria
20.7.1 The microbiome
20.8 Immunostimulatory effects of lactic acid bacteria fermentates
20.8.1 Lactic acid bacteria boost the immune system and reduce inflammation
20.9 Immunomodulation by prebiotics
20.10 Immunomodulation by probiotic bacteria
20.11 Fermented foods modulate the immune system
20.12 Fermented foods as immunoregulatory agents
20.13 Recommendations for future work
References
2 Innovative approaches for studying and improving the composition of fermented foods
21 Metagenomics for the identification and characterization of microorganisms in fermented foods
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Genomics and metagenomics
21.3 Metagenomics analytical workflow
21.4 Different metagenomic approaches: sequence and function-based metagenomics
21.4.1 Sequence-based approach
21.4.1.1 Next-generation sequencing
21.4.1.2 Whole genomics shotgun sequence
21.4.2 Function-based metagenomic approach
21.5 Applications of metagenomics in food fermentation
21.5.1 Metagenomics and characterization of fermenting microbiota
21.5.2 Metagenomics for the characterization of pathogenic microorganisms in food safety
21.5.3 Applications of metagenomics in food fraud and authentication
21.5.4 Application of metagenomics in starter culture selection and profiling
21.5.5 Application of metagenomics in genomic evolution and succession analysis
21.6 Conclusion
Acknowledgment
References
22 Metabolomics and its application in fermented foods
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Overview and process of food metabolomics
22.2.1 Study design
22.2.2 Experiment, sample collection, preparation, and extraction of metabolites
22.2.3 Data acquisition, treatment, and analysis
22.3 Metabolomics of fermented foods
22.3.1 LC-MS-based metabolomics of fermented foods
22.3.2 GC-MS-based metabolomics of fermented foods
22.3.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance -based metabolomics of fermented foods
22.3.4 Other forms of metabolomic analytical techniques
22.4 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
Further reading
23 Proteomics and transcriptomics and their application in fermented foods
23.1 Introduction
23.2 An overview and need for transcriptomics and proteomics in fermented foods
23.3 (Meta)-transcriptomic and (meta)-proteomic investigations in fermented foods
23.3.1 Maize products
23.3.2 Cassava-based fermented foods
23.3.3 Rice-based fermented foods
23.3.4 Soybean-based fermented foods
23.3.5 Fermented vegetable foods—case studies on Kimchi
23.3.6 Fermented dairy-based products
23.3.7 Fermented beverages
23.4 Conclusion and future perspectives
References
Further reading
24 Data-driven innovation and 4th industrial revolution concepts for the development and improvement of fermented foods
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Previous industrial revolutions and the progress in fermented food production
24.2.1 Technological progress in fermented food production in the first, second, and third industrial revolution
24.2.2 Technological progress in fermented food production in the fourth industrial revolution
24.2.3 Evolution of fermented food production in the fourth industrial revolution
24.3 Fourth industrial revolution-related technology for the development and improvement of fermented foods
24.3.1 Sensing and computing
24.3.2 Advances in omics
24.3.3 The Internet of things in monitoring fermented food processes
24.3.4 Data-driven innovation
24.4 Future of technology in development and improvement of fermented foods
24.5 Conclusion
References
25 Starter cultures: an insight into specific applications in flavoring and health promotion
25.1 Introduction
25.2 Traditional and modern starter cultures
25.2.1 Bacteria as starter culture
25.2.2 Fungi as starter culture
25.2.2.1 Molds as starter culture
25.2.2.2 Yeast as a starter culture
25.3 Flavor-specific starter cultures
25.3.1 Application in dairy industry
25.3.2 Application in wineries and breweries
25.3.3 Application in vegetable fermentation
25.4 Starter cultures for health promotion
25.4.1 Starter cultures for gut health
25.4.2 Cholesterol-lowering potential of starter cultures
25.4.3 Vitamin supplementation by starter cultures
25.4.4 Probiotic starter cultures and cancer
25.4.4.1 Mechanism of cancer inhibition by starter cultures
25.4.4.2 Probiotics in cancer therapy
25.5 Conclusion
References
26 Bioactive constituents and potential health benefits of fermented seed products
26.1 Introduction
26.2 Influences of fermentation on bioactive components
26.2.1 Alkaloids
26.2.2 Bioactive peptides
26.2.3 Gamma-aminobutyric acid
26.2.4 Phenolic compounds
26.2.5 Polysaccharides
26.2.6 Soyasaponins
26.2.7 Terpenes
26.3 Bioactivities of fermented seeds and edible seeds
26.3.1 Antioxidant effect
26.3.2 Antiinflammatory effect
26.3.3 Analgesic effect
26.3.4 Antiobesity effect
26.3.5 Anticancer effect
26.3.6 Antiosteoclastogenic and antiosteoporotic effect
26.3.7 Enzyme modulatory effect
26.4 Conclusion and future directions
Funding
Disclosure statement
References
27 Equipment and machinery for improving the fermentation process of indigenous foods
27.1 Introduction
27.1.1 Processing of cassava tuber
27.1.2 Gari processing
27.1.3 Local production of gari
27.2 Improving the fermentation process of gari—the role of better process and machinery
27.2.1 Peeling and washing machine
27.2.2 Grating machine
27.2.3 Fermentation process
27.2.4 Dewatering machine
27.2.5 Sieving machine
27.2.6 Frying machine
27.2.7 Garifying of gari (cassava mash)
27.2.8 Storage techniques
27.3 Locust bean (dawadawa) processing
27.3.1 Local production process of locust bean
27.3.2 Improving the fermentation of locust bean– the role of better process and machinery
27.3.3 Improvement on cubing and packaging of locust bean condiment
27.4 Masa agria—a South American fermented food
27.4.1 Local production process for Masa agria
27.4.2 Improving the fermentation process of Masa agria—the role of better process and machinery
27.5 Improving the fermentation process of Chikawngue—a fermented food from Congo
27.6 Production of Idli—an Asian fermented foods
27.6.1 Local processing of idli
27.6.2 Improving the fermentation process of idli—the role of better process and machinery
27.7 Production of Tempeh—Asian fermented food
27.7.1 Local processing of Tempeh
27.7.2 Improving the fermentation process of Tempeh—the role of better process and machinery
27.8 Conclusion
27.9 Recommendation and future direction
References
Further reading
28 Novel food processing techniques and application for fermented foods
28.1 Introduction
28.2 Novel nonthermal processing technologies: principles, applications, and uses for fermented foods
28.2.1 High hydrostatic pressure
28.2.2 Irradiation
28.2.3 Cold plasma technology
28.2.4 Ultrasound technology
28.2.5 Pulse electric field
28.3 Novel thermal processing methods: principles, applications and uses for fermented foods
28.3.1 Ohmic treatment
28.3.2 Radiofrequency
28.3.3 Microwave
28.4 Conclusion and future directions
Acknowledgments
References
29 Sensory perspectives into indigenous fermented foods in the tropics: challenges and opportunities
29.1 Introduction
29.2 Conventional sensory methods for indigenous fermented foods
29.2.1 Analytical and modern sensory methods
29.2.1.1 Discrimination method
29.2.1.2 Descriptive method
29.2.2 Affective method
29.2.3 Modern sensory methods
29.3 Sensory quality of selected indigenous fermented foods in Tropic
29.3.1 Alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages
29.3.1.1 African fermented cereal products (porridge or gruel)
29.3.1.2 Kenkey
29.3.1.3 Injera
29.3.1.4 Kimchi
29.3.1.5 Cachaca
29.3.2 Some indigenous fermented condiments in the Tropics
29.3.2.1 Dawadawa/iru
29.3.2.2 Okpehe
29.3.2.2.1 Ogiri
29.3.2.3 Ugba
29.3.2.4 Tempoyak
29.4 Fermented milk
29.4.1 Qymyz
29.4.2 Fermented products from roots/tubers
29.4.2.1 Fufu
29.4.3 Garri
29.4.4 Sinki
29.5 Different approaches to evaluate the sensory quality of indigenous fermented foods in the tropic other than Africa
29.6 Opportunities and challenges for sensory evaluation in the tropics
29.7 Conclusion
References
Further reading
3 Safety and quality of fermented foods
30 Occurrence of mycotoxins in fermented tropical foods
30.1 Introduction
30.2 Common types of tropical fermented food products
30.2.1 Foods
30.2.1.1 Ogi
30.2.1.2 Bread
30.2.1.3 Kenkey
30.2.1.4 Garri
30.2.1.5 Ikivunde
30.2.2 Beverages
30.2.2.1 Mahewu/Amahewu
30.2.2.2 Togwa
30.2.2.3 Kunun-Zaki
30.2.2.4 Burukutu and pito
30.2.2.5 Nono
30.2.3 Condiments
30.2.3.1 Iru
30.2.3.2 Ugba
30.2.3.3 Ogiri
30.3 Commonly encountered mycotoxins
30.3.1 Aflatoxins
30.3.2 Fumonisins
30.3.3 Trichothecenes
30.3.4 Zearalenone
30.3.5 Ochratoxin A
30.3.6 Patulin
30.3.7 Ergot alkaloids
30.3.8 Alternaria mycotoxins
30.4 Mycotoxin removal in fermented foods
30.5 Effect of fermentation on mycotoxin levels
30.6 Conclusion
References
31 Presence of pathogenic microorganisms in fermented foods
31.1 Introduction
31.2 Presence of pathogenic microorganisms in fermented cereals, roots, and tuber-based fermented foods
31.3 Pathogenic bacteria associated with fermented dairy products
31.4 Spoilage microorganisms associated with fermented dairy products
31.5 Pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms in vegetables and fruits-based fermented foods
31.6 Spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms of legumes, pulses, and oilseeds-based fermented foods
31.7 Conclusion
References
32 Occurrence of biogenic amines in fermented foods
32.1 Introduction
32.1.1 Formation of biogenic amines
32.1.2 Toxicity and health risks of biogenic amines
32.1.3 Analysis of biogenic amines in foods
32.1.4 Development and functions of biogenic amines
32.1.5 Toxic activity of biogenic amines
32.1.6 Some fermented food products that contain biogenic amines
32.1.7 Dairy products (cheese and milk)
32.1.8 Seafood and its products
32.1.9 Meat and meat products
32.1.10 Chocolate and coffee
32.1.11 Soybean products
32.1.12 Toxicological effects
32.1.13 Rules governing biogenic amines
32.1.14 Antimicrobial substances
32.1.15 Risk associated with the consumption of biogenic amines
32.1.16 Environmental factors affecting biogenic amine formation
32.1.17 pH
32.2 Conclusion
References
Further reading
33 Contamination of fermented foods with heavy metals
33.1 Introduction
33.2 An overview of metalloids and their adverse effects on human well-being
33.2.1 Arsenic (As)
33.2.2 Cadmium (Cd)
33.2.3 Lead (Pb)
33.2.4 Nickel (Ni)
33.2.5 Mercury (Hg)
33.3 Heavy metals investigation in fermented foods
33.3.1 Soybeans products
33.3.2 Fermented cassava products
33.3.3 Fermented milk products
33.3.4 Fermented maize products
33.3.5 Fermented beverages
33.4 Conclusions and future perspectives
References
4 Packaging and marketing of indigenous fermented foods
34 Packaging and packaging technology for indigenous fermented foods in the tropics: challenges and opportunities
34.1 Introduction
34.2 Fermented foods packaging and packaging technology
34.2.1 Background of food packaging and standard requirements
34.2.2 Traditional packaging techniques used in fermented foods
34.3 Packaging techniques of major indigenous fermented foods in the tropics
34.3.1 Current trends in advanced packaging innovations in indigenous fermented foods in the tropics
34.3.2 Packaging of dairy-based fermented products
34.3.3 Packaging of fish- and meat-based products
34.3.4 Packaging of roots- and tubers-based fermented products
34.3.5 Packaging of legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based fermented products
34.3.6 Packaging of fruits and vegetables-based fermented products
34.3.7 Packaging of cereal-based fermented products
34.3.8 Packaging of other fermented products
34.4 Food safety and nutritional quality aspects
34.5 Nanotechnology in food packaging
34.6 Conclusion and future prospects
References
35 Marketing practices to promote indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages in the tropics
35.1 Introduction
35.2 Consumer behavior toward alcoholic beverages, product marketing, and consumption
35.3 The marketing of indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages in the African tropics
35.3.1 The promotion of artisanal indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages by individual and small-scale brewers
35.3.2 The promotion of commercialized indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages
35.4 The marketing of indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages in the Asian tropics
35.4.1 The promotion of artisanal indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages by individual and small-scale brewers
35.4.2 The promotion of commercialized indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages
35.5 The marketing of indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages in the American tropics
35.5.1 The promotion of artisanal indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages by individual and small-scale brewers
35.5.2 The promotion of commercialized indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages
35.6 Challenges and drawbacks
35.7 Opportunities and future developments
35.8 Conclusion
Acknowledgments
References
5 Future prospects
36 Future prospects for indigenous fermented foods from the tropics
References
Index
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Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics

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Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics Edited by Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo Food Innovation Research Group, Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Chiemela Enyinnaya Chinma Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria; Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Adewale Olusegun Obadina Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Food Sciences and Human Ecology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria; Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Antonio Gomes Soares Research Area on Postharvest of Fruits and Vegetables - Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

Sandeep Kumar Panda School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India

Ren-You Gan Institute of Urban Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, P.R. China

Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 125 London Wall, London EC2Y 5AS, United Kingdom 525 B Street, Suite 1650, San Diego, CA 92101, United States 50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www. elsevier.com/permissions. This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein). Notices Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary. Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility. To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein. ISBN: 978-0-323-98341-9 For Information on all Academic Press publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Nikki P. Levy Acquisitions Editor: Nina Bandeira Editorial Project Manager: Kyle Gravel Production Project Manager: Kumar Anbazhagan Cover Designer: Matthew Limbert Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India

Contents List of contributors Foreword Preface

xvii xxiii xxv

1. An insight into indigenous fermented foods for the tropics 1 Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo, Chiemela Enyinnaya Chinma, Adewale Olusegun Obadina, Antonio Gomes Soares, Sandeep Kumar Panda and Ren-You Gan 1 11 11

Section 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods 15

Edwin Hlangwani, Patrick Berka Njobeh, Chiemela Enyinnaya Chinma, Ajibola Bamikole Oyedeji, Beatrice Mofoluwaso Fasogbon, Samson Adeoye Oyeyinka, Sunday Samuel Sobowale, Olayemi Eyituoyo Dudu, Tumisi Beiri Jeremiah Molelekoa, Hema Kesa, Jonathan D. Wilkin and Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Biochemistry of cereal fermentation 2.3 Nutritional composition of African cereal-based fermented products 2.4 Health-promoting constituents of African-based cereal fermented products 2.5 Microbiota of African-based cereal fermented products 2.6 Conclusion and future directions Acknowledgments

3. Asian fermented cereal-based products

29 35

37

Folasade O. Adeboyejo, Sogo J. Olatunde, Ginalyn Anora Rustria, Ava Nicole B. Azotea, Jeffrey M. Ostonal, Ma. Janesa A. Reyes and Samson Adeoye Oyeyinka

1.1 Introduction Acknowledgments References

2. African cereal-based fermented products

References Further reading

15 16 21 23 26 29 29

3.1 Introduction 3.2 Biochemistry of Asian fermented cereal-based products 3.3 Nutritional composition and functionality of Asian fermented cereal-based products 3.4 Health-promoting constituents of Asian fermented cereal-based products 3.4.1 Food safety and shelf-life extension of Asian cereal-based fermented foods 3.4.2 Potential Prebiotic from cereal-based fermented foods 3.5 Microbiota of Asian fermented cereal-based products 3.6 Conclusion and future directions References Further reading

4. South American fermented cereal-based products

37 38 42 44

47 47 48 51 52 56

57

Leda Maria Fortes Gottschalk, Erika Fraga de Souza, Agnelli Holanda Oliveira, Otniel Freitas-Silva and Antonio Gomes Soares 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Biochemistry of cereal fermentation 4.3 Nutritional composition of South American fermented cereal products 4.4 Health-promoting constituents of South American fermented cereal products 4.5 Microbiota of South American fermented cereal products

57 59 62 63 67 v

vi

Contents

4.6 Conclusion and future directions References

5. African legume, pulse, and oilseed-based fermented products

69 69

73

Chiemela Enyinnaya Chinma, Vanessa Chinelo Ezeocha, Olajide Emmanuel Adedeji, Comfort Ufot Inyang, Victor Ndigwe Enujiugha and Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Fermented food products from African legumes, pulses, and oil seeds 5.2.1 Biochemistry of African legume-, pulse-, and oil seed-based fermented products 5.2.2 Nutritional composition of fermented foods from African legumes, pulses, and oilseeds 5.2.3 Health-promoting constituents of African legume-, pulse-, and oil seed-based fermented products 5.2.4 Microbiota of African legume-, pulse-, and oil seed-based fermented products 5.3 Conclusions and future perspective References Further reading

6. Asian fermented legumes, pulses, and oil seed-based products

73 74

74

75

76

78 81 81 84

85

Subhrakantra Jena and Smita Hasini Panda 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Lactic acid bacteria 6.3 Effect of fermentation on legumes and pulse-based fermented foods 6.3.1 Nutritional components obtained from the fermentation legumes 6.3.2 Functional components in fermented pulse-based foods 6.4 Conclusion and future prospective References

7. South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products

85 86 86 86 89 91 92

97

Gustavo Sandoval-Can˜as, Francisco Casa-Lo´pez, Juliana Criollo-Feijoo´, Edgar Fernando Landines-Vera and Roberto Ordon˜ez-Araque 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Cauim 7.1.2 Chicha of chontaduro (sweet chicha)

97 98 99

7.1.3 Chicha of morete 7.1.4 Peanut Chicha 7.1.5 Aloja—paraguay 7.1.6 Fermented cocoa 7.2 Biochemistry of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products 7.3 Nutritional composition of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products 7.4 Health-promoting constituents of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products 7.5 Microbiota of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products 7.6 Conclusions and future directions Acknowledgments References

8. African fermented fish and meat-based products

102 103 104 105

106

107

109

110 111 112 112

117

Oluwaseun P. Bamidele, Adeyemi A. Adeyanju, Obiro C. Wokadala and Victor Mlambo 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Fermentation mechanism and its biochemistry 8.2 Microorganisms involved in fermentation 8.2.1 Microorganism in African fermented meat 8.2.2 Microorganisms in fish fermentation 8.3 Meat fermentation 8.3.1 Fermented meat products in Africa 8.4 Fish fermentation in Africa 8.4.1 Fermented fish products in Africa 8.5 Factors affecting fermentation in meat and fish 8.5.1 Intrinsic factors 8.5.2 Extrinsic factors 8.6 Conclusion References

9. Asian fermented fish and meat-based products

117 117 120 120 121 122 122 125 125 127 127 128 128 128

133

Oladipupo Odunayo Olatunde, Nandika Bandara, Oladapo Oluwaseye Olukomaiya, Gbemisola Jamiu Fadimu, Atinuke Motunrayo Olajide, Iyiola Oluwakemi Owolabi, Oluwafemi Jeremiah Coker, Feyisola Fisayo Ajayi, Bisola Omawumi Akinmosin, Abiodun Olajumoke Kupoluyi, Oluwatoyin Motunrayo Ademola and Awanwee Petchkongkaew 9.1 Introduction

133

Contents

9.2 Production of Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products 9.3 Biochemistry of meat and fish fermentation 9.4 Nutritional composition of Asian fish- and meat-based fermented products 9.5 Biological functions 9.5.1 Probiotics in Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products 9.5.2 Bioactive peptides in Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products 9.5.3 Lipid in Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products 9.6 Microbiota of Asian fish- and meat-based fermented products 9.7 Conclusion and future directions Acknowledgments References

10. South American fermented fish and meat-based products

134 137 138 141 141 141 141 142 143 144 144

149

Fabı´ola Helena dos Santos Fogac¸a, Geodriane Zatta Cassol, Jonata˜ Henrique Rezende-de-Souza, Jose´ Guilherme Prado Martin and Luciana Kimie Savay-da-Silva 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Fish-based fermented products 10.2.1 Fermentation biochemistry and microorganisms involved in the process 10.2.2 Nutritional composition and sensorial characteristics 10.2.3 Fermented fish for animal consumption and other uses 10.3 Meat-based products 10.3.1 Salami 10.3.2 Pepperoni 10.3.3 Charqui (Carne seca) 10.3.4 Socol 10.3.5 Colonial sausage 10.3.6 Copa 10.3.7 Dry aged meat 10.4 Future trends References

11. African fermented dairy-based products

149 150

150 151 153 157 157 160 161 162 163 163 164 164 164

169

Adewumi T. Oyeyinka, Rhulani Makhuvele, Kazeem K. Olatoye and Samson Adeoye Oyeyinka 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Biochemistry of dairy product fermentation

169 170

11.3 Nutritional composition of some African based fermented-dairy-products 11.3.1 Fermented milk 11.3.2 Amasi 11.3.3 Ergo 11.3.4 Fulani traditional fermented milk 11.3.5 Gariss 11.3.6 Ititu 11.3.7 Kindirimo 11.3.8 Leben/Lben 11.3.9 Nono/Nunu 11.3.10 Mabisi 11.3.11 Omashikwa 11.4 Health-promoting constituents of African based fermented products 11.4.1 Mitigation of lactose intolerance 11.4.2 Antioxidant activity 11.4.3 Immunostimulatory effects 11.4.4 Antihypertensive effect 11.4.5 Anticarcinogenic, antitumorigenic and antimutagenic effects 11.4.6 Probiotic effect 11.4.7 Anti-diabetic effects 11.4.8 Allergy, asthma and hypocholesterolemic effects 11.5 Microbiota of African dairy-based fermented products 11.6 Conclusion and future directions References

12. Asian fermented dairy-based products

vii

174 174 174 174 177 177 177 177 177 177 178 178 178 178 179 179 180

180 180 180 181 181 184 185

189

Nasim Khorshidian, Mojtaba Yousefi and Amir M. Mortazavian 12.1 Introduction 12.2 An overview of fermented dairy products and their health benefits 12.3 Asian fermented dairy-based products 12.4 Dahi 12.5 Misti dahi 12.6 Chhu (Sheden) 12.7 Chhurpi 12.8 Lassi 12.8.1 Philu 12.8.2 Shrikhand 12.8.3 Dadih 12.8.4 Ayran 12.8.5 Kefir 12.8.6 Koumiss

189 189 191 192 197 197 198 198 199 199 199 200 202 204

viii

Contents

12.8.7 Doogh 12.8.8 Kashk 12.9 Commercialization and internationalization of Asian fermented dairy products 12.10 Conclusion References

13. South American fermented dairy-based products

205 206

207 207 207

215

Karina Maria dos Santos, Ana Carolina Chaves, Maria Gabriela Bello Koblitz, Antonio Silvio do Egito and Maria Elieidy Oliveira 13.1 Introduction—overview and background 13.2 Microbiota and biomolecular constituents of fermented dairy products 13.3 Technological processes and nutritional composition of Brazilian Artisanal cheeses 13.4 Health promoting constituents of fermented dairy products 13.5 Microbiota of fermented dairy products: artisanal cheeses 13.6 Conclusion and future directions References Further reading

14. African fermented vegetable and fruit-based products

215 215

217 222 223 224 224 225

227

Sefater Gbashi, Siphosanele Mafa Moyo, Bunmi Olopade, Yusuf Kewuyemi, Oluwaseun Mary Areo, Oluranti Mopelola Lawal, Clement Owoicho Momoh, Mercy Doofan Igbashio and Patrick Berka Njobeh 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Different fermented African fruits and vegetables 14.3 Bio 2 chemistry of fruit and vegetable fermentation 14.3.1 Modification and occurrences occurring during the fermentation process 14.4 Nutritional composition of African fermented fruits and vegetable 14.5 Health-promoting constituents of African fruit and vegetable fermented products 14.6 Microorganisms involved in fermentation

14.7 Conclusion and future trends Acknowledgment References

15. South American fermented fruit-based products

240 241 241

245

Janine Passos Lima, Andre´ Gonc¸alves Dias, Fla´via dos Santos Gomes and Edmar das Merceˆs Penha 15.1 Introduction 15.1.1 Fermented and nonalcoholic apple-based beverage 15.1.2 Kombucha 15.2 Biochemistry of fruit fermentation 15.3 Nutritional composition of fermented fruit-based products 15.3.1 Fermented and nonalcoholic apple-based beverage 15.3.2 Kombucha 15.4 Composition of kombuchas 15.5 Health-promoting constituents of fermented fruit-based products 15.5.1 Health benefits of the fermented and nonalcoholic apple-based beverage 15.5.2 Kombucha’s health benefits 15.6 Microbiota of fermented fruit-based products 15.6.1 Lactobacillus acidophilus 15.6.2 Saccharomyces boulardii 15.6.3 Kombucha microbiota 15.7 Conclusion and future directions 15.7.1 Saccharomyces boulardii 15.7.2 Future research opportunities of kombucha References

245 245 249 251 251 251 253 257 257

257 258 259 259 259 260 260 260 260 261

227 228 231

231 234

238 238

16. African fermented root and tuber-based products

265

Olaide Akinwunmi Akintayo, Olayemi Eyituoyo Dudu, Wasiu Awoyale, Abe Shegro Gerrano, Tunji Victor Odunlade, Patrick Berka Njobeh and Samson Adeoye Oyeyinka 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Biochemistry of African fermented root- and tuber-based products 16.3 Nutritional composition of African fermented Root- and Tuber-based products

265 266

271

Contents

16.4 Health-promoting constituents of African fermented root and tuber based products 16.5 Microbiota of African fermented root- and tuber-based products 16.6 Conclusion and future directions References

17. Asian fermented root and tuber-based products

274 276 278 278

285

Aastha Bhardwaj, Soumya Purohit and Vasudha Sharma 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Traditional tubers and root crop-based Asian foods/beverages 17.3 Biochemistry of tuber fermentation 17.4 Prebiotic potential of fermented tubers and root crops 17.5 Health benefits of fermenting microflora—strains used for fermentation 17.6 Value-added fermented products from tubers and root crops 17.7 Safety aspects of fermented root and tuber based products 17.8 Conclusion and future direction References

18. South American fermented root and tuber-based products

285

306 306 306 306 306 307 307

308

309 310 311 311

286 286 290

290 291 291 293 293

297

Gustavo Sandoval-Can˜as, Gabriela Alejandra Chaco´n Mayorga, Gabriela Beatriz Arias Palma and Roberto Ordon˜ez-Araque 18.1 Introduction 18.1.1 Caxiri 18.1.2 Chicha 18.1.3 Cassava flour (farinha) 18.1.4 Parakari 18.1.5 Sour starch (polvilho azedo) 18.1.6 Taruba´ 18.1.7 Tiquira 18.1.8 Yakupa 18.2 Biochemistry of fermentation of South American fermented root and tuber-based products 18.3 Nutritional composition of South American fermented root and tuber-based products 18.3.1 Caxiri

18.3.2 Chicha/Masato 18.3.3 Cassava Flour (Farinha) 18.3.4 Parakari 18.3.5 Sour starch (Polvilho azedo) 18.3.6 Taruba´ 18.3.7 Tiquira 18.3.8 Yakupa 18.4 Health-promoting constituents of South American fermented root and tuber-based products 18.5 Microbiota of South American fermented root and tuber-based products 18.6 Conclusions and future directions Acknowledgments References

ix

297 298 299 300 300 301 302 302 303

303

305 305

19. Fermented foods and gut microbiome: a focus on African Indigenous fermented foods

315

Beatrice Mofoluwaso Fasogbon, Oluwaseun Hannah Ademuyiwa and Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Indigenous African fermented foods and gut microbiome 19.2.1 Indigenous African fermented dairy products and effect on gut microbiome 19.2.2 Indigenous African fermented cereal products and effect on gut microbiome 19.2.3 Indigenous African fermented legumes and effect on gut microbiome 19.3 African fermented foods in relation to the gut microbiome and health 19.3.1 African fermented foods and immune function as modulated by gut microbiome 19.3.2 African fermented foods and brain health as modulated by gut microbiome 19.3.3 African fermented foods and their anticancer effect as modulated by gut microbiome 19.3.4 African fermented foods and effect against cardiovascular diseases as modulated by gut microbiome

315 316

316

318

320 321

321

322

323

324

x

Contents

19.4 Postbiotics in African indigenous fermented foods and their health implication 19.5 Conclusion and future directions Acknowledgment References

325 326 326 326

20. Fermented foods and immunological effects in humans and animal models 333 Henrietta Ayodele Oboh and Tumisi Beiri Jeremiah Molelekoa 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Purpose and benefits of fermented foods 20.3 Lactic acid bacteria in plant substrate fermentations 20.4 Lactic acid bacteria in animal substrate fermentations 20.4.1 Microorganisms and their growth sequence in fermentation 20.4.2 Types of functional metabolites (primary and secondary) produced 20.5 Postbiotics 20.6 Types of fermented edible plant products produced 20.6.1 Physiological effects (in-vitro/in-vivo) of lactic acid bacteria and mechanisms of action for possible amelioration of health challenges 20.7 Immunological effects of lactic acid bacteria 20.7.1 The microbiome 20.8 Immunostimulatory effects of lactic acid bacteria fermentates 20.8.1 Lactic acid bacteria boost the immune system and reduce inflammation 20.9 Immunomodulation by prebiotics 20.10 Immunomodulation by probiotic bacteria 20.11 Fermented foods modulate the immune system 20.12 Fermented foods as immunoregulatory agents 20.13 Recommendations for future work References

333 334 334 334

335

337 338 338

338 338 338 339

339 339 339 340 340 341 341

Section 2 Innovative approaches for studying and improving the composition of fermented foods 21. Metagenomics for the identification and characterization of microorganisms in fermented foods 347 Sefater Gbashi, Shandry Mmasetshaba Tebele and Patrick Berka Njobeh 21.1 21.2 21.3 21.4

Introduction Genomics and metagenomics Metagenomics analytical workflow Different metagenomic approaches: sequence and function-based metagenomics 21.4.1 Sequence-based approach 21.4.2 Function-based metagenomic approach 21.5 Applications of metagenomics in food fermentation 21.5.1 Metagenomics and characterization of fermenting microbiota 21.5.2 Metagenomics for the characterization of pathogenic microorganisms in food safety 21.5.3 Applications of metagenomics in food fraud and authentication 21.5.4 Application of metagenomics in starter culture selection and profiling 21.5.5 Application of metagenomics in genomic evolution and succession analysis 21.6 Conclusion Acknowledgment References

22. Metabolomics and its application in fermented foods

347 348 348

350 350 351 353

353

354 355

355

356 356 357 357

361

Janet Adeyinka Adebo, Chiemela Enyinnaya Chinma, Adetola Olubanke Omoyajowo and Patrick Berka Njobeh 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Overview and process of food metabolomics 22.2.1 Study design

361 362 362

Contents

22.2.2 Experiment, sample collection, preparation, and extraction of metabolites 22.2.3 Data acquisition, treatment, and analysis 22.3 Metabolomics of fermented foods 22.3.1 LC-MS-based metabolomics of fermented foods 22.3.2 GC-MS-based metabolomics of fermented foods 22.3.3 Nuclear magnetic resonance -based metabolomics of fermented foods 22.3.4 Other forms of metabolomic analytical techniques 22.4 Conclusion and future perspectives References Further reading

23. Proteomics and transcriptomics and their application in fermented foods

362 364 364 365 365

371 372 372 372 376

377

Adrian Mark Abrahams 23.1 Introduction 23.2 An overview and need for transcriptomics and proteomics in fermented foods 23.3 (Meta)-transcriptomic and (meta) -proteomic investigations in fermented foods 23.3.1 Maize products 23.3.2 Cassava-based fermented foods 23.3.3 Rice-based fermented foods 23.3.4 Soybean-based fermented foods 23.3.5 Fermented vegetable foods—case studies on Kimchi 23.3.6 Fermented dairy-based products 23.3.7 Fermented beverages 23.4 Conclusion and future perspectives References Further reading

394

394

394

395

395 395 396

397 397 398 399 399

377

378

378 378 379 383 384 384 385 386 387 388 391

24. Data-driven innovation and 4th industrial revolution concepts for the development and improvement of fermented foods 393 Edwin Hlangwani and Wesley Doorsamy 24.1 Introduction

24.2 Previous industrial revolutions and the progress in fermented food production 24.2.1 Technological progress in fermented food production in the first, second, and third industrial revolution 24.2.2 Technological progress in fermented food production in the fourth industrial revolution 24.2.3 Evolution of fermented food production in the fourth industrial revolution 24.3 Fourth industrial revolution-related technology for the development and improvement of fermented foods 24.3.1 Sensing and computing 24.3.2 Advances in omics 24.3.3 The Internet of things in monitoring fermented food processes 24.3.4 Data-driven innovation 24.4 Future of technology in development and improvement of fermented foods 24.5 Conclusion References

xi

393

25. Starter cultures: an insight into specific applications in flavoring and health promotion

409

Sradhanjali Sahu, Tithi Parija and Sandeep Kumar Panda 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Traditional and modern starter cultures 25.2.1 Bacteria as starter culture 25.2.2 Fungi as starter culture 25.3 Flavor-specific starter cultures 25.3.1 Application in dairy industry 25.3.2 Application in wineries and breweries 25.3.3 Application in vegetable fermentation 25.4 Starter cultures for health promotion 25.4.1 Starter cultures for gut health 25.4.2 Cholesterol-lowering potential of starter cultures 25.4.3 Vitamin supplementation by starter cultures 25.4.4 Probiotic starter cultures and cancer 25.5 Conclusion References

409 410 410 410 411 412 412 413 413 413 413 414 414 415 416

xii

Contents

26. Bioactive constituents and potential health benefits of fermented seed products 419 Gopalsamy Rajiv Gandhi, Hang Li, Alan Bruno Silva Vasconcelos, Monalisa Martins Montalva˜o, Mariana Nobre Farias de Franca, Xiao-Qin He, Pei-Xiu Rong, Hua-Bin Li and Ren-You Gan 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Influences of fermentation on bioactive components 26.2.1 Alkaloids 26.2.2 Bioactive peptides 26.2.3 Gamma-aminobutyric acid 26.2.4 Phenolic compounds 26.2.5 Polysaccharides 26.2.6 Soyasaponins 26.2.7 Terpenes 26.3 Bioactivities of fermented seeds and edible seeds 26.3.1 Antioxidant effect 26.3.2 Antiinflammatory effect 26.3.3 Analgesic effect 26.3.4 Antiobesity effect 26.3.5 Anticancer effect 26.3.6 Antiosteoclastogenic and antiosteoporotic effect 26.3.7 Enzyme modulatory effect 26.4 Conclusion and future directions Funding Disclosure statement References

27. Equipment and machinery for improving the fermentation process of indigenous foods

419 420 420 420 423 423 423 423 424 424 425 425 425 426 426 426 427 427 427 427 427

433

Sunday Samuel Sobowale, Olawale Paul Olatidoye, Mary Omolola Omosebi and Joy Ikedichi Agbawodike 27.1 Introduction 27.1.1 Processing of cassava tuber 27.1.2 Gari processing 27.1.3 Local production of gari 27.2 Improving the fermentation process of gari—the role of better process and machinery 27.2.1 Peeling and washing machine 27.2.2 Grating machine 27.2.3 Fermentation process 27.2.4 Dewatering machine

433 434 434 435

435 435 435 437 438

27.2.5 Sieving machine 27.2.6 Frying machine 27.2.7 Garifying of gari (cassava mash) 27.2.8 Storage techniques 27.3 Locust bean (dawadawa) processing 27.3.1 Local production process of locust bean 27.3.2 Improving the fermentation of locust bean
the role of better process and machinery 27.3.3 Improvement on cubing and packaging of locust bean condiment 27.4 Masa agria—a South American fermented food 27.4.1 Local production process for Masa agria 27.4.2 Improving the fermentation process of Masa agria—the role of better process and machinery 27.5 Improving the fermentation process of Chikawngue—a fermented food from Congo 27.6 Production of Idli—an Asian fermented foods 27.6.1 Local processing of idli 27.6.2 Improving the fermentation process of idli—the role of better process and machinery 27.7 Production of Tempeh—Asian fermented food 27.7.1 Local processing of Tempeh 27.7.2 Improving the fermentation process of Tempeh—the role of better process and machinery 27.8 Conclusion 27.9 Recommendation and future direction References Further reading

28. Novel food processing techniques and application for fermented foods

438 438 439 440 440 440

443

444 444 444

447

447 448 448

449 452 454

456 459 459 461 464

467

Oladipupo Odunayo Olatunde, Nandika Bandara, Oluwafemi Jeremiah Coker, Feyisola Fisayo Ajayi, Oluwatoyin Motunrayo Ademola, Bisola Omawumi Akinmosin, Abiodun Olajumoke Kupoluyi, Atinuke Motunrayo Olajide, Iyiola Oluwakemi Owolabi, Awanwee Petchkongkaew, Oladapo Oluwaseye Olukomaiya and Gbemisola Jamiu Fadimu 28.1 Introduction

467

Contents

28.2 Novel nonthermal processing technologies: principles, applications, and uses for fermented foods 468 28.2.1 High hydrostatic pressure 468 28.2.2 Irradiation 469 28.2.3 Cold plasma technology 470 28.2.4 Ultrasound technology 472 28.2.5 Pulse electric field 473 28.3 Novel thermal processing methods: principles, applications and uses for fermented foods 474 28.3.1 Ohmic treatment 474 28.3.2 Radiofrequency 475 28.3.3 Microwave 476 28.4 Conclusion and future directions 476 Acknowledgments 477 References 477

29. Sensory perspectives into indigenous fermented foods in the tropics: challenges and opportunities 483 Oluwaseun P. Bamidele, Olalekan J. Adewole and Xi Feng 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Conventional sensory methods for indigenous fermented foods 29.2.1 Analytical and modern sensory methods 29.2.2 Affective method 29.2.3 Modern sensory methods 29.3 Sensory quality of selected indigenous fermented foods in Tropic 29.3.1 Alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages 29.3.2 Some indigenous fermented condiments in the Tropics 29.4 Fermented milk 29.4.1 Qymyz 29.4.2 Fermented products from roots/tubers 29.4.3 Garri 29.4.4 Sinki 29.5 Different approaches to evaluate the sensory quality of indigenous fermented foods in the tropic other than Africa 29.6 Opportunities and challenges for sensory evaluation in the tropics 29.7 Conclusion References Further reading

483 484 484 485 485 487 487 488 489 490 490 491 491

491 493 498 498 501

xiii

Section 3 Safety and quality of fermented foods 30. Occurrence of mycotoxins in fermented tropical foods

505

Amina Ahmed El-Imam 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Common types of tropical fermented food products 30.2.1 Foods 30.2.2 Beverages 30.2.3 Condiments 30.3 Commonly encountered mycotoxins 30.3.1 Aflatoxins 30.3.2 Fumonisins 30.3.3 Trichothecenes 30.3.4 Zearalenone 30.3.5 Ochratoxin A 30.3.6 Patulin 30.3.7 Ergot alkaloids 30.3.8 Alternaria mycotoxins 30.4 Mycotoxin removal in fermented foods 30.5 Effect of fermentation on mycotoxin levels 30.6 Conclusion References

31. Presence of pathogenic microorganisms in fermented foods

505 506 506 507 508 508 509 510 510 511 511 511 512 512 512 512 513 514

519

Ajibola Bamikole Oyedeji, Ezekiel Green, Yemisi A. Jeff-Agboola, Afolake A. Olanbiwoninu, Esther Areo, Itohan E. Martins, Amina M.A. El-Imam and Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Presence of pathogenic microorganisms in fermented cereals, roots, and tuber-based fermented foods 31.3 Pathogenic bacteria associated with fermented dairy products 31.4 Spoilage microorganisms associated with fermented dairy products 31.5 Pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms in vegetables and fruits-based fermented foods 31.6 Spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms of legumes, pulses, and oilseeds-based fermented foods 31.7 Conclusion References

519

520 522 524

525

526 531 531

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32. Occurrence of biogenic amines in fermented foods

539

Adebukola Tolulope Omidiran and Mary Damilola Jenfa 32.1 Introduction 32.1.1 Formation of biogenic amines 32.1.2 Toxicity and health risks of biogenic amines 32.1.3 Analysis of biogenic amines in foods 32.1.4 Development and functions of biogenic amines 32.1.5 Toxic activity of biogenic amines 32.1.6 Some fermented food products that contain biogenic amines 32.1.7 Dairy products (cheese and milk) 32.1.8 Seafood and its products 32.1.9 Meat and meat products 32.1.10 Chocolate and coffee 32.1.11 Soybean products 32.1.12 Toxicological effects 32.1.13 Rules governing biogenic amines 32.1.14 Antimicrobial substances 32.1.15 Risk associated with the consumption of biogenic amines 32.1.16 Environmental factors affecting biogenic amine formation 32.1.17 pH 32.2 Conclusion References Further reading

33. Contamination of fermented foods with heavy metals

539 540 540 540 540 542

553 554 554 555 555

Section 4 Packaging and marketing of indigenous fermented foods 34. Packaging and packaging technology for indigenous fermented foods in the tropics: challenges and opportunities 563

542 542 543 543 543 544 544

Iyiola Oluwakemi Owolabi, Bisola Omawumi Akinmosin, Abiodun Olajumoke Kupoluyi, Oladipupo Odunayo Olatunde, Awanwee Petchkongkaew, Oluwafemi Jeremiah Coker, Oluwatoyin Motunrayo Ademola, Feyisola Fisayo Ajayi, Oladapo Oluwaseye Olukomaiya, Gbemisola Jamiu Fadimu and Atinuke Motunrayo Olajide

544 544

34.1 Introduction 34.2 Fermented foods packaging and packaging technology 34.2.1 Background of food packaging and standard requirements 34.2.2 Traditional packaging techniques used in fermented foods 34.3 Packaging techniques of major indigenous fermented foods in the tropics 34.3.1 Current trends in advanced packaging innovations in indigenous fermented foods in the tropics 34.3.2 Packaging of dairy-based fermented products 34.3.3 Packaging of fish- and meat-based products 34.3.4 Packaging of roots- and tubers-based fermented products 34.3.5 Packaging of legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based fermented products 34.3.6 Packaging of fruits and vegetables-based fermented products 34.3.7 Packaging of cereal-based fermented products 34.3.8 Packaging of other fermented products

544 545 546 546 546 548

549

Yetunde M. Feruke-Bello 33.1 Introduction 33.2 An overview of metalloids and their adverse effects on human well-being 33.2.1 Arsenic (As) 33.2.2 Cadmium (Cd) 33.2.3 Lead (Pb) 33.2.4 Nickel (Ni) 33.2.5 Mercury (Hg) 33.3 Heavy metals investigation in fermented foods 33.3.1 Soybeans products 33.3.2 Fermented cassava products

33.3.3 Fermented milk products 33.3.4 Fermented maize products 33.3.5 Fermented beverages 33.4 Conclusions and future perspectives References

549 550 550 551 551 552 552 552 552 553

563 564 564 564 565

565 565 568 568

569

569 569 570

Contents

34.4 Food safety and nutritional quality aspects 34.5 Nanotechnology in food packaging 34.6 Conclusion and future prospects References

35. Marketing practices to promote indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages in the tropics

570 571 572 572

577

Edwin Hlangwani, Wesley Doorsamy and Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo 35.1 Introduction 35.2 Consumer behavior toward alcoholic beverages, product marketing, and consumption 35.3 The marketing of indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages in the African tropics 35.3.1 The promotion of artisanal indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages by individual and small-scale brewers 35.3.2 The promotion of commercialized indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages 35.4 The marketing of indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages in the Asian tropics 35.4.1 The promotion of artisanal indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages by individual and small-scale brewers

577

577

35.4.2 The promotion of commercialized indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages 35.5 The marketing of indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages in the American tropics 35.5.1 The promotion of artisanal indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages by individual and small-scale brewers 35.5.2 The promotion of commercialized indigenous fermented alcoholic beverages 35.6 Challenges and drawbacks 35.7 Opportunities and future developments 35.8 Conclusion Acknowledgments References

xv

582

582

582

583 583 585 586 586 586

578

579

580

Section 5 Future prospects 36. Future prospects for indigenous fermented foods from the tropics

597

Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo 581

References Index

581

598 599

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List of contributors Adrian Mark Abrahams Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, Gauteng, South Africa Janet Adeyinka Adebo Food Evolution Research Laboratory, School of Hospitality and Tourism, College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo Food Innovation Research Group, Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Folasade O. Adeboyejo Department of Food Technology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria Olajide Emmanuel Adedeji Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University Wukari, Wukari, Nigeria; School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea Oluwatoyin Motunrayo Ademola African Centre of Excellence for Mycotoxins and Food Safety, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria

Bisola Omawumi Akinmosin Food Science and Technology, College of Food Science and Human Ecology, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria Olaide Akinwunmi Akintayo Department of Home Economics and Food Science, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria; School of Agriculture, Food and Wine, The University of Adelaide, Urrbae, SA, Australia Esther Areo Deparment of Food Science and Technology, College of Food Sciences and Human Ecology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Oluwaseun Mary Areo Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Gabriela Beatriz Arias Palma Agroindustry Career, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Technical University of Cotopaxi—UTC, Latacunga, Cotopaxi, Ecuador Wasiu Awoyale Department of Food Science and Technology, Kwara State University, Malete, Nigeria

Oluwaseun Hannah Ademuyiwa Department of Food Technology, Federal Institute of Industrial Research, Oshodi, Lagos, Nigeria

Ava Nicole B. Azotea Department of Food Technology, College of Industrial Technology, Bicol University, Legazpi City, Albay, Philippines

Olalekan J. Adewole Department of Food Technology, Federal Polytechnic Ilaro, Ogun State, Nigeria

Oluwaseun P. Bamidele Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, Limpopo Province, South Africa; School of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Nelspruit, South Africa

Adeyemi A. Adeyanju Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria Joy Ikedichi Agbawodike Department of Food Technology, Moshood Abiola Polytechnic, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria Amina Ahmed El-Imam Plant and Microbial Biology, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, United States; Microbiology Department, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara, Nigeria Feyisola Fisayo Ajayi Department of Home Science and Management, Federal University Gashua, Gashua, Yobe State, Nigeria

Nandika Bandara Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; Richardson Centre for Food Technology and Research, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada Aastha Bhardwaj Department of Food Technology, Jamia Hamdard, Hamdard Nagar, New Delhi, India Francisco Casa-Lo´pez Food Engineering Career, Faculty of Chemical and Health Sciences, Technical University of Machala-UTMACH, Machala, El Oro, Ecuador xvii

xviii

List of contributors

Geodriane Zatta Cassol Food Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Food Engineering College, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil

Victor Ndigwe Enujiugha Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology Akure, Akure, Nigeria

Gabriela Alejandra Chaco´n Mayorga Ministry of Agriculture—MAG, Quito, Pichincha, Ecuador

Vanessa Chinelo Ezeocha Department of Food Science and Technology, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria

Ana Carolina Chaves Embrapa P&D, Embrapa, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Gbemisola Jamiu Fadimu School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, Melbourne, VIC, Australia

Chiemela Enyinnaya Chinma Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa; Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria

Janine Passos Lima Food Safety, Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Oluwafemi Jeremiah Coker Department of Food & Bioproduct Sciences, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada

Xi Feng Department of Nutrition, Food Science and Packaging, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA, United States

Juliana Criollo-Feijoo´ Food Engineering Career, Faculty of Chemical and Health Sciences, Technical University of Machala-UTMACH, Machala, El Oro, Ecuador

Beatrice Mofoluwaso Fasogbon Food Innovation Research Group, Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Yetunde M. Feruke-Bello Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Natural and Applied Science, Hallmark University, Ijebu-Itele, Ogun State, Nigeria

Edmar das Merceˆs Penha Food Biotechnology, Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Fabı´ola Helena dos Santos Fogac¸a Bioaccessibility Laboratory, Embrapa Agroindu´stria de Alimentos, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Mariana Nobre Farias de Franca Postgraduate Program of Health Sciences (PPGCS), Federal University of Sergipe, Campus Aracaju, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil

Otniel Freitas-Silva Embrapa Food Agroindustry, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Erika Fraga de Souza Food and Nutrition Graduate Program—Federal University of State of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Andre´ Gonc¸alves Dias Beverage Technology, Independent Consultant, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Antonio Silvio do Egito Embrapa Goats and Sheep, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Sobral, Brazil Wesley Doorsamy Institute for Intelligent Systems, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Karina Maria dos Santos Embrapa Food Technology, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Ren-You Gan Institute of Urban Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, P.R. China Gopalsamy Rajiv Gandhi Research Center for Plants and Human Health, Institute of Urban Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, P.R. China; Postgraduate Program of Health Sciences (PPGCS), Federal University of Sergipe, Campus Aracaju, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil Sefater Gbashi Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Fla´via dos Santos Gomes Food Quality, Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Abe Shegro Gerrano Agricultural Research Council– Vegetables, Industrial and Medicinal Plants, Pretoria, South Africa

Olayemi Eyituoyo Dudu Department of Chemical and Food Sciences, Bells University of Technology, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria

Leda Maria Fortes Gottschalk Embrapa Food Agroindustry, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

Amina M.A. El-Imam Food and Industrial Microbiology Unit, Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Nigeria

Ezekiel Green Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

List of contributors

xix

Xiao-Qin He Research Center for Plants and Human Health, Institute of Urban Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, P.R. China

Rhulani Makhuvele Biotechnology and Food Technology, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa

Edwin Hlangwani Food Innovation Research Group, Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa; University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Jose´ Guilherme Prado Martin Microbiology Laboratory of Fermented Products (FERMICRO), Microbiology Department, Federal University of Vic¸osa, Vic¸osa, Minas Gerais, Brazil Itohan E. Martins Deparment of Food Science and Technology, College of Food Sciences and Human Ecology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria

Mercy Doofan Igbashio Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Benin, Benin, Edo State, Nigeria Comfort Ufot Inyang Department of Microbiology, University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria Yemisi A. Jeff-Agboola Department of Biological Sciences, University of Medical Sciences, Ondo, Nigeria Subhrakantra Jena P.G. Department of Zoology, Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Baripada, Odisha, India Mary Damilola Jenfa Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta and Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro, Nigeria Hema Kesa School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Yusuf Kewuyemi Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Nasim Khorshidian Department of Food Technology Research, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Maria Gabriela Bello Koblitz DCA, UNIRIO, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Abiodun Olajumoke Kupoluyi Food Science and Technology, College of Food Science and Human Ecology, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria

Victor Mlambo School of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Nelspruit, South Africa Tumisi Beiri Jeremiah Molelekoa Biotechnology and Food Technology, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Clement Owoicho Momoh Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Food Technology & Human Ecology, University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Benue State, Nigeria Monalisa Martins Montalva˜o Postgraduate Program of Health Sciences (PPGCS), Federal University of Sergipe, Campus Aracaju, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil Amir M. Mortazavian Department of Food Technology, Faculty of Nutrition Sciences and Food Technology, National Nutrition and Food Technology Research Institute, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran Siphosanele Mafa Moyo Department of Consumer and Food Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, Gauteng, South Africa Patrick Berka Njobeh Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa

Oluranti Mopelola Lawal Wageningen University and Research, Wageningen, Gelderland, The Netherlands

Adewale Olusegun Obadina Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa; Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Food Sciences and Human Ecology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria

Hang Li Research Center for Plants and Human Health, Institute of Urban Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, P.R. China

Henrietta Ayodele Oboh Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin, Benin City, Edo State, Nigeria

Hua-Bin Li Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food, Nutrition and Health, Guangdong Engineering Technology Research Center of Nutrition Translation, Department of Nutrition, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, P.R. China

Tunji Victor Odunlade Department of Food Science and Technology, Osun State, Polytechnic, Iree, Nigeria

Edgar Fernando Landines-Vera Bachelor’s Degree in Gastronomy, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Guayas, Ecuador

Atinuke Motunrayo Olajide Canadian Research Institute for Food Safety, Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, ON, Canada

xx

List of contributors

Afolake A. Olanbiwoninu Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Ajayi Crowther University, Oyo Town, Nigeria Olawale Paul Olatidoye Department of Food Technology, Yaba College of Technology, Yaba, Lagos, Nigeria Kazeem K. Olatoye Food Science and Technology, Kwara State University, Ilorin, Nigeria Oladipupo Odunayo Olatunde Richardson Centre for Food Technology and Research, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada; Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada Sogo J. Olatunde Department of Food Science, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology, Ogbomoso, Nigeria Agnelli Holanda Oliveira Embrapa Food Agroindustry, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil Maria Elieidy Oliveira Department of Nutrition, Health Sciences Center, Federal University of Paraı´ba, Joa˜o Pessoa, Brazil Bunmi Olopade Department of Biological Sciences, Covenant University, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria Oladapo Oluwaseye Olukomaiya ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for Uniquely Australian Foods, Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Indooroopilly, QLD, Australia Adebukola Tolulope Omidiran Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta and Federal Polytechnic, Ilaro, Nigeria Mary Omolola Omosebi Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, Mountain Top University, Ibafo, Ogun State, Nigeria Adetola Olubanke Omoyajowo Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria Roberto Ordon˜ez-Araque School of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health and Welfare, Iberoamerican University of Ecuador (UNIB.E), Quito, Pichincha, Ecuador; School of Gastronomy, University of the Americas (UDLA), Quito, Pichincha, Ecuador Jeffrey M. Ostonal Department of Food Technology, College of Industrial Technology, Bicol University, Legazpi City, Albay, Philippines

Iyiola Oluwakemi Owolabi School of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, Thailand; International Joint Research Centre on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, Thailand Ajibola Bamikole Oyedeji Food Innovation Research Group, Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa Adewumi T. Oyeyinka School of Tourism and Hospitality, College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa Samson Adeoye Oyeyinka Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, Johannesburg, South Africa; Centre of Excellence in Agri-Food Technologies, National Centre for Food Manufacturing, University of Lincoln, Holbeach, United Kingdom; Department of Food Technology, College of Industrial Technology, Bicol University, Legazpi City, Albay, Philippines; Department of Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom Sandeep Kumar Panda School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Smita Hasini Panda P.G. Department of Zoology, Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Baripada, Odisha, India Tithi Parija School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India Awanwee Petchkongkaew School of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, Thailand; International Joint Research Centre on Food Security (IJC-FOODSEC), Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, Thailand Soumya Purohit Department of Food Engineering & Technology, Tezpur University, Tezpur, Assam, India Ma. Janesa A. Reyes Department of Food Technology, College of Industrial Technology, Bicol University, Legazpi City, Albay, Philippines Jonata˜ Henrique Rezende-de-Souza Meat Laboratory, Department of Engineering and Food Technology, Food Engineering College, State University of Campinas, Campinas, Sa˜o Paulo, Brazil

List of contributors

xxi

Pei-Xiu Rong School of Food and Biological Engineering, Chengdu University, Chengdu, P.R. China

Antonio Gomes Soares Research Area on Postharvest of Fruits and Vegetables - Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil

Ginalyn Anora Rustria Department of Food Technology, College of Industrial Technology, Bicol University, Legazpi City, Albay, Philippines

Sunday Samuel Sobowale Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, Mountain Top University, Ibafo, Ogun State, Nigeria

Sradhanjali Sahu School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India; Department of Zoology, N.C. College, Jajpur, Odisha, India

Shandry Mmasetshaba Tebele Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa; Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa

Gustavo Sandoval-Can˜as Agroindustry Career, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Technical University of Cotopaxi—UTC, Latacunga, Cotopaxi, Ecuador; School of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health and Welfare, Iberoamerican University of Ecuador (UNIB.E), Quito, Pichincha, Ecuador Luciana Kimie Savay-da-Silva Meat, Fisheries and Derivatives Technology Laboratory, Food and Nutrition Department, Nutrition College, Federal University of Mato Grosso, Cuiaba´, Mato Grosso, Brazil Vasudha Sharma Department of Food Technology, Jamia Hamdard, Hamdard Nagar, New Delhi, India

Alan Bruno Silva Vasconcelos Postgraduate Program of Physiological Sciences (PROCFIS), Federal University of Sergipe (UFS), Campus Sa˜o Cristo´va˜o, Sa˜o Cristo´va˜o, Sergipe, Brazil Jonathan D. Wilkin Division of Engineering and Food Science, School of Applied Sciences, Abertay University, Dundee, United Kingdom Obiro C. Wokadala School of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Nelspruit, South Africa Mojtaba Yousefi Food Safety Research Center (Salt), Semnan University of Medical Sciences, Semnan, Iran

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Foreword The history of traditional, indigenous, and ethnic foods is spread over thousands of years in many continents. These are well documented in the food culture and is the way of life itself in most of the countries. Thus, the sustainability of traditional foods is important in the context of modern science, which further helps in understanding these foods with a firm footing of its transition from generation to generation, covering the various traditional practices of preparation and preservation of these foods. One of the most important processes in the fermentation of foods and its relevance in the context of indigenous foods is its sustainability over several thousands of years. This brings me to this book entitled Indigenous Fermented Foods from the Tropics. When the Volume Editors requested me to write the foreword, I was wondering that this subject is so vast and how will they cover the subjects and comprehend the enormous knowledge in the vastness of fermented foods and its relevance especially in the tropics where the temperatures are not only being high but also many a times the extremes of humidity and the mixed cultures make it difficult and is indeed a challenge to reproduce results. This book addresses this area of fermented foods from the perspective of Africa, Asia, and South America and various categories based on the raw materials that are in use. These include cereals, legumes, pulses and oilseeds, fish and meat products, dairy-based products, fruits and vegetables, as well as roots and tubers. The role of fermented food products in the gut microbiome spread and even immunological impact in humans and animals are addressed and are very important. It is noteworthy that the fermentation process not only improves the nutritional composition and bioavailability of the food but also contributes to the sensorial profile of resultant food in a composite approach. Regarding the composition, innovative methods of traditional practices, and even the equipment and containers used for fermentation, it all goes to show how the process optimization has taken place over several generations. The role of today’s biotechnological tools has empowered us to understand the microorganisms and their complex functional aspects in utilizing raw materials to ultimately produce the right flavor and taste, bioactive molecules are utilized, and new ones produced in the process are identified in the book. The engineering aspects of the indigenous foods and the novel processing technologies have resulted in more authentic fermented foods, which can be scaled up and also both semi-automated and complete automation is possible such that the well standardized products are produced by the industry for market reach and complying to regulatory requirements. This brings in the role of food safety, which is very important and the volume editors have also focused on it in Section 3 and is specifically dedicated to it. Hygienic food processing is very important. Hygienic engineering design of equipment also plays a major role in the food chain, which ensures food safety through appropriate food packaging. This will ensure building confidence of the consumer with the right kind of sensorial profile that a particular fermented food is known for its taste and association with the backward integration to the agricultural practices, the soil and the climate, as well as the forward integration of marketing and regulation as well as the consumer demand. These are addressed in Sections 3 and 4. It is also a scientific challenge to understand the history of indigenous traditional fermented foods and its cross ventilation across the globe and how human migration has evolved newer and modified processes adapting to the local variables of climate and raw materials. The final section addresses the aspects of future prospects of fermented foods well branded for the region historically and the sustainability of indigenous fermented foods in food preservation and value addition on one hand and its nutrition, functional, and health aspects on the other hand. The wisdom in this area still needs to be explored, and modern science has just begun to understand the food culture and tradition and the sustainable consumption. The affordability of such foods using simple local solutions for global problems is a great contribution to sustainable food consumption pattern emerging across the world. Thus, the heritage of foods especially fermented ethnic foods, its huge impact in a sustainable kitchen among the poor opens up the need for scientific intervention in these processes not to change it but to sustain the culture, tradition, and wisdom for the future generations. The benefits of one region of the world of these fermented foods to another region of the world by networking the architectural symphony of food culture spreading from local to global with information processing and big data crunching are the new ways to see it in future. xxiii

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Foreword

I compliment the authors, volume editors, and the publisher for bringing this volume, which also fills in the gap in this area for the readers to address and understand the issues holistically and from an integrated approach.

Vish Prakash President of International Union of Food Science and Technology (IUFoST), Vice President of International Union of Nutritional Sciences (IUNS), Former Director of Central Food Technological Research Institute (CFTRI), Mysore, Karnataka, India and Distinguished Scientist of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), Bengaluru, Karnataka, India

7th July 2022, Mysore, India

Preface Fermentation is a microbial-driven food processing technique that can be considered as being traditional with its history dated back to over 10,000 years ago or more. It remains an affordable and vital processing technique in developing countries and the tropical regions of the world, leading to numerous available food and beverage products. Technologies for improving the process, crafting new products and/or ingredients from fermentation are continually evolving. Concerted efforts documented in the available literature are acknowledged, but there is still the need to provide an updated text on fermented food products in the tropics. This book titled “Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics” provides a fresh perspective on fermented food products in three tropical regions of the world (Africa, Asia, and South America). As a single text, the book provides a comprehensive overview of the indigenous fermented products of these three tropical continents, innovative techniques for improving these indigenous products, and investigating their composition as well as safety concerns and challenges associated with these indigenous fermented foods. Marketing and packaging of these products are also discussed in the latter part of the text, with a chapter providing a future outlook for these indigenous fermented food products. This book provides recent information and complement the existing books on indigenous fermented foods, especially those from Africa, Asia, and South America. This book will thus serve as a valuable reference material for both undergraduate and postgraduate students on knowledge about traditional food processing, particularly fermentation. The book will also benefit fermentation scientists, food microbiologists, public health scientists, biochemical engineers, nutritionists, and food scientists in various industries, catering, research institutes, and universities. It will also serve as a useful reference for individuals with an interest in indigenous foods as well as scientists and professionals involved in the research and development of fermented foods and beverages. This book would not have been possible without the admirable effort of internationally renowned authors that contributed and reviewers who through their suggestions significantly improved the quality of the chapters in this book. We would like to express our gratitude for their expertise and time. We also acknowledge the Elsevier editorial team for their prompt response, assistance, and advice. We hope you enjoy reading this book and continue to contribute to knowledge for the benefit of mankind.

Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo Chiemela Enyinnaya Chinma Adewale Olusegun Obadina Antonio Gomes Soares Sandeep Kumar Panda Ren-You Gan

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Chapter 1

An insight into indigenous fermented foods for the tropics Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo1,T, Chiemela Enyinnaya Chinma2,3, Adewale Olusegun Obadina3,4, Antonio Gomes Soares5, Sandeep Kumar Panda6 and Ren-You Gan7 1

Food Innovation Research Group, Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng,

South Africa, 2Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria, 3Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 4Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Food Sciences and Human Ecology, Federal University of Agriculture, Abeokuta, Nigeria, 5Research Area on Postharvest of Fruits and Vegetables Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil, 6School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT) Deemed to be University, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India, 7Institute of Urban Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Chengdu, P.R. China TCorresponding author. e-mail address: [email protected]; [email protected]

1.1

Introduction

The importance of fermented foods cannot be overemphasized. Fermentation, being one of the traditional food processing techniques that have been in existence since medieval times, has brought about the production of subsequently derived food items that have sustained livelihoods and contributed to human diet (Adebo et al., 2021). Fermentation of foods, particularly bread, has been associated with the transition from hunter
gatherer communities to sessile agricultural communities in the Neolithic revolution about 14,000 years ago (Arranz-Otaegui et al., 2018; Hayden et al., 2013; Paul Ross et al., 2002) opined that fermentation was primarily used as a food preservation technique and this can be traced back to thousands of years ago Fig. 1.1, when the art of cheese making was developed in the fertile crescent between Tigris and the Euphrates rivers in Iraq. Such preservative effects make fermentation one of the most effective food preservation techniques due to the formation of organic acids, reduced pH, production of alcohols, bacteriocins as well as antimicrobial end products that help mitigate against pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms (Adebiyi et al., 2018; Paul Ross et al., 2002). Fermentation can be simply defined as an intentional process performed to transform substrates into new products through the action of microorganisms (Kewuyemi et al., 2020). A more recently adopted definition by the International Scientific Association for Probiotics and Prebiotics defines fermented foods as “foods made through desired microbial growth and enzymatic conversions of food components” (Marco et al., 2021). Fermented foods have been an increasingly popular food category, with an estimate suggesting that the global fermented food and ingredients market size would reach a projected US$ 59 billion by 2026 (2021). According to (Tamang et al., 2016), there are over 5000 varieties of fermented food products produced and consumed in different regions of the world. While other regions of the world equally have fermented products, the tropics (Africa, Asia and South America) seem to have more diversified products, with a relatively lesser number of them documented in the literature. The occurrence of different fermented foods in specific regions and countries of the world is associated with the dietary habits, cultures, availability, as well as accessibility to raw produce. Equally important are cultural, socioeconomic factors, ethnicity, religion, and race, all of which play significant roles in the choice of fermented product in each country and continent (Hesseltine & Wang, 1980; Tamang et al., 2020). Cereals, legumes, roots and tubers, as well as dairybased products are majorly consumed in Africa Table 1.1, with roots and tubers being the main fermented products in South America Table 1.2. On the contrary, legumes, cereals, vegetables, as well as fish- and meat-based fermented products dominate most parts of the Asian continent Table 1.3. The significance of these products in contributing to the diet of the tropics is topical, considering the relatively lesser income and socioeconomic strata that majority of the citizens find themselves. Traditional food processes, such as

Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98341-9.00003-7 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

1

2

Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics

FIGURE 1.1 Major events in food fermentation and preservation through the years (Paul Ross et al., 2002).

fermentation which are easier to manage and affordable, are thus the “go to” processing technique for the transformation of raw materials into food forms. Further to this is poor electricity supply in many poor communities of tropical countries which also makes fermentation an important food preservation technique. Not only does fermentation transforms food, but it also creates variety, improves shelf life and help modify foods into organoleptically satisfying products (Adebiyi et al., 2018; Adebo, 2020; Rolla´n et al., 2019). Further to these are desirable improvements in nutritional composition, economic value and nutrient bioavailability. Beyond nutrition and sensorial qualities are health beneficial properties of fermented foods, with epidemiological studies indicating that fermented-related diets can reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome, bladder cancer, colorectal cancer and cardiovascular diseases, enhance longevity as well as quality of life (Babio et al., 2015; Gan et al., 2017; Larsson et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2017; Martı´nez-Gonza´lez et al., 2019; Pala et al., 2011; Pes et al., 2015; Sonestedt et al., 2011). Although the role of other food processing technologies cannot be downplayed, fermented foods continue to be sources of nutrition and help in meeting daily the nutritional requirements of inhabitants in tropical countries. This book entitled “Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics” is divided into different broad sections, starting with an overview and intricacies of processes involved in the production of fermented products indigenous to the three tropical continents of Africa, Asia, and South America (Section 1). These products have been classified into cereal-, legume, pulse and oilseed-, fish and meat-, dairy-, vegetable-, as well as root and tuber-based fermented food products. Further to this are insights into nutritional composition of these fermented food products, health-promoting constituents and microorganisms/microbiota responsible for the transformation of these products. The role of technology and innovations in the quest for improving the production, quality, and safety of fermented foods is equally important and as such encouraged the increased demand for fermented food products. This demand is further driven by the fact that fermented foods are generally considered as functional food products (Kewuyemi et al., 2022; Melini et al., 2019). Thus there is the need to meet increasing consumer demands and improve the conventional fermentation techniques associated with products from the tropics to ensure the delivery of desired fermented foods

An insight into indigenous fermented foods for the tropics Chapter | 1

TABLE 1.1 Major indigenous fermented foods and beverages from Africa. Product

Product form

Country/region

Aceda

Porridge

Sudan

Ben-saalga

Weaning food

Burkina Faso, Ghana

Bouza

Gruel

Egypt

Burukutu

Beverage

Ghana, Nigeria

Bushera

Beverage

Uganda

Busa/Bussa

Beverage

East Africa, Kenya

Buza

Beverage

India

Chibuku

Beverage

Zimbabwe

Dolo

Beverage

Burkina Faso, Togo

Enturire

Beverage

Uganda

Gowe´

Porridge

Benin

Humulur

Gruel

Sudan

Hussuwa

Porridge

Sudan

Ikigage

Beverage

Rwanda

Injera

Sourdough, bread

Ethiopia

Kachasu

Beverage

Zimbabwe

Kenke/Kenkey

Dumpling

Ghana

Koko

Gruel

Ghana

Kisra

Pancake, flat bread, sourdough

Sudan

Kunun-zaki

Beverage

Nigeria

Lting/Joala

Beverage

South Africa

Mahewu

Gruel

South Africa

Mangisi

Beverage

Zimbabwe

Mbege

Beverage

Tanzania

Merissa

Beverage

Sudan

Ogi

Gruel

West Africa

Ori-ese

Porridge

Nigeria

Orubisi

Beverage

Tanzania

Otika

Beverage

Nigeria

Pito

Beverage

Nigeria

Poto poto

Gruel

Congo

Tchapalo

Beverage

Ivory Coast

Tella

Beverage

Ethiopia

Tchoukoutou

Beverage

Benin

Thobwa

Beverage

Malawi

Ting

Porridge, sourdough

Southern Africa

Uji

Porridge

Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda

Cereal based

(Continued )

3

4

Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics

TABLE 1.1 (Continued) Product

Product form

Country/region

Beverage

Southern Africa

Amabere

Gruel

Kenya

Amasi

Gruel

Southern Africa

Chambiko

Beverage

Malawi

Chekapmkaika/Kwerionik

Beverage

Uganda

Dhanaan

Beverage

Ethiopia

Ergo

Beverage

Ethiopia

Fene

Beverage

Mali

Gariss

Beverage

Sudan

Gibna Bayda/Gibna Mudaffra

Cheese

Sudan

Ititu

Curd

Ethiopia

Kibe

Butter

Ethiopia

Kiviguto/Makamo

Beverage, dessert

Rwanda, Uganda

Kule-naoto




Kenya

Laban rayeb

Gruel

Egypt

Lait caille´

Beverage

Senegal

Leben/Lben

Sour milk

East Central and North Africa

Mabisi

Gruel

Zambia

Madila

Beverage, curd

Botswana

Mafi

Beverage

South Africa

Masse

Beverage

Mozambique

Mursik

Beverage

Kenya

Nunu

Beverage

Ghana, Nigeria

Nyarmie

Curd

Ghana

Omarere

Beverage

Namibia

Omashikawa

Beverage, condiment

Namibia

Pendidaam

Beverage

Cameroon

Rob

Beverage

Sudan

Susac

Beverage

Kenya, Somalia

Zabady

Beverage

Egypt

Afonnama

Condiment

Nigeria

Azu-okpo

Condiment

Nigeria

Nsiko

Condiment

Nigeria

Cereal based Umqombothi Dairy based

Fish and meat based

(Continued )

An insight into indigenous fermented foods for the tropics Chapter | 1

5

TABLE 1.1 (Continued) Product

Product form

Country/region

Makumbi

Beverage

Zimbabwe

Marula beer/maroela-mampoer

Beverage

South Africa

Mudetemwa

Beverage

Zimbabwe

Dawadawa

Condiment

Central and West Africa

Iru

Condiment

West Africa

Kawal

Meat substitute

Sudan

Kinda

Condiment

Sierra Leone

Ogiri

Condiment

Central, East, and West Africa

Okpehe

Condiment

Nigeria

Soumbala

Condiment

Burkina Faso

Ugba

Salad

Nigeria

Agbelima

Meal

Ivory Coast, Ghana

Attieke/Placali

Meal

Ivory Coast

Chikwangue/Kwanga

Meal, dish

Central Africa, Zaire

Cingwada

Meal, dish

East and Central Africa

Elubo isu/Gbodo

Flour

Nigeria

Fufu

Flour

West Africa

Garri

Flour

West and Central Africa

Kivunde

Meal

Tanzania

Kokobele

Meal

Nigeria

Lafun/Konkonte

Flour

West Africa

Kpor umilin

Flour

Nigeria

Bikalga

Condiment

Burkina Faso

Palm wine

Beverage

Ghana, Nigeria

Cereal based Fruit and vegetable based

Legume, pulses, and oil seeds based

Root and tuber based

Others

with consistently better sensory attributes, nutritional and health benefits and their overall quality. Section 2 describes existing as well as potential innovative approaches for enhancing the quality of fermented foods. Advanced techniques for investigating the composition and functionality of fermented food products are also described herein. Section 3 presents safety challenges associated with these indigenous food products and ways of mitigating against them. Section 4 discusses the packaging and marketability of indigenous fermented foods of the tropics. The book is concluded with future prospects for these vital food groups.

6

Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics

TABLE 1.2 Major indigenous fermented foods and beverages from Asia. Product

Product form

Country/region

Aarak

Beverage

Bhutan, China, India

Ang-kak

Colorant

China, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand

Apong

Beverage

India

Atingba

Beverage

India

Baijiu

Beverage

China

Bhaati jaanr

Beverage

India, Nepal

Bhang-chyang

Beverage

India

Brem/Brem bali

Beverage

Indonesia

Chyang/Chee

Beverage

Bhutan, China, India, Nepal

Chulli

Beverage

India

Darassun

Beverage

Mongolia

Daru

Beverage

India

Duizou

Beverage

India

Ewhaju

Beverage

Korea

Jalebi

Snack

India, Nepal, Pakistan

Khamak (Kao-mak)

Dessert

Thailand

Khanomjeen

Meal, dish

Thailand

Kichuddok

Cake

Korea

Krachae

Beverage

Thailand

Lao-chao

Dessert

China

Makgeolli

Beverage

China

Nam khao

Beverage

Thailand

Poko

Beverage

Nepal

Puto

Meal

Philippines

Rabadi

Gruel

India, Pakistan

Ruou nep than

Beverage

Vietnam

Sake´

Beverage

Japan

Sato

Beverage

Thailand

Selroti

Bread

Bhutan, India, Nepal

Shochu

Beverage

Japan

Soju

Beverage

Korea

Takju

Beverage

Korea

Tapai pulut

Beverage

Malaysia

Tape Ketan

Dessert

Indonesia

Tapuy

Beverage

Philippines

Tien-chiu-niang

Beverage

China, Taiwan

Yakju

Beverage

Korea

Cereal based

(Continued )

An insight into indigenous fermented foods for the tropics Chapter | 1

TABLE 1.2 (Continued) Product

Product form

Country/region

Chal/Shubat

Beverage

Turkmenistan/Kazakhstan

Chhu

Soup

Bhutan, China, India, Nepal

Dahi

Curd

Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka

Gheu/Ghee

Butter

Bhutan, China, India, Myanmar, Nepal

Misti dahi

Gel

Bangladesh, India

Philu

Soup, side dish

China, India, Nepal

Shrikhand

Gruel

India

Somar

Condiment

India, Nepal

Sua chua

Beverage

Vietnam

Arjia

Sausage

India, Nepal

Bakasang

Condiment

Indonesia

Balao-balao

Condiment

Philippines

Belacan (Blacan)

Condiment

Malaysia

Bordia/Karati/Lashim

Side dish

India

Budu

Sauce

Malaysia, Thailand

Burong Bangus/Burong-isda

Sauce, side dish

Philippines

Chartayshya

Sausage

India

Geema

Sausage

India

Gnuchi

Meal, dish

India

Gulbi

Side dish

Korea

Hentak

Condiment

India

Hoi-malaeng pu-dong

Meal, dish

Thailand

Ika-Shiokara

Meal, dish

Japan

Jeotkal/Saeoo jeot

Side dish

Korea

Kargyong

Sausage

India

Kungchao

Side dish

Thailand

Kusaya

Side dish

Japan

Myeolchi Jeot

Sauce

Korea

Nampla/Nampla-dee/Nampla-sod

Sauce

Thailand

Narezushi

Side dish

Japan

Nem-chua

Sausage

Vietnam

Ngari

Side dish

India

Nham (Musom)

Meal, dish

Thailand

Nuoc mam

Condiment

Vietnam

Patis

Sauce

Indonesia, Philippines

Cereal based Dairy based

Fish and meat based

(Continued )

7

8

Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics

TABLE 1.2 (Continued) Product

Product form

Country/region

Pla-paeng-daeng

Seasoning

Thailand

Pla-ra

Side dish

Thailand

Pla-som/Pla-khao-sug

Condiment

Thailand

Sai-krok-prieo

Sausage

Thailand

Sidra

Side dish

India

Sikhae

Sauce, side dish

Korea

Shidal

Side dish

Bangladesh, India

Shottsuru

Condiment

Japan

Suka ko masu

Side dish

India

Sukuti

Meal, dish

India

Tocino

Side dish

Philippines

Tom chua

Appetizer

Vietnam

Tungtap

Paste

India

Utongari

Side dish

India

Burong mustasa

Meal, condiment, dish

Philippines

Dakguadong

Salad, side dish

Thailand

Dha muoi

Appetizer, salad, side dish

Vietnam

Ekung

Meal, dish

India

Eup

Side dish

India

Fu-tsai

Soup

Taiwan

Goyang

Meal, dish

India, Nepal

Gundruk

Meal, dish

Bhutan, India, Nepal

Hirring

Meal, side dish

India

Hom-dong

Pickle

Thailand

Jiang-gua

Pickle

Taiwan

Jiang-sun

Side dish

Taiwan

Khalpi

Pickle

India, Nepal

Kimchi

Salad, side dish

Korea

Naw-mai-dong

Soup

Thailand

Mesu

Pickle, snack

Bhutan, India, Nepal

Oiji

Pickle

Korea

Pak-gard-dong

Pickle

Thailand

Pak-sian-dong

Pickle

Thailand

Pao cai

Pickle

China

Sayur asin

Meal, dish

Indonesia

Sinki

Soup

Bhutan, India, Nepal

Cereal based

Fruit and vegetable based

(Continued )

An insight into indigenous fermented foods for the tropics Chapter | 1

TABLE 1.2 (Continued) Product

Product form

Country/region

Sunki

Pickle

Japan

Takuanzuke

Pickle

Japan

Amriti

Snack

India

Bedvin roti

Snack

India

Bekang

Paste

India

Bhallae

Side dish

India

Cheonggukjang

Meal, dish

Korea

Dalbari

Snack

India

Dhokla

Snack

India

Doenjang

Soup

Korea

Dosa

Pancake, snack

India

Doubanjiang

Paste

China

Douchi

Condiment

China, Taiwan

Furu

Condiment

China

Gochujang

Seasoning

Korea

Hawaijar

Meal, dish

India

Idli

Meal, dish

India, Sri Lanka

Kanjang

Sauce

Korea

Kecap

Sauce

Indonesia

Ketjap

Syrup

Indonesia

Kinema

Meal, dish

Bhutan, India, Nepal

Khaman

Snack

India

Maseura

Condiment

India, Nepal

Mashbari

Meal, dish

India

Masyaura

Side dish

India, Nepal

Meitauza

Meal, dish

China, Taiwan

Meju

Condiment

Korea

Miso

Seasoning

Japan

Natto

Meal, dish

Japan

Cereal based

Legume, pulses, and oil seeds based

Ontjom/Oncom (Hitam/Merah)

Snack

Indonesia

Papad

Condiment

India

Sepubari

Meal, dish

India

Shoyu

Seasoning

China, Japan, Korea

Soksungjang

Paste

Korea

Sufu

Side dish

China, Taiwan

Tauco

Paste

Indonesia (Continued )

9

10

Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics

TABLE 1.2 (Continued) Product

Product form

Country/region

Teliye mah

Gruel

India

Tempe/Tempeh

Snack

Indonesia, Japan, Korea, New Guinea, Surinam

Tianmianjiang

Sauce

China, Korea

Thu nao

Side dish

Thailand

Tuong

Sauce

Vietnam

Tungrymbai

Soup

India

Wari

Snack

India, Pakistan

Yandou

Snack

China

Simal tarul ko jaanr

Beverage

India, Nepal

Tapai Ubi

Beverage

Malaysia

Tape´

Dessert

Indonesia

Cereal based

Root and tuber based

TABLE 1.3 Major indigenous fermented foods and beverages from South America. Product

Product form

Country/region

Calugi

Beverage

Brazil

Champu/Champus

Beverage

Colombia

Masa agria

Beverage

Colombia

Coalho cheese

Cheese

Brazil

Kumis

Beverage

Colombia

Suero coste~no

Cheese

Colombia

Carne de sol

Snack

Brazil

Charqui

Snack

Brazil

Caxiri

Beverage

Brazil

Chicha/masato

Beverage

Brazil Bolivia, Ecuador, Peru

Farinha

Meal, dish

Brazil

Parakari

Beverage

Guyana

Polvilho azedo/almido´n agrio

Starch

Brazil, Paraguay

Taruba

Beverage

Brazil

Cereal based

Dairy based

Fish and meat based

Root and tuber based

(Continued )

An insight into indigenous fermented foods for the tropics Chapter | 1

11

TABLE 1.3 (Continued) Product

Product form

Country/region

Tiquira

Beverage

Brazil

Yakupa

Beverage

Brazil

Guarapo

Beverage

Colombia

Palm wine

Beverage

Brazil, Colombia

Tequila

Beverage

Benin

Cereal based

Others

Acknowledgments National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa Thuthuka funding (Grant no: 121826), University of Johannesburg (UJ) Global Excellence and Stature (GES) 4.0 Catalytic Initiative Grant and the UJ Research Committee (URC) Grant are duly acknowledged for funding.

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Section 1

Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

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Chapter 2

African cereal-based fermented products Edwin Hlangwani1, Patrick Berka Njobeh2, Chiemela Enyinnaya Chinma3,4, Ajibola Bamikole Oyedeji1, Beatrice Mofoluwaso Fasogbon1, Samson Adeoye Oyeyinka5, Sunday Samuel Sobowale6, Olayemi Eyituoyo Dudu7, Tumisi Beiri Jeremiah Molelekoa8, Hema Kesa9, Jonathan D. Wilkin10 and Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo1,T 1

Food Innovation Research Group, Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng,

South Africa, 2Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein Campus, Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 3Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria, 5Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology,

4

University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, Johannesburg, South Africa, 6Department of Food Science and Technology, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, Mountain Top University, Ibafo, Ogun State, Nigeria, 7Department of Chemical and Food Sciences, Bells University of Technology, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria, 8Biotechnology and Food Technology, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 9School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 10Division of Engineering and Food Science, School of Applied Sciences, Abertay University, Dundee, United Kingdom TCorresponding author. e-mail address: [email protected]; [email protected]

2.1

Introduction

Cereal grains and cereal-based fermented were the earliest food sources of humans (Makbul et al., 2020; Osungbaro, 2009). Nowadays, a variety of cereals are grown in about 73% of the world’s harvested area, contributing over 60% to global food production, providing energy and essential nutrients necessary for health (Awika, 2011; Karoviˇcova´ & Kohajdova, 2007). These cereals, either whole grain or refined, are an important dietary source in different parts of the world (Makbul et al., 2020). Cereal-based fermented products account for approximately 77% of the total caloric consumption across Africa (Osungbaro, 2009). Processes required to produce fermented foods have been present on earth since the beginning of humankind. Therefore, the study of these foods mainly indicates the study of the most intimate relationships between humans, microbes, and foods (Selhub et al., 2014). However, it took some time for humans to observe, accidentally, that stored fruits and cereals underwent favorable organoleptic changes and turned into alcoholic beverages (Terefe, 2016). Chemical analysis done on pottery jars found in the early Neolithic village of Jiahu, China, suggested that intentional fermentation of honey, fruit, and rice was used to provide value in traditional medicine, cultural welfare, and nutrition (Motlhanka et al., 2018). Intentional fermentation was further applied in winemaking, dairy products, brewing, and baking (Motlhanka et al., 2018). Africans have been producing fermented products especially cereal-based (maize, sorghum, millet) products since 3500 BC (Adebo, 2020; Diaz et al., 2019; Konfo et al., 2015). Using cereals as a fermentation substrate is an effective way to develop functional foods as they are rich in nutrients that can be easily assimilated by probiotics (Ignat et al., 2020). Aceda (Sudan), uji (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda), ogi (Benin, Ghana, Nigeria), munkoyo (Zambia), and mahewu (Southern Africa) (Fig. 2.1) are popular African examples of cereal-based fermented foods. It is important to note that fermentation of staple foods, in the context of the African continent, is still mainly a home-based process dependent on age-old techniques and locally grown raw materials (Terefe., 2016; Wedajo Lemi, 2020). The production of many African cereal-based fermented products (Table 2.1) happens in small-scale industries, villages, and homes. However, products such as bushera, chibuku, ogi, koko, umqombothi, and kunun-zaki have been commercialized on larger scales (Adebiyi et al., 2018; Hlangwani et al., 2020). The production of notable African cereal-based fermented products is described in Figs. 2.2
2.4. The underlying nature of fermented products may be similar across different demographics throughout the continent, but these bear different names and have slight production variations (Hlangwani et al., 2020; Maleke et al., 2021). Generally, the raw materials used, the origin of the food or beverage, and the processing techniques employed are responsible for the nature of the cereal-based fermented product, making them peculiar to the cultural groups where they are relished. As such, cereal-based fermented products are an integral part of the spiritual, cultural, and Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98341-9.00031-1 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

15

16

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

FIGURE 2.1 Popular African cereal-based products; aceda (A) (Suleiman et al., 2022), mahewu (also called emahewu) (B) (Simatende et al., 2015), ogi (C) (Obafemi et al., 2022), uji (D) (Kubo, 2016).

socioeconomic realities of many Africans. For example, umqombothi is poured on the ground to appease ancestors (amandlozi) and served in religious ceremonies (Goitsemodimo, 2020; Hlangwani et al., 2020). Similarly, a wide range of cereal-based fermented beverages are culturally enjoyed during circumcision, initiation school graduation, weddings, handing over of dowries, as well as births and funerals (Aka et al., 2014; Konfo et al., 2015). A Namibian nonalcoholic beverage, oshikundu is produced and served as part of the traditional initiation of young girls into womanhood (Ashekele et al., 2012). Consumers may also express their socioeconomic class and tribe by the type of cereal-based fermented products that they consume (Ezekiel et al., 2018). The production of African cereal-based fermented foods and beverages has gradually been geared toward economic benefits. On a cottage scale, the sale of these products provides household income to many families and is often a means of economic empowerment, especially for women in rural communities (Dancause et al., 2010; Ezekiel et al., 2018; Ikalafeng, 2008; Lyumugabe et al., 2012). Cereal-based fermented products are often low-cost and thus provide affordable beverage options to low-income populations living in semi-urban areas (Hlangwani et al., 2020; Lues et al., 2009). Although per capita consumption data is lacking, the production of some of these foods and beverages runs into millions of litres per year (Ezekiel et al., 2018). This chapter provides an overview of the biochemistry, nutritional composition, health-beneficial components, as well as microbiota of African cereal-based fermented food products.

2.2

Biochemistry of cereal fermentation

In Africa, maize (Zea mays L.), pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench), and finger millet (Eleusine coracana) are the major cereal grains used for making cereal-based fermented foods and beverages (Table 2.1). Specifically, whole-grain cereals are rich in bioactive compounds and fibers such as antioxidants, soluble fibers, non-digestible carbohydrates, and phytochemicals (γ-oryzanol, avenanthramides, benzoxazinoids, carotenoids, flavonoids, phytosterols, phytoestrogens, phytic acid, phenolic compounds, etc.) (Adebo & Medina-Meza, 2020; ¨ zer & Yazici, 2019). Furthermore, most cereal-based fermented traditional foods and bevKewuyemi et al., 2020; O erages contain a range of organic acids, bioactive peptides, phenolics (flavonoids, phenolic acids, quinones, and tannins), amino acids, minerals, bacteriocins, and vitamins (Abriouel et al., 2007; Hossain & Rahman, 2019). Factors such as temperature, pH, growth factor requirements, length of fermentation, cereal nutrients, and moisture content of grains need to be carefully controlled to standardize quality, as they influence both the fermentation process and the final product (Ignat et al., 2020). Grinding, mashing, soaking, malting, sprouting, size reduction, salting,

African cereal-based fermented products Chapter | 2

17

TABLE 2.1 African cereal-based fermented products. Product

Cereal grain(s) used

Product form

Country/region

Aceda

Sorghum

Porridge

Sudan

Agidi

Maize

Porridge

Benin, Nigeria

Ambga

Sorghum

Beverage

Cameroon

Asaana

Maize

Beverage

Ghana

Banku

Maize

Cooked dough

Ghana

Ben-saalga

Pearl millet

Weaning food

Burkina Faso, Ghana

Bili-bili

Sorghum

Beverage

Chad

Bogbe

Sorghum

Porridge

Botswana

Bouza

Wheat

Gruel

Egypt

Brukina

Millet, milk

Beverage

Ghana

Burukutu

Maize, millet, sorghum

Beverage

Ghana, Nigeria

Bushera

Sorghum, millet

Beverage

Uganda

Busa

Rice or millet

Beverage

Egypt

Bussa

Maize

Beverage

East Africa, Kenya

Cheka

Sorghum, maize, finger millet

Beverage

Ethiopia

Chibuku

Sorghum

Beverage

Zimbabwe

Chikokivana

Maize or millet

Beverage

Zimbabwe

Degue`

Pearl millet

Porridge

Burkina Faso

Doklu

Maize

Snack

Ivory Coast

Dolo

Sorghum

Beverage

Burkina Faso, Togo

Gurusa

Wheat, maize

Pancake

Uganda

Enturire

Sorghum

Beverage

Uganda

Gowe´

Sorghum

Porridge

Benin

Hopose

Wheat, (hops)

Beverage

Lesotho

Humulur

Teff

Gruel

Sudan

Hussuwa

Sorghum or millet

Porridge

Sudan

Ikigage

Sorghum

Beverage

Rwanda

Injera

Teff, sorghum, maize, finger millet, wheat, or barley

Sourdough, bread

Ethiopia

Kachasu

Maize

Beverage

Zimbabwe

Katikala

Teff

Beverage

Ethiopia

Kenke/ Kenkey

Maize

Dumpling

Ghana

Keribo

Barley

Beverage

Ethiopia

Kirario

Maize, millet or sorghum

Porridge

Kenya

Kishk

Wheat, oats

Soup

Egypt

Koko

Millet

Gruel

Ghana

Kisra

Sorghum, pearl millet

Flat bread, sourdough

Sudan (Continued )

18

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

TABLE 2.1 (Continued) Product

Cereal grain(s) used

Product form

Country/region

Kunun-zaki

Millet

Beverage

Nigeria

Kwete

Sorghum, maize

Beverage

Uganda

Liha

Maize

Beverage

Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria

Mahewu

Maize

Gruel

Botswana, Lesotho, South Africa, Swaziland, Zambia, Zimbabwe

Malwa

Millet

Beverage

Uganda

Mangisi

Millet

Beverage

Zimbabwe

Masa

Maize, rice

Pancake

Nigeria

Masvusvu

Millet

Beverage

Zimbabwe

Mawe´

Maize

Sourdough

Benin, Togo

Merissa

Sorghum and millet

Beverage

Sudan

Motoho

Sorghum

Porridge

Lesotho

Munkoyo

Maize

Beverage

Zambia, The Democratic Republic of Congo

Mutwiwa

Maize

Porridge

Zimbabwe

Nasha

Sorghum

Beverage

Sudan

Ogi

Maize, sorghum, or millet

Gruel

Benin, Ghana, Nigeria

Oshikundu

Sorghum or maize

Beverage

Namibia

Ori-ese

Sorghum

Porridge

Nigeria

Orubisi

Sorghum

Beverage

Tanzania

Otika

Sorghum

Beverage

Nigeria

Pito

Maize, sorghum

Beverage

Nigeria

Poto poto

Maize

Gruel

The Democratic Republic of Congo

Sekete

Maize

Beverage

Nigeria

Sekumukumu

Sorghum

Beverage

Lesotho

Solom

Millet

Beverage

Benin, Ghana, Togo

Tchapalo

Sorghum

Beverage

Ivory Coast

Tella

Sorghum

Beverage

Ethiopia

Tchoukoutou

Sorghum

Beverage

Benin

Thobwa

Sorghum, maize, or finger millet

Beverage

Malawi

Ting

Sorghum, maize

Porridge, sourdough

Southern Africa

Uji

Maize, sorghum, millet

Porridge

Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda

Umqombothi

Maize, sorghum

Beverage

South Africa

Zoom-koom

Millet or sorghum

Beverage

Burkina Faso

milling, and cooking (or heating) are some of the pre-processing technologies which have been applied to modify cereals prior to fermentation. These pre-processes remove anti-nutrients, toxic components, and improve the digestibility of the final product (Elkhalifa et al., 2006; Elkhalifa et al., 2017; Ignat et al., 2020). The fermentation of cereals leads to activation of enzymes, detoxification, and degradation of contaminants, modification (increase, decrease, or bioconversion) of inherent metabolites and constituents, decrease in pH levels, increase in

African cereal-based fermented products Chapter | 2

FIGURE 2.2 Flow chart of the production of some maize-based African fermented products.

Maize

Maize grits

grinding

19

Cleaning and sorting

milling

Maize meal

Washing with water

Add water to form slurry

Washed grits

Steeping

Milling

Draining

Boil (15-20 mins)

Wet mawe l

Wet milling

Add inoculum

Fermentation (24-72 hr)

Sieving

Add inoculum (after cooling to 40 °C)

Settling and decanting

Fermentation (37 °C for 24-120 hr)

Fermented Mawe

Mahewu

Wet Ogi Addition of water

Ogi slurry

Boiling

Packaging and cooling

Agidi

organic acids, and increased microbial and metabolic activities (Adebo et al., 2018a; Adebo, 2020). A decrease in the amount of certain non-digestible oligo and polysaccharides (stachyose, raffinose, and xylose) which reduce flatulence and abdominal distension, as well as modification in carbohydrates, has also been reported in fermented cereal grains (Galati et al., 2014). Furthermore, the enzymatic activity of the fermenting microbiota cause breakdown of starch oligosaccharides, leading to improved starch digestibility, among others (Karoviˇcova´ & Kohajdova, 2007). Improved synthesis and bioavailability of B-group vitamins have been reported during fermentation due to the ability of microorganisms that metabolize other nutrients to produce vitamins (LeBlanc et al., 2011; Samtiya et al., 2021). An increase in the amount and quality of protein and essential amino acids such as lysine, methionine, and tryptophan has been reported in sorghum, millet, maize, and other cereal products (Adebiyi et al., 2017; Price & Welch, 2013). Proteolysis and/or metabolic synthesis by fermenting microorganisms during the fermentation of cereals has increased free amino acids and their derivatives, particularly through cellular lysis, while microbial mass can also provide lowmolecular-mass nitrogen-containing metabolites (Joye, 2019; Nkhata et al., 2018; Suri et al., 2014). Phytic acid present in the form of complexes with proteins and polyvalent cations such as calcium, iron, magnesium, and zinc is degraded as the fermentation process continues, to provide optimum pH conditions necessary for the phytase activity of a wide range of microbiota (Bielik & Kolisek, 2021; Kumar et al., 2010). Fermenting microorganisms possibly use these antinutritional factors as carbon sources and such decreases may lead to an increase in the amount of

20

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

Sorghum grains Malting

Cleaning

Soaking/Fermenting

Grinding

Wet milling; Wet sieving

Setting/Fermenting

Sorghum Flour Malted Sorghum Flour

Decanting Mixing (With water and/or other ingredients)

Water addition, Kneading

Kneading Ogi slurry

Cooking Fermenting

Wort boiling

Incubation

Fermenting

Ting

Ogi

Mixing

Wort cooling

Fermenting

Cooking Cooking Umqombothi

Gowé Ting

Gruel

Fermenting

Injera

Baking

FIGURE 2.3 Flow chart of the production of some sorghum-based African fermented products.

bioavailable calcium, iron, and zinc by several folds (Atter et al., 2021). Fermentation generally enhances the functional properties, sensory qualities, and shelf life of the final product (Sharma et al., 2020). Unique sensorial properties and extended shelf-life make fermented foods more popular than their unfermented counterparts in terms of consumer acceptance and purchase decisions (Tamang et al., 2016). The fermentation of cereals produces several organic acids and volatile compounds (including alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, and carbonyl compounds), which contribute to the flavor profile of each product. Pleasant aromas imparted by compounds such as butyric acid and diacetyl acetic acid make African cereal-based fermented products desirable (Hossain & Rahman, 2019; Peyer et al., 2016). Organic acids such as propionic and butyric are responsible for shelflife extension in cereal-based fermented products (Behera et al., 2018; Egwim Evans et al., 2013). Furthermore, acetic, and lactic acids induce an inhibitory effect against the proliferation of spoilage and pathogenic microbes by lowering pH below four (Lund et al., 2020; Nkosi et al., 2021). As the pH is lowered, there is a corresponding rise in titratable acidity, with accompanying changes in functional properties (Adebo, 2020). Organic acids have an antimicrobial effect by interfering with the maintenance of the membrane potential and inhibiting the active transport in the bacterial cytoplasmatic membrane (Amrutha et al., 2017; Kovanda et al., 2019). Flavor compounds are produced when the combined activity of malt enzymes and the proteolytic activity of fermenting microorganisms produce precursors of flavor compounds (Holt et al., 2019; Petrovici & Ciolacu, 2018). For instance, amino acids may be deaminated or decarboxylated to aldehydes, which may be oxidized to acids or reduced to alcohols (Karoviˇcova´ & Kohajdova, 2007). Amino acids and their salts such as sodium glutamate contribute to the

African cereal-based fermented products Chapter | 2

21

Millet grains

Dry milling

Clening, Sorting & Washing

Millet flour

Steeping

Water removal Wet milling

Steaming (60min at 50ºC) Pre-set curd of Inoculum B

Mixing Fermenting (12h at 37ºC)

Uncooked malted slurry

Sedimenting

Lyophilised Inoculum

Wet sieving

Cooking Ogi Fermenting (8-48h at 25-30ºC)

Inoculum Germinating (3-4 dyas at 25-30ºC)

Wet sieving Pomace removal

Rabadi Fermenting (10-14 days at 25-30ºC) Roasting

Drying (24h at 65ºC)

Kununzaki

Dry milling

Drying (24h at 65ºC) Dried Sourdough

Boiling

Dried Malted flour

Maiwa

FIGURE 2.4 Flow chart of the production of some millet-based African fermented products.

final product’s flavor (Nout & Sarkar, 1999). Flavor and taste may also be imparted by metabolites produced by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts (Mukisa et al., 2017; Raveendran et al., 2018). As fermentation proceeds, the amount and composition of phenolic compounds are affected (Adebo, 2020). An increase or decrease in antioxidant activity may be observed as phenolic compounds are metabolized (Adebo & Medina-Meza, 2020). During cereal fermentation, various bioactive compounds are synthesized as the cell wall of the substrates are structurally broken down. These microorganisms contain enzymes such as amylases, proteases, and xylanases, which aid in the modification of the cereal grain and chemical bond alteration, thus releasing bound phenolic compounds (Adebo, 2020). These phenolic compounds may be interconverted through decarboxylation, esterification, and hydrolysis, subjected to phase II metabolism, or conjugated to glucosides and/or related forms (Cladis et al., 2020).

2.3

Nutritional composition of African cereal-based fermented products

Beyond their spiritual, cultural, and socioeconomic values, cereal-based fermented products offer nutritional and therapeutic benefits. Many of these foods and beverages are calorie-dense and packed with bioactive compounds such as minerals, vitamins, utilizable carbohydrates (sugars), fatty acids, and digestible proteins, often imparted by the mixtures of cereal grains and the fermentation process involved. Furthermore, supplementation of these products with nuts, plant powders, spices, and tubers enhances their antioxidant properties, proteins, and thus amino acids content (Olusanya et al., 2020; Qaku et al., 2020). These African cereal-based fermented products provide between 55.34 and 1866.06 kJ/ 100 g of energy (Table 2.2), a bulk of which is derived from carbohydrates (Konfo et al., 2015; Lyumugabe et al., 2012; Mandishona et al., 1999) while 25% of the retained non-fermentable, partially degraded starch provides additional calories (Bamforth, 2002). Interestingly, mahewu, a fermented nonalcoholic beverage, contains over 70% carbohydrate content (Table 2.2).

TABLE 2.2 Proximate composition of some African cereal-based fermented products. Product

Ash

Carbohydrate

Fat

Fiber

Moisture

Protein

Energy (kJ/ 100 g)

References

Aceda

0.50
1.00

17.10
20.60

0.20
0.70

0.10
0.80

76.20
78.60

1.30
2.40

330.54

Abdelrahman et al. (2019), Elkhalifa et al. (2007)

Agidi

0.90
1.09

47.30
61.10

0.55
1.05

1.04
2.71

29.65
44.20

0.45
2.41

Ben-saalga

0.90
1.82

2.54
6.63

1.27
3.18

Brukina

0.41
0.47

10.20
12.73

1.41
3.24

Burukutu

2.08
4.30

17.76
24.04

3.96
5.06

Bushera

2.1
4.9

77.7
85.7

0.6
3.0

11.35
84.10

ND

Dolo

5.77
9.96 80.76
82.40

3.25
4.83

1.36
2.88

55.06
55.69

10.63
15.14

3.5
6.3

8.5
12.4

7.2
10.8 0.20
0.65

Ogiehor et al. (2005) 182

Mouquet-Rivier et al. (2008) Tawiah (2016)

55.34
64.04

Ogbonna et al. (2016) Muyanja et al. (2003)

91.21

Abdoul-Latif et al. (2013)

Enturire

2.63
4.80

Gowe´

1.7
1.8

7.7
32.8

2.1
2.6

2.1
2.3

Humulur

2.20
2.30

75.85

1.73
2.36

2.47
2.93

Injera

1.50
3.18

44.47
80.02

2.25
2.83

2.70
24.30

5.25
6.75

8.28
18.47

368.19

Ghebrehiwot et al. (2016), Neela and Fanta (2020)

Kisra

2.87

72.70

5.52

2.41

3.13

13.37

1648.33

Abdualrahman et al. (2019)

Koko

0.28
2.23

2.93
16.64

1.73
7.93

82.50

0.02
18.64

147.19
657.52

Soro-Yao et al. (2014a)

Kunun-zaki

1.30
3.44

0.14
6.0

17.3
18.0

0.75
0.84

64.90
89.37

3.10
8.60

Olufunke and Oluremi (2015), Olaoye et al. (2016)

Mahewu

1.34
3.81

72.93
74.45

0.90
2.02

2.45
5.68

87.00
92.72

6.09
10.40

Idowu et al. (2016), Qaku et al. (2020)

Masa

0.20
2.90

21.9
80.30

1.90
20.80

0.34
1.08

1.60
72.7

2.90
11.40

1782.38
1866.06

Igwe et al. (2013), Samuel et al. (2015), Nkama and Malleshi (1998)

Nasha

0.40

3.20

0.20

0.30

95.00

1.30

962.32

Elkhalifa et al. (2007)

Tella

0.10
0.85

1.00
9.74

0.0
1.86

82.03
98.3

0.1
7.57

33.05
154.22

Elema et al. (2018), Tekle et al. (2019)

Umqombothi

0.92
1.01

30.71
32.49

0.09
0.1

3.22
3.39

8.13
8.57

130.12
394

Hlangwani et al. (2021)

5
14.5

53.7
75.6

5.65
10.04

Mukisa et al. (2012)

9.7
10

Laetitia et al. (2005)

10.41
13.30

Mariod et al. (2016)

African cereal-based fermented products Chapter | 2

23

These cereal-based products are also relatively high in proteins. Koko, a millet gruel produced in Northern Ghana, contains proteins as much as 18.64%, a high protein content compared to most cereal-based gruels (Lei et al., 2006; Onoja & Obizoba, 2009; Soro-Yao et al., 2014a). The protein content in these products varies depending on the protein content of the raw material and the processing technology applied. Since protein substantially contributes to the staple diet of many Africans, its abundance in the starting raw material is crucial. African fermented foods also provide amino acids in diets. Millet-based beverages and gruels such as koko, kunun-zaki, malwa, zoom-koom, ben-saalga, and kirario contain significant amounts of lysine, threonine, tryptophan, and principal sulfur-containing amino acids, methionine, and cysteine, implying a better amino acid balance than in sorghum-based products (Aka et al., 2014; Brosnan & Brosnan, 2006; Kunyanga et al., 2009). On the other hand, sorghum-based products such as amgba, bili bili, gowe´, umqombothi, and hussuwa have a wide variety of amino acids, including leucine, lysine, cysteine, phenylalanine, and glutamic acid, making them good nutritional supplements (Adebo, 2020; Aka et al., 2014; Hlangwani et al., 2020). Products such as injera and umqombothi are relatively rich in dietary fiber (Table 2.2) (Ghebrehiwot et al., 2016; Hlangwani et al., 2020). Fiber is often present in high amounts as dextrins and starch residues in partially digested cereals (Joye, 2020; Lyumugabe et al., 2012). The cultivar and size of the cereal grain dictate the amount of fiber available (Abebe et al., 2015; Tsafrakidou et al., 2020). Moreover, processing steps such as enzymatic pre-treatment and fermentation can be applied to produce modified high-fiber products (Tsafrakidou et al., 2020). Table 2.2 shows the proximate composition of some African cereal-based fermented products. Cereal grains and their fermented products are excellent sources of B-group vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, and niacin) (Table 2.3). In particular, sorghum-based traditional beers such as amgba, dolo, umqombothi, and pito provide significant amounts of niacin, riboflavin, and thiamine (Aka et al., 2014; Ikalafeng, 2008; Lyumugabe et al., 2012). Certain sorghumbased beverages may also contain vitamin C (ascorbic acid), synthesized during germination of the substrate, and further enhanced during fermentation (Aka et al., 2014). For example, the vitamin C content in kunun-zaki produced from germinated cereals was reported to be 12,910
18,770 μg/100 g (especially millet, sorghum, and maize) (Olaoye et al., 2016). Cereal grains products are rich in minerals, which are critical growth factors that support microbial growth for complete fermentation processes (Achi & Ukwuru, 2015). In turn, fermentation improves the food or beverage matrix by decreasing antinutritional factors (ANFs) such as phytic acid, thereby increasing the bioavailability of minerals (Verni et al., 2019). As a result, the partial breakdown of phytate means cereal-based products have higher mineral bioavailability compared to their non-fermented counterparts (Laskowski et al., 2019; Verni et al., 2019). For instance, minerals such as manganese and iron in non-fermented cereal-based products are partly bound in solid complexes with phytic acids and fiber and are thus less bioavailable (Laskowski et al., 2019). Apart from containing lipids, vitamins, amino acids, sugars, and a wide range of hydrolytic enzymes, cereal grain embryos contain essential minerals (Achi & Ukwuru, 2015). A high mineral concentration is found in the bran fraction, especially in the aleurone layer (McKevith, 2004; Verni et al., 2019). Additional minerals are found in the seed coat enclosing the embryo and endosperm (Achi & Ukwuru, 2015). This abundance is reflected in products such as cheka, kisra, injera, kunun-zaki, and umqombothi (Abdualrahman et al., 2019; Ghebrehiwot et al., 2016; Neela & Fanta, 2020; Olaoye et al., 2016; Worku et al., 2018). These products are particularly rich in minerals such as phosphorus, potassium, iron, copper, calcium, magnesium, and manganese (Aka et al., 2014). Table 2.3 shows the minerals, vitamins, and amino acids composition of African cereal-based fermented products.

2.4

Health-promoting constituents of African-based cereal fermented products

In ancient cultures such as that of the African, traditional Japanese, and Mediterranean populations, cereal fermentation is a low-energy, low-cost, central food production strategy (Selhub et al., 2014). It is now easily understood that metabolites produced during cereal fermentation create a conducive environment for the growth of functional microorganisms, while directly inhibiting the growth of pathogenic and non-functional microorganisms (Adebo et al., 2018a; Terefe, 2016). Numerous epidemiological and clinical reports continue to demonstrate the relationship between fermented foods and human health benefits (Rezac et al., 2018). Fermentation of cereal grains has impacted human health by mitigating against carcinogenesis, mutagenesis, oxidative stress, obesity, allergies, diabetes, atherosclerosis, osteoporosis, while also increasing immunity, alleviating lactose intolerance, preventing hypertension and heart disease, reducing blood cholesterol, and protecting against pathogens (Sanlier ¸ et al., 2019; Selhub et al., 2014; Diaz et al., 2019). Published data from in vivo and in vitro studies have indicated the antidiabetic properties of cereal-based fermented foods and beverages (Melini et al., 2019). Furthermore, consumption of fermented foods and beverages is associated with improved brain health, cognitive function, and the alleviation of mental health disorders such as depression and chronic anxiety (¸Sanlier et al., 2019; Selhub et al., 2014). Studies have also suggested that most cereal-based fermented

TABLE 2.3 Mineral, vitamins, and amino acid composition of African cereal-based fermented products. Nutrient

Burukutu

Humulur

Injera

Kisra

Koko

Kunun-zaki

Mahewu

Tella

Umqombothi

Vitamins (μg/100 g) Ascorbic acid

0.05
0.15













12910
18770










β-carotene

0.49
1.89

























Folate







29













0.09
0.094

0.01
0.20

Niacin







1711







45
117




10
50

0.01
0.02

Retinol

0.54
1.21

























Riboflavin







76







35
56










Thiamine







174







69
105







0.003
0.006

Vitamin B6







143
















0.0003
0.001

Vitamin E







80



















Vitamin K







1.7



















Minerals (mg/100 g) Ca

0.79
3.96

8.08
35.23

13

53.42

3.59
71.70

280
480

9.70
24.62

9/0
9.4

2220.0
3043.8

Mg

16.22
25.14




64

105.23

6.40
65.43

34.9
63.7

51.25
124.57

5.9
6.1

10599.4
11704.8

Mn

1.60
4.71













1.20
1.70

1.00




111.1
124.0

P




158.30
161.40




105.27




150
270

117.50




12641.7
21006.6

Fe

1.14
4.17

32.80
77.72

1.03

4.16

1.37
12.77

9.3
18.6

0.80
2.42




359.6
440.9

Zinc







0.85

2.64







1.61
2.84




173.3
221.1

K

45.21
84.81

724.07
868.82

152

62.25

140.2
148.9

179.83
316.92

8.2
10

25845.5
29938.4

Na

1.02
1.58

229

0.078

22.1
23.5

29.10
39.05

2.0
2.3

562
683.3

Amino acids (g/100 g) Alanine




8.19
9.45




6.65




10.69
32.63

0.50




0.64
0.67

Arginine




2.77
4.24




2.55




8.5
22.13

0.36




0.37
0.40

Aspartic acid




7.23
7.52




3.41




19.44
55.25

0.22




0.53
0.56

Cystine




1.38
1.58




0.34




0.36
9.06

N-







Glutamic acid




18.62
20.48




17.68




28.06
72.88

0.82




1.54
1.62

Glycine




3.62
3.76




0.71




11.38
28.81

0.22




0.27
0.29

Histidine




2.55
2.67




1.87




2.75
20.88

0.22




0.42
0.51

Isoleucine




3.94
4.12




3.59




3.88
15.38

0.30




0.31
0.32

Leucine




11.38
12.36




5.97




8.75
28.13

0.95




1.02
1.07

Lysine




2.26
2.91




1.05




7.63
37.75

0.28




0.18

Methionine




1.38
1.70




0.63




3.25
9.50

0.91




0.12
0.15

Phenylalanine




5.74
6.30




3.81




7.38
31.31

0.43




0.40
0.44

Proline




7.45
8.12




12.66




4.63
19.94

0.57




0.68
0.74

Serine




3.62
4.61




2.68




8.38
27.63

0.33




0.37
0.39

Threonine




2.98
3.64




2.75




5.75
28.63

0.21




0.29
0.30

Tryptophan










0.96




7.44
32.69










Tyrosine




4.79
5.45




2.19




2.49
3.07

0.18




0.29
0.30

Valine




5.00
5.82




5.37




6.25
15.69

0.83




0.41
0.45

Reference

Ogbonna et al. (2016)

Mariod et al. (2016)

Neela and Fanta (2020)

Abdualrahman et al. (2019)

Soro-Yao et al. (2014a)

Terna et al. (2002), Nkama et al. (2010), Olufunke and Oluremi (2015), Olaoye et al. (2016)

Idowu et al. (2016), Qaku et al. (2020)

Tekle et al. (2019)

Hlangwani et al. (2021)

Ca, calcium; Fe, iron; K, potassium; Mg, magnesium; Mn, manganese; Na, sodium; P, phosphate; Zn, zinc.

26

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

beverages have anti-inflammatory, anti-diarrheal, antibacterial, anti-tumor, anti-spasmodic, anti-malarial, anti-hemorrhoid, and antioxidative properties (Adebo et al., 2018b; Hossain & Rahman, 2019; Nyanzi & Jooste, 2012; Todorov & Holzapfel, 2015). In developing countries such as Sudan, where cereal-based fermented foods are an integral part of the human diet, researchers are exploring sustainable ways of fortifying and commercializing products (Salim et al., 2017; Sanlier ¸ et al., 2019). Across the continent, African cereal-based fermented products are still traditionally believed to have both preventive and curative properties for many known diseases, with some of these beneficial effects summarized in Table 2.4. As a result, cereal-based fermented foods continue to play a major role in the recommended daily intake of nutrients and folklore medicinal preparations (Lues et al., 2009; Wedajo Lemi, 2020). The occurrence of healthpromoting components and their bioactivity make African cereal-based fermented foods and beverages worthy to be recommended for regular consumption and inclusion in worldwide dietary guidelines (Melini et al., 2019). Recent studies have established fermentation as an effective way of introducing prebiotics and probiotics into the gastrointestinal tract for additional nutritional and health characteristics (Diaz et al., 2019; Sanlier ¸ et al., 2019; Selhub et al., 2014). Rezac et al. (2018) proposed the consumption of fermented food products containing live microorganisms as a dietary strategy to improve human health by providing necessary macronutrients. Even without live microorganisms, consumption of cereal-based fermented products may still impart health benefits to the gut (Rezac et al., 2018). Abdominal symptoms associated with the ingestion of fermentable oligo-, di-, monosaccharides, and polyols (FODMAPs) in people suffering from irritable bowel syndrome can be curbed by the intake of fermented foods and beverages (C ¸ abuk et al., 2018; Fraberger et al., 2018; Menezes et al., 2018). For example, the consumption of cereal-based fermented beverages aids the digestive system in food assimilation and producing B-group vitamins, which are important co-factors involved in crucial metabolic processes in the human body (Kennedy, 2016; Tsafrakidou et al., 2020). LAB produces lactic acid, which reduces flatulence and abdominal distension caused by certain oligosaccharides such as raffinose, stachyose, and verbascose (Nout & Sarkar, 1999). While LAB reduces ANFs, they sequentially increase protein efficiency ratio and bioavailability of minerals and starch. These health benefits have revived the interest of Western countries in fermented foods (Melini et al., 2019). Although few of these health benefits have been highlighted (Table 2.4), further research studies and clinical trials on the effects of these products on different groups across the continent are needed to further substantiate their health-promoting and therapeutic properties. The benefits of African-based fermented products are shown in Table 2.4.

2.5

Microbiota of African-based cereal fermented products

Owing to the complexity of microbial populations in many of these cereal-fermented products, their microbiology has not been fully studied, and thus, a full understanding of their mechanisms is yet to be deciphered. However, the natural fermentation of these products yields mixed cultures of yeasts, bacteria, and fungi. The microorganisms are part of the endogenous microbiota of the substrate and only come to bear during the fermentation process. With a dynamic microbiota during the fermentation process, some microorganisms may participate sequentially, while others may participate in parallel (Blandino et al., 2003). The yeast and bacteria have a symbiotic relationship, whereby the yeast provides growth factors to promote the growth of bacteria, and the acidic environment provided by the bacteria favours yeast multiplication (Faria-Oliveira et al., 2015; Ponomarova et al., 2017). Such processes followed during spontaneous fermentation are slightly different from starter culture-based fermentation. The composition of the food matrix, pH, salt concentration, temperature, and water activity determine the type of bacterial flora developed in each African cereal-based fermented product. LAB is responsible for mediating the fermentation process for most fermented foods in Africa and other parts of the world (Blandino et al., 2003). For a wide range of cerealbased fermented products, lactic acid fermentation contributes to the product’s nutritional value, shelf life, and safety (Phiri et al., 2019a). LAB dominates the succession of naturally occurring microbial populations in cereal processing, resulting in the generation of fermentable sugars used as sources of energy for the LAB (Abegaz, 2007; Lipta´kova´ et al., 2017). LAB produces antibiotics, hydrogen peroxide, and organic acids that impart antibiosis properties (Vieco-Saiz et al., 2019). The hydrogen peroxide produced through the oxidation of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide by flavin nucleotides can rapidly react with oxygen, thus can inhibit the growth of some microorganisms (Setta et al., 2020; Voidarou et al., 2021). African cereal-based fermented products contain a mixture/cocktail of microorganisms as their fermentation processes are carried out spontaneously (Atter et al., 2021; Fernandesa et al., 2018; Soro-Yao et al., 2014b). The first stage of spontaneous fermentation involves lactic acid fermentation induced by different microorganisms, followed by alcoholic fermentation carried out by a portion of previous brew or dried yeast (Katongole, 2008; Phiri, 2019b). These foods are predominated by LAB more abundantly than other microorganisms such as yeasts (Table 2.5). Predominant LAB

African cereal-based fermented products Chapter | 2

27

TABLE 2.4 Health-promoting compounds of African cereal-based products. Active compound

Role/benefit

References

Carbohydrates

Stimulates the growth of probiotics (Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Lactobacilli, and Bifidobacterium); exert prebiotics effects; resistant starch lowers blood sugar levels and controls appetite

Achi and Ukwuru (2015), Laskowski et al. (2019), Tsafrakidou et al. (2020)

Protein

Resulting bioactive peptides exert antioxidant activity and confer antihypertensive propertiesAntihyperglycemic

Melini et al. (2019), Verni et al. (2019), Makbul et al. (2020)

Fiber

Reduces the risk of all-cause and cardiovascular-related mortality; decreases the risk of diet-related non-communicable diseases (DRNCD)Betters glycaemic control in type-1 diabetes patients; reduces the risk of type-2 diabetes

McKevith (2004), Achi and Ukwuru (2015), Laskowski et al. (2019)

β-carotene

Possesses antioxidant activity; when consumed daily, significantly reduces the risk of lung cancer

¨ zer and Achi and Ukwuru (2015), O Yazici (2019), Adebo (2020)

Retinol

Anti-inflammatory; antiseptic

Ignat et al. (2020), Makbul et al. (2020)

Thiamine

Improves digestion; stimulates the immune system

Ignat et al. (2020)

Riboflavin

Anti-hypertensive activity

Melini et al. (2019)

Niacin

Neuroprotective; anti-fatigue; anti-hyperlipidaemic

Makbul et al. (2020)

Vitamin B6

Co-factor in some metabolic reactions

Nyanzi and Jooste (2012)

Folate

Lowers the risk of neural tube defects; exert antioxidant activity; protects against cardiovascular disease and some cancers

Nyanzi and Jooste (2012), Laskowski et al. (2019), Melini et al. (2019)

Glutamic acid

Involved in secretory activities, proper immune function, lymphocyte proliferation, and cytokine production; anti-inflammatory agent

Hlangwani et al. (2021)

Vitamin E

Possesses the potential for reducing risk factors for coronary heart disease; possesses skin-enhancing action

Ignat et al. (2020), Makbul et al. (2020)

Vitamin K

Anti-hypertensive activity

Melini et al. (2019)

Leucine

Essential component of protein synthesis and ATP generation

Duan et al. (2016), Norton and Layman (2006)

Calcium

Cofactor for numerous enzymes; a messenger in signaling reactions

Zoroddu et al. (2019)

Potassium

Contributes significantly to osmolality

Zoroddu et al. (2019)

Sodium

A major component of the sodium/potassium-ATPase pump; regulates the total amount of water in the body

Zoroddu et al. (2019)

Magnesium

A vital cofactor in multiple metabolic enzymes

Zoroddu et al. (2019)

Manganese

Plays a role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, amino acids, and cholesterol

Laskowski et al. (2019)

Iron

A core element in the synthesis of hemoglobin, myoglobin, and hem enzymes vital for immune defense, thyroid function, and energy production; protects women against iron deficiency

Mandishona et al. (1999), Kayode´ (2006), Choma et al. (2007), Zoroddu et al. (2019)

Zinc

Plays a role in gene expression regulation; participates in the synthesis and degradation of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids

Kayode´ (2006), Laskowski et al. (2019)

Copper

Protects against oxidative stress; involved in energy and iron metabolism, neurotransmitter synthesis, and metabolism

Laskowski et al. (2019)

Vitamins

Minerals

28

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

TABLE 2.5 Microbiota of selected African cereal-based fermented food and beverage products. Product

Microorganisms responsible for fermentation

References

Agidi

Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Pediococcus spp.; Aspergillus flavus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida krusei

Adegbehingbe et al. (2019)

Ben-saalga

Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus paraplantarum, Lactobacillus salivarius, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Lactobacillus amylolyticus, Lactobacillus reuteri, L. paraplantarum, Lactococcus lactis, L. mesenteroides, Pediococcus acidilactici, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Streptococcus gallolyticus and Weissella confusa spp.

Turpin et al. (2013), Soro-Yao et al. (2014b)

Brukina

Lactobacillus spp., Streptococcus spp.

Boakye et al. (2020)

Bushera

Streptococcus spp., Weissella spp., Lactobacillus spp., Leuconostoc spp., Lactococcus spp., Pichia spp., S. cerevisiae, C. krusei

Mukisa et al. (2012)

Burukutu

S. cerevisiae, Aspergillus spp., Enterobacter aerogenes, Mucor spp., L. lactis, Lactobacillus brevis, L. plantarum, L. fermentum and L. acidophilus

Ire et al. (2020)

Dolo

L. fermentum, L. delbrueckii, P. acidilactici, S. cerevisiae, Candida kefyr, Candida krusei, Candida lusitaniae, Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis

Sawadogo-Lingani et al. (2007), Sanata et al. (2017)

Gowe´

L. fermentum, Lactobacillus mucosae, W. confusa, Weissella kimchii, P. acidilactici, P. pentosaceus, Clavispora lusitaniae, C. krusei, C. tropicalis, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Pichia anomala

Vieira-Dalode´ et al. (2007), Greppi et al. (2013)

Ikigage

S. cerevisae, Candida inconspicua, Candida magnolia, Candida humilis, Issatchenkia orientalis, L. fermentum, Lactobacillus buchneri, Aspergillus niger

Lyumugabe et al. (2010)

Injera

Pichia fermentans, Pichia norvegensis, Pichia occidentalis, C. humilis, C. tropicalis, Saccharomyces exiguous, S. cerevisiae, Kazachstania bulderi, P. pentosaceus, P. acidilactici, L. fermentum, Lactococcus piscium, Lactococcus raffinolactis, L. plantarum, L. mesenteriodes subsp. dextranicum, L. mesenteroides, Enterococcus cassiiflavus

Neela and Fanta (2020)

Kisra

L. fermentum, L. reuteri, L. confuses, L. brevis, Pediococcus pentosaceus, Enterococcus faecium, Rhizopus arrhizus, Gibberella fujikuroi, Lasiodiplodia theobromae, Aspergillus cibarius, and A. flavus

Eltayeb et al. (2020)

Koko

L. fermentum, L. salivarius, L. paraplantarum, Weisella confusa, Pediococcus pentocaseus, P. acidilactici

Lei and Jakobsen (2004)

Kunun-zaki

Lactobacillus fermenturn, L. plantarum, Lactobacillus leichmannii, Bacillus subtilis, Enferobacfer aerogenes, Enferobacfer cloacae, S. cerevisiae, Streptococcus faecium, L. lactis, Micrococcus acidiophilis, Apergillus niger

Efiuvwevwere and Akona (1995), Amusa and Ashaye (2009)

Mahewu

Lactobacillus casei, L. fermentum, L. plantarum, Lactobacillus rossiae, L. lactis, Leuconostoc holzapfelii, Pediococcus, W. confusa, Weissella cibariac, S. cerevisiae, Saccharomyces pombe, C. krusei, Candida glabrata

Idowu et al. (2016), Fadahunsi and Soremekun (2017), Pswarayi and Ga¨nzle (2019)

Ting

L. casei, Lactobacillus coryniformis, Lactobacillus curvatus, L. fermentum, Lactobacillus harbinensis, Lactobacillus parabuchneri, L. plantarum, L. reuteri, Lactobacillus rhamnosus

Adebo (2020)

Tella

Acetobacter xylinum, Lactobacillus pastorianum, Saccharomyces cerevisieae, Saccharomyces carlsbergensis

Tekle et al. (2019)

Umqombothi

P. anomala, P. fermentans, Endomycopsis fibuligera, Kloeckera apiculata, S. cerevisiae, K. marxianus, C. krusei and C. tropicalis

Hlangwani et al. (2020)

African cereal-based fermented products Chapter | 2

29

present in cereal-based fermented foods includes Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus casei, Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Lactobacillus sakei, Lactococcus raffinolactis, Lactococcus lactis, Leuconostoc mesenteroides (Table 2.5). Owing to the abundance of LAB, lactic acid fermentation often proceeds during the preparation of different cereal-based fermented foods made from raw materials of plant and animal origin (Lu¨beck & Lu¨beck, 2019; Nout & Sarkar, 1999). Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida krusei, and Candida tropicalis are predominant yeasts isolated from numerous African cereal-based fermented products (Table 2.5). The microbiota of some African cereal-based products is shown in Table 2.5. LAB contributes to the production of organic acids, other antimicrobial compounds, and mitigates against susceptible bacterial pathogens. In particular, Enterococcus faecium and Lactobacillus species isolated from various African fermented foods such as kenkey, ogi, and brukina were found to produce bacteriocins (Nout & Sarkar, 1999; Olasupo et al., 1994; Tawiah, 2016). In a follow-up study involving the experimental fermentation of maize dough, Olasupo et al. (1997) reported the inhibitory effect of bacteriocin produced by Lactobacillus casei strain 012 on the enterotoxigenic strain of Escherichia coli. Leuconostoc, Streptococcus, Lactobacillus, Bifidobacterium, Lactococcus, Enterococcus are the dominant genera of LAB with probiotic properties (Bintsis, 2018; Fijan, 2014). For these probiotic microorganisms to impart health benefits and maintain a healthy intestinal microbiota, they are recommended to be adequately and regularly ingested to a threshold value of 106 CFU/mL per serving (Setta et al., 2020). While most of these studies have adopted traditional culture-dependent approaches in studying the microbiota of these products, there is a need to adopt better and more robust techniques such as metagenomics to further provide insights into the plethora of microorganisms present in them (details are provided in chapter 22).

2.6

Conclusion and future directions

African cereal-based fermented products have continued to be an important part of the staple diet of many people across the continent. Fermentation of cereal-based foods and beverages remains mainly a home-based activity in many African countries and over the years, as only a handful of products have been commercialized. Consumption of cereal-based fermented foods of African origin has potential nutritional and nutraceutical benefits to consumers, providing them with important food constituents for healthy living. Comprehensive knowledge of the microbiota involved in the fermentation of these foods is in their preliminary stage. Hence, high-precision equipment and validation methods are required for their analyses. African cereal-based fermented products have appeared mostly in the local markets of their respective countries, and this necessitates adequate efforts geared toward the development of standardized processes for their commercialization, using starter cultures to aid fermentation and upscaling of African cereal-based fermented food products. There is also the need to provide appropriate packaging technologies for prolonged shelf extension during distribution and marketing.

Acknowledgments This work was supported by the University of Johannesburg (UJ) Global Excellence and Stature (GES) Masters’ Fellowship; National Research Foundation (NRF) of South Africa Scarce Skills Fellowship (Grant number: 120751); NRF Thuthuka Grant (Grant number: 121826), UJ-GES 4.0 Catalytic Initiative Grant and UJ Research Committee Grant.

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83. Adebiyi, J. A., Obadina, A. O., Adebo, O. A., & Kayitesi, E. (2017). Comparison of nutritional quality and sensory acceptability of biscuits obtained from native, fermented, and malted pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) flour. Food Chemistry, 232, 210
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347). Cham: Springer. Available from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-24903-8_11. Petrovici, A. R., & Ciolacu, D. E. (2018). Natural flavours obtained by microbiological pathway. In A. Vilela (Ed.), Generation of aromas and flavours. London: IntechOpen. Available from http://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.76785. Peyer, L. C., Zannini, E., & Arendt, E. K. (2016). Lactic acid bacteria as sensory biomodulators for fermented cereal-based beverages. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 54, 17
25. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2016.05.009. Phiri, S., Schoustra, S. E., van den Heuvel, J., Smid, E. J., Shindano, J., & Linnemann, A. (2019a). Fermented cereal-based Munkoyo beverage: Processing practices, microbial diversity and aroma compounds. PLoS One, 14(10), e0223501. Available from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0223501. Phiri, S. (2019b). Spontaneous fermentation of Munkoyo: A cereal-based beverage in Zambia (Doctoral dissertation, Wageningen, Gelderland: Wageningen University). Available from https://library.wur.nl/WebQuery/wurpubs/554942. Ponomarova, O., Gabrielli, N., Se´vin, D. C., Mu¨lleder, M., Zirngibl, K., Bulyha, K., Andrejev, S., Kafkia, E., Typas, A., Sauer, U., & Ralser, M. (2017). Yeast creates a niche for symbiotic lactic acid bacteria through nitrogen overflow. Cell Systems, 5(4), 345
357. Price, R., & Welch, R. (2013). Cereal grains. In B. Caballero (Ed.), Encyclopedia of human nutrition (pp. 307
316). Massachusetts: Academic Press. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-375083-9.00047-7. Pswarayi, F., & Ga¨nzle, M. G. (2019). Composition and origin of the fermentation microbiota of mahewu, a Zimbabwean fermented cereal beverage. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 85(11), e03130
18. Available from https://doi.org/10.1128/AEM.03130-18. Qaku, X. W., Adetunji, A., & Dlamini, B. C. (2020). Fermentability and nutritional characteristics of sorghum Mahewu supplemented with Bambara groundnut. Journal of Food Science, 85(6), 1661
1667. Available from https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.15154. Raveendran, S., Parameswaran, B., Beevi Ummalyma, S., Abraham, A., Kuruvilla Mathew, A., Madhavan, A., Rebello, S., & Pandey, A. (2018). Applications of microbial enzymes in food industry. Food Technology and Biotechnology, 56(1), 16
30. Available from https://doi.org/10.17113/ ftb.56.01.18.5491. Rezac, S., Kok, C. R., Heermann, M., & Hutkins, R. (2018). Fermented foods as a dietary source of live organisms. Frontiers in Microbiology, 9, 1785. Available from https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2018.01785. Salim, E. R. A., El Aziz Ahmed, W. A., & Mohamed, M. A. (2017). Fortified sorghum as a potential for food security in rural areas by adaptation of technology and innovation in Sudan. Journal of Food Nutrition and Population Health, 1, 1
6. Samtiya, M., Aluko, R. E., Puniya, A. K., & Dhewa, T. (2021). Enhancing micronutrients bioavailability through fermentation of plant-based foods: A concise review. Fermentation, 7(2), 63. Available from https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation7020063. Samuel, F. O., Ishola, O. R., & Otegbayo, B. O. (2015). Nutritional and sensory evaluation of rice-based masa enriched with soybean and crayfish. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 6(2), 234. Available from https://doi.org/10.4236/fns.2015.62024. Sanata, B., Adama, Z., Ibrahim, S., Apoline, S., Mamoudou, C., Constant, S., Robert, G. T., & Christophe, H. (2017). Characterization of the fungal flora of dolo, a traditional fermented beverage of Burkina Faso, using MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 33(9), 1
5. Available from https://doi.org/10.1007/s11274-017-2335-1. Sanlier, ¸ N., Go¨kcen, B. B., & Sezgin, A. C. (2019). Health benefits of fermented foods. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 59(3), 506
527. Available from https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2017.1383355. Sawadogo-Lingani, H., Lei, V., Diawara, B., Nielsen, D. S., Møller, P. L., Traore´, A. S., & Jakobsen, M. (2007). The biodiversity of predominant lactic acid bacteria in dolo and pito wort for the production of sorghum beer. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 103(4), 765
777. Available from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03306.x. Selhub, E. M., Logan, A. C., & Bested, A. C. (2014). Fermented foods, microbiota, and mental health: Ancient practice meets nutritional psychiatry. Journal of Physiological Anthropology, 33(1), 1
12. Available from https://doi.org/10.1186/1880-6805-33-2.

African cereal-based fermented products Chapter | 2

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Setta, M. C., Matemu, A., & Mbega, E. R. (2020). Potential of probiotics from fermented cereal-based beverages in improving health of poor people in Africa. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 57, 3935
3946. Available from https://doi.org/10.1007/s13197-020-04432-3. Sharma, R., Garg, P., Kumar, P., Bhatia, S. K., & Kulshrestha, S. (2020). Microbial fermentation and its role in quality improvement of fermented foods. Fermentation, 6(4), 106. Available from https://doi.org/10.3390/fermentation6040106. Simatende, P., Gadaga, T. H., Nkambule, S. J., & Siwela, M. (2015). Methods of preparation of Swazi traditional fermented foods. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 2, 119
125. Soro-Yao, A. A., Brou, K., Kousse´mon, M., & Dje`, K. M. (2014a). Proximate composition and microbiological quality of millet gruels sold in Abidjan (Coˆte d’Ivoire). International Journal of Agriculture Innovations and Research, 2, 472
479. Soro-Yao, A. A., Kouakou Brou, G. A., Thonart, P., & Dje`, K. M. (2014b). The use of lactic acid bacteria starter cultures during the processing of fermented cereal-based foods in West Africa: A review. Tropical Life Sciences Research, 25(2), 81
100. Suleiman, A. M. E., Mustafa, W. A., & Osman, O. A. (2022). Selected fermented cereal products of Sudan. In A. M. E Suleiman, & A. A Mariod (Eds.), African fermented food products—New trends (pp. 293
312). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Suri, D. J., Tano-Debrah, K., & Ghosh, S. A. (2014). Optimization of the nutrient content and protein quality of cereal—Legume blends for use as complementary foods in Ghana. Food and Nutrition Bulletin, 35(3), 372
381. Available from https://doi.org/10.1177/156482651403500309. Tamang, J. P., Shin, D. H., Jung, S. J., & Chae, S. W. (2016). Functional properties of microorganisms in fermented foods. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 578. Available from https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2016.00578. Tawiah, X. U. (2016). Microbiological and proximate composition of “burkina” drink. A case study in Accra (MSc Thesis, Kumasi, Ghana: Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology). Available from http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/9345. Tekle, B., Jabasingh, S. A., Fantaw, D., Gebreslassie, T., Rao, S. R. M., Baraki, H., & Gebregziabher, K. (2019). An insight into the Ethiopian traditional alcoholic beverage: Tella processing, fermentation kinetics, microbial profiling and nutrient analysis. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 107, 9
15. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lwt.2019.02.080. Terefe, N. (2016). Emerging trends and opportunities in food fermentation. Reference Module in Food Science. Available from https://doi.org/ 10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.21087-1. Terna, G., Jideani, I. A., & Nkama, I. (2002). Nutrient and sensory qualities of kunun zaki from different saccharification agents. International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition, 53(2), 109
115. Available from https://doi.org/10.1080/09637480220132120. Todorov, S. D., & Holzapfel, W. H. (2015). Traditional cereal fermented foods as sources of functional microorganisms. In W. Holzapfel (Ed.), Advances in fermented foods and beverages (pp. 123
153). Sawston: Woodhead Publishing. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-178242-015-6.00006-2. Tsafrakidou, P., Michaelidou, A. M., & Biliaderis, C. G. (2020). Fermented cereal-based products: Nutritional aspects, possible impact on gut microbiota and health implications. Foods, 9(6), 734. Available from https://doi.org/10.3390/foods9060734. Turpin, W., Humblot, C., Noordine, M. L., Wrzosek, L., Tomas, J., Mayeur, C., Cherbuy, C., Guyot, J. P., & Thomas, M. (2013). Behavior of lactobacilli isolated from fermented slurry (ben-saalga) in gnotobiotic rats. PLoS One, 8(4), e57711. Available from https://doi.org/10.1371/journal. pone.0057711. Verni, M., Rizzello, C. G., & Coda, R. (2019). Fermentation biotechnology applied to cereal industry by-products: Nutritional and functional insights. Frontiers in Nutrition, 6, 42. Available from https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2019.00042. Vieco-Saiz, N., Belguesmia, Y., Raspoet, R., Auclair, E., Gancel, F., Kempf, I., & Drider, D. (2019). Benefits and inputs from lactic acid bacteria and their bacteriocins as alternatives to antibiotic growth promoters during food-animal production. Frontiers in Microbiology, 10, 57. Available from https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2019.00057. Vieira-Dalode´, G., Jespersen, L., Hounhouigan, J., Moller, P. L., Nago, C. M., & Jakobsen, M. (2007). Lactic acid bacteria and yeasts associated with gowe´ production from sorghum in Be´nin. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 103(2), 342
349. Available from https://doi.org/10.1111/j.13652672.2006.03252.x. Voidarou, C., Antoniadou, M, Rozos, G., Tzora, A., Skoufos, I., Varzakas, T., Lagiou, A., & Bezirtzoglou, E. (2021). Fermentative foods: Microbiology, biochemistry, potential human health benefits and public health issues. Foods, 10(1), 69. Available from https://doi.org/10.3390/ foods10010069. Wedajo Lemi, B. (2020). Microbiology of Ethiopian traditionally fermented beverages and condiments. International Journal of Microbiology. Available from https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/1478536. Worku, B. B., Gemede, H. F., & Woldegiorgis, A. Z. (2018). Nutritional and alcoholic contents of cheka: A traditional fermented beverage in Southwestern Ethiopia. Food Science and Nutrition, 6(8), 2466
2472. Available from https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.854. Zoroddu, M. A., Aaseth, J., Crisponi, G., Medici, S., Peana, M., & Nurchi, V. M. (2019). The essential metals for humans: A brief overview. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry, 195, 120
129. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2019.03.013.

Further reading Abriouel, H., Omar, N. B., Lo´pez, R. L., Martı´nez-Can˜amero, M., Keleke, S., & Ga´lvez, A. (2006). Culture-independent analysis of the microbial composition of the African traditional fermented foods poto poto and de´gue´ by using three different DNA extraction methods. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 111(3), 228
233. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2006.06.006. Achi, O. K., & Asamudo, N. U. (2019). Cereal-based fermented foods of Africa as functional foods. In J. M. Me´rillon, & K. Ramawat (Eds.), Bioactive molecules in food. Reference series in phytochemistry (pp. 1527
1558). Cham: Springer.

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

Eggum, B. O., Monowar, L., Knudsen, K. B., Munck, L., & Axtell, J. (1983). Nutritional quality of sorghum and sorghum foods from Sudan. Journal of Cereal Science, 1(2), 127
137. Available from https://doi.org/10.1016/S0733-5210(83)80030-7. Lyumugabe, F., Uyisenga, J. P., Songa, E. B., & Thonart, P. (2014). Production of traditional sorghum beer “Ikigage” using Saccharomyces cerevisae, Lactobacillus fermentum and Issatckenkia orientalis as starter cultures. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 5, 507
515. Available from https://doi.org/ 10.4236/fns.2014.56060. Mwambete, D. K., Justin-Temu, M., Mashurano, M., & Tenganamba, O. (2006). Microbial quality of traditional alcoholic beverages consumed in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. East and Central African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 9(1), 8
13. Available from https://doi.org/10.4314/ecajps. v9i1.9730. Pswarayi, F., & Ga¨nzle, M. (2022). African cereal fermentations: A review on fermentation processes and microbial composition of non-alcoholic fermented cereal foods and beverages. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 378, 109815.

Chapter 3

Asian fermented cereal-based products Folasade O. Adeboyejo1, Sogo J. Olatunde2, Ginalyn Anora Rustria3, Ava Nicole B. Azotea3, Jeffrey M. Ostonal3, Ma. Janesa A. Reyes3 and Samson Adeoye Oyeyinka3,4,5,6,T 1

Department of Food Technology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria, 2Department of Food Science, Ladoke Akintola University of Technology,

Ogbomoso, Nigeria, 3Department of Food Technology, College of Industrial Technology, Bicol University, Legazpi City, Albay, Philippines, 4

Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, University of Johannesburg, Doornfontein, Johannesburg, South Africa, 5Department of

Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Guildford, United Kingdom, 6Centre of Excellence in Agri-Food Technologies, National Centre for Food Manufacturing, University of Lincoln, Holbeach, United Kingdom TCorresponding author. e-mail address: [email protected]

3.1

Introduction

Cereal crops are members of the Gramineae family usually cultivated for their digestible constituents and a botanical structure that comprises the bran, endosperm, and germ. The globally prominent grain species in the cereal family include wheat, barley, oat, rye, maize, rice, millet, and sorghum, with wheat and rice being more dominant. Each of the cereal crops, although originating from different locations, is now extensively cultivated in a broad range of climatic settings. Cereals are considered as the most abundantly grown and consumed commodity globally. Cereals and cereal products are very popular staple diets in most countries of the world, providing more dietary energy than any other category of crop and are principal sources of essential macro and micronutrients (Sarwar et al., 2013). As reported by a Food and Agriculture Organization study (FAO, 2021a), cereals provide an estimated 51% of calories and 47% of the protein in an average human diet. The global production of cereals was estimated at 2710.7 million tons in 2019/2020 season (FAO, 2021b). Asia significantly influences the world cereal trade because production, imports and consumption are concentrated in this region. China alone accounts for about 20% of the global production of cereal in 2017. Advancements in biotechnology have further resulted in higher yields, which are proposed to increase production to around 3054 million metric tons by the year 2029 (OECD/FAO, 2020). Improvements in agricultural practices and the humid tropical and subtropical climate also favor the abundant cultivation of cereal crops, giving the Asian region a competitive cereal production advantage. Apart from demand for consumption as a major part of diets and for production of livestock feed, cereals are also utilized industrially as basic resources in the production of starch, biofuels, enzymes, biopesticides, and pharmaceutical, paper and textile industries (Coombs & Hall, 1997). They have been converted into a variety of intermediate and consumer products using different processing methods including baking, milling, canning, brewing, dehydration, fractionation, modification, and fermentation (Papageorgiou & Skendi, 2018). Fermentation is an ancient simple and cost-effective technique that is used in improving the shelf life of foods and increasing the digestibility of compound plant tissues. It also helps in removing toxic compounds, increasing economic value, and may also enhance the organoleptic attributes of foods. During the fermentation process, the constituent macro and micronutrients in the starting material as substrate are digested by microorganisms to produce diverse non-volatile and volatile compounds. The substrate is transformed into products with modified physical, chemical, and sensorial qualities (Terefe & Augustin, 2019). Higher alcohols isoamyl acetate, ethyl caproate, and phenethyl acetate, the main flavor components derived from the fermentation process, give accent to the flavor of sake, a Japanese rice wine (Yoshizawa, 1999). Furthermore, as is well established with fermented foods, cereal-based food, and beverages are no exception in being slightly stable compared to the unfermented beverage. This is particularly advantageous in localities where cold storage is not a feasible option for preservation (Mashau et al., 2020). The products’ stability has been attributed to a low pH as a result of derived organic acids such as lactic and acetic acids in the fermenting product (Oyeyinka et al., 2021). Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98341-9.00002-5 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

Traditional fermentation has cultural, spiritual, social, and medical importance apart from being significant for food and nutrition security in the Asian culture (McGovern et al., 2004). Fermented beverage production, viticulture, and winemaking are evidentially prehistoric practices in the Asian, middle and Far East regions (McGovern et al., 1996). Numerous products such as bread, porridges, beverages, pickles, snacks, and condiments have been derived from cereals, grains, legumes, fruits, vegetables, and meat fermentation for household consumption and as industrial products. These products may be categorized based on the type of fermentation, the type of source material, production location, and the intended use of the products (Anal, 2019). Culturally, cereals are fermented through the actions of inherent enzymes and/or typical microorganisms like bacteria, yeasts, and molds to produce significant modifications and desirable alterations to food quality. Complex fermentable sugars and starch structures in the cereals are efficiently converted to simple sugars, alcohols, lactic, acetic, and amino acids in alcoholic beverages such as wines, ciders, beers, beer-like beverages, and distilled alcoholic beverages. Metagenomics and bioinformatics are innovative biotechnologies that are now suitably applied to cereal fermentation and in the valorization of cereal by-products to provide novel industrial functional foods (Zhao et al., 2017). Remarkably, products of the fermentation process may thus serve as veritable vehicles for the transport of valuable live microbes with proven beneficial health effects when consumed. Products containing live strains of probiotic organisms and prebiotic attributes have shown proven benign effects on intestinal microbiota, human immunomodulation and ´ zewska, 2017). reduced risk of non-communicable type 2 diabetes, cancers, and fatty liver diseases (Markowiak & Sli˙ However, food safety concerns such as the production of toxic metabolites and risk of proliferation of pathogenic organisms that are associated with traditional fermentation value chains have necessitated the use of strictly selected precision starter cultures and substrates. This will help to achieve control for a more expanded, consistent, safe, and quality product range (Teng et al., 2021). Of the cereal crops, rice has more derived fermented products (Table 3.1) than any other in the Asian countries (Hossain & Kabir, 2016; Ekanayake, 2016; Karki et al., 2016, Dung & Phong, 2012; Kitamura et al., 2016). Examples include Atingba (India), Bhaati Jaanr (India/Nepal), Brem bali (Indonesia), Ewhajuu (Korea), Krachae (Thailand), Poko (Nepal), Sochu (Japan), Soju (Korea), and Tapai Pulut (Malaysia) which are all rice beverage products while Khanomjeen (Thailand) and Kichuddok (Korea) are fermented meals/cakes also from rice. These products have different organoleptic characteristics including texture and consistency (Fig. 3.1) and may contain varying levels of alcohol depending on the length of fermentation, the microorganisms involved, as well as the method of preparation which varies with the region where they are produced. For example, Sake´ produced from polished rice in Japan takes about 3 weeks for fermentation, while the same product called Sam-hae-ju in Korea takes about 5 weeks (Fig. 3.2). The variation in preparation method may be associated with the origin of the fermented food and processing techniques and to a large extent, influences the overall quality. In this chapter, an evaluation of the biochemistry, nutritional, functional, and therapeutic properties and the microbiota of Asian fermented cereal-based products is presented.

3.2

Biochemistry of Asian fermented cereal-based products

Biochemically, fermentation is a metabolic process wherein organic compounds are converted into energy in the absence of oxygen. It is exceptionally diverse because the different microorganisms involved have dissimilar mechanisms in converting glucose into energy. Fermented foods are produced using at least one of the four main methods of fermentation: acetic acid, alcoholic, alkali, and lactic acid fermentation. These achieve the desired end product quality through the action of functional microorganisms. For example, Acetobacter produces acetic acid from alcohol during acetic acid fermentation in the presence of oxygen (Blandino et al., 2003). Yeasts are the predominant microorganisms in alcohol fermentation, which contributes to ethanol production in alcoholic beverages such as beers and wines from cereals like corn, rice, and wheat (Blandino et al., 2003). Alkali fermentation occurs due to microorganisms’ ability, prominently Bacillus spp., to break down proteins into amino acids and ammonia (Parkouda et al., 2009). Finally, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are responsible for producing food products such as yogurt, sauerkraut, and fermented cereals. Fermented cereals are classified either according to the raw cereal ingredient used or the end product’s texture (Kohajdova´, 2017). Most of the fermented cereal-based foods and beverages in Asian countries are made from barley, corn, rice, and wheat. In terms of texture, fermented cereal foods could be in liquid, solid, or semi-solid forms and have different compositions which may vary with the starting raw material as well as the production method for Asian fermented cereal-based products are frequently in liquid forms, such as alcoholic beverages and gruels, while thein solid states, products include cakes, desserts, bread, colorant, noodles, and snacks (Table 3.1). Fermented rice-based products are known to have relatively high nutrient and energy content, as well as functional potentialities (Mohan et al., 2014). The alcoholic beverages from rice contain organic acids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and other nutritional components.

Asian fermented cereal-based products Chapter | 3

39

TABLE 3.1 A list of Asian fermented cereal-based products. Product

Cereal used

Product form

Country/region

References

Aarak

Millet, barley

Beverage

Bhutan, China, India

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Ang-kak

Finger millet

Colorant

China, Philippines, Taiwan, Thailand

Abdul Manan et al. (2017)

Atingba

Rice

Beverage

India

Jeyaram et al. (2008)

Baijiu

Sorghum

Beverage

China

Zheng et al. (2014); Liu and Sun (2018)

Bhaati jaaanr

Rice

Beverage

India, Nepal

Tamang and Thapa (2006)

Bhang-chyang

Maize-rice, barley

Beverage

India




Brem/Brem bali

Rice

Beverage

Indonesia

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Chyang/Chee

Barley, millet

Beverage

Bhutan, China, India, Nepal

Thapa and Tamang (2004)

Beverage

India

Erten and Tanguler (2012); Tamang et al. (2020)

Chulli Darassun

Millet

Beverage

Mongolia

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Daru

Cereals

Beverage

India




Duizou

Red rice

Beverage

India




Ewhajuu

Rice

Beverage

Korea




Jalebi

Wheat flour

Snack

India, Nepal Pakistan

Campbell-Platt (1987)

Khamak (Kaomak)

Rice

Dessert

Thailand




Khanomjeen

Rice

Meal, dish

Thailand




Kichuddok

Rice

Cake

Korea




Krachae

Rice

Beverage

Thailand

Uchimura et al. (1991); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Lao-chao

Rice

Dessert

China




Makgeolli

Rice

Beverage

China

Yonzan and Tamang (2010)

Nam khao

Rice

Beverage

Thailand




Poko

Rice

Beverage

Nepal

Shrestha et al. (2002)

Puto

Rice

Meal

Philippines

Steinkraus (1996)

Rabadi

Cereals, pulses

Gruel

India, Pakistan

Ramakrishnan (1979); Gupta et al. (1992a,b)

Ruou nep than

Purple rice

Beverage

Vietnam




Sake´

Rice

Beverage

Japan

Yonzan and Tamang (2010)

Sato

Rice

Beverage

Thailand




Selroti

Rice, wheat

Bread

Bhutan, India, Nepal

Yonzan and Tamang (2010); Tamang et al. (2012)

Shochu

Rice

Beverage

Japan




Soju

Rice

Beverage

Korea


(Continued )

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

TABLE 3.1 (Continued) Product

Cereal used

Product form

Country/region

References

Takju

Rice, wheat, barley, maize

Beverage

Korea

Kim (1968); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Tapai pulut

Rice

Dessert

Malaysia

Chiang et al. (2006)

Tape Ketan

Glutinous rice, wheat, millet, maize

Dessert

Indonesia

Steinkraus (1996)

Tapuy

Rice

Beverage

Philippines

Erten and Tanguler (2012)

Tien-chiuniang

Rice

Beverage

China, Taiwan




Yakju

Rice, wheat

Beverage

Korea

Jung et al. (2012)

FIGURE 3.1 Images of selected Asian fermented cereal-based products. (A) Aarak; (B) Blem; (C) Chyang; (D) Ewhajuu; (E) Lao-chao; (F) Puto; (G) Rabadi; (H) Selroti; (I) Tapai pulut (Google images: hyperlinks inserted).

Asian fermented cereal-based products Chapter | 3

Polished rice powder (4 parts) Wheat flour (1/2 part) Water (8 part)

FIGURE 3.2 Flowcharts for (A) Korean samhaeju and (B) Japanese sake production (Lee, 2001; Rhee et al., 2011).

Polished rice Wash and steep

Boil to make gruel and cool

Add nuruk powder (1 part)

Ferment for 12 days (mother brew)

Add 12 parts of cooked rice cake

Ferment for 12 days (2nd brew)

Add 16 parts of steamed rice

Ferment for 12 days (3rd brew)

Put in a sack and press

Clear liquid

Filter cake

41

Steam

Cool

Steamed rice

Spore of Asp. Oryzae Ferment

Koji

Main mash

Yeast seed mash

Water

Main fermentation (ca. 3 weeks)

Filter

Filter cake Sam-hae-ju (Korea)

Sake (Japan)

(A)

(B)

They also have health-promoting benefits such as anti-diabetes, anti-hypertensive, antioxidant, and anti-cancer activities (Pakuwal & Manandhar, 2020). Further details of the health-promoting properties of these categories of foods will be discussed later (Section 3.4). Rice wine is among the most popular alcoholic beverages consumed in Asia due to its socio-cultural relevance and consumer acceptance. Rice wines are given local names in different regions depending on the raw materials used and the production process (Chay et al., 2018). While raw materials and methods vary per location, there is a general procedure in making rice-based beverages. At first, rice grains undergo pre-treatments such as washing, grinding, soaking, and boiling (Ray et al., 2016; Ray & Montet, 2017). The cooked rice is then air-dried under sunlight and mixed with starter powder. Finally, the rice-starter mixture is placed in an earthen pot or mounded on the leaf surface to allow the growth of amylolytic molds (Law et al., 2011). This allows the commencement of saccharification and liquefaction of rice, thus creating an anaerobic environment to favor the development of LAB and Bifidobacterium (Ray et al., 2016). Alcoholic fermentation proceeds in the presence of ethanol-producing yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds are intently grown in fermented foods, spontaneously, or using starter cultures. In many Asian countries, dry mixed starters are traditionally used in the fermentation of alcoholic beverages. Generally, three types of amylolytic mixed inocula are used as starters to convert cereal starch to sugars and, subsequently, to alcohol and organic acids (Tamang & Fleet, 2009). The first type is the dry mixed culture which makes use of rice or wheat as the base. These are dried, flattened, or shaped in rounded balls of different sizes, and are mixed with a group of mycelial or filamentous molds, amylolytic and alcohol-producing yeasts, and LAB. This mixed flora is later used to make either alcohol or fermented foods from starchy materials after development and drying (Tamang, 2010). Among the rice and other cereal-based starters in Asia are bubod in the Philippines, chiu/chu in China and Taiwan, loogpang in Thailand, men in Vietnam, marcha in India and Nepal, nuruk in Korea, and ragi in Indonesia (Tamang et al., 2012).

42

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

Another type of amylolytic mixed starter is the koji. It consists of the molds Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus sojae and is used to produce alcoholic beverages in Japan such as sake´. It also has amylases that convert starch to fermentable sugars and make non-alcoholic fermented soybean products called miso and shoyu. The third and last type, which is mainly used in China, is made from whole wheat flour moistened and made into large compact cakes. These are incubated in culture yeasts and filamentous molds and are later used to ferment starchy material to produce alcohol (Tamang et al., 2012). Rice must undergo lactic acid and alcoholic fermentation to produce alcoholic beverages. The former, as previously mentioned, is due to LABs, which are either homo- or hetero-fermentative. Homo-fermenters like Lactococcus, Pediococcus, Streptococcus, and some lactobacilli strains have only one fermentation product: the lactic acid (Kohajdova´, 2017). On the other hand, fermentation of glucose by hetero fermenters such as Weisella, Leuconostoc, and other lactobacilli ends with two or more products such as carbon dioxide, lactates, and ethanol (Blandino et al., 2003). The entire fermentation process involves synergistic activities of symbiotic aerobes and anaerobes, resulting in products possessing distinct flavors and aroma, essential amino acids, vitamins, and minerals (Ghosh et al., 2014). Furthermore, besides preventing the growth of pathogens (Ray et al., 2016), enzymes and metabolites produced during fermentation enhance the nutritional quality of the food upon degradation of anti-nutritional factors (e.g., tannin, phytic acids, and polyphenols) and improvement of nutrient uptake and absorption (Karoviˇcova´ & Kohajdova´, 2018), furthering the healing properties, as well as nutrition and energy contents of the product (Mohan et al., 2014).

3.3

Nutritional composition and functionality of Asian fermented cereal-based products

Fermentation has a beneficial role in the improvement of the quality of cereals (Chavan et al., 1989; Blandino et al., 2003). Specifically, it offers the simplest and most economical way of improving the nutritional value and utilization of cereal-based foods (Simango, 1997) by the biological enrichment of food substrates with essential nutrients (Egounlety, 2002). Fermentation involves the chemical changes in foods hastened by microbial enzymes resulting in various fermented products from cereals (Nyanzi & Jooste, 2012; Adebayo et al., 2013). Hence, the nutritional value of cereals is improved through metabolic breakdown and synthesis of essential nutrients during fermentation (Potter & Hotchkiss, 1998). The digestibility and content of essential nutrients determine the nutritional value of a food (Ray & Didier, 2015). The nutritional quality is also affected by the improvement of the nutrient density and increase in the amount and bioavailability of nutrients (Karoviˇcova´ & Kohajdova´, 2005, 2018). The latter can be achieved through the degradation of anti-nutritional factors, partial digestion of specific components of food, and synthesis of promoters for absorption during fermentation (Karoviˇcova´ & Kohajdova´, 2018). Enzymatic activity of microbial culture in cereal-based fermentation, may predigest the macronutrients such as protein and carbohydrates and aid in synthesizing essential nutrients (Nout & Ngoddy, 1997). Lactic acid fermentation is primarily fueled by carbohydrates, particularly starch, and soluble sugars. Therefore, during the fermentation of cereals, it is expected that there would be significant degradation and decrease in starch content as a result of the microbial utilization of released sugars as a ready source of energy (Chavan et al., 1989). On the other hand, the proteins are degraded into simple proteins, peptides, and amino acids by the proteolytic activity of the bacteria. By boosting essential amino acids like lysine, methionine, and tryptophan, this activity improves the protein composition of fermented grain products (Adams, 1990). This is due to a loss in dry matter, primarily carbohydrates, as well as metabolic reactions like transamination (Chavan et al., 1989). Various fermented foods from cereals are prepared and consumed in Asia as beverages, snacks, meals, and desserts. The proximate composition of some of the Asian fermented cereal-based products is shown in Table 3.2. Fermented cereal products are considered nutritious and a good source of energy (Tamang & Sarkar, 1993). Very limited studies have reported the nutritional value of Asian fermented cereal-based products (Table 3.2), but in general carbohydrates (1.2%
91.3%) are the major components of these products, while ash (0.1%
5.1%) and protein (0.6%
21.2%) are generally low when compared to the carbohydrates. The high carbohydrate content of the Asian fermented cereal-based products is expected since the starting cereal materials are high in carbohydrates. Future studies may be required to enrich these fermented cereal-based products with protein-rich grains for improvement in nutritional quality. Previous studies found significant improvement in the protein content of gruel from African fermented cereals enriched with soybean (Adelekan & Oyewole, 2010; Akanbi et al., 2010; Oluwamukomi et al., 2005). Bambara groundnut (Awobusuyi & Siwela, 2019) or Moringa olefeira leaf powder (Olusanya et al., 2020). The enrichment process may be deployed in Asian countries to provide variety and diversities in the diet with enhanced nutrition. The possibility of exploring other cereals that are rich in protein in the production of Asian fermented cereals is also an option in the future. In addition, with the progress made in biotechnology and breeding, newly-bred cereals with better nutrients may be used in future studies. Other fermentation products of cereals include acids and alcohol, which are flavor compounds and food

Asian fermented cereal-based products Chapter | 3

43

TABLE 3.2 Proximate composition of Asian fermented cereal-based products (%). Product

Ash

Carbohydrate

Energy

Moisture

Protein

References

Aarak



















Ang-kak

0.84

67.37

456.22

7.30

21.22

Abdul Manan et al. (2017)

Atingba
















Baijiu



















Bhaati jaaanr

1.7

86.9

404.1

83.4

9.5

Tamang and Thapa (2006)

Bhang-chyang



















Brem/Brem bali



















Chyang/Chee

5.1

83.7

398.0

69.7

9.3

Thapa and Tamang (2004)

Chulli



















Darassun



















Daru



















Duizou



















Ewhajuu



















Jalebi

2
3

2
4

460
480

32
38

4
7

Campbell-Platt (1987)

Khamak (Kao-mak)



















Khanomjeen



















Kichuddok



















Krachae



















Lao-chao



















Makgeolli

0.1

1.8

56

91.8

1.7

Yonzan and Tamang (2010);

Nam khao



















Poko













3.5

Steinkraus (1996)

Puto







56

251

Rabadi



















Ruou nep than



















Sake´

0

4.2

133

82.5

0.6

Yonzan and Tamang (2010)

Sato



















Selroti

0.8

91.3

410.3

42.5

5.7

Yonzan and Tamang (2010); Tamang et al. (2012)

Shochu



















Soju



















Takju

0.1

1.2

55.0

90.7

1.9

Korea Rural Nutrition Institute (1991)

Tapai pulut

0.2

34.3

61.8

3.3

Chiang et al. (2006)

4.3

Steinkraus (1996)

Tape Ketan Tapuy



















Tien-chiu-niang



















Yakju



















44

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

preservatives, in addition to the major nutrients listed above. In Japan, for example, transparent drinks known as sake contain at least 15% alcohol. The alcohol content in turbid beverages like takju in Korea and tapuy in the Philippines is less than 8%, whereas tape ketan of Indonesia is a sweet-sour alcoholic paste with 7% alcohol (Haard et al., 1999). During fermentation, the pH decreases and the alcohol content increases, as starch and reducing sugars are hydrolyzed (Steinkraus, 1983). Besides the changes in the composition of major macromolecules like carbohydrates in fermented food, changes in other minor nutrients such as minerals and vitamins during fermentation, respiratory, and physiological activities of microorganisms have also been observed. Fermentation, for example, provides the optimum pH for the enzymatic breakdown of phytate, which is found in cereals as complexes with polyvalent cations such iron, zinc, calcium, magnesium, and proteins. The degradation of phytate may result in a significant increase in soluble iron, zinc, and calcium (Nout & Ngoddy, 1997; Chavan et al., 1989; Gillooly et al., 1984; Haard et al., 1999; Khetarpaul & Chauhan, 1990; Nout & Motarjemi, 1997; Stewart & Getachew, 1962). The nutritional value and digestibility of food can be improved through LAB and yeast fermentation. The fermentation products’ acidity boosts the activity of microbial enzymes (Blandino et al., 2003). Amylases, proteases, phytases, and lipases are enzymes that hydrolyze polysaccharides, proteins, phytates, and lipids to change main dietary components. (Nkhata et al., 2018). Thus, fermentation can increase the bioavailability of minerals in food by antinutrient reduction and pre-digestion of macronutrients. Reddy and Salunkhe (1980) investigated the changes in individual mineral components during the fermentation of wheat grains. Calcium, magnesium, total phosphorus, zinc, and iron concentrations did not appear to vary. During fermentation, however, the inorganic sulfur content of rice, black gram, and their blends were dramatically reduced. Chompreeda and Fields (1984) discovered an increase in phosphorus during cornmeal fermentation. Phosphorus and iron solubility were also reduced as a result of the fermentation of maize plus soy blend, though there were no significant changes in the solubility of magnesium, zinc, or potassium (Chavan et al., 1989). Table 3.3 shows the mineral composition of some of the Asian fermented cereal-based products available in the literature. It can be observed that Chyang/Chee, a fermented beverage from finger millet or barley, contains a high amount of potassium, phosphorus, calcium, magnesium, sodium, and iron (Thapa & Tamang, 2004; Tamang et al., 2012). Similarly, Bhaati jaaanr, a fermented beverage from steamed glutinous rice and marcha of India and Nepal, contains a large amount of phosphorus and potassium (Tamang & Thapa, 2006). Anti-nutritive compounds may be degraded by the microorganisms present in fermented food. This process allows the substrates to be turned into consumable products. (Tamang, 2015). Rabadi, a fermented cereal food from India, reduces its phytic acid content during fermentation (Gupta et al., 1992a,b). Phytic acid functions as an inhibitor of food. It chelates micronutrients and prevents their bioavailability to monogastric animals and humans (Gupta et al., 2015). Nevertheless, studies on nutritional compositions and mineral content of fermented cereal foods are scarce and lacking. Hence, there is a need to investigate the dietary aspects of these fermented dietary staples to establish their position in national dietary guidelines. Furthermore, consuming these fermented foods would help meet consumers’ demand for nutritious foods and alleviate the burden of hunger and malnutrition in resource-poor regions of Asia.

3.4

Health-promoting constituents of Asian fermented cereal-based products

As a result of increased consumers’ awareness of the impact of food on health, the consumption of health-promoting foods is on the increase globally. In the continent of Asia, traditional fermented foods from cereals such as maize, rice, millet, or sorghum have become an integral part of the people. Functional microorganisms are responsible for the unique functional properties of fermented food products (Tamang et al., 2016). During food fermentation, the chemical constituents of raw materials are transformed by the functional microorganisms resulting in fermented food products with enriched sensory quality, improved nutrient bioavailability, improved bio-preservative consequences, and food safety. Further, the transformation results in fermented food products with degraded anti-nutritive factors, with antimicrobial and antioxidant compounds, with some health-enhancing bioactive compounds and stimulated probiotic functions (Thapa & Tamang, 2015). Fermentation of the cereal grains using traditional and improved methods by microorganisms results in the production of an array of beneficial compounds, which promotes the health of humans. Previous epidemiological and clinical studies have demonstrated the correlation between the consumption of fermented foods and human health (Rezac et al., 2018). For example, consumption of fermented foods can introduce probiotics, which are beneficial microorganisms into the human gut (Selhub et al., 2014; Diaz et al., 2019). This category of organisms is reportedly involved in enhancing the bioavailability of nutrients and boosting the immune system (Achi & Asamudo, 2019).

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TABLE 3.3 Mineral composition of Asian fermented cereal-based products (mg/kg). Product

Ca

Mg

Mn

Fe

K

Na

Zn

Cu

P

References

Aarak































Ang-kak































Atingba































Baijiu































Bhaati jaaanr

12.8

50

1.4

7.7

146

24.7

2.7

1.4

595

Tamang and Thapa (2006)

Bhangchyang































Brem/Brem bali































Chyang/ Chee

281.0

118

9.0

24.0

398

39.0

1.2

2.2

326.0

Thapa and Tamang (2015)

Chulli































Darassun































Daru































Duizou































Ewhajuu































Jalebi

70

10

1

90

2

0.5

0.1




Campbell-Platt (1987)

Khamak (Kao-mak)































Khanomjeen































Kichuddok































Krachae































Lao-chao































Makgeolli




























Nam khao































Poko































Puto































Rabadi































Ruou nep than































Sake´































Sato































Selroti

23.8

29.7

8.9







24

Tamang (2010); Tamang et al. (2012)

Shochu































Soju































Takju

14.0







0.8













28.0

Korea Rural Nutrition Institute (1991)

Tapai pulut































Tape Ketan





























(Continued )

46

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

TABLE 3.3 (Continued) Product

Ca

Mg

Mn

Fe

K

Na

Zn

Cu

P

References

Tapuy































Tien-chiuniang































Yakju































Furthermore, they also contribute significantly to curbing the risk of certain diseases like atherosclerosis, obesity, osteoporosis, and diabetes (Selhub et al., 2014; Diaz et al., 2019). The incidence of coronary heart disease and serum LDL-cholesterol values, hyperhomocysteinemia, hypertension, hypertriacylglycerolemia, and insulin resistance can be lowered through fermentation of the whole grain foods (Anderson, 2003). In angkak, fermented red-rice of China, yeast Monascus purpureus prohibits cholesterol creation due to the presence of the metabolite mevinolin, which blocks the key enzyme HMG-CoA reductase (Anal, 2019). Probiotic LAB strains with disease-specific functions could be incorporated into Asian cereal fermented foods to make them more functional. This understanding provides abundant opportunities on how to use probiotics for specific pathological conditions. During fermentation, nutritional enhancement of substrates with essential amino acids, vitamins, and bioactive compounds had been reported (Thapa & Tamang, 2015). Vitamin B12 is produced by isolated yeasts Candida tropicalis, Pichia manschuri, S. cerevisiae, and Aureobasidium sp. in the production of a fermented cereal dessert of Pakistan and India known as jalebi (Syal & Vohra, 2013). Vitamin B12 plays a significant role in the formation of red blood cells and its deficiency causes megoblastic anemia (Mulvihill, 2004). Uttapam is a thick slightly crispy pancake commonly consumed as a pleasant meal mainly in South India. It is a food item free from cholesterol and commonly recommended for cholesterol and high sugar patients. Saraniya and Jeevaratnam (2014) reported that Uttapam can prevent obesity and reduce body weight being easily digestible. Idli, a savory rice cake in South India, is one of the most widely consumed cereal-pulse based naturally fermented foods (Blandino et al., 2003). It is generally regarded as weight loss diet and anti-obesity as a low-caloric starchy food. Its usefulness in reducing the risks of high blood pressure, stroke and cardiovascular diseases have been documented (Ray et al., 2016). Blandino et al. (2003) and Purushothaman et al. (1993) had reported the application of Idli in the production of dietary supplement to treat children suffering from nutritional deficiencies such as kwashiorkor and protein-energy malnutrition. It contains micronutrients such as zinc, iron, calcium, and folate; these prevent anemia, facilitate the nourishment of the muscle, bone, and the oxygenation of blood. The dietary fiber as well carbohydrates content of the Idli enhances healthy digestion and formation of bulky stool. Furthermore, Selroti is another popular rice-based fermented food product consumed by ethnic groups dwelling in Himachal Pradesh, Darjeeling, Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan with almost every meal. It is a trans-fat free and gluten-free food item with minerals like sodium, calcium, iron, potassium, and vitamins A and C. It is a generally recommended diet for protecting dyslipidemia and cardio-metabolic risks offered for good health and a (Yonzan & Tamang, 2010). Babru is a rice-based food that is commonly produced by partial fermentation and vary among the people of Spiti and Lahaul regions of Himachal Pradesh. Their nutritive values suggest that delicious diet contain easily digestible carbohydrate since S. cerevisiae is known to enhance flavor, digestibility, and nutritive value of food. According to Tamang et al. (2010) and Kumar et al. (2013), Babru contains edible LAB which makes food demonstrate many probiotic nutritive and therapeutic properties. Ambeli is a breakfast meal produced from rice (Oryza sativa) and ragi (Eleusine coracana) based fermentation. It is preferred by the people of central India. Some researchers have reported that Ambeli is a low-calorie and protein-rich fermented food considered to be easily digested and appropriate for infants and adults (Blandino et al., 2003). South Indian fermented traditional dishes known as Adai and vada, prepared using low calorie, protein and iron rich lentils, rice and seasoning vegetables. Adai and vada have 197 Cal, 20 mg sodium, 350 mg potassium, 505 g fat, 39.6 g total carbohydrates, 6.5 g dietary fibers, 7.6 g proteins, and 1.7 g sugars. It also contains 3% calcium, 14% iron and 2% vitamin C. It is a protein, iron and dietary fibers rich food which could make it to be recommended for kids as well as women for the health benefits (Chavan et al., 1989). Sour rice also known as Panta bhat in Bengal, Pokhalo in Odisha, and Poita bhat in Assam is a popularly consumed meal during lunch and breakfast (Tamang, 2010; Blandino et al., 2003). LAB such as Pediococcus acidilactici,

Asian fermented cereal-based products Chapter | 3

47

Lactobacillus bulgaricus, Lactobacillus casei, etc. is responsible for the fermentation of sour rice. This increases the amounts vitamin K and vitamin B complex. It is a body rehydrating and high energy-rich food that controls the bowel movement and prevents constipation (Ray et al., 2016). Previous studies reported that the fermented rice restores healthy intestinal flora leading to the prevention of gastrointestinal ailments like duodenal ulcer, infectious ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease, irritable bowel syndrome, celiac disease, and candida infection (Ray & Swain, 2013; Choi et al., 2014). Dosa is a crispy flat thin pancake with inside vegetable fillings generally consumed as breakfast, dinner or sometimes as snacks in India. This recipe is traditionally made with rice (Oryza sativa) and lentils (Phaseolus mungo). It is appropriate for vegans, also for individuals with wheat allergies or gluten intolerance. The low glycemic load and glycemic index of this fermented food help to fight against pre- and post-diabetic conditions. It also offers adequate energy for prolonged physical endurance. It is believed in certain quarters, that dosa has medicinal properties and can be used to increase fertility, the weight of the fetus, breast milk. Some researchers (Blandino et al., 2003; Gupta & Tiwari, 2014) have reported that Dosa is considered to be a remedy for rheumatism and neural disorders. Chitou and appam are traditional rice-based flat cake dishes popularly consumed in Odisha and Kerala states. While chitou is a delicious festive dish In Odisha, appam is a regular food item in Kerala. Black gram (Vigna mungo) and parboiled rice are used as the raw materials for the preparation of appam and chitou in varying proportions. Appam/ chitou can give 3.7 g total fat, 138.8 Cal, 31.7 mg sodium, 0.1 g unsaturated fatty acids, 13.5 mg potassium 1.1 g dietary fiber, 2.1 g protein, 23.2 g total carbohydrate with vitamin A, B-complex, calcium, folate, niacin, iron, thiamine, and riboflavin which makes it a healthy and nutrient-dense food (Ray & Swain, 2013). Pitha is a variety of rice cake, prepared locally by the people in the regions of Jharkhand, Odisha, West Bengal, and Bihar, especially during festivals and rituals. They are delicious and easily digestible food; and recommended for pre-or post-natal women, children including ailing people (Roy et al., 2007). Some of the Asian fermented cereal-based food products with their health-promoting constituents available in the literature are shown in Table 3.4.

3.4.1 Food safety and shelf-life extension of Asian cereal-based fermented foods Fermenting microorganisms involved in the generation of new products often impact the food with enhanced sensorial and nutritional qualities as a result of various generated metabolites that slows down the proliferation of pathogenic and/or spoilage bacteria. An acidic food matrix will be created owing to the decrease in original pH content in the food product by the metabolites such as propionic, acetic, and lactic acids leading to the extension of the fermented product’s storage life (Nyanzi & Jooste, 2012). Ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, and some secondary metabolites may be produced by some species of yeasts and LAB. They contain antimicrobial compounds which may inhibit the growth of other microbes. These metabolites may effectively control mycotoxins and fungal growth produced by grain matrices. Mycotoxins constitute public health challenge of great concern for cereals and products from them. Mycotoxins have been reported to cause adverse health conditions in humans (Adebiyi et al., 2019). The efficiency of antimicrobial activities of Pediococcus and Lactobacillus strains, to reduce mycotoxin produced by Fusarium had been demonstrated. LAB metabolites produced by acetic acid and lactic acid showed variable antifungal activity (Juodeikiene et al., 2018). In another study, the mycotoxin concentration in pito and kunu-zaki (cereal-based beverages popular in Africa) were reduced by 99% and 59%, respectively (Ezekiel et al., 2015). Research have shown improvements in the quality and safety of fermented cereal products due to the antifungal activity of LAB attributable to the cumulative effects of metabolites, such as peptides, fatty acids, and organic acids (Ogunremi et al., 2017). Terefe and Augustin (2019) also reported the extension shelf-life in fermented food products as a result of the actions of bacteriocins and antimicrobial peptides which were produced by LAB. Strains of Pediococcus sp. known as OF101 had shown to have a strong antibacterial effect against food pathogens tested including Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, and Listeria monocytogenes (Adesulu-Dahunsi et al., 2018). These are indicators that microbial strains withdrawn from conventional foods may be utilized as starter cultures in the production of various cereal-based food products and find use as antimicrobial agents (Wuyts et al., 2020).

3.4.2 Potential Prebiotic from cereal-based fermented foods Prebiotic foods are foods containing non-digestible ingredients with potentially beneficial health effects based on selective stimulation of the growth and/or activity of one or a limited number of bacterial species already resident in the colon. Cereal-based fermented food contains edible fermentable sugars of microbial and food origin (prebiotics) and digestive aids with health promoting attributes, asides basic nutrients. Subject to the type cereal and the period of

48

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

TABLE 3.4 Asian fermented cereal-based products with their health-promoting constituents. Fermented cereal products

Food components

Health promoting effects

References

Uttapam

Averagely 160 Cal per 50 g serving, 34 g carbohydrate, 3.0 g dietary fiber, 0.4 g of fat, vitamins A and C, 5.0 g of protein with ferrous

Easily digestible, Cholesterol-free, prevent obesity and reduce the body weight

Blandino et al. (2003); Saraniya and Jeevaratnam (2014)

Idli

Averagely 70% moisture, 20.3% carbohydrate, 3.4% protein,1% verbacose, 0.2% raffinose and stachyose

Weight losing diet with anti-obesity effect and suitable for the reduction the risk of high blood pressure, cardiovascular diseases and stroke

Moktan et al. (2011)

Ambeli

(Averagely 250 mL) contains sodium 60 mg, 115 Cal, total fat 1 g, sugars 10 g and total carbohydrate 20 g

low calorie fermented food, easily digestible carbohydrate

Blandino et al. (2003); Kumar et al. (2013)

Adai and Vada

20 mg sodium, 197 Cal, 350 mg potassium, 505 g fat, 39.6 g total carbohydrates, 6.5 g dietary fibers, 7.6 g proteins and 1.7 g sugars. It contains 14% iron, 3% calcium and 2% vitamin C

Iron and protein rich foods, low calorie

Chavan et al. (1989)

Babru

Easily digestible carbohydrate

The edible LAB make food acidic and with manynutritive, probiotic and therapeutic properties

Tamang et al. (2010); Kumar et al. (2013)

Selroti

About 260 g serving gives average value of 138.0 g carbohydrates, 8.4 g proteins, 2.68 g dietary fibers, 694 Cal, 14.8 g fat and 42.0 g sugars

Gluten free and trans-fat free suitable for protecting dyslipidaemiaand cardiometabolic risks

Tamang et al. (2010); Yonzan and Tamang, (2010)

Chitou/ Appam

Averagely 31.7 mg sodium, 13.5 mg potassium, 138.8 Cal, 3.7 g total fat, 0.1 g unsaturated fatty acids, 23.2 g total carbohydrate, 2.1 g protein,1.1 g dietary fiber, with calcium, iron, vitamin A, Bcomplex, folate, niacin, riboflavin and thiamine

Easily digestible, healthy and nutrient-dense food

Ray and Swain (2013)

fermentation, cereal-based food products have prebiotic effect as they contain β-glucans, arabinoxylans, resistant starch, oligomeric products, peptides, galacto-oligosaccharides, phenolic compounds fructo-oligosaccharides, and soluble fibers (Tomasik & Tomasik, 2020; Khangwal & Shukla, 2019). Cereals have been indicated to prevent cancer and cardiovascular diseases, reduce blood pressure, decrease the incidents of heart diseases, reduce tumor, control rate of absorption of fat and cholesterol, delay gastric emptying, and supply gastrointestinal health. The nutrients of cereal such as selenium, vitamin E, fiber, folate, linoleic, and phenolic acids with anti-oxidants properties have the potential to control non-communicable coronary heart disease (Achi & Ukwuru, 2015).

3.5

Microbiota of Asian fermented cereal-based products

The microbiology of Asian fermented cereal-based products is undeniably complex and unknown. In general, fermentation processes involve various microorganisms such as bacteria, yeasts, and molds. Certain organisms may involve concurrently, while some may participate successively, with the prominent flora changing throughout the fermentation process (Haard et al., 1999). However, the microflora associated in a wide range of fermented products varies according to the raw material used, geographical location, climate conditions, surrounding environment, and preparation methods (Tamang et al., 2020). They may exist as part of the food’s normal flora or by intentionally adding specific inocula or mixed cultures (Stevens & Nabors, 2009; Hutkins, 2019). Typically, microorganisms can produce fermented

Asian fermented cereal-based products Chapter | 3

49

foods through natural or spontaneous fermentation, backslopping, or inoculating raw materials with starter cultures (Tamang et al., 2015). Natural or spontaneous fermentation is accomplished by the native microflora in raw materials and the environment (Blandino et al., 2003; Giraffa, 2004; Achi & Asamudo, 2019). On the other hand, backslopping is customarily practiced at home, involving inoculation from previously successful fermentation to a new substrate. Lastly, industrial fermentation involves inoculating raw materials with known cultures or inocula to control the quality (Erten & Tanguler, 2012) and safety of the end products (Achi & Asamudo, 2019). Fermentation can be categorized based on the organisms involved, such as bacterial, yeast, fungal, and mixed culture fermentation. Commonly, bacteria are involved in acid production, proteolytic and lipolytic activities, and amino acid transformations. Yeasts are responsible for alcohol production and generation of esters, carboxylic acids, lactones, aldehydes, volatile sulfur compounds, and volatile phenols. While fungi produce enzymes that break substrates and contribute to natural flavor compound formations or flavor precursors (Erten & Tanguler, 2012). Hence, the dominance or abundance of a particular microorganism in the product determines the characteristic of fermented foods (Tamang et al., 2020). Table 3.5 summarizes the microbial composition of some fermented cereal-based products of Asia. Mostly, products from cereals are produced by mixed culture fermentation such as Aarak, Atingba, Baijiu, Bhang-Chyang, Brem Bali, and Bhang-Chyang. These mixed cultures or inocula come in different names such as Phab (India), Ragi (Indonesia), Nuruk (Korea), Loogpang (Thailand), Chiu yueh (China), Manapu (Nepal), Men (Vietnam), Koji (Japan), and Bubod (Philippines) (Tamang, 1998; Tamang et al., 2015). Moreover, mixed cultures contain a consortium of yeasts, bacteria (Thakur & Bhalla, 2004), and filamentous fungi (Tamang et al., 2007; Erten & Tanguler, 2012; Zheng et al., 2014) in varying compositions, depending on the formulation and preparation methods (Thakur & Bhalla, 2004). Mixed cultures are mainly used in the fermentation of indigenous beverages, meals, snacks, desserts, and cakes using rice, wheat, millet, barley, and maize as primary substrates. The processing and fermentation of these grains lead to the formation of a wide range of products. During fermentation, the modification of grains through several metabolic pathways results in changes in the biochemical compositions within the grain endosperm reserve due to microbial activities involving LAB, yeasts, and molds. Also, the synthesis and activities of a variety of endogenous or exogenous enzymes in the grain leads to the production of fermentable sugars, as well as the removal of anti-nutrients and mycotoxins (Achi & Asamudo, 2019). Asia’s cereal-based fermented food products are dominated by some molds from the genus Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Mucor, and Amylomyces. Although other yeasts involved in amylolytic and alcoholic fermentation are also prominent (Haard et al., 1999; Tamang et al., 2020) such as S. cerevisiae and Saccharomycopsis fibuligera. Similarly, LAB is also present, resulting in acid fermentation (Nout et al., 2015). Predominant LAB are Lactobacillus spp., Pediococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., and Leuconostoc spp. These microorganisms not only contribute to the flavor, enhancement of the nutritional value, and functional properties but are also able to inhibit pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms, contributing toward safety and shelf-life extension (Blandino et al., 2003). Generally, LAB fermentation directly affects nutrient availability by hydrolyzing carbohydrates and nondigestible oligosaccharides into functional compounds (Achi & Asamudo, 2019). Also, fermentation with probiotic bacteria of cereal-based extracts produces a fermented product which combines functional properties of both probiotics as well as prebiotics such as dietary fibers β-glucans and arabinoxylans. However, the production of organic acid by LAB during cereal fermentation is a major antimicrobial factor. This activity of LAB decreases the pH of the foods where they proliferate. Furthermore, LAB produces bacteriocins, carbon dioxide, ethanol, hydrogen peroxide, and diacetyl, in addition to organic acids. These factors contribute in ensuring food safety and increasing the shelf life of fermented cereal-based products (Achi & Asamudo, 2019). Nonetheless, indigenous fermented foods are viewed as a means of preserving diverse microorganisms’ ex-situ, acting as curators of various microbes, and providing an authentic reference organism for research and development (Tamang et al., 2015). However, the specific microflora involved in some cereal-based fermentation processes in Asia is currently unknown. Also, data on organisms are lacking for some of the Asian fermented products from cereals, including India’s Chulli, Daru, and Duizou, as well as Mongolia’s Darassun. Besides, most data on microorganisms are derived from starter cultures used in fermentation. Therefore, identification of the microbiomes involved during fermentation and in the fermented products requires further investigations. Specifically, microbial identification is necessary to maximize beneficial factors and functionality such as enriching sensory properties, enhancing bioavailability, imparting bio-preservation (Tamang et al., 2016), amino acids excretion (Newman & Sands, 1984), and toxin inhibition (Nout, 1994). Similarly, it can prevent and regulate deleterious factors caused by pathogenic and toxin-producing bacteria and fungi (Ko, 1972). Additionally, a robust and optimized starter culture produced using traditional or modern techniques can help shorten fermentation times, reduce

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

TABLE 3.5 Microbiome of Asian fermented cereal-based products. Product

Starter/microorganisms

References

Aarak

Phab/Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bacillus spp., Actinomycetes

Thakur and Bhalla (2004); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010); Angmo and Bhalla (2014)

Ang-kak

Monascus purpureus

Blandino et al. (2003); Ray and Didier (2015)

Atingba

Hamei/Molds (Mucor spp., Rhizopus spp.), yeasts (S. cerevisiae, Pichia anomala, Saccharomycopsis), LAB (Pediococcus pentosaceus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus brevis)

Tamang et al. (2007); Jeyaram et al. (2008)

Baijiu

Daqu/Mucor racemosus, Aspergillus niger, Thermomyces lanuginosus, S. cerevisiae, Candida, Bacillus subtilis, LAB, acetic acid bacteria

Zheng et al. (2014); Liu and Sun (2018)

Bhaati jaaanr

Saccharomycopsis fibuligera, Rhizopus spp., Mucor spp.

Tamang et al. (2015); Mir and Shah (2019); Nampoothiri et al. (2020)

Bhangchyang

Phab/S. cerevisiae, Bacillus spp., Actinomycetes

Angmo and Bhalla (2014); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Brem/Brem bali

Ragi/Rz. Oryzae, M. rouxii, A. oryzae, S. cerevisiae, Acetobacter aceti

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Chyang/ Chee

Phab/S. cerevisiae, Bacillus spp., Actinomycetes

Angmo and Bhalla (2014); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Chulli

Yeasts

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010); Erten and Tanguler (2012); Tamang et al. (2020)

Darassun

LAB, yeasts

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010); Tamang et al. (2020)

Daru

Yeast, LAB

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010); Erten and Tanguler (2012); Tamang et al. (2020)

Duizou

Yeast, LAB

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010); Erten and Tanguler (2012); Tamang et al. (2020)

Ewhajuu

Nuruk/Aspergillus usamii. A. niger, Rhizopus spp., anaerobic bacteria, aerobic bacteria, yeasts

Kim (1968); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Jalebi

Limosilactobacillus fermentum, L. buchneri, Lactobacillus, bulgaricus, Streptococcus lactis, Enterococcus faecalis, Streptococcus thermophilus, S. bayanus, S. cerevisiae, Hemimysis anomala

Haard et al. (1999); Erten and Tanguler (2012)

Khamak (Khaomaak)

Loogpang/Amylomyces, Rhizopus, Aspergillus, Mucor, Absidia, S. fibuligera, Hansenula, Saccharomyces, Pediococcus

Pichyangkura and Kulprecha (1977); Dhamcharee (1982); Uchimura et al. (1991); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Khanomjeen

Lactobacillus, Streptococcus




Kichuddok

Saccharomyces

Blandino et al. (2003)

Krachae

Loogpang/Amylomyces, Rhizopus, Aspergillus, Mucor, Absidia, S. fibuligera, Hansenula, Saccharomyces, Pediococcus

Pichyangkura and Kulprecha (1977); Dhamcharee (1982); Uchimura et al. (1991); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Lao-chao

Chiu yueh/Rhiz. Oryzae, Rhiz. Chinensis, Chlamydomucor oryzae, Sacchomycopsis spp.

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Makgeolli

Nuruk/A. oryzae, A. niger, Rhizopus spp., A. usamii, yeasts, LAB

Park et al. (1977); Lee et al. (2015)

Nam khao

Loogpang/Amylomyces, Rhizopus, Aspergillus, Mucor, Absidia, S. fibuligera, Hansenula, Saccharomyces, Pediococcus

Pichyangkura and Kulprecha (1977); Dhamcharee (1982); Uchimura et al. (1991); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010) (Continued )

Asian fermented cereal-based products Chapter | 3

51

TABLE 3.5 (Continued) Product

Starter/microorganisms

References

Poko

Manapu/Rhizopus, S. cerevisiae, Candia versatilis, Pediococcus pentosaceus

Shrestha et al. (2002); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Puto

Leuconostoc mesenteroides, E. faecalis, Streptococcus faecalis, Ped. cerevisiae, Yeasts

Steinkraus (1996); Rhee et al. (2011); Tamang et al. (2015)

Rabadi

Ped. acidilactici, Bacillus sp., Micrococcus sp. S. cerevisiae or S. diastaticus

Ramakrishnan (1979); Gupta et al. (1992a,b); Tamang et al. (2015)

Ruou nep than

Men/Amylomyces rouxii, Rhizopus spp., S. fibuliger, Hyphopichia burtonii, S. cerevisiae, LAB

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Sake´

Koji/A. oryzae, A. sojae, A. kawachii, A. shirousamii, A. awamori

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Sato

Loogpang/Amylomyces, Rhizopus, Aspergillus, Mucor, Absidia, S. fibuligera, Hansenula, Saccharomyces, Pediococcus

Pichyangkura and Kulprecha (1977); Dhamcharee (1982); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Selroti

LAB (L. mesenteroides, E. faecium, Ped. pentosaceus, L. curvatus), yeasts (S. cerevisiae, S. kluyveri, Debaryomyces hansenii, Pichia burtonii, Zygosaccharomyces rouxii)

Yonzan and Tamang (2010)

Shochu

Takuanzuke/Lb. plantarum, Lb. brevis, Leuc. mesenteroides, Streptococcus spp., Pediococcus spp., yeasts

Alexandraki et al. (2013); Tamang et al. (2015)

Soju

Nuruk/A. usamii. A. niger, Rhizopus sp., anaerobic bacteria, aerobic bacteria, yeasts

Kim (1968); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Takju

Nuruk/A. usamii. A. niger, Rhizopus sp., anaerobic bacteria, aerobic bacteria, yeasts

Kim (1968); Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Tapai pulut

Chlamydomucor sp., Endomycopsis spp., Hansenula spp.

Steinkraus (1996); Blandino et al. (2003)

Tape Ketan

S. cerevisiae, H. anomala, R. oryzae, Chlamydomucor oryzae, Mucor, Endomycopsis fibulige

Blandino et al. (2003)

Tapuy

S. fibuligera, Rhodotorula glutinis, Debaromyces hansenii, Candida parapsilosis, Trichosporon fennicum, Leuconostoc

Tanimura et al. (1978); Erten and Tanguler (2012)

Tien-chiuniang

Chiu-yueh/Rhizopus, Amylomyces, Torulopsis, Hansenula

Tamang and Kailasapathy (2010)

Yakju

Nuruk (Kokja)/A. oryzae, Candida spp., A. niger, Rhizopus spp., Penicillum spp., Mucor spp., H. anomala

Jung et al. (2012); Tamang et al. (2015)

waste, and increase food safety (Nout, 1994; Haard et al., 1999). Hence, selected strains are critical and should be thoroughly investigated before being planned for efficient large-scale or industrial production of cereal fermentation products (Tsafrakidou et al., 2020).

3.6

Conclusion and future directions

The objective of this chapter was to summarize the current level of research on Asian fermented cereal-based products viz-a-viz the biochemistry, nutritional, functional, therapeutic properties and the microbes associated with their fermentation. Globally, fermentation remains one of the oldest methods of food preservation. In Asia, traditional cereal-based diets are mostly fermented, but only very few studies on the nutritional and microbiology of these products have been documented in the literature. Despite the array of nutrients and health benefits derivable from the consumption of Asian fermented cereal-based foods, only a few of these products are consumed and only are available commercially. Furthermore, since cereal-based products have carbohydrates as their major component, future studies should focus on enriching these products with leguminous crops and other protein-rich plant foods to have a balanced nutrient profile. More detailed research is required in the future to fully characterize the nutrient profile of these products for the

52

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

possibility of commercialization. Research efforts should also be geared toward using different inocula and or starter cultures for consistency in product quality and improvement. To create more product variety and diversification, the processing methods used for other cereal-based products from other continents, for example in Africa and vice versa may be deployed. Bioavailability and storability studies are also important future research directions that are worth investigating.

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185. Tamang, J. P., Shin, D. H., Jung, S. J., & Chae, S. W. (2016). Functional properties of microorganisms in fermented foods. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 578. Tamang, J. P., Tamang, N., Thapa, S., Dewan, S., Tamang, B., Yonzan, H., Rai, A. K., Chettri, R., Chakrabarty, J., & Kharel, N. (2012). Microorganisms and nutritional value of ethnic fermented foods and alcoholic beverages of North East India. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge, 11(1), 7
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Thakur, N., & Bhalla, T. (2004). Characterization of some traditional fermented foods and beverages of Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge (IJTK), 03(3), 325
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247. Yoshizawa, K. (1999). Sake: Production and flavor. Food Reviews International (15, pp. 83
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36. Zheng, X. W., Yan, Z., Nout, M. J. R., Smid, E. J., Zwietering, M. H., Boekhout, T., & Han, B. Z. (2014). Microbiota dynamics related to environmental conditions during the fermentative production of Fen-Daqu, a Chinese industrial fermentation starter. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 182
183, 57
62.

Further reading Chavan, U. D., Chavan, J. K., & Kadam, S. S. (1988). Effect of fermentation on soluble proteins and in vitro protein digestibility of sorghum, green gram and sorghum-green gram blends. Journal of Food Science, 53(5), 1574
1575. Erkmen, O., & Bozoglu, T. F. (Eds.), (2016). Food microbiology: Principles into practice. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Lee, J. H., Lee, S. K., Park, K. H., Hwang, I. K., & Ji, G. E. (1999). Fermentation of rice using amylolytic Bifidobacterium. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 50(3), 155
161. Mugula, J. K., Narvhus, J. A., & Sørhaug, T. (2003). Use of starter cultures of lactic acid bacteria and yeasts in the preparation of togwa, a Tanzanian fermented food. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 83(3), 307
318. Rolla´n, G. C., Gerez, C. L., & LeBlanc, J. G. (2019). Lactic fermentation as a strategy to improve the nutritional and functional values of Pseudocereals. Frontiers in Nutrition, 6, 98. Steinkraus, K. H. (1994). Nutritional significance of fermented foods. Food Research International, 27(3), 259
267. Tamang, J. P. (2016). Ethnic fermented foods and alcoholic beverages of Asia. Ethnic fermented foods and alcoholic beverages of asia. Available from https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-2800-4. Tamang, J. P. (2020). Plant-based fermented foods and beverages of Asia. In Y. H. Hui, & O. Evranuz (Eds.), Handbook of plant-based fermented food and beverage technology. Florida: CRC Press. Tamang, J. P., Tamang, B., Schillinger, U., Guigas, C., & Holzapfel, W. H. (2009). Functional properties of lactic acid bacteria isolated from ethnic fermented vegetables of the Himalayas. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 135, 28
33.

Chapter 4

South American fermented cereal-based products Leda Maria Fortes Gottschalk1,T, Erika Fraga de Souza2, Agnelli Holanda Oliveira1, Otniel Freitas-Silva1 and Antonio Gomes Soares3 1

Embrapa Food Agroindustry, Brazilian Agricultural Research Corporation, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 2Food and Nutrition Graduate Program—Federal

University of State of Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3Research Area on Postharvest of Fruits and Vegetables - Embrapa Food Technology, Rio de Janeiro, RJ, Brazil TCorresponding author. e-mail address: [email protected]

4.1

Introduction

Cereal products are staple foods in most human diets, in both developed and developing countries, providing a major proportion of dietary energy and nutrients (Laskowski et al., 2019). The major cereals include maize (Zea mays L.), wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), millet (Pennisetum americanum L.), oats (Avena sativa L.), triticale (x Triticosecale Wittm.), and rye (Secale cereale L.). Among these, in 2019 maize (38.5%), wheat (25.7%), and rice (25.4%) dominated global cereal production, which was approximately 3 billion tons (FAO—Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2021). Throughout history, these cereals have been important sources of protein, dietary fiber, and bioactive compounds with antioxidant and antiinflammatory effects (Zamaratskaia et al., 2021). Nevertheless, cereal-based foods present high amounts of antinutritional factors, leading to the decrease of minerals like iron, calcium, and zinc, leading to poor bioavailability (Asres et al., 2018). Fermentation and germination are commonly used to break these interactions to improve the bioavailability of food nutrients. Fermentation process releases different health-promoting bioactive compounds, resulting from the weakening of the grain matrix, improving quality nutrition and increasing the shelf life of fermented foods. (Nkhata et al., 2018; Asres et al., 2018). Fermentation is the oldest method of food processing and preservation, and it has been used by different populations worldwide(Kohajdova´, 2017). Fermented cereal-based foods and beverages were exploited by humans thousands of years before the Christian era (Salmero´n,Salmero´n, 2017). Although people did not know the role of microorganisms, they recognized the preservative and nutritional qualities of these products (El Sheikha & Hu, 2018). In the period 3500
10,000 BC, ancient Egyptians, Sumerians, and Babylonians produced beer from malted grain (barley, einkorn, emmer or spelt) and bread from malted barley and wheat (Fernandesa et al., 2018; Fujita et al., 2020; Baumgarthuber, 2021). Einkorn (Triticum monococcum), emmer (Triticum dicoccum), spelt (Triticum spelta), and Khorasan wheat (Triticum turgidum ssp. turanicum) were the most common ancient wheat species (Zamaratskaia et al., 2021). The genesis of beer occurred as an accidental discovery dating to 10,000 BC by Natufian peoples (Eastern Mediterranean region of Western Asia), the ancestors of the Sumerians (Kelly, 2019). The main event of this discovery occurred when rain-soaked wild barley got fermented by wild yeasts inside the jars (Sewell, 2014). Bread is another widespread and ancient cereal-based product fermented by yeasts. The art of modern bread-making came from the Egyptians about 3500 years ago (ya). Bread was the main food of the Egyptians. However, Indians developed methods for souring and leavening cereal-legume batters (Prajapati & Nair, 2008). Beer, bread, and other fermented cereal-based products have been used around the globe, mainly in Asia, Africa, and Latin America (Fernandesa et al., 2018). In South America, the first evidence of cultivation and consumption of cereals such as maize occurred in specific regions of Peru and Ecuador c. 3000 BC (LLantos et al., 2015). Brewing tools and vessels were found in the northern coastal region of Peru, where pre-Inca civilizations like the Moche (1900 ya) and Chimu (1000 ya) developed empires (Rueda et al., 2017). According to Lantos et al. (2015), consumption of maize-based beer known as “Chicha” was central to the symbolic domination of local societies and was associated with Inca festivities and rituals. Besides religious ceremonies, fermented maize-based products were consumed by indigenous peoples for nutritional purposes and used as stimulants in traditional medicine (Sangwan et al., 2014; Ramos & Schwan, 2017). Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98341-9.00030-X © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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It is important to highlight that various fermented beverages and foods, such as acute, chicha and calugi, are manufactured using maize. (Vilela et al., 2020). Among these, chicha is probably the most studied cereal-based product in South America (Fig. 4.1). Chicha does not refer to a specific beverage (e.g., chicha de jora, chicha de guin˜apo, chicha morada, and others), but rather a family of beverages comprised of a few favorites along with numerous local variations

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

(E)

(F)

(G)

(H)

(I)

FIGURE 4.1 Handmade processing of chicha de gu¨in˜apo: (A) mature purple maize ear; (B) purple maize kernels; (C) Partially germinated maize showing green seedlings; (D) milled germinated maize (gu¨in˜apo); (E) boiling process of gu¨in˜apo; (F) filtration using a kind of cloth; (G) Crude Chicha before fermentation; (H) fermentation process using ceramic pots (chombas); (I) Chicha de gu¨in˜apo ready for consumption. Adapted from Vargas-Yana, D., Aguilar-Moro´n, B., Pezo-Torres, N., Shetty, K., & Ranilla, L. G. (2020). Ancestral Peruvian ethnic fermented beverage “Chicha” based on purple corn (Zea mays L.): Unraveling the health-relevant functional benefits. Journal of Ethnic Foods, 7(1), 1
12.

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(Chaves-Lo´pez et al., 2014; Spessoto et al., 2020). Chicha de guin˜apo is also an alcoholic beverage and uses a special type of purple maize (Kculli) which grows in the Arequipa region (Guama´n-Lema, 2013). Nowadays, most traditional fermented food products in South America are still artisanal produced. These products are produced mainly by small farmers or by small agro-industries, although large industries production also exists. The nutritional quality and sensorial attributes of fermented cereals are related to the purpose of the food or beverage, the available raw materials, the microbial load, the geographical location, climate conditions, and the skills of the people involved in making these traditional beverages and foods (Kohajdova´, 2017; Rueda et al., 2017; Schwan & Ramos, 2019). Despite using simple ingredients, such as grains and water, and few processing steps, a wide range of fermented cereal-based products can be produced. Besides beer and bread, fermented cereal-based products include gruels, porridges, pancakes, dumplings, and non-alcoholic beverages, among others (Sibbesson, 2019). In general, their manufacture starts with sorting, steeping and milling of grains, and subsequent sieving. The mixture can be boiled or not, followed by natural fermentation. They can be eaten directly as porridges and cakes, or mixed with other ingredients. After fermentation, they can also be pasteurized by boiling (Hutkins, 2019). Fermented cereal-based foods and beverages consumed in South America are presented in Table 4.1 and Fig. 4.2. These products can be made from nearly every cereal grain, mainly maize and rice. Tuberous roots (cassava and sweet potato), tubercles (yam), legumes (peanut), fruits (bacaba, pineapple), and/or spices (clove, cinnamon) can also be used. This chapter presents information about the use of fermented cereal-based products as human food, with special emphasis on the indigenous beverages produced in South America. The biochemistry of cereal fermentation, nutritional composition, and characteristics of microbiota in traditional fermented products are reviewed. Finally, this chapter describes the newly developed products with health-oriented properties.

4.2

Biochemistry of cereal fermentation

Cereal grain crops are the main source of food energy worldwide as they are rich sources of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, fibers, vitamins, and minerals. The whole cereal grain, composed of the endosperm, germ, and bran is processed to separate the bran and germ from endosperm. Carbohydrates are the major grain nutrients of endosperm, in which starch is the main component. In many cases, the starch has low availability and digestibility.

TABLE 4.1 Fermented cereal foods and beverages consumed in South America. Product

Cereals used

Product form

Country/region

Abati

Maize

Alcoholic beverage

Paraguay and Argentina

Acupe

Maize

Fermented and sweetened non-alcoholic beverage

Venezuela

Caxiri

Maize

Alcoholic beverage

Brazil

Calugi

Maize/rice

Non-alcoholic fermented porridge

Brazil

Cauim

Rice

Non-alcoholic beverage

Brazil

Champu´s

Maize/rice/wheat

Mild alcoholic beverage

Colombia, Peru

Chicha

Maize/rice

Non-alcoholic or alcoholic beverage

Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Brazil

Fuba´

Maize

Non-alcoholic beverage

Brazil

Jamin-Bang

Maize

Bread

Brazil

Masa Agria

Maize

Fermented dough

Colombia

Napu´

Maize

Non-alcoholic beverage

Peru

Sierra Rice

Rice

Brownish-yellow dry rice

Ecuador

Sora

Maize

Alcoholic beverage

Peru

Tocos

Maize

Dessert

Peru

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

FIGURE 4.2 Fermented cereal foods and beverages consumed in South America.

Another key characteristic of cereals is the low protein content and the deficiency of some essential amino acids when compared with other protein sources. The traditional combination of cereals with legumes can improve nutritional quality (Campbell-Platt, 1994), as is the case of the typical dish of rice and beans in Brazil or corn tortillas and beans in Mexico. In addition, the presence of antinutritional factors of grains also affect the nutritional quality and the sensorial properties of cereal-based products (Chavan & Kadam, 1989). In fermentation process, microorganisms can convert different substrates into new products (enzymes, biomass primary and secondary metabolites) (Adebo et al., 2017). Fermentation process is the simplest and cheapest way of improving nutritional value, sensory properties, and functional qualities. It can also help to increase the commercial value of food products, since antinutritional factors (phytic acid, tannins, and polyphenols) can be degraded by enzymes produced by microorganisms and in this way increasing the mineral bioavailability (Ðorðevic et al., 2010; Thirunathan & Manickavasagan, 2019). In the case of cereals, fermentation can synthesize certain amino acids and improve protein availability and digestibility. Natural fermentation of cereals leads to a decrease in the level of carbohydrates as well as some non-digestible poly and oligosaccharides (Blandino et al., 2003). Fermented products can be tastier for present different textures and flavors compared to raw materials due to the various reactions that occur during fermentation (Adebo et al., 2017; Saharan et al., 2017). Finally, fermentation improves food safety, since pathogenic microorganisms’ growth can be avoided (Xiang et al., 2019). Fig. 4.3 summarizes the main changes that can occur during cereal fermentation. During the fermentation process, different biochemical reactions may occur, depending on the species and variety of the cereal grain, the part used (whole grain, flour, bran, and others), the type of fermentation process (submerged or solid-state), the type of microorganisms’ present (native microbiota, mixed, homofermentative, heterofermentative). Traditional fermented foods prepared from the most common types of cereals (such as rice, wheat, corn and sorghum) are widespread in many parts of the world. The microbiology of many of these products is quite complex and not fully understood. In most of these products, the fermentation is natural and involves mixed cultures of yeasts, bacteria, and fungi. Some microorganisms can participate at same time, while others act in sequence, with the dominant biota changing during the fermentation (Blandino et al., 2003).

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FIGURE 4.3 Main changes of cereal grains during fermentation.

The most common fermenting bacteria are species of the genera, and the most frequent fungal genera are Aspergillus, Paecilomyces, Cladosporium, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Trichothecium; and the most common fermenting yeasts are species of the Saccharomyces genus, which result in alcoholic fermentation (Steinkraus, 1998). The presence of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) in most fermented foods is widely reported (Conway, 1996). Lactic acid fermentation contributes to the safety, nutritional value, shelf life, and acceptability of a wide range of cereal-based foods (Oyewole, 1997). Cereal is usually cleaned and soaked in water for a few days, where endogenous grain amylases generate fermentable sugars that suit as energy source for the LAB (Nout and Motarjemi, 1997). Two different microorganism groups can metabolize these fermentable sugars, normally hexoses: homofermentative (lactic acid—major or sole end product from glucose) and heterofermentative (lactate, CO2 and ethanol from glucose) (Aguirre & Collins, 1993; Tamime & O’Connor, 1995). The alcoholic beverages mentioned in the introduction (abati, caxiri, champu´s, chicha, and sora) result from fermentation by heterofermentative microorganisms. Homofermentative microorganisms probably ferment the non-alcoholic beverages (acupe, caium, fuba´, and napu´). The preservative role of lactic fermentation has already been confirmed in some cereal products. The antibiosis mediated by LAB has been attributed to the production of acids, hydrogen peroxide, and antibiotics. The production of organic acids reduces the pH to below 4.0, preventing the survival of some spoilage organisms present in cereals (Daly, 1991; Oyewole, 1997). Additionally, the LAB has the ability to produce hydrogen peroxide through the oxidation of reduced nicotin-amide adenine dinucleotide by flavin nucleotides, which react rapidly with oxygen. Since LAB lack true catalase to break down the hydrogen peroxide generated, they can accumulate it and inhibit some microorganisms (Caplice & Fitzgerald, 1999). Fermentation can be performed either in the solid-state (SSF) or submerged method (SmF). SSF possesses an environment similar to that found in nature and facilitates optimal fungal development. SmF, on the other hand, is more suitable for cultivating bacteria and yeast due to the need for high water activity (Manan & Webb 2017). As mentioned earlier, fermentation of cereals may increase protein content and digestibility. Several authors using SSF and fungi have demonstrated increased cereal protein content (Wu et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2019; Stoffel et al., 2019). Furthermore, fungal strains seem to increase protein content more than yeasts or bacteria. The protein, in sorghum fermented by Lactobacillus plantarum, was hydrolyzed by proteases into small peptides and amino acids, increasing its digestibility (Pranoto et al., 2013). The proteolytic activity helps to remove the starch from the protein binding, increasing viscosity. However, decrease in starch content was reported after proteolysis, where bacterial amylases hydrolyzed starch into simple sugars, increasing in vitro starch digestibility (Pranoto et al., 2013; Xu et al., 2019). The content of reducing sugars can also increase because of saccharification and liquefaction processes of starch (Wu et al., 2018). Concerning physicochemical aspects, a reduction in pH can be observed along with an increase in titratable acidity as fermentation advances. Higher titratable acidity can be related to the conversion of the carbohydrates into sugars, and in turn into organic acids such as citric acid, lactic acid and acetic acid (Rani et al., 2018). Miguel et al. (2012) reported that during the production of calugi, the starch content decreased during fermentation. This reduction in the starch content may have been due to its use as a carbon source by the microorganisms present in the beverage, such as species of Bacillus, Enterobacter, Lactobacillus and Candida genera. After 48 h of fermentation, the total sugar content increased, most likely due to starch degradation.

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

Depending on the microorganisms present in fermentation process, other macronutrients can be affected. Stoffel et al. (2019) mentioned that some fungi were able to reduce the fat content or even increase the fiber content in cereals during fermentation. Vitamin B12 is naturally present in foods of animal origin and can be found in plant-based foods only as a consequence of fermentation or chemical fortification. Xie et al. (2021) evaluated the production of vitamin B12 in different cereals by fermentation with Propionibacterium freudenreichii. The highest vitamin B12 production was observed in the fermentation of rice bran. These results demonstrated that the fermentation process of cereal is effective in fortifying plant-based food with vitamin B12. Polyphenols, present in different concentrations of many cereals, are important compounds because of antioxidant activity. Normally, they are found in conjugated forms decreasing the bioavailability and health benefits. The bioavailability can be increased by the presence of different microbial enzymes such as amylases, xylanases, and glucosidases, that act releasing phenolic and bioactive compounds bound to cell walls (Rani et al., 2018; Sanchez Magana et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019). The differences in phenolic compounds’ may be attributed to the microorganism involved in fermentation process as well as other factors, such as fermentation time. Besides phenolic compounds, flavonoids are relevant in cereals. Fermentation can increase the content of flavonoids like quercetin (Saharan et al., 2017), luteolin, apigenin, and tricin (Xiao et al., 2015; Wang et al., 2019). Sensory properties changed with the fermentation time of each process. An example of this is the variation in optical properties with fermentation time and the consequent microbial growth (Stoffel et al., 2019; Xu et al., 2018, Xu et al., 2019). An improvement in the shelf life, texture, flavor and aroma of the final product can also be achieved during cereal fermentation. Different volatile compounds can be formed during fermentation, contributing to a complex mix of flavors and aromas (Chavan & Kadam, 1989; Campbell-Platt, 1994). However, the longer the fermentation time, the greater the presence of undesirable off-odors (Sanchez Magana et al., 2019). Finally, during cereal fermentation, some enzymes, such as lipases and amylases, can have their activities inhibited. Thus, the absorption of both fat and carbohydrate is reduced, helping to control obesity and diabetes (Ayyash et al., 2018; Stoffel et al., 2019).

4.3

Nutritional composition of South American fermented cereal products

There are few works available in the literature about the nutritional composition of these beverages. There are no reports of the nutritional studies of some beverages, such as abati, acupe and champu´s, among others. Carbohydrate composition, organic acids and alcohol content are the most reported in studies, but there is an information gap about energy (caloric value), fiber, moisture and minerals. Table 4.2 summarizes the nutritional composition of some beverages and Table 4.3 identifies the main organic acids, carbohydrates and alcohol found after fermentation.

TABLE 4.2 Nutritional composition of some cereal beverages. Product

Ash

CHO

Ener

Fat

Moist

pH

Prot

References

Caxiri




Starch 5.93%










3.15

1%

Amaral Santos et al. (2012)

Calugi




Starch 2.97%










4.03

16.36%

Miguel et al. (2014)

Cauim




Starch 1.2%










3.64

3,0 to 5,0%

Almeida et al. (2007)

Chicha (rice based)

0.039 g/ 100 mL

8.47 g/ 100 g

34.4 kcl/ 100 mL

0.01 g/ 100 g




3.90

0.42 g/ 100 g

Puerari et al. (2015)

Chicha (corn based)

0.045 g/ 100 mL

4.54 g/ 100 mL




0.023 g/ 100 mL

92.80 g/ 100 mL

3.70

0.50 g/ 100 mL

Resende et al. (2018)

Masa Agria
















3.85




Chaves-Lo´pez et al. (2014)

CHO, Carbohydrate; Ener, energy; Moist, moisture; Prot, protein.

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63

TABLE 4.3 Organic acids, carbohydrates, and alcohol composition of cereal beverages. Nutrient

Caxiri (g/L) (Amaral Santos et al., 2012)

Calugi (g/L) (Miguel et al., 2014)

Cauim (μg/mL) (Almeida et al., 2007)

Chicha (rice based) (g/L) (Puerari et al., 2015)

Chicha (corn based) (g/L) (Resende et al., 2018)

Masa Agria (g/L) (ChavesLo´pez et al., 2014)

Acetic acid

5.13 6 0.12

0.66 6 0.10










0.018 6 0.010

Lactic acid

27.89 6 0.35

3.54 6 0.70

7.50

1.4

1.20

0.387 6 0.035

Citric acid

1.34 6 0.06







0.5

0.09




Malic acid

1.86 6 0.12

0.10 6 0.05













Tartaric acid

0.28 6 0.03
















Succinic acid

7.46 6 0.32

0.14 6 0.02













Oxalic acid

0.22 6 0.01
















Propionic acid

2.24 6 0.04

0.60 6 0.10













Glucose

0.38 6 0.01

0.53 6 0.10

32 6 2.0







0.525 6 0.879

Fructose




0.32 6 0.06

, 30




2.77

0.005 6 0.009

Maltose

0.85 6 0.01

49.01 6 1.24

120 6 11




5.35

0.008 6 0.014

Sucrose







, 30










Ethanol

83.86 6 0.05

0.40 6 0.01

,5

-

0.23




Glycerol




2.98 6 0.05




0.425

0.42




4.4

Health-promoting constituents of South American fermented cereal products

Fermented cereal-based products are considered to be functional foods due to their prebiotic constituents, probiotics, and phytochemicals (dietary fiber, essential amino acids, antioxidants, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and minerals), with human health-promoting properties (Arslan & Erba¸s, 2016; Basinskiene & Cizeikiene, 2020). According to Vilela et al. (2020), both whole and fermented cereal kernels are relevant parts of the regular human diet, especially for people in developing countries. Moreover, cereal-based fermented products can also be substitutes for dairy probiotic foods. Intolerance and/or allergy to milk constituents (lactose, casein and whey proteins, and others) and high cholesterol levels are major disadvantages of dairy products, and with the increase in veganism there is also increasing demand for milk-free probiotic products (Salmero´n, 2017). Although the production of traditional fermented cereal-based products does not have a defined standard, their content of bioactive components are dependent on some factors, including plant species (maize, rice, wheat, barley and others), preparation of raw materials (milling, malting, boiling, cooling, and others), microbial community (single starter cultures, sourdough starters, concho), type of finished product, processing conditions, and others (Caldero´nAlvarado, 2018; Champi-Checya & Taype-Ccahua, 2018; Ye´pez-Latorre, 2018; Basinskiene & Cizeikiene, 2020). According to Saleh et al. (2019), procedures like malting (germination or sprouting), fermentation, and enzyme hydrolysis improved bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phytochemicals, mainly phenolic compounds. Nevertheless, little scientific information exists about the bioactive constituents in fermented cereal-based products (dried kernels, soaked complete grain ears, milled grain, mashed tender grain, gruel, porridge, dough, baked products, and others), mainly consumed by South American people. Most research has addressed the bioactive constituents

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

existing in whole cereal kernels or conventional cereal products. According to Adebo and GabrielaMedina-Meza (2020), whole grain cereals have a diversity of important phytochemicals for health, including flavonoids, carotenoids, vitamin E, tocols, phytosterols, phenolic compounds and dietary fibers. The principal components of dietary fibers of cereals are non-starch polysaccharides, such as β-glucans, arabinoxylans, cellulose, lignin, resistant starch, and fructans (Tsafrakidou et al., 2020). Dietary fibers can be used as fermentable substances (prebiotics) to fortify the development of probiotic microorganisms such as some LAB (e.g., Lactobacillus, Lactococcus, Leuconostoc, Streptococcus, Pediococcus, and Bacillus) and yeasts (Saccharomyces and Candida species) (Xiong et al., 2020). Additionally, microbial bioactive metabolites and bioactive compounds produced during fermentation, including some enzymes, vitamins (riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin), amino acids (lysine), organic acids, and bioactive peptides can also be beneficial to the health of the consumer (Schwan & Ramos, 2019; Xiong et al., 2020). Increased dietary fiber intake has been correlated with healthful responses, including decreasing overweight and glucose intolerance. These responses may be due to the enhanced production of short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs), such as propionate, acetate, and butyrate, during fermentation of the dietary fiber in the colon (McNabney & Henagan, 2017). However, a small number of studies have reported the amount of SCFAs in fermented cereal-based foods. Some phytochemicals are particular to certain cereals (purple maize anthocyanins, rice γ-oryzanol, oat avenanthramides, and β-glucans, and rye alkylresorcinol), although these may be limited to small amounts in other grains (Spessoto et al., 2020; Tian et al., 2020). They contribute nourishment and confer beneficial health effects to foods, such as antioxidant, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, antiinflammatory, anticholesterolemic, antiobesity, and antiatherosclerotic properties (Adebo & GabrielaMedina-Meza, 2020; Barber et al., 2020). However, cereals are limited in their essential amino acids, such as threonine, lysine, and tryptophan, making their protein quality poorer than animal products. Their protein accessibility is also lower than that of animal products, partly due to the existence of determined antinutrients, including phytates and tannins (Blandino et al., 2003; Taylor & Taylor, 2017; Schwan & Ramos, 2019). Phytates interact with proteins and bind the proteases, inhibiting their activity, resulting in decreased accessibility of amino acids and proteins (Ramos & Schwan, 2017). Furthermore, phytates form complexes with microelements (Ca, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, and Zn), making them insoluble and unavailable for adsorption in the human intestine. Tannins also form enzyme complexes in the digestive tract, compromising the utilization of proteins and carbohydrates, culminating in reduced growth, usable energy, and poor bioavailability of amino acids (Waters et al., 2015). According to some studies, germination and/or fermentation enhance the nutritional value and digestibility of a variety of cereals by decreasing the amount of phytic acid and tannins and increasing the bioavailability of nutritional compounds, vitamins, minerals, and other bioactive constituents (Singh & Sharma, 2017; Schwan & Ramos, 2019). There has been increased research interest in bioactive compounds and health-promoting properties of ancient cereals, particularly germinated and fermented grains for use in bread and other foods or brewing. Chicha is probably the most studied cereal-based product in South America in terms of bioactive compounds. The health-promoting constituents related to the consumption of chicha and other fermented cereal-based products have been little documented. The improvement of human health related to chicha has been mainly attributed to the high anthocyanin contents of purple maize (Zea mays L. variety Kculli). Ranilla et al. (2019) investigated different maize races, including Kculli, Arequipen˜o, Cabanita, and Coruca, about their inhibitory activities against enzymes relevant to hyperglycemia, and obesity, as well as anthocyanin content, phenolics (total and specific) and antioxidant capacity (ABTS and ORAC). All samples (free fraction) exhibited high and moderate α-glucosidase and α-amylase inhibitory activities, respectively. High lipase inhibitory activities were only detected in samples from the purple Kculli race. The in vitro functionality associated with enzymes inhibitory activities (α-glucosidase and lipase) were high in purple-colored grains and significantly correlated to the anthocyanin levels and the antioxidant capacity. These results can be integrated with other information, such as the benefit of these cereals in producing of functional beverages and foods, including the study of fermentation and germination processes of ancient maize grains. Some phytochemicals (β-glucans, anthocyanins, vitamins, and others) tend to reduce when the whole kernels are subjected to severe processing settings, like milling or exposure to prolonged heat treatments. Medina-Quiroga (2018) investigated the effects of germinated purple maize particle size obtained during milling (,300 μm and ,200 μm) and enzymatic clarification using Rohavin Clear (an enzyme complex formed by pectins, cellulase and hemicellulase) on beverage quality of chicha arequipen˜a. The particle size of 300 μm produced a higher anthocyanin content (range 68.97
47.26 mg/L) in the beverage than the 200 μm size (range 13.03 to 19.54 mg/L). Concerning Rohavin Clear concentrations (3.0, 5.0, and 7.0 g/hL), no statistically significant variations were observed in the treatments studied.

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65

In another study related to the process of obtaining purple maize-based chicha jora, the effects of cooking and fermentation times on the anthocyanins in this beverage were evaluated. The levels of anthocyanins were mainly reduced in treatments with the longest cooking and fermentation times (3 and 24 h, respectively; 1.21 mg/L) of the germinated maize kernels, in comparison with the shorter cooking and fermentation times (1 and 8 h, respectively; 8.92 mg/L) (Champi-Checya & Taype-Ccahua, 2018). Debelo et al. (2020) reported that, through milling operations, an intact grain’s protective layer and compartmentation are primarily lost. Consequently, these operations end up increasing the exposure of anthocyanins and other polyphenols to diverse environs and handling conditions that could change their stability in terminated products. The extractable polyphenol contents decreased, probably due to enzymatic, oxidative, and thermal degradation (MayerMiebach et al., 2019; Francavilla & Joye, 2020). Bolivar Choque and Ramos Parillo (2020) attributed the degradation of anthocyanins in chicha de jora to the high temperatures applied in the cooking and pasteurization steps. These findings need to be included when evaluating processed cereal beverages and foods and their possible health benefits. Vargas-Yana et al. (2020) investigated differences in chicha de guin˜apo processing in Peruvian geographic areas and their association with the health-related bioactive properties of this beverage. According to these authors, some variances in the type of raw material (malted maize grain or commercial guin˜apo), processing steps (boiling, fermentation), and geographical location of the brewing (Arequipa, Characato, Socabaya, Chiguata, and Uchumayo), were found. In terms of bioactive compounds (phenolics and anthocyanins) and antioxidant capacity (ABTS and DPPH), they were not affected by the processing differences. However, the inhibition of enzymes, like α-amylase and α-glucosidase, was significantly associated with the phenolic substances. Chicha samples from Characato, formulated with the most traditional ethnic production process, demonstrated the best properties for health-related hyperglycemia controlling. Besides the anthocyanins, B group vitamins are lost during milling or destroyed by thermal procedures. The employment of moderate processing conditions like fermentation can encourage the production of cereal foods and beverages with potentially bioactive components (Salmero´n, 2017). Throughout the fermentative process, other metabolic routes are involved in the biosynthesis or releasing of various interesting bioactive molecules (Chaves-Lo´pez et al., 2020). Fermentation of cereal grains, in addition to their pretreatment with LAB, helps bacterial biosynthesis, elevating the level of vitamins B1, B2, B3, B9, B11, and B12 (Tomasik & Tomasik, 2020). Phenolic components, including phenolic acids, flavonoids, and tannins, derived from whole cereal kernels, can be broken down by microorganisms and altered into higher bioactive constituents (i.e., catechin, quercetin, and gallic acid) (Chaves-Lo´pez et al., 2020). Ye´pez-Latorre (2018) identified and characterized LAB strains from maize-based chicha in northwestern Argentina, regarding the production of folate (vitamin B9) and riboflavin (vitamin B2), and also the ability to degrade phytates. The ability to degrade phytates ranged widely, from practically zero in some strains of Leuconostoc mesenteroids to nearly 400 μmol Pi/min in one strain of L. plantarum. Leuconostoc lactis and Lc. mesenteroides strains produced between 30 and 90 ng/mL of folate, followed by Enterococcus faecium and Lb. plantarum, that generated folate in the range of 30 to 75 ng/mL. Lc. mesenteroides and Lb. plantarum strains produced the highest riboflavin contents (above 100 ng/ mL). Riboflavin contents produced by the Lc. mesenteroides strains ranged from none to more than 450 ng/mL. Rises in thiamine and riboflavin level are significant when the fermented food products are part of a predominant rice diet. Sierra rice is mainly obtained from fermenting grain with Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus candidus, and Bacillus subtilis (Paredes-Lo´pez et al., 1988). The Ecuadorian fermented rice (0.32 mcg/g) has about double the riboflavin level of the non-fermented rice (0.15 mcg/g). When ordinary milled rice was fermented with B. subtilis (1.04 mcg/ g), the riboflavin increased nearly fourfold that of the untreated rice (0.28 mcg/g) (Van Veen et al., 1968; Hunter, 2008). According to Kaur et al. (2021), the B-complex vitamins in cereal grains provide excellent benefits for hair, skin, brain and heart health and proper digestion. Vitamins also avert rheumatism symptoms by promoting the joint motility. The other vitamins present in maize are A, C, and K, which together with β-carotene and selenium enhance the functioning of the immune system and thyroid gland. Thus, the fermentation process is a technological approach for increasing the phytochemical contents in cereal foods and beverages. In spontaneous cereal-based fermentation, an association between LAB and yeast is usually verified since the acidification benefits yeast growth. The intake of probiotics provides the equilibrium of gut microbiota and promotes to the intestinal healthy, contributing to prevent dysfunctions, such as the development of chronic inflammatory diseases (intestinal bowel disease, colorectal cancer, allergies, autoimmune diseases, and obesity) and its associated pathologies (Fig. 4.4). LAB can produce various antimicrobial substances, like organic acids (lactic, acetic, formic, propionic acids). Lactobacillus fermentum, which is revealed as a probiotic microorganism, produces SCFAs and antioxidants (Puerari et al., 2015; Makki et al., 2018; Coutin˜o et al., 2020; Valero-Cases et al., 2020).

66

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

FIGURE 4.4 Brief of the beneficial influence of probiotics in different fermented cereal products. Primary effects: alterations cereal matrices during the fermentative process. Secondary effects: changes in the intestinal epithelium. Tertiary effects: positive changes in health. SCFAs: short-chain fatty acids; EPS: exopolysaccharides; AOC: antioxidant capacity. Adapted from Valero-Cases, E., Cerda´-Bernad, D., Pastor, J. J., & Frutos, M. J. (2020). Non-dairy fermented beverages as potential carriers to ensure probiotics, prebiotics, and bioactive compounds arrival to the gut and their health benefits. Nutrients, 12(6), 1666.

L. fermentum along with S. cerevisiae, and L. helveticus were prevalent under the caxiri fermentation. Lactic and butyric acid production increased from 0 (zero) to 120 h of caxiri fermentation (ranges from 5.85 to 14.25 g/L and 12.39 to 21.23 mcg/L, respectively) (Miguel et al., 2015). From a health standpoint, only a few researches have studied the amount of SCFAs in fermented products. SCFAs are related to a lowered risk of some diseases, such as irritable bowel syndrome, inflammatory bowel disease, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. In actuality, many researchers have investigated the function of SCFAs in adjusting glucose and lipidic metabolism (Iraporda et al., 2015; Vetrani et al., 2016). In another study, native yeast species were associated with the ability to degrade phytates in caxiri. Vilela et al. (2020) characterized different indigenous Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains from caxiri and other food products and recommended the notable strains for potential applications in the elaboration of fermented maize-based products. Thirty-six strains of S. cerevisiae separated from caxiri were examined for phytate degradability. All phytase-positive strains showed active growth on a phytate-containing culture medium. Eighteen strains (about 50%) presented phytase activity. These outcomes indicated that this property is inherent in the strain. According to the authors, the choice of appropriate phytase-active strains with high phytase activity for cereal fermentation will enable adequate degradation of phytate, which can substantially enhance the bioavailability of minerals in cereal-based foods and beverages. The flour parts from different grains can be adjusted to improve nutritional levels by using sourdough technology (Ferna´ndez-Pela´ez et al., 2020). An example is masa agria, a traditional Colombian fermented maize dough, still prepared using spontaneous fermentation (Ramos & Schwan, 2017). Sourdough has been exploited since ancient times, and its ability to enhance the nutritional quality and raise the shelf life of bread has been widely described (Arendt et al., 2007). Coda et al. (2012) showed that specific LAB could produce antioxidant peptides during the sourdough fermentative process of various cereal flours (maize, rice, barley, rye, oat, kamut, spelt, whole wheat, and durum wheat). The highest antioxidant activities were obtained for whole wheat, spelt, rye, and kamut sourdoughs. All the purified peptide fractions presented ex vivo antioxidant activity on mouse fibroblasts artificially submitted to oxidative stress. According to

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67

TABLE 4.4 Health-promoting constituents reported in the literature. Product

Bioactive components or properties

Health-promoting benefits

References

Caxiri

Lactic acid and SCFAs (butyric acid), phytase activity

Decreased risk of some bowel-related diseases, such as irritable bowel syndrome and inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), as well as cardiovascular disease, diabetes, hypertension, obesity, cancer, and also, increases mineral bioavailability

Miguel et al. (2015), Iraporda et al. (2015), Vetrani et al. (2016)

Chicha (purple maize)

Total phenolic content, total monomeric anthocyanin, total anthocyanin content, antioxidant capacity by the ABTS and DPPH methods, enzyme inhibitory activity (α-glucosidase, α-amylase, and lipase), folates, riboflavin, and ability to degrade phytates

Antihyperglycemic, antiobesity, and antioxidant effects and mineral bioavailabilityImportant role in energy metabolism of the cell and involvement in red blood cell formation and different redox reactions

Champi-Checya and Taype-Ccahua (2018), Medina-Quiroga (2018), Ye´pez-Latorre (2018), Ranilla et al. (2019), Bolivar Choque and Ramos Parillo (2020), Ye´pez et al. (2019), Vargas-Yana et al. (2020)

Sierra rice

Riboflavin

Prevention of diseases like migraine, anemia, cancer, hyperglycemia, hypertension, diabetes mellitus. Protection of the body against oxidative stress, especially by lipid peroxidation and oxidative reperfusion injury

Van Veen and Steinkraus (1970), Thakur et al. (2017).

these authors, the fermentation settings applied are appropriate at the industrial levels for making additive-free bakery ingredients with high nutritional level. The purified peptides exhibited bioactive potentials compatible with various antioxidant mechanisms, indicating possible protection against free radicals. These features could lead to innovative functional foods and the design of new synthetic peptides for commercial applications, mainly food and pharmaceutical industries. (Table 4.4)

4.5

Microbiota of South American fermented cereal products

Usually, natural fermentation is carried out by yeasts, LAB, and/or fungi, sometimes forming a complex of microbiota that act in cooperation. This microbiota plays an important role and acts in a complementary way when the fermentation process occurs. The microbiota is responsible for the production of several chemical and volatile compounds that confer peculiar characteristics to the final product (Lappe-Oliveras et al., 2008). The best-known types of fermentation are alcoholic, lactic, and acetic fermentation. Alcoholic fermentation, which occurs in wines and beers, for example, relies on yeasts as the predominant microorganisms and results in the production of ethanol. Lactic fermentation occurs, for example, in fermented cereals and milk, and is caused mainly by LAB. Acetic fermentation results in the production of acetic acid by Acetobacter spp. In this fermentation process there is a conversion of ethanol to acetic acid in the presence of excess oxygen (Pilo´, 2014). Some microorganisms participate simultaneously in the fermentation process, while others act sequentially, with a change in the dominant microbiota during the fermentation process. The type of microbiota developed in each type of fermentation will depend on several factors, such as water activity, pH, salt concentration, temperature and substrate composition (Branda˜o et al., 2021). Table 4.5 outlines the major microorganisms responsible for fermentation of cereal beverages. The impact of the microbiota on cereal fermented products and its attributes goes far beyond fermentative capacity. It can even impact the safety of these beverages, such as by reduction of mycotoxins, which are often present in contaminated cereal raw materials. In this way, the microbiota can also be considered as having positive safety effects, such as phytate detoxification and mycotoxin reduction in fermented cereal beverages (Chaves-Lo´pez et al., 2020).

68

SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

TABLE 4.5 Major microorganisms found in fermented cereal products and references. Product

Microorganisms responsible for fermentation

Referencess

Abati

Lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts

Sangwan et al. (2014)

Acupe

LAB and yeasts

Quintero-Ramirez et al. (1999), Sangwan et al. (2014)

Caxiri

LAB, Bacillus spp., Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Bacillus spp. (Bacillus cereus group), Bacillus pumilus, Bacillus subtilis, Sphingomonas sp., Pediococcus acidilactici S. cerevisiae (predominant yeast), Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, Pichia membranifaciens, Pichia guilliermondii and Cryptococcus luteolus

Amaral Santos et al. (2012), Miguel et al. (2015)

Calugi

LAB, acetic acid bacteria (AAB), aerobic mesophilic bacteria (AMB), and yeasts (S. cerevisiae, Pichia fermentans and Candida sp.), Corynebacterium variabile, Lactobacillus paracasei, L. plantarum, L. casei, Bacillus spp. (Bacillus cereus group), B. subtilis, Streptomyces sp., Enterobacter cloacae, Streptococcus parasanguis, Streptococcus salivarius, Weissella cibaria, and Weissella confusa.

Miguel et al. (2012), Miguel et al. (2014)

Cauim

LAB; S. cerevisiae, other yeasts

Faria-Oliveira et al. (2015)

Champu´s

S. cerevisiae, Galactomyces geotrichum, Hanseniaspora sp., Issatchenkia orientalis, Pichia fermentans, P. kluyveri, S. cerevisiae, Torulospora delbruekii, Zygosaccharomyces fermentati

Tamang (2010), Chaves-Lo´pez et al. (2014), FariaOliveira et al. (2015), Chaves-Lo´pez et al. (2020)

Chicha

Mycoderma vini, Oidium lactis, Monilia candida, Aspergillus sp., Penicillium sp., Acetobacter sp., Enterococcus durans, E. faecalis, E. faecium, E. gallinarum, E. hirae, E. lactis, E. mundtii, L. lactis, Lb. acidophilus, Lb. aviarius, Lb. brevis, Lb. casei, Lb. composti, Lb. crispatus, Lb. diolivorans, Lb. fabifermentans, Lb. farraginis, Lb. fermentum, Lb. harbinensis, Lb. helveticus, Lb. murinus, Lb. odoratitofui, Lb. paracasei, Lb. paraplantarum, Lb. plantarum, Lb. reuteri, Lb. rossiae, Lb. suebicus, Lb. vaccinostercus, Lc. citreum, Lc. lactis, Lc. mesenteroides, Lc. pseudomesenteroides, S. equinus, S. gallolyticus W. cibaria, W. confusa, W. hellenica, W. viridescens, Lactobacillus sp., Leuconostoc sp., Lactobacillus plantarum, Lb. fermentum, Weissella cibaria, Leuconostoc sp., Lactococcus sp., S. luteciae, S. alactolyticus, Candida parapsilosis, C. zeylanoides, Cryptococcus carnescens, Cry. flavescens, Cry. magnus, Cry. nemorosus, Hanseniaspora uvarum, Debaryomyces hansenii, Kluyveromyces lactis, K. marxianus, Meyerozyma guilliermondii, Pichia sp., P. fermentans, P. membranifaciens, Rhodotorula mucilaginosa, R. slooffiae, S. cerevisiae, Torulaspora delbrueckii, Wickerhamomyces anomalus, Trichosporon domesticum, Candida ethanolica, C. oleophila, C. parapsilosis, C. pomicola, C. railenensis, C. sergipensis, C. spandovensis, Hanseniaspora opuntiae, H. uvarum, Issatchenkia sp., Kazachstania exigua, Kodamaea ohmeri, Lodderomyces elongisporus, Metschnikowia koreensis, Monilia candida, Mycoderma vini, Oidium lactis, Pichia sp., P. guilliermondii, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. pastorianus, Wickerhamomyces anomalus, W. pijperi

Faria-Oliveira et al. (2015), Ramos and Schwan (2017), Chaves-Lo´pez et al. (2020)

Fuba´

LAB and yeasts

Sangwan et al. (2014), Fernandesa et al. (2018)

JaminBang

Yeasts and bacteria

Quintero-Ramirez et al. (1999)

Masa Agria

LAB, AAB and yeasts

Chaves-Lo´pez et al. (2014) and Chaves-Lopez et al. (2016)

Napu´

Unknown

Quintero-Ramirez et al. (1999), Fernandesa et al. (2018)

Sierra Rice

Aspergillus flavus, A. candidus, and B. subtilis

Arslan and Erba¸s (2016)

Sora

Unknown

Quintero-Ramirez et al. (1999)

Tocos

Unknown

Quintero-Ramirez et al. (1999)

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4.6

69

Conclusion and future directions

The competition among microbiological species for cereal substrates, along with the syntrophic interactions and physiological changes, promotes the formation of cereal beverages and foods with unique characteristics. The natural microbiota produces fermented products with a wide spectrum of compounds. The studies showed that there is an improvement in the nutritional aspects, such as vitamins and minerals, and sensorial attributes. These characteristics can enhance the health benefits of cereal-based products, even in cases of nutrient-poor cereals, and it can be transformed into a valuable rich product, allowing a more diversified diet of many populations. The microbiota responsible for the fermentation of beverages and other cereal products can improve attributes beyond fermentation capacity, also increasing safety by reducing mycotoxins and antinutritional factors such as phytates. Thus, fermentation positively affects not only quality but also the safety of these products consumed by different populations worldwide.

References Adebo, O. A., & GabrielaMedina-Meza, I. (2020). Impact of fermentation on the phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity of whole cereal grains: A mini review. Molecules (Basel, Switzerland), 25(4), 927. Adebo, O. A., Njobeh, P. B., Adebiyi, J. A., Gbashi, F., Phoku, J. Z., & Kayitesi, E. (2017). Fermented pulse-based food products in developing nations as functional foods and ingredients. In M. Chavarri Hueda (Ed.), Functional food—Improve Health through adequate food. . Aguirre, M., & Collins, M. D. (1993). Lactic acid bacteria and human clinical infection. Journal of Applied Bacteriology, 62, 473
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2), 146
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Chapter 5

African legume, pulse, and oilseed-based fermented products Chiemela Enyinnaya Chinma1,2,T, Vanessa Chinelo Ezeocha3, Olajide Emmanuel Adedeji4,5, Comfort Ufot Inyang6, Victor Ndigwe Enujiugha7 and Oluwafemi Ayodeji Adebo8 1

Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria, 2Department of Biotechnology and Food

Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa, 3Department of Food Science and Technology, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike, Abia State, Nigeria, 4Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University Wukari, Wukari, Nigeria, 5

School of Food Science and Biotechnology, Kyungpook National University, Daegu, South Korea, 6Department of Microbiology, University of Uyo,

Uyo, Nigeria, 7Department of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Technology Akure, Akure, Nigeria, 8Food Innovation Research Group, Department of Biotechnology and Food Technology, Faculty of Science, University of Johannesburg, Gauteng, South Africa TCorresponding author. e-mail address: [email protected]

5.1

Introduction

Legumes belong to the family Fabaceae or Leguminosae, and these refer to plants whose fruit is enclosed in a pod and are grown basically for their edible seeds (Boukid et al., 2019). A wide range of legumes have been produced and consumed worldwide. Legume seeds are generally classified into two groups based on their fat content: low-fat legume seeds called pulses, which are the dry seeds of leguminous plants and high-fat legume seeds referred as oilseeds (FAO, 2016; FAO/WHO, 2009). Legumes, pulses, and oilseeds are affordable sources of macronutrients (protein, dietary fiber, and carbohydrates) and micronutrients (minerals and vitamins) as well as bioactive compounds (Boukid et al., 2019). They could serve as alternative and sustainable sources of protein, to ensure adequate protein intake for the world’s teaming population, to prevent protein
energy malnutrition currently confronting global public health (Bessada et al., 2019). Alongside cereals, legumes, pulses, and oilseeds significantly contribute to food and nutrition security globally. However, these seeds are not consumed as raw seeds but are subjected to different food processing techniques to reduce the inherent antinutrients, improve nutritional, health, functional, and sensory properties for diverse food applications. Fermentation is an age-long traditional food processing method employed in many developing regions of the world especially in Africa, to practically achieve adequate nutrition and food security (Adebiyi et al., 2016; Yakubu et al., 2022). Fermentation is an affordable bioprocessing technique that can reduce antinutrients, improve the physicochemical, nutritional, antioxidant, health and functional properties for various food applications (Chinma et al., 2020). Fermented food products prepared from legumes, including pulses and oilseeds, are important contributors to diet diversity throughout the world, and contribute significantly to nutrition and food security (Adebo et al., 2022). In addition, these diets have potential health benefits. There is increasing demand for fermented foods prepared from legumes, pulses, and oilseeds because these foods have potential health benefits, and are considered as important sources of high-quality nutrients, which could serve as vehicle for the prevention of malnutrition and various chronic and non-communicable diseases that are prevalent in the developing regions of the world especially sub-Saharan Africa. Consequently, research efforts are focused on the improvement of production processes of traditional African fermented foods derived from legumes, pulses and oilseeds, and the development of novel fermented products from these seeds using improved technologies to produce acceptable, nutritious, safe and shelf-stable fermented food products. This chapter thus provides an overview on the nutritional composition, health-promoting properties, and microbiota of fermented products derived from African legumes, pulse, and oilseeds. This will promote their consumption and probably scale up their production processes for the production of high-quality product for local consumption and export. Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98341-9.00012-8 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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5.2

Fermented food products from African legumes, pulses, and oil seeds

Most of the unconventional and lesser-known African legumes, pulses, and oil seeds are fermented and used as condiments to improve the aroma and taste of soups and sauces during cooking (Adesulu-Dahunsi et al., 2020; Enujiugha & Ayodele-Oni, 2003). These fermented products are mostly derived from the following seeds: soybean (Glycine max), Bambara groundnut (Vigna subterranean), African locust bean (Parkia biglobosa), melon (Citrullus vulgaris), castor oil (Ricinus communis), fluted pumpkin beans (Telfairia occidentalis), sesame (Sesamum indicum), groundnut (Arachis hypogea), cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), mesquite (Prosopis africana), African oil bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla), among others. Major fermented foods derived from African legume, pulse, and oil seeds are presented in Table 5.1.

5.2.1 Biochemistry of African legume-, pulse-, and oil seed-based fermented products Fermentation is a primary means of creating desirable changes in food by the degradation of organic nutrients anaerobically, in the presence of suitable microorganisms. Some of the major forms of food fermentation include alcoholic, lactic acid, and alkali fermentation. Alkaline-fermented products are mainly produced from legumes, pulses, and oilseeds, and these play a crucial role in the diets of millions of people. The pH increase during production of alkaline-fermented food products is attributed to the activities of Bacillus species (the dominant microorganisms during such fermentation), to hydrolyze proteins into ammonia and amino acids (Parkouda et al., 2009). Enujiugha et al. (2008) reported that the pH increased from 6.62 to7.38 in a mixed starter culture fermentation, an indication of an alkaline-based fermentation. Likewise is the significant increase in pH from 6.47 to 9.67 during the spontaneous fermentation of African locust bean (P. biglobosa) into iru by Bacillus subtilis (Oyedokun et al., 2016). Proteolysis is the most crucial metabolic activity during legume and oilseed fermentation, leading to the release of ammonia. During locust bean fermentation, for example, there are reported decreases in proteolytic activity after 36
48 h after initial increase in the enzyme activity (Oyedokun et al., 2016; Oyedokun et al., 2020). Past studies have also indicated increasing levels of non-protein and soluble nitrogen content as well as free amino acids, during traditional legume, pulse and oilseed fermentation. Enujiugha (2003) reported an increase in amino nitrogen from 1.23 mg/Ng dry wt. to 13.68 mg/Ng TABLE 5.1 Major African fermented foods and beverages from legumes, pulses, and oilseeds. Product

Raw material used

Food uses

Country/region

Afitin

African locust bean

Condiment

Benin

Datou

African locust bean

Condiment

Mali

Dawadawa

African locust bean/Bambara groundnut/soybean/

Condiment

Central and West Africa

Furundu

African locust bean

Condiment

Sudan

Iru

African yam bean

Condiment

West Africa

Kinda

African locust bean

Condiment

Sierra Leone

Ne´te´tou

African locust bean

Condiment

Senegal

Ogiri/Ogiri-igbo

Melon

Condiment

Central, East, and West Africa

Ogiri-nwan

Castor oil seed

Condiment

Nigeria

Ogiri-saro(sigda)

Sesame seed

Condiment

Sudan and Sierra Leone

Ogiri-ugu

Fluted pumpkin bean

Condiment




Ogboroti

African oil bean and melon seed

Condiment and delicacy

Nigeria

Okpehe/Okpiye

Mesquite

Condiment

Nigeria

Owoh

Cotton seed

Condiment

Nigeria

Soumbala

African locust bean

Condiment

Burkina Faso

Ugba

African oil bean

Salad

Nigeria

Tunjanee

Groundnut (Arachis hypogea) seed

Meat analog

Sudan

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dry wt. after 72 h of fermenting African oil bean seeds into ugba. This reflects high levels of protein hydrolysis to amino acids, and lower molecular weight peptides, based on the amino nitrogen in the study (an index of fermentation efficiency used to monitor the progress of fermentation of proteinaceous materials). During the fermentation of soybeans into soy-daddawa, Omafuvbe et al. (2000) reported an initial increase in titratable acidity after 24 h, which later reduced as fermentation progressed. Likewise, the reducing sugar increased in the first 24 h and subsequently dropped. Amylase activity on the other had continually increased with fermentation, reaching a maximum at 48 h, though accompanied by a decrease in total soluble sugar level. A similar trend was also reported by Enujiugha et al. (2002) in the fermentation of African oil bean into ugba. Protease activity also increased rapidly in the first 36 h and dropped giving higher amounts of free amino acids as fermentation progressed. Lipase and beta-fructofuranosidase activities were minimal in the fermenting seeds. It is important to note that enzymes play prominent roles in the fermentation of legumes, pulses, and oilseeds. Enujiugha et al. (2002), revealed that the α-amylase of P. macrophylla complemented the microbial amylases in the bacterial fermentation of African oil bean seeds to ugba. The study showed that while the α-amylase in the raw seeds was basically the plant enzyme, the one isolated from the fermented seeds was a combination of plant and microbial α-amylases. Some of the enzymes, such as lipases and proteases, that were found to be viable and flourishing in the microbial fermentation could be linked to the fast deterioration of the fermented products during storage (Enujiugha et al., 2004). The total titratable acidity increased gradually as fermentation progressed during the traditional processing of African oil bean seed into ugba (Enujiugha, 2003). In the production of ugba, an analysis of organic acids revealed the accumulation of butyric, lactic, acetic, formic, and acetic acids in the fermenting seed slices. After 72 h of fermentation, ugba contained 0.41, 0.35, 0.18, and 0.20 mg/g butyric acid, lactic acid, acetic acid, and formic acid, respectively, on a dry weight basis. Generally, in almost all fermentations involving Bacillus species, especially B. subtilis and Bacillus licheniformis, which are the dominant organisms implicated in indigenous legume and oilseed fermentations into condiments (Enujiugha et al., 2008; Enujiugha, 2009), there is commonly superfluous production of the primary organic acids, especially butyric acid. During the solid-state fermentation of indigenous legumes and oilseeds, the spores of B. subtilis and B. licheniformis germinate and overlay the seed mash/slices forming a sticky mucilaginous gum on the surface of the fermented bean/ seed product. This sticky gum or mucilage on substrate surface could also be attributed to the formation of complex saccharides and dextrins by the fermenting microorganism (Enujiugha et al., 2008). The major component of the mucilage secreted during such solid-state fermentations of some legumes, pulses, and oilseeds has been identified to be poly-γ-glutamic acid (γ-PGA). Several strains of B. subtilis that are responsible for the biosynthesis of γ-PGA have been isolated and characterized from different fermented vegetable products (Oyedokun et al., 2016). Gamma-PGA consists of D-and/or L-glutamate connected by amide bonds between γ-carboxyl and α-amino acid groups. Nwokeleme and Ugwuanyi (2015) identified a vast array of volatile flavor compounds during the production of ugba using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-Ms) analysis of fermenting African oil bean seeds. These researchers noted that the extract of oilseed fermented with B. subtilis yielded 30 aroma-related compounds comprising alcohols (3), amines (2) esters (8), hydrocarbons (10), sulfur compounds (2), and 1 acid, aldehyde, furan, ketone and phenol. Ugba flavors similar to other legume, pulse and oil seed-based fermented products are mostly formed during fermentation due to disintegration of large polymeric components and phytocompounds, as well as formation of metabolites by microbial activities during fermentation. Many of the aroma compounds identified in the study derived from the breakdown of carbohydrates (nonstarch polysaccharides), lipids (fatty acid), proteins (amino acid), and other bioavailable compounds in ugba through the activities of the microbial enzymes.

5.2.2 Nutritional composition of fermented foods from African legumes, pulses, and oilseeds Legumes, pulses, and oilseeds are nutritionally important in developing countries including Africa where protein
energy malnutrition (PEM) affects over 170 million preschool children and lactating women (Khalid and Elharadallou, 2013; Nedumaran et al., 2015). This is attributed to their high protein value (18.9% in African yam bean, to 36.49% in soybean), starch (60% in cowpeas), dietary fiber (11% in cowpeas to 25% in dry peas), and low lipid content (except the oilseeds) providing around 300
400 kcal/100 g. These seeds are also rich in minerals (iron, calcium, zinc, and selenium), vitamins (mostly water-soluble vitamins) and phytochemicals (Duodu and Apea-Bah, 2017). However, the utilization of legumes is limited by their hard-to-cook phenomenon, the presence of antinutrients as well as their association with bloating and flatulence. However, fermentation has been employed to improve the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of nutrients in legumes, pulses, and oilseeds (Adebo et al., 2022; Alka et al., 2012; Pranoto et al., 2013). These nutrient-dense raw materials are important components of the traditional cuisine of most communities in Africa (Marco & Golomb, 2016). During the fermentation of these legumes, there is usually an increase in

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

proteinase activity leading to an increase in total nitrogen and soluble proteins with an enhanced balance of essential amino acids as observed in fermented African oil bean seeds and Bambara groundnut during the production of dawadawa (Adebiyi et al., 2019; Azi et al., 2019). There is also an improvement in in vitro protein digestibility and protein efficiency ratio of the fermented legume products compared to the unfermented legumes (Azi et al., 2019). Fermented legumes are good sources of carbohydrates, of which the major component is starch, raffinose, and stachyose (Frias et al., 2019). When these legumes are fermented, the oligosaccharides are hydrolyzed to simple digestible sugars (Adebayo-Tayo et al., 2013) thereby reducing the indigestible carbohydrates that cause flatulence. Fermented legumes have been reported to have low glycemic index because their carbohydrates are complex compared to simple carbohydrates such as sugars, are slowly digested and absorbed by the intestine, which makes it attractive for diabetic patients (Atkinson et al., 2008). They are also richer in resistant starch than the unprocessed seeds, contributing to the total content of dietary fiber whose consumption is recommended for intestinal health (Granito & Alvarez, 2006). Lipids constitutes a major part of some legumes and oilseeds with high levels of triglycerides, monounsaturated fatty acids (oleic acid, 18:1), and polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic acids, 18:2 and a-linoleic acid 18:3) (Martı´n-Cabrejas, 2019). Earlier studies reported low lipolytic activities during ugba and dawadawa production (Njoku & Okemadu, 1989; Odunfa, 1985). The total saturated fatty acid of fermented African oil bean has been reported to be lower than the unfermented samples (Azi et al., 2019). Fermentation significantly increased the riboflavin, thiamine, niacin, and biotin content in tempeh-like Bambara groundnut products compared to the seeds (Fadahunsi, 2009). Fermentation can also reduce the concentration of PA (phytic acid) in legumes, which is responsible for “hard-to-cook” properties of legumes (Farinde et al., 2018); as well as chelating of minerals of physiological relevance such as calcium, iron and magnesium and, therefore, reducing their bioavailability. The reduction in PA (phytic acid) level has been ascribed to enzymatic activity of fermenting microorganisms to degrade PA or their complex (Deacon, 2005). Similarly, there is a decrease in the level of oxalate, tannin and phytic acids in dawadawa from Bambara groundnut as compared to Bambara groundnut seeds (Adebiyi et al., 2019). Oxalate salts are poorly soluble at intestinal pH and known to decrease mineral absorption, and interfere with their metabolism (Kaushik et al., 2018; Mohan et al., 2016). Tannins form complexes with digestive enzymes and other nutrients, causing a reduction in their bioavailability (Duodu & Apea-Bah, 2017). Fermentation of legumes, pulses, and oilseeds could thus result in breakdown and reduction in the contents of these antinutrients as reported in a number of studies (Adebo et al., 2018; Adebo et al., 2022; Hassan et al., 2015; NguyNguyeˆ~ nn et al., 2018; Osman, 2011), subsequently improving nutrient bioaccessibility of these products. A significant increase in mineral (calcium, phosphorus and potassium) contents were recorded after fermentation of African oil bean for ugba production (Nwokeleme & Ugwuanyi, 2015). Fermented foods prepared from African legumes, pulses, and oilseeds are rich sources of nutrients and varies depending on the raw materials used (Table 5.2). These fermented foods have potential as rich sources of macronutrients and micronutrients, to combat protein
energy malnutrition and micronutrient deficiencies prevalent in Africa.

5.2.3 Health-promoting constituents of African legume-, pulse-, and oil seed-based fermented products In Africa, fermented legume, pulse, and oil-seed products are consumed mainly for their flavor-enhancing and nutritional properties (Dabire´ et al., 2021), consequently, most research and industrial attentions are focused in these directions. Nonetheless, many studies have reported the potential of these products in modulating certain metabolic biomarkers for improved health (Ademiluyi et al., 2017, 2019; Ayo-Lawal, Osoniyi, Ilevbare, et al., 2020; Ayo-Lawal, Azeez, et al., 2020). This quest is borne out of the increasing consumer demand for functional flavor-enhancing products as a replacement for the mainstream chemical-based products, which have been implicated in etiological association with certain non-communicable diseases, such as cancer, diabetes, and hypertension (Zanfirescu et al., 2019). The bio-functional attributes of fermented legume products are correlated with their antioxidant properties and phytochemical constituents, such as polyphenolic compounds, (Devi & Rajendran, 2021; Dey et al., 2016) and bioactive peptides (Verni et al., 2019). Polyphenolic compounds in fermented legumes are inherent in the raw materials, especially in the seed coats (Duodu & Apea-Bah, 2017). The antioxidant activity of phenolics is based on their ability to donate hydrogen or electron from their
OH group to trap free radicals, thereby inhibiting products of oxygen metabolism, such as reactive oxygen species, superoxide anion, hydroxyl radicals, and hydrogen peroxide, and, which would otherwise cause stressmediated diseases (Dey et al., 2016; Verni et al., 2019). During fermentation, there is a secretion of vacuole and endoplasmic reticulum-bound phenols as a result of degradation of lignocellulosic compounds in the substrates by xylanase,

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TABLE 5.2 Chemical composition of some African fermented products from legumes, pulses, and oilseeds. Parameter

Dawadawa (from Glycine max)

Ogiri (from Parkia biglobosa)

Owoh (Gossypium hirsutum)

Ugba (from Pentaclethra macrophyla)

Okpehe (from Prosopsis africana)

Moisture (%)

52.0

44.1

46.6

34.4

9.46

Protein (%)

32.9

19.9

16.37

7.13

36.88

Ash (%)

3.6

3.0

2.21

1.11

4.84

Fat (%)

24.2

NR

20.76

19.72

11.35

Crude fiber (%)

4.0

15.60

6.01

2.93

2.99

Carbohydrate (%)

16.3

25.2

14.06

17.48

47.18

Calcium (%)

9.01

78.60

246.0

208.92

45.3

Iron (mg/100 g)

3.31

14.50

16.0

42.46

10.2

Magnesium (mg/100 g)

35.00

58.72

150.0

334.98

NR

Manganese (mg/100 g)

NR

1.15

NR

26.87

4.2

Phosphorus (mg/100 g)

80.00

91.17

NR

291.02

NR

Potassium (mg/100 g)

205.00

1075.00

464.50

110.39

183.1

Zinc (mg/100 g)

NR

1.17

119.7

9.23

14.2

NR, Not reported. Source: Adapted from Olasupo, N. A., & Okorie, P. C. (2019). African fermented food condiments: Microbiology Impacts on their nutritional values. In R. L Solis-Oviedo & Angel de la Cruz Pech-Canul (Eds.), Frontiers and new trends in the science of fermented food and beverage. IntechOpen.

laccase, cellulose, and glucosidase (Dey et al., 2016). The secretion of phenolic compounds is also associated with an increase in feruloyl-esterase and β-glucosidase activities during the solid-state fermentation of legumes (Pasquale et al., 2020). Besides, polyphenols are elaborated, as secondary metabolites, by the fermenting microorganisms (Dey et al., 2016). Although the mechanism is yet unclear, Dey et al. (2016) reported the elaboration of ferulic, gallic, and ellagic acids by Aspergillus sp. and Bacillus sp. following the hydrolysis of the ester bonds between sugars and ferulic acid by ferulic acid esterase. The polyphenolic content of fermented legume products is based on processing methods and the nature of substrates (Devi & Rajendran, 2021). Adebiyi et al. (2019) recorded a reduction in phenolic compounds, such as lamerioside, quinic acid, lalioside, medioresinol, catechin O-glucoside, caffeic acid derivatives, dihydro oleuropein, phenethyl-β-primeveroside, and quercetin-3-O galactosidase-7-O-rhamnoside during the spontaneous production of Bambara groundnut (V. subterranean)-based dawadawa. Likewise, Oboh et al. (2009) documented a reduction in bound phenolic compounds in condiments produced through spontaneous fermentation of kidney bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) and Bambara groundnut relative to the unfermented substrates. The studies attributed the reduction to phenolic compound leaching, catabolism by enzymes, such as oxidases, esterases, and hydrolases, and complexing with other compounds, such as proteins and sugars, during fermentation. Adebiyi et al. (2019) further reported a higher concentration of the listed phenolic compounds in dawadawa produced from hulled Bambara groundnut relative to the product from the dehulled samples. Despite the reduction in phenolic compounds fermentation, higher antioxidant properties were reported. This was attributed to the breakdown of phenolic compounds to other compounds that have higher antioxidant properties. The conversion of caffeic and chlorogenic acids to dihydrocaffeic and caffeic acids, respectively, was reported by Terefe & Augustin (2020). Also, compounds such as isoflavone, malonyl, and acetyl glucosides are converted to aglycones (Terefe & Augustin, 2020) and apigenin (4, 5, 7-trihydroxy flavone) derivatives (Landete et al., 2015). In some other studies (Ademiluyi & Oboh, 2012; Ademiluyi et al., 2017, 2019; Juan & Chou, 2010), an increase in phenolic compounds was reported in fermented legume products relative to the substrates. For example, Juan and Chou (2010) reported an increase in phenolic compounds and flavonoids following the controlled fermentation of black soybean (Glycine max) by B. subtilis 14715. Bioactive peptides are protein derivatives that are produced by proteolytic enzymes during the alkaline fermentation of protein-rich vegetables (Magro & Castro, 2020). Bioactive peptides have

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

radical-scavenging attributes because of their ability to donate protons to electron-deficient radicals of aromatic amino acids (Verni et al., 2019). The imidazole group in histidine-containing peptides confers antioxidant properties either by donating hydrogen, trapping lipid peroxyl radicals, or chelating metal ions (Verni et al., 2019). The health-promoting potentials of African fermented legume products have been proven by some ex vivo and in vivo studies. Ademiluyi and Oboh (2012) studied the effect of fermented locust bean (P. biglobosa), soybean, and Bambara groundnut feeding on the plasma of streptozotocin-induced Winstar rats and reported a reduction in glutathione-S-transferase, alkaline phosphatase, and aspartate transaminase and an increase in vitamin C in the diabetic rats. In a similar study, Ademiluyi et al. (2015) recorded an increase in pancreatic antioxidant status and a reduction in hyperglycemia and choline esterase activity in diabetic rats fed with condiments produced from locust bean and Bambara groundnut. Oboh et al. (2009) reported a reduction in thiobarbituric acid species, an indicator of liver lipid peroxidation, following the administration of ethanolic extracts from condiments produced from African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa), Bambara groundnut, kidney bean, and pigeon pea. They also reported that the fermented products performed better than the corresponding unfermented legumes. Ayo-Lawal et al. (2015) reported a reduction in low-density lipoprotein and an increase in high-density lipoprotein in hyperlipidemic rats fed with oil extracted from ogiri, a Citrullus vulgaris-based condiment. Ayo-Lawal, Osoniyi, Ilevbare, et al. (2020) also reported a reduction in the viability of cancer-inducing MCF-7 and KMST-6 cells following 48-h treatment with aqueous extract from locust beanbased dawadawa. Similar findings were obtained when the extract was used against cancer-hepatocellular, cervical, and liver cell lines (Ayo-Lawal, Osoniyi, Sibuyi, et al., 2020; Ayo-Lawal et al., 2021). From various literatures reviewed herein, there is evidence that African fermented foods derived from legumes, pulses, and oilseeds have potential health properties.

5.2.4 Microbiota of African legume-, pulse-, and oil seed-based fermented products Generally, the microbiota of fermented plant foods (including legumes, pulses, and oilseeds) depends mostly on the type of material or substrate used, pH, water activity, temperature, and salt levels (Adebo et al., 2017). The microbiota of African fermented products from legumes, pulses, and oilseeds varied among raw materials or substrates used (Table 5.3). It is also a function of the hygienic status of the production environment, raw material and the utensil used, and the handlers. The fermentation process involved in the production of the various condiments is usually natural with an attendant issue of product safety, quality and inconsistency. There may be slight variations in their production among communities in choice of raw materials as well as method due to the handed-down tradition from previous generations which may result in variations of microbiota. The three major types of microorganisms involved in fermentation of legumes, pulses, and oilseeds are bacteria of the genus lactic acid bacteria (LABs), Bacillus, some fungal species such as Aspergillus oryzae, Rhizopus oligosporus, and possibly yeasts. However, it has been observed that Bacillus species dominate in many of them (Olasupo & Okorie, 2019). Other diverse microorganisms associated with some African oilseeds fermented products are outlined in Table 5.3, and microbiology of some notable products described in the ensuing sections.

5.2.4.1 Microbiology of ugba Ugba (Fig. 5.1) is a product of alkaline fermentation of African oil bean seeds (P. macrophylla), popular in South Eastern Nigeria of West Africa. The product serves as a cheap source of protein both as a delicacy in native African salad made possible by fermentation for 2
5 days and as a food flavoring agent. During fermentation of African oil bean seeds, dominant microorganisms capable of enzymatic hydrolysis are responsible for the biochemical and nutritional changes which constitute the observable changes especially in the chemical composition and taste of the final product. Ugba being produced by a natural fermentation process allows participation of diverse microorganisms which does not rule out involvement of pathogenic and spoilage organisms especially if carried out under very poor hygiene practice common at household levels. Therefore, microbiota responsible for ugba production is often unpredictable. Studies conducted on the microbiological changes during fermentation of P macrophylla (African oil bean) seed for ugba production as well as other legume-, pulse-, and oilseed-fermented products reported Bacillus species as major fermenting microorganisms (Enujiugha, 2009; Omafuvbe et al., 2000; Olasupo et al., 2016). Protein being one of the main components of P. macrophylla (African oil bean) cotyledon and other legumes/pulses is catabolized by the enzymatic hydrolysis of prepared substrates by Bacillus species into amino acids and peptides. Bacillus strains obtained from fermenting African oil bean seeds and locust beans have also been reported to produce glutamic acid which all contribute to flavor of the condiment (Oyedokun et al., 2020; Olasupo & Okorie, 2019). Other

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TABLE 5.3 Microbiota of Some African fermented products from oil legumes, pulses, and oilseeds. Product

Raw material

Product form

Associated microorganisms

Country

References

Ugba

African oil bean

Salad/ condiment

Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus spp, Proteus, Escherichia, Micrococcus Pediococcus, Enterococcus spp., Staphylococcus, Corynebacterium Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes.

Nigeria

Olasupo et al. (2016)

Iru

African locust bean seed

Condiment

Bacillus spp., Pseudomonas spp., Staphylococcus aureus

Nigeria

Egbebi et al. (2016)

DawadawaAfifin/ SonruSoumbala NetetouKainda

Locust bean

Condiment

B. subtilis, Bacillus sp., Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Leuconostoc dextranicum, Kurthia, Pseudomonas, Staphylococcus, Listeria, Micrococcus

NigeriaBeninBurkina FasoSenegalSierra Leone

Adamu et al. (2018)

Dawadawa SoumbalaTempeh

Soybean

Condiment

B. subtilis, Bacillus licheniformis, Bacillus pumilus

NigeriaBurkina FasoGhana

Omafuvbe et al. (2000)

Ogiri

Melon seedCastor oil seedFluted Pumpkin seed

Condiment

B. pumilus, B. licheniformis, Lactobacillus, Enterococcus faecalis, B. subtilis, Pseudomonas, Streptococcus, Micrococcus, Staphylococcus sp., E. coli

Nigeria

Egbebi et al. (2016), Barber et al. (1989)

Owoh

Cotton seed

Condiment

B., B. licheniformis, B. pumilus, Staphylococcus spp.

Nigeria

Sanni and Ogbonna (1991), Olasupo and Okorie (2019)

Okpehe/Okpiye

Prosopsis africana seed

Condiment

Bacillus, Staphylococcus, Micrococcus, Enterobacter cloaca, Escherichia, Proteus, Klebsiella, Lactobacillus, Pseudomonas

Nigeria

Achi (1992)

Sigda

Sesame seedcake

Meat-like substitute

Pediococcus, Streptococcus, Candida, Saccharomyces, Debaromyces, Torulopsis

Western Sudan

Harper and Collins (1992)

Tunjanee

Groundnut seedcake

Meat-like substitute

Bacillus, Propionibacterium, Lactobacillus, Citrobacter, Enterobacter, Klebsiella

Sudan

Yagoub and Ahmed (2012)

groups of organisms found to be associated with the fermentation of this condiment include Pediococcus, Micrococcus, Escherichia, Proteus, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus, Alcaligenes, Pseudomonas, Enterococcus, Corynebacterium, (Olasupo et al., 2016). Staphylococcus spp. and Micrococcus spp. are very active at the early stage of the fermentation process, rapidly multiplying within 24 h and then decrease as fermentation progresses. They play subordinate role in the production process. Escherichia species, Pediococcus and Proteus are generally observed to play an insignificant role in the fermentation process.

5.2.4.2 Iru or Dawadawa and Ogiri This is a pungent condiment from Nigeria, Benin and other West African countries prepared by natural fermentation of P. biglobosa (African locust bean) for iru, melon (Citrullus vulgaris) and castor oilseed (R. communis) for ogiri (Enujiugha, 2009). The Yoruba tribe in Nigeria call fermented locust bean product iru, the Hausas, dawadawa (Fig. 5.2) and soumbala in Burkina Faso, netetou in Senegal, and kainda in Sierra Leone. Ogiri is made from a variety

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

FIGURE 5.1 African oil bean seed (Pentaclethra macrophylla) (A), dehulled seeds of African oil bean (B) and processed slices of the African oil bean cotyledon (C) (Okorie & Olasupo, 2013). From Okorie, P. C., & Olasupo, N. A. (2013). Growth and extracellular enzyme production by microorganisms isolated from ugba—an indigenous Nigerian fermented food. African Journal of Biotechnology, 12, 4158
4167.

of leguminous seeds such as castor oil, cotton seed, soybean seeds, Bambara groundnut, fluted pumpkin seeds, groundnut, etc. The key microorganisms involved in the fermentation are Bacillus spp., although Staphylococcus spp. occur in lower numbers (Antai & Ibrahim, 1986). Other microorganisms associated with the fermentation when diverse raw materials are used include Pseudomonas sp., Micrococcus, Kurthia, Listeria, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Leuconostoc dextranicum, Lactobacillus spp., and Enterococcus faecalis (Table 5.3).

5.2.4.3 Sigda Sigda is a fermented foodstuff indigenous to people of Western Sudan in Africa, produced by solid-state fermentation of sesame seeds (S. indicum). The microflora of the unfermented sesame seeds cake (raw material for Sigda) was dominated by Pediococcus sp, Streptococcus sp., Candida sp., Saccharoromyces sp., and Pediococcus sp. This was eliminated after second day of fermentation, and occurrence of the two yeasts was confined to first half of the fermentation period (Harper & Collins, 1992). The homofermentative lactic acid bacterium, Streptococcus sp dominated throughout most of the fermentation and additional yeasts Debaromyces sp. and Torulopsis sp. appeared in low numbers late in the fermentation process.

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FIGURE 5.2 Dawadawa or iru. From https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Dawadawa_from_Northern_Ghana.jpg.

5.2.4.4 Tunganee Tunganee is a Sudanese food prepared by traditionally fermenting groundnut (A. hypogea) seedcake for 21 days. Fermenting bacteria and coliforms found in tunjanee during processing included Bacillus spp., Propionibacterium spp., Lactobacillus spp., Citrobacter spp., Enterobacter spp., and Klebsiella spp. (Yagoub & Ahmed, 2012). Bacillus spp. dominated the first nine days of the fermentation, while the other bacteria occurred at various stages of the fermentation.

5.3

Conclusions and future perspective

African fermented products from legumes, pulses, and oilseeds are rich sources of macro- and micronutrients, and bioactive compounds that can serve as nutrition vehicle for the prevention of protein
energy and micronutrient deficiency, and hunger prevalence in Africa. Like other fermented products, the biochemical constituents and microbiota of fermented products from African legumes, pulses, and oilseeds are influenced by the raw material used, pH, water activity and temperature, hygiene conditions of the processors and sanitary conditions of the processing environment among others. This partly accounted for the variation in the quality of these fermented products consumed or marketed in different African communities. Therefore, further studies are still needed in the area of process optimization to ensure highquality product for local consumption and export. In addition, there is the need to investigate the occurrence of mycotoxins in African fermented products from legumes, pulses, and oilseeds marketed in various parts or regions in Africa because such information is relatively scarce in literature. This is important to guarantee the safety of products consumed within the region because these products are mostly produced by rural processors. Furthermore, bioavailability and bioaccessibility of phytonutrients and bioactive products from these fermented products should be investigated because majority of the works available in literature focused on macro- and micronutrient profiling. Therefore, vital studies are required to identify and quantify specific bioactive components such as peptides, phenolic compounds, as well as comprehensive profiling of the health-promoting constituents in these fermented products.

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Okorie, P. C., & Olasupo, N. A. (2013). Growth and extracellular enzyme production by microorganisms isolated from ugba- an indigenous Nigerian fermented food. African Journal of Biotechnology, 12, 4158
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Further reading Venkidasamy, B., Selvaraj, D., Nile, A. S., Ramalingam, S., Kai, G., & Nile, S. H. (2019). Indian pulses: A review on nutritional, functional and biochemical properties with future perspectives. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 88, 228
242.

Chapter 6

Asian fermented legumes, pulses, and oil seed-based products Subhrakantra Jena and Smita Hasini PandaT P.G. Department of Zoology, Maharaja Sriram Chandra Bhanja Deo University, Baripada, Odisha, India TCorresponding author. e-mail address: [email protected]

6.1

Introduction

Nature has been bestowed with diversified natural resources for the growth and development of human society. Asiatic countries represent large geographic regions with biological, socioeconomic, and cultural diversity (Harmayani et al., 2019). Among the basic requirements of daily life, foodstuffs are essential to get the energy to perform different activities and provide immunity to the human body to fight against infectious diseases. Globally, human health connectivity emphasizes good food quality, nutritious, healthy and safe food products (Ashaolu & Reale, 2020). The diversity of food products differs from region to region and culture to culture. The preference for functional food products has consistently increased over time to prevent malnutrition diseases and avoid other health hazards. The functional food products in different cultures are prepared through traditional recipes with lots of ingredients, which are believed to have high medicinal values with a large number of nutritional supplements. The traditional skills of different ethnic communities have emerged since the Vedic age and accumulated diversified knowledge of utilizing a wide range of plant parts of different species. According to the myths, these traditional products are believed to be so powerful in healing many diseases and disorders of the human body. Besides these medicinal properties, these herbal parts are a rich source of many nutritional supplements, which help to maintain the physical and mental health of the human body and boost the immunity to fight infectious diseases. This information is vanishing from society and culture due to modernization and should be conserved over time to tackle the forthcoming global issue concerning nutritional and health crises. These traditional ethnic food products are obtained through fermentation by lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (Ashaolu & Reale, 2020). Fermentation is a natural biological food preservation process, where microorganisms convert sugars into acids and alcohols (Hill et al., 2017; Wedajo Lemi, 2020). This process is widely used to process household dairy, meat, and plant products. This technique is also adopted by different industries to manufacture large-scale products of diary and alcoholic beverages and is mostly accomplished with a group of bacteria having probiotic properties (de Oliveira et al., 2021; Panagopoulos et al., 2022). These beneficiary microbes are so-called probiotics and represent the gut microbiota. Early reports suggest that these probiotics are involved in many health benefits such as improving gastrointestinal function, modulating and enhancing the immunity of the body, reduction of serum cholesterol, and lowering the risk of colon cancer (Ayivi et al., 2020; Swain et al., 2014). The LAB make the food products tastier, nutritious and maintain a good texture by synthesizing a wide range of novel effective metabolites (Bintsis, 2018). Asian traditional fermented foods products are fermented by LABs such as Lactobacillus plantarum, Lactobacillus pentosus, Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus casei, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus kimchi, Lactobacillus fallax, Weissella confusa, Weissella koreenis, Weissella cibaria, and Pediococcus pentosaceus, which are considered as the probiotic source of the food practice (Swain et al., 2014). In this review, we focused on traditional fermentation techniques and fermented food products mainly focusing on Asian countries intact with different cultures and traditions that exist in different communities of Asiatic countries. Further, this study correlates the past endogenous traditional techniques and fermented foods to the modern fermented techniques of the 21st century.

Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98341-9.00024-4 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

Lactic acid bacteria

LAB are a group of probiotic species of gram-positive bacteria, which differ phylogenetically but share similar physiological characteristics and metabolic pathways (Ga¨nzle, 2015). These bacteria are involved in the anaerobic fermentation and breakdown of the carbohydrate into lactic acids and alcohols and release carbon dioxide (CO2) as a by-product (Ayivi et al., 2020). The most significant property of these LABs is that they do not produce catalytic enzymes rather they produce superoxide dismutase, which removes Reactive oxygen species (Mora-Villalobos et al., 2020). LABs belong to the order Lactobacillales (phylum: Firmicutes) and come under the genera like Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Pediococcus, Lactococcus, Streptococcus, Enterococcus, Carnobacterium, Aerococcus, Oenococcus, Tetragenococcus, Vagococcus, and Weissella (Ayivi et al., 2020; Ga¨nzle, 2015). The species of LAB prefer to grow in the medium containing carbohydrate, amino acids, and other consumable substances, studies have shown that these species of LAB can grow till all the supplements of the medium is not finished and the toxic level of the medium is not increased (Cicho´nska & Ziarno, 2021). In an in-vitro condition, these species can grow in the medium containing tryptone, yeast extract, and lactose and can be detected through gram staining (Cicho´nska and Ziarno, 2021). LABs have great application in nature and support the economy, health and wealth. They are present in the human gut, urinogenital tract and help in fighting against urinary and infections. LABs are safe for consumption and are of great use in the production of organic acids, alcohols, aldehydes, esters, sulfur compounds, polyols, exopolysaccharides, and antimicrobial compounds. LAB lowers the pH of food, inhibits the growth of putrefactive bacteria, improves the organoleptic properties of food, enhances the nutrient profile, and optimizes health benefits (Behera et al., 2020). Owing to their significant nature, these species are also considered as probiotics and are categorized under (generally recognized as safe) (Cicho´nska & Ziarno, 2021).

6.3

Effect of fermentation on legumes and pulse-based fermented foods

Asiatic countries represent tropical and sub-tropical climates, which favor the cultivation of different species of legumes and pulses. These plant products serve as a common diet in Asiatic countries, which are rich sources of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. The people of these countries although different in many aspects like traditions, cultures, and the way of living but the inherited folk knowledge of utilizing the plant products are quite similar. Most of the products of these plants are prepared through different fermentation techniques. During the fermentation of the legumes and pulses a large number of biochemical reactions occurs with the involvement of probiotics, resulting in a wide range of metabolites. These metabolites are of great use in improving the quality of the human diet as well as human health in many ways.

6.3.1 Nutritional components obtained from the fermentation legumes Legumes are a rich source of proteins essential for the growth and development of the body. In Asiatic countries, people are more creative in making new and innovative food formulation techniques and consuming different dishes made up legumes. The people of rural and urban areas have been skilled with traditional fermentation techniques of utilizing legumes to design fermentation products like condiments, gruels, soups, beverages and porridges (Adebo et al., 2017). Several kinds of research have been conducted on the nutritional profiling of these fermented products and suggest the presence of both macronutrients (amino acids, vitamins, and minerals) macronutrients (carbohydrate, crude fats, fatty acids, and proteins). Besides the nutritional components, some of the antinutritional constituents like trypsin inhibitors, tannins, etc. are present in these types of fermented products. The variability factors like mode of preparation, benefits, cultural significance and nutritional supplements of different cereal and legumes-based fermentation products are listed in Table 6.1.

6.3.1.1 Protein and amino acids Fermentation is the best technique to extract the improved proteins from the legumes (Adhikari et al., 2013; Kumitch, 2019). Proteins are the most vital biomolecule, which are involved in most of the metabolic activities. Although the daily requirement standard is less in comparison to the carbohydrates. During fermentation, bacteria breakdown complex storage proteins into simple essential proteins and amino acids. Legumes are the most preferred protein source in the human diet with good qualities of proteins and essential amino acids. The percentage of proteins and amino acids varies with the different species of legumes (Curiel et al., 2015), when these legumes are exposed to fermentation the protein and the amino acid contents increases as like in the cereals. This improvement of the proteins through fermentation could resolve the protein deficiency issues in society. Early studies on the fermentation of Vigna racemose flour indicate that there is also a chance of decreasing the percentage of protein and AAs content from the stock after fermentation by 12% (Rizo, 2020). In North-eastern region of India the fermented

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TABLE 6.1 Cereal, pulses, and legumes-based fermented products of Asian countries are listed. Pulses

Products

Name of the microorganism

Country

References

Black lentils

Amriti

LAB and yeasts

India

Steinkraus (2018)

Black gram

Bhallae

Bacillus subtilis, Candida sp., Cryptococcus humicoius, Debaryomyces hansenii, Enterococcus faecalis, Geotrichum candidum, Hansenula sp., Kluyveromyces marxianus, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Limosilactobacillus fermentum, Pediococcus membranaefaciens, Rhizopus marina, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Trichosporon sp. and Wingea robertsii

India

Soni (2007)

Chickpeas, green gram and rice

Dhokla

E. faecalis, L. mesenteroides, Streptococcus faecalis, and Torulaspora sp.

India

Sathe and Mandal (2016)

Black gram dhal (Phaselus mango) and rice

Dosa

Bacillus amyloliquefaciens, E. faecalis, Candida sp., Lactobacillus sp., L. mesenteroides and Streptococcus faecalis

India, Sri Lanka

Soni et al. (1986)

Black gram and rice

Idli

B. amyloliquefaciens, Candida versatilis, Enterococcus faecium, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, Lactococcus lactis, L. mesenteroides, Pediococcus sp., Streptococcus sp. and yeast

India, Malaysia, Singapore, Sri Lanka

Frias et al. (2017)

Bengal gram and chickpeas

Khaman

Bacillus spp., Lactobacillus sp., L. mesenteroides and Pediococcus acidilactici

India

Ramakrishnan (1979)

Black gram

Maseura

Bacillus sp., Candida castellii, Pediococcus sp. and S. cerevisiae

India, Nepal

Chettri and Tamang (2008)

Black gram and spices

Mashbari

Bacillus sp. and S. cerevisiae

India

Sharma et al. (2013)

Black gram, Dangal, spices

Sepubari

Bacillus sp. and S. cerevisiae

India

Kanwar and Bhushan (2020)

Black gram

Vadai

Leuconostoc spp., Pediococcus spp. and Streptococcus spp.

India

Blandino et al. (2003)

Black gram or Bengal gram

Wari

B. subtilis, Candida curvata, Candida famata, Candida krusei, Candida parapsilosis, Candida vartiovaarai, Cryptococcus humicolus, Debaromyces hansenii, Debaromyces tamarii, E. faecalis, G. candidum, Hansenula anomala, K. marxianus, Rhizopus lactosa, S. cerevisiae, Trichosporon beigelii and Wingea robetsii

India, Pakistan

Tafere (2015)

Legumes

Products

Name of the microorganism

Country

References

Bengal gram

Dhokla

B. cereus, Ent. faecalis, Leuc. mesenteroides, L. fermenti, Tor. candida, Tor. pullulans

India

Roy et al. (2009)

Black gram

Dosa

Bacillus sp., L. fermentum, Leuc. mesenteroides, Streptococcus faecalis and yeast

India

Frias et al. (2017)

Black gram

Idli

L. delbrueckii, L. fermentum, L. lactis, Leuc. mesenteroides, Strep. lactic, Ped. Cerevisiae and yeast

India, Sri Lanka

Frias et al. (2017)

Bengal gram dhal or Chickpeas

Khaman

Bacillus sp., L. fermentum, Leuc. mesenteroides, Lact. Lactis and Ped. Acidilactici

India

AssohounDjeni et al. (2016)

Black gram

Maseura

B. laterosporus, B. mycoides, B. pumilus, B. subtilis, C. castellii, Ent. durans, Ped. acidilactici, Pediococcus pentosaceus, L. fermentum, L. salivarius, S. cerevisiae and Pichia burtonii

Nepal, India

van der Aa Ku¨hle et al. (2001)

Black gram

Mashbari

Bacillus sp. A94, Lactobacillus sp. and S. cerevisiae

India

Adebo et al. (2017)

(Continued )

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TABLE 6.1 (Continued) Mung bean

Probiotic food

L. plantarum B1
6

China

Aka et al. (2014)

Black gram, dangal, spices

Sepubari

Bacillus sp. A31., Lactobacillus sp. and S. cerevisiae

India

SawadogoLingani et al. (2007)

Black gram

Vadai

Leuconostoc sp., Pediococcus sp. and Streptococcus sp.

India

Togo et al. (2002)

Black gram and oil

Wadi

L. fermentum and L. mesenteroides

India

Olasupo et al. (2010)

Bengal gram or Black gram

Wari

B. subtilis, Candida. sp., Cryptococcus humicolus, Debaryomyces sp., Ent. faecalis, G. candidum, H. anomala, Kl. marxianus, Lactobacillus bulgaricus, S. cerevisiae, Strep. thermophiles, Trich beigelii and Win. robetsii

India, Pakistan

Tafere (2015)

Soybean

Bekang & Kenima

Bacillus sp., D. hansenii, Enterococcus sp., and S. cerevisiae

India

Nout and Sarkar (1999)

Soybean

Aakhone/ Axone

B. subtilis and Proteus mirabilis

India

Singh et al. (2014)

Soybean

Cheonggukjang

Bacillus sp., Pantoea sp., and Enterococcus spp.

Korea

Shin et al. (2016)

Soybean

Douchi

Enterobacter sp., S. cerevisiae, and Staphylococcus sp.

China, Taiwan

Chen et al. (2012)

Soybean curd

Furu

Bacillus sp. and Staphylococcus hominis

China

Sumino et al. (2003)

Soybean

Hawaijar

Alkaligenes spp., Bacillus sp., and Staphylococcus sp.

India

Chaudhary et al. (2018)

Soybean

Kinema

Bacillus sp., C. parapsilosis, E. faecium and L. lactis

Indonesia

Kumar et al. (2019)

Soybean

Natto

B. subtilis (natto)

Japan

Kimura and Yokoyama (2019)

Soybean

Pepok

Bacillus spp.

Myanmar

Nagai & Tamang (2010)

Soybean

Peruyyan

Bacillus sp., and E. faecalis

India

Das et al. (2016)

Soybean

Tofu (stinky tofu)

Bacillus spp., Enterococcus hermanniensis, Lactobacillus sp., Lactococcus sp., Leuconostoc sp., P. acidilactici, Streptococcus sp. and Weissella sp.

China, Japan

Chao et al. (2008)

Soybean

Tungrymbai

Bacillus sp., Enterococcus sp., S. cerevisiae and Vagococcus carniphilus

India

Chettri and Tamang (2015)

soybean food is an economical source of plant protein as compared to animal and milk products on the basis of protein cost per kg (Satish Kumar et al., 2013). The Kenima is one of the fermented product made in the North-eastern region of India obtained from the soyabean seeds, it has been observed that during the fermentation process the level of free amino acids increases with other nutritive components (Sarkar et al., 1997; Tamang et al., 2009; Tamang, 1998).

6.3.1.2 Carbohydrates and starch fractions Carbohydrates are the major source of glucose and the metabolism of carbohydrates produces a large amount of energy as compared to other food supplements like proteins and fats. During fermentation, the starch is catabolized through the probiotic species to produce more carbohydrates and energy. The fermentation of legumes also increases and decreases

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the carbohydrate content. The early report suggests that the reduction of the starch content occurs in Vigna sinensis seed varieties that is from 24.3% to 22.33% in the orutico variety and from 29.7% to 22.9% in the buy variety, which happens through the enzymatic activities of the microbes (Doblado et al., 2003; Granito et al., 2005). Different carbohydrate levels like amylose, amylopectin, and the structural composition of carbohydrates become decreases during the fermentation process (Asp, 1996).

6.3.1.3 Fats and fatty acids During the fermentation of legumes, the percentage of the fat is also reduced through the fat metabolism by microorganisms. This reduction of the fat percentage during the fermentation process may be due to the breakdown of the lipids by the lipase secreted by the microorganisms involved in this process or by leaching materials present in the water introduced in this process.

6.3.1.4 Ash and mineral composition In the formation of legumes fermented product like soymilk, mung, bean flour both the ash content and the mineral content for example, Ca, Mg, P, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe increases (Gulewicz et al., 2014; Wakil & Onilude, 2009). The fermentation of soyabean seeds increase the mineral content in the fermented product named as Kenima (Nout & Sarkar, 1999).

6.3.1.5 Vitamins The fermentation of different legumes produces vitamin B and vitamin E (Frias et al., 2005). Similarly, the levels of vitamin A, B1, B2, B3, α-, γ-, and δ-tocopherols were reportedly reduced in fermented common bean, cowpea, lupin, and mung bean by 5%
106% (Barampama & Simard, 1995; Doblado et al., 2003; Frias et al., 2005; Onwurafor et al., 2014). Kenima is a fermented food obtained from the soyabean seeds and during fermentation the LABs count increase (Nout & Sarkar, 1999) and resulting the enhancements of vitamin-B complex and antioxidant activity (Sarkar et al., 1997; Tamang et al., 2009; Tamang, 1998). Increase in carotene and folic acid has been reported in tungrymbai (Agrahar-Murugkar & Subbulakshmi, 2006).

6.3.2 Functional components in fermented pulse-based foods Pulses are a rich source of dietary functional components, basically the proteins and bioactive compounds of human interest. These supplements not only provide energy to the body but also helps to tackle different health issues. During fermentation of the pulses, many bioactive metabolites are synthesized by the LABs (Table 6.1). So, it is very essential to note down the records, emphasizing the nutritional, antinutritional components and their application in the nutritional and health aspects of mankind.

6.3.2.1 Phenolic compounds Phenolic compounds are the phytochemicals-containing hydroxyl group (-OH) attached to the hydrocarbon groups, which include flavonoids, tannins, saponins, and phenolic acids (Adebo et al., 2017; Frias et al., 2017; Singh & Basu, 2012). These phenolic compounds are reserved in the plant tissues and perform biological activities (Duen˜as et al., 2004). The phenolic components are greatly affected by various factors like harvesting time, climatic factors, fermentation, and storage conditions (Manach et al., 2004; Pandey & Rizvi, 2009). Over the years the isolation and the implications of phenolic compounds for health benefits have been studied with great interest. These compounds provide pigmentations, flavor, taste, and have antioxidant properties, which attracts researchers to investigate more core things about its source and biomolecular action (Ozcan et al., 2014). Early studies reveal that the presence of antioxidant properties in the pulses can reduce the toxins of the body as well as able to heal cancer (Oboh et al., 2009; Xu & Chang, 2007). The fermented pulses and their products have been reported to exhibit strong antimutagenic, anti-inflammatory, and anticarcinogenic properties (Frassinetti et al., 2015; Huang et al., 1992; Oboh et al., 2009). Idli, dhokla, common bean, and tempeh products exhibit lipid peroxidation and scavenging properties (Moktan et al., 2011). The fermented products of mung beans result in the formation of antioxidants, which can reduce the hyper cholesterol content in the body (Yeap et al., 2015). Some epidemiological studies have shown that the intake of polyphenolic-rich diets can reduce chronic human diseases (Arts & Hollman, 2005; Scalbert et al., 2005). The spontaneous fermentation of the lentils produces hydroxybenzoic acid and (1)-catechin content (Bartolome´ et al., 1997). Some documentation reported that the glycosidases and esterase produced by LABs

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release free aglycones, phenolic acids, hydroxyl-cinnamic acids, and less esterified proanthocyanidins (Duen˜as et al., 2004; Esteban-Torres et al., 2015; Limo´n et al., 2015; Oboh et al., 2009).

6.3.2.2 Protease inhibitors, lectin, and phytates Pulses constitute minor antinutritional components like protease, lectin, and the phytase and negatively affect the digestion of dietary stuff and involve in the alteration of the glucose transport (Boye et al., 2010; Campos-Vega et al., 2010; Frias et al., 2017). Pulses are a great reservoir of protease inhibitors belonging to the Boman-Brik and play a great role in inhibiting the binding sites of the chymotrypsin and trypsin in the protein metabolism of human digestion (Campos-Vega et al., 2010). Besides their involvement in the digestion of the protein, several reports also suggest that these Boman-Brik family proteases show anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic effects in human colon cancer cells (Chen et al., 2005; Clemente & del Carmen Arques, 2014; Clemente & Domoney, 2006; Clemente et al., 2005; Duranti, 2006). Lectins are another major components found in the pulses and are glycoprotenacious in nature. Early reports suggest that lectin content is important in the agglutination of the blood and is regarded as phytohaemagglutinins (Klupˇsait˙e & Juodeikien˙e, 2015). The lectins are also important from the immunological and cell biology aspects and studies reveal that these lectins have an inhibitor effect on the tumor growth and exert antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and HIV-1 reverse transcriptase inhibitory activities (Campos-Vega et al., 2010). Another antinutritional factor phytate is also present in the pulses and helps in the chelating the minerals like magnesium, calcium, zinc, and iron, thus contributing to mineral deficiencies (Hurrell et al., 1999; Khan et al., 2012). Several reports suggest that phytic acid also plays a role in the DNA repair and the exporting of nuclear messenger RNA (Campos-Vega et al., 2010; Hanakahi et al., 2000). In vitro and in vivo studies reported that during the fermentation of the pulses the inositol hexaphosphate (InsP6, phytic acid) is produced, which is very essential in cancer prevention, tumor abrogation, host defense mechanism, and reduction of cell proliferation (Shamsuddin, 2002). Besides these activities, the phytic acids also reduce the bio-aviability of toxic heavy metals and antioxidant properties, and in some cases, these are also used as a food preservative (Kingsley & Marshall, 2014).

6.3.2.3 Fiber and saccharides Pulses contain 15%
32% of both soluble and insoluble fibers. Fiber contents in the diet make the body healthy and improve the body’s healing process (McCrory et al., 2010). The soluble fiber mostly contains the oligosaccharides like pectins, stachyose, verbascose, and raffinose, on the other hand, the insoluble fibers include lignin, cellulose, and hemicellulose (Frias et al., 2017; Maphosa & Jideani, 2017; Van Horn, 1997). Fibers are involved in reducing the risk factors of many diseases like being overweight, cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and some forms of cancer (Fardet, 2010; Slavin et al., 2009). The soluble fiber is fermented in the stomach and produces short-chain fatty acid, which maintains the body’s cholesterol level, the density of lipoprotein, and insulin concentration in the blood (Glore et al., 1994; Maphosa & Jideani, 2017; McCrory et al., 2010). Although pulses are a good source of protein for our daily diet, these pulses also contain amylose, which helps in managing diabetes and improvement of satiation (Hoover et al., 2010; Lehmann & Robin, 2007). In Asia, fermented foods like tempeh and idli are a good source of starch, which is an easily digestible diet and maintain the blood glucose level (Frias et al., 2017; Guillon & Champ, 2002; Veena et al., 1995). In Asian countries, mung bean is consumed to control diabetes (Yeap et al., 2012). Some studies reveal that the fermentation of the pulses increases the digestibility of fiber, starches, and saccharides (Yadav & Khetarpaul, 1994). The fermentation of two common Vigna unguiculata beans (drum and oloyin) by L. plantarum, and L. fermentum decrease stachyose content by over 50% (Yadav & Khetarpaul, 1994).

6.3.2.4 Proteins and peptides Pulses constitute high protein content and other nutritional supplements. The lentil, chickpea, and dry pea contain approximately 28.6%, 22%, and 23.3% protein, respectively, which may vary slightly depending on growing conditions, maturity, and variety (Adebo et al., 2017). Some important proteins like glutelins, albumins, and globulins are present in the pulses and through fermentation, these constitute greatly enhanced the nutritional quality of the product (Duranti & Gius, 1997). During fermentation, the hydrolysis of the proteins present in the mung bean, pea, and chickpea undergo proteolysis and generate bioactive peptides, which can reduce the gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, nervous, and immunological (Duranti & Gius, 1997). The therapeutic properties like antioxidant activity, copper chealating activity, enhancement of mineral absorption, antiproliforative and antimicrobial potential of peptides and hydrolysates have obtained from mung bean, pea and chickpea (Zambrowicz et al., 2013). Mung bean has been repoted to be have angiotensin I-converting enzyme (Wu et al., 2015).

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Conclusion and future prospective

Generally high-quality, ethnic, and traditional fermented pulses and legumes are important for human society and culture in Asian countries. The various studies related to the fermentation of cereals, legumes, and pulses demonstrate that the LABs involved in the fermentation of different plant products produce nutritive supplements through the metabolism and enhance the food quality by increasing the protein contents, reducing the sugars and the fats. Besides that, the fermented products are easily digestible and provide faster energy. Most significantly, these LABs also reduce the toxins and the antinutritional factors mostly tannins, phytate, and oxalic acid, which make these fermented products more accessible. Several studies should be conducted on the bacterial identification at the genomics and metagenomics level and the characterization of the bacterial toxins as well as the biochemical metabolites taken into consideration. The biotechniques like 16sRNA are useful for the identification of microbiota involved in the fermentation, other techniques like recombinant DNA technology (cDNA), sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gelelectrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), polymerase chain reaction are thereby which the purification of the proteins and amplification of the targeted genes of the LABs can be easily investigated. For the compilation and the regional diversity of the LABs of human gut microbiota and the naturally occurring bacteria can be done by the molecular phylogenetic study, where the Restriction fragment length polymorphism, Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), mass spectrometry (ESI-TOF Ms) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionizing time-of-flight mass spectrometry, can be a great use for this. The food processing through traditional techniques of fermentation does not need any infrastructure, is less cost-effective, and takes a few days to get products. This makes the rural and the urban people establish a business to support their families to fulfill the financial aspects as well as the national economy of their concerned country. Besides the nutritional aspects, these fermented products also have health benefits, which may build a healthy society free of disease and infections. More research should be conducted to conserve the information on the traditional processes of fermentation of different plant-based products and to explore the beneficiary metabolites to make a hunger-free and healthy world.

1. Amrirti, 2. Dhokla, 3. Idli, 4. Maseura, 5. Sepubari, 6. Dosa, 7.Vadai, 8. Douchi, 9. Hawaijar, 10. Natto

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Chapter 7

South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products Gustavo Sandoval-Can˜as1,2,T, Francisco Casa-Lo´pez3, Juliana Criollo-Feijoo´3, Edgar Fernando Landines-Vera4 and Roberto Ordon˜ez-Araque2,5 1

Agroindustry Career, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources, Technical University of Cotopaxi—UTC, Latacunga, Cotopaxi,

Ecuador, 2School of Nutrition and Dietetics, Faculty of Health and Welfare, Iberoamerican University of Ecuador (UNIB.E), Quito, Pichincha, Ecuador, 3Food Engineering Career, Faculty of Chemical and Health Sciences, Technical University of Machala-UTMACH, Machala, El Oro, Ecuador, 4Bachelor’s Degree in Gastronomy, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, University of Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Guayas, Ecuador, 5School of Gastronomy, University of the Americas (UDLA), Quito, Pichincha, Ecuador TCorresponding author. e-mail address: [email protected]; [email protected]; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5125-8576

7.1

Introduction

Legumes and pulses belong to the family Leguminosae, which has about 650 genera and more than 1800 recognized species and are considered as the second largest food source on the planet. A legume is deemed to be a dried seed from leguminous plants and has a low-fat content. In contrast, the term legume is used for the dried seed crops of leguminous plants, excluding peas and beans considered as vegetables. Also excluded from this group are peanuts and soybeans, which are considered as oilseeds (Tiwari et al., 2011). Legumes, pulses, and oilseeds are consumed in tropical and subtropical countries and are part of the daily diet of their inhabitants, especially in indigenous communities. This type of food offers many benefits in agriculture and nutrition and that’s why the World Health Organization and most nutritionists recommend their regular consumption (World Health Organization, 2007). In addition, these products are a great source of complex carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, vitamins, minerals, and polyphenols (Pokorny´ et al., 2001; Tiwari et al., 2011). Fermentation is a process in which secondary metabolites are formed to improve the sensorial characteristics of food and confer benefits to other organisms. This process helps to improve the quality and digestion of proteins. The use of seeds, pulses, and legumes in fermentation processes is not very common in South America, and at the same time, it has not been extensively studied, nor there are any studies related to the subject (Deshpande, 2000; Tosh & Yada, 2010). On the other hand, indigenous communities use raw materials similar to leguminous plants with high carbohydrate and protein contents to produce fermented products (Chacon et al., 2020). This chapter presents some fermented products that are made with legumes, palms, and mucilaginous seeds as cocoa. The Amazon region from South America is the most biodiverse region globally with at least 40,000 plant species and covers an area of 6 million square kilometers distributed in nine countries (Foley et al., 2007; Garda et al., 2010; Mittermeier et al., 2003). Among the great variety of plants, the Arecdeaceae family, commonly known as Palms, stands out. A wide variety of ethnobotanical studies has shown the cultural and economic importance of palms in the lifestyle of indigenous communities and settlers in the Amazon region. According to C ¸ akir et al. (2019), at least 194 palm species are used in the Amazon region for construction materials, handicrafts, hunting, folk medicine, and food. The palm species with the most significant commercial importance is Morete in Spanish Language (Mauritia flexuosa), which is known by different names in all South America. Following it will be presented some of the names in the different countries: In Ecuador it is named as Morete, as royal palm in Bolivia, buriti in Brazil, cananguche—can˜angucha—moriche in Colombia, Palmier baˆche in French Guyana, itah in Guyana, aguaje in Peru, and moriche in

Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98341-9.00035-9 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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Venezuela. Communities such as the Sikuani, situated in Orinoquia region, Colombia,use it to make handicrafts, roofs, and walls, making it an essential resource for community development, and they also use its stems, leaves, and fruits. In addition, its pulp can be used as food, as well as for the production of ice cream, cakes, flour, oil, and fermented beverages (Galeano, 1991; Liu et al., 2019; Rull & Montoya, 2014; Sampaio et al., 2008). Another widely used plant by different native cultures in South America is Bactris gasipae, which is commonly known as chontaduro in Ecuador. It is a palm highly distributed in many Latin American countries, and in each of them, it has different names among which we can find the following: chima or chonta in Bolivia; pupunha in Brazil; chontaduro or pijiwuao in Colombia; pare´pou in French Guyana; pijuayo or pifuayo in Peru, pijiguaio, and piritu in Venezuela (Smith, 2015a). The domestication of this palm dates back to pre-Columbian times, so it can be found from Honduras to Bolivia in gardens, agroforestry crops, and monocultures due to the interest in the heart of the palm for local consumption and export (Clement et al., 2009; Wales & Blackman, 2017). Unlike palm trees, Prosopis alba trees are widely distributed in dry areas such as the northwestern part of Argentina. This species, commonly known as white carob, is valuable to native economies (Cattaneo et al., 2019). The genus Prosopis belongs to the family Fabaceae, subfamily Mimosoideae and comprises 44 species distributed mainly in arid and semi-arid, tropical and subtropical countries (Pe´rez et al., 2014). This tree tolerates extreme temperatures, drought, salinity and contributes nitrogen to the soil, thus allowing its regeneration. When the productivity of the tree decreases, its high-quality wood can be marketed. Foods made from different Prosopis species are numerous such as beverages (an˜apa, aloja, and chicha), syrup, flour, sweets (arrope, patay, jam). These are very important in the diet of Amerindians in the Paraguayan Chaco of Chile (Pe´rez et al., 2014). One of the most important plants in the world is the Cacao tree (Theobroma Cacao), which belongs to the Malvaceae family and is native to tropical regions. It is presumed that its origin is in Central America. However, there are studies in Ecuador that demonstrate the use of the plant approximately 5000 BC Furthermore, a study conducted at the archeological site Santa Ana-La Florida (Palanda), in what is now the current province of Zamora-Chinchipe, demonstrates the social use of the plant, since remains of several plants were found on the common waste of the MayoChinchipe Maran˜o´n culture, including cocoa dating from 3490 to 3360 BC (Ordon˜ez-Araque & El Salous, 2019; Zarrillo et al., 2018). This, in contrast to previous studies, provides evidence of the plant’s use in Mexico from approximately 1800
1000 BC (Powis et al., 2011). The remains of the Mayo-Chinchipe culture were found in ceramics and utensils used by the ancient inhabitants of the region. It is not known exactly how they used the plant, but remains of cocoa were found in utensils that were used exclusively to put beverages; this shows that not only did they consume cocoa, but they also made a chocolate beverage, which must have had several presentations including a fermented beverage. It is also presumed that it was consumed as food because it was in calcined domestic waste. To corroborate this, carbon-14 tests were carried out on the remains found, and the alkaloid theobromine was detected by chemical analysis, with positive results. Therefore, it is very likely that the origin of cocoa and its domestication began in the Amazonian cultures established in what we know today as Ecuador (Ordon˜ez-Araque et al., 2020; Powis et al., 2011; Valdez, 2012). Next, the details of the different processes used to make fermented products are described by using the previously mentioned plants. It is worth mentioning that the bibliographic search process carried out by the authors was exhaustive. For this chapter, the main databases were consulted: ScienceDirect, Scopus, Web of Science, Springer, Pubmed, and Scholar Google.However, as mentioned before, there are not many studies or scientific evidence on the use of legumes, pulses, and oilseeds in fermentation processes to produce food products by indigenous communities in South America.

7.1.1 Cauim It is a fermented alcoholic or non-alcoholic beverage. Several indigenous communities in Brazil make the beverage. Substrates used for brewing include rice, cassava, peanuts, cotton seeds, and sweet potato (Freire et al., 2017). Sweet potato serves as an inoculum for the preparation. First, the cassava is soaked in water for 3 to 4 days to soften the rind. Then, it is peeled, sun-dried, grated, and ground. The beverage is fermented with 2 kg of cassava and 1 kg of rice (the most common) in 30 L of water, to which peanuts or cotton seeds can be added. Then, the inoculum (sweet potato) is added by chewing little by little. The beverage is rested for approximately 48 h at room temperature which depends on the weather, generally between from 30 C to 40 C (Almeida et al., 2007; Chacon et al., 2020). Fig. 7.1 shows the process of making cauim.

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FIGURE 7.1 Flowchart of cauim’s preparation.

7.1.2 Chicha of chontaduro (sweet chicha) The chontaduro plant (Bactris gasipaes) is a native palm from the Amazon. It has been domesticated since preColumbian times and is used to produce certain foods. For example, the transformation of chontaduro pulp into flour has been used since the mid-19th century in cakes, pastries, and bread (Murillo-Gallardo & Pullupaxi-Chiluisa, 2019). In addition, due to its high starch content, it is used to prepare alcoholic beverages by different indigenous communities in the western Amazon region that call it caic¸uma, chicha, or masato, like as the process to obtain cassava beverages. This beverage is used in commemorative events in indigenous communities and as a substitute for water (Lo´pezArboleda et al., 2010). The method used by indigenous communities to make caic¸uma consists of cutting the apex of the fruits before cooking and eliminating the fat it contains. Then, the pulp is cooked with water, after the fruits are crushed with or without peel. The product obtained from cooking is called masato by the Shuar culture from Ecuador. Afterward, the obtained

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mass is chewed by the community women to generate hydrolysis of the starches in the pulp that are converted into reducing sugars due to enzymatic action (Chacon et al., 2020; Hirsch, 2017). Finally, the liquid obtained is taken to special vessels known as “muits” (Clay pot to ferment chicha). In addition, old chicha is added as a starter culture where the yeasts that initiate the fermentation process are obtained. These vessels are covered by leaves where they are kept for 1 to 5 days for the fermentation process (Andrade et al., 2003; Chacon et al., 2020; Smith, 2015a). Fig. 7.2 and Image 7.1 shows the elaboration process of this beverage and can be observed in both.

FIGURE 7.2 Flowchart of chontaduro chicha’s preparation.

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IMAGE 7.1 Chontaduro chicha’s (A) Chontaduro’s reception and washing. (B) Apex cutting and peeling. (C) and (D) Crushing. (E) Putting and covering in muits. (F) Fermentation. (G) Beverage ready for consumption. Photographs by Gabriela Chaco´n (Professor at the University of Cotopaxi) for this chapter in the province of Pastaza—Madre Tierra parish.

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7.1.3 Chicha of morete The morete (Mauritia flexuosa) is an aquatic palm that can grow in different types of environments, at altitudes between 300 and 1000 m above sea level (Smith, 2015a). Its stems, leaves, and fruits are used by communities such as the Sikuani to make handicrafts, roofs, and walls, making it an essential resource for the development of societies (Galeano, 1991; Sampaio et al., 2008) and its pulp can be used as food as also used for the production of ice cream, cakes, flour, oil and fermented beverages (Rull & Montoya, 2014). The communities of the Sikuani (Colombia), Kiwcha,and Zapara (Ecuador) people use the pulp of the fruit to prepare chicha, a fermented beverage, which is used in ceremonies as part of the daily diet, as well as to welcome visitors (Torres-Mora et al., 2015). The preparation of chicha starts with the collection of ripe fruits that are distinguished by their dark red coloration. Then, the pulp is washed with a brush and soaked in warm water, taking care not to exceed the temperature (50 C
70 C) to avoid changes in the texture and flavor of the beverage. After softening the fruit by soaking, the pulp is peeled, crushed, and mixed with water in clay pots that allow the microorganisms to carry out the spontaneous fermentation process, or an inoculum of previously fermented chicha is added. Finally, it is left to ferment for 1
5 days (Balslev et al., 1997). Fig. 7.3 shows the elaboration process of morete’s chicha.

FIGURE 7.3 Flowchart of morete’s chicha preparation.

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7.1.4 Peanut Chicha Chicha is a traditional alcoholic beverage produced in Colombia and other South American countries like Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Different substrates are used to obtain this beverage, such as corn (Zea mays), pineapple (Ananas comosus), arracacha (Arracacia xanthorhriza), chontaduro (Bactris gasipaes), peanuts (Arachis hypogaea), and wheat (Triticum sativum). In general terms, its preparation consists of mixing the raw material before mentioned with water and “panela” which is the name for sugar cane in Ecuador and Peru. Other supplements can be used such as cloves, cinnamon, orange leaves. The fermentation process runs from 15 to 20 days for cereals and from 4 to 8 days for fruits, tubers, and peanuts at room temperature between 10 C and 32 C (Lo´pez-Arboleda et al., 2010). Fig. 7.4 shows how peanut chicha is prepared.

FIGURE 7.4 Peanut’s chicha flowchart preparation.

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7.1.5 Aloja—paraguay Aloja is a term used to name certain beverages in Latin America that were generally prepared from fruits that are either non-alcoholic or low in alcohol content. In northern South America and the Andean desert of Peru, this term mainly refers to the beverage made from algarroba or molle fruit (Biscola et al., 2017). The aloja beverage is prepared by crushing ripe carob pods (“pods” or “algarroba”) with wooden or stone mortars, adding water, and letting the mixture ferment in leather bags (“noque”) or large wooden or clay pots (“bilqui”). These containers are covered and stored in cool, dark places, left to ferment for 3
10 days; then the sediment is removed by hand, and the rest of the mixture is filtered through a cloth and placed in bottles for immediate consumption (the aloja has a very short shelf life). If the fermentation is too extensive, a solid-tasting beverage is produced. In this case, ground pods and water are added, with the resulting beverage being both sweet and spicy (I. Rodrı´guez et al., 2020). The following flowchart (Fig. 7.5) shows the process of making aloja beverage.

FIGURE 7.5 Flowchart of aloja’s beverage preparation.

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7.1.6 Fermented cocoa In cocoa cultivation, the post-harvest process plays a vital role in the development of the quality of the raw material used later for chocolate production. As soon as the cocoa pod is cut, several biochemical processes are triggered by the fermentation of the mucilage that coats the cocoa bean. The mucilage is rich in fermentable sugars, which allows the growth of different species of yeast and bacteria. However, the methods used to ferment cocoa differ significantly depending on the country and the fermented variety (Roini et al., 2019). Fermentation of cocoa beans is done in wooden boxes. The beans are manually placed in the boxes and covered with banana plant leaves. They are fermented for 4 to 5 days at room temperature, which ranges between 30 C and 45 C, during which time the cocoa is stirred every 2 days (Afoakwa et al., 2008). The process may vary depending on the cocoa species used. Below, in Image 7.2, the fermentation process can be observed (Lima, Lı´ et al., 2011; Nigam & Singh, 2014; Samaniego et al., 2020). This process, because of the presence of several microorganisms, starts several enzymatic reactions. It is possible to obtain beverages in pots, when the seed is left to stand together with the mucilage and water in pots for a particular time, and at the end, a fermented cocoa beverage has been obtained (Ordon˜ez-Araque et al., 2020).

IMAGE 7.2 Cocoa beans drying and fermentation. (A) Putting coca beans in wooden boxes to dry. (B) Drying cocoa beans under the sun. (C) Cocoa beans fermentation. Photographs by Ignacio Jime´nez (agricultural researcher at INIAP) for this chapter, in the province of Los Rı´os, Quevedo City, Ecuador.

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The following Table 7.1 summarizes fermented products based on legumes, pulses, and oilseeds.

TABLE 7.1 South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products. Product

Raw material

Product form

Country/region

References

Cauim

Rice, peanuts, cotton seed, and corn

Fermented beverage

Brazil

Chacon et al. (2020)

Chicha

Chontaduro (Bactris gasipae)

Fermented beverage

Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia, Peru´

Chango-Simban˜a (2006)

Chicha

Morete (Mauritia flexuosa)

Fermented beverage

Ecuador, Brazil, Colombia, Peru

Rull and Montoya (2014), Smith (2015b)

Chicha

Manı´ (Arachis hypogaea)

Fermented beverage

Peru

Lo´pez-Arboleda et al. (2010)

Aloja

Vainas de algarrobo (Prosopis alba)

Fermented beverage

Paraguay, Argentina, Bolivia, Peru, Chile

Rodrı´guez (2020)

Fermented cocoa

Cacao (Theobroma cacao)

Fermented beverage

Ecuador, Peruu´, Colombia

Chaves-Lo´pez et al. (2014)

7.2 Biochemistry of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products Most of the products fermented by the indigenous people of South America are made by spontaneous fermentation. In addition, characteristic utensils and techniques are used according to the tradition of each tribe or community. It is important to highlight, the microorganisms present in these products promote unique biochemistry. For example, chicha of chontaduro is made by chewing so that the saliva of each person involved in the process can contribute to specific microorganisms. For this reason, the sensorial characteristics of the products are very different and should be studied in depth (Freire et al., 2016). Beverages with a low alcohol content contain a higher amount of lactic acid bacteria (LAB), some studies have shown a rapid decrease in acidity causing enzymatic reactions and inhibition of pathogenic microorganisms because of these kinds of bacteria. The interaction between LAB and yeasts is associated with the production of carboxylic acids resulting in a decrease in pH. In addition, these interactions cleave proteins into soluble nitrogen compounds (Saranraj et al., 2019). Wide varieties of microorganisms are present in the cauim beverage. For example, a study by Almeida et al. (2007) shows that 113 strains can hydrolyze soluble starch, and 73 strains can secrete protease enzymes. The species found were Bacillus and Lactobacillus. Among the protease-producing species is Bacillus licheniformis, which has intense protease activity. In contrast, the genus Lactobacillus has a weak proteolytic activity. On the other hand, the species Lactobacillus plantarum showed proteolytic and amylolytic activity (Almeida et al., 2007; Freire et al., 2017). In the fermentation of chicha of chontaduro, alpha-amylases act to split disaccharide and polysaccharide molecules. Andrade et al. (2003) study, shows how a transformation occurs in the first 24 h of fermentation with an increase in the percentage of sugars from 0.03% to 18.02% due to enzymatic action. Then there is a decrease to 1.07% due to the fermentative action performed by the yeasts. After that, there is an increase in alcohol content of 12.74% and a reduction in pH from 5.86 to 3.62 (Murillo-Gallardo & Pullupaxi-Chiluisa, 2019). Fig. 7.6 shows the changes produced by the enzymatic and fermentative action.

South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products Chapter | 7

20

7

18

6

14

5

12

4

pH

%

16

10 8

3

6

2

107

FIGURE 7.6 Changes in pH, % alcohol, and % sugars during fermentation of chicha of chontaduro. Adapted from Andrade, J., Pantoja, L., & Maeda, R. (2003). Melhoria do rendimento e do processo de obtenc¸a˜o da bebida alcoo´lica de pupunha (Bactris gasipaes Kunth). Cieˆncia e Tecnologia de Alimentos, 23, 34
38. https://doi.org/ 10.1590/s0101-20612003000400007.

4 1

2

0

0 0

24

48

72

96

120

144

168

Time - hours Sugars (%)

Alcohol (%)

pH

In peanut chicha, the method of artisanal production and the period of spontaneous fermentation may vary. These factors determine the alcoholic content of chicha (1%
12% v/v). The raw material and natural microenvironment provide the microbial inoculum to convert sugar to ethanol during fermentation (Lacerda & Freitas, 2017). The fermentative parameters for chicha production have not yet been established. The beverage is ready for consumption when the sweetness disappears, and the flavor becomes semi-acidic (Puerari et al., 2015). The strains isolated from Peruvian chicha can assimilate different and unusual carbon sources, such as sorbose, glucosamine, ribose, arabinose, rhamnose, melibiose, cellobiose starch, among others. Microorganisms inhabit a complex and changing environment throughout the fermentation process. Their ability to adapt to these changes is essential, closely related to their capacity to develop stress responses under such conditions. In addition, yeasts produce specific extracellular hydrolytic enzymes that may be relevant for growth on atypical substrates. Some of the enzymes produced are pectinases, proteases, β-glucanases, β-glucosidases, cellulases, hemicellulases, cellobiases, and enzymes involved in starch degradation. These enzymes can play an essential role in the variety of flavors developed on the final product (Grijalva-Vallejos, Aranda, et al., 2020; Grijalva-Vallejos, Krogerus, et al., 2020). In the aloja beverage, the study conducted by Rodrı´guez (2020), determined that the total sugar and reducing sugar content in the beverage was higher than in the an˜apa (sweet preparation, made with algarrobo) samples. This was due to the degradation of polysaccharides and glycosylates composed by the natural microflora of P. alba pods during fermentation. After the third and tenth day of fermentation, the number of sugars decreases, and the amount of ethanol increases. The ethanol content is similar to commercial beers (between 5.2% and 6.7%). The main phenolic compounds present in the beverage are C-glycosyl flavonoids, apigenin derivatives (vicenin II and vitexin), and phenolic acid (cinnamic acid) (Herrera & Suarez, 2020; I. Rodrı´guez, 2020).

7.3 Nutritional composition of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products Fermentation is carried out by microorganisms to transform the raw material and obtain energy and by-products. The process provides a product that is nutritionally enriched and stable due to its lower carbohydrate and complex proteins content. In addition, the shelf life of the products could be increased, making it a preservation method. Because of the biochemical reactions, new aromas, flavors, and textures are produced. This can be beneficial in Aloja because it has a short shelf life. Thus, the sensorial characteristics of the products are improved. Generally, aromas and flavors result from the production of carbonyl compounds, organic acids, alcohols, lactones, and pyrazines. The nutritional value of

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

the products is enhanced by fermentation due to the production of organic compounds that are not usually present in the original substrates. Likewise, the products contain molecules with higher bioavailability which is attributed to the thermal and soaking processes (Deshpande, 2000; Ordon˜ez et al., 2019) Some studies show that pre-fermentation methods help to unfold proteins into sulfur-containing amino acids. On the other hand, cooking helps break down proteins by increasing their digestibility but may cause a decrease in vitamins and minerals (Ordo´n˜ez-Araque & Pardo-Yoza, 2018). There are no specific studies on the nutritional composition of the beverages reported in this chapter, but there are studies on the nutritional composition of the raw material, which can be a reference for consumption (Chaco´n Mayorga et al., 2021; Chango-Simban˜a, 2006; Lima, Lı´ et al., 2011; Pimentel et al., 2021; I. F. Rodrı´guez et al., 2020). Thus, it is crucial to carry out specific studies on each product to have a reference. Chicha of chontaduro is made from the pulp of the fruit. In the study by Johannessen (1967), variability in nutritional composition was identified among 18 samples from different trees, and from these analyses, the following results were identified: 76.4
40 g/100 g moisture, 9.45
1.61 g/100 g lipids, 1.76
0.93 g/100 g fiber, 2.85
1.37 g/100 g protein, 0.82
0.52 g/100 g ash, 603
70 μg/100 g carotene, 2.38
0.10 g/100 g vitamin C and 44.32 g/100 g starches. According to Andrade et al. (2003), the chontaduro beverage can have an alcohol concentration range from 2.46% to 12%, a pH ranging from 3.48 to 3.62, and high energy, fiber, and β-carotene content. In peanut chicha, the Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains present in the beverage are particularly suitable for fermentation because they tolerate acidic media, and many species can grow at high temperatures. In addition, they are characterized by the production of high levels of alcohol and volatile compounds, as well as flavor-enhancing molecules such as ethyl esters, aldehydes, ketones, and organic acids that contribute to the sensory characteristics of fermented foods and organic acids (Grijalva-Vallejos, 2020; Santos et al., 2012; Ye´pez et al., 2017). There are no specific studies on the nutritional content of chicha of morete. However, Carneiro and Carneiro (2011) and Manha˜es and Sabaa-Srur (2011), determined specific nutritional parameters of the fruit (Mauritia flexuosa), such as lipid content 13.85 2 18.16 g/100 g and carbohydrates of 8.25 2 25.53 g/100 g, respectively. In addition, it can be emphasized that the fruit is a good source of carotenoids (44600 μg/100 g), ascorbic acid (31.86 mg/100 g), vitamin A and has considerable antioxidant activity (Koolen et al., 2013; Medeiros et al., 2015; Milanez et al., 2016; Pacheco, 2005). Regarding the aloja beverage, there are no specific studies on the nutritional value of the beverage. However, previous studies have shown that the carob pods have high concentrations of sugars, ranging from 40% to 50% m/m. They are composed mainly of fructose, glucose, and sucrose. Their protein content is around 5%, and they contain minerals such as calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphate, zinc, selenium, and potassium (Ray & Montet, 2015; I. Rodrı´guez, 2020). As indicated by Rodrı´guez (2020), studies on the chemical composition of P. Alba mesocarp and seed meal, the presence of phenolic compounds are 0.5% and 1.2%, respectively, have been demonstrated. In addition, there the presence of o-flavonol glycosides as components of phenolic extracts enriched with Prosopis seeds and mesocarp meal of the carob plant has also been indicated. The physicochemical characterization of the cauim and the nutritional composition of chicha of chontaduro and aloja are shown below (Tables 7.2 and 7.3) (unfortunately, no other scientific studies have been carried out to know the chemical and nutritional composition of more detailed products).

TABLE 7.2 Chemical characterization of cauim. Product

Proteine

Soluble starch

Maltose

Glucose

Fructose

Lactic Acid

Acetate

Ethanol

References

Cauim

3.0%
5.0%

14.5%
1.2%

120
480 μg/ mL

32
170 μg/ mL

30 μg/mL

750 μg/ mL

10 μg/ mL

5 μg/mL

Almeida et al. (2007), Chacon et al. (2020)

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109

TABLE 7.3 Nutritional composition of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products. Product

Ash

CHO

Ener

Fat

Fiber

Moisture

Protein

pH

Alcohol

References

Chontaduro Chicha

1.6%

63.6%




18.7%

8.3%

53.6%

7.8%

3.48
3.62

2.46%
23%

Andrade et al. (2003), Smith (2015a), Sotero et al. (1996)

Aloja




0.9%
1%




Not detected

0




40 6 1 (mg BSA/L)1




5.2%
6.7%

Herrera and Suarez (2020), I. Rodrı´guez (2020)

7.4 Health-promoting constituents of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products There are no specific studies on the activities that Legume-Pulse-Oil Seed Fermented Products (LPOFP) can present. Therefore, exhaustive research on the characterization of these indigenous products is necessary to have a study reference and demonstrate the benefits they can offer when consumed. Bioactive compounds do not have a specific classification, but several authors classify them according to their structure, physical and chemical properties, and potential health benefits. Some of them are phenolic compounds, isoprenoid derivatives, fatty acids, fiber, and polysaccharides, isothiocyanates, prebiotics (a class of fibers), and probiotics. Probiotics are cultures of microorganisms that benefit the host microbiota. Prebiotics also indirectly help the organism (G. Adewumi, 2019; Ordon˜ez-Araque & Narva´ez-Alda´z, 2019; Sandoval-Can˜as & Ordon˜ez-Araque, 2020; Sorndech et al., 2018). Among some of the products that have been studied for their beneficial health properties, as aloja. This beverage is made from the cotyledons of P. alba, which are a source of macronutrients and biologically active molecules. In addition, the protein hydrolysate obtained from the seed meal showed antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. These properties of the seed flour make it a potential ingredient for developing functional foods to prevent chronic diseases associated with inflammatory processes (Cattaneo et al., 2019). Aloja beverage is consumed for its refreshing characteristics and its perceived “health” benefits. Therefore, the nutritional and phytochemical composition was studied, and some functional properties such as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and enzyme inhibitory activity were linked to the metabolic syndrome of the mesocarp and cotyledon flours of the pods. Among the bioactive compounds found, phenolic compounds, glycosyl flavonoids, and o-flavonol glycosides are the main components in the enriched phenolic extracts of Prosopis seeds and mesocarp meal (Cattaneo et al., 2016). Other studies show that Aloja beverage has been used for medicinal purposes for centuries and has demonstrated that carob flour has activity against ulcers, childhood diarrhea, and intestinal infections. Carob pods contain fibers (pectin and lignin) that help in the maintenance of the intestinal microbiota (G. A. Adewumi, 2018; Melini et al., 2019; I. F. Rodrı´guez, 2020). In addition, they have been shown to inhibit the growth of colon cancer cells. The polyphenols in the pods have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-rheumatic properties. Carob pods have been used as a treatment for rehydration after extreme diarrhea and for the treatment of acute-onset diarrhea (Elshahed et al., 2020; Ray & Montet, 2015). The beverage contains mainly macronutrients such as sugars and phenolic compounds such as flavonoids, vitexin and vicenin II, apigenin-hexoside-rhamnoside, quercetin, and cinnamic acid. Rodrı´guez (2020) showed the antioxidant activity of this beverage due to the presence of a wide variety of phenolic compounds. Table 7.4 shows the main bioactive compounds and the benefits that fermented products can provide.

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

TABLE 7.4 Main bioactive compounds and health benefits of fermented products made of legumes, pulses, and oilseeds. Product

Bioactive compounds

Health benefits

Source

Cauim

Organic acids: lactic (main), acetic.

Probiotic effect. Biopreservation effect. Antioxidant

Lacerda and Freitas (2017), Melini et al. (2019), Tamag and Kailaspath (2010)

Chicha of chontaduro

No scientific information

Probiotic effect. Biopreservation effect.

Frias et al. (2017), Melini et al. (2019), Ramos et al. (2015), Tamag and Kailaspath (2010)

Peanut chicha

Riboflavin, thiamine, and Bvitamins.

Probiotic effect. Reduction of cholesterol and triglyceride.

Frias et al. (2017), Melini et al. (2019), Ramos et al. (2015), Tamag and Kailaspath (2010)

Chicha of morete

No scientific information

Probiotic effect. Biopreservation effect.

Frias et al. (2017), Melini et al. (2019), Ramos et al. (2015), Tamag and Kailaspath (2010)

Aloja

Free phenolic compounds, non-flavonoids, flavonoids, flavones, and flavonols. Vitexin, vicenin II, apigeninhexoside-rhamnoside, quercetin, and cinnamic acid.

Activity against ulcer, childhood diarrheas, and intestinal infections. Maintain beneficial intestinal microbiota and can inhibit the growth of colon cancer cells. Antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic properties. Rehydration following extreme diarrheas,

Adewumi (2019), Herrera and Suarez (2020), Melini et al. (2019), Ray and Montet (2015), Rodrı´guez, (2020), Tamag and Kailaspath (2010)

Fermented cocoa

Phenolic compounds, nonflavonoids, flavonoids, flavones, and flavonols.

Anticancer, antidiabetic, antiinflammatory, antioxidant, and cardioprotective activities Probiotic effect.

Domı´nguez-Pe´rez et al. (2020), Mayorga-Gross et al. (2016), Schwan and Wheals (2004)

7.5

Microbiota of South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based products

The prevalence of filamentous fungi in LPOFP is due to the low moisture content of the fermentation process. The combinations of microorganisms usually found are yeasts-molds, yeasts-bacteria, and molds-bacteria, which are important to give specific and unique characteristics to the LPOFP (Chacon et al., 2020). The microorganisms with the most significant presence in the fermentation processes are yeasts, lactic acid, and acid-acetic bacteria. The different processes involved in each of the LPOFP preparations are fundamental generating an environment conducive to the development of the microorganisms. In addition, the substrates used help develop specific products due to the action of yeasts, LAB, and AAB (Colehour et al., 2014; Resende et al., 2018). In the chicha of morete, the production process is similar to that of juice production. However, there are no references to the microorganisms that produce fermentation in this fruit. Therefore, it can be inferred that fermentation is produced by a consortium of microorganisms, among which are the yeast species S. cerevisiae and Torulaspora delbrueckii associated with the elaboration of chicha of jora, chicha of morocho, seven-grain chicha, and chicha of yuca (Pilo´ et al., 2018) At the beginning of the winemaking process, it is possible to detect the greatest diversity of yeasts. As the process progresses, in the intermediate and final phase, yeasts appear that are characterized mainly by their alcohol-resistance and high fermentative power, such as S. cerevisiae (Esteve-Zarzoso et al., 2001). The consortium of microorganisms found in fermentation has similarities and differences among Latin American countries in cocoa fermentation. However, they coincide in the presence of enterobacteria, bacilli, yeasts, LAB, and BAA (Papalexandratou et al., 2011). Among the majority of species that are found in cocoa fermentation in Ecuador, as Lactobacillus fermentum, Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides, Acetobacter pasteurianus, Pichia Kudriavzevii, Pichia manshurica, and S. cerevisiae (Freire et al., 2016; Papalexandratou et al., 2011). Concerning to chicha of chontaduro, yeasts and LAB are the two microorganisms used in its preparation. Studies conducted at the Technical University of Cotopaxi in Ecuador show the presence of these microorganisms. The main microorganisms of the LPOFP can be found below (Table 7.5).

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111

TABLE 7.5 Microorganisms used in South American fermented legume, pulse, and oil seeds-based Products. Product

Microorganisms Responsible for fermentation

References

Cauim

Lactobacillus plantarum, Torulaspora delbrueckii, Lactobacillus acidophilus

Freire et al. (2017)

Chicha of chontaduro

Yeast: Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida sphaerica, Candida utilis LAB: Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus casei, Sporolactobacillus, Lactococus.

Clement et al. (2009), Murillo-Gallardo and Pullupaxi-Chiluisa (2019), Smith (2015a)

Peanut chicha

S. cerevisiae and T. delbrueckii

Pilo´ et al. (2018

Chicha of morete

S. cerevisiae

Esteve-Zarzoso et al. (2001)

Aloja

Bullera variabilis, Candida famata, Cryptococcus spp., Debaryomyces hansenii, Pichia angusta, Pichia ciferrii, Pichia Farinose, T. delbrueckii, and Candida spp., Kluyveromyces and Pichia spp.

Spencer et al. (1996)

Fermented cocoa

Yeasts: Candida tropicalis, Candida sorbosivorans-like, Hanseniaspora opuntiae, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Pichia kluyveri, Pichia Kudriavzevii, Pichia manshurica, Rhodotorula minuta, S. cerevisiae, T. delbrueckii. LAB: Enterococcus casseliflavus, Enterococcus saccharolyticus, E. saccharolyticus 97%, Enterococcus sp., Fructobacillus durionis, Fructobacillus ficulneus 98%, Fructobacillus tropaeoli 98%, Lactobacillus amylovorus, Lactobacillus cacaonum, Lactobacillus coryniformis, Lactobacillus fabifermentans, Lactobacillus farraginis, Lactobacillus fermentum, Lactobacillus garvieae, Lactobacillus nagelii, L. plantarum, Lactobacillus sp., Lactobacillus satsumensis, Lactobacillus lactis subsp. Lactis, Leuconostoc fallax, Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides, Streptococcus salivarius, Weissella cibaria, Weissella fabaria. AAB: Acetobacter cibinongensis, Acetobacter lovaniensis/ fabarum, Acetobacter malorum/cerevisiae 98%, Acetobacter malorum/indonesiensis 98%, Acetobacter fabarum, Acetobacter ghanensis, Acetobacter orientalis, Acetobacter pasteurianus, Acetobacter peroxydans, Acetobacter pomorum, A. pomorum, Acetobacter senegalensis, Acetobacter syzygii, Frateuria aurantia, Microbacterium lacticum, and Gluconobacter oxydans, Gluconobacter spp.

De Vuyst and Weckx (2016), Ho et al. (2018), Leal et al. (2008), Ordon˜ez-Araque et al. (2020), Ouattara et al. (2017)

7.6

Conclusions and future directions

The custom of using legumes, pulses, and oilseeds is typical of Asia and Africa, but not of South America, where raw materials such as roots, tubers, fruits are more commonly used. Unfortunately, there are very few studies on indigenous fermented foods in South America. However, the information shows the use of similar raw materials to elaborate fermented products such as different species of palms and carob trees. It is important to mention that cocoa seeds have been used since prehistoric times. Nowadays, has been used to obtain fermented raw material that is used in the preparation of different products such as chocolate. For this reason, fermented cocoa beans and their preparation process were considered in this chapter. Research shows its importance in the region and the world. In addition, its origin is probably in South America, specifically in Ecuador. Fermented products with legumes, pulses, and seeds can provide nutritional, functional, and health benefits. For this reason, they should be studied to promote their consumption in the everyday lifestyle. In addition, they can be an alternative to processed and ultra-processed products since they are free of cholesterol, lactose, and gluten. This could help vegetarians, celiac disease patients, and lactose-intolerant people.

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On the microbiological side, the products mentioned in the chapter contain large consortia of microorganisms such as yeasts, LAB, and BAA, which can offer probiotic properties. In addition, they can be used as starter cultures to produce other fermented products. On the other hand, it is vital to analyze how our ancestors fed themselves and which practices and processes we can reproduce for our benefit. With this, it will be possible to improve fermentation processes and rescue ancient practices coupled with the current search for a better diet. Finally, the scientific community needs to investigate the different types of fermented foods that the indigenous people of our region produce. With this, we will be able to obtain valuable information for the improvement and production processes.

Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank Otniel Freitas Silva and Antonio Gomes Soares for giving us the honor of being part in this important project, and we are proud to contribute in the elaboration of this book. We would also like to thank the main editors of the text for considering us. We hope that the information presented will be valuable and the beginning of further research on this topic.

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Chapter 8

African fermented fish and meat-based products Oluwaseun P. Bamidele1,T, Adeyemi A. Adeyanju2, Obiro C. Wokadala1 and Victor Mlambo1 1

School of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Sciences, University of Mpumalanga, Nelspruit, South Africa, 2Department of

Food Science and Nutrition, Landmark University, Omu-Aran, Kwara State, Nigeria TCorresponding author. e-mail address: [email protected]

8.1

Introduction

Food fermentation is one of the ancient methods of food preservation and preparation that not only prevents rotting but also improves the physicochemical and nutritional quality of foods, resulting in improved sensory attributes. In fact, fermentation to produce autochthonous fermented food is ethnically known (Ravyts et al., 2012), and the production of functional foods of medicinal value is now significantly increasing. There has been a substantial surge in study into manufacturing processes and quality evaluation, particularly their function in the well-being of people, in numerous places in the world. A variety of foods including milk, cowpea, soybean, beef, and fish are fermented in Africa (Ilango & Antony, 2021; Ladokun & Oni, 2014). Fermentation has been utilized by humans to make food and beverages since the Neolithic period. This process produces lactic acid which aid in the preservation of the foods (Mani, 2018). Natural fermentation (microorganisms mostly sourced from raw materials and the environment) and artificial fermentation (which may include the inclusion of a starter to manage fermentation) are two types of fermentation processes (Sivamaruthi et al., 2020). Traditional fermented meals are one of humanity’s intangibles (Lee, 2018). Traditional fermented meat and fish delicacies, for example, have long been a part of various cultures (African) for generations. Fermentation of meat and fish began as a method of preservation as both meat and fish are highly perishable in most hot climates (Joardder & Masud, 2019). Fermented meat and fish products that are vital source of minerals and vitamins for many people around the world, as well as a considerable supply of protein (Steinkraus, 1994; Tamang et al., 2020). Common fermented meat and fish products in Africa are the following: Afo-nnama (Nigeria), Dodey (Sudan), Momoni (Ghana), Soudjouk (Egypt), Feseeckh (Egypt), and Lanhouin (Anihouvi et al., 2006; Dirar, 1994; El Sheikha et al., 2014; El-Sebaiy & Metwalli, 1989; Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018; Uzogara et al., 1990). The enzymatic activity of the meat/fish and the metabolic action of the microbe throughout the fermentation process might alter the nutritional and bioactive characteristics of the meat and fish matrix, resulting in beneficial impacts on human health. Antioxidant, antihypertensive, antiproliferative, anticancer, and anticoagulant effects may be obtained from the consumption of fermented meat and fish items (Ashraf et al., 2020). The demand for traditional or locally fermented meat and fish continues to rise globally because of the special flavor, and preservative property of fermented meat and fish. However, owing to technological advancements such as cold storage for meat and fish preservation, the role of fermentation in meat and fish preservation is becoming obsolete (Ashraf et al., 2020).

8.1.1 Fermentation mechanism and its biochemistry Fermentation can be simply defined as a deliberate process that uses microorganisms (bacterial, yeast, and mold) to turn substrates (food materials such as milk, meat, fish, and cereals) into new products. Depending on the type of fermentation, microorganism converts NADH, and pyruvate produced during the glycolysis stage into NAD1 and other small molecules. In the presence of oxygen, NADH and pyruvate are used to produce ATP (Kailasapathy, 2013). This process is known as oxidative phosphorylation, and it produces far more ATP than glycolysis alone. Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98341-9.00025-6 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

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The first step, glycolysis, is common to all fermentation pathways (Fig. 8.1): The chemical formula for pyruvate is CH3COCOO. Inorganic phosphate (Pi) is a type of inorganic phosphate. Substrate-level phosphorylation converts two ADP molecules and two Pi molecules to two ATP and two water molecules. In addition, two NAD 1 molecules are reduced to NADH (Mani, 2018). Phosphorylation occurs at the substrate level in glycolysis (ATP generated directly at the point of reaction). Most fermented foods (Yoghurt, Sauerkraut, and Kombucha), including the major items consumed in the Western world as well as many more from less well-known origins, rely on LAB to mediate the fermentation process (Tamang & Kailasapathy, 2010). LAB improves the physicochemical characteristics of sausages while inhibiting the growth of some other bacteria. LAB, if not properly handled it may cause spoilage in meat products. Slime and a foul odor in sausages was attributed to some lactic acid bacteria (LAB) (Vierira et al., 2021). The most common microorganisms employed in starter culture production are listed in Table 8.1. LAB contains the most microorganisms utilized in starter culture preparation, followed by Micrococcus (Xie et al., 2015). Lactic acid bacterial lack functioning hemi linked electron transport chains and a functional Krebs cycle, all LAB generates lactic acid from hexose and receive energy through substrate-level phosphorylation. LAB is a mesophilic organism that can thrive at temperatures as low as 5 C and as high as 45 C. While most strains grow best at pH 4.0
4.5, some are active at pH 9.6 and others at pH 3.2. For development, strains require preformed amino acids, purine and pyrimidine bases, and group B vitamins, which are typically weakly proteolytic and lipolytic (Abekhti et al., 2014).

8.1.1.1 Natural/traditional fermentation (spontaneous) During the fermentation process in the production of fermented meat and fish, there is a decrease in pH (from 5.7 or 5.5 to 4.6 or even 4.2), in relation to the type of meat or fish (Behera et al., 2018). Fermentation can take anything from a few hours to many days, depending on the type of meat or fish. Meat or fish fermented at temperature such as 37 C or higher may achieve pH value that is lowest quickly (Katz, 2012). A pH of 4.6
5.0 is attained at temperatures of roughly 24 C, while a higher pH is achieved at a slower rate at lower temperatures. The amount of added sugar has the greatest impact on lowering the pH, but it has no effect on the pace of acid formation (Katz, 2012). During the maturation process, which can span anywhere from a few weeks to many months following fermentation, the pH increases. Fermentation is caused by natural contaminating bacteria or the addition of LAB (Waters et al., 2015). Back slopping was utilized to initiate the fermentation in the past, but currently LAB starter cultures solution is used in conjunction with pure cultures from another microorganism. There have also been some very rapid preparation techniques developed, such as use of lyophilization to speed up the drying of the meat.

FIGURE 8.1 Simple glycolysis pathway (anaerobic and aerobic). Modified from https://www.vertexfit.com/aerobic-metabolism.

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TABLE 8.1 Microorganism use as starter culture in meat fermentation. Microorganisms

Type of meat

Metabolites

Effects on the product

Fermentation conditions

References

Lactobacillus spp.

Pork, beef, and poultry

Lactic acid, ethanol, carbon dioxide, bacteriocins, and biogenic amines

Improve the flavor, taste, safety of the meat.

Fermentation temperature (20 C
25 C), aW , 0.90, Ripening (2
3 days)

Wang et al. (2013) & CenciGoga et al. (2012)

Pediococcus spp.

Beef, pork, and ostrich

Lactic acid, acetic acid, ethanol, and carbon dioxide

Prevent the meat from foreign organism that can course spoilage. Improve the shelf life of the meat and improve the meat aroma

Fermentation temperature (20 C
25 C), aW , 0.85, Ripening (0
4 days)

Bingol et al. (2011)

Micrococcus luteus, M. lylae, M. varians

Pork, beef, and poultry

Ethanol, carbon dioxide, and volatile compounds

Prevent the growth of microorganisms that are harmful. Improve the color and the flavor of the meat. Prevent rancidity of the fermented meat

Fermentation temperature (20 C). Ripening (20
30 days)

Fontan et al. (2007); Laranjo et al. (2019)

Staphylococcus xylosus, & S. carnosus

Beef and poultry

Methyl ketones and volatile compounds

Improve the meat color, prevent rancidity by decomposing peroxide, Increase the meat aroma

Fermentation temperature (14 C
16 C), Ripening (21 days), aW , 0.97

Drosinos et al. (2007) & Corbiere Morot-Bizot et al. (2007); Krichen et al. (2020)

Debaryomyces hansenii

Poultry and beef

Ammonia, acetic acid, ethanol, and volatile compounds

Improve the organoleptical (taste, texture, and flavor) properties of the meat

Fermentation temperature (20 C), aW , 0.90, Ripening (14 days)

Selgas and Garcia (2014); Ashaolu et al. (2021)

Penicillium nalgiovense

Poultry, beef, horse, and pork

2-acetyl-1pyrroline

Improve the meat flavor. Inhibition of fungi growth on the surface by inhibiting the mycotoxin

Fermentation temperature (25 C), aW , 0.90, Ripening (7 days)

Ludemann et al. (2010); Laranjo et al. (2019)

Penicillium camemberti

Poultry, beef, and pork

2-acetyl-1pyrroline

Improve the meat flavor. Inhibition of fungi growth on the surface

Fermentation temperature (22 C), aW , 0.90, Ripening (22 days)

Bruna et al. (2003); Perrone et al. (2019)

Penicillium chrysogenum

Ostrich, horse, beef, and pork

2-acetyl-1pyrroline

Improve the meat flavor. Inhibition of fungi growth on the surface

Fermentation temperature (25 C), aW , 0.90, Ripening (7 days)

Papagianmi et al. (2007); Arslan & Soyer (2018)

8.1.1.2 Artificial fermentation (nonspontaneous) Homofermentative LAB starter cultures are employed in meat and fish products, and lactate is the predominant carbohydrate fermentation end product. Other LAB end products are normally in very small quantities, although natural flora can produce a wide variety of compounds that influence the product’s flavor and scent (Mayra-Makinen & Bigret, 2004). Fermentation of additional substrates (amino acids, fatty acids), as well as secondary interactions of these metabolic products in the food matrix outside the microbial cells, would result in even more diversity (Smid & Lacroix,

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2013). Following lactic acid fermentation, which happens in meat and fish, additional fermentations such as propionic acid generation are not important. Lactate is metabolized through artificial fermentation using molds or yeasts. pH is one element that inhibits fermentation, but a drop-in water activity (aw) will also stop it (Peta¨ja¨-Kanninen & Puolanne, 2007). In addition to carbohydrates, meat, or fish, enzymes have an impact on their products. Microbes’ metabolic activity is geared to meet their energy and nutritional requirements while also creating a favorable environment for continued growth (Pasiakos, 2020). This in addition to the production of biogenic amines (which may be harmful to humans) that result in a favorable pH, the bacteriocins production which hindered the growth of organisms with similar nutrient requirements, and the lactic acid production, which inhibits the growth of acid-sensitive strains (Moradi et al., 2020). Exo-enzymes, which are meant to supply low-molecular-weight molecules for bacteria to eat, induce proteolytic and lipolytic changes, as well as other enzymatic and nonenzymatic events, during fermentation, adding to the ripening process’ complexity. As a result, fermentation has a far broader impact than only acid generation (Bhatia, 2016). The Lactobacillus is the most employed starting cultures in meat and fish fermentation (Behera et al., 2018). Lactate is the primary result of glucose fermentation in meat and fish, with acetic acid, propionic acid, and ethanol coming in second and third. The genera are either microaerophilic or facultative microaerophiles. Lactobacilli are catalase-negative bacteria that do not reduce nitrate, and if they create hydrogen peroxide during fermentation, they can cause coloration (Jay et al., 2008). The probiotic characteristics of LAB starting cultures for meat products have piqued interest in recent years (Klaenhammer, 2019). Staphylococci utilized as starter cultures are weak acidulants that produce catalase and can decrease nitrate, making them vital for the creation of cured color and providing some antioxidative ability (Keenan, 2016). Furthermore, Staphylococci play a key role in the flavor formation of fermented meat and fish items. Fermentation’s fundamental metabolic function is to produce energy anaerobically (without oxygen) (Liu et al., 2013). There is a corresponding oxidation for each reduction in the fermentation reaction sequence, and the terminal electron recipient does not require oxygen or any other molecule. Starting materials can be any organic molecule containing oxygen and hydrogen, although carbohydrates and amino acids are the most fermented (Abbasian et al., 2015). Lactate, acetate, ethanol, acetoin, and ammonia, for example, will be created as end products of fermentation, but they will not be employed for any further purpose inside the cells and will be secreted to the outside (Moat et al., 2002). Fermentation is described biochemically as a procedure in which ATP is created because of substrate-level phosphorylation; oxygen is not required, and hence no carbon is lost as CO2. ATP is required by microorganisms for cell function and growth. The pH gradient across the cell membrane is connected to the proton influx into the cell, which feeds ATP production. The pH differential between the exterior and internal surfaces is also established by protons expelled by the cells (Slonczewski et al., 2009). Transferring of proton from the cell becomes difficult when the pH become 5.0, the amount of energy required to maintain the rise in pH increase which make it more difficult for proton transfer in the cells (Slonczewski et al., 2009). In acidophilic bacteria with a cytoplasmic pH of 6, the pH difference is generally approximately 1 pH unit. Because meat and fish buffering capacity increase fast at low pH (4.8 & 5.5), the development of a significant pH shift in meat and fish systems is particularly troublesome (Leistner, 2007). The quantity of ATP required for growth (measured in moles ATP/(g 3 h)) is many orders of magnitude larger than that required for maintenance, with the connection being depending on growth rate. Carbohydrate from other sources can be used, but their relative availability is limited. Meat already contains glycogen and its derivatives, mostly glucose phosphates, thus lactose is sometimes added. Glycogen, on the other hand, is mostly ignored by meat and fish microorganisms, hence, the breakdown of salted meat and fish by meat and fish enzymes is unclear.

8.2

Microorganisms involved in fermentation

A variety of microorganisms involved in meat and fish fermentation have been documented by several authors (Galgano et al., 2012; Kandasamy et al., 2018; Mokoena et al., 2016). It is possible that certain microorganisms are frequent in the fermentation of meat and fish. In addition, the microbe may be different in line with the type of meat or fish, different stages, or type of fermentation. As a result, a thorough understanding of the microorganisms found in meat and fish products is critical.

8.2.1 Microorganism in African fermented meat The action of most microorganism is mostly responsible for meat degradation. While these rotting microorganisms are not acceptable in raw meat and meat products, fermentative microorganisms, particularly LAB, are utilized to make

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fermented meat products (Mokoena et al., 2016). They may either be found naturally in raw meat (natural micro flora) or introduced by manufacturers. Starter cultures are desired microorganisms that are put to the meat dough and might be single species or a combination of microorganisms (Kandasamy et al., 2018). Gram-positive, rod-shaped bacteria from the genera Lactobacillus, Micrococcus, and Staphylococcus are important during fermentation and maturation of fermented sausages (Kozaˇcinski et al., 2008). These microorganisms have been isolated from different fermented meats in Africa (Zakpaa et al., 2009). To improve the color stability of the cured-meat and avoid rancidity, Micrococcaceae species are employed to increase fermentative bacteria during the aging of fermented meat products. This microbial group’s action inhibits the growth of spoilage microorganisms, reduces processing time, and aids flavor development (Fraqueza & Patarata, 2019). Micrococci are thought to play a role in beneficial reactions like color stabilization, peroxide decomposition, proteolysis, and lipolysis that occur during the ripening of dry fermented sausages. The presence of Staphylococcus spp. can alter the fragrance of fermented meat products, according to certain research (Laranjo et al., 2019). Staphylococcus xylosus and S. carnosus can generate esters and other key aromatic components from amino acids, according to a recent study of the relative role of Micrococcaceae and LAB in fragrance production. Because of their strong nitrate reductase and catalase activity, these strains also inhibit the development of off-flavors (Carballo, 2012). Certain qualitative features of fermented meat products were influenced by the microorganisms employed as starting culture (dos Santos Cruxen et al., 2019). The color of the product is impacted by the drop in pH levels, which is due to the activity of LAB, as well as the impacts of Micrococaceae on nitrate reduction, O2 consumption, and H2O2 decomposition (Kumar et al., 2017). Also, the color of the products in which molds and yeasts are used as starter culture is affected by H2O2 decomposition and O2 utilization activities of these microorganisms as well. The H2O2 breakdown and O2 consumption activities of these microorganisms also impact the color of products in which molds and yeasts are utilized as starting cultures (Laranjo et al., 2019). Another major characteristic of fermented meat products is their aroma. The starting cultures have a direct impact on it. Due to protein breakdown, lipid decomposition, and rancidity delaying effect, Micrococaceae, molds, and yeasts are more efficient at this feature (Leroy et al., 2006). Only the LAB genera are responsible for the texture of the product, which has a pH-lowering impact. Molds and/or yeasts, on the other hand, are the responsible for the physical appearance, protection against O2 and light, and drying resistance of some goods, such as Soudjouk in Egypt (Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018). One of the most important quality indicators for fermented meat products is textural or structural stability on the market. It is critical that the product maintains its quality until it is consumed. The major impacts of LAB and Micrococaceae on product market stability are a decrease in pH, a reduction in nitrate, and the inhibition of spoilage microorganisms in the product. Finally, the effects of LAB and Micrococaceae on nitrite decomposition aid in the reduction of chemical residues in the product (Xiao et al., 2018). Starting cultures for the synthesis of biogenic amines should be evaluated in model medium. Starter cultures can affect the synthesis of biogenic amines in dry fermented sausages in two ways: indirectly, by inhibiting the development of bacteria with decarboxylase activity, and directly, by inhibiting the growth of microorganisms with decarboxylase activity (Stadnik & Dolatowski, 2010).

8.2.2 Microorganisms in fish fermentation Many fermented fish items contain LAB and yeast as the main microorganisms (Mokoena et al., 2016). Acid and bile resistant Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, Steptococcus, Lactococcus, Weissella, Pediococcus, and Tetragenococcus are some of the major LAB genera (Xu et al., 2021). Probiotic activity has been shown in several of the isolated strains (Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, and Lactococcus). The second most common microbe identified from fermented fish is yeast. The most common yeast detected in fermented fish was Saccharomyces cerevisiae (Jespersen, 2003). Apart from S. cerevisiae, additional yeast species found in fermented fish products included Zygosaccharomyces rouxii, Kluyveromyces marxianus, Hansenula anomala, Candida tropicalis, Candida zeylanoides, and Rhodotorula glutinis (Xu et al., 2021). Enzymes are produced by all microorganisms and have an impact on the fermentation’s result. Proteases, which hydrolyze proteins into smaller peptides or free amino acids, are the most significant enzymes related with fish fermentation. Microorganisms that produce proteases can produce a variety of fermentation results, some of which are beneficial to the product, while others are not (Mathur et al., 2020). The breakdown of lipids to free fatty acids by microbe-secreted lipases contributes to the formation of flavor in goods. Bacillus spp. and Staphylococcus spp. exhibited moderate proteolytic and lipolytic capabilities, whereas Micrococcus spp., the second most prevalent in meat fermentation, had weak proteolytic activity and no lipolytic activity, according to Xu et al. (2021).

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Lactobacillus plantarum 120, S. xylosus 135, and S. cerevisiae 31 are often employed as starter cultures in fish fermentation because of their capacity to create esterase activities, which result in the creation of a desired flavor (Behera et al., 2018). Certain qualitative features of fermented fish products is influenced by the microorganisms employed as starting culture. Texture is an important qualitative feature of fermented fish products that is influenced by enzymes as well as microorganisms. Mild acidic conditions created by microbial fermentation mostly triggered gelation during fish fermentation. In the presence of organic acids such as acetic or lactic acids, fermented fish mince, for example, might gel because pH lowering causes enough protein structural changes, primarily unfolding, as well as charge shifts, to allow network formation (Banwo et al., 2020). Hydrophobic contact, disulfide bonds, and nondisulfide covalent connections were primarily responsible for the network created by gel as the fermentation of fish progressed. During the final stages of fermentation, many disulfide bonds formed, strengthening the gel network (Xu et al., 2012). In addition, myosin heavy chains were the major protein components for gelation in fermented fish mince, and actin, along with other lower molecular weight proteins that generate proteolysis, were also implicated in the gel network development (Xu et al., 2021). It is important to note that the gel characteristics of fermented fish products are due not only to the acidic environment created by microbial fermentation, but also to the action of endogenous and microbial enzymes in fermented fish products (Xu et al., 2021).

8.3

Meat fermentation

Fermented meats are meat products that attribute at least some of their distinctive characteristics to microbial activity (Hui, 2014). They are split into fermented sausages (made from comminuted meat) and meat products created by salting/curing and drying complete muscles or slices, followed by a ripening time to obtain the desired sensory characteristics. Traditional and economically, fermented meat products are the most valued meat products (Talon et al., 2007). They may be divided into numerous classes based on a variety of factors, including fermentation preservation techniques, region of origin, and moisture/protein ratio. Furthermore, undried, semidry, and dry fermented meat with different water activity and ultimate pH can be classified (Hui, 2014). As a result, fermented meat products are classified as “shelf-stable meat.” Several variables contribute to microbiological stability, including (1) lower of pH, (2) high LAB growth rates, (3) reducing water activity, (4) drying extent, and (5) salt and spice addition (Laranjo et al., 2017). Historically, the climatic conditions of the producing region have been connected to the manufacture of fermented meat products (Laranjo et al., 2017). Even though most fermented meat products are made from red meat, particularly pork and beef, according to Hui (2014), consumer demand for reduced fat sausages has grown, as has chicken sausage consumption.

8.3.1 Fermented meat products in Africa There are hundreds of various fermented meat product formulas available all over the world. Different names and procedures may be found in every nation, and the most of them are typically from African countries. For example, Soudjouk (Egypt), Boubnita (Morocco), Pastirma (Egypt), Afo-nnama (Nigeria), Beirta, Miriss and Dodery (Sudan), Gueddid (Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia), and Khlii (Morocco).

8.3.1.1 Soudjouk/Sucuk Beef, water buffalo, camel, and lamb meat are all used to make the sucuk (Fig. 8.2). For many years, it has been manufactured and consumed throughout the Balkans and the Middle East (Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018). Sucuk is traditionally made with ground beef and sheep tail fat (90% lean meat and 10% fat), sugar, salt, garlic, and spices such as black or red pepper, paprika, and cumin. The sucuk mixture is then packed inside natural casings, which are frequently made from sheep’s small intestine. After that, the sausage is hung for several weeks to mature and dry at room temperature (20 C
25 C) and humidity. After that, it is dried to water activity levels of less than 0.90, giving sucuk its solid appearance. Sucuk fermentation can be carried out by naturally occurring microorganisms or by adding starters, primarily Staphylococcus carnosus and Lactobacillus plantarum, to speed up the process and standardize the end product’s quality (Erco¸skun et al., 2010). Fat has an essential technical function in sucuk processing, regardless of the preparation method. It aids in the loosening of the combination, allowing for continual moisture escape from the product’s interior components. For optimal fermentation and aromatization of the fermented product (Sucuk), regular moisture escape from the product is required (Erco¸skun et al., 2010). Sucuk has a final pH of 4.8%
5.5% and a moisture content of

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FIGURE 8.2 Soudjouk/Sucuk. Modified from http://en.turkcewiki.org/wiki/ Sujuk.

FIGURE 8.3 Pastrima. Modified from http://www.talerka.ru/recept/armenia/ basterma.

4.2%
6.3%, respectively. Sucuk is sliced and eaten as a breakfast component (with eggs or cheese) or as a sandwich filler. It is also used as an appetizer or as a spread on savory pastries and sandwiches (Erco¸skun et al., 2010).

8.3.1.2 Boubnita Boubnita is a dry fermented Moroccan sausage that is cooked and eaten primarily after the Islamic feast “Aid Al Adha.” The name is considered to have originated in Maghreb dialect, where “Boubnit” refers to the “big intestine of beef/lamb” where the meat is filled (Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018). Lamb flesh is chopped into small cubic pieces and seasoned with spices (salt coriander, cumin, ginger, red hot pepper, paprika, and olive oil) before being placed inside previously cleaned lamb intestines to make Boubnita. The sausage is then hanged in the open air, fastened with a rope, and allowed to dry and ferment gently in the shade (Benkerroum, 2013). The finished result is served with vegetables or pasta in a sauce.

8.3.1.3 Pastirma Pastirma (also known as basterma, basturma, or pastrami) is a ready-to-eat meat product popular in Egypt. Pastirma is derived from the Turkish word “bastrma,” which means “pressing,” because pressing is an important part of the preparation process (Fig. 8.3) (Lu¨cke, 2016). Pastirma is traditionally prepared over many weeks and consists of three distinct processes: salting, pressing, and lastly drying and ripening (Lu¨cke, 2016). Whole cow or water buffalo muscles, lamb, and camel meat are utilized to make the product, and various sections of the carcass are utilized. However, the ultimate product quality is determined by the muscle slices utilized. Trimming the meat into 60 cm long and 5 cm wide strips is the first step in the procedure. The beef strips are then rubbed and coated with salt before being stacked up and cured for 2
5 days. Occasionally, the salted meat is rotated or re-salted during this time. The salted beef strips are then washed with water to remove excess salt before being air-

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dried for 2
3 days in the summer and up to 15 days in the winter (Benkerroum, 2013). Generally, dried beef blocks are stacked together and squeezed with large weights before being dried. After pressing and drying the blocks, a paste made of hot pepper, garlic, and fenugreek called “c¸emen” is applied to the whole surface and left for 1 day. Finally, a ready-to-eat pastirma requires 5
12 days of sun-drying. Pastirma’s final pH varies from 5.7 to 6.1 (Lu¨cke, 2016). LAB, Micrococcus, and Staphylococcus were the most common microbes in pastirma (Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018). Pastirma slices are frequently served with scrambled eggs that have been cooked and gently roasted over a charcoal fire (Lu¨cke, 2016). It has more recently been utilized as a pizza topping.

8.3.1.4 Afo-nnama Afo-nnama is a sort of fermented pork product popular in Nigeria’s northern regions. Meat may come from a variety of animals (pig, cow, camel, or goat). After cleaning, the meat will be immersed in a brine solution for a few minutes before being hung on a rope in an open location for 1
5 days to allow fermentation to occur, resulting in the creation of a distinct fragrance. Before cooking, the fermented dried meat (Afo-nnama) is soaked in cold water overnight or in hot water for an hour (Uzogara et al., 1990).

8.3.1.5 Beirta, Miriss, and Dodery Beirta, Miriss and Dodery are a type of fermented meat that is prevalent in Sudan. Beirta is produced from the animal’s kidneys, spleen, liver, lungs, and heart (Cow, Camel, Pig, and Goat) (Dirar, 1994). These animal components and caul fat are diced and combined with 2 kg chopped hind quarter muscle meat in a saucepan. After adding half a liter of milk, the mixture is left to ferment for 4 days. After 4 days of fermentation, the pot is opened, and a pinch of salt is added and combined with the fermented meat. Fermentation will continue for the next 3 days once the pot is closed. In Sudan, the fermented meat is frequently used to prepare sauces for aceda porridge (Dirar, 1994). Miriss is made by fermenting the fat that surrounds an animal’s stomach (Caul fat). The fat is fermented for 6 days after being kneaded with combu (prepared ash). The stuff is extremely white and has an unpleasant odor (Dirar, 1994). Dodery is a fermented meat product produced from meshy joint bone ends that have been impregnated with marrow. Fresh bones are cut, sun-dried, and ground into a paste, which is then combined with combu and fermented for 5 days (Dirar, 1994).

8.3.1.6 Gueddid Salting and sun-drying meat is possibly the earliest method of meat preservation (Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018). Gueddid is a traditional Moroccan, Algerian, and Tunisian meat product. It is made possible by a simple method that produces salty dry meat that can be kept at room temperature for more than a year. It was usually made using lamb or beef meat. The beef is left at room temperature for 2 days after chopping and washing to allow it to ferment, and the fat in the flesh is removed (Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018). The lean beef is sliced into strips (about 4 cm wide, 40
60 cm long, and 1
2 cm thick). For 5
7 days, the striped flesh is salted and sun-dried. Gueddid is softened and desalted before being used as a component in different recipes by soaking it in water (Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018).

8.3.1.7 Khlii/khlia Khlii is a candied meat product made from salted-dried beef that has been fried in fat and conditioned. Khlii is prepared from beef, lamb, goat, or camel, just as gueddid (Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018). After cutting, the meat is cleaned, and the fat is removed. The beef is sliced into stripes (5
10 cm wide, 40 cm long, and 2 cm thick) and steeped in a marinade/sharmula that has been made ahead of time (salt smashed garlic, vinegar, cumin, ground coriander grains, and seed oil). The soak stripe meat container will be stored in a cool location for 24
36 h, with periodic stirring. The cured beef will be sun-dried for 5
7 days by hanging them on a laundry line or wire. Water activity of approximately 6.6 is possible in dry beef strips (Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018). The dry meat strips will be dipped in liquid fat and cooked and conditioned in plastic or glass containers until all the water has evaporated. It is a traditional Moroccan cured beef delicacy that was most likely brought to Morocco by Arab invaders (Boudechicha, 2014). Khlii may be kept at room temperature for more than two years if properly prepared and conditioned; it is eaten as a ready-to-eat beef product or fried with eggs for breakfast. It may also be used as a topping for pizza or as a component in a variety of traditional foods like as soups, pancakes, and couscous (Gagaoua & Boudechicha, 2018).

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8.4

125

Fish fermentation in Africa

Many African consumers prefer fresh fish; nevertheless, artisanal methods are used to preserve a significant part of the landed harvest. In Africa, the most popular fish processing methods are smoking, salting, sun-drying, fermenting, grilling, and frying (El Sheikha et al., 2014). The most common type of fisheries product in any given nation is directly linked to the population’s eating preferences and purchasing capacity. Specific fisheries products are best suited for use as a local staple meal (Costello et al., 2020). Africa has a plethora of lakes, rivers, and oceans. For many people, these bodies of water provide a great supply of a variety of fresh fish species. The Atlantic Ocean accounts for more than 80% of West Africa’s fish landings. The rest comes from freshwater sources including the Niger River, Lake Chad, Lake Volta, and River Shari. Fish from these lakes is frequently salted, pickled, and dried for both domestic and export use (Adeyeye & Oyewole, 2016). In West Africa, however, there are limited instances of fermented fish items. Traditional African fish fermentation processes is shown in Fig. 8.4 including salting and drying. Despite being traditional, most processing methods have been greatly improved to reduce contamination and health risks that may arise during processing.

8.4.1 Fermented fish products in Africa 8.4.1.1 Momoni Momoni, a fermented fish product popular in Ghana, is commonly used as a condiment in the preparation of stew for the eating of different food (yam, cocoyam, and boiled unripe plantain) (El Sheikha et al., 2014). To produce momoni, (Fig. 8.5) a variety of freshwater fish can be utilized. The most common fish used is African jack mackerel (Caranx hippos). After scaling and gutting the fish, it will be washed and salted. The gill and stomach portions of Momoni have been highly seasoned with salt. The seasoned fish are placed in pot or baskets and covered with bags (jute) or aluminum tray for 1
5 days of fermentation (El Sheikha et al., 2014). The fish that is fermented is rinsed in saline water. The FIGURE 8.4 African traditional method of fish fermentation (Kofi, 1992). Modified from Kofi M. E., (1992). Fermented fish in Africa: A study on processing, marketing, and consumption (No. 329). Food & Agriculture Org.

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FIGURE 8.5 Momoni. Modified from https://www.etsy.com/listing/ 986633574/opaa-momonifermented-fish.

FIGURE 8.6 Lanhouin. Modified from http://bellinitiative.blogspot. com/2017/05/le-lanhouin-beninois.html.

fermented fish may be chopped into little pieces before being sold in the market. For a few hours, the cut pieces fermented fish are sun-dried using wooden tray in the open space. Momoni is a solid that is put to a simmering stew that includes ground red pepper, tomato, onion, and a small amount of palm oil. The product is often of poor quality, with a high salt content, and it deteriorates quickly during retailing and storage (El Sheikha et al., 2014).

8.4.1.2 Feseekh Feseekh is a historic Egyptian term for fermented-salted Mugil cephlus fish (Bouri fish). Feseekh is served as an appetizer or as the main course at various Egyptian functions (El-Sebaiy & Metwalli, 1989). On the Egyptian market, there are two varieties of feseekh: the first has a low salt content and may be eaten after 15
20 days of maturation, while the second contained high salt level and can be consumed after two to three months of storage. Feseekh can serve as good source of protein, vitamins, minerals, and vital amino acids, from a nutritional standpoint (Zang et al., 2020). Feseekh is traditionally prepared by sun-drying the fish before preserving it in salt. It has a unique odor that only its genuine devotees may appreciate. The procedure of preparing feseekh is complicated and in certain families, the procedure and processing operation is transferred from generation to generation. Feseekh is typically consumed at Sham El Nesem (“Smelling the Breeze”), an ancient Egyptian spring festival. Some people believe feseekh to be one of Egypt’s positive things.

8.4.1.3 Lanhouin Fermentation of fish product may occur naturally and is mostly unregulated. Fresh fish is scaled, gutted, and gills removed before being washed and matured for 11
16 h (Anihouvi et al., 2006). Dressed and soft fish is salted and fermented in a basket for 3
9 h. After rinsing with water, the fermented fish is sun-dried for 1
2 days. The drawbacks of this method of fermentation include the lack of control over the fermentation procedures and the fact that the finished product is usually of varied quality, creating a risk of quality defects. Lanhouin (Fig. 8.6) produced from particular

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fishes (cassava or king fish), are commonly used as condiments in different Africa countries (Benin, Togo, and Ghana). Lanhouin are purchased from the retailers in the processing sites and different markets, respectively, for product characterization (Anihouvi et al., 2006).

8.4.1.4 Adjuevan/Adjonfa The Atlantic bumper Chloroscombrus chrysurus is used to make Adjuevan, a traditional Ivorian naturally fermented fish. Adjuevan is a salted and fermented fish that is typically prepared at room temperature (28 C
30 C) using two ancient ways on the west coast of Ivory Coast (El Sheikha et al., 2014). The first technique of manufacturing involved 5 days of fermentation in jars covered with plastics and stones, while the second way had the same fermentation process followed by at least 10 days of drying on racks or nets (Clementine et al., 2012). Adjonfa is widely used as a condiment in various types of flavorings and cuisines to season sauces for the consumption of various dishes (yam, plantain, attieke, and other similar foods) because of its pungent odor (Koffi-Nevry et al., 2011).

8.4.1.5 Guedj Guedj is a fermented dried fish delicacy popular in Senegal, according to reports (Waisundara et al., 2016). Unsold fresh fish is stacked in the open air for roughly 24 h. The fish is putrefactive fermented by its own enzymes and endogenous bacteria during this time. It is then eviscerated (bigger species are sometimes filleted to speed up the drying process) and immersed in salty sea water in wooden buckets. When the water becomes too filthy, it is changed once a week. The fish are then stretched out on straw mats to dry for 2
4 days in the sun (Waisundara et al., 2016).

8.5

Factors affecting fermentation in meat and fish

Factors affecting meat and fish fermentation can be grouped under intrinsic and extrinsic factors. These factors are responsible for nutritional quality and storage stability of the fermented foods (meat and fish). Some of these factors are discussed below.

8.5.1 Intrinsic factors 8.5.1.1 pH During the manufacturing process, dried meat/fish go through several chemicals, biochemical, and microbiological changes that give its distinct flavor. Acidification is caused by the degradation of carbohydrates into lactic acid and lipids into free fatty acids, among other processes (Tang et al., 2016). In Africa, starter cultures employed in the dry sausage production process create enough lactic acid to lower the pH of meat/fish to 4.8
5.0. The safety, texture, and color of dry sausage are all dependent on a low pH value (Anagnostopoulos & Tsaltas, 2019). The acidification of meat products should be done slowly since a rapid pH decrease causes significant protein denaturation, which renders the product unusable (Tang et al., 2016).

8.5.1.2 Meat/fish type The characteristics of the finished product are directly influenced by the quality of the raw material. Although normal meat/fish is always the primary option of producers in the production, PSE (pale, soft, exudative) or DFD (dark, firm, dry) meats/fishes might be utilized depending on cost constraints (Karunanayaka et al., 2016). PSE meats/fishes with a high-water content are better for fermented meat/fish products than DFD meat/fish. The faster the water in the ripening chamber is released, the higher the water content of the raw material. The mixture of PSE and regular meat/fish, on the other hand, is commonly utilized as a raw ingredient in fermented meat/fish products (Karunanayaka et al., 2016).

8.5.1.3 Fat content of the sample To meet customer expectations in various nations, the fat level of most fermented meat/fish items may be between 25% and 45%. According to the food laws of these nations, this number should be less than 40% for Turkish fermented sucuk and less than 35% for traditional Greek sausages (Dalgic¸ et al., 2011). In Africa (South Africa) the percentage of fat in processed meat/fish should be less than 30%. Fat serves as a flavor component reservoir and helps to the texture and juiciness of the food. The granulated fat in uncooked sausages helps to loosen the mixture, allowing moisture to escape from the inner layers of the product. Fat

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content has a significant impact on the processing and quality of traditional Greek sausages, particularly weight loss, brine concentration, water activity, color, consistency, odor, and taste (Dalgic¸ et al., 2011).

8.5.2 Extrinsic factors 8.5.2.1 Temperature There are four key phases in the manufacturing of virtually all fermented beef products: preparation, curing, fermentation, and storage. Every stage is influenced by temperature. The producer must pick the appropriate temperature values to encourage (in curing and fermentation phases) or prohibit (in preparation and storage steps) microbial development based on the needs of microorganisms (Benkerroum, 2013). The temperature of fermented sausages has a direct impact on pH, water activity, microbial growth, and texture. Temperature and ripening, as well as drying, have a strong relationship (Soyer et al., 2005).

8.5.2.2 Relative humidity The ripening chamber’s circumstances have a major impact on the product’s moisture loss characteristics. Other significant keystones for regulating moisture in the product are meat type, grinding the meat/fish, and fat to a certain particle size, casing type, and stuffing success (Teixerira et al., 2020).

8.5.2.3 Air flow To guarantee uniform conditions for all ripening goods, it is critical to manage the temperature, humidity, and velocity of the air flows surrounding the fermented meat/fish products. In industrial applications, flow ripening chambers are utilized to maintain these regulated conditions. The primary upward air flow in these chambers, which are among the most widely utilized for industrial purposes, is cyclically shifted around the cell floor, guaranteeing the needed average ripening uniformity (Hui, 2014).

8.6

Conclusion

African countries have been known to ferment their meat and fish products to avoid wastage, but there is little or no documentation on processing method. The traditional fermentation method is the use of the most common processing method. Most of the traditionally fermented meat and fish products are still available in all the African countries with modifications in fermentation processes due to technological advancement.

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Chapter 9

Asian fermented fish and meat-based products Oladipupo Odunayo Olatunde1,2,T, Nandika Bandara1,2, Oladapo Oluwaseye Olukomaiya3,4, Gbemisola Jamiu Fadimu5, Atinuke Motunrayo Olajide6, Iyiola Oluwakemi Owolabi7, Oluwafemi Jeremiah Coker8, Feyisola Fisayo Ajayi9, Bisola Omawumi Akinmosin10, Abiodun Olajumoke Kupoluyi10, Oluwatoyin Motunrayo Ademola11 and Awanwee Petchkongkaew7 1

Department of Food and Human Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada,

2

Richardson Centre for Food Technology and Research, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada, 3ARC Industrial Transformation Training Centre for

Uniquely Australian Foods, Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Indooroopilly, QLD, Australia, 4Centre for Nutrition and Food Sciences, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI), The University of Queensland, Archerfield BC, Coopers Plains, Brisbane, QLD, Australia, 5School of Science, RMIT University, Bundoora, Melbourne, VIC, Australia, 6Canadian Research Institute for Food Safety, Department of Food Science, University of Guelph, ON, Canada, 7School of Food Science and Technology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Khong Luang, Pathum Thani, Thailand, 8Department of Food & Bioproduct Sciences, College of Agriculture and Bioresources, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada, 9Department of Home Science and Management, Federal University Gashua, Gashua, Yobe State, Nigeria, 10Food Science and Technology, College of Food Science and Human Ecology, Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, Abeokuta, Ogun State, Nigeria, 11African Centre of Excellence for Mycotoxins and Food Safety, Federal University of Technology, Minna, Nigeria TCorresponding author. e-mail address: [email protected]

9.1

Introduction

Fish- and meat-based products are consumed in many groups/communities worldwide as they are important food sources of proteins, lipids, minerals, and vitamins (Ahmad et al., 2018; Olatunde & Benjakul, 2018a,b). However, they can be easily contaminated by spoilage and pathogenic microbes (Olatunde & Benjakul, 2018b). Thus, it is important to make fish- and meat-based products safer for consumers with respect to shelf-life extension and product stability. Food fermentation is one of the most preferred processing methods, which has a key role in preservation and food safety assurance via the activities of enzymes or microorganisms (Olukomaiya et al., 2019). It’s crucial in the production of value-added food products and a viable bioprocessing technology (Olukomaiya et al., 2019). In addition to prolonging the shelf-life and enhancing organoleptic properties of food, fermentation has been associated with the development of products with improved chemical/nutritional composition as well as development of health-benefiting compounds (Toldra´, 2011). The practice of fermenting fish- and meat-based products in Asia is still very much popular due to the significant improvement in nutritional and sensory profiles of the resulting products (Ska˚ra et al., 2015). In Asia, fermented fish- and meat-based products are consumed as condiments (Chuon et al., 2014). Usually, Asian fish-based fermented products comprise fish, carbohydrate sources (millet, sugar, rice), spices (ginger, garlic, pepper, chili), and salt (Anal, 2019). Salting is an important unit operation during the fermentation of fish- and meat-based products, particularly during the traditional fermentation process. The added salt favors the proliferation of halotolerant and halophilic microorganisms, and also prevents the proliferation of pathogens and spoilage bacteria via the reduced water activity (aw) (Lopetcharat et al., 2001). Likewise, the ability of sugar in reducing aw as well as promoting the growth of fermenting organisms has encouraged its application as an ingredient for the production of Asian fish- and meat-based products (Chen et al., 2014). Recently, studies on Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products have attracted substantial attention due to the augmenting demand for diverse biological functions that can be derived from the improved nutrient composition and fermenting microorganisms contained in these value-added food products. Some studies have demonstrated varying alterations in the properties, particularly the chemical composition of Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products during and after the fermentation process (Chen et al., 2014; Tamang et al., 2020). These changes might also contribute to the beneficial health properties of the Indigenous Fermented Foods for the Tropics. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-98341-9.00004-9 © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

133

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SECTION | 1 Overview, production and composition (health and nutritional), microbiota of fermented foods

products. In this chapter, the biochemistry of fish/meat fermentation, nutritional composition, health-promoting benefits, and microbiota associated with the manufacture, safety, and quality of Asian fish- and meat-based fermented products are discussed.

9.2

Production of Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products

Asian fish- and meat-based fermented products are distinctive in their organoleptic properties due to the differences in environmental factors, geographical location, food preference, and the type of raw materials (Tamang & Samuel, 2010). Table 9.1 details some examples of Asian fermented fish- and meat-based products produced in different Asian TABLE 9.1 Some examples of Asian fish- and meat-based fermented products. Product name

Raw material used

Product form/features

Country/ region

Fish-based fermented products Gnuchi

Fish (Schizothorax richardsonii), salt, turmeric powder

Eaten as curry

India

Karati, Bordia, Lashim

Fish (Cirrhinus reba, Pseudeutropius atherinoides, and Gudusia chapra) and salt

Salted, dried, side dish

India

Kapi

Shrimp and salt

Fermented shrimp paste

Thailand

Sikhae

Sea water fish, salt, and millet

Fermented fish-rice, sauce

Korea

Myulchijeot

Sardine and salt

Fermented sardine

Korea

Burong Bangus

Milkfish, rice, vinegar, and salt

Fermented milkfish, sauce

Philippines

Burong Isda

Rice, fish, and salt

Fermented fish, sauce

Philippines

Budu

Fishes, sugar, and salt

Muslim sauce, fish sauce

Thailand, Malaysia

Pla-paeng-daeng

Fish, salt and red molds rice (Ang-kak),

Red fermented fish

Thailand

Belacan (Blacan)

Shrimp and salt

Paste, condiment

Malaysia

Bakasang

Fish and shrimp

Paste, condiment

Indonesia

Narezushi

Fish, millet, and salt

Fermented fish-rice

Japan

Nuoc mam

Fish and sugar

Fish sauce, condiment

Vietnam

Kecalok

Shrimp

Shrimp paste

Indonesia

Chouguiyu

Fish, salt, cumin, anise, Chinese prickly ash, chilli powder, ginger, and shallot

Paste

China

Meat-based fermented products Arjia

Large intestine of chevon

Sausage, curry

India, Nepal

Yak kargyong

Meat, ginger, garlic, and salt

Sausage

Himalayan

Chartayshya

Chevon

Dried, smoked meat, curry

India

Kargyong

Yak, salt, pork, beef, ginger, and garlic

Sausage like meat product, curry

India

Nem chua

Pork, rice, and salt

Fermented sausage

Vietnam

Nham (Musom)

Pork meat, pork skin, salt, rice, garlic

Fermented pork

Thailand

Sai-krok-prieo

Pork, garlic, salt, and rice

Fermented sausage

Thailand

Suka ko masu

Meat, turmeric, oil, and salt

Dried or smoked meat, curry

India

Tocin

Pork, potassium nitrate, sugar and salt

Fermented cured pork

Philippines

Asian fermented fish and meat-based products Chapter | 9

135

countries. Spontaneous fermentation is commonly practiced during the production of Asian fermented fish- and meatbased products. This process involves the addition of salt, which favors the proliferation of salt-loving bacteria or yeast, ripening/fermentation, and occasionally drying and/or smoking (Ska˚ra et al., 2015). They are often classified as lowsalt-fermented fish (6%
8% of total weight), high-salt-fermented fish (more than 20%), and no-salt-fermented products ´ lvarez et al., 2017). For example, Hout-Kasef, a product depending on the salt added prior to fermentation (Martı´nez-A of the Jazan Region in Saudi Arabia was prepared by the fermentation of salted fish (mullet fish), in which the fermented product had 15% salt (Fig. 9.1) (Gassem, 2019). Pongsetkul et al. (2017) prepared Kapi (fermented shrimp paste) a widely consumed condiment and seasoning ingredient in Thailand from fresh shrimp with salt (5:1, w/w) at room temperature (28 C
30 C) for 30 days (Fig. 9.2). Ly et al. (2020) documented different salt concentrations (6%
34%) in naturally fermented fish-based products including Teuktrey Prahok, Kapi, Paork Chav, Mam Trey, Paork Chou, and Trey proheum, which were randomly purchased in Phnom Penh, the capital city of Cambodia. Furthermore, Kecalok an indigenous shrimp sauce from Indonesia was prepared by the fermentation of shrimp with 5%
10% salt (Fig. 9.3) (Ali et al., 2019). Chouguiyu is traditionally prepared from Mandarin fish by natural fermentation at 10 C
14 C for 8 days under anaerobic conditions with low-salt concentration (Dai et al., 2013). Paludan-Mu¨ller et al. (2002) documented the production of Som-fak, a traditionally low-salt Thai fermented fish using minced fish, salt, garlic, water, sucrose, boiled rice, and black pepper fermented for 5 days at 30 C. The quality of Masin widely consumed in the West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, prepared by fermenting rebon shrimp with the addition of salt and tamarind at different

Mullet fish Cleaning Evisceration

FIGURE 9.1 Production of Hout-Kasef (a traditional saltedfermented fish from Saudi Arabia). From Gassem, M. A. (2017). Microbiological and chemical quality of a traditional salted-fermented fish (Hout-Kasef) product of Jazan Region, Saudi Arabia. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 26(1), 137
140.

Salt addition (by covering the fish with salt) Fermentation in wooden boxes (