The semantics of classificatory verbs in Enga (and other Papua New Guinea languages) 0 85883 123 6

Table of contents :
The semantics of classificatory verbs in Enga (and other Papua New Guinea languages)......Page 1
Contents......Page 3
Acknowledgments......Page 6
Preface......Page 8
Presentation and Abbreviations......Page 10
Index of Bound Morphemes......Page 12
0.0 INTRODUCTION......Page 13
0.1 Theoretical Orientation and Problems......Page 16
0.2.1 The Semantic Features......Page 17
0.2.2 Semantic Redundancy Rules......Page 19
0.2.3 Exceptions......Page 22
0.2.3.1 Loan Items......Page 23
0.2.3.2 Intersection......Page 24
0.2.4 Dominance Relations Between Nouns and Verbs......Page 25
0.3 Data Compilation......Page 27
Notes......Page 29
1.1 The Enga......Page 35
1.2.1 The Noun......Page 36
1.2.2.1 Incorporated Pronoun Objects......Page 45
1.2.2.2 Sentence-medial and Sentence-final Forms......Page 46
1.2.2.3 Tenses and Moods......Page 48
Notes......Page 50
2.1 Syntactic Properties......Page 53
2.2.1 Meaning of the EV......Page 56
2.2.2 Features......Page 59
2.2.3 Redundancy Rules......Page 60
Table 2.2: Loan Items in the EV......Page 64
2.2.5 Intersection......Page 65
2.2.6 Change of Class......Page 68
2.3 Conclusion......Page 70
Notes......Page 74
3.0 THE ANIMATE NOUNS......Page 79
Table 3.1: The Animate Nouns......Page 80
Diagram 3.2: The Enga Animates......Page 81
3.2 Redundancy Rules......Page 84
3.3 Loan Items......Page 86
3.4 Change of Class......Page 87
3.5 Comparison of Features......Page 88
Notes......Page 91
4.1.1 Form......Page 97
4.1.2 Objects......Page 100
Table 4.1: Compound Verbs and Predications......Page 103
4.1.4 The O-Complementizer......Page 104
Table 4.2: Verbs in the Predications......Page 106
4.2.1 Rules......Page 109
4.2.2 Loan Items......Page 113
4.2.3.1 The Adjuncts in Intersection......Page 115
4.2.3.2 The Verbs in Intersection......Page 117
4.3 Conclusion......Page 118
Notes......Page 120
5.0 COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE......Page 127
5.1 The EV......Page 128
5.1.2 Discussion of the Comparative EV......Page 133
5.2.1 The Phenomenon......Page 135
5.2.3 Examples......Page 137
5.3 Conclusion......Page 142
Notes......Page 144
6.0 CONCLUSION......Page 147
Appendix A: Semantic Classes of Verbs......Page 149
Appendix B: Data Compilation......Page 155
Appendix C: The Existential Verbs......Page 161
Appendix D: The Predications of Enga......Page 168
Appendix E: Predications for Comparison......Page 192
Bibliography......Page 232
Map 1: The Enga Area......Page 33
Map 2: Comparative Perspective......Page 126
Chart 1.1: Noun Classes......Page 38
Chart 3.3: Covert Features......Page 82
Chart 5.1: The Comparative EV......Page 134
Chart 5.2: Comparative Predications Part I......Page 138
Comparative Predications Part II......Page 139
Diagram 2.1: The Existential Verbs......Page 61
Diagram 4.3: Predications......Page 110
Table 1.1 Verb Paradigm......Page 49
Table 2.4: Intersection Data......Page 66
Table 4.3: Loan Items in the Predications......Page 114
Table 4.4: Intersection in the Predications......Page 116

Citation preview

PACIFIC LINGUISTICS Se�ie�

B

-

No.

39

THE SEMANTICS OF CLASSIFICATORY VERBS IN ENGA (AND OTHER PAPUA NEW GUINEA LANGUAGES) by Adrianne

Lang

Department of Linguistics Research School of Pacific Studies THE AUSTRALIAN NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

Lang, A. The semantics of classificatory verbs in Enga (and other Papua New Guinea languages). B-39, xii + 246 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. DOI:10.15144/PL-B39.cover ©1975 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.

PAC I F I C L I NGU I S T I CS

is published by the

Li�g ui¢ tic C i� c l e 06 Ca�b e��a

and consists of four series:

S ER I ES A - O C C A S I O NA L PA PERS S ER I ES B - M O N OG R A PHS S ER I ES C - B O O KS S ER I ES V - S P EC I A L PU B L I CA T I O NS . EDITOR: S.A. Wurm. ALL CORRESPONDENCE and subscriptions,

ASSOCIATE EDITORS: D.C. Laycock , C . L. Voorhoeve . concerning

PA C I F I C L I NGU I ST I CS,

including orders

should be addressed to:

The Secretary ,

PA C I F I C L I NGU I S T I CS, Department of Lingu i s tic s , School o f Pac i f ic Studies , The Australian National University , Box 4 , P.O. , Canberra , A.C.T .

2600 .

Australia.

Copyright

�

Adrianne

First published

Lang.

1 975 .

The editors are indebted to the Australian National University for help in the production of this series. This

publication was made possible by an initial grant from the

Hunter Douglas Fund.

National Library of Australia Card Number and I SBN 0 8 5 8 8 3 1 2 3 6

TAB L E O F C O N T E NTS Page Acknowledgments

vi

Preface

vi i i

Presentation and Abbrevi ations

x xii

Index of Bound Morphemes 0.0

INTRODUCT ION

1

0.1

Theoretical Orientation and Problems

4

0.2.1

The Semantic F eatures

5

0.2.2

Semanti c Redundancy Rules

7 10

0.2.3

Exceptions

0.2.3.1

Loan I tems

11

0.2.3.2

Intersection

12

0 . 2 .3.3

Change of C l a s s

13

0.2.4

Dominance Relations Between Nouns and Verbs

13

0 . 2.5

The Pr iority of Syntax or Semanti c s

15

0.3

Data Compi l ation

15 17

Notes 1.0

ENGA CULTURE AND GRAMMAT ICAL SKETCH

23

1.1

The Enga

23

1.2

Grammatical Sketch

24

1. 2 . 1

The Noun

24

1.2.2

The Verb

33

1.2.2.1

Incorporated Pronoun Objects

33

1.2.2.2

Sentence-medial and Sentence-f inal Forms

34

1.2.2.3

Tenses and Moods

36 38

Notes

iii

iv

2.0

THE EXISTENTIAL VERB

41

2.1

Syntactic Properties

2.2

Semantics

44

2.2.1

Meaning of the EV

44

2.2.2

Features

47

2 . 2 .3

Redundancy Rules

48

2 . 2 .4

Loan Items

52

2 . 2 .5

Intersection

53

2.2.6

Change of Class

56

2.3

Conclusion

58 62

Notes THE ANIMATE NOUNS

67

3. 1

Semantic � eatures

68

3.1 . 1

Overt F eatures

68

3. 1 . 2

Covert F eatures

69

3.2

Redundancy Rules

72

3.3

Loan I tems

74

3. 4

Change of Class

75

3.5

Compari son of F eatures

76

3.0

79

Notes 4.0

PREDICAT IONS

85

4.1

F orm and Syntacti c Properties

85

4.1.1

Form

85

4. 1.2

Objects

88

4.1.3

Predications in the Stative Form

91

4.1.4

The O-Complementi zer

92

4.1 . 5

Verbs

94

4.1.6

A Problem

94

4.2

Semantics

97

4.2.1

Rules

4 .2 . 2

Loan I tems

101

4 . 2 .3

Intersection

103

4 . 2 .3. 1

The Adjuncts in Intersection

103

4.2.3.2

The Verbs in Intersection

105

4.3

Conclusion

106

97

10 8

Notes

1 15

5.0

COMPARAT IVE PERSPECTIVE

5.1

The EV

116

5. 1.2

Discussion of the Comparative EV

121

v

5.2

The Predications

123

5.2.1

The Phenomenon

123

5.2.2

Compari son

125

5.2.3

Examples

125

5.3

Conclus ion

130

Notes 6.0

132 CONCLUSION

Appendix A:

135

Semantic Clas ses of Verbs

137 143

Appendix B:

Data Compilation

Appendix C:

The Exi stential Verb s

149

Appendix D:

The Predications o f Enga

156

Appendix E:

Predicat ions for Compar i s on

180 220

Bibliography

21

Map 1:

The Enga Area

Map 2 :

Comparative Perspective

Chart 1 . 1:

Noun Clas ses

26

Chart 3 . 3:

Covert Features

71

114

Chart 5 . 1 :

The Comparative EV

12 2

Chart 5.2:

Comparative Predi cations Part I

12 6

Comparative Predications Part I I

127

Diagram 2 . 1: The Exis tent ial Verbs

49

Diagram 3.2: The Enga Animates

70

Diagram 4 . 3: Predications

98

Tab le 1.1

Verb Paradigm

37

Table 2 . 2:

Loan Items in the EV

52

Table 2 . 3:

Intersection in the EV

54

Tab le 2.4:

Intersection Data

54

Tabl e 3.1:

The Animate Nouns

68

Table 4 . 1:

Compound Verbs and Predications

91

Table 4 . 2:

Verbs in the Predications

Tab le 4 . 3:

Loan I tems in the Predications

102

Table 4.4:

Intersect ion in the Predications

104

94

A C KNOWLEVGMENTS

The r e s e ar c h report ed o n i n t h i s monograph was spons ored by The Aus t ra l i an Nat i onal Univers i t y , and I owe t h i s ins t i t ut i on a c on s ider­ ab le debt of grat itude for their generous finan c i a l s upport and fac i l­ it i e s made avai lab le t o me . Ms . Katharine E . W . Mather and Ms . Mary L . R o s e made the dat a pro­ c e s s in g of the Enga mono l ingual d i c t ionary p o s s ib l e .

Dr . Jenny Hope

a s s i s t e d i n the t en t at ive c l a s s i fi cat i on o f the Enga animat e s , and Drs . D . N . McVean and J . Flenley a s s i s t ed in the t e nt at ive c la s s i f i c a­ t i on of the Enga p l ant s . Spe c i al thanks are due t o Profe s s or S . A . Wurm who provided h i s c ont i nu i n g s upport throughout my t enure a s a Re s earch Scholar , wh i l e Drs .

D.

gramme .

C . Lay c o c k and D . T . Tryon guided my original r e s earch pro­ Dr . T . E . Dut t on provided the final s uperv i s i on of the Ph . D

t h e s i s on wh i c h t h i s w ork i s b a s e d dur i ng the final s i x months o f the programme .

I have e sp e c i a l ly appre c iated h i s p a i n s t aking c omment s and

d i s cus s i o n on s everal draft s , and the fini shed product has b en e f i t t e d gre a t l y from h i s intere s t .

Dr . C . L . Voorhoeve h a s a l s o c omme nted o n

t h e e a r l ier draft o f Chap t er F i ve , and great ly as s i s t e d w i t h the ma­ t er i a l s in Dut ch . Memb e r s o f the Admin i s t rat i on o f the then

Territory of Papua New Gu:1nea

who ext ended their h e l p t o me and my husb and during 1 96 7 - 1 96 9 were Mr . Deny s Faithful ( ADC , Lai agam ) and �1r . Davi d Hook ( ADC , Wab ag ) . During the f i e l dwork p e r i od 1 97 3- 1 97 4 , the ADC , Laiagam , Mr .

I an

Thomp s on and h i s w i fe Linda were mos t h e l p ful , as a l s o the Magi s t r a t e a t Wab ag , Mr . Mal c o lm McKe l l ar a n d h i s w i fe Sh irley Anne . The New Guinea Lutheran Mi s s i on -Mi s s ouri Synod was kind enough t o a l l ow u s t o at t end the Enga l anguage c ou r s e a t Irelya ; w e a l s o appre c i ­ a t e d t h e hosp i t a l i t y and help sh own us b y var i ous s t aff memb ers :

Re v .

Dave Hau s er and h i s w i fe Mona , Rev . V i c and Norma H e i n i c k e , Rev . Harley

vi

vii

and Donna Kop i t ske , Rev . J im and Mar i e Lars on , Rev . Karl and Ruth Reko , Rev . Max and J udy Scheimann , Rev . Marv and Chri s t a Sacks chewsky , Rev . Kar l and E s t her St ot ik , and Rev . B i l l and Ruth Wagner .

Especial

thanks g o t o our n e i ghbours a t Mul i t aka ( Yamb a l e ) , Rev . Herb and Faye Sc haan , Terry and Sharon Lehmann , and Gary and Darl e ne Parker.

Map 1

i s b a s e d on a map or i g inally produced by the NGLM-MS . Thanks are a l s o due t o our near e s t n e i ghb our , Father Imre S z a b o o f Kas s ap . The Enga t hems e l v e s provided us w i t h a mos t i n t ere s t ing and enj oy­ a b l e s t ay , i n c luding pig e xchange s , marr i age s , midn i gh t b ir t h s , am­ b u s h e s , b at t le s , and c ompe n s at i on payment s .

Our i n formant s Tumu

Pope ok and Ngangane Y a i t u s a of Aipus a , and P e s a t us a , Pas one , Yoane , P i s in i and Jone of Kop e t e s a were mo s t he lpful .

Spe c i a l t hanks are

owed to C o un c i l lo r Alua Waly i s a , who originally invi t e d us to Kop e t e s � who a c t e d a s m y maj or i nformant f o r the d i c t i onary c omp i l at io n , and who s e c omment on my work was the c l a s s i c a l fnda nong6 prp a e d�p a me kalai

16ng6 ping(

(wh i c h i s s ure ly worthy of b e c oming an Enga proverb ) .

Thanks a l s o t o our s ch o o l b oy s , Aninias a , San i s a , a n d Y a s owa , who t ran s la t e d Enga my t h s and folk t al e s for me , and t o Kat h l e e n J e ffe r s a n d Y a n Kai , s t uden t s at the Unive r s i t y o f Papua N e w Guine a . Ran i e r Lang , who originally sugge s t ed t hat I at t emp t t o c omp i l e a mon o l i ngual d i c t ionary , has prov ided unl imi t e d c omment s , cr i t i c i s m and t ime t hrough out .

P R E FACE

This b ook i s b a s e d o n fie ldwork c arried out among t he Enga from Augu s t 1 9 6 7 to Augu s t 1 96 8 , and from May 1969 to Sept ember 1 96 9 , a t o t a l of s event e en months , as a R e s e arch Scho lar of The A u s t ra l i an Nat ional Univer s i t y .

The f i r s t few months of thi s period were spent

at or near Wab ag , the remainder at Kope t e s a , a s ma l l hamle t appro x i ­ mat e ly t h ir t y mi l e s w e s t o f Wab ag in t he w e s t e rn d i a l e c t are a o f Enga . The final w ork for t h i s b ook was c arried out from De c emb er 1 97 3 t o February 1 9 7 4 in the Enga D i s t r i c t .

A t r i p t o t h e Summer I n s t i t u t e o f

L i n gu i s t i c s b a s e a t Ukarumpa in Sept emb er 1 97 3 y i elded mat e r i a l inc or­ porat e d in Chap ter F i ve ( C omp arat ive P e r s p e c t ive ) and in App end i x E . The de c i s i on t o undert ake a s t udy o f Enga was b ased on two con­ s iderat ions :

firs t ly , that in c onne ct i on w i t h my husb and ' s f i e l dwork

I was already living among the Enga and had att ained a fair de gre e o f s p e aking p r o f i c iency in the l anguage , and s e c ondl y , t hat a c ons ider­ ab le amount of l ingu i s t i c and e t hnograph i c w ork h ad a lre ady b e en d one on the Enga . This i s a s eman t i c s t udy .

It aro s e out of my previous intere s t in

ethno s c i en c e and b e cause o f this b e gan w i t h the det erminat ion of the feature s o f the an imat e s ub - s e t o f Enga nouns . sort in e t hn o z o o logy are rare "

Since s tudi e s " o f any

( S turt evant 1 96 4 : 1 2 0 ) , I felt that th i s

would provide a c ont ribut i on t o a n e g l e c t e d domain .

The e l i c i t at ion

o f s emant i c feature s o f the animate nouns provided the first evidence o f the Enga e x i s t ent ial verb s :

any noun e l i c i t e d would b e fol lowed by

a verb whi ch ind i c a t e d its hab i t ua l state of e x i s t en c e .

I n t e re s t i n

the e x i s t en t i a l verb s and t h e e l i c itat ion o f the ir fe at ure s led t o t h e di s c overy t h a t t h e y were c la s s i fi c at ory verb s and t hat t h e y c o- o c c urred only w i t h [ +c oncret e ] nouns .

This led t o furt her work on the verb a l

s y s tem w i t h the r e s ul t t h a t [ -c on c re t e ] n o u n s w e r e found t o c o-oc c ur w i t h another s e t of c l as s i fi c at ory verb s .

viii

ix

Thus , t h e t op i c b e c ame fo c u s e d a s a semant i c s t udy o f a p ort i on o f Enga , the an ima t e nouns and t he c l a s s i ficat ory verb s .

O n e o f t he main

feat ure s is t hat t h e b ook at temp t s not only t o explain the u s ua l o c ­ c urre n c e s b y me an s o f s eman t i c re dundancy rule s , but al s o t o a c c ount for t h e e x c e p t i o n s t o t h e s e , i . e . , t he a s s umpt i on t hat rules are brok­ en in a c c ordan c e w i t h ( cu l t ura l l y d e t e rmined ) rul e s for b r e aking r u l e s ( c f . Landar 1 9 6 5 a n d Dixon 1 9 6 8 : 1 2 0 ) . Can s emant i c fe atur e s b e given? formulat ed?

T h e a s s o c i at e d prob l ems were :

C an s e mant i c re dundanc y rul e s b e

What are t h e e x c ep t i on s t o t h e s e rule s , and c an t h e y a l s o

b e a c c ount e d for?

Are t h e rul e s p art o f a s emant i c h i erarchy o r d o e s

c ro s s - c l as s i fi c at ion o f t he i t e ms e x i s t?

C a n c omparat i ve data b e

given f o r o t h e r Papua N e w G u i n e a l anguage s w i t h s imi l ar phenomena? The int r oduc t ory chapter s tat e s the problem and gi ve s a de s cr i p t i on of t he dat a b a s e ; Chapt e r One give s a s k e t c h of t h e Enga and t h e i r c u l t ure a n d of p r e v i o u s l ingu i s t i c work on Enga.

Chap t er Two d e s c r i b e s

t h e e x i s t ent i a l verb s , t h e i r s y n t ax a n d s emant i c s .

Chap t e r Three i s a

b r i e f e xcurs i on into the animate nouns , one sub-set o f the [ + c oncret e ] nouns whi ch c o-oc c ur w i t h the e x i s t e n t i a l verb s .

Chap t e r Four de­

s c r ib e s t he c l as s i fi cat ory verb s wh i c h c o- o c c ur w i t h the [ - c on c re t e ] nouns , s ome prob lems c onne c t e d w i t h t hem , and t h e i r s emant i c s . Chap t e r Five deals w i t h c omp arat ive mat e r i a l s from other New Guinea language s on t h e t wo kinds o f c l a s s i fi c atory verb s .

The monograph

c o n c l u d e s with a b r i e f d i s cus s i on of t he re s u l t s o f the s t udy in Chap t e r S i x . The append i c e s c on t a i n s up p l ement ary mat e r i a l s on the s emant i c c l as s e s o f Enga verb s

( A ) , me thods o f dat a c omp i l at i on ( B ) , d a t a o n

t h e Enga e x i s t en t i a l verb s

( C ) , d a t a on t h e c la s s i fi c at ory verb s for

the [ - c on c r e t e ] nouns o f Enga ( D ) , and s ome c omparat ive data from p o s s i b ly re l at ed l an guages ( E ) .

PRES ENTAT I ON ANV A B B REVI A T I ONS

A l l e x amp l e s are given in t h e u s u a l Enga ort h o graphy ; t h e t onal s t ru c t ure o f i t e ms wit hout t one marks i s , at pre s e nt , not known .

In

the i n t e r l inear t rans lat i on , morpheme b ound a r i e s are ind i c a t e d b y a hyphe n ; the p eriod C.) i nd i c at e s a unit ary l e x i c a l i t e m in Enga ; s quare bracket s e n c l o s e feature s . Enga e x amp l e s in running t e x t are p r i n t e d b ol d , t he i r Engl i s h gl o s s e s appear i n i t a l i c s .

Text w i t h in d oub l e quotat i o n marks i s

quot e d from t h e l i t erature . The e xamp l e s are numb ered w i t h i n e a c h chapt er , and t he not e s may be found a t the end of e a c h chap t e r . AG

Agent ive

AS

A s s o c i at ive

BEN

Bene fact ive

CAUS

Caus at ive

COMP

Comp l e t ive

CONF

C o n format ive

CONJ

Conj unct ive

DEC

De c l arat ive

DET

Det e rminer

DU

Dual

EXCL

Exc l u s ive

FP

Far Past

FUT

Fut ure

GEN

Genit ive

HAB

H ab it ual

HIST

H i s t or i c a l events

IMM

Imme d i at e

IMP

Imp erat ive

x

xi

INCL

Inc l u s ive

INF

I n f i n i t ive

INST

I n s t rume n t a l

IP

Imme d i at e P a s t

LAKA

D e s iderat ive marker

LOC

Locat i ve

N

Noun

NP

Noun Phras e

NP

Near Past

-0

o-c omp lement i z er

PAST

Past

PL

P lura l

POSS

P o s s e s s ive

PRES

Present

PUR

Purp o s e

QU

Que s t i on

STA

St at ive

SENSE

Sensed

SG

S ingu l ar

TEMP

Temp o r a l

UP

Up

V

Verb

VP

Verb Phr a s e

1

1 s t p e r s on

2

2nd p e r s o n

3

3rd p e r s on

+

Loan i t ems

?

Que s t ionab l e

*

Ungrammat i c a l

/

Or

INVEX O F B OUNV M O R PH E MES -a-

3SG

-n-

3 imperative

-ami

3PL

nae-

negative

-e-

far past tense

-ngr/-ngi

habitual

-i-

immediate imperative , 2SG, far past tense

-no

declarati ve

-ka

-nya

locative , possessive , genitive

locative , benefactive

laka

des i derati ve

-0

lSG, O-complement izer

- (1 ) a-

-p-

near past tense

infinitive

lamo

-pa

conjunctive

deductive

-l y-

-pae

stative

present tense

-lya-

-pyaa

histori cal

infinitive , location ( up )

-ma i -

question

exclusive

-pel-pi -5-

-me

causative

agentive , instrumental

-mo

-sa

declarati ve

locative , temporal , completive

-mu

sensed

-te-

completive

na-

negative

-u

O-complementizer

xii

Lang, A. The semantics of classificatory verbs in Enga (and other Papua New Guinea languages). B-39, xii + 246 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. DOI:10.15144/PL-B39.cover ©1975 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.

INTRODUCTION 0.1

INTROVUCTION

Much i s now known ab out the general s t ru c t ural charac t e r of P ap ua l although relat ively few o f t h e s e have b e e n 2 s t ud i e d a n d d e s c r i b e d in any d e t a i l . Whatever s t u d i e s have b e e n

New Guinea l anguage s ,

made have f o c u s e d on the phono l ogy , morp h o l o gy / s yn t a x o f part i c u l ar language s .

And o f t h e s e , the b u l k has c on c e nt ra t e d on the morpho­

l o g i c al s t ru c t ure and/or syntac t i c func t i on o f verb s a l on e , s i n c e t he s e are u s u a l l y very c omp l e x l ingu i s t i c e nt it i e s w h i c h may b e s ai d t o ' domina t e ' the l anguage s in wh i c h t h e y o c cur ( C ap e l l 1 9 6 9 ) .

Th i s

work i s a further c ontribut ion t o verb s t u d i e s in P apua N e w Guinea language s .

I t b u i l d s on previous l ingui s t i c work and knowl e d ge and

a t t e mp t s to e x t e nd this to a new level b y t ak i n g a d e t a i l e d l o ok a t the s e man t i c s o f a s e t o f verb s in Enga , a non-Au s t rone s i an l anguage 3 of the c e n t r al h i gh l ands of Papua New Guinea . In p art i cular , t h i s i s a de s c ri p t ive and e xp l orat ory s emant i c s t udy o f a group o f verb s in Enga wh i c h c o- o c c ur only w i t h c e r t a i n c l a s s e s o f nouns , a n d s o a r e d e s c r ib e d a s

' c las s i f i c at ory verb s ' .

H i t h e r t o t h e s e verb s have not b e e n d i s c u s s e d as s u c h in t h e l i t e rature on t h e s truc t ure of Papua New Guinea verb s , and no s e mant i c anal y s i s 4 o r d e s c r ip t i on o f them h a s b e e n a t t e mp t e d . They h ave, h oweve r , b e e n men t i oned i n c onne c t i on w i t h synta c t i c de s c ri p t i on s o f Papua New Guinea languages in a more genera l way , so that t h i s provides s ome b a s e for d i s c us s ing the e x t e n t and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f t h i s phenomenon t hroughout P apua New Gu1.nea . The t e rm ' c l a s s i fi c a t ory ve rb ' i s not new .

I t has b e e n u s e d for

s ome t ime i n s t ud i e s o f Ame r i c an Indian languages where phenomena s im i l ar to t h o s e of Enga have been d e s c r i b e d in t h e s e t e rms .

That

the phenomena are imp o r t ant and w or t hy of d e t a i le d inve s t i gat ion has b e e n p o in t e d out b y Haa s , Berl in , and others .

1

Lang, A. The semantics of classificatory verbs in Enga (and other Papua New Guinea languages). B-39, xii + 246 pages. Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, 1975. DOI:10.15144/PL-B39.1 ©1975 Pacific Linguistics and/or the author(s). Online edition licensed 2015 CC BY-SA 4.0, with permission of PL. A sealang.net/CRCL initiative.

Thu s , Haas has

2 s aid that clas sificatory verbs clearly deserve far more attention than they have received in the past as indi cators of covert taxonomic systems of considerable complexity ( 1967 : 361 ) .

Brent Be r l i n has s t at e d that c la s s i f i c a t ory verb s , noun c l a s s markers (as in the Ban t u language s ) , and numeral c la s s i f i e r s ( as in Chine s e , Mayan and Tara s c an ) are " three s y n t ac t i c devi c e s ut i l i z ed by many langua ge s of the world l i ngui s t i c a l l y marking h i gh ly s a l ient feat ure s o f the p hy s i c a l wor1d . . . u1t imat e 1 y it w i l l be ne c e s s ary t o c on s ider e a c h of t h e s e three synt a c t i c devi c e s a s f o c u s i ng on s im i l ar s e man t i c feature s . . . "

( Friedrich 1 9 7 0 : 38 0 ) .

Clas s i f i c at ory verb s may be e ither overt , a s in the Athap a s can language s

( Ho i j er 1 9 4 5 ; Haas 1 9 48 , 1 9 6 7 ; Landar 1 9 6 4 , 1 9 6 5 , et a Z . ) ,

or c overt , a s in Taras can ( Friedrich 1 9 7 0 ) and Enga .

As a p o int o f

d e p arture f o r t h i s d e s cript i on , w e w i l l t ake Ho i j er ' s c la s s i c art i c l e on t he verb s t ems o f Apache , whi c h out l i ne s three kinds o f verb s : i

non- c l as s i fi c a t ory verb s ,

ii

c l a s s i fi c at ory verb s , and

iii

' p seudo '

c l as s i fi c at ory verb s .

5

Ho i j er ( 1 9 4 5 ) has defined t h e s e as f o l l ow s : i Non-clas sificatory verbs : . . . verb stems denoting a specific type of action or behavior . ' he is walking , moving ' , ' he speaks so ' , Forms like of this kind ( 22 ) . ' you buy it ' employ verb stems • . •

• • •

• • •

• . •

ii Clas s ificatory verbs : verb stems which refer to a clas s of obj ects participating there is no (22) in an event , either as actor or goal s imple verb ' to give ' but a number of parallel verb themes consisting of a certain sequence of prefixes plus a classifi­ catory verb stem. The sequence of prefixes is the same for each theme but the stem varies with the class of obj ect referred to ( 13 ) . . • .

. . •

•

• • •

Some examples of these include : ' she gave [ a twenty-five cent piece] to him ' , ' he gave [ a bundle o f arrows] t o him ' , ' you take a round obj ect out of ( an enclosed space ) ' , ' you take a fabric-like obj ect out of ( an enclosed space ) ' ( 14 ) . These verb stems have a . . . neuter intransitive denoting an obj ect of a particular ' a mountain lies [ over type in position or at rest , ( 22 ) . yonder] ' • . .

• . .

i i i ' Pseudo ' clas si fi c atory verbs : stems which stand between the two categories just outlined . Some of these are to be distingui sed from the clas sificatory stems only in their neuter forms ; active verbs denoting the movement or handling of their obj ect clas s are the same as those of some other clas sificatory type . An example of this ' it is bent bow-like ' , for phenomenon is found in Navaho when we speak of handling a 'bow-like obj ect ' we must use active verbs of the ' long obj ect ' class ( 22f . ) . • . .

. • .

3

N o t e e sp e c i a l l y that the form that d i s t ingu i s h e s the c l a s s i f i c a­ t ory from t h e ' p s e ud o ' c la s s i f i ca t ory verb s is t he the t yp e ' a moun t a i n l i e s ' .

' neut e r '

form o f

Enga d o e s n o t have ' p s eudo ' c l as s i fi c a ­

t ory verb s , b ut t h e Enga form c orre s p onding t o t h e ' neut e r ' Navaho form , the e x i s t e n t i a l verb , a l s o c ompr i s e s a s p e c i a l s ub - s e t of the c lass i f i c at ory verb s in Enga .

O f the three t yp e s given by H o i j er

( non-c l a s s i fi c at ory , c la s s i fi c a t ory , and ' p s e udo ' c l a s s i f i c at ory verb s ) , Enga has t he f i r s t two , b ut not the l a s t . Both t h e Athapas c an l anguage s and Enga h ave non-c l a s s i f i c at ory verb s ; i n Enga these are e xemp l i f i e d here b y y a w a - s te am (in an e a r t h o v e n ) in :

y a we - l y - a m r -n o . 6

A k � 1 i d 6 p a - me me n a d 6 p a

1.

man

the-AG pig

the

s t e am- PRE S - 3 PL-DEC

The men are s te aming t h e p i g s

(in an e ar t h o v e n ) .

The s e are b r i e f l y p re s e nt e d in 1 . 2 . 1 ( fo l l owing ) and appear grouped into s e mant i c c la s s e s in Appendi x A ; t h e y are hereafter i gnore d , s in c e the s t udy d e a l s only w i t h the c la s s i fi c a t ory verb s of Enga . The c la s s i f i c at ory verb s in Enga are of two t yp e s , and are d is­ t i ngui shed by the t y p e of noun wh i c h c o - o c c ur s w i t h t hem .

The f i r s t

t yp e c o- o c c urs w i t h c on c r e t e n o u n s in Enga , a n d c orre s p onds t o H o i j er ' s

' neut e r '

s t em which denot e s " . . . a n ob j e c t o f a part i cular

t y p e in a p o s it i on or at re s t "

(1 9 4 5 : 2 2 ) .

In Enga these verb s c la s ­

s i fy t he c o n c re t e nouns i n t o s even sub-c las s e s , o f w h i c h t hree are e xemp l i f i e d in (2 -4 ) :

En d a

2.

d u pa pete-nge . BE-HAB

lJoman the Wom e n e xi s t .

BE-HAB

house the

Hou s e s exi s t . 4.

J r p i d up a d- n g i . jeep the

BE-HAB

J e e p s /cars e xi s t . I n the s e s en t e n c e s , the verb s p i t a - , k a t a - , and s a - ind i c a t e that obj e c t s o f a p ar t i c ular t y p e ( e . g . , lJoman , p o s it i o n at re s t .

The s e verb s

house and j e e p ) are in a

( and the others wh i c h c o n s t i t u t e the

s e t ) will be referred to as e x i s t en t ia l verb s

( hereafter EV ) and w i l l

form o n e o f t h e main t op i c s o f de s c r i p t i on a n d analy s i s in Chapt e r

2.0.

4

The s e c ond t yp e of c la s s i f i c at ory verb s in Enga c o - o c cur w i t h t h e non- c on c r e t e nouns ; they a r e in c omp lement ary d i st ribut i on w i t h t he f i r s t t ype , the EV .

Th i s s e c ond t ype of c la s s i fi c a t ory verb o c c ur s

i n what wi l l b e re ferred t o as a ' predi c a t i on ' .

Two t y p i c a l Enga

predicat i o n s , t e e p i - pay re s ti t u t i o n (for a homi c i de ) , and i t � k r

p y a - coun t are exemp l i f i e d in ( 5 ) and ( 6 ) : p i -l y - a m i - n 6 . man

t h e - A G r e s t i t u t i o n do-PRES- 3PL-DEC

The men are pay ing re s t i t u t i on

( for a homicide ) .

p i - l y -� - mo . man

t h e - AG pig

t he

count h i t - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC

The man is counting the p i g s . The se pre d i c a t i on s wi l l be d e s cribed and ana l y z e d in Chap t e r 4 . I n d i s c u s s in g the s emant i c s t ruc t ure of t h e EV and predi c at i o n s , l e x i c a l s t ems w i l l be c ons idered t o c on s i s t of bundles of s emant i c f e at ure s , mainly for prac t i c a l reasons , s ince t h e prob lems n o t e d i n the s e c t i on t o f o l l ow have n o t y e t b e e n s o lved .

0.2

TH EOR E T ICAL OR I ENTAT I ON ANV PROBLEMS After years o f b e i n g d i s c r e d i t e d and ignored , the s t udy o f s e man­

t i c s was revi t a l i z e d in 1 9 6 3 with the p i oneering e ffort o f Kat z and Fodor whi c h att emp t e d not " . . . to pres ent a s emant i c t he ory of a natural language , but rather t o chara c t e r i z e the ab s tr a c t form o f s u c h a the ory "

( 1 9 6 4 : 47 9 ) .

The importance o f t h i s work i s empha s i z e d

b y i t s be ing imme d i at e ly i n c orpora t e d i n t o a n i n t e grated t he ory o f l ingui s t i c de s cript i on

( Kat z and P o s t a l 1 9 6 4 ) and i t s inc orporat ion

i n t o generat ive trans format i onal t he ory ( Chomsky 1 9 6 5 ) . The s eman t i c theory p re s en t e d b y Kat z and F odor was heavily c r i t ­ 7 i c i s ed on s everal p o i nt s , o f whi c h we w i l l d e a l only w i t h t h o s e o f i n t ere s t in the pre s e nt s e mant i c s tudy o f Enga , e . g . , the i d e a of s e mant i c markers ( fe a t ur e s or c omp onent s ) .

I n t h e fol lowing s e c t ions

we will briefly sketch s ome of t h e more s a lient points to b e a c c ount­ e d for i n a s emant i c s tudy and wh i c h we intend to c on c entrate most heavily up on in the chap t e r s to f o l l ow . 0.2.1

The p o i n t s inc lude :

The s emant i c fe ature s

0.2.2

Redundanc y r u l e s in s emant i c s

0.2.3

Var ious e x c e p t i o n s t o the redundancy r u l e s

0.2.4

Dominan c e relat ions b etween nouns a n d verb s

0 . 2 .5

The p r i o r i t y of s y n t a x or s emant i c s .

5

0.2 .1

T h e S e m a n t i c F e a tu r e s

We inre i c h s t a t e s t h a t the i d e a o f u s in g featur e s was f i r s t p ro­ posed by G . H . Matthews ab out 1 9 5 7 and was indep ende n t l y w orked out to s ome e x t e n t by Robert P . S t o ckwe l l and his s t ud e n t s

( 19 6 6 : 401 ) .

Lyons s ay s that the c omp onent ial approach t o s eman t i c s " . . . has a long h i s t ory i n linguis t i c s , l o g i c and p h i l o s ophy .

I t i s inherent in t h e

trad i t i onal met h od o f d e finit ion by divid ing a g e n u s i n t o s p e c i e s and s p e c i e s into s ub s p e c ie s ; and t h i s method o f de fin i t i on is r e f l e c t e d i n mo s t o f the d i c t i onarie s that have e v e r b e e n c omp i led f o r p art i c u­ lar l anguage s , and in the organ i z a t i on o f s uc h works as R o g e�l¢ The¢ au� u¢ II ( 19 68 : 4 7 2 ) . In t h e c ompone n t i a l ( or feat ure ) method , words are d e s cribed s eman t i c a l l y by fact oring out the m o s t c omponen t s .

' basic '

Ethn o s c i e n c e h a s s uc c e s s fu l l y app l i e d t h i s t e chn i que

mos t ly w i t h i n the domain o f var i ou s c l o s e d c ontrast s e t s , s uc h a s 8 kinship t e rms . One c la im advan c ed for s eman t i c comp onent s i s t he i r p o t ent ia l univer s a l it y , i . e . , t hat a l l human language s m a y be e i t her part i a l l y or c omp l e t e ly analyzed i n t erms o f a f i n i t e s e t o f s eman t i c feature s in much the s ame way as c an be d one for phono l ogy w i t h d i s t in c t ive feature s .

Chomsky c i t e s s evera l e xamp l e s wh ich c ont ain ( forma l )

univers a l s : Consider , for example , the as sumption that proper names in any lan­ guage , must designate objects meet ing a condition of spatiotemporal contiguity , and that the same is true of other terms designating objects ; or the condition that the color words of any language must subdivide the color spectrum into continuous segments; or the con­ di tion that arti facts are defined in terms of certain human goals , needs, and functions instead of solely in terms of phys i cal quali­ ties ( 1965 : 29, notes omitte d ) .

Of c ourse the value of a c omponent ial analy s i s in the s eman t i c de s ­ c r i p t i o n o f a p art i c ular l anguage ( in t h i s c a s e , Enga ) rema i n s un­ a f fe c t e d by the e x i s t en c e ( or non-e x i s t en c e ) of p o s s ib le unive r s a l c omp onen t s , y e t s uc h a de s c ript i on may b e evidence t o even t u a l l y c on­ firm ( or r e fut e ) the hypothe s i s of the unive r s a l i t y of feature s . One o f t he advant age s of s e mant i c feature s i s that t h e s e a l l ow word s wh i c h have one or more featur e s in c ommon t o be r e l a t e d v i a the s e feature s , i . e . , w o r d s may b e c on s i dered t o b e s ynonymous i f they c on t a i n ident i c al s emant i c c omp onent s and d e s c r i p t i o n s .

Th i s

s ame r e l at ion may h o l d b e tween s e n t e nc e s , s u c h that . . . relat i ons like paraphrase , entailment , etc . are suitable general­ i z ations of lexical relat ions like synonymy, hyponymy , etc . This i s a natural consequence o f the fact that the semanti c representations of sentences are in principle of the same character as lexical mean­ ings ( Bierwisch 1970 : 180 ) .

6

Thus the s eman t i c c omponent s may demon s t ra t e the o c c urre n c e s and show t he r e l at i o n s h ip s b e tween synonyms , ant onyms , and other related word s . A s we l l , t h e ove rlapping o f s emant i c c omp onent s o r d e s c r i p t ions p ro­ vid e s for that s ub - s e t o f i t ems whi ch w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d b e low and t hroughout t h i s monograph a s

' in t e r s e c t ion '

(cf . 0. 2 . 3 . 2 ) .

S e veral of the p rob l em s m o s t freque n t l y ment ioned in c onne c t i on w i t h s eman t i c c ompo nent s are ( 1 ) that there is no d i s c overy p r o c edure t o d e t e rmine whi c h a r e t he ' c orre c t ' marker s ; ( 2 ) how e x a c t l y are t he s eman t i c c omponents re lated t o t h e s y nt a c t ic feature s ; ( 3 ) i s t he numb er o f c omp onent s needed s o large a s t o b e unfe a s ab l e ; ( 4 ) are latent markers pre s e nt ; ( 5 ) do the f e atur e s h ave ' c o gn i t ive r e a l i t y ' ? The d i s c overy o f s eman t i c markers i s u sually demon s t ra t e d v i a a f a c t oring pro c e s s on s u c h c lo s e d c ontrast s e t s as "man , woman , b oy , or " s t a l l ion , mare , gelding , f i l ly , c o lt , foa l " ( c f. . Bierw i s ch 1 9 7 0 : 1 68 and Lyons 1 9 68 : 4 7 0 ) . Th i s is i n c i d e n t a l l y t h e

gir l , c h i ld"

s ame m e t h o d adop t e d in e thno s c i e nc e , which has e lab orat e d u p o n the d i s c overy t e chnique s and methods to be u s ed in the det e rminat i on o f t he c l o s e d s e t , the feature s , et c .

F o r an e xc e l l ent e xamp l e o f t h i s ,

s e e Ber l in 1 9 68 and referen c e s therein .

Bol in ger u s e s t h e s ame t e c h ­

nique in demon s t ra t i n g that the dua l i sm o f semant i c markers and ' di s t ingu i sher s ' in the s emant i c t h e ory o f Kat z and Fodor is an art i­ f i c i a l i t y ( 1 9 6 5 : 5 58ff ) .

I t i s B o l i n ger who p o int s out that s e mant i c

c omponent s must r e f l e c t our knowle dge o f t he world ; i f not , t h e n " Where d o marke rs l ike

( Anima l ) ,

( Ph y s i c a l Ob j ec t ) , . . . c ome from i f

not from our know ledge o f the world ? "

( 1965 : 568) .

Kat z and Fodor claimed t hat semant i c and s y n t a c t i c markers were d i s t inc t , an a s sump t i on that has b e en att acked by We inr e i c h , who s t at e s that The presence of syntacti c and semant ic markers with identi c al names ( Male , Female , Abstract , etc . ) offers strong prima facie ground for the suspi cion that the distinction between s emantic and syntact ic markers--a distinction theoreti c ally crucial for KF --is ill-founded ( 1966 : 402 ) . 9 . . .

The large numb e r of s emant i c c omp onent s n e eded t o de fine even j us t one word i s one o f t h e main prob l ems t o be faced .

Th i s i s ment ioned

b y D i x on 1 9 7 1 : 4 4 0 , We inre i c h 1 9 6 6 : 4 7 3 , and Bol in ger 1 9 6 5 : 5 6 0 .

Br i e f ­

l y , the a s s umpt i on i s that the large ( but pre s umab ly f i n i t e numb e r ) of even minimal marke r s needed would be b ut l i t t l e b e t t e r t han a l i s t of £ words as sumed t o b e p r imit iv e s ( s in c e i t i s ent ire l y p os s ib l e

7 t hat the numb er o f marker s needed would be only �

-

1) .

Pract i c al l y ,

the idea of s eman t i c redundancy r u l e s ( s imi lar t o t h o s e of phon o l o gy and syntax l O ) , wh i l e s t i l l fraught w i t h d i ff i cu l t i e s ( c f . 0 . 2 . 2 ) , d o e s offer at l e a s t s ome hope in the s eman t i c d e s c r i p t ion o f any hierar c h i c c l a s s of i t em s ( i . e . f o l k t axonomy ) , and s emant i c c ompo ­ ne n t s h a v e a s We inre i c h s t at e s " . . . proved the ir u s e fulne s s long a g o " ( 19 6 6 : 47 3 ) . Another r e l a t e d prob lem is that of latent marke r s , as d i s c u s s e d b y B o l in ge r 1 9 6 5 : 5 6 2 f f .

Th i s i s t h a t t o a c c ount f o r t he s p e aker ' s ab i l­

i t y t o r e c o gn i z e an anomaly ( a s we l l a s amb i gu it y ) would require mak­ ing e xp l i c it a very large numb er of markers or as Weinre i c h s t a t e s it " . . . the need to mark e a c h morpheme w i t h a zero for an e x t re me ly large number o f s eman t i c feature s l ooms as a most unat t r a c t ive ne c e s s it y " ( 1966 : 47 3 ) .

B o l inger ' s propo s e d s olut i on would b e a d i c t i onary ( w i t h

o n e o r t w o do zen markers p e r entry ) f o r t h e amb iguit ie s , and a t h e ­ s aurus ( wi t h e ac h marker appearing o n l y once , and l e x i c a l i t ems b e ing l inked by p a t h s b e tween marke r s ) for the anoma l i e s ( 1 9 6 5 : 5 6 4 ) .

( Com­

pare t h i s idea of s emant i c n e t w orks w i t h t ho s e to be d i s cu s s e d in 0.2.2) . One prob lem of s e man t i c c omp onent s , d i s c u s s ed main ly by anthro p o l ­ ogi s t s int e r e s t e d in ethno s c i e n c e , i s t h a t of the or ' va l i d i t y '

' c ogn it ive r e a l it y '

of the s emant i c c omponent s t hems e lve s .

The prob l em i s

that t o d i f ferent i a t e any it ems in t erms of only one feat ure , a s ani­ mat e s in t erms o f t h e i r sex ( i . e . , as man-woman , b u l l- c ow , e t c . ) , i s t o emphas ize o n l y one o f t h e many r e l e vant feat ure s whi c h may d i s t in ­ gui s h the it ems : If one asks a young child (most of whose utterances are perfectly accept able and manifest the same semanti c relationships , as far as one can judge , as the utterances of his elders ) what is the difference between men and women , he might answer by l i sting a whole set of typic al characteristics--the kind of clothes they wear , how their hair is cut , . . . Why should one suppose that sex is the sole criterion even in adult speech? ( Lyons 1968 : 478 ) . 1 1

Thi s que s t ion o f t h e ' c o gni t i ve r e a l i t y ' o f s e mant i c c omp o n e n t s i s un s o lvab le ( at p r e s ent , a t l e a s t ) , and anthrop o l o gi s t s are divide d , w i t h s ome c l aiming that the que s t ion is irre levant , others t hat t h e s y s tems p o s t u lat e d a r e c ogni t i ve ly re al , a n d yet o t h e r s t hat s uc h a c o gn i t i ve r e a l i t y may e x i s t but that it mus t be demons t rat e d by oper­ 12 ations e x t e rnal t o t h e me thods of analy s i s . 0 .2 .2

Semantic Redundancy

Rules

The p o s s i b i l i t y of s emant i c redundancy rule s i s not me nt ioned by Kat z and Fodor in t h e ir s emant i c t he ory .

Chom s ky app l i e d the not i o n

8

of redundanc y r u l e s as u s e d in phono logy by H a l l e ( 1 9 5 9 a and b ) t o s y n t a x t o form s y nt a c t i c redundancy rule s .

He s t a t e s that t h e s e ru l e s

" ar e de s i gned t o d e a l w i t h t he f a c t t h a t c e r t a i n phono l og i c a l feature s p e c i f i c at i on s are pred i c t ab le , given o t h er s " ( 19 6 5 : 168 ) .

A d i s t in c ­

t i on i s made b e tween c onvent i on s ( the s e are " . . . univers a l , and t h e r e ­ f o r e need no s p e c i f i c s t a t ement in the grammar " ( 1 9 6 5 : 1 68 ) ) and redundancy rule s , which are " . . . p art i c ular to a given l anguage , and t h e r e fore mus t be given in the grammar "

( 1965 : 168) .

The redundanc y

rules w i l l make a distinction between "pos sible , but nonoccurring lexi cal entry" and "impos sible lexic al entry" , precisely as the phono­ But in general not all of the logi c al redundancy rules do pos s ibilities will be actually realized in the lexicon. . . the pos s ible but nonoccurring lexical entries have the status of "accidental semantic gaps" in the sense that they correspond to lexical items that the language does not provide for speci­ fically but could in principle incorporate with no alterat i on of the general s emanti c system within which it functions (1965 : 170) . . . •

Gething ( 1 9 6 8 ) pre sent s an app l i c at ion o f redundancy r u l e s t o s em­ ant i c s

( i . e . , to a c l o s e d set o f t erms for Buddh i s t r e l i g i o u s fun c ­

t i onari e s ) , w h i c h p re s ent s one s o lut i on t o t h e fa c t s pre s e n t e d above of the p o t e n t i a l ly l arge numb er o f s emant i c comp onents n e c e s s ary for an analy s i s .

He does this by f ir s t as s uming that only p e r t inent

feature s o f a w ord are l i s t e d , with a genera l rule for the ent ire l e x i c on wh ich s t a t e s that featur e s not l i s t ed for an item are non­ app li cab le t o i t .

Furthermore , predi c t ab le ( and thus redundant )

featur e s are i s o la t e d and reduc e d by a s e t of rule s , s o t hat t h e l e x i ­ c on c on t a i n s o n l y the ' emi c '

( non-predi c t ab l e ) l e x i c a l entr i e s .

Th i s

q u i t e c o n s i derably reduc e s the s emant i c markers needed--in G e t hing ' s e xamp le o f r e l i gious t erms , only one feature , r e l at ive s t a t u s , i s a c t ua l l y needed i n t he entry .

That t h i s i s p o s s ib le ( i . e . , t o reduce

the feature s to only one , p lus a s e t o f redundanc y rule s ) i s l arge ly the result o f t h e hierarchic nature o f the data chosen by Ge thing . In the c a s e of non-h ierarc h i c it ems s emant i c redundan c y r u l e s fa c e a very r e a l chal lenge .

A d i s c u s s ion o f t h i s i s p r e s e n t e d i n

We inr e i c h ( 1 9 6 6 : 4 08f ) and b ri e fly here .

We inre i c h argue s t hat Kat z

and Fodor give an over- s imp l i f i e d view o f the p rob lem by e xe mp l i f y i n g t r e e s as p ure t axonomi e s , s u c h that ( 7 a ) c an b e repre s en t e d by ( 7b ) : 1 3 7a .

��I A !

7b .

T

And , as We inr e i c h p o int s out , many d i c t ionary entr i e s tend t o form matr i c e s o f fe at ure s , as in ( 8a ) , and " t he re i s n o mot ivat ed r e a s on

9

t o rewr i t e them as . . . [8b ] ; the only e c onomy would b e achieved b y repr e s entat i o n s s u c h a s . . . [ 8c , d,e ] " 8a .

8c .

A) R �R

8e .

A

( 1966 : 409 ) : 8b .

Q

B Q

I

8d .

C

C

B

~

C R

This prob l em ( c ro s s - c l a s s i f i c at i on ) i s a l s o d i s c u s s e d b y Choms ky ( 1 9 6 5 : 7 9-86 ) , who c r e d i t s G . H . Mat thews w i t h f i r s t d i s c overing i t and w i t h one s o lut i on v i a inde x i n g c at e gory symb ol s .

Choms ky men t i on s

s ome other s o lu t i on s b y St o ckwe l l a n d Schacht e r , and Bac h ; a n d s t at e s that the " prob lem i s very muc h open , and d e s e rve s much further s tudy " ( 1965 : 213 ) .

Thus c r o s s -c las s i fi c at ion would c learly p r e s e n t a maj or

d i ff i c u l t y i n the formu l at i on of s eman t i c redundanc y rul e s for any non-hierar c h i c i t ems . We i nre i c h a l s o d e a l s w i t h the prob l em of r e c onverge n c e o f marker s , wh i ch he s t a t e s i s s uch that " . . . the c r i t e ria of a fixed order o f markers and a f i x e d form o f b ranching may b e mutual ly irre c on c i lab l e " ( 1966 : 408) . 9.

fox

�

The e nt ry for as

The p rob lem i s exemp l i fi e d b y the e nt ry for ( Ob j e c t )

�

( An i ma t e )

�

( Human ) ( An i ma l )

�

' fox ' :

( Cunni ng )

�. . .

( 9 ) w i th a f i x e d order of markers would b e repre s e n t e d

( 1 0 ) , a n d w i t h a f i x e d form o f branching ( i . e . the non­

rec onverge n c e of branche s ) a s ( 1 1 ) : 10 .

We inre i ch c r i t i c i z e s Kat z and Fodor for t h e i r b e l ie f that Bo o l e an op erat i o n s are " . . . an adequate mode l for c omb in a t o r i a l s emant i c s " ( 1 9 6 6 : 4 1 1 ) , and that

one

"would have t hough t that w i t h the develop­

ment o f the c al c u lu s o f many- p l a c e pre d i c at e s , the l o g i c o f Boolean

10

( on e - p l ac e ) pred i c at e s would b e p e rmanen t ly dropp ed a s a mode l for natural l anguage "

( 1966 : 41 1 ) .

As We inre i c h a l s o s t at e s , one of the maj or mot ivat ions o f s emant i c re s e ar c h h a s b e e n a " de s ire t o ana l y z e a glob al meaning i n t o c omp o­ nent s , and to e s t ab l i s h a h ierarchy among t he c omp onent s . . . " 40 5 ) .

( 19 6 6 :

Yet as we have s e e n above , s emant i c redundancy r u l e s c an a c ­

c ount only for h ierarch i c a l ly-ordered s y s t ems ( or s ub - s y s t ems ) o f s e mant i c s , a n d c annot a c c ount f o r i ns t an c e s o f c r o s s - c l a s s i fi c at i o n a n d r e - c onverge n c e o f feature s .

One p o s s i b le s o l u t i o n t o t h e l a t t e r

prob lem h a s b e e n offered i n the i d e a o f s emant i c ' ne t works ' , but t h e 14 idea rema in s t o b e developed a n d t e s t e d .

0 . 2 .3

Exceptions

Choms ky has s ai d t hat e x c e p t i on s " . . . are rarely l a c king , in a s y s ­ t e m o f t h e c omp le x i t y o f a natural l anguage "

( 1 9 6 5 : 2 18 ) .

A c omp l e t e

de s c r ip t i o n o f any l an guage , and a t h e ory o f c ompe t en c e f o r t h a t l an­ guage , mus t inc lude an a c c ount o f e x c e p t i on s , i n p art i c ular , t h o s e e x c ep t i on s wh i c h o c cur s y s t emat i c a l ly i n relat i on t o t he mai n s y s ­ 15 t em . The e xc e p t i on s a r e that very s ma l l numb e r ( five p e r c e n t o r le s s ) o f c a s e s i n a natural language wh i c h c ontrad i c t t h e ma i n s y s ­ t e m o f ru l e s u s e d t o a c c ount for t he maj ority of i t ems i n t hat par­ t i c u l ar s y s tem .

Th i s t op i c o f e x c ep t i on s is o f imp ort ance t o

theoret i c a l l ingui s t i c s , s i n c e t h e y are pres ent i n natural l anguage s ( in c on t r a s t t o art i f i c i a l language s who s e rules a l l ow for no e x c ep ­ t i ons ) a n d s i n c e they mus t t here fore b e a c c ount e d f o r b y a t h e ory o f c ompe t e nc e .

The a t t e mp t t o a c c ount f o r e x c e p t ions i s obvi ou s ly t o

try t o formu late rules t o a c c ount for t h e regular i t i e s o f t h e e x c ep ­ t i on s i n t erms o f t h e mai n s y s t em :

i . e . , t o formul a t e a s ub - s y s t em of rul e s for 'break ing ' the mai n s y s t em of rul e s . 1 6 Throughout t he chapt ers t o f o l l ow w e w i l l b e d e a l i n g w i t h three

kinds o f e x c ep t i on s pre s e nt i n the s emant i c s y s t em o f Enga nouns and verb s . 1.

the a s s i gnment o f loan i t ems

2.

s e mant i c i n t e rs e c t i o n o f features

3.

change o f c l as se s or s t a t e s

For a l l three o f the s e kinds o f e x c ep t i ons

( and p o s s ib ly f o r a l l e x ­

c e p t i on s i n any language ) , t h e maj or pOint t o b e noted i s t hat the e xc e p t i o n s do not o c cur i n free or random d i s t r ibut i o n , but are a l ­ way s c ont ained w i t h i n c e r t a i n l imit s .

Th i s w i l l b e d i s c u s s e d i n more

d e t a i l i n the fo l lowing s e c t i on s d e a l ing w i t h t he spe c i f i c kinds o f e x c ep t i o n s we w i l l enc ounter and d i s cu s s for Enga .

11 0 . 2 . 3 .1

L o a n l£emc

A l t h ou gh t h e numb er of l oan i t ems in any l anguage i s a s ma l l pro­ port i on o f t he total vocabulary , t he s e form a s ub s e t o f int ere s t i n s emant i c s t udy s in c e they m a y b e u s e d t o t e s t t h e m a i n s e t o f r u l e s a s t o degr e e o f pred i c t ab i l it y .

The features whereby l oan i t ems are

a s s i gned to c la s s e s thus provide a mechan i s m for t e s t ing the val i d i t y of the s emant i c feature s p o s t u l at ed f o r non- l oan i t ems .

The a s s i gn ­

ment o f loan i t ems may dep end on s uc h features a s t h e pre s t i ge o f t h e s ource language ( En g l i s h or Tok P i s in int o Enga ) ; the group a s s o c i­ a t e d w i t h the int rodu c e d i t e m ( mi s s i onari e s , government , b u s i ne s s , e t c . ) and other s o c i o - l ingui s t i c fac t or s .

Genera l l y we w ou l d p o s tu ­

l a t e t h e a s s i gnment o f l o an i t ems by t h e c u l tural ly-det ermined r e l e ­ vant fe atur e s a s b e ing a s s im i l a t e d i n t o Enga c la s s e s o f the great e s t s imi l a r i t y ( i . e . , having t h e s ame feature s ) . The feat ure s wh i ch det ermine t he a s s i gnment may a l s o vary , i.e . phone t i c a l ly , morpho l og i c a l l y , or s emant i c a l l y .

In c a s e s where

gender , for e xamp l e , is marked phonet i c a l l y , the l oan i t e m may be q u i t e arb itrari l y a s s i gned to a c la s s b a s e d upon i t s phono l o gy :

as

i n Span i s h , the - a ending i n f l u e n c i n g the a s s i gnment of the I n c a l oan 17 word l l a m a into the fem i n i ne c la s s . Whe n t he s y s t e m is b a s e d o n morp h o l ogy , t h i s a l s o t ake s precedence :

a s i n German , the - l e i n and - c h e n demanding neuter c la s s i f i c at ion , and over-ri d i n g the s eman t i c 18 f e at ure o f [ +Fema l e ] i n t h e c a s e s o f d a s Ma d c h e n and d a s F r a u l e i n . In s emant i c a l ly b a s e d s y s t em s , the c r i t e r i a are s emant i c :

in Tara s c an,

w i t h emphas i s on features of shap e , c ar s are u s ua l ly c la s s e d as one­ dime n s i o na l , b ut t h e Vo lkswagen is c l a s s e d a s t hree-dime n s i on a l " b e c aus e o f i t s roundi sh , b ug- l ike qua l i t y " ( Fr i e dr i c h 19 7 0 : 3 8 6 ) . The fai lure o f a s y s t em o f rule s t o a c c ount for the appropr i a t e a s s i gnmen t o f l oan i t ems w o u l d indi c a t e a b a s i c f a u l t w i t h in the s y s ­ t em ' s features o r rul e s , and c onver s e l y , t h e c orre c t ly pre d i c t e d a s s i gnment ( i . e . i f t h i s agre e s w i t h t h e c l a s s i f i cat ion as made b y nat ive s peakers ) w o u ld a l l ow u s t o a s s ume at l e a s t s ome degree o f v a l i d i t y for t h e p o s t u l a t e d s y s t em o f features a n d rul e s .

Thu s , l oan

i t ems are , s t r i c t ly s p e a k in g , not e xc e p t i o n s to the main b ody o f rule s , b ut i n s t ead a l l ow the t e s t ing o f t h i s sy s t em .

Loan i t ems are

i n c lude d i n t h i s s e c t i on s i n c e , i n t h e i r s ma l l p e r c ent age of o c cur­ rence i n the t ot a l v o c ab ulary , they h ave one of t h e mai n c hara c t e r i s ­ t i c s o f e x c e p t i on s , i . e . , t h e y c on s t i t u t e a s ma l l b u t r e gular p ort i on o f the main s y s t em .

12

I nt e�4 eet� o n

0.2 .3 .2

A s men t i oned ab ove , one o f t h e advant age s o f s emant i c c omp onent s i s that the s e a l low words whi c h have one t o be r e l a t e d via t he s e c ommon feature s .

( or more ) features in c ommon 19 D e f in i t i on by s y nonyms i s

o f t e n u s e d i n l e x i c o graphy , where , a s Bol inger s t a t e s the sense is characterized b y an overlap o f the s emanti c ranges of two other terms presumed to be already known , and two are the minimum necess ary to have an overlap . Of course it can be argued that thi s is just a shorthand way of s aying ' X has those markers of Y and Z that are not mutually exclusive ' . . ( 1965:565 ) . .

Synonyms and ne ar- s ynonyms p r e s e nt a c a s e o f intere s t for s emant i c I n fact , We inre i ch has s ugge s t ed that the most imp o rt ant

analy s i s .

p rob l em i n s emant i c de s c r i p t ion ( and l e x i c ography ) is to de l imit t h e s i gn i f i c a t i on o f near-s ynonyms :

" On the whole , a s emant i c d e s c r i p ­

t i on should not aim at " ab s o lut e " de finit i o n s , but at d e f in i t i ons wh i ch d e l imit t h e me aning o f a t erm from that o f t erms w i t h s i mi lar 20 I nt e r s e c t i o n t hu s involves nonme anings ( sy nonyms ) " ( 1 9 6 2 : 3 0 ) . mut u a l l y e x c l u s ive s emant i c marke rs , or a s Fri e dr i c h s t a t e s " . . . an ident i t y or c l o s e s imilarity o f me aning with r e s p e c t to one or more s emant i c fe ature s in two or more d i s c r e t e , s eman t i c a l l y or d i s t r ibu­ t io n a l l y d e f ined s et s " ( 19 7 0 : 3 9 6 ) . In any noun c l as s or gender s y s t e m , t h i s i n t er s e c t ion ( or s haring ) o f one or more s eman t i c markers might w e l l r e s u l t in c o n f l i c t i n the c la s s a s s i gnment .

Thus , a s c it e d ab ove , in Taras c an cars are gener­

ally a s s i gned int o the one d ime n s i onal c la s s , but the Volkswagen ' s ' bu g- l ike ' features i nt e r s e c t w i t h t he three dimen s i onal c l a s s and i t may a l s o be c l a s s ed w i t h in t h e three dime n s i onal c la s s .

D i x on c i t e s

a j oking reference t o a hermaphro d it e , " the u s e o f t he non-normal c l a s s I I marker p o int ing out t h e female chara c t e ri s t i c s of t h i s ( 1 9 68 : 1 1 1 ) .

' man ' "

The i t e m i t s e l f may b e amb i gu ou s , as ribbons , w i t h fea­

tures o f both length and flatne s s , whi ch in Tara s c an may b e a s s i gned to e it h e r ( or b o t h ) shape c la s s e s a l s o c it e s the humorous

( Fri e d r i c h 1 9 7 0 : 385 ) .

Friedrich

' How many women d o e s P a n c h o have ' w i t h t h e

rep ly ' three i ra-hku ', " t hereby imp l i c it ly c la s s ing h i s p l ump m i s ­ t re s s e s w i t h p o t s b e c au s e o f t h e i r three-dimens i onal b o t t oms " 3 85 ) . ( 19 32 ) .

( 1970 :

Sap i r ha s ob s erved Navaho gender rule breaking duri n g punning ThUS , a·few o f the p o s s i b i l i t i e s that o ffer t hems e lve s i n

exp lana t i on a r e that the referent i t s e l f m a y b e amb i guous ; the c on­ t e xt or l ingu i s t i c s i t uat i o n may b e amb i gu ou s ; c a s e s o f humour and punning ; c a s e s o f t e a s ing or naught ine s s ; individual i d io s y n c ra c i e s ; and e rrors o f per formance .

13

The c a s e s o f int e r s e c t ion thus p r e s ent data o n t h e s emant i c fea­ t ur e s of t he s y s t em which may b e e it h e r t h e s ame o r very s imi lar , and a l s o provide informa t ion o n the l ingu i s t i c c on t e x t , and t h e way s in wh i c h the featur e s may be manipulated by the native s p e aker .

In mos t

c l a s s s y s t ems it i s a l s o s u c h that a mo s t neutra l or r e s idue c l a s s i s p r e sent .

T h i s c l a s s i s l ik e l y t o b e i l luminated b y the ana ly s i s o f

the int e r s e c t ing it ems , s i n c e it may w e l l b e t h e m o s t freque n t l y o c ­ 21 curring i n t h e s e c as e s .

0.2 . 3 .3

C hang� 0 6 Cia&&

In any s y s t em of s emant i c s , it i s a l s o p o s s i b l e for a sma l l numb e r o f i t ems t o change t h e ir s emant i c c l as s , depending u p o n the s emant i c feat ure s o f t h e s y s tem .

In Taras c a n , where t h e c l as s i fi c at ion

" . . . often depends on the shape a s p e r c e ived in t he c on t e xt o f a p ar­ t i cular s p e e c h s i t ua t i on " ( Fr i e d r i c h 1 9 7 0 : 385 ) , the c hange o f c la s s o f a l ong , de f l a t e d ( and thus one dime n s i onal ) b a l l o o n i n t o a round ( thus three d ime n s iona l ) inflated b a l loon i s r e f l e c t e d in the numeral c l a s s i fi e r s u s e d for t he two d i f fe rent s t at e s .

A l s o , human i nfant s

may b e c l a s s e d as s h ap e d ob j e c t s ( c la s s I ) , but when capab l e o f s p e e c h ( and thus rat i ona l ) are c l a s s e d a s c la s s I I ( Fri edrich 1 9 7 0 : 22 385 ) . I n t h e c a s e of t h e Engl i s h ' nat ural ' gender s y s t e m , t h e pronominal r e fe r e n c e to a p ar t i c u l ar re ferent may c hange if t he re ferent noun undergoe s a change o f s t at e :

the most u s ua l one in Engl i s h prob ab l y

b e ing t hat o f a m a l e b e ing a l t ered t o a gelding ( i . e. , a c as t ra t e d male ) .

For Engl i s h we c ould p o s t ul a t e a ' ge ld i n g ' rule , whereby the

referent i a l change from colt to geld ing o r bull to s t eer c ould be predicted : I f X is a male an imat e ( pronomina l reference ' he ' ) and is ge lded , future reference to X should b e a s ' it ' ; ( but a l s o , p o s s ib ly s t i l l as ' he ' ) . 2 3 The it ems wh i c h may e xp e r i e n c e change o f s t ate ( t hough u s ua l l y few in numb e r ) are o f i n t e r e s t in a s eman t i c d e s c r i p t i o n , s i n c e they h i gh l i gh t t h e feature s invo lved i n t he change , a s ab ove , w hen the feature s are [+Se x ] for ge ldings , in Tara s c an [+Sp e e c h , Rat ional ] for human i nfant s , and [+Long , One D imen s iona l ] to [+Round , Three Dimens ional ] for b a l loons .

0 . 2 .4

Dominance Relations

between Nouns and Verbs

One of t he b a s i c a s s umpt i ons made in generat ive grammar i s that the nouns and verb s are o f equal s t atus , i . e . , t hat n e i t h e r ' governs '

14

the other .

Chomsky 1 9 6 5 d i s cu s s e s whether s e le c t ional rul e s should

b e inc orporat ed i n t o the grammar e i ther in t erms o f the noun s ' d omi­ nance ( i . e . nouns are as s i gned feature s , and the verb s are s e le c t ed w i t h reference t o nouns ) or in t e rm s of the verb s ' dominance ( th e verb s a r e a s s i gned feat ure s a n d the nouns s e l e c t ed in t erms o f t h e verb s ) .

Within the framework then p r e s e n t ed , Chomsky demon s t r at e s

that the s e le c t ion o f nouns in t e rms o f the verb s ( i . e . , verb domi­ nanc e ) introdu c e s " c on s iderab l e c omp l i c at ion o f the grammar " ( 1 9 6 5 :

1 1 5 ) , and t hat the b e s t s olut ion ( in t erms o f formal s imp l i c i t y ) i s t o a s s i gn features t o nouns ( i . e. , noun dominan c e ) . Th i s s o lu t i o n was a t t acked in Matthews ' review as

' rather t r iv i a l ' .

Mat thews c on t inue s : Although we may have fallen into the habit , as linguist s , of using ' inherent ' -type terms for Nouns and ' contextual ' -type terms for Verbs ( e . g . ' Animate ' Nouns but Verbs 'which can take an Animate Subject ' ) , there is no certainty that this reflects a valuable intuition about language . It may simply reflect the fact that it is eas ier to find notional labels for Noun-classes than it is for Verb-classes ( 1967 : 131 ) .

Chomsky had hoped that " . . . a s imilar argument c ould b e given for any language " ( 1 9 6 5 :1 15 ) , yet more r e c e n t inve s t i gat ions in t h i s area would s eem t o indicate that , even if noun dominance i s o f gre a t e r s i mp l i c i t y in Engl i s h , t h i s i s b y n o means n e c e s s ar i l y s o in other

4 language s . 2

For examp l e , M i l l er ( 1 9 7 0 ) has pre s en t e d evidence for

the choice o f verb dominan c e in Rus s i an ( rather than the Chomskiannoun d ominanc e ) I f the choice of verbs were made conditional on the choice of noun features , two dependency systems would operate in the grammar : adverbs would be dependent on verbs and verbs would be dependent on nouns . However , if the choice of noun were made conditional on the choice of verb features , the gramm ar would contain one s ingle dependency system with both nouns and adverbs dependent on verbs ( 1970 : 501 ) •

N o t e a l s o that verb s in the A6pec�6 model may in fact a s s i gn fe at ure s t o c o- o c c urring nouns :

in the e xamp l e of ' gored b y a kudu ' , the verb

' gore ' , whi c h imp l i e s ' p ierce with a horn or sharp obj e c t ' a s s ign s the

feature o f [+horn or sharp obj e c t ] to the noun ' kudu ' . 2

5

This prob­

lem w i l l me rit add i t ional d i s c us s i on in the c on c lus i on to Chap t e r Two , when we w i l l a t t empt t o det ermine t he dominanc e re lat ions wh i c h h o l d f o r E n g a c la s s i fi c at ory verb s .

15

0.2 . 5

T h e P r i o r i ty of Syn t ax o r S e m an t i c s

O n t h i s t o p i c Chomsky originally s t at e s . . . one should not expect to b e able t o delimit a large and complex domain before it has been thoroughly explored . A decision as to the boundary separating syntax and semantics ( if there is one ) i s not a prerequisite for theoretical and des criptive study o f synt act i c and semant i c rules . O n the contrary , t h e problem o f delimination will clearly remain open until these fields are much better understood than they are today ( 19 6 5 : 159 ) .

and further it should not be t aken for granted , necessarily , that syntactic and semanti c considerations can be sharply distinguised ( 196 5 : 77). • . •

One of the maj or c ontrovers i e s t oday is b e tween the Int erpret ive and Generat ive Semant i c i s t s , one a s s uming p r i o r i t y of s y n t ax , t he 26 other of s emant i c s . One area where t h e s e two s ch o o l s d iffer i s t h a t o f s e l e c t ional r e s t r i c t ions .

Chomsky ( 1 9 6 5 ) treat s t h e s e a s a

mat t e r for s y n t a x ( no t s emant iCS ) , y e t as Lyons s t a t e s , the more t ra­ d i t i onal view is o ft e n that s e le c t ional r e s t r i c t ions are s emant i c , s in c e s uch deviant s e n t e n c e s as ly '

' *C o l or l e s s gre e n ideas s l eep fur i o u s ­

c an b e d e s c r ib e d a s " ' gramma t i c al , b u t me aningl e s s ' " 27

c ompared t o ' Brainle s s l i t t le things t y p e fur i ou s l y ' .

( 19 7 0 : 1 36 ) as And , a s Lyons

conc lude s , . . . concentration upon the complex interrelations that exist be­ tween syntax and semant i cs , and the attempts that are being made to formalize these by the ' generative semanticists ' , cannot but contribute to our underst anding of the structure of language ( 1970 : 138 ) .

This t o p i c is o f intere s t here , s ince one of the maj or prob lems t o b e c on fronted i s h ow t o a c c ount for the features o f the c la s s i fi c at ory ve rb s , i . e . , via s e gment s ( and thus as p art of s ynt ax ) or via features ( and thus a s part o f s emant i c s ) .

In e ither c a s e , we w i l l b e ab l e t o

t ake r e c ou r s e t o e s s e n t i a l ly t h e s ame s olut ion , wh i c h has varying name s , i . e . , s e gment s h i f t ing ( for the s e gment s ) f o l l owing Jacob s and R o s e nb aum ( 1 9 6 8 : 6 6 f ) , or feat ure s preading ( for the feature s ) f o l low­ ing Givon 1 9 6 9 , 1 9 7 0 , Mould 1 9 7 1 and Voe l t z 1 9 7 1 .

Thi s prob l em w i l l

a l s o mer i t add i t i onal d i s cu s s i on in the c onc l u s ion t o Chapt e r Four , where we w i l l d i s c u s s in d e t a i l the s t a t e o f Enga c la s s i fi c at ory verb s .

0.3

VATA C O M P I LA T I ON Thi s st udy i s b a s e d on data c omp i le d in the form o f a monol ingual

Enga di c t i onary , wh i c h re s emb l e s an Enga vers ion of Web s t er ' s Th ird , 28 The d i c t ionary c on t a i n s 5 , 4 4 5

p lus ( t o s ome e x t e n t ) e nCYCl op edi a .

16

entrie s , e a c h o f whi c h may c on t a in up t o t h i r t y - t hree d i f fe re n t kinds o f ( mo s t ly ) l ingui s t i c informa t ion :

s yntac t i c c at e gori e s , s emant i c

domain , s eman t i c feature s , an Eng l i s h gl o s s , whether the e n t r y i s a l oan i t em or not , a t h e s aurus , c r o s s -referencing t o s ynonyms and near­ s ynonym s , i l lu s trat ive s e nt en c e s from t e xt s , c itat ions and r e fe r e n c e s t o t h e entry in t h e p ub l i shed l i t e rature on Enga , various s ourc e s o f a l l informat i on ( i . e . , re ferenc e s t o informant s , n o t e b o ok s , t ap e s , t e xt s , and tran s c r ib e d mat e r i al s ) , and t h e folk d e fi n i t ions u s e d t o de fine t h e entry .

The sort ing and arrangi ng o f t h i s in forma t ion was

c ar r i e d out u s ing t h e Austral ian Nat i onal Unive r s i t y I BM 360 c omput e r , u s ing d a t a p r o c e s s ing t e chnique s de s cribed in Lang , Mather and R o s e

( 19 7 3 ) . The mono l ingual folk d e f i n i t ions c omp r i s e the c ore o f t h e d i c t ion­ ary , and d e t a i l s o f the e l i c i t at ion t e chnique s used to ob t ain t he s e are p r e s e n t e d i n Append i x B , where t h e t e c hn ique s are c ompared and c on t r a s t e d to a s im i l ar s t udy of P apago folk de finit ions b y C a s agrande and Hale

( 1967 ) .

A p ort i on of the mat e r i a l c ontained in the d i c t i on­

ary ( ba s i ca l l y an Enga word l i s t with Eng l i s h inde x ) has been pub­

9 l i s he d s e p arate ly ( Lang 1 9 7 3 ) . 2

Deta i l s on informant s are p r e s ent e d in App endix B .

N O T E S 1.

C f . C ap e l l 1 9 6 2 , 1 9 6 9 , and Wurm 1 9 6 4 .

2.

C f . Bee 1 9 6 5 , Dut t on 1 9 6 9 , Frankl i n 1 9 7 1 , A . H e a l e y 1 9 6 4 ,

P . H e a l ey 1 9 6 5a and b , McE lhanon 1 9 7 0 , Lang 1 9 7 0 , Lay c o c k 1 9 6 5 , W i l s o n 1969 , et a l . 3.

C f . Se c t i on 1 . 1 fo l l owing for more de t a i l s on Enga .

4.

The c omparat ive chap t e r ( 5 . 0 ) s hows t hat the s e verb forms have

been n o t ed in Papua New Guinea l anguage s , but have not b e fore b een ana l y z e d a s c la s s i fi c a t ory verb s .

Paw l e y ( 1 9 6 6 : 1 9 6 ) s t at e s that Karam

noun b a s e s c o- o c c ur in verb phra s e s a s e i t her s ub j ec t s or ob j e c t s . Rul e ( nd ) n o t e s t hat Hul i e x i s t e n t i a l verb s form noun c la s s e s ( c f . Chap t e r Five ) ; Paw l e y ( 1 9 6 6 : 1 9 6 ) s t a t e s that Karam noun b a s e s c o- o c cur in verb phra s e s a s e i ther sub j e c t s or ob j e c t s , and he writ e s that Karam is a " verb c la s s i fy ing l anguage "

0969 : 30 ) .

5.

The t erm ' p s eudo ' c l as s i fi c at ory verb i s from Landar ( 19 6 4 ) .

6 .

The f o l l ow i ng l i s t o f p honeme s i s for the reade r ' s c onveni e n c e :

Ip , t , k , b , d , g , 5 , j , m , n , ny , i , e, a, o, u; 'I

I ,

Iy, w, y;

I t I q u i t e o f t e n has a v o i c e d a l v e o l ar t r i l l a l l ophone intervo c a l i c a l ly ; I k l as a ru l e i s fri c at i v i z e d b e tween l ow and b ac k vowe l s ; I b , d , g l are a l l prena s a l i ze d ; l s i word- in i t i a l l y i s [ t s ] , intervo c a l i c a l ly i t f l u c t ua t e s b etween [ d z ] and [ z ] ; I j l i s phone t i c a l l y [ n d z ] o r e n d ! ] ; I I I i s a v o i c e d r e t r o f l e x e d f l ap ; a l l s y l l ab le s are open and final vowe l s are devo i c e d . Tone i s c ontras t ive

Ip f l y o l [ ' p f l y o ] I s trike I p i l y 61 [ l p f l y 6 ] I do (work)

17

18

7.

Cf . Bar-Hi l l e l 1 9 6 7 , B o l inger 1 9 6 5 , Dixon 1 9 6 3 , 1 9 6 4 , E l l i s

1 9 6 4 , Lyons 1 9 6 6 , Staal 1 9 6 5 , Weinr e i c h 1 9 6 6 , and others ; a l s o Postal 1966 . 8.

Cf . Goodenough 1 9 5 6 , Lounsb ury 1 9 5 6 , Frake 1 9 6 0 , Wal l a c e and

A t k i n s 1 9 6 0 , and Rommey and D ' Andrade ( ed s . ) 1 9 6 4 .

For c o l our

t e rmino logi e s , see Conk l i n 1 9 5 5 and Bulme r 1 9 6 8 ; for ethnobot any s e e Ber l i n e t a L .

1 9 6 6 , and Conkl in 1 9 5 4 ; and f o r ethno z o o l o gy s e e

Bulme r 1 9 5 7 . 9.

We inre i c h s ub s t an t i at e s h i s c laims , b ut due t o l imit at ions o f

s p ac e , the s e w i l l not b e p r e s e n t e d here ( c f . We inre i c h 1 9 6 6 : 4 0 2 - 5 ) . Cf . Chomsky 1 9 6 5 : 88 , 1 1 0 , l 1 9 f . 10 .

Cf . H a l l e 1 9 5 9 a and b , Chomsky and H a l l e 1 9 6 8 .

11.

Lyons ' p o int i s we l l t aken , b ut d i s c u s s ion w i t h Ranier Lang and

Lyle S t e a dman on e t hno s c i e n c e c learly imp l ie s t hat the d i fference i s s e x , i . e . , i n experiment s showing a man dre s s e d i n women ' s c lo t he s , a man w i t h long hair , e t c .

S imi larly , in que s t i oning a c h i l d a s t o t h e

d i ffe r e n c e b e tween me n a n d wome n , m y s ub j e c t rep l i e d " M e n have a peni s "

( Craig S t e adman , p e r s onal c ommun i c at i on ) , wh i c h would s ee m t o

ind i c at e t hat s e x i s the pr ime marker , w i t h hair lengt h , c lo t h in g , e t c . a s s e c ondary c on s iderat ions . o f men who ar e ' o f one p e n i s '

Al s o , the Enga p a t r i l ine c on s i s t s

( p o n g 6 me n d � i ) .

12 .

Cf . Ty ler 1 9 6 9 : 3 4 3 - 4 3 2 .

13 .

Weinr e i c h 's e xamp l e s have b e e n re-numbered for t h i s p r e s entat ion .

14 .

Matt hews 1 9 6 7 : l 4 9 f .

speaks o f " c o l lo c at i onal network s " ; Hays e x ­

t ended t h i s i d e a t o s emant i c n e t works

( pe r s onal n o t e s from l e c t ur e s ,

Summer 1 9 6 6 ) . 15 .

We do not presupp o s e t hat feature s of per forman c e , s uc h a s

f e e b l e -minde dne s s , apha s i a , int o x i cat ion , i n s a n it y , e t c . would need t o be dealt w i t h i n s u c h an a c c oun t . 16 .

Th i s prob lem c ould b e regarded as an i n f i n i t e r e gre s s ion ( i . e . ,

e x ce p t i on s t o the e x c e p t ions t o the e x c e p t ions ) , unt i l s ome ( arb i ­ t rary ) c u t - o f f p o int i s reached .

19

17 .

They

John and Irma Harri s have provided t he Span i s h e xamp l e .

point out , t h ough , that t h i s is true only for M e x i c an and C a s t i l ian Span i s h , w h i l e in Peru l l a m a is re ferred to a s e l

( i . e . , is regarded

a s mas c u l ine ) . 18 .

Profe s s or Geor ge Gra c e noted that the s w i t c h in pronomin a l r e f­

erence ( from e s t o s i e ) during c onve r s a t ion would b e a t op i c for ad­ d i t i on a l s t udy . 19 .

Dixon 1 9 7 1 s t a t e s

" Words o f s im i l ar meaning are now dire c t ly

r e l a t e d t hrough t h e i r s emant i c d e s c r i p t i o n s having one or more featur e s in c ommo n " 20 .

(p . 440 ) .

We i nre i c h a l s o g i v e s the a c c ount o f an e xper iment in w h i c h

graduate s tuden t s a t t e mp t ed ( wi t h v e r y p o o r r e s u lt s ) t o d i s t ingu i s h b e t we e n a s e t o f e ight s ynonyms ( 1 9 6 2 : 2 7 ) . 21.

The c ompar i s o n b e t we en int e r s e c t i on and c r o s s - c l a s s i f i c at ion

( 0 . 2 . 2 above ) i s worthy of add i t i onal a t t ent i on . 22 .

Human i nfant s present an int e r e s t ing c a s e for c r o s s - c u l t ur a l

st udy .

C u l t ural l y , what marks t he chan ge o f s t a t e t hat r e s u l t s i n

the d i f fe rent referenc e s ? ' c apab le o f s p e e c h ' .

In Engl i s h , the p o s s ib i l it y mi ght b e

In Enga , i n fant s are marked ' in c apab l e o f

rat i onal t h ought ' . 23.

Even i n t he c a s e o f p e t s , wh i c h gene r a l l y r e t a i n t h e original

pronominal r e ferenc e after ' al t erat i on ' , a ma le neutered pet .

' she ' i s not a c c ep t ab l e for

N o t e that modern s e x c hange opera t i ons

(result­

i n g i n what would b e a ma l e .... fema l e change ) are n o t rec ogn i z ed b y t h e Kammerger i c ht B e r l i n ( Dahl and H e i demann 1 9 7 3 ) , i . e . , legal l y a man cannot ever b e c ome a woman . 24 .

Prior t o Chomsky 1 9 6 5 , Hays had pre s en t e d h i s not i on of depend­

ency the ory ( 1 9 6 4 ) , in whi c h t he verb dominat e d every t h in g e l s e . 25.

Mat hi a s 1 9 6 8 : 1 3 f . d i s c u s s e s var ious p o s s i b i l i t i e s in wh i c h the

verb may a s s i gn features t o c o - o c c urring noun s . 26 .

Th i s is a vas t ly ove r s imp l i f ied view .

27.

Th i s e xamp l e is from Ranier Lang .

C f . Chomsky 1 9 6 8 and 1 9 6 9 .

20

28.

The mon o l ingual d i c t i onary was i n t e nded t o b e encyc l o p e d i c .

29 .

Lang ( 1 9 7 3 ) a l s o contains a c omp l e t e l i s t ing o f the s our c e s for

a l l the main it ems o f t he mono l ingual d i c t i onary .

The original Enga

word l i s t inc orpor a t ed about 2 , 0 0 0 i t ems from word l i s t s and v o c ab u ­ l ar i e s m a d e avai lab l e t o the author b y c ourt e sy of var i o u s m i s s i on ­ ari e s worki n g i n the Enga area .

O n e of t h e s e , t hat o f Rev . o . H i nt z e ,

inc luded the Enga i t em , t he Engl i s h glo s s , and the word c la s s o f the Enga item, for approximat e l y one t hous and i t e ms .

Th i s Enga word l i s t

( o f 2 , 0 0 0 i t ems ) formed the b a s e for t h e e l i c i t at i on o f the mon o l i n­ gua l f o l k d e f i n i t i on s and a l l the ot her mat e r i a l c o n t ained in the p r e s ent mono l ingual d i c t i onary .

N LOCALITY MAP

} -- Road

a ,

100 !

o

200 M

,

!

MA P 1 :

THE ENGA AREA

10

M i les

20 ,

CHAPTER ONE

1 .1

T H E ENGA The Enga , who numb er more t h an 1 5 0 , 0 0 0 , l ive in mount a inous c oun­

try i n the Enga D i s t r i c t of Papua New Guinea .

They o c c upy an area

wh i c h s t r e t c h e s from t he we s t ern s l o p e s o f Mt . Hagen w e s twards t o P orgera ( s e e Map 1 ) .

Thi s area i s drained b y t h e Minyamp , Amb urn ,

Lai , S au , and Upper Maramuni R ivers , wh i ch f l ow into t h e Sep i k ; t h e Laga ip R i v e r ( t o b eyond the j un c t i on o f the Porgera R iver ) , wh i ch f l ow s i n t o t h e S t r i c k l and , and the Tari R i ve r .

The Kyaka Enga , who

l ive to t he north o f Mt . Hagen t owns h ip , o c c upy the area drained by the Baiyer River . The Enga are pr imar i l y s edent ary gardeners but a l s o keep p i gs and fowl s .

The s t ap l e c rop is sweet p o t a t o e s grown i n the e f f i c ient s y s ­

t em o f l o n g f a l l owing ( s e e Wadd e l l 1 9 7 2 ) ; t he s e are augmented b y o t h e r r o o t a n d l e a f vege t ab l e s .

A l imit e d amount of c o ffee ( among

the Central Enga ) and pyrethrum ( among the Lai agam Enga ) are grown as c as h crops ; c at t l e h ave a l s o b een introduced by the A u s t r a l ian Admi n i s t rat i on . P i g s , pearl s h e l l s , axes and p lume s are t h e c onven t i on a l l y a c c e p t ­ e d i t ems o f w e a l t h wh i c h c i r c u l a t e fre e l y , a n d e x c hange s o f t he s e P igs form the maj or va luab l e s mark a l l s ign i f i c ant s o c i a l o c c a s i on s . l i t em i n the t e e exchan ge . Unt i l the c orning of t h e Pax A u s t r a l i ana , Enga c l an s c ons t ant ly fought e a c h other over l and , and wome n and t o avenge previous k i l l ings . The p e o p l e b e l ong t o named l o c a l i z e d exogamous patri c lans ; t h e y l i ve i n home s t e ads s c a t t ered throughout the c lan t errit ory , wh i c h has a sharp l y de fined b oundary .

Trad i t iona l ly men and w omen o c cu p i ed s ep ­

arat e hous e s , s in c e women were though t t o b e unc l e an a n d dangerous t o men , w h o h a d t o u s e mag i c t o pro t e c t t hems e lves from fema l e p o l lut i on . There are no here d i t ary c h i e f s or he adme n : i n s t e ad w e a l t hy men o f

23

24

influence and p ower ,

( wh o have s ome o f t h e char a c t e ri s t i c s o f t h e

s e l f-made B i g M e n c ommonly found in Me l ane s i a ) c on t r o l the i n i t i at i on and dire c t ion of t h e p o l i t i c a l and admi n i s trat ive a c t i vi t i e s o f e a c h c lan .

T h e E n g a a r e n o t ab l e among the High l anders f o r t h e i r p ragma t i c

c on c e r n wit h t h e manipulat i on o f we a l t h i n various forms ( t he t radi­ t i o n a l death payment s , t e e e x change , modern trade s t or e s , c a t t l e ra i s i ng , and c o ffee and c a s h crop s ) and t h e e x t e n s i on o f a wealthy 2

man ' s i n f l u e n c e t hrough t h e s o c i a l s y s t e m .

1 .2

GRAMMA T I C A L S K ETCH Pub l i c at i ons on the Enga l anguage in profe s s ional j ournal s are a

sh ort d i c t ionary ( Cr o t t y 1 9 5 1 ) , and an a c c ount of s ome s y nt a c t i c al feature s of Enga as c on t r a s t e d t o the Greek syntax of t he G o s p e l o f Mark ( Burce 1 9 6 5 ) .

T h e mo s t d e t a i led s t udy o f any one a s p e c t o f

Enga , however , ha s b e en made b y Lang ( 1 9 7 0 ) , an a c c ount o f Enga que s t ions and answer s ; he has a l s o produced a b r i e f grammat i c a l s k e t c h wh i ch i s ava i l ab le in the Enga D i c t ionary ( Lang 1 9 7 3 ) .

The

pres e nt s t udy w i l l not a t t e mp t to d up l i c ate the de s c ript ion of Enga s y n t a x , but att emp t s to e luc idat e other a s p e c t s not previous ly de s ­ c r ib e d , i . e . , t h e s eman t i c s o f t h e c la s s i fi c at ory verb s .

Th is would

b e d i f f i c u l t to do wit hout s ome general a c c ount o f t he s t ru c t ure of Eng a , and so this i s provided in t h e f o l l owing s e c t ion . Most of the work on the l anguage has b e en done b y the mi s s ions in the Enga are a :

the New Guinea Lutheran M i s s i on-Mi s s ouri Synod and

the Cath o l i c mi s s i ons work ing mainly on the Mae d i a l e c t , and the A u s t r a l ian Bap t i s t M i s s i onary S o c i e t y work ing o n the Kyaka d i a l e c t . The mi s s ions have produ c e d a s i z ab l e b ody of mat e r i a l on t h e l an­ 3 guage , whi c h i s ava i l ab le to anyone intere s t e d in r e s earc h .

1 .2 . 1

The Noun

S i n c e t h e focus o f t h i s monograph i s o n the Enga verb s , t h i s s e c ­ t i on wi l l d e a l only b r i e f l y w i t h t he Enga noun s . Enga nouns c o- o c cur with the d e t e rminers d 6 k o t h e and me n d e a , s ome , e l s e

e p e - l y - a - mo . man

the

aome - PRE S - 3 S G-DEC

The man is aomi ng . 2.

A k a l i me n d e man

a

e p e - l y - a - mo . aome - PRES- 3SG-DEC

A man is aoming .

25

Nouns may b e i n f l e c t e d for c a s e s , s u c h a s agentive ( 3 ) , i n s t rume n t a l ( 3 ) , po s s e s s iv e ( 3 ) , l o c at ive ( 4 , 5 , 6 ) , a n d t emp oral ( 7 ) : 3.

A k a l i d o k o - me e mb a - n y a me n a d O k o u a a - me man

t h e - AG y o u - POSS pig

p- f-a .

the axe- INST h i t - F P - 3 S G

The m a n k i l l e d y o u r p i g wi t h an axe .

p e - I y - a - mo . man

the

o v e r . t here - LO C g o - PRES - 3 S G-DEC

The man i s g o i n g o v e r t h e re 5.

Aka I i dOko man

the

,

(on the s ame l e ve l ) .

t e n ge - s a

ee-sa

p e - I y - a - mo .

garde n - LO C n e a r - LO C g o - PRES- 3 SG-DEC

The man is g o i n g n e ar t h e garde n . 6.

Ak a l i dOko man

the

anda-ka

p e - I y - a - mo .

h o u s e -LOC g o - PRES - 3 SG-DEC

The man is g o i n g home . 7.

Aka I i dOko kotaka - s a man

the

pe - I y - a -mo .

n o o n - TEMP g o - PRE S - 3 SG-DEC

The man i s g o i n g a t n o on . Noun c la s s e s have not b een s t ud i e d in det ail in Enga and w i l l b e only b r i e fly d i s cu s s e d in t h e f o l l ow i n g s e c t ion .

The c la s s e s have

b e en b as ed primarily on s y nt a c t i c feature s o f the Enga c a s e s as l i s t e d 4 ab ove ( 1- 7 ) . In addi t ion , o t h e r feature s are given for the c l a s s e s o f mo s t int ere s t for t h i s w ork , i . e . t h o s e whi c h c o-oc c ur w i t h the c l a s s i f i c at ory verb s . N

Pronoun s , N

N An imat e s , l Locat iona l s , N Event s , 5 6 Minor C la s s e s . O f the s e c l a s s e s ,

The c la s s e s t o b e d i s c u s s e d are :

Body Part s , N

Inanimat e s , N

4 3 C o lours , N S Inner S t at e s , and N 9 7 only c e r t a i n nouns o f c la s s N may o c cur w i t h the t emp oral s uffi x , 9 there fore t h i s s u f f i x w i l l b e i gnored for t he other c l a s s e s . The

N

2

c la s s e s and t h e i r c a s e d i s t r i b u t i on are pre s e n t ed in Chart 1 . 1 ; o c c urren c e with t he c l as s i f i c at ory verb s is marked in the l a s t two c o lumn s .

26

CHART 1 . 1 :

NOUN C LAS SES

DET N oun C l a s s

N

N

N

N

N N N N

N1

l

d 6ko

+an imate

mende

x

x

2

+animate ( Pronouns )

3

- an imat e ( Body Part s )

X

X

4

- an imate +art i fa c t s ( ? )

x

x

5

AG

7

LOC

EV

x

x

X

X

X

x

x

x

P r ed i c a t i ons

x

x

X x

x

( e vent s )

x

x

x

( c o l our )

x

x

x

( inner s t at e )

8

INST

x

+ l o c a t ion

6

POSS

x

x

A n.

e re

g-

ele

el

ne-

I)e

ag-

di

di

ro-

ro/to

pk-

5

tse/ke 1 1 e

d-

i /yo

i

no

nl)-

ne

ne

de/kan

de

no-

po-

pu-

'" ,.. .

e-

kandaunemi n

P>

§

�

pi l e 0-

ko l 0 nj-

i

am-

0-

n l)-

pr i

ap-

u

.

en ,.. ;:l

�

'"I

5

i

pi 1

teye

yo

ye

go l 1 0

gog l

gol

t i /to

te

C H A RT 5 . 2

G'l "-'

0

l.

do, make

2.

utter

3.

hit

4.

get, take

5.

eat

6.

see

7.

go

8.

know

9.

aome

10 .

put

1l .

die

12 .

give

13.

others

G'l

t;d

� ve l ekava ( 7 )

c:::

0 �

�t-t,

(1)

�

�

i

� t-t, t-t, �

ti

Cfl

�

(1) "-' (1)

Ill> rt (1)

'8

rt

�

mi

kia

mu

yap

ku

ya i i-

ya

t - /t i -

yam i l)k

yen

zekave ( 7 )

wo-

kua/p i k i aa

ga

ek

ta , vata wa i

ari

sai

na

n-

ga i yes

umt i -

ng i a

h i zekave ( 7 )

mi v i zekave is (?)

man a

hear

�

�

\:1' �

gi-

10

hone

[q 0

'1 � t-t, (1)

f-'.

f-'.

oap , tuhhap

taa

§

'1

�

'd �

ke

maya-

.§

Z

� �

k i aa / i i k i a

ari

ho Ii

:::;;:

� '1 0 '1 �

0te-

nepe l ekave (? )

..,

f-'.

(Part I I )

ema

ma i

sar i

128

( i i ) t h e domain o f i nner s t at e , s in c e we found n o oc c urrence o f a verb s i m i l ar to the Enga k a e n g e in any o f the other data on pre d i c at i o n s , and this doma i n has been ment ioned ab ove i n conne c t ion with var i o us prob l ems

( 4 . 1 . 4 and

4.2.3) ; ( i i i ) anoma l ie s , whi ch we would e xpe c t t o f ind in any s emant i c de s cr ip t i on , and wh i ch are of intere s t here i n c onne c t i on with the gene ral t o p i c of e x c e p t i on s . (i)

Bodily Proces s

Th i s d omain was s e l e c t e d as one l ikely t o be pre s ent in a l l l an­ guage s .

Examp l e s of one proc e s s are pre s en t e d b e low ; the Engl i s h 8

glo s s f o r a l l would b e t o urinat e .

puu

7.

t e - n ge .

( Enga )

urine burn- HAB

pu

8.

ro- n u m .

urine

hit

p o1 1

to-

9.

( Me l p a )

( Ban z )

urine h i t 10 .

aw i ma t e -

( Us arufa )

urine say ll.

ky-

ss

( Karam )

urine excre t e 12 .

i

ap i -

( Asmat )

urine urinate

ti-

jiti

13.

( Awj u )

urine urinate The var i at i on i n verb s u s e d i n the pre d i c at i on i s notab l e : s a y , fa Z Z , (ii)

burn, h i t ,

and urina t e .

Inner State

Thi s area was c h o s e n for c omp ar i s on b e c au s e of Enga k a e n g e be of i n n e r s ta te s , wh i c h we did not find pre s ent i n any of the other lan­ guage s .

Ins t e ad , many of the [ + inner s t a t e ] items/ad j u n c t s are e x ­

pre s s e d v i a t he verb do .

Thi s would c orre spond we l l t o t h e f a c t noted

i n 4 . 2 . 3 that k a e n g e inter s e c t s m o s t frequently w i t h p i n g f do i n the Enga [ + inner s t at e ] adj unct s .

Other verb s a l s o used w i t h s u c h ad­

j unct s inc lude h i t and say , r e c a l l ing 4 . 2 . 1 and the d i s cus s i on of the di fferent verb s permi t t e d b y the s emant i c rules to c o-oc cur w i t h

129

[ + inner s t at e ] in Enga , i . e . , k a e n g e , p i n g l , p l n g i and s i n g i h e a r .

hi t ,

l en ge utter ,

C l e arly , the [ + inner s t a t e ] adj unc t s are a problem

case and need further inve s t i gat i on .

Some e xamp l e s from t h i s doma i n

are :

kae

14 .

good

enem

( Me lpa )

do

i t is good

p i p i 1 enem

15 .

s hame

( Me lpa )

do

b e /fe e Z a s h amed

i mb i 1 e r e

16 .

pain

( Banz )

do

have pain 9

17 .

i

u1

5

i

( S in a s i na )

hit

pain

h a v e p ai n

n a b !)

18 .

g-

( Karam )

s hame do be a s hame d/s hy

oma r e -

19 .

( Asmat --Aj am d i a le c t )

do be afraid

20 .

man am af-

( A smat - -Flamingo Bay d i a l e c t )

hi t li ke/Zove 21.

ura

di

( Sinas ina )

s oft s ay be s oft (iii)

Anomal i e s

The anoma l i e s are of int ere s t a s e x c ep t i o n s t o the p o s t ul a t e d s em­ ant i c redunda n c y rule s .

The c a s e i s such that if Enga has a predi c a­

t i on of the form ' adj unc t X p lus c o- o c c urring verb u t t e r ' and we a s s ume t hat u t t e r has a s im i l ar s eman t i c content i n the other NAN lan­ guage s d i s c u s s e d ab ove , then we would a s s ume that adj unct X of that language would a l s o c o- o c cur i n the pre d i c at i on with u t t e r .

I f it

i n s t e ad c o - o c c ur s w i t h d o ( i . e . , i s anoma lous ) , t h e n i t i s o f i n t e re s t t o u s for i t s c ontent , the s emant i c feature s o f the adj unct X , and the two verb s u t t e r and the anomalous verb .

130

A few e x amp l e s o f anoma l i e s i n the pred i c at ions i n re gard t o u t t e r are p re se n t e d from t h e s our c e d at a .

22 .

i b i ga

In U s arufa w e have :

yara�

a cry t o weep to cry

23 .

akuga

i ta­

odour t o hear t o sme 'l 'l

( 2 2 ) c ontra s t s with Ban z ' s 24 .

t ow ' 1 1 e r e 'l a u g h

do

t o 'l a u g h whi c h contra s t s with Enga ' s .

25 .

g'

,

1 e - n ge

I

'l augh u t te r - HAB I t would s eem that ( 2 2 ) and ( 2 3 ) would u s e u t t e r ( as Enga d o e s ) ;

( but

Enga a l s o has 25a.

gi (

kaenge

'l augh fe e 'l - HAB t o 'laugh ) . I n Ban z we a l s o find 26.

wi i

ro

caH hit t o ca H when we would a l s o e x p e c t u t t e r .

27 .

Another anomaly from Enga i s

yanda p i -ng( bow

do - HAB

t o fi g h t This was expected to be

28. *yanda p f-ng i bow h i t - HAB 5.3

C O N C L US I O N

We have noted that the c omp arat ive p e r s p e c t ive for other NAN l an ­ guage s i nd i c at e s the pre s e n c e o f b ot h E V a n d pred i c at i ons .

The EV

( from the re fere nt s give n ) c o- o c c ur w i t h [ + c oncre t e ] nouns , and the

131

maj ority have the s ame type o f feature s , shape and p o s t ure , w i t h the Melpa-Ban z-Sinas ina group d i ffering i n feature t yp e s in the EV .

The

pre d i c at i ons have rec e ived more a t t ent i on in the l i t erature and muc h more dat a are avai l ab l e on t h e m ( c f . Appendix E ) ; again , the l anguage s inve s t iga t e d show s t r iking s im i l ar i t ie s .

It would thus s eem t hat c ov­

ert c la s s i fi cat ory verb s are p r e s ent in many of the NAN l anguage s .

Of

t h e t o t a l n i ne l anguages w i t h EV , s even o f t h e s e al s o have pre d i c a­ t i ons ( Enga , A smat , Kamoro , Melpa , Banz , Sinas ina , and Kat e ) .

Of the

twent y-five languages with predi c at ions ( s even with EV ) , we know that only one ( Karam) doe s n o t have EV .

C l early the next step i s to more 9

thoroughly inve s t igate t h e s e l anguage s for EV .

N O T E S

1.

With thanks t o Dr . C . L . Voorhoeve for the Eng l i sh trans lat ion ;

the a c t ua l Dut ch t e xt i s : Bij het gebruiken van deze hulpwerkwoorden komt de kwestie , welk werkwoord uit de reeks men in een gegeven geval moet nemen . De keuze kan afhangen van de houding waarin het onderwerp zich op het ogenblik der hande1ing bevindt of van de toegeschreven toestand , eigens chap enz . van het onderwerp . Vee1al hangt ze af van de houding waarin het onderwerp zich gewoon1ijk , vo1gens de Kamorose opvatting , bevindt . De Kamorose verbee1ding veerdee1t a . h . w . a11e wezens in klas sen : de zittende , de staande , de dri jvende , enz . , zie de vo1gende numme rs ( Drabbe 1953 : 39 ) .

2.

I am indeb ted t o Profe s s or S . A . Wurm for making ava i l ab le the

unpub l i shed mat e r i a l s o f M . Ru le on Hu l i . 3.

I t s eems likely that the c l a s s re ferred t o here i s a c t u a l l y

s ome thing l ike t he Enga game mamma l s .

4.

Some add i t ional re ferent s for Me lpa EV have b e e n provided b y

Profe s s or A . J . St rathern , w h o give s the f o l l owing : mo-

c a s s owary , b irds , p e n i s , t e s t i c l e s , vagina , breas t s , s k i n , arms , fire , water , lake , s tream , sun , frogs , b e ard , hair , wasp , b e e , hou s e , tre e , fence , f i s h ( ? ) , furniture ( ? ) .

an-

mount ains ( ? ) , hou s e s ( ? ) .

pe-

fruit , s e e d s , p l ant s , mu shrooms , h e art , any animat e that i s in a p la c e , hab i t at , l iver ( ? ) , n ai l s ( ? ) .

te-

l i zard s , snake s , cars , c ut wood , b ooks , b u c ke t , c e nt ipede s , crawling animat e s , dead animat e s , harve s t ed sweet pot a t oe s .

132

133

5.

S ome addit i onal re ferent s for Ban z EV have b e e n provided b y Dr .

Marie Reay , who give s the fol l owi n g :

mem

men , women , p igs , water , fire , l ake , s tream , nut s , fruit s , flower s , de ad p e op l e ( ? ) .

pam

used for durat ion o f b e i n g .

tim

b u c ke t s , c ar s , fr ogs , h o us e , moun t a ins , t r e e s ( ? ) , s nake s , c e n t ipede s .

baim

( b e t h e re /p r e s e n t ) ; hous e , fenc e , firewood , any improvemen t s made by human e f fort .

6.

Some other languages i n wh i ch EV have b e e n noted inc lude :

Va.n.i , wh i c h has " a numb er of verb s , a l l of them denot ing s ome k ind of b e i n g . . . "

( Van der S t ap 1 9 6 6 : 1 2 6 f . ) .

The s e inc lude

me n a s i n to s t and , we l a s i n t o l i e , b e l a s i n t o fa l l , a k a s i n t o b e , and we l a k a s i n to s t a y ,

to e xi s t .

Kaug e! , a language l o c a t e d t o the w e s t o f Mt . Hagen t ownship ( i . e . , b etween Enga and Me lpa ) : l ay , and l e - p l ace

mo l o - be , a g i I i s tand , p e ­

( Bl owers 1 9 7 0 : 3 9 ) .

K o .ia�.i , wh i c h d o e s not have EV , has a s y s t em of s p e c i fi e r s ( c f . Dut ton 1 9 6 9 : 2 2 3- 2 4 1 ) , whi ch might w e l l b e remnan t s o f EV .

The s e s p e c i fiers group t h e nouns int o c la s s e s and i t i s

p o s s ib le that t h e y derive h i s t or i c a l l y from EV .

They must

b e i n s e r t e d transformat ionally and unde r c ondi t i on s s imi lar to those where the EV in Enga i s introduc ed . Frank l i n ( 19 7 1 ) a l s o s ta t e s : The verb expounding the Predi cate tagmeme in complementive clauses can often be recognised as a form of the verb to be whi ch is based , e . g . upon such verbs as : p ( ra to sit , s a to put , aa to stand ya to affirm.

Irw i n , in h i s d i s c u s s ion o f to be in Sa.!� - Yu.i , not e s that a l l ani­ mat e and i nanimat e nouns t ake the s i ngle form mo l

( 19 7 1 : 69 ) .

Vin c e nt

give s e xamp l e s o f Ta.i� o�a. v a t a p u t , h a v e , wh i c h s e ems t o a c t as an EV o f i n a l ienab le p o s s e s s ion , in e xamp l e s s u c h a s : a.

taaka

vuka i

mar i

vata-a- ra .

l e a v e s has a re lator

casuarina l o n g

-

A casuarina has long l e a ve s . b.

te t ave I

hat

vata-#-uka . have a r e l a t or -

I am a c h i e f .

-

-

134

and c ompare ( b ) with ( c ) c.

t e t ave I

hat

vata-u ra- uka . hav e - I- pa s t - fo c u s /re l at or

I had a hat . 7.

(Vincent 1 9 7 3 ) .

A . Pawley ( p ers onal c ommun i c a t ion ) has pointed out t hat b ot h Ro s s

and Luz b e tak " fa l l into the l inguo c e n t r i c error o f a s c ri b i n g d i f ferent me anings t o a verb when it o c curs in d i f ferent predi cat ions , whe n in fact the verb i s c on s t ant in meaning and it i s t he adj unc t s wh i c h are the variab l e s . " 8.

This part i c ular examp le wa s s e l e c t ed s i n c e i t was a c t ua l ly pre s ­

e n t i n t h e s ource dat a ; c f . Appendix E . 9.

I t would s eem very l ikely ( c on s idering the ne arne s s o f re l a t ion­

ship with Enga ) t hat Huli has b ot h EV and predicat ion s . S ome addit i onal language s w i t h predi cat i on s are :

Awj u and Marind

from b r i e f e xamp l e s given in Boe laars ( 19 5 0 : 1 5 f . and 7 5 f . ) .

CHAPTER SIX 6.0

CONCLUS I ON

In t h i s monograph t he s eman t i c s of a port i o n o f the verb s y s t em o f a New Guine an language h a s b e e n d e s c r i b e d a n d e xp l ored .

Focus was

upon t wo kinds o f c l as s i fi c at ory verb s , the e x i s t en t i a l verb s and t h e pro-verb s o f the pre d i c at i on s , wh i c h w e r e shown t o b e mut u a l l y exc l u s ­ i v e i n re gard s t o c o-oc curring noun s .

A s ub - s et o f n o u n s wh i ch c o ­

o c c ur w i t h the EV , the animat e s , was a l s o analy z ed .

T h e s emant i c

feature s and s eman t i c redundan c y r u l e s for t h e EV , t h e animat e nouns , and t h e pre d i cat i ons were d e s c r i b e d .

C on s ide rab l e empha s i s has b een

given to the ana ly s i s o f e x c ept i on s and s e man t i c i rregular i t i e s t o d e t e rmine whether t here were s y s t emat i c r e gulari t i e s and where p o s s ­ i b le , t o formu l a t e rul e s t o ac c ount f o r the s e . Several po int s of general intere s t were d i s cu s s ed :

po s s ib le s up­

port for Lyon s ' hypothe s i s o f the derivat i o n o f all e x i s t ent i a l and po s s e s s ive s e nt e n c e s ( in Enga , s en t e n c e s with the EV ) from i nde f i n i t e l o c at ive s w a s pre s e n t e d i n 2 . 2 . 1 .

C overt fe ature s a s s eman t i c markers

were pre s en t e d i n 3 . 1 . 2 for the an imat e s .

' Feature spread i n g ' was

presented a s a s o lu t i o n to the prob lem o f p re d i c a t e nouns and EV c on­ f l i c t r e s olut i on in 2 . 3 .

P o s s ib l e support for the priori t y of s eman­

t i c s over s y n t a x was b r i e f ly p r e s e n t e d i n 3 . 4 , in the d i s c u s s i o n o f the nat ure o f the d e e p struc t ure o f Enga pre d i c at i o n s .

The verb s o f

t he Enga pre d i c at ions were d i s c u s s e d a s c ognat e ob j ec t verb s , and a s pro-verb s , s imi lar t o var i ous Eng l i s h ' auxi l iary ' verb s , s u c h a s h a v e , do , g e t , et c .

Wider imp l i cat i on s here are that the EV are b as ed upon

feat ur e s o f s h ap e and p o s t ure , s uc h a s t h o s e me nt ioned b y Fri e d r i c h ( 1 9 7 0 ) a n d Be r l i n ( 1 9 6 8 ) a s h aving world-wide s i gn i f i c an c e i n t e rms o f s eman t i c univers a l s . In relat i on t o Papua New Guinea l ingui s t i c s , chap t e r five pre s en t e d the c omparat i ve mat e r i a l s from other language s f o r t h e EV a n d t h e

135

136

pre d i c a t ions .

I t was shown that b ot h the EV and the predi cat i ons

could b e u s e d a s a d iagno s t i c c r i t e rion for a large numb er o f NAN l an­ guage s and t he import anc e for que s t ions of c ommon origin and s ub gr oup­ in g . Thus , a lt hough a pre l iminary s eman t i c inve s t igat ion , t h i s s t udy has provided s ome mat e r i a l s of int e re s t to not only Papua New Guinea l in­ gui s t i c s , b ut a l s o of general intere s t as w e l l .

A PPENV I X A :

SEMANT I C CLASSES O F VERBS

The seman t i c c la s s i f i c at i o n pres ent ed b e low is b as e d upon i nform­ ant s '

s t a t emen t s of s imi larity ( pr imari l y via s ynonym- t yp e d e f i n i ­

t ions ) , wh i ch provided o n e means o f d e t e rmining s emant i c c l a s s e s . Further s upport for the c l a s s i fic at ion derives from the mat ched c o ­ o c c urren c e s o f nouns and verb s produced and d i s p l ayed i n mat r i x form by the c omputer d i s c u s s e d in A - S . A-I

Verb s of E f f e c t (a)

A- I

The s eman t i c c l a s s e s of ve rb s are

Ac t iv i t y

(b )

Cutt ing/Bre aking

(c)

H o lding

A-2

Verb s of Mot i on

A-3

Verb s of Po s i t ion

A-4

Verb s denot ing Inner S t a t e s

A-5

Verb s o f Bod i l y A c t iv i t i e s/Pro c e s s e s

A-6

Verb s o f Payme n t s

A-7

Verb s o f Exi s t ence

VERBS O F EFFECT

(a)

Activity

Verb s o f e f fe c t are t h o s e wh ich deno t e act ivi t y , e s p e c i a l ly act iv­ ity wh i ch re s u l t s in a change of s t at e .

The s e verb s are [ +a c t iv it y ] ,

and the c l a s s i s c omp os ed a lmo s t ent ire ly o f ' ordinary ' verb s .

S ome

memb ers o f t h i s c l a s s are y a n g e n g e a o o k i n as h e s /on s to v e ; y a we n g e s t e am in e ar t h o ven ; p ok e n g e p L an t a garde n ; w a s i n g ( make , a re a t e , fi x, repair ; e t e n ge aomp L e t e , fin i s h ; (nuts,

a o ffe e , e t a . ) ; and t a m u n g ( r o t .

l u mb i n g ( o p e n ; t � mb e n g e s he L L A l l memb e r s o f t h i s c l as s ,

who s e act i vi t y r e s u l t s i n a change o f s t a t e , may b e e xpre s se d via t h e Enga s t at ive form :

137

138

y a n g e - l y - a - mo .

Mapu

1.

s we e t . p o t a t o coo k - PRES- 3 SG-AUG He is c o o k i ng s we e t p o t at o . la o

Mapu

y a n g a - p ae doko

swe e t . p o t a t o

coo k- s t a t he

The c o o k e d swe e t p o t a t o 2.

Ee

d6ko

garden t h e

p o k e - l y - a - mo . p l an t - PRES - 3 SG-AUG

He i s p l an t ing t h e garden . 2a.

Ee

p ok a - pae

d6ko

garden p l an t - STA t h e The p l a n t e d garden ( b ) Cutting and Breaking

Verb s of c ut t ing and breaking have the c harac t e r i s t i c s of verb s o f e ff e c t

( i . e . , deno t e a c t ivIty whi c h result s i n a change o f s t at e and

may be e xpre s s ed v ia the s t at ive form ) ; the r e a s on they are pres ent ed here a s a s ub - c l a s s is b e cause of the Enga spec i fi c at ion of c u t t ing ( i . e . , a s t o t he dire c t ion of the cut t i n g i n relat i on t o the gra i n , ( le ngthwi s e and c r o s swi s e ) and t o t he i n s t rument u s ed for t he c ut t ing ( a xe , k n i fe , e t c . ) ) and b reaking ( i . e . , a s t o the original s i z e o f t he ob j e c t b roken ( l arge , sma l l , et c . ) and t he amount broken in r e l at i on to t h i s ) .

Some memb e r s o f t h i s c l a s s are :

k o n j ( n g i to c u t a c r o s s t h e

g r a i n , e sp . wi t h a knife ; t o k e n g e t o cut t o a p o i n t ,

s harp e n ; w a ( n g i

t o c u t l e n g t h wi s e , u s ua l l y wi t h an axe ; k e p e n ge to cut agai n s t t h e gra i n , e s p .

wi t h a knife ; t u k f n g i

to b r e a k off ( a med ium s i z e d obj e c t );

l o l e n g e to break in two ; p o n g e n g e to break off a part ( o f a l arg e r Examp l e s of t h i s sub - c l a s s are :

who l e ) . 3.

Mapu swe e t . p o t a t o

kon j a - p ae d6ko a u t - STA

t he

The cut swe e t p o t a t o 4.

Wa i n g i p o n g a - p a e d 6 k o branch b r e a k - STA t h e T h e b r o k e n b ranch (c)

Holding

Verb s of holding a l s o have t he char a c t eri s t i c s of verb s of e ff e c t i n denot ing a n a c t iv i t y whi c h r e s u l t s i n a change of s t at e and may b e expre s s e d v i a t h e stat ive f orm ; they a l s o are presented here b e c a u s e of the Enga s p e c i f i c at i on s regarding the var i ous way s o f h o lding ( in

139

the hand , i n t he arms , o n the shoulders , " over t he shoulder , in a n e t ­ bag, etc . ) .

Some memb e r s o f t h i s sub - c l a s s are :

the hands ; k u p i n y ( n g i the teeth ; a u s i n g i

m i n f n g i t o ho L d i n

t o h o L d in the arms ; k a p u s ( n g i

to aarry on the s hou L de r s

t o h o L d b e tween

( o f a a h i L d ) ; m a n d e n ge

to aarry in a n e t - bag ; s i n g f to aarry on s h o u L de rs .

Examp l e s of t h e s e

are :

Mapu

5.

m a n d ( - p ae d 6 k o

swee t . p o t a t o aarr y - STA the The aarr i e d swe e t p o t a t o

Mapu

6.

m i n a - pae d6ko

swe e t . p o t a t o ho Zd- STA the The he Ld sw e e t p o t a t o VERBS OF MOTION

A- 2

Th i s c la s s c on t a i n s memb ers marked [ +mot ion ] ; t he memb e r s of t h i s c la s s may b e u s ed in the s t a t i ve form , b u t t h i s very rare ly oc curs .

7 . ? Ak a l i p u - p a e d6ko man

go - s t a the

? The gone man Some i t ems are :

k i s ( n g i to a L imb .

p e n g e go ; e p e n g e aome ; w a t e n g e t o fo L L ow, ahas e ; Various dire c t ion s u f f i x e s may b e added t o b a s e s

o f t h i s group t o ind i c at e t h e d ire c t ion o f t h e mot i on : -0-

fur t h e r away ; - n - down ;

- m-

l e v e L ; - l y - up e t c .

- a - n e arby ;

A base such as

k o l o n d e n g e to e n t e r may thus b e mod i f i e d t o k o l a n d e n g e t o e n t e r ne arby. VERBS OF POSIT ION

A- 3

Memb e r s of t h i s c la s s are [ -mot ion ] .

Memb e r s of t h i s c l as s , in

contrast to t ho s e marked [ +mot ion ] , may o ft e n o c c ur in t he s t at ive form .

Some memb ers of t h i s c la s s are k a t e n g e s t and ; p e t e n g e s i t ;

p a l e n ge L i e ( i n s i de ) . 8.

p a l ( - p ae d 6 k o

Mapu swe e t . p o t a t o

L i e - STA t h e

T h e L y i n g swe e t p o t a t o 9.

Aka l i p i d - p ae d6ko man

s i t - STA t h e

T h e s i t t i ng man

( or T h e swe e t p o t a t o i n s ide )

140

A- 4

VERBS O F INNER STATES The maj or c h arac t e r i s t i c of verb s of t h i s c l a s s is t he feat ure

[ + internal ] .

[ + interna l ] imp l i e s t o t he Enga t hat memb er s o f t h i s

s e t are n o t ava i lab le for veri f i c at ion v i s ually/ext erna l l y

B a a ( mb u

10 .

he

kay a - l - u -mu .

anger b e - PRES-3 SG- SENSE

He is angry . Th i s s t at ement c ould b e made only a ft e r t h e s ub j e c t had perhap s b e at en his w i fe ( wh i c h t hus showed his anger ext ernally ) .

Verb s o f this set

o f t e n app e ar i n the s en s e d and deduced forms

rmb u

11.

py- u-mu .

anger do- PRES- 3SG-SENSE He s e e m s to b e angry .

rmb u

12 .

k a e - l y - a - me

l a mo .

ang e r b e PRES- 3 SG-AU G DEDUC -

He is e v i den t l y angry . but may appear i n t h e non- s e n s e d form only in the f i r s t pers on s , a further ind i c a t i on t hat t h e speaker mus t b e report ing on h i s int ernal s t at e . Memb ers o f t h i s s e t almo st always appear i n t he form of a pr e d i c a­ t i on ( c f . Chap t er Four in the main b ody of the monograph ) ; t he pro­ verb i s frequen t ly k a e n g e b e

( o f inner s t a t e s ) .

( The Kyaka and Laiapo

d i a l e c t s verb a l i z e the adj unct dire c t ly and do not used k a e n g e . ) Some memb e r s o f t h i s s e t are ( m b u k a e n g e be angry ; m a k a k a e n g e b e t i r e d o f s om e o n e /s ome t h i ng ; p a k a k a e n g e be afrai d ; k 6 n d 6 k a e n g e h a v e pi ty

( o n s om e o n e ) ; a u u k a e n g e l i k e / Z o v e

k a e n g e be t h i rs t y 13.

t a l c k a e n g e b e hungry k e n d a k a e n g e be sad and g i ( k a e n g e laugh .

nanu

Naba paka kae - l y-6 . I fe ar b e - PRES-1SG I am afrai d .

14 .

N a b a p a k ae - l y - o . I fe ar- PRES 1 S G I a m afrai d . ( Laiapo d i a l e c t ) -

A- 5

VERBS OF BODILY ACT IVITIES/PROCES SES Verb s o f this c la s s are [ +ext ernal ] , and t y p i c a l memb e r s are e e

l e n g e cry ; s a m b 6 l e n g e l i e / t e l l fa l s e h o o d ; p u u t e n g e urin a t e ; t 6 k 6 l e n g e e xp l o de/t hunde r .

141

,

l e� l y-o.

N a mb a � (me ) e e

15 .

I- ( AG )

ary u t t e r - PRES- 1SG

I am ary i ng . ,

,

N am b a - me w a n e

16 .

I - AG

me n d e

m a n de - l y - o .

a

b e a r - PRES-1SG

ahi Zd

I am g i v i n g birth t o a a h i Z d . VERBS OF PAYMENTS

A- 6

Birth , death and marri age p ayment s play a l arge p art in Enga c U l ­ t ure , a s do gift s of var i ous kinds .

The verb g i v e i s marked for pro­

nominal reference 17 .

,

N a m b a - me e m b a me n a me n d e I-AG

you

pig

d ( - l y -o . g i v e - PRES-1SG

a

I am g i v i ng y o u a p i g . 18 .

,

ma ( - l y -o .

N a m b a - me b a a me n a me n d e I-AG

him p i g

g i v e - PRES-1SG

a

I am g i v i ng him a p i g . Some t y p i c a l memb ers o f t h i s c l a s s are t e e p i n g i de a t h p ayme n t ( among w e s t ern Enga ) , p i g exahange p ayme n t for i nj ury ; k e e

( among

l e n g e bride payment

e a s t ern Enga ) ;

l a i ta p i ng ( b e t a p f n g i p a y r e s ti tu­

t i on/aomp e n s a t i on ; k e p a s ( n g i r e s t i t u t i o n p a i d for k i Z Z i n g ( made in p i g quart e r s ) ; p a n d e t a p i n g ( payme n t a t de a t h of ahi Zd made t o wife ' s

t a a d ( n g i / m a ( n g i payme n t made a s re s t i t u t i o n

p a tr i Z i n e b y fa t h e r ' s ;

for t h e ft ; w a t a p i n g ( marriage payme n t o f b r i de ' s fam i Z y t o groom ' s ;

s a a n d i p ( n g i to g i v e wi th e xp e a t a t i on of re turn wi t h i n t e re s t . 19 .

( p a n e d u p a - me Ip ane

beta

p i - l y -am ( - no .

t h e -AG re s t i t u t i on h i t - PRE S - 3 PL-AUG

The Ipan e s are p a y i n g r e s t i t u t i o n . A-7

VERBS OF EXI STENCE

The s e have b e e n d i s c u s s e d in d e t a i l in Chapt er Two . A- B

THE MATRIX

C o - o c currence re lat ions b e tween approx imat e ly 2 5 0 ( gener i c ) nouns of all c la s s e s and 40 verb s

( exc luding pred i c at i on s ) were e l i c i t e d

during t h e s e c ond f i e l d trip .

The s e were c oded d i re c t ly o n t o dat a

proc e s s ing f orms for the comput er , wh i c h t hen produ c e d and d i s p layed i n a mat r i x form the r e l at i ons b e tween ( 1 ) the nouns and verb s ,

(2)

the 2 5 0 nouns aga i n s t each other ( i . e . , a mat r i x 2 5 0 b y 2 5 0 i t ems ) ,

142

and ( 3 ) t h e 4 0 verb s agai n s t e a c h other ( i . e . , a mat rix 4 0 b y 4 0 ) . The informat i on o b t ained from t h i s s t udy , a s w e l l as the original mat e r i a l s o f e l i c it a t i on , have not been ful l y anal y z ed at pre s ent be­ c au s e o f t ime l im i t at ions , but promise further ver i f i ca t ion o f t he work on c la s s ifi c a t ory verb s and noun c las se s , with p re s e nt evidenc e t hat the c on c r e t e nouns of the mat r i c e s group t hems e l v e s t ogether ( in c o- o c c urre n c e re lat i on s w i t h the verb s ) and even , p o s s ib ly , s ub ­ group ing t hems e lves int o t he s eman t i c d oma ins ( i . e . , art i fa c t s t end to c o- o c cur wi t h c e rt a in verb s , wh i l e anima t e s c o-oc c ur w i t h others , et c . ) . The ideal for t h i s s t udy would b e t o c ompo s e a mat r i x o f a l l nouns

( 3 , 0 0 0 ) c r o s s e d with a l l verb s ( 1 , 7 2 1 ) , b ut the mat r i x r e s u l t ­

i ng w o u l d b e s o formi dab le ( as we l l a s having such l ow c orre lat ions i n many p art s ) , that t h e ab ove s ma l ler s t udy was undertaken ins t e ad t o d i s c over i f s u c h a larger matr i x would be worthwh i l e ( a l s o , i f p o s s ib le t o pro c e s s b y c omput er , a s 3 , 0 0 0 i t ems c r o s s e d would require a large amount o f c omputer s t orage s p a c e ) .

APPENvrx B :

DATA COMP I LAT I ON

INFORMANTS

B-1

A l l informant s u s e d in the s t udy were nat ive speakers o f t h e Kope t e s a ( Torename ) d i a l e c t o f Enga , a w e s t ern Enga d i a l e c t s p o k e n about t w e n t y m i l e s from Laiagam ( s ee Map , page 2 1 ) .

A l l w e r e mono­

l in gual i n Enga ( e xc ept as not ed b e l ow ) , and a l l e l i c it at i on was c on­ d u c t e d i n Enga . My f i r s t princ ipal i nformant , C oun c i l lor A lu a Waly i s a was an i l l it ­ erat e man o f ab out twent y - f i ve years , and w a s b i l ingual i n ( Ne o ­ Me lane s i a n ) P i d g i n .

M y s e c ond p r i n c i p al i nformant was Pe s at u s a

Wae l i s a , a n i l l it era t e man o f ab out t wenty- three years .

O t h e r inform­

ant s inc luded Pas one , a young ( i l l i t e rat e ) woman of ab out s ixt een years ; P i s in i , a s em i - l i t erate woman of about twenty years

( and one o f

Alua ' s wive s ) ; Yoane , a s emi- l i t erate man o f about twent y - f ive y e ars ; J one , a s em i - l i t era t e and b i l i ngual ( in P i d gi n ) twent y-two y ear o ld man ; and Kane , a l it erate and b i l ingual ( in Pidgin ) twenty year old man .

Older i n forman t s , informa l l y c on s u lt e d , inc luded L e s ep ina

( Alua ' s mot her ) , an i l l i t erate woman of ab out forty y e ars ; and Lapa le , an i l l it erate man of about fort y - fi ve year s .

Non- s y s t emat i c i nform­

ant work and che c king was done w i t h whomever happ ened to b e s it t ing around t h e fire i n our h ous e when a prob lem aros e .

Tumu Popeoko and

Ngangane Yae t u s a of Aipusa ( ne ar Wab ag ) , wh i l e not emp l oyed as my in formant s but as my husb and ' s , often helped in my early work and during l anguage l earning . B-2

QUESTIONS USED IN ELICITATION

"One m i ght as s ume . . . that t h e s p eakers of any l anguage would q u i t e naturally and spontane ous ly thems e lves frame que s t i o n s t o e l i c i t . . . semant i c in format ion"

( We inre i c h 1 9 6 2 : 1 9 0 ) .

s u c h que s t i o n s v i a t h e original que s t i on

143

I att emp t e d t o e l i c i t

144

l.

E m b a - me p i t

me d e - n y a t e n ge d 6 k o m a s a - l a

word

y o u - AG

a- POSS

,

see-O

the

,

y o u-AG how

know- INF NEG-FUT - 2 SG-AUG

the

root

k a n d a - 6 d 6 k o e m b a - me a l p a

n a y a - t -e - n o

l a-o

t i pa p i - p e - n g e - p e ?

ut ter-O ask

do COMP-HAB- QU -

If y o u didn ' t know the meaning of a word, how wou l d y o u a s k i t ? Other introduct ory que s t i on s whi c h I u s e d were 2.

Ak i

t e n g e p a l e - n ge - p e ? BE-HAB-QU

what root

Wha t i s t h e meaning ?

name/word o t h e r

a

u t t e r - HAB-QU

Is t here an o t he r name/word? At t h e t ime I u s e d the que s t ions b e l ow , Cas agrande and Hale ( 1 9 6 7 ) was not avai l ab l e in the field , and upon my re t urn t o C anberra , I n o t i c e d a c l os e c orre sponden c e b etween the que s t i on s wh i c h I had u s e d and t h o s e u s e d b y Casagrande a n d H a l e i n the i r work o n Papago s emant i c relat i o n s h i p s a n d f o l k d e f init ions .

For c ompar i s on with t h e i r work , I

inc lude t h e i r t h irt e en t ypes of s emant i c r e l a t i o n s h i p s iden t i fi e d in Pap ago in bracke t s [ J .

The que s t ions are l i s t ed i n the order i n wh i ch

I e l i c i t ed w i t h them ; I a t t emp t e d t o apply t hem s y s t emat i c a l ly t o every l e x i c a l entry . [ Synonymy ]

4.

Ke n 9 e / p i l

1 e - n 9e - p e ?

l ap6

name/word s e aond u t t e r - HAB-QU Is t here a s e aond name ? 5.

Ke n g e / p i I w a k a

me n d e

l e - n ge - pe ?

n ame/word o t h e r

a

u t t e r - HAB-QU

Is there a n o t h e r name/word? 6.

Tenge waka root

other

me n d e a

p a l e - l y - a - pe ? BE- 3SG-PRE S -QU

Is t h e re a n o t h er meani n g ? [ C lass Inclusion]

7.

Baa

dd

ap i - n l - p l ?

he/it l i n e w h o - POSS-QU Wh a t i s h i s a l an ?

145

[Attributive ]

8.

Baa it

a i pa- l e -pe? w h a t - C ONF-QU

Wha t is it l i ke ? 9.

Baa a ( pa p ( - pa e - p e ? it

h ow

do- STA-QU

Wha t is it l i ke ? 10 .

Baa

e mb a - n y a a k ( - n g i - p i ?

h e / s h e y ou - POSS w h a t -NGV-QU Wha t re l a t i o n is he/s he to y o u ? [ Operat iona l ]

11.

E n d a k a l i d u p a me X - me p e op l e

do- HAB-PL- QU

t h e - AG X- INST w ha t work

What do p e op l e do w i t h X ? 12 .

X - me a ( p a

p i - pe - n g e - p e ?

X - A C w h a t do - COMP-HAB-QU Wh a t s h o u l d one do w i t h X ? 13 .

E n d a k a l i d u p a - me X - me p e op l e

the -AG X- INST w h a t d o - HAB-PL- QU

What do p e op l e do wi t h X ? [Function a l )

14 .

B a a me a k i

ka l a i p i -ng ( - p ( ?

i t - AG w h a t work

do - HAB-QU

What work does it do ? [ Spat i a l ]

15 .

Baa a n j a it

s ( - n g i - p i / k a t e - n g e - pe / pe te - n g e - pe / p a l e - n g e - p e ?

w h e re BE-HAB-QU

Whe re is it l o c a t e d ? [ Contingency]

16 .

A r pa

l a-o

m a s o - o e n d a k a l i me n d e a s e m a n g a p y a - p e - n g e - p e ?

what u t t e r - O t h i n k - O How do p e o p l e sne e z e ?

p e op l e

a

s n e e z e h i t - COMP-HAB- QU

146

[ Compari son ]

it

a - QU

Y- l i ke

Is i t l i ke Y ? [Provenience ]

18 .

x - d 6ko a j e t ae e p e - n g e - p e ? whence come - HAB-QU

X-the

From whence doe s X come /ori ginat e ? ( T ime )

19 .

An d u k u � p a w h i ch - TEMP

t h e - A G X do - HAB-PL-QU

p e op l e

When do p e op l e do X ? ( Expli cativ e )

how

utter-O think-O

p e op l e

the - AG X do - HAB-PL- QU

Why d o p e op l e d o X ? ( O s tensive )

The l a s t t hree of the definit i o n type s ( Time , Exp l i c ative , O s t e n s i ve ) are not me n t i oned by Cas agrande and Hale , but were u s ed in work w i t h Enga .

Casagrande and Hale have p o s t ua l t e d s everal other

type s w h i c h I d id not u s e in Enga . [ Exemp l i f i cation]

"X is d e f ined b y c it ing an appropriate c o-oc current , Y " and Hale 1 9 6 7 : 1 6 8 ) .

( Cas agrande

I was unab le to f ind a s ui t ab le que s t i on-answer

s e quence for t h i s d e f i n i t i on t ype in Enga . [Grading ]

" X i s d e fined w i t h r e s p e c t t o i t s placeme nt in a s e r i e s or s p e c t rum t hat a l s o inc lude s Y " 21.

Ak i

( Ca sagrande and Ha le 1 9 6 7 : 1 6 8 ) .

k 6 t e s a t a n d ( i o n g 6 - n y a w a mb a 6 e pe - n g e - p e ?

w h a t day

Sunday

t h e - POSS b e fore come - HAB- QU

What day come s b e fore Sunday ? Thi s d e f i n i t i on t ype e x i s t s in Enga as a po s s ib l e que s t i on but as one that is re levant i n only s ome c a s e s , i . e . , mont h s , day s of t he wee k , etc .

I d i d not u s e i t much .

147

[Antonyrny]

"X is d e f ined as the negat i on of Y , i t s oppo s i t e " ( Ca s agrande and Hale 1 9 6 7 : 1 6 8 ) . [ C i rcul arity ]

" X i s de fined a s Y "

( Ca s a grande and Hale 1 9 6 7 : 1 6 8 ) .

In b ot h of t h e s e

d e f i n i t i o n type s , Enga answers e x i s t 22 .

,

Enda

dupa a ka l i d a a .

woman the

man

not

Women are n o t me n . 23.

Yana d6ko , dog

the

baa

y a n a me n d e .

h e /i t dog

The dog i s a do g . but I my s e l f was una b l e t o formu l a t e a re a s onab l e que s t ion ( c f .

c om­

men t s b e l ow on c ompar i s on w i t h R . Lang ' s que s t i on sequenc e s ) . [ Constituen t ]

"X is de fined a s b e i ng a c on s t i t uent or p art o f Y " Hale 1 9 6 7 : 1 9 1 ) .

( C a s agrande and

Thi s s eman t i c re l a t i o n s h ip and folk d e f in i t i on t y p e

was n o t u s e d by Casagrande a n d Hale i n t h e i r Papago d a t a a n d I d id n o t u s e i t i n Enga e i ther .

Proveni e n c e i s a reas onab le que s t ion i n Enga

only i n re lat ion to c e r t a i n c l a s s e s of noun s , s u c h as rivers , rai n , hai l , s t re ams , e t c .

( any noun t hat i s o f the gender c la s s of e p e n g e 7 )

and o f humans i n the s en s e o f where d o e s s ome p e r s o n c ome from , i . e . , h i s home v i l l age or ' p l a c e '

(cf.

in Engl i sh :

He ' s a New Yo r k e r , He ' s

a Que e n s l ande r ) . I t i s a l s o i n t e re s t ing t o note t hat i n Enga one c an u s e t he s ame kinds of que s t i on s for d i fferent r e l at i o n s h i p s ( c ompare C ont ingency and E xp l i c a t ive , Fun c t ion and Operat i onal , Attribut ive and C l a s s I n c l u s i on ) .

In t h e s e c a s e s , even t hough the que s t ions are e s s e n t i a l l y

o f the s ame kind , t he r e s p o n s e s /answers a l l ow u s t o c la s s i fy the re la­ t i onsh i p s involved .

Cas agrande and Hale n o t e t he s ame in Papago .

In

Exemp li f i c at i on , the att ribut e i t s e l f i s b e ing d e f i ned rather t h a n the p o s s e s sor of the at tr ibut e ; wh i l e i n the a t t ribut i ve , the p o s s e s s or o f t h e a t t r i b u t e i s b e i n g d e fined b y t he a t t r i b ut e .

Exemp l i f i c at i on i s

the i nve r s e o f t he re lat i onship u s e d i n the A t t r ibut ive .

Furt hermore ,

Cas agrande and Hale n o t e t hat c l a s s i n c l u s i on i s often imp l i ed in at ­ tribut i ve d e f in i t ions , s in c e certain chara c t eri s t i c s of behav i our and appearance are shared b y a l l memb e r s of a l arge c l a s s ( C a sagrande and Hale 1 9 6 7 : 1 8 ) .

Thi s d i f f i c u l t y ( i . e . , non-mut ua l l y e x c lu s ive

148

que s t ion s ) i s only prob lemat i c i n t h o s e c a s e s i n wh i c h t he answer doe s not indi c ate the focus of the d e fi n i t i o n ( as it in fact d o e s ind i c a t e in e xemp l i fi c a t ion a n d a t t r ibut ive ) . The que s t ions u s e d in my dat a e l i c it at i on were verified when fur­ ther c h e c ke d via the p a t t e rned frame for que s t ions used by R . Lang ( 1 9 7 0 : 6 ) ; us ing R . Lang ' s trained informant , I pre s ent e d him w i t h s e l e c t ed it ems /en t r i e s ( mainly c oncre t e , animat e noun s ) a n d e l i c i t ed from him the que s t i on s he would u s e in que s t i oning about that i t e m . T h e r e s ult s were ext reme ly enc ouraging i n verifying t he a c c uracy o f t h e que s t ions u s e d . In the ir c on c l u s i on s Casagrande and Hale ment ion t op i c s for addi­ t ional work on s emant i c r e l a t i o n s h ip s ; t h e s e inc lude l } What additional types of semant ic relationships are employed in folk-definitions made by speakers of other languages ? ( 1967 : 192 ) .

As we have seen above , Enga d o e s provide s ome add i t i onal t yp e s for c ompar i s o n w i t h their work on Papago . 2 } To what extent are various types of s emantic relationships employed by speakers of all languages ; are these universals of language behavior? { 192 } .

Aga i n , the c ompar i s on with Enga i s o f intere s t . 3 } Are part icular types of s emantic relationships consistently associ ated , across languages and across cultures , with definitions of words falling into various form classes { e . g . , antonymy with adj ectives ; contingency with verbs } or belonging to different lexical domains { e . g . , attribut ive and clas s inclusion with plant and animal terms ; function with instruments and body parts } ? { 192 } .

I t was with t h i s t op i c in mind that var ious s t at i s t i c a l programs were run on t he d i c t i onary file to d e t e rmine what percent age o f each form c la s s was defined b y what p art i c ular type of folk definit ion ( or s em­ ant i c re lat ionship ) .

The se r e s ul t s were m o s t enc ouraging , and would

a l low addi t ional ( s t at i s t i c a l ) evidence t o b e pre s ented .

At present

the re sult s are primit ive ( i . e . , a l l owing only s u c h s t a t ement s a s " O f 3 , 0 0 0 nouns , 8 5 % u s e d c l as s i n c l u s ive f o l k defini t i ons " ) .

The next

s t age is t o produce more s ophi s t i c ated re s u l t s wh i c h are l inked :

"Of

t h e 5 0 0 animat e noun s , 9 5 % are defined f i r s t by a c l a s s i n c l u s ive d e f i ni t i o n , then 9 0 % of t h o s e are furt her de fined b y an at t r ib u t i v e de finit ion , 8 0 % of t h o s e s t i l l further de fined b y a funct ional d e f i ­ ni t ion , e t c . "

APPENVIX C :

THE E X I STENT IAL VERBS

The f o l lowing data are primarily the pr imary t axa e x t r a c t e d from the t o t a l c orpu s of approximat e l y 3 , 0 0 0 nouns and noun phra s e s .

The

dat a are p r e s e n t e d by t he e x i s t e n t i a l verb u s e d , then s ub -group e d by semant i c domain .

It ems wh i c h permit inters e c t i on ( c f .

ind i c a t e d w i t h the s e c ond e x i s t en t i a l verb fol lowing .

2 . 2 . 5 ) are The l e a s t fre ­

quent e x i s t e n t i a l verbs a r e p r e s e n t e d firs t . 1 .

Man d e n ge Part s o f a Who le :

a l i f , te l e k amb a ke pong6 di r , d i ng( d u n g ( , l un g i wa i n g i pupuku 2.

c l i t o ri s vagina penis frui t ,

seed, nut

katenge k a t e n ge 1yin9(

fru i t s t em sprout dry l e ave s

Ly i n g r Par t s o f a Whole :

di r , dingr

fru i t

mandenge

P l ant s :

1 r ta ke n a p f t i , k a ma l u m b i + b (n i

mush rooms mos s b e an

Animat e s :

amb u l ya

wasp, bee

149

e pe n ge

150

3.

Pa 1 enge Part s o f a Whole :

p rn g i ame , a me n g e makonamb r k u 1 r , k6 1 r

roots

m6n a , k r p i

he art

i ng r , 1 i dd 1 e n ge

joints

mama n d a

k i dn e y

p6 1 ya , pa 1 ya pungr k on d e n g e , k u t a p a p u i t a ka 1 an ga m6n a yok6 a n d a t 6m b a kon g a p u 1 akapo + , m l s a , m l n J. u t un d u i n g i ,

fa t

5

(n 9 i

gourds ' i n s i de bones i n t e s t in e s

b l adde r liver womb sma l l i n t e s tine lungs s tomach, womb vein,

t e ndon

testicles musc l e , meat s p i na l c o rd, marrow

P l ant s :

ma p u , a i n a kon j a + s a m u, u + kat6sa Animat e s : "

,

I mu , man g a pomb a t a nene anda 4.

worm , grub te rmi t e

5

(n9 i

5

(n9i

( ?)

maggot

Petenge Natural Phenomena :

endak ( pete

l ake , pond

P l ant s :

+

1 etesa

l e t tuce

Animat e s :

enda , wanaku yaka 5 aa m6n g e

wome n , g i r l s fow l s , b i rds game an ima l s frogs

151

, .

+

yu I pus r i nene n6mbe ,

,

5 .

r o de n t s cat insects snai l

yuu endang i inding(

woman demon

rna

n o n - human fema l e s

s fng i

s p i ri t woman

Epenge Nat ural Phenomena :

a i yuu

rain

endak i , rpa ki nduta t a n d a ke

water, river

po6 pop6

wind

1 1 nj i , 1 r n d i nongeane wa k a i

hai l , fr o s t ha i l vapour c l ay c l ay t r e e o i l , re s i n

Par t s o f a Who l e :

mamb a

tree oi l

apos6t 6 , apupu 1 i n r , mau man j o t a i y6ko rpange rtf andu angaet i k i ndupa

sa tiva p u s , p l asma mucus b lo o d fluid hail' milk b e ard nai l s

P lant s :

kuta kambe kende 6.

reed fe rn v i n e , rope

Ka t e n g e Natural Phenomena :

nikf

s un

kana bu i

moon s t a rs

s fng i

152

Part s o f a Who l e :

l yaa

nose

ma r t a p ae n ge

b ack

p i nye te

temp L e of h e ad

thigh

k(ngi

arm, hand

m6k6 yok6 paka

L e g , fo o t

angapu a l y6ko ka i t a yana konde a y6mb a ayokon de e n 6mb a

j aw

Leaves t r e e fork armp i t s kin nut head s h ou Lder fo r e h e ad Ups

ka le

e ars

kad i papa k e ke

fa t

ke n ge l en ge

but t o c k s

l uma mumb i mumb i te n g e

knee

fi n , wing tongue eyes s cab umbi U c a L cord

Art i fac t s :

anda k a me t6ko

house fe nce tab L e spark s hi e L d

an da ma u r nj a + 1 6ko ka l umba k ( 1 ya kemb6 k6pa , konamb i ma l u s a kanange yok6 +

wa L L s tuds h i nge Lock gate purLins s ti Le waH p orch L adde r , rungs p age ,

L e af, mon ey

153

P l ant s :

fd

tre e s

a l a m6 , ( d m a r tupa i t a

ginger

I

maa map� ang f tanu

bean taro swe e t p o t a t o p L an t gras s e s , w e e ds

e l y6 k o

s t ring - s hrub

k i n ap f t i aka fpu

moss Cordy L i n e

s amba f + ka I rpu + kanapa l yaa am� sae k u f ma

p i tp i t cane peanuts corn, mai z e sugar cane yam b an ana bamboo

a n ga l epa l e pe , s an g a i

p an danus cen tury/kenaf p L ant swe e t fLat

An imat e s :

ak� l i , w�ne y� l yaka l i , t�aka l i me n � y �n a l a i ma t i n d (o put�tul i t i ma n g o , t a l e p o i mamb u f p i , ma f p a + y dL k a p a u I I + b u l umakao I

7.

.

men, boys s kypeop L e pigs dogs c a s s ow ary bat fore s t demon gho s t s p i ri t n o n - h uman ma L e s c h i c ke n cow

S (n g i N atural Phenomena :

mo l e kartf kana yuu , yana i en dak ( kea

c L ouds , fog s ky , h e a v e n s tones e ar t h , p L ace , grav e L

groun d

154

pete

p ond, depre s s i on

endak ( pete

pond

,

ee l an ga

garden

kakasa k a ma n d a

b u s h , rai nfore s t

l e mb a

edge

k u n g uma man d a u

mars h

yu I r i t a te

aoaZs o u t s i de tra s h hoZe fi re moun tains

Part s of a Whole :

panga ir m u mb i

mars up i a Z p o u a h

i n gyanda ka l e ka i ta l en ge k a p a n e n ge k a i t a i f ka i ta

womb

l y a ka i t a anga tuu s rta m a mb a

fa e a e s nave Z e arho Ze eyebaH mouth anus n o s tri Z s i n g Z e p an danus nut hoZe in t r e e tree o i Z

Plant s :

a l y6 n go pa i nap6 1 6 kapusa

b e an p i n e app Ze aabbage

p e t e n ge

Art i fa c t s :

+

de nge d6a k� i t a , k a r t l n ( r ma k a i namb u l ukuna palo panda pepe l y6 dpi

aorner door do o r , path,

road

ri dg e p o Z e are a i n s i de door i nn e r room room, p i g s ta H s p a c e , p Zaae fi rep Zaae b a a k of house

155

+ . , , w l n d o a , w i n i n d oa + ko l os a t om a + bakesa + 1 �ma + b os 6 1 0 l a rne + g u m ,l .I +. , J a t ama + k o s ii + , s us a + np i + k�t6 + kfi ka l e t a k a n ii + k i 1 6k o kapa + k�po + ka t a s r n i kem� ken d � i uaa + lesa + 1 i t i 60 1 rd mam� m ii n d i , n u u + , man l + mas r s a me n � p u n g i + mat asene m i m� .

window c lothing s t op p e r ,

lid

bucket l amp bott le drum rub b e r , p l as t i c drum ball s h o t , inj e c t i o n car, jeep car key di s k money s h i l l in g , money c l ock bu l l e t cup keros ene k n i fe w a l king s ti c k axe razor radio b o undary arrow bas k e t , ne tbag money matches p i g rope medicine bow

A P PENV I X v :

THE P RE D I CAT I ON S O F ENGA

The data pre sented here on Enga pred i c a t i ons is grouped by t he c o­ o c c urring verb , in order o f frequency .

Wit h i n the verb group s , the

a d j un c t s have b e e n sub - grouped a s t o s e mant i c doma i n s .

Upon rev i s i on

of t h i s work , s ome i t ems thought t o be p red i ca t i on s in Lang ( 1 9 7 1 ) have been found t o b e i d i oms and have thus b een d e l e t ed . Page number D-l D-2 D-3 D-4 D 5 -

D-6 D 7 -

D-8 D- 9 D- I 0 D- l l D-12 D-l

l e n ge p i ng l p (ng i s (n g i ny rng l m i n rn g i k a e n ge p a l e n ge k a te n ge p e n ge ,

n e n ge tenge

utter

156

do

164

hit

170

h e ar

17 3

g e t , take

174

h o l d in hands ; c o n t ro l

175

be

176

( o f inner s t a t e s )

lie

( i n s i de )

176

s t and

177

go

178

eat

178

burn

178

l e n g e utter I Ba s i c Me aning :

aa ae an ga a i ya aI I aU a 1 6w a k i ,

,

.

,

8ay

' ah ' in s urp ri 8 e

s que a l ,

8 cream/cry

open m o u t h wide

(a8 in y awn )

ca l l o u t n ame to come and ge t s om e t h i n g e x c l aim exp re 8 8 comfo r t e xp r e s s happ i n e s 8

156

l e n ge 157

apa

expr e s s o n e s e Z f

apu

say a p u to chi Z d

I

aso b rs�

e xp re s s di s Z i k e b y s a y i n g t s k

boto

fZatuZate

bu l u d i 1 i ndao

noise of be Z Z

dul u/duu

sp Lash into water

ee ga�

grunt

ca Z Z dog t o come

s o und of hum/roar

cry

gat�

k n o c k , s o u n d o f s ome t h i n g s t r i k i n g (wood/i ron )

gee grtl g eS e

ca Z Z p i g or dog

goo g a � gu l anga l u rsu

p an t

Ha Hlo jalo

s ound of crac k/cre a k

kaa kaakaa kae ka i pya/ka f d t 6ka

s ound of p i gs /s q u e a Z

kakate kauu kea keau kee keke k i i y� kauu k i i i t u l eS k Tpu kee ka� k T d U t eS koe / k o l a a kope t a kosee k eS t o ku f i kul u ku l u mundu

s h ow t e e t h in p Z e as ure swa Z Zow s t omach grow L s exc Z aim i s h kno c k women/g i r L s Zaugh t oge t h e r p i gs s que a L thunde rs whisper dogs bark p ig s s q ue a Z sound o f t app in g/kno cking ca Z Z o u t s o un d o f dry rus t L i ng s t omach rumb L e s grind/c L i c k t e e th toge t h e r t hunde r pant grind teeth wh i s t L e through t e e t h speak badLy cough cough guLp n oi s i l y s ound of fi re/wa t e r/ri v e r s n o re

158 l enge

k u u l ao kuu kyaa

p i g s s c ream

kyuku /kyuu

sound of cra s h/thud

snuff

s n o re

l am b a

argue/quarre l

l a fya l et6

argue/q uarre l

l eke

teH a lie

I I

+

snort,

i f i p�

s p e a k c l e ar l y suck back sa liva wai l/mo urn

IY

ir l u mb u l u m b u

mouth waters

maku m�ma m�na

boast

mi s r i moka l f p i mo l 6 mu I r mauw� mu l u mu l u ma l u m u u, naka nal u

preach go spe l

I) a a I) a, ,l

exc l aim in ama z emen t t e ac h curse sound of b u z z /roar swear for t r u t h of i t hum/roar s t omach grow l s sound o f hum fo u l t a l k t a l k o f o t he r l i n e wi t h h o l ding p i g s cry - i n fan t s b l ow n o s e

,

I) a l) a ,

ta l k toge t h e r a t s ame time

I) a u I) e e, I) e, e I) a, a I) i r I) i I r I) a I r 1) 0 6 I) u l a I) a l u I) U U I) y e e I) y e e I) a a I) y f i I) a a I) y i I r I) a I r I) y u u n on g 6

moan s ound of engin e/hum groan pant engine whines s tomach grow l s ; quarre l i n fant cri e s exp re s s di s p l e as ure grun t agre e pant rave , cry out rav e , cry o u t p i g s r oar/grun t speak poorly

l e n ge 159 , n un u ,0 0 pale pee ,

kiss s ound o f w i n d/wa t e r/tree fa Z Z ing wave a rm t o go away Z augh and p Z ay Z o ud Zy

pi t p06 p u l u p6 1 e putai s amb6

p Z ay bamboo f Z u t e

sond6

c Z am up - n o t taZk from anger

suku suI u s u, u t �mbo

di s Z i k e

de

b i rds c h i rp

speak b Z ow speak/y e Z Z Z o u d Z y Z i e / t e Z Z fa Z s e hood

whi s t Z e say p s s t to ge t someone ' s a t te n t i on c hew/swa H o w

t a me t a me

s tu t t e r

t ee ! t i pa tI ( dtio tond6 t ok a t6k6 t om b a t u mb ( p i t umbu u, a a

a s k for s q ue a k /make s hri Z Z s o un d wh i s t Z e t hrough t e e t h be u n c o - o p e r a t i v e sound of cracking - rifZ e , wood, s to n e s exp Zode , b Z i s t e r, exp e Z g a s n o i s e of s t oma c h gossip s p e a k sarcas t i ca Z Zy dog s bark

, US I

s ound made when dancing

usu , uu wa r wana wee wi r w06 yaa yanda r d y�e yaka pi I i n6 y a k6 yao yasu

e xc Z aim t o chi Z d t o make it s Ze e p w i n d/fi re s o unds of u u s e n d me s s age whisper s i n g a s ong ca Z Z out re p Z y w i t h woo taZk Z o u d Z y boas t answer with y a e give thanks cry / s h o u t o u t answer with y a o ca Z Z for dog

160 l en ge

y 6 pe

w h i s t Z e wi t h Z i p s

yua y u6

s hout in u n i s o n when happy Z ame n t

II Inner S t a t e :

a, p u

be dry

auu

Zike,

b rsa du 1 i

make s t rong

koo l � me k o t o p