During the period 1938-2018 Encyclopædia Britannica published annually a "Book of the Year" covering the past
439 80 155MB
English Pages [854] Year 1960
Table of contents :
Cover
Title
Hawaii, The Island State
Dating the Past
BOOK OF THE YEAR
Table of Contents
Introduction
Editors and Contributors
Calendar of Events, 1959
BOOK OF THE YEAR
ABYSSINIA
AMERICAN LITERATURE
ARMIES OF THE WORLD
AVIATION, CIVIL
BASUTOLAND
BRITISH BORNEO
CANALS
CHIROPODY
COMMUNITY CHEST
DEBT, NATIONAL
EDUCATION
EXCHANGE CONTROL
FLORIDA
FUTURE FARMERS OF AMERICA
GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS, US
HORSES
INDUSTRIAL PRODUCTION
IRAN
KHRUSHCHEV
LIVESTOCK SHOWS
MEDICINE
MISSILES
MUSEUMS
NEW HEBRIDES
NORWAY
OLD-AGE INSURANCE
PHILIPPINES
POULTRY
RADIO AND TELEVISION
ROCKEFELLER
SHOWS
SOUTH AFRICA
SUDANESE REPUBLIC
TIBET
UNITED KINGDOM
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
WALES
ZOOLOGY
INDEX
A
B
C
D-E
F
G
H-I
J-K-L
M
N
O-P
Q-R-S
T-U
V-W
X-Y-Z
1960 BRITANNICA
BOOK OF
THE YEAR
FEATURE ARTICLES
©I960, BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA,
COPYRIGHT RESERVED PRINTED
IN U.S.A.
INC.
'^.
.J
f*^
7_r---
'^I^^^'C-^^
4\
HAWAII, The
Island State
By JAN JABULKA
IT
was the year 1849. Zachary Taylor, gurated as the
1
a
Whig, had been inau-
2th president of the United States. In Califor-
nia, a
paramilitary republic soon to be admitted as the 31st state
in the
American union, gold had been discovered.
A
pell-mell mi-
perity followed in Hawaii.
In the island kingdom of Hawaii in the Pacific ocean the
United States the exclusive right to enter and establish at Pearl
Kamehameha
New York, William Oland Bourne, Whig, was editor of the weekly newspaper the
Northern Journal. The masthead of the publication proclaimed it to be "a family newspaper devoted to politics, agriculture, science, literature, education, religion and general intelligence." On May i, 1849, Bourne picked up his pen to begin a long and prophetic editorial. In type it overflowed two standard-size newspaper columns. the American
Its title:
Union
One hundred and
its
vessels.
For the United
Other significant events transpired. Revolt, directed at
effect-
ing union with the United States, flared in the once-tranquil tropi-
III.
In Lewis county, in upstate a thoughtful
and repair station for
a coaling
States this was the entering wedge.
youthful and progressive Kauikeaouli, in the 25th year of his fruitful reign, ruled as
was any other power
of the treaty
any harbour or other territory of Hawaii. Another gave the
in
Harbor
gration westward, of unprecedented proportions, was on.
One major provision
that no special privilege should be granted to
"Admission of the Sandwich Islands
in
—The State of Hawaii."
cal
as well.
ten years later, on July 28, 1959, the citizens
Hawaii voted in their first state-wide general elections. Appearing on the Hawaii ballot for the first time were the names of aspirants to the United States senate and house of representa-
The abrogation
of the
monarchy was another
link in the
chain of circumstances which led inevitably to annexation and
eventual statehood.
For the mid-Pacific Polynesian community
was a century of
it
kaleidoscopic movement, a variegated exchange of pattern and
scene up to the
moment
of
integration into the
its full
body
poli-
of the United States.
tic
of
kingdom. The insurrection dethroned a queen, bringing to a and stormy reign, but the monarchial era
close not only her brief
As
Hawaii has been historically unique among the 49
a state,
others in
its
progressive development toward permanent and
ir-
revocable status as a sovereign component in the American federation.
and the new state's candidates for the now elective offices of governor and lieutenant governor. Much had happened since Bourne's 19th-century allusion to
provisional government was established.
statehood for the Pacific island realm.
which abolished the monarchy, became a prime advocate for
tives,
During the intervening century, in the year 1854, the annexaHawaii to the United States had been proposed by a treaty
tion of
which would have admitted Hawaii "on a perfect equality with other States of the Union." Although negotiations collapsed with the unexpected death of the 41-year-old relations
King Kamehameha
between the two governments continued
Prince Alexander Liholiho,
under the gotiations.
title
Kamehameha
who succeeded Kamehameha
III
IV, did not pursue the treaty ne-
more than a year after the accession to 1874 of King Kalakaua, this monarch, upon con-
But a
the throne in
III,
to be friendly.
little
sultations with Pres. Ulysses S. Grant, promulgated a reciprocity
treaty with the United States.
The decree
established duty-free
trade between the two nations, and an unparalleled era of pros-
First
it
proclaimed. Its
Hawaii for thirty years, was for eight years executive director of the Hawaii Statehood Commission in Washington, D.C., until the passage of the statehood bill in 1959. Prior to this he had worked as reporter, managing editor and business manager for the two major daily newspapers in Honolulu. Mr. Jabulka was born and educated in Chicago. a resident of
first
When
and only president,
this
was overthrown a a republic was
Then
a leader in the rebellion
annexation to the United States and subsequently the
first
gov-
For a brief time Hawaii occupied the role of a possession. This status was altered by an act of congress, cited as the Organic act of Hawaii, which in speernor of the
cific
new
territory of Hawaii.
language extended the constitution and
new
States to the
territory.
all
Under the terms
laws of the United of United States
supreme court rulings and dicta Hawaii had been "incorporated into the United States as an inchoate state."
The newest
state in the union
of reasons. It It is
is
the
first
island
is
a distinctive one for a
number
and wholly noncontiguous
state.
the only state whose inhabitants are preponderantly of Asi-
atic origin. It
is
the
first
semitropical state, with the mildest
climate and narrowest extremes in temperatures in the United States. It
JAN JABULKA,
was an island autocracy.
Mauna
is
the state with the world's largest active volcano,
Loa, and the world's largest inactive volcano, Haleakala.
Hawaii brings into the union the newest "wettest spot on earth," near Kokee on the island of Kauai, with an average annual rainfall of 471.68 inches; it relocates the most southerly point in the United States from Key West, Fla., to Ka Lae on the island of
Hawaii. It shares, with Texas, a further distinction as the only
The
Editors of the Brilannica Book of the Year welcome in the feature articles the expression of the personal views of men qualified to write on matters of great current importance. Their views, of course, are not necessarily those of the Editors.
unit in the
American union
to enter, not
by purchase or conquest,
nor by discovery or occupation, but voluntarily.
The Aloha
state, so
nicknamed
officially
by the 1959 Hawaiian
HAWAII. The
Island State and pineapple
to sugar
in dollar
revenue and
it
gives promise of
overtaking both as Hawaii's major civilian income producer.
Exceeding the state
all
three as the greatest single source of income within
However, despite
the huge military establishment.
is
these computable sources of wealth in terms of income, property
and products, Hawaii's major resource its enterprising and vigorous people.
is still
considered to be
The People of Hawaii Hawaii has often been described as a showcase of democracy whose people, of diverse ethnic origins, live together in an extraordinary degree of is
harmony and
racial amity.
Blended here
a unique mixture of the cultures of East and West.
According to 1958 census estimates, the largest racial group 37% who were Americans of Japanese ancestry. The haole (Caucasian; group comprised 23% of the 613.000 civilian
was the
population.
The Hawaiian and part-Hawaiian population was
ex-
panding at a more rapid rate than any other, and accounted for 18% of the total. Resident Filipinos (many of whom have taken out United States citizenship)
made up 12%
accounted for
Ricans comprised a
little
more
of Hawaii's popu-
6% and Koreans than 1% each.
lation; the Chinese
and Puerto
Hawaii boasts not only one of the fastest growing populations the states but also one of the youngest. Bureau of census
among
estimates in 1958 revealed a gain of approximately 113.000 inhabitants since 1950, or 22.6%, exceeding that of most of the
HAPPY NEWSBOY OF HONOLULU Iha Hawaii statehood
c«rryino papers an by congress March 12, 1959
bill
;ina the
passage
of
other states.
The proportion
of the total population under 24
years of age was shown to be 52.7%.
Extensive interracial marriages and participation of
and
legislature (the 30th
form of government),
is
last to
convene under the
more than
territorial
a land of /ci-bedecked hula
maidens, native grass shacks and moonlit, white sanded beaches.
whose situation
It is a military bastion
in the
Pacific
strategically vital to the security of the United States. It
and prosperous community tradition.
It
in the best,
ocean is
a
is
busy
hard-working .American
populated by a blend of heterogeneous races
is
whose descent is largely oriental. The leavening influence of the generous and gentle Hawaiian people has, over the decades, fused the 613,000 citizen-whole into the world's most engaging human laboratory. Created there was the melting pot of the Pacific.
THE ISLAND STATE What It
is,
is
the state of Hawaii?
geographically, the longest chain of islands in the world,
extending
more than
in the Pacific for
1,600 nautical miles from
the island of Hawaii in the southeast to the island of
(Ocean)
The
Kure
was formed by the summits of a range of lofty volcanic mountains and by coral built up from great depths. The eight main islands stretch over a radius in the
northwest.
island chain
They are, in order of size, Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, Xiihau and Kahoolawe. Their world-famous climate is an equable one, the mean monthly temperature at Honolulu varying from 70° F, in February to 78° in of about 400 miles.
August, The northeast trade winds prevail throughout the year
but are often interrupted
in
the winter by variable winds or
konas, which occur usually between September and .April and are
attended by
rain.
The
islands
west of San Francisco, a
by propeller-driven
little
plane,
about ;.ioo nautical miles southmore than eight hours flying time
lie
and perhaps one-half
as long
by
jet
in
the political and social
life
W. Lind, noted social scientist of the 13% of the marriages of 191 2-13 were inBy 1931-32 the ratio had climbed to 32% of World War II (1942-44) the marriages
.According to .Andrew
University of Hawaii, terracial in character.
and during the period
across 12 racial lines constituted
38.5%
of
all
of the marriages in
Hawaii.
The Land is limited. Much of its area is taken up by mounand by ancient and modern lava flows that render it temporarily useless. Its most unusual feature, however, is the pattern of its ownership. Of Hawaii's total land area. 57.9% is in the hands of private owners, and comparatively little of it is available
Hawaii's land
tains
in fee simple.
the state
more;
is
30%
A
little
more than
of the total land area
with 30.000 acres or more acres each,
46%
of the total land area of
held by 60 landowners, each holding 5,000 acres or
own
a
little
—
is
controlled
4 of these 12, with
more than 34%
of
by 12 owners, each more than 100.000
all
the private lands.
government controls 7.7% of Hawaii's land and the state government 34.4%. The largest private landowner in Hawaii, controlling 368,700 acres (or more than 8^) of its total area, is the Bishop estate
The
federal
on Oahu. This estate holds the lands inherited by Princess Bernice Pauahi Bishop, granddaughter and last direct heir of Kame-
hameha
the Great, the original king of Hawaii. These holdings
the Princess Pauahi, trust to
upon her death
found and maintain the
in 18S4, left in perpetual
Kamehameha
schools for boys
Hawaiian ancestry. The schools, started in 1887. today are educating more than 1.700 young Hawaiians. The will of and
girls of
nation's newest state contains 6,435 square miles or 4,118,-
any
real estate, cattle ranches or other
opinion a sale
acreage devoted to commercial agriculture produces
The second largest landowner in Hawaii owner of the famed Parker cattle ranch on
world's pineapple crop and
grown sugar
crop.
The
25%
75*^^ of
the
of the United States domesti-
tourist industry is a close runner-up
and
may
sell
property unless in their
400 acres, exceeding among the states only Rhode Island, Connecticut and Delaware. The relatively small portion of this
cally
all racial
characterize the community.
the princess stipulated that trustees of her estate "shall not
plane.
The
groups
be necessar>'." Net income from estate leases
sales goes to the
maintenance of the two schools. is Richard
Second largest Hereford
cattle
ranch
S.
Smart,
the island of Hawaii.
in the world, its
herds graze
HA WAII, on a
are held in
from the
largely
Ireland as a lad in the early 1850s and
Hawaiian Islands.
tually to the
the island of Maui, and in time
Later he
estate.
moved
He
made
his
way
who
even-
started a small plantation on
went
into stock raising
to the island of
and
real
Oahu. With an eye toward
developing his properties on the arid side of the island. Campbell sent for a well driller from California
water supply.
island's vast artesian his estate
was valued
ten times that figure heirs (one of
and
it
Today
it
is
its
least
principal
Kawananakoa) derived from the leases
a
sum
which is of its 81.000 acres in sugar and pasture lands. The pressure of a growing population on restricted land resources is felt most severely on the island of Oahu. Already there is on Oahu a greater density of population per square mile than
Japan or in the United Kingdom. The total area of the island is 604 square miles, much of it being mountainous or semimountainous. Of its total land mass, 29% is controlled by the federal and state governments; the remaining 71^^ is privately owned and of that, 499c is controlled by landowners holding 5.000 or more acres and 22% by landowners with less than 5.000 is
in
acres each. In 1958, the population of
Oahu was estimated
at
great
demand
for homesites. and spiraling prices, brought
about a land reform act
The
in the last territorial legislature of 1959.
Oahu a land development authority with condemn areas of not less than 25 acres each for resi-
act created for
power
to
the islands, only certain coastal lowlands are tillable because of the rugged terrain and the character of the soil. The remainder is forest, pasture and wasteland. The area under culti-
dential purposes,
and
to sell or lease lots to individual buyers in
the event of a housing shortage.
all
vation
is
cultural
8%
slightly less than
330.000 acres.
On
of Hawaii's total area, or about
Hawaii
this small surface of
is
based
its agri-
economy.
AGRICULTURE AND INDUSTRY Sugar has been the cornerstone of the Hawaiian economy for nearly a century. Sugar cane, a giant bunch grass, was growing in
Hawaii when Capt. James Cook discovered the islands in 1778. Cook observed that it was planted in hedge rows about the thatched huts of the Polynesians.
The Sugar Industry As an industry, sugar obtained island of Kauai,
&
The authority may contract with
when
three
Co.. signed a lease with
They plowed
its
New
12 acres and
Two
Koloa on the
Ladd
III for 980 acres of land.
sowed it to sugar cane; they built a with iron rollers imported from the
United States. Thus began Hawaii's tion.
start in 1835 at
Englanders, operating as
Kamehameha
mill, extracting the juice
first
successful sugar planta-
years later they exported their
first
crop, 2.1 tons of
raw sugar and 2.700 gallons of molasses.
By
449.910.
The
more than 15%.
On
died in igoo
worth at
pays out annually to
Princess Abigail
in excess of $1,000,000,
there
the authority setting retail prices and allowing developers a profit
discovered the
When Campbell
at $3,000,000.
whom was
who soon
State
private developers for financing and acquisition of lands, with of not
state.
Hawaii's third largest estate was built by James Campbell, left
The Island
more than 300,000 acres, of which 185,774 acres fee simple by the owner and the remainder are leased
total of
i960, the sugar industr>' led
all
others in the 50th state.
Annually. 27 separate plantations produce
in excess of i. 000.000
tons of raw-value sugar, worth $150,000,000 and providing 17,-
000
men and women
with year-round employment and a payroll
of about S57.ooo.ooo. In 1959, one out of every twelve persons
employed daily cash
Hawaii was in the sugar industry. With an average wage of more than $12 plus fringe benefits of more
in
than S4 daily. Hawaii's hourly rated sugar workers were the high-
NEW STATE, showing location of cities and geograohic features. Inset at bottom siiows Hawaii's relationshio to the coasts of east Asia and the U.S. Pacific states PRINCIPAL ISLANDS OF THE
est
paid in the world. About 221,000 acres of land on four of the
ll.tU'.Ul.
major
islands (Kauai,
tional
of the stale's total acreaRe,
asset.
cane Rrowing. This represents
and
is
it
5.5''^
one of the most highly mechanized agricultural areas
Machines are used
the world.
The Island
Oahu, Maui and Hawaii) are devoted to
planting and harvesting.
The
in
for preparing the soil, fertilizing,
mills require only
minimum
super-
and centrifuge the sugar into the California & Hawaiian Sugar
vision as they wash, crush, grind
raw state
its
shipment to
for
Refining Corp.
(
C & H).
the Hawaiian sugar crop
at
Crockett, Calif., where the bulk of
is
refined.
Pineapple
The
origin of this exotic fruit, once
grown in the royal hotis unknown. Some be-
houses of Europe as the "fruit of kings," lieve
grew
first
it
mention of
de Paula y Marin, tury and
in
the Caribbean; others, in Brazil.
Hawaii was made by
in
it
who came
who recorded
in his
a Spaniard.
Don
The
first
Francisco
to the islands late in the iSth cen-
diary on Jan. 11, 1813, that he had
sundry times planted "some pineapples and an orange tree."
at
The Kona
coast of the island of Hawaii
was the
site of the first
commercial plantings, a variety known as Wild Kailua. Capt. John Kidwell, an English horticulturist, laid the foundation of the present industry with the importation of 1,000 plants of the
Smooth Cayenne pineapple from Jamaica. In 1892
Slate
fair to become the state's major economic Tourism, already ranking as Hawaii's third basic industry,
facilities bid
was experiencing in the late 1950s its greatest era of growth. Between 1946 and 1959 the number of visitors who stayed two days or longer in the islands rose from 15,000 to more than 200,000 annually and their expenditures from about $6,000,000 to more than $96,000,000. To meet the growing needs of this "constant boom." new recreational and hotel sites were being opened up, each month disclosing new investments by mainland capital in this phase of the islands' economy. Among prominent mainland financiers who had invested fortunes in Hawaii's tourist industry were Clint Murchison, Jr.. Paul Trousdale and Henry J. Kaiser. The latter had already by late 1959 launched the first phase of a tourist development that would eventually cost in excess of $50,000,000.
The
known
internationally
hotel operator
Conrad Hilton planned a i.ooo-room hotel near Kaiser's Hawaiian Village. With the addition of this project and Kaiser's projected I.ooo-room addition. Waikiki alone would have tourist accommodations of more than 6.0CO rooms. The Sheraton Hotel corporation of America had also recently acquired from the Matson Navigation Co. its four Waikiki beach hotels for $18,000,000, and was studying an improvement program to cost $10,000,000. Hawaii Visitor's bureau statisticians envisioned the day as not
when
would surpass the annual
Kidwell and a partner started a pineapple cannery at Wahiawa,
far off
Oahu. but
revenues from sugar and pineapple. Next to the expenditures by
a
this
venture did not succeed. In iSgq James D. Dole,
Harvard graduate, arrived
in
the islands.
He homesteaded some
land at Wahiawa. 14 miles from Honolulu, and the Hawaiian Pineapple Co, In 1903 this first
igoi launched
in
company turned out
its
canned pineapple products.
In 1922 Dole's
island of Lanai
for
brought in competitors, including Libby. McNeill
& Libby and
the California Packing Corp., which with the Hawaiian Pineapple
now form
the big three of the industry. Altogether there are
nine pineapple companies
Hawaii, their combined crop provid-
in
new
state with its second largest industry. As in sugar, the toward mechanization on the 77.000 acres devoted to pineapple cultivation, and a decline in plantation and cannery
ing the
make
the military establishment, this would
Hawaii's foremost money-maker.
000
visitors
and $110,000,000
in
The
economy. "Holoholo Hawaii!" That
is
the tourist industry
forecast for i960
was
250,-
revenue, increasing by 1969 to
much
643,000 visitors bringing as
company purchased the
$1,100,000 and planted 16,000 acres to pineapple. Dole's success
Co..
the receipts from tourism
as $233,000,000 to the island
how
the islanders say they are
"seeing the sights," or getting about in Hawaii. Visitors have an
unequaled opportunity to holoholo, from snow-capped mountain peaks to underground lava tubes and palm-lined beaches. Miles of fine highways on
all
the islands, dozens of hiking trails through
personnel. .About 10.000 persons find steady emplo>'ment in the
from snakes and poisonous insects, horseback trails to dormant volcanoes and into lush valleys, lead the visitor into a scenic paradise. Each of the islands differs in some natural respects from the others and all are easily accessible by interisland
pineapple industry, which employs an additional 12.000 during
planes.
summer canning season. Annual payroll is $36,000,000. The pineapple pack in 1959 reached an
Polynesian panoramas of breath-taking beauty remain, unob-
trend
is
the peak
in excess of
all-time rec-
forests free
From
all
of
them the
little
grass shacks are gone, but the
ord of 3S.396.000 cases of fruit and juice, worth about $120,000.-
structed by the billboards so familiar to the American mainland
000 to the Hawaiian economy.
vacationer. This
form of advertising made its appearance in Hawaii soon after the turn of the century, and was immediately protested by a group of clubwomen as a blot on the natural land-
Other Products Diversified crop and livestock production
economy
is
also important to
scapes of the islands.
When
good-natured appeals to the adver-
annual income. About one-half of the islands' needs in meat, fresh fruits and vegetables are locally produced. The largest live-
agency sponsoring the billboards failed, the women formed an organization, the Outdoor Circle, which organized a boycott of all merchants subscribing to this form of advertising, and of the
stock industry in Hawaii
products so advertised.
the
cattle
of Hawaii, accounting for nearly $50,000,000 in
marketed
in 1959.
is
the beef business, with about 47.000
Most of
these products
come from
all
The 15.000.000-pound annual coffee crop, valued at about $7,000,000. comes chiefly from the island of Hawaii, as does the new and growing macadamia nut crop. islands.
A new
economic potential
is
timber. At present native hard-
woods such as koa and monkeypod. both termite-proof, are used in the manufacture of decorative furniture and souvenirs. The United States forestry service, joining
Hawaii in 1959. agreed that large-scale commercial timber growing in Hawaii was possible and should be developed. Already standing, ready for industrial exploitation, are 100,000,000 board feet of lumber, most of it eucalyptus. in a
conference
in
tising
The
Hawaii's mild and uniform climate, scenic beautv and recrea-
The advertising agency soon gave up. women, generous to their fallen foe. raised a sum
it out and shut up the shop. The billboards came down and have never reap-
equal to the advertising agency's losses, bought
peared.
On each
of the
major islands the
visitor
is
presented with some
of the world's finest scenery and with examples of Hawaii's inits growing future. At the southeast beginning of the chain
teresting past and
waii or the Big Island, as
it is
lies
the island of
popularly know-n.
On
Ha-
this island
is
located the Hawaii National park, a lava-formed area of great
beauty. There the visitor canoes. feet,
Tourism
victorious
Mauna
is
afforded the sight of two active vol-
Loa. whose crater
and Kilauea. whose main
is
at
firepit
an elevation of 13.680 is
easily accessible.
Ad-
joining the volcanic slopes are the groves of giant tree ferns
(some towering
to
40 feet) and rare plant and bird
life
that
make
TERRACED AND CONTOURED PINEAPPLE FIELDS of the fruit
juice of
is
the second ranking industry of Hawaii. cases in 1959
Hawaiian Pineapple comoany. Pro About 77,000 ac. produced a pack of fri
of Ihe
more than 38,000,000
WASHING CANE
in a
Hawaii sugar
the leading industry of the state, its ino to about $150,000,000 in 1959
\
AGRICULTURE
AND LIVESTOCK
OF HAWAII
CHINESE FARMER second
1959
it
in
setting out importance, rice productioi
was grown only
HEREFORD CALVES Comprising 300,000 its
kind
in
the worl(
ly til
by
for local cons'
Parker ranch, island of Ha the ranch is one of the largest of
RAKING COFFEE BEANS
on a drying deck, Napoopoo, island of Hawaii, Coffee is the third
important agricultural commodity of Hawaii
HAWAII, The
*
the park one of the nation's loveliest. Hilo, the principal city
and business centre on the Big Island,
is
Island State from 77°
in the
morning
swimming
Besides
a city of orchids; its
to 82° in the afternoon.)
surfboard riding
in reef-protected waters,
and next
and body surfing are "musts" for the visitor. Swift outrigger canoes, manned by expert Hawaiian steersmen and paddlers, pro-
io,o:5-foot Haleakala, the
vide exciting water fare for the sports-minded. In ancient times
famed "house of the sun," the world's largest dormant volcano, whose crater floor measures about 25 square miles. The summit and crater form the smaller section of Hawaii National park,
the Hawaiians lashed two outriggers together, with a platform
make
22,000 varieties
The
it
the orchid capital of America.
island of Maui, the Valley Isle,
along the chain.
It
home
the
is
lao valley, across the island, In the centre
is
is
in size
mass of stone
floor of the rich valley.
as Needle Point,
second
a tropical glen lush with foliage.
the lao Needle, a solid
is
above the
feel
is
of
The
rising 1,200
general area,
known
2,250 feet above sea level.
Molokai, the Friendly
Isle,
is
fifth in size
and
near the
lies
centre of the group of islands, about 40 miles east of Honolulu.
by steep Kalaupapa leper colony, flanked by ocean and accessible only by boat or plane, .\ncient churches and homesteads encountered on the island lour bring back the days of the
On
a low peninsula separated from the rest of the island
2,000-foot
Hawaii of
By
cliffs, is
the
old.
crossing the Kaiwi channel, the visitor finds himself on
Oahu. third largest of the islands. Oahu means the "gathering place" and it is just that. There, on the most highly developed island in the chain, live nearly three-quarters of the state's population.
The
tradition
capital city of
with
Honolulu combines old Polynesian
metropolitan
conveniences,
a
"paradise
with
plumbing" as one well-known novelist called it. The mecca of the tourist at Honolulu is Waikiki beach. There the visitor to the beach has a choice of about 60 hotels. These range
from
streamlined
skyscrapers
to
quaint
cottage-style
from $24 a day at the plush oceanside day at the smaller, off-beach hotels.
dwellings. Rates vary hostelries to $7. 50 a
Service and facilities for visitors are uniformly good. Fea-
tured are Hawaiian entertainment, bridge games and free hula
and ukulele
instructions. Well-patronized hotel lobby shops are
between to carry cargo and passengers on long voyages of the native catamaran are twin-hulled sail-
built
Modern adaptations
—
ing craft
sleek,
speedy and seaworthy.
but
Chinatown
interesting
filled
or disporting in
some
and Polynesian kaukaii (food). Rural Oahu
offers the visitor
warmest ocean waters. (The
average temperature of the water at Waikiki during
from 75°
in the
morning
to 77° in the afternoon
March
and
in
varies
August
comparable scenery
may
Orchids are shicDed the yellow ginger
shore lines.
In-
be viewed from the famous Nuuanu
Pali (precipice) lookout, a 2,000-foot
gap
in the
Koolau moun-
tains.
Kauai
is
the last large island in the northwestward extension
Garden
of the chain. Properly called the
Island,
it is
the greenest
most beautiful. On the shore at Waimea bay the visitor may stand on the spot where Captain Cook made his first landing, and a stone's throw away are the remains of an old Russian fort, A short drive up Waimea valley takes one to the fish ponds at Niumalu. said to have been and
is
considered by
many
visitors as the
by the hard-working menehunes, a
built
who laboured only
at night.
Grand canyon
quisite
and
pixielike little people
Hanalei valley, with
visit,
its
sheer beauty,
Waimea
the rainbow.
in island lore the birthplace of
canyon,
though lacking the spread of
chasm
of Arizona, rivals that great
in its ex-
brilliant colouring.
The other
three of the eight largest islands of Hawaii are
owned West Maui
Lanai. Niihau and Kahoolawe. Lanai. since 1922 wholly
by the Hawaiian Pineapple Island,
its
is
Co., lies on the lee side of
nearest point being eight miles distant. Its principal
Kaumalapau.
port.
area
FLOWER-GROWING
pineapple and sugar plantations,
picturesque plantation villages and beautiful
not touring or shopping, Waikiki's trip-
of the world's
and
jade
served everywhere,
from hole-in-the-wall hot dog stands to the swank beach hostelThe gourmet will also find a variety of Chinese, Japanese and Hawaiian restaurants, featuring Cantonese cooking, sukiyaki
the
When
is
ries.
scrolls.
pers are stretched out on the sands soaking up the perpetual sun,
apothecary,
with
other small shops. American style food
climaxing the Garden Island
vacationers alike.
day-
thrills in
Other tourist attractions in and about Honolulu are lolani mausoleum, the Mormon tabernacle, the worldfamous Bishop museum, colourful fish markets, and a small
items for the gourmet and from coconut leaf hats to Japanese
Hawaii, with islanders and
the fast "cats'
new
palace, the royal
is
in
fleet of
time and moonlight cruises.
stocked with a wide variety of wares, from island sportswear to
Sea sports are the most popular
A
operates from Waikiki beach, offering visitors
is
60 nautical miles from Honolulu. The land
141 square miles or 90,240 acres, of which 15.500 acres
are devoted to pineapple culture. Its population of 2.300
is
made
d
up largely of pineapple company employees and their families: the employees numbering about 500 regular and 400 seasonal. Residents of the island enjoy good fishing, hunting and hiking; they attend their own churches and belong to up-to-date community associations. State schools furnish education up to the high school level.
Niihau Island, often called the Forbidden Isle, is also priThe island is seventh in size in the main Hawaiian
vately owned.
Kauai Island. It Hawaii where no tourist, not even a resident, may visit. It consists of an area of 72 square miles and may be visited only by permission of the Robinson family, owners of the island. Permission to land there is given only rarely even group and is
is
situated 18 miles southwest of
the one spot in
to friends.
Law enforcement and
to the island's
manager weeks
appointments. Resident there
education
in is
raise cattle, sheep, bees
must apply
official visitation
probably the largest colony of
pure-blooded Hawaiians (about 200)
hauans
officials
advance for left in
Hawaii. The Nii-
and some of the
finest
breeds of
Arabian horses.
Kahoolawe, the smallest island of the group, low and parsheltered by Maui Island, has very little rain or vege-
tially
SURFBOARD RIDERS GLIDING TOWARD SHORE Formerly inhabited by herders who cared for a few head of cattle and sheep which pastured there at times, it is now uninhabited. Its 45-mile-square area, subleased from a private estate, is used as a target site by ships of the United States fleet and navy and air force planes. In monarchial days it was tation.
Festivals and pageants, which portray the spirit and the cul-
mixed races of the
islands,
afford the visitor
to
Hawaii a year-round series of colourful and authentic spectator events. These include the Japanese Girls' day (March 3) and the Japanese Boys' day (May 5) when special kimono and flower displays are held and giant paper carp fly from bamboo
fete
is
by the Chinese community occurs in Vn April the Japanese Cherry Blossom
festival
January or Februarj'. held. Lei day,
May
i, is
on the cresl o kinds are enjoyed by most citizens of Hawaii and are
dedicated to the flower
lei
as a
symbol of Hawaiian aloha. All races participate as they do on Kamehameha day, June 11, which is dedicated to the memory of the first monarch of Hawaii. Aloha week, held in October, is celebrated on all the islands. It is one of the highlights of the state's festive season and attracts annually thousands of main-
a
of the tourist trade
squid or baby octopus baked in coconut milk, fruit and other delicacies.
Water
sports, deep-sea
and
and shore
fishing,
hunting on
all
the
cruising, year-round golfing, picture taking
and shopping, all in an atmosphere of tropical allure and native friendliness, round out the tourist's Hawaiian holiday. Mark Twain, the humorist, visited Hawaii in 1866 during the reign of Kamehameha V. He was among the first to bring to the attention of the world the poetry of the Hawaiian setting. His greatest tribute to the islands is contained in his prose poem, which appeared several years after
poles outside Japanese homes.
The Narcissus
many
of
major attraction
islands, sailing
used as a penal colony. ture of the
Water sports
his return to the mainland.
Wrote Twain:
"No alien me but that
land in
ingly haunt
me
all
the world has any deep, strong
things change but
it
are always blowing, its
its
surf-beat
summer is
in
my
abides; other
balmy
airs
the
its
ear; I can see its garlanded
plumy palms drowsing by the remote summits floating like islands above the cloudcan feel the spirit of its woodland solitude; I can hear
crags, its leaping cascades, its
Throughout the islands all celebrations are climaxed by the Hawaiian luau, a combination feast and entertainment. The luati has for its piece de resistance a whole pig baked in a pit by preheated rocks. The menu includes raw and cooked fish, poi,
shore; rack; I
it
me
seas flashing in the sun;
remains the same. For
land visitors.
the
for
sleeping and waking, through half a lifetime, as
that one has done. Other things leave me, but
pulsing of
charm
one; no other land could so longingly and beseech-
its
plash
of
its
brooks;
in
my
nostrils
flowers that perished twenty years ago."
lives
the breath of
II
WVlll.
I'he Island Stale
The Military M.iw.iiis
position
in
the
has always offered unique
Pacific
United States defense planners. in Honolulu harbour in
straleuic
advantages
The
United States marines landed
first
the
to
came during the
1814, and the navy's bluejackets
and from Alaska to the south Halawa heights, Honolulu.
ment
bered nearly 50,000 and the defense establishment spent more
stale
in the islands in military
than $400,000,000
and
civilian
work-
family allowances, retired pay and local purchases. command is the largest military
ers' pay,
Geographically, the Pacific
command
in the world. It
is
comprised of more than 85.000.000
square miles of land and water,
Throughout this vast area, all United States and ashore, on United States and foreign
earth's surface.
armed
forces, afloat
under
are
soil,
the
almost one-half of
or
the
(CIXCPAC), who The mission
in
commander in chief Pacific command 1959 was Adm. Harry D. Felt.
of the Pacific
command
is
to "maintain the se-
and defend the United States against attack through the Pacific ocean; to support and advance the national policies and interest of the United States and discharge
co-ordinate activities of the forces of the Pacific
The
Pacific
sistance
command
program
visory groups
in
in
also administers the
the
Pacific
area.
in hand with the developmethods of transportation. From the time of the double
and steam, Hawaii's past has been closely linked Much of the future of this maritime
fast clippers
with the ships of the sea.
still lies in the sea lanes that converge there from every major port of the Pacific. But Hawaii is a world airport as well. Eleven domestic and foreign airlines operating out of Honolulu International airport connect the islands with each other and
North American continent. Japan, the Philippines, New Zealand and the South Pacific. Commercial flights out of Honolulu on the eight-hour run to
with
the
Australia,
the mainland west coast depart 72 times weekly. Aircraft op-
and military, in 1958 totaled 280.000 take-offs and landings, or one every three minutes around the clock. In that year Honolulu's airfield was the eighth busiest in the nation. erations, civilian
Passengers flying between islands during 1958 totaled 648.000, while overseas passengers airlines serve
80
numbered 412,000. Two
interisland
Hawaii, both with accident-free records, operating
flights daily.
Hawaiian Airlines has been
flying the interisland
routes for 30 years without a passenger or crew fatality.
The
longest flight between the major inhabited islands takes an hour;
command,"
mutual defense
of
outrigger canoes of the ancient Polynesians, to the eras of the
curity of the Pacific
United States military responsibilities in the Pacific, far east and southeast .\sia; to prepare plans, conduct operations and
H. M. Smith on
Hawaii's progress has gone hand
have played an important role in the growing-up process of the 50th state. As a result, Hawaii has become the largest permanent United States military base in the Pacific. In 1959 armed forces personnel on duty in Hawaii numAll military services
Camp
at
is
Transportation
War.
Civil
pole,
as-
Military assistance ad-
Japan, Korea, Formosa (Taiwan V the Republic
the Philippines, South Vietnam, Cambodia and Thailand carry out the program. Through multilateral agreements, such
of
the shortest. 20 minutes.
Despite the great growth in air travel, given fresh impetus
in
1959 by the start of commercial jet flights to the islands, luxury liner ocean travel has increased substantially. From a postwar low of 14.000 ship passengers arriving
Honolulu
in
in 1947, the
Sixteen major steam-
command
number
Zealand,
Pakistan,
ship lines call regularly at Honolulu, their passenger liners and
Thailand, the Philippines, France and the United
Kingdom.
as
SEATO
is
also
Some
(Southeast Asia Treaty organization*, the
associated
of these
with
Australia,
New
rose to
freighters
more than 50.000
making about 1,300
in 195S.
to 1,400 calls annually.
countries are also involved in other military
agreements with the United States such as the bilateral agreements with the Republic of China, the Philippines, South Korea
and Japan. Headquarters for the
The Economy The base
of the
economy
of
Hawaii
A
widening steadily.
is
quarter of a century ago the islands were largely dependent on
from the
sugar and pineapple exports. In the intervening period, serv'ice
west coast of the United States mainland to the Indian ocean
industries have increased dramatically. Today, services for tour-
Pacific
command,
stretching
ists,
U.S.
NAVY RADAR PICKET PLANE,
which patrols the
Pacific
attached to the Early Warnino ocean from Midway Island to Alaska. Oahu
headouarters for the U.S. Pacific
command
wing is
the
for shipping
and
armed forces and for local combined dollar volume of sugar and pineapple. Additionally, there has been development in minor exports, in industrial plants and in diversified agri-
airlines, for the
residents exceed in value the
culture.
Plantation industries led the
way, but mechanization and
automation have now spread to
island
all
activities,
pro-
viding the high man-hour pro-
ductivitywhich supports rising family incomes and high standards of living. In short, the
economy
of Hawaii
broadening, but
is
is
not only
becoming
more stable. The size of the economy of the new state and its rate of growth best
in
the past decade
illustrated
companying
The in
in
the
is
ac-
table.
gross territorial product
195S amounted to $1,400,-
000,000, while total business
HAWAII, The Island Economic Growth of Ho
1950 Total populolion (Ircluding
ormed
499,000 187,770 $689,000,000 $430,500,000 $219,900,000 $229,000,000 $338,000,000 $449,000,000 $ 64,900,000 $124,000,000 $ 97,400,000 $ 24,200,000 $147,000,000 i 67,700,000 99.310 522,325,000 140,600
fore.s)
Labour force Personal income Retailing.
..;;:::.:::;
Wholejoling
Commodity exports Commodity imports Deposits of flnoncial institutions
Manufacturing
Sugar Pineapple trode
Tourist
...
''''.'.'....'.
Armed
forces expenditures Construction
Telephones Electricity Ikw.hr.l,
Oohu
only
Motor vehicle registration tReduced by the •Estimote Source; Bonk of Hawaii
958 sugar
1
strike
{Not oyailable
transactions totaled $1,544,000,000. In that
same year Hawaii
had a favourable trade balance of $35,000,000, achieved with an income from the mainland of $857,000,000 against expenditures of $822,000,000.
According to the Bank of Hawaii's 1959 mid-year report. Hawaii's 1958 mainland dollars were earned in the following
manner: income from exports of sugar, pineapple, coffee. Hawaiian sportswear, wallboard, canned fish, scrap metal and flowers and foliage. $251,000,000. The federal government made expenditures in Hawaii amounting to $421,000,000 for the armed forces, civilian agency purchases of goods and services, and federal grants, transfer pa\'ments and tax refunds. Mainland firms and individuals purchased goods and services from Hawaii for a total of $136,000,000. This included sales to tourists and transients
(including steamer crews'), to shipping and airlines,
to national advertisers
and to other mainland businesses. Ha-
waii earned $33,000,000 in the form of dividends, interest and profits
workers
from
overseas
in the
investments,
while
from
remittances
forward areas and other personal
gifts
came
to
$16,000,000.
Expenditures were for these purposes: from the mainland Hawaii purchased food, raw materials, construction materials, clothing, household appliances, automobiles and trucks, machinePi' and equipment, drugs, tobacco and many other items amounting
to
$426,000,000.
From
foreign
purchases
countries,
of
newsprint, lumber, feed and other products totaled $34,000,000. Payments to the federal government on account of fertilizer,
income and corporate to $191,000,000.
taxes, postal
and other serxnces amounted
Services obtained from mainland or foreign
concerns for ocean and air freight, travel and transportation of Hawaii residents (including students) overseas and for other services, such as net cost of insurance, entertainment, advertis-
and miscellaneous business expense, totaled $118,000,000. money taken out by outmigrants were $13,000,000, while $40,000,000 was paid out to ing
Personal remittances sent abroad and
overseas investors in interest, dividends and profits.
Mineral Discovery Because of the volcanic composition of
its soil,
minerals were
believed, until lately, to be nonexistent in Hawaii.
uncovering
The
recent
raw making the United
in the islands of large deposits of bauxite, the
material for aluminum, offered
some hope
of
States independent of foreign sources for this strategic mineral.
The Big Island
of
Hawaii alone was believed
to contain
more
than 300 square miles of ore, enough to supply the United States for 100 years.
This was the
gist of a report
by Paul L. Magill, chemist and
senior scientist of Stanford Research Associates.
His report
gave Hawaii reserve of bauxite as 60,000.000 tons, or ten times
known mainland reserve. Titanium has also been found
the
in large quantities
on three of the
State
l\\\
NEW HOMES ON MAUI
ISLAND,
pari of a postwar bulldino
construction an annual $175,000,000 industry by
boom wh
1958
In the construction field there are from 50° to 1,000 openings
This development, planned for the southeast corner of Oahu,
Approximately 300 new jobs open each
available each year.
envisioned hotels, apartments and homes for 50,000 persons on
year in existing manufacturing firms, with about 200 new manu-
more than 6,000 acres leased from the Bishop estate. The community was to be known as Hawaii-Kai. Homes to be built in the new city would range through the medium, upper-medium and luxury brackets. There were plans for a marina and water sports and facilities for a completely rounded out island com-
facturing positions created annually.-
In
new
Many more
millions of dollars in construction projects were
either already at
diate future
—
work or were firmly projected
for the
imme-
plus additional millions in planning in anticipa-
about 4,000 to
utilities,
jobs were expected to open up in the early 1960s.
retail trade,
employment was expected
to rise
by about 4,000
within two years. Details on jobs were lacking, since require-
ments varied considerably from
munity.
late
field to field,
but there was in
1959, for example, a severe shortage of accountants and
engineers. It
is
interesting to note, however, that there are far
more beginning or
entry-level job opportunities for females than
Although the shortage of librarians has not been large in terms of numbers, the vacancies each year have been extremely hard to fill. On the other hand, there appears to be no for males.
tion of expected needs.
A
In transportation, communication and 5,000
few examples of construction recently completed,
in progress
or projected were:
shortage of veterinarians, practical nurses or physicians. Construction in military housing, more than 6,000 units under the Capehart act, in being and projected through to 1962, amounted to more than
Completed in 195S was the $30,000,000, s3-acre Dillingham Ala Moana shopping centre. On two major Bishop estate subdivisions on Oahu, 300 homes were expected to be completed during 1959. .^ $57,000,000 Standard Oil refinery was in progress in Ewa. Oahu, as well as a S50.000.000 long-range development to expand Foster village in Halawa-Kai. and the second phase of the i.ooo-acre development of homes by Loyalty Enterprises in the Moanalua-Salt Lake
sector.
The Bishop estate was planning lor 6,000 homes around Waialae and Koko Head and for another 6,000 homes in Heeia. Kaneohe Ranch Co. and the Campbell estate had similar plans and work in progress.
Job Opportunities
What
acute need existed in 1959 for schoolteachers, since 500
teachers for
newcomers to find work in Hawaii? According to George Mason, director of the state's Economic Planning and Coordination authority, the greatest need for workers up to the end of 1961 would be in the clerical and sales fields, and for semiskilled, skilled and professional employees.
year.
Hawaii needed qualified
136,000 public-school students in 208 schools,
which were increasing
in
enrollment at the rate of 5.500 a year.
All residence requirements
had been waived for
demand
for
farm labour of all kinds. While about 48 ' is that
of self-preservation. ... I think this decrease in our numbers may be stayed ... I would commend to your special considera-
in protest to the attrition of the prerogatives of the
demanded
in successive con-
issued a proclamation for a
which opened on July
all
7.
1864.
new conThe king,
had been feared. Although Kamehameha V's con-
strictive than
stitution
was
to remain in force for 23 years the ineluctable "tide
of events," as foreseen by Wyllie in 1849. was beginning to swell.
In 1865 William Hillebrand. head physician at Queen's hos-
The legislature took no such action, however, until 1S59, when it gave $5,000 toward a native hospital provided the community would match the grant. King Kamehameha IV and queen
Kamehameha V
—
crown by yet
accompanied by Foreign Minister Wyllie, stumped the islands in explanation and in defense of the changes he sought in the new constitution. When the convention bogged down in a lengthy discussion of a proposed property qualification for the electorate, the impatient king prorogued it. abrogating at the same time the constitution of 1S52. On .Aug. 20 the king promulgated upon his own authority a new constitution, which was. however, less re-
tion the subject of establishing public hospitals."
his
They were tumul-
V's initial act as king
several such royal revolts
within one generation the population of the nine missionary families had increased 175%. The report of the minister of pubof the islands as 73!i34. and seven years later the official enu-
Kame-
V.
uphold the liberalized constitu-
000 given as a more probable figure. The first census of the kingdom, taken in 1832, sjiowed a population of 130.313. Four
lic
Kamehameha
Thirty more years of uneasy rule over Hawaii remained to
Kamehameha V and
tuous and predestined years.
feared.
400.000. Later estimates
succeeded to the throne as
END OF AN ERA: THE LAST MONARCH OF HAWAII
kingdom
the great gifts of civilized Christendom. But the haole had also
now
line,
faith
Emma,
after a door-to-door solicitation, raised an adand by 1S60 Queen's hospital was completed. The cultivation of wheat and coffee was started at this time,
pital,
was appointed by the immigration bureau
to
proceed to
China for the recruitment of coolie labour. More than 500 Chinese labourers arrived under contract from the government,
among them
ditional $14,000
22 Chinese
women.
In 1867 a treaty of reciprocity failed in the United States senate
when opposed by
the southern sugar states' senators.
Dur-
as an experiment, but neither crop flourished. Rice culture, with
ing the discussions between the two countries, the secretary of
seed imported from South Carolina in 1858, was a decided success. By 1862 nearly i. 000.000 pounds of rice and paddy were available for export but the whaling fleet was still the main
state.
source of the islands' income. During 1859 alone, 197 whaling ships visited Hawaii.
to the United States with the consent of the people of the Sand-
In Dec. 1859, the British consul at Honolulu was informed of the desires of
Kamehameha IV and Queen Emma
for the
William Seward, wrote to the United States minister at is proper that you should know, for your own in-
Honolulu: "It
formation, that a lawful and peaceful annexation of the islands
wich Islands, if
is
deemed
desirable
by
this
government, and
that,
the policy of annexation should really conflict with the policy
of reciprocity, annexation
is
in
every case to be preferred."
HA WAII,
The Island
In 187 1 only 47 whalers called at Hawaiian ports, and the number decreased rapidly thereafter. By 1872 rising sugar production
amounted
to 11,000 tons.
The census
of the
same year gave a
State
25
the rioters and arrested the ringleaders. British marines from the
"Tenedos" formed a guard around the palace and barracks
until
quiet prevailed.
Kalakaua, who had inveighed against Americans and their
population total of 56,897, a decline of 12,900 in a dozen years. Kamehameha V died suddenly on Dec. 11, 1872, thus ending
growing influence in the commercial and governmental
the dynastic line, since he left no heir, nor
Hawaii, now, ironically, owed his crown and probably the safety
empowered
successor as he had been
had he designated a
affairs of
Under the protection of American armed Queen Emma publicly acknowledged Kalakaua as her sovereign and commended her of his person to them.
to do.
forces he was enthroned on Feb. 13, 1874.
The Elected King month
In less than a
new
met
a newly-elected legislature
to
name
a
supporters to do the same.
To
forestall future complications over
king. Prince William C. Lunalilo, a popular chief of liberal
the succession, Kalakaua at once proclaimed as heir apparent his
views, regarded as the ranking high chief of the kingdom, pub-
younger brother Prince William Pitt Leleiohoku. Three years later the young prince died and Kalakaua's sister Princess Lydia
which declared
lished a proclamation
his willingness
to
serve
and appealed directly to the electorate to vote for legislators who would support his candidacy. It was an innovation in island politics, and it found quick favour among the people. Lunalilo's opponent was David Kalakaua, also a high chief. In the legislative election held on New Year's day 1873, a majority of seats went to Lunalilo adherents,
who
common
pliance with the
Lunalilo's tenure
was
elected
him king the next day
in
com-
Kamakaeha
Liliuokalani, 38,
Brother and
sister
Reciprocity
The most
was proclaimed heir
were fated to be the
to the throne.
last rulers of
Hawaii.
and Rebellion significant event of Kalakaua's
1
7-year reign was the
conclusion of a reciprocity treaty with the United States. Soon after his accession, a triumphal tour of the United States, as the
will.
brief, lasting
only 13 months. In that pe-
riod another attempt to enter into a commercial
guest of the republic, took the king to Washington where he was
compact with
received with honours and where he addressed a joint meeting of
was due to the disclosure that, as an inducement, the North American republic had been offered
the United States house and senate. Upon Kalakaua's return to Hawaii negotiations for a reciprocal trade treaty were immedi-
the exclusive use of the harbour at Pearl river as a coaling
ately renewed.
the United States failed. This
repair base for its men-of-war. this
The
and
agitation and suspicion that
proposal caused intensified and spilled over into another in-
cident which
marred the Lunalilo
reign.
On
Sept.
1873, restive
7,
household troops quartered at the royal barracks mutinied and assaulted their Austrian drillmaster, a Captain Jajczay.
They
The
opposed by foreign diplomats as assuring the in the islands, went into effect
treaty,
United States a dominating role
brought to Hawaii an unprecedented period of pros-
in 1876. It
perity and created a pressing need for labour in
hauled two cannons from the palace yard to the barracks and
exports- to the United States increased steadily
loaded them with grapeshot. Lunalilo, from his sick bed in Wai-
in
kiki, sent a
message to the mutineers asking them
Thirteen complied, leaving 24 rebels
to surrender.
who gave up
new and
in ex-
panding industries. The production of sugar boomed. Duty-free 1876 to 130,000 tons
eighth
in 1890.
among cane-growing
from 13,000 tons
In the latter year Hawaii placed
countries of the world.
sponse to a second message from the king offering them pardon.
In 1877, as a side effect of the treaty, arrangements were made for the immigration of Portuguese workers from Madeira and the
The
Azores.
no
later in re-
;
the only casualties were government au-
Lunalilo died on Feb.
3, 1874, at the age of 41. Like his prede-
A
company
summoned to fill a vacant throne. Kalakaua, chamberlain in the Kamehameha V regime, announced his candidacy, as did Dowager Queen Emma, widow of Kamehameha IV. United States interests were said to favour
of 180 arrived at Honolulu in Sept. by agreement with the imperial government, 956 Japanese emigrants arrived, the vanguard of tens of thousands of compatriots who followed until they were checked by the convention of 1908. Unquestionably the treaty marked a turning point in the history of the little kingdom, giving it an economic impetus and conferring benefits of lasting importance. Unhappily, few of
Kalakaua, believing his election would insure the success of
Kalakaua's royal deeds turned out as illustriously. Scandals
pending reciprocity treaty negotiations;
volving the person of the king and charges of royal extravagance
affair cost
thority
and
lives
prestige.
cessor he had nominated no one to follow
him and
for the second
time the Hawaiian legislature was
treaty was held
if
pioneer
1878. Six years later,
the pro-British
little
Emma
prospect for the
were to ascend the
soon clouded
his regime.
Power
in-
struggles erupted. Racial an-
throne.
tagonisms were revived under the banner of "Hawaii for the
The contest for the royal position was lively and often bitter. Kalakaua promised much, including repeal of the poll tax, amendment of the 1864 constitution, and restoration of native Hawaiians to government ofiice posts. He cautioned native voters to "beware of the constitution of 1852 and the false teachings of
Hawaiians!" which culminated
foreigners
who
are
now
supported the dowager queen.
met
mid-February and by a vote of 39 to 6 elected Kalakaua as the new king. Almost immediately, however, infuriated mobs, formed by Hawaiian supporters of Queen Emma, stormed the courthouse, breaking through a rear door and a cordon of guards. Legislators were roughhoused and several lawmakers were flung unceremoniously out of windows. The interior of the parliamentary hall was wrecked. The government appealed to the representatives of the United States and Great Britain for aid in restoring civil order. Commodore George Belknap of the United States navy landed detachments of bluejackets from two vessels; they quickly dispersed legislature
in
him
in
revolutionary
amendments upon
actions
and
the king. These divested
of nearly all his direct personal powers as sovereign,
and
placed them in the hands of a reform ministry subject only to the legislature.
Two
seeking to obtain direction of the gov-
ernment." Native Hawaiians on Oahu, however, almost solidly
The
forced constitutional
who had wormed their way into the much to bring his regime into disthem was Walter Murray Gibson, a Mormon who
foreign adventurers,
confidence of Kalakaua, did repute.
One
of
had been expelled from the church after expropriating its Hawaiian assets. He remained in the kingdom to become the head of the Kalakaua cabinet. The other was Celso Caesar Moreno, an Italian, a professional lobbyist of
dubious reputation,
who won
the king's approval of a scheme to subsidize a Hawaii-China
steamship
line.
In the 1880 legislature Kalakaua supported a series of
bills
proposed by Moreno. These were for a $10,000,000 loan, the unrestricted sale of liquor to Hawaiians, the licensing of the sale
opium in the kingdom, and the China mail line subsidy. With Gibson voting for them in the legislature, all these measures ex-
of
hA^ ''i^^^^^^^H
ORIENTAL CONSTRUCTION WORKER
of
Honolulu
SCHOOLBOY ARTIST one of
his
of
mixed blood standing
in
front of
paintings
I
ELDERLY CHINESE MAN smoking
PURE HAWAIIAN YOUTH, and wavy black hair
a
bamboo water
typically Polynesian with light
brown
skir
;
HAWAII. The
28 bill
were defeated. Despite the passage of the
latter, after a lavish
expenditure of funds, no subsidy was ever
cept the subsidy
paid.
Kalakaua then adjourned the legislature, dismissed for the and appointed Moreno as premier and
third time his cabinet
minister for foreign affairs.
A
storm of protests broke over the
Mass meetings were held in remonstrance. Dowager Queen Emma, Princess Ruth Koelikolani and I'rincess Bernice I'auahi Bishop publicly condemned the king's action. The repreking's head.
sentatives of the (.'niled States, England and France hauled
down
and declared they would not deal with the government of Hawaii so long as Moreno remained in it. Four days later Kalakaua, giving way to public sensibility, withdrew the appointment. In 1881 the king started out on a trip around the world, the first monarch in history to make such a journey. His itinerary inthe flags over their legations
cluded the United States, Japan, China, Siam, India, Egypt,
Germany, Austria, France, Spain, Portugal and Great Everywhere he was met with courtesy and respect. After a triumphal homecoming Kalakaua, egged on by Gibson and Moreno, resolved after eight years of rule upon a formal coronation. Kalakaua and his queen Kapiolani were crowned in a costly ceremony before lolani palace, newly completed at a cost of $350,000. The palace, whose cornerstone was laid in Dec. 1879, thereafter remained the seat of the government as Hawaii became successively a republic, a territory and the 50th state of the American union. Italy,
Britain.
Island Stale
who were coming to combat this with the slogan "Hawaii for the Hawaiians." Under the constitutions of 1840, 1852 and 1864, the king had an absolute veto power as to laws passed by the legislature. No legislative act, under these constitutions, could become law unless approved by the king. Under the constitution of 1887, which Kalakaua was forced to sign and proclaim, the king's veto could be overridden by a twothirds' vote of the legislature. Under the early constitutions the the Caucasians of local birth and citizenship the front politically, and they sought to
members
of the upper branch of the legislature Cthe house of
nobles) were appointed by the king, but under the constitution of 1887 they were elected by the voters, and the right to vote
was no longer limited to Hawaiian subjects but was extended to male residents of American and European birth. These constitutional modifications irked King Kalakaua, as they were later to irritate his sister-successor Queen Liliuokalani. Both yearned for the power their predecessors had exercised both were displeased with the developing influence of the Caucasian population in public affairs; and both resented the independence now being displayed by the legislators. The resulting condition of unrest and instability restrained trade, discouraged investment and created a feeling of insecurity.
Kalakaua, who was a diabetic, departed in Nov. 1890 on a voyage to California in quest of his health, aboard the United States cruiser "Charleston." The king was royally received in southern California and in San Francisco, where his condition took a sudden turn and he died on Jan.
20, 1891. Liliuokalani, his
regent and sister, was proclaimed queen on Jan. 29.
The "Bayonet Constitution"
THE REPUBLIC OF HAWAII
In 1886, under the legislative whip of the notorious Gibson, the
opium
bill
was
to sell to a Chinese syndicate for in the drug.
government the right $30,000 a monopoly to traffic
More than any
other this deplorable act brought on
the crisis of 1887 and the "bayonet constitution" of that year.
A
IS
PROCLAIMED
finally passed, giving the
its vicissitudes and the many vices imputed to King Kalakaua was a notable one. Giant strides
Despite reign of
terial progress,
under the
momentum
it,
in
the
ma-
of the reciprocity treaty
was organized, called the Hawaiian league, whose membership became divided over its aims. One faction advocated the dissolution of the monarchy and annexation to the United
with the United States, were
States: the other favoured continuation of the royal
1876. Government revenues tripled in the same period while Hawaiian exports to the .American mainland soared to six times their pretreaty values. Private investors, encouraged by the signs of the times, launched many new and worthwhile ventures. Public improvements multiplied. .Appropriations for schools and public health more than doubled. lolani palace, which houses today the executive and legislative chambers of the newest state, was
secret society
government
with stricter curbs on the powers of the king and broadened authority for the elected legislature. On June 30. aroused and exasperated citizens thronged to a meeting held under the chairman-
ship of the Hawaiian-born lawyer, Sanford Ballard Dole. During the meeting they denounced the regime and passed resolutions, offered
by Lorrin A. Thurston,
upon Kalakaua to effect Both Dole and Thurston were committee was named to wait upon calling
radical reforms in his government. to be
heard from later on.
A
the king.
a
Production of sugar and
built.
In 1887 the treaty of reciprocity with the United States was extended for seven years, giving the United States exclusive rights at Pearl Harbor. This
tion of the posture of the
porting to show that the
monarch had benefited
to the extent of
French and Portuguese governments, and offered to assign to jointly his sovereign powers. The tender was rejected. The king, sensing the frayed tempers and impatience of his people and fearful of open revolt, then agreed to a new constitution. It was signed on July 7, 1SS7. and Kalakaua became king in name
them
was another step in the consolidaAmerican republic in the Pacific and it drew a protest from the British government as a violation of the neutrality of Hawaii.
Indicators in every category of business in Hawaii were
pointing upward and the outlook was bright when, with
in.
In the United States a radically rexased in the
tariff bill was offered house of representatives. The measure was enacted and
became the McKinley
tariff
law,
and
it
brought immediate and
disastrous consequences to Hawaii.
Worsening conditions in the kingdom now assumed a foreboding aspect. While the early monarchs had gladly availed them-
to sugar imports. This provision not only gave a
and assistance of competent were not so readily disposed. They viewed with some alarm the growing influence of the conservative forhaoles, the later rulers
eign element. They noticed, too, that some of the more intelligent and independent Hawaiians were inclined to cast their lots with
still
little
warning, the economic roof of the insular community suddenly
caved
only.
selves of the advice, experience
more
than a decade after the signing of the commercial convention of
This committee demanded of the king the recall of Gibson and
$74,000 from the grant of the opium franchise, was submitted to him. The harried king, deserted by his royal guard, conferred with the diplomatic representatives of the United States, British,
his administration.
rice increased eightfold in little
new
constitution, to replace the one of 1864. Evidence, pur-
made during
One
section of the
bill
related
bonus of 2 cents per pound to all domestic sugar growers, a political acknowledgement to the struggling beet farmers of the west and the cane planters of the south, but it eliminated entirely the duty on all foreign imports of raw sugar into the country. With a single stroke of the presidential pen Hawaii had lost sition in the
American sugar market. The
its
preferred po-
effect in the islands
HAWAII, The
Island State
was calamitous. Sugar production was curtailed and plantation labour rolls were reduced. Small cane plantations were
abandoned and larger ones barely produced an operating profit. Island
property values
sagged by an estimated $12,000,000. Depression set in with its
attendant evils of declining
wages and rising unemployment, creating all the classic ingredients for civil strife.
This was the disordered economic situation inherited
by Liliuokalani, the strongwilled queen who had vowed a return to the personal govern-
ment of the ancient rulers of her land. Hotheads revived
among
threats of revolution;
thoughtful citizens annexation to
United
the
came
States
again to be regarded as the
only practicable solution. Se-
an annexation club, with
cretly
ties to the
goal,
United States as
its
was organized.
The Queen
Is
Deposed
The queen took Jan.
29,
office
on
1891, unheeding
or
not recognizing the darkening
storm clouds.
A supreme
lOLANI PALACE,
Kalakaua cabinet had expired upon
name
the king's death gave Liliuokalani the opportunity to ministry.
From
concessions for
The
a
new
membership she obtained preappointment new appointive powers, a maneuver which added its
legislature of 1892
was deadlocked
for eight
months
in a
The queen during this period forced the resignation of recalcitrant individual members of her cabinet and named four completely new ministries. The last of these, composed of members of the queen's party, took office two days becontest for control.
fore the
adjournment of the
nounced her intention meaningful straints
legislature. Liliuokalani then an-
new constitution, the most which would have removed various re-
to proclaim a
articles of
upon the sovereign, eliminated the guaranty of the
in-
dependence of the supreme court and permitted only native subjects to vote.
The
cabinet balked and refused to sign the docu-
ment, and when news of the queen's proposals became generally
known mass
protests began.
A Committee
of Safety
ized to study the formation of a provisional
On
was organ-
government.
Jan. 16, 1893 the United States navy cruiser "Boston" ar-
rived from Hilo and landed troops, ostensibly for the protection of
American
lives
and property. The queen, alarmed by mountcrowd of citizens from lolani
ing public reaction, addressed a palace,
announcing the postponement of promulgation of the new
constitution.
On
But
it
was too
late.
from lolani palace.
streets of the capital.
A
A
members
of the
Committee
government building across the
hastily organized guard patrolled the
proclamation was issued from the com-
mittee's headquarters dissolving the
a provisional
By
nightfall the
the troubled and colourful
queen capitulated. And so ended
kingdom
of Hawaii, after a half-
century's struggle for survival.
now assumed charge of the Hawaiian nation, was declared to be established "to exist until terms of union with the United States have been negotiated and agreed upon." It was hoped and expected that annexation would be speedily accomplished. To this end, on The
provisional government, which
government
to
Jan. 19, five commissioners departed for Washington amid great
The men were L. A. Thurston, W. R. Castle, Joseph Marsden, W. C. Wilder and C. L. Carter. In San Francisco they gave out the astonishing news of the subversion of the Hawaiian monarchy and then proceeded to Washington, where they were secrecy.
cordially received
by
Pres.
Benjamin Harrison. They
laid before
the president and his cabinet their desire for a treaty with the
United States government "by the terms of which plete political union
may
full
and com-
be secured between the United States
and the Hawaiian Islands." Harrison approved of the principle of annexation and designated his secretary of state, John W. Foster, to act for the United States. Conferring with Foster, the five Hawaiian commissioners asked for admission to the union as a state. Foster replied that this
government would involve many details which would take much time to work out; that bringing Hawaii into the union was the main object in view that he was not averse to statehood but that a treaty providing for it would occasion debate and delay; that by 3eeking annexation Hawaii had demonprecise form of
;
the morning of Jan. 17, 1893,
of Safety took possession of the street
Justice Dole.
affairs of the
her popularity.
little to
HONOLULU
court
ruling that the tenures of the
monarchy and
establishing
be presided over by Supreme Court
strated
its
confidence in the United States and that,
such confidence would not be misplaced.
He
if
annexed,
then proposed that
the treaty should provide for the annexation of Hawaii as a territory.
This proposal was accepted by the commissioners
who
HAWAII, The
JO
Island Slate It was comprised of government and 18 delegates
Republic of Hawaii.
thereupon made formal written request for "full and complete political union" as a territory of the United States. Foster then
a constitution for the
suggested omission of the provision concerning territorial government, substituting for it the provision that Hawaii be "incor-
chosen at large by qualified voters. Of the latter 18 delegates, 13 were Hawaiian born and s were native Hawaiians. On July 3,
porated into the L'nited Slates as an integral part thereof."
The
Hawaiian commissioners were reluctant to accede to the change but finally did so after looking up the definition of the word "integral." Several days later the treaty was drafted, signed by the secretary of state and the five commissioners and transmitted
by the president to the senate for ratification. The background of the treaty was pointedly and concisely summed up in its preamble. This recited the natural dependence upon the United
of the islands
imity, the intimate part taken
of the provisional
the convention ended
labours and on the following day, July
its
4,
1894, the Republic of Hawaii was proclaimed with Sanford Dole as
its first
The
president.
was promptly recognized by
fledgling republic
whom Hawaii had
powers with
all
foreign
diplomatic relations. All had de-
sired the independence of the islands. Germany, France, England and Japan were especially anxious that Hawaii should not become a part of the United States,
States, their geographical prox-
by
citizens of the
United States
The Coup That Failed The calm
implanting there the seeds of Christian civilization and the
in
members
18
that followed the birth of the republic
was a
brief
long continuance of the exclusive reciprocal commercial relations
and deceptive one. Liliuokalani, waging
whereby the mutual interests of both nations were developed. However, President Harrison's term of office was nearing its end and the congressional session was about to adjourn. It expired without any action on the treaty having been taken by the senate. Pres, Grover Cleveland, who was inaugurated on March 4, 1803. did not share the enthusiasm for Hawaiian annexation
her throne, sent commissioners to Washington to plead for sup-
which had characterized the office.
On March
9,
five
last
actions of his predecessor in
days after taking his
office,
President
meantime
Hawaiian Islands Hawaii and the United States flag, on
a provisional protectorate of the
had been proclaimed in Feb. I, had been raised over the government building in Honolulu. On March 31, following the withdrawal of the treaty from
senate consideration, the American flag in Hawaii was hauled
down.
to to
On Aug. 15, 1894, President Cleveland, by letreminded the queen's emissaries that he had once attempted effect her restoration and had failed, thus committing the en-
ter,
to
tire
subject to the congress.
"The Congress," wrote
of the queen."
When word
of the failure of the queen's mission reached
lulu royalists they
Arms and ammunition were
scattered and fled into the valleys and the uprising collapsed.
hunt began for the leaders and soon
Evidence linking Liliuokalani
to warrant her detention
ficient
all
were
in
to the intrigue
on Jan.
16.
queen formally renounced
1895. Eight days
after her arrest the
States minister, and his forceful display of United States troops.
throne and pleaded for clemency for the plotters.
new minister to who made a formal
demand on
the provisional government that
posed queen to her throne.
ment Dole firmly rejected ing, the
The
On this
restore the de-
it
among them
spent nine months in eral
victory of the antiannexationists in the early 1890s was
little part to diplomatic pressures from Great France and Germany. The old-world colonial powers were determined that the Hawaiian Islands should not come into
Britain,
the possession of the United States.
The United
States, on the
other hand, was equally determined that Hawaii should not
fall
into the hands of any power which in some future turn of world events might use the islands in a manner contrary to the security
of America's west coast.
Thus, toward the close of the iqth century the people of the islands found themselves in the middle of a situation in the Pa-
which could scarcely be called good. .As an independent nation they were too weak to survive for long. Their wealth and strategic location made them a highly desirable prize for inclucific
any one of several colonial empires. They wanted to cast their national lot with the United States, their largest customer and the homeland of a substantial part of the Hawaiian population, but the United States seemed reluctant to receive them. A majority of the people of Hawaii were determined, however, despite the shattered hope of annexation, that they had had enough of monarchy, and they proceeded with the steps necessary to establish a republican form of government. A constitutional convention was called and met on May 30, 1894, to frame
claims to the
More than 190
David Kawananakoa and Jonah Kuhio
months
Upon
President Dole's
meted out were light. The deposed queen custody in a room in her former palace. Sev-
demand, ending,
after her release the remainder of her partisans were
also set free.
News
attributable in no
sion in
the princes
Kalanianaole, nephews of Liliuokalani. insistence the penalties
for the time be-
all
persons were eventually held to face treason and other charges,
behalf of his provisional govern-
promise of annexation.
custody.
was deemed suf-
been accomplished mainly through the intervention of the United
Ky.,
Diamond
Head, in Waikiki. News of the conspiracy had become known to government forces, how-ever, and they precipitated the coup by a raid on a house occupied by a rebel group. The insurrection-
A
S. Willis of Louisville,
secretly im-
ported from San Francisco and landed at a point near
ists
President Cleveland promptly dispatched as
Hono-
began to execute their delayed plot for the
assault on the republic.
James Blount of Macon, Ga., to investigate and to report the president on Hawaiian affairs. The report, when submitted the secretary of state, concluded that Liliuokalani's upset had
Hawaii, Albert
the president,
"both by its action and its omission to act, signified that nothing need be done touching American interference with the overthrow
Cleveland then sent to Hawaii as his special representative Col.
stubborn fight to regain
port in her behalf.
Cleveland withdrew the annexation treaty from the senate. In the
a
of the aborted coup d'etat reverberated in the United
States congress and provoked heated debates in the house and senate.
The
president was assailed by critics for lending moral
support to the royalists, and for the withdrawal of naval forces
from Hawaii. The cruiser "Philadelphia" was ordered to Honoand her commander was instructed to extend no aid or support to any of the parties to the disturbance. There was. President Cleveland emphasized, no cause for alarm and no change lulu
in
United States policy.
One young
shift in
2-cents a
that policy, however, conferred a
The Wilson-Gorman
boon on the
withdrew the pound subsidy to domestic sugar growers and rein-
republic.
act of 1894
stated the import duty on foreign sugars.
By
the terms of
its
reciprocity treaty with the United States, the Hawaiian sugar
industry regained
its
the need for labour
duty-free export status. Again, in Hawaii,
became important.
In 1896 an official census of the islands was taken. The count showed a total population of 109.020. Of these. 39.504 were Hawaiians and part-Hawaiians. Portuguese numbered 15.191; other Europeans.
4. 161.
.Americans listed were 3.086; Japanese,
24.407. Chinese. 21.616, others. 1.055.
The Japanese now com-
prised nearly one-quarter of the islands' population.
— HAWAII, The ANNEXATION ... "A CONSUMMATION" In 1896-97
it
came
to the attention of the
that fraud had been resorted to
among
Hawaiian republic
the several Japanese com-
panies chartered to handle the emigration of labourers to the
March
islands. In
1897, Hawaiian government officials prohibited
the landing of several hundreds of Japanese contract labourers,
and subsequently several other boatloads were denied entry and compelled to return to Japan, The Japanese government protested vigorously to Honolulu. In
May,
a Japanese warship ar-
rived with a cargo of government representatives, immigration
company
and members of the Japanese press. After and correspondence a compromise was
officials
lengthy negotiations
reached, stipulating the
payment of
a $75,000 indemnity to Ja-
pan.
The amicable
to this touchy affair had been unHawaiian republic by a significant turn of events which were transpiring on the American mainland. In March 1897, William McKinley had been inducted into office as United States president. The Hawaiian republic immediately drew to his attention the fact that the Hawaiian legislature, on May 27, 1896, by resolution had indicated its earnest desire for action in the matter of annexation. On June 16, 1897, a new annexation treaty was signed in Washington and was on the same day transmitted to the senate by President McKinley. The treaty was approved by the Hawaiian senate and signed by Hawaii's President Dole on Sept. 10, 1897. Action lagged, however, in the
solution
doubtedly hastened
in the
United States senate. 1897, stated that: "Hawaii has
shown her
6,
ability as a sovereign
contractant to enter upon a conventional union with the United States, thus realizing a purpose held
by the Hawaiian people and
proclaimed by successive Hawaiian governments through some 70 years of their virtual dependence
31
upon the benevolent protec-
United States. Under such circumstances, annexation
to the ultimate granting of state-
hood.
For more than 100 years Hawaii's historical background had it under constantly expanding American influence and to this was due, to a considerable extent, the passage of the longpending annexation resolution of 1898. But there were other and possibly more compelling reasons. United States military and administration leaders had long been aware of the growing strategic value of the mid-Pacific archipelago. This became forcefully evident at the turn of the century when the United States found itself engaged in combat, in both the Atlantic and the Pacific, with a great imperialistic power. The speedy annexation of Hawaii during this emergency was unquestionably a defense measure, taken by the United States in the interests of its own national security and to prevent the islands becoming subordinate to some brought
other power. First Territorial Elections
The Organic
act which incorporated
Hawaii
as a territory of
the United States, and defined the form of government under
which
it was to live for nearly six decades, was signed into law on June 14, 1900. The constitution and the laws of the United States were then extended to Hawaii, whose bona fide citizens became automatically citizens of the United States.
McKinley named Sanford Dole
President
new in
President McKinley. in a message to the senate on Dec.
tion of the
Island State committed the United States
territory.
Hawaii, but they got
elections. Elected to
fill
weak
off to a
first
in the
delegate was Robert
the part-Hawaiian insurrectionist and
Home
start in the first territorial
an incomplete term
States congress as Hawaii's
the
as governor of the
Republican and Democratic parties were organized
now
56th United
W.
Wilcox,
the standard bearer of
Rule party whose campaign slogan was "Hawaii for swamped his Republican and Democratic
the Hawaiians." Wilcox
rivals in the special election
and repeated
his victory over
them
in the regular fall election of 1900.
was fearful that the
In igo2 Wilcox was opposed for re-election by Prince Jonah Kuhio Kalanianaole. a nephew of former Queen Liliuokalani, who was popularly known as Prince Cupid. A former Home Ruler, Kuhio now ran as a Republican and was elected, launching an
annexation of Hawaii would endanger the status quo in the Pa-
uninterrupted 20-year career as Hawaii's sole and nonvoting rep-
it is a consummation." Immediately upon the signing of the treaty in Washington the government of Japan, which had recently emerged victorious
not a change;
is
from the Sino-Japanese war. protested.
The United
cific.
It
States denied that Japan's interests would be
resentative in the United States congress.
On
jeopardized and gave assurances that Japan's rights in Hawaii
would be respected. The expressed their
French and the Germans also concern for the continued independence of the British.
islands.
Then,
came
in 189S,
came
the Spanish-American war. Honolulu be-
a mid-Pacific food
and fuel stopover for United States ships on their way to the Philippines. American "boys in blue'' were welcomed in Hawaii. Hawaii's first Red Cross group was founded, to entertain
and give service
to the
American
troops. Thus, at the
turn of the century, the value of the Hawaiian Islands to the
Feb. 20, 1901. the
first territorial legislature
The
convened, but
was marked by angry disputes among inexperienced legislators and by the introduction of trivial and illegal measures. An example of the former was a bill to lower the tax on female dogs from $3 to $1 a year. So much time was taken up in the bitter disputes on this bill that it
did
little to
the session bill,
distinguish itself.
session
became known as the "Lady Dog legislature." The was passed over the governor's veto.
incidentally,
In 1903, with complete faith in Sen. John Tyler Morgan's earlier assurance that "the
road to statehood cannot be
a
long
United States became apparent even to the most rabid anti-
one," the territorial legislature,
annexationist.
the congress of the United States for admission into the union
On June by
15, 1898, the
United States house of representatives,
a vote of 209 to 91. passed a joint resolution for the
annexa-
On July 6, by a vote of 42 to 21, the resolution passed the senate and on the next day the. so-called Newlands tion of Hawaii.
resolution
was signed by President McKinley. On Aug. 12, 1898, was once more raised in Hawaii
by
joint resolution, petitioned
Nothing happened. Similar petitions were repeated in War I. In Washington, save for the acts of introduction, no official notice was ever taken of these petitions. But in Hawaii the movement for statehood as an organized process was getting under way. as a state.
191 1 and biennially thereafter until World
the flag of the United States
time to stay.
this
The Newlands
resolution annexing Hawaii, and the joint reso-
lution annexing Texas, constitute the only examples of annexa-
American territory by such measures. When the congress, Newlands resolution, accepted the cession on the terms Hawaii should be incorporated in the United States as an in-
tion of
by
the
that
tegral part thereof
gress then
and
and should be granted
territorial status, con-
there, in the opinion of later statehood advocates,
THE AMERICAN TERRITORY OF HAWAII now an integral part
Hawaii, the offshore territory, was
of the
United States. Nearly 60 eventful years were to pass before Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower could proclaim it the 50th state of the
American union. Despite the insecurity of its new status, which was to be demonstrated again and again, they w-ere good years for Hawaii, years of progress
The census
and prosperity and achievement.
of 1900 gave the territorj- a population of 154,001,
HAWAII, The
J3
over the previous decennial enumeration. Transportation between islands, via modern freight and passenger vessels,
up
yo'^f.
developed.
The new
began to
territory, with federal assistance,
construct wharves and buildings and other utilities on
all
its
Island Slate lations
between the United States and Japan began to worsen.
Many members
and foes
of congress, statehood friends
mindful of the rising numbers of Japanese
alike,
in the critical Pacific
and aware that some of them were dual at least a nominal allegiance to the
territory of Hawaii,
who presumably owed
major islands. In igoS congress approved a bill for the establishment of a giant naval base at I'carl Harbor, Oahu, where one day, upon the completion of the Panama canal, the United States Pacific battle fleet would ride at anchor. As the huge construction job began a Honolulu newspaper predicted, with grim ac-
citizens
curacy: "Pearl Harbor
going to settle the destiny of the
comprised 15.2% of this total; Caucasians, 24. 59^; Japanese, ili%- Alarmists on the mainland and in Hawaii pointed to
growth during the pe-
these statistics as proof that the loyalty of a major segment of
second civilian income producer, pine-
Hawaii's inhabitants was divided and could not be relied upon
is
world!"
The sugar
industr\' continued its steady
riod, as did the islands'
apple processing. Hawaii had
grower of the tropical civil
and military
fruit.
now become the world's largest The advent in the mid- 1930s of
air transport across the Pacific
was
a
tremen-
economy. The United States, which had been spending millions of dollars annually for ground defenses in Hawaii, budgeted additional millions for air bases on Oahu; and Hickam Field became the United States' largest military airdrome. Civilian labour rolls soared and so did statehood hopes. Hawaii was by then only 17 hours removed, by airplane, from the American mainland. The territory' was coming of age politically. One sign of maturity was the dispersion of the race-baiting Home Rule party early
dous boost
in the
to the sprouting
new century,
leaving the political field to the
and Republicans. The Republican party scored election of Prince
Kuhio
as delegate to congress
—
ning control of the legislature
a hold on that
Democrats
first
with the
and with win-
body
it
retained
more than three decades
of probation
and accomplishment had qualified it fully for self-government, Hawaii renewed its attempt to gain entry into the union. In that year Samuel Wilder King, then delegate to congress, succeeded bringing to the islands a subcommittee of the house committee on interior and insular affairs, to hold the first public hearings on the issue of statehood. The subcommittee heard scores of in
witnesses, a majority of
whom
testified to their
wish for imme-
and exhibits were compiled during the hearings, which were conducted on Oahu. Hawaii. Maui. Molokai and Kauai islands, attesting to the desire and diate statehood. Pages of testimony
readiness of the people for admission into the union.
In 1937 congress appointed a joint committee of 24 senators and representatives for an authoritative, on-the-spot study of the statehood question.
The
the political, social, racial,
For statehood opponents the 1940 census was another opportunity to question the Americanism of Hawaii.
The
territory
then had a population of 423,330. Hawaiians and part-Hawaiians
the event of a war with Japan. Overlooked or deliberately
in
80%
ignored was the fact that
of Hawaii's Japanese were nisei
(second generation) and sansei
by virtue of
citizens
Cthird generation),
their birth in the territory.
would turn against
of statehood in congress held that even these
the United States in a national emergency.
The answer
grave question came on Sunday morning, Dec. all
American
Some opponents
7,
to this
1941.
when
doubts as to the fidelity of Hawaii's people were dispelled
in a rain of
enemy bombs on Oahu. and
w^hich rose
from the burning vessels along battleship row
the oily black clouds
in
in
Pearl Harbor.
Hawaii at War The next
on Oahu opened at 7:55 a.m. Within the
aerial attack
100 deadly minutes
three waves
of
low-flying
imperial
Japanese dive bombers and torpedo planes knocked out the Pacific battle fleet and smashed the United States army, navy and marine installations at Pearl Harbor. Ford Island. Kaneohe Naval .Mr station, Hickam Field, Wheeler Field and the Marine
for the next 50 years.
The Statehood Drive Opens In 19,55. confident that
country of their descent, grew seriously concerned.
committee probed deeply into economic, labour, cultural and adjoint
ministrative standards in the islands. In
Corps station
Ewa.
at
The navy, whose attack, counted
were also
its
killed.
capital ships bore the brunt of the surprise
dead
at 2.008:
218
army men and 109 marines in dead, wounded
Total United States casualties
and missing were placed at 3.478. A total of 19 .American warships were sunk or badly damaged; more than 200 planes were lost, most of them riddled by enemy strafers while parked row on row on military airfields. Japan lost 41 planes and 3 submarines; personnel losses were estimated to be fewer than 100.
Of the civilians on Oahu. 57 were killed, nearly all in Honolulu, and 300 injured. Civilian casualties, it was learned later, resulted largely from defective United States antiaircraft shells, which exploded only upon contact with the ground. Property losses, to private
homes and
public buildings, were in excess of
$500,000.
Shortly before noon of the fateful Sunday, Gov. Joseph B.
report to the con-
Poindexter. in an islands-wide broadcast, announced a territorial
gress the committee suggested a poll of the electorate of the
emergency. That afternoon he issued a proclamation invoking
its
territory to determine actual sentiment on statehood. Regarding
the martial law provision of the Hawaii Organic act and suspend-
the recommendation as a virtual mandate from congress. Hawaii's
ing the writ of habeas corpus, an action the
1939 legislature passed act 243 to provide for a plebiscite at the general election on Nov. 5. 1940. To the question on the ballot:
the United States
tions of the Organic act. Lieut.
"Do you
manding the Hawaiian department, took over
favor statehood for Hawaii?." 46.174 voters or answered "Yes." The negative vote was 22.428 or 33%.
67%
The expert
scrutiny to which Hawaii had been subjected durand 1937 congressional investigations had enhanced rather than retarded the territory's statehood chances. Both committee reports commented favourably on the progressive development of American ideals and institutions in the islands, whose burgeoning economy already qualified them as a responsiing the 1935
ble business partner in the union of states. Hawaii, the investi-
gators had noted, was
now
the United States' best customer
except for Great Britain, Canada. Japan, France and Germany.
Then World War
II engulfed Europe, the already impaired re-
was
later to rule as
supreme court of
having exceeded the limita-
Gen. Walter C. Short, comas
"military
governor."
The
community
Hawaii had long been preparing on the "day of infamy." Within a few minutes of the crash of the first bomb on Pearl Harbor, teams of civilian doctors, nurses and blood donors were speeding to military and civilian hospitals and casualty centres. That night block wardens in Honolulu and on all the islands, in total blackout, began their well-rehearsed patrols. The long-expected crisis was at hand and in Hawaii all people, of all races, colours and creeds, worked together to meet it as Americans. cixilian
of
for a disaster such as befell
Lieut.
Gen. Delos C.
it
Emmons, who succeeded
to
General
*
?^llvi4
»mi,0mrim-mi
command
Short's
Dec. 1941, was faced immediately with a very real dilemma. What to do with the 35,000 aliens residing within his
late in
command, with whose native country
the
United
was now
at war? On the mainland west coast, within hours after the declaration of war upon Japan, American au-
States
thorities started a roundup of nisei. More than 72,000 of them were eventually taken forcibly from their homes and sent to
relocation centres, a hasty and illegal act for which the federal government, as late as May 1959, was publicly to ask forgiveness through its attorney general.
The
war workers who poured into Hawaii all the 48 states for the rebuilding of broken defenses and the erection of new ones were not enough. More were despertens of thousands of
from
ately needed.
Among
Hawaii's aliens were
penters, plumbers, shipfitters
were urgently
in
and
demand. General
its
best artisans
electricians,
:
car-
craftsmen that
Emmons made
his difficult
THE ATTACK ON PEARL HARBOR,
Dec.
burning ships frame an explosion
ammuni
U.S.S.
now
joined in the
common war
investigation into the Pearl
effort. Later,
when
Harbor holocaust was
the
official
in progress, tes-
timony revealed not a single instance of espionage or sabotage attributable to any Japanese resident in Hawaii. On the mainland and in Hawaii, open distrust of the young A.J.A.s (Americans of Japanese ancestry) prevented many of
of
gazine on the destroye
clared.
The response of Hawaii's A.J.A.s was overwhelming. Nearly 10,000 of them answered the summons. Joining with fellow A.J.A.s from the mainland to form the 442nd combat team and the looth infantry battalion, they wrote one of the
chapters in the annals of
commanding
The
Gen.
II.
most heroic
Mark
Clark,
them
as "the
unit in the entire military history of the United
battle honours of the A.J.A.s,
"Go For Broke" works'"),
World War
the United States sth army, described
States."
workers among them
1941. Clouds
men will establish as fighting soldiers will be one of the best answers to those who question the loyalty of American citizens of Japanese ancestry in Hawaii," Emmons de-
most decorated
skilled
7,
the record these
Japanese to coast internment camps or into Oahu concentration
They would remain. The
the
them from entering the armed forces. Early in 1943 General Emmons announced a war department proposal to call up a relatively small number of them as army combat volunteers. Hawaii's quota was fixed at 1,500. "The manner of response and
decision, turning aside suggestions for the sending of the alien
centres.
of
"Shaw"
whose slogan was was "shoot the
(the mainland slang equivalent
included
seven presidential
Heart medals with 500 oak legion of merit me'dals,
i
citations,
leaf clusters,
4,500
342 silver
Purple
stars,
distinguished service medal and
i
17
con-
medal of honour. The French and Italian governments more awards. In the French and Italian campaigns, 650 A.J.A. officers and men were killed and more than gressional
added
a score or
33
HAWAII. The
34 4,500 wounded.
A
great proportion of these were from Hawaii.
More than 40.000 Hawaiians served
War
the colours during
806 of them died
in action
and admiration for the A.J. As. Settled for all time, in the light of the harshly impressive statistics they compiled on the battlefields of Europe, was the question of their loyqlty.
veterans returned to the islands with their edly altered, their morale high and with
war sense of
own
The
attitudes
little left
A.J
Hawaii, having performed
mark-
of their pre-
its
remarkable and
the war, assumed a
new importance
vital role as the
the Pacific theatres of
all
in the
eyes of the nation.
This was perhaps best expressed by the senate interior and sular
affairs
.A.
inferiority.
giant staging base and supply centre for
committee, which,
Hawaii statehood
bill
"Pearl Harbor, for
on all
May its
8,
recommending passage
of
in-
a
1951, concluded:
tragedy, served one grimly useful
It made the United States aware that its western front was not the coast of California, but a group of islands some 2,000 miles southwestward in the Pacific."
purpose.
Growth
IN
HAWAII
new and drastically changed Hawaii emerged from World War II. The war had created a new and articulate middle class which was now to find less insurmountable many of the prewar social and racial barriers. The descendants of the early alien labourers were coming into their own. and were taking their new .\
places in the industrial, professional and political fields of the
community.
With the new
era there
began
a steady
and
significant transfer
of Labour Unions
The organizing of lab(jur was conducted mainly under the aegis of the International Longshoremen's
(I.L.W.U,), which was headed Its
1939, was halted by the war and the imposition of martial law.
Jan. 1, 1944, the I.L.W.U. claimed only 900 members, but by 1946 a majority of workers in Hawaii's basic industries, sugar and pineapple, were represented by this union. More than 33,000 employees, of all races and creeds, were employed in I.L.W.U. bargaining units or those for which the union had
pending requests for recognition.
year the
the preceding
National Labor Relations board, the National Mediation board or by mutual agreement and cross-checks of union
company
against
The
membership
payrolls.
union's antagonists were principally the "Big Five," the
missionary-founded industrialist firms that functioned as factors
and agents for
owned still
majority of Hawaii's sugar plantations and
a
substantial
numbers of shares
remain incontestably
ment
economy, but
of
new
them. (The Big Five
in
in control of a large part of the
this has
new
served neither to bar the establish-
much
businesses nor to prevent the enactment of
and subsequent hearings on the subject before congressional committees no evidence was ever adduced to the effect that the Big Five, or any other group, had engaged in restraint of trade. In 1946 the I.L.W.U. called its first major strike against the sugar industry. It involved 28.000 workers and lasted 74 days, at a cost of more than $30,000,000 in lost wages and damage to unirrigated sugar fields. It was finally settled for an hourly raise progressive social legislation.; In
of i8i cents, a figure
month
earlier.
The
all
prior
upon which management had agreed a
strike resulted in the abolition of the per-
system under which plantations had provided and medical service to workers.
quisite
ing
free hous-
important consequence of the cessation of hostilities was
the resurgence of labour unionization in the islands, whose ready
acceptance by workers was motivated, in part, by resentment
POSTWAR BUILDING
IN HAWAII included many new hotels to accommodate the tourists. The architecture of this hotel lobby near Waikiki beach, Honolulu. I«
In
I.L.W.U. had won 138 separate elections conducted by either the
the "Big Five'') into the hands of the
An
by Harry Bridges.
On
of trade and wealth from the long-dominant haoles (including
Americans of oriental ancestry. Competing with the Chinese huis (companies') were numerous and well-tinanced Japanese tanomoshis (syndicates).
and Warehousemen's union
in California
penetration into the ranks of island labour, well underway by
state's
POSTWAR CHANGES
rule.
World
and 3,200 became permanently disabled. Of the more than 32,000 men from Hawaii inducted into the armed forces through selective service, 49.9% were of Jaiwinese ancestry. Out of the conflict, at home and abroad, came a new respect II;
liland State over the freezing of jobs during the army's four-year
« mlKture of modern and ancient Polynesian styles
Statehood Drive Unvaried island
in
the
Is
Resumed
otherwise
community was
changing times of the postwar
The
the profound desire for statehood.
war had exposed many of the inadequacies of territorial status. and statehood appeared to Hawaii's business and political leaders as the
only remedy.
In pursuit of this goal the 1947 territorial legislature created
commisand appropriated to it S200.000 to organize its campaign in Hawaii and in the continental United States. the Hawaii Statehood sion,
Since
the
1942
delegate
to
congress had been Joseph R.
Honolulu
Farrington.
news-
paper owner, a dedicated and forceful
statehood
On June
30. 1947. the
States
house
of
advocate.
United
representa-
tives, for the first time,
passed
admit Hawaii into the union. The vote was 197 to 133. The the Farrington
bill
to
rrieasure died in the following
year
when
the
senate
com-
mittee voted to defer action
HAWAII, The on
until
it
Island State
1
^^
another investigation in
still
35
members could hold
A move
on the senate Hawaii. floor to lift the bill out of committee for a vote was also defeated.
Undismayed by this setback Hawaii in 1950
the people of
elected 63 delegates to a con-
vention which framed a modern state constitution. Despite
vigorous objection to
by the
it
I.L.W.U., the constitution was ratified
by voters by more than 3
jority of
a to
mai.
Early in 1950 the house of representatives voted to call
and Hawaii Both were passed, that pertaining to Haup
Alaska
the
statehood
bills.
waii receiving a vote of 262 to
no. Again the measure senate .action
of
failed
and MEETING OF COMBINED TERRITORIAL LEGISLATURE
thus expired with the 8ist con-
of
the lolani
palace before the statehood enactment
in
1959
gress.
Opponents of Hawaiian statehood in the house and senate had charged that communists were in control of the I.L.W.U. and that through this powerful union they had a specifically
stranglehold on the
economy
of the islands. In April 1950. at
the invitation of the territorial legislature, a subcommittee of the
house un-American activities committee arrived in Hawaii to probe these charges. The subcommittee had full access to the files of the Federal Bureau of Investigation and local army and
navy
intelligence reports.
bill
57 to 28, but the
amended measure was
house rules committee from which
it
referred back to the
did not emerge as the con-
gress adjourned in Aug, 1954, Statehood for
Hawaii was again
dormant. In June 1954, Farrington, the six-term delegate and great
statehood champion, died at his desk in Washington.
He was
succeeded by his widow Elizabeth P. Farrington.
ACROSS THE THRESHOLD: THE 50TH STATE
At the conclusion of the investigation
Rep. Francis E. Walter (Dam., Pa.), appeared before a United States senate committee in hearings on the Hawaii bill. He found
Despite unyielding opposition from a small coterie of lawmakers, largely from below the Mason-Dixon line, the next
no reason whatever, he reported, for withholding statehood from Hawaii. Such communism as existed there, he testified, was no
hood
in
A year
Edgar Hoover, an interview, stated that only 36 known communists resided
bar to
its
admission into the union.
later J.
in the islands.
The answer in
to the extravagant charges of
Hawaii was again supplied valiantly by
communist leanings young men, begin-
its
ning in June 1950, in fighting the forces of
communism
in the
Korean War. The Hawaiian casualty rate, based on population, was four and one half times that of the remainder of the country. This astounding ratio was explained by Gen. J. Lawton Collins, then chief of staff, as due to the high proportion of Hawaii which included the 5th regimental combat team, and the 25th division. At the time of its deployment to the far east command nearly one-half the combat team were Hawaii-born men. Substantial percentages of Hawaiians were also in the 24th and 25th divisions, then on duty in Japan, the first to be committed in the Korean conflict. Among the 1.370 men of Hawaii who were killed and wounded in the Korean fighting were many sons of the I.L.W.U. rank and file members. soldiers in the 24th division,
A In
flurry of statehood activity took place in the 83rd congress.
March
1953, the house for the third time,
by
a vote of 247 to
and sent it to the senate. There, the was reported out favourably in committee. On March 11, 1954, earnest but misguided proponents voted to combine the Hawaii and Alaska statehood bills. On April i, the senate voted down successively an amendment 13S, passed the
Hawaii
bill
following January, the measure
to give
Hawaii
a
commonwealth
plebiscite in
status similar to that of Puerto
commonwealth question to a Hawaii, The senate passed the combined statehood
Rico, and another to refer the
congress
made every
bills
effort to dispose successfully of the state-
for Alaska
and Hawaii. Both had been before conTwenty-four hearings
gress for a long time, Hawaii's since 1903.
had been held on Hawaii's claims for admission, seven of them in Hawaii and the remainder in Washington. Hundreds of witnesses had been heard, a majority of them journeying to Washington
at
the
statehood
commission's
expense.
printed house and senate hearings and reports had
Thirty-four
come from
these investigations, totaling nearly 7,000 pages of testimony
and
exhibits.
In 1956 John A. Burns, Democratic candidate for delegate to congress, defeated Mrs. Farrington for re-election, the first mem-
ber of his party to win that
office in
24 years. In the latter part
of his first term Burns publicly agreed that Alaska's chances for
admission during the 85th congress were superior to those of Hawaii, and he offered to withhold his efforts in Hawaii's behalf in order to ensure
enactment of the Alaska bill. said, that if one of the two remaining
His premise was, he ritories
became
a state the other
would very shortly follow
it
ter-
into
the union.
The big breakthrough occurred in the spring of 1958 when both houses of congress passed the Alaska bill and sent it to the president for signature.
The
reaction in Hawaii was two-fold.
Elated statehood proponents hailed the admission of Alaska as resolving the issue of noncontiguity which had long plagued
both
territories. Politically, at
for inactivity on Hawaii's bill
home. Burns came under attack and for letting Alaska precede
Hawaii.
Statehood leaders from Hawaii, immediately upon the passage of the Alaska
bill,
converged upon the nation's capital to press for
HAWAII. The
)6
the admission of Hawaii in the six weeks remaining to the congressional session. They were led by Lorrin 1'. Thurston, ener-
Hawaii Statehood commission chairman and Honolulu newspaper publisher, the son of Lorrin A. Thurston, who had helped form the Republic of Hawaii, and direct descendant of the Rev. Asa and Lucy Thurston, New England missionaries who had arrived in Hawaii in 1820. Congressional leaders however were adamant; no time was left
getic
to debate the highly controversial
Hawaii
bill
before the
summer
adjournment. In Nov. 1958, as if to make amends for the sidetracking of the Hawaii bill, five members of the congress arrived in Hawaii on what was to be the final field study of the
much
deliberated issue of Hawaiian statehood.
The house con-
Island State the
names
of 55 colleagues as co-sponsors,
majority rec|uired for passage. The the
with
11,
speed, the senate overwhelmingly passed the Hawaii
vote was 76 to
Now,
15.
On Thursday, March
The ciingressmen held no formal hearings
in
Hawaii.
No
wit-
nesses were subpoenaed. Instead the lawmakers went to the people.
They appeared unexpectedly on
street corners
and on
sugar and pineapple plantations where they conversed with
field
hands; they called on leading military commanders, the F.B.I.,
I.L.W.U.
officials
and
at the University of
conclusions, as reported
congress, were
the
to
Hawaii.
Some that
of their
approxi-
3.
On
12, a
bill.
The
formal terminology of the con-
body."
few drops of rain
on Honolulu,
fell
by the vagrant trades blowing in from the mauka (mountain ward) sections of Oahu. This was an unfailing good omen. When rain falls on any auspicious occasion in the islands, it is solemnly regarded by the old Hawaiians as a special carried over the city
blessing of the gods. In Washington, the house convened at the usual
and history making
Red Threat Discounted
in the
gress, the fate of the bill rested with the "other
senate-passed
led
March
debate and with wholly unprecedented
little
Carroll of Colorado.
was
more than the senate
committee reported out
measure, appropriately numbered 8.50, on
March
by Rep. Leo O'Brien (Ucm.. N.Y. ), chairman of the territories subcommittee. Accompanying them were Democratic senators Frank Church of Idaho and John A. tingent of three
full
noon hour.
Parliamentary preliminaries dispensed with, the debate on the bill
began. Less than three hours roll call
later,
the last
of the "yeas" and "nays" was de-
manded and ordered. Sitting tensely in the house gallery was William F. Quinn, the youthful and last presidentially appointed governor of Hawaii, nervously and mentally (even to "VTPs" pencil and paper are forbidden in congressional galleries) adding up the aflirmative votes. ticked
When
the magic 218 "yeas" had been
signifying a bare majority and victory, the governor
off,
rushed to the
the speaker where a telephone line to
office of
Honolulu had been kept open. In seconds the joyous news was flashed to the islands.
On
the floor of the house the stentorian
"percentage-wise
voice of the tally clerk droned on. and at 3:04 p.m. E.S.T. (10:04
or Alaska"; that such economic damage wreak would be just as harmful whether Hawaii was a state or a territory; that no evidence linking Hawaii's subversives with Soviet espionage had been found; and that no
was over. The vote was anHawaii had been admitted to the union. In the house chamber the end to the half-century old quest came with a quiet, dramatic abruptness that left even its most optimistic supporters breathless and a little unbelieving. In Hawaii the years of pent-up emotions, years of expectation, doubt and
mately
communists
2$
fewer than
in
resided
in
Hawaii,
New York
as these could
communist had ever been elected to public office in the territory. The subcommittee unanimously recommended passage of the statehood
bill in
A.M. H.S.T.)
nounced
the long roll call
as 323 to 89.
Within minutes the wail of
frustration, exploded.
the next session of the congress.
informed Honolulans that statehood had
sirens
Victory
Church
For decades the exhaustive and concentrated campaign for statehood for Hawaii had provided interested observers with a classic example of congressional processes lagging far behind the
ships' whistles blasted
popular
will.
Public sentiment for Hawaii's admission, strongly
communiand resolutions by
prevalent throughout the nation, regularly had been
cated to the congress by countless petitions
news: in the harbour and along the highways grinning motor-
impromptu hulas. The next day. members of the last territorial
sombre and grateful attitudes, government officials the ancient Hawaiian Kawaiahao church legislature,
for interdenominational thanksgiving services.
and
counted
in
the millions. Country-wide public opinion surveys,
The the law. First
undivided
in its editorial support.
and sometimes cruel struggle was ended and now
On March 18. in a ceremony at White House. President Eisenhower signed S.fo into public
statehood for the Pacific islands. The press of the nation,
play of unanimity rarely achieved on national issues, was virtually
fierce
to
only the formalities remained.
and those conducted in their own constituencies by members of the congress, had disclosed favour amounting to insistence for in a dis-
and
in
and others proceeded
other organizations, whose combined memberships were
classes
muumuii-dad
wahines and a/oAu-shirted kanes thronging into the streets for
were scores of national bodies, representing business and professional, religious, labour, veterans, service club, educational
all
business offices quickly closed, with holokii- and
organized groups and individuals. So recording their approval
many
defense
bells pealed out the heart-stirrine
leaned on their horns. Schools dismissed
ists
civil
finally arrived.
State Elections
Hawaii's
first
state-wide primary, held on June 27. 1959. gave
President Eisenhower, in his
ultimate and convincing proof of the deeply rooted desire of
and budget messages to the congress, repeatedly had urged immediate action on current Hawaii statehood bills, as had his predecessor. Frequent and informal polls taken
Hawaii's citizens for complete integration into the American
state of the union
of
members
of
the
congress had shown a majority in both
many
branches as favouring passage for
legislative sessions past.
Nominally Democratic Alaska had been admitted, and nominally Republican Hawaii's turn was next. What would the new and Democratic-controlled 86th congress do?
The answer was not long
left in
resentative O'Brien introduced a
doubt.
On
Jan.
7,
1959,
new statehood proposal
Rep-
in the
on Feb.
On
4. Jan. 9. Sen. James E. Murray, chairman of the senate interior and insular affairs committee, had introduced his statehood bill bearing his own and
bill
The
tunity
it
congress, acutely conscious of the historic oppor-
was tendering them, had asked Hawaii's people
for a
and conclusive referendum on the question of statehood. On June 27 voters were handed a separate ballot requiring a simple "yes'' or "no" vote on the question. The result was 132.938 to final
7.854. a landslide ratio of 17 to
On
house, whose interior and insular affairs committee then re-
ported favourably on a
union.
voted
i.
July 28. proudly and again in record numbers, citizens in the general election.
The
results, generally favourable to
comment from the mainland and from abroad. Elected as Hawaii's first delegation to the United States congress were: Sen. Hiram L. Fong (51 Rethe Republicans, drew widespread
1
publican,
son of an indentured Chinese plantation labourer.
Fong, a self-made millionaire, was a former
territorial legisla-
HAWAII, The and a Harvard law school graduate. Rep. Daniel K. Inouye (34) Democrat, of Japanese ancestry, an attorney with a distinguished war record with the famed "Go For Broke" combat team, had lost an arm in the Italian campaign. Sen. Oren E. Long (70) Democrat, a Kansan by birth, with a long record of public service in Hawaii, including a term as territorial governor. tor
The record turnout of ernor of the new state
voters
named
as the first elective gov-
the appointive incumbent, William F. Quinn (40) an attorney and a native of New York state; and as lieutenant governor, James K. Kealoha, of Hawaiian-Chinese ancestry. Both men were Republicans. After five years of Democratic control, a revitalized G.O.P.
took a majority of the seats in the state senate, r4 to
11,
while
Democrats retained control of the 51-seat house. The most strenuously contested office was the governorship. To oppose Quinn the Democrats prevailed upon John A. Burns, their best vote-getter and last territorial delegate to congress, to switch his candidacy from the United States senate to the gubernatorial post. At stake, as leaders of both parties were well aware, was the power of appointment by the first governor of the entire slate of officials of the newly constituted state. These appointments, nearly 500 in number, included 5 supreme court justices, 11 state judges, 28 district court magistrates, tax
appeal judges, a score of state department heads,
commissioners, the attorney general
(who
in
civil service
turn names
23
aides) and hundreds of others.
The
interest generated
a record for Hawaii, or
by
this race
93%
brought out 170,119 voters,
of those registered, a national rec-
Governor Quinn won by a majority of 4,139 votes. The Neisi York Times, among other leading mainland journals, lauded the outcome as final proof that the I.L.W.U.. as heretofore alleged by statehood opponents, was not a dominant factor in Hawaii's elections. The Bridges union endorsed and was active ord.
in its
support of Burns. The A.F. of L.-C.I.O. union ranks
in their
split
endorsement of Quinn.
& Times Herald stated editorially that was "a healthy refutation of the canard that the people of Hawaii are prisoners of the I.L.W.U." The final and irrevocable act in the entire statehood drama came quietly at 4 p.m. (E.D.T.) on Aug. 21, 1959. In the White House on that day, President Eisenhower signed a proclamation which declared, in part, that "admission of the State of Hawaii The Washington Post
the election
into the
Union on an equal footing with the other States
Union is now accomplished." The ceremony ended with the display States
new United
of
the
flag
—on
the
field
of
rows of six stars were staggered with four rows blue,
five
of five
stars
to
include
the
Soth star for Hawaii.
Statehood
Was
Necessary
had often been remarked government territorial that had been adequate to the It
needs of Hawaii.
The
terri-
tory matured and prospered
under
this political
then abandon
it?
form.
Why
The
short
drive from Honolulu's inter-
national airport or docks to
Waikiki's
luxury
vealed on
all
hotels
re-
sides the indis-
putable evidence of Hawaii's accelerated advancement since
of the
Island State
31
annexation. Puzzled visitors, viewing
all
this,
posed the usual
question: "Since you have done so well as a territory,
now
seek statehood?"
At the outset,
The answer was
let it
a
why
do you
many-sided one.
be said that Hawaii's progress came not
as a result of its territorial structure, but despite the handicap
had been designed for unarrived, undeveloped American commonwealth. On the islands it had become a strait jacket, hindering their development and depriving the people of rights for which they had long qualified, and failing completely to meet the complex political, economic and social requirements in government which characterize modern Hawaii. During the period of its greatest growth Hawaii, through its delegate, had only a voice in the United States house of representatives; it had neither voice nor vote in the senate. Not only did this condition make it impossible to obtain due consideration from congress for Hawaii's proper needs, but it made equally difficult the prevention of much harmful and discriminatory legof
it.
Territoriality
units of the
islation.
As
early as 1907.
when
the territory established a college of
agriculture and mechanic arts,
now
the University of Hawaii,
monies under the Morrill was refused. When Hawaii sought its portion of federal appropriations for needed topographic and hydrographic surveys, it was rebuffed. The federal aid road act. passed in 1916, excluded Hawaii. Not until 1924, by a particular amendment, was this omission rectified. The territory again was ig-
and applied
for its share of federal
act of 1S90, the grant
nored when funds were voted for vocational education by the
Smith-Hughes law, and not act
der
make amends. control
of
until
seven years later did another
In 1935 the potato industry was brought unthe Agricultural Adjustment administration
(A.A.A.), which placed a virtual embargo on Hawaii-grown
new
potato shipments to the mainland. This discrimination restrained
Hawaii's potato growing until the A, A. A. was subsequently declared unconstitutional
by the United States supreme
court.
The worst blow, sharply accenting the disparity between states and territories, came in 1934. In that year congress passed the Jones-Costigan
act.
This provided a system of sugar quotas un-
der which consumptive requirements of the continental United States were allotted to various sugar producing areas. Its effect on Hawaii was three-fold. The act created for the first time a new governmental conception of "continental" United States as
distinguished from the United States
itself.
Because Hawaii was
HAWAII. The
Islntid State the
foregoing examples, had
to be overcome there came the rudest shock of all.
begun
Hawaii, relying on
statehood the
its
right to
by
established
as
150-year-old premises of
and by the
territoriality,
tory of
its
his-
relationship to the
government
United
the
of
States since 1854. learned with
amazement and
incredulity of
by a small
counteroffer
the
group of senators who were opposed to Hawaiian statehood. This was the commonwealth
amendment
of
to
1953-54,
create for Hawaii the
anoma-
lous identity once devised for
the Philippine Islands and for the
semi-independent
"asso-
state" of
Puerto
free
ciated
The enticement, tempt-
Rico.
ingly dangled before the people of
Hawaii
they would
if
accept demotion to a status
which could conceivably lead to eventual independence,
remission
the
SIGNING OF THE HAWAII STATEHOOD PROCLAMATION by
vice-
amounting
outside the "continental" United States geographically,
was
rejected this
act relegated
Hawaii
to
Cuba and
the Philippines. It reduced the shipments
of Hawaiian raw sugar to the mainland restricted the refining of sugar to
Other areas were without
3%
by 76,000 tons a year and sugar production
of territories in the department of the interior, testifying before
embodied
new geography.
committee of agriculture, said; "Our
in the fact
.
.
that the bill perpetuates a
.
two kinds of territory for America. It creates a continental and an offshore America. We cannot recognize such a division and such a distinction. We think it is just as unwarranted to make this division, as to make a similar division based on any physical or historical factor such as the Mississippi river, and to say Americans living west of the river are entitled to some kind of consideration and Americans east of
it
It creates
without having a voice in their
The men
of
augmented pride
into battle.
The
attainment of
citizenship
full
and
politi-
with their fellow Americans on the mainland.
Statehood
EfFects of United States interest in the far Pacific ocean
areas had broadened vastly as a result of
even at the risk of
World W'ar
full-scale hostilities,
it
II.
There,
had attempted
among The effect
to
establish the rights of self-determination
the underde-
veloped and developing Asian nations.
of the denial
to
Hawaii of
rights
directly to the
it
sought for mankind elsewhere contributed
propaganda of those who branded the United
States a colonial power.
can islands
The grant
in the Pacific
of states' rights to the Ameri-
resolved this paradox, demolishing for
Hawaiian people as
already had far-flung peacetime responsibilities in the adminis-
of the
all
mandated
tration of the Pacific islands
the citizens of the states,
centre of the nation's Pacific affairs, brought for the
disbursement. in
World War II
passage of the draft law that
Hawaii could cast no vote any amendment to the con-
citizens of
for president nor could they vote on
in the
cal equality
paid taxes, in war and in
lex^y or
in the
was not independence from the United
injustice did not, however,
Hawaii were inducted into service
without having had a voice
them
goal of Hawaiians
time the U.S.S.R. and Communist Chinese arguments that Hawaii had been held as a colony under imperialistic rule. Morally and psychologically, the position of the United States in this sensitive far east arena was strengthened by giving Hawaii full membership in the American union. The United States
to another kind."
These and many other instances of reduce the duties and responsibilities citizens of the United States. They peace, on exactly the same basis as
sent
The
The range
a subcommittee of the
as did the great
States nor financial gain; the desired end was statehood, and the
limit.
is
unwholesome proposal out of hand,
of total island production.
left free to increase refined
Sen. Ernest Gruening of .\laska. then director of the division
protest
to about $175,000,000 yearly.
majority of Hawaii's people.
an "offshore"' position com-
parable with that of other insular possessions and such foreign nations as
was
federal
Delegate Farrington. before the senate committee, angrily
placed in the position of being outside the country politically.
The sugar
all
taxation in Hawaii, currently
President Elsen-
hower Aug. 21. 1959. Seated with him are (left) Richard M. Nixon, president, and Sam Rayburn, speaker of the house of representatives it
of
they became increasingly aware, was "government without the consent of the governed," contrary to the principle and repugnant to the spirit of democracy in the United
stitution. This,
States.
In latter years when discrimination by legislation, typified in
to the congress a state's full
to
it.
Hawaii, as the first
time
quota of representatives with an
intimate understanding of American needs in
this
vital
and
delicately poised Asian area. It
was recognized that the national scene would
effect of the
also feel the
admission of Hawaii. The quickening growth in
American population and
its
gradual spread to the west had
already played important roles in the division of strength in the
house of representatives. This cleavage was expected to become more sharply defined when the results of the i960 United States census became
official.
On
the basis of preliminary population
"
HAWAII, The
Island State
39
Florida, which
Kawaiahao church on March 12 and 13, 1959. The first service was a spontaneous one, the second one was planned. His statehood sermon is now a historical document. It was entered in the Congressional Record and was broadcast over the "Voice of America'' program. In his sermon the Hawaiian pastor called Hawaii to self-affirmation and expounded on the meaning of
ships. It
aloha, saying in part:
estimates for i960 of the entire country (180,000.000 compared with 151,000.000 in 1950), 7 states would gain seats in the house
and 13 were expected to lose seats. California was calculated to new house members. Estimated losses would occur
gain seven
largely in states east of the Mississippi, with the exception of
was reckoned as gaining four new house memberappeared that Michigan and Texas might gain two seats
"I feel especially grateful that the discovery and develop-
each.
The reapportionment
to follow the
i960 enumeration was ex-
pected to be the broadest in decades. It would give Hawaii a
There is a deep correlation between the charter under which the missionaries came namely, 'To preach the Gospel
Alaska's case, this legislation stipulated that the increase
of Jesus Christ, to cover these islands with productive green
member
instead of the single seat agreed upon
congressional committees handling the Hawaiian statehood in
islands long ago was not couched in the context of an imperialistic and exploitive power, but in this context of
bill.
second house
As
ment of our
by
house membership occasioned by the admission of Hawaii was temporary, permissible only until the succeeding decennial census. Then the house membership, by law, would revert to its legal limit of 435. Thus the admission of the two territories
in
would mean an additional cutback of three house seats, to be yielded up by states, probably in the east, midwest or the south, where population losses would have occurred.
ALOHA The
foregoing, despite
its
length, has been an
too hurried
all
aloha.
—
—
and to lift the people to a high state of civilization' corbetween this fact, and the world today. Aloha does not exploit a people and keep them in ignorance and subservience. Rather it shares the sorrows and joys of people; it seeks to proToday, one of the deepest mote the true good of others. needs of mankind is the need to feel a sense of kinship one with another. Truly all mankind belongs together; for from the beginning all mankind has been called into being, nourished, fields,
relation
.
at
work
on
this
The word aloha means and welcome.
'hiany things. It It
is
a greeting
means compassion and
pity,
mercy and kindness. It remained for a young Hawaiian minister, Rev. Abraham Kahikina Akaka. of the Kawaiahao church, to give this eloquent and gracious word a new and historical interpretation. Reverend
Akaka
conducted
statehood
day
thanksgiving
services
at
—
we really are for Aloha is the spirit of God you and in me and in the world, uniting what is separated, overcoming darkness and death, bringing new light and life to all who sit in the darkness of fear, guiding the feet of mankind into the way of peace. Thus, may our becoming a state mean to our nation and the world, and may it reaffirm that which was planted in us one hundred and thirty nine years ago us affirm ever what
and intense "Aloha state." The nickname itself is formed in part by one of the most expressive words in the Hawaiian or any other of love and farewell
.
watched over by the love of God who is Aloha. So that the real Golden Rule is Aloha. This is the way of life we must affirm. Let
view of the nation's newest partner, the enchanting and w'id
language.
.
in
ground: Tear not, for behold
of great joy. which shall be to
This
is
the state of Hawaii.
all
I
bring to you good tidings
people."
*
.
-
^
•«e
'•i^v-i
ft-
7
)i
\
s
^^~
w,.
t
rV i;i:
>.
'•*'^i
110;
;rfe;
«.,-^^.
>^ '
.'i^^JB^
'M"**.
a
DATING
THE PAST By
RUTH MOORE
happy and J had together at The University of Chicago working on some of the developments which she mentions. There was a convergence of interest on the problem of dating the past and describing its characteristics as a cue to what the underlying principles of geophysics are, and these developments led to
The
many
imagine until a few years ago.
Miss Moore's article "Dating the Past"
time that Harold Urey, his students, and
recalls the
my
students
excursions into fascinating fields of archaeology. have loo pounds of seal blubber for you; what shall
"We
we
had asked the Byrd Expedition to bring this to me and the above words ushered in one of the beginning experiments in attempting to prove the reliability of the carbonic dating technique. At that time, early 1^46, my then graduate student, E. C. Anderson, and I were in the process of studying the concentration of cosmic rays at the poles and trydo with
it?" I
ing to find out the world
and
if
carbon-i.f were evenly distributed throughout
in all things.
As I look back over the years since
the beginning of the work, I come and amused by recalling
am
impressed by the final out-
some
of the incongruous events
between then and now.
from the American Chemical Society Sewage Division for one of the initial works with A. V. Grosse, which just happened to be fulfilled by using sewage. 2. At a party given in my laboratory in the Jones Chemical Laboratory at The University of Chicago by some graduate students, led by James Arnold, a plaque was unveiled which quoted from a newspaper headline. The headline read, "IV. F. Libby, ^o, stumbles on new dating technique." The plaque read, "Here is where Willard F. Libby, ^o, stumbled." These and many other lighter facts of the carbon-i^ research I find great pleasure in recalling. However, Miss Moore's comprehensive review covers the years of hard work and the meaningful implications of its role in the pattern of how the past can talk and tell.-W. F. LIBBY 1.
A
citation
tales
tell
." .
.
—
—
Atomic science has brought about
this
important, almost eerie
achievement. With new understandings of the structure of the
atom and new supersensitive instruments,
scientists in
many parts
of the world have been able to measure the telltale particles, and thus, as Lucretius said, ".
.
.
to gaze into the hidden heart of
things."
Even now. within a decade of the beginning of this work, enough measurements have been made of radioactive uranium, potassium, rubidium and carbon, and of the stable isotopes or twins of o.xygen, to give convincing answers to some of the most fundamental questions about the earth:
How
old
is
was the earth
the earth?
as creatures able to
When When
earth?
scene?
When man
like before
did did
did
it
come
inhabited
walk upright on two
into existence?
it?
When
legs, first
What
did humans,
appear on the
men essentially like ourselves first enter the ice move down from the poles to engulf and
When
mold
a large part of the continents?
make when
the skillfully chipped stone tools that
did our forebears
we unearth today;
did they paint the graceful lifeUke animals that ornament
the walls of
some of
their caves;
when
did they
come
to
America?
These and hundreds of other questions are now for the time being answered with precision. From new fixed points past,
first
in a
where there had been none before, a revolutionary history
of time
Early
is
being fashioned.
Ways
of Establishing Past Periods of
new
Time
— — the exact timing of the
science of dating
Rl'th Moore is a reporter for the Chicago Sun-Times. She is the author of several books, including .Man, Time and Fossils, which has been translated into nine languages, The Earth We Live On and Charles Darwin— .4 Great Life in Brief, as well as numerous magazine articles, chiefly in the fields of archaeology, anthropology
probably be known as geochronometry
and evolution.
tablet,
Editors of the Britannica Book of the Year welcome in the feature articles the expression of the personal views of men and women qualified to write on matters of great current importance. Their views, of course, are not necessarily those of the Editors.
could
it
past now has found tongue. Invisible particles emitted by some of the most anonymous remains of the past bit of mud from the depths of the seas or a scrap of charcoal from the fire of prehistoric man are counting out a new history of time and the earth. And already that count has shown that the earth is far older, and man far younger, than even the boldest of us dared to
Until the development of the
The
had tongue,
"// the past
what
it
will
past was essentially an impossibility. If an event occurred before the
first
records were written by men, before the
tamian or Eg>'ptian scribe scratched the its
first
first
Mesopo-
date into a clay
time and period could only be estimated. And the we now have go back no more than 5.000
earliest written records
or 6,000 years. It is true that there
that had passed. It
is
were
many
excellent estimates of the time
also true that the order
and sequence of
Dating the Past
^3
and happenings were well established. But
prehistoric epochs
exact dales and times could not be assigned.
The
lack of a reliable lime record of the past did not stem
their questioning
about how their earth had come
to be.
In the 17th century Archbishop
James Usher attempted
to re-
By adding
place this uncertainty about the past with certainty.
together the time of the generations of the Old Testament, he
concluded that the earth had been created
many
in
4004
B.C.
The Usher
many
— they
warm
lived in the clear
from any absence of interest on the part of men. Men had always speculated about the age of the earth, the mountains and the seas, and of the events and times that had gone before them. It
was part of
these chalk deposits
were the bones of animals that had washed over the
sea that at one lime
Paris basin and part of England
—
differed decidedly
other rock that lay above or below the chalk.
fossils in
from the
When
the
and Dover areas and had left their bones in the mud of the lakes and streams. Cuvier and Smith could tell from the fossils to what period any particular layer of rock might belong. seas receded, land animals had lived in the Paris
"It
is
a
method of recognition that up
to the present has never
deceived us," said Cuvier,
A new and and the
By
reliable
way of determining the order some of its periods had been
relative time of
of the past
discovered.
But with the development of the scientific method and the process of examining the earth itself, those who were putting "their questions to Nature" soon saw strong indications that
and the layering of the earth, geologists subsequently were able to establish the major periods in the history of the earth. These were named the Archeozoic, the Paleozoic, the Mesozoic and the Cenozoic or modem period. Within these grand divisions many lesser periods also were
the earth was far older.
established.
date was printed it
in
the margin of
became the conclusive age of the
In
Bibles,
who gave
found whole beds of tains.
He
for
earth.
the latter part of the 18th century,
Scottish physician
and
his time to the
James Hutton, the study of the earth,
shells in the higher parts of Scotland's
moun-
argued that the shells could never have come to rest
in that unlikely place unless the
substance of the mountains had
sea. Hutton advanced had been uplifted over a vast period of time, and that in another great length of time the mountains would be worn down by the action of the elements and would once again be covered by the seas. He did not attempt to say how long a time it had taken for this infinitely slow building up and wearing down, but he did make the point that it proved the earth at
one time been a part of the floor of the
the theory that the sea floor
the study of fossils
Sir Charles Lyell piled
up additional evidence of the gradual-
ness and hence the slowness of the changes that had brought about
and the other remakings of the circling the earth on the voyage of the "Beagle," confirmed these findings. Darwin also demonstrated that millions upon millions of years must have been required for life to have spread around the world as he saw it the rise
and
fall
of the land
earth's crust. Charles
had, and for
it
to
Darwin,
have evolved from the simplest beginnings up
to the fish, the reptiles
The had old
and
its fossils
indicated that this planet
be millions rather than thousands of years old. But
to it
and the mammals, including man.
earth's formations
how
was remained a question.
to be very old.
Soon afterward, in the early years of the 19th century, the scientist Georges Leopold Cuvier and the English surveyor William Smith made the surprising discovery that any one kind of fossil shell, or the fossilized bones of any particular kind of animal, always were to be found in the same kind of French
strata.
In the thick beds of chalk that underlay
around
much
of the area
famous white cliffs of Dover, England, for example, Cuvier and Smith dug out the bones of the same extinct lizard and tortoise. The other fossils found in Paris. France,
and
in the
these chalk beds also were of the
same
kinds.
But the
fossils of
Early Estimates of the Earth's
As science continued to find
Age
advance,
many
investigators
an exact way of measuring the earth's age.
19th-century scientists held that
it
Some
worked of the
should be possible to arrive
by calculating the thickness of the sedimentary or water-formed rocks that lie like a thick pad over
at the age of the earth
many
of the older rocks. If their rate of accumulation could be
determined, they reasoned,
it
would show how much time had
gone into their formation. Experiments indicated that under some circumstances it takes about 450 years for enough sand
up to make one foot of sandstone, and about 2,250 years enough lime and shells to drift down to the bottom of a body of water to form one foot of limestone. Assuming such rates of accumulation, it was calculated that the earth was about 100,to pile
for
EVIDENCE OF THE EARTH'S CHANGING FEATURES. Left: Guadalupe mountains, Texas. On a base of sandstone 3,000 ft. thick, sheer cliffs of reef limestone fise another 1,300 ft. Trapped in the limestone are fossils of algae, sponges, corals and other sea-dwelling life of the Permian period. Right: Fossil crinoids found in Iowa. This is another warm sea invertebrate, from the Mississippian period
its
000,000 years
old.
This attempt at measurement was an interesting one. but it had to be recognized in the end that the rate at which sand, mud and lime are deposited unquestionably differs from time to time and place to place. The age figure based on the thickness of the sedimentary rocks could not be finally accepted. Measurements based on the salt in the seas also proved faulty. Assuming that salt had been steadily washing down into the seas since the early years of this planet, some workers estimated that the seas' present salinity reflected an age of So.ooo.ooo or 90.-
000.000
The
again was that the rate of acmust have varied in wet and dr>Spray from the ocean waves also carried considerable j-ears.
difficulty
cumulation was not steady; periods. salt
back
it
to the land.
Measuring Great Age By Radioactive Decay There was no certainty about the time of the remote past when Antoine Henri Becquerel laid a piece of uranium ore on a sheet of photographic paper and found that it left a blurred,
in 1896
He deduced that some kind of radiaby the seemingly inert lump of ore. Shortly afterward Pierre and Marie Curie showed that even stronger radiation came from a substance they had laboriously separated from raw uranium ore and named radium. Becquerel and the Curies shared a Xobel prize (1903) for the discovery of a new phenomenon, which they called radioactivity. All around the world scientists went to work on this exciting new discovery. By 1903 Ernest Rutherford, a young British splotchy image of tion
itself.
was being given
off
working at McGill university
scientist then
in
Montreal, and
Frederick Soddy were able to announce that radioactivity was nothing
than the spontaneous disintegration of the radioits conversion into another element. Ruther-
less
active substance and
ford found that the particles were being given off at a fixed and
unvaried
and he realized that from
rate,
sible to calculate the
this
it
should be pos-
age of the radioactive material.
as Rutherford was walking across the campus tosshand a piece of pitchblende (the natural ore of uranium) he met one of his geologist colleagues. Rutherford stopped
One day
ing in his
him.
"How The
old
is
the earth supposed to be?" he asked.
geologist told
him
that the weight of opinion favoured an
age of about 100.000.000 years. 'T know," said Rutherford quietly but with pointed emphasis,
"that this piece of pitchblende
is
700,000,000 years old."
Obviously a piece of rock dug from the earth could not be older than the earth itself; it was an integral part of the earth. What Rutherford was saying, and other findings were soon to substantiate him, was that the earth was at least seven times
had ventured was an almost inconceivable lengthening of time,
older than the greatest age any scientist of the time to estimate. It
was
but
it
the
new
to
be only the
first
of
many
staggering extensions as
science grew and unfolded.
It was soon established that uranium decays into lead at an extremely slow but fixed rate. After 4.500,000.000 years half of
any given quantity of uranium
will
have turned into a special
kind of lead, called radiogenic lead. At the end of another like period half of the remaining half will have disintegrated, and so on.
Thus
scientists say
uranium has a half hfe of 4,500,000,000
years.
Whenever any of this radiogenic lead unweathered and unaltered uranium ore,
is
found
in a piece of
can be accepted as the product of the uranium's decay, for there is no other reason why it should be there. Therefore, by measuring the ratio of the it
radiogenic lead to the uranium, the age of the uranium can be calculated. If half of
it
has decayed to lead,
its
age would be
4,500.000.000 years.
However, continuing research revealed that uranium has
at
^K^9»l|H
Datine. the Past the proportion of carbon
14
any organic remains and comparing it with the proportion in living things it would in
be possible to
tell
how many
years had gone by since the
The
material had been alive. past could be dated.
"Once you asked where the carbon 14
is,"
said Libby, "it
was like one, two, three; you had dating." Again the theory with all of its promise had to be tested. Could the method correctly give known ages? That was the most rigorous of tests. III. now in the Chicago Natural History muleum. wai (ound buried in the sand near a pyramid at Dahshur. Eoy. Historical years ago. A piece of wood cut from the boat boat at 3.750 dated the rtcords «nd subjected to carbon 14 testing revealed an age of 3,621 years, plus or
One
FUNERAL BOAT OF SESOSTRIS
minus 180 years
ordinary carbon dio.xide and should thus become radioactive. Animals which eat plants, and man who eats both plants and
become radioactive
animals, should then in their turn
Do
they?
The
best
be radioactive.
to test this interesting theory
seemed
to
be to
What was more
was that the amount was almost should be. And so it was
significant
of carbon 14 (radioactive carbon) present in the gas
exactly what Libby had predicted
it
shown from gas from Baltimore sewage lisions in the outer
atmosphere make
that cosmic ray col-
all living
things radioactive.
Libby announced the discovery of carbon 14 in nature. But the gas had been collected in Baltimore, which is at sea level. Would the same amount of carbon 14 be found in living things at other elevations and at other latitudes and longitudes? Would there be a greater concentration in living material from the mountain tops where cosmic ray
bombardment
is
at a
maxi-
mum?
Samples then were collected by Libby 's colleague. E. C. Anderson, from all around the world: spruce from the Yukon, honeysuckle leaves from Oak Ridge, Tennessee, briar from north .Africa, Sterciilia excelsa from a 9.000-foot peak in Bolivia, ironwood from the Marshall Islands, beech from Tierra del Fuego and seal oil from Antarctica. Anderson found all of them to be radioactive and
same number
From
all set
the Geiger counters to clicking with the
of disintegrations per minute as had the Baltimore
this
it
was concluded that carbon 14 was evenly disall living things. This means
tributed throughout the world and in
that a certain fixed proportion of the carbon in is
carbon
when
all
living things
14.
Another question raised 14
living things died,
radioactive carbon?
itself.
What happened
when they ceased
to the
carbon
to take in additional
The obvious answer was
that the carbon 14
decay and gradually turn back into the nonradioactive nitrogen from which the cosmic rays had made it in the first place. Libby, by special laboratory measurements, estab-
would begin
to
lished that carbon 14 has a half life of 5,568 years.
Thus
half of
the carbon 14 present in organic material at the time of death would be gone at the end of 5,568 years, but the other half would still
be present in any remains. After that lesser amounts would
persist.
The
his
implications
came
to the scientist in a flash.
By measuring
of
the
curators
of
cut a few ounces of
the
wood
journey into the afterworld.
The wood
cut
from the Egyptian boat was reduced
carbon and spread
way
museum
from the deck planking of the museum's big crescent-shaped mortuary boat of Sesostris IIL It was known that the craft had been built about 3,750 years before to carry the pharaoh on
too.
examine the gases given off by decomposing organic matter. Samples of such a gas, methane, were obtained from a Baltimore sewage plant. Libby, who was then professor of chemistry at The University of Chicago, ran them through a Geiger counter (a device which measures radioactivity) and they were found to
gas.
Chicago Natural History
in a special supersensitive
pure
to
Geiger counter that
Libby had developed. The counter began to click. The carbon in the pharaoh 's boat had lost enough radioactivity to show that it was 3,621 years old, plus or minus a possible error of 180 years.
(The plus or minus method of counting. would
lie,
is
the scientist's allowance for error in his
It indicates
that the true age of the
wood
between 3.801 and 3.441 years.) colleague. J. R. .Arnold, similarly tested some
in this instance,
Libby and his corewood from the Centennial sequoia, a forest giant felled in 1874. Its 2,905 annual rings were a lasting record of its lifetime. On three runs in the Geiger counter the wood showed an average age of 2,710 years, plus or minus the usual error. Thus the counter checked also against a record of nature.
Could carbon 14 measurements as accurately reveal the dates unknown age? At this point Libby asked the assistance of the American Anthropological association and the Geological Society of America, and the two groups appointed a special com-
of relics of
mittee of experts to assemble materials for dating in order to
check the new method.
Soon a strange
collection of objects
was flowing
into
University of Chicago's Institute for Nuclear Studies
from the tomb of Hemaka, a
dynasty of Egypt;
ISAIAH, fragments of one of the Dead Sea scrolls. A carbon 14 date 1.917 years was obtained from a piece of linen that had wrapped this scroll
BOOK OF of
vizier of the first
The
—wood
a bit of linen that
the
Dead Sea
had wrapped the Book of Isaiah manuscript of
scroDs; charcoal from a hearth in the Lascaux
cave in France; mud from Lake Knocknacran, an Irish lake gouged out by the glaciers; dung of the great sloth from G>'psum cave near Las Vegas, Nevada; and hundreds of others. Carbon 14 testing bespoke the age of them all. The wood from
tomb was 4,883 years
the vizier's
old; the linen, 1,917 years; the
Lascaux hearth charcoal, 15,516; the Irish glacial mud, 11,310; and the dung of the great sloth, 10,455.
As enthraUing as
mammoths,
was
it
mummies and
to discover the age of
more serious mission. The problem committee was to determine how the new
science has a
before the special
method could be used
man
to solve important questions about
environment, historical problems that had always defied scholars. When, for example, did the ice recede from the northern
and
his
part of the United States and Europe?
What were
these regions? their cultures?
How
When
did
man
arrive in
the dates of the early Indians and
could the mystic
ordinated with the Christian calendar?
Mayan calendar be Was the Babylonian
cocal-
endar properly correlated with our own? Last Ice
Age
in
North America and Europe
In one of the last advances of the ice on the North American continent a glacial tongue overran a spruce forest in what
known
Two
as the
Creeks area of Wisconsin. The trees
ing to the southwest, the direction of the glacier's
fell
is
now
point-
movement. In
time they were covered by other deposits, and for centuries lay
hidden until they were finally re-exposed along the shores of a lake.
Libby measured a number of samples of carbon from the wellpreserved spruce
In his Geiger counter the
logs.
wood
clicked out
an age of 11,404 years, an age later confirmed by other measurements of the same forest, using difi'erent trees and even the soil in
14 LABORATORY at the University museum, Philadelphia. The man on the left is pointing to the combustion tube where testing samples are burned under controlled conditions, the first step in the reduction of a sample to pure carbon
CARBON
which the forest had grown. The finding was a startling one.
An
Geologists generally had estimated the last stand of the ice in
greenness forested America.
the northern part of the United States at about 25,000 years ago.
of our time began to emerge.
The knowledge
that the ice
had held sway instead
until 10.000
or 11,000 years ago changed the whole time scale of the area.
Time of Early
in
the
WeMern Hemisphere
the United States imtil a brief 10,000 years ago, for he
have gone there while the country lay
been traced with any accuracy; no coherent story could be told
meant
is
now
that
certainly
man had
could not
not
moved
buried under hundreds of feet of
And when
into the northern part of
what
ice.
did the ice pull back in
When was
Europe?
the
way
opened for the development of the postglacial civilization out of which grew the Europe of today? Into the counters were fed peat that had accumulated in the glacial lakes and other organic materials that had been left behind in Europe by the great ice sheets. Dates of 10.000 and 11,000 years were registered by the glacial debris from England to Denmark. Some German birches bowled over by the ice showed, for example, an age of lo.Soo
Edward
of our past. As man's history stood it was beset with uncertainties and contradictions. It was not surprising that scientists eagerly took up the first sure probe ever available to them for penetrating the great murky range of man's prehistory. Step by step, from the nearer past to the most remote, the story was carried back. Several feet below the present surface of Bat cave in New Mexico, excavators had come upon some small primitive corn cobs. In higher layers the cobs
S.
Deevey,
Jr.,
director of the geochronometric lab-
in the
oratory of Yale university, pointed out that "the de-glaciation
Europe was contemporaneous with that of North there had been only the geological evidence for guidance, it was believed to have been earlier. The carbon 14 glacial dates were confirmed by two other methods of measuring the time of that era. The varves or annual layers left by the melting and freezing of the glaciers, and the deposits of pollen built up in glacial lakes, pointed to the same
When
timing of the Ice Age. In 1957 a national conference on radiocarbon dating was able to conclude: "the major climatic events the northern hemisphere (since the last interglacial period)
have been broadly contemporaneous."
When
it
had been cold
Europe it had been cold in North America when pine forests had clothed the northern European plains, so had their dark ;
larger;
they had been
set the time for material
The
from each of the layers
cave floor: material
of northern
America.''
became
better filled with grain. In the top layers were the cobs of today.
Carbon 14
years.
in
Man
The important and engrossing problem of man remained. The development and prehistoric movements of our ancestors had not
It
in
accurate environmental history
depth in feet
age in years
cobs
o-i
1,752
wood wood wood and corn wood
1-2
1,907
2-3
2,239
3-4 4-5
2,249 2,862
man's progress as a farmer stood revealed. Between 2.862 and 1,752 years ago man had learned how to improve stor\' of
He had become a skillful farmer. But man had been present in that part of the country long before the first residents of Bat cave ground up their primitive corn. In 1927 a peculiar kind of fluted stone arrowhead had been found near Folsom, New Mexico. Nearby lay the charred bones the grain he ate.
.
45
At about this time, the early 19505, archaeologists were making remarkable discoveries about some of our earlier ancestors in the caves of north Africa and the middle east. In these natural shelters
man had
taken refuge from the earliest times until today;
move
often present occupants had to be persuaded to
way
evitably left
many
evidences of
the bones of the animals
it
ate,
In the cave of the Heifer's
Caspian
sea,
University
Carleton
make
there, including its
and often
own
its
Outwash on
in-
looN
bones.
the shores of the
Coon, professor of anthropology at the
S.
museum and
down, layer by
its life
to
Each generation
the archaeologists' excavations.
for
the University of Pennsylvania, dug
through more than 20 feet of debris that
layer,
had accumulated on the natural rock
floor of the cave. In
layer alone he recovered 35,312 pieces of
many
flint,
one
of which
had been worked into highly usable tools. In the bottom layer lay one of the earliest kinds of stone hand axes, and under it, to the anthropologist's great rejoicing, was some charcoal. Carbon samples from all levels of the Heifer's Outwash were rushed to the United States for dating. They arrived
in
delphia just as the United States began a series of atomic
The
tests in the Pacific.
increased radioactivity
in
Phila-
bomb
the air caused
by the atomic bomb explosions interfered so seriously with the counting of the Stone Age charcoal that it was sent on to New Zealand, where the carbon 14 determinations were made. Because New Zealand lay southwest of the Pacific testing site, and of an extinct kind of bison. Libby dated
some
of the charred
bone, and discovered that about 9,883 years had passed since the bison had been killed and presumably roasted by the man
who made
the fatal arrowhead.
Thus Folsom man was placed
southern part of North .America about 10.000 years ago.
in the
Other'arrowheads of the same design, other bones of the same odd bison, and remnants of other fires have shown that the bison hunter had spread widely through the south and southwest, and had even pushed up the valley of the Mississippi river, where he had taken shelter under a great overhanging rock along the banks of the river in Illinois. The edge of the glacier was only a few hundred miles to the north, and the winters
been long and bitter
in that part of the country,
must have
but carbon 14
has dated the hunter's sheltering under the great rock at nearly 10,000 years ago.
the prevailing winds blew^ from the southwest to the northeast,
New
Zealand was unaffected by the radioactivity of the ex-
plosions.
By
devious route the date of the
this
fire
that had
burned at the hand axe level of the Heifer's Outwash was It was 43.000 years ago. .\nd so carbon 14 outlined the history of valley of Asia where his civilization had
man
its rise,
fixed.
the ancient
in
and
in
the New-
World where he came long afterward. Only a beginning has been made, but an important part of the framework has been put into place. It testifies that a
very brief time. Only a
man moved
men who
edged, separates the
lived in
what is essentially must now be acknowlcaves and made stone tools
live
skyscrapers and
fast in
flicker of time,
and the men of today who
atom their tool. Carbon 14, it should be
said,
is
in
it
make
the
not an infallible measurement.
example, for modern roots that grew down into
At about the same time man also lived on the west coast. In Fort Rock cave on the Oregon coast, buried many years ago by tons of pumice from a volcanic eruption, scientists found 300
It is possible, for
They were as handsomely knotted and made as any beach sandals of today, and they were found through carbon 14 dating to be 9,053 (± 350)
short of such accidents, against which science carefully guards,
years old.
that will
pairs of perfectly preserved rope sandals.
The counters have
also placed man in Mexico and at the Magellan 9.000 and 10.000 years ago. Whenever man first came to the American continents, carbon 14 tests have demonstrated that he was well spread out from north to south as
Straits of
early as
Earlier
the evaluating committee appointed
Improvements
Asia
method
make
by the learned
societies has
"valid ... an invaluable tool ... a
is
possible to
it
are at last becoming a readable book.
tainty about time.
in the techniques of radioactive
to
method compare the course of events on all continents ... to establish badly needed time scales." The last 70.000 years, through the measurements of carbon 14, held that the
Thermometer
But beyond, farther back in
more radioactive materials
older organic stuff, and for other contamination to occur. But
Urey's Geologic
10.000 years ago.
Man
older strata to add younger and
A
in the past, there still
was no
cer-
chance, though informed, remark was to
than 25.000 years old. The minute amounts of radioactive car-
up another long-hidden stretch of the past. At a scientific meeting in Switzerland shortly after the end of World War II, Harold Clayton Urey, the chemist who had won the Xobel prize in 1934 for his discovery of hea\-y hydrogen or deuterium as it is called, was telling about his work with other isotopes. Urey pointed out that more of the rare isotope of
bon
oxygen fo.xygen iSi
made
it
carbon dating
possible to probe even farther back into man's obscure
past.
With
the original
method
of reducing the samples to pure
carbon, the laboratories had difficulty in dating material left in older
solid
more
samples could not be detected by spreading the
carbon on the
w^alls of a
counter. Several laboratories, how-
worked out a way of converting the radioactive carbon into Much smaller amounts could then be measured, and suddenly science found itself able to use the carbon 14 dating method
light
is
found
in the seas
than in fresh water.
In the discussion that followed. Paul Niggli, a distinguished
would be true then that the
ever,
crystallographer. asked
a gas.
creatures w'hich take their oxygen from sea water and use
with matter as old as 70,000 years.
and skeletons would accumulate more oxygen 18 than animals living in fresh water, and if this would offer a way to
46
their shells
if it
living it
in
Dating the Past distinguish between
them? Urey
said that this certainly should
home Urey,
his return
then of The University of Chicago,
kept thinking about the interesting point Niggli had raised.
decided to test
it
He
out.
He
soon found that not only does more
bony parts of the creatures of the it in their bodies when the water temperatures are colder than when they are warmer. Urey saw that by working out how much oxygen i8 would be deposited oxygen i8 accumulate sea,
little
fluctuations are lost.
He
selected three cores
brought up from more than 10,000-foot depths
be the case.
On
47
the depths the
but that they
fix
in the
more
of
Pacific.
To
find out
in the equatorial
what the bottom temperatures had been he
had to sort out the shells of animals that during their lifetime had lived on or near the floor of the sea. When this tedious task was done and the little shells were analyzed, Emiliani found that the temperature had been about 51 degrees at a period which the layers of the core indicated had been 32,000,000 years ago.
By
22,000,000 years ago the temperature had fallen to about
and measuring how much oxygen 18 was present, he could determine what past temperatures had
44 degrees. Then the layers of the core and the shells indicated the world grew colder still. By 1,000,000 years ago the water was
been.
so cold
at each degree of temperature
thermometer
"I suddenly found myself with a geologic
in
my
Actually four years of hard work were necessary to practical thermometer.
Urey calculated that
make
a difference of
it
one
oxygen 18 to oxygen 16 (ordinary oxygen) in the shells of marine animals. But no existing mass spectrometer (the instrument used for the
hundredths of one per cent of difference
in the ratio of
oxygen 18 and oxygen 16 measurements) could detect differences so small. Urey and his colleagues had to improve the instrument
and they did. had to make sure that the calculations of how much oxygen 18 would be deposited for each degree of temperature were correct. The only way to be certain was to check his figures with shells whose growth temperatures were known. To help solve this problem, the Scripps Institute of Oceanography grew tenfold,
also
number
of marine mollusks at controlled temperatures. Their
to contain the amount of oxygen 18 that Urey had calculated they should. Thus the proposed thermometer was shown to be an accurate one. Urey was then ready to test fossil shells, and shells were collected from many places. The most useful proved to be those of belemnites that had grown about 150,000,000 years ago in a warm shallow sea that covered what is now Scotland. Each year of their growth was marked by the formation of a ring in their shells, exactly as rings form in trees. The rings were shaved off and analyzed one by one for oxygen 18 content. They showed shells
were found
what the ocean temperatures had been belemnites'
in
each year of the
life.
Earth's Climate
Charted
At about the time these experiments were under way, deepsea expeditions from Sweden and from the Lamont Geological observatory of Columbia university were cutting cores from the
bottom of the seas. The scientists took out sections, some them 60 feet long, much as a cook might core an apple.
The layered sediments
of
of the cores constituted a record of the
and other sediments that had settled down to the bottom of the seas through thousands and sometimes millions of years. Cesare Emiliani, who had been working with Urey on paleoshells
temperatures, saw that
if
the temperatures of the various layers
could be analyzed an accurate record could be compiled of what the temperatures of the seas had been at the time each layer wa-
down. A deep core would mirror the temperatures of the ocean over a very long period, and this would reveal the climati laid
of the earth during that time. Emiliani decided to study cores
formed during the last 65,000,000 years, the age of mammals, the age of man, the ice ages and the age of the younger mountains.
"Clearly," said Emiliani, "a picture of
its
climatic trends would
illuminate and clarify the record."
Emiliani wanted to begin with a study of what the temperatures had been at the ocean bottom, for they would give a' better picture of the long-term changes in the earth's climate.
Down
set for the
At such temperamust have had its icecap,
freezing.
beginning of the Ice Age.
a
degree in the temperature of the water would produce only two-
a
was only three degrees above
and the stage was
hands," he said.
He
it
tures, Emiliani recognized, Antarctica
in
Pattern of Recurrent Glacial Periods But it was not an uninterrupted cold that was to grip the earth. As geologists had long since established, the Ice Age was broken by periods of warmth when steamy jungles replaced the snow and ice. The geologists had also traced out four major periods of cold. They could see how far south and in what directions the glaciers had extended, for the glaciers had left behind them miles of scattered boulders, scratched rocks and depressions that had filled
with lakes. But to try to correlate the time of the glaciers posed great difficulties. Emiliani
in the various parts of the land
MEASURING A TRENCH
in the cave of the Heifer's Outwasli, near the C excavated by Carlelon S. Coon. Finding charcoai in the bottom he was able to have the age of the earliest inhabitants of the cave deteri The carbon 14 method set the date at 43.000 years ago
sea,
Dating the Fast According to Milankovitch's figures the cool summers
earth.
would occur about every 40,000 years.
"Our analysis of
the fossils in the cores indicates that the low
points in ocean temperatures did indeed occur at 40,000-year intervals" said Emiliani, pointing to the strange joining of the
evidence of celestial mechanics and the
One
fossils of the seas.
point barred easy acceptance of the Milankovitch
difficult
Why,
theory and of Emiliani's similar findings.
there were
if
recurrent periods of cold, was there no evidence of ice
Why
ages?
did the markings of the ice begin to
300,000 years ago?
Why
earlier
still
show only
did older rocks not bear the incisings of
glaciation?
may
Emiliani has suggested that the answer
raphy of the earth cold,
warm
huge
in
lie in
the topog-
those earlier days. Before the earth turned
seas in which reptiles lived
washed over the
centre part of the North American continent and covered
other parts of the earth that are
Then came of
many
dry.
"young" mountains, the Rockies, the As the land rose the seas and millions of square miles of flat sea bottom turned the rise of the
Alps, the Andes and the Himalayas.
OCEANOQRAPHER RECOVERING A NANSEN BOTTLE. iMt temperature reedings and samples
now
deep »ca watvr
retreated,
into dry level plains. Because dry land absorbs less solar radia-
hoped that the sea cores with their clear, continuous sequences would straighten out the discontinuity and confusion of the land
tion than does water, the climate slowly
evidence.
and the polar icecaps formed. The land became covered with snow and ice, which, being highly reflective, absorbed still less
For a close reconstruction of the earth's climate during the ice ages, Emiliani had to have a record of the surface tempera-
To
tures as well as of the deep temperatures of the oceans.
get
he sorted out the Foraminifera shells from a number of cores taken from the Atlantic, the Mediterranean and the Caribbean
it,
seas.
The
animals with the delicately molded shells had
little
lived within a few
time.
At
hundred
their death they
feet of the surface during their life-
had drifted down
to the
bottom
to
form
part of the soft thick carpet of ooze that covered the ocean's floor.
But analysis of their oxygen i8 content told how warm or cold the surface had been during their lifetime.
When
Emiliani's analyses were finished, the four periods of
cold and the intervening periods of charts like so
many mountains and
warmth stood out on
the
downward
slide in
grew colder; the long
temperatures shown by the sea cores began,
of the sun's heat.
By 300,000
years ago, Emiliani estimates, the climate was so
cold that even the
summer sun
did not completely melt the
that lay deep over the continents.
The
from the north. With so much of the land locked temperatures of the ocean dropped, as Emiliani's
in
ice.
fossil
the
shells
testified.
And
then, the theory holds, a gradual reversal began. As the became colder evaporation decreased and the air became drier. Snow fell more lightly across the face of the earth, until eventually the winter's fall did not make up for the summer's shrinkage. The ice began to pull back. A period of hot summers
seas
increased the shrinkage and the ice melted back until
valleys.
snow
shoved farther down
ice
it
covered
The next step was to date the Foraminifera shells by carbon 14. Hans E. Suess and Meyer Rubin of the United States geological
only Greenland and the polar regions as
survey thus established that the last great period of glaciation reached its peak 18,000 years ago. This coincided almost exactly
other major periods of glaciation. as well as several lesser periods,
with the
many carbon
14
measurements of
glacial materials in
the United States and Europe,
The carbon
pattern, as Emiliani sees
and seems If the
to
be repeating
theory
is
correct
by
will
once again begin to
improved techniques they were out of reach; they had occurred too long ago for carbon 14 measurement. But with firm carbon 14 dates for the last advance of the ice, and a knowledge of the relative times of each of the other
sites of
ice ages, dates could
been weathered down
14.
the
be set for them too.
It
was a
fairly
easy
application of what the scientist calls extrapolation or projection
from the known In this
to the
way Emiliani
unknown. calculated that the
it,
does today.
was repeated through three
itself again.
we
are
moving toward
a
new
ice age.
Emiliani predicts in fact that in another 10.000 years the glaciers
three earlier ice periods could not be directly dated
Even with
The
it
Chicago. Berlin,
move southward and will again bury the Moscow and other cities of the northern
hemisphere.
"Indeed," said the scientist, "we can expect periodic glaciations to continue until the earth's great
Not
until the
mountain chains have
to hills."
mountains are worn low,
until the seas
again rolled in over the flatter land and there first ice
period began
about 300,000 years ago, instead of the 500,000 years that had long been accepted. It was an upsetting finding. And after that,
is
have
more water
sur-
face to absorb the sun's heat, does Emiliani expect the glacial cycle to end.
Time
Man
periods of greater or lesser cold
Setting the
years, for there
As the new geologic thermometer outlined the time of the ice ages, it also, almost parenthetically, outlined the time of man's
came along about every 40,000 were sometimes several peaks of cold within one
glaciation.
The 40.000
years, however,
had a strangely familiar and
signif-
icant sound. In the 1920s the Serbian physicist Milutin Milan-
earliest years, the
for Earliest
unknown years before our ancestors moved
into the caves of southeast Asia
and Europe.
kovitch had suggested that the fluctuations in the earth's orbit
In those earlier times, our forebears must have lived in places
and in its axis of rotation would periodically change the pattern in which the heat of the sun falls on the earth. The result, he
and climates that were relatively warm and hospitable to men who had little protection against the weather. Certainly when the
would be long periods of cool summers and mild winters. During such cool summers the snow of the winter would melt less than usual and gradually ice would cover a large part of the
ern portion of Africa
said,
South African ape men, Australopithecinae occupied the southit was nearly as warm and dry as it is today. The animals associated with them leave no doubt about that .
Dating the Past point.
They were animals
of the temperate or tropic zones.
Thou-
^fg
from the South African ape man, with
own
sands of their bones have been found in the rocks that hold the
to our
and humanlike body bones of the ape men. The Australopithecinae had brains no larger than those of the apes, or about 600 cubic centimetres, but they walked upright on two legs and knew how to make simple tools by striking chips from
must have moved
pieces of bone.
quite rapid.
apelike skulls
his anthropoidlike brain,
large-brained kind in about 400,000 years, evolution
contemplated.
A
far faster than Charles Darwin dilemma would have been created if about the same time had not established by at a pace
difficult
anthropologists at
lived before the start of the Ice Age, Emiliani postulates that
this evolution may in fact have been few genetic changes, it has been shown, could have produced many of the secondary changes, such as the smooth skull and small eyebrow ridges, that make us look differ-
they inhabited their semidesert section of South Africa from
ent from the cave
Since
the evidence indicates that the Australopithecinae
all
experiment and study that
No
400.000 up to about 200.000 years ago.
who had been studying
Geologists and anthropologists
these
strange half-human, half-anthropoid creatures had hesitated to
grave
men
difficulties
bones had been found were not
stratified.
As a rough working
approximation they had spoken of them as of 1,000,000 years ago. If Emiliani's estimates prove to be correct first to
—and
they are
be based on evidence derived, even though indirectly,
from precise measurements
— the
tenure of humankind on this
earth becomes very short indeed.
Well before the
Australopithecinae skull was found in
first
The proper placement the dates for
man had been
later his
little
at first believed to be the
counterpart was found near
man and human company;
Peking, China. It was later established that both Java
man were
Peking
their brains
man had
were
definitely
members
at about
900 cubic centimetre range and Peking over the Hopei valley. from the most primitive human types,
in the
250,000 or 200,000
years ago.
On
the Emiliani oxygen 18
time scale the Early Stone Age of the southwestern Asia
—Neanderthal men with approaching modern —would have been
caves
brains
alive
By
about 100,000 years ago.
about 50,000 years ago they
were gone. The
mains of
men
earliest
now dated
re-
ourselves
like
at about 100,-
000 years, although some authorities
convinced
are
the
time will be reduced again by
more exact
Even
dating.
100,000 years
at
Age-
Ice
the
based dates check strikingly with the carbon 14 dates for
men who
lived in the cave
Outwash and
of the Heifer's
with a host of carbon 14 dates fit
quence.
man
into
time
that
Whether are
set
the
se-
dates
by moving
forward from the time of the last
ice
period,
or
whether
they are set by moving back-
ward from the edge of history with the help of carbon
14
measurements, the agreement is
remarkable. Man's time
at last
But
is
being worked out. if
of the
built fires in his caves looking out
They had developed far and Emiliani now dates them
of
comer on
modern man evolved
of
man, and even the working out of only the last few chapters in
the long history of the earth.
How
long had the earth existed before men, or even the
new
its
surface?
How
old
is
first
the earth
Until this primary tantalizing problem was solved the
itself?
findings could be only dangling bits of evidence.
was
A
"missing link."
that
a late
life itself, still filled in
was the famed Pithecanthropus erectus,
the
of the conclusion
is
Determining the Age of the Earth
outline and the master
are
man
this planet earth.
discovered (1891-92) in the banks of a small Java river. This
size
way
stand in the
which the new dating points, that
to
speck of algae, appeared on
1934, the bones of another very primitive type, of
men
of the Stone Age.
now
time for them, for the deposits of the caves in which their
set a
the
A
to
framework were
requisite
if
A
grand
the present
be satisfactorily understood.
The discovery of radioactivity and of the isotopes in the years preceding World War II had made possible an approach to this GLACIATION
IN
THE NORTHERN HEMISPHERE
Arrows indicate generalized direction
in
former g North Ame ica published by
of flow of
Map
the ntevs. Gerasimov and Geological Society of America; Great Soviet Atlas; E. Markov; and other sources. Polar Equidistant proieclii n; base from Hydrographic and Map service, Canada tion
is
available.
Sources:
Glacial
of
/
Dating the Past
JO
v.
M
^l^ COMPARISON OF SKULLS
of (left)
aorilla.
(centre) ttriy man,
Sinanthropui
pekinensis, and (fight) modern man. All tkulls are shown In the tame plane and at the tame reduction from life tize. As the size of the jaw decreases, the head becomes higher and the heavy eyebrow ridges disappear
age of the rocks alone
Some most resistant of problems. As soon as the war ended research was resumed on lead-uranium dating. While success was achieved with carbon 14 and with the oxygen 18 thermometer, Nier, who had been the
first
to develop dating with the lead-uranium iso-
and others progressed with many of the formidable technical problems that were involved in dating by radioactivity. In lead-uranium dating the scientists were working with minute amounts of materials formed when the earth took shape. Methods topes,
uranium had
of separating the lead and
more
to be
improved; half
decay times of the various materials had to be made
lives or the
exact;
ways had
to be
developed to detect any leakage of
radioactive materials or any changes in
the ores that
would
The prewar work had indicated that the earth millions of years old. Under such circumstances
upset calculations.
was hundreds of
an error of even one per cent could bulk first,
too, separating the materials
contained. It could also give the ratio between them.
The dating
of the earth's rocks and hence of the earth itself could
move
forward with a new speed.
The
began their search with rock known to be very from the ancient hearts of the continents. Most of this
scientists
old, rock
rock lay near the surface, for the original nucleus areas of the
they had no thick overlay of sedimentary rock. of the first lead-uranium ores to be studied
came from is
known. In the mass spectrometer they were found to be an imposing 2,650.000,000 years old. Years before, Rutherford had estimated that a piece of pitchblende was 700,000,000 years old, and before the war Xier had dated some leads in the 240.000.000s. Here was rock tremendously older. And soon lead-uranium ores from the world's other continental shield areas, the African, Australian and Asian, were revealing the same vast age. The earth, which had to be at least as old as its oldest rocks, was older than anyone had seriously estimated. But nearly all of the uranium ores measured w^ere what the
They occurred
in
once-molten rocks
had intruded into still older rocks. Obviously the rocks into which they had pushed their way had been there before; they were older still. Since the surrounding rocks contained no lead-uranium ores there was at first no way to date them. Once again science was stopped short of its goal. By measuring the that
not possible to determine the
other
method had
to be found.
The English
scientist
to form, he arrived at an age of 3.300,000,000 years for the earth.
But there were serious doubts about it. It was virtually certain that lead 207 was not evenly distributed throughout the 20- to 30-mile-thick crust and an estimate based on its surface occurrence probably would not
The search
for
tell
the whole story.
an accurate way of obtaining the age of the
earth had to continue.
Technology and saw that if they could determine the composition of the lead present when the earth was formed and compare it w-ith the composition of the earth's lead today, simple subtraction would show exactly how much lead had been added to C. C. Patterson of the California Institute of
a
group of
his associates
by the decay of uranium. But how could anyone determine what the composition of the earth's lead had been at the time the earth was formed out of the dusts of space? If a sample of lead had been taken at that time of birth how much lead 206 and 207 would have been in it. and how much ordinary lead, lead not derived from uranium decay and with the atomic weight of 204? Certainly no part of the original complement of lead had been preserved as such, for the earth's constant wearing down, regeneration and change would have altered
its
pristine state.
Meteorites Offer a Clue
The
task might have been an impossible one except for one
strange clue from outside the earth. In 1947 Harrison
the Canadian Shield, as the North American nucleus area
geologists call pegmatites.
still
Arthur Holmes tried to calculate the amount of lead 207 present in the crust of the earth. By estimating how long it had taken it
continents had never been covered by invading seas and thus
Some
was
the earth
large.
and counting their ages took weeks. Soon after the war, however, the mass spectrometer, the instrument that sorts ions, was improved until on one runthrough of a sample of lead it could supply all the data necessary for computing the ages of both the lead 206 and lead 207 it At
it
age of the earth.
suggested (bodies of
how
it
heaw
Brown
might be used. Not infrequently, meteorites metal, stone or a mixture of both) rain
down
on the earth from outer space. Many astronomers believe that they are the debris from one or
more small planets which came
as the earth
into existence at the
and the other planets, but were
same time by
later shattered
collisions.
The black, metal meteorites contain no uranium or thorium. Thus during the millions of years they were orbiting in space no lead 206 or 207 could have been added to them by the decay of these minerals. Any lead that they do contain must have been there at the time their parent body was formed. It is lead unchanged since the very beginning of things. The great chunks of metal, the meteorites, offered the scientists a duplicate of what the earth's lead must have been Uke at the time of our planet's birth, and of the earth's lead as it was before it underwent any change or was enriched by the decay of uranium. Patterson measured the lead in some of the most famous iron
Dating the Past meteorites that have fallen on the earth. hard, scratched boulders of metal, are analysis of their lead content, he
had
Most of the larger ones, in museums. With the
in his
hands the
first
neces-
sary item of information in his search for a true age for the earth.
Another problem had
to be solved
— the average
composition
was necessary to know how much of the earth's present lead is common lead and how much is radiogenic lead. Samples from any one lead district, or even from several of them, would not do. They would not fully reflect the composition of all the lead everywhere in the world. of the earth's lead today. It
The earth, however, has one By the time the sediments of the
great mixing bowl, the oceans.
land
come
to rest in the greatest
depths of the Pacific a complete mixing has taken place.
The
ground "rock flour" of the ocean's floor is t>pical of the rock of all the continents, and of the lead of all of them. By extracting the lead from the rock flour and analyzing its proportions of common and radiogenic lead, Patterson developed an
jx
The
was profoundly impressive. It had taken 4,500,000,000 years of uranium disintegration to produce the earth's present complement of radiogenic lead, and that meant that 4,500,000,000 years had passed since the earth came into being. The earth then was 4,500,000,000 years old. For the first time in man's long effort to find the age of the earth, the age arrived at was no estimate, but a positive, verifiable, repeatable measurement. It has since been confirmed in other laboratories. Only one question beclouds its certainty. This is the initial assumption that the meteorites are from planetary bodies tliat consohdated at the same time as the earth. There is no 207.
result
present
way
for
strong and science preponderantly accepts
it is
of proving this assumption although the evidence it.
1
finely
accurate picture of the average composition of the earth's lead today.
One additional computation was necessary. Information also had to be obtained about the composition of the lead in the deeper parts of the earth's crust, for it would differ from that of the surface.
For a sample of the deeper lead the California
scientists
turned to some of the undisturbed lava flows along the Snake river in Oregon.
deep
These great outpourings of lava had come from and could be accepted as typical of the ma-
in the crust
and lead of lower parts of the crust. all of the analyses were complete, the ing and revealing. The ocean terial
When
much
But further confirmation was soon orites that fall
more frequently on
were
strik-
come. The stony mete-
— they
—
make up about 90 per cent of them all contain both uranium and its end product, lead. Patterson, Brown and Mark Inghram, all then of The University of Chicago, and George Tilton of the Carnegie institution separated enough of the radiogenic lead to obtain a 206/207 ratio. And the same significant figure cropped up again. The stony meteorites, which had come from the mantle or crust of the shattered planet and which in composition were unhke any stone on the earth, also disclosed an age of 4,500,000,000 years. meteorites
results
to
the earth than the metal ones
in a
alst
body of pla
ve
existed.
almost
rock flour contained twice as
Other Calculations Confirmed the Result
lead 206 and
207 as did the meteorites.
The
from the decay of uranium and thorium was remarkably demonstrated. It was the same with the lead from the lava flows. The gra> metal brought up by the molten rock from deep in the earth also had been enriched by the decay of uranium and thorium. It had about a third more lead 206 and 207 than earth's gain
the unenriched meteorites.
These were representative measurements; they could be taken to present an average for the earth's surface
crustal depths.
its
and for
The
scien-
compute how much radiogenic lead had been added to the earth since tists
could
at
last
its birth.
Earth's
Age
Set at
4,500,000,000 Years
^,^«K,-^--:.
In addition they could cross
check their results by comparing the ratio of lead 206 to
HISTORY OF A FOSSIL: A is trapped in mud or a tar dies.
a
era
dinosaur pit and
area is covered by a sea, and sediments are deposited on the siteieton. After olhe laye built river begins to cut through the n Eventually a deep valley is cut, posing the layer containing the fossilized remains of the dinosaur In
iaier
tl^e
i
Dating the Past
«a
And
still
more proof
piled up.
Among
isotopes of the earth are those of
the principal radioactive
rubidium and potassium.
the date of the solidification of the earth and the meteorites at
4,500,000,000 years.
agreement, and
was an astounding and overwhelming
It
mean
and potassium to argon, a gas. Here were two other timepieces whose running down could be measured, and both were important because they were widely distributed through the earth's rocks. Measurements with these produced dates for some of the earth's oldest rocks, dates which were found to be in close accord with
from which the meteorites came were among them. So strong was this converging of proof that the age of the earth is now generally considered fixed at about 4,500,000,000 years. Refinements in dating methods may establish the figure
those previously established by lead-uranium dating.
more exactly
But there was another possibility. Tiny traces of rubidium and strontium are found in meteorites. By measuring the stron-
certain that the final figure will be of the present order.
tium content of the metal meteorites and the rubidium and stron-
6,000 years, the 100.000.000 years of the
tium quotas of the .stony meteorites, Ernst Schumacher was able
000.000 of recent
Rubidium decays over
to
billions of years to strontium,
compute their age with this new time tool. By this totally difmeasurement, the meteorites again registered an age of
it
could only
years ago worlds were in the making.
The
or extend
it
that about
4,500,000,000
Our planet and the body
somewhat, but science now
is
virtually
old estimates of the age of the earth, the archbishop's
any but
scientific estimates, all
salt
count, the 3,300,-
have ceased to be of
historical interest. After centuries of speculation, the
made
ferent
discoveries of the atomic age have
4.500.000,000 years.
through nearly incomprehensible lengths of time and say, "that
G.
J.
Wasserburg and R.
J.
Hayden then discovered
that stony
meteorites contain argon, produced by the decay of potassium.
and calculated how many years had gone into slow accumulation. The answer was 4,600,000.000 years. Once
They measured its
it
again the same, or nearly the same, figure had appeared.
Three entirely
different
possible to reach back
was the birthday of the earth."
The discovery
of the true age of the earth and of the time of
our world's major events and of man's own time perspective. far
methods of measuring time thus placed
it
The
earth,
we have
learned,
is
is
opening a new
far older
younger than even the most daring had thought.
veriest ol
newcomers on
a very old planet.
\C(^N
TOTAL 4,500.000,000 YEARS CAMBR/AM
TIME BEFORE.
and man
We
are the
1960
BRITANNICA BOOK OF THE YEAR
A
BRITAN ....
Record of the March of Events of 1959
BOOK OF THE YEAR
1960 WILLIAM BENTON,
Publisher
JOHN DODGE, Executive Editor HOWARD E. KASCH, Managing Editor V.
ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, CHICAGO
•
TORONTO
•
LONDON
INC.
o
i960
BY ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
COPYRIGHT UNDER INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT UNION ALL RIGHTS RESERVED UNDER PAN AMERICAN AND UNIVERSAL COPYRIGHT CONVENTIONS BY ENCYCLOP/EDIA BRITANNICA, INC.
Britannica Book of the Year (Trade Mark Reg. U.S. Pat. Off.)
PRI.NTED IN
U.S..\.
THE UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO
The Britannica Book of is
of
The
editor of the
privilege of using
the faculties
Britannic.\ 29
the
Year
published with the editorial advice
of The University of Chicago
Book of the Year
illustrations from
ownership of all illustrations
may
acknowledges with gratitude the
Time, Inc. Acknowledgments of
be found on the following three pages,
the copyright
the editor
—
..
.
TABLE OF CONTENTS Feature Articles
HAWAII, The
Island State, 3
DATING THE PAST,
List of Illustrations
40
and Acknowledgment
of Copyright,
v
Introduction, viii Editors
and Contributors, ix
Calendar, 1960, xxii
Calendar of Events, 1959,
1
Britannica Book of the Year, 17 Index, 761
OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST
(Acknowledgment
Accident victim clutching
at rope (United Press International) 18 19 Adrian, Gilbert (UPI) 506 Advertising pose for dog food (UPI) 20 Agricultural Research Service Experimental wheat (Courtesy. U.S. Agricultural Research Service) 22 Agriculture New spraying rig (UPI) 24 Locust control, Jordan (UPI) 27 Aircraft Industry X-15 (Cornell Capa Magnum) 29 Flying crane (UPI) 30 Akihito (Wide World) 6 Alaska statehood medallion (UPI) 33 Algerian offensive {Paris-Match from Pictorial Parade) 36
...
Adenauer and Erhard (James Whitmore*)
—
Ambassadors and Envoys Resignation of Mrs. Luce (UPI) American Literature
37
Atomic Energy
Continued Locating fall-out (UPI) Playwright for disarmament (European) Pipes for waste (European) Australian crowd (Courtesy, The Herald & Weekly Times Ltd., Melbourne) Automobile Industry 1960 Corvair (Courtesy, General Motors Corp,) 1960 Falcon (Cornell Capa— Magnum) ... 1960 Valiant (Courtesy, Chrysler Corp.) 1960 Bluebird (HJA from Pictorial Parade) 1960 American (Courtesy. American Motors Corp.) 1960 Lark (Courtesy, Studebaker-Packard .
.
74 75
78 78 78 78
.
.
Corp.)
Automobile racing car from Publix)
in Italy (Publifoto
Beatnik poet (Burt Glinn— Magnum) (Elliott Erwitt .
.
.
,
— Mag-
num)
40 41
Anderson, Maxwell (Wide World) Angling lures (Joe Clark) Antarctic rescue (Courtesy, U.S. Coast Guard) Archaeology
506 43 45
— Pix
(Barratt's Photo Press Ltd,, London) . in pit (Courtesy, Attica. Athens) Queen examining statues (London Daily Express from Pictorial Parade) Herma in pit (Courtesy. Attica, Athens) . .
.
....... ,
Golden bowl (Loomis Dean*) Street in Herculaneum (Anthony Mann, Rome) Water bowl in portico (Anthony Mann, Rome) Mesa Verde excavation (Courtesy, National Park Service)
48 48
48 48 48 48 48 51
Yale hockey rink (Ezra Stoller) Frank Lloyd Wright funeral ( Michael Rougier*) Arctic research team (The Times, London, from
53 54
Pictorial Parade) Arkansas segregationists (Francis Miller*) Armies of the World
55 58
...
Panama (UPI)
61
Battalion's last trooping (Central Press from Pictorial Parade) "Invasion" (Courtesy. U.S. Marine Corps) Laotian troops (John Launois— Black Star*) Soviet troop review (UPI) "Metrac" truck (Loomis Dean*) Art Exhibitions .
,
"Welcome Home" (Wide World)
61 61 61 61 62
Astronomy
.
.
80
Canada Queen
83
,
85 85
.
Precision flying at Farnborough (Wide World) Talon trainer (UPI) Hovercraft (Central Press, London) .
.
Mold spores (Grey Villet*) Bank of England's new quarters (European)
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
85 85 85 85 85
94
Banks, Ernie (Wide World) 14 Barrymore, Ethel (Wide World) 506 Baseball Comiskey park (UPI) 97 97 Series catch (UPI) Haddix' no-hitter (UPI) 98 Baudouin at tomb (Burt Glinn— Magnum) 100 Bechet. Sidney (European) 506 Belaunde, Victor (Leo Rosenthal— Pix from .
.
Publix)
11
Berenson, Bernard (Wide World) Blind student lecturing (UPI) Bloch. Ernest (UPI) cell
506 108 507 110
exhibit (UPI)
Bohlen, Charles (Wide World)
,
.
.
69
11
of Chaucer sold in London {The Times. London, from Pictorial Parade) 112
Book
Encyclopedia Britannica pirated in Formosa, Boxing champion floored (George Silk*)
2
....
113 116
Brazil
... AEC)
71 71 71
.
132
.
.
Political rhinoceros (Waldir Braga) 118 Bridge opened near Le Havre {Paris-Match from Pictorial Parade) 120
.
6
,
in Toronto (Federal Newsphotos of Canada) 137 Highway development (UPI) 138 Canal improvement (Courtesy, T.V.A.) 141 Cartoons in
.
.
,
"And No Fairy Godmother
.
Sight" (Cour-
The Evening
Bulletin,
562
Philadelphia)
"Another Surplus Problem" (Courtesy, F. O. .Mexander. The Evening Bulletin. Philadelphia)
102
"Around the World in Four Hats" (Courtesy, Newton Pratt, McClatchy Newspapers) 407 .
89
'
.
...
.
students (Joe Munroe*) ... 134 Press from Pictorial Parade) 135
tesy, F. O. .Alexander,
83 83
Book Publishing
Navy
Atomic Energy Hopkins laboratory (UPI) Radiated plants (Courtesy, U.S, .A.EC) Operating reactor core (Courtesy. U.S.
.
Cambodian monarchs (Central
121
126 126 126 126 126
.
.
78
83 83 83
YHC-IA (Courtesy, Vertol Aircraft Corp.) Victor bomber (Central Press from Pictorial Parade) F4H-1 (Courtesy, McDonnell Aircraft Corp,)
Blood 65 66 67
"Ecce Homo" (Wide World) Art masterpiece sold (Wide World)
.
....
....
Cabot, John (UPI)
Bacteriology
Architecture
Ultraviolet photograph of sun (U.S. photo, courtesy Dept. of Defense) .
(Wide World)
by Duke of Edinburgh
78
Aviation, Military
Buckeye trainer (Courtesy. U.S. Navy)
Mask
Statues
jets
visited
(Central Press from Pictorial Parade) Building and Construction Industry Workers posing for photograph (UPI) Television for sidewalk viewers (UPI) "Octet Truss" (Pictorial Parade) Water tower in Finland (UP!) Dedication of Time-Life building (UPI) Business Review Big shareholders' meeting (Yale Joel*)
California
Aviation, Civil Flash landing system (UPI) Jet crew training (UPI) Vertol 107 (Courtesy, Vertol Aircraft Corp.) Convair 880 (Courtesy, Convair Div., General Dynamics Corp,) London heliport (Central Press from Pictorial
Parade) Boarding platform for
Borneo
British
71 72
.
,
Sandburg and Steichen
Paratroops over
is to be found in the Parentheses. from Time, Inc.)
of Copyright
Asterisks denote Illustrations
.
"Busted Bubble" (Courtesy, Jerry Costello. The Knickerbocker News) 430 "Don't You Harm a Hair of This Little Lady's Head" (Courtesy, Bill Mauldin and the SI. Louis Post-Dispatch)
363
"Dream Come True" (Courtesy, Reg Manning, McNaught Syndicate, Inc.) "Finally Waking Up" (Courtesy, Daniel Holland, The Chicago Tribune)
179
474
(Courtesy, Tom Ellinwood, The Arizona Dailv Star) 222 "... I Represent the Dark Side of the Bright ." (George Business Picture, Mr. Truffle! Lichty, Chicago Sun-Times Syndicate) 182 "I Want a Thought-Provoking Speech, Figby! One That'll Require Plenty of Thinking on the Part of the Voters if They Want to
"Humpty Dumpty"
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Know Where
I
Stand on an Issue!" (George
Lichty, C/n'cago 5H«-r(m£5 Syndicate) "Let's Face It, Pop" (Courtesy, Reg Manning, McNaught Syndicate, Inc.) "Let's Look at the Brighter Side of Each Other for a Change" (Courtesy, Richard Yardley, The Baltimore Sun) "'Massive' Is in the Cold, Cold Ground" (Courtesy, Newton Pratt, McClatchy Newspapers) "Monty Opens a Second Front" (Courtesy. James J. Dobbins, The Boston Traveler) "No, Just Our Farm Program" (Courtesy, Daniel Ho\Und, The Chicago Tribune) "Oklahoma Sunset" (Courtesy. Fred O. Seibel, The Richmond Times-Dispatch) .
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
553
200 351
166
304 25
520
— LI
vt .
.
.
.
OB"
.
C.unl
.
.
.
.
.
569 Lichty. Cloioto Sun-T>m,< Syndicate) "The Flam Were Still There" (Courtesy. Rich103 ord Yardley. Thr Baltimore iiiii) .. •'The Postman .\lways Ring« at Least Twice (Courtesy. Eldon Pletcher. Sio.i.t City Jou.
.
Foot printing (Courtesy. Bob Doty) Diaz Lanz. Pedro (Hank Walker*) Diefenbaker. John (Wide World)
.
.
.
All
WomenI
'
(Courtesy. Interlandl
from the Toronto Daily Star. ©Register & Tribune Syndicate) •'This Is Supposed to be Friendly Territory (Courtesy. James J. Dobbins. The Boilon
'"
,-.
206 10 3
fire. Georgia (Savannah Morning News 209 photo by Andrew Hickman) 210 Nile excursion boat sinking (UPI) Airliner crash in New York city (UPI) ... 211 507 Donovan. William (U'Pl) 510 Douglas. Paul (European) 510 Duplessis. Maurice (UPI)
"There Must Be Something WrongI This Say» World Population by 1990 Will be 600 BiU lion
....
Disasters Trestle
559
al)
*' ''
507 507 205
Dermatology
.
.
.
.
Education
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
17
.
223
Entertaining in London (UPI) Electrical Industries
New
^ , ,,^ ceramic (Courtesy. General Electric Co.) 226
Electronics
Miniature radio unit (Courtesy. U.S. Army) .Antisubmarine plotting device (UPI) Elizabeth 11 (European)
''
227 228
.
....
,-,
••You Know What Curiosity Did to the Cat (Courtesy. Daniel Holland. The Chicago
10
US
iv Advertising, dollar expenditure. 25 Agriculture, gross farm income. U.S j3U Business aspects. U.S 131 inventories Business: sales and Glass-making process , ,„-• ;„I 298. 299 Gold. 2 (Courtesy. Miroslav A. Kriz) Petroleum production (Courtesy. American
231 Waiting for surplus food (Paul Schutzer*) Epstein. Sir Jacob (Central Press from Pictorial ^'O Parade) Ethiopian emperor on vacation (Paris-Match 236 from Pictorial Parade) .•
.
.
•
;
•
Petroleum Institute) Prices: wholesale and consumer's Stocks and Bonds: yearly averages Standard and Poor's Corp.) Stocks and Bonds: sales and prices Standard and Poor's Corp.) Chicago museum visited by Queen (UPl) Chinese anniversary celebrations. .
\^' 564
.
(Courtesy.
654 654
'"
•
(Brian
159
Brake— Magnum)
^^* 164
Commerce)
Civil Rights Southern protest (UPI) Coast Guard training centre
'°'
;
(Courtesy.
U.S. I'l
Coast Guard) Cohen. Octavus
507
Rov (UPI) Colombia disaster victims (UPI) Colorado forest fire (Wide World)
ip 1"4
Communism Kerala procession (London Daily Express from 178 Pictorial Parade) 14 Couve de Murville. Maurice (Wide World) 189 Crime committee witness (UPI) .
Cuba
—
.
Castro speech (Bob Henriques Magnum). Guarded Prisoners (Burt Glinn— Magnum) Tank in Havana (Burt Glinn— Magnum) Revolutionary forces in Havana (Paris-Match from Pictorial Parade) Hand-to-hand fighting (Paris-Match from Pictorial Parade) Cypriots celebrating (Rene Burri— Magnum) .
.
.
.
.
Erwitt— Magnum) in Moscow (Owen .
Nixon opening U.S. exhibit from Black Star)
245
furnishings exhibit (Franz Goess from
245 245
Black Star)
exhibit (Wide World) Rock-and-Roll dancers (Franz Goess from 245 Black Star) Cosmetics exhibit (Franz Goess from Black
245
190 190 190 190
190 193
15 Farah Diba (European) Fashion and Dress 249 Brocade tunic (UPI) White suit, fur-lined coat. Chanel-inspired suit and wool dress. 4 (Courtesy. Eleanor Lambert. Inc.)
Pouf tunic (UPI) Beaver-trimmed suit (Central Press from Pictorial Parade) Fencing championships match (UPI) Fire and rescue tower in Chicago (UPI) Fisliery in India (Courtesy I.C.A.) Floods and Flood Control Meadville freight yard (Clyde Hare*) Wabash river (Wide World) Plaving in Karachi street (UPI) Coffins of victims (Paris-Match from Pictorial
....
....
Dam across the Zambesi (Camera
3
Press— Pix 196
from Publix)
Dance
....
197 Bolshoi ballet (Authenticated News) Dating the Past Prehistoric cave painter (Courtesy. Chicago 40 Natural History Museum) Egvptian head. 5th Dvnasty (Courtesy. The 41 University Museum. Philadelphia) Guadalupe mountains (Courtesy. Carl O. 42 Dunbar) Carboniferous crinoids (Courtesy. Walker Mu42 seum. University of Chicago) Self-photographing uranium (Courtesy. American Museum of Natural History, photo by 43 Coles) Funeral boat of Sesostris III (Courtesy. Chi44 cago Natural History Museum) 44 Scroll of Book of Isaiah (.Authenticated News) C-14 laboratory (Courtesy. The University Museum. Philadelphia, photo by Reuben 45 Goldberg)
....
249 249 249 254 256 257
259 259 259
259 Parade) 259 Awaiting rescue (UPI) 259 High and dry cow (Wide World) 510 Worid) Errol (Wide Flynn. Pix Fonleyn. Dame Margot (Camera Press— 6 from Pubhx) Football
Northwestern
303 303 511
308
511 Halsey. William. Jr. (UPI) 311 Hawaiian star added to U.S. flag (UPI) Hawaii. The Island State 2 Honolulu (Courtesy. Hawaii Viiitori Bureau) 4 Statehood announced (Wide World) 5 Map of the major islands Terraced pineapple fields (Courtesy. Hawaiian 7 Pineapple Co.) Sugar Hawaiian Washing sugarcane (Courtesy. .
....
7
Planting rice (Victor
J.
Jurgens from Black
Star)
v.
Wisconsin (UPI)
....
Foreign aid for India (Courtesy. I.C.A.) Formosa visited by King Hussein (UPI) France Debre addressing assembly (Dalmas— Pix from .
.
262 264 270
272 Publix) Eisenhowerin Paris (Dalmas— Pixfrom Publix) 272 Dollluss balloon. 2 (Dalmas— Pix from Publix) 272 Bicycle race (Paris-Match from Pictorial Pa272 rade) Elephant (PubUfoto— Pix from Publix) ... 272 De Gaulle in .Algeria (Paris-Match from Pic272 torial Parade) French Community 275 Women of Madagascar (UPI) 279 Fur-trimmed coat (Milton H. Greene*)
....
Gates. Thomas.
Jr.
(UPI)
I
(Rosenberg from Black Star) Cattle on Parker ranch (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by Fritz Henle). (Courtesy. Hawaiian pineapples Harvesting Pineapple Co.) Flowering ginger (Werner Stoy from Black
Raking
coffee
7
.
7
.
7
*
Star)
Surf riders (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency,
photo by Hawaii Visitors Bureau)
...
C
15
Genetics 282 Test-tube babies (UPI) Geneva Foreign Ministers' Conference Foreign ministers in Washington (Wide World) 283 C»erniany
Adenauer congratulates new president (Pans293 Match from Pictorial Parade)
10
Agency, photo by Ansel Adams) New homes (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by R. Wenkham) Grade school (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by R. Wenkham) Buddhist cemetery (Courtesy. U.S. Information .Agency, photo by Ansel Adams) Tourist luau (Werner Stoy from Black Star) Shore of Kauai (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by Hawaii Visitors Bureau) Waikiki beach (Courtesy. U.S. Information .Agency, photo by Ray Atkeson) Haleakala volcano (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by Hawaii Visitors Bu.
'2 13
.
14 IS
.
H
.
16
'0
reau) forest (Courtesy. U.S. Information Agency, photo by Werner Stoy) Wailua river. Kauai (Courtesy. Hawaii Visitors
Fern
1*^
•'7
Bureau)
Rugged
coastline
(Bob Brooks from Black '7
Star)
Nuuanu Pali (Werner Stoy from Black Star) Haleakala volcano. Hawaii (Courtesy. Hawaii Visitors Bureau) Oahu valley (John H. Gerard from Black Star) Statue of Kamehameha (Courtesy. Hawaii \'isitors Bureau) Cook monument Bob Brooks from Black Star) Population chart
Waterfalls near
'7 ^7 77 ^**
20 ^4
(
women of mixed descent (Courtesy. U.S. Information .Agency, photos by Fritz Henle and Werner Stoy) cowboy and elderly lady (Courtesy. U.S. Information .Agency, photos by Fritz
Six
26
Little girl,
Henle) Construction worker and young artist. 2 (Robert Goodman from Black Star) Japanese newspaper boys (John H. (ierard from Black Star) Old Chinese man and pipe (Victor J. Jurgens from Black Star) Fisherman (Bob Brooks from Black Star) .
.
.
Dalai Lama (Wide World)
245 245
.
Star)
City and Regional Planning Coventry mall (Central Press from Pictorial Parade) ^ Kalamazoo mall (Courtesy. Kalamazoo Chamber of
2 (Elliott
.
Book
Elizabeth :
Soviet exhibit.
Home
(Courtesy,
5
Fairs and Exhibitions Soviet fashion models (Walter Sanders')
303
....
.
.
.
303 303
Air force plane (Courtesy. U.S. Information
288
Tribune)
303
Planters^ .Assoc.)
H
Porirait (Wide-World) In Turkey (Camera Press— Pix from Publix)
Car Field We Want It to be the GIANT of the Small Car Field!" ((Seorge Lichty,
Charts
221
With Khrushchev at Washington airport (Wide Frontispiece World)
.
....
.
.
....
.
•Where There's a Lot of Smoke^^ (Courtesy. 143 James J. Dobbins. The Boston Traveler) •You Better Make It Longer. Lower and Wider ... If We're Going into the Small C*Kif parliament (Central PrcM Irom Pictorial Parade) Sir Winiton Churchill (London Doily Exprtu from Pictorial Parade) Hugh Gaitskell (UPI) Door-to-d«x>r campaign (The Tiirus. London. from Pictorial Parade) Aneurin Bevan (London Daily Exprtis from Pictorial Parade) Harold Macmillan (Central Preu from Pictorial Parade) Grosz. (Jcorge (UPI) Gymnastic exhibition in Switzerland (London Daily Express from Pictorial Parade)
.
Trmlir) ^ „ . "This Stock Market Craie Is Getting Out of People Are Buying Hand. GentlemenI Our Stock Instead of Our Products! (George Lichty. Chicago Sun-Times Syndi°^3 Q^c) ••We Cant Tolerate Sloppy IntclliRcnce ReThey ports from Latin .America. Truffle are There Than Revolutions Indicate More Countries' (George Lichty. Chicago Sun523 Times Syndicate)
293 293 293 293
.
....
SO
Cn'ologic lime chart DcMille. Cecil (Euronean) De Nicola. Enrico (UPI) Dental students in Malaya (UPI)
Got Hold
Henriquet-
—
Ma(num) Plea to Eisenhower (Rent Burrl Delay of truck convoy. 2 (UPI) Klitu.hcl.ev in E. Berlin (UPI) Golf U.S. Open tournament (Wide World)
47 4> *»
•
Comparative skulls (Courtesy. American Museum of Natural History) Formation of a fossil
the Opening
all Set (or
We
Magnum)
.
map
(Bob
welcomed
Einenhower ^^
....
o( a Prominent Child Psycholokist to Make a Speech ." (George and Throw Out the Pint Balll
Game
Germany— CoM/i«u*rf
the
Glacial
(Courtety. Richard Yardley. r*
^
'tri|(i
vm^tx-
-nrituHBrrt'
for
WKae
hMiae Hid maM. t» «&c
eaao-aaJ
adann
atiaaMer.
^-
C.E.»M«t-C4' X.SSSL.
004 cm4
•f fakovr. atade
n
.
pwUk Icnen i»
24
MS
U^
uoued SKmn eUel s4 9ta£. aoMKseed C«B. Maaewdi Taylor «lB» «a» iifni'-'-t 10 IsKigjai aortasaB ia ^Kal IMO,
U^ aMd Dd&E
II.A
_je 36r
Maaewi&eitaBMavfcnPte,
S^MlMMMMt I4MW
faaet
hadb sbmf:
aa> agyiieiagntf (or
«4 S2MljSMiJ0K aife ai VA- heat i.
loidiia
^ooa
-iaa at
19 Matr
1
FwetgiB MioMter Vie.Aadnade e«a»Maed (wea i
tar
enKsnwv aartM, JIl riott wfeieh «ecan«d cavfcr iM tke MsmkL
Emato D, Ohris«i««
iiiw— irir.
Cm ilu
iai ,
cdker ^^ Pras.
Shmct Jfjiftr. was "^ \-fir^— *r^
tir."
!
•
^
- -
Eiae'
25
•
APRIL
Vtime Vmaees , . 14
J»liai DieieathatUer a:^-
feaae x^Keaa.
osnaoBd ater a caUaet
dnt dw stxc had iiy a twyal jftMW jinmaK ' aia'ini TT --J—TSewfeaarfbariL strife
Na(««N* t
'-^«»-«9dk:
Mdk
ia iCi
CtMKT•e J*
vislaradTiU: .
|C UASJLdtdaMi jimuiiinwiiiii
Geaeaa oe
se» •!»«* »!«>— wed far J •«
. laaiiiiaifnil
thai
Sew-
wcadd becoMied aa
,iii
U.S.
>
CALENDAR Of EVENTS •'s
aUinsannuum:»t Fi viuJfr pr-A-ans inM>escneit ia Htidslt in-
Daiiumev
Cin>i"~rir7iTir.
'"
Lvimhni.
v.iP
Heate
* eimes or
«r-iiistc "Snniir*'
Ci
^^w ^* *»«•*''
-"MSB
;t
lit
OWanams ~
;
-
Duiltas
af3s- lis
ifhn;
2*?
-ns^cicxnui C.:rn:Ti It
->
-\naiitirs
.ind
icnci-
•.c
called on U.S. govt, to establish a "more definite" policy on international ontrol and use of
outer
IJ vr. slate of »iege.
Sir
Luce
9
i
1959
•
house committee on
U.S.
prizes,
Cnluinhia
awarded
his verse
announced
university,
to .-Xrchibald
play J-
were
MacLcish B. and to
in
Population of U.S.S.R., lU according to 1st Soviet census in 20 yr., totaled 208,800,000.
nKing gium
arrived
ton, D.C.,
on
Baudouin
a state visit.
stateil in a coMiniuni' of Traffic Safety Activities, administered by the National Safety council. Forty-eight states
and Puerto Rico reported
their ac-
complishments. Under an award program based on inventory
won the top award. Lesser awards went to 262 and 14 states. Farm Safety. Accidents to farm residents in 195S claimed 11.300 lives and caused approximately 950.000 injuries. Farm work accidents alone resulted in 3.300 deaths and 300,000 inscores. Detroit cities
was
the lowest on record. In manufacturing, the total of i,Soo deaths
was the lowest since 1939. Compared with the averages of the live years preceding World War II, the 1958 injury frequency
—
juries.
Three more
states organized state
farm safety commit-
17
ADEN
18
with 1,569 deaths. Other leading causes were: drowning, 1,230; hums, 637, railroad, 338, and poison gases, 149.
Birth and Death Statistics; Disasters. (M. E. Hr.)
SVc also
—
Anyone At All (1954); Casually SCVCI.OP/EDIA Bbitannica Films. (1954); Drive Dejensivelyl (1959); Insurance Against Fire
iiraiK-i-
.\den
J
•
nUCM.
name
the
is
of a British colony
and
a protectorate
on the south coast of Arabia,
—
Colony. Area: 75 sq.mi. Pop,: (19SS census) 138,441, inArabs 40.4%; Yemeni 34,8%; Indians and Pakistanis
hilling
1
I
•vj
__
wet
clinoing to a rope after bein.] an excavation at Long Island City, N.Y., Aug. 17. had to be rerrioved to free him
iq-.S>.
.1
.
sand
IS torn
number of
brinRiiiK to 44 the
states with
farm ac-
The Farm Safety institute was held in Illinois in 1959. The emphasis was on agricultural chemical safety and recreational For the i6th consecutive year, the president of the Tnitcd States proclaimed a National Farm Safety week, in July.
safety.
—
School and Child Safety. Ninety-five deaths in a tragic Chicago school fire brought public clamour in 1959 for a closer examination of school plants and stimulated interest in other areas of school safety. Driver education in high schools con-
tinued to advance, with 51^^ of the schools
— 30 hours of of behind-the-wheel instruction — recommended course
now
to 39'", of the eligible students.
program.
—The
1958 death
toll
in
home
accidents was
end of eight months the 1959 toll was running about the same level. The majority of the deaths were among
and
at the
the very- young and elderly persons. Falls were the chief cause.
The problem was expected
to
grow more acute with the growing
proportions of young people and elderly people in the total popu-
— In
Canada there were 9,655 accidental deaths in 1957 (the latest year for which complete figures were available as of late 19591. This was an increase in number, but resulted in the same rate, with 57.7 deaths per 100,000 population. Motor vehicle accidents
5,694, or about
38%
were the most important type, causing of
all
accidental deaths. Falls were second
Principal Types of Accidental Deaths in U.S.,
Molor Year
1903-1912 1913-1922 1923-1932 1933-1942 1943-1947 1948-1952 (6lh rev,)
Vehicle av. ov. ov. ov. Qv. ov. .
1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
1,200
9,600 26.300 34,931 28,458
34,703 37,955 35.586 38,426 39,628 38,702 37,000
I
Drownfoils
Burns*
t
*
13,500 16,700 22,250 23,820
9,200 8,300 7,210 8,192
21,482 20,631 19,771
20,192 20,282 20,545 18,500
6,579 6,579 6,083 6,352 6,405 6,269 6,700
903-1 958 Fire-
Poisons Poison lExcepI
arms
Goses
9,000 10,700 7,900 8,900 7,600 6,700 6,750 5,303 6,708 4,882
2,100 2,600 3,000 2,724 2,477
2.700
3,572 3,187 2,616 2,834 2,696 2,614 2,500
2,257 2,277
ingsf Roilroad
6,481
6,770 6,334 6,344 6,263 6,613 6,400
2,281
2,120 2.202 2,369 2,400
t t
est.) 350,000. Headquarters of adand British agent: Lahej (pop. about 15,000). British agent, G. K. N. Trevaskis. Eastern .Area. Five sultanates and two sheikhdoms ("includ-
sheikhdoms. Total pop. (1958 viser
—
Hadhramautl. Total pop. (1958 est.) 300.000 (Socotra Island, about 15,000 1. Chief towns: Mukalla (port, headquarters of resident adviser and British agent; pop. about 40,000) Saiun; and Hadibu (Socotra). British agent, A. J. Mcintosh. ing the
;
Kamaran ran Island
is
Kamaran
of
Island.
— Area Red
1,571
1,978 1,686 1,223 1,223 1,163 1,213 1,143 1,250
GosI
KamaThe governor
22 sq.mi.; pop. about 2,500.
the
is
the gov-ernor of .Aden ex officio; commissioner,
Lieut.-Col. R. G.
W.
—On Jan.
sea off the
Yemen
in
coast.
E. Alban.
1959, elections were held for 12 of the
4,
There were 31 canand 27% of the electorate voted. Nine of the successful candidates were Arabs, two were Somalis and one an Indian. None of them claimed allegiance to any political party. 23 seats in the colony's legislative council.
didates,
On
Feb. 11 the chiefs of 6 of the 18 states comprising the
Western .Aden protectorate formally inaugurated the new Fed-
By
the terms of a treaty
between the United Kingdom and the new federation, Britain undertook to provide financial and military aid to assist the federation toward ultimate independence. this
development since
it
Yemen
did not
welcome
appeared to place a further obstacle
imam
in
Yemen's claim to the protectorate and colony. Nevertheless, in May a Yemeni delegation took part in discussions with the .Aden government concerning the .Aden-A'emeni frontier, but no positive conclusions were reached. The .Aden Trade Union congress refused to recognize the federation, which was further strengthened in October by the
the
way
of the realization of the
of
X
3,000 2,700 1,990 1,879
admission of the sultanate of Lahej.
1,551 1,391
Concessions Ltd.
1,339
Workers union went on
way for a Aden protectorate by Petroleum In October the members of the General Port
Discussions took place in September to prepare the search for
oil in
the Eastern
strike in the colony in
an attempt to ob-
1,431
1,422 1,390 1,400
•Includes burns by fire ond deoths resulling (,om confiogrolion, regardless of nature of by chemicals, steom, hot subslonces in yeors prior to 1 949. fincludes drownings in water tronsport accidents. {Comparable data not ovailable Source: National Office of Vital Statistics, except that railroad estimates prior to 1933
injury; also burns
ore based on dota from Interstate Commerce Commission. From 1903 to 1932 the other figures ore estimates based on data for states in the official regislrolion area. From 1933 to 948 the figures o-e those published by N.O.V.S. plus National Safely Council estimates of falls in agricultural accidents and drownings in woter transport accidents. 1 949 to 1 957 figures are N.O.V.S. totols. 1958 figures ore N.S.C. estimates. 1
Religion:
— —
eration of .Arab .Amirates of the South.
lation.
Canada.
150,000. Lan-
Somali.
The governor of .Aden is also the governor of Kamaran dependency of the United Kingdom. Profecforate. Area: about 112,000 sq.mi., including Socotra Island (1.200 sq.mi. I. Language: Arabic. Religion: Moslem. Wfslirn .Area. Eight sultanates, two amirates and eight
History.
Honne Safety.
est.)
residency.
offering the
classroom work and 6 hours
Fourteen states were giving financial aid to the driver education
at
Somalis 7.7%; others 5.7%; (1958 also Indian languages and
.Arabic;
Island, a
cident prevention organizations.
27.000,
:
Moslem. Chief towns Cpop. 1955): Aden CCrater, etc) 09.285; Sheikh Othman 29.879. Governor in 1959, Sir William I.uce. Also forming part of the colony is Perim Island (16 sq.mi.) •iiul the Kuria Muria Islands Cabout 28 sq.mi.). The Kuria Murias are administered for Aden by the British Persian Gulf
of sand
tees in
4';'^
90'"^^
BUHIED WORKMAN in
1
guage:
tain redress for the workers" alleged grievances.
—Colony:
(K.
I.)
Schools (1957): primary 35. pupils 6,790; secondary (incl. intermediate) 21, pupils 4,520: technical i, pupils 29; tfiifhcr-lrainins 2. students 50. There are 5 recoenized private schin-N Schools l'nilir:,iral' 1956. excl. private): 113. pupils 11.03S. There i^ a teacher-training centre in the eastern protectorate. Finance and Trade. Monelar>' unit: East .African shilling valued at 14 cents L'.S. Budget (colony, 1957-58): revenue £3,891,591, expenditure £3.957. 280. Foreign trade (1957): imports £71,923,378; exports £65,300,543. Principal products: salt (197,836 metric tons in 1957), salted fish, entrepot trade. Education.
:
I
—
a
ADENAUER — ADVERTISING —up
000,000,000
19
7%
about
from the previous high point of
$10,300,000,000 reached in 1957. Thus advertising continued the substantial year-to-year increases in dollar volume which the business had
marked up
since the end of
1%
than In
from the 1957
many
World War IL with
when
there was a decline of less
was a
relatively quiet one for ad-
the single exception of 1958, totals.
respects the year
vertising, although the broadcasting business (an
important seg-
ment of advertising continued to make news with a congressional furor over quiz programs and the coaching of contestants condition which was quickly reflected in advertising by the disappearance of most quiz shows with substantial prizes. Another aspect of the investigation by congress of quiz shows was the feeling in many quarters that the move toward what is known as the "magazine concept" in broadcast advertising would be hastened. The magazine concept means that radio and tele\'ision stations and networks would assume full and complete control over program content in the same manner that magazines control their editorial content, and advertisers would buy commercial announcements "adjacent to" or in connection with these program features. But no advertiser would have any direct connection with any particular program and. under the magazine concept, an advertiser would simply contract for so many commercial messages per week or per month. The actual placing of these messages might varv- from day to day or week to week, and would be only incidentally associated with particular programs 1
—
POLITICAL ANTAGONISTS Ludwig Erhard (left foreground). West German minister of economics, and Konrad Adenauer, chancellor (right foreground), during a debate in the Bundestag following Adenauer's decision to remain as chancellor in 1959. He had previously announced his intention to accept the presidency, and Erhard would have been a leading candidate for chancellor
being broadcast.
(1S76-
Adenauer, Konrad
born
),
Gennan statesman, was
in Cologne. Jan.
5.
He was
edu-
Munich and councilor and deputy mayor of
cated at the universities of Freiburg-im-Breisgau.
Bonn. In 1906 he was elected Cologne, becoming lord
mayor
in 191 7.
Catholic Centre party, he was a
A
leading
member
member
of the
of the Prussian Her-
renhaus during 1917-18 and Prussian Staatsrat during 1918-33
He was
(president 1928-33).
mayor
position of lord
dismissed by the Nazis from the
in July 1933.
A
foundation
Christian Democratic union in Sept.
member
of the
1943- he was president
(194S-49) of the parliamentary council of the three western zones which drafted the constitution of the public.
He became
German Federal
Although this tjpe of broadcast advertising and complete divorcement of advertisers from specific programs was by no means universally applauded within the advertising business, it was gaining favour as a needed corrective to some of the program ills
with which television was
afflicted.
—
Advertising Agencies. One important trend which was emphasized during the year was that toward U.S. agency expansion into foreign countries, as advertising acquired greater stature
and more widespread use
in countries
annual tabulation of advertising agency reported that
J.
world, had billed
around the world. In billings.
Walter Thompson Co., largest agency
more than $300,000,000
in 1958, of
re-
000.000 was outside the U.S. Other leading U.S. agencies with large foreign billings included Grant, with an estimated $60,000,-
000
nomic recovery of the republic and by renewed German
agency, with $58,000,000 foreign business; and
partici-
pation in international affairs.
tarj'
Bonn by the U.S. secreOn March 4 he had a long
Feb. 7-8, 1959, he was visited at of state, John Foster Dulles.
talk with
Gen. Charles de Gaulle at Marly-le-Roi, near Paris,
which created a close personal understanding between the two
On
Ludwig Erhard ha\-ing refused to stand for the presidential election. Adenauer announced that he would resign as chancellor so that he could succeed Theodor statesmen.
Heuss
.April
7.
1939.
as president of the
German Federal
republic.
On June
also
DOLLAR EXPENDITURE data for
11
10
^
9
1
8
Paris.
t i
'^^'^"^
new
records.
faltering sUghtly in 1958. advertising ex-
The U.S.
moved upward
total for the
again in 1959 to set year was estimated at $11,-
largest U.S.
Young & Rubi-
Although 1958 than in 1957. the
billings report. less,
a
over
all.
U.S. and Canadian agencies
each billing $25,000,000 or more in 1958, compared with 32 in
chancellor. On Aug. 26-27 he received Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower at Bonn. He visited Harold Macmillan in London on Nov. 17-19 and Gen. Charles de Gaulle in Paris on Dec. 1-2. On Dec. 19 he attended the western four-power conference in
penditures
demonstrated by the annual
Advertising Age report showed
5,
see Education.
McCann-Erickson, second
advertising billings were slightly
would remain as chancellor. This change of mind was explained by his opposition to the probable choice of Ludwig Erhard as
Adult Education:
in overseas billings;
cam. third largest agency, with $32,000,000 in foreign billings. The trend toward bigness in the advertising agency field was
however, he renounced his candidature and announced that he
AriVPrti^inir nUVGI Uolllg.
in the
which $88,-
chancellor of the republic on Sept. 15. 1949.
Adenauer's chancellorship was marked by the substantial eco-
On
its
Advertising Age
2
5
' * 5
1959
for all
are estimated.
mediums
of U.S.
advertising,
(Source: Printers' Ink)
1935-59. The
ADVERTISING
20 the previous year. Their
combined
billing
was $2,700,000,000
compared with $2,600,000,000 the year before. The same general trend toward bigness a reflection of the was evident in the general economic trend in U.S. business in 1958,
— —
on advertising expenditures for the 100 largest U.S. advertisers compiled by Advertising Age. Although total 1958 advertising was off fractionally from the year before, 67 of the 100 leaders increased their expenilitures in 1958, 5 held even and 28, figures
including the "Big 3" automobile manufacturers, cut back.
As a
as a reasonable business expense for tax purposes, but cifically
still
spe-
excluded advertising designed to influence legislation
in
any way. Statistics.
— As
1959 drew to a close,
media would share
all
in
became apparent
it
many
although not necessarily at equal rates. In
was relatively slow not
much
better,
in starting,
if
that
the increased advertising for the year,
and
cases the year
figures for the first half
were
any, than in the previous year. But as the
year wore on, volume rose sharply, reaching all-time peaks
in
100 leaders invested a total of $2,300,000,000 in ad4.6% more than during the vertising and promotion in 1958 preceding year. The largest advertiser, despite a drop for the
the third quarter and promising to carry on through the fourth
was General Motors, with a 1958 investSecond was Procter & Gamble, estimated at $115,900,000. Others in the top ten were General Foods Corp., $96,000,000; Lever Bros. Co., $88,000,000; Ford
by Media Records, months of 1959 was up 6.9% over the previous year, a sharp reversal from 1958, when in the same period linage was down 6.6% from 1957. Since the
Co.. $87,900,000; Colgate-Palmolive Co., $68,000,000; General Electric Co.. $66,000,000; American Home Products
principal gains were in various general advertising categories,
result, the
—
third successive year,
ment estimated
at $137,500,000.
Motor Corp.,
$60,000,000;
and R.
Chrysler Corp., $58,000,000;
J.
Reynolds Tobacco Co., $44,000,000.
Regional Morketing.
— One notable
ing trend during the year
quarter and into i960 unless labour
Newspapers.
was an increased
interest in regional
notably the
steel
the 52 cities measured
total advertising linage for the first eight
rather than in retail advertising, the indicated newspaper gain in advertising
In advertising and market-
— In
difficulties,
manufacturing and marketing plans.
strike, forced cancellation of
revenue was
vious year during the figure
in the
nature of 10%.
1958 automotive advertising was
was
a healthy
first
eight
29.2%
off
months:
23% from
in 1959, the
plus, reflecting a
much
the pre-
comparable
better selling
marketing.
year. Hea\'y introductory advertising in the final quarter, bol-
Special editions covering the western states had been supplied by several magazines for years; in 1959 McCall's became the first national women's magazine to have a special western edition. But attempts to secure regional advertising by magazines in 1959 took a much more drastic form. Among the most startling developments was the Look "Magazone" plan, dividing its circulation for advertising sales purposes into seven standard market zones, and The Saturday Evening Post "Select-a-Market" plan, a complicated system under which an advertiser could buy all of the
stered by the introduction of
edition nationally or one-third or two-thirds of the national cir-
any segment or combination of geographic 25 national magazines, plus farm publications, business papers and others, offered split runs or regional buys of one form or another. Advertising's Tax Status. A serious legal and legislative situation faced advertising during the year when the U.S. supreme court upheld the reasonableness of a treasury department ruling culation, or almost
areas. In
all,
more than
—
disallowing advertising designed to influence legislative action as a "necessary business expense,"
of the advertiser's business
treasury revised
its
was
even though the very existence at stake. Later in the year, the
regulations on advertising which
is
acceptable
new small
motion on behalf of many foreign
lines and greater prowas expected to show
cars,
even higher percentage increases. Financial advertising, a tively small
newspaper
30.2% above tising,
the
first
was
classification,
up
months of 1958, while
eight
which held up well
also
in
1958
('off
only
3%
rela-
substantially, retail
adver-
from 1957), eight months.
showed a satisfactory gain of 5.2% during the first One segment of the newspaper business, however, completely reversed itself. Sunday supplements, which had shown remarkable strength with a gain of 14% for the first eight months of 1958 compared with the previous year, were off 7.9% during the eight months of 1959. Their dollar volume during that period
first
was $74,280,000; the previous year it was $80,485,000. General Magazines. For the first nine months of 1959. general and farm magazines measured by Publishers Information bureau carried $549,524,000 in advertising, up 11.5% from the $492,644,000 carried during the same period of 1958. The figure
—
for the year
was expected
ALMOST 100 DOGS
to
approach
a
12%
increase.
The
$57.-
photograph which was used in national advertising and a television commert al to introduce a new dog food in 1959. Fere still enough for a satisfactory photoIt took seven hours before the dogs assembled for
i
AERONAUTICS — AFGHANISTAN Annual Advertising Expenditures lin
in the U.S.
Films. (1952); Industrial Purchasing (1952).
$000,0001 1958
1957
$3,192.8
$3,283.3 809.7 2,473.6
$3,235.6 788.9 2,446.7
814.3 451.4 164.4 160.9 37.6 33.7
794.7 439.5
150.5 157.7 33,2 34.2 1,354.2 709.1
1,265.3 670.1
397.0 248.1
351.6 243.6
1,206.7 625.1 329.0 252.6
615.7 189.6 368.2
617.9 63.5 186.9 367.5
567.0 60.5 161.0 345.5
1,588.6
1,470.9
1,419.2
540.0
567.6
496.0
768.7
National
2,424.1
Local
Aeronautics:
766.8 425.4
Weeklies
Women's Generol Farm, National
Farm publications (Regional) Television Total
.
.
.
Network Spot Local
165.6 152.5 37.1
36.0
Radio Total
57.9
Network Spot Local Direct mail Business papers
AfirhQnictQn HTglldniSldn.
191.7 129.4 62.3
134.4 64.7
2,017.8 1,183.9 833.9 6,331.0 3,970.8 $10,301.8
2,058.5 1,184.2 874.3 6,253.2 4,057.4 $10,310.6
Local
201.3 135.9
199.1
65.4
Miscellaneous Total
National Local Total national Total locol
Grand
total
'Includes preporotion
and program
1,948.2 1,115.3
832.9 5,925.6 3,979.1
$9,904.7
costs.
Source: Printer's Ink.
Television.
— For eight months,
the Television Bureau of Ad-
network television time
sales at $408,046,000,
up 10.2% from $365,700,000 in 1958. The same source reported spot (nonnetwork) television at $315,323,000 for the first six months of 1959, up sharply from $249,415,000 the previous year. For the year 1959, the Television bureau estimated a total of $1,150,000,000 in net charges for time and talent, a 12% gain over 1958. The total, said the bureau, would consist of $773,000,000 of network business (up g%), $464,000,000 in spot (up
17%) and $273,000,000 Radio.
—Radio
was
in local business
also expected
(up id%).
to continue its
comeback
during the year, but over-all gains were expected to be relatively small. Total radio revenue for 1958
of
1,8% over 1957, according
was $541,000,000, an increase Communications
to the Federal
commission. Sales to local advertisers accounted for almost of the total,
60%
amounting to $323,200,000. National and regional
spot advertising totaled $171,900,000,
Network
radio advertising,
becoming increasingly less important, was off 8% during the year and accounted for only $46,500,000 of the total. For the year 1959, estimates were that spot radio advertising would total about $185,000,000, up 8% to 10% from 1958, despite a slow start.
substantially, nor
hoping
its total
Local advertising was not expected to change was network advertising, but the industry was
for the year might approach $560,000,000.
Business Papers.
—A
relatively slow fourth quarter in
caused business paper advertising volume to
below estimates made early
fall
in the year, the revised
estimate for
However, advertising volume in 1959 was up, to an estimated $503,500,000 and 1,183,000 pages. This was an increase of 7% in dollars and 3"^ in pages, over 1958. of $519,000,000.
— Estimates of the Direct Mail Advertising asso-
ciation for the first six
months of 1959 were $857,529,000, up
about 4.5% from the $818,037,000 figure of the preceding year. Higher postal rates which went into effect Aug. i, 1958, were in large
Af-
(cap.) 209,478 (pop, 1954); Kandahar 60,000; Herat 50,000; Mazar-i-Sharif 30,000, King, Mohammed Zahir Shah; prime
Kabul
minister in 1959,
Mohammed Daud
Khan,
—There was no change during 1959
in the traditional
Afghan policy of neutrality. On Aug. 24, speaking at Kabul on the Afghan national day. King Mohammed Zahir Shah commented, also traditionally, on the problem of Pashtunistan, "still awaiting a peaceful and just solution," Mohammed Daud Khan, the prime minister, explained to the correspondent of a Japanese
had existed for and arose when part of Afghanistan had been annexed press agency that the Pashtun problem
—
a century to British
the Pakistan of today.
New Delhi and September Jawaharlal Nehru, the Indian prime minister, paid a return visit to Kabul. In May the Afghan prime minister was on an official visit in Moscow, where he conferred with Nikita Khrushchev, An agreement on the expansion of Soviet-Afghan economic and technical co-operation was signed on May 28. In February the Afghan prime minister visited
measure accountable for the increase.
steady during 1959.
—
Volume of outdoor The 1958 volume was put
Outdoor Advertising.
Among
other things,
it
provided for Soviet assistance in the con-
Kushka-Herat-Kandahar motor road, more than In September Mohammed Nairn, Afghan foreign
struction of the
460 mi. long.
minister, paid an official visit to Peking.
The budget estimates for Sept. 23, 1958-Sept, 22, 1959 (133738 in the Afghan calendar), amounted to a revenue of .\ghs. 1,455,122,000 (including Aghs. 521,192,000 from foreign loans) and to an expenditure of Aghs. 1,455,107,962, (The afghani is worth about five U,S, cents.) Between the fiscal years 1955-56 and 1957-58 the amounts of Afghan exports rose from Aghs, 1,527,000,000 to Aghs, 1,984,000,000, the main destinations being India, U,S,S,R,, the United States. Great Britain and Poland, The Ariana Afghan airlines in September extended their services from Kabul to Frankfurt, Ger., through Ankara, Turk., and
Prague, Czech.
The reconstruction May.
of the
Kabul
airport, with
Soviet help, started in
—
Education. Schools (1957): primary 7S8, pupils 112,234: secondary 28, pupils 22,632; vocational 24, pupils 4,168: teacher-training 4, students 1,549. Students at the University of Kabul (10 constituent colleges) r,i04. Finance. Monetary iinit: afghani, with a principal export exchange rate (March 1958) of 21.60 and a free rate of 52.00 to the U.S. dollar. Budget (,1958-59 draft est.): revenue 1.455,112,000 afghanis, expenditure 1,455,107,962 afghanis. Currency circulation: (March 195S) 1,851,000.000 afghanis. Deposit money; (March 1958) 844,000,000 afghanis. Foreign Trade. (March 1956-57): imports 1.624.000,000 afghanis. exports 1,500.000,000 afghanis. Principal imports (chiefly from the U.S.S.R., India, Pakistan and Japan): cotton and rayon textiles, sugar, tea, motor vehicles, gasoline, building materials, glass and china, tobacco and tobacco products. Principal exports (chiefly to India, U.S.S.R., U.S., U.K., Pakistan): karakul (Persian lamb) skins (1,874,161), dried and fresh fruits, raw cotton, wool. Transport and Communications. Roads (1957): (motorable) 4.31 1 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): passenger 2,473, commercial 3,723. Telephones (1957) 3,375. Radio receiving sets (1957): 23,094. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1958: r957 in parentheses): cottonseed 39,000 (39.000); cotton, lint 20,000 (20,000): raw beet sugar 6,000 (5,000): wool (greasy, 1957) 60,000 (60,000 in 1956); rice (195556) 250,000 (270,000 in 1954-55): wheat (1955-56) 2,100,000 (2,090,000 in 1954-55): maize (1955-56) 175,000 (664,000 in 1954-55) barley
—
1958
substantially
the year being $470,600,000, sharply below the earlier estimate
Direct Mail.
in central Asia,
is
in
publishing history.
vertising reported
ghanistan
30,7%, Uzbek s'^c. Hazara (Mongoloid) 3'pe of personnel
—a greater percentage of gineers in the over-all
Agriculture, U.S. Department of: partments and Bureaus, U.S.
for space explora-
employed by the industry and en-
skilled technicians, scientists
work
force, with an attendant rise in pay-
roll costs. 2.
Increased emphasis on missiles and space
flight
demanded
and development, which was markedly evident in 1959. Such research was required not only for the end items and their major components, but for new types of tools and equipment with which to build them. 3. Low-volume production and the fact that the military' services were buying fewer t>'pes of aircraft and missiles, as well as fewer numbers of each, increased the competition for the limited defense business and caused most major companies to start
a greater effort in research
Aircraft Industry.
The year 1959 was one
of considerable
activity in the aircraft
and missile
in-
dustry in the United States; a year marked by further increases in the rate of technological effects
change with attendant widespread
on every phase of the manufacturing operation, from the
type of product being built to the
needed
to build
facilities
and equipment
it.
This technological change was a continuation of a trend which had been under way for several years and which was becoming
more noticeable each logical evolution sile;
(2) military
manned
year.
The
principal reasons for the techno-
were: (i) greater emphasis on the guided mis-
demand
for
more and more performance
in
aircraft of a far greater order of complexity than their
predecessors; and (3) assumption of a
new
role
by the industry
SPACE RESEARCH PLANE, secured under the wing of a B-52 bomber, being readied for a captive test flight in the spring of 1959. Clouds of smoke on the ground are nitrogen which has been used to chill helium, the pressurizing agent which feeds the X-15s fuels anhydrous ammonia and liquid oxygen to the engine. On June 8 the X-15 made Its first free flight, released from the B-52 at an altitude of 38,000 ft. X-15
—
—
diversification
programs. Companies known for years as
air
frame manufacturers branched out into propulsion, guidance and other areas.
A
earlier, reached new The need for new construction was brought about by the new types of products being built. For instance, the complex electronic and mechanical systems in new aircraft 4.
facilities
expansion program, started
heights in 1959.
and missiles dictated their assembly in air-conditioned, dust-free manufacturing areas. Industry found that it was usually cheaper to build
new
facilities,
especially designed
for such products,
than to attempt to modify old aircraft manufacturing plants.
AIRCRAFT INDUSTRY
30 Hence, Ihc industry found
the paradoxical position of
itself in
spending hundreds of millions of dollars on new facilities while closing down older ones. Although some of this expansion was
government financed, the major portion of it was financed by company money, with attendant effects on profits. Production. The manufacture of manned aircraft continued to constitute the major portion of the aerospace industr>''s work load during iqso. although the production of guided weapons
—
again increased in proportion. Hccau.sc of the differences in operational use of missiles and aircraft, with corresponding differ-
ences in numbers procured,
it
was
ditTicult to
proportion of the production "mix."
ume, missile production amounted
On
to roughly one-third of all
military aviation production, which included craft (transports, search
estimate the exact
the basis of dollar vol-
noncombatant aircom-
etc.) as well as
and rescue planes,
bat aircraft. For security reasons, the military services did not release numbers of missiles built, but by the end of the year
FLYING CHANE. a cargo helicopter wnicn came.. Uy meani of 1 hoilt impended from the fuselage directly under the main rotor, loads up to tlx tons for about 100 ml. Designed by Sikorsky, It was being tested In 1959
there were 45 missile projects involving production in varying
formance
numbers.
The Aerospace
Industries association estimated the total U.S.
production of aircraft for the calendar year 1959 at 11,000 units, including 8,000 civil aircraft and 3,000 military planes. This
was approximately the same as that for 1958, when 10,860 aircraft of all types were produced, but the civil-military ratio had changed. Military plane production dropped appro.ximately 1,000 units in 1959 (again because of increasing emphasis on missiles), while civil aircraft production gained by more than figure
1,000 units.
fighter; the
T-34, Cessna T-37 and North American T-39 trainers.
Navy.—The Chance Vought F8U, Douglas F4D, Grumman FiiF, McDonnell F3H and F4H, all carrier-based fighter aircraft; the Douglas .•\4D, Grumman .\2F and North American A3 J attack planes; the Grumman \VF-2 and WjF patrol aircraft; the Grumman S2F antisubmarine plane; and the Lockheed WV-2, a Super Constellation converted to use as a submarine
The bulk of civil aircraft production was, as usual, in the category called "general aviation," which included all types of light aircraft and utility and executive transports other than airline-
patrol aircraft.
type equipment.
observation craft.
Production of airline transports during 1959 was e.xpected to be between 250 and 300 units, an increase over the previous
difficult
year, as commercial plane builders
moved
into high gear in the
manufacture of the new, turbine-powered airliners. Five turbine types were being built: the Boeing 707. Douglas DC-8 and Convair 8S0. all turbojet types; and the Lockheed Electra and Fairchild F-27. turbftprop airplanes.
By Dec.
types were in scheduled airline service; the
1959. four of the five fifth,
the Convair 880,
was scheduled for early service introduction. Engine production in 1959 was expected to drop considerably below the 18.733 units turned out in 1958 because of the decline in military airplane production.
Sales in
and
Profits.
—Despite technological changes and
military production emphasis, total sales
remained
at
approximately the previous year's
for the level.
shifts
industry
The Aero-
space Industries association estimated 1959 sales at $11,300,000.000. a decrease from $11,500,000,000 in 1958 and $11,800,-
000.000
in 1957.
Missile sales continued to take up the slack in declining military aircraft production, amounting to $3,500,000,000 in 1959.
.Army.
to the aircraft sales
volume, while military aircraft sales dropped
more than $1,000,000,000 from $8,400,000,000 in 195S. The profit margin for the industry in 1959 was expected to drop to about 2.3% of sales, compared with approximately 3%
Missiles
Aircraft Types
in
Production.
—Major
aircraft types in pro-
duction during 1958 included (in addition to the commercial
air-
mentioned previously) the following military aircraft: The Boeing B-52F bomber and its tanker counter-
Air Force.
—
KC-135; the supersonic Convair B-58; the Douglas B-66 bomber and the RB-66 reconnaissance plane; the McDonnell F-ioi interceptor; the Lockheed F-104 high-per-
part,
in
liaison aircraft;
.Aero
and the Cessna L-19E Bird Dog
Production.— Production
status
for missiles
is
to define, since evaluation of test missiles requires at
The following missiles were being built more than test numbers, were no longer
least limited production. in quantities
built
involving
(requiring manufacture of
but were in operational use
extra parts) or were planned for early quantity production: Surjace-lo-Surjace: .^tlas
(Convair).
ICBM
(intercontinental
ballistic
missile). 5.500 nautical mile range: Titan (Martin), ICBM, s.500 n.m. range: Polaris (Lockheed), navy fleet ballistic missile, 2.000 n.m. range; pilotless bomber: Thor (Douglas) and Jupi(Chrysler), intermediate-range ballistic missiles of 1.500 n.m. range; pilotless bomber; Redstone (Chrysler), medium-range army ballistic missile: Sergeant (Sperry-Rand). Honest John (Douglas), Little John (Emerson Electric) and Lacrosse (Martin), all short-range army battleJield weapons.
Snark (Northrop), long-range ter
Mace (Martin), medium-range
Surface-lo-.-iir: Xike-Hercules (Douglas), antiaircraft missile: Hawk (Raytheon), low-altitude antiaircraft weapon; Talos (Bendix) and Terrier (Convair). ship-launched interceptor missiles; and Bomarc (Boeing), longrange defense weapon. .iir-to-Surjace: Bullpup (Martin), short-range missile for navy attackaircraft: Zuni (naval ordnance), unguided rocket: Hound Dog (North American), designed for use with long-range bombers: and Quail (McDon-
nell), a diversionary missile designed to confuse (Hughes): Sparrow III .iir-to-.iir: Falcon
enemy
radar.
(Raytheon): Sidewinder (Phiico): Genie (Douglas). The Genie carried an atomic warhead for use against enemy bomber formations; the others were small weapons which replaced machine guns on fighter aircraft.
Employment.— The
industry's changing status brought about
a further reduction in the total
work
force.
From 757,600
at the
end of 195S, industry employment declined to 736,500 during the first half of 1959. It was expected to level off at about 700,000.
Outlook.
—-Although
it
was expected that production of
mili-
tary aircraft would continue to decline, manned-plane produc-
in 195S.
liners
—The Beech L-23D Seminole command plane; the
Design RL-26D
Increased costs of commercial airline transports, which ran as high as $6,000,000 per unit for a large turbojet, also contributed
Republic F-i05 supersonic fighter-bomber;
Lockheed C-130 and D(5uglas C-133 transports and a reconnaissance version of the C-130, the RC-130A; and the Beech the
the Boeing
tion
promised to be the major
acti\'ity of the
industry for at least
several years. Missile sales were expected to continue their climb as a
number
of
status. Sales of at
new developmental commercial
approximately the same
projects reached production
airliners
level,
were expected to remain
while the world's airlines con-
tinued their large-scale turbine re-equipment programs; production of light aircraft in the general aviation category was
AIR CRASHES The combination promised
ejcpected to climb again.
for
sales
i960 at a level close to that for 1959. Space research projects, little in the way of production, were ex-
although amounting to
— ALABAMA
31
Aeronautics federation was the 1,404 m.p.h. attained by Maj. Walter W. Irwin in the Lockheed, the Collier award winner.
See also Gliding.
(T. V. H.)
pected to account for more dollar volume and probably to help
maintain total industry employment at about the 700,000 since emphasis on research
level,
and development would counterbal-
Air Travel: see Aviation, Civil. A.L.A.: see American Library Association.
ance the decline in manned-aircraft production. See also Aviation, Civil; Aviation, Military; Missiles. (J- J.
Hy.)
Air Crashes: see Disasters. Air Force, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments AND Bureaus, U.S. Air Forces of the World: see Aviation, Military. Airmail: see Post Office. Air Pollution: see Public Health Engineering.
Alabama was a part of the Mississippi territory • |_L___ nidUdlllda when it was admitted to the union on Dec. 14, 1819, as the 22nd state. Located in the southeastern part of the United States, it is bounded by Tennessee on the north, Georgia on the east, the Gulf of Mexico and Florida on the south and Mississippi on the west. Known as the "Cotton state" or "Yellowhammer state" (from the state bird, the yel-
lowhammer
Races and Records.
Air
won top prize in 1959. The victors
fomians, race in
judged on a handicap
Aileen
Saunders
Mrs.
Jerelyn
Cassell,
and Cali-
the 13th all-woman transcontinental
Powder Puff derby, which
in the
is
Cessna 172 of 145 h.p. Second place went to Mrs. Juanita Newell and Mrs. Jimmye Lou Shel-
who
ton, Phoenix, AYiz., h.p.
basis, flew a
flew in a Piper
Miss Margo Callaway and her
way, of Wilmington,
Comanche P-24
sister co-pilot,
of 180
Sandra Calla-
a Cessna 140 of 90 h.p., were
0., flying
third in the final standing. Sixty-three planes started the race
on
July 4 from Lawrence, Mass., the deadline for the finish at Spo-
noon July
kane, Wash., being
Entries were handicapped on
8.
The 1950 census showed
the popuwhich 2,079,591 were white and-982,152 nonwhite, 1,340,937 urban and 1,720,806 rural. The 1959 estimated population was 3,193,000. The state capital, Montgomery, had a population of 106,525 in 1950. Other major lation of
Mrs.
or flicker), Alabama's area includes 51,078 sq.mi. of
land and 531 sq.mi. of water.
Alabama
as 3,061,743, of
and their population (1950 census): Birmingham 326,037, Mobile 129,009, Gadsden 55,725, Tuscaloosa 46.396, Anniston 31,066, Bessemer 28,445, Florence 23,879, Phenix City 23,305, Selma 22,840, Dothan 21,584, Decatur 19,974 and Huntsville cities
i6,437-
History.
— Gov.
John Patterson
called
into special session on Feb. 3, 1959,
and
weeks authorized the issuance of $60,000,000 in revenue bonds for highway construction. This allowed an early start on a four-
par speeds based on manufacturing and performance data of the
year, $670,000,000 road program.
The
planes.
regular biennial session beginning
May
In the absence of military racing in 1959, roles in the news. air
Mme.
women
played major
Jacqueline Auriol of France, women's
speed record holder, flew a French jet twice the speed of
sound, touching 1,350 m.p.h. Jerry Cobb, in an Aero
Commander
680E, set a mark for business planes when she sped over a 2,ooo-km. course at 226 m.p.h.
The National
Pilots association chose
pilot, as "Pilot of the
Max
Conrad, U.S. ferry
Year," citing him for pioneering in safe
the state legislature
legislators within three
ited
by law
to a
maximum
legislature 5,
met again
in
but this session (lim-
of six legislative days)
was
inter-
rupted June 24, when the governor called a second special session to take
up the pressing needs of the
state's
education system.
The legislature levied an additional two-cents tax on cigarettes, removed most of the exemptions from the state's 3% sales tax (estimated to bring in about $32,000,000 more annually) and authorized a $100,000,000 revenue bond issue for classroom construction. In regular session, the legislature passed the state's
10%
transoceanic flights in light single-engine and twin-engine craft.
first
In his s6th transoceanic
increase in whisky taxes to benefit mental health and old-age
ended June 4, Conrad covered 7,683 mi. nonstop from Casablanca, Morocco, to Los Angeles, Calif., in a single-engine Piper Comanche. Conrad also flew 4,806 mi. from Chicago to Rome in 34 hr. 3 min. on March 6.
A Lockheed F-104A
flight that
was winner of the Collier
Starfighter
trophy given by the National Aeronautics association. Air force Lt. Col.
Howard
record of 91,243
C. Johnson, ft.,
and
who
set a
air force
world landplane altitude
Maj, Walter W. Irwin, who
established a world straightaway speed standard of
engine.
An F-ios Thunderchief from Alaska
jet
to Florida
min. The plane was piloted by Capt. Billy White,
Texan, and was refueled in air force veterans,
flight.
Robert
Timm
of Las Vegas, Nev., and
John Cook, Los Angeles, established a world's mark for sustained flight by keeping their single-engine Cessna 172 aloft 64 days 22 hr. ig min. 49 sec. over Nevada. They refueled from a speeding truck while flying just above the ground. Five Voodoo fighter bombers of the U.S. air force flew the South Atlantic in the record time of 6 hr. 41 min., covering 3,683 nautical mi. from the
Shaw Air Force base
Morocco,
at
Numerous
Among
War
Centennial commission to plan Alabama's
cies or colour
not specified) as the state flower in place of the
goldenrod. Legislative committees were appointed to consider
ways
to
draft legislation benefiting the small farmer, and to study the
its jet
a record 3,850-mi. nonstop flight
Two
the State Civil
part in the 1961-65 observance, and adopted the camellia (spe-
along with the Lockheed's designer and en-
were
who developed
in 5 hr. 27
more
annually for each program). The legislature also established
enlarge state parks' facilities and outdoor recreation areas, to
gineers
made
assistance programs (expected to yield about $2,500,000
1,404.19
m.p.h.,
cited,
strong small-loan regulatory measure and approved a
in South Carolina to Nouasseur, an average of 634 m.p.h. in January. claims were made for new jet standards_ in 1959.
these was one by a Soviet pilot who reportedly attained an average of 1,493 m.p.h. The mark recognized by the World
feasibility
of
razing Kilby prison in
Montgomery and
using
funds from the sale of the prison's valuable real estate to build
an entirely new prison system.
Survey work began on a proposed 27-mi. canal linking the Warrior river near Birmingham with the Tennessee river at
would give Birmingham industries access to waterway system. The world's highest (loo-ft.) lock was opened Nov. 10 at Muscle Shoals on the
Guntersville, which
the U.S. inland single
lift
Tennessee
river.
The missile-producing Redstone the state's largest industry,
its
arsenal at Huntsville
became
payroll exceeding that of Bir-
mingham's Tennessee Coal and Iron division of the U.S. Steel Corp. during the Principal state
were:
first
quarter of the year.
officials, all of
whom
governor, John Patterson;
Boutwell; attorney general,
took
office Jan. 20,
lieutenant governor,
MacDonald
1959, Albert
Gallion; state auditor,
— —
—
ISLANDS — ALASKA
ALAND
32 Mrs.
Mary Texas Garner;
secretary
of
stale,
Mrs.
Betlye
Frink; state treasurer, Mrs. Agnes Baggett; commissioner of agriculture and industries, R. C.
Bamberg; and sui)crinlendent
of education, Frank Stewart. Education. In the 1958-59 school year Alabama npcralcd a total ot >,40i school centres in the public school system. There were 1.099 elementary schools, but 1,117 o( all schools had some elementary grades. There were 474.777 elementary pupils taught by 14.469 teachers, plus J45 supervising principals. There were 301, .'04 junior and senior high school pupils and J teachers, plus 6j6 supervising principals. Stale pro-rated ,4
—
1
i
1
appropriations for education (elementary, secondary, colleges, trade schools, ending Sept. }0, 1959, amounted to approximately $135,000,000. Social Iniuronc*, Public Walfar* and Rvlottd Programs During the fiscal year ended Sept. 30, 1959, total expenditures for the department of pensions and security were $72,943,453.51. Expenditures for public assistance, with the average number of persons receiving assistance in parentheses, were as follows: old-aije assistance $54,237,053.19 (101.402); aid to the blind $696,298.22 ii.656): aid to dependent children $7,559.09503 (12,643); Old to the permanently and totally disabled $5,029,182.63 (12,729); aid to children in foster care $560,499.74 (1,418); temporary aid $16,426.37 ( 103). Alabama in 1959 operated 4 prisons and 33 road camps. The total number ot prisoners on Sept. 30, 1959, was 5,444. Total expenditures (or the prisoner system during the fiscal year were $3,757,903.18. Public health expenditures for the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1959, totaled $12,111,051.43. This figure included $4,805,433.45 in state funds, $6,040,122.67 in federal funds and $1,265,495.31 in local funds. Maternal and child services included 2,718 maternity clinic sessions in 49 counties with 38,373 patient-visits to clinics; 1,853 well-baby clinic sessions in 30 counties with 29.253 patient-visits; and 1,352 dental clinic sessions in 34 counties with 31,076 treatments. Communicoiioni. All highways and roads in the state, as of Sept. 30, 1959 (federal, local and stale combined), totaled 63,583 mi. Slate and federal disbursements for highways and roads totaled $144,593,000. New road and highway construction completed in the 1958-59 fiscal year was '.350 mi. There were 782.373 telephones in the slate of Alabama. Alabama bad 122 airports, of which 68 were commercial airports. Construction was begun on a $11,000,000 interstate project west of Mobile connecting U.S. Highway 90 and U.S. Highway 45. Banking and Finonc*. As of June 10, 1959, there were 169 state banks and s branches with deposits of $534,939,000 and resources of $593,789,000; 69 national banks and 58 branches with deposits of $1,369,177,000 and resources of $1,520,421,000; 6 state savings and loan associations with total resources of $46.7.^9.000; 30 federal savings and loan associations with total resources of $318,096,000; 130 state credit unions with total resources of $39,874,000; 112 federal credit unions with total resources of $18,682,000. Total slate government receipts in the fiscal year ended Sept. 30, 1959, were $501,023,648.25. The gross debt was $131,678,000 and the net debt was $128,790,000. Agriculture. In 1954 Alabama had 176,956 farms covering 20.810.492 ac, of which 4,812,086 ac. were cropland from which crops were harvested. Cash income in 1958 from crops and livestock totaled $477,379,000 with government payments contributing an additional $43,435,000. Receipts from livestock and livestock products were the highest of record and exceeded income from crops for the second year. On Jan. i, 1959. livestock comprised i. 816. 000 cattle and calves, of which 376,000 were milch cows; 930.000 swine; 70,000 sheep; 117,000 horses and mules. Industry. From Jan. i through Sept. 30. 1959, 89 new plants with capital investment of $17,619,500 and 3,881 new employees began operaetc.) in the fiscal year
—
—
lions in .Mabama. In addition, 135 existing industries expanded, adding $60,384,500 of capital investment and 6,075 new employees. In the fiscal year ending Sept. 30, 1959, there were 326 oil wells in production; 62 were put into production from (Jet. 1, 1958, to Sept. 30, 1959. Estimates of primary and secondary oil reserves in Alabama totaled 118,500,000 bbl. (J. M. Pn.) Mineral Production Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Alabama in 1957 and 1958 whose value was $100,000 or more. In 1958 Alabama was first among the states in the output of bituminous limestone; second in bauxite, cement and slag; third in asphalt, china clay, crude iron ore, and scrap and flake mica; fourth in aluminum capacity, oven coke output; fifth in pig iron; and sixth in lime. A new
—
dome was discovered among the states in 1.14% of the U.S. total.
salt
Table
—
Table
Production of Leading Crops
I.
1958
720,000 60,345,000 160,800,000 896,000
439,000 66,848,000 221,540,000 898,000 2,661,000 715,000 2,976,000 2,300,000 2,970,000 912,000 960,000 37,600,000
1,908,000
660,000 3,360,000 1,430,000 3,289,000 660,000 1,000,000 8,000,000
Sorghum, gn Peachet, bu. Pecans, lb.
t
of Agriculture;
Table
II.
Alobomo Crop and
Principal Industries of
884,000 49,947,000 225,593,000 687,000 2,359,000* 927,000* 3,461,000 707,000 1,646,000 559,000 508,000 16,688,000
Livestock Reporting Service.
Alabama odded by
added by
Salaries
All
and wages ployees 1957
Food ond kindred products Textile mill products
Apparel and related products Lumber and wood products P,
pope
Fabricated metal products
Machinery {except electric. Transportation equipment Sourcei U.S. Department of
18,182 42,984 20,000 27,581 9,462 8,110 5,387 8,265 43,178 9,875 7,169 17,494
1958
1957
Volue
1,316,000 13,260,000 5,919,000 147,000 4,223,000 4,693,000 554,000
Cloy. Coal
Coket
Iron, pig
t
Petroleum (bbl.) Sand ond gravel Stone Other minerols
.
1957
(occurs
1956
lin
OOOsl
56,880
{ 1
9,785 43,942 I
56,292 49,104 36,673 31,053 30,915 232,234 44,595 31,690 83,367
lin
OOOsl
$109,273 189,887 75,600 93,303 76,853 1 27,047 80,630 73,093 463,815 84,567 51,825 121,036
Commerce, Annual Survmf of Manufactures,
1
13,588,000 1.348,000 11.182,000 4,257,000 8,400 3,459,000 3,412,000 520,000 5,887,000 4,128,000 11,080,000
1,504,000 86,114,000 110,808,000 32,435,000 40,518,000 253,000,000 6,271,000
.
....
4,883,000 1,972,000 23,344,000
5,065.00 9,519.00
1
*The total hos been odiusled to elin tValues for processed materials on tVolue included with other minerols. Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
e duplication
included
Encvclop^edia Britannica Films.
Aland Islands:
in
in the voli the totals.
— Southeastern
$187,747,000 42,930,000 1,787,000
72,360,000 84,672,000 17,705,000 23,393,000 168,150,000 4,440,000 s
4,210,000 17.048,000 24,538,000 cloyi ond stone.
States (1956).
see Finland.
Alaska, with an area of 586,400 sq.mi.,
Aloci^O
""'"'*''•
Volue
Quonlity
$209,549,000 40,279,000
emmost and
largest of the
is
United States.
the north-
was the
It
49th state to be admitted into the union (in 1959). Alaska is separated from Siberian U.S.S.R. by the Bering strait. The
boundary
follows the international date line between Big
line
Diomede
which is Soviet and in the eastern hemisphere, and Little Diomede Island, which is part of Alaska and in the western hemisphere. The distance between the two islands is apIsland,
proximately 2^ mi. Alaska's population in 1950 was 128,643, including military personnel. The 1959 official estimate was 191,000, of which 34,000 were military personnel and 157,000 were civilians.
The
included
native population
approximately
5.000 Aleuts.
The
amounted
17,000
largest city
is
to
Eskimos,
about 38,000, which and
16,000 Indians
Anchorage (1958 pop.
include Juneau, Ketchikan, Kodiak,
Indicoiod 1959
Crop Cotton, bola
short tons, except oi nofedt
est. 35,-
000), with Fairbanks (12,500), second. Other population centres
Alabama
in
Mintrol Production of Alabama
III.
(In
—
—
1958, the third for the slate. Alabama was the value of its mineral output in 1958, wilb
in
2ist
957.
$
98,736 193,571
75,500 99,782
124^840 72,152 78,385 460,442 73,091
50,676 80,726
Nome, Palmer,
Petersburg,
Seward. Sitka and Wrangell. The Aleutian Islands, which extend over 1,000 mi. westward from Alaska, are part of the state.
—
Birth pangs for the new state of Alaska were sharp History. and dramatic. Sworn into office moments after Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower signed his formal proclamation admitting Alaska on Jan. 3, 1959, Gov. William A. Egan was hospitalized that afternoon and later fJown to Seattle where his life hung in the balance for several weeks. Until his return in full health in midyear, the reins of government were largely in the hands of Secretary
of
elected
official.
Hugh
State
through April
The
16,
J.
Wade,
the
state's
only
other
meeting from Jan. 26 created an executive branch of 12 departments first
state legislature,
responsible to the governor in line with the constitution's con-
cept of a strong executive; balanced the budget at $27,500,000
fund expenditures without any general tax increases; implemented constitutional provisions for a court system comprising a state supreme court, superior courts and district magistrates; enacted fish and game legislation meeting requirements in general
of the Statehood Enabling act to assure state control of fish
and game on Jan. i, i960; and took preparatory steps toward a state building program, utility and transportation regulation and other needed programs.
ALBANIA
33 10.24%
sented a
ki^fV/l^
"tW
.^UStir^^.'
-—
-T'WK..^
-
V^^'^aSf^ r'M'fi^iMwi , .>_
.
(I
,
j^
^^^58k'
*
'
•JSJ^ iV-^
STATEHOOD MEDALLION the 49lh state Jan. 3, /-
if^
xk
«4 JtM ;^f^^-'^2^Skirw '^jS^S^^jrr ^^Sa^BSBB^fLST ^iJ'^fSSB^m^ii^ '^SJ^S
commemorate
struck to
if
the admission of Alaska as
1959 J
1
xi_
Congress enacted the
ii»i
i_Mii. bill
•!_
/-v
1
Alaska Omnibus
11
Ai
ii-
1
allotting Alaska
$28,500,000 over a five-year period and transferring certain fed....
,
,
,
and property
buildings
eral
,
to the state.
_,.,,,,
These included the
Fairbanks and Anchorage international airports, important links
m
„ transpolar air routes to the orient and U.S. from Europe. '
.
On
,
.
the U.S. court of claims held about 7,000 Tlingit 7, '' " ° and Haida Indians in southeast Alaska entitled to payment for Oct.
.
.
about 20,000,000 ac, including Tongass National forest lands, taken from their ancestors by the U.S. government. It was esti™nf=J „ „ J „,' i,» I, a> mated fl,n(that tV,n the ™„n„t„_,. monetary award might reach $40,000,000.
One of Governor Egan's first official acts, in compliance with 1 J. r i 1 i-i 1L r an ordinance of the state constitution, was to ban issuance of licences for the operation of commercial fish traps in Alaskan c 11. J waters. Secretary Ot Interior I'red A. beaton also banned trap •
i.1.
,
TTi-T^jAOi
.
operations but excepted those operated by native villages. His ,,?, ,,, , J J. order was challenged by the fishing industry and upheld by the
,.,:.,
A
federal courts.
,
'
Metlakatla, but Justice William
preme court granted
Jr.,
a temporary restraining order against the
on
its
,
.
I
1
1
1
•'
r,
.
.
,
,
,
harbour at Cape Thompson, on the Arctic ocean. rin April Anri'l -yr, the tVio U.S. TT Q Distant njotont Early T7o,-l,, U7o,„;n™ Kna „,v.;,-i, ko On Warmng Ime, which be30, artificial
_
gins at Baffin
Land
Canada and guards North America was extended westward the Aleutian Islands. Construction went ahead in arctic
against air attack over the polar regions, to the
fs^^^y^^f^^J^^'
—
Agriculture. Farm production in 1958 rose to $4,675,989, a .4% increase over 1957. Dairy products amounted to $2,090,399. Potato produetion totaled $694,558 Cropland production in the state totaled
approximately $1,056,628. Timber.
—
Timber sales in Alaska's national forests totaled 122,974.000 valued at $356,478. Sales from public lands amounting to 8,173,000 were valued at $22,686. Alaska's fishing industry in 1959 showed a 3.5% increase in monetary value compared with the previous year. Production was 215.301,904 lb., with a wholesale value of $83,742,931. The state's salmon fisheries experienced another poor year in 1959. The total pack was 1,770,797 cases, compared with 2,971,537 cases in 1958. (W. A. E.) bd.ft.
bd
ft
Fisheries.
—
end of on the Alaska
where the second of two U.S. missile-detection sites was located. The other was at Thule in Greenland. The cost of the installation would be $250,000,000. Intensified interest in Alaska's oil and gas resources continued throughout the year. Swanson river on the Kenai peninsula, where new oil and gas discoveries in commercial quantities had been made, continued to hold the major interest. Union Oil company announced plans to pipe gas from their No. i well at Kenai to Anchorage with eventual extension as far north as Fairat Clear,
'?*™
.™
''"°" °
railroad,
banks
in the rail belt. Standard Oil company interests, with wells on the Kenai peninsula, which when augmented by a new well brought in during October, was expected to produce approxi-
°'
°
short tons, except as noted)
(In
of the U.S. su-
Shipment of construction materials to Alaska to be used for , ^ .1 an atomic reactor power planti at1 T-x Ft. Greely, Alaska, was begun on June 3. -^ As the year ended, studies were under way by the Atomic Energy commission regarding proposed nuclear blast to Vcreate "i-"o a f f an
The federally owned Alaska railroad operated more than 470 mi. of main-line track and 67 mi. of branch lines between Seward on the coast and Fairbanks. The White Pass & Yukon railway operating between Skag"^y. Alaska, and Whitehorse, Yukon Territory, had 20 mi. of track in Alaska. Alaska's highway and road system totaled 5,3S6 mi. of which ^-'.'S "11; "^"^ '" '•'' deliveries of crops were doubled and in some cases trebled. The compulsory delivery system was modified, deliveries from privately owned plots being abolished and a large proportion of arrears being wiped out. It was stated that, at the end of 1958, 63% of the peasants had been brought into collective farms, which accounted for 72ador
American Academy of Arts and Letters:
who
of applicants
Fewer applicants listed their ( — 11% ) and housewife ( — 6%). Females comprised
f.
J.
'Ourbrow. Elbrldge Hare, Roymond A.tt
Yemen
number
cupation increased
Hare,
Edward
study of the applications received during that period revealed
that the
Wolmil.y, Waller N. • Worr.n, Fl.tch.r 'Thompton. lUw.llyn t.
*
Tunlilo
*
A
From Iha United Statel
Country
lh« United Statvt
see
and
Societies
Associations, U.S.
American Federation of Labor: see LABotn? Unions. American Geographical Society: see Societies and
tions, U.S.
As-
sociations. U.S.
American Citizens Abroad.
?rrS.r'Cllm
of state from consular representatives of the United States foreign service showed that 610.968 civilian American citizens
were residing
in various foreign countries
an increase of 57,456 since the same time
on March 31, 1959, in 1958.
American Historical Association:
American
Abroad
Societies
and
American Hotel Association: see Hotels, U.S. American Indians: see Indians, American American Institute for Property and Liability Underwriters:
Eifimofe of U.S. CHizens Residing
see
Associations. U.S.
see Societies
and .Associations, U.S.
Institute of Architects: see Societies and
Associations. U.S. Morch Et'oP' Mexico ond Centrol Americo South America Australia and New Zeolond **''" Phplippinoj *f,'°
,
West Indies ond Bermuda Canada, Newfoundland ond Icelond Tolol
.
.
31,
1958 March 31, 1959
115,378 59,050 48,729 7,673 16,889 27,309 59,377 19,648 199.459 553,512
142,169 55,119 58,150 8,639 20,915 20,935 83,205 16,629
205,207 610,968
Change -|-26,79
-
-|-
+ + -
3,931 9,421
966 4,026 6,374
-|-23,828
-
-|-
3,019 5,748
-|-57,456
The passport oflfice of the United States department of state reported another record peak in requests for passport services during 1958 when 676.898 passports were issued or renewed. This was an increase of 16% over the 585.994 passports processed
in
American
Institute of Certified Public and Associations, U.S.
Accountants:
see Societies
American
Institute of
Chemical Engineers:
see
Soa-
ETIES A.ND Associations, U.S.
American
institute of Electrical Engineers: see SociAND ASSOCIATIO-NS. U.S. American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers: see Societies and Associations. U.S. American Institute of Physics: see Societies and Associaeties
tions, U.S.
American iron and Steel
1957-
Associations, U.S.
During the first si.x months of 1959, a total of 463.028 passports were issued or renewed, an increase of 5^^ over the 440,884 passports issued or renewed during the first half of 1958.
American Law
institute: see Societies and
Institute: see Societies and Associations,
U.S.
American Legion:
see
Veterans' Organizations, U.S.
AMERICAN LITERATURE
39
in the United States.
American Library Association.
^::^.:::SZ
Both these projects were supported by
foundation funds.
(A.L.A.) had a membership of more than 23,000 libraries, librar-
During the year the A.L.A. published: College Teaching and
and friends of libraries. The 78th annual conference, held at Washington, D.C., June 21-27, was the
the College Library; Cooperative Centralized Processing; Plans
ians, librarj- trustees
largest in the history of the organization,
with a registered
at-
tendance of 5,346. OflBcers inaugurated at the conference were:
Benjamin E. Powell, librarian, Duke university. Durham. N.C., president; Mrs. Frances Lander Spain, co-ordinator of children's
New York
Public library, first vice-president and and John T. Eastlick, librarian, Denver Public librar>', second vice-president. Richard B. Sealock, hbrarian, Kansas City, Mo., Public library, continued his four-year term as treasurer. A new headquarters building on the same site was planned to replace the one at 50 East Huron St., Chicago, and was to be ready for occupancy in 1961. services.
president-elect;
The A.L.A. adopted
a
number
of
new
policy and standards
statements during 1959. During the midwinter meeting, on Jan. 29, "Goals for Action," a broad statement of the aims of
modem
and of the means by which library service by the council. At the same federal legislative policy statement was adopted to assist librarj' service
for Six Public Library Buildings; and
The Status of American
College and University Librarians.
Awards, citations and scholarships were announced at the Washington conference. The Lippincott award ($500 and a medal) for distinguished service to librarianship was presented to Essae Martha Culver, Louisiana state librarian. The Melvil Dewey medal for creative professional achievement of a high order was awarded to Benjamin E. Custer for his work as editor of the 1 6th edition of the Dewey Decimal Classification and Relative Index. Elizabeth George Speare won the 38th Newbery medal for her Witch of Blackbird Pond (Houghton Mifflin), judged to be the most distinguished contribution to children's literature of 1958. Barbara Cooney won the 22nd Caldecott medal for Chanticleer and the Fox (Crowell), judged to be the outstanding picture book of 1958. The Dutton-Macrae award ($1,000) was won by Richard L.
could be improved, were adopted
Dariing. assistant professor of library service,
time a
university. Missoula, to enable
in interpreting library
and
needs as they relate to federal legislation
notable progress was
made
in the
development of standards for During
to
Sickels,
Montana
in public libraries.
former co-ordinator of children's services
her work at that library.
Mann
sity of
1959 new standards for college libraries were published; standards for school libraries were completed for publication in i960;
for outstanding professional achievement in cataloguing
The
A.L..\.
and the
Librar>' of Congress, in developing a
new
cataloguing code, worked with the International Federation of Librar>' associations to see
loguing
principles
if
reached.
A.L.A. 's
ography for promoting east-west understanding,
in
support of the
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organiza-
program
in this area.
The
publication and the di\isional
its message throughout the United States and Canada were assisted by a grant from the Asia foundation.
project for carrying
Adult Services division compiled a
A.L..\.'s
Latin-American university foundation.
The books,
list
of books for
libraries at the request of the Sears
written and published in the United
libraries which would make them available for loan. Many other co-operative projects similar to these were being carried out by the A.L.A. and other groups mth common interests.
States,
were
to
be presented by the foundation to
The Library Technology library'
project, a standardization
equipment and supplies, was established
in
program
in
1959 under
a two-year grant of $136,395 from the Council on Library' Resources.
The
compilation,
editing
and publishing of present
standards for equipment widely used by libraries was the project's first task.
The second National Library week, sponsored by the National Book committee in association with the A.L.A.. was celebrated April 12-18. The objective of the week was to encourage the spread of reading and the active use and enlightened support of
A
sification.
nially
for
citation
and
clas-
The Oberly Memorial award ($100), presented bienthe best agricultural bibliography, was won by J,
Richard Blanchard, librarian. University of California. Davis,
and Harald Ostvold. Public
librar\',
for
chief,
reference department.
their Literature
New York
of Agricultural Research
(University of California Press, 1958).
See also Libraries; Literary Prizes.
Young Adult
Services division compiled and published Richer by Asia, a bibli-
tion's
Sydney. Australia, received the Margaret
(S.
Sh.)
international agreement on cata-
be
could
at the
won the Grolier Society award for Andrew D. Osbom, librarian, Univer-
Indianapolis Public hbrar>',
the several tj-pes of Hbraries and for library education.
and standards for undergraduate librarj' education were adopted and published. Under the A.L..\.'s program of accrediting graduate library' schools, the Western Michigan university library school was added to the list of 31 schools already accredited.
State
hold a series of workshops
on storytelling and other children's services
Eveh-n
to federal agencies, including libraries.
In addition to goals for library service on a nationwide basis,
him
AmPripfln nillCllbail critical. .K
MtPMtlirP LIlClulUIC.
^^' American
literary
mood
of
1959 was retrospective and selfperennial subject, the Civil War, attracted even more
writers than usual as
its
centennial approached. Although
of the books, swelling a Civil
totaled about 30.000
titles,
War
many
bibliography which already
appealed only to the specialist or
monomaniac, the general reader could find new studies which gave information and insight into the causes, events and personalities of the conflict. Some, which contributed little that was new, had merit as literature or as syntheses of existing scholarship, and some pointed the way to new areas of research or the
analysis.
In fiction the impulse to self-criticism was strong, and novelists, even those
world they lived
in.
too there was an undercurrent of self-criticism, strongest the "beatniks." whose stock in trade in less
many
whose chief purpose was not to attack the observed and recorded its follies. In poetry it
among
was, but also discernible
widely publicized verse.
A
major source of reading matter for the American public was the local newsstand's endless ranks of paper-bound books, whose phenomenal sale seemed not to have undercut the hard-cover market.
The Foreign Scene. United States
—Although
analysts of the role of the
in international affairs differed in their
approaches
commitments undertaken by the
were almost unanimous in condemning the current foreign policy of the government. Walter Lippmann, in The Communist World and Ours, dissected Nikita Khrushchev's
A.L.A. were administrative supervision of the development of a
poUtical thinking and urged that the L'nited States reappraise
libraries.
third
National Library week was scheduled for
April 3-9, i960.
Among Iibrar\- at field
the
new
international
the University of
Mandalay and
responsibility for a
seminar for Japanese librarians on library reference services
and
solutions, they
aims and needs. C. L. Sulzberger's What's Wrong With U.S. Foreign Policy described United States diplomatic
its political
tient and doctor and proposed group health plans as a solution.
The .sis
passion for self-analy-
continued to produce books
both interesting and valuable.
Vance Packard's The Status Seekers pointed out the hidden barriers and the visible signs of class consciousness in
a theoretically classless sociSociologist
ety.
Warner completed
W.
Lloyd
his
Yankee
City series with The Living
and the Dead, a study of the symbolic life of a New Eng-
Thomas
land town.
Griffith, in
Waist-High Culture, searched out the reasons for America's
BEATNIK POET TED JOANS reading from his workj lo a New York city coffeehotiie In 1959. Younoer poets found
waning popularity abroad and found American society ma-
(
a
readings during the year, and stories of the "beat generation" were published In many national magazines and periodicals, together with excerpts from their verse
of such outlets for public
and something
terialistic
Leisure, edited
the "threat of leisure," contrasting
pectancy, work week, etc.
on a wide front, while William Appleman Williams' The Tragedy of American Diplomacy surveyed the course of 20thcentury foreign policy in an equally critical vein. Charles Wright Mills, in The Causes of World War Three, studied U.S. political failures
forces
from
a sociological point of
view and concluded that war,
than
less
egalitarian.
ideally
Mass
by Eric Larrabee and Rolf Meyersohn, presented
modem
conditions
—with those of the
—
life ex-
1900s. Carl Bode's
The Anatomy of American Popular Culture, 1840-1861 surveyed the architecture and art of the time as well as literature.
Jacques Barzun,
in
The House of
its
music and
Intellect, distin-
guishing intelligence from intellect, found that art, science and
philanthropy were the enemies of contemporary
intellect.
Less portentous pictures of certain aspects of American
not the U.S.S.R., was the real menace and that the "power eHte"
life
of the U.S. talked peace but practised war. Adlai Stevenson
included Allen Churchill's The Improper Bohemians, a portrait
wrote an informal report of his recent observations of the
heyday drawn from the reminiscences The Way It Was, Harold Loeb relived the days when he edited a little magazine in the Paris of Gertrude Stein, Hemingway and the expatriates. Venice, Calif., hot-bed of the disaffiliated "beatniks," was the subject of The Holy Barbarians by Lawrence Lipton, who combined anecdotes of life among the "hipsters" with an evaluation of their prose and poetry. Life and art on a far different scale provided material for Aline Saarinen's lively The Proud Possessors, a history of America's great art collectors. The Book of Negro
Two important books concerned more general world views. Crane Brinton's A History of Western Morals surveyed the sources of, and changes in, concepts of morality from the ancient near east to the contemporary United States.
The
Hannah Arendt,
in
Human
Modem
Condition: a Study of the Central Dilemmas Facing Man, presented a thoughtful and sometimes pessimistic
analysis of cultural change.
—
The American Scene. The United States, with all its facets and problems, exerted its usual fascination on writers and on the reading public. The major facet was the educational system. A small book which seemed likely to have a profound effect on the future of the U.S. public-school system
of
Greenwich Village
in its
of former inhabitants. In his memoirs.
U.S.S.R. in Friends and Enemies.
was James Bryant
Folklore, edited
scended
its
by Langston Hughes and became an
stated purpose and
The Years With Ross,
account of the career of the
Hyman
United States, which defined and evaluated the humanities and asked support for humanistic scholarship. Personal liberty in the United States and the damage
it had from attacks on constitutional rights was the subject of Benjamin Ginzburg's Rededication to Freedom, and certain specific rights were the subject of William Peters' report on the progress of desegregation, The Southern Temper. Another problem attracting national attention was that of the latest immigrant group, the Puerto Ricans. Elena Padilla, using a socioanthropological approach in Up From Puerto Rico, studied how the group had adapted to its new situation, while Dan Wake-
suffered in recent years
field,
writing
more informally
in Island in the City: the
World
Harlem, gave a vi\'idly detailed picture of the group. Richard Carter, in The Doctor Business, analyzing the business of Spanish
practices of the medical profession, found the fee-for-service system of medical care the source of many injustices to both pa-
40
tran-
Outstanding among books on single figures was James Thurber's
A more
George Rickover's Education and Freedom. Howard Mumford Jones's One Great Society was a report on humane learning in the
Bontemps,
the whole culture.
Conant's report to the public. The American High School Today. opinionated attack on current practices was
Ama
excellent anthology of
a fond, if not
New
always dispassionate,
Thomson, by Kathleen O'Donnell Hoover and John Cage, was an account Yorker
editor. Virgil
and a critique of his works. A rounded emerged from the personal journals, correspondence and nonanthropological writings of Ruth Benedict in An Anthropologist at Work, edited by her colleague, Margaret Mead. Moss Hart demonstrated his comic and satiric gifts in an autobiography, Act One, which was also a document in modem stage history. The free and intensely personal comments of newspaper editor Harry Golden on the contemporary scene in his second collection of essays, For 2d Plain, charmed the public as much as his first collection had. And Agee on Film of the composer's
life
portrait of a striking personality
was a posthumous collection of James Agee's perceptive critical reviews and essays on motion pictures. Several excellent historical works treated Historical Works. large segments of the American past. Carl N. Degler, in Out of Our Past: the Forces That Shaped Modern America, found that there had been two basically conservative revolutions since that of 1776, namely, the Civil War and the depression of the 1930s.
—
AMERICAN LITERATURE Daniel Boorstin theorized in The Americans: the Colonial Experience that the American environment had always been unfriendly
to
the
development of
rigid
political
Two
systems.
books probed the backgrounds of contemporary southern thinking:
Henry Savage,
in
Seeds of Time, studied the roots of southfirst white settlers, while
ern solidarity from the time of the
Hodding Carter, in The Angry Scar, focused on the Reconstruction and its effect on the present. In The Coming of the Xew Deal, volume ii of his monumental The Age of Roosevelt, Arthur Schlesinger, Jr., described and analyzed the domestic developments of the years 1933 and 1934. The normal flow of scholarship on personahties or smaller segments of the past continued. Volume xv of The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, edited by Julian P. Boyd, with William H. Gaines, Jr., as associate editor, covered the time from March 27, 17S9. to Nov. 30, 1789. A well-documented, well-balanced life of Thomas Paine, Man of Reason, by Alfred -Owen Aldridge,
comment on
included
the patriot's writings as well as his life;
and Samuel Eliot Morison's biography, John Paul Jones, paid special attention to Jones the sailor and to the naval engagements in which he took part. Shelby Foote, writing with the
skill
of a novelist and the
41
and the reactions of a small mountain community, and of the wide world as exemplified by television and radio newshawks. Saul Bellow moved completely out of the world of the realistic novel into a world of fantasy built out of wonderfully concrete and often funny details. The millionaire hero of Henderson the Rain King bulls his way through a mad imaginary in a cave
Africa, blowing up wells and fighting lions in his search for him-
The changes
John O'Hara's approach to the world, as bulky From the Terrace, marked a real fall from grace; the sharp observation of small town Pennsylvania society which distinguished his earlier work became a mere amassing of details of manners and mores, a job better done by self.
demonstrated
in
in his
the social anthropologist.
The humorous novel rarely achieves complete success, but some writers managed to come close to the mark. Peter DeVries, already established as a ready man with a pun, seemed to be working too hard in The Tents of Wickedness, notable chiefly for
its
fine
DeVries.
20th-century writers from Joyce to
parodies of
Mark
Wake Up,
Harris, in
Stupid, used the difficult old
device of letters (and telegrams) to portray the yearning for
academic promotion of a
mad Mormon
also writes successful television
college professor
who
dramas and Broadway shows
conscience of a historian, created The Civil War: a Narrative. The first of three projected volumes presenting a view of the war from both sides, it covered the time from Fort Sumter to Perryville. Burke Davis' excellent To Appomattox: Nine April Days, 1865 drew on contemporary diaries and maps for its
and who owns a 63^^ interest in a prize fighter. Truman Capote's Breakfast at Tiffany's, a short novel, focuses on a somewhat
civilian life and military action. Although Glenn Tucker gave adequate coverage to the Northern side of the Pennsylvania campaign in High Tide at Gettysburg, he viewed it chiefly from the Southern side. The Lincohi Nobody Knows set forth the fallacies and enigmas in the president's life which led the author, Richard Nelson Current, to claim that Lincoln
he used
picture of
still
remains, in spite of the mass of research, a contradictory
figure.
Richard B. Harwell edited the excellent Union Reader,
a collection of contemporary writings and source materials and a
companion volume
Raymond
to his
Confederate Reader.
Changing Realities was
a solidly
documented regional and
social
Jane Addams, Potter Palmer and Louis Sullivan as well as the
Edward Charles Wagenknecht caught
controversial governor.
his subject's personality as
private actions in
it
appeared
in
all
his public
and
The Seven Worlds of Theodore Roosevelt.
Three of the many books dealing with the recent past deserved An account of what its author called the greatest naval
attention.
battle of all time
was Leyte, June iQ44-January 1Q45, volume
of Samuel Eliot Morison's History of the United States Naval
Operations in World
War
II.
Michael Amrine.
in
The Great
Decision, described the conditions and events leading up to Pres S. Truman's decision to drop the atom bomb. And John Brooks brought alive the personalities and history of the stock market in the 19SOS in The Seven Fat Years.
Harry
Fiction.
—The
charge
American creand therefore books repeat the emotions and actions
is
sometimes leveled
at
ative writers that they are incapable of change
of growth, that their final of their
first
special
Civil
in earlier writings,
War romance
settings. Hamilton same Carolina setting
problems or
Basso's The Light Infantry Ball, using the
had many of the trappings of the
but was basically an attempt to show the
roots of the southern tradition. Lillian Smith, in
One Hour,
further light on one aspect of southern
her story of a
life in
cast
community's reaction to a man whom a child has accused of rape, a story marred by long, needless flash backs and some impossibly literate characters. John Hersey, in The War Lover,
up a powerful drama of a Flying Fortress crew, its final Germany and its struggle to get back to its base; the focus of the drama, though, was on the attitudes of the crew built
mission over
Ginger's Altgeld's .America: the Lincoln Ideal Versus
study of an era which included such figures as Theodore Dreiser,
xii
mad female Bohemian. Many novels analyzed
ones, for, ha\ang found a successful formula, they
are either reluctant or unable to abandon
it.
The year 1959 found
major writers who at least moved out of previous positions, some to advance, some to retreat. Robert Penn Warren found a mood and a situation in The Cave which allowed full play to his talents. Abandoning the devices of narrator, journal or italicized musings, which someseveral
times fogged his earlier writing, he returned to the directness of Night Rider, portraying with humour and savagery the actions and interactions of the family and friends of a "hillbilly" trapped
U.S. POET AND HISTORIAN CARL SANDBURG (left) and Edward Steichen, photograpljer, traveling to Moscow where they lectured at the U.S. fair and exposition in 1959
AMERICAN MATHE MATICAL SOCIETY
42
and death. The Brown's Trumbull Park lay not so much
members toward as in the sense
life
Franic
brought the fragments into orderly sequence but gave the reader
excellence of writing
no adequate clues by which to separate Mark Twain's facts from his fancies. Mark Twain: Social Critic, by Philip S. Fon^
chief in
virtue
of
gave of being a firsthand, though limited, ac-
it
count of the tensions and tragedies of a Negro family's search for
A
theme was treated more effectively and more dramatically by Lorraine Hansherry in her enormously successful play, A Raisin in the Sun. Richard Wright demonstrated much of his old vigour and controlled savagery in The Long Dream, which concerns the agonies of a young southern Negro as he watches his father achieve material success by a smiling subjection to the whites. A novel which was widely popular bea place to live.
cause
similar
revealed at great length the inner workings of the senate
it
and Washington, D.C., was Allen Drury's Advise and Consent. Many new or almost new writers worthy of serious consideration emerged during the year. George P. Elliott's Parktilden Village was a quietly effective story about a young sociologist invading an academic family. The Poorhouse Fair, by John Updike, was a loosely connected series of vignettes, some of them powerfully re-created, of the inhabitants of a New Jersey poor farm getting ready for a fair. In The Cool World Warren Miller, capturing the speech rhythms of teen-age Harlem, revealed the relationship between the "cool" kids and the outside world. Bianca Van Orden's Water Music, a first novel, dealt with troubled young Americans in left-bank Florence. The Daughters of Necessity, by Peter S. Feibleman, was a character study of a man, in a southern setting, whose possessiveness ruins himself and his daughter. Several collections of short stories were distinguished. Philip
Roth's Goodbye, Columbus was a novella and five short stories
with Jewish protagonists.
Dreams ranged
in
Howard Nemerov's A Commodity
of
subject matter through dreams, family rela-
and anti-Semitism. The Same Door, a collection of fine by John Updike, analyzed the tensions of young people in urban settings. And Blackberry Wilderness, by Sylvia Berkman, was notable for the leisurely delicacy of her treatment of trautionships
stories
matic experiences. Scholarship.
— Perhaps
the
most outstanding contribution of
the year for both scholarly originality and general literary ap-
volume
peal was
Henry Adams:
ii
of Ernest Samuels'
life
of
Henry Adams,
the Middle Years, treating the emotional reper-
came out of these years. The dramatic life of Edgar Allan Poe was retold in a suitably dramatic biography. The Haunted Palace by Frances Winwar, which added little to a scholarly understanding of Poe. Oscar Sherwin, in Prophet of Liberty: the Life and Times of cussions of his wife's death and the writing which
Wendell Phillips, examined at length the life of the great abolitionist and the moral fervour of his times. Another intensive study of a classic writer was Sherman Paul's The Shores of America: Thoreau's Inward Exploration, a detailed re-creation of the writer's mind and thought. In George W. Cable: the
Northampton Years,
Philip Butcher studied his subject both as and as a social reformer. The revi\'ing academic interest in William Dean Howells continued with volume ii of Edwin Harrison Cady's biography. The Realist at War: the a novelist
Mature Years, 1885-1920, which treated the years of his daughter's death and of his establishment as a champion of realism in literature. Frederick George Bracher, in The Novels of James Gould Cozzens, tried to arrive at a more balanced criticism of a
who has been accused
bad writing and of status quo morality but also has been judged a major figure. There were some important editions of letters and writings. Walter Harding and Carl Bode edited The Correspondence of Henry David Thoreau, the first attempt to print, with introduction and notes, every available letter written or received by the novelist
writer.
An
edition
Mark Twain,
of
by Charles Neider of The Autobiography of
including chapters
now
published for the
first
time,
gave excerpts from Twain's writings on such contemporary
and the exploitation of labour, and the
as slavery
praisal of his opinions
Humor and Humanity
topi
editor's
ap
on social issues of the day. The Art,
of
Mark Twain,
edited with
commentary
and notes by Minnie M. Brashear and Robert M. Rodney and with an introduction by Edward Wagenknecht, was an anthology arranged
in
chronological order.
A monumental
Letters of Theodore Dreiser: a Selection,
in
edition of the
three volumes cover-
from 1897 to 1945, was edited with preface and notes by Robert H. Elias, and consulting editors Sculley Bradley
ing the years
and Robert E. Spiller. Poetry. Poetry continued to pour off the "little presses" and out of the universities. Those serious new Bohemians, the "beat-
—
niks,"
occupied with reading their deliberately undisciplined,
more Meanwhile back on the campus, the "square" poets were turning more and more to a controlled verse, much of it good enough to survive the pointed charge of academicism. Among off-campus "squares," simple competence in the handling of complex forms was almost routine, but less tangible qualities of mind and imagination made some poets stand
protesting verse in night clubs and hotel ballrooms, created publicity
than poetry.
out.
Writing from a campus, but not falling easily into any category was Theodore Roethke. whose Words for the Wind consisted of freely handled lyrics expressing the poet's response to his own complex private world. Robert Lowell's Life Studies, poetic observations of his own life and his family's, included a prose sketch of his Brahmin boyhood. Langston Hughes's vigorous and perceptive verse appeared in Selected Poems. Two collections which demonstrated exceptional skill and eflittle spontaneity were David Wagoner's A Place Stand and Michael Hamburger's The Dual Site. The Country of a Thousand Years of Peace, and Other Poems by James
fectiveness but to
Merrill conveyed, beneath a conservative surface, his awareness of the larger issues confronting man.
James Wright,
in Saint
new growth in his grasp and use of plain speech purposes. The poems of Light and Dark, by Bar-
Judas, showed a for his poetic
bara Howes, were the fine poetic observations of a civilized
woman in a ci\'ilized world. Donald Hall's Dark Houses offered many insights into small-town life and people, while Louis 0. Coxe used northern New England materials for the sober lyrics collected in The Wilderness, and Other Poems. Other books of poems included A Cage of Spines by May Swenson; The Green Ch-apel by Barbara Gibbs; The Night of the Hammer by Ned O'Gorman; Testament, and Other Poems by John Fandel; Apples From Shinar by Hyam Plutzik; Laughter in the Mind by to Be a Dragon by Marianne Moore. Irving Layton; and See also Book Publishing and Book Sales; Children's Books; English Literature; Literary Prizes. ("H. M. H.)
—
Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Robert Frost (The Wisdom Se1958); Carl Sandburg (The Wisdom Series); John Hall Wheelock
ries,
(The Wisdom
Series,
1958).
American Mathematical Society:
see Societies
and As-
sociations, U.S.
American Medical Association:
see Societies
and Asso-
ciations. U.S.
American Optometric Association:
see Societies
and
Associations. U.S.
American Pharmaceutical
Ass.ociation: see Societies
AND Associations. U.S. American Physical Society:
see Societies
and Associa-
tions. U.S.
American Society of Agricultural Engineers:
see So-
1
ANGLING
43
AND ASSOCIATIONS, U.S. American Society of Civil Engineers: see Societies AND Associations, U.S. American Society of Composers, Autliors and Publisliers: see Societies and Associations, U.S. American Society of Mechanical Engineers: see Societies AND Associations, U.S. American Sunday-School Union: see Societies and Asso-
moved to Andorra since Tangier had lost its international status. The principality was prosperous, and in 1959 its 6,000 inhabit-
ciations, U.S.
Forces Hydro-electriques d'Andorre S.A. (Fhasa), Cigarette factory with yearly turnover of about 50,000,000 pesetas. Monetary units: French
CIETIES
American Veterans' Committee:
see
Veterans' Organi-
ants had frontier,
In spite of the closing of the Spanish
1,700 cars. the
number
of tourists
who
visited
Andorra during
the year was estimated at 660,000, or 50,000 1958.
more than
in
—
Education Primary schools (i9S4-55) 25. pupils 875, teachers 48. Economy. No budget or taxes. Telephone system built and maintained by Radio Andorra (1958, about 100 subscribers). Roads maintained by
—
franc and Spanish peseta.
zations, U.S.
War
American Veterans of World vets)
:
II
and Korea CAm-
Anemia:
see Blood, Diseases of the.
see Veterans' Organizations, U.S.
In
> Anderson, Robert Bernerd I'emL, wi n^me/sere! tary of the treasury May 29, 1957, to succeed George M. Humphrey.
Bom
at Burleson, Tex.,
June
4,
he took a law degree from
the University of Texas in 1932, began practice in Fort
Worth
and was elected to the Texas state legislature the same year. He was appointed to various state administrative positions and in 1933 became professor of law at the University of Texas. From 1937 to 19S3 he was general counsel, then general manager of the Waggoner petroleum and agricultural estate in Texas. Although a Democrat, Anderson was a leading Eisenhower supporter in 1952 and later turned Republican. President Eisenhower named him secretary of the navy in Dec. 1952; then in 1954, deputy secretary of defense. He resigned the latter office in 1955 to become president of Ventures, Ltd., a Canadian mining holding company. Upon his nomination as secretary of the treasury, Anderson announced his intention to continue the fiscal policies of his predecessor "in the firm belief that [they] are basic to the
continued security and strength of our nation both economically and militarily." Humphrey's key policies had been tight money and checks on federal spending, and these policies Anderson continued. In the tight
had
recommend
to
ceiling
money
"crisis" of 1959,
however, Anderson
the removal or raising of the
on long-term federal bonds,
4^%
in effect since 1918.
interest
Congress,
despite the urging of President Eisenhower, did not act on this
proposal in 1959 although Anderson pointed out that long-term refinancing the
4i%
by the U.S. treasury would be
virtually impossible at
rate.
In the fall of 1959 Anderson declared that U.S. foreign aid might be curtailed for nations that discriminated against U.S. products.
An autonomous
principality between
France and
Andorra Spain, Andorra is bounded north by the French departements of Ariege and Pyrenees-Orientales and south by the Spanish province of Lerida. Area: 175 sq.mi. Pop. (1954 census)
5,664; (1959 est.) 6,000, excluding about 1,400 formainly Spaniards and Frenchmen. Language: Catalan. Rehgion: Roman Catholic. Capital: Andorra-la-Vella (Catalan) eigners,
or Andorra-la-Vieja (Spanish), pop.
(1959 parish
est.)
2,000.
Co-princes: the president of the French republic and the bishop of Urgel, Spain, respectively, represented uties).
of
its
An
elected general council of 24
members
by
their viguiers (dep-
members appoints one
as the syndic general des vallees
(from 1946,
Francisco Cayrat).
History.
—The main event of 1959 was the
of the Spanish-Andorran frontier
No
by
closing,
on Jan.
23,
the Spanish government.
explanation was given, but it was generally believed were two reasons for this measure illegal exports of Spanish currency and the smuggling of consumer goods '(mainly official
that there
:
cars) into Spain.
There was
rency traflSckers
who formerly
httle
doubt that
many
of the cur-
operated from Tangiers had
than in
fiscal
1958 there were 20,177,605 fishing licences
sold in the United States, nearly 1,000,000
more
Anglers paid a record-breaking $45,410,462 for all categories of state licences, permits, tags and stamps. Minnesota, with a total of 1,409,751, had the most paid licence fiscal 1957.
holders, followed
by
California, Wisconsin and Michigan, each
exceeding 1,000,000.
The National Association
of Angling and Casting clubs held 1959 national tournament at Columbus, 0., Aug. 18-23. The trout-fly distance event was won by Jon Tarantino with a long cast of 167 ft. and an average cast of 160 ft. Tarantino also won
its
the salmon-fly distance event, setting a cast of 227
ft.
and average of 211
the |-oz. bait distance event with a
average of 357^
HANDMADE
ft.
new record with
a long
Marion Garber won in long cast of 364 ft. and
ft.
In the |-oz. bait distance event. Sib Liotta
FISHING LURES, called "Go-Gettums" by their creator, Pele of Utica, Mich. The one-inch lures were extremely successful with bass and pike In 1959, and Sturman was urged to place his device on the market. He refused, preferring Instead to continue making them by hand for his
Sturman
ANGLO-EGYPTIAN SU DAN — ANT ARCTIC A
44
average of 4-^oi ft. Terry a long cast of 43^^ ft. and juniors' J-oz. bait accuracy Schneider set a new record in the
won with
all
programs
in
these scientific fields were
U.S. stations which were operated during
IGY meteorological studies revealed a warming trend of about 5° F. in annual temperature in the antarctic. This was less than Spitzbfcrgen and one-half the warming trend observed in the
in
accuracy spinning, i-oz. Tarantino, scoring 78 points in the Skish the ladies' Skish acevent; Mel Gavin, scoring 64 points in Fontaine, scoring 58 curacy spinning, i-oz. event; and Benjie spinning, i-oz. event. points in the intermediates' Skish accuracy championships The other six records were in the combined all-distance event, 1,885 ft., events: Marion Garber in the Skish Casper Rigamer in and in the Skish distance baits, 1,480 ft.; Mel Gavin in the the Skish all-accuracy event. 252 points; and Skish accuracy ladies' Skish all-accuracy event, 249 PO'"ts, the intermediates' Skish baits, 152 points; Benjie Fontaine in
Fish association listed eight new allThe International taken (Rockport, tackle records on their 1959 chart: 72-lb. cod dolphin taken Mass.. Aug. 22, 1958) by E. E. Belek; 76-lb. 911-lb. (Acapulco. Mex.. Sept. 24, 1957) by R. G. Stotsbery;
Game
taken (Kona, Hawaii, Nov. 16,
1957) by Dale
Aug. 18, 1958) Scott; 40-lb. pollack taken (Rockport, Mass., shark taken (Cape Moreton, H. Robinson; 1,002-lb. Pacific blue
Jr.; 1,422-lb. tiger
Austr., July 20, 1958)
by
J.
In the middle Greenland arctic areas during the same season. jet wind classic polar cyclone exists with a strong
stratosphere a
west around the 150 m.p.h. which blows from the heating occurs periphery of the continent. During October rapid complete reversal of the circulain the stratosphere, with a weak anticyclonic or light easteriy winds by the end of
as fast as
tion to
November. gravity techGlaciologists discovered through seismic and greatly exceeds niques that the volume of ice on the continent
Old figures for the volume of ice on the crust may be as much as 50% of the earth were 3.200,000 cu.mi. This throughout Antarctica, it too low. On the basis of seismic data two-thirds of now appears that east Antarctica, which comprises
eariier estimates.
the whole, arctica
all-accuracy event, 185 points.
by W.' F. Church,
Full
1959.
Casper Rigamer won In the Skish distance bait, J-oz. event, of 259J ft. Marion Garber with a long cast of 362 ft. and average Skish diswon two events in the single-event championships: average 237* ft.; Skish tance spinning, j-oz., long cast 242 ft., ft. There were new distance fly, long cast 137 ft-, average 135 of the Skish events. Three records established in nine categories set by: Jon the single-event championships were
silver marlin
period.
being continued at
event with 08 points.
of these
IGY
the
George S. marlin taken (Honolulu. Hawaii, Nov. 13, 1954) by Aug. 27, Parker, Jr.; 334-lb. blue shark taken (Montauk. N.Y., tied for the record 1958) by J. Duciewicz; and a summer flounder N.Y., weight of 20 lb. 2 oz., taken by G. F. Schwinzer (Montauk. (A-
Sept. 20, 1958).
J-
Me.)
may
Little
Anta true continental land mass, whereas west
is
be an archipelago smothered by glacial
America.— In
Jan,
1959. the
ice.
IGY Weather
Central,
was other scientific activities at Little America, the Special Comdiscontinued. On Feb. 2, 1959. at the request of established and committee on Antarctic Research, Australia centre menced operation of an International Antarctic Analysis hemiMelbourne to continue the analysis of the southern
along with
all
at
sphere weather conditions.
deputy chief During the 1958-59 season, Albert P. Crary. U.S.-IGY antarctic program, led an over-snow America on Oct. 15, 1958, traverse which departed from Little Skelton glacier, crossed the Ross ice shell, proceeded up the about 350 mi. and thence due west on the Victoria Land plateau after returned to McMurdo sound, arriving on Jan. 31, i9S9. the distance of 1.639 mi. A month was spent on
scientist of the
traveling a total
Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: see Sudan, Republic of the. Angola: see Portuguese 0%-erseas Provinces. Animal Fats: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats. Animal Industry, Bureau of: see Veterinary Medicine. i960, Anniversaries and Centennials: see Calendar, page
xxii.
Ant«ritt!it4
AnidlCllCd.
of the InternaJ"'y ^' ^957- the beginning hundred tional Geophysical year (IGY), several
°"
stations comat more than 50 antarctic scientific earth intensive geophysical obsen'ations to study the alen\-ironment from the southernmost part of the world
scientists
menced
and its throughmost without exception, these investigations continued At out the 18 months of the IGY which ended Dec. 31, igsS;
that the scientific the close of the IGY. it became quite evident laboratory at possibilities of this vast 6,000.000-sq.mi. frozen touched. Under the the bottom of the world had barely been
of the
auspices
International
Geophysical Co-operation,
full
programs were operated throughout 1959 at most of operations at the these stations. The United States continued and at McHallett (N.Z.-U.S.). Byrd and South Pole stations
scientific
Murdo grams
prosound. U.S. scientists also participated in research (Arg.-U.S.) at Wilkes (Austr.-U.S.) and Ellsworth
and at the New Zealand Scott base. findings of This article reports primarily on operations and
stations,
the
IGY
antarctic scientific
program
that were available late
programs, inUnited States.— In general, the U.S. scientific cosmic rays (Wilkes and Ellsworth only), aurora, and seisgeomagnetism, glaciology, gravity, ionospheric physics cluding
mology, were carried out at
of the glacier ice,
glaciological studies.
six U.S.
IGY
stations throughout
On
the icecap seismic reflecUon shooting gra\-imetric,
with was carried out at inter%-als of about 30 mi., mi. A second magnetic and altimetric measurements every 3 McMurdo sound in Oct. Victoria Land traverse departed from at Hallett station. 1959 and planned to terminate America An air-borne traverse was also operated from Little approximately during the 1958-59 season. This traverse covered the Harold B)Td moun300 mi. along meridian 130° W. between in a naN^y the Executive Committee range. Traveling
tains
and
made three-man scientific team led by Edward Thiel obtained; surface eleseven landings. Geographic positions were aircraft, the
soundings, and vations by altimetry and ice thickness by seismic on underlying rock, gravity measurements to provide information
were made at each station. dnllmg The deep core-driUing project again was successful in from a depth through the shelf ice and retrieving a 4-in. core matter were observed of more than 800 ft. Layers of foreign and 732-7-ftLittle America core at S^S-S-ft-, 722.5-ft. in the
was identified at the site as volcanic were shipped back to the U.S. Army Snow, for analysis and Ice and Permafrost Research establishment
levels.
The
565.5-ft. layer
ash. All ice cores
study.
Bentley, Byrd Station.— During the 1958-59 season Charles glaciologist,
led an over-snow traverse party on
a
triangular
station south to the unexplored Horlick Horlicks, mountains, traveling a distance of 917 mi. While in the strike members of the party climbed 4.000 ft. of sediments whose
route from the
in 1959.
movement and thickness snow accumulation and density and associated
Skelton glacier determining elevation,
Byrd
was generally east-west, parallel to the trend of the Here they found sandstone-shale coal beds containing
mountains. leaf fossils
•
and i2-ft.-long petrified tree remains. The coal beds varied in thickness from a few inches to a few feet and continued in alternate layers with sandstone and shale for nearly 2,000 ft. of the section explored. Fossil bivalve shells were also found in the basal sands.
Another over-snow traverse departed from Byrd station in Oct. 1959 for a i,2oo-mi. journey to the coast near the Amundsen sea and returned to Byrd station. The Executive Committee and
Hal Flood mountain ranges were Ellsworth Station.
—On Oct.
visited
29, 1958,
by
this party.
an over-snow traverse
departed from Ellsworth station en route to the Byrd station. This group was led by John Pirritt and arrived at Byrd station
on Feb. 20, 1959, after traveling about 1,250 mi. The traverse route between Ellsworth and Byrd stations completed a 2,700-mi. continuous scientific traverse observations which crosses west Antarctica and extends approximately 400 mi. into east line of
Antarctica.
On
Jan. 19, 1959, the U.S. party turned over custody
of the Ellsworth station to the Argentine scientific party.
—
South Pole Station. A new low temperature of — 110° F. was recorded at the South Pole station on Sept. 13, 1959. Although this
was
the
-124°
a record for the
F. recorded
South Pole station,
by U.S.S.R.
did not
it
match
Vostok station
scientists at
(over 12,000 it.) in eastern Antarctica, about 400 mi. from the south pole.
—
Wilkes Station. During the 1958-59 season, Tressler carried out an oceanographic program at Wilkes station. Tentative mean sea levels were calculated from the tide-gauge records, and extensive ice-movement studies using a time-lapse
16-mm. motion
picture camera with an electronically controlled diaphragm, were
completed. Other phases of this program included studies of sea ice and bottom samples taken from the ocean floor.
On
Feb.
4,
1959, custody of the Wilkes station was turned
over to the Australian scientific party. Hallett Station.
—This
was established by the United by the U.S. and New Zealand. In program was carried out on the Tucker glacier to extend the work of previous New Zealand expeditions in this area. Hallett station was first to report a new twilight phenomenon, the presence of a line at wave length States but
is
station
jointly operated
1959 a Ne^^' Zealand geological survey
6,700 A, discovered in spectra taken in Antarctica during the last
few months
in 1958.
The
radiation
stations except Little America.
A
new manifestarions could be related during the same period as the IGY.
McMurdo
Sound.
was observed
plain inference
is
at all U.S.
that these
to nuclear tests carried out
— Paleomagnetic observations were made
Knobhead mountain and
at
at a small
dry valley at the Upper Taylor glacier. Paragneiss bedrock collected on the west side of McMurdo was dated at 520,000,000 years by analysis of the ratio of
A«
to K**' isotope in biotite separate
from the
gneiss.
Numerous mummified
carcasses of "Crabeater" seals were found scattered over the land surface i to 30 mi. from the sea and up
to 3,000 ft. above sea level in the ice-free areas of McMurdo sound. Radiocarbon analysis of one carcass showed it to be between 1,600 and 2,600 years old.
Data.— More than
27 tons of scientific data were collected by U.S. scientists in the antarctic during the 18-month IGY period.
Ranging from mummified seal carcasses and huge ice cores to computer punch cards and microfilm, all these data were
digital
transported to the various research institutions for study, analand reduction and thence were to be sent to the 11 U.S. IGY data centres for future distribution and publication. These data would be studied and co-ordinated with scientific information ysis
from the starions of 11 other participating nations. Data for the post-IGY program would be handled in the same arriving
fashion as during the
IGY. Activities of Other Nations.
—In
mid-December
a Soviet
U.S. NAVY AND COAST GUARD ICEBREAKERS. "Edisto" clearing a path through Antarctic ice for the British "John Biscoe," which became trapped in Feb. 1959 w and personnel to a British scientific station in Antarctic
"Northwind," vessel tring
R.R.S. supplies
traverse party was successful in reaching the pole of relative inaccessibility (geographic centre of the continent). The elevation at this farthest inland base in the antarctic exceeds
12,000
ft. The Soviets established a new coastal station about 1,900 mi. west of Mirny. This base was located on the coast of Queen Maud land and was occupied during the 1959-60 winter season and named Lazarev after the Russian explorer Mikhail Lazarev.
Plans for the 1959-60 summer season included a complex transcontinental over-snow traverse from Komsomolskaya via three poles south geomagnetic, south geographic and the pole of rela:
45
ANTHROPOLOGY
46
original
for its and examine the man most responsible fully in these events. formulation. Anthropologists participated United major commemorative symposia were held in the
lation
to Lazarev. live inaccMsibility, thence all a three-ship convoy to visit Sir Vivian Fuchs was leading season. United KinRdom bases in the 1959-60 at ten Argentine Continued geophysical research programs the IGY period and all bases bases were conducted throughout continuing program. The were successfully resupplicd for the March antarctic was completed in early first tourist cruise to the State fleet 11,540-ton liner "Yapeyu.' 1959 by the Argentine Americans, were Two-hundred and sixty passengers, including 16
on board. station set up at An unattended Australian automatic weather months and continuous Lewis Island operated satisfactorily for 4 version operation was expected from the overhauled
Two
of the American PhiloStates the first at the general meeting in April and the second sophical society in Philadelphia, Pa., November. Papers sponsored by The University of Chicago in by the society and included for the April meeting were published Wilfred Le Gros Clark on "The the Penrose Memorial lecture by Three of the five topics Crucial Evidence for Human Evolution." dealt largely with anthropological in the Chicago symposium Origin and Naas a Biological Organism," "The
ij-month
every six hours. All This device broadcasts weather information (U.S.-Austr.), were IGY Australian stations, plus Wilkes station to be operated in the
post-IGY program. geological 1958 a two-man Belgian
latter part of
During the
approximately 600 mi. reconnaissance party traveled by dog sled Sor Rondane mountains. south of the Roi Baudouin base to the to be retreatAn investigation revealed the glaciers in the area base conducted 11 photographic missions
from the base. A new mountain over the mountain areas south of the 4°' E- and 72° 30' S. range was discovered between 30° 45' E.-3i° mountains after the vessel of the It was named the Belgica ing Aircraft
Gerlache expedition of 1897. during 1959 at the six Scientific observations were continued biochemistry and Chilean bases. Investigations in chemistry, other geophysical bioclimatology were planned in addition to observations.
program was to be continued at the French but the IGY d'Urville station beyond the IGY period, the icecap was Charcot station located about 270 mi. inland on
A full Dumont
scientific
discontinued.
During the
first
IGY
season scientists reported finding pitch-
area 24 to 49 mi. blende with a purity of 40^:0 to 50% in an In 1959 an unsouth of the Japanese base on Ongul Island. mi. southattended automatic weather station was established 58 east of the station.
a
A network of New Zealand
by nine important control points was established survey expedition for the purpose of providing
U.S. air photographs taken of the area. topographical program was carried out during Dec. party and aerial photography 1957 and Jan. 1958 by a Norwegian 0° eastward to the Sor Rondane of the mountain area from mountains, 30° 30' E.. was completed. continued inInternational Relations.— The importance of had been ternational co-operation for future antarctic research
full
ground
fixes for
A major
recognized by
many governments. On May
3.
1958. Pres.
Dwight
governments of all D. Eisenhower addressed an invitation to the at antarctic nations which had conducted scientific programs during the IGY to attend a conference in Washington. stations
would reserve future D.C., looking to a treaty agreement which acti\nties in Antarctica for peaceful purposes. Representatives of these nations (Argentina, Australia. Belthe Union of gium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand. Norivay. Washington on South Africa, United Kingdom. U.S.S.R.) met in the antarcdc for Oct. 15, 1959 and drafted a treaty resen.-ing representatives, peaceful purposes. The 12 nations, through their
unanimously approved the treaty and signed See
also
OPER.\TION
Geography;
Intern-.^tional
— 1959.
AnthrnnnlOPV
it
on Dec. (L-
^^""^^ '^^^
i.
Geophysical
Co-
M. Gd.)
"^^^ ^^^ centennial of the
pub-
Darwin's The Origin of year to reSpecies, numerous efforts were made during the examine evolutionary theory, take stock of its current formulication of Charles
matters;
"Man
"Social and Cultural Evolution." A sympowas held in London, sium, sponsored by the Linnaean society, area from which and a special meeting was held in Singapore— an obtained. much of the original evidence for evolution was theories of growing interest in reformulating evolutionary
ture of
Mind" and
A
years, and two works were culture had been apparent in recent Leslie A. White's The published in this centennial year. One was projected trilogy on Evolution of Culture, the first volume of a in primitive cultures; subsethe subject. It deals with evolution in to deal with the evolutionary process
quent volumes were White was awarded history and with projections into the future. anthropology for 1959. the the Viking Fund medal in general highest honour which
Human
Society by
American anthropology has
to offer.
The
a Preface to the Understanding of Walter Goldschmidt, which shows the relalevels and social systems, and the
other book was Man's
Way:
tionship between evolutionary
mechanisms of evolutionary change in society. the history of There was evidence of increasing interest in
historical survey. From anthropology. In addition to a popular of more speApe to Angel bv H. R. Hays, there were a number at Work: the document's, notably An Anthropologist cific
Mead, and the Writings of Ruth Fulton Benedict by Margaret a Personal autobiographical Robert H. Louie, Ethnologist: commissioned Record. The American Anthropological association in the files of American the republication of important essays entitled The Anthropologist and published as a memoir a volume Centennial of Ets Anthropology of Franz Boas: Essays on the
Birth (Walter Goldschmidt, ed.). In 1957
Raymond
Firth edited
Bronislaw and Culture: an Evaluation of the Work of contribution of a Malinowski. which was an investigation of the In addition, two volumes crucial figure in anthropological history. The essays of important scholars in the field:
Man
republished eariier
Cora Du Bois; Selected Essays of Robert H. Lowie, edited by essays of A. R. and Method in Social Anthropology (reproducing Radcliffe-Brown), edited by Anthropologists from
all
M. N.
Srinivas.
countries continued to investigate
native cultures and culture history in
all
parts of the globe, but
decade or more perhaps the greatest emphasis, culminating a sub-Saharan Africa. Invesof increased activity, was devoted to tool-using hominids to tigations ranged from the eariiest known Continuing cultural aspects of modem political development. the
work on
the .\ustralopithecines (African ape
men
of the
Lower
Union and their association with crude tools in the Raymond Dart. Ronald of South Africa engaged the attention of many others. Evidence Singer. J. T. Robinson, C. K. Brain and had been using among these early and apelike hominids Pleistocene
)
for tool
heavily debated.
from
A find made on July 17, i959- of a fossil skull fragment had important bearOlduvai. Tanganyika, in British East Africa, of the Coryndon museum, ing on this debate. L. S. B. Leakey first presented Nairobi, Kenva, whose wife made the discovery, Congress of Prehistory the material to the fourth Pan-African broken but virtually held at Leopoldville, Belgian Congo. The all the teeth, skull, including the upper jaw. palate and complete
was found on the
floor of
Olduvai (pre-Chellean) culture. Leakey
ANTIBIOTICS — ARCHAEOLOGY dated the large and powerful jaw as Lower Pleistocene
000 years old), and considered age 16 to 18 years,
who
to be that of a
it
lived partly on vegetables
(c. 600,-
young male, and nuts and
competed for food with the giant baboons and pigs in the Olduvai of the same period. Leakey named it Zinjanthropus boisei (zinj the ancient
is
name
for East Africa) and said, "It
is
the oldest
well-established toolmaker ever found anywhere."
Leakey gave evidence that Zinjanthropus was intermediate between earlier Australopithecines and modern man, and undoubtedly was larger than these ancestral forms.
had been found at the
A
full
child's
molar tooth of giant
site in 1958.
by Leakey
in
The
London
Illustrated
(Sept. 19, 1959) left no doubt that the discovery
important gap
in the record of
human development
fills
an
as foreseen
by Darwin. {See also Tanganyika.)
Much
and ethnological data, reconstructed the movement of peoples and cultural elements throughout Africa. Still more recent history, summarizing the evidence for highly developed cultures in cal
sub-Saharan Africa, was presented by Basil Davidson Cities in Africa. Ethnological studies too
were beginning to
fill
numerous
to
in
Lost
mention
the gap in the understanding of aboriginal
social sciences in studying current
developments on that con-
tinent.
more popular level, the Peabody museum of Harvard uniThe Hunters, the first of a series of featurefilms, describing the life of the Bushmen, a pygmoid
some degree in Turkey (where modern research-oriented favourable), was a direct result of the to
to discover
what archaeological progress was being made
The outstanding events
of the archaeological year included
the accidental discovery of an extremely fine cache of Greek statues near Athens, the occurrence of an exceptional golden
bowl
Hasanlu
at
in Iran, the
beginning of full-scale clearance
of the Natufian settlement at Mallaha in Israel and the discovery of a well-preserved skull of Paranthropus type within the archae-
bed
I at
Pleistocene Prehistory. sic
—
Olduvai
in east Africa.
Prehistorians were active in the clasarea in France, as well as throughout western Europe and in
England.
An
exceptionally fine "Venus" figurine, of calcite and
about 8 cm. high, was found in Perigordian context by M. Delaporte at Tursac. Francois Bordes began work at the important
Mousterian site of Combe-Grenale, where a sequence of 26 levels was established. Bordes also continued his work at Laugerie Haut, as did H. L. Movius at the Abri Pataud; both increasing comprehension of the complexity of the
sequence of the Dordogne area. Dorothy Garrod was invited by the Lebanese government
prehistoric activity in
Morocco, where the coastal
worked north of Rabat.
Desmond Clark continued his clearances at Kolombo Falls site in Northern Rhodesia. The
mate glimpse of their mode of life was provided in The Harmless People by Elizabeth Marshall Thomas, a member of the photo-
logged condidon of the
graphic expedition.
wooden
Jean Rouch's prize-winning Moi, un Noir ("I, a Negro") deals with cultural adjustment to urban life. Rouch was with the Musee de I'Homme in Paris and had been general secretary of
lean industry.
Committee on Ethnographic Film. See also Archaeology; National Geographic Society.
the International
(W. G.)
—
Encyclop.«dia Beitannica Films. The Amazon (People and Resources of Northern BraziO (1957); Backward CiviUzalion (1937): A Giant People (The Watussi) (1939): Indians of Earh America (1957)Man and His Culture (1954); People oj the Congo (The Mangbetu) (1939); Pygmies of Africa (1939); Remnants of a Race (1955).
to
conduct salvage excavations in an important Mousterian cave, about to be destroyed by a new road cut. There was considerable
Abdurahman was reopened, and where a new pebble
inti-
yielded
lithic
length
An
sites
Upper Paleo-
versity released
people living on the Kalahari desert in Bechuanaland.
in the
various communist countries.
while anthropologists were collaborating with related
Africa,
a
investigations were not so
ological context of
analyzed the culture history of the continent in his Africa: Its Peoples and Culture History and, by examination of archaeologi-
and
pohtical stability of those countries, almost the lone exceptions in the great near-eastern focus. And it continued to be difiicult
later African historical
developments were discussed in two books published during the year. George Peter Murdock
On
ological activity in Iran,
the legal circumstances for conducting
size
description of the 1959 find had not yet been made, but
the preHminary report
News
A
47
sumption of the French work at Ras Shamra, and for the start of new Danish excavations at Tell Sukas. The increase in archae-
site of Sidi
tool site
was
the important peculiar water-
site had favoured the preservation of and other organic traces in context with an Acheu-
tools
Only brief reports were available of the positive occurrence of a well-preserved Paranthropus-type skull within a context with the crude pebble tools of the basal bed of the long Olduvai sequence. This find, made by Mary and L. S. B. Leakey, greatly strengthened the case that beings of the' general Australopithecine group were toolmakers.
Near cal
—
East. As indicated above, there was little archaeologinews from the Arab lands. In Turkey, the work of the British
institute at
the important
2nd-3rd millennium
Beyce was continued. At Kiiltepe, Tahsin Ozguc of the University of Ankara found a cache of cuneiform tablets on the citadel mound; he also expanded his soundings on the rich 3rd-4th millennium site of Horoztepe which yielded bronzes of the Alaca "royal tomb" type. site
of
Sultan, and at the earlier prehistoric village at Hacilar,
Antibiotics: see Chemotherapy. Antigua: see West Indies, The.
Antimony:
see Mineral and Metal Production and Prices. Apples: see Fruit. Apricots: see Fruit. Arabia: see Aden; Bahrain; Kuwait; Muscat and Oman; Qatar; Saudi Arabia; Trucial States; Yemen. Arab League: see Iraq; Jordan; Lebanon; Middle Eastern Affairs Morocco Saudi Arabia United Arab Republic. ;
Arrh/IPnlniTV CUIUgJ.
;
;
^°^'''®''" jjjg
jggg
Hemisphere. jjj
—In
The University
of Pennsylvania
tinued, and arrangements were
of the royal Phrygian tion in 1957,
was
to be
tomb
museum's work
made whereby
at
Gordion con-
a loan exhibition
materials, discovered
by the expedi-
brought to the United States.
In Israel, where national interest in archaeology remained high, there was considerable small-scale and salvage activity, although
1959, as had been
previous years, the orderiy progress
of archaeological research in certain important regions was interrupted by political events. In Iraq, following the revolution of July 1958 only the German institute's work at Warka was
able to be continued,
and at a reduced scale. Hitherto flourishand Japanese expeditions in ancient Mesopotamia were not able to resume work. On the other hand, ing United States, British
the political situation in Syria cleared sufi5ciently for the re-
the grand-scale excavations at Hazor were terminated. A very important contribution to an understanding of the formative Natufian culture, in its open-air settlement aspect rather than as a
terminal cave-dwelling manifestation, was made by Jean Perrot. With support from the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, the American Philosophical society and the Wenner-Gren Foundation for Anthropological Research. Perrot was able to clear a large area, which included the remains of circular stonewalled houses, storage pits and a variety of characteristic Natu-
DISCOVERIES AT PIRAEUS. GREECE
tnoltnl Qr—k An ImporUnt And o( eight plec.i of workmen r»iculplum W.I m.de In July 1959 by
wwig. lyiUm of Plr.eui. Included In the d.te from the group moit of which wai believed to Far left: 4lh century B.C.. were .everei bronie workl. Greek Bronze meik of the type uied by ectorl In piiring Ih.
tragedy.
bronze of the Left: Marble italue of • maiden and a where they goddoii Athena ihown In the e«cavaled pit
were found.
examining the left: 0"e«n Frederlka of Greece muieum. bronjei of Artemii and Athena In the Atheni
Below
were Below: One of the two marble hermae which bulU. found. Hermae, columni lurmounted by portrait of porchei the on decoration! at were often uied buildings
THE GOLDEN BOWL OF HASANLU,
decorated with,
that scenes depicting life In an unknown civilization ended in the 9th century B.C. in northern Iran. The was uncovered in a mound excavated by Iranian
bowl
scientists and of
Pennsyi
'
U.S. archaeologists
f
EXCAVATION OF HERCULANEUfrfl,
a
town near the
during Naples, llaiy, which was buried In mud which also of Mt. Vesuvius in A.D. 79 of the town section Above: A Pompeii. destroyed It
the eruption
which has been uncovered. bowl Bust of a goddess or nymph and water volcanic rock from which in a columned portico. The seen In the the excavations have been made may be area surrounding the bust Left:
ARCHAEOLOGY ground stone and of bone and shell. Mallaha, near Lake Huleh, has important bearing
fian artifacts of chipped or
Perrot's
site,
on theories of how food production was
first
achieved in the gen-
increase in archaeological acti\'ity in Iran directly re-
flected the political stability
and the
intelligent interpretation
of the country's antiquities law for scientific purposes. In 1959
and Swedish-German expeditions and a British expedition were about
U.S., French, Italian. Japanese
worked
For
in Iran; another U.S.
were not so
Italy, the reports of archaeological acti\aty
complete.
The urns
of a Tusculan family, the gens Rabiria of
Roman
the time of the
eral near-eastern area.
The
49
on the seacoast adjacent to Corinth.
were recovered, and yielded and some pottery. A portion
republic,
several remarkable bronze mirrors
by the em-
of the remains of an imperial private circus, built
peror Heliogabalus (reigned
218-222), was cleared in the
a.d.
city of Rome, near the Basilica of the Holy Cross of Jerusalem. The Princeton university excavations at Serra Orlando, in Sicily,
to begin work. In the closing days of his 1958 season at Hasanlu,
yielded a fine 6th century B.C. wine vessel and a series of
near Lake Urmia, Robert H. Dyson,
size
Pennsylvania museum, working
Jr.,
of the University of
in collaboration
with the Iranian
Antiquities service, recovered a magnificent golden bowl with
human
A
busts.
life-
systematic underwater survey of the coasts
and ancient harbours of
Sicily
was under way by British archae-
ologists.
relief decoration representing an attack by charioteers. The bowl was found in the fire-destroyed ruins of a building of about 800 B.C. During the summer of 1959, Dyson expanded his clearance of the Hasanlu fortifications, and also made test excavations in' nearby prehistoric mounds. Roman Ghirshman, of the French
Henry Detweiler,
Archaeological mission, exposed a group of royal buildings and
spectively,
temples adjacent to the great Elamite ziggurat at Tchoga-Zanbil.
the city, and recovered a fine series of bronzes, the remains of
In Asia Minor, the sites of Aphrodisias and Sardis were under
Ahmet Donmez's
excavation: At the former site
clearances for
the Turkish Antiquities service netted a series of Hellenistic b.c. At Sardis, George Hanfmann and Harvard and Cornell universities reLydian, Roman and Byzantine levels of
2nd century
reliefs of the
worked
of in
Roman gymnasium and Greek
An
The Swedish-German excavations, under H. H. von der Osten of fire temple at Takh-
a large
Uppsala university, worked on a Sassanian
Early Christian mosaic appeared in the clearance of the remains
i-Suliman, in Iranian Azerbaijan.
of a church at
On Bahrain
Danish expedition continued to search for evidence of Mesopotamian-Indus' valley contacts. In Egypt, one or two old established foreign expeditions continued their work quietly, but other Egyptologists transferred their work to the Sudan. An Italian-French expedition underIsland, in the Persian gulf, a
took the excavation of several monumental tombs at Soleb, south of
Wadi
Rome and
the Provinces.
—The year saw considerable
of St. Sophia in Trebizond.
In Pakistan, Sir Mortimer Wheeler began excavations on the
mound of Charsada, near Peshawar. The city was besieged and taken by Alexander the Great in 327 B.C.; its ruins yielded traces of both the pre-Greek and the Hellenistic periods. large
in the Belgian
ceramic villages to Early Christian basilicas. However, the great
the area was
was
accidental. In excavations for a street in the
made in the late 4th cenThe cache contained five bronze and
Piraeus (the port of Athens) a cache
tury B.C. was encountered.
three marble statues, of which both a greater than life-size
archaic Kouros and an Athena were particularly remarkable.
The
was particularly fortunate. Detailed description of the cache was yet to come. A variety of rich Neolithic sites were under excavation; by John Papadimitriou in the cave of Pan at Marathon by Saul S. Weinberg at old Corinth and at Elatia; by John Evans at Knossos and by John L. Caskey at Eutresis. Under Doro Lcnt the Italian work in the earlier levels of Phaestos was continued, the Swedish school began work on a promising prehistoric site at Berbati, and the French school worked at Kerra (the port of Delphi) where prehistoric materials occurred. V. Milojcic of excellence of the preservation of the bronze
;
;
Heidelberg university continued his important clearance in the
The Danish school There were
in
Athens was reopened during the year.
and Greek excavations at Mycenae. At Olympia, the German school had a rich yield of fine bronzes from the stadium area, and, in the area of the workshop of the British, U.S.
sculptor Phidias, they recovered a potsherd bearing the inscription "I belong to Phidias."
comer of
The American
school worked in the
the agora at old Corinth, and also extended
its
exca-
vations in the Athenian agora upwards on the north slope of the acropolis, exposing portions of the sacred w-ay. Oscar Broneer's
work
in the
sanctuary at Isthmia yielded votive bronzes and
marbles; John Papadimitriou recovered several fine votive reliefs
from the temple
at
Congo.
still
It is
Brauron.
In Hellenistic Pella, in Macedonia, a fine series of pebble
and Katanga province
series of graves, with pottery in the
an assemblage of rich character, but
known
so little
archaeologically that the finds
could not yet be precisely dated.
In India, H. D. Sankalia
mound complex
made
at Xavadatoli,
extensive clearances on the
on the Narbada
river.
There were
suggestions of ceramic similarity to central Iranian pottery of the centuries immediately following 1000 B.C.;
it
was believed that
discoveries there would contribute to an understanding of the linguistic linkage (.Aryan)
Reports from
between Iran and India.
Hong Kong
described the recovery of the treas-
ures of the hitherto untouched
Wang
Li, of the
Ming
d>Tiasty.
tomb of the Chinese emperor The rock-cut tomb enclosed a
chamber with jade doors, the gilt coffins of the emperor two empresses and an amazing treasure of gold, silver, precious stones, brocade and porcelain. Two tombs of the much burial
and
his
earlier
Han
d>'nasty were also reported; they were of interest
for their architecture
and mural painting, but there was no report
of their content.
(R.
Western Hemisphere.
preceramic levels of Gremnos-Argissa in Thessaly.
—A
copper and iron objects, was opened
archaeological activ'ity in Greece, with interest ranging from pre-
find of the year
excellent
Dag Pazari, on the southern coast of Asia Minor, and important Byzantine paintings were revealed in the cathedral
Africa and Further Asia.
Haifa.
Greece,
inscriptions.
—The
J.
B.)
University of Utah, Salt Lake
City, was host to the 24th annual meeting of the Society for American Archaeology, April 30-May 2, 1959. From the faculty of the same university, Jesse Da%ad Jennings had been chosen by the society to receive the Viking fund medal and award in archaeology for 1958 from the Wenner-Gren Foundation for
Anthropological Research.
As in recent years, archaeologists were busy over much of Xorth America salvaging sites in the path of highway and reservoir construction. The Committee for the Recovery of Archaeological Remains issued a booklet entitled. The Inter-Agency Archaeological Salvage Program After Twelve Years (Sept. 1958), which outlined this work. Arctic.
—The coast
line of
Kotzebue sound
was explored from a small boat by
mains of a glass factory on the south coast of Crete. Greek
versity.
archaeologists cleared a remarkably fine Early Christian basilica
ridges with archaeological inclusions, that
He
J.
in
western Alaska
L. Giddings of
mosaics was uncovered. Gladys D. Weinberg excavated the re-
Brown
uni-
concluded, after studying the correlation of beach
no appreciable change
'
ARCHAE OLOGY
50
had occurred in the last few thousand years. On Choris peninsula two large oval houses of the Choris culture, believed to be more than 3,000 years old, were excavated. Lengthy cultural setjuenccs were discovered at Cape Espenberg, Alaska and at Cape Krusenstern. Northwest Territories. At the in sea
level
sequence ranged from recent Eskimo house
latter place the fuller sites
est
on the outer beach to a Denbigh
and
earliest beach,
mediate strand
flint
complex on the high-
with several old Eskimo cultures on inter-
lines.
Reconnaissance on the Barren Grounds
the
in
vicinity
of
Northwest Territories, by Elmer Harp. Jr., Dartmouth college, and Robert A. McKennan, resulted in the discovery of seven new sites and the excavation of Baker
Kccwatin
lake,
an eighth
district.
Several of these sites showed
site.
Dorset Eskimo influence.
On
a 300-mi.
some
river
and through Schultz, Aberdeen and Beverly
sites
were found,
all
indication of
canoe trip up the Thelon lakes,
30 more
situated at advantageous points along cari-
bou migration routes and having cultural affinities, not with the Eskimo, but with the early boreal forest Artillery Lake complex to the west, and the Agate Basin plains complex in Wyoming. No cultural correlation was discerned with the extensive system of postglacial raised beaches in the area. In the eastern arctis. excavations were undertaken in 11 Dorset Eskimo sites on Sugluk and Mansel islands, and near Ivugivik, Ungava peninsula, by Walter E. Taylor, National Museum of Canada, aided by Mrs. Taylor, Charles A. Martijn and ten Eskimos. House ruins, artifacts and some
human
skeletal material
contributing to knowledge of several stages of Dorset culture
were uncovered. continued
its
—The
University of Washington
archaeological salvage program in the Priest Rapids
area on the Columbia river, which involves two
A
reservoirs,
field
excavating on four
dams and
their
school group, directed by Robert Greengo, sites,
established a cultural sequence extend-
ing from protohistoric times well back into the prehistoric past.
At the Ice Harbor Reservoir area of the lower Snake river, from the State College of Washington, led by Richard D.
a party
Daugherty. discovered,
new and apparently
in
the lowest levels of their trenches, a
early
stone industry consisting of side-
notched projectile points and
crude scrapers and choppers.
large,
Another evidently ancient stone industry, comprising pgly-
project of the Smithsonian institution and
the national park service continued in
i'man-alpha photograph of the sun from a rocket flown about 100 mi. above the earth's surface. The photograph showed that the Lymanalpha radiation was more intense over the plage areas. They also obtained the spectrum of the sun down to 500 A; the lines of helium, the hydrogen-L\Tnan series, and those of highly ionized oxygen and magnesium were present. Flares continue to be the most exciting of solar phenomena. tails
of the solar spots
They always occur in and in some respects
plages (usually within a sunspot group), a plage
may
be considered a large, low-
contrast, long-lived flare. Flares are often
accompanied by an
increased solar radio emission which comes from the direction of a small area above the bright solar surface (photosphere)
near a
flare.
Interferometer studies show that the solar radio
noise emission
is
associated with the plage areas;
the
radio
waves of highest frequency originate near the bottom of the chromosphere, whereas those of lower frequency come from high in the corona. The bursts studied by the frequency scan tech-
•
ASTRONOMY nique seem to belong to five fairly well-defined categories.
The Russian astronomer, A. B. Sevemy, found that the magnetic fields in a sunspot
are different before
group
and after
a flare, but this obser\'ation
had not been confirmed elsewhere, Leighton and his as-
Mount Wilson
sociates at
ob-
servatory, Calif., found that the entire plage area
acterized
by
a
Ordinarily,
char-
is
magnetic
field.
num-
sunspot
bers are used as indexes of
Vassy found
solar activity. E.
that not only such things as
the magnetic fluctuations but the
also
atmospheric
earth's
and
refraction, density
polari-
zation change in sjTichronism
with solar activity as meas-
ured by the sunspots. Flares,
however, constitute the strong-
between solar activ-
est link
and
ity
terrestrial
effects,
although the relation
by the
plicated
fact that the
enveloped
earth
is
part
of
the
com-
is
in the outer
envelope.
sun's
Righnini found that the direct
measurement of the brightest part of a flare gives a better
quantity
for
solar-terrestrial
correlations than
employed index. usually rated in
its
normally
Flares
are
"importance";
one of importance
i
barely
May lo. 1959, had was accompanied by a host of attendant phenomena. There was a sudden enhancement of atmospheric radio noise due to the improved reflection of the atmospheric radio-frequency from the ionized layer formed be-
FIRST ULTRAVIOLET PHOTOGRAPH OF THE SUN, taken by a camera mounted in the nose cone of a U.S. navy Aerobee rocket launched March 13, 1959. The picture was taken at an altitude of 123 mi.
qualifies as a flare, while the great flare of
an importance rated as
D
3
+ This ,
flare
There was a sudden cosmic noise absorption (SCNA), i.e., the absorption by the earth's atmosphere of radiofrequency radiation from cosmic sources; a sudden short-wave fade-out (SSWF) of distant radio stations; and a sudden phase anomaly (SPA), i.e., shift in phase difference between a ground wave and one reflected from the ionosphere. Major bursts of radio noise from the sun were obsers'ed. Also, an intense aurora appeared on the evening of May 11, while on this same date there was an abrupt commencement of a magnetic storm. Most spectacular of all, however, was a sharp increase in X-ray intensity to such a level that living organisms in a satellite or any low the
layer.
by the weakness of the
light sources,
which require very long
e.xposures on the photographic plate. Hence, great interest
is
at-
tached to the development of any technique to intensify images
Such
electronically before they are photographed.
was employed by L'AUemand difficult
in France,
but
a
procedure
required very
it
experimental techniques impractical in a typical ob-
cosmic-ray enhancements. For example, during the International
Of particular interest were the promising experiments W. Baum, M, A, Tuve and their associates with a cascaded image converter that intensified an optical image received at one end (by a two-stage amplification into a bright image on a phosphor screen. The electrons were focused electrostatically, but there was difficulty in obtaining high resolution. Although the image tube was not yet satisfactory- for long exposures (because of background noise) nor for wide field work, it proved useful for double-star measurements where it is important to take advantage of moments of good seeing, and it was expected that it would be useful for planetary photography. Among developments in optical astronomy must be mentioned
Geophysical year, which had been planned to coincide with maxi-
the completion of the i9c-cm. reflector of the observatory in
of the presently suggested space ships
Only
lated.
mum
a
would have been annihiflares actually produce
few of the most intense
sunspot activity, no cosmic-ray-enhancing flares appeared.
The output
from the sun was monitored by measuring the light reflected from Uranus and Neptune, and the solar activity was correlated with auroras and fluctuations in the brightness of comet tails. F. X. Eigensson in the Soviet Union found correlations between the shape of the solar corona and of energ\'
the earth's atmospheric circulation
able
if
—
a result that
is
understand-
the corona of the sun envelopes the earth.
Instruments.^-The greatest
difficulty in
astronomy
is
imposed
servatory.
by
\V. A. Hitner,
)
Haute Provence, France, with a splendid
new coude
its
auxiliary equipment including
spectrograph.
The
greatest instrumental
progress continued to be in radio astronomy. Several very large
instruments were under construction Australia.
The
in the
85-ft. radio telescope of the
United States and Xational Radio As-
tronomy observatory. Green Bank. W.Va., was dedicated on Oct. 16, 1958. A 140-ft, dish was under construction at the obser\-atory. At Owens Valley. Calif,, a California Institute of Technology group, under the leadership of J. G. Bolton, built a
A
ATHLETICS — TOMiC ENERGY
70
unique interferometer consisting of twin 90-ft. steerable parab40 tons and mounted on tracks so that they
oloids, each weighing
could he set 200, 400, 800 and i,6oo ft. apart. One of the main programs of this installation, which utilized wave lengths between 5 and 100 cm., was to determine the accurate positions
and identifications of as many as possible of the 1,500 discrete radio sources.
At Stanford, in
Calif.,
R. N. Bracewell and his associates put
operation a high-resolution interferometer consisting of two
(each of
perpendicularly placed rows
16
parabolic
mirrors)
which gave a resolution of four seconds of arc, equivalent to a parabola of 375 ft. diameter. At Boulder, Colo., the national
The
was a difference of opinUnion and the western powers as to the size, nature and modus operandi of the inspection and control system that would be established to prevent violation of the agreement. In general, the United Kingdom and the United States favoured a more stringent system than the Soviet Union was willing to accept. This issue was especially sharply drawn in regard to the testing of weapons underground because of a contention by the western powers that such activity often would be indistinguishable from natural earth tremors unless the inspection system were more elaborate than initially envisioned. In principal cause of disagreement
ion between the Soviet
support of this contention the United States offered to
make
.'Xt
Geneva negotiators certain data produced by underground tests held in Nevada in Oct. 1958. After at first
Delaware, 0., a unique paraboloid-section fixed antenna, 360 ft. long and 70 ft. high, was under construction. It was designed to
refusing to do so, the Soviet Union toward the end of 1959 agreed to participate in an examination of this information, an
study galactic sources with wave lengths from 15 cm. to 15 m. The 85-ft. steerable paraboloid of the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, was dedicated Oct. 7, 1959. A number of steerable radio telescopes, e.g., the 85-ft. dish
action which avoided the apparently imminent collapse of the
bureau of standards was developing a
60-ft.
telescope for the
study of scintillation, discrete radio sources and Jupiter,
of the Jet Propulsion laboratory and the 84-ft. dish at Westford, Mass.,
were for tracking
satellites
and probes.
Galacfic S+rucfure, S+ellar Astronomy and Externoi GalThe problems of the structure of the galaxy, the disaxies. tances of external galaxies and stellar evolution continued to occupy the attention of many astronomers. As the observation of stellar brightness and colours become more accurate, the effects of stellar ages and differences in chemical composition become more manifest. Hence, the interpretation of colourmagnitude arrays for star clusters, in terms of stellar ages and evolution hypotheses, becomes more difficult. For example, it had been widely assumed that the absolute magnitudes of clustertype variables was 0, i.e., that the stars were about 80 times as
—
bright as the sun. It
is
now
believed that they are only about
50 times as bright as the sun. Hence, the distances of clusters established
by using the cluster-type variables might have
be revised.
to
—
See also International Geophysical Co-operation 1959; Space Explor.>\tion. (L. H. A.) Encvclop.tdh Britaxn-ica Films, Earth in Motion (1936); Energy
—
Irom the Sun (1955); Exploring the Universe (1937); The The Solar Family (1936).
Moon
(1936);
Athletics: see Track and Field Sports; etc. Atlantic Treaty: see North Atlantic Treaty Organiza-
available to the
negotiations and tended to revive hopes that an agreement might
eventually be forthcoming.
At the start of the Geneva talks in 1958, the Soviet Union had proposed that an agreement be entered into which, in essence, would specify simply that no further nuclear weapons tests would be held by any of the signatorj' powers. The United Kingdom and the United States, on the other hand, proposed that such an agreement be signed, but only if it also provided for the simultaneous establishment of an inspection and control system in
which they could have confidence. Thus the situation which
prevailed throughout 1959, i.e., no known tests and no inspection and control system, was more analagous to the declared objective of the Soviet Union than
to
the western
that of
powers.
Considering this fact,
it should probably not be surprising end of 1959 there was increasing pressure in the United States for testing to be resumed in i960 if no agreement had been reached by that time at Geneva. This pressure involved primarily the resumption of underground testing, where the problems of detection and control w^ere believed to be least susceptible to solution, and the problems of contamination of the earth's atmosphere and surface by radioactive fall-out were be-
that toward the
The principal argument was only by such means that atomic warheads could be perfected for use in defensive and tactical weapons as distinguished from the weapons of massive lieved to be minimal or nonexistent. for resuming tests
was that
it
retaliation.
During 1959 it became increasingly apparent that the world's next nuclear weapons test might very well involve a nation not
AtnmiP HlUlllib first
^"^^ ^^^"^ ^^^^ ^^^ notaWe in regard to atomic energ>' chiefly because it was the
FnPrVV LllClgJ.
year since 1950
known
to
in which no nuclear weapons tests were have taken place an>'where in the world. This apparent
was not attributable
any international agreement, but to the declared desire of the world's three principal atomic powers the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and the United States not to affect adversely the chance that such an agreement might be negotiated. inactivity
to
— —
The year
saw increased international co-operation in the field of atomic energy, increased progress in the development and construction of nuclear-propelled ships and a general lessening in the sense of urgency of the various national programs to utilize
also
atomic energy
in the generation of electric
Test Negotiations.
power.
— Discussions leading toward the possible
conclusion of an agreement banning nuclear weapons tests were
begun
in Geneva, Switz., on Oct. 31. 1958, between British, Soviet and United States representatives. The talks, except for
an eight-week recess
in September and October, proceeded Uy throughout 1959 without agreement.
stead-
represented in the Geneva talks and therefore not bound by any agreement that might be reached there. This nation was France, which in the fall of 1959 officially declared its intention to test its first
atomic weapon in the French Sahara early
in i960.
intention encountered very strong opposition, particularly
This
among
African and Asian nations, and in Nov. 1959 the political committee of the United Nations voted 46 to 26 to recommend that the general assembly request France to refrain from test.
France, however, continued to indicate
its
its
proposed
intention to pro-
its announced plans. Although no known nuclear weapons
ceed with
tests took place in 1959. three hitherto secret e.xplosions detonated in Aug. and Sept.
1958 were disclosed for the
first
time in
relatively small explosions (the equivalent of
tons of
TNT),
March
1959. These
from 1,000
to 2,000
collectively knowTi as Project "Argus,"
were set off by the United States in space approximately 300 mi. above the South Atlantic ocean. For a while it appeared that the inability of conventional equipment and techniques to detect such distant explosions might prove to be as troublesome to the
Geneva negotiations as explosions detonated underground.
It
JOHN JAY HOPKINS RESEARCH LABORATORY, which was
dedicated June 25, 1959. Located near San Diego. Calif., the $10,000,000 building was to be used by the atomic division of the General Dynamics corporation. The laboratory is equipped with a "Triga" atomic reactor capable of developing power of 1.500,000 kw.
PLANT STUDY AT BROOKHAVEN NATIONAL LABORATORY,
Up-
Long
Island, N.Y. Rows of plants surrounded a pipe carrying rays from a cobalt-60 source located beneath the greenhouse floor. The experiment was part of a continuing study of the effects of radiation on plants ton.
gamma
ATOMIC ENERGY
REACTOR CORE PHOTOGRAPHED FOR THE FIRST TIME reactor was operating.
A camera was
while placed above a glass plate Inwas created by the radia-
stalled at the top of the core, and the light tion of the core in operation
PIN-POINTING RADIOACTIVE FALL-OUT on
a transparent
map
In
an
underground test station at Ongar, Eng. The test. In which Denmark, Belgium, France and the Netherlands also took part, was designed to provide centralized information about fall-out in the event of an atomic attack
*;*
ATOMIC ENERGY
72
was rather quickly agreed, however, that nuclear tests in space could be effectively monitored by means of specially launched and equipped earth satellites. This is made easier because of the fact, demonstrated by Project "Argus," that nuclear explosions at very high altitudes may produce readily detectable electron around the earth that follow the
shields
magnetic
of the earth's
lines
field.
—
The Fall-ouf Problem. One of the principal reasons given by the negotiating nations for striving to arrive at an agreement to cease atomic weapons tests was that such an agreement would halt the production of the radioactive residue of atomic explosions called fall-out. The other reasons most frequently given for ceasing weapons tests were that such an action would aid the cause of general disarmament and also tend to prevent the establishment of nuclear weapons programs in nations then without them, such as France.
The most hazardous
ingredient in atomic fall-out
was generally
considered to be the radioactive substance strontium go, which retains a substantial proportion of its radioactivity
more
for
than 100 years. This material, when ingested by humans, exhibits bone-seeking properties similar to those of calcium. Further-
more,
it
can be retained
in the
body
for decades, causing such
diseases as bone cancer and leukemia. Other fall-out products,
including the relatively long-lived cesium 137, are generally not
body
retained in the
can cause harmful
mans who
ingest
as long as strontium go, but nevertheless
effects,
including hereditary effects, in hu-
them or who
them
are exposed to
in too great
in the
of fall-out
United States both
came under in a
intensive review in ig5g
study conducted by the general
advisory committee of the United States Atomic Energy commission
and
in public
hearings before the special subcommittee on
radiation of the joint committee on atomic energy of the United
States congress. With respect to the hazard from fall-out produced by nuclear weapons tests that had already taken place, the Atomic Energj- commission's general advisory committee stated the following in the report summarizing its investigations;
"The present
state of
knowledge does not permit a full evaluHowever, in order to
ation of the biological effects of fall-out.
place the hazard of fall-out in
its
Strontium units populations
proper perspective,
it
as the average exposure to
that a hazard to the world's population could result during this
The United
should
and other background radiation; and (b)
less
than
cosmic rays 5
per cent
strontium units). Thus for testing already
period.''
ical
much
do
to fall-out radiation is and will be compared to the 'normal background' radiation or the standard recommended by the ICRP." The report went on to say, however: ".Assuming successive cycles of testing over the next two generations or less, following the same pattern as the past five years, the predicted average concentration in bone will be about 48 strontium units. This is close enough to the maximum permissible body burden of 67 strontium units recommended by the ICRP to suggest
resulting from fall-out to date, together with future fall-out in any part of the world from previous weapons tests, is: (a) less
per cent as
higher than for average Western
relatively small
energy
5
slightly
is
strontium units) and lower than the average for
conducted man's exposure
be pointed out that the amount of total body external radiation
than
( $
Eastern peoples
quantities for too long periods of time.
The question
PLAYWRIGHT JOHN OSBORNE and hii wife, actreii Mary Ur«, carrying posters during a week-long nationwide campaign for nuclear disarmament in Britain in 1959. Osborne is the author of Look Back in Anger, which was being performed in U.S. theatres during the year BRITISH
States congressional joint committee on atomic
igsg also studied the possible effects of a hypothetattack with 263 nuclear weapons on 224 prime metropolitan in
and industrial targets
in the
United States. The committee con-
cluded, as a result of the study, that 50,000.000 people could
be killed and 20,000,000 injured by such an attack, with
and
of the estimated average radiation exposure of the American
of
public to X-rays for medical purposes.
including primarily radioactive fall-out.
"In regard to internal
effects of
.
.
.
amount of strontium 90 which has been found in food and water is less of a hazard than the amount of radium norinally present in public drinking water supply in certain places in the
The
United States, and in public use for
many
decades."
report of the special subcommittee on radiation of the
fatalities
injuries
to
report said that, with proper
3%. in+erna+iona! Co-operation.
among
25%
being attributable to radiation,
ci\'il
defense preparedness,
the radiation casualties could be significantly reduced
tion
congressional joint committee on atomic energ\' summarized the
from strontium
The
strontium 90 due to inges-
tion, the
the
from 25"^
—There was increased co-opera-
nations in igsg in regard to both the militan.' and
peaceful applications of atomic energy. Co-operation in the militar\' field
was marked by the signing of agreements between the
com-
United States and seven of its North Atlantic Treaty organizaCanada. France. Greece, the Netherlands, tion (NATO) allies
"The standard recommended by the International Commission for Radiological Protection for occupational exposure of
Turkey, the United Kingdom and West Germany. The agreement with the United Kingdom provided for the
workers corresponds
transfer of both nuclear materials and information useful in the
status of the hazard
oo, as described at the
—
mittee's hearings on the problem, in this way:
individual units,
industrial
whereas the
ICRP recommends
2.000 strontium
to
a value corresponding to
manufacture and
utilization of
weapons and the propulsion of
The agreement with France provided only
67 strontium units as a standard for application to the general
submarines.
population.
furnishing of nuclear fuel for use in the prototj^pe of a land-
.
.
.
"It was forecast [by expert witnesses at the hearings]
the average concentration of strontium go in
past weapons tests will reach
its
maximum
that
human bone from
value in the period
1962-1965. The predicted United States average value of 6
for the
based submarine. The other five agreements provided for the transfer of nonnuclear information and equipment pertinent to the training of troops in the use of nuclear weapons. The agreements, however, stopped short of the transfer of the weapons
ATOMIC ENERGY themselves.
Under United
States law these
must remain
in the
custody of United States troops.
The reason
for the
NATO
Dwight D. Eisenhower to the
agreements was explained by Pres. words, which referred specifically
"This agreement with the Kingdom of Greece will enable the in
ning with Greece and in training of Greek
an attack on
Supreme
of the
NATO
Allied
mutual defense plan-
NATO
forces in order
should occur, under the direction
Commander
Greek forces
for Europe,
could effectively use nuclear weapons in their defense." In regard to peaceful applications, the most striking development was the signing in November of an agreement between the Soviet Union and the United States calling for a co-operative program of nuclear research. The agreement, which was part of a general cultural exchange program between the two
and nonsecret information in such fields as high energy physics, power reactor development, controlled thermonuclear research and the production and utilization of radioisotopes. It also envisioned such nations, covered the exchange of scientists
joint
research projects as the construction and operation of
nuclear particle accelerators.
Jhe agreement furthermore
collaboration
in
Energy agency
with
the
Vienna, Aus., with reports
in
pro-
would be acInternational Atomic
vided that the co-operation carried out under
complished
it
made
available to
During 1959, in steps leading toward the signing of the agreement, a team of U.S. officials and scientists, headed by John A. McCone, chairman of the United States Atomic Energy commission, visited the Soviet Union, and a team of Soviet officials and scientists, headed by Vasily S. Yemelyanov, director of the Soviet Union's Main Administrainterested nations.
Uses of Atomic Energy, visited the United
tion for the Peaceful
Sir
John went on
to say,
however, that he foresaw substantial
power in the future as well as a drop in the world price of uranium from $12 to $8 per pound, "If we combine these favourable factors," Sir John said, "with the undoubted fact that electricity demands of the world are still rising exponentially with a doubling time of ten years, we must agree with the chairman of Euratom [Etienne Hirsch, who also in 1959 publicly noted the deceleration in regard to power] that the recession in nuclear power construction can only be a temcost reductions in atomic
United States to cooperate effectively that, if
24 million tons."
in these
agreement with Greece:
73
by the equivalent of 20 million tons of coal per annum while total energy requirements have only increased by eight years
porary phase,"
—
Other Developnnen+$. ^Among the more noteworthy other developments in atomic, energy during 1959 were the following: Ships.
—The
world's
first
nuclear-propelled surface ship, the
Soviet icebreaker "Lenin," performed successfully on
voyage
in the Baltic sea in
nuclear merchant ship, the "Savannah," and the cruiser, the
maiden
its
September, In July the world's
"Long Beach," had been launched
U,S,S.
United States. They were expected to be completed
and 1961, respectively. During 1959 the United States the keels of five nuclear submarines, including the
first
nuclear
first
the
in
i960
in
also laid
two
first
designed to carry ballistic missiles, and completed four sub-
marines
in addition to five already
United Kingdom
with the
fleet.
In
May
the
Royal Navy's first nuclear submarine, H.M.S. "Dreadnought," which was being built under a co-operative agreement with the United States. Fusion.— The Los Alamos, N.M., scientific laboratory of the United States Atomic Energy commission announced in September that "we find no evidence discordant with a thermonuclear reaction having been obtained'' in an experimental thermonuclear laid the keel of the
fusion machine called "Scylla-I." This was the strongest sug-
States.
Another important development
in regard to international co-
made by
gestion yet
a U.S. laboratory that
thermonuclear fu-
operation in 1959 was the establishment by the Organization of
sion,
American States (O.A.S.) of an Inter- American Nuclear Energy commission to promote co-operation in nuclear training and re-
hydrogen bomb, might have been achieved. Scientists were careful to emphasize, however, that, even if thermonuclear fusion
search
among
the
members
of the O.A.S.
Guillermo Sevilla-
which
is
had occurred,
the process
it
employed
to release energy in the
would be many years before useful power for
Sacasa, Nicaraguan ambassador to the United States, was elected
peaceful purposes could be produced by the fusion process,
chairman of the new commission. Meanwhile, the coprograms of the previously established European
which promised a virtually limitless future supply of energy. Space. The United States Atomic Energy commission began in June to operate the first ground-based experimental reactor in its nuclear-powered space propulsion program, called Project "Rover," The reactor, named "Kiwi-A," was in operation by the Los Alamos scientific laboratory at the commission's experimental test site at Jackass Flats, Nev. Atomic Power. The French Atomic Energy commission in
the
first
operative
Atomic Energy community (Euratom), the Organization for European Economic Cooperation and the International Atomic Energy agency continued to go forward.
Power Deceleration.
—The year 1959 was characterized by a
general diminution in the sense of urgency with which various national and international programs for the development
and
—
—
construction of atomic power plants had been pursued. In the
April produced the
United Kingdom, there were about 2,000,000 kw. of atomic
generated in France from atomic energy.
power capacity
on order in was about
plished in a 25,000-kw. reactor called "G-2" at the commission's
1,000,000 kw., and for the Soviet Union about 600,000 kw. All
In the United States the nation's second full-scale atomic power
1959.
either built, under construction or
The equivalent
figure
for the United States
of these were considerably less than earlier estimates for the year. In addition, the forecasts for the
Euratom nations
(Bel-
first
atomic experimental centre at Marcoule, plant, a privately
produced
its
first
commercial use
electricity for
owned i8o,ooo-kw.
The
feat
to
be
was accom-
in southeastern France.
station near Chicago,
self-sustaining nuclear reaction in
111.,
October.
gium, France, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands and West
The
Germany) were reduced from an initial by 1967 to 3,000,000 kw. by 1966.
In India the government announced a plan to construct a large
goal of 15,000,000 kw.
Discussing this situation in an address to the 1959 general conference of the International Atomic Energy agency in Vienna
September, the United Kingdom's leading atomic
in
Sir
John Cockcroft,
scientist.
power program
is
partly due to
the changing picture of fuel supply in the world. This appears to
be mainly due to a large-scale switch of industry from coal
to oil resulting in a
United Kingdom
oil
full
power
in i960.
atomic power station by 1964. Food Preservation. The United States army quartermaster
—
corps in
November canceled
Food Irradiation centre
its
plans to construct a $7,500,000
at Stockton, Calif.,
on grounds that the
funds could be better utilized for other purposes. The action
said:
"The' recession in the nuclear
plant was expected to be brought up to
temporary surplus of
Thus
in
the
consumption has increased during the
last
coal.
eliminated the only substantial program then to
develop methods
for
preserving
foods
known
to
exist
through radiation
sterilization or pasteurization techniques.
The Law.
—The United States congress
in
September modified
the nation's basic atomic energy law to permit the transfer of
—
. ;
:
AUDIOVISUAL
EDUCATION — AUSTRALIA I^H ^^5
Auttnlaa
tory and
km.
Capital Territory are
gmn
ia tbe table b»-
from tbe larger state capitab) vitk pop. of moretliaa iooxx» in 1959: Newcastle, N.5.W. c^T^o Greater WoUongoog. X5.W. (195A est; 1 12 J90. Territor.- lAniniit ration of tbe Oxmaoawcalth of Amtratia b Cities (apart
3M/M3 i^ZXJt* VM* i/tS7a*1 tnSOO tJ1tJ5« jnat* uttpn
.QjaAKUm |l,72«.IOa|
liiiJMOt
{uaimm Mj064|
3«jMII
27»1.»S»
H%Ai*
uy*99 •*7*7
tA7»0
JOJIS
93«:
tjtt
>
jonrii i«>6*
24.2IS sryjtio
(10S.II0I
i7'ii:
.... 7Jr7*Jt^ t.»«*,Jio la^Mt'." » tt ^^9t7\ M.AM', brt rl rn 1 1« f ': ni J nn 2» —JM. d» ttnkt Wr t««*»>^ pan. »•. -
r
thdt^fcufii
Z7.179.
iiai.
I
i
tM£. air mtimfi4.
it comprise: Papua and the trust territory of New Papi:a-New GtnjrcA; T«cst TEncrronEs;; N^'
not inchided in -^.
r.
.
.,f
Nauru
::'
[1957 esc] 1,060); the island tr.
sqjni., pop.
: ''13.3 -,
(8.2
sqmi, pop. [1954 census] 3^73,
[i;
4,308;; Christinas Island (62 sqjnL, pop. [1959 er :z^: .\sfainore and Cartier islands. Heard and Macdoci^ [
sqmi
7:3
600
1
:
-
regulatoiy authority over ra4fioisotopes and noocritical quantities
of nnckar fuels from the federal
govemment
A:.
to the state;
Tbe new
);
Cocos (Keeling^ Islands (5 sqmi
and the Australian antarctic territory ^about Language: Fjiglish. Religion ^1954 census Roman Catholic 2,o6ov986; Methodist 9-': :42; Baptist 127444; Lutheran 116,17s: ^4: Greek Orthodox 74,760; Coogrcga-
modificatioa in the law also established a Federi Radiatioo comdl, icsponable to the president, to co-ordinate the radiation protection acti%-ities of the agendes of tbe federal
Christian 6.3;:
igion 42,140;
government.
819. (^ueen. EIix;
general in 1959. Field
United States' first plant to produce New phitooiom fuel dements for nuclear reactors was [rfaced in operation in May at the Atomic Energy commission's Argoime National laboratory near Giicago. HL In Canada the govcin-
shal Sir William
PacaitUs.—^Tbe
ment announced
in
October that
it
planned to establish a nudear
-;-.-
,;r; Jewish 48,439; other non-
minister, Robert
no reply
S--
M;-
(kmlon Menz::
session of the year
1
;,
was notable for controversy over increased salaries for memt-: and for the passage of the hanking legislation first proposed 1957.
The hanking
Chalk River, OnL Vrammm. ^Tbe United Stales Atomic Energy commissian annoanced in Aprfl that it was committed to purchase about 9,000 excess tons of nraniom per jrear for the succeeding three jrears. The surplos uraninm, the commission said, would be stock-
the Reserve
—
.-
—The early parliamentary
bank from
in operation at
Sum; prune
.
History.
research centre in Manitoba to sapptement the centre already
its
legislation separated the country's
of Australia.
The
-
cent-
other hanking institutions and reconstituted
Bank
.
pTnpathy and help. Austria
difl5cult
after
were forced to leave Czechoslovakia, held their tenth annual conference in V'ienna. A resolution demanding an-
poleon, the Tiroleans in Austria assured their brothers in the
was issued
won
states.
who
II
was required by the constitution. In the elections the Socialists gained four seats and the Christian Democrats (Volkspartei) lost three seats. The Com-
The
in
The industrial production index stood at 162 in April 1959 (1953= ioo>, while the cost-of-living index rose only to 115 (1953=100). Unemployment fell to its the
had decided that they could not satisfactorily
was the elections for the parliament on
istische Partei,
Partei
for
i960, but Reinhard Kamitz, the Christian Democratic minister
The
Austrian
In March the two ruling parties, the Volkspartei and the Sozial-
elections
Oc
important questions, and therefore the writ for
in
followed by complicated negotiations to form the government.
settle various
its
German-speaking population of South Tirol during the year. Italy had not fulfilled its obligation to grant them a certain autonomy in the province Alto Adige but had, on the contrary, fostered immigration with the aim of Italianizing the province. At the 150th anniversary of the Tirolean fight for independence against Na-
;
—The most important event during 1959
affairs
Bruno Pittermann, as
chancellor,
lober showed even a greater loss for the Christian Democratic
As
all
bound
to
remind
government called on international Europe was September the foreign minister asked
in vain, the
to the matter,
and
in
the United Nations for help. Educoiion.
felt
Austria's approaches to the Italian
— Schools
(F. P.
M.)
primary 5.236, pupils 716,032, teachers 25,165; secondary 193, pupils 84.200, teachers (1954) 4,485: vocational (excl. compulsory part-time) 186, pupils 45,300, teachers 4,395; teacher(1957):
training 52, students 5,473. Institutions of higher education 14, students 27,296, teaching staff 2,759. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: schilling, exchange rate 26 to the
—
U.S. dollar. Budget (1959 est.): revenue 36.500.000.000 schillings; expenditure 40.500.000.000 schillings. Total public debt (195S) 16.167.300,000 schillings. Gold and foreign-exchange holdings, central bank (.April 1958) U.S. $507,000,000; (.\pril 1959) U.S. $691,000,000. Currency cirMarch 1959 in parentheses) 15,260,000,000 culation (March 1958; schillings (16,050,000,000 schillings). Deposit money (March 195S: March 1959 in parentheses) 16,790.000.000 schillings (19,780,000.000 schillings). Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports 27.912.000,000 Schillings; exports 23,864,000,000 schillings. Main destination of exports: Germany 25%; Italy 17%: other continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries iS%; sterling area 8%: U.S. and Canada 5%; Latin America i%. Main sources of imports: Germany 39%; Italy "8%; other continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 15%; U.S. and Canada ir%; U.K. 4%; other sterling area 4%; Latin America 3%. Transport and Communicotions Roads (1958) 31,800 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): passenger 233,200; commercial 69,900. Federal railways
—
—
I
AUTOMATION — AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
77
(1958): route length 5,900 km.; passenger-km. (igs?) S.902, 000,000; freight (1957) 7,596,000,000 ton-km. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 592,197. Licensed radio receivers (1957) 1,838,000. Licensed television receivers 16,000.
—
Agriculture Production (metric tons, 1958; i957 in parentheses): wheat 549,000 (574,000); rye 397,000 (400,000); barley 335,ooo (392,000); oats 333,000 (340,000); maize 155,000 (149,000); potatoes 3.341,000 (4,034,000); beet sugar (raw) 278,000 (276,000); wine 121,000 (35,000). Livestock (Dec. 1958): cattle 2,297,000; sheep 207,000; pigs
2,917,000; horses 200,000; goats 209.000. Industry. Fuel and power (195S); coal 141,600 metric tons; lignite 6,492,000 metric tons; electricity (excl. industrial generation) 10,992,000,000 kw.hr.; manufactured gas (Vienna only) 324,000,000 cu.-m.; crude oil 2,832,000 metric tons. Production (metric tons, 1958); iron ore, 30% metal content, 3.408,000; pig iron 1,824,000; crude steel 2,388,200; magnesite (1957) 1,172,600; aluminum 74,280; copper (electrolytic) 9.600; cement 2,154.000; paper (1957) 433,000; nitrogenous fertilizers (N content, 1957-58) 157,100; cotton yarn 26,520; woven cotton fabrics 17,520; wool yarn 10.440; rayon staple fibre 46,320; sawed softwood (1957) 3,926,000 cu.m.; sawed hardwood (1957) 172,000 cu.m.
—
Automation:
see
Electronics; Machinery and Machine
Tools; Telegraphy. see Accidents.
Automobile Accidents:
Passenger car production in the
Automobile Industry.
United
States,
having
fallen
abruptly during the 1958 model year, underwent a sharp recovery
1959 model cycle, which began in late Sept. 1958 and earlier than usual, mostly by mid-Aug. 1959. The
in the
ended somewhat
1959 model year output total was estimated at 5,568,055 passenger cars by the Automobile Manufacturers Assn., which reflected gain over the 4,256,002 computed as the 1958 model This headlong advance began in the spring of 1959, though there were clear signs of it earlier, and it carried through with
a
30.9%
total.
expanding
momentum
in fact, into the
The
during the balance of the model year and,
i960 model announcement period in the
greatest gain in the industry
Packard Corp., whose Lark
series
industry output to 2.4% from 1.2% in 1958. American Motors Corp., the pioneer in the "compact" size car race, also registered
enormous advance, improving its output to 374,240 130.4% more than the 1958 model run, enough to expand its share of the industry to 6.7% from 3.8% in the preceding year. The other major components of the industry also gained in varying degrees, their share of the total 1958 model production being; General Motors, 48.0%; Ford, 30.2%; and Chrysler, 12.6%. By makes the production rankings were led by Chevrolet,
a relatively cars, or
Oldsmobile, Rambler,
IT
into the small car field
we want it to be the GIANT of the small of the Chicago Sun-Times syndicate
1959 cartoon by Lichty
.
car field!" a
fall.
was registered by Studebakerbroadly dominated its model
year total of 131,508 cars, reflecting an advance of 155.4% over the 1958 model year total and doubling the company's share of
then Ford, Pl>Tnouth, Pontiac,
LONGER, LOWER AND WIDER
"YOU BETTER MAKE
Buick,
Dodge, Mercury, Cadillac, Studebaker, Chrysler, DeSoto, Edsel, Lincoln and Imperial.
The year 1959 was again one in which a notable aspect of the market was an increasing preference of the motoring public for
American Deluxe Six) to $12,000 (for the Cadillac 60 Special Brougham), these prices being factory retail recommended, without taxes, delivery and handling charges. One compilation reflected an average price increase of 2.6% on all 1959 models as compared with the 1958 models, which in turn had been 3.5% above the 1957 average. The 4-door station wagon was for the second successive year the most popular individual model, with 64 such offerings; there were 62 variants of the 4-door sedan, single type until 1958.
most popular
Perhaps the most notable mechanical attribute of the 1958 was that they ended the horsepower race of the postwar
cars
Power outputs were changed barely, if at all. Actually, a few compression ratios and power outputs were quietly reduced
years.
1959 models. mechanical innovations introduced
in the
Two
in earlier
years almost
disappeared in 1958. Air suspensions were purchased in smaller and smaller quantity as the year went on. Fuel injection, optional in 1958. was not available in most of Both seemingly cost too much for the virtues they offered. But increasing acceptance was evident of automatic transmissions, power steering, power brakes and air conditioning. Most 1959 automobiles developed more sweeping lines than previous models. Fenders were broader, and on some the fins edged higher. "Gull wing" treatments were more extended. More
in a
broad range of cars
them
in
eral of those
glass
was employed, the tops of many cars being reduced
of total registrations. Best sellers during that period were, in
length under the encroachment of higher windshields and rear
order, Volkswagen, Renault,
1958. Their range of prices
"picture windows." Some beltlines were lowered modestly. There was an interesting turn here and there toward more restrained use of bright metal garnish molding and trim. Beauty was enhanced on all cars by the application of new finishes with deeper lustre and more permanence. Two manufacturers came to market with distinct new price lines. Studebaker-Packard's Lark was one example, built in two series of four models apiece. Edsel, whose 1958 model debut was less than successful, eliminated the highest-priced two of its four
tion
series,
smaller automobiles. This not only accounted for the success of
American Motors and Studebaker-Packard, but
it
also served
Domesmonths of 1959 were compared with 262,823
to enlarge the total of imports brought into the country. tic sales
of foreign cars during the first nine
preliminarily estimated at 450,000 units, in the
same 1958 period and with 373,189 in all of 1958. In sevmonths imported cars accounted for 11% or more British Ford,
Opel,
Fiat,
Simca,
Hillman, Triumph, Vauxhall and Volvo. There were estimated no
fewer than 13,000 dealers marketing foreign makes, or more than
36%
of the national total of approximately 36,000 retail
auto agencies at the end of the 1958 model cycle.
The 1959 Models. senger car
industry
—For
offered
1959 year the domestic pascustomers 305 different models,
the
320 announced for was somewhat broader, with producfrom $1,675 (for the 2 -door Rambler
slightly less than the previous record total of
cars
available
1959.
and
later in
1959 the Edsel was dropped completely.
in
AUTOMOBILE INDUSTRY
Top. left: 1960 CORVAIR, Chevrolet division. General Motors Corp. Top. right: 1960 FALCON, Ford iviotor Co. Centre, left: I960 VALIANT, Chrysler Corp. Centre, right: 1960 BLUEBIRD. Nissan Motor Co.. Japan Bottom, left: 1960 RAMBLER AMERICAN American Motors Corp. Bottom, right: 1960 LARK convertible, Studebaker-Packard Corp.
agency was a factor
5jlg5 pg^
^ ., ., profitless period
of
—
in their ability
.
to earn
,
,
,
what the dealers
—after a
relatively ,,
,
association called
"slight" profit in 1958. largely o of busi-jj o j attributable to the Surge •
in the last quarter of that year. Another aspect of this market was a steadily rising level of installment purchases; automobile credit by June of 1959 had risen for seven consecutive riess
In general, the Chrysler
Dodge and Plymouth
An
ical ones.
seats
models—Imperial,
—confined
Chrysler, DeSoto,
their changes to
interesting innovation
was the
modest mechan'^°^^^
availability of swivel
egress easier.
The
lines
made
available an optional combination
of pneumatic springing o D at the rear wheels I-
and torsion bars
at the
""I"?"' '^'ooa'ajo Subtotal Araentino
tront.
Australia
The General Motors
offerings
—Buick,
Cadillac,
Chevrolet,
Oldsmobile and Pontiac—offered varying degrees of restyling.
The Chevrolet was completely new. with
its
construction verging
—
toward the integrated body-and-frame treatment two oval.„ ,-,,.. . u 1. J . shapedJ grilles, split at the centre by a hood extension. ,
From
Ford, builder of the Edsel, Ford, Lincoln and Mercury,
came
the year's most notable
much
as six inches longer in
body enlargements. Ford was as some models, while Mercury measured from 2 to 4i inches longer. Mercury and Lincoln lengthened , ^, ,, J their wheel bases. Mercury had an interesting front seat com•• »u » »l. J uu J J J 1. partment innovation, m that the dashboard was advanced well forward, creating about six inches of new knee room. The auto.
-^
•
,
.
.
•
J
1
.
,
matic transmissions by Ford, hitherto push-button operated, became actuated by lever ih 1959, leaving button controls on only the Chrysler-built cars. ,
,
..•»». its start
'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.
i.sis'jvi 12,499
225,308* ^*'*'*^ .
c"cLiovakia
.
Finland
Germany, East Germany, We.t
.'.'.'....
India
japon'
'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.
.u f -ji they were falling rapidly, and by 11-
,
T_
toioi
^ao'bsI 93i!66o
''57^
^'359777
3,610
5,48i!o46 22,601 24 1,364
'''''.''.'.
''332
58:556
924 23I 38^422
2oo'453
1,180,738 8,113
307,5 11 14,578
7,007 4,097
1,495,256
228:962t
7:594
287;i99
—
Svritzerland u.s.s.r
122,400
United Kingdom Yugoslavia Subtotal
worid
291 i,069
22,150 68,896
Sweden
1,051,551
2,936 4,139,948 8,685,724
totoi
— —
10.102 16,056
^-^W
^5o!643
spl^°''°"'''
958
uiwa
.
:::::::
J
Buses
43;J39
'.
Beig'ii™
'
e!900 19,000
650 389,ooo 303,010 4,o89 1,628,479 2,560,139
077
3
I5,'74i
—
^^t 2,414 150
i27'76°
1 '
54j63 26,788
31,050 '°'2n2< OOOJ
—
511,400
9,846 671 39,563 43,173
11, 289,036
1,364,407
7,696 5,807,990
Note: the dota shown above for some countries represent ossemblles rather that; production. To the extent thot some of these osiemblies were portly or wholly produced another country, the world total includes some duplication,
in
tinciudel 98,'89rtii're"-wheeied
v°e"hicies.
|R:g",;"ahonr1,f"'neJ^SwLproduc.d vehicles
Refail Activi+y.^Car field stocks gyrated wildly during the
1959 model year. At
in
T™cb
United states
^
.
I.— World Mofor Vehicle Produciion
which could be swung toward the doors to make entry and
in lieu
of octuol production, which
was
"=' """iiobie.
Source: Compiled by Automobile Monufacturers Association, from vorious sources.
Nov. I, 1958, it was estimated that there were fewer than 265,000 cars, a 5-year low. But the surging production rates of the
months
following spring swelled this thin inventory to almost i,ooo,oob
by the ending of the model year in Aug. 1959 an alltime record high. This level was particularly notable because
Labour Affairs. Completion of the 3-year industr>' agreements with the United Automobile Workers union in Sept. 1958 brought with it an initial wave of localized strikes which grew to
the total of passenger car retail dealers, declining for seven
painful proportions before they finally flickered out. Thereafter
consecutive years, then stood at a low point unreached since
the labour picture in the auto industry was generally
—
vehicles
the immediate postwar period.
The
larger average
number
of
to $15,419,000,000, or
in 1958.
than for
$828,000 more than at that date
—
many
years.
One outbreak
of note
was
more
quiet
a strike of office
—
1
AUTOMOBILE NSU RANGE — AUTOMOBI LE RACING
79
I
workers at Chrysler Corp. late
Table
Imports and Exports
III.
,f
Motor Vehicle
By Producing Countries During
i
958
Chrysler was also di-
in 195S.
Imports Tfucl;s
rectly affected
by a long
strike
Cars
at Pittsburgh Plate Glass Co.
*;;||;
'mbol of world International Cup Play. supremacy in the men's sport, held by Indonesia, was not brought into competition in 1959. There was also no competition for the Uber cup, women's team championship prize. (T. V. H.) All-England
—
see
Armies of
Tire
World; Middle Eastern
Affairs. ^"''^'' colony; a 760-mi. chain (N.W.IdldllUO. S.E.) comprising 21 inhabited and about
Rohamo Ddlldllld
Ichnrfc
680 uninhabited islands Pop.:
83%
off the Florida coast. Area: 4,404 sq.mi. (1953 census) 84.841; (1958 est) 136.229 with about Negro. Language: English. Religion; Christian. Capital:
Nassau (pop.: [1958] 50,405), on ernor in 1959, Sir Ra>Tior Arthur. History.
—During
New
Providence Island. Gov-
1959 the legislature passed a General As-
sembly Election act implementing reforms agreed in 1958 with the secretary of state for the colonies. These provided for unrestricted adult
male suffrage, four additional seats in the house boundary changes and other altera-
of assembly, constituency
tions in electoral procedure.
An
electricity generation
to
produce 1.000,000
and water gal.
distillation in
New
for
Pro\'idence
major e.xNassau and the building
of drinking water a day, a
tension to the Prince George dock in of a
combined project
new government high (secondary)
school. In the private
economy, the construction and reconstruction of several luxury hotels and other tourist facilities went some way to meet the ever-growing demands of the tourist trade. The year was again a record one for tourism. On Grand Bahama Island, approximately 60 mi. off the Florida coast, the Freeport authority constructed major bunkering facilisector of the
ties to
provide the only sterling bunkering in the area north of
Trinidad for ocean-going vessels.
(K.
—
—
(1958);
(1957): primary 182, pupils 20,927: secondary 7, teacher-training college with so students; pupils in voca-
revenue
— Monetary
£5.178.769,
unit:
pound
expenditure
sterling
= U.S.
£5,225,618.
S2.80. Budget trade exports:
Foreign
O957): imports £15,262,526, domestic exports £793,359. Main timber, crawfish, pit props, salt, tomatoes, sponges, shells.
^" ^^^^ '^^ Associated Retail Bakers of
Iniliictru
IllUUoUy. America again sponsored a nationwide promotion of National Retail Bakers week, May 17-23, which was designed to promote the use of baked foods throughout the L'nited States.
The Minnesota experiment
station of the U.S. department of
agriculture in August 1959 released the results of lengthy tests
on the storing of frozen bread that was commercially baked,
and wrapped. The
showed that, up to six months, and fresh flavour as well with ordinary commercial wrap as with overwrapping. Bread tested after ten months storage showed loaves in overivrap were in much better condition than those in ordinary wrap. For the test, the bread was stored at 8° F. for four, six and ten months. The Associated Retail Bakers of America sponsored another national "Little Miss Muffin" contest among the retail bakers of the country. Twelve finalists were selected to attend the national convention in Washington. D.C.. on April 12. 1959, where the winner, Martha Brunner of Pittsburgh. Pa., who was sponsored by the Retail Master Bakers of western Pennsylvania, was named "Little Miss Muffin for 1959." According to the U.S. department of agriculture, bakers sold to pubhc schools in the United States $46,000,000 worth of bakery foods in a 12-month period with a per pupil cost of $2.13. Bread accounted for half the total value of the baked items. bread kept
The
its
tests
freshness, soft texture
results of a
survey made by Baking Industry magazine
March
1959. The survey covered the wholesale segment of the baking industr\- and indicated that in 195S gross dollar sales for the wholesale group had shown a definite increase over the previous year, with the exception of cake and pie. Based on the survey, figures for the national wholesale poundage of
were released
in
baked foods sold
in 1958
were: Pounds sold
Item
White breod Other breod Sweet Boods
Coke Pie
Doughnuts (doz.l
1956
1957
7,412,832,000 1,754,772,000 407,314,000 803,792,000 570,751,000 284,737,000
7,352,132,344 1,743.735,027 397,952,585 814,724,492 584,423,114 275,153,814
M. Wy.)
— Schools
pupils qSS: I tional classes 40. Finance and Trade.
to houses inland.
Bahrain and his British adviser.
The survey Education.
and
20 a court in St. Helena dismissed a writ of habeas
Production. Oil production in 1958 was 2,028,000 metric tons (1,596,000 metric tons in 1957I. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Indian rupee valued at 21 cents U.S. Foreign trade (195S): imports from U.K. £7,265.617; exports to U.K. £10.472,786; re-exports from U.K. £37.924. Chief exports: petroleum products, rice, pearls. Chief imports: textiles, foodstuffs, machinery, motor vehicles.
extensive program of public works set in hand or com-
pleted during the year included a large
March 1959 extremely high winds caused some
corpus for the release of Abd-ul-Rahman el-Baker, the Bahrain nationahst leader imprisoned on the island since 1956. He had been tried and sentenced for plotting to murder the ruler of
sliced
Baghdad Pact:
— In
to shipping off the coast
also indicated that the gross dollar sales for the
baking industry during 1958 were up nationally 3.2% and that gross profits were up 0.39c. This national average profile was a composite picture and did not reflect individual local situations. According to the U.S. bureau of labour statistics, the total
number
of
employees
in the
baking industry in
May
1959 was
BALANCE OF PAY MENTS — BANKING
92
in May 1958. However, the June 1959. The average weekly earnings for all employees in the baking industry amounted to $83.43 '" May 1959, as compared with $78.79 in May 1958. The bureau of the census, U.S. department of commerce, re-
381,800 as compared with 383,200
rose to 196,700, an increase of
figure rose to 384,200 in
The employment
ported that sales of bakery products
during
in stores in the U.S.
the first six months of 1959 amounted to $507,000,000 as compared with $493,000,000 for the comparable period of 1958.
See also Wheat.
(M. M. Bd.)
EncycloP/BDIa Britannica Films. Baking (IQ43); Principles of Cooking
Balance of Payments:
see
— Bread
in
4.5% over June
of the prior year.
the ten leading industry groups in June 1959
was: primary metals 44,700; transportation equipment 33,400; food and kindred products 33,800; apparel 14,000; fabricated metal products
3,000; chemicals 10,400; electrical equipment
1
10,300; printing and publishing 9,700; nonelectrical machinery 7.900; and stone, clay and glass products 6,100.
The Baltimore area continued duction
facilities in
its
notable growth in
new
pro-
1958 with an announced investment of $89,-
in new plants and expansions. During the first seven months of 1959, the announced investment in new industries and expansions amounted to approximately $120,244,000, repre-
950,000
(1945);
Principles
0/
(1943).
Exchange Control and Ex-
riiwi.K RAfhs; Child; International Trade.
senting an increase of nearly
54%
over the $78,082,700 reported
for the corresponding period in 1958.
Balearic Islands: .ue Spain. Balkan States: see Albania; Bulgaria; Greece; mania; Turkey; Yucoslavla. Ballet: see Dance: Ballel. Baltic States: see Estonia; Latvia; Lithuania.
ENCYCLOPyCDiA Britannica Films.
—
(C. N. E.;
TItc
Baltimore Plan (1953).
Ru-
Bananas:
see Fruit.
Recovery and prosperity, affected in magnitude and timing by the steel strike, were the important foundations for banking developments in the United States in 1959. Tight money was once again the dominant characteristic of the monetary situation. in
Doltimnra
DdllllllUICi
Baltimore, the metropolis of Maryland, had 949,708 inhabitants according to the 1950 census,
when it was the sixth largest city in the U.S. In July 1959 its estimated population was 985,000. The land area of the city is Grady, Democrat.
Demands for funds were high. Savings available for lending and investing by the major institutional investors showed some slowing down. Competition for the saver's dollar was greatly
Budget appropriations for 1959 were $253,828,632; for 1958 they were $231,818,660. The city tax rate for 1959 was $3.34
etary restraint.
per $100 of assessed valuation, and the rate for 1958 was $2.98. The taxable basis for 1959 was $3,550,248,778. and for 1958 it
size of the
78.73 sq.mi.,the water area 13.21 sq.mi.
Mayor
in 1959, J.
Harold
was $3,604,409,008. The gross funded debt as of June 30, 1959, was $337,648,900; the sinking funds amounted to $22,963,863, leaving a net debt on that date of $314,685,337, not including accrued income. The percentage of net debt to the taxable basis
The
intensified.
difficulties in
mon-
federal reserve system followed a policy of
The United
States treasury encountered serious
debt'management. not from further growth
debt but rather from
ments together brought higher
in the
composition. These develop-
its
interest rates
and lessened
avail-
ability of funds.
Consumer Demands
for Funds.
—New records were
set dur-
(excluding self-supporting indebtedness) was 5.7 as of June 30,
demands for funds actually satisfied from the mortgage area and consumer credit area. This was in sharp
1959-
contrast to the situation in 1958.
The
ing 1959 for the net
net enrollment on Oct. 31, 1958, in the public schools of
the city was 85.931 white students and 77.611 Negro students; in addition,
more than 24.000 students were enrolled
in
home
and hospital and adult education
The
nonfarm one-
increase in total mortgage debt on
to four-
family houses during the year ended Sept. 1959 was $13,800,000,000. well above the increase of $10,300,000,000 in 1958.
The
classes. George B. Brain became superintendent of the Baltimore city schools on Jan. i, i960. The public schools of Baltimore are a separate and distinct unit
previous record growth of such indebtedness had been $12,500,-
and are not under the jurisdiction of the
ducing
department of education. The integration of schools for white and Negro students was carried into effect in Sept. 1954. As a result, 51% of the schools fall
state
had both white and Negro students enrolled
000.000
in
1959 lessened availability of mortgage money market, was re-
funds, particularly restrained in a tight
home
building activity. Mortgage financing continued,
however, to be the largest single use for long-term funds in the credit
and
capital markets.
Consumer
in the
of 1958.
Late
in 1955.
credit, including
both installment credit and non-
installment credit, showed the largest relative increase in de-
Ranking as the second United States port in foreign trade tonnage, the combined volume of exports and imports at the port of
mands
Baltimore during the year 1958 amounted to 25.106,907 tons, compared with 31.895.950 tons in the all-time record year of
months ended Oct. up $6,180,000,000.
1957. Diminished shipments of coal and grain, brought about
for funds
between 1958 and 1959. In the calendar year
1958. total consumer credit rose only $300,000,000. In the 12
by
31, 1959,
however, total consumer credit went
—
Commercial and
changing world market conditions, coupled with a drop in im-
prises
portations of metallic ores during the year, were largely responsible for the foreign tonnage decline. For the third consecutive
six
Loans to business enterindustrial Loans. by commercial banks increased during 1959. In the first months of the year, total commercial and industrial loans at
all
weekly reporting member banks rose $760,000,000.
year, the value of merchandise mo\'ing through the port in for-
trast to a decrease of $1,085,000,000 during the corresponding
eign
commerce exceeded $1,000,000,000. Total export and import
trade in 1958 was valued at $1,048,300,000 as against $1,337,600.000 the previous year. The 5.615 ocean-going vessel arrivals at
Baltimore in 1958 were exceeded only by those
in the
two
previous record high years of 1956 and 1957, when 5,735 and 6.089 vessels, respectively, visited the port. New port records during
195S were
established
in
customs collections, which
reached $27,041,915.78. Industrial employTnent in the 1,900 plants in the Baltimore metropolitan area averaged 189,200 in 1958. In June 1959 it
period of 1958.
mainly due
The
increase during the
to increases in loans to
first
in con-
half of 1959
manufacturers
was
in the field
of metals and metal products, probably to finance inventory ac-
cumulation
in anticipation of the steel strike.
From
July through Nov. 1959, total commercial and industrial loans rose $1,530,000,000, as compared with an increase of $700.-
000.000 in the same months in 1958 and a decrease of $190,000.000 in the second half of 1957. Loans to trade firms, commodity dealers
and public
utilities
second half of 1959.
were important
in the rise
during the
I
BAN KING The bank prime commercial loan
May
18, 1959, after
5%
further rise to tight
money
rate
having been at
became
period of 1957,
4%
effective
4j%
was increased
to
4^%
since Sept. 11, 1958.
on Sept.
i,
on
A
1959. In the
had been the high prime com-
mercial loan rate.
Corporate Security Offerings. were
securities
at a relatively
— Corporate
offerings of
low level in 1959. In the
new first
eight months of 1959 they totaled $6,300,000,000, as compared with $7,990,000,000 in the corresponding period the year before.
Such
offerings
had amounted to $11,560,000,000
down from
year 1958,
in the calendar
the record level of $12,890,000,000 in
came from a lower volume of offerings of bonds, w'hich amounted to $4,580,000,000 from January through August, as compared with $6,780,000,000 in the same months in 1958. Corporate offerings of common stock in 1959. 1957.
The
decline in 1959
on the other hand, while not at the high levels for recent years which had been reached in 1956 and 1957, were considerably above those of 1958. Corporate offerings of common stock in the first
eight
months
of 1959
were $1,350,000,000, as compared with
$800,000,000 in the same period the year before. Similarly, the net change, that
is,
new
93
volume of loans and investments. Hence commercial banks met loan demands, in part, by running off and selling U.S. government securities. In somewhat similar fashion, 1955, 1956 and 1957 had been years of net decline in the total portfolio of U.S. government securities. Commercial bankers continued to note the decline in their over-all liquidity, as evidenced by new highs for the post-World War II period in the ratio of loans to total loans and investments and in the ratio of loans to deposits. On Nov. 11, 1959, total loans comprised 57.8% of total loans and investments of total
commercial banks,
all
above the previous high
a ratio
in 1957.
Correspondingly, the ratio of U.S. government securities to total loans and investments of
commercial banks stood
all
at a
new
low ratio since 1945 of 31.3% in mid-November 1959. On June 10, 1959, national banks, which numbered 4,559, held $112,659,000,000 of total deposits. State banks, which numbered 8,914, held $94,962,000,000 of total deposits.
Money Supply and
Turnover.
—The
privately held
money
supply reached a new record peak on Nov. 25, 1959, at $242,500,000,000, including
demand
deposits adjusted, $113,100,000,000;
issues less retirements,
time deposits at commercial banks, mutual savings banks and the
outstanding corporate securities was less in 1959 than in 1958. in outstanding corporate securities, including
postal savings system, $100,300,000,000; and currency outside
The net increase
banks, $29,100,000,000.
bonds and notes and stocks, was $4,030,000,000 in the first half of 1959, down from $5,180,000,000 in the first half of 1958 and $4,420,000,000 in the second half of 1958. The increase in stocks
before was $5,000,000,000, with $3,500,000,000 coming in time
in
outstanding exceeded that in bonds and notes during the
first
half of 1959 for the first time in several years.
Commercial Banks.
—Total loans and investments of
mercial banks reached another
new peak
in the
all
com-
second half of
The
money supply, that is, demand deposits adjusted and currency outside banks. From late spring on, however, there was yery little change in the money supply. The active money supply, on a seasonally adjusted basis, was exactly the same at the end of November as deposits and $1,500,000,000 in the active
it
was
at the
end of March. This reflected the federal reserve
1959, amounting to $188,200,000,000 on
Nov. u, 1959, This represented an increase of $5,700,000,000 since the middle of Nov.
policy of monetary restraint.
1958. Largely reflecting the effect of the change in federal reserve
of
policy
from monetary ease
in the first half of
1958 to monetary
increase over the figure of a year
The volume of bank debits demand deposit turnover
at
the recovery in business after the recession of 195S.
restraint during 1959, the increase in earning assets during 1959
rate of turnover or velocity of
was very much
the rate at which people
less
than the $15,100,000,000 increase which had
commercial banks and the rate
generally rose in 1959, reflecting
demand
"checkbook money," rose to the highest
000,000 in 1957.
ing the second half of 1959.
increase in total loans and investments of
all
commercial
The annual
which indicates
and business enterprises spend
occurred during 1958. Corresponding increases had been $5,000,-
The
deposits,
Mutual Savings Banks.
many
in all
their
years dur-
(J.
— Gains
ings banking in the United States
level in
K. L.)
phases of mutual sav-
were recorded during the 12-
banks during 1959 was due to a substantial rise in bank loans, offset in part by a considerable reduction in commercial bank
month period ended June
holdings of governpient securities. After rising to a record peak
totaled $1,642,000,000, bringing total deposit liabilities to $34,-
late in 1958,
commercial bank holdings of other
30, 1959. Deposit gains for the period
securities, chiefly
624,000,000. Although this gain was not so great at that in the
showed very
comparable 1958 period, it compared favourably with other years and represented a 5% rate of growth.
holdings of state and local government obligations,
change during 1959. Total loans of all commercial banks amounted to $108,900,000,000 on Nov. II, 1959, up $12,700,000,000 during the preced-
little
months. This loan increase during 1959 was greater than even the large increases of $12,000,000,000 in 1955 and $7,700,ing 12
Assets for the period also increased
by nearly $2,000,000,000, number of accounts by
surplus funds by $112,000,000 and the
106,000. Assets as of June 30, 1959, totaled $38,560,000,000;
surplus funds totaled $3,294,000,000, representing
000,000 in 1956. Thus business recovery gave a market lift to loan expansion. Previously, the business recession of 1957-58 had markedly restrained the growth of loans. Total loans of all
amount due depositors; and the number
commercial banks had gone up $2,400,000,000
of the net flow of investment funds
in
1957
and
9.5%
of the
of accounts totaled 22,-
i6S,ooo.
There were
volume and composition from mutual savings banks.
significant changes in the
$4,300,000,000 in 1958.
Net mortgage acquisitions during the
Commercial bank holdings of U.S. government securities declined almost $7,000,000,000 during 1959, and on Nov. 11, 1959, these amounted to slightly less than $59,000,000,000. During 1958 the U.S. government securities portfolio of commercial banks had risen $8,100,000,000. This contrasting situation was due to the underlying developments in the economy. In the recession year 1958 banks were provided with sufficient reserves by the federal reserve system so that they could expand loans and also acquire government securities in financing
$1,080,000,000, compared with $691,000,000 in the corresponding
part of the federal deficit. In the prosperous year 1959- banks
were not provided with sufficient reserves to be able to meet
demands
for credit placed
upon them through expansion
all
in their
latter half of 1958 totaled
1957 period. During the first half of 1959 mutual savings banks continued to invest in mortgages, but at a lesser rate than in the 30,
first
half of 1958.
During the 12-month period ended June to their mortgage
1959, the banks added $1,921,000,000
holdings, bringing their total investment in this area to $23,900,-
000,000. At mid-1959 total mortgage loans, two-thirds of which were FHA-insured or VA-guaranteed, represented 61. g% of the total assets of mutual savings banks. Holdings of U.S. government securities continued to decline,
but at a lesser rate than in the comparable 1957-58 period. At
mid-igsg savings banks held a
total of $7,301,000,000 in govern-
BANKING the rise in the status of
some
currencies,
shown on
gains were
capital
investment
many
substantial
holdings,
provid-
ing funds for rebuilding the re-
serves that had been severely
depleted earlier in the 1950s
by capital losses sustained when interest rates rose -leeply.
United Kingdom. thorities
early
satisfied
year
the
in
measures
—The au-
themselves
they
that
had
the
already
taken to stimulate spending on
consumption and capital development would be sufficient to
keep re-expansion proceed-
ing at an
adequate pace. Thus
no important new measures to reduce the cost of
NEW OFFICES FOR THE BANK OF ENGLAND,
London, ooened
In
1959
January of almost
ment
securities,
representing
banks added $50,000,000
ig%
of their
to their holdings of
total
assets.
The
corporate securities,
as well as $: 1,000,000 to their holdings of state
and municipal
Combined, these securities totaling $5,712,000,000 represented 14.8TC of total assets on June 30, 1959, At mid-i95q there were 519 mutual savings banks located in
securities.
17 states and the Virgin Islands. There were 420 branch offices in operation.
ings
More than
program
half of the banks were conducting a sav-
for school
children. Deposits in school
savings
totaled $112,000,000 on June 30, 1959.
The average rate of interest credited to accounts rose from 3.16% to 3.22%, with 365 of the banks paying interest, as of June 30, 1950, at the rate of 3.25% or more. During the 12-month period ended June 30, 1959, a total of $751,000,000 in interest was paid by mutual savings banks to their depositors.
Savings bank life insurance, a legal reserve life insurance sold over the counter at low cost by nearly 300 savings banks in Connecticut, Massachusetts and New York, continued to expand. The
combined
total of life insurance in force in the three states as of
June 30, 1959, was $1,110,707,291 covering 768,836 poHcies. This was a gain for the year of more than $80,000,000 and nearly 18,000 policies.
W.
(G.
—
Ey.)
all
remaining restrictions on borrowing by
financing capital outlays at home.
The advances
of the
accounted for about turnover
London
95%
The bank
rate
clearing banks
of the country's commercial banking
£464.000,000 or about one-fifth, in the period mentioned. The net
and other small changes in assets was to raise by £464.000.000 to £7.208.000.000 a record figure. The rise in the international standing of sterling and the further relaxation of exchange restrictions brought about a marked increase in foreign exchange and other business reaching British banks from abroad. The report of the Radcliffe committee on the working of the U.K. monetary system found little to criticize in the functioning of the commercial banking system. It recommended that the effect of these
deposits
traditional requirement that the clearing banks' ratio of liquid
fluence the banks' credit creation activities
ing
new
fields
materially
enlarging
traditional
continued the process of explor-
which they had been encouraged
to enter
by
relaxa-
vices to raise the proportion of resources assets
In most countries banks continued to enjoy, until late in the
of headlong inflation there could be
much
greater freedom from governmental interference with
30%
and suggested
by the use of deemployed in liquid
beyond 30%. though on the condition that other lending
institutions
the development of their activities than in the 1945-57 period.
below
that the authorities should be prepared at times of stress to in-
tions of official restrictions on banking operations during 1958.
year,
in
months to mid-October. In spite of increased government borrowings from the banks against treasury bills, most banks found that they had to counter the impact on their liquidity ratios of the rise in advances in part by reducing the amount of their resources employed in other nonliquid assets. Thus the clearing banks' holdings of government securities contracted by the 12
banking institutions.
Besides
remained at 4%.
—which together
— increased by £723.000.000. or more than one-third,
assets to deposits should never fall
many banks
or
business concerns in the capital market and from the banks for
Other Countries. With economic re-expansion well under way almost everywhere, 1959 was a year of progress for most types of business,
money
expand the supply of it were taken after the removal in
were similarly controlled. In the event of a threat more precise restrictions on
bank lending,
hire purchase
and capital
issues.
—
that their earnings were no longer being eroded in terms of pur-
Commonwealth. Since economic recovery proceeded fairly slowly in most primary producing countries in 1959 because of the absence of any marked recovery in the prices of many leading commodities, the increase in banking activity was of a more modest character in most Commonwealth countries than in the more industrialized regions of the world. Although the Australian, New Zealand and South African governments were all pursuing easier money policies, the rise in both bank deposits and bank advances was limited to a few per cent in the year to mid-1959. The increase in banking acti\ity was of a larger order
chasing power by the decline in the value of money. Moreover,
in India
But here and there
official
monetary controls
w-ere tightened be-
fore the close of the year because of fears that the fast pace
of re-expansion would lead to renewed inflationary stresses. Interest rate levels being generally
money
much lower
than when
were being widely applied in 1955-58, many classes of banking work were less remunerative in 1959. but most institutions were fully compensated for this by the expansion in the volume of business handled. They also benefited from the fact
dear
policies
with security values rising in response to easier
money
trends and
British
official
and Pakistan, the impact on deposits and advances of development programs and economic re-expansion being
BAPTIST reinforced
by
inflationary stresses.
was deprived of
its
However,
this latter factor
force in Pakistan in the later
year as a result of the
initial
months of the
success of the extensive overhaul
of economic policies undertaken early in 1959. In ficial
fears
about a hardening of monetary policy
and
this
Canada
of-
that re-expansion would lead to inflation brought
slowed down the steep
in the first half of the year,
rise in
bank advances.
In South Africa and the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasa-
new discount houses were
set up, usuaOy with U.K. aspromote the plan for the creation of a domestic money market. Further steps taken for the same purpose in Australia included the inauguration of an arrangement whereby
land
CHURCH July
3,
95
The theme of the congress, announced by Pres. Adams, was "Jesus Is Lord." World Baptists num-
i960.
Theodore
F.
bered about 23,000.000. Baptists of the Netherlands celebrated in May 1959. in Amsterdam, the 3S0th anniversary of the founding of the first Englishspeaking Baptist church by John Smyth, English Separatist. Ernest A. Pa>Tie, general secretary of the Baptist Union of Great Britain and Ireland, speaking on "The Event, the Man. the Con-
sequences." stated that these
e.xiled
English Separatists disbanded
church (formed by covenant) and reconstituted
sistance, to
their existing
selected discount houses could rediscount
on the basis of baptism on profession of personal faith. Plans were projected to erect a John Smyth memorial church in Amsterdam, costing $115,000, to honour this pioneer of the modem
central
bank within certain
having at
last
securities
with the
The Australian govenmient,
limits.
it
Baptist
reintroduced the
previously rejected on several occasions
bill,
by the senate, for completing the separation of the central banking and trading banking departments of the Commonwealth bank and gi\ing the authorities power to impose a variable liquidity ratios system on the commercial banks. The central bank set up by the Federation of Malaya to take over responsibility for the currency issue and supervise the acti\-ities of the commercial banks came into operation in January. An immediate result was the closing down of Bank of China branches in the countrj', the authorities exercising their
new
right to refuse licences to govern-
banks.
foreign
ment-controlled
India
introduced
a
special
il-
—
Louisville, Ky.,
of the meeting of the Southern Baptist convention,
1959. Approximately 12.000 representatives
wasthe
May
site
19-22,
who attended
re-
ported a constituency of 31,498 churches with 9.206,758 members, and 407. S92 baptisms in 1958-59; contributions by the churches during that year totaled $419,619,438, of which $74,750,699 were for missions and benevolences; the present number of missionaries
was
1,283.
A
goal was set of 2,000 missionaries
and the organization of 30.000 new churches by 1964. the close of the Baptist Jubilee Advance. Seventy-one schools of higher education supported by the Southern Baptist convention enrolled a record of 61.086 students with 10.218 graduates in 1958-59.
The i960
"external" rupee note, to replace existing supplies of Indian cur-
rency circulating in the Persian gulf area, in order to curb
movement.
Southern Baptist Convention.
obtained a majority in both houses of parliament,
session
was
Miami,
to be held in
with
Fla.,
Ramsey
Pollard. Knoxville. Tenn.. presiding.
—
New institutions to finance development up in Nigeria with U.K. help. In South Africa a number of leading banks extended their direct participation in hire purchase finance by acquiring substantial interests in finance houses
The 52nd annual meeting American Baptist convention, held in Des Moines. la., June 4-9, 1959, with more than 7.500 delegates and visitors attending, reported a membership exceeding 1.550,000. Gifts for
specializing in this field.
all
licit
capital exports.
were
set
Continental Europe.
—Re-expansion
led to a considerable in-
all the main commercial Europe during 1959. Only in the German
crease in banking activity in nearly
countries of western
Federal Republic had the
movement met with
official
resistance
Anfierican Baptist Convention.
of the
purposes during 1958-59 reached Sio.746.383, the Christian Higher Education program receiving $1,200,000 on its goal of $7,500,000. Thirty-six missionaries were dedicated, 20 to home
and 16
to overseas fields.
Services were held at Valley Forge, Pa., July
through a tightening of monetar\' policy before the close of the
ing the 55-acre site of the convention's
year. In France restrictions
mated
imposed on banking
con-
acti\-ity in
nection with the end-1958 currency stabilization plan were progressively rela.xed.
With
as the trading position
the franc enjo>'ing a striking recovery
improved and
capital flowed
back into
the country, the authorities discontinued the practice of peri-
com-
odically borrowing the foreign exchange holdings of the
mercial banks. There was an extensive overhaul of the Spanish financial
system
economic stabilization
in connection with the
plan which the authorities put into operation in July.
The Portu-
guese government set up a development bank to promote industrialization.
countries of the
The development bank established by European Economic Community to help the
developed regions within their territories
made
its first
the less-
advances.
There was an extensive reorganization of the banking system of the U.S.S.R., a
number
of specialized institutions handing over
and Industrial banks. See also Business Review; Conslmer Credit; Debt, N.v Tio.vAL; Export-Import Bank of Washington; Farm Credit System; Federal Reserve System; Foreign Investments; Gold; Houslsg; International Bank for Reconstruction their functions to the State
and Development; Savings and Loan Associations; Stocks AND Bonds. (C. H. G. T.) EncycloP-«dia Britannica Films. (1950); Vsing the Bank (1947).
— The
Federal
Reserve
System
to cost
from $5,000,000
5,
1959, dedicat-
new headquarters,
to $6,000,000.
esti-
Occupancy was
expected to take place late in 1961 or early in 1962.
The convention was i960,
to
meet
in
Rochester, N.Y., June 2-7,
under the presidency of Herbert
Newton Theological
School.
Baptist Federation of
Newton
Canada.
J.
Gezork, Andover
Centre, Mass.
—This
federation, compris-
Maritime provinces, Ontario-Quebec and the Union of Western Canada, numbered 150,000 members in 1959. During the year the federation established new churches in Newfoundland and projected a vigorous extension program in Ontario-Quebec and western Canada. Per capita benevolence contributions were reported to place Baptists weir in the fore among Canadian denominations. A staff of 150 missionaries was ing 3 conventions of the
maintained.
—
National Baptist Convention, U.S.A., Inc. This convencomprising 4,000,000 members, held its annual meeting in San Francisco in Sept. 1959, Philadelphia was chosen as the tion,
H. Jackson. Chicago, president of the 14, 1959, on a month's tour of "Citizen Diplomacy" through the middle east. Sponsors of the mission were the American Friends of the Middle East. Gardner C. Taylor, pastor of the 10,000-member Concord Baptist Church, Brookl>Ti, N.Y., began a 6-weeks preaching i960 convention
city. J.
convention, entered
campaign
in
May
Sydney,
.\ustr., .^.ug. 18, 1959, at the invitation
of
the Australian Baptist union.
The Baptist World
Baptist Church
during 1959 for
its
alliance
made
plans
tenth congress, which
was scheduled to be held in Rio de Janeiro, Braz., June
26-
American Baptist Association.
—Numbering 3.045 churches
and 630,000 members, the .\merican Baptist association met in Shreveport, La., June 23-25, 1959. Five missionaries were ac-
—
BARBADOS— BASEBALL
96 ceptcd for foreign
fields
and 3 for home. Mission receipts were
reported to be $86,377, representing an increase of $19,383 over those of 1958. Resolutions were passed, labeling forced integration an effort to foist
new
government
election to
Sunday
units using
The
any person under private or power, and objecting to military
office of
association was to meet in i960 at
Kansas City, Kan.,
with Hoyt Chastain, Malvern, Ark., presiding.
See also
Church Membership.
league
in
a
for the
play-off
American
just finished winning their first
40 years. The pattern of change continued in
title
off
the playing field as well.
Veeck bought controlling interest {54%) of the Chicago White Sox in March from Mrs. Dorothy Comiskey Rigney. Mrs. Rigney's brother, Charles Comiskey, resyndicate headed by
tained his holdings
(R. E. E. H.)
games
straight
series.
The White Sox had
A
for meetings.
world
to two, in the
on the nation, opfwsing
social patterns
public loyalty oath to an alien
Milwaukee Braves two
pennant, and then whipped the Chicago White Sox, four games
Bill
(46%).
Joe Cronin succeeded the retiring Will Harridge as president
Barbados:
see
West
Indies,
The.
of the
A The 1959 U.S. barley crop was
U
indicated at 408,442,-
American league.
proposed third major league, named the Continental, gained
momentum
in
formative stages with the appointment of
its
I
Ddllt/J.
000
of 1958, but
bu.,
28%
the record high 470,449,000 bu.
Branch Rickey as
to seed 17,093,000 ac, a
5%
increase over
champions, the
57 of 11,513,000 ac. Hot weather intervened, especially in the northern plains, during the critical heading and filling period;
margin of
compared with
31.6 bu. per acre in 1958 and 27.5 bu. per acre for the previous
decade. North Dakota was particularly hard
hit,
Montana (46,098,000
five
August for third, 15
18
their first
games
Table
Los Angeles*
.
.
000 of
...
Son Francisco
.
lost
8S
68 70 71 76
Stonding at close ol season, Sept. 2?
86
74 74
80 80 71 83 Philadelphia 90 ... 64 'Los Angeles defeated Milwaukee
Chicago
Cincinnati St. Louis
Pet.
Amencor leogue
.564 .551 .539 .506
Chicago Cleveland
.481 .481 .461 .416
Boston Baltimore Konioi City
2
games
New
1958
1950-54
1945-49
470,449 440,000
273,306 272,000 322,244
260,000 228,589 228,000
235,000 244,764 178,750 147,930
283,026 350,000 325,000 215,000 228,400 89,372 100,326 128,380 82,320 118,280 89,450
52,500 91,895 68,675 43,740 106,255 64,345
U.S.S.R
Chino
.
179,200 140,000 131,000 123,200 105,360
.
130,000 111,300 104,400 114,180
14 1,171
York
....
Washington to
in
... ...
Won
lost
94 89
79 76 75 74
60 63 75 78 79 80
66 63
88 91
ploy-off of regular season
Pel.
.610 .578 .513 .494 .487 .481 .429 .409 lie.
Source: The Sporting News. The Notional Baseball Weekly.
The Los Angeles Dodgers won
13 of their last 18 regular sea-
whom
they defeated by scores of 3 to 2 and 6 to 5. finished third, four games back, and
World
Series.
—Larry
Sherry,
who was in June,
saved the second and third games of the world series for Walt Alston's Dodgers, and gained credit for the wins in the fourth
and sixth games in one of the great in world series history.
relief pitching
performances
The Dodgers' lost the first game to Al Lopez' White Sox, 11 Comiskey park in Chicago. Ted Kluszewski, obtained by the Sox from Pittsburgh late in the year, pounded two home runs and a
an average for 1949-58 of 90,398,000 bu. Barley stocks on July i in principal exporting countries totaled
seven-run outburst in the third.
396.000,000 bu.. as compared with 347.000.000 bu. a year earlier
2
and were nearly double the 1950-54 average. World production was indicated at 3,240,000.000 bu. from 136,560,000 ac, 2%
run on Charley Neal's fifth-inning
smaller than the 1958 crop but one-fifth larger than the average (J.
K. R.)
single for five runs-batted-in, to tie a series record
ease things for Sox pitcher Early to six hits until
the state of California
its first
world baseball championship. The Dodgers, who had placed seventh in the National league in 1958 (their first season on the west coast following a franchise shift from Brooklyn), beat the
he retired
The Sox jumped on runs in the
first
in the
Wynn, who
and
held the Dodgers
eighth inning with a
stiff
elbow.
Roger Craig, for two and then broke the game open with a
the losing pitcher
inning,
The Dodgers, however, won
3.
to o after four innings,
first series
the second game, 4 to Los Angeles collected its
home run
off
Trailing
pitcher
Bob
Shaw. In the seventh inning. Chuck Essegian, pinch hitting for
Johnny Podres, homered to tie the and following a walk to Junior Gilliam, Neal second home run to put the Dodgers ahead, 4 to 2. The
the ultimate winning pitcher,
score at
2
socked his
Wholesale changes came to major league baseball
The Los Angeles Dodgers gave
pitcher
brought up by Los Angeles from the minor leagues late
Canada decreased acreage devoted to barley to 8,289,000 ac, compared with 9,548,000 ac. in 1958 and an average of 7,958,000 ac. for 1948-57. Production was indicated at 227,000,000 bu., down 18,000,000 bu. from 1958. Carry-over on Aug. i was 127.132.000 bu. as compared with 118,165.000 bu. in 1958 and as
for 1950-54.
games behind.
24-yr.-old
to o, at
'Preliminary estimate.
Docohqll
.... ....
Detroit
the Pittsburgh Pirates were fourth, nine
1959*
408,442
Dmrnark
Major league Standingt, 1959
Final
I,
Won
.83 78
.... ....
Pillsburgh
Average
Averoge Counlry
India
with fourth-place Detroit
first place,
The San Francisco Giants
bu.)
Unitod SlalBi
West Germany
.
Milwaukee'.
Milwaukee,
United Kingdom
pennant since 1919. The Yankees finished
son games to qualify for a National league pennant play-off with
(in
Turkey
a
the persistent Indians late in
off
Stonding al close ol season, Sept. 29
Barley Production of the Principal Producing Countries
France
The White Sox won out by
affair.
out.
National league
Europe.
Canada
Chicago White Sox and the
Yankees, and turned the American
games, beating
games back of
by
the 1958 crop year were a record high 118,000,000 bu., largely
Eailem europs
New York
league race into a two-team
bu.).
Farmers in August received an average of 83 cents per bushel, down from 88 cents at the same time in 1958. The official average support price on the 1959 crop was reduced to 77 cents per bushel (60% of parity price) as compared with 93 cents (70% of parity) on the 1958 crop. Carry-over stocks on July i were a record large 193,000,000 bu., 15% above the previous record set in 1958. Imports were estimated at 20.000,000 bu.; exports in to western
— The
but continued
as the leading producing state with 75,259,000 bu., followed
California (69,225,000 bu.) and
president.
Cleveland Indians took the play away from the defending world
1958; 15,089,000 ac. were indicated for harvest as compared with 14,876,000 ac. harvested in 1958 and an average for 1948-
the average yield dropped to 27.1 bu. per acre as
its
Major League Races.
above average for the decade 1948-57. Farmers
March intended
in
14% below
to 2,
Sox threatened to pull the game out of the fire in the eighth inning. With runners on first and second and no one out, Al Smith lined a double to left. Pinch-runner Earl Torgeson scored easily from second, but Sherm LoUar, hesitating as he rounded second to determine whether left-fielder Wally Moon might make the catch, was thrown out at home with room to spare. The rally
WORLD
died shortly thereafter and the Dodgers were victorious, thereby tying the series at one
The
game
apiece.
games
Los Angeles Coliseum, with its celebrated short left-field foul line (251 ft.), for the third game, and the first of three record crowds (in excess of 92,000) watched the Dodgers win, 3 to i. The first six innings were scoreless. Dick Donovan of the Sox yielded only one hit in that stretch,
Don
Dr>'sdale of the Dodgers
worked
his
way
in
Wynn
and Craig picked up where they
left off in
the series
opener, as they took over the pitching assignments in the fourth
Wynn lasted only until the third inning when, with two Los Angeles spurted for four runs to take a commanding 4 to o lead. However, Chicago bounced back in the seventh inning against Craig. Three singles produced one run, and Sox
game. out,
catcher Lollar then arched a three-run screen to tie the score 4 to
4.
homer over
home run
in
the
the left-field
Sherry came on to check the White
in the eighth inning to set the stage for Gil
walloped a
Dodger
Hodges, who
half of the inning to break
the deadlock and provide a 5 to 4 Los Angeles victory. The Dodgers then held the upper hand in the series, three games
fifth
unequaled
game, the
last at the
in earlier contests as
Coliseum, brought dramatics
the Sox won,
i
to o,
on a com-
bined shutout by Shaw, Billy Pierce and Donovan.
Chicago scored with a single single,
eighth. In that inning, a spectacular one,
off
at bay until the Los Angeles loaded
the bases with one out, but finally, following a series of pinch-
by
hitters
the
Dodgers and two pitching changes by the White
Sox, the Chicago club emerged without surrendering a run, and
victory was assured.
The
Comiskey park in Chicago for what game. Los Angeles, still protecting a 3 to 2 advantage in games, made quick work of Wynn. A home run by Duke Snider with one on gave the Dodgers and Podres a series returned to
turned out to be the
2 to
final
o margin in the third, and a six-run splash in the fourth ran
o. Kluszewski's three-run homer glimmer of hope for Chicago, but it only forced the Dodgers to bring in the reliable Sherry. He was again equal to the situation, halting the Sox on three hits and no runs over the last 53 innings. The final Dodger run was
the Los Angeles lead to 8 to
when Essegian slapped his second pinch homer of the series to the left-field seats. The final score was Dodgers 9, White Sox 3. Individually, the rival first basemen, Hodges and Kluszewski, led the series batting averages with identical marks of .391. Each scored in the ninth
made
its
Fox .led off on Jim Landis'
lone run in the fourth. Nellie
Sandy Koufax, moved
to third
and came home as Lollar bounced into a double play.
9 hits in 23 at-bats, although Kluszewski
hammered
in
a total of 10 runs, tying the series record.
Total attendance at this richest of
all
series
was a record
420,874, with the net receipts $5,626,973.44, including $3,000,000
and radio receipts. The Dodgers voted 29 full worth $11,231.18 each, to its players; the White Sox, 31 shares at $7,275.17 each. Both were record amounts.
from
to one.
The
2
Shaw, the starter and winner, held the Dodgers
in the fourth served as a
the eighth inning.
Sox
to
series shifted to the vast
and out of trouble repeatedly. Donovan was replaced by Gerry Staley when Los Angeles loaded the bases on Neal's single and two walks in the bottom of the seventh. Carl Furillo of the Dodgers, pinch hitting with two out, drilled a grounder which skipped over shortstop Luis Aparicio's glove and into centre field. Two runs scored on the single and the issue was settled, even though Sherry was forced to save Drysdale when the Sox threatened in while
1959 SERIES. Left, aerial view of Comiskey park, Chaago, home of the White Sox, Oct. 1, the first day of the series. Right, Los Angeles Dodgers outfielders Duke Snider (left) and Norm Larker converging on a fly ball in the first game. The White Sox won the game, but the Dodgers won the series, 4
television
shares,
—
Individual Performances. The highlight of the regular season came when Harvey Haddix of Pittsburgh pitched a hitherto unparalleled 12 perfect innings against Milwaukee. a bizarre turn in the 13th as
Haddix
lost
The
feat took
both his no-hitter and
97
BASEBALL
98
I
The American league evened
the score almost four weeks later
Los Angeles Coliseum. The Americans won
at the
5 to 3, with
Jerry Walker of Baltimore gaining the decision over
Don
Drys-
dale of Los Angeles,
Managerial Changes.
— Six managerial
posts changed hands
The Detroit Tigers fired Bill Norman in favour of Jimmy Dykes early in the year after a poor start in the season. The Boston Red Sox later replaced .Mike Higgins with Billy Jurges, and the Cincinnati Red Legs in
1959, three during the season.
(lUSted
Mayo Smith and
Upon conclusion
installed
Fred Hutchinson.
of the season, Fred
Haney
resigned at Mil-
waukee, and Charley Dressen replaced him. The Chicago Cubs released Bob Scheffing and named club Vice-Pres. Charley Grimm to the post; Grimm had previously served two different terms as Cubs' manager. Scheffing signed on as a coach at Milwaukee. The Kansas City Athletics dismissed Harry Craft. The job went to
Bob Elliott. Attendance.
—
The Chicago White Sox-Cleveland Indians pennant race helped boost American league attendance by 27% in
HARVEY HADDIX,
pitcher with the Plttsburflh Pirates, )reparlng to throw Eddie Mathews, IVIilwaukee Braves, May 26, 1959. Haddix pitched 12 innings of hitlets baseball longer than any other pitcher In ba eball history but loit the gama In the 13th Inning, 2-0 to
—
—
by The Sporting News, Both clubs drew almost 1,500,000 show substantial increases. However, the New York
1959, according to figures published
the national baseball weekly. fans,
to
Yankees, although shorn of their championship, nevertheless led the league with 1,552,030 paid admissions.
Lew Burdette and Warren Spahn
the game.
of Milwaukee, along
with Jones, topped the league in wins with 21.
The earned-run
attracted 9,149,174 spectators as
The league
as a whole
compared with 7,296,034
in
1958-
Sam Jones of San Francisco with 2.82. Relief pitcher Elroy Face of Pittsburgh won 17 straight and finished with an
but the Los Angeles Dodgers led both leagues with 2,073,812
18 to
attendants.
leader was
record.
I
Sandy Koufax of Los Angeles broke the National league strikeout record and equaled Bob Feller's major league mark of 18 against the San Francisco Giants.
Two
abbreviated no-hit games, rained out before completion,
were effected by San Francisco pitchers Sam Jones (seven nings) and Mike McCormick (five innings).
Hank Aaron won
Milwaukee's
in-
the National league batting
with .355. His teammate, Eddie Mathews, barely beat the Chicago Cubs' Ernie Banks, 46 to 45, for home run honours.
National league attendance dropped 1.7% from a year
earlier,
—
The Minor Leagues. Table III indicates the 1959 pennant and play-off winners in minor baseball leagues. (J. Be.)
—
Boys Baseball. Hamtramck (Mich.) won the 1959 Little League championship laurels by routing the Auburn (Calif.) team 12 to o, in the final round of the play-offs at Williamsport, Pa., on Aug. 29. Arthur Deras, the winning pitcher, struck out 14 batters and aided his own cause with a three-run homer.
title
Banks
led in runs-batted-in with 143.
In the .American league, batting honours went to the Detroit Tigers' Har\'ey
Kuenn, who finished with a .353 average. Rocky Harmon Killebrew of the Washington
Colavito of Cleveland and
home run leadership with 42. Jackie Jensen Red Sox drove in the most runs, 112.
Senators tied for the of the Boston
The
biggest winner in pitching
cago White Sox with
22.
The
Baltimore Orioles' Hoyt Wil-
helm led earned-run with
Aparicio
figures
Shortstop
2.19.
of
the
Luis
White Sox
stole 56 bases.
All-Star
Games.
— For the
time in major league his-
first
tory,
two All-Star games were
played instead of the custo-
mary
one, for the benefit of
the players' pension fund.
The National
league beat
the .American league 5 to 4 in
game
the
first
in
Pittsburgh,
at
Forbes
with
field
Johnny
San Franwinning pitcher, and Whitey Ford of the New York Yankees the Antonelli
cisco
loser.
of
Giants
the
the
was veteran
Table
II.
— Attendance
National league
Wynn
of the Chi-
al
Major League Baseball Parks, 1958 and 1959
—
:
—
BASKE TBALL Schenectady (N.Y.) won the consolation piize by defeating Kailua of Hawaii i to o, in the play-off for third place. Monterrey of Mexico, winner for two straight years, was dropped from
the tournament for a violation of rules, being charged with ignoring the rule requiring all players to reside within the boundaries
the league prescribed.
One of came
to an end on March 21 when Kentucky defeated Auburn, which had won 30 consecutive contests.
series at Stockton, Cahf.,
i
Babe
in the
on Aug.
20.
Table
American Legion junior championship by defeating Hampton (Va.) II to 4, at Hastings, Neb. Uniontown (Pa.) won the national tourney sponsored by the Veterans of Foreign Wars with a I
victory over Endicott (N.Y.) at Hershey, Pa., Aug. 21.
Dearborn (Mich.) beat San Antonio (Tex.) 4
American Amateur Baseball congress final at Battle Creek, Mich. Long Beach (Cahf.) defeated Green county (Pa.) 8 to o for Pony league honours at Washington, Pa. In the Pony Grads league world series for the
won two
J.
to 3 in the
G. Taylor Spink trophy, Lufkin (Tex.)
games from Springfield (111.), the tournament host, to triumph. Detroit and Cincinnati were declared cochampions of the National Amateur Baseball federation junior tournament when their final meeting at Altoona, Pa., was halted by rain on two successive days. College Baseball. Oklahoma State gained the National Collegiate Athletic association title by defeating Arizona 5 to 3 in straight
—
the final round of the 1959 tourney at
Omaha
(Neb.) June
18.
Other major college champions of the year included the
fol-
lo^^ing
Table
Mason-Dixon
Central A. &
— — Hampden-Sydney — — — Western (Big Ten) — Minnesota Mid-.\merican —Ohio U. and Southeast Mississippi Southern George Washington Atlantic Coast Clemson
Western Michigan (tied) Missouri Valley conference Bradley "
(Big Eight)
Oklahoma State Rocky Mountain Greeley Midwest
I..\.C.
— —North Carolina
State
T.
—Coe —
Ohio Valley Eastern Kentucky, Middle Tennessee, Murray State (tied)
—Utah Border— Arizona Coast — Southern Southwest— Texas Pacific
A.
—Cof/ege league Champions,
in
Yank.e
....
Middle Atlonlic (Univerjity div.l Middle Atlantic INortliern college Middle Atlantic (Soutliern collese
dlv.| div.)
Atlontic
Southeasterti
Mid-American
(T. V. H.)
—
Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Catching in Baseball (1947); Fence Buster (Babe Ruth) (1956): Bitting in Baseball (1947); King oj Diamonds (Lou Gehrig) (1956); Mr. Baseball (Connie Mack) (1956); Throwing in Baseball (1947).
.
ir,
Connecticut St. Joseph'j Hofstro West Chester North Carolina Sta Mississippi State
Midwest Ohio Valley Western (Big Ten)
Philodelphio, Pa.
Hempstead, N.Y. West Chester, Pa. Roleigh, N.C. State College. Miss.
Bowling Green, O. Oxford, O. Galesburg, III. Richmond, Ky.
Eastern Kentucky Michigan State Konsos Stole Utah
Big Eight
Mountain States (Skyline) Border Rocky Mountain Pocif)c Coast West Coast
Eost tansing, Mich.
Monhotlon, Kon. Salt Loke City, Utah Albuquerque, N.M.
New Mexico Idaho State California St.
Missouri Valley
Pocotello, Ida.
Berkeley, Calif. Marys College, Colif.
Mary's
St.
Cincinnati Texos Christian West Virginio
Southwest Southern
N.H.
Storri
Miami Knox
Cincinnati, O. Fort Worth, Tex. Morgontown, W.Vo.
Evansville (Ind.) 'became champion of the small-college division of the N.C.A.A.
by defeating Southwest Missouri State
March
(Springfield) 83-67, at Evansville on
and
13.
Tennessee A.
(Nashville) subdued Pacific Lutheran (Parkland, Wash.)
I.
97-87, at Kansas City on in
March
14 to carry off
its
third straight
the National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics. college (Ogden,
Utah) took national junior honours, top-
ping Bethany Lutheran (Mankato, Minn.) S7-47> at Hutchinson, Kan., March 21. St. John's (Brooklyn, N.Y.) won the 22nd
annual National Invitation tourney at New York's Madison Square Garden, becoming the first team to gain the title three times. St. John's, victor in the 1943
game sweep
and 1944 events, beat Brad-
76-71 in overtime.
111.)
—The Boston
Celtics scored a four-
against the Minneapolis Lakers in the final play-offs
to capture the National
Basketball association championship.
With Bill Sharman accounting for 29 points, the Celtics, coached by Red Auerbach, came from behind to win the concluding battle 118-113 the first team in the circuit's history to take the title
—
in four consecutive
n..L_xi..|| California won the National Collegiate Athletic DdolvClUdll. association basketball title by edging West Vir-
.
Bowling Green
(tied)
Professional Basketball. California
& M.
1959
Dartmouth
ley (Peoria,
Mountain States
I.
|lvy)
Weber
—
Missouri Valley
—
champions of 1959 are shown
teogu.
Easlem
title
Eastern (Ivy) Navy Yankee Connecticut Big Three Princeton
college league
I.
Stam-
ford (Conn.) beat Palo Alto (Calif.) s to 4 for third place. The of Detroit won the annual national
Thomas A. Edison post
4 to
the longest winning streaks in intercollegiate basket-
ball
The major
Tulsa (Okla.) defeated Sikeston (Mo.) 3 to
Ruth league world
99
Boozer (Kansas State), Bailey Howell (Mississippi State), and Johnny Cox (Kentucky).
games. (See Table II.)
The West defeated
the East 124-108 in the annual all-star
battle at Detroit's 01>'mpia stadium, Jan. 23.
ginia 71-70, in the final
round of the 1959 tournament in Louisville, Ky., on March 21. The Golden Bears gave the Pacific Coast conference its first N.C.A.A. crown since 1942. Denny Fitzpatrick, with 20 points, led the victors' scoring, while Jerry
West
talhed 28 for the losers. In the play-off for third place, Cincin-
came from behind to conquer Louis^'ille 98-85. California had advanced to the ultimate round by subduing Cincinnati 64nati
West Virginia had gained at the expense of Louisville 94-79. The last two rounds at Louisville capped a series of elimination play-offs that had attracted a field of 23 league and 58, while
Toble II.— N.B.A. Championship Play-offs, 1959 Eostern semifinals
Syracuse 129, Syrocuse 131,
New New
York 123 York 1 IS
Minneapolis 92, Detroit 89 Detroit 1 17, Minneapolis 103 Minneapolis 129. Detroit 102
Eastern finols
Boston 131, Syracuse Syracuse 1 20, Boston Boston 133, Syrocuse Syrocuse 119, Boston Boston 129, Syracuse Syracuse 133, Boston Boston 130, Syracuse
1 1
09 1
11
Western
8
finals
90 98 97 98 97
St.touis 124, Minneapolis Minneapolis 106, St.touis St.Louis 127, Minneapolis Minneapolis 108, St.touis
1
107 108 121
Minneapolis 98, St.Louis Minneapolis 106. Sl.Louis 104
125 All-chompionship Unols
sectional champions.
Kansas State was ranked first in the season's concluding poll by United Press International. Others in the top ten were Kentucky, Michigan State, Cincinnati, North Carolina State, North Carolina and Mississippi State (tied for sixth), Bradley, Cahfomia and Auburn. The order of teams in the
Vickers routed the Phillips 66 Oilers of Bartlesville, Okla., 105-
Associated Press poll of writers was Kansas State, Kentucky,
winning the men's A.A.U.
of coaches
Amateur
83 in the last round of the 1959 tournament at Denver, Colo. the first team to go over the 100 mark in
The Vickers became
Bradley, Cincinnati, North Carolina State,
The Army
Michigan State, Auburn, North Carolina and West Virginia. Chosen on the Associated Press first All-America team were Oscar Robertson (Cincinnati), Jerry West (West Virginia), Bob
tional league
Mississippi State,
Athletic Union Basketball.—The Wichita (Kan.)
title final.
All-Stars subdued the San Francisco 01>Tnpic club
102-79 to gain third place. The Denver Truckers clinched Na-
honours by halting Peoria,
The Flying Queens
of
Wayland (Tex.)
111.,
102-100, at Denver.
Baptist college dethroned
1 )
BASUTOLAND — BELGIAN OVERSEAS TERRITORIES
100
the Nashville (I'cnn.)
business college team as women's
title-
holder in the annual tournament at St. Joseph, Mo. Toledo (O. set back Lexington (Ky.) 93-82 for the national Y.M.C.A.
crown
at Franklin, Pa.
World Amateur Championship. Santiago, Chile, late
in
— Sixteen
Jan. 1959, in the third
teams battled title
at
event super-
The won five consecutive final-round title when it refused to meet Taiwan
vised by the International .Xmateur Basketball federation.
Soviet Union quintet, which had
games,
lost its points
and the
(Nationalist China's representative) in the competition. Brazil,
by beating Chile 73-49, gained top honours. The U.S., represented by an improvised air force team, drew sharp criticism for the weakness of its entry, which was crushed by the Russians (T. V. H.) 62-37, and by Brazil 81-67, in the last round.
—
Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Ball Handling in (1946); Drjensive Footwork in Basketball (1946); Mr. (George Mikan) (1956); Shooting in Basketball (1946).
Basketball Basketball
British South African Territories.
Basutoland:
see
Q
(Baudouin Albert Charles Leopold Axel Marie Gustave) (1930), King of the Bel-
•
I
I
DdUOOUin
I
was born on Sept. 7 at Stuyvenberg castle, Brussels, the elder son of King Leopold III and Queen Astrid. He accompanied his father during his internment in Germany (June 1944-May gians,
1945) and his subsequent voluntary exile in Switzerland. He was for the most part privately educated but during his father's stay
KING BAUDOUIN AND
U.S.
GEN. ALBERT PIERSON approaching the Tomb May 11, 1959. The king
Unknowns. Arlington National cemetery, Va., placed a wreath on the tomb
of the
925,907 sq.mi. Total pop. (1958 est.) 18,259,000. Areas, poputown, status and governors of the separate terri-
lations, capital
tories are given in the table.
Geneva (1945-50), he attended a state college at Geneva. On Aug. 11, 1950, he was informed that parliament had granted him power to exercise the royal prerogatives, and he at Pregny, near
Anos Under Aroo Country.
acted as head of state until Leopold's abdication on July 16, 1951. as
The
following day he took the oath before the parliament
King Baudouin
On May week
visit.
(In
Belgian
Africani
Congo
904,991
Belgian Control
Populolion 11958
sq.mi.l
1
est.) *
3,559,000
Nonindigenoui 109,457
Copilol
Slolus
liopoldville (pop.: 350,000
Colony
incl.
nelii,
govemar-
about
20,000
I.
general
Euro-
peoni)
10, 1959,
He was
Sullan-
he arrived in Washington, D.C., for a three-
received by Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower and
Governor Henri Cor-
Ruanda
Truit
J
the following day addressed a joint session of the U.S. congress.
On June
16 he paid an
official visit to
Luxembourg and on July
*1
958 Ceniul
fPrincipol
of Europeani.
town of Ruanda,
Kigolij principal
town of Urundi, Kitego.
8-12 to the Netherlands.
XII, was born
dinal Bea, personal confessor to
May
Pope Pius
28 in Riedbohringen, Baden, Ger. Entering
the Society of Jesus on April
was ordained
His Eminence Agostino Car-
).
to the priesthood
8,
1902, at Blyenbeek, Neth., he
on Aug.
25, 191 2.
From
191 7 to
— Important events occurred
in the Belgian Congo in by degrees toward self-government was disturbed on several occasions by the repercussions of the new situation in the neighbouring Congo republic, part of the former French
History.
(is
Dcd, n^UbllllO
1959. Progress
Equatorial Africa.
Reforms had already been introduced and
local elections took
The name
1921 he served as prefect of studies at the Jesuit philosophical
place in several centres in 1957 and 1958.
and theological
was changed to the ministry of the Belgian Congo and of Ruanda-Urundi. A government statement about the future of the Congo was announced when, on Jan. 4. rioting started in Leopoldville, the capital, after the police had dispersed a meeting for which no permission had been asked. On that tragic Sunday police vans were set on fire, cars belonging to Europeans were attacked and damaged, shops, schools and missions were raided. The following day looting continued, 49 Europeans and 74 Africans were taken to hospitals and Afri-
institute at Valkenburg, Neth.,
to 1924 as Jesuit prov-incial of
upper Germany.
and from 192
Named
director
of the Jesuit Fathers' Institute of Higher Ecclesiastical Studies in
Rome
in 1924,
he was transferred to the Pontifical Biblical
1928 and served as rector of that institute from 1930 to 1949. A noted biblical scholar, he presided over the commission which produced new translations of the Psalms in
institute in
1945.
He was
Commission and director of the periodical Biblica. Pope
also a consultant to the Pontifical
for Biblical Studies
John XXIII elevated him Nov. 16, 1959.
to the
Sacred College of Cardinals on
can troops fired on the crowds to restore order. According to reports 37 Africans were killed and 12 died afterward. parliamentary commission of inquiry reported on March 28
official
A Bechuanaland Protectorate:
of the minis-
try of the colonies
British South African
see
human
had not kept pace with the evolution of was resented and Africans had developed oversensitiveness. Other causes were the economic recession, the influx of natives into overcrowded Leopold^^lle, large-scale unemployment and young people remaining idle. The effect of Communist propaganda should not be that
some
Territories.
Beef: see Meat. Beer: see Brewing and Beer. Belgian Congo: see Belgian 0\'erseas Territories.
relations
of the African population. Segregation
exaggerated but the influence of the independence given to the
Belgian Overseas Territories.
Snto'Sc'lZ'S:
Congo in central Africa and the adjacent trust territories of Ruanda and Urundi administered with the Congo. Total area:
former territories of French Equatorial Africa and the directive givea to the Pan-African congress
On
in
Accra was important.
Jan. 13 King Baudouin in a broadcast and the government
BELGIUM in
parliament announced reforms leading to independence.
rice
Mau-
van Hemelrijck, minister of the Congo, paid several visits and introduced reforms aS a prelude to general
to the territory
Freedom of
elections.
meetings was granted.
and of public
the press, of association
When
the minister announced his inten-
up a provisional government several of his colleagues and he resigned on Sept. 3. He was succeeded by Auguste de Schrijver, a minister of state and the
101
per, smelter 237,562; zinc, smelter 53,438; tin concentrates, metal content 9,500; tin, smelter 2,684; cobalt ore 4,342; manganese ore 338,145;
tungsten, WO3 content (1957) 1.423; gold 10,957 kg.; diamonds, gem and industrial 16,673.474 metric carats. Encvclop/Edia Beiiannica Films. A Giant People (the Watussi) (1939); People 0/ the Congo (the Mangbetu) (1939); Pygmies of Africa
—
(1939).
tion to set
in the cabinet disagreed
experienced "wise man'' of the Christian Social party.
De
Schrijver said he intended to adopt an economic policy
^ kingdom of western Europe, Belgium is bounded RDlffilim DCIglUIII. southwest by France, north by the Netherlands and east by Germany and Luxembourg. Area 11,779 sq.mi. Pop.: (1947 census) 8,512,195; (1958 est.) 9,078,635. Language: Flem41.8%; French 34.2%; Flemish and French 15.6%; German
running parallel with the political evolution because the eco-
ish
nomic aspect had not been sufficiently taken into account. A new timetable for reforms was outlined by the minister on Oct. 16 providing for direct elections for district and rural councils in December by an electorate estimated at more than 3,000,000 male African and Belgian inhabitants of the Congo aged 21 and over. Contrary to the Belgian system, voting was not compulsory. The next stage was the granting to the six provinces of extensive powers over education, public works and other matters and the setting up in March i960 of provincial councils. Six-tenths of
0.7%. Rehgion: mainly
members
of provincial councils were to be elected
bers of district and rural these
councils,
three-tenths
by the memco-opted by
members and one-tenth nominated among representative The third step was also to be made in i960, namely the
people.
of two legislative assemblies, a chamber elected by the district and rural councilors, and a senate elected partly by the provincial councils, the other members being co-opted or chosen by the king. Both houses would be competent to pass bills. A central government would be presided over by the governor-general, representative of the king. The competence of the government and of the assemblies would not include foreign and monetary policies. The task of the assemblies would be to draft a constitution to be submitted to the people for approval. Afterward Belgium and the Congo, each acting in full independence, would be able to decide through their legislative and executive organs about installation
directly or
their
common
institutions.
Pending the elections further clashes resulting from
tribal
Roman Catholic. Chief towns (pop. 1958 est): Brussels (capital) 170,568; Antwerp 261,666; Ghent 160,669; Liege 156,599; Bruges 52,535; Hasselt 35,019; commune
Namur
33,062; Charleroi 25,962. Ruler, King Baudouin
I.
Prime
minister in 1959, Gaston Eyskens.
History.
— King Baudouin made during
the United States,
1959
official visits to
Luxembourg and the Netherlands. He
also
Queen Elizabeth II at Balmoral and Pres. Heinrich Liibke Bonn, when he inspected Belgian mihtary units in western
visited in
Germany. The nation rejoiced when Prince Albert, brother of the king and heir to the throne, married Donna Paola Ruffo di Calabria. ELing Leopold, father of King Baudouin, who was president of the Belgian National Commission for the Promotion of Science and Research, delivered the report of the commission on the need for a reform of higher education, easier access to and to scientific careers. The 83-year-old Queen
universities
Elisabeth, the king's grandmother, visited Israel and Yugoslavia.
Rejoicing alternated with grave concern, mainly about troubles in the Belgian rift in
Congo and
the cabinet over the
in the resignation of
in the trust territory of
Congo reforms
Ruanda.
A
resulted in September
Maurice van Hemelrijck and
his succession
by Auguste de Schrijver as minister for the affairs of Congo, Ruanda and Urundi. The country also faced the problem of a coal surplus (7,000,000 tons in stock) and of uneconomic coal mines. Working days were reduced to four, and when some pits were closed strikes occurred in the Borinage area and spread through the province of Hainault.
Baluba. Meanwhile the economic situation improved. Total value
At the end of February an agreement was reached between the government, the employers and the unions over the timing of
first six months of 1959 increased by 12.5%. The government decided to grant the Congo in i960 an
miners.
hatred occurred, mainly in the Kasai district between Lulua and of the exports during the
exceptional
aid
amounting
to
$40,000,000 and to contribute
$60,000,000 to a special fund for underdeveloped areas, mainly the
Ruanda and (M. H. St.)
Belgian Congo and the trust territories of
Urundi. Education.
— Schools:
Congo (1957-58): primary (ind. intermediate)
28,485, pupils 1,576,014; secondary 131, pupils 9,470: vocational 457, pupils 20,547; teacher-training 213, students 16,091. The University of the Belgian Congo and Ruanda-Urundi had 133 students and Lovanium university 177 students. Ruanda-Urundi (1956—57): primary (incl. preprimary) 2,703, pupils 236,922; secondary 5, pupils 594; teacher-training 25, students 2.003. Finance.
— Monetary
unit:
Congolese franc, nominally an independent
currency, actually at par with the Belgian franc. Budgets (1958): Congo: revenue (ordinar>*) 12,471,570,000 fr., (extraordinary) 263,000,000 fr.; expenditure (ordinary) 12,438,686,000 fr., (extraordinary) 5,953,000,000 fr. Ruanda-Urundi: revenue (ordinary) 1,024,000,000 fr., (extraordinarj-) 486,000,000 fr.; expenditure (ordinary) 1,018,000,000 fr., (extraordinary)
508,000,000 Foreign
fr.
— (1958)
Imports 17,986,000,000 fr.; exports 20,581,000,000 fr.; gold exports (1958) 580,063,000 fr. Transport and Communications. Roads (1957) 150.000 km. Motor vehicles (1957): passenger 36,400, commercial (incl. buses) 25.450. Railways (1957) 5,133 km. Waterways (1957) 15,000 km. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 22,370. Agriculture. Production: Congo (metric tons, 1958: 1957 in parentheses): palm oil 225,115 (231,850); palm kernels 143,824 (144,530); cottonseed 142.578 (129,829); rubber 37,422 (35,089); cotton, lint S4,ooo (46,000); coffee 53,790 (43,055); peanuts 168,722 (176,988); sweet potatoes and yams 319,411 (345,124); cassava 7,560,765 (7,793,800); sawn hardwood 316,470 cu.m. (1956: 321.000 cu.m.). RuandaUrundi (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): coffee 25.334 (29.969); peanuts 6,669 (5.637); sweet potatoes and yams 1,268,710 (1,411,660); cassava 1,361,396 (1,501,560); dry beans 294,886 (268,185), Industry. J*roduction: Congo (metric tons, 1958): coal 294,323; copTracJe.
—
—
—
mine closures and arrangements for re-employment of A total of 34 pits were to be closed over a period of three years. In the Ghent area there were demonstrations when textile factories were closed. The general economic recession affected Belgium later than other countries because of considerable works coal
executed for the Brussels exhibition of 1958, but the improvement in 1959 was slower than in other countries. However, the general index of industrial production (1953
mated
=
100) was
esti-
at 128.5 for Oct.
1959 against 120.7 in Oct. 1958. Steel production reached record figures (587,000 tons in October). House-building was again in progress and there was a recovery in all textile branches.
A
railways, roads, canals
index (1953 Oct. 1958.
=
long-term program of improvements to and ports was drafted. The cost of hving
100) rose to 110.4 in Oct. 1959 against 108.2 in
As a
wages of civil servants and of workers and pensions had to be adjusted.
result
in various industries
Increasing state expenditure forced the government in
ber to increase postal rates. There was
much
Novem-
opposition against
other intended taxation increases, and severe cuts in the i960
budget expenditure were advocated. Reforms
in education, the
program for scientific research and especially aid to the Belgian Congo meant an exceptional financial burden only to be eased by reducing mihtary expenditure. In September the period of military service was reduced to one year. A border dispute dating from the middle ages was settled after the Belgian and Dutch governments decided to submit the case
BENEFACTIONS — BERLIN
102 to the International
Belgian enclaves
in
Court of Justice. The dispute concerned the the Baarle Nassau and Baarle Hcrtog region
where an area of about 30
by 10 votes to
ac.
was contested. On June
jo, 1959,
court found that the sovereignty belonged
4, the
to Belgium, i'tv also
European Unity.
(M. H.
St.)
—
Education. Schools (1956-57): primary (including prcprimary) 13,S86. pupils 1,398.237. teachers (19SS) 43.696; secondary 891, pupils 161,878. teachers (official only) 8,204; vocational (i955-s6) 2,532, pupils (1956-57) 147. 117; tcacher-lraininR 175, students 20,463. Institutions of higher education 30 (including 5 universities), students (i957-s8) 30,143. Financ* and Banking. Monetary unit: Belgian franc, with an exchange rale of 50 to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1959 est.): revenue 101,900,000,000 fr.; expenditure 106,900,000.000 fr. Total public debt (Dec. 1957) 305,300.000,000 fr.; external debt (Dec. 1958) 29,500,000,000 fr. Gold and foreign exchange holdings (central bank, U.S. dollars, April 1958; 1,259,000,000 (1,475,000,000). Currency April 1959 in parentheses): circulation (Belgium-Luxembourg economic union, Feb. 1958; Feb. 1959 in parentheses) 113,900,000,000 fr. (118,900,000,000 fr.). Deposit money (Feb. 1958; Feb. 1959 in parentheses) 79,200,000,000 fr. (86,100,000,-
—
000
fr.).
— (Belgium-Luxembourg exports
economic union, 1958): imports 152,267,000,000 fr. Main sources of imports: Netherlands 16%; France 12%; other E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 9%; U.K. 7%; other sterling area 8%; U.S. and Canada 11%; Latin America 5%. Main destination of exports: Netherlands 21%; Germany 12%; France 11%; other E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 12%; U.K. 6%; other sterling area 6%; U.S. and Canada 11%; Latin Foreign Trad*.
156,447.000,000
Germany
fr.;
17%;
America 6%. Transport and Communicafions. hicles in use (.Vug.
—
Roads (1958) 93,000 km. Motor ve1956): passenger 532,771; commercial 148,506. Rail-
"ANOTHER SURPLUS PROBLEM,"
1959 cartoon by Alexmder
a
of
The
Evening Bulletin, Philadelphia
ways (S.N.C.B. and S.N.C.V., 1957) 6.703 km.; passenger-km. (S.N.C.B. only, 1958) 9,024.000.000; freight, ton-km. (S.N.C.B. only, 1938) 5,772,000,000. Shipping: merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over (July 1958): 199; total tonnage 601,000. Navigable inland waterways (1956): 1,583 km. .^ir transport (1958); passenger-km. 1,198.056,000; freicht, ton-km. 34.596.000. Telephones (Jan. 1958): 986,953. Radio receiving sets (1957) 2.307.000. Television receivers (1957) 250,000. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): wheat 794.000 (766.000); oats 443,000 (454.000); barley 318,000 (296,000): rye 200,000 (190.000); potatoes 1,956,000 (2,043,000); flax fibre 28,100 (29,800); beet sugar (raw) 415.000 (388.000); meat 344,400
—
catches (1957) 62.900 (69.100
in 1956). 27,060,000 metric tons; manufactured gas 2,256,000,000 cu.m.; electricity 12,516,000,000' kw.hr. Production (metric tons, 1958): pig iron 5.520,000; crude steel 6.012,000; copper, refined 155.160; lead, refined 95,880: zinc, smelter 214.800; tin, smelter 8.8S0; aluminum 2,760: cement 4.056,000; cotton yarn 82,280; cotton fabrics 67.200; wool yarn 38,040; woolen fabrics (1957) 30,000; rayon filament yarn 10,320; rayon staple fibre 16,680.
(362,400); Industry.
fish
— Fuel
and
power
(1958):
areas. In
September of that year he began a "good-will" tour
of
the U.S.S.R.
Rpntnn UCIIIUII, Minn.
William llllliaill
He was
in partnership
^'^°°" was
ficial,
),U.S. publisher and public of-
bom
on April
i
graduated from Yale university
Minneapohs,
in
in 1921. In 1929,
with Chester Bowles, he founded the advertising
agency of Benton and Bowles.
coal
Benton retired from the agency
The University
vice-president of
1936 and
in 1937 became where he served
on a part-time basis until 1945. In 1942, in collaboration with Paul G. Hoffman, he helped to found the Committee for Eco-
nomic Development. At
Benefactions: see Donations and Bequests. Benelux: see Belgium; European Unity; Luxembourg; Netherlands.
in
of Chicago,
his instance
The University
acquired Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc., the company,
shared
its
in
became publisher and chairman of
of Chicago
He
1943.
its
financed
board and
ownership with the university. Within a year he
or-
ganized Encyclopaedia Britannica Films Inc., to produce and
^^
^'^^^~
government oAR
^ Rpn'. Ward was third on the A. B.C. records list of perfect games, having been credited with ten. Young set a mark in the 1958 A. B.C. championship toumey when he posted a nine-game all-events singles \ictor while city')
The Cellular Slime Molds by John Tyler BonFungi by Vincent W. Cochrane; Comparative Morphology of Vascular Plants by Adriance S. Foster and Ernest M. Giff'ord, Jr.; Taxonomy and Genetics of Oenothera by R. Ruggles Gates; Agricultural Botany by N. T. Gill and K. C. Vear; Natural History of the Phlox Family by Veme Grant; Systematics of Today ed. by Olov Hedberg; The Families of Flonering Plants, 2nd ed.. by J. Hutchinson; Men, Molds and History by Felix Marti Ibanez The Coconut Palm by K. P. V. Menon and K. M. Pandalali; Taschenbuch der Botanik (2 vol.) by Walter Me\ius Plant Life by Lorus J. MUne and Margery Milne; Methods of Vegetation Study by Edwin Allen Phillips; Circumpolar Arctic Flora by Nicholas Polunin Index Kewensis Books.
ner; Physiology of
;
;
;
total of
over 1,800 for the ninth straight time.
Women's
International Bowling Congress.
ing records were set in the
42d annual
title
—Two new
meeting
scor-
at Buffalo,
i6-May 31. The toumey attracted 4,491 teams from Canada and the United States. The Bill Snethkamp-Chrysler quintet of Detroit triumphed with 3.030. a new high for the tournament, April
whOe Pat McBride
of
Grand Rapids
tallied 1,927 to
win the
all-
events crown, breaking a standard that had stood since 1934.
BOWLS — BOXING
116 Wcnc and
Sylvia
World Championship Mofches.
Adele Ishpording of Philadelphia stored 1,263
and Mae I'loegnian Uolt of Chicago triwith a 664. Marion Ladewig and LaVerne
two
— Fifteen
world-title bouto
The champion-
to lead the doubles,
were
umphed
ship matches were well scattered, with 12 decided in the United
singles
in
Carter of
Louis won the women's national doubles at Rego
St.
Duck
Pins.
—
Bill
Bursey of Washington, D.C., scored 1,301 to
lake all-events honours in the 1959 championships of the
Duck
tional
Pin Bowling congress held at Baltimore.
A
Naof
list
in
I
title
Montreal, Que., and bouts were held,
473 8S0
universally
recognized.
evenl.-' Fionce. Wil.on, Woihinglon leom- Corou.el-Eo.twoy, Bollimore MIsed double.— Ann Bofford'Lou Koye, Bolllmore
1,190 1,882
oil.
Women,
810
(T. V. H.)
as follows:
Floyd Patterson knocked out Brian London, of England,
nth round
May
at Indianapolis, Ind.,
On June
weight championship.
2,0B1
432 774
in
2
in certain states. The middleweight NaBoxing association championship bout likewise was not
tional
Scon
M«n'i ilngl«i- Hilmar Sperichneider, Balllinore Man'i doublet- Varrton Morich-Fronli Hugelmgyer, Balllinore Chevy CKo.e Chevrolel, Woihinglon Men', loom Women, lingle. Dorothy Cridlin, Richmond, Vo Women', double.- Rulh Freemon-Audrey Alkin.on, Bolllmore
I
Tokyo. In addition, two but those were recognized as cham-
The championship bouts were
W.r
class.
pionship matches only
other winners follows:
Women',
heavyweight
in iht
'
Stales,
junior
May.
Park, N.V., in
.staged in 1959,
26, at
Yankee stadium. New York
however, Patterson was knocked out
city,
in the
to retain the heavy-
i,
in
the third round,
Ingemar Johansson of Sweden. .\rchie Moore retained the light-heavyweight championship by stopping Yvon Durelle of Canada in the third round at Montreal, losing his title to
Que., on Aug. 12.
Bowls:
.M'c
Gene Fullmer won
Lawn Howling.
the National Boxing association's recogni-
tion as world middleweight
'boxing in the United States suffered a setback in 1959
Rnvinn'
IIUAIIIg> 35
\yas
evidenced by investigations by the Kefauver
crime committee, grand jury hearings indictments
The
in
in
New York
and federal
won
its
antitrust case against
San Francisco,
Calif.
On
Dec. 4 Fullmer won a unanimous 15-round decision over "Spider" Webb at Logan, Utah.
Don Jordan
California based on extortion plots.
U.S. department of justice
champion when he stopped Carmen
Basilio in the 14th round, Aug. 28, at
Akins
gil
in 15
retained his welterweight
rounds at
St. Louis,
by outpointing
title
Mo., on
Vir-
Jordan again
.April 24.
the International Boxing club and the dissolution of that organi-
successfully defended his crown on July 10 at Portland, Ore., by
by James D. Norris and .-Xrthur Wirtz, was ordered. The sale of their stock broke up an empire that had ruled the sport for many years. It resulted in the forming of two new clubs, the Garden club in New York to handle the Friday night television shows and National Boxing Enterprises, Inc., to
outpointing
zation, controlled
Wednesday The year was one of
care for the
night programs.
small attendances and low receipts, and saw the replacement of New York city as a world boxing centre by Los Angeles. Calif. Boxing became more popular in other parts of the United States, particularly in California and Te.xas where Mexican boxers were coming into prominence. The United States lost its most precious boxing title when it
Ingemar Johansson of Sweden dethroned Floyd Patterson of New York at the Yankee stadium. In accomplishing the feat, Johansson scored seven knockdowns, the fight ending in the third round.
A
scandal followed the Johansson-Patterson bout because
of charges of irregularities in the promotion of the fight that
brought about investigations in
New
heavyweight Floyd Patterson struggling to rise after being knocked down by challenger Ingemar Johansson in their fight June 26, 1959. Johansson knocked out Patterson in the third round to win the title
on three
;
Davey Moore stopped Hogan "Kid" Bassey of Nigeria at the end of the 13th round to win the world featherweight championMarch
ship at Los .Angeles on
18.
Moore won
the rematch on
Aug. 19 at Los Angeles when Bassey quit at the end of the nth round.
On July 8 at Los Angeles Joe Becerra of Mexico knocked out Alphonse Halimi of France in the eighth round to win the world bantamweight crown. Pascual Perez of Argentina outpointed Kenji Yonekura of Jain 15 rounds to retain the flyweight championship at Tokyo,
pan
Aug.
FALLEN CHAMPION,
title
rounds at Houston,
6th-round technical knockout.
Nov.
fight.
in 15
on Feb. 1 1 on June 3, at Washington, D.C., he stopped Paolo Rosi in the 9th round; and on Dec. 2, in a bout with Dave Charnley of England, at Houston, Tex., Brown was awarded a Tex.,
York, senate rackets com-
promoted the
Johnny Busso
occasions: he outpointed
mittee hearings and the collapse of Rosensohn Enterprises, Inc., ivhich
Denny Moyer.
Joe Brown, lightweight champion, defended his
10.
Perez successfully defended his
title
at
Tokyo on
knocking out Sadao Yaoita of Japan in the 13th round. Carlos Ortiz stopped Kenny Lane at the end of the second round in their junior welterweight bout at New York city, 5,
June I :. In a junior lightweight bout at Providence, R.I., July Harold Gomes outpointed Paul Jorgensen in 15 rounds.
Amateur
Boxing.
— In the 71st annual national Amateur Ath-
union championships held at Toledo. 0..
letic
champions were: 112 fin.
Toledo; 125
lb..
20,
lb..
Roy Houpe, Columbus.
Daniels, Seattle, Wash.;
in April, individual
Gil Yanez, Toledo; 119
139
lb..
lb.,
0.; 132
Fred Griflb..
Quincy
Brian O'Shea, Chicago,
111.;
Vernon Vinson. Cleveland. 0.; 156 lb.. Wilbert McClure, Toledo; 165 lb.. Jimmy McQueen, Elyria. O. 178 lb., Cassius 147
lb..
;
Clay,
Louisville.
Ky.;
heavj-weight,
James Blythe, Hartford,
Conn. In the 32nd annual intercity Golden Gloves championship, held at the Chicago stadium, Chicago, dividual champions were:
118
lb.,
112
lb.,
111.,
March
Angel Morales,
Luis Figueroa, Puerto Rico; 126
lb.,
Don
25,
the in-
New
York;
Eddington,
St.
New
York; 147 lb., Ossie Marcano. New York; 160 lb., Wilbert McClure, Toledo; 175 lb,, Cassius Clay, Louisville, Ky. heavyweight, Sylvester Banks, Louis. Mo.; 135
lb..
Vincent Shomo.
;
New
York.
In the third Pan-.\merican boxing tournament, held in Chicago
:
BOY SCOUTS — BRAZIL in
September, the United States entrants won four of the ten gold
medals.
winners
Individual
119
tina;
were:
112
Waldo Claudiano,
lb.,
Argentina; 132
lb.,
Miguel
Brazil;
125
Abel Laudonio, Argentina; 140
lb.,
Argen-
Botta, lb.,
Carlos Aro,
Vincent
lb.,
Shomo, U.S.; 147 lb., Alfredo Comejo, Chile; 156 lb., Wilbert McClure, U.S.; 165 lb., Abrad de Souza, Brazil; 178 lb., Amos Johnson, U.S.; heavyweight, Allen Hudson, U.S. The United States won the team trophy. College Boxing. San Jose State college won the 1959 National Collegiate Athletic association team championship in the tournament held at Sacramento, Calif., in April. Individual win-
—
ners were: 112
Ron
lb.,
Heigi Shimabakro, College of Idaho; 119
lb.,
lb., Bobby Cornwall, WashingNick Akana, San Jose State; 139 lb., Joe Bliss, University of Nevada; 147 lb.. Buddy Rausch, Idaho State; 156 lb., Terry Smith, Sacramento State; 165 lb., Charles Mohr, University of Wisconsin; 178 lb., John Home, Michigan State; heavyweight, Hal Espy, Idaho State. (N. Fl.) Great Britain and Commonwealth. The two most successful British champions in 1959 were Dave Chamley (lightweight) from Dartford, Kent, and Freddie Gilroy (bantam) from Belfast, N.Ire. Both these young southpaw champions won Empire titles and Chamley made a bid for the world lightweight crown of the U.S. champion Joe Brown at Houston, Tex. Gilroy won the British and Empire bantamweight championships from Peter Keenan whom he stopped in 11 rounds at Belfast. He then became Britain's only European titleholder, outpointing Piero Rollo (Italy) over 15 rounds at Wembley,
Nichols, San Jose State; 125
ton State; 132
lb.,
—
Although
all
gency steps
20%
365%
since 1948, rose an-
months of 1959. executive departments were ordered to take emer-
to cut expenses, the
increase in the try
which had risen
during 1958 and
minimum
in the first six
government sanctiond
a
new
salary for workers throughout the coun-
and granted a pay increase for the armed
forces. In Dec.
1958, the labour unions presented to the president a petition
requesting the freezing of prices and other measures to avoid a
more
serious increase in the cost of living. Although the adminis-
tration did not act on this request,
it
did take steps to increase
food supplies and to co-ordinate transportation of staples from
main cities along the coast. However, there and food riots in various cities, particularly in the northeastem area where a serious drought curtailed still more the interior to the
were
strikes
the food supply.
The continued
flow of rural workers to the industrial cities,
the decrease in exports of coffee and cacao, the increase in gov-
attempts to increase trade with the far eastern nations, and on Dec. 10
Gilroy kept intact his un-
in three
rounds at
money and
it
was announced that a trade agreement had been signed
Porthcawl, Glamorganshire.
with the U.S.S.R. for the exchange over a three-year period of
was John (Cowboy) McCorThe Scotsman won the British middleweight title from Terry Downes on an eighth-round disqualification at Wembley, but lost it back to Downes 49 days later when Downes stopped
$200,000,000 worth of goods.
The
him
shortest championship reign
DroTil DldLll. in
(F. Br.)
in eight rounds.
Boy Scouts:
^
see Societies
and Associations, U.S.
federal republic in eastern
and central South Amer-
with an area of 3,287,195 sq.mi., Brazil is second size only to Canada in the western hemisphere. Population ica,
(1950 census) 51.976.357; (July i, 1959 est.) 64,678.709. mostly concentrated along the coast. Language: Portuguese. Religion:
predominantly
Roman
Catholic with about 2.000.000 Protestants
of various denominations, including Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists, Lutherans
Chief
cities
and
others,
and about 800,000
Spiritualists.
(pop. 1950 census, 1958 est. in parentheses)
Janeiro, the federal capital, 2,303,063
I
cost of living,
25%
by the heavyweight champion Henry Cooper
this third title
mack's.
I
The other
Another South African, Gawie de Klerk, made
in ten rounds.
!
of Brasilia.
an unsuccessful Empire championship bid when he was defeated
By winning
Middlesex.
I
Sul. President Kubitschek declared that his administration would be impartial in the electoral campaign; he promised that he would transfer the insignia of the presidency to the legally elected new president on Jan. 31, 1961, at the new federal capital
do
ernment expenditures which brought about new issues of paper the heavy financial obligations of the govemment abroad, were among the important factors which contributed to the situation. Brazil's foreign trade had fallen from a favourable balance of $248,100,000 in 1956, to an unfavourable balance of $97,200,000 in 1957 and of $166,000,000 in 1958. There were
beaten record after 19 professional fights. Chamley won the Empire lightweight title knocking out Willie Toweel (South Africa)
[
117
chamber of deputies, besides seven state govemorships and other state and municipal positions. The majority party, the Social Democratic party, emerged somewhat weakened by internal strife and some defeats, particularly in the key states of Pemambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande union, in the federal
:
Rio de
(3,030,619); Sao Paulo
The
financial situation of the country
failure of the
government
to secure
was aggravated by the
needed loans from foreign
banking
institutions. Brazil had hoped to get a $300,000,000 loan from the U.S. govemment to ease the balance of trade situation. However, the U.S. authorities indicated that further credits would depend upon Brazil's willingness to adopt a stabilization program to be worked out between the Brazilian govemment and the International Monetary fund.
In 1958, the U.S. Export-Import bank granted Brazil credits more than $140,000,000 (a total of $1,300,000,000 since
totaling
1934). During the same year, the Intemational Monetary fund had loaned Brazil $37,500,000 with the understanding that Brazil would take certain measures to stabilize its currency, including (i) cutting down on the multiple exchange rate system; (2) curtailing excessive
govemment
expenditures; (3) limiting the issu-
ance of paper money; and (4) tightening the currency situation. During the new negotiations the Intemational Monetary fund indicated that they felt Brazil had not done enough to
2,017,025 (3,315,553); Recife 512,370 (733,870); Salvador 389,-
officials
422 (551.525); Porto Alegre 375.049 (532,624); Belo Horizonte
carry out these recommendations. In early June, the negotiations
338.585 (527.270).
between the Brazilian delegates and the fund in Washington, D.C.. were interrupted. It was generally felt that President Kubitschek feared to impose austerity measures that would increase
I
Pres. I
j
'
Juscelino
Kubitschek
de
Oliveira
was
inaugurated
Jan. 31. 1956, his term to expire Jan. 31, 1961.
—
History. The political life of the country was considerably enhvened during 1959 by the approach of the presidential elections which were scheduled for Oct. i960. There were negotiations
among
the leaders of the various parties and jockeying for
position on the part of the potential candidates.
The
general elections of Oct.
3,
1958, had resulted in sub-
stantial gains for the opposition party, the
National Democratic
more the cost of living at a time when the i960 presidential campaign was getting under way. still
Despite these financial
difficulties,
the country's
economy con-
tinued to expand at a rapid pace. In his report to the nation (Jan. 29, 1959), the president pointed out
among
other things
that production of the government-controlled Volta steel plant
had increased from 800,000 tons a year
Redonda
to 1,250,000
:
BREAD AND BAKERY PRODUCTS
118
Sao I'aulu, Viloria and other im|K)rtant cities to the south. See also Architecture; Foreign Investments. (R. d'E.
—
Education In 1955 there were 72.584 elementary KhooU with 4.(>4i,pupils; 2.589 secondary schools, 573,764 pupils: 1,908 technical schools (1954), 151,001 pupils; 1,146 normal schools, 70,655 students; and 644 hiKhcr schooU incl. 7 state, i federal and 3 private universities) with 6H,j27 students. AccordinR to the 1950 census, 51.4% of those 10 yr. of anc and over were illiterate. Financ*. The monetary unit is ihi- cruzeiro (C"r$), valued at 5.44 cenU I'S. currency, official rate, during 1959. The free rate ranged between hiuh of 0.78 cents (June 2) and a low of 0.62 cents (Sept. 30J durinf iIh- first nine months of 1959. The I9S9 budxet as approved by the congress called for revenue of Cr$ 4 7, 6 7 1, 000. 000 and expenditure of Cr$ 156,226,000,000. Actual revenue in 1958 (preliminary) was 117,816,000,000; expenditure Cr$ 148.478,000,000. The consolidaterl federal external debt on Dec. 31, 1958, was £6,263,620 and I'.S. $38,791,845; funded internal debt Cr$ 10,900,000,000: floating debt (excl. debt to social security institutes) Cr$ 124.800,000,000. Currency in circulation (May 31, I959;,was Cr$ 107.400,000,000; demand deposits Cr$ 272,900,000,000. National income in 1958 was estimated at Cr$ 976,500,000,000. The cost-of-living index (Sao Paulo) stood at 320 in July 1959 (i9S3 = 100). Trode and Communicotioni. Exports in 1958 totaled U.S. $1,242,985,000; imports $1,352,881,000. Leading exports were; coffee (55%); cacao (7%); sugar (57c); pine wood (4%); and iron ore (3%). Leading import groups were: machinery and vehicles (38%); raw materials (29%); foodstuffs and beverages ( 12% ) and chemicals and drugs (10% ). Leading customers were the U.S. (43%), Argentina (9%), Germany (6%), the I '.K. (4%) and the Netherlands (4%): leading suppliers, the U.S. (j6%), Ctrmany (10%), Venezuela {10%), Argentina (7%) and the Netherlands .
'.
include: the conversion of
Brunei:
see
British Borneo.
the Basuto national council into a legislative council with powers
on everything except external
to legislate
affairs,
defense, inter-
and certain other matters; the establishment of an executive council; the strengthening of local government; and the creation of a house of chiefs. Bechuanaland. In April 1959 the secretary of state for commonwealth relations informed the high commissioner that he would be happy to consider proposals for the establishment of a nal security
—
For this purpose the was requested, after consultation with the joint advisor>' council, to submit proposals to the high commissioner, who would then make recommendations to the secretary council for the protectorate.
legislative
resident commissioner
of state.
in
Consignments of Bechuanaland beef were exported Europe for the first time during 1959. Swaziland.
—A
markets
to
special exclusive prospecting licence to prospect
for iron ore near
Mbabane was
issued under the
proclamation,
—
lldllUlldl. DUUgCl, Motinnal RllrilTOt
a report issued in
reviewed the budget of the United States for the year ending
The
30,
fiscal
i960 estimates contained
i960.
report presented revisions of the original in the Jan.
1959 budget document,
together with actual expenditures and receipts data (instead of
The revised budget new recommendations by
estimates) for the fiscal year 1959.
estimates
for i960 took into account
the presi-
dent, congressional actions, and economic
and other developments which had occurred since January. Budget receipts for the fiscal year i960 were expected to total $79,000,000,000, up sharply from the previous year's total of $68,158,000,000 because of the higher levels of economic acti%'ity. (See Table I.) Budget expenditures in fiscal i960 were estimated
at
new mining
lower than
in 1959.
nonrecurrence
vocational 38, pupils 1,087. teachers 65; teacher-training 7, students 514, teachers 31. Bechuanaland (.\frican, European and Eurafricanl primary 183. pupils 31.193, teachers 911; secondary 5, pupils 385, teachers 24: vocational i, pupils 26. teachers 2: teacher-training i, students 74, teachers It. S-iVaziland f.\frican, European and Eurafrican): all grades 296: primary pupils 9.895: secondary pupils 1,624; vocational pupils 15S; teachers, all grades, 938. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: South .\frican pound (£[S..\.]i ft sterling U.S. $2.80).
S+a+es.— in
1959. the bureau of the budget
Sept.
June
(Ay. Sv.)
Education. (1958): Basutoland (.African, European and Eurafrican): primary 997. pupils 119,478, teachers 2,338: secondary 20 (incl. i postsecondary Catholic college), pupils 1,435, teachers 103; technical and
'-'"i^^'^
$78,900,000,000,
in
approximately
$1,800,000,000
This decline was accounted for by: (a) the
i960 of certain special expenditures
made
in
1959, such as the additional United States subscription to the
and the retroactive government employees; and (b') the
capital of the International Monetan.- fund
pay increase
for federal
:
—
=
=
Budget 11957-58! Basutoland
.... ....
Bechuanaland Swoiilond
.
.
.
'Including colonial
Revenue
Expenditure
£1,506,785* £1,886,972* £1,684,507*
£1,601,899 (1957) £2,086,1 92*(1 958) £ 1,636,452*(1957)
development and welfare grants.
Foreign Trode Imports Exports
£3,012,954 £3,503,657 £3,208,859
£2,173,331 £2,585,400 £4,115,903
termination of several large temporan,- programs, including both antirecession measures and the acreage reser\'e portion of the soil
bank.
The budget review thus envisaged
a
balanced budget for i960,
with revenues exceeding expenditures by about $100,000,000.
It
also reported a deficit of $12,541,000,000 for 1959. This deficit,
due largely to influences associated with the general recession in business activity, was the largest in the nation's peacetime history.
—
BUDGET, NATIONAL
124
The public debt at the close of the fiscal year i960 was expected to amount to $284,700,000,000. This was about the same as the actual debt total as of
June
i960 was
$1,900,000,000 higher than the original estimate which had been in the January budget document. The change reflected
presented
economic recovery and expansion than had been anticipated. At the same time, the estimate of i960 budget expenditures was also raised by $1,900,000,000. This upward rea
more rapid
fense.
Of the $45,713,000,000
30, 1959.
revised estimate of budget receipts for fiscal
The
quent continuing emphasis on a strong and effective national de-
rale of
was attributed to several influences, including among them higher interest costs on the public debt; a larger postal deficit than had been allowed for, because congress had not implemented
vision
estimated for
total of national security expenditures
year i960, $40,945,000,000, or 90%, was
fiscal
allocated for military functions of the department of defense.
These functions include maintenance and training of members of the armed forces; the procurement, operation and repair of missiles, planes, ships and radar; construction and facilities; training of reserve forces; and research and development for new weapons. Estimated changes in most major categories of department of defense spending for i960 were relatively small, with the total down $272,000,000
equipment such as of military bases
the president's recommendation for a postal rate increase; and congressional enactment of increases in spending for health and
from
welfare programs, housing loans to veterans and certain other
assigned $1,800,000,000 in the i960 budget, or $535,000,000 less
fiscal
year 1959.
Military assistance under the Mutual Security program was
The change was due
items.
than
Of the $79,000,000,000 which the government expected to collect in the fiscal year i960, approximately four-fifths was accounted for by income taxes on individuals and corporations. Collections of individual income taxes (net of refunds) were
deliveries of military
estimated at $41,000,000,000, while taxes on corporations' income were anticipated to yield $22,500,000,000. Excise taxes on
in history,
the manufacture or sale of goods
and services
—were
—
also
on a net
placed at $9,100,000,000; and various other taxes and miscellaneous sources of revenue were expected to bring in basis
an additional $6,400,000,000 during the
A summary is
year 1960.
of the principal categories of budget expenditures
given in Table
I.
Major National
—Expenditures the four major — the military functions of the departfor
Security.
national security programs
ment
fiscal
of defense, military assistance under the
Mutual Security
program, atomic energy, and stockpiling and defense production expansion were estimated at $45,713,000,000 for fiscal year
—
i960, or about $700,000,000 less than the actual in
1959. Outlays for these programs,
absorb
58%
amount spent
which were scheduled to had risen from
of total budget expenditures in i960,
$13,000,000,000, or
32%
of the total budget, in fiscal year 1950,
the last full year before the outbreak of aggression in Korea,
68%
in
1959.
principally to a decline in
equipment resulting from decreasing ap-
propriations in recent prior years.
Atomic Energy commission outlays $2,705,000,000
in the
for i960 were recorded at
budget report. This would be the highest
and $159,000,000 above 1959. Expenditures under the fourth major national security pro-
gram were estimated
show
to
decrease of $50,000,000
a
$263,000,000), reflecting mainly the fulfillment of
many
(to
stock-
and reduced deliveries under contracts. Budget expenditures for international programs of the government in fiscal year i960 were estimated at $2,050,000,000, down $1,700,000,000 from 1959. The drop reflected mostly the inclusion in the 1959 total
pile objectives
International Affairs and Finance.
—
of $1,375,000,000 for the additional United States subscription to the International
Monetary fund; was a decrease
item. In addition, there
net receipts of $6,000,000) result of:
this
was a nonrecurring
of about $400,000,000 (to
Export-Import bank, as a from collections on outstanding
for the
(a) higher receipts
loans and from sales to private investors of loans in the bank's portfolio; and (b) a lower estimate of disbursements for emer-
gency loans.
Commerce and Housing.
—Net expenditures
for
commerce and
of the budget, in 1953.
housing programs in i960 were placed in the i960 budget at
National security outlays declined to a level of about $40,600,-
$2,925,000,000, or approximately $500,000,000 less than in the
years 1955 and 1956, and then rose to $46,400,-
previous year. The major change was a decrease of $805,000,000
000.000 by 1959. The expansion in major national security programs from 1950
Housing and Home Finance agency, chiefly because of reduced purchases of mortgages on low-cost housing by the Federal National Mortgage association under an antirecession pro-
to a
peak of $50,400,000,000, or
000.000
to
in fiscal
i960 accounted for more than four-fifths of the increase of
for the
about $39,000,000,000 in total budget expenditures over the period. This comparison further points up the tremendous influence
gram.
on U.S. government budgets of the Korean
conflict
cline in the expenditures of the post office
"OUR OWN COLD WAR,"
Tbe Minneapolis S
and subse-
Other noteworthy developments included an expected de-
department and
in-
creases for the programs of the National Aeronautics and Space a
1959 cartoon by
Justus of
Table
Summary
I.
of Budget Receipts and Expenditures, United States
Fiscal
Years
958,
1
lin
Budget
I
959 and
1
960
$000,000)
1958 octuol
Description
1959 aclual
1960 oslimolo
$36,716
receipts:
Corporation income taxes Excise taxes All other receipts
Total
Budget expenditures: Moiornational security Internotional afFoirs and finance Veterans' services and benefits labour and welfore Agriculture ond ogriculturol resources .
.
.
.
.
.
General government Allowance for contingencies Total
Budget surplus Budget deficit Detail
moY
not
add
17,309 8,506 5,628
$41,000 22,500 9,100 6,400
69,117
68,158
79,000
2,109 1,356 7,689
46,411 3,750 5,175 4,422 6,562 1,670 3,423 1,600 7,686
$71,936
$80,699
$2,8lT
—
44,142 2,234 5,026 3,447 4,389 1,543
Noturol resources Commerce and housing Interest
8,612 5,708
$34,724 20,074
Individuol income taxes
....
—
—
to totals
shown because of rounding.
—
$12,541
45,713 2,051
5,133 4,407 6,052 1,792 2,925 1,678 9,079
75 $78,905
—$95
—
BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY Table
II.
Government Receipts and Expenditures (in
Receipts,
1958-59 Income tax
2,322
Surtox
Death duties Stamps Profits
tax and excess
proflti
Other inlond revenue duties Total inland revenue Customs Excise
Total customs
and exci
Motor vehicle duties . . . Total receipts from taxes Broadcost receiving licences
£000,000)
§
— Great Britain
BUILDING
AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
Above:
FUNNEL-SHAPED WATER TOWER
suburb of Helsinki, Finland, with a diameter at the top
Left:
HENRY
Time-Life
R.
LUCE,
office building, building cost $70,000,000
In
of
being built
1959. The tower
137
is
114
ft.
In
«
high,
ft.
edltor-ln-ohlef,
New York
city,
dedicating the new June 23, 1959. The
—
1
BUILDING AND CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
127
important contributing factor to the high level of activity was the big volume of residential building, the largest item being new
the wholesale prices of building materials, revealed a definite up-
dwelling units which had a value of $12,735,000,000, representing
the index stood at 135.8
over the value in the same period of 1958.
34%
an increase of
significant item in residential construction
ward movement during the
A
the figure it had reached in June of the preceding year. This was an all-time high, exceeding the previous record set in Aug. 1956. In July and August, however, the index declined slightly. Despite
was the $3,363,000,-
000 outlay for additions and alterations. Nonresidential building activity was down slightly from the 1958 level. For the period
new high
the
fleet the
mercial buildings was up
over-all index
into the third quarter of 1959.
other types of nonresidential
building activity, the construction picture was mixed: expendi-
wood
and recreational buildings were higher than in 1958, while those for educational, hospital and institutional buildings were lower. Public construction expenditures in 1959 showed substantial
low.
tures for religious, social
The
gains over 1958. first
13%. Again,
during the
as in 1958, this
set
down 13%,
ment of commerce, are equal
new
to
from one-third
,
,
Value of
fiiriirp timatps tor frvr I95» Tnr« set spt tne thp figure tmiateS
and
at $18,500,000,000 ^
ap'^
it
-^
peared likely that the annual ,
,
.
during
rate
^
,,
the
r
Construction Costs— ^ ,. „ , During 1957-58 the L.S. de, . partment of commerce comconstruction
had remained at approximately the same level, but in ^ , ,, the first six months of 1959 ;, „ It movedJ from 139 ^to 142 (1947-49= ioo).The percentage change in the index from June 1958 to June 1959 was costs
.
,
,
r,,
3%Ti, Ine
„ matenals J
•
,
.
.
.
,
,
,
Commercial Office bidas
component,
of 01 rnnstnirtinn construction rrvst meaScost, ac as mpas
ured by the U.S. department i\i UK,^, ...',. «..«, «11 i^Ar^^ «f Of labours over-aU mdex of
ond worehouses
St^etrelta^rantand ga"',"., Other nonresidential buildings
.
,
Religious
Educational Hospital and institutionol Social ond recreational Miscellaneous
,
/
index of
.
Nonhousekeeping
i.
annrnrimafplv tms fhis IpvpI approximate!) le\el.
posite
.
.
Nonresidential buildings
quarters of 1959 would be at
,
.
.
Form
... ,
.
,
construction
^^'X'^'''" T^eiephon„nd
mark for the first time since 1957. Starting in Aug. employment in the industry declined each month until Feb. 1959, when it stood at 2,256,000; however, beginning in March it moved up successively each month through July, when 1958,
it stood at 3,032,000, This represented a gain of 150,000 over July 1958, an increase of about 5%, The detailed employment figures for June 1959 revealed highly uniform increases by t>TDe
of construction over the preceding 12-month period.
lin
.
in
,-
•
,
1
Confinentol
$000,0001 •
,,53
•. j n Umfed
Sept.
Aug.
July
Sept.
$5,291 3,642 2,135 i;614
$5,243 3,633
$4,745 3,157
2,151 1,625
1,746 1,327
440 70 773
450
458
71 81
soi
166 352
-
251 80
-
25 174
175 369 178 i,? 267 89 46 50 55 27 189
366 53 736 167 318 170 148
'\\
2,100 i;590
171 Y»\
255 84 44 48 52
68
167 379 172
207 255 85
e. • Stales,
Per cent change Sept. 1959 from ^^^ 5^p, 1959 1958
$5,097 3,533
20
-4 3 -2
-
-1
-
-
2 1
5
5 5 4 5 4
+7 -1-12 -1-20
J-20
+20 +32
+
5
+11
+^ +.
770
139 11,104 586
+31
-11
3,430
3,471
-10
-19
263
302
-13
'f^.
'itl
Til
«6
V\
"2°7
~
^84
^75
-.
19 1,649
19 1,610
is 1,588
+5 -
+11
142
2
12403
77 407 30
79 427
-10
-22
-
32
5
+11
+7 +1,
-
53 130 673 135
M
-l +1 - 5 -3
+'?
627 130
7
52-4 -5 4
-
5
J92
"I
-
6
-
7
+31 165-2
-1-2
+\3
-
1
+18 +20 4-5
1,121
954
+5 +6 +4 +25 +3
4,642 1,091
3,862 1,038
675 4i6 422 854
620 4i8 340 748
+
+18
173
105
+65
-12
80-2+8 -
so
101 17
9
- 3 +26
^686
'Z
^84
+21
8
?s 135 695 142
!
1
+
''2"
*\\
138 84 88 86 5i 54 52 water 65 68 63 Public service enterprises 104 109 105 Con.ervotlon and development 21 20 20 aii other public •Ertlmotes of the U.S, Deportment of Commerce, Bureau of the Census. tchano. o« i.n than 0.5%.
-1-30
+34 +18 +22 -23
''1'°
157
155
+\t
1,226
687 393 422
185
tl 136
657
-t-15
391 161 1,363
e
+'3
!
2,054
1958-59
+10
+
-19
1^8
:
12,792 9,486 2,847
+22
+2
51-4-6 43-5 23-7+9 4
^6
^thtri^rd^nlrBrifding.
$35,678 24,574
623 416 456 299
3
54
^8
Highways Sewer and water system. Sewer
3,363
44 49 54 23
To
Military fadlltl..
$40,995 28,492 16,660 12,735
459
'l^
'
JOOO.OOOI 9 momhs 1958 1959
6,452 1,877 2,526 1,506 1,120 1,959
382 26
^;T:L..,..,>o../-
Percent change ist9n.o.,
Voluo
562
Nonresidential bidgs '
(in
r.rst
2,871 1,456 i:415
69 410 29
62
loco* 959
6,377 1,452
1
+n +1
1,564
'
excep-
7
+5 -
Public construction Residential buildings industrial
An
was the sizable increase of almost 21 'yc that took place in painting and decorating trades. In June 1959, building contractors employed 2,298,000 workers, in comparison with the tion to this
J3
.^^^^^^^^^^^
ah other private
1956. In each successive
3,000,000
„j, Type ot conslniction
and lacquer, up 24.3% over the same month The April output of iron and steel prod-
paint, varnish
.„.-„, .. „ New Consfruciion Put in Place
Industrial
,
three ij u
first
by
Volue
Total new coralruclion Private coostructioo Residenliol bidgs. (nonform) New dwelling .nits Addition, and alteration.
in April set
—
1957 the cost of maintenance and rpnair totaiea tntalpH 5117,730,^n7in ana repair
000,000 or about 38% of new », ,«r,ot«,^t,V,„ T>,ol™; , construction. Prelmamary es-
The output
proximately 200 (1947-49 = 100). Employment and Earnings. A slight seasonal increase in July brought emplojTnent in all contract construction up over the
to one-half of the
„
year.
ucts equaled the record set in Feb.
for maintenance
construction. In
months of the
month, from March through June, portland cement shipments set new records. In June the portland cement index stood at ap-
and repair of existing facilities is difficult to determine because there is no regular reporting of these outlays. Expenditures, however, according to estimates prepared by the U.S. departvalue of
first six
of the preceding year.
and for educational buildings, down 6%. In addition to value, another important measure of residential construction was the number of housing units placed under construction. A total of 843,700 new private and public dwelling units had been put under construction by the end of July 1959 ahnost equal to the record total of 850,100 set during the comparable period of 1950, and an advance of 30^ over the first seven months of 1958. The seasonally adjusted annual rate for private housing starts for the first seven months of 1959 was 1,385,000, compared with a rate of 1,015,000 for the same pe-
made each year
other contributing factors were increased prices of
an all-time high after allowance for seasonal variation. The composite index of the department of commerce at 146.0 (194749 = 100) was 23.6% over April 1958. A new output record was
highway construction figure of $4,642,000,000 was 20% above the former record expenditure in the first nine months of 1958. Notable contrasts to these increases in public construction were
of expenditures
Among
The output of construction materials in 1959 ran considerably ahead of 1958, and many new records for output were broken
spending for highways and by the public housing program. The
nod in 1958. The amount
significant factor pushing the
in
asphalt roofing.
category of construction was stimulated greatly by increased
the decreases in expenditures for industrial buildings,
A
1959 was the price recovery in lumber and products, especially douglas fir, from the 1958 depression
up
building wire, nonmetallic sheathed cable, plumbing fixtures and
dollar outlay of $12,503,000,000 during the
nine months was an increase of
continued to re-
levels, over-all materials prices
general price stability that had prevailed from 1956
extending through Sept. 1959 the expenditure for the construedon of industrial buildings was down 23%, while that for com-
9%. For
first six months of 1959. In June 1959 (1947-49= 100), and was 5% above
9 t
-1-24 -1-14
BULGARIA
128 681,000 employed by nonbuilding contractors.
Among
the latter
group, contractors engaged in highway and street construction
employed 335,800. Average weekly earnings of construction workers continued upward to new record levels at mid-year 1959. The increases in the average hourly earnings, as well as the seasonal increase in
new
the hours of work, were contributing factors to the
The
highway and
street
May
earnings between their
high.
weekly earnings was achieved by the construction workers. Their gain in average
largest gain in average
June
year earlier.
and June 1959, was $7.00. This brought 10% above that of a
approximately $114
level to
Among
—
the workers in contract construction, those
work enjoyed the highest average weekly amounted to $142.78. The next highest earnings ($129.16) were received by those employed by plumbing and heating contractors. As in former years, employed
in electrical
earnings. In June their weekly earnings
workers
the construction industry were
in
employees
among
the best paid
United States. During the second quarter of
in the
moved up The highest
two out of every three conwas 11.9 cents for carpenters, and the lowest increase was 4.2 cents for painters. In June the average hourly earnings of workers in all types of construction amounted to $3.07. The highest earnings, $3.68, were received by those employed in electrical work while the lowest, 1959 the pay scale
struction workers.
$2.63, were received
for
increase
by those engaged
in
highway and
street con-
census): Sofia (cap.) 725,756; Plovdiv 162,518; Varna 119,769; Ruse 83,472; Burgas 72,795; Dimitrovo 59,721; Pleven 57,758;
Communist Todor Zhivkov; chairman of the presidium of the national assembly, Dimiter Ganev; chairman of the council of ministers, Anton Yugov. Hisfory. The year 1959 was chiefly remarkable for the considerable raising of the country's economic aims and the major reorganization of the administration designed to attain the new objectives. The Bulgarian Communist leaders planned a "big leap forward" on the Chinese Communist model, accompanied by many reforms based on the Soviet pattern. The new plan, proposed on Jan. 20 by Todor Zhivkov, first secretary of the Communist party, and approved by the national assembly in March, included the following aims: The output of steel, which was 211,000 metric tons in 1958, was to be raised to 400,000 tons by 1962 and 900,000 tons by 1965. The output of electric power was to be more than doubled by 1962, when it would be nearly Stara Zagora 55,322. First secretary of the Bulgarian
party
in
U.S. department of labour's index of aggregate weekly
1959,
—
7,000,000,000 kw.hr.
was
to
double
its
Compared with
1957, industry as a whole
output by 1962 and more than treble
it
by 1965. was to
Similarly ambitious goals were set for agriculture, which treble
struction.
The
88%; Turkish 9.8%. Religion (1947 est.): Orthodox 84%; M^ lem 11.5% (of which one-sixth Pomaks, or Moslem Bulgars, imainder Turks); Roman Catholic 0.9%; Gregorian Armenian 0.4%; Jewish 0.3%; Protestant 0.2%. Chief towns (pop., 1956
its
The
total
output by 1965.
existing territorial administrative division of the coun-
levels of
was abolished. In its place 30 administrative economic diswere set up, each responsible for "the whole political, state, economic and cultural life" in its area. This devolution of
1958 for each month through July. In June the average number of hours worked by construction workers was 38. o.
ministries of an economic nature. In April elections were held
man-hours worked by workers 138.4 (1947-49
=
100)
in
in
contract construction stood at
July 1959. Except for Januar>', the
monthly index was above the corresponding monthly
—
Consfruc+ion Legislafion. In 1958 the Emergency Housing was approved in early April to stimulate the homebuilding industry and the general economy of the nation. The legislation
act
try
tricts
authority w-as accompanied by the dissolution of seven national
to appoint officials of the in a 99.82
(1958
est.)
7,722,000.
Language (1947
est.):
Bulgarian
the system of compulsory deliveries
on the free market.
number
below those paid for farm produce
still
By
from farmers replaced by
a process of
amalgamation the
total
of collective farms was reduced from 3.450 to 625, and
it
was planned that they should take over local commercial and manufacturing enterprises associated with agriculture. A fundamental reform of the educational system had as its declared object "the closer linking of education and the training of
youth for productive labour." The plan envisaged school children spending as much as a third of their time in active production.
Diplomatic relations between Bulgaria and the United States
were resumed on March 1950,
27.
when Donald R. Heath,
said to be implicated in the
They were broken
on Feb.
21,
the then U.S. minister in Sofia,
was
show
trial
public withdrawal of these charges
—
off
of Traicho Rostov.
was made.
No
(D. Fd.)
Education. Schools (1956-57): nurserj' 6.376. teachers 10,199: pri6.444. pupils 965.766. teachers 39,563: secondary 359. pupils 163,363, teachers 7,450; vocational 278. pupils 79,369, teachers 4,722; teachers' training colleges 22, students 8.989. teachers 544: institutions of higher education (including the Sofia university) 20, students 36,705, teaching staff 3,026. Finance. Monetary unit: lev (pi. leva) with an official exchange rate, high and fictitious, of 6.80 leva to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1959 est.): revenue 27,068.523,000 leva: expenditure 26,914.523,000 leva (incl. 17.468,100.000 leva allotted for capital investments). Foreign Trade. (1956; 1938 in parentheses). Imports U.S. $248,000,000 ($60,000,000); exports U.S. $339,000,000 ($68,000,000). Chief sources of imports (1956): U.S.S.R.. Czechoslovakia, German Democratic Republic. Chief destination of exports: U.S.S.R.. German Democratic Republic; Czechoslovakia. Transport and Communications. Highways (1956): 25.4IO km., incl. 1. 9 78 km. first-class motor roads. Licensed motor vehicles (Dec. 1957 est.): cars 7,000: trucks 25,000; buses 1,800. Railways (1957): 5,536 km., incl. 443 km. of narrow-gauge track; passenger traffic 2,707,000,000 passengerkm.; freight traffic 4,928,000,000 ton-km. Freight traffic in the seaports
mary
—
—
—
BURMA — BUSINESS REVIEW of Burgas and Varna (1956): 1,473,000 tons. Freight traffic in the Danube ports (1956) 2,022,000 tons. Air transport (1956^: 2,331,000 km. flown; passenger-km. 27,821,000; freight 450,000 ton-km. Telephones (1956): 120,287. Radio receiving sets (1956): 399,176; community loudspeakers
354,725.
—
Agriculture Main crops (metric tons, 1958; 1934-39 in parentheses): wheat 2,352,000 (1,860,770); maize 910,000 (921,587); barley 416,000 (361.473); rye 117,000 1281.707); oats (1957) 199.000 (146,027); sun flower 192,742 (148,789); cotton, unginned (195?) 39,579 (22,124) sugar beet 1,415,000 (137,303); tomatoes (1957) 372, i75 (41,689) potatoes (1957) 212.250 (108,256); paprika (195?) 150.996 (69,825) tobacco (1957) 50,828 (33,128). Livestock (1957; 1939 in parentheses) sheep 7,596,000 (10,262,000); cattle 1,529,000 (1,532,000); pigs 1,468, 000 (807,000); horses 460,000 (593,000): chickens 14,117,000. Wine production (1957; 1939 in parentheses): 118,976.000 (5,880,000) litres. Industry. Industrial production index: 1957 = 772 (1939 = 100). Employed outside agriculture (1957) 1,329.000. Production (metric tons if not otherwise stated, 1958; 1939 in parentheses): coal (including brown coal and lignite) 12,700,000 (2,214,400); crude petroleum (1957) 2S5,000; electricity 3,024,000,000 (266,100,000) kw.hr.; iron ore (46% metal content) 293,000 (20,000); manganese ore (1957) 81,000 (2,200); copper ore (1957) 562.000 (3,500); lead and zinc ore (1957) 1,953,000 (24.000); pig iron (1957) 55.739; steel 210,600 (5,540); copper (1957) S,o6i; lead (1957) 19,030; zinc (i9S7) 7,513; cement 934,000 (225,300); sulfuric acid 64,000; nitrogenous fertilizers (1957) 122,561: cotton fabrics (1957) 152,400.000 (34,100,000) metres; woolen fabrics (1957) 13,300,000 (5,300,000); sugar 129,000 (25,100) tons.
—
number
of foreign firms and advisers who were considered to have been responsible for ill-founded and extravagant ventures.
A number
of new economic imdertakings were launched, particby the Defense Services institute, an army organization
ularly
designed to by-pass corrupt or politician-ridden departments. These included shallow-water sea fishing, a shipping service to the far east, and the taking over of banking operations from A.
Scott
&
Co. Ltd. Further foreign aid was promised, including
$37,000,000 in the next four years, from the U.S. government for the construction of a modern highway between Rangoon and
Mandalay and
''^^
independent federal republic on the eastern side
DUIIIId. of the Bay of Bengal, Burma lies between Pakistan and India on the northwest, China on the north and China, Laos
and Thailand on the east. The republic comprises Burma proper, the Karen, Shan, Kachin and Kayah states, and the Chin special division.
Area; 261,789 sq.mi. Pop.: (1941 census) 16,823,798;
(1959 est.) 20,457,000. Racially, the peoples of Burma are Mongoloid. Religion: Buddhist (84%), Animists (5%), Moslem (4%), Hindu (3.9%), Christian (2.3%). Language: Burmese
(66%). Largest indigenous minorities: Karens, Shans, Kachins, Chins. Largest immigrant minorities (1955 est.)
:
Indian 600,000,
Moslems and Hindus; Chinese 350,000. Chief towns (pop., 1953 census): Rangoon (cap.) 737,079; Mandalay 185,867; Moulmein 102,777. President of the Union of Burma: U Win Maung; prime minister in 1959, General Ne divided equally between
Win. History.
—General
Ne Win
took
office as
prime minister on
avowed intention to hold an early general election. During Jan. 1959 a number of organizations voiced the desire that his government continue in power, because the country was still too disturbed for the holding of elections. This Oct. 29, 1958. It was his
would require suspension of the constitutional requirement that a member of the government who for any period of six months was not a member of parliament must resign. On Feb. 13 Ne Win resigned on the grounds that conditions were impossible for free
and if
fair elections,
and said he would accept
office
again only
the constitution were amended.
the the
Under threat of reversion to deadlock from which his assumption of power had delivered countr\', parliament amended the constitution as required
and unanimously re-elected Ne Win as prime minister. Preparations began for the holding of elections in April 1960.
The process
of appointing military officers to the charge of
departments and of eliminating political bosses continued, and further steps were taken to combat corruption and inefficiency.
Committees were appointed
to investigate alleged corruption and
of
modern dormitories and classrooms
for the
intermediate colleges of the University of Rangoon, and $515,000 from the Ford foundation for various purposes. Price control, relaxation of import licensing and vigorous action against profiteers
and hoarders brought down the cost of
March was 12% lower than Education.
Diirm4
129
government. The Cattle Slaughter act was repealed to allow revival of the export of hides and skins. Notice was served upon a
a year before.
living,
which by
(F. S. V. D.)
—
Schools (state only, 1958): primary 10,751, pupils 1,374,056, teachers (1957) 32,983: secondary and middle 693, pupils 228,023, teachers (1957) 6,374. Pupils in private schools (1954) 82,200; vocational schools and institutes 9, pupils 1,763 (vocational classes also held in 129 secondary schools). Teacher-training institutes 6, students 2,418. University of Rangoon, students (1957-58) 10,790, University of Mandalay, students (1957-58) 1,922. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: kyat with an exchange rate (1959) of 4.762 to the U.S. dollar. Budget: (1958-59 est.) revenue 1,024,800,000 kyats; e.xpenditure 1,317,200,000 kyats. Currency circulation: (Feb. 1958) 878,000,000 kyats, (Feb. 1959) 1,045,000,000 kyats. Deposit money: (Feb. 1958) 375,000,000 kyats, (Feb. 1959) 465,000,000 kyats. Gold and foreign exchange holdings: (Feb. 1958) U.S. $86,700,000, (Feb. 1959) U.S. $121,200,000. Foreign Trade. (1958): Imports 969,100,000 kyats, exports 907,900,000 kyats. Main sources of imports (1958): Japan 24%; U.K. 18%; India 10%: other sterling area 11%; continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 14%; U.S. and Canada 4%. Main destinations of exports (1958): India 22%; Ceylon 12%; U.K. 7%; other sterling area 24%; Indonesia 13%; Japan 5%. Chief exports (1958): rice 727o; teak; cotton. Transport and Communications. Roads (1955): 41,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): passenger 17,500; commercial 17,600. Railways (1958) 2,969 km.; passenger-km. (Sept. 1956-57) 936,000,000; freight, ton-km. (Sept. 1957-58) 614,400,000. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 8,000. Radio sets (1952) 15,000. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): rice 6,397,000 (5,883,000); rubber (exports) 12,400 (12,800); sesame (1957) 35.000 (55.600 in 1956); peanuts 256,000 (235,000): cottonseed 28,000 (24,000); cotton, lint 14,000 (12,000); tobacco (1957) 48,600 (48,900 in 1956); sugar, raw value (1957-58) 32.000 (32,000 in 1956-57); chick peas (1956) 30,000. Livestock (excl. Putao, Chin Hills, Shan states and Karenni, March 1957): cattle 4,837.000; sheep 37,000: buffaloes 876,000; pigs 544.000; goats 2 5 7.ooc#Timber (round logs, 1957-58): 837,950 cubic tons (incl. 264,488 cubic tons of teak). Industry. Electricity consumption (1957) 170,000,000 kw.hr. Production (metric tons): tin concentrates (metal content, 1957) 840; crude oil (1958) 452,400; cement (1958) 35.880; other minerals (metal content. 1957), lead 27,400, zinc 16,600, tungsten 385, silver 47.5. Encvclop.«dia Britannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: South-East Asia and Its Peace Jul Penetration by the Chinese (fourth lecture in the series, "A Changing World in the Light of History") (1958); Burma, People
—
—
—
—
—
—
of the
River (1957).
Buses:
see
Urban Transportation,
RlKinPCQ RpUiPU/ UUdlllCdd nCVICW. cession since the end of
U.S.
^'^^^ '958 was
a year of
major eco-
noniic contrasts, with the sharpest re-
World War
II
and one of the most rapid
business recoveries on record, 1959 was a year of general U.S. expansion, marred only by a slow-down in the third quarter. The
maladministration, pressure was applied to recover advances
last
overdue to be repaid to the state agricultural marketing board and hours of work in government offices were extended and en-
prerecession levels of 1957, and the first two quarters of 1959 carried the economy to rates of output and spending well above
forced. A drive was instituted to clean up Rangoon, 2,000 government employees being turned out on Sunday mornings to help sweep pavements and streets. The paddy crop was 1,300,000 tons greater than in 1958. Nego-
any previous peaks. Largely because of the nation's longest strike, the second half of 1959 saw little change in the of economic activity.
tiations
the peak level in the second quarter of
government of buy more cheaply from Communist China. But
for export to India failed because the
India planned to
Chinese intervention in Tibet so inflamed Indian opinion that the government of India abandoned its plans and placed its orders in
Burma
at the price originally
demanded by
the
Burmese
two quarters of 1958 brought business activity back
From
to the
steel
level
the recession levels in the second quarter of 1958 to
1959, gross national
product rose $50,000,000,000. The change in inventory investment accounted for one-third of this change. Just as the 195758 decline was mainly an inventory liquidation recession, the
1958-59 recovery was largely an inventory-building expansion.
BUSINESS REVIEW
130 iNOusniiAi (
ijoionolly
nooucnoN
QdHUd IikI.i
1
947- 49- 1 00)
MOO
I
1,300
^l§i^l^illiiil *
1938
1958
1939
*
1959
< 1939
t«5fl
ASPECTS OF
f: Personal U.S. BUSINESS. Aug. 1958-Sep(. 1959. Note: P Income (or Aug. 19S8 Inoludei lun retroactive lalary pay nti to federal em-
ployeei: dliburiementt (at leaionally adjusted rate) amounted to $0.2 billion. (Sources: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System: Office of Business Economics, U.S. Department of Commerce; Oun and Bradstreet. Inc.; Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor)
Next
to inventory accumulation, the
most vigorous 1959 stimby easy credit
ulant was the residential housing industry. Spurred
and favourable Federal Housing administration loan residential construction rose sharply in
policies,
1959 in spite of rising interest rates. The seasonally adjusted annual rate of new nonfarm housing starts was above 1,300,000 in every month, and 1959 equaled the record housing year of 1950. Consequently new housing expenditures, which
counted for
12%
to
13%
4%
of gross national product, ac-
of the expansion in the four quarters
ending with the second quarter of 1959.
As
most periods of business recovery, consumer spending more slowly than investment spending. However, as recovery continued in late 1958 and in 1959, fears and uncertainties subsided and consumers reduced their savings rate to finance a rate of increase in consumer spending greater than the rate of rise in disposable income, This was especially true in the third quarter of 1959, during which disposable income declined but consumer spending continued to rise. The many in
steel strike
In spite of the
obviously continued to consume
vigorous economy. With a major industry shut business and consumers, with the
6%
export surplus running at an annual rate of $1,200,000,-
000 in the second quarter of 1958, the United States shifted to an import surplus at an annual rate of $1,800,000,000 in the second quarter of 1959. This constituted a net drag of $3,000,000,000 against the 1958-59 recovery. What made this disturbing were the many signs that the change was not temporary or accidental but a more or less permanent change of affairs growing out of European resurgence and United States inflation.
Each employed worker (and
his helping
machinery) produced
about $6,500 of gross national product. Thus the $3,000,000,000 net reversal in international trade balance accounted for about 500,000 of United States unemployed; i.e., one out of six or seven of the unemployed during 1959 was explainable in terms of international trade developments.
Behind all the economic indicators for 1959 and underlying any explanation of the course of business events lies the historymaking steel strike. Never had a major U.S. industry been
down
by a labour dispute. Almost perfect anticipation of the strike prompted most of the inventory accumulation which dominated the expansion in the first half of
totally shut
1959.
and
The
its
for so long
strike itself, along with its effects
forcing of inventory liquidation
by
on related industries steel users, explained
and with
unemployment
rate averaging
a significant reversal in international trade,
capita gross national product (corrected for price change) to
the highest levels in history.
National Product.
—Gross
at a seasonally adjusted
third quarter of 1958,
quarter of 1958.
first
national product or expenditure,
annual rate of ,$444,000,0x56,000 in the
was
4%
From
above the recession low of the it climbed sharply and con-
there
sistently to an all-time high annual rate of $484,500,000,000 in
the second quarter of 1959.
rate
From an
for a whole
the nation nevertheless raised gross national product and per
strike, the
was the turn of events in internaFor the first time since 1953, which was influenced by the Korean war, and for only the second time since World War II, the United States had an international trade deficit.
down
calendar quarter, with strong anti-inflation policies restraining
Although of relatively minor importance when compared with gross national product, one of the most interesting, and perhaps tional trade.
crosscurrents that confused the interpre-
and economic trends, one fact stood out. Although institutions and policies somehow failed to permit the United States to make its best effort, still it was a strong and
while rapidly liquidating their savings.
disturbing, aspects of 1959
many
tation of 1959 business
near
rose, but
workers idled by the
out the strike.
1958 and continued to
rise in
normally accounted for about
Had 1959 not been a year labour-management contract in the steel industry, the expansion in the first half of 1959 would have been much slower, and the last half would not have been one of stagnation. The end of the year totals, however, probably would have been about the same in either case, perhaps a little higher withthe stagnation in the last half of 1959.
for the negotiation of a
Under
the influence of the steel
annual rate dropped to $481,000,000,000 in the third
quarter of 1959, but was still 8.3% above a year earlier. The of increase in gross national product was near record
throughout the latter half of 1958 and the first half of 1959. Although increased consumer spending contributed more than half of the rise in gross national product, private domestic in-
vestment was by far the most rapidly expanding sector of the economy, the annual rate of. investment spending increasing 12.7% from the third quarter of 1958 to the corresponding quarter in 1959. The expansion in investment was broad based and balanced, investment in inventories, new construction and producers' durable equipment each accounting for about onethird of the increase.
As
in
most recent years,
and
state
local
government purchases
by increasing 10% new high annual rate of $45,000,000,000 in the third quarof 1959. The federal government, however, stopped the rapid
contributed to the rise in total expenditures to a ter
rise in its
expenditures w-hich had prevailed in 1958. At an an-
nual rate of $54,000,000,000 federal purchases of goods
in
the
third
quarter of
19S9,
and services were only 1.7% above
a year earlier.
The only drag on an expanding gross national product in 1959 was net foreign investment. After reaching a postwar high in the
fourth quarter of
continually throughout
1957, net
foreign investment declined
1958 and the
first
half
of
the second quarter of 1959 net foreign investment to a substantial disinvestment at
1959.
By
had shifted
the annual rate of $1,800,-
War II, had begun to consistently purchase from abroad more than they sold 000,000. Americans, for the
first
time since World
BUSINESS REVIEW National Income.
—National income,
the aggregate earnings
of persons and firms, ended its recession decline in
the first
quarter of 1958 and rose steadily thereafter throughout 1958 and the first half of 1959. At an annual rate of $403,900,000,000 in the second quarter of 1959, national tial
income was a very substan-
$45,000,000,000 or 12.5% above a year earlier.
The income flowing to employees as reported by the department of commerce rose throughout the first three quarters of 1959, even rising during the steel strike. At an annual rate of $279,300,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959, employee earnings were at an all-time high and 8% above the same quarter
income before taxes was well sustained in the 1958 recession by transfer payments, especially unemployment benefits, social security benefits and various cash payments to farmers. Consequently, unlike other economic indicators, personal income was not recovering from recession lows during 1959. Secondly, as earned income replaced transfer payments in 1959, personal taxes rose more sharply than income, thus retarding the growth disposable income. Nevertheless, total personal income, at
in
an annual rate of $381,000,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959, was 5% above a year earlier, and in spite of the steel strike was only $100,000,000 below the all-time high established in the
second quarter of 1959.
of 1958.
Corporate
slowly at
first
1957 and the and then very
rapidly in the last quarter of 1958 and the
first
half of 1959.
first
131
slowly than output. This was so for two reasons. First, personal
abroad.
profits, after
declining throughout
quarter of 1958, began to
rise,
New
records in consumer spending were established in every
quarter of 1959. At an annual rate of $313,500,000,000 in the
The heavy investments of 1955, 1956 and 1957 began to pay off handsomely in the 1959 recovery. At a seasonally adjusted
third quarter of 1959, consumer expenditures were $19,100,000,000 above the third quarter of 1958. The most striking increases were in consumer durable goods, which suffered the brunt of
annual rate of $52,600,000,000 in the second quarter of 1959, corporate profits before taxes were up 56% from a year earlier.
rate of $43,800,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959,
The
profits data,
when compared with
relatively stable prices,
recession cutbacks in 1958. Spending for durables, at an annual
above
a
year
earlier.
was 18.1%
This rate of increase was almost triple the
the low increase in employee earnings and the nagging unemployment proved conclusively that the rate of man-hour productivity, which in recent years had shown little increase, was once
rate of increase in total
again rising rapidly.
quarter of 1959, ordy 3.6% above a year earlier. Spending for services continued its uninterrupted postwar climb. At a new
and the professions were by the 1958 recession and shared less than propor-
Proprietors' incomes in business httle affected
At an annual rate of $34,800,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959, they were only 7% above a year earlier. Rental income of persons remained virtually unchanged throughout 1958 and 1959. Although establishing a new high of $12,000,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959. it was only $100,000,000 above the same quarter of 1958. Net income from tionally in the 1959 expansion.
consumer spending and four times the Spending for nondurables
rate of increase in disposable income.
rose to a
new high annual
rate of $148,200,000,000 in the third
high of $121,500,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959, services were absorbing a record 39% of all consumer expenditures, and
spending on services was almost triple the spending for durable goods.
Partly because of the special circumstances confronting 500,-
000
to 1,000,000
workers affected by the
steel strike
and partly
because of heavy spending for goods and housing, personal sav-
The percentage
interest, reflecting the highest interest rates in a quarter of a
ings declined in
century, rose to a record high of $15,800,000,000 in the third
income saved dropped from 8.1% in the third quarter of 1958 to 6.5% in the same quarter of 1959. Personal savings, at an
quarter of 1959. Farm income, stimulated by federal price supports and conservation payments under
reached
its
the Acreage
in
annual
rate
of
$21,700,000,000
in
of disposable personal
third-quarter
$4,300,000,000 lower than a year earlier and $1,600,000,000
With these
lower than in the same quarter of 1957, even though disposable income was more than $24,000,000,000 higher than in 1957.
farm income
fell
persistently
every quarter. At a seasonally adjusted annual rate of $10,-
300,000,000 in the third quarter of 1959, farm income was at its lowest level in a decade and 27% below a year earlier. Farm-
who escaped the 1958 recession, also missed the 1959 boom. (See also Income and Product, U.S.) Personal Income, Spending and Savings. Both personal
ers,
—
income before taxes and disposable personal income, or personal income after personal taxes, rose in 1959, but they rose more
—
Industrial production, as measured Induslrial Production. by the Federal Reserve board index, had been stagnant at around
143%
of the
1947-49 average for three years when the 1957-58
recession began. This situation reflected the long-term relative decline in manufacturing as a part of the United States economy.
After a sharp recession decline to
U.S.
SALES AND INVENTORIES,
month: inventories month. (Source: Office of Business totals for each
126%
in April 1958, industrial
1958-Aug. 1959.
1959
1958
1959
1958
Sales
are
shown
ihown as book value at the end lomics, U.S. Department of
MANUFACTURERS'
1958
were
1959,
Reserve program,
highest level in six years during 1958.
stimuli sharply reduced in 1959,
soil
1959.
1959
of
as
each
Commerce) MILUONS OF DOLLARS
rm
LARGEST STOCKHOLDERS' MEETING,
a wide-angle view of part of the crowd 12.000 persons who attended the 1959 meelino of the American Telephone and Telegraph company In an armory, Bronx, N.Y. A three-for-one stock split was voted at the meeting, biggest of Its kind ever held In the U.S.
durables and large-scale stockpiling of steel, the industrial pro-
The all-items consumer price index in Aug. 1959 was 124.8% of the 1947-49 average, only i.i percentage points or less than 0.8% above a year earlier. As might be expected from the decline in farm income, it was a decline in food prices that gave the all-items index its stability. Every other major category of consumer prices rose, particularly medical care and transporta-
duction index reached
tion.
of
production climbed rapidly and reached the prerecession level of
143% by
Jan. 1959. Then, spurred by heavy sales of consumer
148%
declined to
plained
in
155%
in
June 1959. Thereafter the index
September, the decline being largely ex-
by the primary metals industries and mining, both
strongly influenced by the steel industry.
— From
a seasonal low of 62,706,000 in Jan. rose steadily to a high of 67,594,000 in
July 1959; thereafter seasonal trends in several industries plus the steel strike pulled employment down to 66,347,000 in Sept. 1959.
Even
at the
reduced
level,
however, employment
in Sept.
1959 was 1,718,000 higher than in the same month of 1958. Although substantial, the employment increases were not adequate to absorb the heavy unemployment caused by the 1958 recession and the growth in the labour force. At its lowest 1959 level,
the seasonally adjusted rate of
unemployment was
still
4.9%
of the labour force, with 3,982,000 workers unemployed.
A
ditions, the
in
output. It was
to near
boom
con-
emplo>Tnent problem would be cured. Such was not
the case, however.
151.4% in Aug. 1959, and had shown a all consumer items com-
price index, at
50% above
a decade earlier
rate of price increase double that for
New
—
and Equipment. In 1958 business expenditures and equipment experienced their sharpest and largest decline since World War II, and, like the rest of the economy, Plant
for plant
made one
of history's fastest recoveries in
estimates by the department of
1959. Preliminary
commerce and
the Securities and Exchange commission indicated that plant and equipment expenditures for the full year of 1959 would be $33,260,000,000, up 9% from 1958. Investment in plant and equipment always lags
behind the rest of the economy
most of the
rise
in e.xpenditures
in a recovery.
Consequently,
was concentrated
in
the last
half of 1959. Estimated investment in the fourth quarter of
disturbing aspect of the 1958 recovery was the failure of
employment to rise in proportion to the rise hoped that, as 1959 brought the economy back
The medical-care
was more than
bined. (See also Prices.)
employment
Employnnent. 1959, total
average.
From
second-quarter 1958 to second-quarter 1959 gross national product rose 11.5%. In the 12 months end-
June 1959, industrial production increased by 15.9%. Yet same 12 months employment rose only 3.6%. These facts underlie the growing tension during 1959 between labour and management. They help explain the surprising length and bittering
in the
The truth was that the current rates of in the labour force, combined with the substantial gains man-hour productivity brought about by new machinery and technology, would require e.xpansion of the economy at rates
ness of the steel strike.
1959. at an annual rate of $35,340,000,000, was
18%
above the
fourth quarter of 1958 and near the record levels of the 1956-57
investment boom. All major industry groups participated in the rise in plant and equipment expenditures with the exception of public utilities. For the first time in five years and only the second time since
World War II, expenditures in declined. At an estimated annual
the public utilities industries rate of $5,930,000,000 in the
fourth quarter of 1959, they were
The two
industry- groups
5.3% below
a year earlier.
hardest hit by the
1958 recession, manufacturing and railroads, made the strongest recovery in
growth
1959. Railroad plant and equipment expenditures were estimated
in
to
higher than those of recent years,
above their recession low in the fourth quarter of 1958. In spite of what appeared on the surface to be adequate capacity, manufacturing plant and equipment expenditures for
substantially reduced. {See also
—
if
unemplo>Tnent were
to
be
Employment.)
Prices. One of the surprising and encouraging developments of 1959 was the stability of prices. Prices usually rise with a major e.xpansion. But in Aug. 1959 the wholesale price index was 119.1'^ of the 1947-49 average, exactly where it had been
a year earlier.
The wholesale
1959 to a high of
Consumer
132
120%
prices
at
price index rose slightly in early
in April, retail
but declined thereafter.
showed similar
stability
be at an annual rate of $1,120,000,000
i959i 93-
in the fourth quarter of
%
the full year of 1959 were estimated to be $12,440,000,000. the third highest level in history. Obviously, investment
was geared
change and e.\pectations more than to current sales. Construction. Stimulated by federal government monetary
to technical
—
and
fiscal policies to
state
on the
1
and
local
combat recession and pressing needs
levels,
new construction
e.xpenditures in
ran counter to the cycle and rose as the rest of the
at the
1958
economy
BUSINES S REVIEW
133
government stimuli were reduced or converted to restraints. Construction expenditures by the federal, state and local governments declined from their recession high
ments were
of a seasonally adjusted annual rate of $18,100,000,000 in Feb.
spending and the large internal cash flow from depreciation
1959 to a low annual rate of $15,100,000,000 in Sept. 1959. Interest rates increased throughout 1959, and in September short-
charges against the heavy investments of 1955, 1956 and 1957 enabled corporations to maintain normal dividend payments,
term rates were almost double what they had been a year earlier. Long-term interest rates in Aug. 1959, as reflected in the yields on corporate Aaa bonds, were up 0.58 of a percentage point
ment
declined. In 1959 all
from Aug. 1958. Such restraints notwithstanding, total new construction expenditures were at an average annual rate of $55,600,000,000
months of 1959. This was the highest level in by a wide margin and $6,500,000,000 above the rate of
for the first nine
history
changed from the levels of the recession quar-
little
1957 and 1958. This dividend policy, however, was a
ters of
return to the pattern of earlier years. In 1958 reduced capital
even though earnings were reduced. In 1959 corporate investin plant, equipment and inventories once again absorbed
The
substantial funds.
which reached
51%
ratio of dividends to after-tax profits,
66%
a high of
in the first half of 1959.
were the highest 000,000 for the
first
returned to a more normal
at the
reduced
rate,
dividends
averaging an annual rate of $13,070,-
in history,
Business Failures.
in 1958,
Even
three quarters of 1959.
—A
sensitive indicator of business condi-
the rate of industrial and commercial failures as re-
spending for 1958. Total private construction expenditures ac-
tions
counted for most of the increase. At an annual rate of $38,611,-
ported by
nine months of 1959, private construction ran 14.2% ahead of the previous record year of 1958. Nonfarm
the brevity of the 1957-58 recession and the strength of the
000,000 for the
first
residential housing expenditures,
$22,656,000,000 for the
first
averaging an annual rate of
nine months of 1959, far surpassed
any previous year and accounted for 96.8% of the expansion
in
Next to inventory building by business, was the most vigorous driving force in the 1959 recovery. (See also Architecture; Building and Construction Industry; Housing.)
is
Dun and
Bradstreet, Inc. This measure showed clearly
1958-59 recovery. Failures reached a recession high in March 1958 when there were 1,495. Contrary to the behaviour in longer recessions,
both the number of failures and the
size of the failing
firms declined immediately after recovery began in 1958. Total
averaged 1,277
rnonth for the
three quarters of
private construction.
failures
residential housing
1958 and only 1,191 per month for the same period in 1959. Because of the continual growth in the number of firms doing
and
Sales
— Beginning
in April 1958 sales at all
manufacturing and trade turned upward, and by the end
levels of
of
Inventories.
year prerecession levels were attained. The recovery
the
continued through June 1959, when total manufacturing and trade sales were at a record-high seasonally adjusted level of $62,000,000,000. After June
ward
slightly.
all
categories of sales turned
down-
business, a
first
measure of business
significant
failures
was
the seasonally adjusted annual rate of failures per 10,000 firms in operation.
This rate reached a recession high of 57.4
second quarter of 1958 and then declined rapidly to 51.4
in
the
in the
second quarter of 1959. For the first nine months of 1959 the rate 51. 1, a significant 5.4 below the rate for the same period of
was
1958-
Average dollar
Total sales for manufacturing and trade were
$59,500,000,000 in Aug. 1959, seasonally adjusted, which was $5,100,000,000 or 9.4% above a year earlier. Because of at-
more
P^""
liabilities of
of the severity of a decline.
failing firms is a
Many
good measure
small firms are always going
out of business in good times and bad, but in a severe recession
tempts to rebuild inventories throughout the economy, manu-
larger firms begin to
facturing
and wholesale sales rose more than retail sales, the former two each rising 11% and the latter rising 7.1% in the year
firm rises. Also there
ending in Aug. 1959. The inventory liquidations of the 1958 recession left all levels of business with inadequate stocks for the 1959 expansion. Con-
able to withstand economic strain longer than smaller firms.
sequently 1959 was a year of inventory building. During the second quarter of 1959, nonfarm inventories (to a large extent in
brevity of the 1958 recession and the vigour of the 1959 re-
an annual rate of $9,800,000,000. The sales pace was too brisk to allow such rates to continue, however, and by steel)
grew
at
Aug. 1959 total manufacturing and trade inventories were only $4,000,000,000 above the recession low levels of a year earKer. Retail inventories rose relatively least of
4.2% above Aug. 1958. The ratio of inventories to
all,
ending Aug. 1959
only
sales for all
manufacturing and
fail,
and the average
liability
data to lag behind other indicators because the larger firms are
Consequently the highest early part of a recovery.
liability figures usually
The
liability
The average liability per failure in the fourth quarter of when the recession began, was $43,000. The highest average for the recession came in the first quarter of 1959, when the rate was only $53,300, very modestly above the 1957 figure. Even covery. 1957,
though prices had risen substantially, the dollar
firms, except in special cases.
and even farther below the higher rates of the six preceding years. U.S. business headed into the typically heavy-
dustrial Conference board, business consolidations,
Korean war. This condition promised a high level of economic activity well into i960. since the
Corporate sharply in the
Profits. first
—-Corporate
profits
before
taxes
fell
quarters of the 1957-58 recession, reaching a
Mergers and Acquisitions. on the
rise for three or
89 per
month
for the 12
months ending with
total of 1,069 consolidations for the
tions doing business in the
the
were
in the first half of 1959,
same period
in 1958.
profits after taxes
at an annual rate of $49,550,-
up $16,750,000,000 or
The seasonally adjusted annual
averaged $25,400,000,000
1959, establishing a
51%
new record
in
from
rate of
in the first half of
corporate earnings.
Although profits were at record levels in 1959, dividend pay-
to the National In-
which were
declined slightly in 195S. But the aftermath of the recession
firms or only
of 1958. Before-tax profits
—According
brought an increase, consolidations averaging slightly more than
quarter of 1958. Thereafter profits rose steadily with the recovery, regaining their prerecession levels by the fourth quarter
000,000
per
four years prior to the 1958 recession,
low seasonally adjusted annual rate of $32,000,000,000 in the first
liability
was about the same in 1958-59 as in the recessions of 1948-49 and 1953-54. The most recent recession was too short to affect seriously the fortunes of large or even medium-sized failure
of Aug. 1958
fourth quarter with the lowest inventory-to-sales ratio
occur in the
data clearly highlighted the
trade was at 1.503 in Aug. 1959, well below the low 1.570 ratio
sales
per failing
a tendency for the liability-per-firm
is
rate
of
0.25%
1959.
The
of the approximately 1,000,000 corpora-
consolidations
monthly
May
year involved about 2,500
had
United States, Although small, the risen considerably. The average
months of 1959 was 99, up from same period of 1958. Most mergers and acquisitions involve relatively small firms and have little broad meaning for the economy. The typical 87
rate for the first five
in the
consolidation does posite
is
more
little
likely. It is
to lessen competition; in fact the op-
mainly a means of diversifying product
—
BUTTER — CALIFORNIA
134
increasing efficiency, integrating production processes or
lines,
4^
adjusting to changing technology. There arc nevertheless dispatterns
cernible
in
which highlight trends
consolidations
in
One of the most notable of these patterns is the subnumber of acquisitions by some of the large, nationally
business. stantial
known paper products companies. In 1958 and again in kjso half a dozen or more of these firms acquired the assets of smalkr firms in lines of production in which the larger company was only beginning. One firm made five purchases in 1958 and three more in the first four months of 1959. Another interesting acquisition development of 1959 was the petroleum industry. Four well-known
known
oil
in
companies, chiefly
as integrated producers of petroleum, ventured further
by purchasand independent-brand gasoline service station
into the distribution of finished petroleum products
ing distributors chains.
The
highly competitive food distribution business,
the
so-
market chains, continued the mergers that had been prominent in that industry in recent years. There were more called super
than a dozen acquisitions in the
and
distributors
field
involving food processors,
retailers.
See also Banking; Budget, National; Census Data, U.S.;
Consumer Credit; Federal Reserve System; Law; Wages AND Hours. Butter:
(P. G. C.)
Dairy Products; Vegetable Oils and Animal
see
Fats.
Cacao:
see Cocoa.
Cadmium:
Mineral and Metal Production and
see
Calendar of Events, 1959:
Prices.
twenty-two students
of St. Mary's college. Moraga, Calif., Iryino to beat a "record" of 25 establlthed by Union of South Africa. The fad was practised on a number campuses in 1959
a
see pages 1-16.
in
lelepfione boolti,
the
ed into school U.S.
of
Southernmost of the Pacific coast states of the
California.
United States, California was admitted to the
union on Sept.
9,
1850.
Nicknamed
of the importance of gold in third in area
and second
area of the state area.
The
lation
Chief
in
its
the "Golden state" because
early history, California ranks
population
among
the states. Total
158,693 sq.mi., including 1,953 sq.mi. of water 1959 provisional estimate calculated California's popuis
14,639,000
at
inhabitants
(1950
census,
10,586,223).
pop. with 1950 census figures in parentheses") were Los Angeles, 2,397,000 (1,970.358); San Francisco, cities
(1959
est.
821,000 (775.357'*; 405,200 (384,575)
;
(the state capital),
San Diego, 501,719 (334,387); Oakland, Long Beach, 324,822 (250,767) Sacramento 170.949 (137,572); San Jose, 160,719 (95,;
280); Fresno, 123,238 (91,669); Pasadena, 123,000 (104,577); Berkeley, 115,374 (1:3,805); and Glendale, 114,460 (95,702). History.
— The
1959 remained Edmund G. Glenn M. Anderson, lieutenant
state ofi&cers in
Brown, governor; Frank M. Jordan, secretary of state; Bert Betts, treasurer; Stanley Mosk, attorney general; Alan Cranston, controller; Roy E. Simpson, state superintendent of public instruc("Pat")
governor;
tion.
During the year 1959 emplojTnent in California reached an and the year reflected continued growth and development in most fields. Particularly important was the passage by the legislature of an extensive state water program to provide all-time high
irrigation
which would
entail expenditure of
about $1,750,000,-
000. California's Indians obtained a favourable verdict
from the
U.S. Indian claims commission in their struggle to receive com-
pensation for about 70,000.000 ac. of land taken at the time of
American conquest of the area. As of Jan. i, i960, the state maximum speed limit on California highways was set at 65 m.p.h.. replacing a flexible speed limit based on "reasonable and prudent" operation of motor vehicles.
Unusual dryness throughout the year, though not particularly harmful
to agriculture,
and extensive brush
Much
caused costly forest
fires in
fires
in the north
southern California.
was centred about the construction of San Francisco completed a new baseball park; the national champion Los Angeles baseball team broke ground for its new park in Chavez ravine; and a local interest
major sports
facilities in the state.
multimillion dollar sports arena was constructed in Los Angeles'
Exposition park. In an effort to plan for future expansion as well as to meet
present needs the legislature passed a long-term highway construction program, the Collier
bill,
calling for a $10,000,000,000
expenditure for state highways.
—
Education. .Average daily attendance for budgetary purposes for 195758 was calculated at 2,118,641 for elementary schools, at 688,210 for high school districts and at 151,305 for junior college districts. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. As of July 1959 there were 260,631 recipients of old-age security payments with average monthly payments being $78.18 (July 1958. 265.838 persons at $78.21 per recipient). .\id to the needy blind program supported 13,769 persons with average payments of $97.17. Support was provided for 208,026 needy children with average monthly payments of $53.99 to children in family groups, while general home relief was provided for 28,798 cases involving 59,539 persons. For the month of July 1959 the five California-administered social insurance programs compensated 136,270 unemployed or disabled claimants per week in a total amount of $14,604,533 for the month. Total operating expenses for the state department of corrections for the year 1958-59 were estimated at $32,259,337. Total population of California correctional institutions as of July 31, 1959, numbered 19,264 including 798 women. .As of Jan. 31, 1959, inmates of youth authority institutions totaled 4,039, of which 512 were girls; 2,779 were in youth authority institutions, 1,188 in department of corrections facilities and 72 in other institutions. Communications. Estimated total e.xpenditures by the state division of highways for reconditioning, resurfacing and construction of highways for 1958-59 were $444,081,713, including $196,719,249 in federal aid contributions (1957^58. $366,761,439 including $146,759,409 in federal assistance). State highway mileage in 1957 was 128,909 mi., including 26,496 miles of city streets, .\utomobile registrations in 1958 totaled 6.238.765. Railway mileage statistics of 1950 indicated 7,518 mi. of steam and 702 mi. of electric railways in California. .As of .\pril i. 1958, there were 369 airfields, including 224 public and 14s limited airports, with 9.705 planes based in California airports. As of Jan. i, 1959, there were 6,826,182 telephone stations within the state. Banking and ' Finance. Total assets of the 171 State-licensed savings
—
—
—
CAMBODIA Table
I.
—
Leading Agricultural Products of Coliforni Indicaled 1959
Crop CoHon, bol
Hay
Ions
Potaloei, cwl
Orana.i, boxes boxes
Umom
bu Wheal, bu
Barley,
Com
bu
Floxseed, bu
Sorohum grain, bu Beans, bags (100 lb.) Rice, bogs (100 Ib.l Sugor beeli. Ions Hops, lb Apples, bu PeacKes, bu Peors, Ion Grapes, Ion Apricols, tons Prunes, Ions Plums, Ion Walnuls, Ions Almonds, Ions
Sweel potatoes, cwl •1949-57. Source: U.S. Deportment of Agriculture.
Table
II.
1,920,000 4,168,000 25,788,000 35,000,000 18,000,000 69,225,000 8,162,000 18,250,000 1,755,000 17,700,000 3,891,000 12,169,000 4,568,000 9,280,000 9,400,000 37,545,000 422,000 2,980,000 210,000 150,000 103,400 57,000 70,000 1,014,000
1958
1948-57
1,604,000 6,963,000 29,598,000 40,200,000 17,000,000 67,488,000 8,162,000 17,374,000 1,642,000 15,390,000 4,091,000 11,730,000 3,628,000 9,027,000 9,650,000 32,502,000 345,000 2,741,000 90,000 96,000 68,800 82,200 9,800 1,020,000
1,424,000 6,796,000 26,535,000' 37,781,000 13,669,000 60,693,000 10,305,000 7,696,000 1,928,000 6,344,000 4,270,000 10,529,000 3,364,000 11,421,000 8,349,000 33,152,000 355,700 2,680,800 190,300 I 60,800 86,730 66,820 41,280 817,000*
1
Principal Industries of California
135
Nov. 30, I9S8) was $1,407,548,028. Per capita income for 1958 was $2,467 and per capita tax was $116.48, while state tax collections in • 958-59 amounted to $1,748,891,000 (1957-58, $1,642,299,000). Agriculture. California's gross cash farm income again led the nation in 1958, being $2,840,000,000 (i9S7. $2,764,000,000). Cash receipts from livestock and poultry products aggregated $1,171,000,000 (1957, $1,018,000,000), and crop returns brought $1,705,000,000 (1957, $1,715,000,-
—
000).
—
Manufacturing. .\s of July 1959, 1,311,300 wage and salary workers were employed in California manufacturing industries. Approximately 427,500 were employed in production of nondurable goods and 883.800 in the manufacture of durable goods, .^s of May 1959 total civilian employment was 6.074.000 while unemployment figures indicated 255,000 not working. Preliminary estimates of 1958 retail trade indicated $19,302,000.000 spent, approximately equal to 1957. (D. C. Cr.) Minerol Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in California in 1957 and 1958 whose value exceeded $100,000. In 1958 California was the only state producing boron. It was first among the states in natural calcium chloride, dialomite. gypsum, mercury (59% of U.S. total) sand and gravel and natural soda; second in cement, chromite, feldspar, pumice, potash, talc and soapstone; third in ball clay, perlite and pyrites; fourth in bromine, china clay, gold, molybdenum, peat and stone; sLxth in marketed natural gas produced and salt (6% of U.S. total); and seventh in crushed and broken slate. Iodine was extracted from oil brine, and there was some uranium output. California ranked third among the states in the value of its mineral output in 1958, with 9.09% of the U.S. total.
—
EncycloP/EDIA Yosemite (1954).
Britannica
Films.
—Far
Western
States
(195s);
—
CAMERAS— CANADA
136 samak narrowly escaped death from
Norodom Vakrivan,
but Prince
bomb
a
Tab!* I.— Ar«i and Population of Canada
sent in a parcel,
assistant director of the royal
household, and a servant were killed.
Toiol ar«o
Provlncoi ond Terrllorlei
(n.'r
$100,000,000 was expended in
United
the
States during 1959 to support the research on cancer
being conducted by about 6.000 scientists.
The magnitude
the cancer problem
that:
is
shown by the
facts
cases of the disease were discovered in 1959 of the United States alone,
and
it
of
475.000 new-
among
the citizens
caused the deaths of 259.000
and
of these persons; almost 13.000.000 days of hospitalization \vere
economic surveys to assess the prospective value of making the
required to treat patients with this disease; and nearly 1,500,-
Grand Union canal navigable by wide barges between Birmingham and the port of London. Continental Europe. During 1958 river na\'igation between Kaliningrad (formerly Konigsberg), Frankfurt-on-Oder and Magdeburg was opened for transit across Poland. In connection with the Rhine development programs between Basel and Strasbourg, the Vogelgrun-Fourth canal of the Grand Canal d'Alsace was opened for Rhine traffic in March 1959. Development of the Rhine-Main-Danube canal as far as Niirnberg to enable it to take large vessels continued and was expected to be completed by 1970. By the construction of a series of locks the Neckar river had been made navigable as far as Stuttgart, thus joining the capital of Baden-Wiirttemberg by waterway with the Ruhr and the North sea. Deepening of the Dortmund-Ems canal was com-
000 man-years of work were
lost.
of every six deaths from
causes resulted from cancer.
The commission
Yorkshire waterways.
initiated engineering
—
In connection with the development of the port of Rotterdam
new
Smoking and Lung Cancer.
In the United States, one out
—The age-standardized —
New
canal to relieve the
earlier to bj-pass the river, w-as to
waterway, constructed 80 years
tortuous and silted
mouth
of the
Maas
be buOt to take inland craft and would involve the
construction of a
number
of the lung during 1959 in the United States.
Twenty-three independent studies carried out
Negotiations were opened between Finland and the U.S.S.R.
concerning the reopening of the Saimaa canal. 6 of the 11 locks of which were in So\aet territory.
Under
U.S.S.R. was to repair the canal on
a draft agreement the
in eight different
countries since 1939 had demonstrated a positive relationship
between the smoking of cigarettes and the occurrence of lung cancer, i.e., the greater the number of cigarettes smoked by the subjects studied, the greater was the incidence of cancer
of the lung. In addition to this epidemiological e\-idence.
are capable of inducing cancer
when
many
smoke condensates
applied to the skin of cer-
tain animals.
Since the over-all rate of sur\nval from cancer of the lung treated creasing
of locks.
death
from cancer of the lung in male subjects in the L'nited States had increased by 1.150'^c since 1930 the rate in 1930 being 2.5 per 100.000 males, while in 1959 it was estimated to be 31.0 per 100.000. -Approximately 35,000 deaths occurred from cancer rate
investigators had demonstrated that cigarette
pleted.
a
all
by surgical means had been disappointingly low, an innumber of investigators began to search for methods
capable of detecting the disease at earlier stages in
its
develop-
ment. Examinations through the microscope of specimens of
"deep-cough" sputum obtained after inhalation of a weak solution in the form of an aerosol revealed in a
number
salt
of in-
and Finland was to be granted a 50-yr. lease on the canal facilities and also on storage and reloading space in the harbour of Vysotsk, outside Vyborg. Plans were made to broaden the canal, which was
was detectable by X-ray examination. Studies were under way to determine whether this discovery could be utilized to improve
only about 25
the cure-rate of lung cancer through earlier treatment of the
ft.
its
territory
wide.
on the possibilities of connecting the Danube and the Sava by the construction of a canal, nearly 40 mi. in length, from Vukovar on the Danube to Samac on the Sava. b>-passing Belgrade. Construction was expected to take four years and. when finished, the route from Croatia and BosniaHerzego\-ina via the Danube to Hungary and Austria would be Studies were begun
shortened by about 250 mi.
—
Africa and Asia. In 1959 work started in Madagascar on the Pangalanes canal which was to run parallel to the coast and connect the rivers serving the coastline with the port of Ta-
stances the presence of cancer of the lung before the disease
by
disease
surgical means.
Chemotherapy. ical
—Two developments
compounds capable
in the
search for chem-
of destroying cancers in
man
are
worthy
of note.
The
was described in preliminary reports which suggested and certain related compounds are capable of adversely a variety of spontaneous cancers in man;
first
that 5-fluorouracil
affecting e.g.,
primary cancers of the colon and rectum, breast, bladder,
ovarj',
stomach,
liver, etc.
The second development
related to a procedure being de-
—
—
CANDY — CANNING INDUSTRY
142
punwsf of circumventing the harmful effects on bone marrow and the lining of the alimentary tract so fre-
vi'loped for the
the
quently encountered after use of most of the chemical compounds that arc effective against cancer. These adverse side effects severely limit the amounts of drugs that can be administered and the duration of treatment, oftentimes to a point where the
drug
is
just barely effective against the cancer.
Attempts were being made
to
circumvent
this
limitation
through isolating the cancerous organ by surgical means from the circulation to the remainder of the body. The cells of the temporarily isolated organ are kept alive by perfusing
it
with
blood from an outside source to which has been added a far
amount of drug than could be tolerated by the subject's bone marrow and the lining of his alimentary tract. It had been known for some time Viruses and Genetics. greater
—
that the process traits
from parent to offspring is centred within the genes of the body. These small units of protoplasm, the genes, are
arranged
I.alcnl
in
Kickcltsial Infcclion, llurxess Publication Co., p. 43 (1958); R. F. Ryan, a/.. "Treatment o( Maliitnant Neoplasms With Chcmotherapeulic AKcnts lIlilizinK a I'ump-Oxygcnalor; Technics and Early Results," Hull. Tulane Med. Fac, 17:133-143 (Feb. 1958); A. R. Curreri, el at., "Clinical Studies With 5-Fluorouracil," Cancer Rei., 18:478-484 (May 1958). (H. M. W».) ENtYCLOP,«DiA Bkitannica Filus. Cttticer (1953).
el
—
The year 1959 was the third consecutive year in p udliUy* w'hich U.S. candy manufacturers showed gains in sales, both in dollar value and poundage. More than 1,500 wholesale confectionery manufacturers and almost 2,000 retail candy manufacturers sold more than 2,943,200,000 lb. of candy with a J
wholesale value of $1,161,680,000. This represented a gain of
4%
over the 1958 output of 2,830,000,000 000,000 wholesale.
which controls the transmission of individual
cells of the
in a specific
order along the chromosomes (small rod-
like bodies located in the nuclei of cells).
Acting together, the
—
Joshua Lcderbcrg, "Grnclic Transduction," Amer. 44:264-280 (i9$6b): Rcnato Dulbccco, "Virus-Ctll Intrractioni Infections," Symposium on Latency and MasltinK in Viral and
IliiiLiouiiAniv. Scirnl.,
lb.
valued at $1,117,-
Retail sales approximated $2,000,000,000 in 1959.
000,000 confectionery outlets
in the
About
2,-
United States, ranging from
supermarkets to small retail candy stores, sold confectionery products. Per capita consumption of candy in the United States 1959 was 17.1 lb., compared with 16.4 lb. in 1958 and an alltime high per capita candy consumption of 20.5 lb. in 1944. The most important development in 1959 was the unprecein
genes serve to control the various forces that enable a mature
and functioning organism to develop from one fertilized egg cell. It had been widely held that the mechanism of heredity operi.e., at the time of cell diviates by perpetuation from within each chromosome elaborates an exact duplicate of itself, with one going to each of the two daughter cells formed. In this sion,
way, each newly formed genes of
its
cell
receives a full
complement
of the
parent.
Recent experiments suggested that certain virus particles are able to penetrate the cells of the body and to add their own substance- to that of the genes. This added substance also appears to enable the modified gene to induce the
cell in
which
be able to divide at time of cell division, along with the remainder of the gene, to thus perpetuate a continuous line of modified characteristics. The discovery that viruses can
permanently the hereditarj' potential of cells, and that this altered potential can be transmitted through succeeding genera-
alter
new dimension to research on cancer. Resistance to Cancer. Most persons are aware of the fact that the human body has great capacity to defend itself against added
a
—
from the Of the various mechanisms employed by the body to
certain foreign agents, such as bacteria, that invade outside.
resist foreign agents, the
ment of its
immune
response
i.e.,
the develop-
antibodies, antitoxins, etc., that inactivate the agent or
harmful products
—appears
to
tissues can "recognize" differences
For example, man
between "self" and "not
almost never develops antibodies against his own blood cells. A cancer cell, arising as it apparently does from a pre-existing
may
not often be different enough from the other
cell,
the host to rally the
immune
forces of the
Candy
body against
That such a response does occur on occasion, however, is suggested by the very rare, but real, disappearance of cancer in the absence of any conceivably effective treatment. Although it appeared that spontaneous cancers do not often an effective immune response, an increasing number of workers were finding a variety of substances apparently proelicit
—
duced by neoplastic cells that are capable of inhibiting the growth of some cancer cells. It was hoped that future work along these lines might yield some means capable of interfering effectively with the continued growth of certain tumours. See also Blood, Diseases of the; Stomach and Intestines,
a
(3%);
new high
in 1959, while the
25%. Total bar goods
of
60%
of total bar
proportion of lo-cent bars reached sales
45%
account for
of
candy tonnage. Sales of packaged candy increased generally except for packages retailing at $1.50 to $1.99 per lb., which declined 2% in total
5% in poundage. Bulk confectionery production showed a slight decline. The same was true of solid chocolate in bulk. Penny goods increased (D. Gw.) about 5% in value and 3% in poundage.
value and
Cane Sugar:
see Sugar.
^^^ Ponninrr InrillCtrU IllUUOliy. bdlllllllg
juices,
^'•^- ^^^^ (including the states of Hawaii and Alaska) of canned fruits, specialties, milk, meat and fish amounted
1958-59 season. This quantity was 13,000.000 cases larger than the pack for the previous year and the second highest on record. The pack in each of the seven major groups of canned foods, in selected years from 1938 through 1958. is shown in Table i. In 1958 canned tomatoes and canned peaches were the tof)to 675,000,000 cases during the
Table
I.
—Production of Various Canned Foods lln
Yeor
Fruit!
1938 1940 1945 1950
40 49 52 77 83
1951
1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958t
77
....
80 83 92 99 91
92
Juices
39 55 111
109 104 109 114 99
99 123 104 105
in Ihe U.S.
000,000 of standord cases!
Vegetables Speciolties*
122 133 177 164
209 194 189 183 197 235 209 221
67 79 83 113 118 120 127 125 128 130 132 132
Milk
Rsii
Meatt
49 58 90 68 67 66
17 19 19 30 25 26 26 28 26
7 12
60 59 60 59 58 54
31 31
34
43 27 33 30 32 32 33 38 37 37
Total
341
405 575 590 639 622 628 609 635 715 662 67i
and without tomoto sauce), spaghetti, hommushrooms, Chinese foods and other specialties. fExcludins meol soups. {1 958 flgurel
'Includes iny,
Diseases of the; Surgery.
a decline in exports
;
bars selling for 5 cents accounted for
goods sales
it.
—
18%)
and increased use of confectionery (hard fat) coatings, which cost an average of 10 cents per pound less than chocolate coatings. There was also continued emphasis on the sale of candy to supermarkets, and a new impetus in the trend toward self-service candy selling in variety stores, drug stores and retail candy manu-
vegetables, self."
cells of an animal that have been injected into his body, but he
cells of
in-
first
Other major developments included sharp
gains in candy imports (about
be effective only when the
quickly develops antibodies against the blood
normal
1958.
facturers' stores.
to
tions,
troduced in
it
and behave differently than its parent. Moreover, the substance of the virus thus added to the gene appears resides to develop
cells of
dented sales gain enjoyed by the 15-cent candy bar,
baby food,
are preliminary.
soup,
baked beans
(with
—
CAPE VERDE ranking canned vegetable and canned total
lb.
first
lb.
(net
1958-
for canned tomatoes.
The
time since 1942 that the pack of canned tomatoes exall other canned vegetables. Peaches had for many
ceeded that of years ranked
volume among canned
fruits. The volume of canned annually, however, frequently exceeds the volume of any canned fruit or vegetable. In the 195859 season the pack of canned tomato juice was 32,600,000 cases. first in
tomato juice that
is
In terms of weight this was the equivalent of
more than
1,100,-
000,000 lb. The 1958-59 pack of canned tomatoes was followed by canned peas, sweet corn, green beans and tomato catsup. Each of these canned vegetables had a pack exceeding 20,000,000 cases for the year. In volume of pack, peaches were followed by pineapple, fruit cocktail, applesauce and pears.
at the beginning of the
were about
11%
195S-59 marketing season
below the stocks carried over
at the
beginning
Because of the relatively large packs some products, however, the total supply available for dis-
of the previous season. of
tribution during the 1958-59 marketing season
with
tical
the
supply
available
for
the
was almost idenmarketing
1957-58
season.
9%
of canned foods exported from the U.S. in 1958
than that exported during 1957. Exports during 19% less than the exports during the same
less
Jan.-July 1959 were
period in 1958. Exports of canned fruits, vegetables and juices
down about 25%
seven months of 1959 were from the previous year.
during the
first
Preliminary figures placed the total per capita consumption
canned foods at 136.1
of the seven groups of
lb.
per person. The
per capita consumption of canned fruits was slightly above 1957 and at a record high of 26.2 pounds. Slight increases in per capita
consumption were also registered
in 1958 for canned vegetables, and canned meat. Compared with the previous year, the per capita consumption of specialties was about the same, and for canned juices and milk slightly less in 1958.
canned
II.
Apparenl Annual
Civilian Per Capita Consumption of Various Canned Foods, U.S.* {In
pounds)
Vege. Yoor
Fruits
Juices
1938 1940 1945 1950
15.4
7.4 10.2 17.9 18.4 19.6 18.9 19.0 18.3 17.7 17.6 17.5 16.5
19.1
14.4 22.0 19.5 21.0 21.3
1951
1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958
21.1
22.6 21.8 22.4 22.6
tables Speciollies
Milk
fish
Meol
Tolol
28.3 31.4 36.2
17.2 19.3 18.3
4.9 4.2 2.6 4.5 4.0
3.1
91.4 106.2 112.8 134.8 132.3 133.4 136.0 133.7 136.2
37.1
37.5 36.9 37.9 36.8 38.7 39.4 38.6 39.5
15.1
17.7 18.5 24.0 24.5 25.5 26.2 26.7 27.1
27.5 28.0 28.0
20.1 18.3
17.6 17.4 16.8 16.2 15.9 15.5 14.6
4.1
4.2 4.2 3.7 3.9 3.9 4.2
4.3 4.9 8.7 8.9 9.4
10.0 9.8
10.2 11.0 10.6 10.7
137.1
136.5 136.1
•Derived by the U.S. Deportment of Agriculture from data on production ond utilization. From the annual supply of each food (production plus carry-over stocks plus imports) ore deducted exports, government purchases and carry-over stocks. The residual is considered to be civilion consumption. This is divided by estimated population to determine per capita Estimates
components
by Notional Canners Association with the exception of baby food and soup are by U.S. Deportment of Agriculture.
v/hich
retail
value of the 1958 U.S. consumption of the canned I reached a new high estimated at more Canned vegetables accounted for the largest
foods included in Table
than $4,800,000,000.
value of any canned-food group, with a retail value estimated at $1,100,000,000.
The
Islands: see Portuguese Overseas
Prov-
Carnegie Trusts: see Societies and Associations, U.S. Carnivals: see Shows. Caroline Islands: see Marshall, Caroline and Mariana Islands.
roctrn riHoi UdoUU, riUCI
^^"9*7"
)>
Cuban
revolutionary
leader,
launched his armed rebellion against the government of Pres. Fulgencio Batista in Dec. 1956 and within
more than two years had gained complete mastery of the On Jan. i, 1959, Batista fled Cuba and Castro's bearded forces entered Havana. Castro became premier on Feb. 16. He
little
country.
Manuel Urrutia Lleo. For the events of Castro's months in office, see Cuba. Born at Mayari, a small town of eastern Cuba, on Aug. 13, 1927, Castro studied law at the University of Havana, receiving his doctorate in 1950. Meanwhile he had become attracted to revolutionary activities. Setting up law practice in Havana, he tion of Pres.
first difficult
specialized in defending poor litigants without fee. His candidacy
came to a swift end with the Batista coup of 1952. Castro, with about 180 followers, then began a campaign against the Batista regime by attacking an army barracks at Santiago de Cuba, July 26, 1953. Although half the small
band was killed and Castro and his brother Raul were arrested and imprisoned, this event started the "July 26 movement." Castro was amnestied in 1955. In exile, first in New York and then in Mexico, he organized and trained a group of fellow exiles in the latter country and returned with a small body of
armed
insurrectionaries to his native Oriente province in
Cuba
Dec. 1956. His guerrilla talents baffled the regular Cuban army, which tried vainly to capture him and disperse his force in
fish
Table
The
Cape Verde inces.
for the national legislature
The tonnage was
(H. L. Sr.)
resigned briefly in July 1959 but resumed office after the resigna-
Stocks of canned fruits, vegetables and juices carried over
by canners
143
index for canned foods as a group also showed an increase in
1958-59 pack of canned tomatoes amounted to 29,600,000 cases, and the pack of canned peaches was 28,400,000 cases. This was the
— CASTRO
The
volume of canned peaches was about 1,100,000,000
content) and about 900,000,000
ISL ANDS
respectively.
fruit,
retail prices of
canned foods
in
1958 averaged 110.8% of
the 1947-49 average. This represented an increase of about
over the retail price level in 1957. During the retail prices
first
4%
half of 1959
of canned foods continued to rise. In July they
stood at 118.7% of the 1947-49 average.
The wholesale
price
"WHERE THERE'S A LOT OF SMOKE Boston Traveler
1959 cartoon by Dobbins
of
The
CATASTROPHES—
144
of several thousand volunteer irregulars.
From headquarters
in
the Sierra Maestra, Castro directed a surprisingly effective cam-
paign of harassment and
terrorism that led finally to com-
civil
plete victory over Batista.
Catastrophes: see Disasters. Catholic Church: s^e Roman Catholic Church. Catholic Community Service, National: see Societies AND ASSDCIATIO.NS,
U.S.
Catholic Organizations for Youth:
see
Societies and
Associations, U.S.
Catholic Welfare Conference, National:
see Societies
AND Associations, U.S. Cattle: see Livestock. cement output of the world was 1,541,as compared with 1,447,912,000 bbl. in n)57. As in 1957, Europe supplied more than half the total in 1958, with North America next. The greatest increase in 1958 was also in Europe. ^" "'^^ '^^
Pomont
UwlilCilL
bbl.
()c)6,ooo
United States.
—The domestic output of cement
21%
of world output, about the
1957.
The
principal output
same
in
came from Pennsylvania,
n
Texas and Michigan, with
1958 was
as the revised figure for California,
other states supplying the re-
mainder. Cemenf
Industry in the U.S.
(Millloni of barrels, 376
Produclion Portland c«menl Other varleliej Shipments Portland cement
Other varieties Slocks Portlond cement Clinker*
Other varieties
1954
19SS
1956
267.7 264.2
275.9 272.4
314.9 297.4
333.5 316.5
3.4
3.5
3.5
17.5
17.0
254.8 251.4
264.2 260.9
278.4 274.9
310.2 292.8
325.7 308.7
1958
19S7
313.7 326.4 298.4 311.5 14.9
15.3
304.7 317.3 289.7 302.3
3.4
3.5
3.5
17.4
17.0
15.0
15.0
16.0
19.3
16.5
5.3
5.3
17.5 7.0
22.4
5.3
28.6 14.9
30.4 15.0
0.1
0.5
Available supply
eoch)
1953
252.7 249.3
0.1
Imports E«P="-'s
lb.
1952
0.4
0.1
0.5
9.4
0.1
0.1
3.2
2.6
1,9
5.2 1.8
4.5 2.0
251.1
262.2
277.0
318.3
336.0
0.1
0.1
4.4
3.4 0.6
1.3
316.8 329.2
•Clinker figures for 1955 and loter are not strictly comporable with those of 1954 and earlier yeors because producers are now osked to report clinker in terms of the number of 376-lb. borrels of finished portlond cement that could be produced from the quonlity of clinker in question, whereos previously the unit of measure wos the 376-lb. barrel of clinker.
The in
U.S. bureau of mines reported 167 active cement plants
1958 (163 in 1957)
000
bbl. or
6%
;
at the year's end, capacity
was 402,786,-
greater than 1957 capacity (380,386,000 bbl.)
The capacity used
in
1958 was 77.3%, compared with 78.5% in
1957-
In the
first
eight
months of 1959, output of cement totaled
224.599.000 bbl. (from 38 states and Puerto Rico), compared with 195,254,000 bbl. in the first eight months of 1958, a 15% increase.
(F. E. H.)
^^^
^'^'
^ PpnCIK Rata UCildUd UdLd, II U.O. mated States including
Oct.
I,
newest
On
armed
''"''^^"
°^
^^^
census
esti-
that the population of the United
forces overseas reached 178.500,000
by
1959. This estimate included the population of the two states,
July
I,
Alaska and Hawaii. 1959. the population of the United States (includ-
ing Alaska, which was admitted to the union in Jan. 1959, but excluding Hawaii, which was admitted in Aug. 1959) was esti-
Table
1.-
CENSUS DATA. more
and an additional 18,000,000 or twofifths, had incomes ranging between $5,000 and $10,000. At the other end of the income scale, 10,500,000, or about one-fourth, had incomes under $3,000, The remaining 11,000,000 families were in the $3,000 to $5,000 bracket. of $10,000 or
in 1958,
U.S.
145
—
School Enrollment. At the beginning of the 1958-59 school year there were an estimated 42,900,000 persons 5 to 34 years old enrolled in public, private or parochial schools in the regular school system. This enrollment total exceeded that of Oct. 1950, eight years earlier, by about 13,000.000, due in part to the in-
number of persons in school ages, especially of persons ages for which school attendance is compulsory. However, a
creased Toble
IL
—
Proviiiona/ fsft'mofes of (he Toial Population of Stafes: July I,
Illy
Segion, division,
ond
....
West
New
England ««ddle Atlantic
I.
IProvisionall
UNITED STATIS Nonlteast North Central South
Total Population Increose or Decrease April I, April 1, 1950 to 1950 July) 1959 ICensusI Amount Per cent
1959
stole
.
.
.
.
East North Centrol.
.
.
.
.
'
t176,365,000
;150,697,361
525,668,000
43,903,000 51,888,000 54,531,000 t26,043,000
39,477,986 44,460,762 47,197,088 {19,561,525
4,425 000
1
7427000
167
7'334'o00 §6,481,000
155
10,155,000 33,748,000
9,314,453 30,163,533
3 585'000 o, oj.uuo
119
36,513,000 15,375,000
30,399,368
6 114 000
20
14,061394
1313000
93
25,828,000 12,004,000 16,700,000
21,182,335 11,477,181 14,537,572
4646000
219
6,624,000 9,4 19,000
5,074,998 4,486,527
1,549 000 §4,932,000
913,774 533,242 377,747
35 000 59 000 -5,000
-1.4
4,690,514
261000
56
NORTH CENTRAL: Wert North Central SOUTH:
....
South Allontic Eort South Central Wert South Central .
.
.
.
.
WEST: **ountoin
NEW°ENGLANb:
'
'
'
J1
.
.
.
.
....
Mossaehusetts Islond
Connecticut
MDDLE ATLANTIC: New York New Jersey Pennsylvania
949,000 592,000 372,000 4,951,000 875,000 2,415,000
Ohio •"d'ono "'no'i
Midiigan Wisconsin AAinnesolo '
*'' Villarejo's The Tiger Hunt, in which a small boy and a maharaja go tiger hunting with cameras; in Denise and
—
Alain Trez's Fiji, in which two French children take their pet goldfish. Fifi, for a
swim
in the Seine
because she was looking
Mary
maturity of writing and depth of understanding for teen-age
those of 1958. Although there were no spectacularly original
New
I
Some Merry-Go-Round Music provided
Stolz's
title,
works, in the total output from picture books to books for
the future. I
155 awkward
his father, and, in spite of its rather
had
eight about India.
of individual
and
the migra-
between these countries of about 3,000,000 Kurds. WHO, since 1957. had been helping the wandering tribes of Kurdistan
Motion pictures depicting the dramatic fight against illness and its causes, especially in the interests of children, were widely used throughout the world in 1959, marking the tenth anniversary (1958) of the founding of
WHO.
People Like Maria, in
English, French, Russian and Spanish editions,
tells
the stor>' of
Maria, a young Bolivian nurse, and her successful struggle in
Andes mountain area of her country
to
establish a
a retired magician surprises the neighbourhood children on Hal-
maternal and child health centre. Other sequences
in this film
loween by responding to their cry of "Trick or Treat" with
show
a
magic
man
in
pale;
and
in
Louis Slobodkin's delightful Trick or Treat,
in -s^hich
tricks.
I
For older readers, Joseph Krumgold's Onion John gave real the growing understanding between a young boy
insight into
the high
WHO
team in Nigeria combating malaria and a young Burma, trained as a rural health assistant, bringing the first medical care to a remote village where there was an epidemic of the plague. Open Your Eyes, a documentary film beginning
CHILE
156 in
the Atlas mountains of southern Morocco, tells the story of
a youn(?
boy who took
blinded by trachoma, to a city
his father,
for treatment, only to find that he could not be cured. It a teacher applying the antibiotic
WHO.
Juvenile delinquency continued to attract foremost attention in the general public's
much
In 1958, and again in 1959, the representatives of state youth
delinquency and
pedic services. Eighteen orthopedists, each taking a one-month
federal
among the 600,000 Palestine refugees The orthopedic equipment was donated by U.S. sup-
tour as a volunteer, worked
Jordan.
concern about child welfare and received
attention of federal, state and local governments.
official
Another specialized agency of the UN, the United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees, included in its ig59 activities a program in behalf of children in need of ortho-
in
commissions from the 14 states having such commissions met to consider their
common
concerns
bureau's
children's
in the
division
service prepared a 1959 bureau publication. Administration
was recognized
prompt demand
of the country.
the refugee problem, (2) to encourage additional financial con-
available, continued the alarming increase
ment prepared by
UN
w^ith the International
ture organization,
bureau of social
Labour
office,
the
UNESCO and WHO.
co-operating
affairs,
UN Food and AgriculUN publication told
This
and various
of the extension of systems of family allowances
forms of social insurance.
—
United States. A 50th anniversary White House conference on children and youth, to be convened in Washington, D.C.,
March
27, i960,
was to confront a more complex array of prob-
lems than any of
its five
predecessor conferences.
problems was the explosive increase
in the child
Among
of live births increased each year
these
1950.
The
from the 3,554,149
1950 to the 4,254,000 (approximate) born in 1957. A drop in 1958 to about 4.248,000 may have marked a leveling off, but there still remained a challenge to all responsible for developing and operating facilities and services in the fields
born
in
slight
of health, education, welfare, recreation and religion
commensu-
need
in
for
it
youth
overcrowded and
administrators
their
parts
were operating
The appearance
in
many
poorly
of delinquent
begun 10 years
Children in
Need
earlier.
foster care, a project of the Child
Welfare League of America, were published in the
all
juvenile courts, according to such statistics as were
in
Findings of research
title
from
in
1959 under the
of Parents. This study examined practice
use of adoptive and boarding homes and institutions in
nine communities. It used teams of sociologists and child welfare
workers
in identifying
and appraising factors conducive to use
of one tNTDe of foster care or another.
Among the many observers of social and cultural developments in the U.S.S.R. were Herschel Alt and Edith Alt, whose book Russia's Children was published in 1959. A rich background of service in the fields of health, mental health and child welfare in the United States and of experience as international consultwas reflected in their discerning observameet the needs of Russian children with
ants on child welfare tions of efforts
to
mental, physical and social handicaps.
See also Birth and
venile
Death
Delinquency;
Statistics;
Social
United Nations.
Child Labour; Ju-
Security;
Tuberculosis; W. Hk.)
(H.
Films. — Food and People
(1956); Mental
Encyclop.'Edia Britannica Health (1952); Schoolhouse in the Red (1959).
Philo ^ republic extending along the southern UMIIC. of South America for about 2,600 mi.,
Pacific coast
Chile has an
no mi. It is bounded on the north by Peru, on by Bolivia and Argentina and on the south and west by
average width of
rate with this enlarged population.
The strengthening
in a
training schools for delinquent youth were
qualified or untrained workers.
population of
the United States during the decade beginning in
number
badly
Most
under serious handicaps, including reliance upon
solution
the
and
Stafl Training in Institutions for Juvenile Delinquents, the value
of which
from governments, voluntary agencies and the general public and (3) to provide additional opportunities for permanent solutions for the problems of refugees. The welfare of children throughout the world and the status of family life were given comprehensive attention in a 1959 report of the international survey of programs of social develop-
The
delinquency
juvenile
of
The general assembly of the United Nations designated as World Refugee year the 12 months beginning in June 1959. More than 15,000,000 children were among the 47,000,000 persons whose only homes were in barracks or makeshift refugee shelters. The objectives in this year were: (i) to focus attention on its
prevention of juvenile
the treatment of youthful offenders.
in
ply houses and equipment companies.
tributions toward
UNICEF
from $11,000,000 (1959) to $12,000,000.
for i960
shows
which cures trachoma to the
children in his classroom. Arabic, English and French versions
were available from
delinquency; and increasing the U.S. contribution to
of family life
is
an important and basic
preparing children and youth for participation in a
world of change, which was an avowed goal of the 1960 White House conference. Other subjects already featured in preconference meetings of planning committees in
all
of the states
the east
the Pacific ocean. Area:
5.932,995;
(Dec. 1958
286,396 sq.mi.
est.)
pop.
;
(1952 census)
7.384.403. Capital, Santiago, pop.
(1952 census) 666,679; (1958 est.) 830,897. Other leading cities (1952 census. 1958 estimate in parentheses) Valparaiso, 218.829 :
Mar,
Concepcion,
included juvenile delinquency, mental retardation, mobility of
(271,431);
population, emotional disturbance and numerous health prob-
120,099 (163.798); Antofagasta, 62,272 (77,240); Talca, 55.059
lems.
The employment
Vifia
del
85,281
(105,779);
(68,293); Temuco, 51,497 (63,877); Chilian, 52,576 (65,215); mainly Christian, 54.782 (67,950). Religion:
young children complicates family life and for many of these children imposes health and moral hazards. The federal children's bureau, assisted by the
Talcahuano,
bureau of the census, estimated
1958. submitted his austerity program to the Chilean congress
of mothers of
1958 that of 5,073.000
in
dren under 12 years of age with mothers working
full time,
chil-
about
400.000 were caring for themselves while their mothers were
away from home. The congress gave
Roman
Catholic. President in 1959: Jorge Alessandri.
History. in
Jan.
—
Pres. Jorge Alessandri,
1959. In general,
it
more businesslike procedures plan called for general wage
who took
increases even though, soon after
Alessandri had expressed the view that in-
congenital heart disease, in recognition of recent progress in
tion.
the diagnosis and treatment of this disease;
both of Chile's large labour confederations
for several services in
funds
which
state funds are
increasing grants
matched by federal
maternal and child health services, crippled children's and child welfare services) continuing inquiries through
(e.g.,
services
;
congressional hearings on the causes and prevention of juvenile
Nov.
aimed at economic stability and government administration. The
his inauguration,
creases should be granted only
The program,
in
in
1959 to several aspects of child welfare, appropriating $1,500,000 for care of children with
attention in
office
when justified by higher producmet w'ith strong opposition from
nevertheless,
—the
Single Centre
Workers (C.U.T.C.H.) and the National Labour conand by the Socialist-Communist Popular federation (C.N.T.) Action Front (F.R.A.P.) and two of the centrist parties, namely, the Christian Democrats and the National Popular party. of Chilean
—
CHINA Both labour bodies demanded wage increases substantially in excess of those provided for in the president's proposed legislation. Although both houses of the congress supported the bill it was weighted down, upon passage, by a large number of amendments which weakened the provisions that Alessandri considered essential. He found it necessary to veto most of these amendments and later requested special powers for one year to under-
1
take specific steps necessary to assure operational
!
economy and
administrative efficiency in the offices of government and state-
}
owned
enterprises.
i
was strongly opposed by C.U.T.C.H. and by three political groups F.R.A.P., the Christian Democrats and the National Popular party all of Alessandri's request for special powers
—
I
—
which represented large segments of the opposition to the president's program for economic stabilization. On the ground that
I
!
strikes
;
should not be called for purely political reasons, the
strongly anticommunist labour confederation, C.N.T., repudiated
!
its rival
,
C.U.T.C.H.'s
24-hour strike in protest against
call for a
the austerity program.
With the support
of the Conservative,
I
Liberal and Radical parties,
the president was voted special
powers enabling him to reorganize the public services without parliamentary interference. The
Law
for
Economic Consolida-
which embodied the program as approved, was put into effect on April 2. tion,
One of the
first
acts of the Alessandri administration
devaluation of the peso.
The
was the
president's contention that de-
valuation would attract foreign capital and improve the trade
balance met with considerable opposition in congress on the
ground that a greatly cheapened peso would lead to In
March
the International
peso, thus reflecting confidence in the president's stabilization
program which had as one of its broad purposes the control of inflation. The average wage increase of about 32%, granted early in 1959 to lessen the burden on agricultural and other lowpaid workers during the inevitable rising-cost stage after the initiation of the austerity program, exerted strong inflationary
As
a result, the cost of living during the first seven
months of the year rose 27.8^, or more than
in the
correspond-
ing period of 1958.
In line with the second broad objective of the program, that of encouraging foreign capital investment to engage in Chilean enterprise, the minister of finance,
Roberto Vergara, succeeded
and financial assistance from the International Monetary fund, and from both public and private sources in the United States. In addition to $132,000,000 received from these sources, European banks and investors provided total loans of in securing credits
i
1
'
$150,000,000.
The
inflow of foreign private capital into Chilean
industry gradually increased
!
Industrial production
I
cline
I
its
momentum
moved upward,
over the previous two years. The
throughout the year.
as contrasted with a derise in
copper prices was
a favourable element in Chile's 1959 exchange position. See also Foreign Investments. (A. E. Tr.) Education
—
1956 there were 6,SS6 primary schools with 1,011,429 pupils and 389 secondary schools with 125,445 pupils and (1954) 112 ^technical schools with 30.988 pupils and 15 norinal schools with 6.284 In
1
pupils. University education
was available
at the state university of Chile (8,329 students), the Catholic university of Santiago (2,753), 'be University of Concepcion (1,846), the Catholic university of V'alparaiso (1,219) iand the .\ustral university (founded 1954). Finance. The monetary unit is the peso with a par value of 0.91 cents U.S. currency. Under the unified exchange system instituted Jan. 27, 1959, the peso was valued at 0.0952 cents. The 1959 budget, as approved by congress in Dec. 1958, estimated revenue at 389,666,329,000 pesos and U.S. $71,492,400 and expenditure at 407,491,254,000 pesos and $53,667,475. The i960 budget, as submitted to congress, totaled 644.744.000.000 pesos and $80,500,000. The external debt on March 31. 195S. totaled
:
(41%), Germany (17%). the U.K. (14%), the Netherlands (6%) and (6%); chief suppliers, the U.S. (si%). Germany (11%), the
Argentina
U.K. (7%), Argentina (4%) and Brazil (3%).
The railway system totaled 5.2S4 mi. in 1950. of which 3.899 mi. were owned by the government. In 1954 there were 30.203 mi. of highways, of which 10.895 were surfaced. On Jan. i. 1958. there were 60.960 automobiles and 66.810 trucks and buses. According to Lloyd's Register of Shipping, the merchant marine had 102 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating 230. 8S3 gross tons on June 30, 1958. Telephones (Jan. i, 1958) numbered 160.343. of which 67.4% were automatic and 58% of which vfere located in
Santiago.
—
Agriculture Production of the principal crops in the 1958-59 crop year was estimated as follows (in metric tons): wheat 1,007,000; barley 98.000: oats 115.000: potatoes (1957-5S) 858.000; rice (rough) (195758) 91.000. Livestock estimates included: cattle (1958) 2.590.000: sheep (195(5) 5.874.000; pigs (195S) 800.000; horses (1955) 500.000. Wool production in 1958 was estimated at 50.700.000 lb., greasy basis. The fish catch (1957) totaled 157,413 metric tons. Timber production (1957) totaled 5,400.000 cu.m. Manufactures. In 1953 there were 4.109 manufacturing establishments (S or more employees) employing 186.600 persons and with gross value of production totaling 91.464,000,000 pesos. Production estimates included: pig iron (1958) 304,800 metric tons; steel (1958) 348,000 tons; wheat flour (1957) 726.000 tons; cement (1958) 727.200 tons; woven cotton fabrics (195S) about 48.300,000 yd.; manufactured gas (1958) 151,200,000 cu.m. The index of manufacturing industries stood at 102 in 1958 (1953 = too). Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1957) was 1,006,100 kw.; production (1958, public use only) totaled 2,568,000,000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production in 1958 included: copper 467,211 metric tons; nitrate of soda 1,280,065 tons; iodine 1.329 tons; iron ore (average metal content 60%) 3,633,355 tons; coal 1.999,397 tons; gold 70.858 fine oz.; silver 1,775,709 oz. Petroleum production on Tierra del Fuego totaled 885.198 cu.m. (about s,57S,ooo bbl.). (J. W. Mw.)
—
—
Encyclopedia Britan,nica Films.
—Chile
(People
of
the
Country
Estates) (1940).
inflation.
Monetary fund approved the exten-
sion for a year of a $30,000,000 stand-by credit to strengthen the
influences.
157
—
Trade and Communicalians. Exports in I9S8 amounted to $388,461,000; imports, $414,813,000. Leading exports were copper (59%), nitrate of soda (10%), iron ore (6%), iron and steel products (3%) and wool (24>l-igsi published lor the East Europe Institute (1959); Vaclav L. Benes el aJ The Second Soviet-Yugoslav Dispute (1959); Richard C. Hottelf "Khrushchev's German Gambit," Orbis (spring 1959); Ralph Talcot Fisher. Jr., Pattern for Soviet Youth (1959); Ferdinand A. Hermeni "Totalitarian Power Structure and Russian ForciKn Policy," The Jourm oj Polilirs (Auk. 1959): William Benton, This Is a Challenge (1958) M. K. Dziewanowski, The Communist Party oj Poland (1959); Walu Z. I.aciueur. The Soviet Union and the Middle East (1959); John i Badeau. "The .Soviet Approach to the .Arab World," Orbis (spring 1959) Frank N. Tragcr (cd.), Marxism in Southeast Asia (1959): Gene I Ovcrstrcet and Marshall Windmiller, Communism in India (1959); Choi Ming Li, Economic Development of Communist China (1959); Richar Walker, "Letters From the [Chinese] Communes," The New Leadt (June IS, 1959); Clarence B. Randall, The Communist Challenge I American Business (1959); Hans Kohn "United States Policy in tb Cold War," Current History (Oct. 1959). (H. Ko.) Encvclop/edia Britannica Films.—CAma Under Communism (1959) Arnold Toynbee: Nationalism, Democracy, Communism (i4lh lecture c the series, "A Changing World in the Light of World History") (1958). .S.
in the
Membership of fhe Communitf Parlies*
munists as
IFifsl
date, the yeor of porty's foundatior; second dole, yeor o( lolejt 01 party's metnbershipl
developed Latin-.\merican countries.
A. Courlries o( the Commu^^ist bloc
—
Free World-Communist Intercourse. The non-Stalinist period brought after 1954 a gradual relaxation of the "iron curtain" attitude, of the almost insuperable barriers with which Stalin sought to protect his communist empire from any contact with the free world. Since that time the intercourse between the two
worlds had been steadily growing. In 1959 artists from the Soviet Union visited the United States and were received with as much
New York
acclaim as the
Philharmonic S>Tnphony orchestra
Soviet Union during the summer. its
cow, and Vice-Pres. Richard
The United States arranged a and way of life, in Mos-
M. Nixon went
Soviet exhibition was arranged in
New
L Mikoyan and
there to inaugurate
A
similar
York, and the prominent
F. R.
12,500,000 Rumonio |1 921 ; 1958) 8,239,000 Bulgorio (1 919; 19581 1,422,199 Hongory (1 91 8; 9581 North Vietnam (1930; 1957). 1,427,000 Albania (1 941 957) 1,181,195 Mongolia (1 921; 958). 1,052,809
.
.
.
1
(1946; 1956) .
.
.
(1918; 1958).
.
Belgium (1921; 1958)
.
.
Finland (1918; 1958),
.
.
.
Denmark (1921; 1958)
.
.
.
.
.
France (1920; 19581 Germon Fed. Rep. (1948;
.
.
c.
50,000 12,000 10,000 30,000 200,000
c.
10,000 26,749 20,000
c.
1,000
c. .
.
.
.
.
C. Countries of the For
Burma (1939; 1957)
.
.
.
.c.
.
.
.
Combodio (1950; 1957) Ceylon (1943; 1958) India (1921; 1959) Indonesio (1920; 1959) Jopon (1922; 1958)
.
.
.
.
the fact that Pres.
c.
Irelond ( » ; 1959) Italy (1 921 1957) Luxembourg (1 921
Harold Macmillan had suggested after
his \nsit to
Moscow
.
Netherlands
Norwoy
(1
;
1
.
.
.
.
.
91 8;
1
.
(1
.
1
1
1
;
.
;
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
E:!s'
8,000 1,000 2,000
a-
loos
1958)
.
.
.
957,
1
958)
.
Molayo 930; 957)t 957) t Nepal 95 (
(
.
1
1
1
1
1
;
.
1 9571« 930; 958)t 957)
Pakistan (1948; Philippines
(1
Thoiland
»;
(
1
1
.
.
.
.
.
Bolivia (1949; 1957) Brazil (1921; 1958)t Chile (1921; 1958)
.
.
.
.
-
.
,
.
5,000
.
.
•Including candidate
.
.
.
.
.
.
members,
.
.
.
5,00 9,00 5,00
25,00 6,00
.
.
.
755,06
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
latin
5,00 5,00 3,00 3,00 3,00 5,00
.
America
75,000 Haiti (1 930; 958) t 5,000 Honduros (1 920; 1 958)t 60,000 Mexico (1 91 9; 958). »; 1 9581* 45,000 Nicoroguo 5,000 Panom6 (1 930; 1 959)t 300 Poroguoy (1 928; 1 959)t 12,000 Peru (1 928; 957)f 1,000 Uruguay (1 920; 958) 500 Venezuela (1 931 1 959) .
1
.
.
(
.c.
... .
.
.
New Zealand (1924; 1958) 1
.
...
Colombia (1926; 1959)t Costa Rico (1930; 1959)t Cuba (1925; 1959) Ecuador (1928; 1957) El Salvador (1925; 1958) Guolemala (1924; 1958)t
.
1,700,00 50 15,00
Countries of Austrolasio
G. Countries of Argentina (1920; 1957).
.
Stu-heasl Asia
3
(1
1
;
,
.
Countries of the Middle East
F.
Australia (1920;
50,00 42,8«
.
.
.
1
.
.
.
5,000 Sudan (1 956; 959) 2,000 Turkey (1920; 1957)t 2,000 United Arab Republic: Egypt (1 920; 1958)t. 8,000 Syria (1 930; 1 958) t c. 8,000 Countries of North Amer :3 E. Stales (1921; 1958)t. 7,000 Canada (1 922; 1958)
Iroq (1932; 1958) Israel (1921; 1957) Jordan (1951; 1958) Lebanon (1930; 1958)t Persio (1920; 1958) f.
.
.
958). 959).
922; 1 959) Portugal 92 958) t. Spoin (1921; 19581* Sweden (1 92! 1 959) Switzerland (1 92 958) Yugoslavia (1 91 9; 1 957)
1,500,000 50,000
.
D.
.
.
;
300,000
.
....
LJniled
.
.
.
865.00 484,23 403,ig 460,00
.
.
.
Other Europeon countries
(
t958)t Greot Britain (1920; 1959) Greece (1920?; 1958)t Iceland (1930; 1958)
.
.
1
.
.
B.
Austria
1
;
North Korea (1925; 1958). Polond (1918; 1958)
....
Dwight D. Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to visit the United States in September and promised to return the visit. It was an unprecedented measure and its unique character was enhanced by the fact that the Soviet leader was accompanied by his wife and family. Eisenhower's in\'itation was occasioned by the deadlock over Berlin, an issue raised by Khrushchev in Nov. 195S and not settled by the foreign ministers conference which met for several weeks in Geneva, Switz., during the early part of the summer of 1959. Khrushchev's visit to the United States was regarded as a step in preparation for a summit conference, which British Prime Minister
.
Kozlov, visited the
United States during the year.
More important was
92 1; 1958) (1903; 1959)
Czechoslo.akio (1921; 1958) German Dem. Rep.
industries
the fair and then to travel through the Soviet Union.
Soviet leaders, A.
II
U.S.S.R.
.
which, under the leadership of Leonard Bernstein, visited the large exhibition, showing
China
1
,
1
is
.
.
;
1,000 tThe Communist party
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
6,00 4,00
.
.
20,00
.
.
banned.
early in the year.
Khrushchev's visit to the United States made it clear that though the communist leader emphasized in general terms his desire for peace, he reacted negatively to any proposal for a compromise on the concrete issues dividing the free world and
Community Chest: see United Funds-Community Chests Community Planning: see City and Regional Planning Municipal Go\-ernment; Urban Transportation, U.S. Compensation, Veterans': see Veterans Administratioi
the United Nations on Sept. 18, he proposed general total disarmament within four years, but
Confectionery:
confined himself to generalities, as the Soviet Union had done
Congo, Belgian:
communism. Appearing before
in
two previous proposals of
of Nations by
Maxim
The increased
a similar nature
made
to the
see see
'Republique du Congo, Daniihiin nf bOngO, KcpUUllL Dl Moyen-Congo), a member state
formerl;
PnnfTn
intercourse between the
way
communist and the
free
for solving or reducing
tensions and dispelling the mutual distrust which
Candy. Belgl\n Overseas Territories.
League
Litvinov.
worlds had so far not opened the
(U.S.).
was founded
of th
bounded west by the Republic of Gabon north by Cameroun and the Central African Republic, east ant French Community,
is
CONNE CTICUT southeast by the Belgian Congo, south
by the Portuguese Congo
(Cabinda) and southwest by the Atlantic ocean. Area 134.749 (1959 est.) 765,000; mainly Bantu Negroes; Europeans (1956 census) 10,429. Language:
sq.mi. Pop. (1950 census) 684,450
dialects. Religion:
Bantu
animist with a strong Christian mi-
towns (pop. 1957 est.): Bra2za\alle (capital 99,000); Pointe-Xoire (38.000); Franceville; Dolisie. Prime minis-
443 (168,500); Bridgeport, 158,709 (169,300); Waterbury, 104,477 (114,800); Stamford, 74,293 (89,300); New Britain, 73.726 (88.100).
nority. Chief
1959, Fulbert Youlou. French high commissioner,
ter in
Georg>'.
History.
by
1958,
Guy
History.
Congo was proclaimed on Nov.
of
28,
Fulbert Youlou. appointed
Noire
The
to
constitution
was adopted by
The
supporters on Feb. 23. the opposition having retired.
its
consti-
tution pro\ided for an assembly which
The power
minister. the
to initiate
would invest the prime legislation was shared between
assembly and the government.
During
on Feb.
a riot
16.
members
of the
M'Boshi
tribe, sup-
the Balali. supporters of Youlou. attacked one another.
There
were 120 killed and 200 wounded. Opangault was arrested.
sect,
some followers of
which refused to pay
the
taxes,
Andre Matsoua
(d.
On
1942)
were being moved to a new
35 died from suffocation. At the elections held on June 14. the supporters of Youlou obtained 64'yc of the votes cast and 49 seats out of a total of 61. Youlou was re-elected prime minister, and Opangault was (Hu. De.) set free. locality.
Congregational
Congregational Christian Churches Christian at
Plymouth
in
life in
America
to the landing of the Pilgrims
1620 and to the arrival of the Puritans
at
Salem
The united life of these two streams of spiritual concerns had grown by 1959 into a fellowship of 5.506 local churches with more than 1.400.000 members, and a Sunday School enroll-
in 1629.
ment of appro.ximately 770.000. During 195S. 103.663 members were added to the membership of the local churches. Gifts of benevolences during that year totaled $10,155,582
$57-333-522.
The
and
church expenditures amounted to
local
total value of local
church property of the
denomination was $606,294,174. Congregational Christians completed and dedicated 41 newchurch buildings during 1958 and began a two-year campaign to raise $7,500,000 for Christian higher education a fund to pro-
—
vide a Christian ministr>' in the interest of higher education both in the
United States and throughout their foreign mission
The General Council
and adjourned June
time allowed by the state constitution. For the
in 82 years the
3,
1959.
time
first
Democrats controlled both the senate and the
house of representatives as well as
elective offices.
all
Several resolutions were passed by the house of representatives as the first step
toward amending the state constitution.
Among
these resolutions were the requirement that the election of gover-
nor and lieutenant-governor be paired occasional occurrence
to delegate
when
in
the two top
order to eliminate the oflficials
belong to dif-
fields.
of the Congregational Christian Churches
"Home-rule" powers; the necessity of
a three-fifths
majority in the general assembly to override a governor's veto; the preservation of voting privilege six
one town to another within the
months after moving from
state.
Two
laws of major importance would abolish the county form government and the minor court system, both of which had existed since colonial times. The county govermnents would cease existence on Oct. i, i960, at which time the necessary county functions would be transferred to the state government. of
Traditional local court systems, the municipal court judges and
would be replaced on Jan. i, 1961, by The circuit court would be composed of 44 full-time judges, one of whom would be chief judge. Other measures of state-wide interest included the prohibition of discrimination by any person in renting or selling housing consisting of five or more units; discrimination was also prohibited in employment because of age, defined as between 40 and 65 years of age; the Greater Hartford Bridge authority was abolished and its responsibilities transferred to the state highway department; employers were prohibited from discharging or discriminating against employees who were elected to the general assembly; the Merritt Parkway commission was abolished and its functions were placed in the state highway department; tax exemptions to farmers on poultry, livestock and farm machinery which had been on a temporary basis were made permanent the rental of rooms in hotels and motels became subject to the education, welfare and public health tax, commonly known as the sales and use tax. the justices of the peace
a
Churches trace their
7,
ferent political parties; the authorization to the general assembly
porters of Jacques Opangault, the leader of the opposition, and
Sept. 28. while
biennial session of Connecticut's gen-
Following the usual practice, the session consumed the maxi-
head of the government, transferred the capital from PointeBrazzaville.
—The regular
assembly convened Jan.
eral
mum
—The Republic
the territorial assembly.
181
and their population (1950 census and July 1959 est.) are: Hartford (the capital), 177,397 (185,600); New Haven, 164,cities
new
circuit court system.
;
In other important actions the General .Assembly revised the
Workmen's Compensation
act;
increased
unemployment com-
acted with the Evangelical and
pensation from $40 to $45 weekly; a uniform commercial code was compiled from the various laws dealing with commercial
the United
transactions;
Reformed Church (q.v.) to form Church of Christ (g.v.) in Cleveland. 0.. June 25, 1957. The United Church of Christ was in process of preparing and adopting a constitution and of co-ordinating and unifying the programs of the uniting communions. (F. Ho.)
Congress, U.S.: see United States Congress. Congressional Investigations: see Ad\t;rtising Federal Communications Commissio.n; L.abour Unions. Congress of Industrial Organizations: see Labour ;
Unions.
stocks and non-stock corporation laws were re-
vised; spending authorization reached $716,347,514 with an addi-
approved for borrowing; the biennial salary was increased from $600 to $2,000 effective in
tional $375,010,000
of each legislator
The the
elective state officers,
all
Democrats, holding
Abraham
office
for
were:
governor,
A. Ribicoff; lieutenant-governor. John N.
Dempsey;
four-year term beginning Jan.
7.
1959,
secretarj- of state. Ella T. Grasso; treasurer,
comptroller.
Raymond
S.
John A. Speziale;
Thatcher; attorney general, Albert L.
Coles.
Pnnnoptipilt
liUlincCllCUl.
"Nutmeg
named the "Constitution state" and nicknamed "Land of Steady Habits' and Officially
one of the original 13 states, is situated in the southwestern part of New England. It has an state." Connecticut,
area of 5.009 sq.mi. of which
(1950)
2,007.280;
July
I,
no
1959
sq.mi. are water; population est.,
2,415.000.
The
largest
—
Education. For the school year 1958-59 there were 774 elementary schools with 10.652 teachers and 274,907 students: 69 junior high schools with 1.S99 teachers and 63,339 students; iii high schools with 4,679 teachers and 102,586 students; 23 colleges and professional schools with 37.900 students: 4 state colleges with 6,210 students; 4 junior colleges with 2,727 students; 15 state vocational-technical and state-aided schools with S.963 students. In 1957-58 there were 255 parochial, ecclesiastical and private schools with 3,245 teachers and 88,463 students. The commis-
——
CONSERVATION, SOI L — CONSU MER CREDIT
182
sioiuT o( education was William J. Samlcrs. Sociol Aitlttonca and Public W«1far«. During the year ending June 30, 1959. $10,517,139 was paid to 17,533 persons for old-age assistance; $13,383,336 to 38,631 depelident children; $410,563 to 370 blind persons; $3,403,053 to 3,768 disabled persons. On Jan. i, I9S9. the State Veterans hospital had 1,084 patients; in the four slate hospitals for the mentally ill there were 10,663 patients as of June 30, 1959; in the two state institutions tor mental defectives there were 4,373 patients as of Jan. i, 1959; in the five state chronic disease hospitals there were 780 patients on Jan. i, 1959. There arc two U.S. veterans hospitals in the slate. Communicotioni. For the year ending June 30, 1959, there were 1,130,709 motor vehicles registered; motor vehicle fees for the year ending June 30, 1959, amounted to $17,416,979 and the gasoline tax and special motor fuel receipts for the year ending June 30, I9S9, amounted to $44,800,083. .^5 of June 30, 1959, there were 1,191,941 telephone outlets; 38 stations; and 6 television stations. standard broadcasting stations; 8 As of Nov. I, 1959. there were 36 daily newspapers published in the state, 7 Sunday papers and 63 weeklies. There were 3,371 mi. in the stale highw.iy system, of which 338 mi. were of divided-lane type. Banking and Finonc«.--For the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, the slate treasurer and office of the comptroller reported; receipts, $364,446,338; disbursements, $490,930,517; bonded indebtedness, $574,363,000; limited liability, $397,000,000; self-liquidating obligations, $439,881,000; shortterm notes, $368,950,000. The bank commissioner reported the following as of Dec. i, 1958; 43 state banks and trust companies had assets of $1,375,889,753; trust departments of stale banks and trust companies had assets of $1,319,847,605; 71 savings banks had assets of $3,515,754,309, and 37 building or savings and loan associations had assets of $164,985,351. All corporations, associations, firms and individuals under the jurisdiction of the office of the bank commissioner had aggregate assets of
—
$100,000 or more. In 1958 Connecticut was the only producer among tb« states of calcium metal. Sand, gravel and stone constituted of the total value of mineral commodities. Connecticut ranked 4 5tb amonft the states in the value of its mineral output in 1958, with .08% of the VS.
94%
total.
Kni vcLoi'/KuiA Hrita.vnica Filus.
— Norlheastern
Stalei (1955).
Conservation, Soil: see Soil Conservation. Construction Industry: see Architecture;
Bridges;
buildlnc and construction industry; housing; riveks and Harbours.
Consumer Co-operatives:
see Co-operatives.
FM
$5,346,201,930.
Table
Crops of Connecticut
Principal
I.
Indlcoted 1959
Crop
Hay, all, loni Tobocco, lb Apples, bu Peochei, bu Peon, bu Potaloei, cwl
1948-57
1958
2,040,000 38,000 386,000 13,217,000 18,800,000 150,000 55,000 1,320,000
Corn, bu Ooli, bu
2,120,000 39,000 419,000 11,459,000 22,000,000 170,000 60,000 1,374,000
1
,802,000 65,000
403,000 22 ,684,000 16 ,469,000
131,000 51,000 1 ,361,000*
•1949-57.
During 1959 the use of consumer
Consumer
Credit.
growth
the United States reached
consumer
credit during the year brought about a sigon the demand side in the credit and capital markets and was a major factor underlying consumer demand. Amount Outstanding. Total consumer credit reached a new record peak of well over $50,000,000,000 late in 1959. By Oct. 31, 1959, two months before the usual seasonal high on Dec. 31, total consumer credit stood at $49,872,000,000, $6,176,in
nificant increase
—
000,000 more than the total amount outstanding a year
This compared with increases
from $300,000,000
in
in 1958, a recession year,
Total installment credit, which
from farm marketing for the year 1958 were $166,708,000. from sale of livestock and livestock products was $111,331,000. and the income from sale of crops was $55,487,000. There were 13.754 farms upon which were raised the principal crops of tobacco ($30,170,000); greenhouse and nursery products ($30,171,000); apples ($3,913,000); potatoes ($2,967,000); and tomatoes ($1,887,000). receipts
total
Table
is
by
employees
Food ond kindred products
.
.
.
.
Textile mill products
Apporel and reloted products Pulp, paper and products Printing ond publistiing Ctiemicals and products Rubber products Stone, clay and glass products.
.
Primary metol industries FobricQted metol products Machinery, except electrical.
.
.
.
.
.... .
.... .
lin
1957
1956
11,855 24,081 15,972 8,167 15,414 11,709 12,752 5,642 27,822 43,901
54,561
133,325 137,416 79,819 65,474 132,605 157,718 110,765 49,693 250,920 325,918 682,316 306,701 654,433 91,700
124,841 164,031 82,719 61,663 121,642 153,562
94,137 34,418 40,133 78,630 60,570 61,170 27,831 142,784 201,806 391,454 158,594 434,004 66,889
103,157
268,389 320,888 678,196 303,316 539,392
Source; Annua/ Survey of Manufacturet, 1957.
Manufacturing.
September 1959
— The
department
labour
State
total nonagricultural
reported
that
in
mid-
employment was 896.100. an increase
1958, with manufacturing employment 403.620 and nonmanufacturing employment at 492,480. The average weekly wage of production workers was $92.93 for an average of 41.3 hours per week, as contrasted with $87.23 for Sept. 195S for an average of 40.2 hours per week. Construction workers received the highest average wage of $117.69 per week. In manufacturing, those engaged in transportation equipment accounted for the largest group, being 74.190, while the largest group in nonmanufacturing were those engaged in trade, numbering 154. S30. (R. C. Se.) Mineral Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Connecticut in 1957 and 1958 whose value was of 23.470 over
—
Table
III.
Mineral Production of Connecticut lonsl
lin sliort
1957
Mineral
Quontity
Totol'
Clays Feldspor time
Sand and grovel Stone Oilier minerols
308,000 t .
.
.
.
30,000 4,777,000 6,199,000
...
1
Value
Quantity
$16,055,000 409,000
199,000 »
t
503,000
29,000 5,019,000 4,223,000
5.042,000 10,040,000 130,000
'Total has been adjusted to eliminate value of duplication tVolue included with other minerals. Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
.
in
.
stone.
.
of $38,-
changes
in
recent years which had ranged from a decline of
$100,000,000 in 1958, a recession year, and an increase of $560,-
"...
000s)
1957
14,543
.
000s)
1957
76,005 35,674 79,766
.
.
Electrical mactiinery Tronsportotion equipment Instruments and related products
lin
component
new record high
420,000,000 on Oct. 31, 1959, up $5,190,000,000 over the amount of such credit outstanding a year earlier. This compared with
Value added by manufoctur©
Salaries
and wages
All
Group
Industry
far the largest
000,000 in 1954, the previous recession year, to $5,390,000,000 in 195s, the record automobile year. At the end of Oct. 1959,
Principal Industries of Connecticut
II.
and $1,070,000,000
previous recession year, to $6,400,000,000 in 1955, the record year for total increase in consumer credit. of consumer credit, likewise rose to a
— The The income
earlier.
recent years which had ranged
in 1954, the
Source: U.S. Deporlment of Agriculture.
Agriculture
credit
new peaks. After some tendency to decline during most months in 1958, all types of consumer credit showed marked increases in extensions and in amounts outstanding during 1959. The substantial in
464,000 5,479,000 6,863,000 103,000
I
REPRESENT THE DARK SIDE OF THE BRIGHT BUSINESS PICTURE,
MR. TRUFFLE! ..." syndicate
a
1959 cartoon by Lichty
of Ihe
Chicago Sua-Timet
CONTRAC T BRIDGE amount of installment credit outstanding, $16,660,000,000, or 43.4%, was automobile paper, $9,530,000,000 was other consumer goods paper, $2,650,000,000 was repair and modernization loans and $9,580,000,000 was personal loans. of the total
Total noninstallment credit, including single-payment loans, charge accounts and service credit, totaled $11,450,000,000 at 1959, an increase of $99o',ooo.ooo during the
the end of Oct.
previous 12-month period.
Of
amount
the total
of noninstallment
charge accounts constituted the largest part, with $4,525,000,000 outstanding, followed by single-payment loans, $4,050,credit,
000,000, and
by service
Changing Patterns.
credit, $2,876,000,000.
—Commercial banks forged ahead
as the
measured by dollar amounts outstanding, in the installment credit field. On balance, commercial banks were the largest participants in the consumer installment most important
institutions, as
credit business during the year.
On
amount
Oct. 31, 1959, the
outstanding at the commercial banks was $14,820,000,000 of the over-all total installment credit outstanding of $38,420,000,000. Sales finance as their
companies were second, with $10,070,000,000
amount outstanding, while
retail
outlets
were
third,
with $5,100,000,000 installment credit outstanding. Sales finance
by commercial banks, with holdings of $7,330,000,000. Commercial banks outstripped the sales finance companies in net growth paper held during the year with an increase of $1,180,000,000
as against $930,000,000 for the sales finance companies.
in
During 1959 automobile paper was definitely less important the consumer credit picture than in 1955, the previous high
year. In the
12
months ended Oct.
31,
1959, the increase in
automobile installment credit paper outstanding was 46.4% of the increase in total installment credit outstanding and 38.9% of the increase in total trast, in
68%
consumer
credit outstanding.
By
con-
1955 the increase in automobile paper outstanding was
of the increase in total installment credit outstanding and
57.1% of the increase in total consumer credit outstanding. Personal loans and noninstallment credit became more important in the consumer credit picture during 1959. During the 12 months ending Oct. 31, 1959, increases in these two forms of consumer credit constituted 36.1% of the increase in total consumer credit, compared with 28% in 1955. Noninstallment credit extended through credit cards, while still
small in relation to the total consumer credit picture, was
growing at a very rapid rate. The amount of consumer credit
was about $6,100,000,000. This was
about 1.8% of the seasonally adjusted annual rate of disposable
income
in the nation at that time.
In the
fall
of 1959, the ratio of installment credit repa>Tnents
to disposable personal income,
both taken at seasonally ad-
justed annual rates, was about 13.2%. This was a
new record
above the corresponding percentages of 12.2% in 1955, 13.1% in 1957 and 12.9% in 1958. See also Federal Reserve: System. (J. K. L.) Canada. Traditionally the chartered banks in Canada had not extended consumer credit on the security of finance paper. Their entry into the field in the second half of 1958 while they high,
—
enjoyed excess cash reserves resulting from the credit ex-
still
pansion of the 1957-58 recession was therefore the outstanding ev-ent of the 1958-59 period. Separate figures showing the credit extended by the banks for the purchase of durable consumer goods (notably cars) were not available late in 1959. A gain of
50%
almost
in the
amount of "personal loans mainly
to indi-
viduals for nonbusiness purposes" from $525,000,000 to $777,000,000 in the period from June 1958 to June 1959 can,
however, be assumed to
companies continued to hold the largest portion on Oct. 31, 1959, followed
of automobile paper, $7,400,000,000
in
183
credit in the fall of 1959
reflect
12-month period
vious
creased by only
Consumer dealers rose
this
mainly
this activity.
In the pre-
category of bank loans had in-
12%.
by finance companies and retail by 3.4% from £1,941,000,000 to £2.008,000,000. credit extended
This was about in line with the increase registered in the previous year but well below the increases of 6.7% and iS.5% for the 12month periods through June 1957 and June 1956. Competition
from the banks was probably the reason for the relative stability consumer credit extended by installment finance companies which stood at $788,000,000 in June 1959, as compared of the
with $796,000,000 a year
earlier.
The outstanding
credit of the
small loan companies increased from $384,000,000 to $429,000,000. Department stores had outstandings of $249,000,000 on their
books, as against $231,000,000, and "other retail dealers" $542.-
The
000,000, as against $530,000,000.
greater half of consumer
indebtedness to department stores and other retailers represented installment debt (58%), the remainder charge accounts.
The 1958-59 period was marked by a sharp reversal in moneThe tightening of credit and the consequent rise in the cost of money are illustrated by the rediscount rate of the Bank of Canada which is set every week at 0.25% above the tary policy.
average tender rate at which three-months treasury
From
bills
are
a low of
totaled
1.12% in late July 1958 this rate rose steadily to a high of 6.13% in mid-September 1959 and fluctuated around 5% in late October. The extent to which the char-
$387,000,000 at the end of Oct. 1959. up $40,000,000, or 10,3%, over the corresponding figure 12 months earlier. The amount
tered banks might be able to continue the financing of consumer goods purchases under conditions of continued monetar>' re-
of credit outstanding through credit cards
straint
outstanding through credit service stations and miscellaneous credit-card
at the
and home-heating
accounts
accounts
had been $216,000,000 end of 1955 and $119,000,000 at the end of 1952.
Extensions
and
sions, at seasonally
Repayments.
the calendar year 1958 in the
—Installment
credit
exten-
adjusted annual rates, were running about
$50,300,000,000 in the
000
oil
fall
up from $40,800,000,000 in above the total of $39,040,000,-
of 1959,
and far
calendar year 1955. Installment credit extensions on
sold.
was open to question.
PnntrjJPt RririO'O UUIIUdll DllUgi:.
(R. Rr.)
^'^'y^ ^^^
winner of the 195S champion-
ship of the
European Bridge league, won
the world contract bridge team-championship in
1959 for the
third consecutive year (the fifth consecutive victory for Euro-
automobile paper were running at a seasonally adjusted annual
pean teams), defeating both the United States and Argentina in matches held in New York city, Feb. 7 to 15. Again Italy was
rate of
represented
about $18,800,000,000 in the
were about
37%
fall
of 1959. Such extensions
of total installment credit extended.
by Massimo DAlelio, Walter Avarelli, Giorgio Belladonna, Eugenio Chiaradia, Pietro Forquet and Guglielmo
Installment credit was being repaid at a seasonally adjusted annual rate of $44,200,000,000 in the fall of 1959. The volume
U.S. team, whose nonplaying captain was Charles Solomon of
of such repa>Tnents
Philadelphia, Pa,, consisted of the five
had been $40,900,000,000
in the calendar
year 1958 and $33,650,000,000 in the calendar year 1955. Thus, while installment credit repayments late in 1959 were well above
had not yet risen as much extensions. As a result, the
the levels of a year previously, they relatively as
had installment credit annual rate seasonally adjusted of increase in total installment
Siniscalco, with Carl Alberto Perroux as nonplaying captain.
American Contract Bridge pionship: Harr>' Fishbein,
Lee Hazen
men who had won
The the
team chamLeonard Harmon and
league's 1958 Vanderbilt
Sam Fry
New York
Jr.,
and Ivar Stakgold of Washington, D.C., with the addition of Sidney Lazard of New Orleans, La.
The
(all
of
city),
U.S. defeated Argentina in the third match.
CO-OPE RATIVES
184 In Sept.
won
Palermo,
at
i duction of mined copper in 1958 was 3.930,000 short
compared with 4,050,000 tons in 1957, a decline of 4%. from a reduced output in the United States and decreased production in Canada, Chile, Belgian Congo and tons,
The
loss resulted
Northern Rhodesia, the principal copper-producing countries. The U.S. was first atfd Chile second in world copper output. Table
I.
— World Mine Production of Copper (In
1953
211.6 270.0 419.6
226.8 258.0 450.4
243.4 302.7 400.9
29.6 59.0 64.4 33.6
236.1 253.3 400.3 23.9 64.9 66.3 39.0
363.2
410.3
438.7
25.1 47.1
Peru . . . No. Rhodesia South Africa . United States
280? 928.3
Total.
lonsi
1952
74.2 35.6 352.0 37.2
.
000 short
1951
1954
30.1 73.1
1956
1957
275.5 354.9 539.8
267.0
262.1
359.1
346.8 509.5
46.6
445.5 51.3
3S5?
325?
334?
352?
925.4
926.4
835.5
35.3
36.2
34.4
33.4
2,900
3,020
3,050
3,110
1958
535.3 43.7
39.5 86.5 60.5 51.0
80.5 60.3 47.8 395.3 49.2
60.4 42.4
39.8
38.7
1955
259.2 326.0 477,9 26.2
36.6
90.1
89.1
66.8 63.0 480.3 51.0
71.6 54.9 441.1 54.6 470. 977.3
450?
430?
1,086.9 37.2
3,410
3,780
37.1
3,880
3,730
—
In 1958 the U.S. still led by a wide margin production and consumption of world copper. The U.S.
United States. in the
output was
27%
of the world total.
The domestic output (10%
lower than 1957) was at the lowest level since 1954. Consumption dropped 8% and was the smallest since 1949. Stocks of refined
copper at the end of 1958 were 56% lower and unrefined copper 6% less than in 1957.
stocks were
Table
Data of Copper Industry
II,
lln
Mine output
926.4 943.4
835.5 945.9
Foreign ore
1,293.1
1,211.9
.
Secondary reco> From old sera From new scrt Imports
.
.
.
the U.
407.1
525.1 677.1
432.8 594.8
274.8
215.1 312.4 1,521.7
1956
1957
1,104.2' 1,231.4 1,442.6 1,080.2 362.4
1,086.9"
979.3
'
1,069.1 1,352.5 1,001.6
1955
998.6 1,106.5 1,342.5
841.7 370.2 839.9
932.2 360.9 953.5 429.4
171.3 1,826.0
in
short lonsl
1954
.
.
Smelter output . ReBriery output
000
1953
997.5 345.0 989.0 514.6 474.4
930.7' 468.5 462.2 595.7 191.7 280.6
594.1
202.3 259.9 1,991.2
1,822.2
1,178.1
1958
1,454.2' 1,050.5
403.7' 841.9' 444.5' 397.4' 594.0 162.3 430.4 1,630.6'
350.9 797.4 411.4 386.0 496.3 124.6 428.0 1,460.5
'Revised. tAvailable for use includes total refinery efinery output, secondary from old and refined imports less exports; secondary from new scrap is only a turnover of metal process and does not odd to the supply available for use, ond other imports hove been covered in refined output from foreign ores. i
Imports were smaller, exports larger
in
1958 than in 1957. The
U.S. excise on copper imports (after two years' suspension) was
resumed July i, 1958. Total imports from most major sources dropped markedly. U.S. exports of refined copper rose 11% and were the largest since 1929. Most of the copper exported was
in refined
form. Export controls were relaxed in 1958.
Table
III.
— Mine Production
of
Copper
in the U.S.
California
Colorado Michigan Missouri
.
Montana
Utoh
.
'.
.
.
.
.
Washington
.
Others
.
.
.
•Revised,
In the
tin
1
958
first
nine months of 1959, recoverable copper output 747,180 short tons as compared with 698,551
in the U.S. totaled
tons in the
first
nine months of 1958.
to continue suspension of duties
On
July 28, 1959, a
on metal scrap
to
June
bill
30, i960,
was signed by Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower. Belgian Congo. As had been forecast, Miniere du Haut Katanga, the only producer, restricted copper output in 1958.
—
CORPORATION INC OME TAX — COTTON
186 Table
II.
— Corn Production ol
Iht Principal Producing Counlrlti
election.
Much optimism
IThouiandi of buiholil
Av«foo»
Avoroge
1958
1950-M
1935-39
4,402,474
3,799,844
3,112,091
2,319,334
265,000 214,500
400,000 300,000 215,000 155,500 202,744 144,000 142,000 140,000 120,000
410,000 1 90,000 247,000 120,098 130,000 141,390 125,000 112,232 115,450 99,892
242,000 70,000 215,153 301,964 174,400 47,423 172,000 113,000 80,132 67,240
Country
Unlud SlolM
IndlcoXid 1959
Chino
USSR '
(io'.ll
Arganllna Yuooilovlo
M»lco Rumanio
130,000
llolv
Union ol South Africa
.
.
124,000
India
5°%
the previous year and at least
above average.
1
It
was
in-
1959 crop would seek shelter under the support program and be added ultimately to the already unwieldy CCC stocks, for which no that
dicated
a
substantial
record
of the
fraction
major commercial outlet appeared available. The 1959 popcorn crop of 17 commercial producing states was planted on 152,000 ac, only 6i% of the 250.250 ac. of 1958, which produced a big crop of 493,000,000 lb. Indiana, Illinois, Iowa and Ohio were leading states, accounting for about three-fifths of the total. World corn production in 1959 was estimated at a new record level of 7,710,000,000 bu. from 250,680,000 ac, about
5%
above the previous record crop of
7,335.000,000 bu. harvested from 243,050,000 ac. in 1958. Not only the U.S., but Mexico, Yugoslavia and Rumania reported record high level production. Encyclop,«dia Britannica Films.
K. R.)
(J. —Com Farmer (1939); The Middle
States (1955)-
Corporation Income Tax:
Cosmic Roys:
see
see
Taxation.
Astronomy; International Geophysical
C0-OPERAT10N-19S9; Space Exploration.
developed from Costa Rica's success
and international trade increased slightly, while the dangers inflation seemed to have moderated.
Pnota Dino ^ uUSld nILdi located
Costa Rica
between Nicaragua and Panama. Area:
The
19,695 sq.mi.; pop.: (1950) 800,875, (1958 est.) 1.076,337.
population
about 8oTf white,
is
others. Capital:
102,297;
other
Alajuela
13,903
is
17%
mixed,
2%
Negro and
San Jose, (1950 census) 86,909, (1958
1%
est.)
parentheses):
(1958 est. in Cartago 12,944 (16,336); Heredia 11,907 (16,081); Limon 11,310 (14,815); Puntarenas 13,272 (17,069). Language: Spanish. Religion: predominantly Roman principal
cities
(16,702);
Catholic. President elected in 1958,
—
Mario Echandi Jimenez.
History. Costa Rican political events in 1959 indicated a moderating of the party divisions caused by the presidential election of the previous year. Pres. Mario Echandi's National
Union party held only 10 of the 45 seats in the legislative assembly and had to rely upon the varying support of third and fourth parties to offset some of the strength of former Pres. Figueres'
Jose
National Liberation party with
its
20 seats.
Echandi vetoed 18 bills passed since his election in Feb. 1958, while the assembly succeeded in overriding the veto only once. That body accused Echandi of being too neutral over the matter of dictatorship in Latin America and by a narrow vote censured him for attending formal ceremonies with the president of Nicaragua, Luis Somoza. There were occasional anti-Somoza demonstrations in San
of
Costa Rica extended diplomatic recognition to the revolutionary government of Fidel Castro in
Cuba
in Jan. 1959. Later,
however, Castro attacked Figueres for declaring that there was
Communist
influence in Cuba.
Coffee prices slumped while production rose for the third (T. L. K.)
straight year.
Education.- -In 1957 students enrolled included 168,000 primary and 15,68; secondary. The University of Costa Rica had 2,247 students in 1955. .According to the 1950 census, 21.2% of those 10 yr. of age and over
were
illiterate.
—
Finance. The monetary unit is the colon, valued in 1959 at 17.64 cents U.S. currency, official rate, and at 15.04 cents, controlled free rate. The national budget for 1959 balanced ordinary revenue and expenditure initially at 339,707,000 colones. Actual revenue in 1958 was 320,338,000 colones; expenditure 321,330,000 colones. The public debt on June 30, 1959. was 377,297,000 colones, of which 152,926,000 colones represented the external debt. Currency in circulation (July 31, 1959) totaled 162,300.000 colones; demand deposits, 243,200,000 colones. National income in 1957 was estimated at 1,885,000,000 colones. The cost-of-living index 100). (San Jose) stood at 112 in .\ug. i9S9 (i9S3 Trade and Communications. Exports in 1958 amounted to $91,900,000 (subject to final adjustment for revaluation of banana exports). Imports were $99,325,000. Chief exports were coffee (55%), bananas (29%), cacao (6%) and abaca (1%). Leading customers were the U.S. (51%). West Germany (26%), Canada (8%) and the Netherlands (2%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (52%), West Germany (io%), the U.K. (6%) and the Netherlands .Antilles (4%). Railway lines include 176 mi. of public-service railway and 329 mi. of plantation lines. In 1958 there were 6,067 mi. of roads, of which 1,707 mi. were all-weather and 611 mi. paved. Motor vehicle registration (Jan. I, 195S) included 11,295 automobiles, 7.009 trucks and 1,568 buses. According to Lloyd's Register oj Shipping, the merchant marine had 144 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating 510,307 gross tons. Telephones of which were automatic. (Jan. I, 1958) numbered 12,354, only Agriculture. Coffee production in the 1958-59 season (preliminary figures) totaled 865,000 bags of 132 lb. each. Exports in 1958 included: coffee 650.000 bags; bananas 8. 579. 125 stems; cacao 7.685 metric tons; abaca 2.095 tons. Sugar production in 1958-59 (estimated): 76,000 short tons, including 30,000 tons of panela. Livestock (1958): 981,000 cattle and 132.000 hogs; in 1958, 3,500 head of cattle were exported.
=
—
Central American republic.
in obtain-
and diversification of its economy. The Export-Import Bank of Washington granted $5,540,000 to help complete the last 90 mi. of the Inter-American highway in southern Costa Rica. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development authorized $3,500,000 for the importation of capital goods to aid the government's loan program in agriculture and light industry. The Bank of America planned to invest $10,000,000 in the growing beef cattle industry. The national budget was balanced, exchange rates were stable and there was marked improvement in the acre productivity of many crops over that of previous years. Both domestic ing international loans for the expansion
2%
—
—
Manufactures. The first census of manufactures (1950-51) showed 3.247 manufacturing establishments with 18,491 employees, total annual payroll of 32,584.000 colones and gross value of production aggregating 420,800,000 colones. Most important were 1,445 foodstuffs plants with 8,955 employees. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, I9S8) totaled 107.000 kw.; production (1957, public use only) was about 312,000,000 kw.hr. (J. W. Mw.)
Encyclop,edia Britannica Films.
Cost of Living: Pnttnn
uUllUII.
'-'"'^®aeld of 474 lb. per acre (against a record of 466 lb. in 1958 and a 1948-57 average of only 329 lb.), to provide a moderate
Jose,
especially favourable to labour; considered
he nevertheless sponsored a program of his own which would substantially increase social security coverage in the nation.
He
urged a plan of penal reform and private control of
vision
as
concession
opposed to the assembly's project of a to
the
National
that Echandi's position
university.
was stronger than
Many at
tele-
ten-year
observers
any time since
felt
his
1948-57 decade of 14,046,000 bales. More or less favourable weather, in spite of heavy rain damage, combined with the larger acreage permitted by 1958 legislation, and a new record
addition to existing surplus stocks.
Acreage was not so large as some had forecast; early year there was
much
uncertainty as to
how many
in the
cotton growers
would make the permissible choice (B) of planting
40%
more
than their base acreage allotments in return for price support
COTTONSEED OrL — COUVE reduced to an average of 24.7 cents per pound, basis middling |-in. staple,
of parity, instead of the (A) choice of continunormal allotment and receiving support at 80% of
parity or 30.4 cents per pound, basis middling J-in. cotton.
Approximately 69,138 farms, representing 7.2% of the
total
farms having 1959 cotton allotments and 2,544,573 ac. or about 20.6% of total allotment acres, selected the choice (B) program.
Thus the cotton acres for those farms were increased to 3,562,403 ac, and the total acreage available for all cotton farm allotments was 17,327,830 ac. More than 500,000 ac. of this was placed in the conservation reserve, and underplanting of allotments was comparatively large, especially in the southeast; 390,000 ac. were planted or
28% more
much below
15,-
lin
boles)
Averoge
Average
1959*
1958
1957
1950-54
1935-39
United States China (including Manchuria)
14,801
11,512 8,500 6,800 4,100 2,048 2,345 1,260 1,400
10,964 7,000 6,600 4,425
13,149 2,855 3,430 5,348t
1,861
14,093 4,520 5,880 3,382 1,705
2,085 1,360 1,350
1,333 1,320 1,665
1,954
825 573 460 505 443 320 330
600 225 783 505 492 280 292
624 383 557 450
249 248 289 379
8,000 6,900 4,000 2,074 1,710 1,375
U.S.S.R India
Egypt Mexico Pakistan Brazil
...
Turkey
825 625
Sudan Argentino Peru
...
Iran
493 400 330
Uganda
...
Syria
1,893
334
231
28
186
171
291
281
•Preliminory. flncludes Pakistan.
the free world (not including the United States) produced i6,-
A total 14,991,000 ac. were indicated for and the yield almost reached the magic goal of one bale
904,000 bales and the Communist countries 14,984,000 bales, both slightly below the previous year but above the 1950-54 averages.
Marketing quotas, approved by 92.2% of the farmers voting, were in effect for both upland and extra-long staple cotton in
yields,
The American-Egyptian extra-long
staple type, produced
jnder irrigation in the southwest, was indicated at 73,300 bales,
compared with 83,600 bales
in
1958 and an average crop of
49,700 bales during the previous decade.
September averaged 33.12 cents per pound, as compared with 34.54 cents per pound a year earlier. The price for extra-long staple was 55 cents per pound (65% of parity), unchanged from a year earlier. The i960 cotton acreage allotment in October was set at the legal minimum of 16,000,000 ac, conditional upon the probable approval by two-thirds of the growers voting in referendum on Dec. 15. The choice of exceeding individual farm allotments by 40% in return for lower federal price supports was extended. The national acreage allotment for extra-long staple cotton was 5et at 64,776 ac, down from 70,822 ac. in 1959. price to farmers for upland cotton in
From
a total U.S. supply for 1959-60 of 23,800,000 bales
(3,900,000 bales larger than the 1958-59 supply but well below
was anticipated that disappearance would be at least 14,500,000 bales as compared with 11,500,000 bales in 1958-59. Domestic consumption was the record 27,600,000 bales of
1956-57),
it
forecast at 9,000,000 bales against 8,700,000 bales in the preced-
much above the would leave a carry-over on Aug. i, i960, of about 9,300,000 bales, moderately above a year earlier. Most of it would be, as before, in Commodity Credit corporation stocks. U.S. imports of cotton for consumption, mostly under exports of at least 5,500,000 bales,
ing year;
2,790,000 bales of 1958-59,
quota, were 137,000 bales, capita
000 500-lb.
Covjntry
per acre.
The
187
(he Principal Producing Countries
than the 12,379,000 ac.
the average
planted in 1948-57.
IS
DE MURVILLE — Coffon Production of
22,444,000 ac.
planted in 1958, but
1959.
II.
65%
ing within the
harvest
Table
3%
lowest in 20 years.
lower than in 1957-58. U.S. per
1958 declined to 22.1 lb., the Complaints were heard that trading in major
consumption of cotton
commercial markets, as at
in
New
Orleans, had practically ceased
World Cotton Production and Trade.—World cotton new record high of
duction in 1959-60 was estimated at a
I.
—
U.S. Cotton Production lin
46,-
Of the
total.
by Leading Stales
000 SOO-lb. bales)
Average
Indicated
State 'enGi :alifornia >Misissippi
.
^rkonsos
.
.
.
Wizona
.
.
.
Mobamo
.
.
ennessee. 3eor9ia
.
.
•(iisouri
ouisiona raulh Carolina
Dklohoma •tew Mexico
.
lorlh Corolina
JlKerslotej
.
.
1959
1958
1957
4,570 1,950 1,600 1,540
4,308 1,604 961
3,632 1,537
925 734 439 419 352 275 297 299 313
981
760 725 640 520 510 485 415 375 343 325 43
World stocks increased
as trade in cotton declined
301
256 29
179 348 344 263 236 231
28
12,-
and 15,800,000 bales a year earlier. Importers bought only immediate needs because of declining prices; they awaited pansion, after Aug.
gram
i,
for ex-
of the U.S. payment-in-kind export pro-
payment pound was announced. The direct sales program to exporters was canceled. Cottonseed. It was indicated, on the usual ratio of lint to cottonseed, that U.S. 1959 production would total 6,142,000 tons, as compared with 4,798,000 tons in 1958, thus offsetting in major degree the smaller 1959 soybean crop. The average price to farmers in September was $37.90 per ton, as compared with $45.50 per ton a year earlier. The official support price was $38 (57% of parity), as compared with $45 per ton (65% of for upland cotton, for which an initial subsidy
of 8 cents per
—
parity) a year earlier.
Linters.— Production of cotton basis of outturn in recent years
linters
when
was estimated, on the
linters
production averaged
about 11.7% of cotton output, at 1,700,000 bales in 1959; 1958 production was 1,300,000 bales. Domestic consumption was expected to continue at the 1958-59 rate of 1,200,000 bales; imports in 1958-59 were 181,000 bales,- an increase of
26%
over
the previous year; exports for 1959-60 were estimated at 200,-
000 bales against 243,000 bales in 1958-59. Carry-over stocks as of Aug. i960 were anticipated at about 1,000,000 bales, up from 575,000 bales in 1959. Prices for felting grade (grade 3, staple 3) declined from 7.33 cents per pound in March to about 7 cents late in the year; chemical grade declined from 2 cents per pound early in the year to about
See also Textile Industry.
1.8 cents
—Cotton
per pound later. (J.
K. R.)
(1946).
Oil: see Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats. Counterfeiting: see Secret Service, U.S. Countries of the World, Areas and Populations of the: see Populations and Areas of the Countries of the World. Courts: see Law.
Cottonseed
1948-57
1,081
763 530 415 396
below
500,000 bales, as compared with 14,000,000 bales in 1957-58
pro-
610,000 bales, as compared with 44,215,000 bales in the previous year and a 1950-54 average of 38,180,000 bales.
direct result of higher
81,845,000 ac. average for 1950-54.
Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films.
because of government competition.
Table
The increased production was a
the 82,175,000 ac. used being only slightly above the
•
3,956 1,424 1,710 1,429
740 844 572 655 386 624 598 367 275 419 48
Couve de Murville, Maurice bom at Reims,
^Sr
of
"tJ'tT,
on Jan. 24. He graduated as doctor of law at the University of Paris and also received a diploma from the £cole des Services Politiques. He joined the ministry of finance in 1930 and ten years later was director of its foreign department. In 1943 he was a member of the French Committee of National Liberation in Algiers, and in 1944 was French republic, was
CRANBERRIES — CRIME.
188 for
becoming the following year French ambassador
Italy,
Rome. He was appointed
ing purposes into
to
1945 director of political affairs at
in
U.S.
two categories, urban and rural. The growth of unincorporated suburban areas populated by city folk and marked by the characteristics of city rather than rural life re-
of the Allied Advisory committee
member
appointed as French
From 1950 to 1954 he served as ambassador 1954-55 as French permanent delegate on the Atlancouncil, in 1955-56 as ambassador to Washington and from
the Quai d'Orsay.
suited in the inclusion in rural crime statistics of crimes cora-
to Cairo, in
mitted by and against the city people. The statistics were for
tic
reason not precisely representative of rural crime.
July 1956 to June 1958 as ambassador to the
German Federal
communities or areas based on present and future definitions by the bureau of the census:
Republic.
On June i, 1958, he became minister of foreign affairs in the De Gaulle cabinet and retained his portfolio in the Debr6 cabinet formed on Jan. 8, 1959. .. He led the French delegation
,,,,.,„',,, May
Big Four,
Il-Aug.
.
.L
at the
/-.
general assembly on Sept. 30, he said that France would grant Algeria self-determination but only within J
,
the
V^'Other cities" are communities with more than 2.500 inhabitants not included in the metropolitan areas. They comprise 15% of the population. 3. Rural areas include the total rural popuJation except for the small part which is included in the Standard Metropolitan Areas. It comprise! 24% of the population of the country.
framework of
.
Pres. Charles de Gaulle S declaration Oi Sept. 16.
Cranberries:
into three types of
, standard Metropolitan Areas. A .Standard Metropolitan Area (SMA) '^ generally a county which contains at least one city of 50.000 population, plus any contiguous counties essentially metropolitan in character and sufficiently integrated with the central city. The 1958 crime statistics are reported for 174 of these areas. They comprise 61% of the population of
c r »i. of the Geneva conference
1959. Addressing the United Nations
5,
this
correct
population of the United States has
this misrepresentation, the
now been divided
To
see Fruit.
This division of the inhabitants provides crime statistics for sec-
Credit, Consumer: see Consumer Credit. Credit Unions: see Co-operatives; Farm Credit System.
tions of the population that are truly rural.
Population Base.
—Crime
rates were formeriy based on the
decennial census figures. Since crime
^ ^" '^^^ fundamental changes in the tabulation of Primp II liMIIIC, U.O. Uniform Crime Reports were designed by the
as an area increased in population
is
a function of population,
between the decennial censuses
Federal Bureau of Investigation to improve the quality of the
crime rate became increasingly disproportionately high, and when new census figures became avaOable its crime rate dropped
crime index, to sharpen the distinction between rural and urban
disproportionately.
crime, to provide a
and
rates
to
more up-to-date population base
its
To correct this situation, crime now based on estimates of the current population, Crime Estimates for Nonreporting Areas. In
for crime
—
improve the accuracy of crime estimates for non-
reporting areas.
Crime
Index.
—A crime index
is
intended to serve as a conthe country.
known
from state to state and from area to area The new system bases such esrimates on the crime
the crime rate varies
within a state.
and that are committed which had served up to this point as the crime index, had defects which were somewhat correeled by the exclusion from the new index of manslaughter by negligence, statutory rape and larcenies involving the theft of likely to be
the past,
rate of the country as a whole, an unsatisfactory basis because
The
index should be composed of only those major crimes that are to the police
with criminal intent. Part
are
crime estimates for nonreporting areas were based on the crime
venient measure of the crime situation in
most
rates
rate of nearby areas.
I crimes,
—
The Crime Situation. Table I compares the 1958 crime based on the new crime index, of Standard Metropolitan
rates,
Areas, "other cities" and rural areas in the country as a whole,
The
The crime index, often referred to as major crimes, should not be composed of crimes that are not major. Approximately 75%
was nearly three times as great it was half again as great as the rural rate. The rural area crime rate was not so markedly favourable however in crimes against persons. Its murder and
larcenies involve thefts of property of less value than $50.
nonnegligent manslaughter rate was higher than those of either
property of value
of
all
many
In
less
than $50.
and cannot be under $50 were in-
jurisdictions these are petty larcenies
classified as
major crimes. Also, when thefts
eluded
the
in
crime
of the other two areas;
this petty larceny , ^i_J category. This resulted in an . 1 iL , , evaluation Olf tne total crime
Jab\e\.—195S Index Ofher
^°'°'
•
situation based inrlpT MLUauuil Udseu on an inaex
....
disproportionate ,
weight to the frequency of a .• „„,, ,^ff,,„ 1 petty Onense. a. relatively 1
inrrpasp increase
?rml1 small
npHv lar petty lar-
in
Ceny could mask a SUbstan..
l'
tial
Pop. 0001
lln
•
.
1
f
i_
decrease of such serious
standard MetropolHon Area. Rote per 100,000 mhabilanls o,f,„ ,;,;,, Rote per 100,000 Inhabllanls Rural oreos Rate per 100,000 inhabitonii United Slates total— 1958 United States lolal— 1957
1958 1957
105,734 25,490
....
Percentage change from
1
957
Table
i^
number
.
of crimes
m
the
For these reasons thefts S^io m in value VdiUC were e.\ ex.piU eluded from the new index. 1.^. 1/ ,, L n Urban Versus Kurol Orim-
under u uci
—in Tr,
the r,,,.* past, *U the tl,,.
cities."
•
m-
hahitanf": naoitants nf the TTnifprI united c:t:.fp= btates 01 flip
were divided for crime-report-
in
Standard Metropolitan Areat. the United Slates
^o^pored With 1957 Aggrovoted ossauU
Murder and Total crimes nonnegllgeni Forcible In Index manslaughter rope Robbery 1,221,208
4,800
10,390
1,155.0
4.5
9.8
161,238 632.6 171,476 407.9
3.4
4.2
15.9
2,539
3,116
5,222
6.0
7.4
12.4
84,471 79.9 10,613 41.6 18,446 43.9
843
1,055
66,071 62.5 4,054
Lorcetiy
Auto
Burglary
over $50
ttielt
514,201 486.3 79,410 311.5 86,176 205.0 679,787
313,231 296.2 40,055
228,044
157.1
38,264
215.7 25,20(
98.S
17,713
91.0
42.1
1,553,922 1,422,285 896.9 835.2
8,182 8,027
75,347 66,843
113,530 110,672
603,707
4.7 4.7
7.6
43.5 39.3
65.5 65.0
392.4 354.5
391,550 354,972 228.0 208.4
270,96! 265,17J
+7.4
0.0
+10.5
+10.7
+.8
+10.7
+8.4
+.4
rote
II.
— Percentage Change
14,561
12,886 8.4
156.4 155.7
in
Frequency of Crimes
in Cifies,
7
957- J 958
^^^^^^ ^^^ fopPop. group
.
index.
r..-|-4„ inolity.
rape and aggravated assault rates
Source: Uniform Crime Reports, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Annual Bulletin, 1958, Tables 3 and 4.
,.1. u- 1. robbery which together comprised less than 4% of the to-
tal
42,035 173,260 170,293 173,260 170,293
rate rate
crimes as murder, rape and ,,
of Crime
and Rural Areas, With
Cities,
fell in
which gave
its
were higher than those for "other
index,
more than 40% of the total number of crimes in the index
rate in the metropolitan areas
as in the rural areas; in other cities
39
ciHes over
lln
250,000
l''""%7''£°°'°°° Cities /iO.UOU to o 1,000,000
9^1,1,^500,00010750,000 19 cuies 250,000 to 500,000 78 cities 100,00010 250,000 1 65 cities 50,000 to 00,000 337 cities 25,000 to 50,000. 741 cities 10,0001025,000. 1
1,448 cities under 10,000 riiai 2,808 cities
.
....
0001
Totol
35,437 ''•'^°
+7.6
5,133
+4.0 +12.3 +5.8 +10.0 +8.6 +9.0
5,311
7,082 11,655 11,227 11,824 ii,694 8,085 89,922
+"
+12.1
+12.5 +8.9
nonnegligent manslaughter
•
Aggrovaled
Forcible
larceny over $50
AulO
rape
Robbery
ossault
Burglary
+5.0 +*-°
+10.4
+4.3
+10.0 +*•'
+9.3
+0.3
+'•='
+12.9 +'^-'
+"
+*-^
+3.6 +7.4 +6.8 +1.7 +9.6 -0.6 -18.1 +18.4 +3.2
+2.9 +6.9 +21.9 +17.9 +20.9 +14.0 +21.1 +17.9 +13.0
+4.2 +22.4 +13.8 +17.0 +17.2 +12.6 +20.7 +8.9 +13.7
+12.7
+5.7 +17.5 +7.6 +9.7 +12.6
+" 0.0
+27.3 +3.3 +4.1
+s.3 -5.5 +1.5 +1.4 +3.5
Source: uniform crime Repor/i, Federal Bureou of Investigation, Annual Bulletin, 1958, Table 5.
+17.1
+7.9 +12.8 +13.1
+12.5 +17.0 +14.0 +11.8
+12.1 +10.1
+16.0 +10.3
Ihefl
-Si
+U -4.« +6.8 +5.3 +!.< +1.! -|-0..'
+i.(
.
CRUDE OIL — CUBA The
189
You+h-ful Offenders.
—Table III shows the percentage
of
1958 arrests in the various crime categories that involved persons under i8, under 21 and under 25 years of age. Two-thirds of those arrested for auto theft were under 18; nearly half of
those arrested for burglary and for larceny were under this age.
Nearly a third of
all
persons arrested for
all
offenses
were
under 25 years of age. The number of persons under 18 years of age who were arrested increased
8.1%
in 1958,
whereas the
total of arrests for all
ages increased only 2.5%. Arrests of persons under 18 years of
age increased 12.6% in 908 cities under 25.000 population as
compared wath only 7.1%
in
330 larger
cities.
The proportional
increase in the arrests of youths was greater than the increase in the
number
of youths in the population.
Bureau of Investigation; Juvenile Delinquency; Police; Prisons; Selective Service, U.S. See also Federal
(0.
ACCUSED RACKETEER,
Vincent Rao, walking away from newspaper photographers after appearing before the New York State Investigation commission, May 11, 1959. Rao pleaded the 5th constitutional amendment 20 times to
questions asked by the investigators
Table
I also
shows the percentage change
the country as a whole between 1957 and 1958. in all crime categories except
slaughter,
in
crime rates for
The
rate increased
murder and nonnegligent man-
which remained unchanged.
Table II shows the percentage change
in
frequency of crimes
between 1957 and 1958 in cities of various population groups. Cities with populations between 750,000 and 1,000,000 had the crime;
least increase in
cities
with populations between 250,000
and 500,000 were next most fortunate in this respect. The cities of a size between these two, and cities under 25,000'population,
had the most marked increases est
in crime.
—
the Crime Occurred. The nine states with the highcrime rates, listed in the descending order of the rates, were
Where
Nevada, Florida, Colorado, New Mexico, Michigan and Texas. The nine states with the
California, Arizona,
Rhode
Island,
lowest crime rates, arranged in the ascending order of the rates,
were North Dakota, Mississippi,
New
Hampshire, West Virginia,
Nebraska, Iowa, Wisconsin, Vermont and Maine.
—
Toble III. Percenfoge of 7958 Arrests of Persons Under 78, Under 27, ond Under 25 Years of Age* and Percentage Change, I 957 to 7 958, in Number of Arresfs of Persons Under 1 8 Years of Age and in the Number of Arrests of All Personsf Pel
Tolol
Murder and nonnegligent
i
Monsloughter by negligenc
Robbery Aggrav Othe
oulls
— —
.
Burglory breaking or ©nl< Larceny theft Aufo theft
....
Embezzlement and fraud. Stolen property; buying, r« f^orgery end counterfeiting Forcible rape
;ing
Prostitution end commerciolized vice Other sex offenses Norcotic drug laws
Weapons; carrying, possessing, etc. Offenses against family and children Liquor lows Dri g while intoxicated Disorderly conduct . .
.
.
.
Drunitenness
Vogroncy Gambling All
other offenses.
.
'Dato from 1,586 cities »er 2,500 cont. tOolo from 1,238 cities »er 2,500 cont Jkope ond other sex off. se figures for 1957 since beginning in 1958 st utory rope f offenses. Combining th.
W. W.)
THE CUBAN REVOLUTION «n by rebel forces Jan. 1, 1959. Led by Fidel of Gen. Fulgencio Batista was o was senth an unsuccessful plot for which Castro 1953 amnesty for nd 30 of his followers were released in a general tenced to 15 years' imprisonment. H remained until the end where he Mexico for country left the Cai political prisoners May 15, 1955. mountains of he invaded the island. Hiding themselves in the of 1956 when, with a force of 100 m until late in 1958 when they cap. Is conducted Intermittent guerrilla raids Oriente province, th its climax with the takmg of Santiago reached drive rebel The Cuba. eastern in il port cities cond largest city of the nation. Castro entered Havana Jan. 8, 1959 ernment with Manuel Urritia as president, himself as premi who resigned and was replaced by Osvaldo Dorticos of 500,000 persons celet Above Castro addressing a press conference after speaking to a rally that because of the "will of the 6th anniversary of the July 26 uprising. He announced had resigned July 17 when he attacked Urritla's government,
The government
Castro, the revolution had begun July 26, I
are held at gunpoint in a Ha Right, scenes of the revolution. At top, Batista supporters executed an estimated 600 persons. Centn before being jailed. By May 15 Castro's war courts had tanks and troops entering Havana in January Havana street fighting between a policeman and a rebel sympathizer on a
hand-to-hand
CURACAO^CURLING make him
born Cuban, so as to
any post, including
During 1959 Guevara presided over military
the presidency. prisons,
eligible for
made
directed courts-martial, and
extensive tours of
Asia, North Africa and the U.S.S.R., ostensibly to negotiate the sale of sugar and secure credits for the Cuban government. Although the program repeatedly announced by Castro had
emphasized the urgency of an immediate, honest election of a congress and executive, as soon as he was in power he indicated could wait
elections
that
—
Triumphant
indefinitely.
neighbouring countries were improvised.
of
realization
to
visits
flew to
Caracas,
and made sweeping prophecies of the
Venez.. for a few days early
He
proletarian
a
throughout
revolution
the
Americas. The United States was becoming critical of the Castro
from a group of newspaper men, Castro proceeded to Washington, D.C., where he called on the secretary of state and congressional committees and made lengthy speeches. When asked whether he had been accurately quoted as having said that Cuba would be neutral in any contest between east and west, he replied evasively to the effect that Cuba was poor, and had neither troops nor arms. When financial help from the United States was not forthcoming, Castro turned to expropriation, forced lending, new and heavier taxation and exchange control. A program of expropriaregime, so, on the strength of a contrived invitation
exceeding 1,000 acres, regardless of the
tion of all landholdings
owner's nationality, was written into an "agrarian reform" decree
promulgated on June
Cuban
1959. as part of the
4,
The National Agrarian Reform
tion.
institute
constitu-
was placed under
the direction of a geographer long associated with Latin-Ameri-
can
communism, Antonio Nufiez Jimenez;
pay for lands taken over
it
was authorized
to
20-yr. bonds, inconvertible until
in
42% interest and using only tax valuations as payment. The United States protested on June 11.
maturity, paying the basis for
Five
members
Cuban
of the
replied that the
law was a
Cuba
cabinet resigned the next day. final
and sovereign decision and
its
conditions would not be modified.
Dissension in his administration because of the clash with
1
the United States led Castro to tender his resignation as
prime
I
minister on July 17; he declared that he could not
i
President Urrutia,
whom
he characterized as a
work with
traitor.
A
prole-
I
tarian
demonstration to demand Castro's return had the intended
effect of giving
I
him
a popular endorsement in his resistance to
was forced to resign and being replaced the same day by Osvaldo
alleged "foreign imperialism.'' Urrutia I
was placed under arrest,
'
Dorticos Torrado as president.
1
Many
I
defections occurred during the year, including the chief
Major Pedro Luis Diaz Lanz. Each of these was by an alleged "attack" from abroad, or the alleged dis-
of the air force. I
offset I
covery of a
I
new "conspiracy." By October, genuine
uprisings
191
deadline on accepting bids for the Nicaro nickel mines and refinery, in eastern ofiicially.
Cuba, so that the matter could be discussed plant, in which the U.S. had invested many
The Nicaro
millions of dollars, was acquired originally under formal treaty
between the two governments. Ernesto Guevara was appointed president of the National Bank of Cuba on Nov. 26. Widespread withdrawal of savings from many banks took place at once. On Dec. 9, Guevara decreed a sweeping program for the control of foreign exchange. This
was followed by a request to all industrial firms to receive army officers who would be assigned to them for training in the conduct of their respective businesses.
On Nov. 22, the Cuban labour federation withdrew from the Inter-American Regional Organization of Labor, avowedly antiCommunist, and announced the formation
of the Latin
Ameri-
can Confederation of Revolutionary Workers.
See also Dominican Republic; Foreign Investments; Organization OF American States. (C. E. Mc.)
—
Education. In 1953 there were 7,560 primary schools with enrollment of 669,610 and 18.419 full-time and 6,736 part-time teachers; 129 secondary schools, 30,076 students; 4S technical schools, 17,553 students; 38 teacher-training schools, 10.230 students. The 4 universities had 19.842 students and 711 faculty members, .\ccording to the 1953 census, 23.6% of those 10 yr. of age and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the peso, officially pegged at par with the U.S. dollar but sold at a discount in the free market during most of 1959. Government revenue in the fiscal year 1958-59 (July i-June 30) totaled $403,647,027. According to official figures, the public debt totaled $788,138,500 on Dec. 31, 1958: in addition, bond issues of quasi-government totaled $450,000,000. Currency in circulation (.Vpril 30, 1959) was $433,000,000; demand deposits, $585,000,000. National income in 1958 was estimated at $2,140,000,000. The cost-of-living index (Havana) stood at 100 in July 1958 (1953 100).
—
=
Trade and Communications.
—
Exports in 1958 totaled $733, 518,578; imLeading exports were raw and refined sugar (76%), tobacco and products (7%), molasses (4%) and minerals (4%). Leading customers were the U.S. (67%), Japan (6%). the U.K. (s%), Spain (2%) and the Netherlands (27o): leading suppliers, the U.S. (70%), the U.K. (3 7o), Canada (2%), Spain (2%) and India (2%), Railroads (1956) included 3,677 mi. of public service lines and 7,579 mi. of industrial lines. Roads (1956) included 5,083 mi. of all-weather roads and 3,208 mi. of other roads. On June 30, 1959, there were 171,560 privately owned automobiles, 53.739 trucks and 4.348 buses. Telephones (Jan. I, 1959) numbered 170,092, 74% of which were located in Havana. Agriculture. Production of sugar in the 1958-59 season, limited by government decree, was about 6,478,000 short tons; that of blackstrap molasses, 306,160,000 gal. Production estimates for other crops in 1958-59 included rice (rough) 500,000,000 lb.; coffee 600,000 bags of 132 lb. each; cacao 5,300,000 lb.; oranges 2,250.000 boxes of 70 lb. each; grapefruit 200,000 boxes of 80 lb. each; tobacco (1958) 91,527,245 lb.; henequen 19.800.000 lb. Livestock estimates (1959) included cattle 5,850,000, hogs ports, $777,093,989.
—
1,780,000, sheep 210,000. Manufactures. Production in 1958 included beer 123,240,701 1., alcohol 119.012,824 1., cement (i9S7) 651,000 metric tons, rolled steel products (1957) 15,000 tons, paper (1957) 36,000 tons, rayon (1957) 9.786 tons, tires (1957) 156,233. Sales of electric energy by the one large company (representing about 90% of total production for public use) were 1,462,980.000 kw.hr.: total installed capacity (Dec. 31, 1957) was about 700,000 kw. Minerols. Copper production totaled 13,992 short tons in 1958. Exports included nickel 20.341 metric tons, manganese ore 68,709 tons and chrome ore 55.218 tons. Petroleum production totaled 343,532 bbl. (J. W. Mw.) Encyclop.«dia Briunnica Films. The West Indies (1944).
—
—
—
were occurring sporadically in Pinar del Rio, the westernmost
I
Curacao:
province of Cuba, as well as in the central provinces.
I
Throughout 1959, the economic condition of Cuba rapidly deteriorated. Unemployment rose and construction under private 'auspices declined steeply. The fall in world prices of sugar,
see
Netherlands Antilles.
I
I
tobacco, cacao and other
Cuban products made matters
still
worse. j
The
seizure of property in the
of the law on agrarian
name
of 1959. After the ambassador of the U.S. returned to Washington in September for
Ireform continued throughout the
|an indefinite stay,
and
it
autumn
became evident
that there might be con-
working out an extension of the arrangeIment under the U.S. Sugar act (due to expire on Jan. i, 1961)
isiderable difficulty in
jwhereby
Cuba had been
sugar market through
its
in
the
virtually assured of one-third of the
U.S.,
Cuban government indicated Raiil Roa. that Cuba would be
the
foreign secretary.
Coming back from defeat in its opening contest, the Hibbing (Minn.) Kleffman four swept past eight rivals to win the third annual United States championship bonspiel at Green Bay, Wis., March 31-April 4, 1959. The Hibbing entry, which carried home the Marshall Field trophy, symbol of national supremacy in the sport, was composed of Terry Kleffman, Dick Brown, Nick Jerulle and Francis Kleffman, skip. Hibbing's lone setback was to the Grafton Curling Club of North Dakota. The two-time North Dakota state champions Glenn Gilleshammer, Wilmer Collette, Donald La Bonte and Orvil
—
Gilleshammer, skip 6 victories
and
Wisconsin (tied
3 at
—
finished second in the final standing with
defeats.
5-4)
;
Following were Massachusetts and .Alaska,
Illinois,
Michigan and
New
willing to discuss the
for expropriated
York (each with 4-5); Washington (3-6) and Connecticut
land.
to postpone the
(2-7).
amount of compensation Simultaneously, Cuba requested the U.S.
,
—
CURRENCY— CYPRUS
192
Thirty-two rinks from the midwest and eastern sections of the country competed in the nth annual national championship of the U.S.
Women's
association at VVausau, Wis., Feb. 12-15. Mrs.
David L. Wilson and her Skokie Country Club Thistles from Glencoe, III., captured the big prize, the Wauwatosa Granites trophy. The favoured Wauwatosa (Wis.) Granites, led by Mrs. Erwin
Appleton trophy for second place. The
Nell, gained the
Indian Hill prize went to Mrs. Frank Pollen's Chicago club
Exmoor award was won by Bemice
Heathers, the rink;
Yeski's Hibbing
and the Skokie trophy was taken by Mrs. D. C. Evans and bonspiel for the Gordon.
Emmet and Mohawk
medals took place at the Schenectady (N.Y.) Curling club Feb. 5-8. Grand National competition for the famous Gordon medal
Roy
resulted in victory for
Reid's Utica (N.Y.) no.
"Lefty" Hutton's Schenectady no.
Emmet
series.
1
quartet.
i
team triumphed
Two New York Caledonian Curling club Mohawk medal. Bill Terry's no.
battled in the final for the
turning back Jack Henderson's no.
i
team gained victory
Utica's no. 3
the
in
teams 2
rink
players, 10-8, for the prize. in the traditional
Mitchell
The Allen medal went to the Utica men; Schenectady's no. i rink took the Country Club cup; and a Hawkesbury (Ont.) rink won the Dewar medal. Top prize in the 26th annual Northwest title meet at Superior, Wis., went to a home town rink, Pat Donahue, John Horst, Jon Orstad and Bud Somer\dlle, skip. The Superior four defeated Hibbing, led by Sig Oland, in the main event of the finals for the Grand Rapids trophy. Fred Dailey's Bemidji (Minn.) club four triumphed in a field of 56 Canadian and U.S. rinks at the play at Utica, Jan. 22-25. no. 5
Duluth (Minn.) bonspiel Jan. 22-25. A Toronto rink, with Stewart Graham as skip, was first in the 73d international bonMichigan trophy at Detroit. Curling in Canada. Macdonald's Brier Tankard, Canada's most coveted prize, went to Saskatchewan's Richardson brothers, spiel for the
—
Wes and
Tom
sades,
Calif.
O'Rourke, Detroit; and Mike Hiltner, Pacific Allen
Somerville,
Bell,
the Eastern
honours
in
13. Bell
had broken
his
when he was timed
in
Tour
May
title
meet
at
won
N.J.,
Pali-
senior men's
Highland Park, N.J., Sept.
own world mark
for the i,ooo-m. dash
min. 12.6 sec. at Chicago, July 30. Rupert Waltl, Brooklyn, N.Y., captured the i6lh annual 50-mi. of Somerville,
i
New
30. Simes,
Jersey state junior
champion, won the lo-mi. preliminary.
World Champions.
—Antonio
Maspes of
victor
Italy,
in
1955-56. dethroned Michel Rousseau, France, as professional
her Appleton (Wis.) Tarn O'Shanters.
The g3rd annual
59 starters. The next three finishers were Bernard Dodd, Quincy,
Mass.;
Amsterdam Aug.
sprint titleholder, at
amateur sprint
retained
Italy,
9.
Valentino Gasparella,
Andre
honours.
Darrigarde,
France, gained the international road racing crown at Zandvoort, the Netherlands, Aug. 16, finishing the i8ii-mi. grind only a half length ahead of Michele Gismondi, Italy.
Tour de France. triumphed
in
— Federico
Bahamontes of Toledo, Spain,
Europe's blue-ribbon cycling event. Only 65 of the
120 starting riders remained when the 1959 race ended
in Paris,
July 18, after 22 days and 2,700 mi.
Six-day Racing. returned to
—After an absence since 1950, six-day racing
New York
in
March when
14 teams
competed
at the
io2d Engineers Armory. Fernando Terruzzi and Leandro Faggin of Italy finished
first.
See also Pan-American Games. see Societies
C.Y.O.:
(T. V. H.)
and Associations,
U.S.: Catholic Or-
ganizations for Youth.
PunrilC bJ|JIUOi
former British island colony and strategic base
'^^^^ jj,
eastern Mediterranean
jjjg
lies
about 40 mi. south
of the coast of Turkey. Area: 3,572 sq.mi. Pop.: (1946 census)
450,114; (1958 est.) 549,000 (Greeks, 78.8%; Turks, 17.5%). More than 10% of pop. can speak English; knowledge of Eng-
The cham-
lish is
pionship in the Quebec Coliseum was decided in a sudden-death
(cap.)
50,900;
Saskatchewan finishing with 10 wins and i loss. Alberta being second with 9 and 2. Manitoba took third with 7-3. Winnipeg, Man., played host to 458 rinks for six days in the 71st Manitoba bonspiel the world's largest.
18,500.
Governor
Feb. 1959 a conference was held at Ziirich between the Greek and Turkish prime ministers and foreign min-
The
on Cyprus.
Arnold, Garnet,
Ernie, skip, from Regina.
playoff for the second straight year,
—
British Consols event, carrying the right to represent the
won by Dick Bird's Winnipeg Granite club took the An Edmonton rink, skipped by John
province in the Brier championship, was
Elmwood
four. Bill Sharpe's
Grand Aggregate Trout, defeated
prize.
New
Brunswick's entry to give Alberta province
the title in the Canadian high school championship bonspiel at
Calgary, Alta.
International Competition.
—^The
spreading rapidly. Chief towns (pop., 1958 est.): Nicosia
History.
isters,
Limassol 38.000; in
—In
which led
A
1959, Sir
Famagusta 27,900; Lamaca
Hugh
Foot.
to the conclusion of a
same month and was attended by all parties to the dispute representatives of the Greek and Turkish communities in the island being invited to share in the negotiations
Cyprus was
to
become
a republic under a
Richardsons, after win-
suffrage for periods of five years.
A
games
Greek and three Turkish) would
assist
all five
Canada defeated the United States, 519-336. in competition Gordon International gold medal at Montreal on March
the
for 14.
(T. V. H.)
presi-
council of ministers (seven
Coinage; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates. See also under various countries. see
national championships of the
Amateur
Bicycle League of America were held at Kenosha,
James Rossi, Chicago,
111.,
them
in the exercise of
house of representatives chosen by universal suffrage and drawn in the proportion of 70% from the Greek C>T3riot and 30%
from the Turkish C>'priot communities. The London agreement also enxisaged the creation of separate
Wis., Aug. 21-24.
Greek Cypriot
the executive power. Legislative authority was to reside in a
with the champion Airth rink, skipped by Willie Young.
The 1959
—confirmed and
elaborated the solution outlined at Ziirich.
dent and a Turkish Cypriot vice-president elected by universal
ning the Brier Tankard, xasited Scotland and swept
Currency:
compromise agreement in London the
second conference w'hich took place
gained the men's
communal chambers,
one
two dominant communities in the island, these chambers having the right to impose on their respective populations taxes intended to meet the cost of communal projects and needs. Other clauses in the agreement concerned the structure and for each of the
composition of the
civil service, the
armed
forces, the judicial
one of the season's consistent winners, took home the men's junior open crown. Joanne Speckin of. Detroit, Mich., was the
system and, in addition, the separate municipalities which, as an experiment for a period of six years, the Turkish Cypriots would be allowed to establish in five of the chief towns in
women's open
victor.
Cyprus.
Chicago, Aug.
i,
senior open
title
while Jackie Simes, III, of Westwood, N.J.,
The
first
were named
four to finish a loo-mi. race at
Pan-American Games was victor in a field of
to the U.S.
team. Bob Tezlaff, Los Angeles, Calif.,
It
was
laid
down
in the
London agreement
that in the
future CyTJrus should not be united either wholly or in part with another state nor be subject to partition. A pact guaranteeing
the independence, the territorial integrity and the constitution
of Cyprus was to be signed between
Great Britain, Greece,
Turkey and Cyprus. The Cypriot and Turkish republics, together with Greece, would also enter into a joint military alliance. It was further enjoined that both these treaties should have in relation to Cyprus a constitutional status and force. Great Britain retained full sovereignty over two areas in Cyprus, and the Republic of Cyprus was to provide facilities which would permit Great Britain to develop and use these areas as military bases.
The London conference
power
in
also agreed that the transfer of
Cyprus should be completed not
later than Feb.
19,
i960.
On March
27, 1959,
Archbishop Makarios and Fazil Kiicuk,
announced the formation of
the leader of the Turkish Cypriots,
a council of ministers, which, acting in conjunction with the British governor,
would constitute
ernment of Cyprus
until the
in effect a provisional gov-
attainment of
independence.
full
Joint committees for the preparation of the basic treaties and for the drafting of a constitution met, the
March
one
in
23 and the other in Nicosia on April 13.
government stated
in
June that over
contribute a substantial measure public of Cyprus. Makarios
and
London on The British
a period of years
of financial
Kiiciik,
aid
to
it
would Re-
the
with the approval of the
Cyprus intended
council of ministers, declared in July that
to
remain within the sterling area (for at least ten years after the achievement of independence).
Gen. Georgios Grivas, the former head of Eoka, after talks held at Rhodes in Oct. 1959 to resolve certain differences of
opinion between himself and Makarios in regard to the imple-
mentation of the London-Ziirich agreement, gave a pledge of full support for the archbishop. On Dec. 13 a national election was held to choose a president for the Republic of Cyprus. Archbishop Makarios was elected to the presidency for a five-year term, by a margin of about two-to-one. Kiiciik was named vice-
president.
See also Greece; MrooLE Eastern Affairs.
(V.
P.)
J.
— Schools
(1958): elementary 744, pupils 80,000; secondary 54, pupils 25,600; technical and agricultural 6; teacher-training colleges 2, Education.
students 360. Finonce and Trade.
—
Monetary unit: pound sterling, with local coinage ;£ I (1,000 mils 357.14 mils^U.S. $1). Budget (1958): revenue £2 3,034, 597, expenditure £21,825,517. Foreign trade (1958): imports £36,700,000, exports £17,600,000. Main products and exports (1958, in long Ions); iron pyrites 820,000, copper pyrites 229.000, copper concentrates 115,125, gypsum 28,808, asbestos 13,118; also citrus fruits, carobs, potatoes, wine,
=
;
olives.
UlCliuUolUVdMd. Czechoslovakia is bounded west by Germany, north by Poland, east by the U.S.S.R., south by Hungary and Austria. Area: 49,366 sq.mi. (incl. autonomous Slovakia, 18,918 sq.mi.). Pop.: est.)
(1950 census)
12,338,450;
(April
1958
13,437,493 (incl. Slovakia 3,881,816). Nationality (1957):
Czech 66.5%; Slovak 27.8%; German 1.2%; Hungarian 3.0%; Ukrainian 0.6%; Polish 0.6%. Religion (1930 census): Roman Catholic
(Latin rite)
73.5%; Protestant
(all
denominations)
7.7%; Czechoslovak Church 5.4%; Greek Catholic 4.0%; Greek Orthodox 1.0%; Jewish 2.4%; atheist 5.8%. Chief towns (pop., Jan. 1958): Prague (cap.) 984,722; Brno 309,313; Bratislava 252,046; Ostrava 227,287; Plzen 135,282; Kosice 81,047. First secretary of the
Communist party
of Czechoslovakia and
president of the republic in 1958, Antonin of the council of ministers,
History.
Novotny; chairman
Vilem Siroky.
— Economic rather than
political
problems were fore-
.most in 1959. Industrial output continued to expand, and in
February
WOMEN OF
it
was announced that
had
NICOSIA GAZING UP AT FLAGS
come Archbishop Makarios on three years
it
his return
to
risen
by more than
held by a
Cyprus
In
crowd waiting
1959
after an
1 1
%
to wel-
exile of
DAHOMEY — DAIRY PRODUCTS
194 in
1058, bringing that year's production of bituminous coal to
25,812,000 metric tons, steel to 5,510,000 metric tons, and machine tools to 22,000 metric tons. Cash wages rose by only 2,2% but the situation of the wage earners was improved in
March by
io%-2o%
on certain essential foodstuffs and and some manufactured goods. Family allowances were raised for the admitted purpose of increasing the birth rate. The lower rates of pensions for old and disabled
price reductions of
articles of clothing
people were raised, though "fornier entrepreneurs and representatives of the capitalist system" were expressly excluded from
The need for even greater production in industry was repeatedly stressed, and in February a special Technical Development committee was set up under the direction of Vaclav Ouzky, former minister of precision engineering. Agricultural production increased by only 3.4*^ in 1958, and these benefits.
was given as the reason for continuing high food prices. In January it was decided to follow the Soviet example and sell off most of the machinery in the machine-tractor stations to the farming co-operatives, though the stations themselves were not dissolved. At a co-operative farming congress in March, this
Antonin Novotny,
first
cast that agriculture
secretary of the
Communist
party, fore-
would be completely collectivized by 1961. it was said that only 143 new co-operatives
At the end of May had been formed in the
first
quarter of the year, bringing the
embracing 74.7% of the country's arable land. With other forms of state-owned farms included, this meant that 79*^^ of the land was in the "socialist sector." In June the party central committee announced that compulsory deliveries of farm total
up
to 12,283,
revenue 96,100,000,000 Koruny, expenditure 95,900,000,000
e^t.);
Ko-
runy, including 45,700,000,000 Koruny (45.7%) allotted (or capital investments. Foriign Trad*. (1957) Imports U.S. $1,385,000,000; exporti U.S. $i,356,000,000. Main imports (in metric tons): iron ore 4,923,000: crude petroleum and products 1,609,000; bread grain 1,036,000. Main exports (units); metal-working machinery 8,481; trucks 2,602; passenger cars 15,858; motorcycles 80,119; tractors 14,445; coke 1,159,000 tons; plate glass 11.715,000 sq.m. The U.S.S.R. was the chief source of imports and main (irstination of exports (34% of the trade turnover); next came the German Democratic Republic (10%), the Chinese People's Republic (5.4%) and
—
Poland (5%).
—
Transport ond Communication!. Highways (l9s6) 120,889 km., incl.: main road 71,207 km. Licensed motor vehicles (Dec. 1957): cars 115,000; trucks 76,000; buses 3,600. Railways (1957): 13,446 km., incl. 446 km. electrified; passenger traffic (1957) 19,048,000,000 passengcr-km.; passengers transported 541,316,000; freight traffic (1958) 42,672,000,000
ton-km.; freight carried 174,360,000 tons. Air transport (1957): 293.500 persons carried; 135.000,000 passcngcr-km.; 4,612.000 ton-km. of cargo and mail. Telephones (1957): 743,172. Radio receiving sets (i9S7) 2,970,720. Television receiving sets (mid-1959): 420.000. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1958; 1934-38 in parentheses): wheat 1,350,000 (1,513,000); barley 1,215,000 (1,109,000); oats 905,000 (i. 212. 000); rye 921,000 (1,568,000); potatoes 7,149,000 (9,145,700); sugar beets (1957) 6,77S,ooo (4,664,000). Livestock (1958; 1934-38 in parentheses): cattle 4,091,000 (4,296,000); pigs 5,435,000 (3,144,000); sheep 889,000 (458,000); horses 517,000 (656,000); chickens 22,848.000. Industry. Employed in industry (1957): 2,028.000. Production (metric tons if not otherwise stated, 1958; 1937 in parentheses): coal 25,812.000 (16.672,000); brown coal and lignite 56.832,000 (17.895,000); coke (1957) 7,485,000 (3,280,000); electricity 19,620,000,000 (4,115,000,000) kw.hr.; iron ore (30% metal content) 2,796,000 (2,100,000); pi( iron 3,768,000 (1,675.000); steel 5,508,000 (2.301,000); cement 4.104,000 (1.273.000): sulfuric acid (1957) 445.000 (166.000); nitrogenous fertilizers 74,403 (24,500): phosphatic fertilizers 110,368; passenger cars (units) 43,440; trucks and buses 15,120; tractors (1957) 21,236; leather shoes 28,056,000 pairs: cotton fabrics 420,000,000 m.; silk fabrics (1957) 51,832,000 m.; woolen fabrics (1957) 38,241,000 m.; sugar 881,000 tons.
—
—
15% above the 1958 level. The cost of machinery and other services sold to farms was reduced but taxes
du Dahomey), a Community, is bounded west by Togo, north by the republics of Upper Volta and Niger, east by the Federation of Nigeria and south by the Atlantic ocean. Area 44,696 sq.mi. Pop. (1951 est.)
were expected
were raised and some state subsidies reduced. These measures to bring about the planned 40% increase of farm
many
output by 1965.
in the
produce would be abolished and a new unified system of prices introduced at about
The
private practice of medicine was reported to have been
brought to an end by the beginning of the year. In April a
re-
form of the education system on Soviet lines introduced a compulsory nine-year secondary system and provided for more practical training in industry and agriculture in later school life. The conference of the Writers' union in March and the Congress of Socialist Culture in June were both occasions for the reaffirmation of political control over creative artists.
ary journals,
Novy
Two
liter-
Zivot and Kveten, which had show-n signs of
independence, were
suspended.
A
successful
novel by Josef
Skvorecky, The Cowards, which dealt with postwar events
in
an
unheroic manner, w-as banned by the state. There were numerous trials,
with heavy sentences imposed, of priests, private traders,
suspected spies, thieves and embezzlers of "socialist property,"
and of many critics of the communist system. Czechoslovak foreign trade continued to expand, primarily with the Soviet Union and allied countries. Nearly half of the exports were of machinery and nearly half the imports were of
raw materials. Czechoslovakia's position
as the
main supplier
engineering products in the Soviet bloc was confirmed in at
the meeting of the Council for
Mutual Economic Aid
Albania. But the government also showed
much
of
May in
interest in trade
with countries of the middle east and Africa. Agreements were
concluded with the United Arab Republic, Iraq, Ethiopia, Ghana
and Guinea.
A
Czechoslovak cultural institute was established
—
Education. Schools (1957-58): nursery 6.262, pupils 255.309; primary (5-yr.) 9. 259, pupils 517.252; higher primary (8-yr.) 2,833, pupils i,i53,026; secondary (ii-yr.) 413, pupils 340,953; special 610, pupils 35.064: state apprentice training schools 246, pupils 79,351; factory apprentice schools 671. pupils 88,172; vocational 717. pupils 196.904; institutions of higher education, including four universities (Prague, Olomouc, Brno,
Bratislava) 40, students 77.555. Finance.
(1958
1.570,000;
est.)
nf 01
1,725,000, mainly
also Peul
allied tribes;
'^Rep^^blique
member state
of the French
Dahomi Negroes and
(Fula) and Hausa communities
north and Yoruba in the south; Europeans (1956) 2.767. Language: many local dialects. Religion: animist, with Moslem
and Christian minorities. Chief towns (pop. 1955 est.): Porto Novo (capital, 30,500), Cotonou (28,000), Abomey (18,900), Ouidah (14,000). Prime minister in 1959, Hubert Maga. French high commissioner,
History.
—The
mously by the
The
official
Rene
Tirant.
Republican constitution was passed unani-
territorial
assembly
at
Cotonou on Feb.
14, 1959.
language was to be French. The prime minister,
by the assembly, had executive power; he was responsible A tribunal of state was instituted.
elected
to the assembly.
At the general April
2
election
to
the
the Parti Republicain du
first
national
Dahomey,
assembly on
the party of the
prime minister Sourou Migan Apithy, won 37 out of a total of 70 seats. The Union D^mocratique Dahomeenne (leader Justin
Ahomadegbe") obtained 11 seats and the Rassemblement Demo-
Dahomeen
Maga. representing the tribes As the two opposition parties polled 234,311 votes and the government party only 144,038. disorders followed. On May 22 Maga became prime minister. Ahomadegbe had been elected president of the assembly. In September Apithy cratique
(leader Hubert
of the interior) 22 seats.
declared himself in favour of independence. to the
An agreement was
adhered
concluded with France for the construction
in four years of the port of traffic
Dahomey
Sahel-Benin entente.
Cotonou, providing for a yearly (Hu. De.)
of up to 300,000 metric tons.
(D. Fd.)
in Cairo.
rate, high
nohnmou Doniihlin UdlllllllBy, ncpUDIIU
— Monetary and
unit;
koruna ceskoslovenska with
fictitious, of 7.20
Koruny
exchange Budget (1959
United States milk production in 1959 declined by about i^ from the 125.200,000,000 lb. of 1958; the total for the period January through September was 96.655,000.000 lb., as compared with 97,521,000,000 lb. for the same period of 1958. Milk production per cow, which n' 1959, but
work was held up by
a strike for higher
wages commencing on July 6, 1959. At Navajo dam, on the San Juan river in New Mexico, the 383-ft,-high embankment was well ahead of schedule in 1959
20% of the 26,000,000 cu.yd. of earth fill placed than a year, at a rate of 600,000 cu.yd. per month.
with more than in 'ess
On n-i.j Udldl
the Snake river, major Columbia tributary.
second of three Hell's Canyon projects being constructed by Idaho Power company, was nearing completion during 1959.
river through
exported.
cipal dairj' countries,
See also
In the United States, on the Columbia river, Priest Rapids dam, 16 months ahead of schedule, was approximately 85% complete in mid-October 1959 when generation of commercial power commenced. At John Day dam, dowTistream, difficulty of sealing and anchoring the steel sheet piling of the cofferdam cells against the bare bedrock was overcome during 1959 by having divers place bags of concrete against the base of the sheet piling.
U.S. production of nonfat dry milk declined
062,000
Table I on page 196 lists 15 of the important dams of the world completed or under construction during 1959.
Oahe dam, earth fill on the world's embankment was being placed at a high rate, largest dump truck. The truck has a capacity
the Missouri river, at
largest rolled
fill
using the world's
—
DANCE
196 Table
Domt Compltlid
Chimf
I.
or Undtr Conilmclion During
1959
Mointun lislutM
Nam* Bhakfo
of
dam
.
.
.
.
Grond Dl«an» Karlbo
Sull«|
Angora .
Gl«n Canyon
Helmi Craah Colorado Dl«»nc»
.
....
North Forh
Typo
RIvar
....
Bralih Courtrlghl
.
.
.
.
.
Oohe Pilml Ropldi
Punlob, India Slb.rio, U.S.S.R. Colifornia Arlii U.S.
«lty
Ro«"
Drugilor. Oihar raiaii iiorci
The eardrum
Carried out durine the course of the operation.
Phyiitiooi' pr.icripiioni
new family
enabled the identification and
of viruses with the generic
classi-
name
adenoviruses. These viruses cause a grippelike illness with
of in-
flammation of the mucous membranes of the respiratory and ocular systems. At least 25 serologically distinct human and simian viruses in the adenovirus group had been isolated,
2,
Recently two new distinct hemadsorption viruses, types i and which were unrelated to the group of adenoviruses, were re-
covered from infants and children with acute febrile respiratory illness.
Less than
10%
of
all
respiratory illnesses are caused by rec-
ognized bacteria. The streptococcus sore throat
from moving freely in the oval window, thereby impeding transmission of sound waves to the inner ear and thence to the auditory centres in the brain. These conditions are approached surgically through the
more common illnesses of the upper respiratory tract. The symptoms of this condition are often similar to those associated
outer ear canal.
the constitutional
plate of the stapes (the stirruplike bone)
Julius Lempert,
who
193S opened new vistas in ear surgery,
in
reviewed the development of modern ear surgery from
its earliest
beginnings in the iSth century. Lempert's procedure of fenestration created a
window in by the
the one occupied
with a virus infection of the upper respiratory tract except that
symptoms
are
more
Physicians effectively control cold
severe.
symptoms due
to allergy
by elimination or avoidance of the offending substances, and by specific immunotherapy and antihistamine therapy: they
the lateral semicircular canal, replacing
control bacterial infections with chemotherapeutic agents. ever, there appears to be no specific
),
permitting
the affected ear to hear ordinary conversational voice.
The
re-
were reported as approximately 80% good. The chief drawbacks are that the operation leaves a large surgical cavity which sults
requires a lifetime of periodic rechecks and attention; the patient
disabled for several weeks; and there
is
considerable disturb-
ance of the balance system (dizziness or vertigo) during the convalescence, which
one of the
footplate of the stirrup, through which
air-borne sound could pass to the inner ear (cochlea
is
is
may
Stapes mobilization, like fenestration,
is
How-
will aft'ect
the course of the nonfebrile running-nose type of simple cold
or the febrile grippelike viral colds, except possibly
by the promo-
good health habits, increasing general resistance to infection and symptomatic management. An effective vaccine against serotypes 3. 4 and 7 of the adenoviruses was developed, tion of
and much
effort
was being expended
to develop a polyvalent
vaccine for the entire group of adenoviruses which were
re-
sponsible for a large segment of febrile respiratory illnesses.
persist occasionally for years.
used in the surgical
treatment of otosclerosis. The stapes mobilization operation
method which
is
Nosebleeding and High Blood Pressure.
made
—
J.
R. A. Mitchell
a survey of the frequency of nosebleeding in patients with
EARNINGS,
COMPANY— EAS TERN ORTHODOX CHURCHES
high blood pressure, and the blood pressure levels in patients
with nosebleeding.
Many
persons
who develop
epistaxis (nose-
On
of opinion strongly favoured prohibiting operation during the
bleed) have no knowledge of their hypertension and the nose
polio season even in children
when
ber of injections of the vaccine.
bleeds serves as the
it
may
bleeding
ment which
warning. In some instances,
first
occur simultaneously
is
in
is
disorders
as
coexisting influencing
factors
the prevention of paralysis.
must be
prove only of incidental significance as far as epistaxis
it
is
cerned.
Of
In Mitchell's study, 17 patients (4.5TJ) from a group of 374 who had high blood pressure had bled from the nose, and in 8
was the presenting symptom. According to Mitchell, these findings were probably an underestimate of the true frequency of epistaxis in these patients. Attention was drawn to of these this
the occurrence
of intestinal bleeding, in
gastrointestinal
coverable
disease,
in
the
this
absence of
group.
hospital because of nosebleeding
who were admitted
showed
a
to the
normal distribution of
age- and sex-adjusted diastolic scores. Eighty-nine patients with-
out local nasal disease had an age- and sex-adjusted score distribution
totally
different
from the general population.
He
concluded that in the absence of local nasal disease high blood pressure
is
not necessarily ruled out.
comment expressed
Editorial
II
prominent workers
polio season.
One
Three did not
gamma
or even
nate the
risk.
globulin before tonsillectomy might well elimi."
.
.
See also Hearing.
—
Bibliography. Julius Lempert, "Evolutionary Progress in the Surgical Treatment of Jliddle Ear Deafness of Otosclerotic Origin," J. Int. Coll. 31:464-474 (.\pril 1959), and "Principles Used in the Development of Modern Temporal Bone Surgery," Arch. Otolaryng., 69:515-528 (May 1959): .\bner M. Fuchs, "Differential Diagnosis of the Common Cold," Eye. Ear, .Xose and Throat Monthly, 38:129-136 (Feb. 1959); J. R. A. Mitchell, "Nosebleeding and High Blood Pressure," Brit. Med. /., 1:25-27 Surg.,
(Jan. 3, 1959); Editorial, "Epistaxis in Relation to Hypertension," Eye, Ear. ^'ose and Throat Monthly, 38:308-309 (.-^pril 1959); .\lbert B. Sabin, "Consideration of Change in Present Policy of Performing Tonsillectomies and .Adenoidectomies During Summer Months," Laryngoscope, 69:398-407 (.\pril 1959): Morris Greenberg, "Tonsillectomy During the Poliomyelitis Season," /. Pediat., 54: 722-724 (May 1959). (F. L. Lr.)
was
Company:
Earnings,
Earthquakes:
though
asters; Seismology.
high percentage of patients nosebleeding in the abis
associated with high blood pressure,
by Mitchell and others, various known factors ma)' play a prominent role and these cannot be completely disregarded. as held
It is
sound thinking at
quently
is
all
specifically object to the operations.
indicated that he tended not to object because "vaccination
doubt whether his unqualified conclusion was acceptable. Alin a
United States, and adenoidectomy during the
the thought that the results of
Mitchell's investigation were illuminating, but that there
sence of local nasal disease
It
in poliomyelitis in the
eight objected to tonsillectomy
dis-
In summarizing the results of his investigation. Mitchell found that 32 patients with nasal disease
see
see Business Review. Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S.; Dis-
Earth Satellites: see Astronomy; Space Exploration. East Africa, British: see Kenya; Somaliland Protectorate; Tanganyika; Uganda; Zanzibar.
times to realize that nosebleeding fre-
a warning sign of an underlying systemic disorder
which must be sought and dealt with. Available diagnostic tests should be utilized to prevent error which
may
prove of serious
hazard to the patient. As a general experience, epistaxis
is
a
benign process. Polionnyelitis
num-
con-
Apart from the h>TDertension, the likelihood of blood and other kept in mind. Although the hvpertension must be treated,
received an adequate
may
con-
centrated on the visible svTnptom.
systemic
who had
was noted that even successful immunization with the Salk vaccine had not prevented significant dissemination of the virus, which had been observed in the feces and had also been recovered from the pharynx of children who had received one or two, or even three, doses of Salk vaccine. Moreover, Greenberg stressed, the commercially prepared Salk vaccine is not of uniform potency. It is about 70% effective in
other organs, a develop-
frequently overlooked because attention
215
the other hand, Morris Greenberg believed that the weight
The Ecumenical Patriarch-
Eastern Orthodox Churches.
—A question posed by
in
Istanbul,
Turkey,
elected in February
1959 lakovos Koukouzes as successor to Michael Constantinides, Archbishop of the Greek Archdiocese
North and South America; Archbishop lakovos was enthroned the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity in New York city on
of
and Throat Operations.
ate
at
Albert B. Sabin was whether the widespread use of Salk vaccine
April
and the resulting diminution
His Grace Bishop Ezekiel of the Greek Archdiocese serving the midwestern states was promoted to archbishop and trans-
in the incidence of paralytic polio-
myelitis justifies a change in the policy of prohibiting the per-
formance of elective tonsillectomies and adenoidectomies during the
summer months,
operative
or so-called "poliomyelitis season." Such
work on the throat was condemned because of
in-
I,
1959.
ferred in
and
New
March 1959
to Australia as
Archbishop of Australia
Zealand.
His Eminence Metropolitan Antony Bashir of the Syrian
creased dissemination of the viruses during this period and the
Antiochian Orthodox Church with jurisdiction over
possible contamination of the severed nerves in the throat with
Orthodox
the viruses already present at the time of operation or localizing
vicar-generals.
in the
wound from blood
shortly after surgery.
in
The first two vicars named were Archimandrite Kazan, formerly of St. Elias Syrian church in Toledo, and Archimandrite Michael Shaheen, formerly of St. George's
0.,
the virus.
eastern sections of the archdiocese, visiting the
was shown that the immunity produced by the four doses of the vaccine had no effect on the duration or the amount of virus excretion, and that immune children were capable of infecting other fully vaccinated children who were in contact with
it
them
in
an institution under conditions particularly
suitable for fecal contamination.
Sabin
felt that
the conclusion appeared warranted that
Salk vaccine of sufficient potency and dosage
an adequate antibody response, one zation of virus in the throat either
may
when
given to produce
expect to prevent locali-
by prevention of deposition
from the blood stream, or by neutralization
mary implantation.
is
Syrian
V'asilios
Data gathered thus far indicated that the antibody produced by the Salk vaccine does not prevent extensive multiplication of Furthermore,
all
North America announced the appointment of three
at the time of pri-
Syrian church in Montreal, Que. They took over the western and personal representatives of MetropoHtan Bashir.
unnamed
A
churches as third vicar-
would be stationed at the archdiocese in Brooklyn. N.Y., and would represent the metropolitan during his absence from Brooklyn. Two new convents were opened by the Eastern Orthodox Church in the United States during 1959. The Russians opened a convent in Connecticut and the Serbians one in Ohio. The Holy Cross Greek Orthodox Theological school of Brookline. Mass., bought a 25-ac. site adjoining its own 35-ac. grounds. It was intended to serve as the nucleus of the projected Hellenic general
in 1959,
University of America.
See also
Church Membership.
(T. As.)
EAST INDIES. DUTC H — ED UC ATION
216 East Indies, Dutch:
see
Indonesia;
Netherlands New
countries to disrupt the proceedings.
In the economic
CiVlStlA.
and Moon, 1960:
Eclipses of the Sun (page
sec
Calendar, i960
Ecuador continued
field,
to a greater degree than in
xxii).
to
make
proKress.
foreign business and investment in 1959, possibly
It attracted
any previous period. Foreign
rcscrvei
remained at satisfactory levels and the export of bananas,
A Ecuador.
tX
ng the equator, after which it was named, bounded on the north and east by Colombia, on the and south by Peru and on the west by the Pacific ocean.
Ecuador east
republic on the west coast of South America,
is
Area 105,685 sq.mi. (including the Galapagos Islands, a dependency of 3,028 sq. mi.). Pop. (1950 census) 3,202,757; (1959 est.)
About i()% of the population is Indian, 41% mestizo, Caucasian and 10% Negro, mulatto and others. Quito (pop.
4,116,451.
10%
1950 census 209,932; 1959 est. 267,700) is the capital; other major cities (with 1950 census, 1959 est. in parentheses) are: Guayaquil, the main port, 258,966 (410,000); Cuenca 39,983 (66,800);
Riobamba 29,830 (38.900); Ambato 31,312 (44,300);
Loja 15,399 (26,000); and Latacunga 10,389 (23,000). Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1959: Camilo Ponce Enriquez.
—
History. During the closing months of 1958 a conflict developed between the municipal government of the port city of
Guayaquil and the provincial council of Guayas. There were charges of inefficiency and there was physical evidence that nicipal services
men were
had
suffered.
The mayor and some
mu-
of the council-
considered "disqualified" from service, but they re-
fused to relinquish their posts. Meanwhile, city workers went
on
strike.
poverty
General unrest, which stemmed from conditions of
in parts of the city, unsettled
labour conditions along
the coastal area, and poor health conditions, provided an at-
mosphere
and tenseness. Soon after the council mayor to resume his office, the city found itself in the midst of a dock strike. The national government intervened by calling the strike illegal and moving armed forces into the customs buildings. The strikers were then joined by the banana and petroleum workers who called the intervention unconstitutional, and sympathy strikes followed in of state
other
An
of uncertainty
made
possible for the
it
principal export
the
commodity, increased during the year. (A. E. Tr.)
—
Education. In 1955 there were 4.338 primary schools with 10,891 teachers and 461,847 pupils; secondary schools, 26,611 pupils; >i normal schools, 4,558 students; 64 technical schools, i},ioi students; ) institutions of higher learning, 5,859 students. According to the 1950 census. 43.7% of those 10 yr. of age and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the Sucre, valued during 1959 at 6.< cents U.S. currency, official rate, and since Sept. 30, 1959. at 5.6 cents,
w6
—
free rate.
The
total
1958 budget amounted to 1,570.000.000 sucres. Th«
1958) was $63,345,168; internal, 664,592,15] circulation (July 31, 1959) totaled 706,000,000 sucres; demand deposits, 798,000,000 sucres. National income in 1957 was eslimated at 9,733,000,000 sucres. The cost-of-living index (Quito) stood foreign sucres.
at
(Dec. 31,
debt
Currency
104
in
in
March 1959 (1953
=
—
100).
Trade and Communicoiions. Exports in 1958 (Ecuadorian seaports) totaled $141,800,000; imports through the port of Guayaquil, $98,800,000. Leading exports were bananas (56%), coffee (19%), cacao (15%). rict (3%) and balsa wood (1%). Important import groups were machinery, instruments and vehicles (34%), manufactured articles (26%), chemicals and products (13%) and food, beverages and tobacco (10%). Leading customers were the U.S. ( s 7 western Germany (12%), Belgium ( s ) ), Colombia (s%) and Italy (4%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (49%), western Germany (13%), Belgium (8%), the U.K. (5%) and Sweden
%
%
.
(4%).
Railway mileage (1957) was 832. Mileage of roads suitable for motor was estimated in 1955 at 6,000-6,500. On Jan. i, 1959, there were 5,000 automobiles and 18,000 trucks and buses. Telephones (Jan, i, 1958) numbered 22,000, 95% of which were automatic. Agriculture, Production estimates for the 1958-59 crop year included coffee 500.000 bags of 132 lb, each; cotton 14,000 bales of 500 lb, gross weight: cacao 64,000,000 lb.; rice (rough) 250,000,000 lb. Exports in 1958 included bananas 28,945,550 stems; coffee 503,000 bags; cacao 22,150 metric tons; rice 37.121 tons. In 1957 there were an estimated 1.363.300 cattle. Forest exports in 1958 included tagua nuts 3,832 metric tons and balsa wood 4.905 tons: no rubber was exported. vehicles
—
—
Manufactures, ,\ccording to the industrial census of 1955, there were 1.085 establishments, 995 of which reported 30,370 employees and gross value of production amounting to 1,766.126.525 sucres. Most important by value of production were foodstuffs (41*?^), textiles (14%) and beverages (11%). Production estimates in 1958 included sugar 87,359 metric tons: cement 159.831 tons; beer 66.428,000 bottles. In 1958 exports of toquilta (Panama) hats totaled 1,248,200. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1956) was 74,000 kw.; production (1958) totaled 310,525,000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production in 1958 included gold 20,025 troy oz.; silver 84,500 oz.; crude petroleum 3,108,470 bbl. (J. W. Mw.)
—
cities.
unusual incident at Portoviejo late in
May
led to riots in
30 or more deaths. An army recruit, provoked by what he considered improper treatment by his
Guayaquil that resulted
in
captain, opened fire on the officer.
ground unhurt, but the
wounded
The captain dropped
soldier, thinking that he
the captain, committed suicide.
and when, as a the police
result,
moved
A mob
had
to the
killed or
demonstrations broke out
in
Guayaquil,
After five hours of bloody fighting had occurred. President Ponce declared martial law to restore order.
The following day
violence broke out again,
number
Dermatology.
1959. were as follows:
in
education
15,
1958, to Oct. 15,
the
in
(i) the continuing lack of sufficient
nancial support for school
construction;
(2)
fi-
the increase in
many
stores were
Through condemned by communist
school attendance for the 15th consecutive year; (3) the steadily increasing enrollment in higher education; (4) the rising tuition
and maintehance costs of colleges and universities and
was restored by the national authorities. The immediate cause of a strike in .\pril by textile workers in Quito was a reduction of the daily working hours from eight to six. But behind the strike lay a long-standing complaint against the smuggling of low-priced Colombian goods into the country, an operation apparently encouraged by the high costs of Ecuadorian manufactures, resulting from inefficient and antiquated equipment. The walkout ended when assurance was given the workers that the six-hour day would be temporary. In planning for the meeting of the nth Inter-American conleaders, order
the
shortage of qualified professors; (5) the continuing shortage of properly qualified teachers for the elementary and high schools; (6) the growing federal participation in and concern for educa-
of deaths resulted.
stern measures, which were strongly
see
rj. ._-!•_ The outstanding events LDUCdUOn. United States from Oct.
killed the officer,
in.
looted or destroyed and a
Eczema:
tion,
and the arousing of opposition to governmental
control;
(7) the sustained national interest in enriching the education of the academically gifted pupils;
(8)
the publication of the
Conant report on secondary school curriculum and administration; (9) the increased awareness of juvenile delinquency and crime as a social and educational problem of great importance; and (10) the persistent, if decelerated, progress in the racial integration of the public schools despite
southern opposi-
tion.
Statistics.
—The
of health, education
U.S. office of education of the department
and welfare estimated
in
August that
total
student enrollment for the year 1959-60 would reach a new
ference of the Organization of .American States to be held in
Quito early in i960, the government was watching the activities of the country's small but aggressive
Communist
party. In
the authorities reported the discovery of detailed plans
by party members
of
May made
Ecuador and of other Latin-American
Kindergorten through grade 8* High school, grades 9 through 12* Higher education institution Total
'Public
ond nonpublic.
1959-60
1958-59
33,460,000 9,240,000 3,780,000 46,480,000
32,010,000 8.940,000 3,590,000 44,540,000
EDUCATION
217
all-time high of 46,480,000.
rather than as a "universal panacea." Also in April, the Ford
all
The office of education stated that in Oct. 1958. 89.2% of young persons aged 14 through 17 were studying in high schools and colleges, as compared with 81.8% a decade earlier;
National Educational Television and Radio centre.
and that there was an anticipated shortage of 195.000 qualified
higher learning increased during the year. According to the of-
teachers in 1959-60.
fice of
—
Federal Participation in Education. When congress adjourned on Sept. 15. 1959. it had two federal aid bills under
The Metcalf
foundation announced a terminal grant of $5,000,000 to the
Higher Education.
in
—-Enrollments
almost
in
all
branches of
education report in Nov. 1959, 3.258.556 students were fall term, with the freshman
attendance at the beginning of the
showing an increase of
class
-%
over the 1958
fall
enrollment.
(H.R. 22) for the support of
In contrast, freshmen in engineering colleges dropped by 11.1%,
school construction over a period of four years and teachers'
marking the first decline in eight years. The Council of Medical Education of the American Medical association reported that
consideration.
bill
had been passed by the committee on labour and educabut had remained bottled up in the rules committee. The
salaries tion,
Murray
(S.
bill
2),
pro\nding for only a two-year emergency
school construction grant had passed the committee on labour
and public welfare.
Among
the other bills concerned with gov-
ernmental participation in educational work was one establishing
program on juvenile delinquency. Commissioner Lawrence G. Derthick of the office of education reported on Sept. i that the National Defense Education act of 1958 was accomplishing its purposes of directing gifted high
a five-year research
school
seniors
increasing
college,
the
supply of college
and promoting the teaching of the sciences and
teachers
guages.
into
On
the other hand, a
number
lan-
of influential colleges re-
fused to apply for aid under this act on account of
its
loyalty-
oath provision.
—
Elementary and Secondary Education. In Jan. 1959 the made an award of $480,000 to 12 colleges and universities to improve the teaching of arithmetic and science in the grade schools. The secondar>' curriculum also seemed to move in the direction of greater stress than in previous years on science, mathematics and the foreign languages. A report by Helen B. Yakobson in August stated that 400 high schools would be teaching Russian in the fall, in comparison with 16 offering it in the fall of 1957, when the Soviet Union sent up the first sputnik. Many efforts were made, both under governmental auspices and by private bodies, to encourage science study in the summer months and in other ways to raise the level of scientific knowledge among the nation's high school students. The National Science foundation allocated Si. 600.000 in federal funds toward the summer training programs. But the frequent attention to science and mathematics called forth, from time to time, warnings by some educators. Probably the most widely read report on the U.S. high school curriculum was the one issued in January by James B. Conant, president emeritus of Harvard university, under the title. The American High School Today. After vnsiting high schools in 18 states, Conant concluded that "the academically talented student, as a rule, is not being sufficiently challenged, does not work hard enough, and his or her program of academic subjects is not National Science foundation
of sufficient range." to help
overcome
that "the
suggested a blueprint of subject matter
weakness. Another recommendation was
number of small high
duced through that
He
this
district
"no radical alteration
education
Much
is
schools
must be
drastically re-
reorganization." However, he believed in
the basic pattern of American
necessarj'."
attention was given during the year to teaching through
medium
of television. As of Sept. 1959, there were 34 edutele\ision stations, about two-thirds of which were showing programs exclusively for elementary and secondary
the
cational
The Fund for the Advancement of Education reported in February that its experiments indicated that televised teaching was superior to conventional procedures in saving classroom space and teaching positions. The progress report in April of the 30-month use of tele\'ision in the regular instruction of the schools.
Washington county. Md., public schools revealed that the superintendent and his staff regarded television as an aid to education,
the
1957-58 enrollment
A
record total.
in
medical colleges reached 29.473. a
serious shortage of astronomers
Leo Goldberg, chairman of the department
was forecast by
of astronomy. Uni-
versity of Michigan.
Large sities
gifts
were made during the year
to colleges
and univer-
by various foundations, corporations and private donors.
The A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable 000,000 to the University of Pittsburgh
to
trust gave S12.advance teaching and
research in the humanities, natural sciences and social sciences.
The Ford foundation announced
in April a grant of Si 1.444,010,
would go to nine higher institutions to attempt "a breakthrough in teacher education" that is, new programs combining liberal education with a teaching internship in place of courses in methods of teaching. Henry Krumb, a former trustee, left Columbia university more than $6,000,000 to help its engineering program. An anon>Tnous donor presented Har^'ard of which $9,161,210
The United States number of develop "new frontiers of
university with $2,000,000 for scholarships. Steel foundation divided $2,350,000
colleges to aid higher education
basic knowledge."
On
Sept.
i,
and
among
to
a large
the Council for Financial Aid to
Education reported that business and industry had given $136,000.000 to higher institutions, a 23.5%
rise
over the amount
given in 1956.
A plan
w^as offered
by Beardsley Ruml
in the
book.
Memo
to a
College Trustee to provide for the doubling of faculty salaries,
by reducing
the
number
of college courses, raising the student-
professor ratio and setting aside the tuition fees for salaries.
This plan was widely discussed, but some university adminisan attempt to make the public believe that was not a critical problem in higher education. The National Defense Education act of 1958 provided funds to students in colleges and universities in the form of loans and trators
saw
in it
financial support
CHICAGO TEACHERS MARCHING TO PROTEST
a $150 annual increase voted them by the board of education for 1959. About 6,000 teachers joined the January parade against what they termed an inadequate increase. With an additional $500 annual increase granted in September, Chicago was reported to have the highest pay scale of any major city in the U.S.. with a starting salary of $5,000 annually for a teacher with a bachelor's degree
some ia
Professorial salaries were increased appreciably in slitutions. In general, the picture of faculty
regarded as improved, but
still
compensation wai
not very favourable.
On
Oct. 19
announced an annual salary increas* of $1,000 for professors and of $500 for associate professors This was made possible in part by higher tuition fees. In Apri 1959 the American Association of University Professors releasee 1958, Princeton university
the results of a study of the salary schedules of 200 colleges ant universities,
the
A
in
which only Harvard university was placed
ii
category, for an average salary range of $5,450 for in
structors to $14,300 for full professors, as well as for
minimum
figures.
The average
salary in
hig]
its
these institutions
all
wa
$7,329 including fringe benefits. A total of 28 schools were grade* F or below. The office of education reported in June that tin
average salaries of
professors in private colleges and uni
full
went up 15.6%
versities
in
1958-59 over 1957-58, or fron
$7,360 to $8,510. In collegiate curriculum discussions during the year, scienc
played a significant
was
that there
a
role.
The
31%
college juniors majoring in
mathematics
with the year before. In
despite
in the biological
all,
and physical
in Jum number
education stated
office of
"sharp increase" of
in
much
the
in
1958-59 as compare*
slower rates of progres
sciences, the total percentage
junior year majors in mathematics and the sciences was 10.4?
more than during 1957-58.
Among
the
many
significant events in higher education durin,
Am
the year were the following: the experiment introduced at
herst college granting "leaves of absence" of a year to student
not performing to their
full
capacity in academic ability; tb
The
reorganization of the undergraduate college of of Chicago
course;
from the two-year plan
the revelation
that
the
to
Universit;
the original four-yea
California Institute of
i%-2%
nology, which selected freshmen from the top
high school graduates of the country, lost
20%
of
its
Ted
of th
freshma
each year; the results of a Harvard study in Dec. 195 indicating that it was not at all necessary for premedical student class
to concentrate
on such subjects as chemistry, biology and
bic
chemistry in their undergraduate work; the increase of educj courses
television
tional
by various
offered
institutions
i
language, literature, the social sciences and physics; the stud
LEARNING WITH GAMES
of
Roma
Is
nooga, Tenn., learned in
Saint Elmo elementary by playing hopscotch In a
1959
grants, but also required of
or membership
in,
them an
affida\at disclaiming belief
or support of, subversive organizations. This
provision was accepted by
some
institutions, while others raised
objections and refused to undertake this program. institutions
Harvard
in
latter
Among
the
category were Princeton, Yale and
universities, the University of
herst college. tional
the
The Association
Education association
for
Pennsylvania and
Am-
Higher Education of the Na-
at its 14th national conference in
March, passed a resolution urging an amendment to section looi (f of the National Defense Education act to discontinue )
the requirement of a disclaimer oath.
Robert E.
Iffert, specialist for
in the office of education,
faculty and student services
pointed out that from
50%
to
60%
who had been accepted by institutions of higher education but who had failed to enroll were forced away beof the students
A
report by the office of education in July had increased 33.5% during the preceding four years, and that it was expected to go up by the same percentage in the succeeding four years. During 1958-59 tuition in these institutions rose 8.8% from the figure for the preceding
cause^of high tuition.
disclosed that tuition
year. Student fees in the private colleges
up 10.1%
218
in the year,
and
34%
Dec. 1958 that the equivalent of free public junior colleges woul be desirable in an effort to extend the American education) system; the appeal by a committee of the American Council
Education
and universities went
over a four-year period.
in
March 1959
among
for unity
the colleges and un
and small, public and private; the decision b the board of higher education of New York city to admit out-ol town students "to the city colleges; the first conferment of grac uate degrees by the Rockefeller institute, formerly the Rocki
versities, large
feller Institute for
in
Tuition costs in colleges and universities rose during 195859.
by Hans Rosenhaupt of the Woodrow Wilson National Fellow ship foundation showing the critical shortage of college teachei with doctorates, and pleading for the "financial support of grac uate study"; the suggestion by Pres. D wight D. Eisenhower i
November by
of the
Medical Research; and the recommendatio
the Council on Medical Education and Hospital
American Medical association that medical
colleges expan
their facilities in order to provide adequate medical resourc*
for the growing population.
The Teacher Situation. tion's
1
—The
National Education
2th annual teacher supply and
in April, predicted a net shortage of
teachers, but also stated that there
demand
associi
report, publishe
135,000 elementary scbo(
would be more science an
mathematics teachers. The report anticipated an increase c 4.8% in new elementary teachers, of 13.2% in new secondar teachers, 27.7% in new science teachers and 32.1% in ne'
mathematics teachers. According to the director of this surve; Ray C. Maul, "The 1957 sputnik scare is less a factor in th
EDUC ATION math
boost in the science and
fields
than an aggressive campaign
by teachers and counselors over the last five years to bolster heavy losses in teachers of these two subjects between 1950 and
219
schools was unconstitutional.
department started
study to find out
parochial school enrollments were
The Ford foundation granted $9,161,210 to nine higher instiimprove teacher-training programs. In June, the sec-
tutions to
the past ten years.
Teacher Education and Professional Standards of the National Education association, proposed a number of reforms
tional
including the extension of the college training
The members
teachers to five years.
work
of future
of the conference agreed
that all students, without regard to their future professional
should have a firm grounding in the liberal arts while
interests,
in college.
The experiment
in television to
provide an advanced course
atomic-age physics for high school teachers of science was
adjudged a success by
sponsor, the American Association of
its
Colleges for Teacher Education at the conclusion of a survey of teachers. In
November, a report by a co-operative project and the public schools of Fairfield, Conn.,
communities with large
more
likely than others
to
survey by the American Association for Jewish Education disclosed in June that attendance in Jewish religious schools of all types had risen 131% during
ond annual conference of liberal arts professors and professors of education, held under the auspices of the National Commission on
if
state education
A
defeat public school budgets.
I9S5-"
in
a
The New York
—
and Crime. The social and educaproblem of delinquent and criminal action by children and
Juvenile Delinquency
youths continued to plague the nation during 1958-59.
Bills
were introduced into congress to aid the states to combat juvenile delinquency and to set up a youth conservation corps under federal auspices to give unemployed young persons healthy, constructive work in outdoor camps. The latter measure, proposed by Sen. Hubert H. Humphrey, was passed by the senate on Aug. 13 by a vote of 47-45, but it was still in the house educa-
and labour committee by the time congress adjourned. The Race Problem.— As of Oct. 1959, according to a survey by the Southern Education Reporting service, there were 762 integrated school districts among 2.880 biracial districts in 17 tion
A
of Yale university
southern states and the District of Columbia.
revealed that the use of teacher aides in the classroom could
Negro children were attending elementary and secondary schools with 2,486,988 white children in what were described as "integrated situations." This meant that one out of every six Negro children attending a Southern school was in a desegregated atmosphere, although only about 211,000 Negroes were in the
help instruction
if
the basic aim of this practice
to relieve the
is
teacher of his routine tasks.
Adult Education.
—A study by the
education showed
forms of adult education, mainly
participating in various
courses in civic
office of
approximately 9,000,000 Americans were
that, as of Oct. 1957,
and public
affairs.
In June, 1959 the
Fund
in
for
same
classes with white pupils.
in biracial classes
were enrolled
total of 518,357
More than
half of the Negroes
in schools
located in Maryland
Adult Education, an independent group set up by the Ford
and the District of Columbia,
foundation in 1951, launched a national campaign to increase educational opportunities for leaders and potential leaders in
1958 a total of 402,402 Negro children were going to school in integrated situations, and there was still complete segregation
public
in
life.
—
Acadennic Freedom. The court of appeals of the state of New York upheld in May the decision by the commissioner of education who had forbidden the dismissal of New York city teachers for having refused to testify on the past Communist activities of colleagues.
In June, the
New
Jersey commissioner
of education supported the dismissal of a high school teacher in
Newark
nist
answer questions on alleged
for refusing to
Commu-
party membership put to him by his superintendent of
schools.
The American Association
University Professors
of
would furnish funds and help to find new positions for four professors dismissed from the University of Arkansas for having refused to comply with a new state law requiring a list of all organizations to which they (A.A.U.P.) announced in August that
it
belonged or contributed during the past five years. Earlier, in April,
the A.A.U.P.
university
censured
(Nashville, Tenn.)
New York
university and Fisk
for violating
academic freedom
removed the University of Nevada, Ohio State university, West Chester (Pa.) State Teachers college and the University of Michigan from the list of censured or professorial tenure, and
institutions.
Church and State
in
Education.
—The voters
of California
defeated in the Nov. 1958 elections an amendment to reinstate a property tax on private and parochial schools. In Dec. 1958 the
New York supreme
school board
court refused to prevent the Ossining
from displaying the Nativity scene on the high
school grounds. In Aug. 1959 it upheld the constitutionality of the noncompulsory, nondenominational prayers in the public schools of the Herricks school district.
On May
25, the
Maine
supreme court overturned Augusta's law permitting public transportation for parochial school pupils, while on the following day the
New
children
Canaan, Conn., school board voted to allow parochial
who paid
fares to ride on public school buses.
A
federal
Philadelphia ruled in September that a state law requiring Bible reading and the Lord's Prayer in the public district court in
It is
worthy of note that
in Oct.
Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi and South Carolina. During 1959, the process of school integration began in Virginia and Florida. Pubhc higher education was still segregated in Alabama, Georgia, Mississippi and South Carolina. There were
some
signs that
tion
were
of the southern strongholds of school segrega-
but at the were prepared
to be subjected to a siege in the courts,
same time,
it
was
clear that the segregationists
to maintain separate schools
by court actions and by
legisla-
tion.
The matter
was also of significance. As by the American Friends Service
of violent resistance
a report issued in the spring
FIFTH GRADE STUDENTS USING TYPEWRITERS In an elementary school New Rochelle, N.Y., in 1959. Three university organizations were seeking determine the usefulness fifth grade levels
of the
at to
typewriter (or classroom work at the fourth and
— 220
E
D U C A TiON
committee, the National Council of Churches and the Southern Regional council disclosed, there were 530 incidents of arson,
bombing and other forms from
U.S. supreme court decision on
first
school integration, until 1958. In general, the process of integration, while slowing
or so, was
and intimidation
of violence, reprisal
the date of the
i()54,
was evident that
it
down
year
in the last
going on and would continue in the face of op-
still
position and pressure.
Roman
Church
made
Catholic bishops of the U.S. separately
Charlottesville,
Edward county, however,
Front Royal and
closed
all its
Norfolk.
Prince
public schools "with pro-
found regret." However, in September there were private schools for 1,500 white children in churches, civic buildings, stores and clubrooms, while no provisions at all were made for the county's
Negro
1,750
pupils.
A
federal district court on Sept. 10 ordered
the admission of Negroes to three high schools in Floyd county in
In Nov. 1958, the council of bishops of the Methodist
and the
Arlington,
southwest Virginia, the
first
such decision affecting that part
of the state.
National and international attention continued to be con-
On Nov.
appeals for the integration of the public schools. Also in No-
centrated on Little Rock, Ark., during the year.
vember, 250 faculty members of Emory university, Atlanta, Ga., appealed to the south to keep the public schools open. A survey concluded by the Southern Regional council in Aug. 1959 ques-
1958, the U.S. court of appeals for the eighth circuit ordered grate the public high schools which had been closed to avoid
tioned the legality of closing public schools and paying public
compliance with the U.S. supreme court decisions. In
funds for tuition S.
in private
white schools. In January, Arthur
Flemming, secretary of the U.S. department of health, edu-
cation and welfare, announced that public schools which had
been transformed into private institutions in order to maintain segregation would receive no federal money under the provisions of the National Defense Education act.
The U.S. supreme court handed down two Alabama
1958, upheld an
decisions on the
The
segregation issue during the year under review. stated that the state's pupil placement law
Nov. which
first, in
federal district court's decision
was constitutional
the Little
Rock
jo,
school board to take "affirmative steps" to inte-
May
1959,
removed 44 teachers Rock recalled the school
after the pro-segregationist school board
and principals, the citizens of Little board and elected a new one more favourably disposed to opening the public high schools. The Committee to Stop the Outrageous Purge (S.T.O.P.) led the battle to defeat the Committee to Retain Our Segregated Schools (C.R.O.S.S.). Gov. Orval E. Faubus of Arkansas did not change his policy of total resistance to all efforts at integration. Public sentiment was in favour of public high schools, and the privately supported T. J. Raney high school in Little
Rock had
to be closed for lack of funds.
a basis of individual merit with-
In August the Central and Hall high schools reopened, with
race or color." On Oct. 12, 1959, the court out regard to refused to review decisions which afi&nned the school place-
two and three Negro students respectively, as integrated institutions in the midst of some tension and a little violence. Even the three djoiamite explosions in Little Rock on Sept. 7, 1959,
provided
it
was .
apjplied .
"upon
.
ment law of North Carolina, and also turned down an appeal by Prince Edward county, Va., for additional time to desegreNegroes were elected in Nov. 1958 to the school boards of Houston, Tex., and Louisville, Ky., for the first time in the history of these
cities.
Negro scholar first
as
The University
chairman of
such instance
at a
its
of Louisville appointed a
department of sociology, the
southern integrated university.
enrollment in the Louisiana State university, in
failed to stop the process of integration in the city.
In
gate.
New
The Negro
Orleans, rose
one year (1958) from 78 in a student body of 1,450 to 417 in On the elementary and secondary level, New Orleans
2,200.
officials
were ordered by a federal
plan of school desegregation by
Memphis
State university admitted
court to submit a
district
March
i960. In Tennessee,
i,
its first
Negro students
in
New York
city, a
boycott by Negro parents in the Harlem
what they termed inferior school conup of tutoring classes in a church. An effort by the New York city school board to transfer 350 Negro and Puerto Rican pupils from overcrowded Brooklyn section in protest against
ditions resulted in the setting
away
schools to Queens schools three miles
led to angry protests
and a parental boycott. International Educational Relations. The annual census by the Institute of International Education showed that 47.245 students from 131 foreign nations and areas were enrolled in U.S. colleges and universities during 1958-59, an increase of almost 4,000 from the previous year; and 10,213 U.S. students
—
1957-58, a decrease of
during
Sept. 1959, while the Nashville schools reported the satisfac-
attended foreign
tory conclusion of two years of "stairstep" integration
(one
2,600 from 1956-57. At the tenth general conference of the
schools of Delaware began
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization (UNESCO) during Nov.-Dec. 1958 in Paris, a new director
new grade per on Sept. 9
A
year).
The elementary
to integrate according to the "stairstep" plan.
decision
by
a federal district court in
January enjoined
Georgia State college from barring Negroes on the basis of race, but the state reacted at once by suspending acceptance of new applications in
its
19 colleges. In July, the court ordered the
Atlanta school board to prepare a plan for desegregation by
Dec.
I.
In the meantime, a group of citizens formed a
new
or-
Help Our Public Education (H.O.P.E.), with the motto, "public schools under any circumstance," to prevent the
ganization,
closing of schools to circumvent integration.
Jan. 19, 1959,
segregation
when
was a key date in the Virginia struggle over the state supreme court ruled that the state
laws of "massive resistance" to desegregation
—school
closings,
private tuition grants and fund cutoffs from integrated schools violated art. 129 of the state constitution. eral district court
some
The same day, a
fed-
handed down a decision that the closing of
public schools to prevent integration constituted a viola-
tion of the 14th
amendment
by Gov.
to the U.S. constitution. In spite
Lindsay Almond,
and others favouring the continuation of the segregation policy, a limited form of integration took place in the pubUc schools of Alexandria, of efforts
J.
Jr.,
universities
general, Vittorino Veronese of Italy,
was inaugurated.
UNESCO
voted a budget of $25,907,463 for the years 1959 and i960, the highest budget in its history, and received a mandate from the 81 member nations to concentrate on such priority needs as the elimination of world illiteracy. significance of three in Latin
major projects
The
delegates reaffirmed the
—the expansion
America, the application of
of education
scientific research
to the
problem of arid lands and the promotion of the mutual appreciation of the cultural values of the east and west. UNESCO published during the year the second volume of its World Survey of Education, dealing with primary education, and concluded that nearly half of the world's children did not attend school
often because of the lack of school
facilities.
Another
UNESCO
80%6o%-65%; North and South America, 20%-2i%; and Europe, 7%-9%. World Developments. The International Labour organizareport estimated world illiteracy at
85%;
43^-45%
:
Africa,
Asia,
—
tion revealed that the world-wide teacher shortage
had become
more acute and was not confined to any particular area. Another world educational problem was juvenile delinquency, which
EDUCATION reared
head
its
221
France,
in
Denmark, the Nether-
Italy,
the
lands,
U.S.S.R.,
Japan,
the United States and in
many
other countries on every con-
In most areas, strong
tinent.
measures were undertaken to alleviate the problem.
Great
In
Britain,
O.xford
Cambridge universities voted to remove the compuland
sory
requirement
Latin
reversed
Dec.
for
but Oxford later
admission,
its
On
decision.
1958, the ministry of
3,
announced in a White Paper, "Secondary Education for All," a plan for education
spending
$1,120,000,000
build and
to
improve schools for
a five-year period starting in
ANGRY STUDENT FACING SCHOOL PRINCIPAL
i960.
Educational events in France included strikes by Paris students and professors for a
more
flexible school
Roman
more government
aid, the
adoption of
reform, the granting of emergency funds
Catholic schools and the inauguration of the
fall term was concerned with reducing delinquency, debates on the values of Latin and
to
two weeks
earlier
ousting of the
Communists
in July.
In Communist China, more
educational law in Bel-
and more children were put into boarding schools located in the new system of communes. Japan's most spectacular problem was the bitter battle between the Japan Teachers' union and the
right of parents to request state-subsidized
ministry of education over the question of the rating of teachers.
on Sept.
15.
Education
considerations of school reform.
gium recognized the
(second from right) who paddled the boy (and others shown at right) as a disciplinary measure. The boys, supported by parents (left), sought to have the principal arrested. After hearing the arguments in his chambers, a Memphis, Tenn., judge (lower left) refused to issue a warrant, and the school superintendent (far right) also supported the principal's actions
A new
in Italy
church schools. In West Germany, higher educational attend-
The South Korean government banned separate
ance rose by 18.4% to 186.000.
discriminatory
The new school plan
of Premier Nikita S. Khrushchev of the combine industrial work with study in the secondary school, was endorsed by the supreme soviet in Dec. 1958. This program, which changed the primary Soviet school system from seven to eight years, was inaugurated on Sept. i, 1959. Another change was the decree on the decentralization of higher education issued in June. All universities and specialized high schools would henceforth be under newly established ministries U.S.S.R., to
of higher education in each of the
15
Soviet republics.
The
treatment
children
for
schools
mixed,
of
and
generally
American-Korean, blood.
down three Roman Catholic schools in January improper teaching of Arab history, Egypt returned the schools to their owners the following month. The Sudan government closed down the Sudanese Workers' Educational association, founded in 1957 with UNESCO and other international After closing
for alleged
help.
In Latin America, Mexico started a campaign to enroll
its
The Castro
re-
entire school population in classes on Feb.
Cuba
i.
resulted in the reopening of the University of
union ministry of higher education became the ministry of higher
volt in
and special high school education, and was concerned with
search, defining standards, co-ordinating plans for textbooks, etc.,
Havana, after being closed 2+ years, and a plan to inculcate in education the revolutionary ideals from the kindergarten to uni-
while the republic ministries would perform
versity.
all
re-
other functions.
In March, the Soviet government called upon the
Communist
party to "inculcate in pupils, students and youths stable habits for the
preservation of discipline and rules of behavior" in
schools, at
home and on
the streets in order to prevent juvenile
delinquency and crime. Another problem was the rising opposi-
rise in tuition fees
salaries.
Canada.
Kazakhistan Republic to the expansion of the Russian-
tion in
language schools in the area.
first
Germany once more made
foreign language in
its
schools,
and announced its inability to fill the universities, technical colleges and vocational schools in the fall. Under new laws similar
new
oslovakia,
Soviet program, the high school students of Czech-
Hungary and Bulgaria were required
to
combine
productive labour with their studies. In Oct. 1958, a Bulgarian newspaper charged that the school teachers were sabotaging the
communist indoctrination of the youth of Bulgaria. Rumania reported the elimination of illiteracy, increase of student population and improvement of school facilities since 1948. process of the
Educational problems in India included school strikes and
Kerala state in protest against the Communist government's school law, an issue which seemed to be settled by the riots in
of Toronto, Can., approved in all
because of increased costs for higher faculty (W. W. Bn.)
— Figures
released
by the dominion bureau of
sta-
May
1959 showed an over-all enrollment in 1957-58 in elementary and secondary schools of approximately 3,600,000, tistics in
In the satellite countries. East
Russian compulsory as the
to the
Nov. 195S a honour students in the province of Ontario. In March 1959 this university announced a 10%
The University
proposal to give free tuition to
of which about 43,000 pupils were in Indian, fense department schools operated
The number
of teachers rose
by the
from 130,000
138,000 in 1957-58, roughly one
new
Eskimo and
de-
federal government. in
1956-57 to about
teacher to everj' 25 addi-
tional pupils.
University enrollment of full-time students, as of Dec. 1958,
was estimated by the dominion bureau of statistics at 94,000, an increase of 9.1% over Dec. 1957. Developments during the year 1959 were mainly on a provincial rather than a national level. In Manitoba the publication of the Interim Report of a royal commission which had been carrying out a comprehensive survey of the educational system of
that province led,
in
Nov. 1958, to
legislation involving
EDUCATION, RE LIGIOUS — EGGS
222
major reorganization of the structure of
local
administration
of education. It provided for the formation of 46 large units of administration, to be
known
These
as school divisions.
divi-
sions differed from large administrative units in other provinces in that
they were to be responsible only for the operation and
administration of secondary schools. Elementary schools were to
remain under the jurisdiction of local school
made
each division. The legislation
districts within
possible the establishment
in rural areas of large centralized high schools to
Education, Religious: see Religious Education. Education, U.S. Office of: see Education.
which students
Chicken egg production for the U.S. through Sept. 1955
rffffC
^ob"" was
47,391,000,000 eggs, as compared with 45,671,000,-
000 for the first nine months of 1958, and 14% above average; it was indicated that the total for the year might be a new record.
Though
layer
numbers
level.
secondary education. Seven large urban
tential laying flock for
though
re-
named divisions, continued to function The administrative structure of the
provincial departments
New
Brunswick and Nova
of education Scotia,
was reorganized
in
giving greater responsibility
directors
of
branches
(departmental divisions) and reducing the administrative detail formerly handled by the deputy minister. In
new
New
Brunswick
body known as the board of education which, for 112 years, had been the major administrative organization supervising educational policy in the province, was dissolved. Authority for action in educational matters was vested in the lieutenant governor in council and the minister of education; legislation was a
chickens raised on farms for laying flock replacement diminished
compared with 432,000,000 in 1958; the po1959-60 was about 4% smaller than a
to 401,000,000 as
Egg
prices in late spring
time lows of
less
and early summer reached new
long-
than 25 cents per dozen to producers, and
September prices averaged only 32.8 cents per dozen to
Consumption was only slightly responsive to stepped-up eg{ promotion and lower farm prices; 1959 use per capita was 354 eggs as compared with 349 in 1958, but only 92% as high as th« average 3S5 consumed
in
1947-49.
A
controlled quality egg grad-
ing program was inaugurated in September, involving govern-
ment
certification of production
and marketing under
specified
controlled conditions, such eggs to bear the label U.S. Grade
with the minister and deputy minister of education as chairman
or Fresh
and secretary, and including from 15 to 25 other members appointed by the lieutenant governor. The most noteworthy development of the year was a widespread extension of provincial schemes providing scholarships, bursaries and loans for students at both the university and secondary school levels. British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Newfoundland all either introduced new plans or substantially widened the coverage of existing ones. largest of the
new schemes was
that authorized in
Quebec
early in 1959, which provided a $10,000,000 scholarship fund to assist
needy students attending universities and specialized
schools in the province, and those pursuing advanced studies in foreign countries;
a portion of each scholarship w'ould con-
stitute a loan to be repaid after the student
The
legislation
was the
first
completed
to regulate formally the
Quebec
The National Conference of Canadian
Universities
(N.C.-
of federal grants to universities (about $25,000,000 annually),
was reorganized. Originally designed
as a
forum
for the expres-
sion of academic opinion, the N.C.C.U. reconstituted itself into:
body more money and for
(i) the Canadian Universities foundation, a small
appropriate for the handling of large sums of
other administrative functions; and (2) the National Confer-
ence of Canadian Universities and Colleges, which continued the earlier function of the conference.
Following a practice established by the U.S. National commission for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural organization
(UNESCO) more
than ten years
earlier, the
Canadian National commission held its first biennial national conference on UNESCO in Montreal in March. (F. K. S.) See also Blind, Education of the; Census Data, U.S.;
Child Welfare; Home Economics; Libraries; Motion Pictures; Religious Education; Scholarships and Student Am. For statistics of institutions see Universities and Colleges
;
see also under various states
and countries.
—
Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Bring the World to the Classroom (i9j8); Horace Mann (1951); Making Films That Teach (1954); Mental Health (Keeping Mentally Fit) (1952); New Tools for Learning (1952); Democracy in the Classroom (1953); Schoolhouse in the Red (•949); Using the Classroom Film (194s); Why Vandalism? (1955).
Practicing
Egg production
in
30 major producing countries from nearly
1,500,000,000 chickens reached a eggs in 195S,
2%
new high
of 152,000,000.00c
above 1957. World trade was indicated as hav-
ing exceeded 600,000,000 dozen.
Canada
in
under which
October replaced the egg purchase support program a large surplus
had been acquired, with a
deficiency
payment scheme under which each farmer who sells eggs througl official grading stations would in essence receive returns on the basis of 44 cents a dozen for Grade A Large eggs delivered tc Montreal, but would be limited in such support to a maximum of 4,000 doz. of qualifying grade in
any 12-month period.
The United Kingdom, with production up 50%
in the last foul
years, faced a glut costing £30,000,000 per year in subsidies,
"HUMPTY dumpty," Star (Tui
C.U.), which in 1956 assumed responsibility for the distribution
A^
Fancy Quality.
his studies.
scholarship system.
pro-
ducers as compared with 41.8 cents a year earlier.
passed which authorized the setting-up of an advisory council
The
th«
record
year earlier and included a larger percentage of older hens.
as before.
to
September of 294,061,000 were
Culling of flocks was heavy as the egg price declined;
would be transported; previously the province was divided into numerous school districts varying greatly in size (and fmancial resources) with each being responsible for both elementary and districts,
in
lowest since 1941, the rate of lay per hen was at a
ii
EGYPT — EISENHOWER I
spite of three successive cuts in the
]
maximum amount
223
guaranteed price by the
permissible.
(J.
K. R.)
I
Egypt:
Middle Eastern Atfairs United Arab Republic.
see
;
Eire: see Ireland, Republic of.
Eisenhower, Dwigtit
V,;,X.„A£.lTtZi moved
Denison, Tex., Oct. 14; his parents
to Abilene, Kan.,
when he was a year old. He w-as graduated from the U.S. Military academy at West Point, N.Y., in 1915 {see also his biography in EncydopcBdia Britamiica) In June 1942 during World War II he was made Allied commander of the European theatre of operations and headed the invasions of north Africa and western Europe that led to the defeat of Italy and Germany.
j
'
!
.
j
After serving as chief of staff at the war's end, he resigned from active service on Feb. 7, 1948, to become president of Columbia university. He was recalled to active duty in Dec. 1950 as head of the North Atlantic Treaty forces in Europe.
'
j
He
resigned that post as of June
1952, to campaign for the
i,
I
He was nominated
Republican presidential nomination.
I
II and, with his running fornia, elected
on Nov.
on Nov.
on July mate. Sen. Richard M. Nixon of Cali-
4.
He was
Nixon
re-elected along with
An
President Eisenhower took a far greater interest and role in
!
political,
DWIGHT
1956.
6,
AND TWO
OF THE GUESTS he entertained PRES. D. EISENHOWER at a stag dinner in London, Sept. 1, 1959. At left, former British Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill; at rear, Field Marshal Viscount Montflomery
congressional and foreign affairs in 1959. Abandoning
extremely important piece of legislation was the labour
reform
bill,
designed to check on the use of union funds and
to democratize these organizations. Presidential pressure forced
I
his earlier attitude of aloofness,
I
he engaged
in several
ous exchanges with the Democratic opposition.
[
White House door more frequently urged them to work hard for victory
I
acrimoni-
He opened
the
Republican leaders and
to
in the
a coalition of Republicans and southern
Democrats
to enact a
stronger measure than the Democratic leadership and labour leaders preferred.
In his review, Eisenhower expressed regret over the foreign
i960 elections.
I
He
!
consulted .-Mlied statesmen in Bonn, Paris and London, and
welcomed Nikita Khrushchev, the Soviet premier, House, promising to return the visits
in
December
to
the
visit in
capitals
of
i960.
He
to the
White
also planned
Afghanistan,
many
foreign dignitaries
from almost
and
and
bill,
the lack of agricul-
failure to increase postal rates
on
first-class
reduce the postal deficit by $350,000,000.
air mail so as to
He
reserved his principal criticism for the refusal to remove
He
the
4.25%
ever>' friendly
ties.
He
ceiling
on interest
rates
described this statutory
made
on long-term federal securi-
maximum
as a
"major domestic
or neutral nation. In short, he took charge of the Republican
problem" because
party as he had not done before and assumed leadership of the
noninflationary borrowings except at an extremely high interest
iwestern bloc in the "cold war." I
tural legislation
France,
Greece, India, Iran, Italy, Morocco, Pakistan and Turkey. entertained
aid cut, passage of the "pork barrel"
legislation,
served him well in his dealings with an overwhelm-
Democratic congress. Although expressing some disappointment when the legislators recessed in September, he said that "by and large a great deal of good has been accomplished." He
lingly
was aided by the 1958-59 economic recovery, which blunted the liberal Democrats' demand for huge governmental expenditures. Obviously concerned over the veto threats, the RaybumJohnson leadership in congress pursued a cautious course. Al-
it
difficult for the
treasury to obtain
rate.
Eisenhower's increased participation in political and congres-
His aggressiveness, including threats of vetoes on unwanted
I
it
from the departure in 195S of Sherman Adams from the White House. As presidential chief of
sional matters derived, in part,
staff,
Adams had handled
all
party and political problems. An-
"new Eisenhower" was Former Sen. William F. Knowland was supplanted in the upper chamber by Sen. Everett McKinley Dirksen, and Rep. Joseph W. Martin, Jr., gave way to Rep, Charles A, Halleck in the house. As more
other factor in creating the image of a
the change of Republican leadership in house and senate.
and hard-riding
politicians, they
persuaded the presi-
though the $81,975,368,352 appropriation was the largest in peacetime, it was $1,881,000,000 below the budget bureau's re-
practical
reduction was $1,197,706,000 for mutual which the president deplored but accepted. A public works bill, the so-called pork barrel measure, was passed over his veto, the first time he had suffered an overriding. Other-
status.
wise, he fared rather well.
him almost a free hand in that field. But when Christian A. Herter succeeded Dulles, Herter's comparative lack of background imposed new responsibilities upon
quests.
The
hea\'iest
dent to show more concern for the party's current and future In a similar manner, the death in April of John Foster Dulles,
security funds,
Congress provided for a $1,000,000,000 housing program after two vetoes forced a $375,000,000 reduction. It extended the life of the civil rights
commission for two years and agreed to constronger proposals on this question
sider the administration's at the
i960 session.
It
extended the military draft for four years.
Congress compromised on a one-cent increase in the gasoline tax to finance highway construction, as against the 1.5-cent boost
wanted by the White House. It passed bills revising price supjports and acreage allotments for wheat and tobacco, but made no attempt to override a presidential veto. In a bipartisan acition,
congress granted statehood to Hawaii.
secretary of state, forced Eisenhower to devote himself to the foreign scene. In view of Dulles' long experience as a diplomat, the president had permitted
the president.
The change was most marked in relations with the U.S.S.R. Whereas Dulles' attitude had been condemned as "too rigid" in the United States and Europe, Eisenhower decided to try to improve Soviet relations. Other pressures contributed to an attempt
rapprochement between the two nations. first was the statement on Nov. 15, 1958, by Khrushchev that "the time has come to end the [western] regime in Berlin."
at
The
The Soviet premier
fixed six
months
as the time limit for
mak-
ELECTIO NS,
224
U.S.
Germany, which might have made untenable continued Allied occupation of West Berlin. When a foreign ministers' conference at Geneva in the spring and summer failed to solve the question, Eisenhower took direct action. the White House announced that the president had On Aug. invited Khrushchev to the United States. Eisenhower took cognizance of widespread opposition by saying that "any president who refused flatly to use the last atom of prestige or the last ought to be conatom of his energy in the quest for peace demned by the American people." At the end of July Eisenhower visited West Germany, France and England to assure allied leaders that he would make no agreement with Khrushchev detrimental to their national interests. His tour was described in the European press as a "triumph," in view of the large and friendly crowds which turned out to greet him. The British press referred to him as "Uncle Ike" and the newspaper Le Monde of Paris said: "One likes this great and simple man." Eisenhower wound up his trip by spend-
year, an Oct. 31
ing several days with the British royal family at Castle Balmoral.
rays of hope in the 1959 voting that their party might be on the
ing a separate treaty with East
,?
.
.
.
Khrushchev arrived on Sept. 15 and was welcomed in a manner by the president. Their exchanges
checkup at Walter Reed hospital showed that he However, he looked well, carried a heavy work load and played golf regularly. He attended the opening of the new St. Lawrence seaway in company with Queen Elizabeth II of England in June and paid an oflTicial visit to Mexico City. He made a two-day trip to Abilene, his boyhood home, in early October to dedicate the Eisenhower Memorial library. Although he took no extended vacation, he spent ten days at his Gettysburg, Pa., farm in July, a week at Palm Springs, Calif., in early October and five days at the Atlanta National Golf club in late October. He also spent numerous weekends at Gettysburg and Camp David, enjoying leisure hours at bridge and golf. See also Elections, U.S.; Political Parties, U.S.; United suffered from "mild but chronic bronchitis."
States.
rinnt'n
need
to ease tensions so as to pre-
comeback
"It would be sheer madness," said Khrushchev, "to allow a to
come
to a head.
War must
be averted, and peace
must be assured." "This is one thing," commented Eisenhower, "that he does agree with us fully the fact that there is room for a lot of misunderstanding and a lot of miscalculation which could be .
.
110
Struggling back from their smashing defeats
U.w.
in
1958 elections. Republicans found some
trail.
In Hawaii's
first state election,
July 28, 1959, the Republican offices, and regained control
party captured three of five major
of the state senate which had been Democratic in the last ter-
vent misunderstandings that might lead to war.
new war
»»
LlbLllUllo,
friendly but formal
reflected their feelings on the
(R. Tu.;
ritorial
regime. Although he had been cast in an underdog
role.
Republican William F. Quinn won the governorship over Democrat John \. Burns. Quinn's running mate, James K. Kealoha, was an overwhelming victor in the lieutenant governor race.
Democrats won two of the
.
They
state's three seats in congress.
also kept control of the state's house of representatives by
a 33-18 margin. Republicans controlled the senate, 13-12.
ver>' serious."
After a hurried tour of the United States. Khrushchev con-
In Connecticut, where they lost heavily in the 1958 elections,
weekend at Camp David, Md. Their subsequent communique showed no settlement of basic differences, but it relieved the immediate threat to Berlin and
nonpartisan election, Republicans
the allied occupation. It resulted in an agreement for a confer-
Democrats
ence of the western powers in Paris on Dec. 19 preparatory' to a summit meeting with Khrushchev early in i960. It also had
and
ferred with the president for a
Republicans
in
1959 took 15 towns away from Democrats while
had controlled, for a net gain of
losing nine they
the state's
six.
With one
and the However, Democrats gained or retained control of five largest cities, taking over Waterbury, Stamford carried
86
towTis
40.
Fairfield
from the Republicans. The Republicans,
in turn,
welcom-
defeated the Democrats in Meriden and took Norwalk away
sincere in
from an independent incumbent. In upstate New York. Republicans regained control of a ma-
Eisenhower had hardly disposed of the foreign crisis when he was confronted by difficulties on the labour front. The United Steel Workers' union had struck major plants on July 15, and
jority of the 45 city administrations involved in contests with
negotiations for settlement collapsed in October. In that
In New Jersey, where their losses had been large in 1958. the Republicans turned back a Democratic bid for control of the
certain intangible benefits, for the Soviet premier told
ing crowds in
Moscow
that "President Eisenhower
is
his efforts for peace."
same month, the International Longshoremen's association called a strike on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts, paralyzing shipping for a few days. Eisenhower refused to intervene, insisting that such disputes be settled by collective bargaining under the Taftact. The longshoremen returned to work within a fewdays when the president invoked that law, but he did not apply for an injunction against the steel workers until late in October, when the walkout was cited as threatening general welfare and
Hartley
the opposition party.
They ousted nine Democratic mayors
would have permitted Gov. Robert B. Me>'ner Democratic presidential nomination, or for the U.S. senate seat held by Republican Sen. Clifford P. Case.
state senate v^hich
to prospect for the
If
Meyner chose
to resign to accept another nomination, the Re-
publican president of the state senate would succeed him as governor.
Elsewhere the local elections appeared to bear out the con-
national security. Eisenhower conceded that the Taft-Hartley
tention of the Democratic national chairman, Paul
which forces a return to work for only 80 days, pro\'ided no machinery for settling nationwide strikes amicably. But he
that the results
act,
expressed great reluctance to support legislation for compulsory
government inter\-ention. On Dec. 3 Eisenhower embarked on a 19-day, 22,000-mi. "peace and good will" tour of 1 1 countries, including Italy, Tur-
arbitration or
key, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India. Iran. Greece. Tunisia, France,
Spain and Morocco. In Paris he joined in talks with British Prime Minister Harold Macmillan and French President Charles de Gaulle, regarding summit meetings, Germany and Berlin and various other mutual problems.
Although Eisenhower was variously described as in "good" and "excellent" health by White House spokesmen throughout the
while
losing six of their owti.
M.
Butler,
had reaffirmed the 1958 verdict and showed
his
party in healthy condition for the i960 political contests. Philadelphia's Democratic mayor, Richardson
DUworth,
de-
feated by a two-to-one margin the challenge of Harold E. Stassen.
Republican former governor of Minnesota and a former
member
of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration. Democrats elected state Sen. Joseph Barr. a political protege of Gov. David L. Lawrence, as mayor of Pittsburgh, Pa. Elsewhere in that state, they won 1 2 and the Republicans 1 1 mayoralty contests. In neighbouring Ohio, the municipal contests be-
tween the parties added up Celebrezze became the third
win a fourth term as mayor.
to a draw.
man
Democrat Anthony
J.
in the history of Cleveland to
:
—
:
-
ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES In Indiaiia. oote strons Republican added Fort Wayne ;-- I ---.^--- - -^ cky hall contiol in Three widdy se; :
-
-
~
-
-
-
In Saii L.ike Ciiy. L c-^ Lee. wfeo quiz tbe Reryj^icanj t" rjle-eievtio-
Xew Jersey voteis dedded against usng funds from the 5late"s
^
5
turned
:-.r:^
county hospitaL
political fillips.
the nisTOr
225
down an amendmait to the state constibitian to illci-x New Yoik dry to borrow $500,000,000 for its sdjools. Chicago and Co(A county voteis rolled op big maxgins for $75.fco.ooo in bond issaes for dty improvement and the Cook
territor>-.
mpi^e
'
to help financially struggling
cMnmoter
railroads.
.cky vtKers opposed a state veterans bonus to be financed tax. St. Louis, dty and county, defeated a metro-
;"
~ct government plan.
_-;
^..
ST.4TES iiate of thenrat
-•
f,
DEiiocR.*CY;
CosGBESS -^
-
Political Pakties, U.S.; Uxhed states. (J. L. Be.)
and under various
:
rjiTASSicA FlLiis. PtIUical Parties (1931): Presi;z); PressmreGnrnfi ixgsz); PuNicOpaufm Ii9i6'i.
-,
Bert T.
— over Re:
2long with
:r
bs" victory r
base
ntial
by
Sales of energy
Industries.
Electrical
ms
in the
electric utilities
United States rose
dur-
ic^-:
105a to 2 total of 026.oco.ooo.ooo kwJu-. This was in con-
with only a
trast
2%
growth
in igsS, the
anaOest increase in
a decade, which had resulted from a general decline in industrial actriity. ':•:
Industry was the largest user of electrical energy in
and 1959. In 1959 industry constnned 396.000.000.000 thi^ amount 307.occ.ooc.occ kwJir. was purchased electric utiUties. .Another S^.cco.000.000 fcwJir. was gen-
\h 1953 r
Of
:::dustrial plants
was
'
rtr
De
own
for their
use.
-
:
;
-^ =--
pur-
c«Hitrast,
195S
-*-;i?€d 3.7- to 794,000.000,000 kwJir. rther sources indudes that of power (Jants il
establishments, mines and railroads. It does
::!: of isolated plants in institutions, hotels,
amise-
—
—
ELECTRICAL INDUSTRIES
226
included 17 major units, and construction was well under wa)
on
five of these units by the end of 1959. Although atomic generation received the major share of attention during 1959, there was evidence that conventional cnerg) sources (coal, oil and gasj would continue to supply electric power needs in the United States for many years.
Appliance Sales.
— Sales of
generally well above those of first
electrical appliances in 1959 wer(
1958. For example, during th«
seven months of 1959, manufacturers of refrigerators
sold
2,237,100 units, which was 26.8% above 1958 sales of 1,764,70c units.
Dishwasher
291,200 units in the
sales,
of 1959, were up 34.1%. During the
seven monthi
first
same period
sales of stand-
ard electric ranges were up 23.0% to 562,700 units; automatic Table
Generafing Capacity Shipmtnit
III.
IKIIowotls— units of 4,000 kw. and lorgerl
HEAT RESISTANT CERAMIC
developed by General Electric company In 1959 shown underoolng tests. Called "Lucalox," the new material remained rlflid while supporting a 50-oram weight (top) at a temperature of 2.350t> F., while a bar of fused quartz, with no additional weight, bent under the same heat. The new material was Intended for use in place of ordinary ceramics In electrical
7,826,100 471,800 830,300 9,128,200
Foreign Total
Source: Edison Electric Institute
fittings
1957
19S8
1959
11,982,800 1,453,900 819,700 14,256,400
16,219,475 216,125 1,397,800 17,833,400
12,418,622 141. 25C 1,707,55C 14,267,42J
1956 U.S. Electric power systems U.S. Industrials
(1956-1958
actual shipmenlij
1959 scheduled
ship,
ments).
To meet utilities
demand
this
To do
700.000,000,000 kw.hr. generating
of
systems)
capacity.
this
showed an extremely
As a
large
result, these sys-
11.
lev-el
(In billions
Other sources Net imports Total
(excess
of or
storage water heater production rose
margin
load growth experienced since
of kilowarf-hoursl
seven months of 1959 production of television This was 28.3% above the 2,443,929 units
sets totaled 3,133,075.
produced during the same period of 1958. See also Atomic Energy; Federal Power Commission; (Ar. Mo.) Public Utilities.
1957
1958
1959
631.4
644.8
706
79.3 3.3
4
727.4
790
1958 to 18,628,000 kw. The official forecast anticipated a further rise of 28.8% over the next four years to a net capacity
electric utilities placed
Thermal generation amounted to 14.8% of 14.1% in 1957, and was expected to rise sharply to 22.9% by 1962. Firm energy requirements in 1958 rose by only 1% to 87,173,000,000 kw.hr. A rise of 8%, however, was forecast for 1959 and one of 33.7% by 1962. No decisive progress was achieved toward realization of the two giant hydro power projects on the Hamilton river (Labrador) and on the Columbia river (British Columbia), the latter of which was contingent on conclusion of an international agreement between Canada and the United States. On the other hand. Peace River Power Development Company Ltd., a group representing Swedish, British and Canadian interests, announced plans to start, in the spring of i960, construction of its power project
4.1
4.5
84.3 3.7
633.1
689.4
719.4
80
1959. This added nearly
A study released about mid-1959 showed that were building or planning to build 361 new generating plants with a total capacity of nearly 42,000,000 kw. utilities
operated approximately
80%
of the nation's generating capacity. Ownership of the remaining
among
electric
84.2
utility systems.
power
and
to 498,600 units.
1956
utilities
divided
4.6%
600.7
14,000.000 kw. of generating capacity. Of this, 12,700,000 kw. was thermal, and the remainder hydro. In addition, 97 units whose operation was scheduled for i960 were being constructed, which would add another 11,000.000 kw. to the nation's electric
20% was
to 777,600 units
82.0
World War II the nation's new generating units into service in
palities, public
rural electric
co-operatives, munici-
districts, state agencies
and the federal
government.
—
manufacturers Electric Manufacturing. During 1959 shipped 14,000,000 kw. of turbine generators. Of this about 12,400,000 kw. was delivered to U.S. electric power systems. The
Canada.
—Total
accounting for
13%
net generating capacity of 130 companies,
99%
of total
power generation
in
Canada,
of 23,990,000 kw.
total capacity as against
in northern British
Columbia. Plans called for e.xpenditure
12,400,000 kw. of the units shipped during 1959, the remainder being hydraulic turbines.
reported readying a project to harness the Manicouagan
first
commercial generation of
nuclear sources took place during 1957.
energy through
By mid-1959 more
than
new atomic generation was under construction The list of commercial atomic power reactors
1,400,000 kw. of or in planning.
electric
of
$375,000,000 with a view to producing 805,000 kw. by 1966 and for an additional $250,000,000 to generate 3,145,000 kw.
by 1973.
Shipments of power transformers reached a record 72,078,000 kva. during 1957. Shipments during 1958, amounting to 47,199,000 kva., were only 60% as much. Shipments during 1959 showed a further decline to 34,000,000 kva.
rose
in
remainder was delivered to U.S. industrial plants and to foreign companies. Steam turbine generators accounted for more than
The
ros«
seven months of 1959.
1955
the end of
Investor-owned electric
first
first
547.0
Source: Edison Electric Institute (except 1959).
136
Manufacturers' production of "built-in" electric ranges
of 33,000,000 kw.,
gross
Totat Supply of Etectric Energy, U.S.
generation
washers were up 16.5% to 1,621,539 units; non-
automatic washers were up 9.5% to 506,709 units; washer-dryei combination sales rose 33.3% to 96,914 units.
During the
with the high
Table
electric clothes
45.8% to 415,400 units during the Food freezer production rose 26.8%
load.
To keep pace
Electric ulility
electric
available
they used 158,000,000 kw.
generating capability over peak load)
26.4% of peak
made
This equipment experienced a non-
coincident peak load of 125,000,000 kw.
tems
major
for energy the nation's
(classified as class I electric
The publicly-owned Quebec Hydro at a cost of several
hundred million
In addition to a 20,000
kw-.
Electric commission was river
dollars.
nuclear power demonstration plant
under construction near Rolphton, Ont., which was expected
to
be in operation by 1961, Atomic Energy of Canada Ltd. announced plans to spend $60,000,000 on a full scale nuclear power plant,
capable of generating 200,000 kw.
Great
Britain.
— Major manufacturing
efforts
(R. Rr.)
were devoted
in
1959 to the British nuclear power program. Nevertheless, the absence of any world-wide demand for large and costly nuclear
ELECTRIC POWE generating stations tended to deflect
some
of the development
I
'toward smaller nuclear plants suited to underdeveloped areas land to ship propulsion. Other forms of 1
power plant
for isolated
areas were also receiving attention.
A
conference on thermonuclear fission was held in London in
I
April. Fifteen British
companies were engaged
in design
and
re-
I
i
;
'
:
Under the international project Dragon, initiated by the European Nuclear Energ>' agency of the Organization for European Economic Cosearch work on nuclear power plant for ships.
operation, an experimental high-temperature reactor at Winfrith
Heath, Eng., generating several megawatts of power, was to form
program for Great BritEuratom (the European Atomic Energy community), AusItria, Denmark, Norway, Sweden and Switzerland. In Britain the [Central Electricity Generating board announced the establishIment of a new £1,000,000 nuclear research centre near its Berkeley nuclear station. A chair of nuclear engineering was founded the basis of the five-year joint research
lain,
at
Manchester university. Table
IV.
— WorW Production of
(E. Electric
Energy'
W.
G.)
ELECTR ONICS
228 When
it is
exposed to
light in a
camera, electrons are driven
of electrical charges which lasts for weeks. to be sent to the
ground from a
before an electron scanning
satellite, the
beam which
When
the image
is
exposed tape passes
reads off the electrical
charge pattern and produces television signals.
A
i8o-ft. length of tape
would carry a continuous
strip of
pictures showing cloud formations completely around the globe. It
could be read
off in
5
to 10 minutes, while the satellite
was
within the range of a ground station. Old images could be com-
removed and the tape re-used for a new series of pictures. Radar is generally used to detect large objects such as ships and airplanes, but a new supersensitive radar detector, developed jointly by the U.S. army signal research and development laboratory and the Hazeltine corporation, can detect a crawling soldier pletely
two miles away.
It is
necessary only that some part of his body
be moving with a speed of at least one mile per hour.
The on a
entire installation
special
S-ft. plastic
trols
two-wheeled in
trailer.
The antenna
is
mounted
in a
25-ft. pole
and an experienced operator can tell the difference between a jeep or a walking soldier, and even distinguish between a man and a woman. Physicians and engineers alike were expected to benefit by a new device which shows, on a television screen, the internal structure of parts of the human body and engineering components. It was developed in England by C. N. Smyth, of London University, College Hospital Medical school.
but with ultrasonic waves. These are like sound waves, but of
They resemble
light rays in that
they can be focused with lenses and reflected from objects on
which they fall. The usual light-sensitive surface, on which the optical image is formed in a television camera, is replaced by one sensitive to sound waves. In a manner similar to that of ordinary television, the image
produce an electrical
is
scanned by an electron beam
produces a visible image of the internal structure on a television receiver. to
and of some medical specimens immersed in a tank also showed internal flaws in blocks of aluminim clearly revealing their size and shape. Another electronic aid to medicine, announced during the yeai was an attachment for a microscope for making visible th magnified image of a specimen illuminated with invisible ultra
radiation. This is the ultrascope, designed by R. G Stoudenheimer of the electron tube division of the Radio Corpc ration of America at Lancaster, Pa. It is based on the wartim
violet
"snooperscope," for seeing
in the dark.
The ultrascope replaces the regular eyepiece of a microscop* The ultraviolet rays pass through the object being examined an are focused
by the objective
scope tube.
On
on the faceplate of the
lens
inner surface
its
signal. This, in turn,
a plotting device being tested In U.S. navy aircraft 1959. Special electronic equipment translates signals of underwater craft to a position chart. Using additional eauipment the pilot can make a more refined plot, determining the exact position of his target in
ultra
a photosensitive materia
is
tron pattern.
When
this
is
cent viewing screen at the other end of the tube, to a visible
image
with another
in
yellow-green
The
it is
convert©
user views this imag
the debut of another
tunnel diode, which performs transistor. In addition,
the transistor in
light.
lens.
The year 1959 marked power
elec
focused by electron lenses on a fluores
is
incapable.
new
device, th
all
the functions of a standard low
it
can handle other tasks of whid
Many
applications were foreseen-
high-speed computers, television receivers, controls for nuclea
reactors and communication equipment in satellites and spac vehicles.
The tunnel diode
even smaller than the transistor
is
dwarfed by the head of a
pow-er requirements.
A
common
pin) and has
(in facl
still
lowe
conventional three-element radio tub
needs about i/io w. and a transistor about 1/1,000 w., but th tunnel diode operates on as
b
as 1/1,000,000 w. It can
little
made of silicon or a variety of other materials. The tunnel diode was first announced in 1958 by
a Japanes
Leo Esaki, and was further developed by United State laboratories, particularly by the General Electric company aiu the Radio Corporation of America. The name comes from the physical phenomenon involved which is called "quantum-mechanical tunneling." By this effec scientist,
a particle (obeying the laws of the
SUBMARINE DETECTOR,
to the Institutio
visible the internal parts of
He
water.
it is
that views the object operates not with light
too high a pitch to be heard.
making
goldfish
tance away. Each type of target produces a characteristic sound,
The "camera,"
London
his device in
of Electrical Engineers,
which converts the ultraviolet image into a corresponding
be transported by helicopter or
and connected to the cona special shelter, which may be some dis-
bubble on a
and displays
may
Smyth demonstrated
off in
proportion to the light intensity. This leaves an invisible image
quantum theory) can
disap
pear from one side of a barrier and reappear instantaneously the other side, as though
ment
is
it
effected at the speed of light; in contrast, the carrier
of electrical charge in transistors limits the frequency at
tions to a cies
01
had tunneled underneath. The move
maximum
move much more
which they can produce
slowly. Thi;
electrical \ibra
of about 2,000,000,000 per second. Frequen
10 or even 100 times as great were anticipated with
thi
tunnel diode.
One
of
its
important features
electricity flows in a
is
negative resistance. Whei
copper wire, an increase
in
the voltagi
causes an increase in the current. But in a tunnel diode an
creased voltage
may
in-
decrease the current. Because of this
il
not absorbed, but
ii
can act as an amplifier, for the signal
is
increased.
Another new development, that might lead to "transistorized' announced at the Westinghouse Research laboratoriei Pittsburgh, Pa. W. J. Choyke and Lyle Patrick found that
tubes, w-as in
silicon carbide,
which
is
used (under the trade name of Car-
borundum) as an abrasive in grinding wheels, emits electrons when it is excited electrically. These electrons come from tiny spots that glow with blue light and are unaccompanied by heat.
In the usual electron tube, a filament is heated to redness with an electrical current, and electrons are "boiled" out. Most
of the power consumed is used to heat the filament, and it is often a problem to dissipate the heat from a large bank of such
much
ELEMENTARY EDUCA TION — EL SALVADOR and History. —Although no urgent
The
tubes.
less
transistor operates without heating,
thus uses
power.
Westinghouse engineers suggested that a highly efficient tube might be made by replacing the hot filament with a cool silicon carbide cathode or electron emitter. By thus removing one of
most serious limitations of conventional tubes, they might better be able to compete with transistors in future applications. the
(J.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. Vacuum Tubes (1943).
—Sound
Sto.)
of coffee and cotton normally account
Early
were imposed on various imports, and competitive items.
Lemus appealed
buy local government undercarry out its development program with a view to asthose adversely affected by the difficult economic
President
whenever
products
to all Salvadoreans to
possible,
while
the
Elementary Education: see Education. Elementary Particles: see Physics.
sisting
(Elizabeth Alexandra Mary) (1926), queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and head of the commonwealth, was bom in London on April 21. She succeeded to the throne in 1952 following the death of her father, King George VI, and was crowned on June 2, 1953. The queen's earliest years were spent principally at her father's London home, 145 Piccadilly, and also at Royal lodge, Windsor, and at Balmoral and Glamis, the Scottish home of her maternal grandfather, the earl of Strathmore. She was educated by her governess, Marion Crawford, and by Sir Henry
were favourable. In order to
Marten.
firms interested in establishing themselves in El Salvador. Be-
Toward
situation.
World War
the end of
II she joined the Auxiliary Ter-
difficulties,
the economic prospects
unemployment Urban Housing was carrying forward a broad
the Institute of
assist in reducing
housing program. Plans were in progress to improve the Ilopango airport,
and a major project of harbour development was under
way at Acajutla. The expansion
of electric power facilities was under way, made by a loan from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. With the return of President Lemus from the United States late in March there was an increase in the requests from foreign
possible
fore the end of the year, plans under
way
or in execution included
and learned to drive and service army vehicles. In July 1947 her betrothal to Prince Philip of Greece (later the duke of Edinburgh) was announced and they were married in Westminster abbey on Nov. 20. Prince Charles (later prince of Wales) was born on Nov. 14, 1948; Princess Anne on Aug. 15, 1950. In 1957 the queen and the duke toured Canada and also visited Washington, D.C., and in 1958 they made a state visit to
near Apopa, a paint factor>' near the Ilopango airport and a dried milk plant to supply the eastern part of the country. Studies were under way on the costs of a milk-processing plant, a petroleum refinery and an additional factory for the production of soluble coffee. Textile production facilities were being expanded, partly through an agreement in June by the Interna-
the Netherlands.
tional Finance corporation to invest $140,000 in the enterprise.
ritorial service
On June
queen and the duke began a six-week tour of Canada which took them from St. John's, Newfoundland, across the dominion to Vancouver on the Pacific coast. On 18, 1959, the
'June 26, at Montreal, the queen, jointly with Pres.
Dwight D.
Lawrence seaway. On July i, Dominion day, the queen addressed the Canadian people on radio and television and on July 6 she and her husband paid a Eisenhower, opened the
new
St.
|short visit to Chicago. Shortly after their return to the
Kingdom
United
was announced from Buckingham palace that the queen was expecting a baby early in i960 and would be unable to lundertake any further public engagements. :
two-thirds
in 1959, tariff increases
especially nonessential
Apart from the immediate
I
for about
of the country's foreign exchange, the gold reserves went down.
took to
I
problems confronted
El Salvador at the beginning of 1959, the country's economy had been seriously affected during 1958 by the marked decline in coffee prices and some weakness in cotton prices. Since exports
Recording and Reproduc-
tion (1943);
229
political
it
the establishment of a fertilizer plant near Acajutla, a sugar refiner>'
By
its
ratification of the Multilateral
ican Free Trade and
of El Salvador
Economic
made
it
became
Treaty of Central Amer-
Integration, the national assembly
possible in January for the treaty to go
upon ratification by three countries two of which were Guatemala and Nicaragua. In line with the mutual advantages to the five member countries of reducing trade barriers among themselves, a combination plant of flour mill and laboratory, animal-feeds plant, grain-discharging and other equipment, were to be constructed near La Union, a into effect. It
the
valid
first
convenient location for supplying not only El Salvador, but also
I
the other countries concerned.
The ministry I
Elks, eties
Benevolent and Protective Order of:
see Soci-
AND Associations, U.S.
of
economy reported
at the beginning of the year
that the rate of economic growth in El Salvador
had been
faster
than the population growth during the preceding ten years.
new
highway construction up a large section of land that had heretofore not been developed In September three
Ellice Islands: see Pacific Islands, British.
stretches of
totaling 94 mi. along the coast were dedicated, thus opening
on the Pacific coast of Central most densely popcountry on the isthmus. El Salvador has an area of 8,260 |Sq.mi. (of which 8,165 sq.mi. are land) and a population (1950 jcensus) of 1,855,917 (1958 est., 2,434,430). The capital is San PI LI
Qolworinr
"^
republic
OdIVduUI. America,
the smallest but
Salvador, pop. (1950 census) 161,951; (1958 est.) 221.708.
The
1950 populations of other principal cities are (1958 estimates in parentheses): Ahuachapan 10,294 (12,629), Chalchuapa 9,855 (12,335), Cojutpeque 10,015
(12,832), Mejicanos 9,389
524), San Miguel 26,702 (33,063), Santa
Ana
(12,-
51,702 (70,769),
Neuva San Salvador or Santa Tecla 18,313
(24,539), San Vicente 10,950 (13.618), Sonsonate 17.949 (22.088), Usulutan
9481 (12,276), 9.190
Delgado 13.331 (18,110) and Zacatecoluca Language: Spanish. Religion: predominantly Catholic. President in 1958: Lieut. Col. Jose Maria
(11,388).
Roman Lemus.
Villa
(A. E. Tr.)
for lack of transportation.
|ulated
—
In 1957 there were 2,291 primar>' schools with 7,868 teachers and 245,178 pupils; 119 kindergartens, 387 teachers and 13,713 pupils; 313 secondary schools, 26,323 students. In 1956 the national university had 1.525 students and 272 faculty members. According to the 1950 census, 5 7-7% of those 10 years of a^e and over were illiterate. Finance. The monetary unit is the colon, valued at 40 cents U.S. currencj' in 1959. The 1959 budget balanced revenue and expenditure at 181,000,000 colones. Revenue in 1958 (preliminary figures) was 168,683,922 colones; expenditure, 169,892.948 colones. On July 31, 1958, the internal debt was 11,731,000 colones; external, 30,035.000 colones. Currency in circulation (.^ug. 31, 1959) totaled 84,700,000 colones; demand deposits, 106,700.000 colones. The cost-of-living Education.
—
=
index (July 1959) stood at 106 (1953 100). Trade and Communications. Exports in 1958 totaled $116,357,000; im$107,873,000. Leading exports were green coffee (72%). cotton (16'rc). coffee preparations (3%), vegetable oils and sugar. Leading customers were the U.S. (40%), Germany (32%), Japan (11%), Honduras (3%) and Guatemala (3%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (49%). Ger-
—
ports,
many (9%), The two
the Netherlands (7%), Honduras (6%) and Japan (5%). principal railroads have 385 mi. of main-line track, all narrow
EMIGRATION — EMPLOYMENT
230
gauge. Total road mileage (i9SS) was 4,785, about 1,000 ml. o( which were all-weather and 375 mi. were paved. On Jan. i, 1959, there were 9,5J5 automobiles. 10,31 j trucks and 957 buses. Telephones (Jan. i, 1958) numbered 11.158. Tl.>% of which were autom.itic. Agriculture. - Production estimates (or the 1958-59 season (preliminary figures) Included coffee 1,500.000 bags of ijj lb. each; cotton 177,000 bales of 500 lb. gross weight; cottonseed 85,000 short tons; sugar 59,000 tons; rice (rough) 44,500,000 lb.; maize (1957-58) 193,000 tons. In 1956 there were an estimated 985,000 cattle and 301,000 hogs. Production of balsam (i957) totaled 230,000 lb. Manulociuras. In 1953 there were 600 manufacturing establishments employing 5 or more persons, with a total of 15,050 employees and annual gross value of production amounting to 85,510,000 colones. Cement production in 1958 was 87,600 metric tons. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1956) totaled 76,000 kw.; production in 1957 was 178,000,000
kw.hr. Min*roli.
— In
I95g, 3,37J troy oj. of gold and 197,629 oz. of silver
were produced.
Britannica Films.
E.NcvcLoP/iDiA
—Central
(J.
America
W. Mw.)
(1944).
and transportation and decline in employment was registered in the mining industries and was only 12,000. Almost all industries within the manufacturing sector showed gains in employment, a notable exception being the food and and
real estate registered a rise of 54,000
public utilities a rise of 31,000.
The only
kindred products industry. The distribution of gains among
manufacturing industries was as follows. In the durable goods
primary metals (-f 220,100;, transportation equipmachinery (except electrical) ( + 154,600),
industries,
ment
(
+ 158,400),
machinery ( + 144,900;, fabricated metal products (+95,100), lumber and wood products ( + 53,300;, stone, clay and glass products ( + 52,100;, furniture and fixtures (+37,800), miscellaneous manufacturing ( + 29,900;, instruments and related products ( + 27,400;, ordnance and accessories ( 15,100); in the nondurable goods industries, apparel and other finished electrical
+
Emigration:
see
Immigration and Naturalization.
products
textile
FmnlnVniPnt
^"'^^'^ states.
—comparing midyear
statistics
and
chemicals
^'"r'^j'"""l- between 1958 and
(
of
leather products
1959, the total labour force U.S. registered an increase of 813,000, from 73,049,000
tiie
June 1959. The civilian labour force in this same period increased by 906,000, from 70,418,000 (June 1958) to 71,324,000 (June 19.59). Total emplo>Tnent increased by 2,361,000, from 64,981,000 in June 1958 to 67,342,000 in June 1959. On the other hand, unemployment declined by 1,455.000, from 5,437,000 (June 1958) to 3,982,000 (June 1959). The peak of unemployment during the recent decline in economic activity was reached in June 1958, when unemployment was June 1958
in
to 73,862,000 in
7.7% of the labour
+ 28,500),
tobacco
The
male emplo>Tnent increased by 1,354,000, from
38,-
588,000 to 39,942,000. Female emplovTnent increased from 21,096,000 to 21,866.000, an increase of 770,000. This increase was distributed as follows: to 1,696,000)
93,000 in agriculture (from 1,603,000 in nonagricultural industries (from
— fmp/oyeei
In
Nonagricultural Establishment$f
Industry, United Sfofes thousondlJ
omployoot
June 1959
Jun« 1951
S2,5I«
50,413
705
717
2,971
2,804 15,204
16,413
Primary metal Industrie! Fabricated metal product!
Machinery (except electrical) Electricol machinery Transportation equipment Instruments ond reloted product! Miscelloneous monufocturing industria!
Nondurable goods Food and kindred product! Tobocco manufocluring Textile-mill product!
Apparel and other finished textile product! Paper ond allied products Printing, publishing and allied induslrioi Chemicols and allied products Products o( petroleum ond cool Rubber products Leolher and leother product! Transportation and public utilities Wholesale and retail trade Finance, insuronce and reol estate Service! and miscelloneoui Government
140.5 494.4 384.2 545.5
125.4 643.3 344.4 513.4
1,290.4 1,099.5 1,426.5 1,224.8 1,704.2
1,070J
336.0 482.7
308.4 452.8
1,441.4 80.2
1,484.3
1,004.4 1,471.9 1,079.9 1, 547.8
80.1
975.0
930.4
1,193.0
1,122.5
543.9 844.3
542.0 847.2 809.0
847.1
Stote and local
238.3 262.0 874.4 3,935 11,317 2,445 4,418 8,112 2,149 5,943
Source: United State! Deportment of Lobor, Bureou of Lobor
Slati!lic!,
Federal
239.1
233.5 853.3 3,904
11,035 2,391
6,488 7,864 2,184 5,682
Cmphymtnl and
and 677,000
19,493,000 to 20,170,000). During the same period, June 1958June 1959, male unemployment declined by 1,118,000, from 3,521,000 to 2,403,000 and female unemploNTnent declined by 336,000, from 1,915,000 to 1,579,000. All these changes accounted for a growth in the total civilian labour force of 906,-
000 of which 433,000 were females (from 23.012,000 to 23,445,000) and 473,000 were males (from 47,406,000 to 47,879,000).
Changes
I.
(
Products of petroleum and coal registered a
Ordnance ond acceiiorio. Lumber and wood product! Furniture and fixture! Stone, clay and slo!! product!
cultural
535,000, an increase of 239,000, whereas in nonagricultural in-
+ 100).
(
Mining Conlfoci conilruclion Monufocluring Durable goodi
increase in emplojTnent was distributed as follows: Agri-
dustries,
+ 21,900;, leather and + 21,300;, printing and publishing + 17,100),
lln
activity.
employment increased by 331,000 (from 6,900,000 to 7,231,000) and nonagricultural emplo>'ment by 2,030,000 (from 58,081,000 to 60,111,000) between June 1958 and June 1959. Male participation in the increase in employment was greater than female participation. Total male employment increased from 43,884,000 to 45,476,000, an increase of 1,592,000. In agriculture, male employment increased from 5.296,000 to 5,-
(
products (+44,400), rubber products
(+38,100;,
Industry,
Totol
force, seasonally unadjusted. In
economic
textile-mill
products
by
percentage of unemplo>Tnent
half of 1959. indicating a revival of
+ 70,500;,
paper and allied products
Table
June 1959 was 5.6. Employment had increased steadily and unemplo>Tnent declined during the first the
(
(
allied
in the distribution of
employment among the non-
agricultural industries during the period
small decline
(
able decline
(
— 800), and — 22,700),
United Kingdom.
working population
in
Great
May 1958 (24,090,000) and May 1959 (23,897,000). The male working population declined by 129,000 (from 16,179.000 to 16,050,000) and the female working population also declined by 64,000 (from 7,911,000 to 7,847.000) during this period. The
number
emplo>Tnent
the
Within the manufacturing
568.000). Between
employment in durable goods industries increased by 989,000, from 8.564,000 to 9,553,000, and in nondurable goods industries emplo>Tnent increased by 218.000 from 7,142,000 to 7,560.000. Emplo\Tnent in wholesale and retail trade increased by rS2.ooo. Total government employment increased by 246,000, but federal government employment declined by 15,000 whereas state and local government employment increased by 261,000. Employment in contractual construction increased by 165,000; in services and miscellaneous industries, employment increased by 130.000. Finance, insurance,
total
Britain (excluding Northern Ireland) declined 193,000 between
June ig58-June 1959 were as follows. Employment in manufacturing industries registered an increase of 1,207,000 from 15,206,000 to 16,413,000. sector,
—The
food and kindred products a notice-
May
in
in civil
number
in the
armed
by 151,000 (from 23,065.000 1959). In the same period fell by 51,000 (from 619.000 to
fell
May
1958 to 22,914,000 in forces
May
1958 and May 1959, total registered unemploNTnent declined by 18,000 (from 460.000 to 442.000). This was mainly because of the decline of the temporarily unemployed from 60,000 to 32,000 w'hereas the wholly unemployed increased by 10,000 during the same period.
On June
15, 1959,
there were 413,311 persons registered as unemployed, of
whom
385,460 were wholly unemployed and 27,851 temporarily stopped from work.
The
decline in the
demand
for labour which started at the
end of 1957 continued during the
first
half of 1958
and
there-
— Table
Distribulion of Civil
II.
Employment During 1958,
United Kingdom llr fhoujondi) Dec. 1957 Dec. 1958
Induilr, or Service
Agriculture, foreitry
ond
948 848
flitiino
Mixing and quarrying, total Cool mining Ottier mining and quarrying
Te.liles
Clothing (including lootweorl Food, drink ond lobocco
Other monufoctures
and contracting Cos, electricity and woter Tronspon and communicotion. Building
ond oiiscellaneouiiervicet
.
employment,
total
538
535
4,484
4,542
919 443 909
854 433
1,595
1,571
1,472
1,448
911
1958
—
1
— —
23 22 ]
—242
-
—
3 I
22 45 30
+2 24
— -
4 4 31
+
4
374
1,294
1,474 2,945 4,217 1,297
534 758
527 770
+43 + 3 - 9 + 12
23,128
22,875
-253
.
LcKol government service Civil
9,044
In
380
Nalionol government service
j
9,308
Change
1,705 2,959 4,174
trades
Professional, financial Public administroHoo
77
84S 749 74
791
Monufacturing Industries, total Chemicals and allied trades Metals, engineering ond vohldei
Distributive
947
Sovrce: Miniitry of Labour Gazette. I
tafter
it
gradually leveled
off.
Civil
employment
fell
during the
by 253.000, the manufacturing industries registering ithe greatest decline. The net decline in the total working popula;tion was greater in 1958 than in 1957. During the year 1958 manufacturing industries accounted for jyear of 1958
j
employment. Within the manuand vehicles showed the greatest decline ("with — 122,000;, textiles were next (^with —65,looo) and clothing Cwith —30,000;. In the other sectors, coal mining and transport and communications lost employment iwhereas professional, financial and miscellaneous services gained
jthe greatest part of the decline in
facturing sector, metals, engineering
isubstantially.
Canada.
i
—The
total civilian labour force of
Canada increased
ifrom 6,203,000 in June 1958 to 6,287,000 in June 1959, an infcrease of
about 84,000. The agricultural labour force changed
UNEMPLOYED MINEWORKERS OF NORTON, a fire
ifrom 748.000 to 738,000, a loss of 10,000.
The
labour force changed from 5,455,000 to 5.549,000, a gain of 194.000. The total civilian labour force with jobs increased from 5.879.000 to 6,053,000, a gain of 174.000. Agriculture jobs de-
from 740.000
and in the nonfrom 5,139,000 to 5,322,000, !a gain of 183,000. Paid workers with jobs changed from 4,702,looo to 4,899,000, an increase of about 197,000 Hn agriculture: |from 107,000 to 133,000 and in nonagricultural sectors from clined
to 731,000. a loss of 9,000,
'agricultural sectors jobs increased
4,595.000 to 4,766,000;.
The
civilian labour force
without jobs
and seeking work changed from 324,000 to 234,000, a decrease of about 90,000. The peak of joblessness was reached in May 1958 when 597.000 were reported without jobs and seeking work, a ratio of 10% of the civilian labour force. By May 1959 this jiatio was reduced to 5.4%.
The index of
!i959.
industrial employment ("1949=100; increased monthly average of 114.6 in April 1958 to 115.6 in April In mining the employment index changed from 121.9 t"
1120.6.
In manufacturing the
I
(from a
employment index showed
ifrom 108.8 in April 1958 to
109.4 in April
while waiting for a lurplut food handout
1959.
a change
In durable
well as in Jan. 1959, but
it
—
1959 and from 114 in March 1958 to 117 in March 1959. The manufacturing employment index, with the same base year and including mining and quarrying, declined from 122 in Jan. 1958 to 120 in Jan. 1959,
1959-
and from 121
public utility operations from
136.3 to
from 129.0 to 131. 4; finance, etc., from 148.3 to 151.3; and service from 130.6 to 134.4 (^1949=100;. Average hours worked per week in manufacturing increased from 40.4 to 40.7 between April 1958 and April 1959. 135.8; trade
=
in
March 1958
to 119 in
March
—
Belgium. The general employment index ("1953 = 100), excluding agriculture, dropped from 107 in 1957 to 106 in 1958 and from 102 in Jan. 1958 to 96 in Dec. 1958. The manufacturing index dropped from 104 in Jan. 1958 to 97 in Dec. 1958. France. The general employment index ("1953 = 100;, ex-
—
cluding agriculture and certain services, dropped from 107 in
March 1958
to 105 in March 1959. Using the same base, the index manufacturing employment, including wage earners and salaried employees, dropped from 108 in March 1958 to 104 in
of
March
1959.
Poland.
—The
general
employment index
ing and electricity, remained the
transportation, etc.,
—The general employment index
1959
Austria. The general 100), excluding agriculture, rose from 114 in Jan. 1958 to 115 in Jan.
The manufacturing employment
tfrom 73.26 to 78.24;
April
by April 1959. employment index ("1953 =
ployment changed from 115.9
118.7;
VA., warming ttierrrielvM with
rose to 114
goods the change was from 115. 5 to 114.9 and in nondurables from 103.0 to 104.8 Call based on 1949=100;. Construction em''
Compton
Fuller's
—
it
Burnett's
afforded
to the public, either in separate
Few
of the well-known poets produced a collection during 1959. a surprising number of poets who had their first vol-
Among
local outbreaks
was the
largest single cause of these respiratory out-
breaks, but there was a scattering of outbreaks due to influenza
Beginning in March and continuing into early May. mortality from pneumonia and influenza in the L'nited States showed a distinct increase over normal, chiefly in New York. New Jersey and Pennsylvania. This seemed to indicate that influenza was attack-
umes published were Laurence Lerner, Rex Taylor. James Harrison. James Michie and Patricia Beer. In his Domestic Interior Lerner seemed to have made a too deliberate attempt to conform
ing older age groups in these states.
to the fashionable trend
of respiratory disease
work often lacked
toward excessive
restraint, so that his
tension, but when his material was taken difrom personal experience, he displayed an individual talent. Taylor failed to make the most of his gifts for accurate observation in his pastoral Poems. Harrison {Catchment Area) rectly
A
and the adenoviruses.
By
early
summer, outbreaks
had largely subsided throughout the world. In summary, the winter of 1958-59 was marked by a consider-
amount of illness caused by respiratory viruses, but it was when the variety of respiratory viruses characterized the period rather than any sweeping epidemic due to a single
able
also a year
EPIDEM lOLOGY had been the case
virus, as
Diseases.) Riclceftsial Diseases.
Respiratory
in 1957-58. (See also
—Diseases
which rickettsiae are
for
sponsible include louse-bome typhus, flea-borne typhus.
Mountain
spotted fever,
Q
and scrub
fever, rickettsialpox
phus. These diseases are not usually transmissible from
man
re-
Rocky ty-
The
to
by the
man
but are spread by arthropod vectors, such as lice, and mites. Although the various rickettsial diseases
is
illustrated
During the
first
gust, a preliminary total of 87 laboratory-confirmed cases of fox
frequently associated with some of the rickettsial
had been reported in New York state in 1959, compared with only 39 cases for the same time period in 1958. The increase in rabid foxes caused an increase in the number of rabies cases
is
and
in their specific s>Tnptoraatology
diseases, especially scrub
typhus and
among
thing of a maverick
Q
Q
fever.
its
fever
severity,
is
because
rickettsial diseases
not depend on an arthropod vector for
some-
it
does
transmission and does
not produce a rash.
Man is
the only natural reservoir of typhus infection and
is
man
spread from
been deloused there to
someone
to
man by
the
human
no danger that he
is
else as long as
rabies
among
it
other animals, chiefly cows and dogs.
he
is
will transmit the disease
kept free of
DDT powder
lice.
is
fective in the treatment of
typhus and mortality can be greatly
reduced by their use. There it
an effective vaccine against louse-
is
must be administered
at least annually to
this rabies epizootic
in
The area
of the state
an agricultural and
chiefly
is
dairy region.
louse (Pediculus hu-
frequently used for delousing. Certain of the antibiotics are ef-
borne typhus, but
half of 1959, rabies
involved
manus). Mortality from louse-bome typhus during epidemics may exceed 40%. When a person who has louse-bome typhus has
Poliomyelitis.
— Paralytic
poliomyelitis in the United States
during 1959 showed an increase in incidence as compared with 1958 and 1957. In the first eight months of 1959, 1958 and 1957 there were 2,791, 1,206 and 1,477 cases, respectively, of paralytic poliomyelitis.
Some
of the increase in 1959
an increase
in the
amount
to
may
however, that the majority of
It is also true,
be attributable
of virus over the other recent years.
paralytic poliomyelitis occur in persons
who
clinical cases of
are either not vac-
cinated or are incompletely vaccinated against the disease. Ade-
maintain protection in chronically affected areas or during epi-
quate poliomyelitis immunization
demies.
with other vaccines, such as diphtheria, tetanus and smallpox,
j
!
wildlife
state during 1959.
headache, body pains, chills and usually a rash. Inflammation of
somewhat
the lungs
'
New York
they are generally characterized by the sudden onset of fever,
differ
!
among
explosive potential of rabies situation in
showed an explosive increase among wildlife in the western part of the state. Foxes, which are the reser\'oir of rabies in that state, accounted for most of the increase among species of wildlife. From the beginning of the year through Au-
directly,
ticks, fleas
I
235
Four of the cases had received no antirabies treatment following exposure. Two cases resulted from bites from rabid dogs, one from a rabid fox and one from a rabid bat, and in two cases the sources were unknown. cases.
Sporadic cases and outbreaks of typhus occur annually in vari-
not a one-time
is
repeated doses of poliomyelitis vaccine
may be
affair.
As
necessary to main-
I
ous areas of the world, such as Africa and parts of Asia and South
tain
adequate levels of immunity.
I
America.
It is difficult to
number
estimate the actual
Live poliomyelitis vaccine designed to be administered orally
of louse-
I
bome typhus
cases that occur annually.
certainly result in thousands of cases
.
"average" year would
and probably tens of thou-
For e.xample, Ethiopia reported more than 500 t>'phus one-month period in the spring of 1959. Mexico
sands.
1
An
leases during a
reported 74 cases during the second quarter of 1959.
Rocky Mountain spotted fever sial diseases.
I
one of the tick-borne rickett-
regions,
tick-bite
fe-
fever in Africa
With a mortality about 20"^. Rocky Mountain spotted fever
land Queensland and tick typhus in Australia. jin lis
untreated cases of
normally a milder disease than louse-borne typhus. Like louse-
bome ,
typhus,
it
some
also responds to treatment with
of the
newer antibiotics, such as the tetracyclines and chloramphenicol. The vaccine against Rocky Mountain spotted fever must be ad-
jministered annually to maintain protection.
600 cases of 'in
it
had been reported annually
recent years.
New York
state, for
Between 240 and
in the
United States
example, averaged ten
re-
—In
1958 the
|from a rabid bat to a
first
human
clear-cut transmission of rabies
occurred in the United States. It
jwas discovered several years previously that ibats
nonbloodsucking
could ser\'e as asjTnptomatic carriers of rabies. Since then,
several cases of itracted plete.
A
from
human
rabies were suspected of having been con-
bats, but the histories in these cases
were incom-
detailed account of a case in California seems to leave
no doubt that a rabid bat was the source of the infection. A 53woman received a puncture wound on the hand from la bat {Lasionycteris noctivayans) which was found to have been
jyear-old
of
immunity had yet
of the vaccine to large
to
questions re-
of persons, such as
had been done
U.S.S.R. and the Belgian Congo, can provide
information
if
such
trials are
much
useful
properly conducted. Unfortunately,
the data available from the mass immunization programs which
had so
far
been undertaken were inadequate
sw-ers to the questions. Until those
\vra& vaccine
to
permit sound an-
answers were provided,
live
would not be available for general use by the
population.
—
Smallpox. India and east Pakistan experienced large epidemics of smallpox in 1958. Provisional figures of reported cases 1958 were 159,000 in India and 47.210 in east Pakistan. Africa was second only to Asia in its high rate of chronic smallpox infection. Smallpox also continued to be endemic in scattered areas of South America. An outbreak of several hundred cases in
summer
of 1959.
While smallpox is not endemic in Europe, it is periodically introduced there by persons returning from travel in areas where smallpox is prevalent. In December of 1958. smallpox was diagnosed in a German physician who had just returned to Heidelberg from India. By late Jan. 1959. 18 confirmed cases and two deaths from smallpox had occurred in the Heidelberg area. Most of the cases occurred among hospital personnel who were in contact with the original case
or subsequent ones. This outbreak
graphically illustrates the ease with which smallpox can be re-
introduced into a country prexdously free of the disease. The
problem can be further compounded
|bitten
and died of rabies 11 days after onset of her illness. Six cases of human rabies were recorded during 195S in the iUnited States. One case each was reported from South Dakota,
diagnosis
I
and there are plentiful opportunities
and South Carolina, and Ohio reported two
Many
be completely answered. Administration
numbers
Three days later, the woman was started on a course of ihyperimmune antirabies serum and vaccine, completing 14 doses of the latter. The patient became ill 55 days after having been
irabid.
California, Georgia
1959.
occurred in a province of Brazil during the
Iported cases a year during 1955-59.
Rabies.
in
garding the level of protection achieved, safety and the duration
in the
Others include tick-bome typhus (boutonneuse
of the Mediterranean
|ver)
is
was under intensive investigation
is
in
such regions because there
frequently a delay in diagnosing the disease since medical per-
sonnel have rarely or never seen a case of smallpox. Until the is
realized, strict isolation procedures are not
begun
for the initial smallpox vic-
tim to infect others. Vaccination against smallpox and periodic revaccination at least at three-year intervals offers the best pro-
EPISCOPAL CHU RCH — ETHIOPIA
236
Eritrea 45,946 sq.mi. Pop. (1957
teclion against such occurrences.
Other Diseases. ported the
Guatemala
in
south of the Mexican border.
For
spread of the disease occurred. There was no major
No
change
just
fever activity continued to be re-
time since 1954, several cases of jungle yellow fever in a localized sector on the island of Trinidad early in
first
occurred 1959.
— Yellow
other internationally quarantinable diseases, such as
in
and plague. Public Health Service, U.S.;
cholera, louse-borne relapsing fever
Poliomyelitis;
See also
(H. E. Hi.)
Tropical Diseases; Ve.nereal Diseases.
—
—
ENCvcLop.tDiA Britannica Films. Antibiotics (1952); Bacteria Friend and Foe (1954); City Water Supply (1941); Health in Our Community (1959); Immuniiation (i9SS).
Episcopal Church:
see
Protestant Episcopal Church.
This country' on the Baltic sea, an independent public from 19 1 8 to 1940,
language;
also
Galla, Tigrinya, Tigre, Somali,
Christian monophysite (in
communion with
re-
was forcibly incorporated
the Egyptian Coptic
Church); also Moslem. Chief towns (1956
est.): Addis Ababa Asmara 123,083; Dessie 50,000; Harar 40,000; Dire-Dawa 30,000. Ruler, Emperor Haile Selassie I; prime minister in 1959, Ras Abebe Aragai.
(cap.) 400,000;
History.
— Ethiopia remained prominent
in
African affairs dur-
ing 1959. President (Josip Broz) Tito of Yugoslavia paid a sec-
ond
visit in
February, and the king and queen of Greece made a
March, but the most important event politically was the extensive tour made abroad by the emperor. During June, July and August he visited the United Arab Republic, the state visit in
(including a low-interest loan of 400,000,000 rubles)
slovakia and Yugoslavia.
ministers, Aleksey Miiiirisepp.
an independent arbiter.
—
In the middle of 1959 Soviet authorities opened the History. Estonian capital Tallinn (and Vilnius in Lithuania) for selected
Germany
and Yugoslavia. In consequence, agreements providing for financial and economic assistance were signed with the U.S.S.R,
Union in 1940 as a Soviet Socialist republic. Estonia is bounded north by the Gulf of Finland, east by the Russian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic, south by Latvia and west by the Baltic sea. Area: 17,375 sq.mi. Pop. (1959 census): 1,196,000. Nationalities (1939 census): Estonians 88.2%; Russians 8.2%; Germans 1.5%. Religion (1939): Lutheran 78%; Orthodox 19%. Chief towns (pop., 1959 census): Tallinn 280,000; Tartu 74,000. First secretary of the Estonian Communist party in 1959, Ivan Kabin; chairman of the presidium of the supreme soviet, August Jakobson; chairman of the council of into the Soviet
official
Religion:
etc.
U.S.S.R., Czechoslovakia, Belgium, France, Portugal,
Eritrea: see Ethiopia.
Estonia.
no census ever taken):
est.,
20.000,000, incl. Eritrea 1,040,404. Language: Amharic,
nomic co-operation was
An agreement
for technical
also signed with the
German
Czecho-
and
eco-
Federal
Republic.
Diplomatic storms blew up over the Somali territories aod
sharp notes were sent to the United Kingdom, the United States
and Italy protesting against
their alleged support of the con-
ception of Greater Somalia which would embrace an area of
Ethiopian territory.
No
progress was
made toward
settling the
Ethiopia-Somalia boundary dispute. Trygve Lie, former U.N. secretary-general,
was appointed under U.N. arrangements
The long-standing
rift
between the Coptic Churches of
opia and Egypt was healed in June. After
official
visits
as
Ethi-
were
was opened two years earlier). Tallinn had been on the list of closed cities since World War II. Osgood Caruthers, one of the first United States' newsmen to visit Estonia and Lithuania in 15 years, reported that workers and artisans were restoring Tallinn's churches and historical
exchanged the head of the former (Archbishop Basilios) was
World War Riga and Vilnius)
tons) and the U.S.S.R. (2,000 tons) and local relief services
foreign tourists (Riga, Latvia,
monuments which had been destroyed II.
or
damaged
In spite of Russian influences, Tallinn (like
in
had managed to retain its traditional character. Reports from various sources indicated that Tallinn was under an intensive process of further industrialization and Russification during 1959. Volta, the first highly mechanized and was designed to supply the entire Union with electrical machinery. Tallinn dockyards, protected with barbed wire fences and guarded by troops, were being used for the construction of warships. They employed 8.000 workers with a "clean political past." Most of them were imported Russians. automated plant
in Estonia,
territory of the northern Soviet
See also Latvla; Lithuania.
(Jo. Ps.)
— Schools
(1957-58): primary (4-year), higher primary (5-7 years) and secondary (8-10 years), all pupils i6S,ooo; vocational 44, Education.
pupils 13.700: institutions of higher education 6, students 12,000. Finance. Budget (i9S9 est.) balanced at 2,612.267.000 rubles.
—
—
Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1936-38 average): r>'e 184.000: wheat 75.800; barley 88, 100: oats 143.100: potatoes i.oot.ooo. Livestock (1939; 1957 in parentheses): cattle 706,000 (439,000); pigs 442,000 (408.000); sheep and goats 694,700 (246,000). Fisheries (1940; 1957 in parentheses): 22,800 (57,100) tons. Industry. Industrial production (1940; 1957 in parentheses) electricity 190,000,000 (1,094,000,000) kw.hr.; oil shale 1,892,000 (8,349.000) metric tons: gas, natural, 1,700,000 (408,000,000) cu.m.: peat 283.000 (371,000) tons; cement 70,900 (98,000) tons; cotton fabrics 22,800,000 (100,000,000) m.; leather shoes 600,000 (2,300,000) pairs.
—
:
An
independent empire of northeastern Africa,
in-
cluding (from Sept. 15, 1952) the autonomous state
bounded west by Sudan, and French Somaliland and (British) Somaliland Protectorate, and southeast and south by (Italian) Somalia trust territory and Kenya. Area: 455,212 sq.mi., incl.
of Eritrea, federated with Ethiopia,
northeast by the
Red
sea
elevated to the status of patriarch.
Because of locusts and drought, near-famine conditions
pre-
vailed in parts of Eritrea and the northern provinces. Gifts of
grain for distribution were
made by
the United States (46.500
were organized.
EMPEROR HAILE SELASSIE OF ETHIOPIA cooling his feet In the Bay of Bit cay near Biarritz, France. He was vacationing there in 1959 after a state visit with Pres. Charles de Gaulle of France
—
—
ETHNOLOGY— EUROPEAN UNITY The Eritrean
legislature abolished
the state flag in favour
of the Ethiopian flag and also adopted the Ethiopian penal code. (F. E. St.)
!
Education. Ethiopia, Schools (1953-54): government primary 431, pupils 69,081, teachers 2,372; government secondary and vocational 11, pupils 2,155, teachers 117; private (all levels) 79. pupils 8,675. Teachertraining colleges 2, students 533. Institutions of higher education 3 (incl. (incl. 200 at university college extenI university college), students 475 sion classes) teaching staff 34. Eritrea. Schools (1952): primary 100, pupils 13,500; secondary and technical 16, pupils 1,367. i teacher-training college with So students. finance and Banking. Monetary Unit: Ethiopian dollar, with an exchange Irate of Eth. $2,484 to the U.S. dollar. Budget. Ethiopia (1955-56 est.): revenue Eth. $115,010,000, expenditure Eth. $130,410,341. Eritrea (1956I
I
—
1
I
57 est.): revenue Eth. $12,978,102, expenditure Eth. $12,952,456. Currency circulation (March 1958) Eth. $155,500,000 (March 1959) Eth.
l
I
$153,700,000. Deposit money 1959) Eth. $50,800,000.
I
Foreign
TracJe.
(March 1958) Eth. $44,800,000 (March
— Imports
(1958) Eth. $193,600,000, exports (1958) Eth. $153,800,000. Main exports (1957): coffee 64%, oilseeds 9%, hides
I
I
cereals 6%. Transport and
8%, I
Communications. Ethiopia. Roads (1955): first-claSS 4,075 km.; others 10.622 km. Motor vehicles in use (incl. Eritrea, 1957): passenger cars 16,700. commercial vehicles 6,200. Railways (1956) 784 km. Air transport (1958): passenger-km. 75,480,000; freight, ton-km. 3,120,000. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 8,422. Eritrea. Roads (1955): firstclass 8S9 km.; others 2,240 km. Railways (1956): 306 km. Agriculture. JIain crops (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): barley 600,000 (510,000); rapeseed (1957) 19,000 (20,000 in 1956); sunflower seed (1957) 10.000 (10.000 in 1956); sesame (1957) 33,600 (35.000 in 1956) dry beans (1957) 64,000 75,000 in 1956) millet and sorghum (Ethiopia, 1957) 1,680,000; coffee (1956) 51,900; bananas (1956) 25,000; wheat (1956) 181,000; maize (1956) 158,000; chick peas (1956) 155,000.
I
i
—
(
;
;
Anthropology. Atomic Energy; European Unity. European Atomic Community: see European Unity. European Coal and Steel Community: see European
^Ethnology:
iEuratom:
i
see
see
Unity.
European
Common
Market:
European Unity; Tar-
;European Defense Community:
see
North Atlantic
see
European Unity;
JTreaty Organization.
European Economic Community: International Trade.
European Free Trade Area:
see
Denmark; European
Unity; International Trade.
European Payments Union: see European Unity; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates. The development of the movement for unity made some definite prog-
lEuropean Unity. European
was progress foreseen and arranged in preitself brought no new encouraging idevelopments, but witnessed a deepening of the rift in Europe about further steps and even about the whole program of European unification. In principle, most Europeans agreed with the goal, but there was no unanimity regarding the concrete form ress in 1959,
but
jceding years.
The year 1959
it
which was expected to take 15 years. The six nations also planned up a common external tariff on goods from nations outside
To facilitate freedom of movement within the community, the whole range of the fiscal, economic and social policies of the six nations were to be progressively harmonized. The process would demand much readaptation of the economic and social systems in the various countries, and provisions were being worked out to smooth the difficult path of these adaptathe community.
tions.
—
European Economic Community. The European Economic Community, better known as the Common Market, consists of France, West Germany, Italy and the three Benelux countries (Belgium, Luxembourg and the Netherlands). During 1958 the various institutions of the E.E.C. had been set up, but by the end of 1959 no decision had even been taken as to where the E.E.C. and the two co-operating agencies, the European Coal and Steel Community and Euratom (the European Atomic Energy their
permanent headquarters. In 1959
most of the institutions of the E.E.C. were concentrated
in
Brus-
Dec.
Common
dinavian countries
—
By
Market, Great Britain and the three Scanto
free or ease external convertibility of
European Payments union, a came to an end. It was supplanted by the European Fund and Multilateral Clearing system, which was established in 1953 by the 17 members of the Organization for European Economic Cooperation (O.E.E.C). France accompanied this step toward freer convertibility with a currency reform which devalued the official exchange rate of the franc. It would be a mistake, however, to view the convertibility of European currencies as a basic step toward European unity. It was. only a step toward re-establishing the full convertibility of currencies which, without any plans for European unity, existed throughout Europe before World War II. The their currencies.
that step the
multilateral clearinghouse for intra-European trade,
real
importance of
this step lay in the recognition of the
growing
and health of the European economies after the
disloca-
by World War II. The Free-Trade Area. As of 1959 the E.E.C. represented only 6 of the 17 European nations, or what was sometimes called "Little Europe." The 11 members of the O.E.E.C. which did not join the E.E.C. were Great Britain, Ireland, Iceland, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Switzerland, Austria, Greece and "Turkey. It was strongly felt that some form of association of the six nations with the rest of Europe was needed. Nondiscrimination in trade was a cardinal principle of the O.E.E.C, a body which, in the years after World War II, made possible much of the co-operation among European countries and of which the Common Market was an extension. The tariff regulations envisaged in the Common Market would counteract this principle and would introduce an element of discrimination on the part of the tion caused
six
nations against the rest of free Europe.
To prevent the
this discrimination,
Common Market
Jan. i, 1959, the first step toward creating a common marwas taken. Tariffs of the participating nations were cut 10%, and import quotas within the market were raised 20^^ above the imounts previously allowed. The gradual elimination of custom
member
Great Britain proposed that
should form part of a wider free-trade area,
thus avoiding discrimination within Europe. Negotiations for a free-trade area proceeded for two years until finally, in the
of the six
Common Market
fall
nations hardened. This deadlock was
confirmed when representatives of the 17 nations met on Dec.
nations was considered a chief in-
15,
overcome the split. The result was great bitterness, especially between France and Great Britain, the leaders of the 195S, to
two opposing camps.
To
10% all
alleviate the tension, the E.E.C. decided that the reciprocal tariff cut,
members
tariff.
i, 1959, would be extended to Agreement on Tariffs and Trade
introduced on Jan.
of the General
(G.A.T.T.), except cuts of
common The
On
ket
the
re-
E.E.C. was the agreement of
on the part of ten European
27, 1958,
tries of the
The E.E.C.
tariffs
then below the prospective
also extended the
ket import quota increase to all
Belg.
among
— One of the nations — the coun-
The End of the European Payments Union. sults of the establishment of the
of 1958, they broke down, and under French leadership the front
which the realization of the goal should take.
barriers
Market, a gradual process
—
iffs.
Community), would have
237
Common
to set
stability
see
I
sels,
strument for forming the
free-trade area envisaged
members
20% Common Mar-
of the O.E.E.C.
by Great Britain was formed by
group of countries which eliminated restrictions on trade within the group, but which allowed member countries to maintain their own individual tariffs on imports from outside, whereas the Com-
a
mon Market imposed
a
uniform
tariff
on outsiders. Such a free-
EUROPEAN UNITY
238
trade arrangement would give Great Britain the right to continue
the
Common Market
granting preference to
commonwealth products over goods from other non-European countries, while admitting European goods
No
decision
free of duty.
mon Market.
The hope
sion representing the E.E.C. rejected a British proposal that each
cut
and import quota increase within the
Common Market
should be extended by negotiation to other western European nations. But
Market
it
should be emphasized that several of the
Common
the other hand,
Common Market. Thus by the middle of 1959 Europe found itself in disarray, and European unity seemed much more a slogan than any sort of a reality. Under these conditions, early in June a conference was held at Saltsjoebaden, Swed., in which representatives of seven European countries Austria. Great Britain. Denmark, Norway,
—
Sweden and Switzerland
Portugal,
— met
to discuss a plan for
free-trade area outside the E.E.C.
decided to introduce free trade it
was not possible
The
among
The seven
countries
themselves, by stages, as
to arrive at a
wider association with
from tariffs and quantiwas to be supplemented by common rules of competition and antidumping provisions. The little free-trade area, as it was called, wished to move in the same direction as the E.E.C, toward a progressive tariff reduction that would not widen the gap between the two systems, and thereby force an the E.E.C.
liberation of foreign trade
tative restrictions
abandonment
of the idea of future synchronization
O. E.E.C. countries. In the future
it
among
the
all
might be easier to create a
between two existing multilateral institutions than an asso-
ciation
between the E.E.C. and individual nations by many
bi-
lateral treaties.
Of the two organizations the Common Market was the stronger embraced a population of 165,000,000 and had an internal trade volume of about $560,000,000 per month. The little freetrade area of seven nations had a population of So.ooo.ooo and an average monthly internal trade volume of about $230,000,000, one. It
was accountable
of which one-third
to
Great Britain. Because of
the relatively small scope of this free-trade area, the effects of the reduction of trade barriers were, on the whole, less far-reaching than those in the
On
Common
Market.
July 12, 1959, the premiers of Denmark.
Sweden announced
officially that their
to join the free-trade area of the seven.
Norway and
countries were prepared
The premier
of Finland
also affirmed his country's intention to consider participation.
Representatives of the seven nations met in Stockholm at the
end of July and worked out an agreement which was to be approved by the various countries by the end of 1959, so that they could start with a 20'y'c tariff reduction on July i, i960. A special agreement was to be concluded regarding agricultural products in
which Denmark and Great Britain were especially interested.
The
Strasbourg. France, on
May
14,
France,
Germany and
ii
Italy op.
able for the fact that the European assembly, a parliamentarj
On
ain's joining the
link
of ministers voted to reject the proposal. In this vote taken
posed the Benelux countries. This attitude was the more remart
there was a group of British industrialists favouring Great Brit-
long as
oldest
favourable to concessions to Great Britain and other
western European nations than did France.
little
—This
European community effort received a serious setback in 1959, It was faced with the problem of rising stockpiles; and when th« high authority proposed a European solution to the problem b) establishing production quotas and limiting imports, the council
nations, especially the Benelux nations, took an attitude
much more
a
The European Coal and Sfeel Community.
of resuming the unsuccessful negotiations for the
European free-trade area, which were carried on during 1958, appeared doomed in March 1959 when a nine-member commistariff
nations, and Turkey took a similar step, was reached about the concrete form, but the idei of such an association was welcomed by the members of the Com-
representatives of the four Scandinavian countries,
who
body acting for the three European economic communities, hac supported by a vote of 44 to 12 the pleas of the high authorit] of the E.C.S.C. for action to alleviate the
a
new
of the Christian
end of the meeting of the seven on July 21 stressed that the ultimate aim was a free-trade area which would embrace not only the little free-trade area and the Common Market countries but all members of the Organization for European
at the
Economic Cooperation. On the other
hand, Greece applied in July for a loose form of association with
1
—
Organization tor European Economic Cooperation. Dur membership of the 0. E.E.C. was increaset from 17 to 18 by the admission of Spain. The Spanish governmea signified its intention to liberalize its economic policies in ordei to bring them into line with western countries. At the same time ing the year 1959, the
the 0. E.E.C. granted to Spain a credit of $100,000,000 to ease
thi
Under the sponsorship of thi 0. E.E.C. financial assistance by a number of European countrie was also granted to the hard-pressed economy of Turkey. Euratom. The European Atomic Energy Community signo an agreement in Nov. 1958 with the United States to stimulati nuclear power production on the continent and to share the re suiting technical experience. Under the agreement Euratom wa to receive a loan of $135,000,000 at 4^% interest and enough en country's economic difficulties.
—
riched uranium to provide for the operation of six or eight reac tors capable of producing a total of
1963.
A
i. 000.
000 kw. of power
b;
$100,000,000 research program, to be jointly finance!
and administered by Euratom and the United States, was to usi the reactors to seek ways to lower the cost of atomic power. Bu the original enthusiasm for Euratom in Europe waned in 1951 because changing economic conditions large surpluses of coa and new large reserves of oil and natural gas in the Saharaseemed to make atomic energy less attractive for the immediat
—
future.
Looking back
at the events of 1959.
it
could be said that
al
though the free European nations made further progress in thei economic and political consolidation, the idea of European unit; made little reaf headway, and the great hopes aroused a few year earlier did not
come nearer
fulfillment.
On
the contrary, the
covery of the European nations strengthened
in
some
re
of them
especially in France, a spirit of self-centred nationalism whid
shifted the emphasis on national sovereignty
away from Europeai
or supranational co-operation.
See also Armies of the World; Foreign Aid Programs International Trade; North Atlantic Treaty Of
GANIZATION.
The communique published
Democratic party, who had been
strong proponent of European integration.
work but adapt
plans to the new'ly created free-trade
ol
president, Piero Malvestiti, an Italian representative ant
member
U.S.;
their
but the vote
ters. The E.C.S.C. thus proved unable to solve the coal crisis which was especially acute in Belgium. At the end of July the high authority of the E.C.S.C. receive*
had been working for several years preparing a common market for Scandinavia, declared that they would continue with their area.
crisis,
the assembly, a purely advisory body, did not influence the minis-
Bibliography.— William Diebold. Jr., The Schuman Plan: Study « Economic Cooperation. iQso-igsg (1959): Miriam Camps, Center of In ternational Studies. Princeton. The Free Trade Area Negotiations (195?) E. Strauss. Common Sense About the Common Market (1959); .^Rostin Soldati. "Economic Disintegration in Europe." Foreign Affairs (Ocl 1959): Picter Geyl. "The Mvth of European Unity.'' The \cw Leade I'nity. f.'VuK. 31, 1959); Hans Kohn. "The Difficult Road to Western Orbis (Oct. 1959); Renato Giordano, La Nuova Frontiera (1959); WiU: Bretscher. "On European Integration," Swiss Review oj World Aflatr (H. Ko.) (Oct. I9S9).
EXCHANGE CONTROL AND EXCHANGE RATES IL'tot
Evangelical and Reformed Cliurcli. merger consummated June
i
j
j
tions with a total
communicant membership of more than 800,were at work in Japan, Hong Kong, India, Honduras, Ecuador, Ghana and French Togoland, and were awaiting readmission into Iraq. Its government is a modified
Events of the Year:
000. Its missionaries
1-16.
(form of presbyterianism. Like other Protestant churches, it acicepts baptism and the Lord's Supper as the two sacraments au-
1
New
by the
ithorized 1
Mueller, Indianapolis, Ind. In each of these ecclesiastical bodies
was
I
1
"a
1934, between the former Re-
formed Church in the United States and the former EvangeHcal Synod of North America. On Dec. 31, 1958, the denomination included 2,742 congrega-
,
!
26,
Testament, while
it
regards and practises
set forth the
1959 denominational emphasis: "Unity with
Christ in Personal Christian Living."
of
Heidelberg Catechism, Luther's Catechism and the
[Augsburg Confession, but is
the
Word
in
matters of doctrine "the
final
norm
God."
of
In 1957 the Evangelical and Reformed Church took initial action entering into union with the General Council of
official
the Congregational Christian Churches
to establish the
(q.v.)
United Church of Christ (q.v.).
(Js. E.
W.)
1959, pages
last quarter of 1958 and the first three quarters of 1959 the terms of trade remained favourable to the more highly
industrialized countries,
lards are the
Calendar of Events,
Ss.)
Exchange Control and Exchange Rates.
confirmation, ordination, consecration (of full-time lay workers),
Recognized doctrinal stand-
see
(W. M.
During the
marriage and burial as holy
rites.
239
European annual conferences met during the summer months of the year under the leadership of the senior bishop, Reuben H.
and the international financial position showed further marked improvement. By contrast, most of the raw material producing countries continued to experience difficulties, brought on by the low prices obtainable for their products abroad and often aggravated by inflation at home. Throughout 1958 Europe's gold and dollar reserves increased, reflecting in part the return of confidence in its currencies, and
Europe
in particular
exchange controls were gradually relaxed. This movement toward liberal trading conditions reached its climax on Dec. 27,
more
Kingdom and most of the leading trading Europe declared their currencies freely convertible for current transactions by nonresidents. On the same day the European Payments union was tenninated and was replaced by a looser linking defined in the European Monetary agreement. The old E.P.U. procedure whereby outstanding balances between member countries could be settled up to 25% by credit was replaced by a multilateral clearing system in which all such settlements were made in gold or dollars. At the same time, however, a European fund was established with a capital of $600,000,000 195S,
Evangelical United Brethren Church. .Brethren Church, numbering
L'r'3"d
more than 760,000 members
in
United States and Canada, observed 1959 as the bicentennial of jthe birth of one of its founders, Jacob Albright.
During the period 1955-59, Sunday morning worship attendan average figure of 402,794. Sunday school
lance increased to
jenroUment was up from 687,719 to 710,580, with average attend:ance increasing jper
were
lvalues |leftt
from 407,074
capita during
to 441,039.
Giving averaged $63
Property and benevo-
1959, for a total of $46,479,676.
listed at $269,911,245, including schools
At the 39th session of the General conference, Oct. 9-17, 1958,
new annual missions and benevolence budget was set at $1,750,000. In addition, the quadrennial Mission Advance program oba
Ijective totaled
July
the United
make short-term
to
credits to
I,
in
such a
way
as to avoid imposing restrictions
Coming
as
it
1959, ground was broken in Dayton, 0., for the
as
its
Aug. 30, 1959, a missionary furlough residence located at Naperyille. 111., was dedicated in honour of Bishop Emeritus George
capital trol
—was
Edward Epp.
the
major European currencies.
The
During 1958-59 the following denomination-wide meetings
Women's
Society of
World
most countries movements were in
in the ability of
from the fund.
During 1959 the following publications were placed in circuJacob Albright (a translation) by Bishop Emeritus
Edward Epp; The Evangelical Church
in
Ohio by Roy B.
eedy; Proceedings of the 39th session of the General confer-
The Discipline of the Evangelical United Brethren Church,
|i959 ed.
;
Personal Christian Living, the annual denominational
ptudy book
member
countries to purchase foreign exchange
—
United States. As Europe's reserve position improved, there was a continued outflow of gold from the United States. U.S. reserves fell from $20,870,000,000 in Sept. 1958 to $19,670,000,000 in July 1959 and from the end of 1957 the drop amounted to
more than $3,000,000,000.
It reflected a fall in U.S.
;
and That They
May Know Him, a
pictorial brochure
level
Thirty-four annual conference sessions, concerned with opera-
tions in 4.450
organized churches in 43 states and provinces, United States and Canada during 1959. Four
)were held in the
— —and
exports
larger in fact than the surplus in current commercial trans-
actions
raised doubts in
economy was
still
some quarters whether the U.S.
fully competitive with the rest of the world.
Although U.S. reserves
still
represented about 18 months' im-
ports, the continuing gold outflow also led to
ously denied by U.S. authorities
— that
rumours
—vigor-
the U.S. might increase
the dollar price of gold.
Canada.
prepared by the board of missions. j
subject to a varying degree of con-
while imports were stable and foreign aid remained at a high
1959-
ation:
nce;
still
was further reinforced in by a general 50% increase in quotas in the InternaMonetary fund, that resulted in a corresponding increase
Education, Omaha, Neb., Feb. 7-8, 1959; Consultation meeting, ConIference E.U.B. Men's Presidents, Westmar college. Le Mars, la., ^pril 17-18, 1959; second Group Leadership institute, Camp Mi[ami, Germantown, 0., Sept. 14-17, 1959; and the quadrennial
eorge
— even
did not extend to residents and though
international liquidity position
tional
United Brethren Men, Wichita, Kan., Oct.
it
Sept. 1959
the General conference, Harrisburg, Pa., Oct. 9-17, 1958; first
icongress. Evangelical
as great
widely considered to signal the regained strength of
Service, Harrisonburg, Va., Sept. 17-21, 1958; 39th session of
jConsultation conference. Conference Directors of Christian
was not
psychological effect since the return to convertibility
though
Iwere held: quadrennial convention.
on trade and pay-
did at the end of a long series of small changes,
On
J9-11.
basis to
ments. the immediate technical result of this change
$5,150,000, or $1,287,500 annually.
(Evangelical United Brethren administrative office building.
I
members on an ad hoc
help them overcome temporary balance of payments difficulties
homes.
On
when
countries of
mained
— Except
for brief periods the
Canadian dollar
the end of the business recession. In Sept. 1959 a
re-
strong, despite an increase in imports, associated with
premium
of
5%
it
commanded
over the U.S. dollar. This strength reflected
EXCHANGE CONTROL AND EXCHANGE RATES
240
exchange position showed some improvement
the continued inflow of foreign capital, both short- and long-
term, partly
more steeply the treasury later
response to higher interest rates which rose even
in
in bill
Canada than
the United States.
in
from 1.54%
rate
was particularly
The
rise in
1958 to 5.64% a year
in Sept.
striking.
— In
Jan. 1959 Argentina introduced a new exchange system as part of a program to halt inflation and cor-
Latin America.
payments deficit. The program was asby credits from the U.S. government and a stand-by arrangement with the International Monetary fund. The previous combination of official and free exchange markets was replaced by a single fluctuating rate for all transactions. New taxes were applied to certain exports, and imports of all but essential goods were subject to levies ranging from 20% to 300%. At the same time Argentina abolished bilateral payments arrangements and the so-called "Paris club," in which Argentina's debit and credit balances with certain western European countries were offset one against the other. When the new exchange market opened on Jan. 12, 1959, a rate of about 65 pesos per U.S. dollar prevailed, compared with the previous official and free rates of 18 and about 70 pesos per dollar respectively. During rect a large balance of
sisted
the following months, the peso in
May
and recovering
The government
fell
recovery
end of July.
After the serious
difficulties of the
in June,
compared with
5.02 in Sept. 1958. In Jan. 1959 minoi
exports were accorded a preferential rate based on the free rate
but subject to an exchange tax of
2%
15%. The
or
result of the removal, in
The
May
which applied and was optional
free rate,
invisibles
The
prevailing at the end
tax was levied, as a revenue
sales of foreign exchange.
A
July 1959. On each occasion the range of goods exported or imported at the official rate of 18.36 cruzeiros per U.S. dollar (plus
was reduced and the surcharge increased.
From
July 1959 the effective rate for coffee and cocoa exports was 76 cruzeiros per U.S. dollar and for certain other exports 100
to nonregistered capital
for import pa>'ments,
The remaining exports and most imports were handled which then stood at 151.90, compared with 156.25 but government payments and certain imports re-
inflation continued in Chile, the country's
authorities to introduce exchange controls for the
ints
per
unit of foreign
quoted and
type of exctiange
of 50 pesos was placed on the
amount
Pound
Austri Belgru
Schiiiing
......'.'.
'.
.
.!.'.'
Ausln
nd
.
1938
limr
thai
Faced with
falling foreign
exchange reserves, the Uruguayai
authorities sought to discourage imports. In Dec. 1958 they im
posed a surcharge on the
exchange
selling rate for foreign
per U.S. dollar, two categories classified as less essential wen subject to rates of
4. 11
and
16.62.
The
principal export rate re
was provided that 42% of the for eign exchange proceeds of meat exports might be sold on thi free market, resulting in an effective rate, initially about 6.1
mained
at 3.46, but in July
it
currency)
Morkira
2.51
389.55
...
'.
'.
2.88
nany
Deutschemark Rxpee .
n
some years refused most
for
aid,
announced
its
willingness to
kccept a grant. Spain, in addition to recei%'ing increased
amounts
U.S. aid, was able to get assistance
from the International Monetary fund, the Organization for European Economic Cooperation and private U.S. banks as part of a general program to 'tabilize its currency and liberalize its foreign trade. Argentina, '00, benefited from a similar transaction, but negotiations with l>f
broke down because that country found the conditions
Brazil
by the fund too onerous.
'ailed for
The Future. just
'or
— In
his
budget for
fiscal i960, the
president asked
over $3,900,000,000 in foreign aid funds, of which
61,600,000.000 was to go for military aid, $835,000,000 in defense support. |he rest in
$700,000,000 to the Development Loan fund, and
various other forms of aid, including special and con-
ingency funds and technical assistance. )Oth
houses on July
authorized aid
22
53,600.000.000 (of which $1,400,000,000
5751.000,000
for
The
restraint than in earlier tries
international capital flows in 1959 ^-ere subject to less
governmental postwar years, as major European coun-
moved toward currency
convertibility, so that changes in
and other market forces had a growing influence on the direction and size of such flows. In addition, the scope
interest rates
for trading in equity securities of foreign corporations was widened, and the financing of direct investments also became
more
flexible.
In the United States there was a rapid recovery of economic
which continued into 1959. Inthe United States rose sharply in this period,
activity in the last half of 1958 terest rates in
largely as a
measure
to
dampen
excess
creases, but also as a reaction to a
demand and
price in-
marked deterioration
in the
foreign trade position of the United States resulting in large
gold sales and rapidly increasing short-term liabilities to foreigners. Rising interest rates
were effective
in cutting off
much
of
the flow of portfolio capital and
bank loans to foreign countries from mid-1958 through mid-1959, and also reduced gold sales to foreigners by making the holding of treasury bills and other dollar assets more attractive. In the same period, moreover, most European countries were pursuing less stringent monetary policies as their
economies were expanding relatively slowly.
By
the
middle of 1959, however, the pace of economic activity was rising in Europe, and interest rates there were also going higher. Euro-
pean investors considerably expanded the rate of their investments in the United States and other countries in 1958 and 1959,
and with the growth of economic strength and international serves in Europe this trend was expected to continue.
re-
—
under
U.S. Investments Abroad. After reaching a peak of $3,175,000,000 in 1957, private capital outflows from the United States
for miUtary aid,
declined to $2,844,000,000 in 1958, and a further decline in the
bill
totaling
was
that passed
FnrPiffn rUICIgll InVP^tmPnt? IllVCdllllCIIU.
just
defense support, and $700,000,000
for
the
half of 1959 indicated that the annual rate would be less than $2,500,000,000. Whereas in 1958 a sharp cutback in direct investment flows was offset by larger portfolio investments, espe-
first
Loan fund). The appropriation bill passed in midJeptember reduced this sum by $330,000,000, of which $150,!ioo,ooo was cut from the Development Loan fund, $100,000,000 ;rom military aid, $56,000,000 from defense support and $30,-
cially in the first half of the year, in 1959 direct investments were expanding more rapidly while purchases of foreign bonds and
^0,000 from technical assistance.
lending by banks declined because of the relatively high interest
Defense
The
total
appropriated for
fiscal
i960 was $3,226,000,000,
rates prevailing in the
United States. Nevertheless, the combined by a substantial margin the
ompared with $3,298,000,000 for fiscal 1959. The main reducwas in military assistance and defense support, while the
rate of outflow continued to exceed
ion
rates of the years prior to the
)evelopment Loan fund received an amount equal to the pre\i'us year's appropriation of $400,000,000 plus the supplementary
gether with reinvested foreign earnings and
5150,000.000 pro\'ided in the spring of 1959. In the course of fiscal 1959 the United States committed itself
more than during The Development Loan fund and loans from
lend nearly $2,000,000,000, one-third previous year.
the the
market values of foreign
sudden upsurge
securities,
in 1956, and. to-
some
gains in the
brought the value of United
States private foreign investments to $40,800,000,000
by the
beginning of 1959. Earnings of U.S. private foreign investments declined by about
10%
in
1958 to $3,370,000,000, with most of the drop attributable
)roceeds of agriculture sales each pro\'ided about one-quarter
to lower earnings of petroleum enterprises. Earnings of these
form of Export-Import bank United States was stressing the need for
enterprises, which accounted for about one-third of the total, remained under pressure in 1959 as growing supplies depressed petroleum prices, but other industries showed gains as economic activity expanded in many countries. Dividends and interest paid to U.S. investors on jjortfolio investments were also tending up-
vhile
most of the
rest took the
oans. Increasingly the ither
advanced countries
)rocess.
to participate
more
actively in the aid
These overtures found a certain response abroad where
he concept of aid to underdeveloped coimtries was increasingly
L
—
. ,
FOREIGN INVESTMENTS
266 Tab(«
I.
Valut of Unll»d Slalmi InnilmmnU Abroad, Jan.
1,
195S, and Jan.
"" '"""'"• °' "''"'"" ,„„
I9M Tolol
Tolol
W.il.rn Europ*
34.2 34.8 33.6
39.J 40.8 37.3
17.7 7.8 4.7
"J 3.3
"•'
**
3.9
.2
3.7
lona-i.'m
2.7 2.4 3.2 17.4 15.4
2.4 3.5 18.3 14.2
Shori.i.tm
1.8
2.1
InvttitmanI
Toial P'l.oi.
long i.rn
?"«•
•
„•
•
•
Po'alan dollor bofidi
OHtar •oiciiiait Oth.r Shori.i.rin U.S. gov.roni.nl
',;;;'•
lonn.
Amarkon
Olh»r
cl«i
Conodo
rvpubllct
counlrUi
1.1
14.3 14.2 13.8
i?.» 9.8
7.9 4.8 4.2
'-^
''
1.1 1.1
'0
•»
1.0
—
2.1
1.1
•
1.1
*
—
10.0
•
9.1
•
11.1
S.3 1.8 1.8
.3
.9
Direct investments.
— In
the
in 1958. first
half of 1959 thc net out-
tlow of direct investment capital from the United States
was
about $630,000,000, and the total for the year seemed likely to exceed the $1,094,000,000 recorded in 1958. Investments out of undistributed profits were $750,000,000 in 1958 and
many com-
panics appeared to be making increased use of this source of
funds
in
1959 as dividends to the United States were somewhat
reduced while earnings seemed to
Much
rise.
of the fluctuation in U.S. direct investments results
from
the year-to-year variation in the experience of the petroleum in-
—..,-., —
.3
by Chryslcr ^ Corp. and j Ai„„:„:.,^ ILtd. . „f a Aluminium of joint company to make aluminum ,' ^ ,. allOyS, i HeW DUlIding prodtioH
1.4
.4
1.7 1.4
3.2 2.1
3.3 3.5
•
.1
1.1
•
.
expanding refineries and pipelines
in Europe, appeared certain keep investment expenditures high. By the beginning of 1959 this industry had foreign holdings with a book value of $9,681,-
to
000,000, an increase of about $700,000,000 over the previous year.
U.S. manufacturing companies continued to expand their foreign production facilities, spurred
by strong competition from European companies. Investments in this industry increased by
about $600,000,000
in 1958, bringing the total to $8,485,000,000.
Mining companies
also
new sources
Canada.
were planning large outlays and other minerals.
to
develop
for iron ore, bauxite
— The pace of investment by U.S. companies
ada slackened somewhat
in
Can-
in 195S. after a long period of rapid ex-
some reduction in general economic activity About $600,000,000 were added to direct investments in 1957; petroleum and manufacturing investments were lower than in the previous year, but mining investments were beginning to move up as new projects were in the development in that country.
stage.
Major
interest in the petroleum industry- in
new
Canada
in
1959
or expanded reserves in Alberta and in the North-
west Territories. U.S. companies were actively exploring in both areas.
However,
existing
Canadian production
^
^
i_
.
.
facilities
were
operating at only about half capacity in 1959, and in .\ugust the
Borden commission on energy recommended that the international oil companies develop more markets for this production in the United States, where quotas on Canadian oil had been removed. Under consideration were proposals to build a. pipeline from .\lberta to Montreal, coupled with an imposition of restric-
|
many problems
political turmoil, presenting
.
,
tors. U.S.
companies had increased
their holdings in the area
by
.
a record of $1,266,000,000 in 1957, but the increase in 1958 was
down
;
and the outlook in 1959 did not indicate any substantial rise from this rate. However, much of the decline to lower, but still substantial, levels was accounted for by the marketing difficulties of the petroleum industry, and investor to $405,000,000
number
;
1
of countries remained strong.
In Argentina a growing number of U.S.
sums
oil
j
companies were en-
1
in exploration, drilling
and pipeline construction, although the capital to be invested from abroad would apparently be much less than was originally contemplated. Manufacturing investments centred in the automotive industry, with Ford Motor Co, building a $12,000,000 plant to produce trucks. General Motors Corp. requesting permission to expand truck production with a $20,000,000 investment and Chrj'sler Corp. also planning to invest $15,000,000. The .\rgentine government agreed to a S40.000.000 investment by Texas Butadiene & Chemical Corp. in a chemical and carbon black plant, and Pfizer .Argentina. S.A.. had an $8,500,000
1
j
[
1
!
J
,
pharmaceuticals plant ready for production. Under consideration w-as a proposal
by
a U.S.
group
to
.
spend $150,000,000 to develop
iron ore deposits in northern Patagonia. Late in 1958 the Argen-
,
government took over ownership of the major properties of the American and Foreign Power Co., but the amount to be paid for the properties was not determined, Brazil remained a focal point for U.S. direct investments in 1959 despite severe economic difficulties and continued attacks by various groups against foreign investors. At the beginning, of 1959. U.S. direct investments in Brazil were valued at $1,345,000.000, with more than half in manufacturing. During 1959 there were further investments in the automotive industry, ineluding a joint investment by Willys Motors, Inc. and Renault;
,
of France in a
company
to
produce a French-designed passenger
Other manufacturing projects were under way for the production of automobile axles and gears, major automobile parts, appliance controls and a wide range of chemicals. There were also car.
aluminum plant in Minas about $200,000,000 was under con-
reports that the construction of an
Gerais involving an outlay of
plan to allow participation of private foreign capital in the development of petroleum resources was blocked at least tempo-
Canada appeared
in
•'
for potential inve»-
to be expand-
in
somewhat more vigorously
I
—
1959 than in 1958, but there were probably fewer new ventures than in earlier years. An in-
Canada from Venezuela and the middle In Toronto, the Cities Service Co. completed a new $27,000,000 refinery, tions on imports into
east.
Manufacturing investments
'
Plywood Corp., and purchase of an existing lighting fixture business by Thomas Industries, Inc. Many countries in Latin America were in Latin America. economic difficulties in 1958 and 1959, or were in the midst of
by a U.S. group. more favourable for private investments developied in Chile in 1958 and 1959. Rate increases were granted to the U.S.-owned telephone company, enabling a $75,000,000 expansion program to continue. The Bethlehem Steel Corp. reported plans to expand its iron ore operations, and other mining properties were being expanded as prices improved somewhat. However, a
ing
.
i.
tine
pansion, in line with
centred on
i
^ Subsidiary of United StateS
tering into contracts to spend large
for
.
UCtS pISHt tO be COHStrUCtcd by
and other costs in producing areas. These factors reduced earnings and also brought some rescheduling of investment programs. However, significant new discoveries of
major programs
•
.,
mod*
interest in a
reserves in north Africa and Canada, and
•
,
dustrv'. In both 1958 and 1959 this industr>' found that it was developing available supplies at a faster rate than demand, and
also faced rising taxes
Other manufacturing
• vcrrturcs included the forma-
*
—
.4
where.
•»! .9
.2
*
•
—
locotad
.5
.1
2.3
oiKfunol.
•l.ii Ihan $50,000,000. tll«pr«i«nli lh» •illmalad lnv«ilm«nl bi ihlpplng componlai r»glil«r«d lit Ponarnd end LIbarlo. tConiltti prlmorllv of lacuriliat payabU in foreign curranclet. but includai torn* dollar obligalloni, Inclwdlng porrklpalionfl In loan« by Ih. Inl.rnolionol Bonk for R.con.trucllon ond D.v.lopm.nl. Scrc. U.S. D.por.m.nl of Comm.rc, S.rr,.y of Curr.nl 8.„ln..., Aug. I 959. D.loll moy not odd lo lolol. b.cou.. of ro-ndta«.
ward and exceeded $400,000,000
Canada of about SlOOin July when the Ford Motor Co. purchased mOSt of thc Slock of hi Ca"adian Subsidiary held by the oublic Canada and ana '
aircraft.
forest service reported that forest fire losses in
fire
Canada Forestry
more than $15,000,000
The government
year i960.
Tree planting
and national resources, continued during 1959
ventory, reforestation, forest
early 1959.
of wildlife habitats. 5.
affairs
1958
were the lowest on record. Area burned in the United States
the formation of an independent, nonprofit Canadian Tree
Farm-
—
F
;:
FORMOSA — OUR-H CLUBS
270 open
ers' association,
to all
wood
lot
owners, with a Quebec unit
already active. (J. L. V. C.) ENCVCLOP/tDiA BuiTANNicA FiLMS. Artfritt ol Life (1948); Forest Consfrvttlion (1940); The ForrsI Grows (1949); The Forest Produces (1949); Forest Ranter (1954); The Livinf Forest (1950); Look to the Land (1954); Seeds 0/ Destruction (1948); Vours Is the Land (1949)-
Induttrial
Output
fowar ond min«ral prodwclloni Pow.r (1,000 kw.h..) Cool (1.000 n«trlclo«l| Crud. oil (HI Nalu'ol goi (1,000
cu.nt.l
In
l»S7
l»M
},249,tlO 2,329 3,337 27,1 S«
2,333,1»7 2.914 2,771 21,733
2.II0.1J2
773,794 391,204
917.794 403.933
ia,03a 9,322 142,713 24,434 49,337
19.738 9,9a0 184,331 27.898 39,434
Marircll. Ilan>' situation.
importance
:
to
On
Sept. 16 he
made
a declara-
he recognized the right of the Algerians
and announced that a referendum would take place four years after the country had been pacified. This declaration had repercussions in Algeria, Tunisia and Morocco. There was a possibility that Habib Bourguiba, the president of Tunisia, might act as mediator between France and the "pro%'isional government of the Algerian republic" which issued its reply oh Sept. 28, noting the promise of self-determination and to self-determination
asking implicitly to be recognized as the political organization of the F.L.X.
Parliament began work again on Oct. 6 and on Oct. 13 Debre made a statement of general policy. He commented upon the declaration of Sept. 16 on Algeria. He was received rather coldly in both the assembly and the senate. Many deputies from Algeria did not take part in the debating. Finally
on Oct.
16, the
govern-
ment obtained 441 votes against 23 with 28 abstentions; 56 deputies did not record their vote. There was some dissension within the U.X.R. and nine so-called "May 13" deputies were expelled from the party by its political committee. While on Oct. 30 the national assembly was voting on the plan for fiscal reform and at the beginning of November was examining the budget for 1960, there was an attempt at political subversion
aimed at removing Debre from ofiice, and oflttcial investigations were made in "activist" circles in Paris and in the provinces.
On
Oct. 28
De
Gaulle addressed a message to the
civil
servants
and armed forces in Algeria, reminding them that the Debre
government had his complete confidence in carrj'ing out the definite steps in policy laid down on Sept. 16. Moreover, Marshal Alphonse Juin was requested not to take part in any political discussions.
On
— During 1959 France displayed intense
an indication of
its
new
position in
the other hand, while agreeing to Dec. 19 as the date
of the meeting of the heads of to prepare for the future
government of the western powers
meeting with Khrushchev, he endeav-
oured to postpone the summit conference which Macmillan had
wanted
to hold as
soon as possible after the Eisenhower-Khru-
shchev conversations at
Camp
David, Md.
—
The Economic and Social Position. During the year there was an improvement in the French economic situation. Industrj' was expanding, the deficit in overseas trade was being reduced and the franc was consolidating its standing internationally. The reports issued by Antoine Pinay. the minister of finance, and by the governor of the Bank of France (at the end of July) were relatively optimistic. This was also the case with a parliamentary report on the budget estimates for i960, which spoke of "the austere road to prosperity" and of the necessity of which could bring about the
fighting "inflation, the only thing failure of the
govenmient's economic policy."
Drought, however, caused some shortage the country. chiefly at the
among
The
price of
in
many commodities
food supplies
in
increased and,
end of the year, there was considerable unrest
trade unions. Several unions demonstrated in support of
The guaranteed minimum wage had to be and the price of bread went up by one franc from Aug. 3. In November the government endeavoured, by importing foodstuffs and cutting down manufactured products, to forestall fresh rises in prices and to check any attempt at a strike in the an increase
in wages.
raised twice
countrj'.
See also Algeria; Armies of the World; Atomic Energy; European Unity; Foreign Inxtstments; French Community; French Equatorial Africa; French Literature; Geneva Foreign Ministers' Conference of 1959; North Atlantic Treaty Org.\niz.4tion Paris; United Nations. ;
(A. PR.) Education.
Foreign Policy. matic activity,
a stay in Italy on the occasion of the centenary of Solferino and the war of 1859. Then during Sept. 2-3 he received Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower in Paris at the time of a crisis in the relations with Great Britain and the United States, mainly caused by a speech by Debre on Aug. 16. During the latter six months of the year the various disputes between Paris. London and Washington continued. In opposition to British-U.S. opinion, France kept to its decision to explode an atomic bomb in the Sahara. After Khrushchev's \isit to the United States in October De Gaulle invited the head of the government of the U.S.S.R. to visit France at the beginning of
— Schools
(1956-57, state and private): primary
(incl.
pre-
diplo-
primary) 88,038, pupils 6,861.400, teachers (state only) 192,273: secondary 2.484, pupils 1,064,500, teachers 43,059; vocational (state only),
Europe and in
pupils 327,900, teachers 22,676; state teacher- training, students 21,303.
FRANKE — FRENCH COMMUNITY
274
Inilitulioni ol higher education (1956. eicludin( private) 134. t'nivertilirs
(957)
17. students
170,000. unit: franc, with a par value (from Dec. ig, 1958) Budget: (1958 est.) revenue 4,78>,ooo,ooo.ooo (r., 49J.7 expenditure 4,853,000,000,000 (r. Internal debt (Dec. 1958) 6,590,000,000,000 (r., external debt 1,383,000,000,000 Ir. Currency circulation (March 1958) 3,360,000,000,000 (r., (March 1959) 3,460,000,000,000 (March 1958) 3,651,000,000,000 fr., (March 1959) fr. Deposit money: 4,101,000,000,000 (r. Gold and lorcign exchange, official (April 1958) U.S. $609,000,000, (April 1959) U.S. $624,000,000. Foreign Trod*. (1958) Imports 1,353,830,000,000 (r.; exports J,I49,610,000,000 fr. Main sources of imports: conlincnial E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 39%; continental E.P.U./E.F. overseas territories j8%; U.S. and Canada 11%; Latin America 4%; U.K. 4%; other sterling area 14%. Main destinations of exports: continental E.P.U./E,F. overseas territories 38%; continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 31%; U.S. and Canada 7%; U.K. $%: other sterling area 4%; Latin America 4%. Traniporl and Communicallont. Slate railways (1957) 39,600 km.; passengcr-lim, (1957) 32,600,000,000; freight (1958) 52,884,000,000 ton-km. Roads (1957) 1,156,000 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957); passenger 3,972,000, commercial 1,421,400. Navigable inland waterways (1957) 7,887 km. Shipping (July 1958): merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over 1,307; gross tonnage 4,338,000. Civil aviation (1958) 4,123,372,000 passenger-km.; freight 118,404,000 ton-km. Telephones (Jan. '958) 3,498,900. Licensed radio receivers (1957) 10,881,000; licensed television receivers (1958) 683.000. Agrlcullur*. Main crops (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): wheat 9,577,000 (11,082,400); rye 454,000 (481,000); barley 3,904,000 (3,626,000); oats 2,611,000 (2,579,000); maize 1,625,000 (1,392,000); broad beans 67,000 (66.000); dry beans 99,000 (110,000); rice 145,000 (114,000); potatoes 13,716,000 (15,114,000): flax fibre 26,700 (29,600); tobacco (1957) 61,305 (58,000 in 1956); olives (19SS) 20,000 (35,000 in 1954); dessert grapes (1957) 156,000 (210,000 in 1956). Livestock (Oct. 1958): cattle 17,924,000; sheep 8,573,000; horses 1,982,000; pigs 8,131,000; chickens (laying hens, Oct. 1957) 85.000,000. Food production (metric tons, 1958): beef and veal 972,100; pork 664,100; mutton and lamb 80,100; milk (1957) 20,600,000; butter (1956) 300,000; cheese (1956) 350,000; olive oil (1957) 1,000; beet sugar, raw value 1.567,000; wine (1957) 3,122,000. Fish catch (including Algeria, 1957) S14.S00. Industry. Fuel and power (1958): electricity 61.800,000,000 kw.hr.; manufactured gas (available for sale, about 36% of total production) 2,892,000,000 cu.m.; coke (1957) 12,564,000 metric tons: coal 57.720.000 metric tons; crude oil 1,389,600 metric tons. Production (metric tons, 1958): iron ore (35% metal content) 59,460,000: bauxite (i9S7) 1.684,000; pig iron 12,144.000; crude steel 14,604,000; zinc 180.720: aluminum 209,760; copper 4,920: lead, refined 93.120; cement 13.644,000; cotton yarn 308,400; cotton fabrics 220,000; wool yarn 134.400; wool fabrics (1957) 81.400; rayon filament yam 56,280; rayon staple fibre 69.720; sulfuric acid (1957) 1.600,000; superphosphates (1957) 1,248.000; passenger motor vehicles 924.240 units; commercial motor vehicles 203,520 units. Petroleum treated in refineries (1957) 21,318.000 metric tons. Merchant shipping launched (100 gross tons and over. 1958) 450.800 gross tons. Index ol production (general, excl. construction, Feb. 1959; 1953 = 100) 159. En"cyclop.«dia Bsitannica Films. France (1955); France and Its People (195s); Vacances En Normandie (1956).
— Monetary
hnanc:lr.
= U.S.
$1.
—
—
—
—
—
FrSnke, William Birrell naval
officials
marines and surface full
gcer,
was
in
the
forefront
of
developing nuclear-powered, missile-firing subcraft.
Before entering government service
time in 1954 as assistant secretary of the na\'y for financial
management, Franke had been
a
consultant and di-
financial
rector of several corporations. In 1957 Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed him undersecretary of the U.S. navy. Upon
the resignation of
navy Feb.
3,
Thomas
S.
Gates,
Jr.,
as secretary of the
1959, Eisenhower announced that Franke would
Frpnrh rnmmiinitu ^CoMMUNAUTiFRANQAWE). With the riBIILII bUllimUllliy promulgation on Oct.
5,
Community com(i) the French republic including the 21 overseas diparlemenis (Algeria [15], Sahara [2], Martinique, Guadeloupe, Reunion and French Guiana), 5 overseas territories; (2)12 other prises:
member
The organs of the Community are; who is also the president
states.
of the French republic
the president
of the
Com-
munity; an executive council consisting of the heads of government of each member state and the ministers responsible to the
Community
common
Community, excluding France Hebrides (Dec. 1959 est.) 4,055,665 sq.mi.; total population (1958-59 est.;: 39,213,579. (See also separate
arbitration court. Total area of the
proper and the
New
History.
—On
Dec.
21,
1958, Gen. Charles de Gaulle was
elected president of the republic. In France he obtained
78.5%
of the votes cast, in the overseas departements
Sahara
81%,
in
97%, in the overseas territories 95% and in the states of the Community 96.7%. In the Michel Debre government (Jan. 8, 1959) Jacques Soustelle became minister delegate for the overseas dipartements, the overseas territories
and Sahara; Robert
Lecourt became minister of state responsible for the trusteeship territories.
seas
The other functions
of the former ministry for over-
France were shared among the technical ministries. An
Algerian affairs.
woman,
Raymond
Sid Cara, Janot, a
became secretary of
member
state for
Moslem
of the Conseil d'Etat, was
appointed secretary-general of the Community.
The former French West Africa (with the exception of Guinea which had become independent) was divided up into the following states: Mauritania, Sudanese Republic, Senegal, Ivory Coast, Upper Volta, Dahomey and Niger iqq.v.). The former French Equatorial Africa was split up into four states: the Central African Republic (formerly Ubangi-Shari), Gabon, Congo (formerly Middle Congo) and Chad (qq.v.). Madagascar iq.v.) became the Malgache Republic. Each of the republics adopted a constitution, and some of them created national flags. The other (Saint-Pierre and Miquelon, French Somaliland, territories Comoro Islands, New Caledonia and French Polynesia) chose to retain the status quo.
The executive
Community, composed of the and ministers dealing met several times. First, in Parii
council of the
president, the prime ministers of the states
with joint
Community
affairs,
on Feb. 4-5, 1959. it decided that the senate of the Communit); would have one member for every 300,000 people, or 284 mem-' bers, of which 186 would represent the French republic with its overseas departements and territories, and 98 the other states
Four committees were created
to deal with
common
technica
senior partner of this firm until his appointment as assistant
secretary of the navy in 1954.
presided over by General de Gaulle, decided that the state
Free Europe Committee:
firm in 1929.
see Societies
He remained
as
and Associations,
U.S.
Freemasonry: see Societies and Associations, U.S. Freer Gallery of Art: see Smithsonian Institution. Free Trade Association: see Denmark; European Unity; International Trade.
,
articles.)
motto "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity," its nationa anthem the 'Marseillaise," its flag the red, white and blue tri colour. There would be one army for the whole Community Second, in Paris on March 2-3 agreement was reached about thi posts to be allocated in the French diplomatic service to oflScial from the various states. Third, in Paris on May 4-5 decision were taken about the handing over of overseas radio stations Fourth, at Tananarive (Malgache) on July 7-8 the council
own
I
:
The formal nomination was made on May 5 and was confirmed by the U.S. senate on June 2. Franke was sworn into
firms before organizing his
'
affairs; a senate
matters.
on June 8, 1959. Born in Troy, N.Y., on April 15, 1894, Franke graduated from Pace institute (later college) in New York city, became a certified public accountant and worked with several accounting
j
formed of delegates of the national assemblies of the other member states; and an for
succeed Gates.
office
I
1958. of the
constitution of the fifth republic, the French
French,
The
official
language of the
Community was
to
b
tinued to prosper throughout the year. However, the announ'
ment of the second five-year development plan, to begin on July I, was an act of faith in foreign investment, since it in-
'
volved a total expenditure of ^242, 386,000 on general devrl. ment and £100,000,000 on the construction of hydroelei works, at a time when the government's easily realizable serves were about £90,000.000. In spite of protests from
farmers, the United til
Ghana Farmers'
re-
many
council announced that
't"
the completion of the development plan they would at
from the Cocoa Marketing board a price of £3 a load (60
II
instead of the previous fixed price of £3 12s. As a result, drastic
Gerontology:
Phono
'^
action had to be taken to prevent the smuggling of cocoa into
see Geriatrics.
parliamentary state on the Guinean coast of Africa,
Ulldlld. Ghana
is
bounded west, north and
east
by the republics
of Ivory Coast and Upper Volta and by Togo. Total area: 91,843 sq.mi. Total pop.: (1948 census) 4,118,450; (mid-1959 est.)
French territories. The final estimate for the 1958-59 cocoa crop was 245,000 tons. Opening his fifth budget on July 2, the minister of finance, K. A. Gbedemah, announced that he was budgeting for a surplus of £440,000 on a recurrent expenditure of £53,000,000. T^"-'
recurrent and development expenditure for 1959-60 was
4,911,000. Cap.: Accra. Areas and populations of regions:
mated Chief town
Eotlern.WMlern and Troni- Volta /Togolond.
.
Area
Population
IjQ.mi.l
Imld.l959e!l.l
[with est.
1959pop.l
29,781
2,700,000
Accro 210,000
24,379 37,483
1,024,000 1,187,000
Kumaii 100,000 Tomole 9,000
|.«cl..uburbs)
Aihontl Northern
1
at
Official
language: English.
More than 60 Sudanic tongues are Moslem and Christian minorities.
Other important towns, with 1959 pop. est.: Sekondi-Takoradi 55,000; Cape Coast 26,550; Koforidua 20,500; Ho 7,000. Queen, Elizabeth II; governor general, the Earl of Listowel; prime min-
Kwame Nkrumah. History.— During 1959 the government's
ister in 1959,
chief domestic tasks
continued to be the process of nation building and the establish-
ment of itself as the sole source of authority. On Jan. 23, the government appointed a three-man commission of inquiry under
1
more than £90,000,000. Budgetary changes included
.:.
creased postage and electricity charges, and increased duties on
'
equipment and roofing
'
beer, wines, timber, jewelry, tires, sports
materials.
Gbedemah
also
announced a favourable trade balance
59 of £10,800,000. and an increase in Ghana's also spoken. Religion: pagan;
Monetary fund quota from $15,000,000
On Aug.
16 the
German
to $35,000,000.
Federal Republic offered to invest
£16,500,000 in development in Ghana. Education.
in i- arteries was decreased and the removal of oxj-gen by the heart muscle was diminished. Other investigations suggested that patients with coronarj' heart disease did not remove fatty substances from the blood as rapidly as normal persons did; arteries
level of fats in the blood
foUowing a fatty meal, the fatty substances in the blood rose and more sustained level than in normal persons. StUl other studies indicated that epinephrine and norepinephrine,
to a higher
in the fall of 1958.
The attack on congenital cardiovascular defects continued to make increasing use of some type of pump which allowed an attack on the heart and adjacent vessels with the heart open
!
and under direct
j
\-ision.
As noted by Robert E. Gross,
in general
the techniques were simpler and the equipment needed to achieve
j
and monitor the resulting body changes complex than at first seemed necessary. It was found that too long a period of standstill of the heart was accompanied by irreversible metabolic changes invoh-ing particularly the storage and use of glycogen, a sugar, and that the heart, while the bypass of the heart
I
was
,
I,
'
.
less
capable of resuming
pairment
if
its
beat,
might function with decided im-
arrested too long.
One area of
particular concern in congenital heart disease
had
been the presence, in some patients with an increased flow of I
blood to the lungs, of an increase in pressure in the blood vessel
'
(pulmonary
arterj-) leading
to the limgs. In to a
ing
some
from the
right side of the heart
cases where this increased flow
was due
shunt of blood through a defect between the two receiv-
chambers (atria) of the heart, closure of the defect was months by a significant drop in pressure
followed in a period of !
in the
pulmonary
arter>-.
However,
this e\-idence of reversibility
of high blood pressure in the lung did not necessarily apply to all cases with this finding. In some, this elevation in pressure had been shown to be independent of blood flow, and attack by
surger\' often
proved
difficult
or disastrous.
The surgery of rheumatic valvular disease was
also being in-
DOG EQUIPPED WITH HEART BOOSTER, phragm which controls the contraction The dog. first given the heart booster
embedded in the diameans of electric signals.
radio receiver
of the aorta by
July 1958, is shown with one of the Inventors of the device, Adrian Kantrowilz, in a New York city hospital In 1959. The booster was planned for eventual human use on persons whose hearts had been damaged by hypertension or coronary thrombosis attacks in
'
HEBREW LITERATUR E_HOCKEY.
314
which are released by a portion of the adrenal glands in response to urRcnt demand by the body, also tend to cause an elevation of the fat levels in the blood as does acute emotion itself. The conclusion that "stress" was the cause of coronary heart disease did not yet receive widespread support despite these findings, and
no quantitative measure of
stress
was yet
available.
possible connection between
the use of cigarettes
tween cigarette smoking and deaths from all causes, with the largest number of excess deaths being from causes affecting the cardiovascular system.
He
and nonsmokers, and the concept of Raymond Pearl that each person is endowed at birth with a limited store of energy which is more rapidly exhausted in the sjnoker than in the nonsmoker. These statistical and philosophic reflections served to point up the different conclusions which could be the
far
drawn by
intelligent
data, and emphasized that the riddle of and coronary heart disease in particular, was
same
arteriosclerosis,
(1953-57)In 1956 Herter rejected a proposal by Harold E. Stasseh that
M. Nixon as the Republican vice-presidennamed Herter undersecretary of state
he replace Richard
candidate. Eisenhower
tial
in
1957 to succeed Herbert Hoover,
Jr.
Czechoslovak chemist ^'^^'^ ), and director of the Polarographic institute of the Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, was born at Prague, Dec. 20. He won the Nobel prize for chemistry in 1959
HpVrnU.
I
have
to
Jersey
tionals.
I
^n alien
Some
to
aliens
the aliens reporting in the southwest region
I
of a declaration of intention
pioyers, particularly those doing national defense work, require
tention were
California and north from Texas and Arkansas west _,,.,, Wyoming, had 923,439 who reported. About
.
good moral character or lacked
region, consisting of
,
'
filing
receipts continued to be high.
north-
York, accounted for 977,628
The southwest
reported.
the states to
same
the southwest, the
establish
to
which the petitioner withdrew the it. Others were denied because the
knowledge of English or for various other statutory reasons.
the United States.— The Immigration and Nationact requires that every alien in the United States on Jan. i
lation
government farm controls,
U.S.
Table IV shows the principal countries of former allegiance
While the ality
to
1959
of those naturalized during the years ended June 30, 1955-1959.
figure included 1,831 cases in
Source: Immigration and Naturalization Service, United States Department of
Aliens
In
30 667
Petitions for naturalization were denied in 2.208 cases. This
statements public charges
STANLEY YANKUS (LEFT) INSPECTING AN AUSTRALIAN HEN HOUSE.
1957
126 130 78 332
.
become
959
I
5,082 12
.
Likely to
(o
1958
7,142
... .
955
I
1959
7,988
Conado Czechoslovakia France
Germany Greece. ^"2l°i ifiy
''.'.'.'''
Latvia
Netherlands Polond u.s.s.r
;::::::
1958
103,931 10,990 10,324 1,474 1,920 18,442 2,457
119,866 12,428
s^us
3!259 8,462 i.,/ So
10,211 2,271
2,130 20,486 3,370
to
7959 1957
1956
1955
145,885 13,600 11,539 3,174 2,406 16,230 2,550
209,526 22,974
31624 9,056
4',832
l,oo\
4,zJ
138,043 13,210 io,89i
2,739 2,357 17,445 4,791
I8,i5i
5,890 3,320 17,842 3,785
2,511
4,482
4,988
9;?'! I6,i28 /,jyj 3,057
2,078 7,603 3^205
2,000 11,038 4,582
2,060 16,582 6,993
2,229 17,256
2,979 27,777
7,771
8,627
ii^sk
-nWs
iifiZ
z^'^\
Ai^o
8,079 o,uy4 1,634
Jopan
^Xr""'°
1959
9,549 I
Sourcei Immierolion and Naturalization Service, United Stales Department of Justice.
,
IMPORTS — INCOME
332
throuKh marriage. As evidence of citizenship, 18,255 derivative certiticatcs were issued. Citizenship may also be acquired through
and 6,907
birth abroad to citizen parents,
certificates
were
is-
who thus acquired citizenship. The citizenship of 154 persons was revoked during the year. Ground for revocation in 149 cases was the establishment of permanent residence abroad within 5 years after naturalization. sued to those
A
United States citizens
total of 2,912
by expatriating themselves. Residence voting
in
lost their citizenship
Legislation.
—A
number
fiscal
year ended June 30,
1959act of July 25, 1958 (P.L. 85-559), authorized the crea-
permanent residence in the case of Hungarian refugees paroled into the United States who had been in the United States for at least two years. The act of Aug. 21, 1958 (P.L. 85-700), amended and completely revised section 245 of the Immigration and Nationality act, having to do with adjustment of status of nonimmigrant to tion of a record of admission for
immigrant. Section
amended
of this act
2
the act of Sept. 11,
1957 (P.L. 85-316), by declaring that any alien eligible for a first preference quota visa on the basis of a visa petition ap-
proved by the attorney general prior to July i, 1958, should be held to be a nonquota immigrant and should be issued a nonquota visa.
The
1958 (P.L. 85-697), amended section 323(c) of the Immigration and Nationality act as added by secact of Aug.
20,
tion II of the act of Sept. 11, 1957 (P.L. 85-316),
by permitting
the expeditious naturalization of adopted children of missionaries or other
the general price level increased relatively
The quantity States in the ing that of
the
United States citizens going abroad to perform
ministerial or priestly duties. Section 2 of this act
amended
1
first full
little
and services produced
of goods
1
over the pri the
in
L'r,
nine months of 1959 was at a rate exi
first
any other year.
was one-half higher than in II, and was one-and-one-ilmu
It
year after World
1
War
times larger than in 1929.
On
a per capita basis (that
is,
after allowance for populaiion
increase over the period), real national output in 1959 was thi
than
in 1929.
National income increased from $366,000,000,000
of acts affecting immigration
were passed by congress during the
The
of the rise in gross national product from 1958 to
fifths greater
cipal grounds.
New
Most
U.S.
represented an expansion in the physical volume of product
a foreign state and
a foreign political election or plebiscite were the prin-
in
AND PRODUCT.
19;-
in
an annual rate of about $397,000,000,000 in the first hal: 1959. While complete data for the third quarter were not
become
available until early i960,
it
to
appeared that the annual
'
income for the first nine months of 1959 would also show an increase of about 8% over the full year 1958. The flow of personal income in the Jan.-Sept. 1959 period aggregated $378,000,000,000 on an annual rate basis, 5% above the 1958 calendar-year total of $359,000,000,000. Although the percentage increase was less than that in gross national product, it should be noted that personal income had expanded further from 1957 to 1958 despite the slowdown in national outrate of national
Over the whole period from 1957
put.
!
'
to 1959, the relative in-
creases in personal income and gross national product were quite similar.
—
Meaning of Income and Product Meosurei. National income, as defined by the U.S. department of commerce, measures the nation's output of the aggregate earnini:^ of goods and services in terms of its factor cost labour and property which arise from current production. Earnings arc measured in the forms in which they accrue to residents of the nation, before deduction of taxes on those earnings. .\s such, they consist of the compensation of employees, the profits of corporate and unincorporated business enterprises, net interest and rental income of persons. Personal income is the current income received by persons from all sources, including transfers from government and business but excluding transfers among persons. It differs from national income by the inclusion of transfers (such as relief, veterans' pensions and government interest, disbursements) which are not in return for current productive services, and by the exclusion of earnings (social insurance contributions and undistributed corporate income) which are not actually received by persons'
—
i
sec-
|
and permitted the expeditious naturalization of alien spouses of United States citizens who were missionaries or who were going abroad to perform ministerial or priestly duties. tion 319(b)
The
act of Sept.
2,
195S (P.L. 85-892), authorized the
Azores subsequent of
abode
in
were out of their usual place
to Sept. i, 1957,
such islands. It also authorized the issuance of special
nonquota immigrant
exceed in number one year's
visas, not to
annual quota of the Netherlands, to aliens or citizens of the Netherlands,
abode
their usual place of
1949, and
who were
who were
who had been
in Indonesia
nationals
displaced from
subsequent to Jan.
residing in the continental Netherlands
i,
on
the date of the enactment of this act.
See also International Law; Law. Encyclopaedia Britannica Films.
(J.
—Immigration
M.
current period.
in the
is-
suance of 1,500 special nonquota immigrant visas to nationals or citizens of Portugal who, because of natural calamity in the
Sg.)
Gross national product or expenditure measures the nation's output goods and services in terms of market value. It is "gross" in the sense that no deduction is made for depreciation charges and other allowances for durable capital goods used up in the productive process. Other business' products used up by business in the accounting period are excluded. Gross national product comprises the purchases of goods and services by con-' sumers and government, gross private domestic investment (including the; change in business inventories) and net exports of goods and services. of
'
—
Broad Patterns of Change. The expansion in level of national income and product in 1959 reflected a recovery from the economic recession which extended from the fall of 1957 to the, spring of 1958. However, part of the gain achieved through the second quarter was offset by the setback to the economy result-, ing from the prolonged steel strike that began in mid-July. In the second quarter of 1959. gross national product
(1947).
tained a record annual rate of $484.500.000,000
—about
at-
$54,000,-
1958 recession low
Imports: see Agriculture; Automobile Industry; Census Data, U.S.; International Trade; Tariffs. See also under
000.000, or
various countries.
portion of the increase represented real growth in the volume
Income, Distribution of: tribution
see
Wealth and Income,
Dis-
With
12%, above
tional product
was
at
U.S.
of°'9S9,^th1ur^oslM-
an annual rate (seasonally adjusted) of
$478,000,000,000. This comprehensive measure of the value of national output was at a record high,
8%
above the
total for
From
but thf
first
quarter of 1958, total production declined
and
5
9b in
volume
—
4%
in
valuf
the difference between these percentage;
reflecting the further edging
up of prices during the period
0:
business downturn.
In real terms (that
calendar year 1958.
gross national product
(The annual rate data for 1959 represent the average of estimates for the first three quarters which have been adjusted for seasonal influences and multiplied by four to facilitate com-
economy's turnaround
parison with previous annual totals.)
product followed a brief
the third quarter of 1957 to
in gross national
relatively sharp decline.
Income and Product,
0)
goods and services.
The upswing
OF.
the first-quarter
the prices showing only moderate change, a verj' large pro-
is,
after allowance for price
was in
essentially
changes)
unchanged during
the second quarter of
1958.
thi
Gain
were large thereafter as the slack which had developed durini the business decline was absorbed rapidly. By the fourth quarte of the year, real national output was back to the prereces
» >
:
INCOME AND sion high
and expansion continued unabated
in
the
first
half
I
of 1959-
'
For perspective, the changes
in over-all
during the 1957-59 cycle in business
may
production and prices
be compared with those
recorded for corresponding periods of the two earlier postwar swings in economic activity.
The
following generalizations
may
prove of interest I. Based on the movement of real gross national product, the 1957-58 recession was the sharpest oi the postwar period. It was also the shortest, the first substantial stride in recovery came after three quarters (two of decline and one of leveling out), as against four quarters in the 1948-49 recession and five quarters in the 1953-54 downturn. 2. >iore broadly, all three recessions may be characterized as relatively mild, with the declines serving to check only briefly the underlying forward motion of the national economy. 3. The first five quarters of business recovery brought roughly equal expansions of total national output in the three postwar cycles. 4. Real gross national product was not so much above its prerecession peak in the second quarter of 1959 as it had been at comparable points of the earlier recoveries. This distinguishing feature was directly attributable to the somewhat greater severitj- of the latest downturn; it did not reflect any relative lack of strength in the recovery which got under way in the spring of 1958. 5. The phenomenon of rising prices during a recession was not unique to the 1957-58 period. Taken together, the movements of prices in the three postwar business cycles were symptomatic of an almost total absence of downward pressure on the United States price level throughout the postwar period.
since
I
j
!
I
I
j
I !
I
'
j
i
1
1
momentum was work stoppage in
At mid-1959 the economic This was checked by the
clearly steel,
still
upward.
which lasted
116 days until the 500,000 workers out on strike returned to the mills in
November under
a Taft-Hartley act injunction
is-
sued by the U.S. supreme court. For the third quarter of 1959, gross national product dropped to an annual rate of $478,600,000,000, which was $6,000,000,000 below the peak attained in I
the previous three
Demands
months.
for National Output.
—As shown
1958
in
Table
I,
the
—
TAX — INDIA
INCOME
334 Amonu
used for
all official
changes from 1957 to 1959 were registered by cor])orate profits. On a bcfore-tax basis, these profits fell from an annual
Hindi
the Dcvanagari script. Religion:
rate of $44,000,000,000 in the third quarter of 1957 to $32,000,-
Jewish, etc. Union capital,
the distributive shares of national income, the prin-
cipal
000,000
quarter of 1958. Corporate profits then
in the first
re-
bounded strongly and by the second quarter of 1959 had reached a record rate of $52,600,000,000.
Wages and
in
.salaries
industry
private
also
reflected
the
in
do'';!), Christian
purposes but
(2%) and
is
Sikh
New
eventually to be replaco!
Delhi; pop. (1951 census)
Chief towns other than provincial capitals fpop., 1951 censu
:
were much
3'°,859-
in
the typically volatile profits
item.
—
personal income less personal taxes
Table
IV.
1958 to
in
—advanced
lln
Modros
000,000,0001 ol dollorsi*
....
1959t
1958
1957
1956
378.0
3J9.0
350.6
332.9
i
'
dliburi«menti
239.4
256.6
.
Other laboui
9.9
9.3
Proprielon' < DIvldendl . Parsonal inle
58.2
58.4
13.1
12.4
22.0 26.5
20.4
•til
Pefional
238.5
227.6
56.0 12.5 19.5 21.7
54.6
W.il Bengal
.... ....
.
Total
26.1
'
Shillong (53,7561
Poena (283.4791
Bombay
(2,839,27'.-
SrlnoBor (207,7e7Trivondrum (1B6.9'J Bhopoi (102.333)
Modros
(1,416,0:^'
Bangalore (788,977 Cutlaek (102.5051 Chandigorh Jaipur (291,130) lucbnow (444.711) (
|
Calcutta (4,578.071.)
Centrally administered
17.5
and Nicobor
3,215
10,922
30,971 1,744,072 1,109,466
42 8,629 4,022 27,403
21,035 577,635 639,029 4,122,208
Islands
573
and nontax payir
316.5 293.0
307.9 284.8
292.9 269.9
23.5
23.1
23.0
1,259,797
add to lotoll bocous tOata cover flrsi three quarter! and represent teriy totals expressed at onnuol rotes. Source: U.S. Deportment of Commerce.
13.549,1 18
26.071,637 29.974,936 19.401,193 14,645,946 16.134,890 15,970.774 63,215,742 26,302,386 357,029,461
Iwllh pop., 19'
Hyderobad (1.08:
12.1
cc
332.6 309.5 23.2
31,260,133 9.043,707 38,783,778 48,265,221 4,410,000:
85,861
14,937 171.300 50.174 74.861 60,250 47.062 132,098 113.423 33,885 1,232,394
Modhyo
ol Income
Ultor Prodeiti
Wos< and
Imi'
Copitol Populotion
105.700 85.062 67,113 190,668
simi-
an annual rate of $332,-
— Pcrfono/ Income and Ditpotition
Ham Psnonol Incom*
Amritsar 325,747;
Contlitutnt Slolti of India
—
As already noted, personal Disposition of Personal Income. income was hijther in Kjsg than in the previous year. Disposable income larly, from $316,500,000,000
.
Ahmadabad 793,813; Kanpur 705,383; Poona 480,982; Nat' 449.099; Howrah 433.63°; Agra 333.53°; Madura 361,781 nares 355,777; Allahabad 302,706;
marked than
•Mo-
Jain, Buddhist, Par
314-
impact of the recession, but the decline and ensuing recovery less
Hindu (&$%},
(3%);
Port Bloir (8,014) Delhi (914,790)
Simla (46,150)
361,151,6691!
*D«tail will not neceisarlly
Ily
', because of the emergence of new legal transactions and because of the shift in the intellectual outlook of international jurists arising from these circumstances. This shift
is
illustrated in such
Common Law a
books as that by C. W. Jenks (The
of Mankind, 1958), foreseeing the development of
universal law applicable to individuals as well as to states
through comparison of the legal systems in that
tional
all
parts of the world;
Hersch Lauterpacht (The Development of Interna' Law by the International Court, rev. ed., 1958), emphasiz-
by
Sir
ing the constructive activity of the court in giving practical effect to generally
accepted legal maxims, in applying treaties
attributing jural status to individuals and international organizations as well as states,
and
in reconciling states' sovereignty tol
INTERNATI ONAL LAW the rule of law
(Law
Corbett
by in
accommodations; that by Percy E. Diplomacy, 1959), indicating the practical practical
accommodations of international law to the political interests of governments; and that of Alejandro Alvarez (Le Droit International Nouveau, 1959), emphasizing the development of "a social international law" to regulate the increasing interdependence of states. International lawyers are, according to Howard, increasingly departing from the positivism of the 19th century and recognizing that, while natural scientists must conceive of an order which is to be discovered, jurists in a dynamic society must conceive of an order which is continuously created. Thus a sharp distinction between law-as-it-is and law-as-itoueht-to-be appears impossible. Law, as Justice Benjamin Cardozo pointed out, is
is
a continuous process of becoming, and this
especially true of international law in the rapidly changing in-
ternational society of the 20th century.
and Duties of States.
Rights
of lords reversed
comLondon to sue the Westminster bank for money given to him in trust by the Nizam of Hyderawould
be, in effect, against
the principal of sovereign im-
munities in national courts, but the house of lords held that the action for
money
to
which Pakistan and
its
agent had
title
was
not directly against the Nizam, although the latter might have
new
Age Studies
at
consequences-
—
A
—
legal,
Year Book of International
amount to a Hyderabad and an-
the interest of the foreign sovereign as to
him (Rahimtoola
v.
Nizam
of
The problem rivers attracted
of the distribution of the waters of international
much
govemsome principle of equitable among states in an international
attention during 1959. Jurists and
;ments have generally agreed that jdistribution
of such w-aters
jriver basin is
required by international law. but the extent to
jwhich the interests of prior users and the interests of those with Igreat future
needs should be reconciled
is
The duty
uncertain.
to
negotiate in good faith and the value of international procedures
balance such interests
ito
Journal of International ti.
The
award
is
Law
generally
recognized
'and
arbitral
I
—
Rights and Duties of Individuals. The supreme court of the United States held, over the dissent of Chief Justice Earl Warren
Hugo
L. Black, William 0. Douglas and Charles E.
iWhittaker. that congress can deprive a native-born citizen of his nationality in a
without his consent because of
his participation
foreign election (Perez v. Broufiell, 356 U.S. 44, 1958) and,
ov^r the dissent of Justices Felix Frankfurter, Harold H. Burton,
Tom in
C. Clark and John
M. Harlan, who were with
the
was called for the spring of i960 problem on which agreement failed
the majority
the Perez case that congress cannot deprive a citizen of his
Treaties.
—A convention on the Recognition and Enforcement
of Foreign Arbitral awards adopted
ence
among
by a United Nations confer-
representatives of 45 states went into effect on
June 7, 1939. having been ratified by Israel, Morocco and the United Arab Republic. This convention contributed to the solution of the important problem of maintaining arbitral clauses in concession-contracts
made by
corporations with foreign govern-
especially countries with underdeveloped legal systems. While the United States did not participate in the making of this convention, it appeared that it might relax the opposition it had maintained since 1953 toward international legislation by general treaty, at least in this case (G. W. Haight, The Arbitration tries,
Journal, 1959. pp. 73
War
ff.).
and Aggression.
agreement on
—The United Nations had not reached
a definition of aggression, but jurists continued to
discuss the question.
Some
believed that
the
The court
severely limited the discreiion
department of state to refuse passports on grounds of
to
they therefore questioned the desirability of defining aggression (Julius Stone, Aggression
and World Order, 19581. Others be-
lieved, with Charles de Visscher, that
under present conditions
"peace will serve justice better than justice
will serve
peace"
(Theory and Reality in Public International Law, 1957. p. 328) and that consequently a realization of the charter policy of preventing aggression by collective security should be pursued, with its
implication that the concept of aggression should be clearly
ward such
majority in both cases.
would be unjust
assuring just settlement of disputes were firmly established, and
US.
wartime desertion (Trop v. Dulles, 356 1958). Justice William J. Brennan alone was with the
it
prevent forcible self-help unless international procedures for
defined (Leo Gross, B.Y.B., 1958, pp. 421
'Jt
in
Geneva conference of 1958.
nationality because of 86,
to
of the extensive activities of U.S. corporations in foreign coun-
ff.,
in its territory flowing into Spain if due considerawas given to Spanish interests either by supplying waters or paying compensation (A.J., Jan. 1959, pp. 157 ff.). India and Pakistan accepted an apportionment of the Indus river system proposed by the International Bank for Reconstrucjtion and Development. The general subject of international irivers was actively considered by the International Law associaItion and the Institute of International Law.
Justices
international conference
650
[A.J.], Jan. 1959, pp. 30
in the
tion
and
some
ments, a subject of great interest to the United States in view
waters
|ing
to their internationalization in
form (Robert D. Hayton, A.J., Oct. 1958, pp. 746 ff.). Equally insistent was the demand for adequate international regulation of the high seas and the bed of the sea beyond national domain, and a clear definition of the limits of the national domain. An
{American
Lake Lanoux case between France Spain held that France could not be prevented from utiliz-
1.
in the legal regulation of the polar areas
deal with aspects of this
\other [1958] A.C. 379.).
1958, p.
especially the United States, to operate through bilateral agreements and thus to restrict expected scope and effectiveness of the agency's operations (Commission to Study the Organization of Peace, nth Report 1959, pp. 17, 217). Juristic discussion and diplomatic initiatives manifested both
an increased interest
against
[B.V.B.~\,
of the states providing fissionable materials and atomic isotopes,
and an opinion favourable
|suit
Law
recent study of this agency's acti\'ities indicated a policy
which a foreign sovereign is sought to be made a party and a proceeding in which the subject matter is property in which the foreign sovereign claims an interest. In the latter case, the iaffects
—The
scientific
an equitable interest. It distinguished between a proceeding in
'immunity depends upon whether the prosecution of the claim so
v.
Columbia university, designed to examine the economic and social of such scientific and technological developments as the use of atomic energy, the exploration of outer space and the increasing utilization of the polar regions and the bed of the sea. The International Atomic Energ>' agency established its headquarters at Vienna and entered into an agreement with Austria in 1958 establishing immunities from local jurisdiction. The agreement in general followed that of other specialized agencies with the governments in whose territory they had their headquarters but went further in extending privileges and immunities to nongovernmental organizations accredited to the agency (British
a suit
Dayton
developments for international law was emphasized by the establishment of the Council for Atomic
391).
sum of The bank claimed that such the Xizam and was barred by
Dulles, 357 U.S. 116, 1958;
v.
Nuclear Energy, Outer Space and Polar Regions. significance of
missioner of Pakistan in
bad.
347
(Kent
Dulles, 357 U.S. 134, 195S).
the decision of the court of appeals in allowing the high
a i
—The house
political opinion
a definition
ff.).
accepted justifications for the use of force lations
—self-defense
Contributions to-
were made by studies of the generally
(D.
W.
in
international re-
Bowett. B.Y.B., 1958), invitation
.'' ' '
INTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND
348 by the country Jan.
.'17.,
used (Q. WrJKht, '•nd the authority of the United
whose territory force
in
igso. PP-
"3
ff-^
is
On
the latter point. Sir Gerald Fitzmaurice,
commentinR on the
lefjal
adviser of
international law-
applied by the International Court of Justice, asserted
may
"an Assembly resolution
that
sometimes, irrespective of
strict
operate indirectly to authorize, or at any rate to per-
legality,
Law
through
The
11
Committee on World Pearc
Special
American Bar association supported
of the
position and during the year held conferences on
Nations as manifested by Rencral assembly resolutions. the British forciRn office,
reservation.
nally
mit certain things to occur with impunity" (B.V.B., 1958.
p. 5).
Law Among N.C.
(April
(March
Nations, in Boston, Mass. lo),
Chicago (April
17),
The
il"-
Ruli
j8), Charh.'
San Francisco, Cahi
(April 24) and Dallas, Tex. (April 28).
A
was introduced
resolution
Senator Hubert
Humphrey
the United States senati-
in
of Minnesota to eliminate the
'
nally reservation.
— At
Geneva from
tenth meeting at
pursuance of
Codification.
a general assembly resolution should not itself be regarded as
to July 1958 the
aggression. This appro.ich to a definition suggested that
draft convention on arbitral procedure and discussed a prelimi-
This seemed to imply that military intervention
all
uses
force in international relations in which these justifi-
armed
of
in
cations could not be successfully urged were to be regarded as aggression.
Kelsen
The
issue
was placed
1957, pp. 58
1954;
proper perspective by Hans
ff.)
which distinguished the
legal
(/I./.,
(Navns Corporation v. The Ulysses II, 161 F. Supp. 932, igsS). International Adjudication.— The European Court of Human Rights was established during the year with Lord McNair,
its
nth
it
Harvard Research
Jan. 1959, pp. 230
Law met
Law
on the latter topic
—The American Society
Washington, D.C., April 30-May
in
of In
2,
1959.
and discussed the broad problems of reconciling diverse systems of public order. .Attention was given to the need of universality, and the peculiarities of the Islamic, Latin American and other regional systems.
The
allocation of resources,
human
human
year regional meetings of the society were held in Chicago;
the
Rome
by the Council of Europe at 1953. when the European Human Rights
Europe
conference
in
initiated
covenant was signed by r;
states.
Besides defining
human
rights
on individual petition or petition by states, and for adjudication of the legal issues on the initiation of the commission or a state. Individuals do not have direct acviolations of
human
rights
cess to the court.
The International Court of that Sweden did not violate a
Justice during the year decided
treaty with the Netherlands in
providing for the protective custody of a Dutch child in
its
territory in accordance with its national law. In the Interhandel
case between Switzerland and the United States, concerning the
taking by the United States of assets of this Swiss corporation
on the grounds that they were enemy (German) property,
it
held
was not competent because local remedies had not been exhausted. The court also began hearings on the merits of the Portuguese claim of access to the enclaves of Dadra and Nagarthat
it
Aveli, north of
Bombay
in India {A.J., April 1959, pp.
301
ff.,
April
of international law.
Miami,
Fla.,
tional
its
;
general
law.
The
Law met
Institute of International
in Neuchatel, Switz.,
1959 and passed resolutions on the strengthening of the International Court of Justice and the enforcement of foreign
Sept.
arbitral awards.
The law
of war. with a special reference to the '
influence
was
upon
it
of general treaties
making aggressive war
illegal,
deferred for further study.
The
International Commission of Jurists
met
at Delhi, India,
1959 and examined the meaning of the rule of law in' '
various civilizations.
The
International
Law
London
in
association at a meeting of the execu-
May
1959 elected Lord McNair
See also United Nations.
(Q.
'
•
chair-
W.)
domestic jurisdiction.
The problem of reservations to such declarations was the submuch comment during the year. The American Society of
ject of
in April,
;
rights, rights of states, the Interna-
bank and the competence of the United Nations
man.
with a reservation on the United States model, excluding cases
human
assembly, as well as on several questions of private international
vations and the right of termination on notice, and Sudan did so
Law
j
!
in
The Academy of International Law met at The Hague. July and Aug. 1959 with more than 500 students from 44 nationalities. Lectures were given on fisheries, space law, the strengthening
tive council in
International
.
Orleans; and
10-19. giving especial attention to legal aspects of eco-
statute for five years. Great Britain did so with extensive reser-
considered within
1
nomic development.
in Jan.
it
New
York; Columbus, 0.;
Coral Gables, Fla. (A.J., July 1959, p. 668). The Inter-American Bar association met
319 ff.. 436 ff.; July 1959, pp. 671 ff.) Belgium, Finland, Turkey and Japan renewed declarations under the optional clause of the International Court of Justice
which
New
'
j
covenant provided for a commission to investigate alleged
this
Madison, Wis.;
!
\
rights, in-
ternational trade, the expropriation of concession, treaties and
intervention during civil strife were also discussed. During the
rights in western
:
'
ff.).
Law Meetings.
International ternational
International
in
former president of the International Court of Justice, as president, thus completing the structure for the protection of
,
a
bility of states for injuries to aliens. It listened to a report of
the
from the technical and political usages of the term. War was said to exist against a N.-XTO (North Atlantic Treaty organization) state within the meaning of a charter party during the Suez invasion by Great Britain and France in 1956
April
Law commission completed
gave preliminary consideration to draft consular intercourse and immunities, treaties and the respci
Law
College,
its
International
nary draft on diplomatic intercourse and immunities. At session in 1959
International
Law (Naval War
International Studies,
in
study of Collective Security under
in his authoritative
UN
the Institute of International
Law
International Monetary existence on Dec. 27, 1945.
FundJta^'Tu^tmel^o
when
its articles
of agreement (for-
September and the Committee on International and Comparative Law of the American Bar association in October, passed
mulated by the United Nations Monetary and Financial conference. Bretton Woods. N.H.. in July 1944) were signed by 29'
resolutions urging withdrawal of destructive reser\'ations such as
governments. .After an inaugural meeting
the Connally reservation, approved
Savannah, Ga., the fund
in
providing for self interpretation of domestic jurisdic-
in 1946, tion.
by the United States senate
announced
As of
own
and
its
Court questioned the validity of such reservations because
of the provision of the statute authorizing the court to decide its
1946, at
In the Interhandel case certain members of the Interna-
tional
jurisdiction. U.S.
Pres.
Attorney General William P. Rogers
Dwight D. Eisenhower urged withdrawal
of the
Con-
in
March 1946
in |
officially
began operations on
seat in Washington, D.C.,
its
readiness to
and on March
May i,
6,
: j
1947,!
commence exchange transactions. members with aggregate
Sept. 30, 1959. there were 68
quotas of $12,662,050,000.
The applications for membership of Laos and Portugal were approved during the 14th annual meeting in Sept. 1959, but the
'
NTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND Infernational Afohaniitan
Bank and Monetary Fund, Member Countries, Sept. 30,
7
959
349
INTERNATIONA
350
mcnts. Inflationary pressures had been largely eliminated and the western European countries were able to achieve the
tary conditions necessary
For the
position.
first
time since World
production was lower than
world trade
fell
strong
for a
War
world industrial
II,
The volume of by much the same propor-
previous year.
in the
from igsy
mone-
balance of payments
to 1958
tion as world industrial production.
The value
of world exports
than in 1957, and more than half of this decline reflected a fall in prices. While primary producing counin
1958 was
tries
%$were able
less
to avoid
their exports, there
any
significant decline in the
were declines
in the
volume of
average price and value
of their exports.
See also Exchange Control and Exchange Rates; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development. (F.A.Sd.)
International Propaganda.
IhLcrtoSe^tZTZ
derstanding. was substantially breached during 1959.
The most
sensational development of the year was the visit of the Soviet
premier. Nikita Khrushchev, to the United States. That visit
brought about
Americans
at least
two major
results:
it
caused millions of
to re-examine their picture of the Soviet
Union and
had crystallized in the Stalin era; and it swept aside some of the barriers to communication, including, at least temporarily, Soviet jamming of Russian lanits
leadership, a picture that
guage broadcasts of the "Voice of America." Many of the important developments of 1959 had their beginnings in an agreement signed on Jan. 27, 1958, calling for ex-
changes between the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. in the dustr>-. agriculture,
and the to be
like.
fields of in-
medicine, culture, science, sports, education
Exhibits, publications and motion pictures were
exchanged. Tourism was to be encouraged;
legislative
delegations were to be exchanged; limited exchanges of radio and
were agreed upon. During 1957 a small number of exchanges, involving about 121 Americans and 149 Russians, had taken place. The figure grew in 1958 to 953 U.S. citizens and 516 Soviet citizens involved television broadcasts
in official
exchange projects. In that year,
propaganda billboard
also, the first Soviet
between the German Democratic Republic (East) and the German Federal Republic (West) near Lubeck. Erected by the Communists in 1959 to replace a barbed wire fence, the sign says, "West German Brothers! If You Want Peace Fight For It Against the Militarists"
—
L
INTERNATIONA L PROPAGANDA
351
resolution had any connection with the
reacted vigorously:
AnTi- SOVIET
Nixon
trip.
Khrushchev
"The only enslaved peoples are
in capitalist
countries," he retorted. Three days later, at the formal opening
famous Khrushchev-Nixon "debate" took Written accounts of the incident seemed to bristle with recriminations over ultimatums, threats and which country's of
the exhibit, the
place.
weapons were
better. First impressions of the exchange
altered, however, television.
The
were
when a video-taped account was shown on
visual account
showed the exchange
to
have been
hard-hitting but relatively good natured, illustrating that television could give
new dimension
to the reportage of
important
events.
Even more unusual was the coverage given the Nixon visit by The newspaper Izvestia, organ of the
Soviet news mediums.
presidium of the supreme soviet, carried in
full both Nixon's opening talk and his farewell radio and television speech. The newspaper was published in eight cities and had a circulation of
more than
1,500,000. Rarely had vigorous expression of Ameri-
The Moscow,
can policy had such wide dissemination in the Soviet Union.
communist
press,
however, attacked the U.S. exhibit
in
it as nothing but propaganda, exaggeration and attempted deception. Krokodil, the Soviet humour magazine, had warned that the displays would mention nothing about the 5,000,-
characterizing
000 unemployed persons in the U.S. {i2>% above the actual ure), and the newspaper Pravda reflected a typical Russian action
when
it
•LET'S
LOOK AT THE BRIGHTER SIDE OF EACH OTHER FOR A CHANGE,"
1959 cartoon by Yard ley
of
The Baltimore Sun
had brought no results. They realized that in past meetings Moscow had stood unmovable on a set of maximum demands while democratic gov]emments had to face their constituents who were anxious for iresults. While communist propaganda agitated the "foam of surjface controversy," the allies had to depend on basic unity of interest to maintain a common position. The Geneva meeting jadjourned with little apparent effect on world opinion, which still hoped that a summit meeting would find a way of breaking
'of
negotiation over the suspension of nuclear tests
jthe
deadlock on the questions of Berlin,
jdisarmament and other problems. Neither to
German
reunification,
however, seemed
side,
gain advantage in the propaganda byplay.
During the Geneva meeting, one of the questions of was the charge that
West Berlin had been "a
conflict
centre of disruptive
subversive activity and hostile propaganda" against East Ger-
many and other satellite states, a charge repeated in the SovietjEast German communique issued late in June. It was granted
re-
expressed disappointment at the lack of heavy
machinery, a feature which dominated the Soviet exhibit
a
fig-
in
New
York city. But 50,000 to 75,000 visitors a day saw an unaccustomed abundance of consumer goods, the economic strength of private economy and something of American life. The exchange of exhibits was not as noteworthy as the amount of personal top-level consultation which
went on during 1959.
Late
visit to the U.S., Pres.
August, and before Khrushchev's
in
Dwight D. Eisenhower
flew to Bonn, Paris
himself and the major European
among
and London
allies of basic
to assure
understanding
the western nations. In Paris the president even took
time for a meeting with the
NATO
council. Reports
attested to the success of his visits.
unanimously
Crowds reacted
to his per-
sonal vigour. His appearance on British television with Prime
Minister Harold Macmillan was carried over the large Eurovi-
much of Europe. Press reports indicated much popular response to his statement, "I think people want peace so much that one of these days governments had better get out of their way and let them have it." President Eisenhower made it very clear that U.S. policy would be co-ordinated with that of its allies. In November Eisenhower announced that he would make a 20,000-mi. tour of nine counsion network, covering that the president got
Asia and the middle east before convening a "presummit"
tries in
ithat
meeting of "big four" leaders in Paris just before Christmas. He noted that no U.S. president had ever before visited Asia
jm the
while in office and added his hope that his trip would help to
West Berlin had served as the location for R.I.A.S, (Radio American Sector) which played an important part in iGerman language anticommunist broadcasting to central Europe and that Berlin serv'ed as an important escape route for
pundreds of thousands of refugees from communist countries. jThe conferees agreed that iaight usefully fn the
be studied;
Berlin dispute and
tention in
propaganda and espionage this it
was
however, the central issue
received relatively
what was essentially
jFoREiGN Ministers'
not,
a
power
Conference of
in the area
issue.
little
serious at-
(See also
Geneva
1959.)
satellite empire was by an incident which coincided with the opening of ;he U.S. exhibition in Moscow. Vice-Pres. Richard M. Nixon left iVashington to open officially the exhibition just after congress lad unanimously passed a resolution calling for "Captive Nations
Soviet sensitivity to attacks
upon the
llustrated
veek" to remind the U.S. of continued Soviet domination of east-
;m Europe.
It
is
doubtful that the timing of the congressional
foster "a better understanding of the United States
and good
will
for us."
The unprecedented
presidential trip climaxed a year of equally
unprecedented personal diplomacy among the world leaders.
Queen Elizabeth
II visited the United States in connection with
her extensive tour of Canada. Deputy Soviet premiers Anastas
I.
Mikoyan and Frol R. Kozlov also made trips to the United States but it was the Khrushchev visit in September that at-
in 1959,
tracted world attention and raised hopes for better understand-
ing between the two
The
So\'iet
moon
major powers.
rocket, which landed
somewhere between the
Sea of Vapours and the Sea of Serenity on the eve of his
trip,
was a spectacular gesture of strength, and Khrushchev made the most of this colossal demonstration of Soviet prowess. In Washington, New York, Pittsburgh, Los Angeles, San Francisco and
' !;
INTERNATIONAL RED CROS S — INTERNATIONAL TRADE
352 the
com
fields of
Iowa, the Soviet premier offered variations
on a theme which he had
magazine
fairs
just before
set
forth in an article in Foreign Af-
hij*
arrival: co-existence
was imposed
on the two great powers by technical progress and the destructive
power of modern weapons. But, he kept
insisting, as capi-
communism would emerge as Khrushchev was impatient, even angry, with
tember gave evidence that Nasser's leadership was not ui. Iraq and Tunisia did not send delegatcTnents surpluses, the first time in recent years that
had occurred. Trade with the United
that with Japan
States, the Philippine
downward
showed a corresponding
trend, while
increase.
Following the pattern of other far eastern countries, Indo-
was able in the first half of 1959 to increase its exports, while at the same time, limiting imports. The six-month export nesia
was 4,910,000,000 rupiahs compared with 3,680,000,000 The substantial improvement was primarily attributable to a reduction in Olegal trade, brought about by lessened rebel activity in Sumatra, The upward trend was total
Japan in the first half of 1959 was booma year of comparative stagnation. Exports in January-
foreign trade of
197 364 1,879
3,033
Japan's trade with the United States in the
Republic's major market, continued a
I
2,131
208 373 701 1,613
the level of Jan.-June 1958, and were
this
jvery satisfactorily.
1,990
20^1
724 895
balances in the
half of 1959
lonnual rolos)
195
ieastem area generally first
1959
Jan,-March April-Juno
359 524
1,862
c.i.f.
1958
valued at $1,542,000,000. Imports totaled $1,736,000,000, about 10% more than in the previous year. The resulting trade deficit
amounted
exception of India, countries in the far
Impofis,
1959 Joo;
Shiites
in
1958 numbered about 35,000,000. The main
rose
the
lion textbooks titles.
were specially printed abroad under 25 different the medical school
One hundred doctors graduated from
See also Religion.
(G. H. N. B.)
EncycloP/EDIa BriianNica Films. Asia dsth lecture of the series, History") (1958).
—Arnold Toynbee:
"A Changing World
the Religions oj the Light of
in
;.
ISLE
366
OF MAN — ISRAEL
Ida of Man: sec Great Britain and Nurthern Ireland, KlM.DOM OF. L'nIII I)
II
The state of
loldbL
1948,
is
Israel, a republic
at the eastern
proclaimed on
May
14,
end of the Mediterranean
sea,
with Lebanon to the north, Jordan to the east, and the United Arab Republic to the northeast and southwest. Area: 7,993 sq.mi. Pop.: (Nov. 1948 census) 834,317, incl. 716,678 Jews; (May, 1959 est.) 2,062,002, incl. 1,836.886 Jews. Religion (1957 est.): mainly Jewish but there were 146,844 Moslems, 20,543 Druses and 45,826 Christians. Chief towns (pop., 1957 est.);
Jerusalem (cap.,
Israeli section only)
152,500; Tel Aviv-Jaffa
President of the republic in 1959, Isaac Ben-Zvi; prime min-
—After the excitement of the
loth anniversary cele-
was not surprising that 1959 appeared at first as something of an anticlimax. In many ways, however, it turned out to be possibly the most significant year in domestic affairs since the state was established in 1948. In the course of brations of 1958,
it
the year there emerged the successor generation to the leaders of 1948; at the
same time the
oriental Jewish communities,
which
comprise more than half the population, appeared for the time as a powerful political factor
ment
was
It
this
in
first
deciding the future govern-
this silent struggle of the successor generation politics
struggle
which
on the home front, and as the year wore on
became increasingly less silent. This trend from new was concentrated on three men:
old political thinking to the
who commanded
the successful Sinai
operations against Egypt in 1956, General
Moshe Dayan, who
the former chief-of-staff
had
left
the
army
in
1958
in
order to devote himself to politics;
the former Israeli ambassador in Washington,
Abba Eban, who
May
1959 in order to contest a seat in parliament; and the former director-general of the minleft the
diplomatic service in
istry of defense,
Shimon
Peres, one of the principal architects
of Israel's close collaboration with France,
who
resigned from
the civil service in June 1959 to contest the elections. All three
enjoyed the support of David Ben-Gurion, the prime minister
and leader of Mapai, the Thus, when the party
Israeli
lists
Labour party. all
newcomers figured prominently among the candidates
for
the safe seats.
However, the old guard of Mapai did not take kindly to this and a severe tussle inside the party followed in an
intrusion,
attempt to restrain the consolidation of these new forces. The elections for the Israeli Federation of Labour, the Histadrut,
body of the trades unions, were conducted and both Ben-Gurion and the so-called new thinkers remained largely in the background. The result was not reassuring for Mapai. Its proportion of votes declined from 57.7% to 55.7% while that of all other left-wing parties (except the Communists) increased by 3.5%. The pendulum continued to swing against Mapai as the general election, scheduled for later in the year, came nearer. When the prospects of the party were at their lowest and even optimists expected a considerable loss of seats, if not the party's dominant position, the prime minister intervened. A tremendous nationwide campaign was organized for a period of ten weeks, designed to give a new image to Israel's Labour party. The new men, together with Ben-Gurion, Mrs. Golda Meir, the foreign minister, and her predecessor, Moshe Sharett, took over the campaign, addressing themselves to the nation. The test was the attempt the over-all governing
largely
by the
German
old guard,
to break into the oriental Jewish quarters, to capture the float-
ing vote and to turn
by
restitution to victims of Naziism. Agriculall
the needs of the
could be met from domestic sources while
new
home market
1
categories of ex-
up such as melons and tropical fruits. hung over the country and it affected the workers, merchants and industrialists alike. Israel was more prosperous than it had ever been. When the country went to the polls on Nov. 3, the unexpected
An
air of well-being
Mapai from a purely
class party into a
f
happened. In terms of proportional representation, there was a landslide toward Mapai.
votes from
all
sections
'
The party gained almost 100.000 more of the population; some of the largest
gains were in the well-to-do quarters of Jerusalem and Tel Aviv.
The
final results
(in parentheses the number of Mapai 47 (40); Mapai Arab lists sj
were as follows
(5); Herut (Nationalists) 17 (15); Religious parties 18 (17);; General Zionists 8 (13); Progressives 6 (5); Mapam, a centre; Socialist party, 9 (9); Ahdut Ha'avoda, a left-wing Socialist party,
7
(10); Communists 3 (6).
showed that the trend was toward away from extremes. On Dec. 16, after six weeks of negotiations, Ben-Gurion presented his new government to the knesset. Mapai was the dominating partner in the five-party coalition. Ben-Gurion remained defense minister and Mrs. Meir foreign minister. Eban, was appointed minister without portfolio and Dayan ministerl
The
result
was
significant. It
1
the clearly defined parties of the centre and
1
of agriculture.
I
Peres became deputy minister of defense.
On Dec.
Gurion won a vote of confidence by 78 to 33. See also Religious Education; United Nations.
were prepared for knesset member-
ship (elections are based on proportional representation), three
of western
seats obtained in 1955):
of the country.
dominated
this
showed itself after the sudden cabinet crisis at the end of June over the publication of news that the ministry of defense bad sold arms and munitions to the government of the German Federal Republic. The public shared the premier's satisfaction and not the critics' disgust. But yet another factor was beginning to make itself felt in the country. The economy was booming. Inflation (except in property) had been kept within bounds, the shops were full, unemployment had been reduced to relatively unimportant sectors, huge sums had come into the country as part
ports were being of)ened
David Ben-Gurion.
History.
in
the unexpectedly popular reaction which
ture had reached a point where
380,000; Haifa 166,000.
ister,
The party was considerably helped
national party.
17 Ben-
(J.
K.)
—
Education. Schools (1956-37): primary 1,157. pupils 310,585, teacben 13,178; secondary (incl. continuation and evening classes) 184, pupils 24.299, teachers 2,418; vocational and agricultural 82. pupils I3,34i teachers 1,116: teacher-training colleges 24, students 4,174. teachers 573 Universities (1957-58) 4, students 7,824. teaching staff 1,250. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: Israeli pound, divided into i.ooc prutoth with a par exchange rate of IL.1.80 to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1959-60 est.): balanced at IL. 1,471.800.000. Currency circulation (.Apri; 1958) IL. 245. 400,000, (.\pril 1959) IL. 269, 400, 000. Deposit money (April 1958) IL.394, 700,000, (.\pril 1959) IL. 448. 900, 000. Gold anc foreign e-tchange (April 1958) U.S. $87,700,000, (April 1959) U.S. $130, 900,000. Israeli pound Foreign Trade 1 (1958) Valued at U.S. dollar 0.56 Imports IL. 780,400, 000, exports IL. 259. 800, 000. Main sources of imports continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) coun tries 34%; U.S. and Canada 30%; U.K. 12%; other sterling area 3% Main destinations of exports: continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 40% U.K. 22%; other sterling area 7%; U.S. and Canada 15%. Main exporU
—
=
citrus fruits 3
7 '7c;
diamonds
22"^^.
—
Roads (1958) 3,525 km. Motor vehicle (1956): passenger 17,400; commercial (incl. buses) 22,091. Rail ways (1958): 430 km.; passenger-km. (i957) 335.332.ooo; freight, ton km. (1958) 202,800,000. Shipping: merchant vessels of 100 gross ton and over (July 1958) 44; total tonnage 206,000. Air transport (1958) passenger-km. 278,076,000; freight, ton-km. 5,592,000. Telephones (Jan 1958) 79,998. Radio receiving sets (i957) 354.ooo. Agriculture. Cereal production (metric tons, 195 7): barley 74,200 wheat 83,000; maize and durra 38,000; sorghum 37,700; oats 1,05", Miscellaneous production (metric tons, 1958; I957 in parentheses): olivei 20,000 (7,000); bananas (1957) 21,000 (24,000 in 1956); figs, dates am avocados (1957) 9.500 (8.900 in 1956); olive oil 4.000 (i.ooo); orangei tangerines and Clementines 357,000 (368,000); grapefruit 63.000 (58. 000); lemons (1957) 16,000 (12.000 in 1956): peanuts (1956) •4.00' (19.000 in 1955); wine (1957) 16,000 (10,000 in 1956). Livestock (SepI 1958): cattle 15-2,000; sheep 168,000; poultry 5,500,000; goats 140,00c Fish landings {1957) 11,600 metric tons. Industry. Production (metric tons, 1957): salt 31,600; superphosphal 108,000; potash (K2O content, 1956) 45,000; cement (1958) TuM" Transport and Communications.
in use
—
—
ITALIAN LITERATURE (1958) 1,764,000,000 kw.hr. Index of production (Jan. 1959; 123. New buildings completed (1957) 1,776,000 sq.m. floor area; value of cut and polished diamond exports (1958): IL. 61, 776, 000. Encyclopaedia Bkitannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: Why Prompt Peace-Settlements in Algeria and Palestine Are in Everybody's Interest; Suggestions for Peace-Settlements in Algeria and Palestine (12th and 13th lectures of the series, "A Changing World in the Light of History") (1958); David Ben-Gurion (The Wisdom Series) (1958); Jerusalem The Holy City (1951); Major Religions oj the World (Development and Rituals) (1954); Planning Our Foreign Policy (Problems of the Middle East)
electricity
1923
= 100)
—
—
(I9SS)-
Italian
lldliail for his
^'^ ^^Sg. Salvatore Quasimodo was I itOratlirO LllCiaiUIC. awarded the Nobel prize in literature poetry; Alberto Moravia was elected president of the
P.E.N, club (the International Writers' organization)
major literary prizes went
;
the three
brutal realities
of
367 modern
daily
reported verbatim
life,
The major
dialect, slang or jargon of their characters.
nent of
the
expo-
"dictaphone" or "tape recorder" technique
this so-called
was P. P. Pasolini whose novel, Una vita violenta (Garzanti) on juvenile delinquency in Rome's suburban slums, appeared with a glossary. In
less abstruse
form, yet on the same gen-
theme, were La Capitale mancata (Feltrinelli), a plainspoken novel about a Roman call-girl who invades Milan and eral
plumbs the depths of
La Gilda
del
corruption
its
Mac Mahon
;
//
ponte della Ghisolfa and
by G.
Puccini prize)
(Feltrinelli,
Testoni, two volumes of short stories set in the periphery of
Milan, which depicted the baser instincts of
its
lower classes,
promising new
acting without moral or religious restraints and incapable of dif-
and neorealism, which had seemed to lease on life, intensified its exploration of the lower depths of society, and forged a new "spoken style" which was a compromise between the national idiom and that used by peasants and workers. The year's most astonishing find was // gattopardo (Feltrinelli, Strega prize), an often brilliant novel relating the hopes, disil-
and generosity and Una settimana ecby A. De Jaco, three novellas focusing on the slums of Naples and the passions, anger and despair of its hapless dwellers, irrepressibly spurred on by an indestructible hope of a better morrow.
lusionments and ultimate ruin of a Sicilian noble family during
tive
the Risorgimento.
Running through 40 printings in ten months, was the posthumous work of a one-book author, Giuseppe Tomasi, Prince of Lampedusa. Three other historical novels
hopeless infatuation
it
Fratelli's
writers
came
to
older writers;
to the fore;
be on the wane, took a
new
were acclaimed by both public and schiavi di Giulio Cesare
R. Bacchelli's / tre
critics:
(Mondadori, Marzotto prize), which
recreated the assassination of Julius Caesar through the story of the three slaves
(Vallecchi),
\tutti
ground of Italy's fellow
who remained faithful to him La terra t di by M. Puccini, which tells, against a backunification, how a youth learns to love his ;
man; and La signora
di Belfronte (Carucci,
Alvaro prize),
the dramatic annals of a middle-class Sicilian family over the
span of a century, written by Teresa Carpinteri. Neorealist writers uncovered a rich and hitherto untapped
human
inspirational vein in the
The by
S.
condition of factory workers.
between responsibility
conflict
to self
and society was probed
Micheli in his story of an irresolute industrial worker
who
ferentiating between vice
In the presentation of a chaotic, decadent society, love be-
comes not so much a source of joy and pure delight
Ottieri described the struggle of their
In two novels, 0.
northern workers to safeguard
moral and social integrity, threatened by the pressures of stretti, Einaudi), and the plight of southern
automation {Tempi
ipeasants in the initial stages of industrialization
Bompiani).
all'assalto,
G.
Arpino,
Gli
in
(Einaudi), delineated the clash between
(Dommarumma
anni
del
giudizio
Communist workers
and conservative peasants, party allegiance and family loyalties. Social conditions in the south inspired di rossore
(Mondadori)
(Sodalizio)
L.
;
;
Sciascia's
G. Bonaviri's
D. Rea's Una vampata La contrada degli ulivi
Gli Zii di Sicilia
(Einaudi, Libera
jStampa prize), three novelettes about America, Stalin and Gari-
Calabria's
of Sicily; and G. Strati's Tibi e Tascia which a powerful picture of the stoic life of hard-working, poverty-stricken peasants emerges
through the
medium
baldi's
liberation
(Mondadori),
The
in
of the
games and chatter of several
children.
feckless decadence of a large section of Italy's
bour-
was the target of M. Franciosa's La finta sorella (Valpazzo del casamento (Mondadori) and F. Perri's L'amante di zia Amalietta (Ceschina, Villa San Giovanni prize). R. Crovi's first novel, Carnevale a Milano (Feltri-
whirlwind in Lidia
De
as a destruc-
Stefani's rueful tale of a teen-ager's
{Passione di Rosa, Mondadori) in A. Nebbia bassa (Bompiani), an ill-fated romance between an old professor and one of his former students; in R. Nives'
Amore
;
e fervore
involving an American
(Quattrucci), a disastrous love affair
girl
on a
visit to
Sicily;
and
in
Fuoco
grande (Einaudi), the tense and tragic record of an impossible
attachment and a family secret, reported
in alternate chapters
by Cesare Pavese and Bianca Garufi. The animal urge which induces men and women to sin was dissected in S. Antonelli's novel Un cane e u uomo in piii (Parent!) and in M. Agatoni's short stories, La peccatrice di Lucca (Vallecchi). Conversely, P. A. Quarantotti Gambini's La calda estate (Einaudi) combined morality, symbolism and sexual love in a historical and psychological novel centring on the experience of two boys and a girl during three days spent on a remote islet of the Gulf of ,
Trieste.
ends up as a misfit and a symbol of the hardships and disorientation of his generation (// jacilone, Vallecchi).
;
cezionale (Mondadori)
Interest in
war novels ran low. Outstanding among the few
published were N. Modica's
//
cuore di pietra (Vallecchi, Cas-
Le italiane juriose (Vallecchi), and G. Palladino's Pace a El Alamein (Ejnaudi, Pozzale prize). Surfeited with the mediocrity of the contemporary scene, P. Monelli and E. Flaiano sought temporary refuge in widely divergent spheres the former by living as a young Roman during the 1st century a.d. (Avventura net primo secolo, Mondadori) and the latter by taking off into space on a flying saucer (Una e una notte, Bompiani). The spate of novels and novelettes did not prove detrimental to the short story which during the year yielded one of its richest harvests. The most distinguished collections included Moravia's Nuovi racconti romani (Bompiani), I. Calvino's / racsino prize), D. Paolella's
:
conti (Einaudi, the
first
Bagutta prize), M. Moretti's Tutte
Novelle (Mondadori, Viareggio prize), villeggianti
M.
Soldati's
La mesa
le
dei
(Mondadori), R. Bilenchi's Racconti (Vallecchi),
L. Berti's Storie di Rio (Vallecchi), C. Cassola's // taglio del
geoisie
bosco (Einaudi, Marzotto prize), and Grazia Livi's Gli scapoli
lecchi), L. Repaci's //
di
Qelli),
was an expose of the
sterile
life
of
Milan's
"beat
generation."
The subhuman liferate in
destitution, depravity
and about metropolitan
and loneliness that pro-
cities
became the object of
Londra (Sansoni). Literary critics began compiling selections from the best fiction
and poetry of the 15 years following World War II, thus taking stock of past accomplishments and assessing promises for the future. The most significant were Racconti italiani (Lerici) edited by G. Carocci and prefaced by Moravia, Narrativa nuova (Villar), La nuova narrativa italiana (Guanda) edited by G.
Nuovi
by U. Fasolo, and
growing concern to social-minded writers, particularly those of
Spagnoletti,
ivant-guard groups who, in an effort to invigorate the Italian
Poesia italiana del dopoguerra (Schwarz) edited by Quasimodo.
language and
make
it
convey without
literary contamination the
poeti (Vallecchi) edited
The avant-guard experimental movement found
a
new
outlet
ITALY
368
menabd, "Make-up pages" (Einaudi), a review edited by E. Vittorini and I. Calvino which published in every issue novels, plays and poetry by newcomers, together with critical essays relating to the moral, literary or historical problems treated in in //
(M.
the texts.
F. C.)
'^ republic of southern Europe, Italy is bounded on land Italu lldlj. northwest by France, north by Switzerland and Austria and northeast by Yugoslavia. The country includes the whole of
the Apennine peninsula, the large Mediterranean islands of Sicily and Sardinia and a number of smaller islands. Area: 116,294
(1951 census) 47. 515.537; ('958 est.) 49,895,283. Language: mainly Italian, but in Venezia Tridentina there are about 210,000 German-speaking Tyrolese and about 10,000 speaking Rhaeto-Romance dialects; in the area east of Udine sq.mi. Pop.:
there are about
d'Aosta
11,200 Slovenes and
(about 6,600)
is
population of Val
the
French-speaking.
mainly
Religion:
Roman Catholic (99.6%). Chief towns (pop. 1956 commune est.): Rome (cap.) 1,829,406; Milan 1,355,410; Naples 1,096,755; Turin 853,179; Genoa 727,012; Palermo 557,468; Florence 403,890; Bologna 387.574; Catania 337,286; Venice 333.165; Bari 299.928; Trieste 285.529; Messina 238,209. President. in
1959: Amintore Fanfani
Politically the year 1959
began with the congress
Giovanni Gronchi. Prime ministers
and (from Feb. 15) Antonio Segni. History.
—
of the left-wing Italian Socialist party (P.S.I.)
18 in Naples.
to
of the party
Its
officials,
from Jan. 15
leader. Pietro Nenni, against the wishes
succeeded
in
carrying a motion in favour
autonomy which implied its liberation at last from Communist control. This had a disintegrating effect upon the more moderate Italian Social Democratic party (P. S.D.I.) of the party's
and. since the latter was cabinet,
represented in Amintore
upon the government
as well.
The
Fanfani's
Democratic
Social
minister of labour, Ezio Vigorelli, resigned on Jan. 22 because
Nenni became independent of the Communists, Vigorelli prehim as Socialist leader to the right-wing leader of the P.S.D.I., Giuseppe Saragat. The result was that Fanfani, whose majorities in the parliament had been dwindling, was also obliged to resign. On Feb. 15 a new cabinet was formed under a former prime minister and colleague of Fanfani, Antonio Segni. Although Giovanni Gronchi, the president of the republic, made clear his disapproval, Segni accepted support from more conservative elements than would have countenanced Fanfani, and formed a one-party Christian Democratic government supported by the parties to the right, with Giuseppe Pella as foreign minister. On Feb. 27 the chamber of deputies passed a vote of confidence in its favour by 333 votes to 248; in the senate (March 6) the favourable votes were 143 to 97 against. The epilogue to this change was spoken at the meeting of the Christian Democratic party council held from March 14 to 17 when Fanfani was deposed as secretary-general in favour of Aide
if
ferred
More. Meanwhile on Feb.
8, in
preparation for their hoped-for fusion
group called the Movimento Unitario
made
new
Socialist
di Iniziativa Socialista;
great difficulties for them.
And
it
noticed with interest that in October a group of former
was
Com-
munists headed by Eugenio Reale, at one time Italian ambassador
in
Warsaw, preferred
to join Saragat's Social
Democrats.
In the spring political interest was focused upon the regional elections due to take place in the Val d'Aosta on
April 13 the
new Pope John XXIII made
May
a public
17.
On
pronounce-
ment condemning any party which co-operated with the Communists. This seemed to have the opposite effect from what the Vatican had intended: 91% of the electors in the Val d'Aosta went
to the
poUs; of these
48%
voted for the parties favourable
AN
Milan for visiting French Pres. Charles de Gaulle (saluting). To Ih is Pres. Giovanni Gronchi of Italy. De Gaulle paid a tiat visit to Italy in 1959 coinciding with the lOOth anniversary of the Battle o Magenta, when French troops went to the aid of the Italiani in their batti for freedom from the Austrians at
right of
De Gaulle
to the
government, and 52' substantial gains on the last
in a state of ferment.
gional election of 1955
with Nenni. Vigorelli and his friends formed a the P.S.I., however,
CARABINIERJ BAND PLAYING THE FRENCH NATIONAL
ITALIAN
THEM
and had nearly maintained the
th re
positia
they had won in the general election of 1958. Silvio Milazz now campaigned as leader of his Christian Social group whic had split away from the Christian Democrats. The result was 3
chamber of 90 for the Christian Democrats, 21 for th 11 for Nenni and 9 for Milazzo; the neo-Fascis M.S.I, picked up a little (9 seats, gaining one), but the othe
seats in a
Communists,
lost. After all kinds of false alarms, on July 2 Milazzo was re-elected prime minister of Sicily by a majorit of two with the support of the Communists and of Nenni
smaller parties
Socialists,
and
quarters in
in defiance of
Rome and
both Christian Democratic heac A Sicilian government wa,
of the Pope.
then elected consisting of four
members
of Milazzo's Christia
and four dissidents from other parties. It shoul be remembered that Milazzo's breakaway had begun in collaboK Social union
—
;
ITALY tion with the right.
He now depended on
the extreme left which,
369
Treaty organization. Undercurrents, chiefly of a commercial na-
though not represented in his cabinet, slipped into a number of
ture,
administrative positions. However, Milazzo's government
Arab countries whose
obliged to resign on Dec. 7
when
was
the Sicilian parliament de-
proposed budget by a 45 to 44 vote. On October 23 the Christian Democrats opened their national congress in Florence. Tribute was paid to Don Luigi Sturzo, feated
its
who had
the founder of their parent party, the Popolari,
died
continued to impel Italy into a certain patronage of the
help develop. This
potentialities
occasionally
Mattel was ever eager to
made
France uneasy. Further, as the end of in
its
Italian
relations
with
successful trusteeship
Somalia approached, Italy, to a certain extent instinctively,
displayed
itself as
the western
power with the most understand-
ing for the new, backward Asian and African nations.
8. After unusually violent debates an attempt from the wing to reassert the authority of Fanfani was defeated when
Italy's relations with Austria proved more difficult during 1959 due to the discontent of the South Tirolese or German-speaking
68 supporters of Segni were elected to the party executive as
population in the province of Alto Adige. The housing decrees
on Aug. left
was
have been expected. Indeed, during the year extreme rightist influence had asserted itself openly if spasmodically in the country as a whole an example was the refusal for the first time of the municipal
against 46
followers of Fanfani. This
Rome
authorities of
to celebrate the
to
anniversary of the libera-
by the Allies on June 4, 1944. was also a stormy year in the world of labour. The workers were determined to obtain a larger share of the growing national product and to resist the usual periodic dismissals by uneconomic concerns. On Jan. 9, 350 workmen dismissed by the Galileo concern in Florence occupied one of its factories from which the police evicted them after some violence on Jan. 27. Similar tion of the capital It
Communists explaining them caused by German competition made possible by the "common
events occurred in other towns, the as
market."
There were a number of
strikes,
and
it
was
officially
stated in
seven months of 1959 about 65,300,000 working hours had been lost as compared wuth 20,600,000 during the same period in 1958. October that during the
first
While the Communist-dominated General Confederation of
Labour (C.G.I.L.) admitted 1958, in 1959 cratic trade
it
seemed
members in Demohave come to a stand-
to a loss of 400,000
slightly to revive, while Christian
unions (C.I.S.L.) appeared to
they had been weakened by a breakaway in the big Fiat
still; I
concern of the group which called itself "Liberi Lavoratori I
Democratici" and which on April [the poll in the Fiat
elections
were held
7
came out
shop-steward elections.
at the
head of
When on
Oct. 18
in the big chemical concern of Montecatini,
however, the C.G.I.L. lost two seats and the C.I.S.L., gaining
came out
two,
top.
After the economic hitch caused by the recession in the United
and trade on the whole developed favourably, though ship-building, for instance, for which States in 1958, Italian industry
the state
was indirectly responsible, ran
increased, particularly with the
at a loss.
Foreign trade
German Federal Republic and
France, but also with the United States, Finland, and with the
Communist states (including Yugoslavia). Italy's foreign trade deficit was further reduced in 1959. Since the new Segni government had come into being in protest
against the policy of increasing the nationalized sector of
industry
which Fanfani, backed by President Gronchi and En-
rico
Mattel, president of the National Hydrocarbons authority,
liad
favoured, there was
much
tionalization. Several ministers, jflSce,
talk after
Februar>' of dena-
however, after a few months
in
reproached private capitalists with their unwillingness to
invest in industry.
They
stressed the need for private initiative
ind state enterprise at the
same time, and
in
August
it
was
inanged that the big banks controlled by I.R.I, (the Italian investment agency) should increase their capital. At about the same time the U.S.S.R. uttered one of its major Jireats to Italy over the transference of United States rocket
state
pases onto its territory;
the transference continued, however,
mainly involving the training of Italians in the use nuclear apparatus. When Pella succeeded Fanfani as foreign
'luring 1959, )f
ninister
he emphasized Italian fidelity to the North Atlantic
by Giuseppe Togni, the minister of public works under both Fanfani and Segni, were resented by the South Tirolese as a issued
violation of their provincial
autonomy and
at their expense. Their leaders to consult the
due
went
to
as favouring Italians
Vienna early
in
February
Austrian government. Since a general election was
in Austria in
May,
all
the political parties there took
up
the popular South Tirolese cause. Although the Italian gov-
ernment made administrative concessions Sept. 21, the
new Austrian
the summer, on Bruno Kreisky, felt some length when he adin
foreign minister,
obliged to refer to the South Tirol at
dressed the United Nations.
See also Austria; European Unity; Foreign Investments; Greece; Sam Marino. (E. Wi.)
—
Education. Schools U9S6-S7^: primary (incl. preprimary) 59,862, pupils 5,899,867, teachers 212,961; secondary (incl. intermediate) 3,306, pupils 673,967. teachers 60,319; vocational 2,533, pupils 518,269, teachers 43,360; teachers in training 111.754. Institutions of higher education 39, of which 27 were universities; students 212,412, teaching staff 19,872. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: lira (pi. lire), with an exchange
—
rate of 625 lire to the CS. dollar. Budget: (1958-59 est.) revenue 3,123,300,000.000 lire, e.xpenditure 3,258,000,000,000 lire. Currency circulation (March 195S) 1.813,000,000.000 lire, (Feb. 1959) 2,044,000,000,000 lire. Deposit money (March 1958) 3,221,000,000,000, (March 1939) 3,701,000,000.000 lire. Gold and foreign exchange (Feb. 1958) U.S. $1,581,000,000, (March 1959) U.S. $2,429,000,000. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports 1,980,595,000,000 lire, exports 1,585,154.000.000 lire. Main sources of imports: continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 35%; U.S. and Canada 18%; Latin .America 7%; U.K. 5%; other sterling area 18%. Main destinations of exports: continental E.P.U./E.F. 42%; U.S. and Canada 11%; Latin .\merica 11%; U.K. 7%; other sterling area 9%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1957) 181,018 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): passenger 1,238,000, commercial 405,000. Railways (1958): 21,584 km.; traffic (state system only) passenger-km. (1957) 24,835,000,000; freight (1958) 13.068,000,000 ton-km. Shipping: merchant vessels. 100 gross tons and over (July 1958) 1,300; total tonnage 4,900,000. Air transport (1958): passenger-km. 759,360,000, freight ton-
—
BURNING WRECKAGE OF AIRLINER which was hit by lightning and crashed near Milan, Italy. June 26, 1959. Many of the 59 passengers who were killed were U.S. citizens bound for Chicago, III., via Paris, France
— IVORY COA ST — JAPAN
370
13,716,000. Telephone! (Jan. 1958) 1,871,011. Lici-nscil radio receivers (1957) 5,759,000; licensed television receivers (i9S7) 674,000. Agriculiur*. Production (metric tons, 1958; I9S7 in parentheses): wheat 9,815,000 (8,478,000); maize 3,674,000 (3,494.000); barley J96,000 (396,000); oats 569,000 (581,000); rye 105,000 (93,000); po-
km.
—
3,618,000 (3,158,000); rice 705,000 (637,000); broad beans 516,000 (585,000); dry beans 175,000 (153,000); tomatoes 3,541,000 (1,963,000); tobacco (1957) 63,000 (71,300 in 1956); olives 1,330,000 (2,013,000); citrus fruit 1,375,000 (i,ii6/)oo); grapes (1957) 6,848,000 (9,891,000 in 1956); hemp (i9S7) 30,000 ('43,100 in 1956); fidS (i957) 305,500 (318,400 in 1956); beef and veal (i9S7) 360,000 (353,800 in 1956); pork (1957) 343,400 (349.600 in 1956); cheese (i9S7) 339.000 (314,000 in 1956); beet sugar, raw 1,088,000 (849,000); olive oil (mechanically processed) 330.000 (353.000); wine (1957) 4.3S'.ooo (6,398,000 in 1956). Livestock (Sept. 1958): cattle 8,650,000; sheep 8,507,000; pigs 3,300,000; goats (Sept. 1957) 1,618,000; horses and mules 1,480,000; asses (Sept. 1957) 583.000. Induiiry. Fuel and power (1958): coal 733,600 metric tons; lignite 816,000 metric tons; crude oil 1,534.800 metric tons; gas (natural) s.184,000,000 cum.; (manufactured) 3,112.000,000 cu.m.; electricity 44.304.000.000 kw.hr. Production (metric tons. 1958): iron ore (50% metal content) 1.391.300; pig iron 3.172.000; crude steel 6,276,000; zinc, smelter 71,400; lead, smelter 48,000; aluminum, smelter 64,080; cement 13,384,000: cotton yarn 163,000; rayon filament yarn 61,560; rayon staple fibre 75.840; nitrogenous fertilizers (i9S7-s8) 425.000: sulfuric acid (100%. 1957) 2.052.000; typewriters (1957) 334.463 units: passenger cars 369.000 units; commercial vehicles 34.800 units. Merchant vessels launched (100 gross tons and over) 550.800 gross tons. New dwelling units completed (1957) 271,356. Unemployment (1958) 9%;
Japan's relations with the United States were dominated throughout the year by the issue of revision of the U.S. -Japan security agreement, which had been signed along with the p>eace
treaty on Sept. 8, 1951. Both in
parleys with the U.S.
official
tatoes
—
(1957)
9%-
ambassador, which had begun
[^ZTTmLZ
Democratic party, one of the most impwrtant points was
(1959
est.)
2,309,000;
3,100,000; Negroes of Kru, Agni (Ashanti) Baule,
est.)
Senufo, Dioula and other tribes. Language: Religion: animist and
Moslem; Christian
many
local dialects.
minorities. Chief towns
EuBouake (30.700); Grand-Bassam (12,000). Prime minister in 1959, Felix Houphouet-Boigny. French high commissioner, Yves Guena. The Republic of Ivory Coast was proclaimed on History. Dec. 4, 1958. The constitution was approved on March 26, 1959. (pop., 1958 est.): Abidjan (cap., 160,000, including 8,000
ropeans);
—
M the parliamentary elections held on April
12,
the
question whether Okinawa and the Bonins, not yet returned to
Japanese jurisdiction, should be included
in the treaty area.
Meanwhile, on March 30 the government was jolted when the Tokyo district court based its acquittal of seven trespassers on
upon the assertion that the security treaty and
a U.S. air base
Not only armed forces as but also more basically
related special criminal law were unconstitutional.
its
IX
art.
of the constitution (which forswears
instruments of national policy forever),
the whole structure of treaty-constitutional relations, thus be-
came subject to review. Government attorneys appealed to the Japanese supreme court, which ruled unanimously on Dec. 16 that the presence of United States troops and bases did not violate Japan's
sf.Toi\L
is
Area: 124,503 sq.mi. Pop.: (1951
lantic ocean.
unofficial
constitution;
international
that Japanese
treaties
made by
courts
the
could not
government.
It
ordered the seven students to be re-tried.
bounded west by the independent republics of Liberia and Guinea, north by the repubhcs of Sudan and Upper Volta, east by Ghana and south by the AtFrench Community. Ivory Coast
1958, and in
Oct.
conversations between the government and the ruling Liberal-
overrule
Ivory Coast, Republic of
in
the Rassemble-
ment Democratique Africain (R.D.A.) won all the seats. Europeans had 18 seats out of a total of 100. On May i Felix Houphouet-Boigny became prime minister. Camille Adam, the opposition leader, was expelled from the republic. Ivory Coast created a Sahel-Benin entente, together
Upper Volta. Niger and Dahomey. The entente would have a complete customs union and a common fund of capital on which each country could draw. (Hu. De.) \vith
Japan's reappraisal of relations with the U.S. also affected its
negotiations with the Soviet Union.
Foreign Minister Andrei
In Dec.
1958 Soviet
Gromyko had urged Japan
to follow
"a policy of neutrality," a suggestion promptly rejected by Foreign Minister Aiichiro Fujiyama.
On
Jan.
27
Soviet Premier
Nikita Khrushchev followed with a proposal for a denuclearized in the far east and Pacific areas; on May 4 another note urged neutrality and requested Japan's views on denucleariza-
zone
On May
Japan formally disclaimed neutralism as inits basic policy and further stated that prohibition of niiclear weapons must be considered part of the general disarmament problem. Japan continued without official contact with mainland China. In Nov. 1958 Chinese Foreign Minister Chen Yi broadcast a warning that the U.S. was trying to make of Japan a permanent military base through revision of the security treaty. In March tion.
compatible
a
15
with
nine-man Socialist-party mission, led by Secretary-General Asanuma, left Japan for Peking. There .^sanuma called
Inejiro
for closer ties with the People's Republic;
co-operation in the
denuclearization of, and withdrawal of foreign troops from, Asia;
abrogation of the Tokyo-Taipei treaty; and Asian economic
co-
operation built around mainland China and Japan. However,
Premier Chou En-lai destroyed
Socialist
hopes by insisting
that
trade was inseparable from politics; that govemment-to-govem-
Jamaica:
see
West
Indies,
The.
ment negotiations would be necessary
to adjust commercial rela-
tions.
lonqn
udpall.
^
constitutional
monarchy
in the
northwestern Pa-
Japan is made up of four main islands, Hokkaido, Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku, with minor adjacent islands (total cific-,
Pop.: 142,767 sq.mi.). (1955 census) 89,275,529; (June I, 1959, est.) 92,670,000. Largest cities (1955 census): Tokyo. 6.969,104; Osaka, 2,547,316; Nagoya, 1,336,780; Kyoto, area.
Yokohama, 1,143.687; Kobe, 979.305. Principal reBuddhism: Shinto. Emperor: Hirohito. Prime minister 1959: Nobusuke Kishi. History. Foreign Affairs. During 1959 Japan continued to
1.204,084; ligions: in
—
play an important role as a
member
of the United Nations Se-
curity council. On Sept. 7, when the council took up a complaint by Laos that rebel forces were being supplied and trained by Communist North Vietnam, Japan voted with the majority to
appoint a subcommittee of inquiry (not subject to Soviet veto). Japan's delegate,
Koto Matsudaira, became chairman
of the sub-
committee, on which Argentina, Italy and Tunisia were also represented.
During 1959 protracted negotiations with the Republic of Korea (South Korea) for normal treaty relationships faced a crisis when, on Feb. 13, the Japanese cabinet approved Foreign Minister Fujiyama's scheme to repatriate North Koreans. There were about 600,000 Koreans in Japan, and it was estimated that about 117.000 desired to return to North Korea. South Korean Minister Viu Tai Ha immediately protested, terminated diplomatic negotiations and threatened to sever trade relations with Japan. Nevertheless, the Japanese government asked the International
Committee
fered to
of the
On Aug.
Red Cross
to verify the indiwdual
South Korean government ofreopen normalization talks "without attaching any con-
Koreans' wishes.
12, the
ditions," but its unilateral declaration prohibiting fishing behinc
the so-called
Rhee
line
continued to block normal
relations
Geneva the Red Cross decided t( assist in Japan's proposed repatriation of North Koreans; anc on Aug. 13 in Calcutta, Red Cross delegates from Japan anc North Korea signed a repatriation agreement. See also Korea. Meanwhile, on Aug.
11 in
——— —
JAPAN
ROYAL \:EZ'Ji\G IN JAPAN. Left, Crc^r. pr.rce Akihito and his bride, the former Michil^o Shoda, a commoner, in the official wedding portrait. Riahl, a student preparing to hurl a rock at the royal couple during the wedding procession, April 10, 1959. He was apprehended after he attempted to climb Into the carriage
On May
Japan reached a settlement of the last of its reparaan agreement with South Vietnam for $39,000,000 in a direct grant and an additional $16,600,000 in economic co-operation. Domestic Affairs. In Nov. 1958, the Imperial Household council announced the engagement of Crown Prince Akihito to Miss Michiko Shoda. The marriage on April 10 marked the largest national celebration since the end of World War II. The choice of a commoner as bride was widely regarded as a step 5
tions problems, signing
—
which brought the imperial institution closer to the people. Diet proceedings during the year were marked by questions of Japan's defense policy and
by dangerous party disputes over
related security measures. Since Oct. 1957, the National Public I
Safety commission had been studying a draft Police Duties law.
In Oct. 1958, Premier Kishi began to argue that social unrest
germinated by mass violence proved the need for a revised law.
budget.
The third revision of the Kishi cabinet, June 19, brought in all new appointees, except for Foreign Minister Fujiyama and Finance Minister Sato.
On
Sept. 26-27, central
Tjphoon "Vera,"
and almost 1,000,000 were homeless. Industrial Nagoya was hardest
hit.
—
On May i, 1958, Japan had 502 colleges and universities 653,253 students); 16,018 high schools (310,663 8,087,167 students); and 22,565 primary schools (363,984 13,492,087 students). On Jan i, 1959, Japan officially switched from a traditional to the metric system of measurements. Finance. The monetary unit is the yen with an official value in 1958 of 360 yen to the U.S. dollar. See Tables I. II, III. Foreign Trade. In the calendar year 1958 Japan's exports increased only 0.6% (1957, 14**), but imports also shrank 29% (1957, 32.5%). Decrease in textile goods was a major factor in export sluggishness: machinery decreased slightly: transistor radios and autos increased. Machinery was the only exception to a general decrease in imports. Japan's foreign currency reserves totaled $860,000,000 at the end of 1958. See Tables II and IV. Education.
(47.56S
professors,
teachers, teachers,
—
—
SociaUst opposition accused the government of attempting to
jstate.
Iplete
On Nov.
4,
Table
Japan; Fiscal Year Budgefs
I.
dent of the Liberal-Democratic party, and Socialist
.
.
.
.
1959-60
1958-59
1,419,248 1,419,248
1,312,131 1,312,131
1957-58
1,137,464 1,137,464
Chairman
was shelved and the lower house did not meet again during 10, 1958,
listrative
{tacked
When
1959
Bonk note! (000,000 yen) Wholesole price index (405 Hems;
1952 overoge= 100) index (151 items; ayerage= 100)
1934-36
Exports iU.S. $000,0001 • Imports lU.S. $000,0001-
Customs
tl957lolal.
stolislics.
Table
the diet reopened Jan. 26, 1959, admin-
Socialists,
who demanded
termination,
rather
In February both parties were occupied in the lower house
weapons for Japan. After Premier Kishi himself said that he was against nuclear armament of the self-defense forces, and would not permit U.S. forces to bring such arms into Japan, Socialists pressed with the explosive issue of prohibition of nuclear
701,200
891,000
(June)
98.5
97.9
97.5
(May) (May) (May)
285.5
227.0 2,858t l,284t
255.8 2,877t 3,033}
278 322
(I'SStolol.
(In
millions o( yenl
Moy
Moy
1959
891,340 33,508
Cosh* Deposits (other bonks) Loons
than revision, of the U.S. security treaty.
Dec. 1958
788,300
Japan: Principal Accounts of All Banks
III.
speeches by Premier Kishi and his cabinet were at-
by the
June 1958
(June]
Industrial production
immediately became snarled over the election of a speaker
and vice-speaker.
Japan: Selected Financial Indicators
II.
Indicotors
its
|Mosaburo Suzuki solved the diet impasse. The Police Duties extended session. The 31st regular diet opened Dec.
Table
bill.
keep the lower house and
committees from operation. Finally on Nov. 22, Kishi. as presi-
'but
. .
confusion as the Liberal-Democratic party unilaterally an-
land the Socialists tried forcibly to
:the
millions ol yen)
hem
proceedings were thrown into com-
nounced a 30-day e.xtension of the session, to pass the police
;law
lln
opening the way for revival of a police
1958, diet
more than 1,300
persons were reported dead, 1,200 were missing, 5,600 injured
enlarge police powers (along with re\ision of the security treaty |with the U.S.), thereby
Japan staggered under the impact of
the worst in recorded history;
Securities Coll loons
1958
Dec. 1958
965,138
1,041,279 32,580 5,812,942
6,048,370 1,063,854 95,844
30,062 5,218,742 858,696 74,975
6,648,365
5,694,343
594,309 325,776 277,888
452,557 497,302 228,106
912,054 93,362
liobilities
Deposits*
Debentures Borrowings Coll
money
'Including checks
and
bills.
tExdudtng checks,
bills
ond deposits
in
6,484,025 530,606 422,311 235,939
foreign currencies.
the Liberal-Democrats to co-sponsor a resolution to this effect.
iThe diet closed
its
144-day session
May
2,
Table
after passage of 163
IV.
Japan: International Balance of Payments lln
laws, including the
Defense Agency Establishment law revision
providing a 12,000-man increase in self-defense personnel: a
Minimum Wage
bill;
the National Pension
bill;
and the
new new
Item
millions of U.S. dollorsl
1934-36 overoge 1958
Receipts
906
Poyments Balance
941
-35
3,510 2,999 511
1957
3,643 4,175
-533
1954
1955
3,225 2,931
2,468 2,174
294
494
JAVA_JEWISH LITERATURE
372 -Japan:
Chhf
Agricullural Produett lln
19i7
froduci l)l» (bu.l
Wh«al and barlaylbu.) $w..l potato.! (Ib.l Iilih
T.a
potato*!
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
(lb.)
Umbtr Pllh
(Ib.l
product! catch lib.)
•19S4.
(bi/.)
.
I9M
3SS,7tt 3(2,088 148,712 100,439 13,783,443 13,433,078 1,363,480 3,982,839 1 30,874
_ _ —
743,nO 9,344,892
Ar«a Pfoducllon bu. oi Ib.l 1000 ocfa I95i
000
.
JEWISH RELIGIOU S and irony. Mukdam Umeuhar ("Early and Late"') was the title of Leah Goldberg's volume of selected poems, distinguished by a contemplative grace, which appeared late in the year.
I
!
Hebrew
In the United States,
was
the periodicals,
literary
activity,
except for
("Poems"), was, in its rather modest way, an event; it was tinged with deep resignation and an unfailing sense of Jewish historicity. Another book published posthumously was Zel I'tzlil ("Shadow and Sound"), by M. S. Benume, entitled Shirim
j
I
Largely
Meir.
,
affectation
traditional
and touching
form,
in
poems are free of Of interest too was
the
in their integrity.
the appearance of B. Ressler's novel Nachlat Zevi, I
with Jewish
and fortunes
life
in Poland, Israel
which deals and the United
— JOHN
XXlli
373 the col-
;
of essays Shrayber fun mayn dor ("Wri'ers of My Generation"), by Shlomo Bikl, was a product of 15 years of his research and activity in this field. lection
On
relatively quiescent. A. S. Schwartz's vol-
I
j
LIFE
cism was represented by a number of new publications
the occasion of the
looth anniversary of the birth of
Sholem .\leichem three editions of his selected works were published, one of them in Moscow, the first Yiddish book published in the Soviet Union since 1948. (D. Az.)
Jewish Religious
Life: see Judaism;
Religious Educa-
tion.
Jewish Welfare Board, National:
and
Societies
see
Associations. U.S.
I
States prior to the advent of Hitlerism.
j
.A
popular, very in-
thought was to be
structive exposition of various aspects of
I
found in Gershon Churgin's study. Zeramin be-Philisophia ha-
.Hadasha ("Currents Yiddish
I
Modern Philosophy").
in
Literature. —-The
jened in 1959
by
(G. P.)
Yiddish literary scene was enliv-
group of young writers who published their
a
Some of them were already familiar to Yiddish by their contributions to the magazines Di goldene keyt jC'The Golden Chain") and Yung Israel ("Young Israel"), both books.
(first
ireaders
of Tel Aviv.
The scope
was broad,
of fiction writing
reflecting the life of
widely scattered Jewish communities, as well as the
Ithe
and distant
e.xperi-
American Jewish life was [portrayed in short stor>- collections by L. Khanukov. L. Lasovin, IShaie Miller. X. Xudelman. L. Sigalovsky. I. Fridland and iOthers. The world created by these authors was populated by ;middle class men and women whose small tragedies, and still jsmaller triumphs, were recounted with compassion, humour and Isometimes with mordant irony (Sh. Miller). A fresh %ista was opened by Kh. Ayalti in his novel Vayter fun Bruklin ("Beyond
lences of the near
jBrooklyn
.
The
.").
.
setting
past.
was
familiar, but the story tran-
iscended the boundaries of realism
who
hero
jits
jrealm of his
qualities of
dreams. Oyf skmole trotuarn ("On Narrow Alleys") Israeli writer Yosl Birshte>-n. was a modem
young
the
jby
by the peculiar
actually lived not in the real world, but in the
psychological novel which probed with honesty and objective
detachment the
realities of the
new
life
in
Israel.
The
G»L'rsl''Tep.;"
In 1959 he became the
win the heavyweight boxing
first
Swede
championship of the world and the title
since
Max
Schmeling (Germany
ing out
Franco Cavicchi (Italy)
fended
this
Jewish
life in
Warsaw
of the historical novel, both in
its classical
made form
of the as well
sophisticated variety of a stylized old- Yiddish first
genre was represented by
(Tsvi
Kahan. the second by
jTiain
stream stood
I.
J. I.
folk
M. Osherovich and
Trunk. Quite apart from the
Metsker's collection of animal stories Gots
basheienishn ("God's Creatures''), fresh in
^d
at the turn of the
In the survey of fiction mention should be
The
win
this
at
Milan.
He
de-
Henry Cooper
(Britain) in five rounds at Stockholm in 1957 and by forcing
Joe Erskine (Britain) to retire year
later.
After defeating Eddie
in
13
rounds at Goteborg a
Machen (United
States), the
leading contender, in one round at Goteborg in 1958, he went to the United States flooring
New from
and
in
Floyd Patterson
in
June 1959 won the world title by three rounds at Yankee stadium.
York. This was Johansson's only contest in 1959. .•\part his achievements as a boxer, Johansson had great success
as a businessman.
(F. B. R.)
of eastern
life
Street''), a chronicle of
lovel.
rounds
in 13
successfully by knocking out
title
lege of Cardinals in conclave
its
to
by April 15, 1956, had won 14 contests, mostly by knockouts. On Sept. 30. 1956. in his first professional fight outside Sweden, he won the European championship by knock-
John
bs in
European
beat Jack Sharkey (United
professional and
hiel
jrevival
first )
States) in 1930. Only two men. Johansson and Rocky Marciano, had won the world title without one defeat as professionals. Johansson won Swedish amateur titles and boxed for his country in the Oly-mpic games at Helsinki in 1952 when along with Ed Sanders (United States), his opponent in the hea\'yweight final, he was disqualified for "not trying." On Dec. 5, 1952, he turned
inspiration for Yiddish writers.
century'.
to
tradi-
Europe was once more a source of The broadest in scope was YekHofer's A hoyj oyf Pokorne ("A court-yard on Pokorna Jewish
tional
Johansson, Ingemar - unit: Jordan dinar at par with the pound sterling (= U.S. $2.80). Budget: (1959-60 est.) revenue 30,800,000 dinars (of which approximately 22,000,000 dinars in foreign aid), e.xpenditure 38,200,000 dinars. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports 34,030,000 dinars, exports 3,530,000 dinars. Main exports: phosphates 28'^c. olive oil 2%. Transport and Communicoiions. Roads (1956, all-weather and others): 4.603 km. Motor vehicles in use (1956): passenger 4,985; commercial (incl. buses) 4,169. Railways (1956) 366 km. .\ir transport: Arab Airways and Mr Jordan; scheduled routes (1955) 9,222 km. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 15,125. Licensed radio receivers (1957) 59,000. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): wheat 65.600 (219,800); barley 16,800 (80.600); maize 5,500 (9,500); cucumbers 77.300 (109,400); onions and garlic 14,000 (12,900); tomatoes 74.400 (65.400); broad beans 1,100 (2,800); chick-peas 1,800
—
—
—
—
13.700): lentils 4,500 (12,000); bananas 13.100 (7,700); olives 52,400 114.900); sesame 2,300 (3,600). Livestock (Sept. 1957): cattle 64,000; sheep 453.400; goats 540,900; camels 13,500; horses (Sept. 1953) 9,000; mules (Sept. 1953) 7,000; asses (Sept. 1953) 56,000. Phosphate production; 261,900 metric tons in 1957 (208,400 in 1956).
IlirlQlcm UUUdlolll.
^^^
rnajor concern of Jewish leaders during 1959
meaning of Judaism. This preoccupation resulted from the complexities of the situation in Israel,
^ygg to clarify the
where Jewish immigrants from nearly all the countries The government of Israel decided to
of the world were gathered. issue passports to all
manded
its
citizens and, for reasons of security, de-
that each citizen declare whether he
was a Jew, an Arab Soon the question arose, "^^^lat is a Jew?" Within the government of Israel, this question of identification broke up the coalition between the Orthodox parties and the Socialists. But the effect of the controversy was felt throughout the Jewish Diaspora. After all, the government of Israel can only define the duties and qualifications of its citizens, while the or what.
test of belonging to the Jewish community is the concern of all Jews the world over. Accordingly. Jewish scholars and ideologists in all parts of the world took part in this debate, and their views on the question fell readily into several categories.
PROWD WAVING AND CHEERING KING HUSSEIN hrough Bethlehem on his way to a visit to Jerusalem
lountry
].
of
—
Jordan
1959
was undisturbed.
On May lifai
in
5.
shortly after the king's return to Jordan. Samir
el-
resigned as prime minister, on the grounds that he needed
rest
and that the
crisis
which had led him to accept
office
Iwo years earlier had passed, leaving the countr>^ at peace and onfidence between The retiring
the
throne and the people re-established.
prime minister also announced that he had obtained
rom London and Washington promises of financial assistance would ensure Jordan's economic stability. The king aplointed the court minister, Hazzaa Majali, to succeed Rifai as irime minister. Majali had championed the Baghdad pact in 955. but on his appointment as prime minister, he made it clear hat the pact was a thing of the past, and both he and the king Iromised that Jordan would stay out of all foreign alliances. On May 23. Major General Sadiq Share'i, deputy chief of staff f the Jordan army was arrested, together with several other fficers. on a charge of plotting to seize power while the king .as abroad. The plot, it was stated, had been discovered by he king before he left Jordan, and he had foiled it by taking •hare'i with him on his tour. The accused officers were put on August, the prosecution alleging that the plot was coned with the Iraqi revolution. The trial ended in mid-October hen Share'i and two other persons were sentenced to death. In June, following a frontier dispute, the United Arab Refhich
ein
Orthodox. For Orthodox Jews, the precepts of Talmudic Law as formulated in the Shulhan .^ruk are eternally binding. The Talmud contains philosophical speculations and general principles (Haggada) as well as a body of laws and ordinances (Halakah). While there are many degrees and types of Orthodoxy, the precepts of Halakah are decisive for all of them. In Halakah. the rule is stated that all who are bom of a Jewish mother are considered sons of the Covenant, obligated to abide by the laws of Judaism. Even if they violate one or all the laws of Torah habitually, they cannot liberate themselves from its yoke. ".\n Israelite, even if he sinned, is an Israelite" meaning that he continues to be under the obligations of Torah and that he cannot resign from the Jewish com-
—
munity. Conservatism.
—
The Conservative movement is divided on this issue, as others, between the traditionalists who offer no alternative Orthodox approach, and the liberals who recognize the legitimacy of differences within (he Jewish community. The Reconstructionist wing of the Conservative movement maintains that secularism, acknowledging no religion, is a valid branch of "Jewish civilization." Reform. The Reform and Liberal Conservati\'e spokesmen define Judaism predominantly in terms of religious affiliation, but they define religion in nonlegalistic terms, such as adherence to the principles of the Jewish faith, not necessarily compliance with the ancient laws. The difference between the .\merican Council for Judaism and the rest of the Reform movement relates more to politics and tactics than to philosophical principles, the former insisting on an abstract and rigid definition of the term religion, and on a strict delimitation of the interests of .American Jews in their coreligionists in other lands and in Israel. In general, the non-Orthodox writers distinguish between the principles of Judaism and its laws. When a definition is in order they are likely to ignore the law and to stress such Talmudic maxims (of Haggada) as the following: "Those who are merciful, benevolent and ashamed of doing wrong belong to the seed of Abraham our father"; or "Whoever denies the validity of idolatry is called a Jew." Secularists. Jewish secularism is a comparatively recent phenomenon. In the countries of central Europe, Jews who did not believe in the Jewish faith could declare themselves to be "without religion," Konjessiotislos, and disassociate themselves from the community. The rise of biological anti-Semitism, which directed its attack against "the Jewish race" or "Jewish blood," making no distinction between those who adhered to religion and those who did not, forced nonreligious Jews to maintain some associaon so
many
to the
—
—
tion with their fellows.
'; ,
JUGOSLAVIA — JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
376 The
rise of political /.iuiiism un ihf Ihrcshuld of the joth century iinthe ncccptance of s imlionalisticsecularistic dennition of Judaism, theory nssumed that the Jews of the world constituted a nation in the process of becominn. Jews were dislinKuishcd from their neiKhbours the world over l>y a common set of memories and traditions, a common hrritaite of persecution and martyrdom, and a common hope for redemption in the Holy L.ind. Those who will choose to live in Palestine, it was arKued, will emerge as a fulI-fledKed nation, with a distinctive and secular culture
plird
/.ionist
of their
Knl'Yclup«uia Bxitannica ViLUir -Arnold Toynbce: The Rrl (15th lecture of the serin, "A Changing World in the I.j History") (1958); David lien-Curion (The Wisdom Series) (r Dr. Louis Finkelstrin (The Wisdom Series) (1958): Jeruialem- The llulf City (i9St); Major Relifions oj the World (Development and Ritualt) (>954)ol Atia
Jugoslavia:
own.
The emergence of the slate of Israel in 1948 as a secular stale, Rranting equal riKhls to all its citizens, marked the triumph of the Zionist movement. Hut the new stale soon passed the I-aw of Return, enabling all Jews, who were so minded, to emigrate into Israel. This extension of a helpinit hand to "Jewish refugees" had to take account of the fact that some men and women who are not Jewish in a religious or national sense may be persecuted as "Jews" by racist fanatics. Th» Hiitoricol Vi»w. In the perspective of millenniums, the Jewish people constituted both a nationality and a faith, the one aspect or the other predominating at different times. In the biblical period, the Jews were a self-governing nation, and after they returned from Babylonia they enjoyed occasional periods of complete independence and of cultural autonomy. During the middle ages, the Jews were a distinctive religious minority, possessing at various limes extensive rights of self-government. In the countries of the western world, the progress of Jewish emancipation and integration implied the steady abandonment of strictly national features, and the gradual assumption of the status and character of a purely religious community. On the other hand, the occasional resurgence of antiSemitism would halt or reverse this process.
Jumping:
'
see Yugoslavla.
Track and Field Sports. Junior Colleges: sec Univeksiiies and Colleges. Justice, U.S. Department of: see Government Deia^, MENTS AND BUKEAUS, U.S. see
—
As of i9Sg, there were 7,000,000 Jews living in the free atmosphere of the Anglo-American world, maintaining their religious identity, in several interpretations. In the state of Israel,
To
nearly 2,000.000 Jews lived as an Israeli nation.
tions in Haifa
The major
and
in
made
to organize
non-Orthodox congrega-
difficulty in Israel
the Ashkenazic chief rabbi Isaac Halevi Herzog in July,
1959
the Sephardic chief rabbi temporarily in the ascendancy,
but there was no disposition to merge the two
Some American Jewish ernment during
1959
of
offices.
adopting
anti-Semitic
policies,
but
The Soviet government
is
hostile to all religions, forbidding religious education before the 18. It
recognizes national groups only
were held
by the subcommittee on special education and by the juvenile delinquency subcommittee to consider the proposed legislation. Among the proposed bills were S.694 and H.R.3464. These proposals would authorize $5,000,000 annually over a five-year'
when they
and evaluate
local
\
are con-
tional Invitation conference dealing with the
implementation
ofj
theory for prevention and control of juvenile delinquency. Morel
than 200 educators and other youth workers participated conference in Washington, D.C.,
May
in the!
14-15, 1959. This confer-,
centrated in any one territory, speaking a language of their own.
ence reviewed the theoretical statement. Delinquent Behavior: Culture and the Individual, prepared by the N.E.A. Delinquency!
still
identified as a separate na-
documents, but they are neither confined to one area nor do their young people speak Yiddish. tionality, in legal
See also Israel; Religious Education.
i
and slate efforts to prevent and control delinquency. The U.S. senate subcommittee on juvenile delinquency continued its investigations of various aspects of the delinquency problem in the United States and published Senate. Report No. 137 (May 24, 1959) on juvenile delinquency. Two, separate hearings were conducted in New York city by the senate subcommittee. The National Education association fX.E.A.) sponsored a Na-| strate
The Jews
of the U.S.S.R. are
;
;
organizations accused the Soviet gov-
Soviet officials denied this accusation.
age of
tide of norm-violating behaviour. Extensive hearings
'.
period to finance projects designed to discover, develop, demon-
Tel Aviv.
was the wide chasm between the "white" (European) and "black" (Oriental and African) Jews. Riots in Haifa, Beersheba and other cities during the summer months underlined the severity of this. problem. The death of left
on delinquency as a major youth problem in 1959, especially in the large urban centres. A number of bills were introduced in the U.S. congress intended to help public and private agencies at the state and local levels find new and better ways of stemming the ever increasing
',
that time,
only the orthodox version of Judaism was allowed. During the year, attempts were
".r*,
Juvenile Delinquency. L'S;.:";:."„t; New York city alone kept the spotlight
activities in
(J. B.
A.)
JUVENILES LINED UP AGAINST A WALL prior to a weapons after a killing in New York city's Lower East Several persons were shot or stabbed rival teen-age gangs
In
an
search side
for concetlec: In
Aug. 19S9
outbreak of violence between twc
(T
——
—
KAN SAS
377
I
I
I
Project
staff,
and made suggestions for school
much
senate publications pointed out that
The
practices.
serious norm-violating
and represents "normal" and even "demand" beha\-iour when considered against the youngbehaviour
is
culturally determined
The N.E.A. publinorm violators could
primar>' or essential reference group.
ster's
cation outlined
ways
which the nation's
in
be helped by the schools.
The American Academy
;
an issue of the
lished tion
outstanding
of
delinquency
way
and Social Science puband evaluaprevention programs and
of Political
Annah devoted
research efforts under
to a description
in different sections of the countn.-.
Most of these endeavours focused on helping the neighbourhood. the family and the gang, rather than on the one-to-one counseling
approach via the child guidance
testified to the
need for more
But all these reports and objective methods
clinic.
scientific
and techniques for evaluating the
effects of
agency and com-
munity programs aimed to reduce delinquency.
An encyclopaedic volume concerning
all
aspects of the delin-
quency problem was edited by Sheldon Glueck, of Harvard university. This volume brought under one cover the significant
many
writing of
researchers and practitioners on a wide variety
and diagnosis, prediction, ment and community programing. of topics including law. study
treat-
See also Child Welfare; Crime, U.S.; Education'.
—
BiBLioGR.^PHY. Xational Education .Association Juvenile Delinquency Delinquent Behavior: Culture and the Individual (1959): Delinquent Behavior: Principles and Practices (1959): "Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency,'' ed. by Helen L. Witmer, The Annals (March 1939, .American .Academy of Political and Social Science): Problems of Delinquency, ed. by Sheldon Glueck (1959'); "Juvenile Delinquency .Among Negroes in the United States." ed. by Chas. H. Thompson; The Journal of Negro Education (Summer 1959). (W. C. K.) Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Why Vandalism? (1955). Project,
—
|/q_--- Located in the geographical centre of the continental ^dllodd. United States, excluding Alaska. Kansas was admitted to the
union as the 34th state on Jan. 29. 1861. It
referred to as the "Sunflower state." but
"Jayhawk the state is
state," a
is
name
it is
of indefinite origin.
is
frequently
known
also
The
82.276 sq.mi.. of which 82,108 sq.mi.
as the
total area of
Kansas North American continent, from geodetic surveys are made. Population of the is
land.
the geodetic centre of the
which point
all
(1950 federal census)
state:
For the three
2,115.441.
capital) the population
aid to education, stricter driver licence and traffic laws,
more fits,
workmen's compensation and unemplo\Tnent bene-
liberal
a stronger antidiscrimination
law,
increased salaries
elective state officers, additional personnel for the state
for
highway
patrol and the foundation for a state educational television plan.
On
July 4 thousands of persons attended a ceremony marking
dam above Manhattan. Water was diverted from the river into the outlet the closure of the Blue river charmel at Tuttle Creek
I
t
cial
("1959
1.905.299;
largest cities
state
census)
(Topeka being the
(1950 census; 1959 state census
in
state
paren-
Topeka, 78,791 (115,744); Wichita. 168.279 (242,Kansas City 129.553 (131,360). According to the 1950 census, Kansas population was 47.9% rural and 52.1% urban. theses) was:
131);
—
History. The principal state officials in 1959 were: George Docking, governor; Joseph Hankie, lieutenant governor; Paul R.
Shanahan. secretary of state; George Robb. auditor: Adel F. Throckmorton, superintendent of public instruction; Frank Sul-
tubes of the dam. part of a $90,000,000 flood control project,
which would not be completed until 1961. In October ground was broken for the Eisenhower Presidential library at Abilene, the president's boyhood home. The institution was expected to be ready for operation by the conclusion of the president's current term.
—
Education. In Sept. 1959 preliminary figures indicated an approximate enrollment of 458,000 primary and secondary pupils in Kansas schools. There were 22 four-year colleges and 21 two-year colleges which had a combined enrollment for the 195S-59 school year of more than 44.000. The combined enrollment of the three state colleges and two universities for the 1959 fall term was more than 25.000. The populations of the other state institutions were as follows: school for the blind, 136; school for the deaf. 231. Social Insuronce and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. The populations of the state's institutions in Aug. 1959 were as follows: state training schools, 1,878: hospitals for tuberculars, 215: children's homes, 57: industrial school for girls. 82: industrial farm for women, 54: mental hospitals, 3,770: state penitentiary, 1,571; reformatory for boys. 545; industrial school for boys. 1S5. .As of July 1959 there were 65.029 persons receiving public assistance: old-age assistance, 30.226 persons with an average monthly payment of $75.28: aid to dependent children. 22,660 at an average of S33.96; general assistance, 6.924, average S:6.04: aid to blind, 667, average $72.09; aid to disabled, 4,552, average $75.36. Communications. .As of June 30, 1958, the total length of primary and secondary, county and township roads in the state of Kansas was 133,005 mi., of which 9,695 mi. were state-maintained. There were 537 mi. of urban state highways and. as of Dec. 31. 1958, 241 toll road miles. The remainder of the highways was controlled by the respective municipalities. Highway maintenance and construction during the calendar year 1959 were estimated at more than $80,000,000. Kansas had 8.609 mi. of railroads (all classes) and there were 191 airports, 107 of which were attended and operationally active. Si.t military air bases were in operation. Banking and Finance. Total state e.tpenditures authorized for the i960 fiscal year amounted to $332,800,715 as compared with actual operating expenditures of $348,569,879 for fiscal I9S9. The amount of sales tax compensating tax collected for the fiscal year 1959 was $72,022,009. The total income tax for the fiscal year 1959 was $29,152,880. There were 169 national banks and 426 state banks. Total deposits of all Kansas banks reached $2,141,529,410.17 as of June 1959. Agriculture. The total cash receipts from farm marketings for the period Jan. I to July i. 1959. was $645,214,000, a strong increase over the previous year. Preliminary reports indicated that the year's corn crop was the largest in nine years with a per-acre yield of 39 bu.. second only to the preceding year's record yield. Kansas farmers harvested an average hay crop. Sorghum grain production was good although moisture shortages caused some damages in the north central area. Late summer pastures and ranses remained good. The number of cattle and calves on Kansas farms increased by more than 500.000 to total 4,476,000 on Jan. i, 1959. The number of hogs and pigs increased to 1.066.900 head. .All sheep and lambs increased 179.000 to total 883.000 head. The number of chickens showed an increase, and horses and mules continued to decline with 8.000 head less than on Jan. I. 1958, far below the lo-year average. Commercial apple production was estimated at 240,000 bu.. up 60.000 bu. from 1958, and approaching the lo-year average. The peach harvest was estimated at 80.000 bu.. down from 1958 and below the lo-year aver-
—
—
—
age.
livan,
commissioner of insurance; John Anderson, Jr.. attorney George Hart, treasurer: Lillie Washabaugh. state
general;
Table
Principal
I.
Crop
The regular session of the 1959,
legislature
and adjourned on March
28,
convened on Jan.
proposed constitutional amendment providing
cities, i
it
home
adopted rule for
reapportioned the house of representatives and adopted
public
employees' retirement program.
named piece of unrealistic ing,
13.
after gaining for itself a
strongly conservative label. Despite its conservatism, 1
legislation
was severely
However, the
criticized
last-
because of
Wheat, bu
Averoge
Com, bu Sorghum
groin, bu
Ools, bu Barley, bu Rye, bu
19S9
1958
\9ii-ST
207,580,000 78,515,000 127,552,000 15,433,000 1 8,792,000
291,252,000 73,122,000 128,964,000 13,416,000 1 8,009,000 2,4)4,000 9,262,000 4,605,000
169,289,000 55,55^,000 44,988,000 23,653,000 6,747,000 689,000 4,094,000 3,234,000
1,830;000 9,020,000 3,382,000
Soybeans, bu Hoy, Ions
Source: Kansas Crop Reporting Service (U.S.D.A.I.
its
Table
Principal Industries of Kansas
II.
nature and was eventually vetoed by Governor Dock-
along with five other
Some
Crops of Kansas
Indicated
printer.
Solories All
bills.
where the legislature failed to act were civil service, where some state employees had not received salary increases for several years, and taxation, where state-wide assessment equalization was urgently needed. Among its accomplishments the session listed increased finan-
Industry
Group
employees 1957
fields
and wages (in
Volue added by manufacture
000s)
1957
92,747 40,864 36,053 26,068 26,058 282,248
lin
I9S7
OOOs]
)9S6
184,865 205,962 86,) 22 108,711 106,495 84,103 79,) 15 Fabricoled melol products. 43.866 44,036 Tronsporlalion equipment 488,391 345,834 Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Annual Survey of Momifacti/ret, 1 957. Food and kindred products Printing ond publishing Chemicals and products Petroleum and coal products.
.
,
.
.
.
.
,
,
....
20,797 ) 0,607 7,420 4,477 6,004 53,688
—
—
378 ManufaOurIng and slnxlc
toiilril)Ul()r
Thr mnnulacturinK
Induilry.
to
Kansas
incoiiu-
i>iTsi>nal
in
payroll was Ihc larKrst 195**. a"'' there were
maniidiclurers in business at the beKinninK o( 1959Ninety-tour new plants were announced or bcxan production in Kansas durinK 1958. and reportenl(bbl) Cloyi
Cool
Uod
4.000 34,743,000 584,690,000 119,000 123,414,000 103,000 1,018,000 9,345.000 10,412,000 14,000
H.llum (cu f!.| . Natural goi (000 cu.d.) Noturol goiolln. (000 gol.) P.lrol.um (bbl.j P.lrol.ucn gaiej (000 gol.). .
Sail
Sand ond grav.l Stone Zint
570,000 27,888,000 66.883,000541,814,000 110,000 6.549,000 372,078,000118,188,000 4,042.000 115,000 1,073,000 10,353,000 4,175,000 10,317,000 11,924,000 12,424,000 4,000 3,679,000 1,191,000
...
Olti.rmln.rols
Valua
OuaiMlly
Volu*
Ouanllly
'Total hoi b..n odiuit.d to .limlnat. duplication Source U.S. Bur.ou of MIn.i.
Iti.
In
1,145,000 3,711,000 304,000 432,000 64,047,000 4,229,000 354,544,000 5,193,000 11,348,000 4,749,000 15,034,000
902,000 1,427,000
volu. of cloyi and iton..
Kashmir: see Pakistan. Kellogg Foundation: see Societies and Associations,
Brookline,' Mass., on
May
29, 1917, the
i960,
was
bom
in
son of Joseph P. Ken-
Sr., chairman of the Securities and Exchange commission and U.S. ambassador to Great Britain in 1937-40. John Kennedy graduated with honours from Harvard university in 1940 and then served for four years as a naval officer in World War II, His
nedy,
political career
when he was
began shortly after
representative from the
nth
U.S. congress for three terms
trict in the
from Massachusetts
elected U.S. senator
from active duty,
his release
in
Massachusetts (1947-53).
dis-
He was
1952 for the term
I953-S9and was re-elected in 1958 for the term 1959-65. In the Kennedy was a more or less independent voter, wellliked by his colleagues for his close study of pending legislation. senate
effective speaker, he attracted rather
wide popular attention.
Kennedywhich was rejected by the Eisenhower administration despite the fact that Ives was a Republican. Kennedy's pi-esidential boom began to receive serious consideration by party leaders in 1956, the year he published his book Profiles in Courage. By 195S he was conceded to be the Demo-
One of
the better-known bills he sponsored was the
Ives labour reform
bill,
cratic "front-runner," although during the next
pects seemed to slow somewhat. a
number
A Roman
year his pros-
Catholic, he issued
statements urging the continued separation of
of
church and state in the United States.
Known
as the "Bluegrass state,"
1
—
his six
won over
i
|
the'
opponents by a majority of 36,641.
'
Robsion, with a total of 63,130 votes, received 53,120 more, than his two opponents. Of the three candidates for the Republican lieutenant gubernatorial nomination, Pleaz a total of 27,21
1
votes, beat his nearest
W, Mobley,
opponent by 7,578
with
votes.
election, Democrat Combs easily defeated^ Democrats retained control of the legislature, .\nother major event during the year was a United Mine* Workers strike in eastern Kentucky, called on April 30. Thei union asked for a $2 a day wage increase, unionization of small, independent truck mines and the stoppage of nonunion truck mine sales of coal to independent ramp and tipple owners, who! were disposing of it at below the cost of union-produced coal,i The U.M.W. undertook to picket the nonunion mines, rampsi and tipples, as well as sections of railway. Violence followed! consisting of murder, bodily injury, the dynamiting and burning' of ramps and tipples, as well as the damaging of Louisville and
In
November
the
Robsion
1
;
Nashville railroad tracks and bridges. U.S.
menuoned p^ominenuylol
the Democratic presidential nomination in
announced his candidacy for lieutenant governor on the Coiiibt slate, which proved a winning team. In the Republican race former Louisville congressman, John there was little contest M, Robsion, Jr., won the nomination without serious opposition, The official returns showed Combs C 292,462 voles) as winner
combined vote of
Min.rol Production.— Tabic III .show.s the tonnaRC and value of those minerals produced in Kansas in 1957 and 1958 whose value was $100,000 or more. In 1958 Kansas was third amonR the states in helium production; 1958 it it was fifth in natural Ras marketed and seventh in salt output. In ranked ninth among the states in the value of its mineral output, with 3.02% of the U.S. total. Encyclop.«dia BRiTANNtCA FiLins. Northwcslern Slates (i956).
Kennedy, John Fitzgerald
Wilson W. Wyalt. Midway
$498,524,000 30,047,000
...
Combs; and former Louisville tn in the campaign Wyall wilhdrev.
late court judge, Bert T.
over Waterfield by a 33,001-vote margin. Wyatt
I9S8
t»S7
Mlnerol
An
I
';'. ' .
KASHMIR — KENTUCKY
Some
of the perpetrators
and given long penitentiary sentences. Governor Chandler dispatched several companies oi| the national guard to the affected areas and the railroad obtainec! of violence were brought to trial
an injunction against the U.M.W. of
to
prevent further destructior
property. Shortly after, the governor called a meeting
its
operator and union
olj
which resulted in a "gentlemen's! agreement" to stop the violence. With an agreement reached. th«. guardsmen were withdrawn. Notwithstanding this, sporadic vioofficials,
lence continued.
The
state officers in 1959 were: governor, Albert B. Chandler
Harry Lee Waterfield; secretary
lieutenant governor,
Thelma Stovall; Jo M. Ferguson;
Mary
auditor,
treasurer,
of state
Louise Foust; attorney general,
Henry H. Carter; superintendent
public instruction, Robert R. Martin; commissioner of agricul ture,
Ben
J. Butler;
and clerk of court of appeals. Dorris Owensi
—
Education. The State department of education reported that there wer; 2.914 public elementary schools (1958-59) and 533 public secondar^ schools in Kentucky, and that 123 districts had adopted plans for or hai integrated schools. The total enrollment (grades 1-12) was 635,432 am the number of full-time classroom teachers, exclusive of principals, super; intendents, etc., was 22,480.5. The 1958-59 average daily attendanoj totaled 562,143.6; the public school foundation program fund $59.697.. 735.96: and current expense per pupil in average daily attendance wa $204.33. The mean of the annual salaries (1958-59) of all certified publi school employees was S3. 340. 00. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Progromj.The department of economic security administers the employment securk;: program, the public assistance program and the children's services in Ken tucky. During fiscal 195S-59. this department paid out $89,762,819, 0. which $37,069,131 represented benefits to unemployed workers (as coir pared with $93,513,551 paid out during fiscal 1957-58, and of whic. $45,168,695 represented benefits to unemployed workers). Unemploye beneficiaries during the average week in fiscal 1959 totaled 26.397. Tot2, unemployment in the state was estimated at 95.300 as of March 1959. wit covered unemployment at 50,600. Kentucky's labour force was estimate. |
,
Kentucky, which
Table
Principal
I.
Crops of Kentucky
1
Kentucky.
entered the union in 1792, has an area of 40,395 sq.mi., of which 531 sq.mi. are water. Its population in 1950
1959 was estimated to be 3,125,000. In 1959 the state's five largest cities were: Louisville 417,100, Covington 70,100, Lexington 64,000, Owensboro 50,400 and Paducah
was 2,944,806 and
47,600 (Jan. History.
and
I,
in
1959, estimates).
—The year 1959 was one
of unusual political interest
The primary election for state officers was held on The Democratic candidates for governor were: Harry
activity.
May
26.
Lee Waterfield, incumbent lieutenant governor; former appel-
Crop
1958
88 ,368,000
Com, oil, bu Wheol, oil, bu OoH, bu
4 ,750,000
280,000 1, 960,000 1,
Barley, bu
Soybeans Hay,
oil,
(for b.onsl,
3, ,500,000
bu
2, ,497,000
ions
Potatoes, Irish, cwt Potatoes, Sweet, cwt Tobacco, oil types, lb Apples, commerciol crop, bu. Peaches, bu
780,000 235,000 343, 970,000 .
.
Peors, bu.
260,000 150,000 30,000
75,803,000 3,948,000 1,116,000 2,352,000 3,871,000 2,758,000 890,000 242,000 326,348,000 395,000 190,000 50,000
76,202,00C 4,761,00C 1,993,00C 2,205,00C 2,286,000 2,215,00C 1,056,00C 300,00t 422,1 89,00C 308,00C 2I8,00C 63,00C
•1949-57 Source; U.S. Department of Agriculture.
J
— —
—
KEN YA Table
Principat tndusfries of Kenfucky
II,
its
Value added by manufacture
Salaries
and wagej
All
employeei
(In
1957
Food and kindred products Tobocco monofaclures
and publisliing aemicali and products Printing
OOOsl
lin
1957
26,328 10,403 7,399
$116,593 39,646 38,936
10,331
57,511
1956
$356,484 171,780 60,448 192,433 74,345 100,084
5,354 41,287 12,340 57,319 25,112 120,847 264,291 9,367 ...• 35,613 6,373 34,272 ...• Tronsportotion equipment 114,155 Wirilheld becouse the estimate did not meet publication standards, either on the Primary metal industries Fabricated melol products Machinery (except electrical) Electrical machinery
I
I
!
.
.
.
.
—U.S. Southeastern total.
States (1956).
000s)
1957
$390,346 203,397 63,429 200,360 65,687 91,048 283,840 81,830
379
mineral output, with 2.43% of the Encyclopedia Briiannica Films.
standard error of estimate or on the basis of a consistency review. Source) U.S. Bureau of (he Census, Annual Survey of Manufactures, 1 957.
basis of the associated
This British colony and protectorate in east Africa
|/ppyA IxCllja.
ig
bounded north by Sudan and Ethiopia,
by the
east
Somaliland Protectorate and the Indian ocean, south by Tanganyika and west by Uganda. The protectorate, the leased mainland
dominions of the sultan of Zanzibar, is a ten-mile-wide coastal strip between the Tanganyika border and Kipini, together with the
Lamu
Kenya: 224,960
archipelago. Total area of
including 5,170 sq.mi. of inland water. Total pop.
:
sq.mi.,
(1948 census)
5,405,966, including 29,660 Europeans, 97,687 Indians and Table
Mineral Production of Kentucky
111.
and 24,174 Arabs;
(Short tons, except as noted)
Total*
Cloys Cool Fluorspar Iron, plat Natural gas (000 cu. ft.l . Natural gasoline (000 gal.l Petroleum (bbl.l Petroleum gases (000 gol.)
....
Sand and grovel SiCfie
894,000 74,667,000 21,000 854,000 70,024,000 35,000 17,029,000 176.000 4,482,000 12,718,000
837
Zinc
Other mineral *Total has tValues for
been adjusted
to
1958
Value
tural
Quantity
$449,390,000 3,915,000 338,109,000 979,000 f
16,666,000 1,935,000 53,301,000 7,403,000 4,556,000 16,714,000 194,000 6,329,000
eliminote duplication
processed moteriols ore not included Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
at 1,011,800 persons as of
March 1959,
in
of
in
737,000 66,312,000 26,000 757,000 72,248,000 38,000 17,509,000 151,000 4,685,000 12,597,000
Volue
$402,121,000 2,957,000 289,385,000 1,201,000 ?
17,412,000 2,165,000 51,652,000 8,491,000 4,835,000 17,360,000 1,258 257,000 7,180,000 ... the value of cloys and stone.
the totals.
whom
201,000 were agricul-
workers.
The department
of welfare reported for its penal institutions a total (July i, 1959) of 3.719, of which 1,186 were in the state penitentiary, 2,469 in the state reformatory and 64 in the women's division of the state reformatory. On the same date a total of 61S boys and girls were in the children's institutions: 374 in Kentucky V^illage, 39 in the reception centre and 205 in the children's home. Communications. The State highway department reported a total (July I. 1959) of 19,789 mi. of highways under state maintenance. Construction contracts awarded during fiscal 1959 totaled $121,869,708 involving 4,107 mi., an all-time high. Preliminary figures showed department expenditures for the fiscal year totaled $149,427,494. Motor vehicle registrations for the calendar year 1958 included: passenger cars 883,186; commercial trucks 131.535; farm trucks 92,007; motorcycles 6,038: and trailers 8,510. The state railroad commission reported a total of 5,938 mi. of track on July i, 1959. There were 38 airports in the state on the same date. Banking and Finance. The state banking commission reported a total of 272 state banks with assets of $1,402,074,237.64, June 10, 1959. On the same date, there were 88 national banks with assets of $909,777,000. The state finance department reported major fund revenues collected during fiscal 1959 totaled $340,560,249, consisting of general fund revenues
population
—
—
amounting to $131,037,363, road fund revenues $129,400,032 and revenues of $80,122,854 representing trust and agency fund receipts. Agriculture. The number of head of beef cattle on Kentucky farms on Jan. I, 1959 (1948-57 average in parentheses), was 1,215,000 (1,049,-
—
000): milk cows 628,000 (656,000); hogs and pigs 1,225,000 (1,279,000); sheep and lambs 604,000 (628,000). Cash receipts from farm marketings, Jan.-July 1959: livestock $158,077,000; crops $75,318,000: total $233,395,000. The total farm marketings for the first seven months of 1958 yielded $224,782,|ooo.
Manufacturing
i
and
Industry.
jThe state department of economic Idevelopment reported that, between Jan. I and Sept. i, 1959, 29 new manufacturing plants, with an anticipated employment of 2,766 and an estimated investment of $30,610,000, had been announced. It reported 23 plant expansions with an anticipated employment of 898
and an estimated investment of $5,745,000. It was further reported that more than 300 new and expanded manufacturing plant facilities, representing capital investment of $277,000,000 and 23,000
new jobs, had been announced for Kentucky between Jan. i. 1956, and Sept. i, 1939. (H. Tp.) Mineral Production Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Kentucky in 1 95 7 and 1958 whose value was $100,000 or more. In 1958 Kentucky was second among the states in the production of ball play in
(24%
of
bituminous
U.S. total); third coal output; and
fourth in fluorspar. In 1958 Kenplucky ranked loth in the value of
6,450,000.
est.)
Main
Goans
tribes
(1948
Kikuyu 19.5%, Luo 14.4%, Baluhya 12.5%, Kamba 11.7%, Meru 6.2%, Nyika 5.6%. Language: Bantu and Nilotic;
census):
1957 Quantity
Mineral
(1959
Swahili as lingua franca. Religion
800.000 Christians; the
:
Moslem
Africans mainly pagan
about
;
religion flourishes in coastal,
urban and some northern communities. Principal towns (pop., 1948 census); Nairobi (cap.), 118,976, (1957 est.) 221,700;
Mombasa,
84,746; just over 50% Africans in each city. Governors in 1959: Sir Evelyn Baring and (from October) Sir Patrick Renison.
History.
—At the beginning of 1959 Rawson Macharia, one of
Jomo Kenyatta in 1952, was charged with swearing a false affidavit to the effect that he and six other witnesses had been procured and suborned by the crown to give false evidence against Kenyatta. After a hearthe prosecution witnesses at the trial of
Macharia was found guilty and sentenced to imprisonment for 21 months. An appeal against the sentence was ing lasting 29 days
dismissed.
In the meantime a tention.
Eleven
more
Mau Mau
serious event
had caught public
at-
detainees at the Hola camp, after a
mortem examination, were found to have died of violence. At the inquest on the dead men it was revealed that they had been beaten in an attempt to compel them to work, apparently post
with the intention of putting into
effect a
prisons officer to deal with detainees
The
plan drafted by a senior
who had proved
findings of the coroner gave rise to
intractable.
numerous questions
in the
commons, and the governor of Kenya appointed a tribunal to consider disciplinary charges against the commandant and deputy commandant of the camp. The composition British house of
KENYA'S AFRICAN MEMBERS OF THE LEGISLATIVE COUNCIL
at a
meet-
ing in 1959. Tom Mboya, secretary-general of the Kenya Labour federation and a leader in the movement for nationalism, is shown fourth from left in the front row. He visited the U.S. during the year
—
KHRUSHCHE
380
KIMPTON
of the tribunal, which consisted of three civil servants of the
Kenya Rovcrnmcnt, was severely
by opp>osition mem-
criticized
bers of the Hritish parliament.
June a motion of censure was moved
In
parliament against
in
the secretary of state for the colonies, A. T. Lennox- Boyd, for
immediate steps
his failure to take
up a public enquiry
to set
to
ascertain where responsibility for the use of unlawful violence
should be placed. The charges against the prison argued, prevented a
full
responsible at a higher level
made
officers,
it
was
who was
enquiry into the issue of
making decisions which had
for
the use of violence possible.
In February Lennox-Boyd announced a further grant of iSoo,ooo and an interest-free loan of the same amount to help Kenya finance its recurrent expenditure arising from the emergency during the financial year 1959-60. It was also agreed with the Kenya government that this would be the last year in which the British government would be asked to provide financial assistance for this purpose.
Early
Michael Blundell announced his resignation as
in April
minister of agriculture in order to assume the leadership of a
group comprising elected, specially elected and nominated bers of the legislative council of
New Kenya
group.
mem-
races with the title of the
all
Simultaneously another group consisting
Moslem and Arab elected members and one member formed itself into the constituency
of African, Indian,
European elected elected
members
organization. In policy statements both groups
stressed the need to end racialism in
opportunities for
Kenya and
to provide equal
all.
In October an important sessional paper on land tenure and control outside native land units was tabled in the legislative council. Its
most
striking proposal
was that
in
future the main
consideration governing the ow'nership or occupation of land in the "white highlands" would be sound farming, not race. In-
evitably the White Paper aroused lively criticism from Euro-
peans.
An
equally important announcement to the effect that
the seven-year-old emergency would be brought to an end at the end of the year was
made
in
November by
the
new governor, (K.
Sir Patrick Renison.
I.)
(1958) Primary schools: European 46, pupils 8,479: .\sian 120, pupils 39,731: .\lrican 4.515, pupils 602,113: Arab and other 11, pupils 2,554. Secondar>': European 14, pupils 2,949; Asian 34, pupils 8,023: .\frican 30, pupils 3.922: .\rab and others 2, pupils 248. Vocational: African 25, pupils 1,684: .Asian, .Arab and other 6, pupils 1,449. Higher education: Royal Technical College of East Africa, multiracial, Kenya students (1957) 150: Mombasa Institute of Muslim Education, students (1958) 193. In I9S7 Makerere college in Uganda had 251 students from Kenya. Finance ond Trade. Monetary unit: East .African shilling divided into roo cents, valued at parity with the shilling sterling and at 14 cents U.S. Budget {1959-60 est.): revenue £32,393,000: expenditure £32,325.000. Foreign trade (1958): imports £77,028,600. exports £33,223,895. Chief e.iiports: coffee, tea, sisal, maize, pyrethrum extract, meat, wattle bark extract, soda ash, hides and skins, butter, fruits and fruit products. Educotion.
—
^'^'^^~
^""^^^
p°"""'
^ Khriihc currency in circulation totaled 100,491,000,000 hwan. The Bank of Korea, central bank of the Republic of Korea, showed assets and liabilities of 414,933,000,000 hwan at the end
a medical degree in 1941. P'rom 1942 to 1953 he
was on the staS
of the U.S. public health .service,
and from 1947
to 1951 he also
taught at Washington university,
St.
of June 19S9.
tion at Stanford university.
During calendar year 1958. the Rei)ublic of Korea received $321,000,000 in foreiKn economic aid. includinK U..S. aKricullur,il surpluses. (Jf this total the U.S. supplied all but $7,700,000, which came from the I'nitcd .N'ations Korean Reconstruction agency (concluiled June 30. 1958). The budget for North Korea in 1959 was reported to total j.330,000.000 North Korean won for revenues and 2,380,000,000 won for expenditures, an increase of 53% in revenues and 74% in expenditures over the 1958 budget. During 1959 the North Korea won underwent a currency conversion. I'rior to this conversion the North Korean won wiis reported to be U.S. dollar. .After revision it was valued at the valued at the rate of 120 to
and Ochoa's discovery of
—
1
rate of 1.2 to
i
U.S. dollar.
— In
1958 the Republic of Korea's commodity imports tot.iled $378,000,000 of which $311,000,000 was U.S. -UN-financed imports: exports totaled $16,500,000. The U.S., Japan and Hong Kong were major destinations of South Korea's exports: the major sources of imports were the U.S., Japan, Federal Republic of Germany, Italy and Formosa. Chief imports, including aid imports, were raw cotton, wheat, barley, fertilizer, coal, petroleum and machinery and vehicles. Chief exports were tungsten, graphite, other mineral ores and marine products. It was reported in 19.S8 that gh% of North Korea's foreign trade was with the Soviet bloc. Trade with Communist China and the Soviet Union alone accounted for 70%. Major imports were coal, petroleum, raw cotton, fertilizers, and grains: major exports were ferrous and nonferrous ores and metals, ferroalloys, fish, fruits and \*ool and silk textiles. Transportation and Communications. There were 1.846 mi. of railroad track in operation in South Korea in mid-i9S9: about 650 mi. of railroad track were located in North Korea. In the Republic of Korea the railroads carried 10,749,000 metric tons of freight and 70.100,000 passengers during Trod*.
in
radios.
—
Agriculturs, Fishing and Forestry Agricultural production in the Republic of Korea in the 1958-59 crop year included (in thousand bushels) clean or polished basis: rice 82.300: barley 12.900: naked barley 12.500: wheat 4.900: rye 820: Italian millet 2.700: sorghum 240; corn 500; buckwheat 370: soybeans 5,600: other pulses 730: white potatoes 2.600: and sweet potatoes 4,700. Raw cotton production totaled 7.600 metric tons. At the end of 1958 there were 1.000.509 cattle: 645 milk cows: 17.854 horses: 1.324.000 swine; 1.265 sheep: 83.000 goats: 309.000 rabbits; 9.900.000 chickens: 166.000 ducks; 219 asses: and 63 mules. The fish catch in 1958 totaled 395.193 metric tons. It was reported from North Korea that despite severe drought the 1958 grain crop totaled 3.700.000 metric tons as compared with 3.200.000 tons in 1957. The fish catch in 1958 totaled 682.000 tons as compared with 564.000 tons in 1957. In the first half of 1959 the fish catch was reported to be 7% lower than in the same period of 1958. .\s of June 1959 North Korea had 711.000 head of cattle and 1.S50.000 hogs.
— The
index of manufacturing production in South Korea in June 1959 (1955 100) was 183 as compared with 182 the year before. Manufacturing production in the calendar year 1958 included: raw silk 338 metric tons; cotton yarn 96,450.000 lb.; cotton cloth 149.010,000 Manufacturing.
=
sq.yd.; woolen and worsted doth 4.598.000 sq.yd.; nylon cloth 4.511,000 sq.yd.; silk cloth 3,220.000 sq.yd.: rayon cloth 62,572.000 sq.yd.: allrubber shoes 29.574.000 pairs: salt 436.000 metric tons; paper 30,000 metric tons; cement 296.000 metric tons: brick 455.000 metric tons; soap 25.000 metric tons; cut tobacco 7.400 metric tons; cigarettes 14,000 metric tons; wheat flour 202.000 metric tons; refined sugar 51.000 metric tons. Electric power production in 1958 totaled 1,511.675,000 kw.hr. North Korean manufacturing production in 195S included the following, in metric tons unless otherwise specified: pig iron 320.000;' steel 365.000: chemical fertilizers 457.000; cement 1.244.000: glass 3,268,000 sq.m.: textiles 110.000.000 m.; footwear 21.000.000 pairs; tobacco 7.700; salt 439.000. Electric power 7.600.000,000 kw.hr. Mining. The index of mineral production in South Korea in June 1959 100) was 235 as compared with 181 a year before. Mineral pro(1955 duction in calendar year 1958 included (in metric tons): copper ore 7.645: tungsten 3.012: amorphous graphite 94,026; kaolin 21.565; fluorspar 1,620; anthracite coal 2,670.889: gold 2.2: silver 7.7: iron ore 261.025; talc 10.106; lead ore 2.437: monazite 322: bismuth 300; zinc ore 669; nickel ore 70: pagodite 5.843. Mineral production in North Korea in 1958 was reported to include 6,88 2. 000 tons of coal and 1,552.000 tons of iron ore. It was reported that in the first half of 1959 coal production was higher and iron ore output higher than in the same period of 1958. (S. Nr.)
— =
45%
65%
Mo. Returning
there
1953, he was head of the biochemistry department at the medi-
1959 to assume a similar posiRomberg's Nobel award cited hii enzymes that would artificially produce
cal school until his resignation in
some of the
life. Specifically, Romberg was an enzyme that promotes the pro-
substances of
vital
honoured for
his discovery of
(DNA); Ochoa
duction of deoxyribonucleic acid
enzyme
that produces ribonucleic acid
(RNA;.
discovered an
DNA
is
believed
to be the chemical that transmits hereditary characteristics from
RNA
one generation to another;
is
considered necessary to the
production of protein. Romberg's research, together with that of Ochoa's, established the principle that unlinked nucleotides
could be linked to form spirals by such enzymes
if
some
of the
natural product was used to serve as a model. This achievement
was considered a
significant
basic life process.
The two
000
advance to the understanding of
scientists divided the
more than
the
$43,-
money.
in prize
This British-protected Arab sheikhdom
—
1958. In I9.'>8 there were about 21.000 mi. of roads in Korea of which slightly more than 10.000 mi. were in South Korea. At the beginning of 1958. the Republic of Korea had 13.366 trucks. 3.954 buses and 10.766 automobiles. In 1958 passenger arrivals on international air routes totaled 12,228: 44.928 passengers were carried on domestic routes. In Jan. 1959 South Korea had 9.926 vessels of 325.742 gross tons. In 1958 there were in South Korea i privately-owned and 4 armed services television stations, and 650 television receivers; 2 privately-owned. 9 armed services and 23 government-owned radio stations, and 165.000
Louis,
lies
on
th«
northwest coast of the Persian gulf. Area: 6,00c sq.mi.Pop.: (1957 census) 206,177. Cap.: Ruwait (pop. 99,438) Sheikh, Abdullah es-Salim es-Sabah. British political agent ii 1958, A. S. Halford.
History.
— Alarm
was caused
in
Ruwait
in the early part o
1959 by the growth of Communist influence in Iraq, and then were reports of an impending Communist coup in Ruwait itself
who were alleged to be smug arms into the country. The Ruwait security authoritie arrested some Communist suspects and deported a number o Iraqis and Palestinians who had been living in Ruwait. engineered by Iraqi Communists, gling
(E. S. Ah.)
— Monetary
Finance and Trade.
:
Indian rupee valued at 21 ccolj U.S. Foreign trade (1958): imports from U.K. £20,892,228; exports t| U.K. £132,471,537; re-exports £717,828. Chief exports: petroleum u| pearls. Production.
—
unit:
1
Oil production 288,000 metric tons in 1957).
in
1958 was 70,212,000 metric tons (S7j 1
I
Labor, U.S. Department of:
see
Government Depasi
Bureaus, U.S.
ME.\"TS .AND
Agricl-lture Child Labour; Employment International Labour Organization: Labour Unions; N^ TioNAL Labor Relations Board; Strikes; United States Wages and Hours. See also under various states.
Labour:
see
;
ahniir llninnQ LdUUUI UIIIUIIo.
1
—
bargainic United states. collective underwent in 1959 the severest test sine
Many managements too wage increases spur inflation, unless tti boost in wages is accompanied by greater management contn over work rules which makes possible increased efficiency operations. LTnions were equally adamant in arguing that wa{ raises are justified by the ever rising productivity of industr and that the- relinquishing of collectively bargained work rul' would threaten the job security of union employees and nullil past union gains. Union spokesmen also argued that wage rais' the beginning of the postwar period.
the position that annual
(
were needed
to bolster purchasing
power. Management contr
over work rules was a basic issue in numerous collective bargai ing negotiations and the major cause for strikes in steel, shippin
copper, glass and other industries.
I^nrnhorrr
Arthur
*^^9i8-
),
U.S.
biochemist,
who
^O^^Dc^g, AnnUr
The
shared the 1959 Nobel piize for medicine and physiology with Severe Ochoa, was bom at Brooldjii,
page
and was educated at City college, New York, and the University of Rochester (N.Y.) from which he received
than
N.Y., on
March
3,
experienced in 1959 the longest work sto when about 500,000 production workers strui,
steel industn.-
in history
most of the major
85%
steel
producers in the country, affecting
of the nation's steel capacity.
July 15. The
first
The
mo
strike began
break in the contest occurred on Oct.
26,
wb
1
LABOUR UNIONS
LABOUR INVESTIGATION. Left: James R. Hoffa (right), [ dent of the Teamsters" union, pointing his finger at Robert Kennedy, chief c lel for the senate investigation committee, at a recess of the hearings July 14 1959, Hoffa accused Kennedy of linking him with Communist labour leaders and threatened to sue. Right: Covering the microphones with their hands, a ness and his lawyer confer during the hearings in February. The witness, ven(
383
19S9 SENATE
machine distributor Gerard Catena (right), was questioned about contracts with a certain labour union. He pleaded the fifth constitutional amendment 70 times
the Kaiser Steel corporation, ninth largest steel the Steehvorkers agreed called for
company, and
on a two-year contract. The settlement
improvements
in
insurance and pensions costing an
average of 9 cents per hour during the
first
year of the contract,
and an average hourly wage increase of 9 cents plus insurance benefits costing i cent per hour during the second year of the j
contract.
In addition, the pact provided for adjustments
based on the rise in cost of
li\-ing
in
wages
during the second year of the
construction workers were
much
higher,
two out of every three
workers received deferred hourly raises in excess of 15 cents. While the union drive for decreasing the regular work week
made
little headway in 1959, the trend to reduce hours of work by lengthening vacations with pay and adding paid holidays con-
The majority
tinued.
of agreements negotiated during the year
provided three weeks of vacation after ten years of service,
and more than one-third of the contracts granted two weeks vacation after one year's service. Four weeks vacation after 20 or 25 years of service was adopted in a majority of the agree-
Many
ments.
contracts also provided for additional paid holi-
days.
The popularity
of long-term contracts declined in 1959.
Only
were for
contract, but total
one-fifth of the agreements negotiated during the year
limited
three years or more. During the previous two years, agreements
over to
wage adjustments under this provision were to 3 cents. The controversy over work rules was turned a joint study group representing the company, union and
the public.
Two
other
smaU
steel
companies also signed contracts
Meanwhile, on Oct.
21, at the request of the U.S.
an injunction was issued
for
an 80-day cooling-off period.
the union's appeal reached the
of total settlements.
rate of 180,000 soft coal miners
The
court,
ecofirst
mum
which on Nov.
7
Despite the generally favourable business climate, wage settlein 1958, a year marked by The median wage settlement during the
were lower than
nomic recession.
was
contract negotiated by the
The contract provided for a $2 daily wage increase and improvement in retirement and health benefits as well as an increase in paid vacations. In another major contract, 100,000 shirt and cotton workers received a 77% w-age increase, the first wage raise for the group in three years. About 300,000 southern textile workers, most of them unorganized, received wage increases in Februar>-. This was their first general wage increase since 1956, The wage increase established in most cases a Si. 25 hourly mini-
injunction was stayed un-
supreme
new
Miners' union with the Bituminous Coal Operators association.
work.
Iments in 1959
wage
under the
upheld the injunction, and the steelworkers thereupon returned to
basic daily
department
in federal court
Taft-Hartley law, ordering the steelworkers to return to the mills
Itil
The
raised to $24.25 as a result of a
with the union.
of justice,
40%
of this t>-pe constituted
A
rate in textile mills.
novel feature in labour-management contracts was incorpo-
months of the year was 9.1 cents compared with 9.4 cents during the same period in the previous year. Moreover, the median wage settlements dropped i cent during the third quarter, while economic conditions continued to improve. This development may be attributed to the tougher attitude displayed by
employees for work
management
handling cargo. Details for the distribution of the fund were
nine
in the steel negotiations. One-fifth of the collective
bargaining agreements settled during the first nine
months of the
hourly increases of 13 cents or more; half of contracts called for a 7- to 12-cent hourly raise and the bal-
ieax provided for the
ince of the
agreements raised hourly wage rates by 6 cents or
rated in the agreements between the
vided for the establishment of a $1,500,000 fund to compensate
An
unusual step was taken by the Hatters union to save jobs
of 300
members employed by the Merrimac Hat company, which The union loaned the company $300,000 and
faced bankruptcy.
ess.
union
rectors.
1
ng 1959 as a result of previous negotiations. The majority of hese employees were engaged in manufacturing. Seven out of iight
workers
in
ncreases ranging
manufacturing received deferred hourly wage
from
5 to 8 cents.
The deferred
increases for
lost as a result of increased efficiency in
not worked out in the agreement.
tor
Three per cent of the agreements made no provision at all wage boosts. About 3,000.000 workers covered under major contracts (those :overing i.ooo or more employees received wage increases dur-
West Coast Longshoremen's
union and the Pacific Maritime association. The contract pro-
The
officers
formed
a
majority of the company's board of
A.F.L.-C.I.O. held
A
its
(ii-
third constitutional convention in
at the convention was the agreement to submit interunion disputes to compulsor>' arbitration. The problem of jurisdictional rivalry among the craft and industrial affiliates of the federation had been a major problem facing the A.F.L.-C.I.O. since it was founded in 1955. The con-
September.
major decision
:'
LABOUR UNIONS
384
vcntion also authorized the executive committee of the A.F.L.-
by some unions. The Labor-Management RejKtrting and Dis-
C.I.O. to approve a petition by the International Longshoreman's
closure act was mainly concerned with the regulation of inter-
association to affiliate with the federation.
The
was exwas domi-
I.L.A.
pelled from the A.F. of L. in 1953 on charges that
it
nated by corrupt leadership.
Movement toward
Two
the merger of smaller unions continued.
mem-
unions representing insurance workers, with a total
bership of 2i.ooo, formed the Insurance Workers International
The Marine Engineers
union.
Beneficial
Brotherhood of Marine Engineers
with a combined membership of 11,000.
association
merged
al.so
and the
into one union
The Screen Actors
guild
voted to merge with the American Federation of Television and
Radio
The combined membership
Artists.
of the two unions was
nal union affairs. It provided for the disclosure of union financei
and made siK-cific provisions to safeguard union treasuries. Members were guaranteed the right to freedom of speech and assembly in connection with union affairs and freedom from discriminatory disciplinary proceedings, and the right to elect officers by secret ballot. The 1959 labour law also contained
some important amendments to the Taft-Hartley law, upon secondary boycotts and
The two rival unions in the maritime industry, the National Maritime union and the Seafarers International union, agreed in Jan. 1959 to settle the differences between them. Each union withdrew charges against its rival that were pending before the National Labor Relations board and the courts. The two unions also co-operated in a world-wide boycott of companies operating ships flying "flags of convenience."
and Independent National and International Unions With Reported U.S. Membership in Excess of 00,000 A.F.L.-C./.O.
picketing
practices.
Another law passed in 1959 raised retirement benefits of railroad employees by 10%. About 700,000 persons receiving retire-
ment and survivorship
25,000.
including
additional restrictions
,
benefits were affected
by the act. Unemployment insurance benefits of railroad employees were also increased, and the duration of benefits for employees with 15 years' service was extended to 52 weeks and to members with 10 years' service to 39 weeks. Previously the of
unemployment insurance
benefits to
maximum
duration
which railroad employees
had been entitled was 26 weeks. The increased cost of the retirement benefits was to be shared by employers and employees. The burden of the unemployment insurance was to be carried
1
.
only by the employers.
I
MembtMship
Union ToIqI' A.F.l.-C.I.0
Aulomobilo Boilerinokeri Bricklayers Building service
....
Carpenters Clothing
Communications workers. Electrical
(Brolherhoodl
Electricol (Unitedl
.
.
.
Garment,
.
.
Hod
ladies'.
.
.
.
Engineers, operating .
carriers
Hotel Iron
letter corrleri
Machinists
Moinlenonce of
Meot
way
.
.
cutters
Musicions Oil
Packinghouse
PopormakeM
17,024,000 14,092,000 »74,000 126,000 152,000 251,000 765,000 361,000 252,000
725,000 268,000 270,000 427,000 458,000 422,000 142,000 110,000 937,000 154,000 315,000 249,000 170,000 36,000 177,000 1
Painters
Union
'Excludes 1,182,000 met
Plumbino Poil office clerks.
Priming Pulp
B'
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Railwoy and steamsliip
340,000 134,000 300,000 143,000 149,000 200,000 885,000
clerks
Railway carmen
.
.
.
.
Retail clerks Retail, wholesale.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Rubber State
and county.
Steel Street, electric railway Textile workers
.
....
Tronsport workers
.
.
.
Typogrophicol Other (98 unions)
.
.
.
Directly offilioted locals.
Unoffilioted unions Electrical (United) Mine, cool
Teamsters Other (46 unions)
Conado ond
dividuol unions. Source: U.S. Department of Lobor,
.
preumen
Railrood trainmen
MombersMp 126,000 235,000 100,000 102,000 113,000 182,000
is
.
.
.
.
.
.
2,000 182,000 135,000 103,000 2,595,000 113,000 I
1
136,000 579,000 1,380,000
837,000
based upon membership claims of
At the
fornia, Colorado, Idaho.
The
issue in
voters of Cali-
Ohio and Washington rejected the pro-
•
posed laws, while Kansas adopted a right-to-work law. At the
end of 1959
had right-to-work laws on
a total of 19 states
the
statute books.
Twenty-one
states
raised
unemployment insurance
benefits |
during the year by amounts ranging from $2 to $15 per week. As a result of these changes the maximum basic weekly unemploy-
ment
benefits ranged
from
$:!6 to $55.
i
Sixteen states lengthened
by amounts varying from 2 to 13 weeks. The maximum duration of unemployment insurance benefits the duration of benefits
ranged from 18 to 39 weeks. Twenty-five states raised work-i men's compensation benefits by amounts ranging from $2 to $15 per week. At the end of the year. 15 states and the District of
Columbia paid maximum weekly
New York
of Labor Statistics.
practices
benefits of
$50 or more.
state enacted a law prohibiting certain financial
by unions and required
financial reports
from
unions,
employers and labour relations consultants. The financial disclosure provisions were similar to the law enacted by the federal
government. Montana, Nebraska and tional restrictions
New
Mexico placed
on union picketing and boycotting
(S. A. Ln.)
while Oregon repealed an antipicketing provision.
Canada.
addi-
activities,! i
—The
most disquieting feature affecting labour in Canada in 1959 was the widespread resurgence of antilabour sentiment, which became evident not only in newspaper editorials and addresses by spokesmen for industry, but also in provincial legislation.
Legislation adopted in British
Columbia early
in the
year wa;;
the most stringent and restrictive, in a general sense, which Can-
000.
Increased cost of operations forced a crease their
membership
dues.
Some
number
of unions to in-
of the larger unions that
Workers ($3.50 to $5.50 a month). Retail Workers (minimum dues raised from $3 to $4 a month) and the Railway Clerks, who raised their dues to a minimum of $4 and the per capita tax paid to the international from $1 to $1.50. raised dues during 1959 included the .\utomobile
rield
of legislation, congress enacted the first
major
labour law since the passage of the Taft-Hartley law in 1947.
The law
during the Nov. 1958 elections.
i
Union membership was about equally divided between manufacturing and nonmanufacturing industries. About one out of every eight union members in 1959 was a white-collar employee. Females constituted more than one-sixth of the total union membership. Union membership tended to concentrate in large organizations. Four out of ever>- five unionists were members of the 43 largest unions with a membership of 100,000 or more, and more than one-third of the total union membership was concentrated in 7 unions each having more than 500,000 members. The total number of local unions exceeded 70,000, and the number of collective bargaining agreements in effect in 1959 was about 130,-
In the
was an
state level, right-to-work legislation
six states
resulted from the disclosures made by the McClellan committee which indicated that racketeering elements had gained control over some unions. Tb'- purpose of the new law was to help clean up unions and to outlaw certain coercive tactics used
ada had ever seen.
It prohibited picketing, except at the em-
by members of the striking uniorl and outlawed support from the members of other unions Unless the contrary was shown, the illegal action of any unioi member was presumed to be done, authorized or concurred in b;
ployer's place, of business and only,
the trade union.
The
legislation also
made unions
legal entities
with the right to prosecute and be prosecuted.
Other legislation was adopted
manly
against the International
in
New^foundland, directed
Woodworkers
pri
of America. Thi
union had been carrying on organizing activities in the islam province, and- had been certified as bargaining agent for
th
employees of the Anglo-Newfoundland Development compan)
However, the company refused
to negotiate with the union or
t
I
LABRADO R — LAOS accept the recommendations of a board of conciliation estabI
under provincial
Premier Joseph Smallwood and established a govemmentsponsored union which he invited the woodworkers to join. The international union was decertified by legislative action, and further legislation was adopted which made it possible for the govjermnent to expel from the province virtually any union which I
lished
attacked
strongly
legislation.
union
the
,
I
incurred
displeasure.
its
In August a political seminar was held in Winnipeg, under the
Labour congress and the Co-operative Commonwealth federation. It provided an opportunity to discuss the progress made in implementing the resolution adopted at the
auspices of the Canadian i
i
iCX.C. convention I
I
in April
1958 calling for the bringing together
of representatives of the labour
movement, the C.C.F., farmers'
organizations and others, to consider the creation of "a broadly-
based people's political
movement"
Canada.
in
The Canadian and Catholic Confederation of Labour held
Among
annual convention in September. considered while
was
affiliation
its
its
representatives
of
the
two bodies
no
final
was necessary for the C.C.C.L. to clarify Roman Catholic Church, and it was decision on affiliation would be taken before
jSept. i960. I
by membership of labour organizations in Canada was Jan. 1959 1,458,576, an increase of approximately 4.000
According to
the federal department of
statistics supplied
llabour, the total
as of
over the corresponding figure for 1958.
—Trade unions
(N.
S.
D.)
Europe were much concerned with Iproblems raised by the progress of economic integration. Folilowing the discussions among the governments of the "Outer ISeven" countries which were not members of the European lEconomic community, the trade union federations held a conEurope.
I
South Australian all-stars, playing under U.S. rules, set back the .\mericans, 13-5. at Adelaide on July 18 in another feature contest of the tour. The Americans also lost to the South Australian state team, 12-6, at Adelaide.
The Mt. Washington Lacrosse feated for the
in
ference to discuss the implications of this development.
Scholastic Locrosse.
jinsisted,
should be given representation on an equal footing with
(employers on any institutions that might be established under jthe plan.
Unions should have the right
to place items they think
—Baltimore
City college defeated
St.
city honours. Catonsville, going undefeated, took the Baltimore
County high-school circuit crown. Sewanhaka, of Floral Park, N.Y.. repeated as Long Island prep-school champion. Women's Lacrosse. The 28th annual tournament of the U.S. Women's Lacrosse association was held at Trenton (N.J.) State college in June. The Baltimore district team was named unofficial team title winner, compiling the best mark in the round-
—
robin series that featured the meeting.
Lamb: I
comed the hope of the governments that the proposed free-trade ;area would pro\ide a bridge toward the achievement of a wider economic association in Europe as a whole. They found the references in the free-trade area plan to the need for continued leconomic expansion particularly satisfactory. The unions, it was
club of Baltimore, going undetime since 1955, captured the national open
Paul, the private-school league titleholder, 11-4. in a play-off for
In a
istatement issued at the conclusion of the talks the unions wel-
first
title.
it
position vis-a-vis the
likely that
Baltimore on June 5. At the close of the American coOege campaign a team of Virginia and Washington and Lee stars toured .-Xustralia, marking the first time a U.S. men's lacrosse squad had visited that country. A highlight of the trip was the .\mericans' 15-4 triumph over a strong X'ictorian team at Melbourne on Aug. i. The
the important matters
with the C.L.C. It was decided that.
discussions between
Ishould be continued,
the Roy Taylor (class C) division. Princeton retained the Ivy league crown, unbeaten Oberlin of Ohio repeated as champion of the Midwest association, and South conquered the North, 10-9. in the annual college all-star encounter at Homewood field in
I
'
385
In the Laurie Cox (class B) division, the University of Bahimore finished first for the fourth successive year. Lehigh and Massachusetts Institute of Technology shared the top spot in
see
one ^
LdUOi
(T. V. H.)
Meat.
land-locked kingdom situated in the Indochinese pen-
Laos
bounded north by China, northeast by by the Republic of Vietnam and south by Cambodia. Area: 91,428 sq.mi. insula,
is
the Democratic People's Republic of Vietnam, east
Pop. (1958
est., no census ever taken) 1,690,000. The Laotians (66%) are Thais and speak a Thai dialect. The primitive Meo and Kha peoples, of the northern and southern hilly regions re:
spectively, constitute the largest minority groups. Religion
:
Bud-
Chief towns (pop., 1957 est.): Vientiane (administrative cap.) 60.000; Luang Prabang (royal cap.) 18,000. Ruler in 1959. dhist.
Cportant on the agenda of any such agencies and should have cess to the council of ministers, the governing body and the
King Sisavang Vong and (from Nov. 3) King Savang Vathana. Prime minister. Phui Sananikone.
[secretariat.
On Jan. 24, 1959, Phui Sananikone, the prime minformed a new government under the exceptional powers granted him by the national assembly for a period of 1 2 months in order to meet the "new and ver\' grave situation" facing the country. The general election, due to be held in the summer, was History.
Employment; National Labor Relations Board; Wages and Hours. (B. C. R.)
See also
'
Strikes;
—Working
Encyclop.cdu Beiiannica Films.
Labrador:
see
Together (1952).
Newfoundland and Labrador.
I
loprnoca J°^^ Hopkins university (Baltimore, Md.), LdClOSSc. University of Maryland (College Park) and Military
academy (West
Point,
the the
N.Y.) were named co-
Ichampions of the U.S. Intercollegiate Lacrosse association for 1959.
AU
three teams played in the
Cy
of the association. In a season that
Miller (class
A)
division
saw the sport reach new
growth and popularity, Maryland lost only once in III games, bowing to Johns Hopkins, 20-8. The Hopkins ten and iWest Point finished with identical marks of eight won and one heights in
Army, the defending
The new cabinet contained three army officers, six members of Phui's Lao People's Rally and one independent. The new government proclaimed a policy of hostility to the Neo Lao Hak Sat (Patriotic Front of Laos) headed by Prince Suvanna Vong. former leader of the Pathet Lao (Free Lao) proCommunist movement, but since his agreement -with the former
postponed.
iLobuan: see British Borneo.
U.S.
—
ister,
premier, Prince Suvanna
2i-member group
Phuma
(his half-brother), the leader
59-member national assembly. Opposing also the neutralist trends in Laos. Phui announced on Feb. 11 that his government had no further use for the International Commission for Supervision and Control in Laos (I.C.S.C.L.) set up under the Geneva agreements of July 21, of a
in the
Maryland, 17-
1954. that ended the Indochina war. Phui added that his govern-
setback in 15 games over a two-season span. Hopkins, unbeaten in 23 consecutive contests, finally fell before Navy, 13-11.
ment henceforth would recognize the United Nations as the sole arbitration body for disputes in the area. One of the points of agreement reached between the two half-
lost.
16, for its first
titleholder,
bowed
to
,
King Sisavang Vong (bom in 1885; died at Luang Prabang on On Aug. 21 he had named his eldest son. Prince Savang Vathana, as regent of the kingdom. On Nov. 3 Savang was proOct. 29.
brothers was that the Pathet Lao units would be merged into the
Laotian army. Instead of merger by agreement, Gen.
Uan Rat-
claimed king.
tinkun, chief of staff of the Laotian army, ordered that the
See also United Nations.
Pathet Lao units were to surrender their arms. One battahon
Education.
was disarmed in May, but another fled into the jungle where was later joined by some guerrilla fighters.
it
Laos, a country without railways, with very few roads and a
few grass
strip airfields,
is
unsuitable for large-scale military op-
Such warfare started in and on July 28 Prince Suvanna Vong and several of his supporters were arrested by the government. They were to be tried on charges of conspiracy but at the end of October the trial was postponed indefinitely. In the meantime guerrilla activity continued and the Demoerations, but ideal for guerrilla warfare.
the
summer
cratic
in the north,
(Communist) People's Republic
of
Vietnam was charged
with military and political aggression against Laos, while the gov-
ernments of Peking and Hanoi accused the Vientiane government of having provoked a ci\nl war and of having violated the Geneva agreement which stipulated that Laos was not to join
(1958): primary 770, pupils 77.133: secondary pupils 1,984; technical (1954) i, pupils 60; teacher training (1956) pupils 142. Finance and Trade.
—
Lard:
see
Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats.
LdrrdOdd, ArCdQIO
at Vich,
Dec.
near Barcelona, and
1.
to the priesthood at Saragossa
Roman
an invitation from the government of Laos
to visit that country.
Rome
where
earning degrees in both canon and
Roman
civil law.
In 191 8 he was
law at Apollinare and
in 1943
he was named undersecretary of the Sacred Congregation Religious,
becoming
ited the U.S. in
its
he:
seminary and Apollinare univer-
secretary in 1950. Father Larraona
1950 when he presided
at the U.S.
of'
vis-
National Con-
Dame. He was Cardinals by Pope John XXIII
gress of Religious at the University of Notre
elevated to the Sacred College of
on Nov.
16,
1959, becoming the
first
member
of the Claretian
order to be so honoured.
Latin America: see Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; British Guiana; British Honduras; Chile; Colombia; Costa Rica; Ecuador; El Salvador; French Community; Guatemala; Honduras; Mexico; Nicaragua; Panama; Paraguay; Peru: Suionam; Uruguay; Venezuela.
Ldlin~AII)6nC3n Lll6r3llirG. were
UN secretary-general, accepted
the
of
his religious profession on
Following his ordination he went to
studied at the Pontifical sity,
made
was ordained
appointed to the chair of
Dag Hammerskjold.
secretary
1903. After studying philosophy and theology at the Uni-.
8,
Canada regarded the commission's work as done, and thought it should be left to the Laotian government to decide whether they wanted it. Instead Laos appealed on Sept. 4 to the UN Security council for the "dispatch of an emergency force to halt the aggression and prevent it from spreading." On Sept. 7 the Security council, by 10 votes to i (the U.S.S.R.), decided to set up a subcommittee to conduct inquiries in Laos. The subcommittee, under the chairmanship of Shinichi Shibusawa (Japan), and with Brig. Gen. Heriberto Ahrens (Argentina). Ludovico Barattieri di San Pietro (Italy) and Habib Bourguiba, Jr. (Tunisia) as members, arrived at Vientiane on Sept. 15. On Nov. 5 it presented its report to the Security council. The subcommittee found no evidence of aggression by the North Vietnam government, but added that "it would appear that various degrees and kinds of support have been accorded to hostile elements from sources on the North Vietnamese side of
386
Larraona,
cardinal
Sacred Congregation of Religious, was born on Nov. 13 at Oteiza de la Solana. Navarre, Spain. He entered the Claretian novitiate
in 191
8
j
1958) of U.S. $1 — at 1,145,000,000 kips. Foreign trade (1958): imports 1,040,900,000 kips; exports 54.800,000 kips. Main exports: titnber. minerals, coffee. Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: South-EasI Asia and Its Peaceful Penetration by the Chinese (fourth lecture of the series, "A Changing World in the Light of History") (1958). Oct. 6.
versity of Cervera he
On Nov.
i,
unit: kip, with an exchange rate ((rom 80 kips. Budget (1958-59 est.): balanced!
China and North Vietnam asked for the recall of the I.C.S.C.L. (inactive since July 19, 1958) in which Canada, India and Poland were represented. The U.S.S.R. and India also favoured it. Great
the border.''
7,1
— Monetary
military alliances or permit foreign bases.
Britain and
(K. Sm.)
— Schools
not unanimous as
the ultimate literary merit of Luis Spota's
new
novels,
t(
sud
works as Las horas violentas and La sangre enemiga were
ir
—
LATIN-AMERICAN LITERATURE 1959 rapidly acquiring best-seller status. Spota, whom Rafael Heliodoro Valle considered perhaps the leading novelist of the
new Mexican generation, placing him beside Juan Rulfo and Carlos Fuentes, showed himself a vigorous stylist and a man of fervent social conviction who scorned the ivory tower and successfully fused interest of plot and ideological content. El chulla Romero y Flores, the most recent novel from the pen of Jorge
387
(Eduardo Pachon Padilla) and Antologia del cuento chileno moderno (Maria Flora Yaiiez). The publication of Alfonso Reyes' Obras completas reached volume ix. del cuento colombiano
Poetry and Drama. Estravagario displayed the spectacular Pablo Neruda, Chile's leading contemporary
stylistic resources of
poet, in a brilliantly whimsical
volume which reached out
for
distinct
human more than political truths. Octavio Paz also came to grips with broad human problems, such as time, existence and haunting solitude, in his collection La estacidn violenta, com-
his
posed of material largely published
noted for his social consciousness, revealed a development in the author of Huasipungo. Shifting artistic focus from the mass to the individual produced
Icaza, likewise
Three writers of Spanish
origin,
but residing for years in
Argentina, contributed prominently to the Latin-American scene.
won
acclaim (and the Premio
graced
Losada) for his forceful character portrayal in La iliiminada.
The
de Castro
Cecilio Benitez
critical
Maria Teresa Leon's Juego limpio and Ricardo Bastid's Puerta
evoked the shadows of the Spanish
del Sol
tion of the former, wife of the poet
civil
The
war.
posi-
Rafael Alberti, as organizer
of the guerrillas del teatro helped her portray convincingly the
time
when such
guerrillas allayed the harsh
by
Also inspired
monotony
setting,
was Euclides Jaramillo Arango's
•regreso.
The author of
the charmingly picturesque
\Simoncito appeared in a fellow
countrymen
Two
'
tion.
of combat.
Colombian Un campesino sin
tragic historical events, but in a
more
Memorias de
serious vein, pleading with his
autobiographical accounts attracted considerable atten-
In Regreso de tres mundos, Mariano Picon Salas offered re-
moral and aesthetic
jflections
on the shaping of
icriteria.
In Flor de juegos antiguos, Agustin Yaiiez, author of
Al
his intellectual,
and broadly human
of living characters.
In the short story (which had been rapidly attaining literary
The Devil's Pit and Other Stories, and Angel Flores, enriched UNESCO's (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Lillo's S.
Dillon
organization) fine Latin-American Classics series. fering
and frustration provided the leitmotiv
iVIaria
Amparo
Davila's gripping volume
in
Human
suf-
such works as
Tiempo destrozado,
y otros cuentos and nine powerful tales which probed
Emilio Diaz Valcarcel's penetrating El asedio forge Rizzini's '.he
Beco dos
existentialist
ng under
some
aftitos,
anguish in an assortment of characters labour-
tragic abnormality, trapped as
it
were
in a blind
Hey.
Human
and affectionate humble American setting charcterized the Mexican Luis Cordova's Lupe Lope y otros cuentos nd two Chilean collections, Carlos Ruiz Tagle's Dicen que dicen variety, psychological understanding
oncem with
plain people in a
nd Guillermo Atias'
Un dia de luz. Enrique Bunster, on the Aroma de Polinesia the exotic flavour
ther hand, captured in f
the colourful
nd literary
Another
South Pacific which has cast
men
its spell
over artists
centenary year was a
olume of Seis cuentos, compiled by Carlos Garcia Prada, who rovided the excellent introductory study entitled
lention
Among
"Un
clasico
continent-wide anthologies one ought to
Antologia del cuento
hispanoamericano by Ricardo
atcham and Angel Flores' Historia y antologia del cuento en ^ispanoamerica, a valuable book for the study of trends and lotifs. Three others, national in scope, likewise attested to the itality
poems
flourished during the earlier part of
the 20th century, viz., the "criollista" Valdelomar's Obra poetica and Poesia de Santos Chocano, the vigorous singer of Alma America. The Colombian academy brought out a fine anthology Poemas de Colombia with prologue and epilogue by P. Felix Restrepo and biographical notes by Carlos Lopez Narvaez. An
from Guillermo Blest Merino Reyes was contained in compiled by the Chilean poet
interesting assortment of verse ranging
Gana
(Alberto's brother) to Luis
the Atlas de la poesia de Chile,
The year
saw the publication of Demetrio Aguilera Malta's prompted by a burning sense of social justice, and the handy Breve historia del teatro mexicano by Antonio Magana Esquivel and Ruth S. Lamb, as well as, wider also
Trilogia ecuatoriana, plays
Knapp
Jones's Antologia del teatro hispanoamerihis-
panoamericano). Essays and Criticism.
—Alberto
second phase of his Indice critico de cano. While the
first
zum
Felde completed the
la literatura
hispanoameri-
volume (1954) had examined the
essay,
volume ii, entitled La narrativa, enquired into the short story and novel genres. Zum Felde's wide reading in European literatures enabled him to apply a broad criterion and a mature literary taste to his monumental undertaking. In Coimbra, Port., publication of the first two volumes gave a glimpse of Joaquim de
Montezuma de Carvalho's
challenging project of providing a
panoramic view of 20th-century American literatures of the
letters, including the
United States and Canada.
When
completed,
Panorama das literaturas das Americas was expected to become an effective Pan-American interpreter strengthening continental understanding. Dedicated to the same ideal, Torres-Rioseco's indispensable reference work The Epic of Latin- American Literature appeared in an attractive paperbound edition. Others assessed more restricted areas. Gilberto Freyre became accessible to English readers in a handsome volume entitled New World in the Tropics containing interpretative studies on modern Brazilian culture. Ralph Dimmick's Brief History of Brazilian Literature, based on sections of Bandeira's Nofoes de historia das literaturas, was published by the Pan American union the four-volume
with introduction, notes and bibliographies. Luis Merino Reyes,
alike.
fine tribute to Carrasquilla's
Qtioquefio."
who
cano (complementing his earlier Breve historia del teatro
Raquel Banda Farfan's unflinching account of the melancholy drama of everyday life entitled Cuesta abajo. Writing with fervour and compassion, the author nevertheless did not neglect
Autonomy) Baldomero translated by Esther
of two compatriots
in scope, Willis
jfor
:he creation
of his earlier verse.
indefatigable Luis Alberto Sanchez presented the
and ex-
for the underprivileged provided the subject matter
Sympathy
much
interest.
del agua, successfully relived childhood scenes
filo
Navegacion nocturna
a
Antonio de Undurraga.
to challenge violence.
periences, blending local flavour
earlier.
new direction in Rafael Maya's lyric genius. Though still guided by an innate sense of harmony coupled with good taste, his new volume appeared to shun the ornate effect which
marked
aesthetically pleasing results.
and human interest of the genre of the short story: (Ruth S. Lamb), Antologia
ntologid del cuento guatemalteco
critic, offered a Panorama de la literatura chilena, Maria Teresa Babin the Panorama de la cultura puertorriquena, Juan Felipe Toruiio showed the Desarrollo literario de El Salvador and Luis Alberto Sanchez provided one more interpretation of his native land in a volume entitled El Peru: retrato de un
poet and
pais adolescente.
Contemporary Mexican verse during the past 50 years roughly was the subject of Raiil Leiva's analytical Imogen de la poesia mexicana contemporanea, devoted to 29 poets. Myron I. Lichtblau took a closer critical look at The Argentine Novel in the
— LATTER-DAY SAINTS — LAW
388
and Libreria Studium continued its splendid editorial contribution to the Hispanic field. Studium 's general titles included F-'crnando Alcgria's instructive Breve historia de Nini-tft-nlh Century,
hispanoamericana
novela
la
'
(tracing
the
novel
genre
from
Lizardi to the present day) and Las revistas literarias de His-
panoamirica by Boyd G. Carter. More specialized in scope were Robert H. Mead's Temas hispanoamericanos and Rodriguez-AJcali's Korn, Romero,
Unamuno, Ortega,
Giiiraldes,
22,300. Arable land (i9S7): 1.449.000 ha.; 1,159 collective (armi; it| farms; 93 machine and tractor stations (using 16,900 Iracton). Livestock (1957; 1939 in parentheses): cattle 811,000 (1,171,000); pixs 676,000 ^889,800); sheep and Roats S3S,ooo (1,468,700). FUbcria (>957; 1940 \n parentheses): 83,100 (12,400) tons. slate
induilry. Industrial production (1957: 1940 In parentheses): sl«d (17,900) metric tons; electricity 1,111,600,000 (151,100,000) kw.hr.; [>eat 1,671,000 (113,000) tons; cement 415,000 (115,000) toot; paper 68,100 (14,400) tons; cotton fabrics 47,100,000 (10,600,000) a.: linen fabrics 8,800,000 (3,800,000) m.; woolen fabrics 7,000,000 (i,8oo,000) m.; radio receivinx sets 485,100 (11,500); bicycles 171,300 (45,-
86,800
000): sugar 97,400 (41,000) tons.
collections of informative essays
on literary and philosophical themes. Luis Leal added
to
his
Legal scholars and political scientists were unusually
I
Breve historia and Antologia of the Mexican short-story genre a Bibliograjia del cuento mexicano, and J. S. Brushwood and J. Rojas Garciduenas provided a Breve historia de la novela tnexicana. Lowell
Dunham,
the biographer of Gallegos, received
the Premio Andres Bello for his study
Manuel Diaz Rodriguez:
Vida y obra. German Arciniegas explored Amirica mdgica through such
LdW>
terested in the
59 term, because
it
work of the supreme court
had been predicted that the appointment
Justice Potter Stewart would tip the balance of the court in
Brown
matters of
of 12 delightful thumbnail sketches of Chilean literary figures
invoke the privilege against self-incrimination, though the
(such as Gabriela Mistral, Manuel Rojas, the
to
known
critic
Alone, etc.)
of fa-
vour of a position more responsive to the needs of the government and less concerned with the liberties of individuals. Justice Stewart's opinions generally tended to be conservative, but by the end of the term scholars were not yet sure how he stood on
champions of freedom as Marti, Echeverria, Montalvo, Sarmiento. Gonzalez Vera gave Algunos, a collection
impassioned
in-
in the 1958-
S.
79
civil rights.
Ct. 539,
some
His decision
seemed
in
v.
United
States,
restrictive of the right of a witness to case,
extent, followed established law. His decision in Kings-
Gallenkamp offered an informAmerican civilization in Maya, and Irving A. Leonard portrayed Baroque Times in Old Mexico with scholarly thoroughness and genuine enthusiasm. The Mexican regional idiom received competent attention in Francisco J. Santamaria's Diccionario de mexicanismos, the latest work from a recognized
ley Int. Pictures v. Regents of the University of the State of Neve
authority on American Spanish.
had been asked to review
intimately
to him. Charles
ative glimpse of an old
(K. L. L.)
York, on the other hand, represented a sharp attack on the
right
of a state to censor motion pictures. These decisions, as well as all the other significant cases decided
by the court during
the'
term, constitute the subject matter of this article.
Aliens.
—In each year
for about a decade the a considerable
supreme
number
court'
of cases
in-
voh-ing the rights of aliens. During the 1958-59 term, for some
Latter-Day Saints:
see
Mormons.
reason not readily apparent, only one such case came before
th«
court.
country on the Baltic sea, an independent repubfrom igi8 to 1940, was forcibly incorporated into the Soviet Union in 1940 as a Soviet Socialist republic. Latvia is bounded north by Estonia, east by the Russian S.F.S.R., southeast by Byelorussia, south by Lithuania and west by the Baltic I
QfifiQ
LdlVld.
"^^'^ lie
Area; 24,595 sq.mi. Pop. (1959 census) 2,094,000. Nationalities (1939): Latvian 75.5%; Russian 10.6%; Jewish 4.8%. sea.
Religion (1939): Lutheran 56.1%;
Roman
Catholic 24.5%; Or-
Tak Shan Fong v. United States, 79 S. Ct. 637, concerned ar unsuccessful effort by a native and citizen of China to gair American naturalization as a reward for serving with the States armed forces during the Korean hostilities. An act
Unitec of con
gress passed in 1953 provided for the naturalization of
serving at least 90 days in the
who had been
armed
forces prior to July
alien;
i,
1955
"lawfully admitted to the United States" ant
"been physically present within the United States for a
singl.
thodox 8.9%; Jewish 4.7%. Chief towns (pop., 1959 census): Riga (cap.) 604.500; Liepaja 71,400. First secretaries of the Latvian Communist party in 1959, Janis Kalnberzins, Arvid Y.
period of at least one year at the time of entering the Arme'
Pelshe (from Nov. 1959) chairmen of the presidium of the supreme soviet, Karlis Ozolins, Janis Kalnberzins (from Nov.
at
;
1959) chairmen of the council of ministers, Vilis Lacis, Janis V. Peive (from Nov. 1959). ;
History.
—The
Communist
i6th extraordinary congress of the Latvian
which took place in Riga on Jan. 12-13, I9S9. discussed N. Khrushchev's report on "The control figures perparty,
taining to the progress of the U.S.S.R. national
the years 1959 to 1965."
The Latvian
economy during imme-
soviet authorities
diately strengthened their efforts to adjust local policy to the
"general line" of the Kremlin.
Deputy premier
of Soviet Latvia,
Eduards K. Berklavs, and chairman of the trade unions. L Pinksis, were dismissed for placing "narrow national interests" above those of the Soviet Union. In May the Lutheran cathedral of Riga was transformed into a concert hall and museum. According to Soviet data, about 4,000 young Latvians had been "voluntarily" transferred to Siberia and the Donbas mines from 1952 to March 1959. See also Estonia; Lithuania. (Jo. Ps.) Education. years')
pupils 25.900;
institutions of higher education 9, students 18.200. Finance. Budget (1959 est.) balanced at 4.086,764,000 rubles. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1937-39 average): rye 409,700;
—
wheat 186.900; barley 215,900; oats 433.800; potatoes 1,729,780;
Tak Shan Fong
legally entered the
United States
in
Aug. 195
Honolulu on a seaman's 29-day pass. When his leave expirei he departed from the country with his ship. He again entere' the country in Jan. 1952. this time unlawfully. He was appre bended in June 1952 and deportation proceedings were coiu menced against him. These proceedings were halted when became known that on May 4, 1953, he had been inducted int the army. He ser\'ed honourably until his discharge in 1955, 2
:'
which time he instituted a proper action to gain
He
naturalizatioi
claimed that he was entitled to naturalization under the
at
had been lawfully admitted into the country in 195 The government contended, on the other hand, that the statut meant that lawful admittance must have been the means whereh since he
the alien
commenced
this theory,
jority of the
Justices
his year's
presence in the country. Undi
Tak's lawful Honolulu entry was irrelevant.
supreme
Hugo
court, with Chief Justice Earl
L. Black
and William O. Douglas
A
Warren
m. ar
dissenting, a
cepted the government's contention. The court's opinion,
writtt
by Justice William J. Brennan, showed great sympathy for T; Shan Fong, but concluded that congress had not intended 01 situated in Tak's position to be entitled to naturalization.
—
Schools (1957-58): primary (4-year), higher primary (5-7 and secondary (8-10 years), all pupils 290,000; vocational 64,
—
Forces."
flax
Armed Forces. Lee v. Madigan, 79 S. Ct. 276. decided f purposes of court-martial jurisdiction that the United States w at peace in 1949, even though the war with Germany was n terminated until 1951 by a joint resolution of congress and
t,
i
—
LAW war with Japan was not terminated until 1952 by a proclamation of the president. Under former Articles of War, which were in force when the operative facts of this case arose, "no person shall be tried by court-martial for murder or rape committed within the geographical limits of the States of the Union and the District of Columbia in times of peace." (Emphasis added.) Lee was 1949, at
Camp
and stressed the
fact that civnl courts are "better qualified than military tribunals
They have a more deeply engrained more thorough indoctrination in the procetrial.
Moreover, important
guarantees come into play once the
—
is
citizen
charged with a capital crime such
murder or rape. The most significant of these is the right to trial by jury, one of the most important safeguards against tyranny which our law has designed. We must assume that the Congress, as well as the courts, was alive to the importance of as
when
those constitutional guarantees ticular phrasing.
may
near as
Statutory language
it
is
gave Article 92
its
par-
construed to conform as
be to traditional guarantees that protect the rights
.
SEC
The
.
is
.
Frankfurter and Charles E. Whittaker dissented.
Variable Annuity Life Ins. Co., 79 S. Ct. 618, held that variable annuity "insurance" contracts are subject to reguV.
Justice Harlan, however, thought that the decision I
"a cloud upon the meaning of
all
federal legislation
would cast the impact
by the
Securities
and Exchange commission. The McCar-
construed to invalidate, impair, or supersede any law enacted by any State for the purpose of regulating the business of insurance. ..." The insurance companies involved in this litigation were regulated under the insurance laws of several states, and they
contended that the McCarran-Ferguson act gave them immunity
from the SEC. The court held that variable annuities are not by the McCarranFerguson act. Said Justice Douglas, who wrote the majority insurance, and hence they are not exempted
opinion:
"The concept
of 'insurance' involves
company. The
risk-taking on the part of the
sumed
of the citizen."
j
act (1954) applies prospectively only. So there
ran-Ferguson act provided that "no Act of Congress shall be
whether soldier or civilian
I
.
lation
I
I
.
did in the past.
it
to try nonmilitary offenses.
constitutional
j
new
not penalized for anything
is
judicial attitude, a
dural safeguards necessary for a fair
{
.
lington)
lan, Felix
Justice Douglas wrote the majority opinion
I
If
crime occurred.
10,
Cooke, Calif. The court found, with justices
I
...
from doubt than we think, it is still one that lies in the periphery where vested rights do not attach. Appellee (Darfree
Tom C. Clark and John M. Harlan dissenting, that the court-martial had no jurisdiction over this matter since the country was at peace when the
convicted by a court-martial of the crime of conspiracy to com-
i
hotel or motel business.
promote the the question be less clear and
no possible due process issue on that score. Congress by the 1954 Act was doing no more than protecting the regulatory system which it had designed. Those who do business in the regulated field cannot object if the legislative scheme is buttressed by subsequent amendments to achieve the legislative end." Justices Har-
mit murder. The offense occurred on June
I
389
aid veterans and their families, not with a law to
Yet
some investment
risk of mortality, as-
here, gives these variable annuities an aspect of insurance.
it is
apparent, not real; superficial, not substantial. In hard
reality the issuer of a variable annuity that has
assumes no true
no element of a
I
upon the existence of 'peace' or 'war.' Hitherto legislation of this sort has been construed according to welldefined principles, the Court looking to 'treaty or legislation or Presidential proclamation' to ascertain whether a 'state of war' exists. The Court, in an effort to make a 'more particularized and
portunity to pass on the availability of certain defenses to
j
discriminating analysis' has apparently jettisoned
charges that section 2(e) of the Clayton act had been violated.
of which depends I
I
I
Business Regulation. I
—
me
these prin-
what has taken their place." The court handed down several deci-
from clear to
ciples. It is far I
just
fixed return
risk in the insurance sense." Justices
Harlan, Frankfurter and Whittaker dissented. Federal Trade Commission 1005, was the
The
first
Simplicity Pattern Co., 79 S. Ct.
v.
case in which the supreme court
decision caused great excitement
among
Section 2(e) of the Clayton act makes
it
had an op-
antitrust specialists.
unlawful for any per-
sions concerning the regulation of business, and, except for the
son to discriminate in favour of one purchaser against another
were probably the
purchaser by furnishing in connection with the sale of goods serv-
cases involving civil rights, these decisions I
I
most important of the term.
!
was important
I
to the
in that
it
FHA
v.
Darlington, 79
S.
Ct. 141,
perhaps showed some judicial hostility
commercial use of buildings covered by mortgages insured
FHA
iby the
(Federal Housing administration"). Darlington built
apartments in 1949 and obtained FHA mortgage insurance. The question in the case was whether he was entitled to
I
!
one that are not furnished to the other. The retail price it charges a uniform price
of Simplicity patterns are uniform, and
However, Simplicity does not follow the
to all its customers.
notion of uniformity in the furnishing of certain services to
its
rental
customers. It furnishes patterns to variety stores on a consign-
some of these apartments to transients. When the apartments were built and the mortgage insurance obtained, neither the controlling statute, the National Housing act, nor the regulations issued under it contained any express provision prohibiting
sold. Fabric stores are required to
[rent
1
ices to
basis, requiring
and catalogues are furnished
are paid for transactions.
gress
amended
the National Housing act. In the it
has been
its
amendment
con-
intent since the enactment of
Housing Act that housing built with the aid of (mortgages insured under that Act is to be used principally for residential use; and that this intent excludes the use of such housing for transient or hotel purposes while such insurance on the the National
to variety stores free of charge all
transpor-
tation costs in connection with its business with variety stores
Darlington immediately commenced renting
igress declared, "that
payment only as and when the patterns are pay cash. In addition, cabinets
whereas fabric stores are charged therefor. Finally,
small percentage of his apartments to transients. In 1954 con-
rental to transients.
ia
ment
by Simphcity but none
is
paid on fabric store
Simplicity admitted these facts, but claimed that no competitive injury
had resulted to the fabric
stores, since these stores
are primarily interested in selling yard goods and handle patterns
I
mortgage remains outstanding."
of the difference in
customers.
A
costs in dealing with the
its
unanimous
two types of
court, through Justice Clark, held that
made out
a defense to section 2(e).
The
In spite of this amendment, Darlington continued to rent to
neither of these claims
and he took the position that he was lawfully entitled do so since the 1954 statute could not affect his rights which
court admitted that these claims would be a good defense to a
(transients, Ito
only as an accommodation to their customers. In the alternative. Simplicity argued that the differential treatment was reflective
ibecame vested in 1949 IJustice
Douglas
jthe (original)
said,
when he obtained
"We
his
take a different view.
FHA mortgage. We do not think
Act gave mortgagors the right to rent to transients.
no express provision one way or the other; but the
flhere
is
Itation
seems
fairly implied.
We
limi-
deal with legislation passed to
charge (under section
2
[a]
)
of price discrimination. But
it
found
that the Clayton act did not permit these defenses to section 2(e).
Safeway Stores Inc. v. Oklahoma Retail Grocers Ass'n, 79 S. 1 196, was a case in which the court was asked to pass upon certain aspects of trading stamps, described by the court as "these found in almost half of Amermulticolored scraps of paper Ct.
.
.
.
' '
LA w
390
homes." The Oklahoma Retail Grocers association brought an action against Safeway stores to enjoin it from selling some of its Koods below cost in violation of an Oklahoma statute. Safeica's
way
replied that
its
below cost were made to meet the com-
sales
The statute permitted it The Oklahoma court found that
petition of stores using trading stamps. to
meet
competition.
illegal
desires to adopt
may
be required of voters. But there
scope for exercise of age, previous criminal
factors which a State
jurisdiction.
its
record are obvious examples indicating
may
Lake into consideration in determining
The
the qualifications of voters. indicates
some
therefore, the competitors were not selling below cost; that Safe-
creed, color,
Safeway appealed to the United States supreme court. The supreme court sustained the Oklahoma court. In a unanimous decision, written by Justice Frankfurter, the court said that Oklahoma had not discriminated against Safeway in favour of stores using trading stamps. "Trading stamps are given to ca.sh customers 'across the board,' namely, the number of stamps varies directly with the total cost of goods purchased. Safeway "s price cutting, however, was selective. This
course a literacy
difference
vital in the context of the Act.
is
One
of the chief
The
selling of selected
goods at a
loss in
and
sex, as
test, fair
on
may
face,
its
No
designed to uproot.
likewise
promote
intel-
be employed to per-
fwtuate that discrimination which the Fifteenth
such influence
present requirement, applicable to
Amendment was
charged here.
is
members
of
.
races,
all
.
The
.
that
is
the prospective voter 'be able to read and write any section of
the Constitution of North Carolina in the English language.'
That seems person
way
to us to be one fair
is literate,
of determining whether a
not a calculated scheme to lay springs for the
citizen."
In Harrison
aims of state law prohibiting sales below cost was to put an end to 'loss-leader' selling.
and write
and illiteracy are neutral on race, reports around the world show. ... Of
ligent use of the ballot. Literacy
to the charges.
ability to read
relation to standards designed to
trading stamps were not to be reckoned into the price; that,
way had no defense
wide
is
Residence requirements,
v.
N.A.A.C.P., 79
in a divided opinion written
S. Ct. 1025, the supreme court, by Justice Harlan, refused to pass
order to lure customers into the store
on the constitutionality of Virginia's "massive resistance"
structive
racial
is deemed not only a demeans of competition, but it also plays on the gullibility of customers by leading them to expect what generally was not
true,
was
namely, that a store which offered such an amazing bargain
full
of other such bargains. Clearly there
is
a reasonable basis
integration laws until the Virginia courts had
to
con-
first
strued them. This policy was justified on the ground that federal courts should not unnecessarily interfere with the proper con-
cern of state courts.
The opinion
stated that the supreme court
for a conclusion that selective price cuts tend to perpetuate this
should not assume that state courts would not do their
abuse whereas the use of trading stamps does not."
in adjudging-state statutes in the light of federal constitutional
WD
Farmers Educational & Cooperative Union v. AY, Inc., 79 Ct. 1302, was one of the most important decisions ever handed down with respect to radio and television companies. The case inS.
volved a
libel suit
a speech
brought against station
made over
Townley, a
its
WDAY
legally qualified candidate in the
WDAY
North Dakota.
senatorial race in
as a result of
radio and television facilities
by A. C.
1956 United States
did not censor
Town-
and it claimed at the libel hearing that it had no power of censorship. As a corollary to this, it argued, it should be immune from liability for defamatory statements made by the uncensored speaker. The North Dakota court held for WDAY, and the plaintiff appealed. The supreme court, in a sharply divided court, voted to affirm the North Dakota decision. Justice ley's speech,
Black wrote the majority opinion.
He
stressed the fact that the
requirements. This point seemed the nub of the case, for the
so that the legislative purpose behind
them would not be
frus-
trated.
Scull v. Commonwealth of Virginia, 79 S. Ct. 838, also dealt with Virginia's "massive resistance" to racial integration. David
was convicted of contempt for refusing to obey a decision him to answer a number of questions put to him by a state legislative committee. These questions dealt Scull
of a Virginia court ordering
primarily with Scull's role in organizations attempting to racially integrate the Virginia school system. Scull requested the com-
that I
tell
may
him "the
specific subject of
your inquiry today, sc
judge which of your questions are pertinent." The'
Whittaker and Stewart dissented,
chairman gave an unclear answer. The supreme court unani-' mously held that under such circumstances Scull could not be'
basing their conclusion on statutory construction of the Federal
convicted for failure to respond to questions. But the opinion,'
Communications
written by Justice Black, did not rest on the narrow grounds
tices
libel suits arising
Frankfurter,
Civil Righfs. court's
major
civil rights,
Harlan,
out of political broadcasts. Jus-
act.
—Personal
attention.
and, as usual,
liberties again
occupied the supreme
The court decided it
was
26 cases involving
to these cases that legal scholars
turned to ascertain the true temper of the court. Scholars were
agreement that the decisions indicated
in general
a slight retreat
from the strong pro-civil-rights position taken by the court
in
Minority Groups.
— Only
five of the civil rights cases involved
minority groups. Perhaps the most important was Lassiter
Northampton County Board of
v.
Elections, 79 S. Ct. 985, holding
that a literacy test as a prerequisite to registration as a voter
well as the questions asked him,
make
it
unmistakably clear that
the Committee's investigation touched an area of speech, press'
and association of
vital public
importance.
.
.
.
is
Such areas
interest
is
clearly shown.
But we do not reach that question
nounced by the Chairman, were so unclear, in fact conflicting, that Scull did hot have an opportunity of understanding the basis for the questions or any justification on the part of the Committee for seeking the information he refused to give,"
The two other minority group cases were less important. Even Dwyer, 79 S, Ct, 178, held that an "actual controversy" ex-
V.
failed in the state courts, he appealed to the
ing on buses, even though the Negro plaintiff had boarded
preme
court. In a
unanimous decision the
court,
through an
isted over the validity of a state statute requiring segregated seat
existed, the court
"The States have long been held mine the conditions under which
court to dismiss the case as frivolous.
ercised.
.
.
.
We
have broad powers to deter-
the right of suffrage
may
be ex-
do not suggest that any standards which a State
£h«
bus for purposes of instituting the action. Since a controvers)
opinion written by Justice Douglas, held against the appellant, to
be-'
inquirj'. as an-
North Carolina, sued to have the literacy test for voters prescribed by that state declared unconstitutional. When his efforts United States su-
of'
individual liberty cannot be invaded unless a compelling state'
not necessarily unconstitutional. The appellant, a Negro citizen of
of
"pertinence" alone. "The events leading to Scull's subpoena, as
cause the record shows that the purposes of the
the past.
'
though not parties to the formulation of the "massive resistance" laws, were bound to interpret those laws, if possible,
mittee to
immunity from
dis-
by Justice Douglas, with Chief Justice Warren and Justice Brennan concurring, stressed the fact that Virginia courts,
From
he found that congress must have intended
duty
sent, written
radio and television stations cannot censor political speeches. this premise,
full
found that
it
was error
The
for a federal distrid
case
was remanded
t(
be heard on the merits. Williams
v.
Lee, 79 S. Ct. 269, held that the Arizona court
'
LAW
391
Brown
are not free to exercise jurisdiction over a civil suit brought
United States, 79 S. Ct. 539, and Raley v. State of Ct. 1257, dealt with the right of a witness to claim
v.
I
by one who
is
not an Indian against an Indian
action arose on an Indian reservation.
I
The
if
the cause of
plaintiff,
who was not
Ohio, 79 S. the privilege against self-incrimination in the face of a state im-
an Indian, operated a general store on the Navajo reservation
munity
under a licence required by federal statute. He brought an action against Williams, an Indian, to collect for goods sold him on
before a
i
The court
credit.
said that Arizona
since jurisdiction lay in the
case,
had no power
to hear the
tribunal court.
The court
Brown
statute. In the
case, the court held that a witness
New York
grand jury could not invoke the privilege where the state had guaranteed him immunity from prosecution if he testified. Tie decision was written by Justice Stewart, and there was a dissent
by Chief Justice Warren
which Justices
in
termed the case an "important question of state power over In-
Black, Douglas and Brennan concurred. In the Raley case the
dian affairs."
court held that where an Ohio Un-American Activities commis-
I
j
Subversive Control.
j
—Seven of the
civil rights cases
involved
I
I
I
\
sion instructed a witness that he could rely on the privilege
and federal governmental efforts to control subversion. By far the most important case in this group was Uphaus v. Wyman, 79 S. Ct. 1040, holding that the federal Smith act does not pre-empt the field of subversive control leaving the states powerless in this area. The decision, written by Justice Clark, surprised some members of the bar who had construed the recent case of Commonwealth of Pennsylvania v. Nelson, 76 S. Ct. 477, to hold that congress had so completely occupied the field of sub-
against self-incrimination,
power even to investigate in that realm. A strong dissent, written by Justice Brennan and indorsed by Chief Justice Warren and Justices Black and Douglas, did not stress pre-emption, but went in the direction of the constitutional guarantees of freedom of assemblage, due process and freedom from bills of attainder. Four of the subversive control cases dealt with the refusal of
an
state
it
could not prosecute the witness for
invoking the privilege on the theory that he was presumed to
know
that the law of Ohio granted
—Three cases
Judicial Process.its
The
notions of double jeopardy.
decisions
showed the court
view that gave the criminal defendant
inclining to a
tection than
him immunity.
compelled the court to review
some had
felt
he possessed. Abbate
79 S. Ct. 666, concerned a defendant
v.
less pro-
United States,
who had been
convicted by
I
versive activities that the states were without I
I
I
witnesses to give testimony before legislative committees. Baren-
United States, 79 S. Ct. 108 1, involved striking a balance between an individual's interest in not divulging associational blatt V.
and the federal government's Communistic activities in the United
interest in investi-
[relationships Igating
iwas struck,
by a sharply divided court,
in
States.
The balance
favour of the govern-
Illinois court for
conspiracy to injure and destroy property
company. This conviction,
of a telephone
it
was
held, did not
prevent the federal government from prosecuting the defendant for conspiring to willfully
and maliciously injure means of com-
munications controlled or operated by the United States, even
though the federal prosecution involved the same properties covered by the Illinois prosecution.
A
similar double jeopardy problem arose in Bartkus v. People
of Illinois, 79 S. Ct. 767. Bartkus was accused of robbing a federally insured savings
crime.
He was
and loan association, a federal and
state
acquitted by the federal court in the prosecution
for the federal crime. Nevertheless, the state of Illinois indicted
him
for
committing a state crime. The facts recited
in the Illinois
iment. Barenblatt, an instructor of psychology at Vassar college
indictment were substantially identical to those contained in the
|from 1950 to shortly before his appearance before the house
prior federal indictment. It
Isubcommittee
on un-American
activities,
iquestions concerning his relationship to the
refused
answer
to
-Communist party
and organizations on the grounds that (i) jthe subcommittee was not authorized to compel testimony because of the vagueness of the statute creating it; (2) he was not |and to various people
ladequately apprised of the pertinency of the subcommittee's Iquestions;
by the These contentions decision of Watkins v. United
and (3) the questions infringed
amendment
first
rights protected
to the federal constitution.
[required the court to reconsider its
^tates, 77 S. Ct. 1173.
The holding impressed many
as a serious
Williams
v. State, 79 S. Ct. 421,
jtions;
pursued in any of our educational
institu-
that undeniably a conviction for contempt cannot stand
unless the questions asked are pertinent to the subject matter of
investigation; that the ist
'the
amendment
protects an individual
some circumstances" from being compelled to disclose his associational relationships. But it found that none of these rights been violated in the instant case. The dissent, written by tad ustice Black, with Chief Justice Warren and Justice Douglas poncurring, stressed a broad construction of the Watkins case. ['in
Flaxer v. United States, 79 S. Ct. 191, held that a witness who fused to testify before the senate judiciary committee, carmot is proof beyond a reasondoubt that the refusal was deliberate and intentional. Flaxer
convicted on contempt, unless there .ble |ffas
ordered by the committee to produce certain membership
psts in ten days.
pince it did
The court found that "ten days" was vague, when the time was to start running. It
not specify
that the committee could not force a witness to guess as to
Pdrulings
on pain of contempt.
who was
and had been
tried
tion resulted in a sentence to life imprisonment. Thereafter
tence did not contravene constitutional guarantees.
Censorship.
—Once again
New
Int. Pictures v.
is
involved a defendant
and found guilty of murder. The conviche was indicted for kidnapping, was found guilty and sentenced to death. It was held that the kidnapping indictment, trial and sentim,
power of congress to investigate; that inquiries cannot be made teaching that
indictment and
charged with kidnapping. The defendant had murdered his vic-
the effect of
iinto
this
constitutional rights.
on the scope of Watkins. But the exact limits of the {holding were not clear. The court stressed a number of important aspects of the case. It stated that there are some limits on the (limitation
was held that
the subsequent Illinois trial did not deprive the defendant of his
the court was required to consider
York's motion-picture-licensing law upon the
ist amendment liberties, which ment from infringement by the
by the 14th amendThe court held in Kingsley
are protected states.
Regents of the University of the State of New York, 79 S. Ct. 1362, that New York cannot constitutionally prevent the exhibition of a motion picture because the picture advocates an idea, even though the idea
is
contrary to the moral
standards, religious precepts and the legal code of
The
case
its
citizenry.
involved the film Lady Chatterley's Lover, which
advocated the idea that adultery under certain circumstances
might be proper behaviour. Crvn, Rights Crvn. ServEducation; International Law; Labour Unions; National Labor Relations Board; Public Utilities; Selective Service, U.S.; Taxation; United States. (W. D. Hd.) United Kingdom Case Law. Perhaps the most interesting case, from the point of view of the removal of an old doubt, reported in 1959 was Diplock J.'s decision in Fowler v. Lanning (1959 2 W.L.R. 241). The defendant in this case had injured the plaintiff by accidentally shooting him at a shooting party. The form which the argument of the case took was that the statement
See also Automobile Industry
;
ice, U.S.;
—
;
LAWN BOWLrNG — LEAD
392
of claim baldly averred Ihe fact of the shootinR without alleging that the shooting
was cither intentional (which
was common
it
it was not) or negligent. The judge in the course of his judgment disposed of the argument that negligence was not
two organizations. The Canadiaiu won four of the
of the
five
games, defeating the U.S. players 108-87.
The
ground
Canadian Lawn Bawling championships were played
fifth
a necessary ingredient of an action for unintentional trespass
on the greens of the Boulevard club, Toronto, Ont., Aug. 24-26, 1959. Participants were the champions of the preliminary play-
and held that the burden of establishing negligence rested on the
downs
plaintiff.
ronto were:
A
decision of the house of lords of considerable importance view of the contemporary multiplicity of law reports was that
in
Qualcast (Wolverhampton) Ltd.
in
v.
Haynes (.959
2
ligence.
favour of the plaintiff on the footmg that he was bound to do so by the authority of previous decisions where the facts had been similar, but that left to himself he would not have found in
any negligence. The house of lords ruled that these decisions, : , , , being on questions of fact and not questions of law, were not binding on the judge and accordingly reversed his decision and ,
.
,
,
g-J'"
W.L.R.
workman was suing his employers for negThe county court judge who tried the action decided it
510). In this case a
that of the court of appeal.
^
si„gi,,
and important of the decisions of the Restrictive Practices court. As they had usually done, the court rejected all the arguments alleged on behalf of the Yam Spinners' of benefit to the public t^ ^ ^ association to flow from its minimum price scheme but they held likely to have a that the removal of the restriction would be serious and persistent effect on the general level of employment
R.aina Saiv
ciaytor.
^^^ ^^^^ Canadian championships were
its
by the association
case. Nonetheless, the court decided that
effects
^^^ ^^^^^,
^^^^ tournament
j^^^;^^^,
3^^,;^^ association was played ^^^^
were
it
and they
of the American
San Francisco,
Calif.,
Lawn
Aug. 31-
Treblei 1
(iklpl, Al MorllnM, G>ora* PlUon Got. Pork (Son FronciKo, Coiii.i dab
B.Mle M.morlal trophy
Cllv.
"'"c.) ciut
—
Singlet '.'°.'"'!'
ii:;'°;°^,°nTro^ph°y'"
:
:
?o''r:o1i'
F."cho7.^t?.r'':o*
B«d,VH.f;«o."c5M
'i"*' I
The i960 National Open tournament
whereas the adverse
nationally;
felt
at
^^^^ Winners were:
^
for the purposes of
on employment of ending the scheme would be localized,
the detriments of retaining
Edmon-
to be held in
.,,
.
;
in the 11 areas selected
at To-
f •,°6mr |ilp;:'U"H„!;j;;,rrCri*H°c.'Wo„,«o„. K„ch^.,, o-.
;
Spinners' Agreement was one of the most interesting
Re Yarn
The winners
provinces of Canada.
in the several
of the A.L.B.A. and thei
annual meeting of the council were to be held at Fla., April
28-March
St. Petersburg,:
(L. Pr.)
5.
!
accordingly declared the scheme to be contrary to the public
(W. T. We.)
interest.
—
Encyclop/EDIa Britannica Films. The Bill of Rights (1956): The Congress (1954). The Constitution
States States
(1956); Magna Carta, Part I (Rise of the EnRlish Monarchy) (1959); Magna Carta, Part II (Revolt of the Nobles and the Signing of the Charter) (1959) ;JAcS«?remeCoar« (19S4); Understanding the Law Equal Justice jor All (19S3).
—
OUin DnUflinn' LdWII DUWIIIIg.
I
Bowling
in the
People-to-People (P.T.P.) movement, which was T->i.,.T~vi7V L -liru-i Eisenhower White XT
.JUT)
House
at a
1956 as "a massive program of communication between Americans and the people of other lands designed to estabin
,.,.
,.,,. lish lasting
,.,.
,
.,
two-way relationships from which mtemational f J J J » JTU new group was friendships and understanding can grow. The "dedicated to furthering exchange of visits between lawn bowlers of different countries and to the spread of knowledge of lawn .
,
Tennis: see Tennis.
^ox\A mine Output
pOll LCflU. I
.
li
1-ru A T T> The American Lawn Bowling " •
•
.•
.
association
s
/AT T> A \ 2ndJTTC (A.L.B.A.) U.S. ^
tournament of doubles champions was held at The Inn, Buck Hill Falls, N.Y., Sept. 19-20, 1959, with two days of round-robin play by championship teams from the five territorial divisions. Winners were James Candelet and Robert Smart of the Providence, R.L, Bowling Green club (Eastern division), who received the Buck Hill Falls Inn trophy The 3rd U.S. tournament of singles champions was held at Spalding Inn, Whitefield, N.H., Sept. 12-13, 1959- Singles cham-
Tewksbury. In two days of round-robin play Tewksbury successfully defended ,. ..., ,. IT o i_ r J nis title, continuing as U.S. singles champion for 1959 and again receiving the Spalding Inn trophy. The annual "international match" between the eastern division of the A.L.B.A. and the Provincial Lawn Bowling association of ° Ontano, Can., was played Aug. 8, 1059, at the Glen Ridge club, /-> / Ci /- xu ^ V /I J \ N r 1! at. Cathermes, Ont., by five four-man teams (rinks) from each .
•
•
1
Table I.—
•
1
WorW
of lead declined in 1958, for
the'
.j
3%
'
Sme/fer Producf.on of
Uod
looo. of short tons)
"M
I'M ^^
^^^.^^^
Austroiio*
.
.
.
Conodo
.
.
.
fronce
.
....
Cermony, Woit. Holy jhtQnctnin Liechtenstein is a constitutional monarchy LIcUMlCllolClM. lying between Switzerland and Austria, united with Switzerland by monetary and customs union. .Area: I
60.6 sq.mi. Pop. (1950 census):
13.757 '^'958 est.;
minister-president
II;
Frick.
—
The chief event of the year 1959 was a "baby sumHistory. mit" meeting of the four smallest sovereign states of Europe al N'aduz. on Oct.
Andorra, Liechtenstein,
23.
Marino were represented, and there was the Vatican City state.
The
hopes that worthwhile
group be extended to Luxembourg, and
sources of the country's revenue continued to be the
British yearly grant of £3,750,000
and the U.S. yearly rental
of $4,000,000 for the use of Wheelus air base near Tripoli. In
July
it
was rumoured that Libya had
asked for the rental to be
increased to $40,000,000.
interest;
i.e.,
representative of
Monaco and
Sat'
also an observer froir;
delegates discussed matters of com-
mon
The main
in-
Vaduz, pop. (1958) 3,092. Sovereign prince: Franz-Josef (appointed Sept. 3, 194S): Alexander
tal:
June, had a flow of 17.500 barrels per day; the How in well no. 2 was said to be 15.000 barrels per day. This discovery encouraged oilfields existed.
15.361,
cluding 1,163 Swiss, 1,009 Austrians and 999 persons of other citizenship. Language: German. Religion: Roman Catholic. Capi-
tourism and the sale of postage stamps. Tht
Monaco proposed
membership was decided to
that the it
of thi inviti
that country.
— —
Education. Schools (1958-59): primary 14, secondary 5, pupils J,73J' teachers los. Finance. Included since Jan. 1924 in the Swiss customs union, Liechten' stein uses Swiss currency. In 1959 the franc was valued at 23.3 cents U.S' Budget (1959 est.): revenue io,io6,56o Fr., expenditure 10,254,924 Fi| Public debt (Dec. 31, 1958): 9,269,479 Fr. Agriculture. Chief products: corn, potatoes, fruit, wine, vegetableLivestock (195s): cattle 5,548; sheep 804; horses 295; pigs 3,635: goat 770; chickens 33.002. Industry. Cotton weaving and spinning, ceramics, artificial teeth, leathcj goods, hardware, machinery, sausage cases. \
•
The
British garrisons in Libya were reduced
and
at the
end
two infantry battalions (at Tripoli and Benghazi) and the armoured cars of the 2nd royal tank regiment at Homs, west of Tripoli. of the year they comprised
Education.
— Schools
(
1957)
:
—
—
,
1
I
primary 502, pupils 96,800, teachers 3,061
8, pupils 700, teachers teacher-training colleges 4, students 1,568. teachers 131; institutions i, students 71, teaching staff 10. Libyan pound (divided into 100 piastres), with a par value of LL.i=U.S. $2.80. Budget (1958-59 est.): revenue LL. 12, 128, 622, expenditure LL. 12, 373,417. Currency circulation (Dec. 1958) LL. 7, 842, 000 (Dec. 1957) LL. 7, 182, 000. Bank deposits (Tripolitania only, Oct. 1958) LL. 16, 744, 000. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports LL. 34,501 ,000, exports LL. 5, 073, 000. Chief sources of imports: Italy 22.3%: U.K. 22.1%; U.S. 21.4%. Chief Egypt 16.7%; U.K. 15.1%. Main destinations of exports: Italy 37'»
secondary 53. pupils 6,900, teachers 525; vocational 87;
of higher education (1956) Finonce. Monetary unit:
—
Life Insurance: see Insurance.
)
Death
Life Statistics: see Birth and Data, U.S.
Statistics; CensuI
Limes: see Fruit. Lions Clubs, International Association of:
see
Soc
eties a.vd Associations, U.S.
;
MISSING
WORLD WAR
II
U.S.
BOMBER
1959. The plane had participated in and was last seen preparing to return
a
disco\ ired
bombing
jid
on the Libyan desert in on Naples, Italy, in 1943
was never heard from again, Investigators could find no trace of the crew ir the wreckage, but discovery that the plane's radio was still in worl'ptian government. He strongly crisis that
arose
in
t
in
i
8,347,923-
During 1959 London was transformed and dominated by
He became
minister of supply in 1954 and was minister of defense for a few months in 1955. As secretary of state for foreign affairs in Sir
Anthony Eden's government he played
Lord mayors
splendid summer.
The open-air
successful season, and the weather
Mail competition for the the .Arc de
was not
Triomphe
fastest
in Paris to
the
theatre in Regent's park had a
made
it
possible for the Daily
journey from Marble Arch
to
succeed beyond expectations.
It
just a publicity stunt but provided evidence that
it
might
in parliament the Anglo-French intervention in Egypt, and after Eden became ill in November, a heavy responsibility fell on him in the conduct of negotiations that led to the final withdrawal of the British and French troops from Egypt. When Harold Macmillan formed a new government in Jan.
prove possible to reduce the traveling time between the twOf
1957 Selwyn Lloyd was retained as secretary of state for foreign
as
defended
city centres
After
by something
many
like
an hour.
;
years the last stretches of the Cromwell road ex'
tension were finished and opened, the Chiswick flyover com-
pleted and the westward exit from central
much
as 15 min.
The annual
London shortened b), London Trans-'
reports from the
affairs.
In Feb. 1959 he acted as chairman of the London conference
BOMB DISPOSAL SQUAD WORKING AT NIGHT lb.
World War
1959
•V
II
bomb which was
to
discovered bene:
unexploded 500,
London
street in Jul:
LOPEZ MATEOS — LOUISIANA
401
port and from the commissioner for metropolitan police repeated
on vacation seeking part-time employment, and newcomers
more emphatically the warning that London was about
southern California.
to
j
j
I
own
The
that the public transport
Foreign commerce for the year ending June 30, 1959, totaled
system was shrinking under the impact of private motoring appeared, so that Londoners might, within a decade, anticipate paying higher prices for constantly curtailed bus services.
$944,600,000, including $611,600,000 in imports and $333,000,-
itself
I
to throttle
with
its
traffic.
first signs
000 in exports. Retail sales for the year ending June 30, 1959, reached $8,645,-
[
Several sawn-off "skyscrapers" of 14 to 17 stories were completed and opened, but the 25-story Shell-Mex building on the
i
south bank was
still
unfinished though the towering framework
had become a feature of the skyline. I'he gaps left in the City by wartime bombing continued to be filled up but not with any
I
\
great architectural distinction.
718,000.
The value
of building permits for the city of Los Angeles
year 1958-59 amounted to $595,917,920 and $1,360,632,000 for Los Angeles county. during the
fiscal
Air pollution continued as a disturbing element and received added attention from the air pollution control district and citizen organizations in an attempt to obtain, through state legislation,
;
I
The splendid summer provided a memorable setting for the of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower, which brought cheering Londoners into the streets in much larger numbers than anybody visit
i
j
(G. Fy.)
had calculated.
—
1
to)
Encyclop.«dia Britannica Films. The British England (1952); Picture 0) Britain (1955).
Isles
(1948); Canals
the ultimate installation of exhaust-control devices on the
more
than 4,000,000 motor vehicles in the state of California. Preliminary legislation intended to obtain full control by the year 1963 was enacted by the state legislature. The Coliseum commission in July dedicated a sports arena adjacent to Memorial coliseum. The sports arena, with a seating
capacity of 17,500 for sports events, was to be the location of
I
the i960 Democratic national convention.
jLOPcZ mdlcOS, ADOITO was
succeeding Adolfo Ruiz Cortines. Lopez Mateos was bom on May 26 in Atizapan de Zaragoza, Mex., and entered politics in 1929, first as a socialist, then as a member of the Partido Revolucionario Institucional. He was elected senator in 1946 and later served as minister of labour and
In the litigation over the Chavez ravine contract with the Los Angeles Dodgers, National league baseball team, the California supreme court recorded a decision supporting the contract. However, opponents filed an appeal with the U.S. supreme court, which was pending. The Los Angeles Dodgers won the National league pennant and then the world series championship by defeating the Chicago White Sox, the American league pen-
social security in the cabinet of
nant winner.
July
6,
1958; he took office Dec.
Mexico on six-year term
elected president of i,
1958, for his
as chief executive,
President Ruiz Cortines.
In Jan. 1959, the new president presented the largest budget in Mexican history to the nation. At Acapulco on Feb. 19-20,
The advent
of jet passenger air service during 1959 brought
the eastern seaboard within 4^ hours flight time of Los Angeles
Pres.
and the Pacific
Mateos.
number
Dwight D. Eisenhower was officially received by Lopez The Mexican president returned Eisenhower's visit Oct. 9-15, conferring with Eisenhower and addressing the Organization of American States and the United Nations. He visited Canada, Oct. 15-18, becoming the first Mexican chief executive to
do
coast, resulting in further acceleration in the
of air passengers handled at the municipally
Angeles International airport.
(N. P.)
Encvclop.«dia Britannica Films.
One
so.
Louisiana.
—Far Western States
of the west south-central states of the United
Louisiana
known
state,
477,249 since the 1950 federal census of 1,970,358. This would place Los Angeles after New York and Chicago as the
54.8% urban; and 1,211,820 or 45.2%
of
third largest U.S. city in population,
but
it
was
first in area,
with
sq.mi.
or
is
67%
1950); 41,272;
n
in his
second four-year term, having been re-elected
1957-
The
city's budget total for all purposes for the 1959-60 fiscal was $432,826,012. The city property tax rate stood at fi.9574 on each $100 of assessed valuation. General obligation )onds outstanding and unmatured on June 30, 1959, totaled ^246,369,000. General obligation bonds authorized but unsold, )n the same date, amounted to $46,500,000; these were primarily 'or airport, fire, library, police, recreation and park purposes. Enrollment in the public schools of the Los Angeles city ichool district, which extends beyond the city limits, was 566,000 IS of Oct. 1959. Enrollment in private schools at the same time
'ear
more than 88,000. In addition, adult-education classes, part had an enrollment of 69,000. The annual value added in the manufacture of products, within he Los Angeles metropolitan area, was $6,880,000,000 during he year ending June 30, 1959. At that date 2,718,400 persons were gainfully employed. The otal unemployed on the same date was 121,200, mainly students
vas )f
the public-school system,
popularly
as the "Pelican state," "Cre-
Area 48,523
state."
sq.mi., of
which 45,162
which 1,796,548 nonwhite; 1,471,696 or
land. Pop. (1950 census) 2,683,516, of
were white and 886,968 or i,
ii% 1959,
rural.
The
provisional
was 3,166,000. Capital
(pop. 1950), Baton Rouge, 125,629. Other important cities (pop.
Los Angeles functions under a mayor and a council of 15 nembers elected to four-year terms. Mayor Norris Poulson in
was
is
"Bayou
estimated population on July
^57.9 sq.mi.
[959
(1956).
States, admitted to the union in 1812 as the iSth
Anrralac Population, expanding ahead of civic developLos nllgClCO. ment, continued as the outstanding problem of Los Angeles throughout 1959. The city's population based on growth statistics was now estimated at 2,447,607, an increase
ole state" or
owned Los
New
Orleans 570,445; Shreveport 127,206; Lake Charles
Monroe 38,572; Alexandria 34,913; Lafayette 33,541. History. The 1958-59 budget of the state was based upon the
—
following assumptions: fiscal
a
sizable surplus
from the preceding
year; increased tax collections with the end of the business
recession; substantial income
from mineral leases on state lands; and receipt of a large part of the $90,000,000 then held in escrow pending
final
tidelands.
adjustment of the disputed
Nearly
all
title
to
the oil-rich
these expectations were unrealized.
More-
over, the natural-gas interests brought suit to test the constitutionality of the increased gas-gathering tax,
which rendered un-
available the $20,000,000 budgeted from that source, and the
was empty when a special session of the legislature was convened on Nov. ii, 1958. It enacted no new taxes, but changed the basis of the disputed gas-gathering tax in an effort to placate its opponents and advanced the dates for collection of some other taxes so as to make funds from those sources imstate treasury
mediately available.
The
financial crisis continued until Feb.
1959,
when
a
new
on state lands yielded $60,000,000, and this unexpected bonanza solved the state's financial problems unto the end of the 195S-59 fiscal year. leasing of mineral
rights
LOUISIANA
402
men who favoured
their stead
his release. Shortly afterward he
declared that his health was restored and began a scries of
slumping tours to promote another term as governor.
his
candidacy for renomination
for
it was an election year, the legislators were reluctant to any reasonable request for state funds, so they passed
Since reject
;i|)priipriation bills
M
aggregating $83,000,000 more than estimated
income for the 1959-60
lie
fiscal year.
They then
the (|uestionable plan of passing another
bill
resorted to
carrying a
total
of $40,000,000, to be paid from the proceeds of mineral leases
on stale lands,
The
and when such funds should become available. this bill were arranged according to a
if
several items in
priority system, each to be paid in order as funds
became
avail|
from that source. None of the appropriation bills had reached the governor prior to his commitment to a hospital, and
able
the duty of vetoing enough bills and items to balance the budget
devolved upon the lieutenant governor.
He
vetoed a
total of
$83,000,000, in line with the previously expressed intentions of the governor.
Only $12,000,000 was received from the leasing of mineral and this was sufficient to pay only the first two items on the priority list: $2,500,000 to the state highway department and $9,500,000 to the state colleges for capital improvements. The other beneficiaries had to await the next leasing, which was expected to be held early in i960. The Louisiana political pot began boiling long before the rights,
date set for the filing of candidacies for nominations for state offices
Long
Democratic primary of Dec. 5, 1959. Governor by announcing that he would be
in the
raised an important issue
a candidate for renomination, despite the constitutional provision that "no governor should be his
He
own immediate
successor."
by resigning as governor just prior to filing for the nomination. After numerous conferences with his advisers, Governor Long qualified, just before proposed to evade
this provision
the Sept. 15 deadline, as a candidate for lieutenant governor,
in-
stead of for governor, on a ticket headed by former governor
James A. Noe.
A
total of 12 candidates filed for governor, but
drew because of LOUISIANA GOV. EARL LONG In
El Paso. Tex.,
mental
illness
In
looking out from behind in July 1959. Lo
Noe and Long were on Dec.
governor.
mittee he tried to get them introduced as amendments to
police F. E.
bills
legislature
II, 1959.
fiscal
then under consideration. Refusal of his legislative leaders
to introduce
such amendments enraged the governor, who then
addressed the legislature to profanity
speech
in a bitter
and vulgarity. In
in
which he resorted
a further address to the legisla-
ture he delivered another tirade similar to the preceding one.
This conduct of the governor convinced his family and political friends that
he was on the verge of a complete physical and in need of treatment in a hospital. He
mental collapse and was
was forcibly committed Tex., hospital, but
to the psychiatric
when he sought
clinic
New
of a Galveston,
release through court action,
his family consented to his release
the Ochsner clinic at
ward
on condition that he enter
Orleans for treatment.
He entered When he
but escaped and headed for Baton Rouge.
the ar-
rived there he was taken into custody and ordered committed to
the psychiatric
ward of the Mandeville
one soon with-
campaign largely devoid of
issues
state hospital. After a
few
days of confinement there he procured his release by dismissing the director of the state department of institutions and the
superintendent of the Mandeville hospital and appointing in
5.
A
rejected
by the voters in the primary elecwould decide whether
run-off on Jan. 9, i960,
DeLesseps Morrison, the mayor of New Orleans, or former governor J. H. Davis would be the Democratic candidate for
convened in regular 30-day fiscal session on Such sessions are legally restricted to a review of state finances and the adoption of a budget for the ensuing fiscal year. The governor, Earl K. Long, sought to have several nonfiscal bills introduced, and when they were rejected in com-
The
A
but replete with personalities then ensued.
where he was vacationing June
tions
May
illness.
For the
first
complete state
time
in
ticket,
many
decades the Republicans entered
headed by former superintendent of
a
state
Grevemberg.
State officers in 1959 were: Earl K. Long, governor; Lether E. Frazar, lieutenant governor; Wade 0. Martin, Jr.. secretary of state; A. P. Tugwell. treasurer;
Jack
P.
superintendent of education;
H. Odom,
William
J.
Dodd, comptroller;
J.
Gremillion. attorney general:
F.
Shelby M. Jackson,
M. Menefee
register of land office; Sidney J.
(to
May
i), George
McCrory, commis-
sioner of agriculture and immigration.
—
In the 1958-59 Session 857 public schools for whites en 301,274 elementary and 93.699 high-school pupils and employet teachers; 562 public schools for Negroes enrolled 201,034 dt mentary and 45,842 high-school pupils and employed 8,117 teachers; J3private and parochial schools lor whites enrolled 74.966 elementary an( 17,289 high-school pupils and employed 3,092 teachers; 85 private ani parochial schools for Negroes enrolled 19,638 elementary and 3,303 h'S" school pupils and employed 623 teachers; 8 state-approved nursery school and kindergartens enrolled 170 pupils and employed 14 teachers. The Stat operated 2S public trade schools in which about 30.000 men and womei received instruction. There were S state-supported colleges and universiUe for whites and 2 for Negroes; 9 privately endowed colleges and univer sities for whites and 3 for Negroes. The total state budget for public education at all levels was $212,53' 416 for the fiscal year 1958-59, compared with $208,893,881 for th fiscal year 1957-58. Education.
rolled
IS.957
—
—
LUEBKE — LUMBER Sociol Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. Total benefit payments under the Louisiana unemployment compensation law were $35,957,712 for the fiscal year 1958-59, compared with $17,612,475 for the fiscal year 1957-5S. Louisiana expended more than $156,000,000, in grants and administrative costs, on public welfare in the fiscal year 1958-59, compared with $150,000,000 in the fiscal year 1957-58. In 1959 the state maintained eight charity hospitals; three hospitals for mental patients: two tuberculosis sanitariums:- a school for white blind, a school for white deaf and a school for Xegro blind and deaf: a training school for spastic children: and a training school for the feeble-
minded.
I ;
I
i
The state maintained a prison farm for about 3.700 adult offenders: a separate correctional institution for 300 young first offenders and incorrigible juveniles; separate training schools for about 350 delinquent white boys and girls: and a training institute for about 450 delinquent Negro boys and girls. The state expenditures for maintenance, expansion and improvement of charitable and correctional institutions were about $36,000,000 for the fiscal year 1958-59, compared with $38,000,000 for the fiscal year 1957S«.
Table I.— touijiono Public Welfare Programs. 1958-59 Typo of ossistance
Average number on rolls
Old-oge pensions
124,790
Needy
3,114
blind
Dependent children
102,407 17,483 10,667 3,525 262,186
Disability ossistance
General ossistance Foster children
Tolols
Medical vendor payments Administrative expenses Total cost of
program
Cost for the fiscol year
$95,382,197 2,281,374 25,556,805 9,032,079 5,557,782 2,761,154 $140,571,391 3,123,033 12,544,100 $156,238,524
Source: Louisiana Department of Public Welfare Reportt,
—
Dmmunications. Louisiana had 47,500 mi. of rural highways and urban in 1959, of which 15.300 mi. were state-maintained 5,300 mi. paved with concrete or blacktop, the remainder graveled. Total expenditures for public highways, including federal grants-in-aid, were $135,000,000 for fiscal 1958-59, compared with $125,000,000 for 1957-58. There were 4,045 mi. of railways and 4,800 mi. of navigable waterways. There were 175 airports. 12 heliports and 39 seaplane bases in operation in 1959; 944,088 telephones were in service on Sept. i, 1959. Total tonnage handled by Louisiana's three ports for ocean-going vessels increased from 86,737,471 in 1956 to 93,039,852 in 1957; that on tbe Gulf Intracoastal waterway from 45,353,794 in r956 to 48,104,471
—
streets
1957. Banking and Finance. On Jan. I, 1959, Louisiana had 41 national banks, with total deposits of $1,818,188,000 and resources of $1,980,637,000; 145 state banks, with total deposits of $969,135,854 and resources of $1,061,778,761; 64 savings and loan associations, with total assets of $587,544,748; 366 small loan companies, with total assets of $45,568,299; and 98 credit unions, with total assets of $12,334,078. Total state income, including federal grants-in-aid, was $633,276,785 for fiscal 1958-59, compared with $618,304,347 for 1957-58. State bonded debt on July i, 1959. was about $240,000,000. Agriculture. Total value of agricultural and truck crops was estimated at $230,000,000 in 1959, compared with $225,000,000 in 1.958; total acreage harvested was 2,600,000 in 1959, compared with 2,700,000 in 1958. Total income from crops, livestock and poultry and their products was estimated at $320,000,000 in 1959, compared with $325,000,000 in 1958; from government payments $30,500,000 in 1959, compared with $29,702,000 in 195S. in
—
—
Toble
II.
Principal
Crop
495,000
Cotton (boles)
Cottonseed (tons)
Com(bu.) «ice(100-lb. bogs) Sugar cone (short Ions) Sweet potatoes (cv/i.l Irish potatoes (cwt.)
Hay
(Ions)
Ools
(bu.)
Pecans
(lb.)
peaches
(bu.)
206,000 13,497,000 12,910,000 6,298,000 5,015,000 364,000
644,000 2,263,000 20,000,000 60,000 70,000 245,000 I
Pears (bu.) Orongei (boxes) Source; U.S.
Crops of Louisiana
Indicoied 1959
Deportment of Agriculture.
1958
403
LUMBER
404
TobU IV.— Who/Mola lumbar (194;
1940 194S 1930
-49-
1935 1954 1937 1958
J4.2 SI 114.5 120.5
J
1952 1954
,
17.3
I
Toble
Pric» IndtK in the U.S.
1001
v.— Production
of Millworlr and Certain Other luildlng
Materiali
in
Iho U.S.
1,000.000 1.000,000
bd.fl.
in.
bosis
H
954
Open
5.379
6,1
994 369
sosh
E.t.rior fromei . . . . Point, varnish ond locqu
927
sq.ft.
1.000 tons
1
9S7) 1,400 (2,J00 in 1956): pineapples (1956) 114,000 (77,000 In I95S). Livestock (1958): cattle 385,000; plus 396,000; goats 375,000; shcrp (1957) 31,000; buffaloes 253,000; poultry about 12,000,000. Sawn hnrflwnod (1957) 987,000 cu.m. Fish catch (1957) 138,300 metric tons. Induitry.- Production (metric Ions, 1958): tin concentrates (metal conlent) 39,120; cement 110.400; iron ore (60% metal content) 2,844.000; lignite 67,200; bauxite (1957) 331,000; gold (1957) 312 kg.; electricity 892,800,000 kw.hr.
—
Encyclop/«[>ia Britannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: Soulh-Eail Ash and Iti Pracefui Penetration by the Chinese (fourth lecture of the series, "\ ChonxinK World in the Light of History") (1958); Malaya, Land oj Tin tjnd Rubber (1957).
Malgache Republic:
see
full legislative and executive powers. He wu by an executive council consisting of ex ofTicio and nominated members, but he was not bound by its advice. Political parties and constituted bodies in Malta protested
governor was given to be assisted
vigorously against the suspension of responsible government. The U.K. government declared that its aim was to restore representative
roHorotinn nf
^^^''
'^
^^^
possible.
provided for exemption from income tax for ten years and
The Uoll
government as soon as
In April an Aids to Industries ordinance was promulgated.
It
relief
from customs duty. The budget for 1959-60 announced an estimated revenue of £10,750,000 and expenditure of £17,250,000.
Madagascar.
Mdll, iCUCrdllOn 01. empire
,. ' '
— M A N G A N ES E
PU B LI C
name
of a
that existed
Negro Moslem
from the
nth
to
the 17th centup.' in an area of Africa situated on the upper and
was
deficit
to be
out representation.
Sudanese Republic, Upper Volta and Dahomey. Later the two refused to join.
gave
,
approval to a five-year plan for a capital develop-
his final
See Senegal, Republic of; Sudanese Republic.
to
make
This British colony and strategic base consists of a of three Mediterranean islands and three un-
Indus-
of a grant. It was proposed from Malta's own resources.
(A.G.)
Malta. group
islets, about 60 mi. south of Sicily. Area of main isMalta 94.9 sq.mi.; Gozo 25.9 sq.mi.; Comino i.i sq.mi. Total pop.: (1957 census) 319,656; (1959 est.) 324.000. Language: Maltese (of Arabic origin, with heavy overlay of SiculoItalian) English and Italian are also spoken. Official languages: Maltese and English. Religion: Roman Catholic. Principal towns
new
way
to raise a further loan of £3,000,000
inhabited
to attract
available for this purpose £29,000,-!
000, partly on loan and partly by
lands:
was
of the plan
develop tourism and carry out capital works in order to strengthen the economic position of the island. The British govtries,
ernment undertook
president of the federal assembly.
;
Education
(1958) Government schools: primary 113, pupils 55,515;! pupils 2,644; technical 10, pupils 1,445; private schools 91 17.687. Royal University of Malta: students 283, teaching slaB
secondary pupils
6,
(1957) 64. Finance and Trade. Currency: sterling. Budget (1958-59 est.): revenue. (including U.K. grants) £16,192,000, expenditure £15,013,000. Foreigo' trade (1958): imports £28,700,000, exports £4,540,000.
—
;
;
I
;
Manchuria:
(pop., 1957 census): Valletta (cap.) 18,175, excluding suburbs;
Mandated
see China. Pacific Islands: see Trust Territories.
Sliema 23,381; Pawla and Tarxien 19.097; Hamrun 17,139; Birkirkara 17,076. Administration: governor; executive council, comprising three ex officio, three nominated official and four
Mandates:
see
nominated unofficial members, presided over by the governor. Governors in 1959: Sir Robert Laycock and (from June 8) Admiral Sir Guy Grantham.
—
Trust Territories. In 1958, world production of manganese ore de
Manganese.
from that consumer of the work the statistical tables, were base(
clined nearly 1,000.000 short tons
The United States is the output. Data reported, including 1957.
largest
In Feb. 1959 the U.K. house of commons debated History. and approved a bill that restored to the crown the prerogative power to revoke the constitution of 1947 which had granted selfgovernment to Malta. The state of emergency proclaimed in 1958
on U.S. bureau of mines information.
continued until April 15 when the 1947 constitution was revoked and the Malta (Constitution) Order in Council, 1959, came into
Belgian Congo.
force.
Malta thus reverted
to the status of a
crown colony. The
Table
paradino on the island's National day, Sept. 8,
of
1959
the
Malta
Labour
party,
I.
— World Production of Manganese Ore (In
.
Brozil
Chile
Cuba Fr.
Morocco
.
.
.
Ghana
AGITATORS FOR INDEPENDENCE, members
1
In August the secretary of state for the colonies, Iain Macleod,
ment program. The aim
Modibo Keita. prime minister of the Sudanese Republic, became the head of the federal government, and Leopold Senghor
the U.K. government. Later,
some imported goods, car licences and income. This measure was strongly opposed by all political parties who protested against what they considered to be taxation with-
middle Niger. At an assembly held at Dakar on Jan. 17, 1959, this name was suggested for a federation grouping Senegal, the latter
made good by
taxes were increased on
19i3
1954
1955
195*
141.1
238.8
274.7
255.1 60.2
424.3 179.2
509.0 234.2
363.3 342.6 51.9 258.0 464.5 712.2 94.0?
59.4 277.4 469.9 889.5
Hungary .•.1,637.7 Japon 228.6 Mexico 157.4 Portuguese India 122.4 Rumonio South Africa. 964.1 Indio
.
.
.
.
.
.
S.W.Africa U.5.S.R
United Slates
.
.
Total
389.4 473.3 835.5 132.0 2,130.5 214.3 269.9 166.2 199,5 912.3 40.7
58.4
296.8 441.2 515.5 120.4 1,582.6 180.2
58.4?
346.7 453.0 604.3 105.2 1,773.6
222.4
278.0 116.8
97.3 149.5
191.1
429.8 649.5 41.9
772.9
5.4
99.0 5,115.8 157.5
34.0 54.9 5,058.5 206.1
55.2 5,228.3 287.3
10,865
12,466
11,033
11,987
88.7 4,853.5
Turkey
thousands of short tons)
1952
I
1
1,889.0
314.2 171.0? 215.8 259.1
768.4 57.3 66.0 5,443.2
1957
1958
404.6
365.C 764.2
1,011.9 59.7 148.3
541.8 718.3 132.0? 1,852.5
42.1 75.7
452.C 574.1 132.C 1,377.
fron-'
the principa
with high
'
blooc^
Among
hazards which were investigated were rapi(' murmurs, varicose veins, hardening of the arteries albuminuria, digestive disorders and nervousness. Actually ;' record of dyspepsia, indigestion, gastritis, cardiospasm am pressure.
pulse, heart
pylorospasm
offers less of a
hazard than does nervousness, par'
when such conditions as psychasthenia and nervou| indigestion occur at a young age. Medical Schools and Students. The number of applicant
ticularly
—
|
for enrollment in the medical schools of the United States seeme' to be decreasing although enrollments in colleges for the train
ing of undergraduates were increasing.
Medical school
appli'
5.1% of college graduates in 1950 and onl 4.1% in 1958. The percentage of students entering mediC' schools with an average grade of "A" was also decreasing, ani there was a decline in quantitative aptitude and scientific skill! as measured by the aptitude tests. The percentage of student cants represented
withdrawing during their freshman year
in
medical schools
ir
MEN'S FASHIONS — MERCHANT MARINE creased from
1954 and 1955 to 7.8% in 1957 and fewer students available for the second year
421
medical students in i960. Estimates indicated that expansion
and delivery of 22 new ships into service, while 6 ships were transferred to foreign flag, 19 were traded in to the government in connection with new building programs, and 7 were lost, scrapped or taken out of service. The government's loss was accounted for largely by the scrapping of old Liberty ships from the National Defense Reserve fleet. Of the total U.S. merchant fleet, 937 were active and 2,160 either temporarily inactive (121) or laid up in the government's reserve fleet (2,039). The active fleet consisted of 37 combination passenger-cargo ships, 626 freighters and 274 tankers. The active
and rehabilitation with sufficient funds would permit these schools to admit 9.400 students by 1966.
with
1958. This
5.5%
made
in
class.
The number of teachers available for the medical schools was also decreasing. The number of faculty vacancies in 1957 and 1958 was twice that reported for the period 1956 and 1957. Twenty schools reported an average need of 50 additional faculty members. In 1959 there were 86 medical schools in the U.S.. including and these would admit a total of 8.250
four two-year schools,
was clearly apparent in 1959 that there existed a shortage and of teaching facilities in the country in rela-
It
of physicians
tion to the increasing population.
States
was expected
The population of the United by 1975. At that time
to reach 235.000,000
return of 24 ships from foreign to U.S.
was 8 ships larger than the active fleet of the year before, 5 more in the government-owned fleet and 3 more in the privately owned fleet. There were 115 privately owned vessels inactive, of which 41 dry-cargo ships and 60 tankers were laid up for lack of employment, and the others were undergoing repairs fleet
or conversion.
The government's
310.000 practicing physicians would be needed to maintain the current ratio of 132 physicians for each 100,000 people. In 1959
flag,
active ships.
Of the
fleet
consisted of 35 active and 2,045 in-
active, 29
were on bareboat charter
to private
year medical schools were graduating 6.861 students yearly; the
companies. 4 were operated by general agents for the Military Sea Transportation service and 2 were owned by the Panama
:number would have to reach 10.400 per year by 1975.
Canal Co.
there were about 230.000 physicians,
and fully-developed four-
had changed the medico-economic situation was the problem of caring for students who were married. In 1956, 55% of the students were married, whereas in 1959 the number was 63%. In 195S, 24% of the married students had two or more Ichildren compared with only i29c in 1956. In fact, 7% of the
One
lig59 graduating class reported land
In the calendar year 1958 ships flying the U.S. flag carried
factor that
having three or more children,
Of 232
women
of U.S. imports. This was 10,000.000 tons less of exports and
14.000,000 tons less of imports than in the calendar year 1957. It
constituted only about
and
12%
ports and
one graduate had seven.
I
19.000.00c short tons of U.S. exports and 21,000,000 short tons
students in the class of 1959, 58% were single ^i% of the married women had one or
^nd 42Tc were married; Itnore children,
See also Allergy; Bacteriology; Biochemistry; Birth Control; Blood, Diseases of the; Cancer; Chemotherapy; Dentistry; Dermatology; Diabetes; Ear, Nose and Throat, JDiseases of; Endocrinology; Epidemiology; Eye, Diseases OF THE Hearing Heart and Circulatory Diseases HospiITals; Industrial Health; Medical Rehabilitation of the Disabled; Narcotics; Nutrition, Experimental; Psychiatry; Psychosomatic Medicine; Public Health Engineer-
16%
of total U.S. water-borne exports
of imports in 1958. a further decline from
21%
oi imports carried in 1957.
Of the
17%
of ex-
total vessels
in service, 307 were operated by 15 companies with the aid of government subsidy. The subsidies were paid by the government to make up the difference between the high U.S. cost of ship
[
;
;
;
Respiratory Diseases; Rheumatic Diseases; Stomach Intestines, Diseases of the; Surgery; Tr.4Nquilizing
|lNG;
po
Drugs; Tropical Diseases; Veterinary Medicine; Vitamins Nutrition X-Ray and Radiology,
rDBibliography.— R. ;
E. Wilson. "Technics of Human-Bone-Marrow procurement by .Aspiration From Living Donors." Xew England J. Med.. ^61:781-785 (Oct. 15. 1959): Wilder Penfield, "The Interpretive Cortex: Ihe Stream of Consciousness in the Human Brain Can Be Electrically Reictivated." Science, 129:1719-25 (June 26. 19S9>; Xorman Jolliflee. 5eymour H. Rinzler and Morton .'Vrcher, "The .\nti-Coronary Club: including a Discussion of the Effects of a Prudent Diet on the Serum Cholesterol Level of Middle-.^ged Men," Am. J. Clin. Nutrition, 7:451-462 [July-.\ug. 1959); Society of Actuaries, Build and Blood Pressure Study, (M. Fi.) J-ol. (1959). Britannica Films. .Alcoholism (1952): .Allergies [ EXCYCL0P..EDH 1,1952): Antibiotics (1952); Atom and Medicine (1952); Cancer (1953); Oejending the City's Health (1941); First Aid on the Spot (1954); Jeart Disease Its Major Causes (1955); Immunization (1955); Tuber-
—
i
—
ulosis
(1956).
Men's Fashions: see Clothing Industry; Shoe Industry.
The
Iferchant Marine.
U.S. merchant marine on Sept.
I, 1959,
totaled 3.097
i,
ocean-going mer-
hant vessels of 1,000 gross tons and over, which was 29 less
han the number in the fleet on Sept. i, 1958. Private steamship ompanies owned 1.017 of these ships and the government owned ,080. The private tleet had increased by 14 ships and the
fovernment-owned
fleet
had decreased by 43 compared with the
revious year.
The
difference in the private fleet
was accounted
for
by the
GERMAN TRAINING VESSEL
departing fn
1959. The three-masted bark carried 175
its
first
ocean voyage
MERCURY— METALLURGY
422
operation and the lower cost of foreign competitors, in order to assure adequate service for shippers
U.S.
essential
in
foreign
trade routes. In return the subsidized operators agreed not only to offer
over their assigned routes, but to provide for
adc(|uali' ser\'ice
replacement of their ships to keep their
fleets
modern. In ac-
cordance with such agreements, orders were placed during the year by live companies for a total of Si;- ,ilsn
Coast
Infernafional. the general
1
7
new
freighters.
CiI'ard. U.S.; Shipbi'ildi.nc.
— .Mlhough
M.)
(C. G.
there was a turn for the better in
volume of international sea-borne trade during 1959,
the recovery in economic activity was not sufficient to relieve the shipping industry of
its
depression. Dry-cargo
tramp
ship-
ping freight rates (as illustrated in Table I) remained at depressed levels, and
tanker freight rates remained similarly
oil
Throughout most of the year about 6,000,000 tons dead weight of dry-cargo tramps and much the same amount of tanker tonnage was laid up for want of employment. Despite a
depres,' were published during 1959, one of these, the "Ap-
—Copper-itining
and
Smelting
'950).
tion received at the "top" of the atmosphere and the variations
spectrum distribution of this radiation. These quantities which comprise the input to the atmospheric "heat engine" that drives the general circulation and represent the ultimate source in the
of those forces which produce the changes in weather, were be-
AeM
Prices and Production: see Mineral and Metal "roduciion and Prices.
yond reach of meteorologists
until space vehicles
provided the
1;
METEOROLOGY
424
In addition to fundamental studies of the earth's heat budget,
atmospheric conditions. The U.S. weather bureau reported
thai
and rockets were expected to provide data of variations in ozone and carbon dioxide content and layers in the high atmosphere which affect the earth's heat balance and there-
preliminary tests of the effects of cloud seeding on a hurricani
fore the temperatures on the ground; also the distribution of
in
satellites
active rain and
snow everywhere,
the intensity
and
vertical ex-
and perhaps extraterrestrial factors that influence the atmosphere and its weather and climate in ways still unknown. The possible import of these studies on man's welfare was given weight by a tent of severe storms, the heiRht of the freezing level
gave no evidence
of dry ice had been used successful!)
lb.
changing the course of a hurricane. Meteorologists conclude
any possible
that
had been insignificant
effect
comparisoi
in
mud'
with the colossal forces that drive a hurricane and that
more extensive cloud seeding would be needed changes
siderable
was
that
still
to cause
any con
the course of a hurricane, a possibilit]
in
just a speculation.
The Santa Barbara cloud
few research scientists who reminded the public that the causes of the ice ages with their cataclysmic changes in climate and
support of an earlier claim by another ex'
in
[icrimenter that 80
seeding project, one of the mos
life
on earth were
promising from the theoretical viewpoint, had not been as pro ductive during 1958-59 as it appeared to have been in precedinil
and
earth's
years and re-evaluations in 1959 cast
still unknown. Some hints of cosmic-solar atmosphere relationships were found in the preliminary research in data gathered during the International Geo-
elusions. Private operations in
some doubt on
rainmaking and
earlier con,
hail suppressioi'
in a few localities without any evidence that appears' modify the general conclusions published by the Americai' Meteorological society and the World Meteorological organiza tion. Because of the number of forest fires set off by lightnin;! strikes to the ground in "dry' thunderstorms, the U.S. foresi
continued
physical year 1957 5S.
—
Experimental Meteorology and Weather "Control." The status of weather modilication in 1959 was summarized in the Bulletin of the World Meteorological organization in July under the title, "Artificial Control of Clouds and Hydrometeors." A conference on weather modification by artificial means was
to
sponsored jointly by the American Society of Civil Engineers and the American Meteorological society in Denver, Colo., Aug.
velop practical methods for suppression of lightning by seedin
27-29.
Latest
techniques
methods of evaluating
for future experimentation in
The
institute
cloud seeding were discussed, were re-examined and the outlook weather modification was reviewed.
in
results
for atmospheric
(Tucson), continued
its
physics. University of Arizona
well-designed studies and tests with
the collaboration of the meteorological research staff of
The Uni-
service extended
its
experiments near Missoula, Mont., to
Tentative conclusions that cloud seeding increased the
was recognized that this woul.l from that through which lightnin discharges were increased in number during the Tucson experi' ments. Researchers at Missoula had hopeful indications but {&,
nimbus (thunderstorm)
stage. It
a technique different
call for
definite results.
Among
I
other fields of experimental meteorology and weathe!
fre-
were the atmospheric nuclei studies of the National Sciencj
quency of lightning discharges under some circumstances and that further tests under controlled experimental conditions would be necessary to determine the effects on rainfall were among
droplets, drop size distribution in clouds
the year's results of research.
sively
The U.S. navy demonstrated
for the first time that under cer-
humidity carbon black (soot) could be used
successfully to condense moisture into a thin cloud or to dissipate
clouds already
in
the
air,
the
dependent upon the different radiation
differing effects
results
being
under various
foundation and the weather bureau, the electrical charges 0; cence process. The
WEATHER
OFFICE,
a
r
public information about the weathe
:ording
opened
and forecasting centri in London in 1959
and the drop were studied
coalesl
last three in particular
exterj
England, the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. The physia
in
research laboratory of the U.S. weather bureau published papeil
on these aspects of cloud physics that were frequently
cited
il
U.S.S.R. scientific literature during the year. W'ith reference to large-scale weather control, lively discu:) sion
developed
deflect the
BRITISH
I
clouds to release their "energy" before they reached the cumulo'
modification considered and in some cases tested during 195
versity of Chicago.
tain conditions of
de|
in
warm
technical
meetings regarding proposals
tl
waters of the Japanese current by building
barrier near Bering strait, thus sending part of the current
the Arctic basin and
warming up polar regions
to
open
int:
thei-
which had cropped up anew evei' few years, was quickly attacked by scientists who pointed ot! that until meteorological knowledge of the natural controls for habitation. This scheme,
(•'
weather and climate was more adequate it would be folly undertake such a major change in ocean currents and climate b' I
cause present knowledge indicated that warming of the Arct ocean would set off a sequence of changes that would bring c-
another
ice age.
Other Developments ing.
—Hundreds
in
Weather Reporting and
Forecas.
of technical papers published during 1959
ported progress in the
many
r
different branches of meteorolof
and related atmospheric sciences. Research and development these fields had become so active and varied in subject matt that only a brief sampling can be given here.
The
necessity for adequate soundings of significant
nents or quantities throughout the atmosphere
nomena
if
comp
weather ph
comprehended and accurate The boldest approach to world-wide
are to be analyzed, fully
predicted
is
axiomatic.
servations and reports from the ground up, other than the pr
gram of meteorological
satellites
previously
described,
w
presented in' a U.S. air force systems project designated including aircraft components 460-L. Feasibility stu were conducted looking to development of aircraft equipp
AMQ-J5, ies
'
METEOR OLOGY make soundings
to
of the air above and below flight levels.
425
The high-speed computer
at the national meteorological cen-
I
Soundings from the aircraft dow-n to the surface of land or sea were designed to be taken by drop-sondes which had ser\-ed for this purpose for the past several years in Arctic and North Pacific ocean reconnaissance flights. Soundings above the aircraft would
made by balloons or rockets discharged from the aircraft in Numerous squadrons of weather reconnaissance aircraft
be
flight.
.
would
so equipped
I
criss-cross the oceans
providing
thus
tinents,
soundings
daily
and unrestricted conof the atmosphere
throughout.
By mid- 1 959
,
the intensive studies under this project had ad-
and in some phases equipment had been completed but work was curtailed by shortage of funds and shift of militarj' emphasis from aircraft to missiles. At the end of the year not only was the ad-
vanced close to the stage of practical design
I
tests of
;
,
tre,
Suitland, Md., enabled research meteorologists to refine the
methods of weather forecasting by numerical process but because of inadequate data, indeterminate variables omitted from the equations and the very complexity of cause and effect in weather changes, progress was relatively slow. The high-speed computer was indispensable also in testing hypotheses relating to the general circulation of the
on large
theories
scale
atmosphere which in turn apply also to weather control. These studies involve
unknown quantities representing changes in the earth's heat and water budgets and especially the role of ocean-atmosphere exchanges of energy in various forms. On the assumption that regions where abnormal heat exchange occurs between ocean and
storm development, the National Acad-
air are likely places for
emy
of Sciences committees on meteorology and oceanography
vanced 460-L project delayed but also curtailed were the aircraft
had recommended more intensive research programs
assigned to regular hurricane reconnaissance. Increased accuracy
interface problems.
and timeliness of warnings of hurricanes in recent years had come in large part through early detection and tracking of these
As examples of the large number and variety of problems that were studied by research meteorologists with a view to applica-
in these
I
j
;
by reconnaissance aircraft. Meantime the U.S. weather bureau, acting on authority from congress, was read>'ing two DC-6 aircraft and one B-57 for its national hurricane research project. These were planned to opdestructive storms
I
j
under contract as flying laboratories to gather storm data
erate
would lead
for analysis that
to
more
definite predictions. It
was
tions of interest to the general public w'ere the following, pub-
lished in
August
in the
nal of Meteorology:
American Meteorological
"A numerical experiment
society's Jour-
for Squall-line
Formation," "Some Objective Six-Hour Predictions Prepared by Statistical
Methods," "Distribution of Surface Friction
in
Hur-
ricanes" and "Origin of Hurricane Spiral Rain Bands.''
I
planned to use these aircraft for probing other kinds of atmos-
I
pheric disturbances, including squall
lines
and thunderstorms
j
'.
Statistical evaluation gained
which generate tornadoes, as well as for research in hurricanes
ticians at Big
and sudden secondary cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico.
critical
A
noteworthy achievement
[launching of a radio beacon
hurricane and
its
October was the successful
in
free balloon into
use for tracking the
movement
the eye of a of the centre
emphasis
in its meteorological ap-
plications as a result of the Skyline conference of leading statis-
Meadows,
recommended more use of in
meteorology
editorial
— such
critical
May. There they applied more
Va., in
of cloud seeding experiments and
tests of the results
statistics in evaluating other findings
as the accuracy of weather forecasts.
An
of unproved methods of long-range weather
I
]
i
;
about 24 hours. This test in Hurricane "Hannah" equipment that had been under development for several years
for a period of
forecasting appeared in the monthly magazine Weather (Royal
of
Meteorological society, London) in September, and an article
indicated regular use of this additional
canes at sea.
The
means
for tracking hurri-
constant-level balloon or "transosonde" pat-
jtemed after the transpacific balloons used by the Japanese during
World War II in their efforts to set fire to forests in western and developed by the U.S. na\-y for experimental soundlings of the atmosphere across the Pacific, North America and i
jU.S.,
more data during 1959 of value in air mass stream studies. However, because of high costs
the Atlantic, provided janalysis (these
A
and
jet
soundings were discontinued in the latter half of the year.
was published in the Journal of Geophysical Research, pp. 1845-53 (Nov. 1959). A vigorous program for mechanizing the observing, reporting land analysis of sj-noptic weather conditions for airport and air jUavigation purposes throughout the U.S. was launched in 1959 by joint action of the air force, the national aviation agency land the weather bureau under a plan known as project 453-L. rejwrt of results
[Designed to jing, lall
make completely automatic
the function of obser\'-
communicating and processing into the flight control system weather data for aircraft take-off, flight and land-
essential
would develop the use of present automatic and connect these with long lines teletype (feeding into high-speed automatic computers at selected air !trafl&c control centres. A full-scale test of the system was ex|ing,
this project
jweather stations
pected to be in operation in certain eastern states within four years.
During the year 1959 further progress was made in the development and use of radar for detecting and tracking storms and for other meteorological purposes. In a paper on 'New Developjments
in
Observations and Instrumentation in the Weather
Bureau," published in the
November
Bulletin of the American
on the "Power Spectrum Analysis of Climatological Data for Woodstock College, Maryland," published in the Monthly Weather Review (Washington, D.C.) in August served to question claims for a locality based
was
briefly re\aewed.
for that
Under the program of international geophysical co-operation which continued in part the program of data collecting provided during the International Geophysical year, the surface
weather observations and upper
air soundings from an ice island and numerous other land stations in the arctic and antarctic were continued during 1959 and the reports de-
in the arctic
posited in the world data centres (one at Asheville, N.C.
)
where
they were available for scientists in their studies of global conditions
which must be considered
in developing
methods
for long
range weather forecasting.
"Discomfort Index."
—A "tempest
in a teapot" was stirred up and June undertook to inform the public of conditions of high humidity that affected personal comfort. Although many persons showed interest in favour of the reports and forecasts expressing the humidity factor in terms of a discomfort index, the majority appeared to feel that this information merely added to their discomfort. The daily press throughout the country picked up the controvers}' and eventually the weather bureau changed the name of the factor to the Temperature-Humidity index (T-H index) and issued the information only in localities where requested. The T-H index was based on an empirical equation developed by professional engineers after extensive study of the reactions
when
the weather bureau in
May
of individuals to different conditions of humidity.
formula
T-H in
The simple
is:
Meteorological Society, recent progress in weather radar r.nd pther meteorological instruments
method of very long-range forecasting
on sunspot cycles.
which T^
is
index
=
o.4(Tj
-I-
T„)
-t-
15
the dry-bulb temperature and
T„
the wet-bulb
METEOROLOGY
426
was found that relatively few persons were uncomfortable from heat and humidity when the T-H index stayed below 70. About 50% of the population became uncomfortable when the index reached 75 and most persons found the heat and humidity uncomfortable when the tem|>eraturc, each in dcRrecs Fahrenheit.
The
index reached 80.
various localities
in
highest index noted in sampling data for
the U.S. was gj. Examples of the index
puted by the above formula are; If T^ the index iiuicx
is
is
approximately
almost
It
70. If
Tj
is
is
85° and T„,
95° and
T„
is
com-
is
52°
67° the
.So.
—
Hurricanes and Typhoons. In Table I are listed the tropical cyclones in the West Indies, Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico which reached hurricane force or sutliciently close to it to have Toble
1
Some Vagaries
of
Weather During
1959.
—On
the whole,
was several degrees colder than usual in eastern two-thirds of the U.S., and very heavy snowfall was
the winter of 1958-59 the
recorded in several localities. Denver, Colo., had a total of more [than 100 '"•
IIS
in.
I**
during the winter and Buffalo, N.Y., had more than May. Kansas had 44 tornadoes, 20 hailstorms and
prolonged heavy rains which produced serious flash-floods in
I
many
I
localities.
In Louisiana, heavy rains resulting from Hur-
"Arlene" gave rainfall depths totaling 10
in. or more May. In contrast, California was warmer and drier than usual during |the first half of 1959. Near the Grand canyon the Colorado river
Iricane I
within a few days during
I
jin
was
April
at lower stage than for 37 yr. In
up
iover Seldon, Kan., brought drifts spots.
During August heavj' rains
to 3 or 4
June a hailstorm ft. deep in some
Alaska caused wash-outs
in
land landslides that destroyed roadbed
and bridges on parts of
Alaskan railway. In October exceptionally early snowfall
|the
much damage
to power lines and trees still There followed in November sev'eral severe outbreaks of arctic air with temperatures so low that inew all-time records for cold in November and December were ^established in many localities from Canada and Montana to
|in
Colorado caused
especially in Denver.
lin leaf,
Texas.
On Nov.
12, 1959. a cold
acteristics of
wave headlined
as "having the char-
mid-winter" spread over the Dakotas, Nebraska
The following week several days heavy rain over the Pacific northwest caused serious flooding
and Iowa, with heavy snows. of
north of Seattle and destroyed tlonged
heavy
flooding.
rains
much
property. In Florida pro-
Miami) caused much
(totaling 11 in. near
November was extremely stormy
Europe, with gales
in
GRETNA METHODIST CHURCH, LOUISIANA, firm of
Lawrence and Saunders, was
tects in
in
blizzards.
Much damage
and considerable
to shipping
loss of life
denomination's
first
Conference on
Methodist university
resulted.
Weather Bureau, World Meteorological Organization,
I
designed by the architectural American Institute of Archi-
cited by the
1959
two different storms exceeding 100 m.p.h. Scotland reported
—During
1959 the national meteorological services of the weather bureau were expanded and among other research jreports its nth Interim Report on Thunderstorms and other
in
Dallas,
Human Tex.,
regional groups held convocations in jurisdiction in Atlanta, Ga., Feb. 17-19,
|Q.S.
jurisdiction in
organization held
logical
kpril with 89 of the 102
its
The World Meteoro-
member
states
and
territories repre-
and Flood ConIntern ation.al Geophysical Co-opera-
See also Antarctica; Disasters; Floods
I
k'ROL;
riON
Ten
Geography;
— 1959;
Space Exploration.
(F.
W.
Rr.)
—
Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Atmosphere and Its Circulation 194s); Distributing Heat Energy (1938); The Weather (1941).
from mission lands were invited
visiting evangelists
to
the U.S. during Oct. and Nov.
Teams
sented.
Two
4.
the Southeastern
25. 1961.
Geneva during
third congress in
1959.
and the South Central Kansas City, Mo., April 7-9. The tenth World Methodist conference was to be held in Oslo, Nor., Aug. 17-
|»tc.
ktmospheric disturbances was published.
Relations at Southern
Aug. 31-Sept.
in
1959 for a preaching mission. of U.S. ministers and laymen carried on evangelistic tours
Malaya, the Philippines, Japan, and Central and South AmerIn October 400 Methodist ministers from 40 states aided
ica.
400 southern California pastors in visitation evangelism resulting in 12.382 new church members. Theological seminary enrollments advanced lo"^ over the pre-
number of 6S0 receiving degrees in 1959. new graduate divinity schools, the National Method-
vious year, a record
The 175th anniversary
MM\%\
Church.
1959 of the founding of the Methodist Episcopal
Church was observed on December Sundays
in
in
nearly
all
of the
Methodist Church. The commemoration Vas of the "Christmas Conference" in Baltimore in 17S4 which ^9,236 churches of the
Drought
into
one compact,
(ocieties resulting
connectional
from the pioneer
body the scattered Wesleyan
itinerants of the
The Methodist Church held several
(neetings
significant
and planned others. The National
conference
ist
of two
Theological seminary in Kansas City, Mo., opened in Sep-
The
Methodist Theological seminary in open in i960. The cornerstone was laid in June for a $5,000,000 plant in Claremont, Calif., for the Southern California school of theology. The Alaska Methodist tember.
Worthington,
other,
0..
was
the
to
university in Anchorage for which the cornerstone
was
laid
July 12, was to be open to a class of 450 in Sept. i960.
povement. j
One
met
in
quadrennial
Town and Country
Wichita. Kan., July 21-24. Plans were studied
During the year the 229 Methodist hospitals and homes cared for 1,528,613 persons; 14
new homes for older home were added.
people, one
new
hospital and one children's
thereby several pastors could serve not one but a group of as-
The church-owned Methodist publishing house reported a new
Reports were presented on inquiries into
high in annual net sales of $25,616,249. Mail subscriptions to
jociated congregations. jhe beliefs I
of ministers and laymen.
The National Convocation of Methodist Youth, another quadennial gathering, brought 6,000 to Purdue university Aug. 248. The program ranged from world peace and theology to atempts to put historic liturgies into dramatic and even jazz forms. Ten general agencies of the church jointly sponsored the
Together, the family monthly, passed 1,000,000 in November.
A new
40-page monthly magazine for church musicians. Music
Ministry, appeared in October.
Colour motion-picture
films,
one on problems of interfaith
marriages, the other on alcohol and
The
television series,
traffic safety,
were released.
"Talk Back," combining drama and
dis-
427
.
METROPOLITAN AREAS — MEXICO
428 cussion, appeared on 70 stations.
A new
was launched
series
in
Bishop Marvin A. Franklin, Jackson. Miss., was elected presiin April. Bishop Gerald Kennedy.
dent of the Council of Bishops
Los Angeles, on April
Calif.,
president-designate,
was
to
succeed him
Bishop Roy H. Short, Nashville, Tenn., was
21, i960.
secretary. Statistics for 1959 of the Methodist Church: members, 9,815,459 (not including 1,536,419 preparatory members); ministers, 27,750; churches, 39,236; church school members, 7,154,254; local
women's
local
societies, 31,864;
men's organizations,
11,-
209; value of buildings, $2,555,838,779; benevolent giving, $75.-
498,724; paid for
all
(an increase of
purposes, $512,164,658
$28,679,341 from the preceding year).
Church Membership.
Sec also
Metropolitan Areas: '^
Movipn
lYlCAIUU. British
see
(R. Sy.)
City and Regional Planning.
federal republic of
Middle America lying between
and Guatemala and Honduras on the south, Mexico has an area of 760.373 the United States on the north
sq.mi. Pop.
Chief
January the new administration announced the largeil in Mexican history for the calendar year; $750,000,000 This was raised in July when Lopez Mateos approved an inIn
budget
October.
(1950 census)
cities (pop.
25.791,017, (est.
1950 census, 1958
est. in
1959) 33,304.000.
parentheses
I
:
Mexico
crease of $29,680,000 for a total of $779,680,000. In May the government announced a drive to streamline 28^ government agencies. Officials estimated that $160,000,000 coulti be saved annually by trimming bureaucratic waste and remodel ing agencies along the lines of private enterprise.
Following an incident on Dec. 31. 1958, air force planes reportedly strafed
Mexican
in
which Guatemala!
fishing boats ailegedlj
Guatemalan waters. Mexico broke off diplomatic rela Guatemala. Three Mexican fishermen were reportet killed and 14 injured, and a number of vessels were badl;| damaged. Restoration of relations with Guatemala was an; nounced by Lopez Mateos in Sept. 1959. (See also Guatemala. Strife in Mexican railroad unions in February and March le< to the arrest of Demetrio V'allejo. Communist leader of the 60,' ooo-member National Railway Workers union, and 500 othe union leaders and members. They were charged with subversion Two members of the Soviet embassy diplomatic staff were ousted by the Mexican government in the wake of the railroad disturb! fishing in
tions with
',
1
ances. Capt. Nikolai V. Aksenov, military attache, and Nikolai
M. Remisov. second
secretary of the embassy, were expelle'
Mexican government charged them with involvemen, the strikes. Four more embassy personnel later left voluntaril;j
City (cap.), 2,234,795 (3,448,218); Guadalajara 377.016 (444.-
after the
139); Monterrey 333.422 (426.573); Puebla 211,331 (252.803); Mexicali 64,609 (148,336); Tijuana 59,952 (137,644); Merida 142.858 (168.767) Torreon 128,971 (159,358) San Luis Potosi
in
after similar charges.
The
[
(110,584); Saltillo 69,842 (86,298); Morelia 63.245 (73.172); Pachuca 58.658 (63.304). Language: Spanish, with estimated S.6% (1950) speaking Indian tongues only. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1959: Adolfo Lopez
Mexico and the United States exchange visits during 1959. In February. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhowei went to Acapulco at the invitation of Lopez Mateos. Lope, Mateos repaid the courtesy the following October, visiting Wask' ington. Chicago and New York. The Mexican chief executive alsl visited Canada on the same tour. In a joint statement followinl the Acapulco meeting, the two executives termed the event "; meeting between friends." They agreed that their govemmenlj
Mateos
should consult further on various questions.
;
;
125,662 (150,834) Leon 122,726 (148,081) Ciudad Juarez 122,566 (220,000); Veracruz 101,221 (121,408); Tampico 94.345 (134.204); Aguascalientes 93,358 (105,143); Chihuahua 87,000 ;
(g.v.).
History.
—The
Mateos started stantial
;
budget
its
new administration
of
six-year term on Dec.
deficit inherited
formed observers said the
deficit
Pres. i,
Adolfo Lopez
1958. with a sub-
from the previous regime. Inwas traceable largely to inept
presidents of
During
his
United States tour, Lopez Mateos spoke before
tions. In a blunt
statement before the O.A.S. he asserted ,
the organization's w^ork had not measured
He
expectations.
roads of Mexico and Petroleos Mexicanos.
satisfied the legitimate aspirations of
Acapulco. Feb. 19. 1959. Later with a trip to the U.S. at
In
oreeting U.S. President Eisenhower the year Lopez Mateos repaid the visit
said the O.A.S.'s
they have placed
fidence
in
up
economic
operation of such nationalized properties as the National Rail-
PRESIDENT LOPEZ MATEOS OF MEXICO
th
Organization of American States (O.A.S.) and the United Ni tbi\
to Latin America efforts
"have
our peoples nor the
our organization."
He
said
n(>
cot' th
',
which was hastened by the Suez war and the ensuing crisis of the economic blockade.
The celebration
July 1959 of the seventh anniversary of overthrew the Egyptian monarchy was ac-
in
companied by the announcement of record expenditures, in both United Arab Republic, for social services and for
parts of the
larger national incomes,
which would be distributed
to realize a socialist
I
librium and stability, in the national
!
in a
manner
co-operative society and to secure equi-
I
j
more on
Kassem was
U..-^.R.,
the support of the communists,
On the other hand, Kassem did not wish the communists to take over or to gain a determining influence. Under these cir-
•the revolution that
I
forced to rely more and
were intended to increase the agricultural acreage. Equally important was the progressive industrialization of the
hard-currency
i
operation, and perhaps union, with the
from the rapid increase of population in a heavily overpopulated country, on the other. The Aswan dam and the drilling of deep artesian wells
i
433
the strong forces in Iraq which supported close co-
who gained a growing influence among Iraqi students and labour and organized a number of front organizations which were able to mobilize masses for resolutions and demonstrations following the communist line.
arable land to be put under cultivation,
i
As against
Egj-pt
economy. More than onewas earmarked for production and economic development projects, more than twice the amount earmarked for such projects in the preceding fourth of the U.A.R. budget of $1,700,000,000
year.
A
far-reaching agrarian reform had been under
since 1958, trialization
and Syria, program.
too,
Egyptian-Iraqi Rivalry.
was
to
walk a tightrope
in
an often and quickly
By the end of March 1959 the communists were reported to have carried through a great purge in the Arab world and to have suppressed Collins,
Iraq. This
Mosul,
all
opposition in a ruthless drive, according to Larry other U.S. correspondents was expelled from
who with in
communist advance was the result of an uprising in which the Arab nationalist Baath party was involved.
The
uprising failed and led to increased tension between Cairo and Baghdad, which accused Nasser of having instigated the uprising. At the beginning of April it seemed that the Communist
party was well advanced on the road to taking over the leading role in Iraq. Nasser attacked communist influence in Iraq, and
from the new indus-
Arab affairs in general, with great vehemence. The Soviet Union granted economic aid totaling 550,000,000 rubles to Iraq,
played a large role in the
modernization of agriculture and partly for the building of a new
to benefit
— Syria
way
cumstances he had changing scene.
in Syria
in
to be used partly for the building of
new
factories
and for the
between Eg>-pt and Iraq for leadership in the .\rab world. Historically and geographically Syria was more closely linked with Iraq. Both countries form part of what is called the "fertile crescent." the land between the Persian gulf and the Red sea which until 1918 formed part of the Ottoman empire,
soon revealed themselves as being overly optimistic.
and borders on the Arabian desert. After 1918 there were several
paign for seats in the cabinet. Foreign Minister
attempts to bring Iraq and Syria, and also Jordan, into closer
declared that Iraq's foreign policy was aimed at keeping clear of
struggle
unity.
On
the other hand, Syria has no
Egypt and not
much
of
common
common
in past histor>'.
frontier with
The union
of
Egypt and Syria into the United Arab Republic was undertaken 1958 to forestall the danger of growing communist influence in
in
which the Arab Syrian nationalists feared. The situation changed with the July 1958 revolution in Iraq. From that time communist influence increased in Iraq, and at times seemed to become dominant. It turned above all against the bourgeois Arab nationalism represented by the United Arab Republic. To gain Syria would immensely strengthen Iraq's stand in its competition with Eg>-pt. The struggle between Eg>'pt and Syria,
Iraq
is
a threefold struggle: a traditional struggle
between Cairo
and Baghdad, between the Xile valley and Mesopotamia, for the jcontrol of the
middle
{regard
men
themselves as
which goes back to Biblical between two strong leaders, who both
east, a struggle
Itimes; a personal struggle
called
a poHtical and moral revival
!to
gle
:
upon
to guide the .\rab nations
and. finally, an ideological strug-
between a noncommitted Arab nationalism and what might be an Arab national communism.
called
Unrest a
in Iraq.
—After the revolution of July 1958 there were
number of violent
in Iraq, in
flare-ups
and
reshufllings of the
government
the midst of which the personal popularity of Premier
Kassem was the one constant factor. Kassem's former right-hand man. Col. Abdul el-Salem Aref, who led the July revolution with [him. was arrested on Nov. 4. 195S. Originally deputy premier and limperial minister, he lost his cabinet posts on Sept. 3. after having ireportedly split with Kassem over the relationship of Iraq and
transmitter of equal strength to that of Cairo.
However, any communist expectations of taking over Iraq
May. Kassem rebuked
of
upon
his wishes, to insist
participation in the cold
and
The
ment of fomenting trouble and
Iraqis accused Nasser's governstirring unrest in Iraq.
cam-
war through nonalignment with any
ex-
British government seemed convinced that there was a chance of keeping Iraq outside of the communist orbit and decided therefore to supply arms to Iraq. fair
On
July 14, 1959. the
sem promised
first
anniversar>' of the revolution. Kas-
to restore political life in Iraq. Political parties,
he would be allowed to resume activities by Jan. 6. i960, and elections would be held later on so that a new parliament could said,
meet by July 14. i960. After communist violence in the northern Iraq oil town of Kirkuk, public opinion seemed to turn against the communists, so much so that at the beginning of August the Iraqi communist party condemned itself for "criminal acts, emotionalism and miscalculations." But this setback to communist influence was balanced by the execution, on Sept. 20. of 13 leading Iraqi army officers and 4 civilians who were involved in the Mosul uprising of March, among them Brig. Gen. Nadhim Tobakchali. who was commander of the army's second division stationed at Mosul. In the United officers
were canonized as
political
Arab Republic the
e.xecuied
martyrs to the cause of .Arab
nationalism.
Thus the dispute between Cairo and Baghdad showed no sign Kassem and the Communist party continued to follow a policy of watchful coexistence. These two tensions the one between Iraq and Egypt, and the other within Iraq itself represented by the end of 1959 the element of greatof abating; and in Iraq.
—
—
est instability in the
middle
east.
The Fate of the Baghdad Pact.
—After the July revolution
the
(before the people's court.
its
The
|i959 Aref jand
for
isting bloc.
of 195S. Iraq remained officially though inactively a
and Rashid Ali el-Gailani. an old time Iraqi nationalist revolutionary-, were con\-icted of treason in a secret hearing
the end
Hashem Jawad
U.A.R. Aref wished a close union between the two countries, Iwhereas Kassem was determined to keep Iraq separate. In Jan. jthe
By
the communists for continuing, against legal status as a party
Baghdad
pact,
linked Iraq to Britain.
treaty against the spread of
March
24, 1959, Iraq
member
of
up in Baghdad and Pakistan, Iran and Turkey in a defensive
which was originally
communism
withdrew
ofl&cially
set
in the
middle
from the
pact.
east.
On
The
re-
434
MIGRATION — MINERAL AND METAL PRODUCTION AND PRICES
maininK members, however, continued
it, and its three Asian and Turkey signed separate defense pacts with the United Slates on March 5, in Ankara, Turk, The
membcr.s
—
—
Iran, Pakistan
pacts provided that, in the event of aggression against any of the three countries, the United States would take such appropriate action, including the use of
armed
agreed upon. The pact changed
Treaty organization, or
its
forces, as
name
Central
CENTO.
The Middle East and North Africa. streni;tlu'ncil nuitual relations
world. Cairo regarded
might he mutually
officially to the
itself
—The
Nasser, The Philosophy of the Revolution, with a bioxraphical sketch by John Ounlher 1959); Willon Wynn, Xaiier o) Egypt the Search /or l)if nily (1959); Sir John Glubb, hritam and the Arabs (1959;; David H Finnic, Desert Enterprise: the Middle East Oil Industry in Its Local Environments ( 1959); John Marlowe, The Seat ol Pilate 1959); ".Vationil. ism in the .Middle East," Current History (Feb. 1959); Charles hsawl ".Veuolialions From Strcnuthi' A Reappraisal o( Western-Arab Relations'' (
(
International AtJairs (Jan. 1959K .Nasrollah S. Falcmi, 'The Roots o( Arab Nationalism," OrAiJ (Winter 1959)1 Charles-Henri Favrod, R(v». lution algirienne, (1959). (H. Ko
U
—
)
E.NcvcLop^DiA Bbitannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: The Arab and Future; The Arab World's Case Against the West; Tkt Arab World's Reaction Against Western Rule; Why Prompt Peace SetlUments in Algeria and Palestine Are in Everybody's Interest; Suggestions lor Peace Settlements in Algeria and Palestine (8-12 lectures of the series "A Changing World in the Light of History") (1958); David lien-Gurion ("The Wisdom Series") (1958); The Middle East (1955); Planning Oar Foreign Policy (Problems of the Middle East) (1955). H'orld's Past
Algerian war
hetwcon the two parts of the Arab
not only as the centre of the Arab
world but more and more as a leading .Xfrican capital;
it
was. in
on the .African continent. The council of the Arab league agreed on Oct. 18, 1958, to assess its ten members fact, the largest city
$34,000,000 to support the .Mgerian war of independence, a six times larger than that allotted to Algeria a year before.
government declared on
sum The
had allocated the sum of $5,600,000 to the .Algerian government, the premier of which, Ferhat .Abbas, was then visiting Baghdad. The Algerian Iraqi
fighters for
.•Xpril
26 that
it
independence were, however, not only supported by by the independent nations of Africa,
the .\rab league but also
which included, besides the two new states of Ghana and Guinea, the older states of Ethiopia and Liberia. See also Armies of the World; United Nations. Bibliography.— S.vdney Ncitldon Fisher, The Middle East (19S9I; W.ilter Z. 1.,-iqueur. Tlie Soviet Union and the Middle East (1959); "Communist Infiltration in the Middle East," The Listener (kug. 28, 1958); Faycz \. Savegh, Arab Unity, Hope and Fulfillment (1958); Caractacus, Revolution in Iraq: an Essay in Comparative Public Opinion (1959); Stephen Hemsley Longrigs and Frank .Stoakes. Iraq (1958): Rom Landau. Islam and the Arabs (i9S9); Tom Little, Egypt (1958); Gamal .\bdel
Migration:
see Im.micratio.\
and Naturalization; Refu-
gees.
MiJbanlt Memorial Fund:
see Societies
and Associationi
U.S.
Milk:
see
Dairy Products.
Mineral and Metal Production and Prices. In 11)58, world i)roduttion of many mineral commodities made new records, according to data of the U.S. bureau of mines. A survey revealed new^ highs for 12 of the 63 mineral items for which production data were compiled from no countries. The United States continued to lead the world in mineral output by a wide margin. It ranked first in the production of 29 of the 63 commodities covered. The U.S. was displaced as the leading
pro-
ducer of four commodities; coal (U.S.S.R.), iron ore (U.S.S.R.),
1
MINERAL AND METAL PRODUCTION AND PRICES °"I
r
1
~
I
;:•
"-
I
1
435
1
f[
il°SI
I"!
I
I
M
I
I
I
I
MS|
I
i
1
I
I
I
I
1=1*
I
1
INI
sI'^lll'Slll-l
I
S|fiS
III=1I1"MS|M~II
lll"i"MIIII|S||||
==11111
S22|
I
I
=
I
iC
I
I
I
S "S
I
I
I
1111111=2 1111=1111
=-liSl°
SSg SSR
I
i
I"
'I
l|g
||g
"I
as
I
M
11
I
M
11
I
I
"iiiiiiiii
1°-
1
iais£i
I
'"i=-l°lllll
~1 1»-=S |g
III
M"
M
I
I
I
1
II
"
1
I
I
I
II
I
1
I5I
|r
Ig
IS
I
I
11
1
I
Se
i
g lS|
I
1113^1
II
11
I
I
M M
1
11 11 11
aSM
"i^i
M
I
I
gi
I
1
1
1
III
=8'"ae|sg=s
lo-gi
I
o
I
I
1
1
I
I
igr s-
::^isi
gii
.
I
I
M
;
I
I
"11*1-11 SI
""-I
s|is~sli I
I^S;
I
I
I I
I'
I
~-i
I
I
I
I
I
II
I
I
I
I
M "5" I
I
-I
n 11511
s'
1
1
1|
-S
I'
i
MINERALOGY — MINNESOTA (Australia) and zinc (Canada). Prices in world markets were
fead
ower than in 1957 but were quite stable over most of the year, .with
some increase
in the last quarter of the year.
In the United States, the volume of mineral production de-
i
8%
clined
1958 affecting
in
all
major groups except non-
the
Among the metal declines were: copper about 10% lead nd zinc 23^ and iron ore i6'^c- Gold and silver output reached
inetais.
;
;
1946. However, uranium ore output increased and was valued at $116,515,000 as against $82,627,119 e lowest level since
In 1957-
with rare earths, from Japan, by T. Muto, R. Meyerowitz, A. M, Pommer and T, Murano (ibid., 44:633-650); shuettite, a basic
mercuric sulfate, HgS04.2H20, from various western states, by E. H. Bailey, F. A. Hildebrand, C. L. Christ and J. J. Fahey (ibid.,
C. 0.
The value of mineral output in the U.S. in 1958 was $16,526,compared with $18,113,000,000 in 1957. Metals ac-
;
000,000, as
437
from California, by T. C. McBurney and J. Murdoch (ibid., 44:839-8431; hellyerite, a nickel carbonate, XiCOj.eHoO. from Tasmania, by K. L. Williams, I. M. Threadgold and A. W. Hounslow (ibid., 44:533-538); ningyoite, a uranous phosphate
44:1026-38); yavapaiite. KFe('S04')2- from Arizona, by Hutton (ibid., 44:1105); novakite. (Cu.Ag)4As3. from
Riesengebirge. East Germany, by Z. Johan and
J.
Hak (Chemie
der Erde, 20:49-50),
bounted for the greatest drop, 25%, and solid fuels were down fO%. Since the prices of the nonmetals were only slightly below
See also Mineral and
Metal Production and
Prices.
(L. S. Rl.)
,
the 1957 level, \-irtually all the decrease in value reflected reductions in output.
Total emplo>-ment in the mineral industries was
However, there was a definite upturn p production in the latter part of 1958 which extended into 1959. The output of primary- aluminum, higher in the first seven nonths of 1959, dropped in later months. Copper output was
substantially lower in 1958.
Mining:
Mineral and Metal Production and
see
A
'
jiigher
than in 195S for the
seven months, but then dropped
first
harply. partly because of strikes.
unning at a lower rate by ier
fall
Gold and
silver output
were
because of reduced output at cop-
mines and smelters. Lead was running at a higher rate in
959, a
somewhat
illusorj' increase,
because 1958 output had been its low
he lowest in 60 years. Likewise zinc showed gains over
was
Prices.
See also under various minerals.
Minnesota. blue
waters,"
north central state of the United States, Min-
is known by various names "Land of sky"Land of 10.000 lakes," "Gopher state" and
nesota
:
"North Star state." Until the admission of Alaska as one of the United States, the northwest angle of Minnesota beyond Lakeof-the-Woods was the northernmost land in the United States. In area, Minnesota
the 12th state of the union, containing
is
84,068 sq.mi., of which 4.059 sq.mi. are water. Pop.:
(July
i,
down, as a result of the 116-day steel trike. Iron ore production and shipments, which were already unning behind 1958 in July, dropped sharply in the next two
1959 pro\-isional estimate) 3,399.000; (1950 census) 2.982,483 of which 54.5'^ lived in cities of 2.500 or more. The three largest cities were (1950 pop.): Minneapolis 521,718; St. Paul, the
aonths.
capital city, 311,349;
ate of 195S. Steel
far
See Geological Survey, U.S., and separate articles on the arious mineral commodities for further details,
History.
(F. E, H,; B. B.
The
general meeting of the International
first
Mineralogical association since ladrid. Spain, in
its
founding in
1958 was held at ZiJrich, Switz., Aug. 31-
1959. Delegates
ept. 3.
M.)
from 16 countries were present. The
rogram consisted of two s\Tnposia. "Alpine Fissure Minerals" nd "Twinning." and two
field trips to
Swiss mineral
The German Mineralogical society celebrated
—
pand with the development and opening of several new industries in the state and the expansion of existing industry. The Pearson Candy Co. opened a new $1,000,000 plant in St. Paul, and in Minneapolis the McGill Graphic Arts Center, a multi-million dollar industry',
moved
into a
the American National
new
bank of
one-storv- building. In .August
St.
Paul opened
its
$1,000,000,
three lane drive-in bank.
On
localities.
Sept. 17. dedication ceremonies were held for the
new
$8.-
50th anni-
000.000 State Centennial building, another step in the State
ersary with a special edition of Fortschritte der Mineralogie.
Capitol Approach improvements; and on Sept. 27. the comer-
"his
its
contained three articles on "Developments During the Last
Years
in
Germany and
the
World'
stone of the
The
as follows: "Crj'stallog-
histor>'
sh society and the Mineralogical Society of .\merica. It was
building
by
elberg;
nder the editorship of
J.
At the 40th annual meeting of the Mineralogical Society of Pittsburgh. Pa., Felix Machatschki of the University f Vienna was the i8th recipient of the Washington .\. Roebling ledal. awarded for outstanding achievement in mineralog\'. The nnual award of the society was given to H. F. W. Taylor of iinerica at
Aberdeen university, Aberdeen, Scotland.
Among
the
new minerals
first
described in 1959 were the fol-
Comwall. Eng.. by G. F. Claringbull.
Cu5rAS04):>COH
M. H. Hey and R.
14.
J.
from Da\-is
CaO. SrO. V2O3. H.O. from Colorado, by M. E. Thompson and A. M. Sherwood American Mineralogist, 44:261-265); gowerite, CaO. 3B2O3. H,,0. from California, by R. C, Erd, J. F. McAllister and H.
\Mineralogical Magazine, 32:1-5); delrioite.
.
mond
{ibid.,
library building
was
laid.
was held
in 1959, lasting
from April 25 to July
pute between conservatives and liberals over the tax the cause.
A
tax
bill
1:
a dis-
bill
was
passed in the closing hours of the special
session increased taxes on income, cigarettes, liquor, cigars, pipe
tobacco, iron ore. inheritance and gifts. As one of
its last
acts
before adjournment the legislature passed a $52,022,080 state bill,
more than S6.ooo.ooo was included
of which
for
expansion of the University of Minnesota on the west side of the
Phemister. of Edinburgh. Scot.
bwing: comubite. a copper arsenate.
new Minneapolis Public
longest special session of the legislature in the state's
F. Laves, Zurich; "Mineralogy," by P. Ramdohr. Heiand "Petrography," by E. Troger, Freiburg im Breisgau. Mineralogical Abstracts, published by the Mineralogical Solely of Great Britain and Ireland, was printed as part of the lineralogical Magazine for 13 years. Volume 14 was appearing sa separate publication, under the sponsorship of both the Eng-
iphy,"
1
Duluth 104. 511. Next in size were RochesCloud 28.410; Winona 25.031; and Austin 23,100. During 1959 the state's economy continued to ex-
ter 29.S85; St.
44:911-919); haweeite, CaO.2UO3.6SiO2.5H2O,
Mississippi river.
In the 1959 extra and general legislative sessions a record of about $498,000,000 was appropriated for the next biennium. an increase of $71,000,000 over the 1957 appropriation. Substan-
made
education and pubwas appropriated to education, compared with $236,522,499 in 1957. and $113,393.842 to welfare and institutions, compared with $103,320,489 in tial
appropriations were
lic
welfare.
The sum
of
in the fields of
$292,729,206
1957-
A
perennial measure finally succeeded in passage: reapportion-
ment of
the legislature, the
first legislative district
change since
1913-
The
chief elective officials for the state for 1959-61 included:
governor,
Orville
L.
Freeman; lieutenant governor, Karl F.
—
MINT. UNITED ST ATES — M SSI LES
438
I
Rulvaag; secretary of eral,
Miles Lord
state,
Joseph L. Donovan; attorney gen-
Uemocratic-Karm Labor);
(all
state auditor,
Stafford King; and state treasurer, Val Bjornson (both Republi-
cans). Education. -Approximalcly $342,189,407 was spent (or education by 3,oS4 [jublit school districts in Minnesota (or the 1937—58 school year. This for 389,812 pupils in 1,91s elementary schools, 244,591 pupils in b70 secondary schools, 3,475 pupils in 8 area-vocational schools, 2.376 in 9 junior colleges and 4 7 in 3 teacher training departments. These pupils were taught by 14,571 elementary teachers, 12,770 secondary teachers, 211 teachers in area-vocational schools, 133 teachers in junior colleges anil 3 in teacher training departments. In addition, 5 state colleges, with an cnrollmint o( 7,382, were supported (rom public (unds and the University of .Minnesota received 44 "7o of its support from public funds. The total enrollnienl for parochial and private elemtnlary schools was 142,378. Sociol Iniuronc* and Ailittanc*, Public Wdfor* and Related Progromt. As of I'eb. 1959, persons receiving financial aid or service under the programs supervised by the Minnesota department of public welfare totaled 158.581. This repricsenti'd 4.7'!' of the estimated population in Minnesota. The number of children under public agency supervision was 21,112, an increase of 7% over the preceding year. Persons receiving institutional and noninstitutional services totaled 18,509. The resident population of the medical institutions totaled 16,741 on Feb. 28, 1959. These included 10,732 mentally ill and 255 inebriates in the menial hospitals. 5,501 in the institutions for the mentally deficient and epiliplic, 127 children in Gillette Hospital for Crippled Children, 113 tuberculosis patients in the State Sanatorium and 13 emotionally disturbed children in the Children's Center. Persons receiving public assistance totaled 116,791, Of these, 102 children were in the Minnesota Braille and Sight Saving school, 264 children were in the School for the Deaf and 306 active vocational rehabilitation cases in Services (or the Blind. A total of 116,119 persons were given financial assistance under the five major public assistance programs, an increase of 7.3% over Feb. 1958. As of June 30. 1959, 1.049 persons were in Minnesota correctional institutions. Of these, 69 were in residence at the Willow River Forestry group and 422 in the St, Cloud reformatory, all of whom had been committed through the district courts of the state, and 54 committed by the juvenile courts were at the Thistledew Lake Forestry camp. Communications. All highways and roads in Minnesota (federal, state and local combined) totaled 123,367.2 mi. as of Jan. i, 1959, of which 102. 746. 5 mi. were surfaced. These included: trunk highways 11.794,7 mi,, county state-aid and county roads 43,387.1 mi., township roads 37.614.5 mi., other feder.il roads 858,8 mi., other state roads 416,4 mi„ municipal state-aid streets 766 mi,, other streets 7.909 mi. State and federal funds disbursed for trunk highways during the fiscal year ended June 30, I9S9. included: construction $76,910,384,08, right-ofway $30,726,722,42, maintenance $14,216,562,85, New trunk highway construction completed during the calendar year ending Dec. 31, 1958, totaled
amount provided
—
918 mi. Seven commercial passenger airlines served the state. Minnesota had 2.35") registered aircraft and 464 airports. Of the latter, 100 were municipal, 17 were privately owned public ports and 347 were private landing strips. There were 21 public seaplane bases. As of Dec, 31. 1958. railroad main-line trackage totaled 8,251.12 mi, for the 26 railroads operating in the state; 4,291.40 mi. were reported for sidings.
—
Banking and Finance. As of June 10, 1959, SOS State banks. 3 trust companies and i savings bank reported deposits of $1,621,678,288,88 compared with $1,515,992,185.01 on June 30, 1958. an increase of $105,686,103.87: total resources were $1,775,126,167,58 compared with $1,653,498.835,22 on June 30, 1058, an increase of $121,627,332,36, Minnesota's 179 national banks as of Dec, 31. 1958, reported total resources of $2,996.71S.000 as compared with $2,649,036,000 of June 6, 1957, an increase of
$347,682,000,
Of the 415 state-chartered credit unions in Minnesota, as of Dec, 31, 1958, 415 reported assets of $106,543,097,13, an increase of $16,146,937.72 over Dec. 31. 1057. During the year 14 new charters were authorized. 6 credit unions voted voluntary liciuidation and i credit union voted to merge with an existing credit union. There were also 48 industrial loan and thrift companies, as of Dec, 31. 1958, which reported assets of $45,23:!. 765,94. a gain of $5,539,386.57 over Dec. 31. 1957. On the same date 142 small loan companies reported assets of $28,931,786.10 compared with $29.0.56.208.66 as of Dec. 31, 1957. Net disbursements of the state government totaled $876,062,976.48 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, compared with $876,790,914.80 for iQsS. Total receipts from all sources totaled $874,404,353,29, compared with $867,764,912,60, Total state indebtedness in bonds and certificates as of June 30. 1959, was $158,069,106,54, The four principal st.nte trust funds tnnled S20S,810,664,80, as compared with $204,705,258.20 in 1958. Individual balances were as follows: internal improvements $405,441,13; swampland Table
I.
Principal
Corn, bu Oats, bu Barley, bu
Wheal, bu Floxseed. bu Potoloes.cwt
Soybeons May,
—
—
all.
for beans, Ions
bu
Rye, bu
Sugar beets, Ions Apples, bu.
•1949-57, Source; U.S. Department of Agri
Crops of Minnesota
Indiroted 1QS9
1958
19J8-57
360,360,000 174,754,000 28,942,000 23,914,000 5,181,000 11.308,000 39.312,000 6,492,000
312,448,000 211,464,000 30,960,000 25,345,000 6,993,000 11,346,000 53,935,000 6,663,000
1,088,000
1,170,000
900,000 261,000
883,000 330,000
268.215,000 186,255,000 29,356,000 16,202,000 10,928,000 8,960,000' 30,879,000 6,613,000 2,072,000 636,000 235,000
$27,132,317.80; permanent university fund $45,170,327.23; permtncni school $226,111,578.73. The 39 stalechartrred savings and loan associations in Minneiota it ported resources o( $307,830,176,43 as of June 30, 1959. «n increase el $27,178,991,59. compared with $280,651,184,84 as of Dec. 31, 1957, Agriculture. Minnesota ranked filth among the slates in respect o( cut income to fanners from the sale of crops, livestock and livestock producU
Table
11.
Principal Indusfri^t of Miniftola
LAUNCHING OF THE U.S.S. "PATRICK HENRY." the second of the navy's ballistic missufcn-annes. al Groton, Conn.. Sept. 22, 1959. The vessel was atomic powered and designed to carry the Polaris missile site
'
MISS ILES
440 They
known
Three new missile programs were initiated in 1959. The initialed by the air force, was for an air-launched ballisii< sile. This missile was intended to reduce the casualties in bombers by giving them the ability to stand off from their
this
a considerable distance.
giiics for
propulsion.
in ty|ie of
guidance used.
A program
differ in staging
arrangements, and
leading to a second-generation intercontinental bal-
as the Minuteman, was initiated in 1958. program was in the component development stage. In contrast to the Atlas and the Titan, the Minuteman employs a much smaller and lighter warhead, and uses solidlistic
missile,
During 1959,
The
propellant rocket engines.
tremely
fast
reaction lime.
It
missile
is
designed for an ex-
is
underground concrete emplacements, popularly termed combination of the
fast reaction
from
also designed to be fired silos.
The
time and the underground place-
ment was expected to make the system much less vulnerable to enemy attack. The Minuteman would use three powered stages, compared with the two stages used with the Titan and the so-
The increased somewhat lower per-
fint
mii
i
The
contract for this missile was
lei li
The army announced the develone known as Shillelagh, the othei
the Douglas Aircraft corporation.
opment of two new missiles; known as Redeye. Shillelagh
a new, lightweight, surface-to
is
surface guided missile system for close-in su|)port of troops. Thi
prime contract for be operational signed
this
system was
to
in
let
to Aeroneutronic Systems
was expected that the missile wouh mid- 1960. The Redeye missile system was de
Glendale, Calif.
Inc., of
It
combat
provide
with
troops
the
capability
destroying low-flying strafing or bombing aircraft.
foij
man
It is a
called one-and-one-half stages used with the Atlas.
transportable, shoulder-fired missile, effective at altitudes an(
number
ranges commensurate with the defense of and marine corps amphibious operations.
of stages was necessitated by the
formance and higher weight of the solid-propellant system. The Minuteman climaxed a trend, apparent over a number of
In a precedent-breaking step, the
army
army
field
positioa-, I
initiated
Nord SS-io and SS-ii antitank guided
procuremen
years, to replace liquid-propellant missiles with those using solid
of French
propellants.
missiles are remote-controlled, wire-guided missiles, with solid
Because of the higher performance of the liquid-propellant
many weapons
systems,
rocket propulsion.
It
projects
were initiated using liquid
was believed that as the state of the
art of
propellant rocket propulsion.
They can be
The SS-ii, somewhat
forces.
could be satisfactorily applied, the improved handling character-
has greater range, speed and effectiveness.
and greater readiness of the solid-propellant engines would most military appli-
lead to their replacing the liquid engines for cations.
A
further example of this trend was seen in comparing
Thor and
the
(IRBM)
Jupiter
intermediate-range
with the Polaris. During
1959.
ballistic
missiles
the liquid-propelled
Thor and Jupiter intermediate-range ballistic missiles both became operational. Thor missiles were deployed in Britain and became operational with Royal Air Force squadrons. The Polaris program, initiated by the U.S. navy in 1956, was the
first
missile in the intermediate-range (approximately 1.500
Conforming
to
similar to the SS-io,
is
larger an
changing requirements, several missile pre
grams were canceled, either late in 1958, or during 1959. Thes were the RAT, Goose and Regulus II. In addition to the previously mentioned Atlas, the followin missiles were declared to have reached the operational status dui| ing 1959: Talos, Mace, Jupiter and Bullpup.
j
In the area of ballistic missile defense, the search continue for a really effective system.
active development
The only complete system
undt
was the army's Nike-Zeus. There was
cor'
siderable controversy as to whether this constituted an adequate
program continued during 1959. The missile was successfully launched both from the shore and from a surface ship,
The problem of ballistic missile defense differs in at leasj two important respects from the antiaircraft problem. Firs! ballistic missile warheads enter very high and very fast, and ai
under conditions simulating those to be encountered under
generally very small compared with aircraft.
mi.) category to use solid propellants for propulsion.
The
hand-carried, dropper
by parachute from planes and launched from the ground, vehicle helicopter or airplane. The SS-io is basically designed for grouni
the solid-propellant engines improved to the point where they
istics
missiles. Boll
Polaris
flight test
The
was scheduled
tacti-
deployment with the fleet in the fall of 1960. Three nuclear-powered submarines designed specifically to deploy Polaris missiles were launched: the "George Washington," "Patrick Henry" and "Theodore cal operations.
Polaris
for
In addition to their use for weapons purposes, ballistic misfigured prominently as first-stage and second-stage boosters
for space programs. for the
The Thor
Lockheed .Agena top
missile
was used
stage. This
orbit four satellites out of six tries, in a orbital recovery techniques.
Thor was
as a booster
combination put into
program
to develop
also used in conjunction
with the Aerojet-General .Able upper stage, to put into orbit
"Explorer
\'I."
The
Jupiter
IRBM
was used
as a first-stage
booster for "Pioneer IV," a lunar probe which passed within 37,300 mi. of the moon on March 4. .A lunar probe, using the Atlas as a booster,
was being readied early in October but the missile firing pad during a static firing. A second Atlas-
exploded on the
boosted lunar probe, using the Aerojet Able upper stage, was being readied for another trial later in the year. Plans were under
way
tute a difficult detection problem.
to use the .Atlas in a w-hole series of space vehicles desig-
nated as Vega, Centaur, Samos and Midas. The
first
stage of the
vacuum, and hence
with
number
together
manned space
with
Table
I is a listing of all
current U.S. mis-
summary information concerning them.
in
ligl
very large numbe
In view of the fact that the total transit time of a
sile
is
detection systems must be placed as far
For
this
reason a so-called
ballist
only about 30 minutes, mi
United States and as close to possible launch
BMEWS
away from
sites as
(Ballistic
is
tl
feasibi
Missile Ear'
Warning system) using giant radars was being installed aloi the Arctic circle. The Advanced Research Projects agency of tl department of defense was spending considerable sums of moni in search of major breakthroughs in the area that would ofi promise of
a»
really effective system.
away from aircra and other more conventional types of armament continued bo in the research and development and production phases of acli ity. The fraction of the total national defense budget expend^ on missiles continued to increase. No major new governme Financially, the trend toward missiles and
were created
ment
in 1959,
but work on the new
Paci:
was accelerated.
In the state of the
capsule.
of smaller missiles were under development
in operational use.
siles,
not subject to atmospheric drag, very
missile of intercontinental range
missile range
and
is
expense.
little
field activities
large
const
decoys are practically indistinguishable from actual warhead
huge Saturn space vehicle. The Atlas missile would also be used to boost the first U.S.
Thus they
this, since the great(
part of the ballistic trajectory passes through a nearly perfei
Titan missile was scheduled for use as the second stage of the
A
Beyond
Such decoys could be created by an enemy
Roosevelt."
siles
system.
art,
in the techniques
there
was continuous minor improv
that contribute to over-all missile
ii
provement. In propulsion, the primary advances noted were the area of building larger and better-performing solid-propelia
MISSILES
442
EXPLOSION OF AN ATLAS MISSILE in its testing stand on t desert near Edwards air force base. Left, the Atlas as it was given a final check before its scheduled static (captive) test March 27. 1959; right, the explosion a few seconds after the missile was fired. The explosion also severely darr^aged the testing stand
rockets.
The improvement
in specific
impulse in solid-propellant
provement were made
in the explosive
rockets was attributable primarily to the use of polyurethane
it
binders and the addition of metal powders which give very high
shields
heats of combustion. These propellants entered the flight test
earliest, historically,
stage on the Polaris program.
A
the high-performance cryogenic propellants for space purposes
and
was
weapons.
to use the so-called storable propellants for
Work
on the development of a huge liquid-propellant rocket engine of 1,500,000 pounds thrust. Although this engine was intended primarily for use in space vehicles, the enormous initiated
pay load which such an engine would permit, when used in a long-range missile, had obvious military implications. In the application of nuclear energy to rocket propulsion, a major milestone was reached in 1959 in the first test of the "Kiwi A" nuclear rocket. This rocket engine in fly,
but
it
was a step leading
to
itself
was
far too
heavy
to
the eventual application of
which
toward the use of
of
enemy
the
vulnerability
attack, there
all-inertial
of
radio-guidance
was an increasing trend
guidance systems for long-range
missiles.
In the area of warheads, the trend away from high explosives and toward nuclear warheads continued. The advances in nuclear technology made it possible to package the same explosive potential in warheads of progressively smaller size and weight. As warheads decrease in size, missiles can be made smaller proportionately. There was one report of a nuclear warhead small enough to be used in a hand-carried weapon. It was not clear whether or not a continuing ban on the testing of nuclear weapons
would jeopardize completion of these developments. With im-
This type of heat shield simply provides enough metal
tc
appeared
A
second approach
weight
reduction,
wat in s(
offer
to
substantial
doing absorb a greater amount of heat. Numerous successful
were made during 1959 with these ablating heat shields. In any re-entry heat shield, the amount of heat transferred
tests
the re-entry
body
U
a function of the sharpness of the fore
is
part of the body. Because of the large weights associated witl
heat-sponge protection, very blunt shapes were required. Thesi
very blunt shapes led
in turn to rather
low terminal
velocitie:,
for the warheads, with a consequent increase in vulnerabilit;;
countermeasures. The use of the more
terials
to
two basic varieties were under development. The was the so-called heat-sponge type of pro-
through the use of materials which melt or evaporate and
to
because
of
a destructive temperature being reached.
nuclear energy to the propulsion of space craft and possibly also
Primarily
other improvements
absorb the heat transferred to the re-entering nose cone without
of missiles.
ground stations
itself,
reached an altitude suitable for detonation. Protective heat
tector.
trend appeared evident in the liquid-propellant field to use
warhead
in the over-all pay load package. In a long-range ballistic missile, the re-entry velocities are so high that the unprotected warhead would be vapourized before
promised
efficient ablating
to lead to sharper re-entry bodies
ma
and highe
speeds.
Compared with
airplanes, missiles require relatively compli
cated and expensive ground-support equipment. Expenditures this area ran into
hundreds of millions of dollars
in
iJ
1959. Thi
category of equipment includes trailers and transporters
fo
handling and erecting the guided missiles themselves, equipmen
equipment for determining the statfi components of the missile system and equipmen, ascertaining the performance of the missile while in flight.
for servicing, check-out
readiness of for
Guided
all
missiles, in
many
cases, require not only special grouni'
equipment, but bases especially tailored to receive, service launch guided missiles. Because
proceeding concurrently in
ballistic missile
many
an'i
development wa
countries of the world, an
MISSIONS. FOREI weapons are capable of delivering a tremendous blow with very little warning, great stress was being placed on building bases capable of withstanding an initial blow while preserving the since these
retaliatory capabilities of the force.
This philosophy led to the
use of extensive underground emplacements, with a consequent increase in base construction costs.
During 1959, construction was begun on launching and support facilities for nine missile sites.
The
new
air force intercontinental
cost of these sites
was
ballistic
to be in the neighbour-
hood of $300,000,000. The sites were for the Atlas and Titan misand all were for operational facilities.
jsiles
Work was
initiated
I
fensive missiles. Ifacilities
Of
on 13 new sites for antiaircraft type dewere designated as Nike-Hercules
these, nine
and four as Bomarc facilities. There was considerable during budget hearings of the duplication between
[discussion
Nike-Hercules and Bomarc programs. Certain Bomarc funds Lere withheld by congress in an effort to force the department of
make a decision between these two missiles. Through 1959, guided missiles continued to be used as first, and sometimes second, stage boosters in the country's space program. Table H is a listing of the space launchings during 1959
defense to
and shows the missile or missile combinations used in each. It aerhaps worthy of note that the second stage of the rocket,
is
Vanguard
which was developed originally for a space mission, was
Thor
and that this combiwarhead re-entry research as the rhor-.Able vehicle. Later this same combination was used in the irst three lunar probe attempts of 195S, and in the "Explorer idapted to use with the lation
was used extensively
as first stage,
in
VI" firing of 1959. This interweaving of scientific and military rehicles for
both purposes illustrates the
difficulties
encountered
n attempting arbitrarily to separate military vehicles from space
Tc
—
MISSISSIPPI
444
and other centres
In Jan. 1059, riots in I>6opoldville
the
in
ConRO, accompanied by anti-Christian leftist propaRanda, destroyed some Roman Catholic property and brought about the suspension of school activities, but the latter were liel^ian
quickly resumed. In the Union of South Africa the apartheid
government brought the further withdrawal of state subsidies to mi.ssion schools, both Protestant and Roman Catholic, and the refusal of reRistration to some. On the other policies of the
hand, marked revivals were seen
and Kenya, and
in
Protestant circles
was under way
a project
for a
I'Randa
in
new Sunday-
school curriculum to be used by 100 different Protestant bodies
On
Roman
the world scene the giving to
The
Society of Saint Peter the Apostle continued to mount.
had as its chief objective the creation of an indigenous clergy. Under Syndesmus, an international organization of Orthodox youth, a pan-Orthodox Missionary society was latter society
process of formation.
western
in
continued, with the popularity of Zen
in .'\merica
Buddhism among some
intellectuals,
but only small minorities
were attracted. Vet Moslem states were financing the erection of mosques in several centres, and a new German translation of the
I
beneficiaries.
The missions of Huddhists. Moslems and Hindus
Europe and
Educotion. In lysS 59 there were 605 white elementary and 1,054 elementary schools. Knrollment in elementary schools was 2 3 1, jit whiles and 134,2X4 NeKroes. The state had 395 apiiroved white hifb schools and 150 approved NeKro hiKh schools. There were 10,467 white elementary and hiKh school teachers (including principals and (upcris tendents) and 7.168 NeKro teachers. 7'otal enrollments in white elementary and approved high schools wen 2V3.79S, and for all Negro elementary and high schools 275. HH7. Ap proximately $36.088, XK6 was spent in capital outlay lor Ijuiiding*. plut $1,868,060 lor the purchase of school huses. Approximately $3,105,594 wat, spent for school e(|uipment. Social Inturanc* and Atiittanca, Public W«lfara and R«lat«d Progromi. From July i, 1958, through June 30, 1959, the Mississippi stale departmen of public welfare paid $28,688,109 to 91.808 recipients of olil-agr ance; $2,656,908 to 6.594 families for aid to dependent children; S720 to 32,931 recipients for aid to the permanently and totally di $797,184 to 6,594 child welfare services; $268,764 to foster honi> and $427,615 for blind services. Including administrative and other costs, expenditures for the year totaled approximately $47,592,786 fiscal 1958 old-age, survivors and disability insurance payments iri sissippi totaled $56,645,000, and on June 30, 1958, there were 114,10; .Nrifru
:
Catholic missions
through the society for the Propagation of the Faith and to the
m
purpose of building a model town. To be designed by professional city planners, the new town would aim toward attracting Memphis' (Tenn.) growing population toward Mbsissippi in an orderly and constructive manner. sissippi for the
.
countries in .Xfrica and in 70 languages and dialects.
in 18
1
Koran was being made by
Ahmadiya
the
(K.
sect.
L.)
S.
—
,
Communications. .As of Dec. 31, 1958. there were 10,552 mi. of 'tat highways; 48.276 mi. of county roails; and 3,817 mi. of municipal During fiscal 1958-59 stale highway maintenance expenditures wer$6,038,290; county road maintenance (est.). $26,590,170. For fisc.il 59 an estimated total of 1,367 mi. of federal highway projects wen ,.; granied and an estimated 985 mi. of such projects were under way. In 1*5 there were 3,766 mi. of railroads. .As of June 30, 1959. there were 387,74 Southern Bell and 13,238 independent telephones. On Oct. I, 1959, 75 radio stations and 7 television stations were ioperation. In Oct. 1959 there were 42 publicly owned and 30 privatel owned airports open to the public. Regularly scheduled airline service wa, available at 12 of these. Vehicle registration for 1958 totaled 465,580 autc mobiles and 1S7.991 trucks and buses. Banking and Finonce. On June 10. 1959. there were 193 banks in Missi!, sippi 27 national banks with total assets of $367,465,000 and 166 stall banks with total assets of $940,996,000. Deposits in all banks tolalei $1,195,392,000. State bond issues outstanding on June 30, 1959, includej building commission bonds for construction at state institutions $15,500; 000. education finance commission for common school construction $46 000.000, highway bonds $68,202,000, to be retired by gas and oil taxes. For the fiscal year ending June 30. 1959, general fund receipts of $116' 726.813 plus a cash balance of $31,604,784 totaled $148,331,597: disburs-! ments were $1 13.037.1 57. leaving a general fund balance on June 30. 195', of $35,294,440. Special fund receipts of $206,890,399 and disbursements »i $211,432,734 left a special fund balance on June 30. 1959, of $58,069,06:1 Agriculture. In 1957 there were 212,000 farms, compared with 215.911 in 1954 and 219.000 in 1956. The total harvested acreage of principal croi' in TQ58 amounted to 4.639.000 ac. In the same year, receipts from farj products came to $543,872,000. $266,152,000 from livestock and liveslotj products, and $277,720,000 from crops. It was estimated that for 1958 t)> value of farm products consumed in farm households was $70,407,000. Manufacturing. The value added by manufacturing to Mississippi pro, ucts in 1957 was $580,621,000. Manufacturing industries employed d
J
'
;
;
i
A
southern state of the U.S., admitted to the
union
in
181
7,
Mississippi
is
popularly
known
Area 47,716 sq.mi. (47,248 sq.mi. land and 468 sq.mi. water); pop. (1950 census) 2,178,914 (July i, 1959, provisional est.) 2,185,000. Capital: Jackson (1950) 98,271. Other cities of more than 20.000 population: Biloxi 37,425; as the
"Magnolia
state."
Greenville 29.936; Gulfport 22,659; Hattiesburg 29,474; Laurel 25,038; Meridian 41,893; Natchez 22,740; Vicksburg 27,948. the state's population in 1950, 607,162, or
History. were:
64
—The
Of
27.9% was urban.
principal elected officials of the state for 1960-
governor,
Ross
Harnett;
R.
lieutenant
governor,
Paul B. Johnson; secretary of state, Heber Ladner; attorney
Evelyn Gandy; audiD. Neal; superintendent of pub-
general, Joe T. Patterson; state treasurer,
tor of public accounts. William lic
1
—
—
:
—
—
;
education, J. M. Tubb. A record-breaking turnout of 439,720 voters participated in
the state's
Aug. 1959 covering state and except state judges, and more than 95% of these
primary election
first
local officials
voters returned ballots in the second primary. Interest was manifested over the gubernatorial candidacies of Ross Harnett
and
who had the support of former governors J. P. Coleman and Hugh White. In the November voting. Harnett won the governorship. Incumbent Speaker
Lieutenant Governor Carroll Gartin,
House and Governor of the
Walter
of Representatives J.
P.
Coleman was
Sillers
was
re-elected,
elected to a seat in the
same
house.
More than
lature
would be composed of new members. During 1958 the business activity rose 6% while the nation's dropped 5%,
state's
and
this activity
dustries
'pal
in
two-thirds of each house in the 1960-64 legis-
continued during 1959.
Hy
Oct.
i,
79
new
Ir:!
Cotton (500-lb. baleil Corn, bu Ools, bu Whtol, Winter, bu Borley, bu Rice, cwt All hoy, tons Irish potatoes, cwt Sweet pototoes, cwl Soybeans for beans, bu. Peonuts, lb
Sorghums for groin, bu. Peaches, bu Pears, bu Pecans,
.
.
.
.
.
M
-D'ed
.
all, lb
•1949-57 average. Source: U.S. Deportment of Agriculture.
in-
Table
Principal Indvstriei of Mississippi
II.
had been reported as well as 36 major plant expansions
which provided 7.316 new industrial vious high in 1953 of 6.815
new
jobs, surpassing the pre-
jobs. In .August
manufacturing
employment reached a new peak of 120.500, which was i.ioo more jobs than were available in record-breaking Nov. 1958. Employment Security commission data listed Jackson as the city with the highest rate of
economic growth (18%)
in the
United States. In action resembling the British "new towns" movement, the
Apparel and related products Lumber and wood products furniture! Furniture ond fixtures
DeSoto corporation, subsidiary
of the First
Mississippi
corporation, purchased several thousand acres in northwest Mis-
machinery Transportation equipment Electrical
.
.
(ex(
.... .... ....
Pulp, paper ond products Chemicals and products Stone, cloy and gloss products Fabricated metol products Machinery, except electrical .
First
Crops of
.
.
.
.
....
Source: U.S. Department of
Commerce, Annua/ Survey of Manufacluni, ^9S7.
—
—
;
MISSOURI
445
average o( 100,812 workers that year, and manufacturing payrolls totaled $302,342,000(E. H. Hs.; D. S. V.) Minerol Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of the mineral output in Mississippi in 1957 and 1958 whose value was $100,000 or
—
Table
I
Mineral Production of Mississippi
.
(In
shorr tons, except as noled)
1957 Minerol
Quonlltv
Total'
Clayi Nalurol BO! (000 cu.ft.)Nolurol oosoline (000 ool.) P.troleum (bbl.) Petroleum gases (000 ool.) Sand and grovel Stone Other minerals .
1958 Vcjioe
Quantity
$144,950,000 616,000 3,635,000 169,967,000 17,507,000 25,000 1,469,000 38,922,000 113,263,000 10,000 472,000 5,172,000 4,344,000 60,000 54,000 4,695,000
'Total has been adjusted to eliminate duplication Source: U.S. Bureau of Mines.
in
Value
576,000 160,143,000 26,000 38,551,000
$148,663,000 3,338,000 22,260,000 1,658,000 110,256,000 503,000 6,240,000 92,000 4,820,000
9,000 6,545,000 102,000 of clays
t
and
stone.
more. In 1958 Mississippi's mineral production reached a record total value. It was second among the states in bentonite output (14% of U.S. total). The stale ranked 23rd in value of its mineral production in 1958, with 0.90% of the U.S. total. Encvclop>edia Britannica Films. Southeastern Slates (1956).
—
A
west north central state of the United States,
Missouri was admitted to the union in 1821. is
popularly
known
as the
"Show Me"
It
Area: 69,674 sq.mi.,
state.
of which 448 sq.mi. are water. Pop.:
(1950 census) 3,954,653 (61.5% urban, 38.5% rural; 90.2% white, 9.8% nonwhite) (July
I,
BIRTHPLACE OF FORMER PRESIDENT HARRY
1959, provisional est.) 4,243,000.
Mo., opened as a national shrine. April 19,
Capital: Jefferson City (1950 census)
(1950 census):
St.
j
Joseph
78,588;
Joplin 38,711;
—
I
!
Louis 856,796; Kansas City 456,622; St. 66,731; University City 39,892;
Springfield
Independence 36,963.
The major state officers at the close of 1959 were: History. James T. Blair, governor; Edward V. Long, lieutenant governor; Walter H. Toberman, secretary of state Haskell Holman, audi;
M. E. Morris, treasurer; John M. Dalton, attorney general. The 70th general assembly convened on Jan. 7, 1959, and adjourned May 31, 1959. There were 26 Democrats in the state senate and 8 Republicans. Democrats controlled the house of representatives 112 to 45. The legislature approved a record tor;
I
I
I
:
I
budget of $1,150,576,375 July
I,
for
the
two-year period
beginning
1959. Legislation to increase gasoline, cigarette, liquor
I
j
and beer taxes was defeated.
The only new tax
1
.
!
to
win approval was a
2%
use tax on items
purchased outside the state.
Other legislation adopted and approved included a motorboat
'
registration law, revision of the antiquated to
S.
TRUMAN,
Independen
1959
25,099. Largest cities
mining code so as
permit deep-shaft iron and lead mining, authority for estab-
aid to the blind; and 15,575 aid to the disabled. During the year ended June 30, 1959, the state penitentiary had an average of 3,150 inmates per day; the intermediate reformatory (.Mgoa) 537; and the expenditures of these institutions amounted to $3,087,827. For the year ended June 30, 1959, the two state training schools Boonville for boys and Chillicothe for girls) had an average population of 464 boys and 145 girls; and for the same period, expenditures were $888,361 in addition to $110,470 for the office of the stale director and the placement department of the training schools. Communications On June 30. 1959, Missouri had 28,278 mi. of state highways and on Dec. 31, 1958, 7i,335 mi. of rural roads. During the year ended June 30, 1959, the state highway commission spent $139,064,822 (
—
and federal funds). On Dec. 31, 1958, mileage of class-one railroads was 7,044. On Oct. i, 1959, there were no public airports, 4 military airfields and an estimated 120 private airstrips. There were 1,611,353 telephones in use on Dec. 31 1958. Banking and Finance. On June 10, 1959, Missouri had 550 state banks (11 chartered but not operating) with deposits of $3,478,679,787 and resources (loans and investments) of $3,905,100,233, and 75 national banks with resources (loans and investments) of $2,219,840,000. On June 30, 1959. there were 115 state-chartered savings and loan associations with resources of $779,797,888, and 37 federal savings and loan associations with resources of $487,840,381. During the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959. receipts in all state funds totaled $502,338,851; disbursements, $528,788,710. On June 30. 1959. the balance in the state treasury was $173,794,972. The state debt on July i, 1959, was $70,983,839, including $68,585,000 in building bonds. (state
—
lishment of watershed conservation districts and controls over
minimum wholesale price of milk. On Feb. 10, 1959, a tornado struck
Table
the
St.
Louis leaving 21 per-
and 1,400 others homeless. Damage was estimated at $12,000,000. Kansas City's coalition city government was overturned by Democratic factions in the April 1959 elections and L. P. Cookingham was deposed as city manager. Floods in 12 north Missouri counties early in August caused approximately
Kansas City was the 1959 which was classed
site of a polio
outbreak
in the
by pubhc health authorities
summer
of
as one of the
Principal
Wheal,
all,
bu
Hoy,
oil. Ions Cotton, 500-lb. boles
Rice,
100
lb.
bags
Oats, bu for beans, bu Rye, bu Tobocco, lb Potatoes, Irish, cwt Pototoes, sweet, cwt Sorghum groin, bu Apples, commercial, bu Pears, bu
Soybeans
244,915,000 37,824,000 4,367,000 505,000 1 47,000 I 8,975,000 52,800,000 542,000 4,200,000 720,000 120,000 26,673,000 700,000 80,000
Grapes, tons
worst in the nation.
Crops of Mis
Indicotod 195?
sons dead
'$3,070,000 in damages.
I.
Crop
3,800
Average, 1948-57
180,712,000 40,488,000 5,428,000 275,000 5,000 22,272,000 55,432,000 900,000 3,185,000 720,000 130,000 35,088,000 730,000 75,000 4,200 1
1
155,480,000 35,537,000 4,103,000 386,000 93,000 37,121,000 27,917,000 646,000 4,998,000 773,000* 139,000* 3,902,000 931,000 108,000 3,660
•1949-57. Education.
—
For the school year ended June 30, 1959. the public school system consisted of 1,825 districts operating elementary schools with 20,,573 teachers: 541 districts operating secondary schools with 8.589 teachers. (There were 805,399 pupils from kindergarten through high school enrolled Missouri public schools at the end of the 1959 school year. Hubert Wheeler was state commissioner of education. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. For the year ended June 30, 1959, unemployment insurance totaled $37,699,071, paid to about 100,000 persons. For the same year, old age assistance (amounted to $81,053,332; aid td dependent children, $26,156,515: genleral relief $5,874,885: blind pensions, $253,534: aid to the blind, $3,599,115; aid to the disabled, $10,543,468. In Sept. 1959. 118,415 per-ons (received old-age assistance; 25,883 families (88,926 mothers and children) aid to dependent children; 10,068 general relief; 315 blind pensions; 4,883 in
i
I
I
—
Sourcei
tl.S.
Department of
—
Agricullui
Agriculture. Cash income from crops and livestock in 1958 was $1,092,419,000 and cash income from government payments was $61,141,000. The value of Missouri's 1958 crops harvested from 12,868,000 ac. was $333.380,000 compared with $512,000,000. the value of the 1957 crops. The corn acreage was the lowest since 1871 with the reduction due to participation in the soil bank, but the yield per acre, 56 bu., was a new record. Wheat production was the second lowest since 1952 with acreage down about 200,000 ac. Soybean production was the largest on record. Manufacturing. The number of persons employed as production workers in manufacturing industries in July 1959 was 386,900. The July 1959 average weekly earnings in manufacturing industries was $85.83 as compared with $81.05 in 1958. The average hourly earnings in manufacturing in July
—
—
MITCHELL — MONGOLI AN PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC
446 Tabu
Principal lndui1H»$ of
II.
pertinent infornnation on wages, profits and prices.
Miuourl Voluo add«(l by manulortufa
Salarloi
ond wooes
All
amployaai Irduilrv Gtoup Food ond hlndr.d producli Appor.l oi>d r*lol«d producl. Lumber ond wood producli Furnllure ond fl«lura< Pulp, popnr and product! Priming ond publiihlng Chemlcoli ond products Petroleum and cool product!
lift
l?57
'957
1956
$344,373 108,423
t34l,408 I «0,970
$J3S.744
19,333 28,338 49,920 124,824 92,713 13,438 3,476 108,319 77,400 67,140 113,462 124,786 118,086 306,139 10,804
33,934 44,830 103,639 193,992 283,913 38,483 8,143
39,728 43,838 96,063 184,688 262,611 39,637
202,330 160,713 110,620 203,713 224,304
204,473 159,708 114,814 204,010 208,434 195,673 519,634 24,942
3,729
870 .
,
,
Eledrlcol mochinery
Tromparlotion equipment Initrument! ond related product!
OOOil
I9S7
19,131
.
lin
33.332 3V.S33 6,369 7,089 12,233 26,730
Rubber producli Leolher ond leather good! Stone, cloy and glo.i product! Primory melol induilriet Fobricoled metal product! Mochinery, e«cepl electrical
OOOil
38.347 13,376 13.300 33.702 23,844 23,261 36,254 2.749
133,431
196,691
660,339
19,997 Commerce, Annuo/ Survey of Monufoclurei, 1957.
Source: U.S. Deportment ol
.
.
.
Mohammedanism: sre Islam. Molybdenum: 'cc Mineral a.nd Metal
\
II
IVIUIIdbU.
I)
sovereign principality on the Mediterranean coast, mi. east of Nice.
to
census)
Table
Mineral Production of Missouri
III.
$132,913,000
TotalBorile
Cement
Ibbl.)
Clayi
....
Biluminou! cool
Copper Iron ore
...
teod lime Petroleum |bbl,l Sand and grovel
317,000 10,794,000 3,648,000 2,976,000 2,000 594,000 126,000
3.938.000 34,307,000 7,648,000 12,691,000 966.000 4,625,000 34,135,000 14,475,000
1,393,000 .
.
.
Silver
Stone Zinc
.
.
!
.
.
20,202;
(1956 census) 20.472. including 2,696 Mone-
divided between the three communes Monaco-Ville. Monte Carlo and La Condamine. Language: French. Religion: Roman Catho-
been adiulled
5,986,000 11,111,000
752,000 3,820,000 26,471,000 14,136,000
to eliminate duplication in the
f
8,972,000 251,000 24,276,000
400 ...
9,728,000 227,000 32,878,000 74,000 1,926,000
volue of cloys and none.
Sovereign, Prince Rainier III; ministers of state in 1959:!
Soum and (from Feb. i) femile Pelletier. On Jan. 29, 1959, Prince Rainier III susp>ended the, Monegasque igii constitution. He did so, he explained, becausd
Henri
'
History.
—
i8-member
of the "continuously hostile attitude" of the
He
1938.
na-
dissolved the national; hiiri
cil's
attempts to withhold
prove the budget unless
money from him by refusing to ap council members were granted mor'-Fuchs expedition in the south polar
and a trend toward a partial disposal of studio assets. L-Ioll>-wood's immersion in the production of television films bepme deeper, and the major studios were derixing a sizable por-
Fish, a charming French idyll of a small
)rincipal
ields
jon of revenue from television production and distribution. large studios '/ision
were also renting
facilities
independent
to
The tele-
producers. Paramount Pictures corporation announced that
ihe International
Telemeter Co.. now a whoUy owned subsidiary,
alanned to install
its
pay-tele%ision system in 6,000
homes
in
he U.S. and Canada in i960. Universal Pictures Co. was back n profitable operation after having suffered severe financial re'erses
the pre\ious year. Universal sold
its
studios to the
Music
Corporation of .\merica for $11,250,000, leasing back facilities or
its
own production
activities,
Twentieth Centur>--Fox sold
!
Webb and Knapp,
Inc..
its
main studio
over a long period of time, and
erty
real
estate to
but retained leasing rights to the propstill
held ownership of
Warner Bros, sold a ranch propThree companies, Columbia, Paramount and Warner Bros.,
Idditional production acreage. erty.
lisposed of their laboratories. List Industries Corp., the parent
RKO Theatres, was merged into dding coal mining to
If
nc, announced
its
its
the Glen Alden Corp., thereby
diversified activities.
Loew's Theatres.
intention to diversify. Columbia Pictures
developed a large program of production with independent
i.'orp.
producers with
heavy investments
in production abroad.
The
Mnerican Congress of Exhibitors was formed late in 1958.
The increased measure of adult treatment
in
motion pictures
I
brought renewed attempts at censorship on the state and local vels despite the U.S.
supreme court's decision
in favour of
ady Chatterley's Lover. Peimsylvania passed a new censorship aw.
A
bill in
Maryland was defeated. In
New York
several
new by
ensorship bills were proposed with no further action taken
he end of the year.
—
Trend in Film Subjects. The successful pictures of 1959 hewed a proportionately increased number of comedies, farces nd "social problem" or adult dramas. Prominent among the omedies and farces that did excellent business at the box fere
n the
offices
Mame, Some Like It Hot, The Shaggy Dog, A Hole Head, Ask Any Girl and Pillow Talk. The outstanding
Auntie
region.
Among
the year's best short subjects were: The Golden
boy and his two pets, a Grand Canyon (Disney), Ferde Grofe's s>Tnphonic tribute to the Grand Canyon Transcontinental ( 20th Wonders of Puerto Rico (Columbia"), another Centur\'-Fox ^Musical Travelark"; Royal River (20th Centur\'-Fox) and
goldfish
and
a canarj';
;
;
)
;
two additions to the Disney "People and Places" series, lapan and The Danube. The Academy of Motion Picture Arts Polls and Awards. and Sciences announced the following awards for 1958:
—
—
Best Production. Gigi (.\rthur Freed Productions). .\CT0R. David Niven {Separate Tables). .\CTRESS. Susan Hayward (/ Want to Live). Supporting .\ctor. Burl Ives {The Big Country). Supporting .\ctres5. Wendy Hiller (Separate Tables). Direction. \'incente Minnelli (Gigi). CiNEiHTOGRAPHV. Black and white; Sam Leavitt (The Defiant Ones); colour; Joseph Ruttenberg (Gigi). Writing. Best story and screenplay (written directly for the screen): Xathan E. Douglas and Harold Jacob Smith {The Defiant Ones): screenplay (based on material from another medium): .Man Jay Lerner (Gigi). Slusic. Best song; "Gigi"' (Gigi): music. Frederick Loewe. lyrics, .Man Jay Lerner: best scoring of a musical; .Andre Previn (Gigi): best scoring of a drama or comedy: Dimitri Tiomkin (The Old Man and the Sea). Short Subjects. Live action: Grand Canyon (Walt Disney Prods., Buena Vista); cartoon: Knighty Knight Bugs (Warner Bros.). .\rt Direction. William .\. Homing and Preston Ames (Gigi): set direction; Henry Grace and Keogh Gleason. Costume Design. Cecil Beaton (Gigi). Film Editing. .-Adrienne Fazan (Gigi). Documentary Production. Feature: White Wilderness (Walt Disney Prods., Buena Vista); short subject: Ama Girls (Walt Disney Prods.,
—
—
— — —
—
—
—
— — ——
Buena
X'ista).
—
— Fred Hynes (South —Tom Howard — (Tom Thumb). (Specta-Gray-.\lter Films
Sound Recording. Special Effects.
Pacific).
Foreign Language Picture.
Mon
in Oncle association with Films del Cenlaure, France), Film Daily's poll, the "ten best" pictures of 1958 were: The Bridge on the River Kwai (Columbia); Cat on a Hot Tin Rooj (M-G-M); Gigi (M-G-M); .Auntie Mamc (Warner Bros.); The Defiant Ones (United .Artists); Witness lor the Prosecution (United .Artists); Separate Tables (United -Artists); 'The Long Hot Summer (20th Century-Fox): The Young Lions (20th Century-Fox); The Big Country (United .Artists). The Motion Picture Daily box office hits of 1958 included: The Big Country (United .Artists); The Bridge on the River Kwai (Columbia); Cat on a Hot Tin Root (M-G-M); Dont Go S'ear the Water (M-G-M); Fare-well to .inns (20th Century-Fox); Houseboat (Paramount); In.A discreet (Warner Bros); The Long Hot Summer (20th Century-Fox): ,Vo Time jor Sergeants (Warner Bros.); Old Yeller (Buena Vista); Peyton Place (20th Century-Fox) Raintree County (M-G-M); Sayonara (Warner Bros.); South Pacific (20th Century-Fox); The Ten Commandments (Par;
'
MOTION PICTURES
452
T"** Vikinii (United Artists): Witntss lor the Proteculion (Uniifd Arlisis): The Voung Lioni (lolh Century-Fox). New York Film Critics' nwards (or 1958 were: Best picture, The Defiant Onei (I'nited Artists); best nclor, David Niven (Separate Tallies); best nclress. Susan Hayward (/ Want to Live), best director. Stanley Kramer (The Defiant Ones), best (oreixn picture, Man Oncle (SpecIa-drayAller Films in association with Films del Centaure, France).
amount):
Poxofice nil-American (avourites o( 1958 were: Cary Grant, Elizabeth Taylor, William Holden, Deborah Kerr, Yul Brynner, Doris Day, Rock Hudson, Debbie Reynolds, Marlon Brando, Kim Novak, Olenn Ford, Innrid Bergman. Oarv Cooper, Natalie Wood, Jerry Lewis, Joanne Woodward, Frank .Sinatra. Susan Hayward, Kirk Douglas. Audrey Hepburn, James Stewart, June .Mlyson, Clark Gable. Doroth>' Malone. Fame's "money-makinR" stars (or 1958 were: ("ilenn Ford. Flizabelh Taylor. Jerry Lewis. Marlon Brando. Rock Hudson. William Holden, BriKilte Bardot. Yul Brynner, James Stewart, Frank Sinatra. (M. I.s.)
—
Nontheatrical Motion Pictures. The production of nonmotion pictures in the United States increased from
theatrical
7.300 in 1958 to 8.440 in 1959, or 15.6%.
Of the 1959
business and industrial firms produced 5,400
total,
(an increase of
20%); government film production remained the same, with 1,500 new titles; educational films were up 15% with 600 new titles; medicine and health made a spectacular gain of 33% with 400 new titles; religious film production increased 10% with 220 titles;
and films
320 new .\
in
other fields remained the same, with about
record $286,000,000 was spent by the nontheatrical motion
picture industry for materials and equipment
—an
increase in
volume of 12.2% over 1958. This figure reflected a marked increase in production and a modest increase in purchases of dollar
equipment.
by business and industry and gains in distribution. Two automobile manufacturers announced a combined visual-communications budget of more than $18,000,000. Nonof film activity
resulted from increased budgets for production
theatrical attendance figures soared to theatrical heights, with
such films as Kimberly Clark's
How
to
Catch a Cold reaching
about 170,000.000 persons through television and Industn,'-sponsored motion pictures
received
of
the
highest honours of the film world during the year. Perhaps the
most outstanding of these was Pan-American World Airways' Speaking of Words, produced by Henry Strauss & Company and chosen by the Committee on International Nontheatrical Events to represent the
United States at
all
of the overseas film festivals.
Business-sponsored motion pictures received 13 of the 35 Blue Ribbon awards at the First Annual American Film festival held
by the Educational Film Library association. Two of these winners were produced by Jam Handy. Nine business films were honoured with Freedom Foundation awards, including another Jam Handy production: American Look, sponsored by Chevrolet division of General Motors. The Academy award nominee, Psychiatric Nursing, sponsored by Smith Kline & French laboratories and produced by Dynamic Films, Inc., received top honours at the Annual Columbus (Ohio) Film festival. Another notable production was the sixth film in the Bell System Science series, The Alphabet Conspiracy, produced by Warner Brothers. Among the leading producers of films for school use. Coronet announced the release of 67 new titles; McGraw-Hill (with Young America) released 70 new titles; Encyclopaedia Britannica Films released 46 (in addition to 173 films produced for courses in chemistn,' and the humanities) Bailey Films released 1 2 Pat Dowling Pictures released 8 and Churchill-Wexler re-
(Freedom foundation) and Christmas
(Scholastic Teacher)
;
McGraw-Hill's Adeli
Canada (American Film festival), and Animals and Homes, a Young America release (Scholastic Teacher) of
;
The, Intei
Film foundation's Japan, produced by Julien Brya (American Film festival) and Russia, produced by Julien Brya (Scholastic Teacher) Film Associates' Earthquakes and Vo
national
;
Rhythm
canoes (American Film festival;; William Harlow's
Motions of Growing Plants (American Film
festival); Churchil
Wexler's Treasures of the Earth (Scholastic Teacher); Institute of Science's lastic
Teacher);
Woodpecker Gels Ready for Winter
Indiana
university's
Asexual
Mood (Sckt
Reproductio
(Scholastic Teacher Weston Woods' The Camel Who Took Walk (Scholastic Teacher). The American Film festival, sponsored by the Education; )
;
Film Library association, held its premiere in April 1959 ar presented Blue Ribbon awards for 35 films from a prescreent field
of 250.
most significant new development in the classrooi was the work begun under the National Defense Edi cation act. adopted in late 1958. Among other provisions th far the
film field
act called for federal appropriations of $8,000,000 for researc
and experimentation in the more effective use in teaching television, radio, motion pictures and related mass media, ar appropriations of $300,000,000 in matched allocations to tl states for the purchase by schools of instructional materials ar equipment to improve the teaching of science, mathematics ar modern foreign languages. According to the provisions of tJ act, such purchases were to include motion pictures, filmstrip
t
film projectors
and other audio-visual equipment.
To implement
live audiences.
many
Farm
Penguins of the Antarctic and Life of the Molds (Scholaiti Teacher) and City of Gold, produced by the National Film Boar
By
titles released.
The marked expansion
cation in America Series
Grandfather's
an
the act. the U.S. ofiice of education receivi
fiscal year 1959 that included $6c! 000,000 for the purchase of materials and equipment and $i.50c, initial
appropriation for
000 for research and experimentation. By the end of the ye more than $63,000,000 in federal funds had been allocated f the purchase of materials and equipment. However, this actii: was hampered by the slowness of states to submit acceptah and by resistance to the acceptance of funds for educi from the federal government. Though the funds had be' expected to cause greatly increased purchases of motion pi plans, tion
tures and equipment, this did not occur during the
first yes
Sales of equipment actually dropped slightly as schools he|
up orders awaiting the allocation of federal funds. In search phase of the program, in grants to 58 institutions.
the
i'
$57.'
000 was included for projects for study and experimentation the use of motion pictures. Most of the other projects were co
1
cerned with television.
The year
'
of free films to schools as well as to other audiences received
saw an increase of discussion in educatior journals of the potentialities of motion pictures and other mc' communication devices to improve the quality of teaching a overcome the shortage of capable teachers in critical areas. Tl interest was stimulated by the popular response to "Continen Classroom,"' the XBC daily network program that present Harvey E. White teaching a course in introductory physi' Whites introductory physics course on film, produced and leased by Encyclopaedia Britannica Films in 1958, was used institutions and school systems in more than 250 communit
170 new films during 1959, and reported that the list of community groups who used i6-mm. films had grown by 12,000 new
high school chemistry, taught by John Baxter of the Univers
;
;
leased
;
4.
The Modern Talking Picture
service, largest distributor
names, to make a total of 181.000.
Among
the
many
instructional films
Teacher)
;
throughout the country.
A
second complete course on
film,
which received awards
Coronet's The Jamestown Colony and the Edu-
!; '
and also produced by Encyclopaedia Britannica Filr was used by institutions and school systems in more than i of Florida,
during 1959 were the following: Encyclopaedia Britannica Films' A Trip to the Moon, Chaucer's England and Puss in Boots (Scholastic
also
communities.
The
on film encouraged production McGraw-Hill Book company undertc
interest in full courses
others during the year.
MOTION PICTURES
453
Ben-Hur used 65-mm. anamorphic negative. The Big Fisherman and Porgy and Bess employed an unanamorphised 65-mm. negative. They all utilized 6-track magnetic stereophonic Slieba.
sound.
For theatre projection, there were available
in the
States four different projectors which could run both
and 35-mm.
film.
The Norelco
United
70-mm.
projector, manufactured by the
company in the Netherlands, was the first commercial 70-mm.-35-mm. projector. The Bauer, manufactured in Germany, was distributed by National Theatre supply. An Italian projector was distributed by Joe Hornstein in New York city and Phillips
a Century projector manufactured in the U,S. was available.
70-mm.-35-mm. projectors was rapid in the it was expected that the trend would continue. The production and exhibition of motion picInstallation of
United States during the year, and
tures with large area negative and positive films gives a very high
quality picture and six-channel magnetic sound
true high-
is
fidelity stereophonic.
Projection Tools.
—The Motion
Picture Research council de-
veloped a new projector alignment
kit to
improve projection
in
theatres. This kit consisted of a film path gauge, an optical align-
ment tool and projector alignment The film path gauge assures that
film.
the film
is
pulled
down
verti-
improving definitions, reducing jump and weave on the screen and eliminating film damage. The optical cally in the projector, thus
system with the lens on the screen and optimum screen
tool aligns the optics of the illumination to provide
maximum
illumination.
definition
The Research
council also
made
available
70-mm,
projector alignment film for the installation and maintenance of
70-mm. projectors mentioned above. See also Photography.
the
—
ERROR
the filming of a scene from the motion picture Solomon and ISbeba In Spain in 1959. As a large battle episode was being filmed an airplane Oew over the area and was recorded by the camera. The scene, supposedly from {Old Testament times, had to be remade at a cost of several thousands of dollars, in
•dding to a budget which had already reached a total of $6,000,000
directorand star of his was produced by Calvin Films in Kansas City under the direction of Burr
Roney
Houston
of
leased another series in principles
McGraw-Hill
university.
produced by Calvin
—
also
re-
a college credit course
of genetics comprising 48 half-hour units. Coronet
Instructional Films released a series of 18 films cepts in chemistry.
Work
on basic con-
continued on the production of a series
of films for a newly-designed course in high school physics being
developed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Also released during the year
was
a set of 12 pilot films for a high
school course in humanities, financed
by
a grant
foundation and produced by Encyclopaedia
An
offering in the social studies field
was a
by the Ford
Britannica Films.
series of seven half-
hour films titled Decision: the Constitution in Action, produced
by the centre for mass communication, Columbia university. Distributors of films for schools continued to release a
num-
produced originally for network television, including the CBS "You Are There" series, and the "Project 20" series, the NBC and Prudential "Twentieth Century" series reber of films in series
leased
through Association Films, and the
distributed
XBC
"Wisdom"
by Encyclopaedia Britannica Films.
(J.
series
T. B.)
—
EncycloP/Edia Britannica Films. Bring the World to the Classroom (193S): Making Films That Teach (1954): Xew Tools for Learn'"t (1952); The Unique Contribution (1959); Using the Classroom Film (1945).
Technical Developments.
—The most
significant trend in
mo-
1959 was the use of large area films for both production and exhibition. The Technirama negative was used for producing The Sleeping Beauty, Spartacus and
Solomon and
Ky.)
for the best foreign film. Writer,
films, Tati
took his place beside Chaplin
comedy, but he was less emphatically the clown and more concerned with the absurdity of as the creator of international
the surrounding
A
human
scene.
award was made at Cannes to the French actress Simone Signoret for her performance in Room at the Top, which many considered the best British film of the year. For British films generally 1959 was a year of modest competence. Within this field one of the most satisfying films was Tiger Bay. This story of friendship between a small girl and the Polish seaman who kidnaps her was told with s>'Tnpathy and suspense. Sapphire, a conventional thriller, was distinguished both by its sympathetic approach to the colour problem reflecting, however superficially, a contemporary preoccupation and by the fine performance of many coloured players. For the rest, British films concentrated on comedy. A topical satire was The Mouse That Roared, exploiting a breach of relations between the United States and the smallest grand duchy in the world, controversy over the "Q-bomb and gratifying
—
—
'
the v'ersatility of Peter Sellers, playing with considerable brilliance three parts
— the
grand duchess, her prime minister and
the envoy to the United States. Decidedly crazy comedy, the film
attempted too much, but had long passages of
hilarity.
Alec
Mouth was Guinness' own
Guinness' version of Joyce Gary's novel The Horse's
most serious comedy of the year. a round character study in eccentricity, and the film was further enriched by remarkable performances by Renee Houston and Kay Walsh. Foreign language films were much in evidence in 1959. The French representatives ranged from what amounted to a recordcertainly the
performance as the rapscallion Gulley was
tion pictures in
F.
cf the year
same year and a 1959 "Oscar"
the preparation of a series of films for high school biolog:>'. This
(W.
and European Films. \Vhat might be called the film came from France. Jacques Tati's comedy of electronic-age manners. Mon Oncle, received the Grand Prix from the 1958 Cannes festival, the New York Critics' award for the British
ICOSTLY
.
riTonciliation
between the embittered elemenLs of postwar Poin its way was the display of Poliih
Equally inspiring
land.
humour
the slapstick short film,
in
Two Men and
and the exuberant comedy. Eva Wants
to Sleep,
a Wardrobe,
which was remi-
Rene Clair films. From Greece came A Matter of Dignity, an exceptionally fine drama of a family trying to save its face while under the threat
niscent of the early
of bankruptcy
and of a daughter involved
This was another triumph
Michael
Cacoyannis,
in
in
deeper tragedy.
'
the series of films directed by
starring
Ella
i
Lambetti and exquisitely
i
photographed by E. Walter Lassally.
Economic and Organizational Developments.
—There
was an
indication in 1959 that the catastrophic decline in motion-picttire
w^'.
attendances
in
Great Britain was nearly over and that the
I
sta-
would soon be reached. This point had been from 600,000,000 to 623,000,000 attendances a year a weekly average of between 11,500,000 and 12.000,000. In the last two quarters of 1958 attendances averaged 15.200,000 and 12,600,000 a week respectively, giving an annual average of 14.500,000, or 18% below the 1957 figure.
bilization point
estimated at
variously
rmil
A 6 1929 IN FRANKFURT
—
MAIN
This meant that
had
lost
in
two years the British motion-picture industry
about one-third of
its
already contracting
home
audi-
two quarters of 1959 the attendance figure remained steady at 1 2,500.000 a week, and although there was a seasonal drop in the third quarter, it seemed as if the worst might
ence. In the first
be over.
Concomitant with the decline of motion-picture
theatres.
in
Official
attendances was the closure published in
figures
1959
showed that the total number of theatres closed each year from 1954 to 1957 were 72, 93, 224 and 216 respectively. For the year 1958 the provisional figure was 261, making a total of 866 closures in five years.
MILLIE PERKINS, star of the film The Diary 0/ Anne house where Anne was born at Franklurt, Ger. The molion
picture, which opened in U.S. theatres In 1959. recreated the story of the Franks, a Jewish family that was persecuted by the Nazis, as related In their adolescent daughter's diary
ing of the
homme
Comedie Frangaise production of Le Bourgeois Gentilthe work of the newest school of young French These carried off nearly all the awards at Cannes. The
to
cineastes.
Marcel Camus' Orfeu Negro, which transplanted a variation of the Orpheus legend to Brazil and among the Negroes at carnival time. The prize for the best direction went to Francois Truffaut's Les Quatre Cents Coups, a beauti-
Grand Prix went
to
photographed
fully
lyrical
International Critics' prize
shima
Man
man told member
Amour,
unhappy childhood. The was awarded to Alain Resnais" Hirostory
of
a love story of a
French
girl
and a Japanese
dually through their different backgrounds. of
this
quite vigorous
new
The
leading
school of French talent
seemed to be Claude Chabrol. His film, Les Cousins, a story of two cousins, was told in a complex mixture of counterpoint, decidedly brilliant in style and sombre in content.
A
striking manifestation of the impact of foreign language
was the sudden vogue for Swedish films and the thoroughness devoted to the work of Ingmar Bergman. The showing of Wild Strawberries. Bergman's biography of an aged professor (finely played by Victor Sjbstrom^), seemed to set off the whole season of Bergman's films, of which one of the most in-
films in Britain
teresting to
was The Face. Seldom does the public have a chance
survey so large a range of a director's work. Japanese film production continued to impress
the film Living, which
covery that he
is
showed an elderly
civil
—
in particular
servant's dis-
dying of cancer. This unlikely subject was From Poland came
good selection of films of which Andrzej VVajda's Ashes and Diamonds was the finest. Mellower and less savage than the same director's Kanal, this was a remarkable attempt to find a
454
in
31,
1959, there were 3,825
Great Britain.
Because of the difficulties which the motion-picture industi> was experiencing, there was great disappointment when thf chancellor of the exchequer failed to make any reduction in the entertainments tax in his April budget. Two months later, however, during the debate on the Finance bill, he announced that he proposed to
make
a
change after
all.
The entertainments
tax
which was then running at 13.5'^ of gross box-office takings would be reduced by one-fourth. In his speech the chancelloi stated that the industry was undergoing difficulties arising fron
other amenities, but that was not an automatic reason for
Having vision to
its
was the biggest single this change in
suppose that
by the
The growth
patrons entirely from taxation. factor.
It
re
of tele
would be unrealistii would be reverse!
social habits
abolition of the entertainments duty.
He
further declarec
that the closing of motion-picture theatres to date
more had to which gave him particular concern was and. whatever was done,
close.
was
inevitabli
The one
aspec
that of the small rura
theatres and theatres serving small market towns.
had been felt in some quarters that the export of Britisi which had been showing a sustained improvement over period, would be considerably aided by the shortage of U.S products resulting from Hollywood's concentration on makin It
films,
.
films for television rather than for the motion-picture theatre.'
The time seemed
ripe .once again for an all-out attack on th
large enough to be extremely profita they could establish themselves on as it had don sufficiently broad base. The Rank organization once before took up the challenge. The result was announce
U.S. market, which was
still
ble to British producers
treated with beauty, compassion and gaiety. a very
On March
motion-picture theatres open
if
—
—
in
Lord Rank's annual statement
in Sept.
1959.
He
said tha
the group's efforts to operate a system for distributing its film in the United States had had to be abandoned. "After 18 month; prosper it became clear that there was no reasonable of achieving a profitable operation even after this initial periot
operation
MOTORBOAT RACI N G — M U ELLER Mntnrhnflt Rarinrr mUlUIUUdl ndUlllg.
455
^" '^^9 a total of 4,688 racing craft were registered in the Un-ted states,
with stock outboards representing the largest number, 2,690. Racing outboards were next with r,025 bearing racing numbers, while the inboards had 973 registrants. Registration for other countries totaled less than one-third of the U.S. total.
On May
14.
Donald Campbell of England shattered
his old
record for jet-propelled unlimited hydroplanes for the fifth consecutive year
by coursing over Lake Coniston, Eng.,
at a
two-way
average of 260.35 m.p.h.
The major at
by
race for unlimited hydroplanes, the Gold cup. held
Wash., was won by
Seattle,
Bill
Waggoner's "Maverick,"
The "Maverick," outstanding boat in its class, was named Harmsworth trophy defender in the race at Detroit against James G. Thompson's Canadian challenger "Miss Supertest IIL" Bob Hayward (Embro, Ont.), driving "Miss Supertest III," wrested the Harmsworth trophy (British Interdriven
Bill Stead.
national trophy) from the U.S. where
MOTORIZED WATER SCOOTER
being operated by its inventor on Lake Geneva, 1959. The motor, mounted on pontoons, drives a propeller especially baffled to divert air bubbles which interfere with underwater vision. The motor was designed to run IS hours on one gallon of fuel and could propel the scooter at speeds up to about 4 m.p.h.
sion of a series of successful
Switz., in
unsuccessful
in
it
had been
in the posses-
defenders for 39 years. While
defense of the Harmsworth cup. the "Maverick."
Gold cup win, was first in the Diamond cup. and International Sweepstakes trophy races as well as being high-point winner for the unlimiteds. The fastest competitive speed for the unlimiteds was established by Bill Boeing, in addition to its
Silver cup
and
was decided
it
to terminate our losses."
(F.
Canada. in
the
B. Lt.;
D. Cw.)
— During the year 1959 there was a marked increase
total
volume of Canadian motion-picture production,
mainly because of the
first
all-Canadian financed and produced
39 film half-hour television dramatic entertainment series for
world market. This was "Royal Canadian Mounted Police," produced by Crawley McConnell limited in association release to the
with the Canadian Broadcasting
corporation and the
British
Broadcasting corporation. This single project added 259^ to the 1959 production gross over the 1958 figures.
The production volume of television commercial spot announcements increased in 1959 over 1958, while the production of nontheatrical (other than for television) short films and theatrical feature films remained at about the 1958 rate. Video tape production for television was started in Toronto
by Meridian Productions. A tabulation from the report of the Canadian government bureau of statistics, covering Canadian motion-picture production by private industry for all purposes, is shown in the table. During 1959, the trend in North America for motion pictures to become geared more and more to television release continued in Canada at an even faster pace than in the United States, since Canada had virtually no production of theatrical feature films. At the year end, repercussions from the television quiz scandal in the United States influenced the Canadian board of during 1959
I
I
I
I
broadcast governors in releasing an operating code regulating
Jr.'s
race.
"Wahoo" with a 113.924 m.p.h. lap (3 mi.) at the Gold cup The "Wahoo" also was winner of the President's cup at
Washington, D.C.
—
Inboard Champions. National champions in the ten most popular inboard classes for 1959 were: 48-c.i. hydro, F. C. Moor, Miami, Fla.; 135-c.i. h\-dro. Frank Xeely, El Monte, Calif.: 136-c.i. hydro, Sid Johnson, Cambridge, Md.; 225-c.i. hydro. Hank Vogel, Webster, \.V.: 266-c.i. hydro. Bill Ritner. Gladwyne. Pa.: 7-litre hydro, Frank Byers, Columbus, 0.: E-racing runabout, Ralph Barker, Niagara Falls, N.Y.; crackerhox runabout, Joe Herren, San Bruno, Calif.: 280-c.i. hydro, .\lton Pierson, Queenstown, Md.: and in the newly introduced ski-racing runabout, Les Brown. Oak Lawn, 111. Outboard Champions. National champions in the racing outboard classes for 1959 were: .\ hydro, Wally .\dams, .\uburndale, Fla.: B hydro, Dave Christner. Quincy, 111.: C hydro. Jack Leek. Seattle: D hydro, Fred Goehl, Quincy: F hydro, Hubert Entrop. Seattle: .\-racing runabout. Homer Kincaid, Carbon Cliff, 111.: B-racing runabout. Gene Hilton. Newton, N.C; C-racing runabout. Goehl: F-racing runabout. Chuck Parsons, Lodi. Calif.; C-service runabout, Rockey Stone, Willamina, Ore.; and C-service hydro,
—
Kincaid. Stock Outboard Champions. In the stock outboard classes, Ed Wulf of won both the .\V runabout and the .\ stock hydro 1959 national championships. Other champions were: JL" runabout. Jack HoMen, Seattle: BL' runabout. Ronnie Zuback, Morgan, N.J.: CL' runabout, Dean Mahaffey, Roseburg, Ore.: runabout, John Schedel, Secaucus. N.J.; 36-c.i. runabout. Bill Kennedy III, Halesite, N.Y.; B stock hydro, Bob Hering. Sheboygan, Wis.; C stock hydro. Bob Brown, Miami; and D stock hydro, Dick O'Dea, Paterson, N.J. (L. El.)
—
.Amityville, N.Y.,
DU
Motor Hotels: see Hotels, US. Motor Transportation: see Trucking Indltstry. Motor Vehicles: see Accidents; Automobile Industry; Trlxkixg Industry; Urban Transportation, U.S. Mozambique: see Portuguese Overseas Provinces.
both the government operated Canadian Broadcasting corpora(16
Summary
Statistics
IPrivote industry!
commerce
Gross revenue Printing
Solories
Year
11953 1954
M955
Production
laboratory
$1,150,890
$1,592,779
1549 233
2,106,131 2,456,038 3,726,557 4,471,710 3,962,780
$1,230,493 1,456,405
.
.
483,910 758 560 2,793,975 2 2
,
1957' 1958' •figures from ore not included
tion
1,817,784 2,095,985 2,978,626 3.344,948 laboratories with no motion-picture production. They 1,460,421
1956'.
1956 In
include film the figures for prior years.
and private television broadcasters.
lations, the
ond
ond wages
I
requirement that by April
SS% Canadian
i,
Among 1962,
all
other code regustations include
content in their broadcasting sparked long-range
expansion plans in the industry for both documentary and studio type motion-picture production.
).
U.S.
Mueller, Frederick Henry member, became
of Canadian Motion-Picture Production
(F. R. Cy.)
in
cabinet
secretary of
Aug. 1959 after the U.S. senate had voted on June
19 not to confirm the appointment of Lewis L. Strauss (q.v.)
(Strauss had serv'ed on interim appointment of Dwight D. Eisenhower since Nov. 1958.) Mueller had been assistant secretary of commerce (1935-59), and was undersecretary from June 4. 1959. until he became acting secretary after the resignation of Strauss. His appointment as secretary of commerce by Eisenhower was confirmed by the senate on Aug. 6. The next day Mueller declared that the department of commerce would consider expansion of trade with the U.S.S.R. under certain "realistic" conditions, but would not consider the extension to that office.
Pres.
of long-term credits to the Soviet Union.
Mueller was
bom
Nov.
22, 1893, at
Grand Rapids, Mich., and
;
, 1
MUENCH — MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT
456
was Kraduated from MichiRan State university
in
1914.
He
en-
tered his father's furniture business that year, remaining as a
general partner until 1955.
He was
also president of an insur-
ance company from 1941 to 1955 and president of Grand Rapids Industries, Inc., from 1941 to 1946.
North Carolina; and on municipal incorporations, consolidation* and annexations in Wisconsin. Official studies of local government problems, were authorized in several stales, including Wyoming. Texas, Tennessee and Minnesota. Metropolitan Govornnnent. While progress was being
—
made Eminence Cardinal Muench, Germany, was born
(1889-
Muench, Aloisius Joseph
).
Aloisius
bishop ol Kargo, N.D., and papal nuncio to
on Feh. 18
at
Milwaukee, Wis,, where he attended
seminary and was ordained
He
His
to the priesthood
St.
on June
Francis 8,
1913.
earned his master of arts degree from the University of
Wisconsin and a doctorate at the University of Fribourg, Switz. Further graduate study was done at the universities of Louvain, Sorbonne, Oxford and Cambridge. In 1922 he was appointed
dean of the theology department and professor of dogmatic theology and social sciences at St. Francis seminary. In 1929 he
was named rector of the seminary and in 1934 was created domestic prelate with the title of monsignor by Pope Pius XI. Consecrated bishop of Fargo on Oct. 15, 1935, he was granted
it
at the local level, there
was feared might
were several setbacks
affect the course of future
proposal for the establishment of a Metropolitan District authority for the city of St. Louis, Mo., St. Louis county and 98 municipalities in the county, to administer seven selected serv-
on a metropolitan basis, was rejected by the voters
ices
on Nov.
3
Miami metropolitan
named to act as liaison Church in Germany and U.S. occupation that year he was named papal visitator
with a metropolitan form of government.
1946, he was
to
Germany and head
Germany
ciature in
in 1949,
he became papal nuncio when diplo-
matic relations were re-established with the Vatican in 1951. On Nov. 16, 1959, Pope John XXIII elevated him to the Sacred College of Cardinals.
Mules:
I™L'7ml7cS
in large
enced by local governments
in
measure
to difficulties experi-
coping with the phenomenal and
continuing flood of urban expansion.
The
state governors, in a
of instances, assumed dynamic leadership. Concern for
such matters as local finances,
commuter
railroads,
tension of local
home
rule,
mass transportation,
urban planning and renewal, housing, ex-
boundaries, intermunicipal arrangements,
gional government and better state-local relations in
prT
United States by state governors and legislatures.
These problems related
number
re-
was expressed
the annual messages of the governors of one-third of the
Extensive legislation along these lines was subsequently
states.
enacted.
—
an
State Action on Municipal Problenris. New York created office for local government, aided by a local government ad-
visory board, to assist both the governor and the local units; a
state
office
of
council to provide state;
The "Committee on
transportation;
minimum
a
municipal police
training
training standards throughout the
and a temporary commission on governmental operations
the Future" of the
government
New York, designed to develop greater co-operabetween the city and the state. The voters in November approved a constitutional amendment enabling the legislature
cil
acquire formal legal
government indebtedness for any
joint
nicipal undertakings within the joint debt limits. Alaska's
created a Local
Government agency and
munew
a
Local
New
Jersey
Boundary commission. Jersey plan to use the surplus funds of the
its
1
powers of consultation, research and recommendabut confer no operating powers. The Joint Committee on
existing
the National Capital Metropolitan conference (an existing volun-,
tary
body
of local elected officers) might be developed as thei
voice of the region and, the instrument for expressing and
November. Legislation governing municipal annexation and incorporation procedures was enacted in Minnesota on armexations, planning controls and assessment procedures in
safe-!
guarding local interests. In the Chicago area the Northeastern Illinois
Metropolitan Area Local Governmental Services com-i
mission recommended a system of voluntary co-operation among the traditional units of local government rather than the adoption of a metropolitan-wide government.
The development
of joint
co-operation was stressed also in other areas and various
neft
study commissions were appointed.
The unique character
of
Rhode
Island as a t>'pe of
"city-'
was recognized in the final report of an official Specia! Commission to Appraise the Financial Operations of the State Government and the Matter of State-Local Relations, issued ir
state''
April 1959.
On
the basis of proposals submitted to
it
prepared by the Institute of Public administration in
recommended
the commission
in studie:
New
York
certain shifts of functions fron
the local governments to the state as "modest
first
steps' in
th(
direction of a metropolitan-state government. It advocated spe
ment
and of sanitation
in a
government am
new
state depart
of utilities.
FecJerai Legislation.
— There was
a disposition
on the part
1959 session to liberalize the various federa programs directly affecting municipal governments. The admin congress at
istration,
turnpike to aid distressed commuter railroads and bus lines, which received nationwide attention, was passed by the legislature and vigorously advocated by the governor but rejected in
i
Jersey and Connecticut state legislatures which would confirm
divisions of water supply
by the voters
.
recommended in 1959 that the counstatus by action of the New York, New
cifically the creation of a state division of local
A New
area's met-
officials,
tion
legislature
!
country ;
New York
of the city of
to authorize local
in the
ropolitan regional council, a tristate voluntary group of elected local
tion,
see Livestock.
in the
remained the only area
'
Washington Metropolitan Problems presented its final report to congress on Jan. 31, 1959. It recognized the need for a new and' limited structure for metropolitan government to create a network of regional public works and looked to the possibility that
Municipal Government. lems
area,
|
;
authorities. In July of
of the Papal Relief mission. Appointed regent of the papal nun-
at a
by more than two to one. In the Cleveland, O., metropolitan area a proposed home rule charter for Cuyahoga county, vesting in the county exclusive power over a variety of functions of regional significance, was likewise decisively defeated. In April a proposed metropolitan charter for Knoxville and Knox county, Tenn., which would have abolished the existing city and county governments and created a single metropolitan government for the entire area, met with overwhelming defeat. Dade county, Fla., which includes the special election
the personal title of archbishop on
Nov. i, 1950. On June 4, between the Roman Catholic
in 1959 which developments. A
its
on the other hand, frequently opposed
their expansion
Several measures, particularly the Housing act of 1959. wer substantially modified under veto or threat of veto dent.
Measures
finally adopted, in addition to the
by the presi Housing act
provided for; the creation of a permanent 26-member Advisor
Commission oh Intergovernmental Relations, with
federal, statt
municipal and county representation, which was to act as a ing house for discussion
and action on problems
cleai
affecting jointl
'
and
federal, state
jthe
local
governments, especially the grant
[programs and intergovernmental fiscal arrangements
;
the financ-
ing of the federal aid highway program, which had been slowed down because of cutbacks in the federal contributions and controls
imposed on state spending; extensions of the air pollution and the public health traineeprogram and the provision of atomic energy co-operation
control program, aid to airports ship
;
grants
to
facilities.
A
total of $45,000,000 was appropriated for federal communities for construction of sewage treatment Measures left for consideration at the second session of
with states.
1960 included, among others, a proposal for commission on metropolitan problems, expansion of the water pollution control program, community facilities loans and aid to the 86th congress in 1
depressed areas.
Urban Renewal.
—As signed by the president after two
on the ground that
;essive vetos
its
suc-
provisions were extravagant
new housing legislation, the first since 1957, new public housing units; $350,000,000 for
ind inflationary, the
luthorized 37,000
urban renewal to be immediately available and $300,000,000 to 36 available
on July
i960; a $50,000,000 direct loan program
i,
housing for the aged; and $8,000,000,000 for mortgage
tor
surance. Additional
amendments expanded
in-
or liberalized the pro-
Federal Housing administration mortgage inand the urban renewal and public housing programs. The jrban-planning assistance program (sec. 701 of the Housing act) idsion controlling
surance
and improved
was rewritten
important particulars;
in several
it
Housing and Home Finance igency administrator to encourage planning on a unified metrojolitan basis. Statistics on the status of urban renewal projects md projects under the urban-planning assistance programs, jubhshed in monthly bulletins by the Urban Renewal administra-
nduded
specific authorization to the
continued to show substantial progress in both programs. The federal urban renewal, slum clearance and mortgage insurance programs came in for considerable criticism in 1959, ;ion,
the annual conference of the National
raiced particularly at
\ssociation of
Housing and Redevelopment
The government, on jrojects
its
October.
from the planning into the building
stage. Scandals in
New York
city also pro-
voked heated controversy. Nevertheless, following a survey of [6 cities
and a canvass of leading authorities
Forum
in the field, Archi-
1959 issue reported the program to basically sound and advocated its continuance, subject to
ectiiral Ibe
in its Sept.
tuch improvements as better co-ordination of local
government
programs, citizen group participation and public disclosure of the details of
urban development projects. The work of the unified
paltimore Urban Renewal and Housing agency and the Greater altimore committee, a citizen group,
— Chicago, —
ended. Seven other cities
'a.,
ing
New
was particularly
111.,
corn-
Cleveland, 0., Little
Haven, Conn., Philadelphia, Pa., Pittsburgh, and Sacramento, Calif. were also cited as having outstand-
ock. Ark.,
it
was operating
York
v
v
1959
in
—There was
little
or no
improvement
in
1959
the situation of local bus lines, particularly in the medium nd smaller communities, according to a survey reported in the ugust issue of Public Management. But in the large urban
in
where mass transit remained a necessity, impressive new jplans were in operation or under consideration. The states of |New York and New Jersey enacted a bistate compact, subseentres,
by congress and the president, creating a New ork-New Jersey Transportation agency which was to devise
uently approved
commuter
New York metropolitan New York au-
ilans
for the
tea.
Funds were made available to the Port of
railroads in the
an existing bistate agency, to help provide $100,000,000
worth of passenger cars to designated
commuter
railroads.
ersey created a state division of railroad transportation
and
New New
established an office of transportation in the state execu-
The San Francisco bay area rapid-transit dishad plans under way for a three-stage integrated rapid-transit system involving 123 mi. of rapid transit, including a subway under the bay between San Francisco and Oakland, for the construction of which the legislature approved the issuance of $115,000,000 in revenue bonds by the California Toll Bridge tive department. trict
authority.
The
entire project
was subject to approval by the
voters of the five-county area.
The four-year mass-transportation survey ordered by congress was published in 1959 by the
for the Washington, D.C., area
National Capital Planning commission and the National Capital Regional Planning council, which were aided
many port
records.
Transportation.
hority,
IN TOKYO, JAP., a clock under a traffic signal motorists and pedestrians the number of seconds (in tills case, 13) the light will change. Its manufacturer presented it to the city of Tokyo tells
part, criticized municipal delays in getting
administration of the program in
;he
Officials in
TIMED STOP LIGHTS
in their
public and private organizations and individuals.
recommended
work by The re-
a $2,500,000,000 system of freeways, park-
ways, subways, suburban railroads and express buses, under a
temporary public corporation
to be created
by congress,
to
be
followed by a permanent interstate transit authority. Congres-
on the report were scheduled for November. Both Maryland had meanwhile ratified an interstate compact for the regulation of mass transportation in the Washington, D.C., area, for which congressional approval was pending. sional hearings
Virginia and
The
Illinois state
final report to the
mass-transportation commission submitted
governor and legislature
in
its
June; recommen-
dations included the establishment of a state office of co-ordi-
nator of mass transportation and of an advisory transportation
committee with state, local and mass-transit representation. The Louis Metropolitan Area Transportatiofi Study: igsy-yo-So was submitted to the mayor of the city and supervisors of the
St.
457
:
M U N TIONS
458
i
county of
St.
Louis
in
September; recommendations included
the cri-ntion of an area-wide transportation-planning authority.
Municipal Finance.
—The
census bureau's annual report on
city KoviTiimfnt liiiances issued in for fiscal years ending in
1958,
19S9, which presented data
showed another record increase
revenue, expenditure, indebtedness and financial holdings,
in city
though the degree of increase was
less
marked than
for
1957.
revenue reached approximately $12,832,000,000, about
Total
higher than the 1957 total; general revenue, excluding utility
7'";
''' j ; ' '
from Oct. 1953 to Oct, 1958, on a full-lime equivalent was approximately n'/c] in municipal payrolls it wu
interval basis,
39 'a-
I
See also City and Regional Planning; Civil DErENii, U,S.; Crime, U.S.; Police; Urban Transportation, U.S.; :
1778), which was one of six cartoo'
for a set of tapestries for the royal palace in Madrid.
The Cleveland Museum
of Art acquired a noted collection
Byzantine silver and, as their
Hanna
first
purchases from the Leonard
"The Nativity" by Gerard David. Anoth' important purchase from the Hanna fund was a three-foot lind wood statue of St. Stephen by the early 16th-century Germ^ sculptor, Tilman Riemenschneider. Of even greater significar fund, acquired
was Cleveland's purchase of one of Peter Paul Rubens' masterpieces, "Diana and Her Nymphs Departing Chase," painted about 1620. Diana is shown attired in
greati
for
t'
brillis
red and is surrounded by her njTnphs, one of whom is molest by a satyr. The picture, which was formerly in the collection Lord Northbrook. had not been seen publicly for 100 years. A very large painting (96^ in. high) by Edwin Dicklns' called "The Fossil Hunters" (1926-28) was acquired by Whitney museum in New York city. This was called the b modern painting to enter an American public collection in 19 Carnegie institute in Pittsburgh, Pa., was presented with paintings and pieces of sculpture from its Bicentennial Int national. These included work by the U.S. artists Franz Kli I
MUSIC Alexander Calder and Kenzo Okada, and by the European artists Hans Arp, Georges Mathieu, Georges Braque and Henry Moore.
The Art Institute of Chicago acquired by gift from Mrs. Joseph Regenstein "Three Studies of a Woman," a chalk drawing by Antoine Watteau; it purchased a large bronze "Seated Nude" (1925) by Henri Matisse; and Mrs. Suzette Morton Zurcher presented to the institute a construction commissioned from
Naum
Gabo. In the
field of paintings,
the institute purchased
by Bernardo Strozzi and received from Leigh B. Block the "Portrait of Picasso" by Juan
"Portrait of a Bishop" gift
See also Smithsonian Institution.
Classical Music.
—The
UllCIP RlUoiu. musical anniversaries.
'
It
(F. A. Sw.)
year 1959 was one of many marked the tercentenary of
the birth of Purcell, the bicentennial of the
sesquicentennial of the death of
!
of the birth of
as a
Gris.
Haydn and
death of Handel, the the sesquicentennial
Mendelssohn. Festivals of their music were given
over the civilized world. Since Purcell and Handel lived most
all
461
chestras undertook widely ranging tours.
New York
led
city,
by
its
Thomas Scherman, made
The
Little Orchestra of
permanent conductor and founder,
a tour of Asian countries in February
and March, presenting 38 concerts in 20 cities from India to Japan. One of the most interesting events of this tour was the world premiere of the Thirteenth Symphony by Henry Cowell, subtitled Madras Symphony, given in Madras, India, on March 3. The National Symphony orchestra of Washington, D.C., under the direction of its permanent conductor, Howard Mitchell, made a three months' tour of Latin-American countries during the summer months. The Vienna Philharmonic, under the direction of its permanent conductor, Herbert von Karajan, undertook in October and November a tour around the world in 40 days, going east through Japan, continuing through the United States and then returning to Europe. The programs contained mainly classical and romanworks.
tic
The 33rd annual
festival of the International Society for
Con-
j
of their lives in
London and were buried
in
Westminster abbey,
temporary Music was given
in
Rome and
Naples June 10-16.
I
extensive celebrations in their
i
honour were held
jPurcell-Handel festival was presented in der the
'
cil,
the
in England. The London June 8-27, un-
combined auspices of the Arts council, the British counBritish Broadcasting corporation and the British museum.
The Haydn celebrations brought out several of his littleknown operas of these, // Mondo della Luna had frequent performances, perhaps stimulated by the interest in the moon as \ht object of space e.xploration. However, the story of the opera, to a comedy by Carlo Goldoni, depicted merely a foolish old man's delusion that he had been transported to the moon. A commemoration of special interest was held in Esterhaz, Hung., the locality where Haydn spent his most fruitful years as court ;
I
I
i
musician to Prince Esterhazy.
jwith a I
performance
The
festivities
opened on Sept. 20
Esterhazy castle of Haydn's oratorio
in the
The Seasons.
The most spectacular orchestral tour of 1959 was undoubtedly undertaken by the New York Philharmonic, under the direcjtion of Leonard Bernstein, the first native American to become permanent conductor of that organization. The tour was arranged under the auspices of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower's special international program for cultural presentations. The I
[that
orchestra gave 50 concerts in 29 cities and 17 countries, beginning with a concert in Athens, at the
(Aug. 5), and concluding in
London
foot of the Acropolis
(Oct. 10).
The
tour in-
cluded appearances at five festivals; in Athens, Baalbek (Lebanon), Salzburg, Venice and Berlin. the tour
was a
The culminating point
series of 18 concerts in the U.S.S.R., in
lincluding several
American works, among them Bernstein's own
symphonic work The Age oj Anxiety. On Aug. presented in lution of
of
programs
Moscow
25, the orchestra
the first performance there since the Revo-
Stravinsky's
modern
highly significant event in
classic,
The Rite of Spring, a
view of the Soviet attitude toward
a short
composition by the American
The Unanswered
pioneer of
modern music, Charles
Question,
was performed. Bernstein prefaced the performances
Ives, entitled
with a few remarks, pointing out the revolutionary significance of the
Closer cultural relations between the United States and the
marked by
group of
the visit in the United States of a
Soviet composers, Tikhon Khrennikov, Dmitri vitch,
The
including
Dimitri
Shostakovich,
Kabalevsky, Constantin DankeFikret Amirov and the musicologist Boris Yarustovsky.
visit
four U.S.
was arranged
to reciprocate a visit in the U.S.S.R.
by
composers (Roy Harris, Roger Sessions, Peter Mennin
and Ulysses
Kay)
Besides the
val.
The programs
of the festival were as follows:
June 10: Cheltenham Concerto, for chamber orchestra by George Rochberg (U.S.); Skaldcns .\att, for soprano, chorus and orchestra by Ingvar Lidholm (Sweden); Omnia tevipus habent, cantata for soprano and 17 instruments by Bernd-.Mois Zimniermann (Germany); Prolation, for orchestra by Peter Ma.Nwell Davies (England). June 11: Eighth String Quartet by Hilding Rosenberg (Sweden); Serenata, for 5 instruments by Goffredo Petrassi (Italy); Nocturnes, for soprano and instruments by Hans Ulrich Engelmann (Germany): Three Blue Sketches, for 9 instruments by Hanns Jelinek (.Austria). June 12: Mali (Madre), for voice and string quartet by .\lojz Srebotnjak (Yugoslavia); Second String Quartet by .Alberto Ginastera (Argentina); Three Studies, for cello and piano by Don Banks (England); Two Sonnets, for baritone, clarinet, viola and cello by Milton Babbitt (TI.S.); Ein irrender Sohn, for contralto and instruments by Bo Xilsson (Swetien). June 13 afternoon concert: String Quartet by Raniiro Cortes (U.S.); Des Engels Anredung an die Seele, for \'oice and 4 instruments by Klaus Huber (Switzerland): Sei poesie di Dylan Thomas, for voice and instruments by Riccardo I\lalipiero (Italy): Canticum Psalmi Resiirreetionis, cantata for soprano and instruments by Dieter Schonbach (Germany). Evening concert: Sinfonia by Manuel Rosenthal (France); Tartiniana seconda. for violin and orchestra by Luigi Dallapiccola (Italy); Qitatre Essais, for orchestra by Tadeusz Baird (Poland); Impromptus, for orchestra by Wolfgang Fortner (Germany); Agon, for orchestra by Igor Stravinsky (U.S.). June 14: Suite de Kurpie, for contralto and 9 instruments by Witold Szalonek (Poland); Trio, for clarinet, cello and piano by Karl-Birger Blomdahl (Sweden); Improvisations sur Mallarme, for soprano and instruments by Pierre Boulez (France). June 15: Konslellationen. for strings by Per Xorgaard (Denmark); Concertino, for piano and chamber orchestra by .Andre Casanova (France): Incontri. for 24 instruments by Luigi Xono (Italy): Tre Studi, for chamber orchestra by Aldo Clementi (Italy): Oiseaux exotiques. for piano and orchestra by Olivier Messiaen (France); Satnai, for chamber orchestra by Voritsune Matsudaira (Japan). June 16: Permutazioni sinjoniche. for orchestra by Guillaume Landre (Holland): Vier Gcdichte von Stcjan George, for miNed chorus and instruments by Michael Gielen (Austria): Trittico sinjonico, for orchestra by Nils-Eric Fougstedt (Finland): Nachtstiicke und Arien, for soprano and orchestra by Hans Werner Henze (Germany).
Juan, Puerto Rico, on
He
also
continued until
May
Bach
suite.
The programs
May
i,
conducting a performance of a
appeared as a
cello
soloist.
The
festival
22.
Maggio Musicale Fiorentino (May lo-July by Handel and Purcell to mark their annias numerous other works by classical and
of
14) included works
music.
U.S.S.R. were
musical works was held. Eight hundred and seventy composers from 43 different countries entered the contest; the prize-winning works were included in the programs of the festitition for
Pablo Casals opened the third Casals Music festival in San
Stravinsky's music as being decadent.
At the same concert
In connection with this festival, a special international compe-
in 1958.
New York
Philharmonic, two other American or-
versaries,
as well
modern composers.
An
International Music festival in Vienna
(May 31-June
21)
presented 16 orchestral concerts and several concerts of chamber music.
The Holland June 15-July
festival took place in
IS,
Amsterdam and The Hague.
with the presentation of operatic and orches-
tral concerts.
The annual
International Festival of Edinburgh opened on
'
MUSIC
462
Aug. J4 with a presentation by the Royal Opera of Stocl
death of the once poilar television program. "The Hit Parade," which had been r utter worthlessness
be found
in the
years a fairly reliable guide to honestly successful music
in
5
"The Hit Parade" died because it represented o7 teen-agers, the largest consumer market for popiT
lighter forms.
the taste of
music, and gradually lost
its
adult audience as a result.
.As
-
dicated by the weekly listings of Variety magazine, "the Bii of
show business,"
hits
were created through records rather tl J and the success of these records -
the sale of sheet music,
pended upon the juvenile rating of the "singers" conceni.
MUTUAL SECURITY PROGRAM — NARCOTICS
j
many
of
whom
offered little or nothing to suggest either voice or
I
talent.
I
Curiously enough, the influence of a popular record occasionally
effect of reviving
had the
an old "standard," although usually example being the Harbach-
a garbled form, the outstanding
lin
JKem "Smoke Gets
Your Eyes." There was also a flicker of fact that some real folk music managed
in
jencouragement in the
way
mass of incredible trash, a trend already established by the jazzed-up Negro exaltation, "He's Got the .Whole World in His Hands." A surprisingly popular song was
ito find its
into the
i"The Battle of the time of
lof
New
Orleans." based upon an actual fiddle tune
Andrew Jackson. "Stagger Lee,"
a
new
version of
"Stackolee," rode high for a time, to be followed by
|the classic
"Tom Dooley," made jized largely
available by
by the Kingston
Frank Warner and popular-
trio.
There were some obvious borrowings as well, including "Good|bye, Jimmie, Good-bye," from the Neapolitan "Vieni sul Mar" j
as "My Nellie's Blue Eyes"), "Only You," from the "Lazy Mississippi Moon," and "Don't You Know?" from Musetta's Waltz in Puccini's La Boheme.
i(also
known
older
The menace of "rock 'n' roll" continued through 1959, alit showed some signs of weakening. Elvis Presley's mili-
I
ithough
itary service
did not interfere noticeably with his standing as high
priest of the cult, for at least
and
his popularity
Tonight" and
"A Big
"Richard
quences, and one (/
Want
Academic
interest
in
More
versity of Indiana.
Florida,
Head on
My
Shoul-
The few good songs were seldom heard except
1
its
entire score to
grow.
The Lennox
first
national jazz
camp
at the Uni-
and universities introduced
colleges
(Colorado,
Michigan,
Kansas, Texas). The Midwest Collegiate
California,
Jazz festival was held with such success at the University of
Dame
that plans were made to make it a nationwide event Throughout the southwest, high-school dance bands attended local and regional festivals. Eight major jazz festivals were held in the United States. The Newport, R.I., festival was probably the largest in terms of participation. Plans were drawn to provide permanent facilities for an annual festival there. Two festivals were held in Chicago, one at Chicago stadium and three midweek presentations at Ravinia park. Randall's Island, N.Y., Monterey, Calif., French Lick,
Notre
in i960.
Ind., Detroit, Mich.,
and Boston, Mass.,
ton and Detroit for the
In Italy the Florence
May
in
also held festivals (Bos-
time).
quartet
made two appearances
festival, the first jazz inclusion in the
tory of the festival.
began
first
Modern Jazz
at the
22-year his-
The Jazz Appreciation Society Mehegan in a concert-lecture
in the far east
fame, with "Put Your
to
survey and laboratory courses in jazz
Anyone Else But You," "Sweeter Than You" and "Just a ILittle Too Much." Edd Byrnes, an actor rather than a vocalist, 'capitalized on his television reputation in the autobiographical isong "Kookie, Kookie," and the highly synthetic Fabian (genlerally billed as "fabulous") made some sort of record with "Turn iMe Loose" and "Tiger." A song called "Lonely Boy'' was Paul |der" as a sequel.
jazz continued
Stan Kenton sponsored the
Africa sponsored John
jAnka's chief claim to
Live) devoted
school in Massachusetts scheduled a three-week session, and
growing reputation as a singer with "It's Late," "There'll Never iBe
to
the jazz idiom.
with teen-agers accounted
"A Fool Such as I," "I Need Your Love Hunk 0' Love." Ricky Nelson added to his
three hits,
463
Diamond," "Mickey Spillane-Mike Hammer"). Noticeable, too, was the adaptation of jazz to commercial radio and television advertising. Several movies used jazz in seSquad,"
of South tour,
and
Jack Teagarden completed an 18-week tour which Afghanistan and ended in Okinawa.
See also Records and Recordings.
(M. E. Hl.)
—
The Brass Choir (1956): ConEncvclop.jedia Britannica Films. ducting Good Music (1956): Igor Stravinsky (The Wisdom Series) (195S); Listening to Good Music (The String Quartet) (1955): Pablo Casals (The Wisdom Series) (1958); The Percussion Group (1956); Playing Good Music (The String Quartet) (1955): The String Choir (1956); The Symphony Orchestra (1956); Wanda Landowska (The Wisdom Series) (1958); The Woodwind Choir (1956).
in the theatres
housing such musical shows as the Rodgers-Hammerstein Flower
Mutual Security Program:
\Drum Song, Jule Styne's Gypsy and the prize-winning La Plume
U.S.
Tante. A promising score was that of Once Upon a Matcomposed by Mary Rodgers, the daughter of Richard jRodgers. When Kurt Weill wrote The Three-Petiny Opera, he deliberately turned out a vulgar, worthless tune called "Mack,
see
Foreign Aid Programs,
ma
'lie
At the 14th session of the United Nations Com-
fress,
Knife.'' Brought up to date and recorded by Bobby Darin, it became one of the big hits of the year. (S. Sp.) JoH. Worldwide interest in jazz continued to expand during ithe
—
Narcotics.
mission
Switz., April 27 to to provide
May
on
Narcotic
15, 1959,
Drugs held
at
Geneva,
governments were requested
prompt provisional control of new narcotic drugs hav-
ing powerful analgesic or antitussive properties, pending findings
tions in this area
by the World Health organization regarding the drugs' addictionliabilities. The World Health organization was invited to revise the list of exempted narcotic preparations, to be limited to those generally used in current medical practice which could be safely exempted from most control measures, for inclusion in the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. The World Health organization was requested to prepare a
Russo,
report on the use of cannabis for extraction of useful drugs, espe-
(1959.
In the United States, jazz as an art form received con-
impetus through the compositions and arrangements of Evans (long-playing albums Miles Ahead, Porgy and Bess).
siderable Gil
jHis fresh
concepts of
harmony and form
influenced jazz writers
pnd performers throughout the nation. Noteworthy contribu-
were also made by George Russell, William Johnny Richards and Manny Albam. Miles Davis continued to expand his influence on trumpet iplayers and also on the extension of jazz forms. The simplicity lof his melodic lines and harmonic progressions put emphasis ;upon content and tonal qualities as opposed to involved arpeg-
cially antibiotics, preferably in
ference to adopt the Single convention, so that the extraction of useful drugs from cannabis could be permitted under that con-
The
Probably the most influential of tenor saxophone stylists was
[Sonny Rollins, an exponent of the
"hard" school of playing,
al-
though Stan Getz and Bill Perkins maintained a considerable Ifollowing.
time for the 15th session of the
commission, and specifically for use in the plenipotentiary con-
vention.
giated figures. '
producing
John Coltrane was a new light on the horizon but it whether he would develop into a major in-
Iremained to be seen
UN
secretary-general, in co-operation with the Interna-
tional Civil Aviation organization, the
World Health organiza-
and the International Criminal Police organization, was asked to prepare and distribute to governments, in time for action
tion at the 15th session of the commission, essential standards to
fluence.
control the use of narcotic drugs in first-aid kits on board aircraft
and presented jazz spectaculars, and began using jazz for background imusic for several of its weekly shows ("Peter Gunn," "M
engaged
Television also took note of the public interest in jazz
in international flight. All
governments which had not
yet done so were requested to adhere to the 1948 protocol, and all
governments of opium-producing countries were urged
to
j.
NASSER — NATI ONAL BUDGET protocol of 1953 so that United States. — Ihc continued
464
adhere to the Inlcrnalional Opium could come into force. Caution was advised to
new
analgesic drugs
by manufacturers,
application of the minimunj
it
in
the publicity Riven
journalists, or
on radio
mandatory penalties
for the unlawful sale of narcotic drugs
der the federal Narcotic Control act of 1956, buttressed
by
or television to prevent claims that these drugs were not addic-
states
tioii-prodiii ing.
a notable reduction in narcotic trafficking
Traffic.
Illicit
ii;5S
—Total
were considerably
was true
in
than for 1957, although the reverse illicit heroin
less
the United States, the chief target of
Iran had
tralfic.
seizures of narcotic drugs reported for
much
traffic
illicit
in
opium. Cannabis
found throughout the world, was heaviest
in the
traffic,
United States,
Mexico. Brazil, Morocco, several parts of South Africa, the far
and the near and middle east. Considerable cocaine traffic in several South American countries, and persistent use of cocaine in other parts of the world was indicated. Raw and Prepared Opium. The largest seizures of raw and
sufficiently severe state narcotic control laws, achieve*
and addiction. In
cotic
control
law providing a ten-year
minimum mandator
prison sentence for unlawful sale of narcotic drugs. Illinois al», instituted a
program of Nalline
tests for addicts
on probation
the far, near and middle east, par-
in
ticularly in Hurma-Chiiia- Thailand border areas of clandestine
cultivation, which included
Laos and South Korea.
Much
of this
opium was transported through Thailand, Malaya, Singapore and Hong Kong, The Shan and Kachin states of Burma permitted some diversion for personal use. Morphine and Heroin. The clandestine manufacture and smuggling of morphine and heroin from the far, near and middle east to other parts of the world continued. The far eastern
—
sources were near northern Thailand, with kok,
Hong Kong, Malaya, Macao,
traffic
through Bang-
Japan, South Korea and For-
mosa. The United States seized much heroin smuggled from Hong Kong and Japan, Transit traffic continued from abroad through
Mexico toward the United
States.
—
fic
Cocaine. The concern of the commission about cocaine trafwas evidenced by its request that the secretary-general send
reports of the cocaine discussion, held during the 14th session
of the commission, to the governments of Argentina, Bolivia,
Colombia. Cuba. Ecuador, Paraguay and Peru, urg-
Brazil. Chile,
ing the full co-operation of all countries to reduce this traffic.
Heavy
transit
traffic
continued through Cuba to the United
Governments were asked
States.
to prohibit the
dangerous habit
of coca chewing, which continued to be a problem, especially in Bolivia. Colombia. Peru and, to
some
extent, in Argentina
and
(H. EncvcloP/»I)Ia Bkitannica Filus.
—Hea\-y
traffic continued, mostly in the far east, and South America. Very large seizures were made in several countries because of vigorous enforcement measures. Mexico continued to co-operate with the United States to
Cannabis.
Africa. Central
check
— Aden. Ethiopia,
Israel,
Saudi Arabia and
Yemen
sub-
secret Free Officers'
— Control
of these drugs at
ill
effects similar to the drugs already
under interna-
tional control, they could be included in the Single
Convention
on Narcotic Drugs,
Addiction. ticularly in
— Heroin addiction continued
Hong Kong.
in
many
areas, par-
Greece reported a decrease
in heroin addiction,
but increased its
1955
law against opium abuse, reduced the number of opium addicts by two-thirds. Much opium addiction existed in the far, near and east,
movement
in the
Egyptian army.
although the exact extent of
it
was not known.
Addiction in the medical profession caused continued concern.
May
fougli
Maj. Gen.
1952, then a lieutenant colonel, Nasser approacbi;
Mohammed Naguib
and offered him the post of
The coup
of a planned revolution.
leadi'
d'etat of July 23 succeede
and Naguib became the head of state and later president arj premier of the republic. Nasser, however, took over the premie:
and shortly thereafter, in Nov. 1954, removed Naguj from the presidency. On July 27, 1954, Nasser signed an agre ment stipulating the evacuation of the Suez Canal zone by tli British forces within 20 months. On June 22, 1956, a nation plebiscite approved him as Egypt's president for six yeai| Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal company on July 26. FolloM ing the invasion of Egypt during October and November aij the subsequent retreat of the invading forces under diplomat ship,
1
Egypt had '"won the battle"
pressure, he claimed that
againi
the British, French and Israelis.
I
and Shukri el-Kuwatli, president Syria, proclaimed in Cairo the union of Egypt and Syria in; United Arab Republic (U.A.R.), and on Feb. 21 Nasser w; Feb.
i,
1958, Nasser
I
elected the first president.
During 1959 Nasser received
official
visits
the
from Amintof Nkrumsi
Kwame
Ghanian prime minister, Jan. 8-11; President Tito of Yugi
20-2S; Emperor Haile Selassie of Ethiopia. June 2 and King Saud of Saudi Arabia, Aug. 31-Sept. 3. At t; Syrian-Lebanese frontier on March 25. Nasser had secret tal. with Pres. Fuad Shehab of Lebanon. They afterward emphasiz the need to strengthen Arab co-operation. Following the faili'
,
of the Mosul revolt in March, Nasser gave the lead to a violc propaganda campaign against Iraq by making a series of speed in which he denounced Gen. Abdul Karim Kassem as an aj of Britain, Communism and Zionism.
(
National Academy of Sciences: see International Gi PHYSICAL Co-operation 1959; Societles and Assocutio:
—
U.S.
National Association for the Advancement of Ci ored People: see Societies and Associations, U.S. National Association of Manufacturers: see Societ
ards encountered in the administration of narcotic drugs in the practice of medicine.
National Budget:
gers of addiction
of medical students regarding the dan-
was considered necessan.'
to
guard against haz-
i'\
I
In
and Associations, U,S, National Association of Real Estate Boards: TIES AND .Associations, U.S.
More thorough education
He
Japan, the United States and Canada.
abuse of cannabis. Iran, by vigorous enforcement of
middle
bom 2.
studied
war of 1948-49, but the Israeli victory ga\j further impetus to his ideas and plans. He was determined l! get rid of the Farouk regime.
2S:
Barbiturates and Tranquilizers.
He
in the Palestine
the use of khat. .Action on this question was postponed pending
the national level was advised. If they should be found liable to
president of tb
El-Nahda el-Misria secondary school in Cairo and in 1937 ws accepted at the military college. In Nov. 1942 he was appointe, lecturer at the military college and soon afterward founded thi
slavia, Feb.
abuse and
), first
United Arab Republic, was
Beni Mor, Asyut province. Upper Egypt, Jan. 15.
mitted information on medical and social problems involved in
completion of a report by the World Health organization.
^
J.
Addiction (195J).
Fanfani. the Italian prime minister, Jan. 6-9;
illicit traffic.
Khat.
— Drug
C1918-
Nasser, Gamal Abdel
On
Chile.
ti
determine violations because of relapse into drug use.
—
prepared opium were made
Ilii
one of the greatest problem areas, improvement was espe cially significant with the vigorous enforcement of a 1957 nar.
nois,
east
occurred
tint
in sonii|
see
Budget, National.
see Soc
—
2
NATIONAL CONGRESS OF PARENTS AND TEACHERS iNational
Bureau of Standards.
March
congress,
^TfSX:^
igoi, the national bureau of standards
3,
is
pri-
50,000
465
lb. /in.
In chemistry, a convenient analytical method was developed for determining as little as one-billionth of a milligram of tritium
•marily concerned with scientific standards
(the radioactive isotope of hydrogen) in water-soluble, nonvola-
jurement, basic properties of matter
tile
iconstants. In
and methods of measand fundamental physical
and related [areas, the bureau conducts research and development programs |in physics, mathematics, chemistry, metallurgy and various fields ,o{
fulfilling its
responsibilities in these
materials. This
the quantitative determination
obstacle to widespread use of tritium as a research tool in organic
and biological chemistry.
The
engineering.
In 1959 the bureau employed approximately 3.500 persons, of jwhom about half were scientists and engineers. Most of the staff
method makes
of tritium relatively easy and thus removes the most important
separation and determination of small amounts of phos-
phate, silicate and arsenate
when they occur together
in solution
I
19 field stations were also
had long been a difficult problem. In 1959, a rapid, accurate method was developed for quantitatively separating and determining these ions. The method was expected to prove useful in
maintained, mainly for radio propagation studies. Total funds
controlling the quality of chemicals, metals, glasses and water
jwas stationed at the bureau's
two major laboratories
D.C., and Boulder, Colo.;
'ington,
1959 were $34,839,000. Of this
jobligated for fiscal
came from
in
Wash-
total, $15,-
direct congressional appropriation
and the balance represented programs conducted for other government ;agencies and private sources.
•089,000
In research during 1959 on atomic standards of length, three
I
devices were developed which provide extremely narrow spectral |lines.
These narrow
make
lines
possible very precise standards
wave length of devices utilize beams
length based on the
radiation from
mercury mercury atoms to obtain a line 0.0002 .Angstrom in width; the third employs a magnetic filter with mercury-198 vapour to produce an absorption line 0.0003 A. wide. Besides serving as sources of very narrow spectral lines, the beam devices were being used to obtain more precise information on the properties of the mercury nucleus as seen in the isotope shifts and hyperfine structure of the lines. Progress was also made in the development of standards of [frequency and time based on invariant properties of the atom. i\ precision of 2 parts in 10,000,000,000 was achieved with an
tof
atoms.
Two
of the
of
I
atomic clock using a
beam
of cesium atoms. In other frequency-
btandard work, hyperfine and ['
Zeeman resonances
in
cesium and
Research
w-as also applied in studying the kinetic
of the solutions of the first-order nonlinear Poincare equation
and the second-order nonlinear Rayleigh equation, and a study thermodynamics and hydrodynamics of two-phase flows.
of the
Under the sponsorship search centre, the
measurements on nine
Precise interferometric
;
lines
of the
belium spectrum led to an independent confirmation of the
Ryd-
which since 1952 had been based on the work of of observers. (J. W. Drinkwater, 0. Richardson and
3erg constant,
single set
Williams, Proc. Royal Soc. 174, 164 [1940] E. R. Cohen, fhys. Rev. 88, 353 [1952].) The Rydberg constant relates the
jW. E.
;
bnergy levels of atoms, and enters into the frequency or
pumber formulas for tnents re-evaluated
all
wave
atomic spectra. The bureau measure-
data used in an early determination (W. V.
Houston, Phys. Rev., 30. 608 [1927]; D. Y. Chu, Phys. Rev.,
Cambridge Re-
of the U.S. air force's
Central Radio Propagation laboratory
from meteor trails. In the course of this work, an experitwo-way communication system was developed that could transmit messages at speeds up to 4,800 words a minute
tions
mental
80 times the existing speed of transmission by teletype. Results the
of
study indicated
intermittent
that
com-
meteor-burst
munication could compete effectively with other long-distance turbances.
rubidium-vapour atomic clocks were undef construc-
NBS
completed a three-year investigation to determine the feasibility of a long-distance radio communication system based on reflec-
systems, and that
Two
equation for a plasma.
Other work included a determination of the fluctuations in the annual flows and runoffs of rivers, investigations of the behaviour
ubidium as narrow' as 20 cycles at 7,000 megacycles were obtion using these results.
salts as impurities.
mathematical physics included an analysis of the important problem of the mechanics of turbulent diffusion by the techniques of statistical mechanics. A statistical approach in
ubidium vapours were investigated. Hyperfine line widths in
served.
1
which contain these
Work
it
was
relatively free
from ionospheric
dis-
continued on the pilot data processor, a multipurpose
computer network for the experimental investigation of government data processing problems. Considerable progress was made in the engineering design and actual construction of this machine.
The use for
of an existing computer to
the pilot was
work out the design
successfully demonstrated.
details
Experiments
in
machine translation, which the bureau had been conducting for the U.S. army office of ordnance research, indicated a promising approach to practical production of English text from Russian technical literature. .\ translation scheme was developed and feasibility studies carried out
On
July
I,
on an electronic computer.
1959. the bureau began
making
all its
calibrations
[1939]) of the Rydberg constant, bringing this earlier palculation into agreement with the presently accepted value
of length and mass (except those for the U.S. coast and geodetic
1(109737.309 =t 0.0012 cm.~^).
international yard and the international pound.
65- 17s
To keep pace with recent developments
and rockptry, efforts were made to extend precise measurement of both temperature and pressure into increasingly higher ranges. Adi
n'ances in
high-temperature measurement included the extension
of the calibration to
3,800°
in jet flight
range of optical pyrometers from 2.400° C.
C. construction
controlled temperatures,
of a high-current arc as a source of
and design of
a special type of high-
survey and those expressed
cal
in
metric units) in terms of the
To
these international units were adopted
by agreement between
the directors of the national standards laboratories of six English-
speaking nations: Canada.
New
Zealand, the United States, the
United Kingdom. Union of South
.Africa
and Australia. Accord-
ing to the agreement, the international yard equals 0.9144 metre
and the international pound equals 0.45359237 kilogram.
jemperature resistance thermometer for interpolating between fixed points jlata
on the International Temperature Scale.
(A. V. A.)
To provide
for the ultimate establishment of additional fixed points
was developed and constructed or studying the behaviour of various metals at pressures up to 1.500.000 lb. /in. 2 For the calibration of instruments used to measure high-transient pressures, apparatus was devised that ,'enerates pressure steps of accurately known amplitudes up to
pn the pressure scale, equipment
secure identi-
values for the yard and pound in precise measurements,
National Catholic Community Service: AXD
see Societies
ASSOCI.ATIO.VS, U.S.
National Catholic Welfare Conference:
see Societies
AND ASSOCIATIO.NS. U.S. National Congress of Parents and Teachers: cieties AND Associations, U.S.
see So-
1
NATIONAL
466
COUNCIL — NATIONAL
National Council of the Churches of Christ in the riKS AM) AsSi iCIATIDNS. L'.S. U.S.A.: V. Sim Dim \\riii\AL. National Debt: National Education Association: see Societifs and AsII
-
SOl'lAllllNs
National Federation of Business and Professional Women's Clubs: wv Sdc iirii;!; anf) Associatmns, U.S. National Foundation for Infantile Paralysis: see SocieAM)
ill S
National Gallery of Art:
see
Smithsonian Insiiti tion.
rcclion of the National Geographic-.Montana co-operative wild-" life
research unit study of the ecology of the grizzly bear
near N'ellowstone park,
archaeologist, continued in n)5y to direct the large-scale Wether-
Mesa
was
project, which
jointly initiated late in
1958 by the
national park service and the National Geographic society. In
mapped much of the Mesa Verde National
year Osborne's group surveyed and
its first
undeveloped Wetherill Mesa section of park. Colorado, charting more than 100 cliff dwelling
cliff
13CX).
began excavations at Long House, largest of three dwellings which were to be restored and opened for
viewing by Mesa Verde visitors along with several mesa-top lage ruins.
The
now
out-'
department of tropical research, used a 1959 Nationa to carry out taxonomic and field work in Eu-
ropean countries on her world-wide study of fiddler crabs. Na-' tional Science foundation grants aided this study. '
Lear Grimmer, associate director of the National Zoologica
park of the Smithsonian institution, led a National Geographic sponsored field party which early in 1959 made a close-rang( study of the strange hoatzin
succeeded
in its
British
Guiana
keeping specimens of the peculiar crested bird
in
in captivity for
many weeks
in efforts to
i
habitat. Hi'
adapt them to
alivi'
life ii|
.\merican zoos. j
scientists
sizable
in andi
object of the projected fivc-yeai
Jocelyn Crane, assistant director of the .New York ZDoIogica' society's
Members
sites of the
Indian civilization that vanished from the mesa before a.d.
The
The
side of .Maska reduced to fewer than i.ooo in the United Statti
J.
National Geographic Society. :;r;-;,°'.'r .,":„ ill
di-'
Geographic grant
lATIDNS, U.S.
.\SS11(
f
research was to stabilize this endangered forest species,
S
I
GUARD
Ecologists John and l-'rank Craighead in mid-1959 began
vil-
national park service expected that the project
000
of the National Geographic society
at the close of 1959, resident in
numbered
2.400.
89 independent countries
aiuj
87 territories and dependencies. The 12 1958 issues of thi, National Geographic Magazine contained 1,740 pages of illus! in
trated articles, approximately half of the pages containing colou
,
'
photograph reproductions.
1958. the society's cartographic division produced seveil
would require five or six years. A two-man. water-jet-propelled "diving saucer," built for the National Geographic society-"Calypso" oceanographic expedi-
series" issued as supplements
tions to enable exploration of continental shelves to depths of
were: lands of the eastern Mediterranean, northeastern Unitei,
Qoo
ft.,
passed
its first tests in
The saucer became
the eastern .Atlantic in mid-1959.
operational during the .August-to-December
exploration and exhibition tour of the "Calypso.'' ship,
The research
under Capt. Jacques Yves Cousteau, sailed to the Canary
Islands.
Bermuda,
New York
city (during the ist International
Oceanographic congress), Washington, D.C., Puerto Rico and the
Cape Verde
Islands.
Scientists in the third season of National Geographic society-
Tulane university work at Dzibilchaltun, Yucatan, uncovered several Early Period steles. One was described as the most beautiful example of Classic sculpture yet found in Yucatan, by
Maya
E. Wyllys Andrews, leader of the investigation of this vast
ceremonial including
site
north of Merida. Nearly 15.000 pieces of pottery,
many whole
or restorable vessels, were recovered by
.\s in
ten-colour
States,
maps
of the
new uniform-size (25 to
x 19 in.j ".\tla
The
the magazine.
Germany, Alaska, western Soviet Union,
United States and
subject'
southwe-"''-
.Asia.
America's Wonderlands: the National Parks, a book
0;
;
pages with 390 natural-colour illustrations describing 82 sceni^ national park areas, was prepared during the year
by the Na'
Geographic book service. National Geographic News Bulletins, proving geographic backj ground for news events and reporting progress of expedition! tional
!
and researches, were sent by the society's news service on a average of six subjects weekly to more than 2,000 news outlet; The school service continued to issue the Geographic School Bw letins during jo weeks of the school year, providing currer events background material to 40,000 schoolteachers and the pupils.
monial plaza. Pottery, wooden and bone artifacts and photo-
On Feb. 4 at the White House. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhowe' presented Hubbard gold medals of the society to Sir \ivian Fuch
graphs of the excavated and restored Temple of the Seven Dolls
"for brilliant leadership of the British Trans-.Antarctic Exped:
and related structures constituted the principal exhibit in the National Geographic society's E.xplorers hall in Washington dur-
tion 1955-58''
Scuba divers from depths of the cenote
in Dzibilchaltun's cere-
ing 1959.
E.
seum
Thomas
Gilliard, associate curator of birds.
American Mu-
of Natural History, led a ten-man exploration of
tainous wilds of
mammal
New
moun-
Britain Island that brought out 215 small
specimens and a priceless collection of 492 bird study-
skins representing
100 species.
The
birds included previously
and to the United States navy antarctic exped Gold duplicates of the award for the nax'y wer
tions of 1955-59.
Burke, chief of naval operations, and to Rei
to .\dm. .Arleigh
.A.
.\dm. George
Dufec. commanding "Operation Deepfreeze."
J.
'.
Melville Bell Grosvenor continued as president of the societj
and editor of the National Geographic Magazine. The society headquarters are at i6th and
M
streets,
DC.
N.W,, Washington (M. B. Gr.)
,
unrecorded varieties of spiny-tailed babbler, leaf warbler and
pygmy
parrot. Sponsored jointly by the museum, the National Geographic society and the Explorers club, the seven-month ex-
National Guard.
pedition concluded with six weeks of photographic reconnais-
on .\ug. 51. 1959. was 37.695
Army.
— The
federally
strength of the U.S.
army
recognize
national guar
underwater archaeology
in portions of
officers and 356.577 enlisted me During 1959. the army national guard was reorganized in line witthe pentomic structure of the active army. The reorganizatitj reduced the total number of units from more than 5.300 to 4,49' now organized into 21 infantry and 6 armoured divisions. 34 mi
the old city of Port Royal, Jamaica, submerged
by earthquake
sile
sance in the Adelbert mountains of near-by northeast
New-
Guinea. In July, the National Geographic society and Smithsonian institution participated in
Edwin A. Link
and provided the exploration ship 'Sea Diver II." With the aid of a six-man U.S. na\y diving team, many relics were brought to the surface. Underwater remnants of the sunken city were located and mapped. in 1692.
led the project
battalions. 56 field artillery battalions. 11 separate infant'
battle groups, 8
armoured cavalry regiments and hundreds
other combat-, combat support and service units.
During the year, the missile battalions of the army nation guard continued to train for their active, full-time role
in
t]
NATIONAL LABOR RELATIONS BOARD By
lation's air defense.
the end of June,
2
battalions had taken
pver the operations of Nike-Ajax sites from the active army, battalions were preparing to take over sites in the following
jind 5
pree months. In Jan. 1959, two missile battalions began training ;o take control of Nike-Hercules sites in Hawaii. During
year
fiscal
1959,
enlistees
49,841
entered
the
six
guardsmen with no prior miliary service. A total of 85,529 had completed this training with he active army since 1957, when enlistees were required to enter his program. Also during fiscal 1959, more than 331,700 army
nonths' active duty training for
juardsmen attended 15 days of annual active duty for training, ind 7,572 enrolled in courses at
Air.
—On Aug.
army
service schools.
31, 1959, the U.S. air national guard
was com-
and 42 nonflying installations served 24 combat wings and
Additional support units.
On June
ets.
30, 1959, the air national
guard began
status on
June
30.
ull-time alert status, the air national guard's 4 aircraft control
warning squadrons continued their active participation in defense.
J.S. air
In the year ending June 30, the air national guard jet instru-
jnent
school graduated 351 pilots;
echnical training courses for
air
force schools provided
more than 3,400
national guard
and airmen, and trained 191 national guard pilots and More than 64.300 air guardsmen attended annual ac-
fficers
avigators. ive ir
duty for training. All nonprior service airmen enlisting
in the
national guard were required to take basic training with the
ctive air force.
A
total of 8,001
airmen completed
this training
1959 and 1,284 of these extended their training up to months.
fiscal
1
ix
See also Aviation, Military;
SELECim: Service, (D.
lotional Income .N"D Product, U.S.
and National Product:
U.S.
W. M.)
see
Income
National Insurance: see Social Security.
During
lational
Labor Relations Board.
jiinistering title
I
of the
1
2th
1959,
the
year of
ad-
Labor-Management Relations
act of
(Taft-Hartley act), the U.S. National Labor Relations card for the first time decided to exercise jurisdiction over ho-
947
motels and similar establishments. The board also put into eft'ect its proposal of the previous year jo make its facilities more widely available by reducing the doljir volume of business required as a basis for asserting jurisdic:1s,
|ion.
—In deciding
to take jurisdic-
tion over hotels, the board acted pursuant to the
supreme court's
Jurisdiction in Hotel Industry.
recent decision holding that the board
The new standards took immediate pending before the agency and to
not continue
its
22-yr.
effect,
all
applying both to cases
which might be
cases
filed.
which did a gross annual business of $500,000. (The board defined a residential hotel as one in which at least 75% of the guests resided there for a month or more during the
dential hotels,
Board member Jenkins disagreed with the standard adopted, would approach the hotel industry on a case-bycase basis. Board member Fanning agreed that the board should
stating that he
At the same time the board increased its staff of trial by 26% to a total of 58 such employees, the largest
60%
of the 377,000 employees of hotels within jurisdiction
No
of the board. the country's
come within
Case
such estimate was possible as to
the
new
Activity.
ord number of cases of
move
to streamline
and expedite
its
processes, the board its
nd regulations and statements of procedure. Board
member
rules
was designated as chairman. During 1959, Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed a new general counsel,
loseph Alton Jenkins
fiscal 1959,
the board received a rec-
The
21,632 cases filed during
types.
the year represented an increase of
29%
over the 16,748 cases
The number of charges filed against either employers or unions reached a new high. Charges filed against employers numbered 8,266, an increase of about during the preceding year.
36%
over the 6,o6S charges
filed in fiscal
1958; 3,973 were
filed
against labour organizations, an increase of about 24^0 over the
3,192 charges filed in 1958. For the second year, charges filed individuals constituted a majority of
all
by
charges of unfair labour
practices. Individuals filed 7,176, or about
59%
of
all
charges
was the second year since the 1930s when unfair practice charges outnumbered requests for representation elections. Of the 1959 cases, 12,239 were unfair practice charges and 9.346 were requests for representation elections. More unfair labour practice cases were brought to a conclusion by the agency than ever before. A total of 11,465 unfair practice cases were closed, an increase of 57'^'^ over the 7,289 cases closed in the preceding year. The general counsel issued more complaints in unfair labour practice cases than in any other year of the board's history. A total of 976 complaints were issued: 601 against employers, 241 against labour organizations and 134 against both employers and unions. The number of petitions for injunctions filed by the general counsel also reached an all-time high. Petitions for injunctive relief were filed in 135 cases, as compared with 134 filed in the preceding year. The courts granted relief in 57 instances. Trial examiners for the board held 517 hearings on unfair labour practice cases and issued findings and filed.
It also
recommended orders in 382 cases. The number of decisions issued by
the board in contested un-
labour practice cases. 291, was the third highest since 1953. In fiscal 1958, the board issued 222 such decisions. Back pay fair
was awarded to 1,895 employees found to have by employers or unions or both. A total of 41,890 employees were reinstated in jobs after being illegally suffered discrimination
In a
all
filed
totaling $900,110
nnounced the establishment of a committee to revise
of
jurisdictional standard.
—During
lumber employed since the passage of the Labor-Management blations act.
how many
15,070 motels or their 43,000 employees would
jxaminers
res.
may
policy of declining to assert jurisdiction in the hotel industry.
than
guard had 22 squadrons on 5-min. runway
air national
These units actively participated in the ir defense of the nation by investigating unidentified and potenially hostile aircraft. Seven of the squadrons operated on a 4-hr. schedule and the rest on a 14-hr. daylight basis. And, on
1
(chairman).
adopted. The majority opinion estimated, on the basis of 1954 census bureau figures, that the new standard would bring more
air national
Sidewinder missile.
ind
United States department of labour. At the close of fiscal year June 30, 1959, the board was composed of Philip Ray Rodgers, Stephen S. Bean, Jenkins, John H. Fanning and Boyd Leedom
exercise jurisdiction but disagreed with the $500,000 standard
The lert
solicitor of the
and the
equip 3 fighter squadrons with the heat-seeking, solid-propelant
467
who was formerly
Fighter squadrons continued their training in the methods
delivering nuclear w-eapons.
if
of Minnesota,
preceding year.)
guard inventory of aircraft isted 2,425. During fiscal 1959, the one remaining combat squadlon with propeller-driven aircraft completed the conversion to '
Rothman
Jurisdiction was taken over hotels and motels, other than resi-
posed of 8,455 officers and 62,186 enlisted men. Its 94 flying pelds
Stuart
discharged because of their union activities or because they refrained
from such
activities.
Petitions for representation elections totaled 9.346, the greatest
number
petitions
filed since 1952.
were
filed.
Most
In the 195S
fiscal year,
of the elections conducted
7,399 such
by the board
NATIONAL M U SEU M — NATION AL PARKS AND MONUMENTS
468
WLTf held pursuunl to aKrccmcnt by the
73%
year,
as
of all elections
73%
compared with
conducted a
(jartics. In
the i95 fiscal
were based on all-party agreements, 1959, the board
1958. During Ascal
in
total of 5,660 representation elections, as
with 4,524 in
compared
seashore recreation survey of the Atlantic and Gulf
its
co.i
was cum
third survey, involving shore lines of the Great Lakes, '
pleted and awaited publication in 1959.
One
most recent actions
of the
in
'
prcMf
behalf of seashore
vation was the submission to the congress by the department
fiscal 1958.
In these elections, 447,322 employees were eligible to vote as compared with 363,672 in 1958. About 90% of those eligible
May
the interior, in
1959, of suggested legislation which,
en
if
to vote cast valid ballots. This equaled the participation in fiscal
would authorize the appropriation of $15,000,000 for ac quiring properties needed to establish not to exceed three nationa
1958 which was the highest percentage in the history of govern-
seashore areas.
acted,
j
Three areas of national
all
elections
were added ti' the national park system. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower signed
involved less than 30 employees. Labour organizations
won ma-
proclamation on Aug.
ment-conducted For the
first
elections.
time
in four years,
62%
jority designations in
60%
more than 55% of
of the elections, as
compared with
in 1958.
Sir also Labour Unions; Strikes.
National Museum:
see
(B. Lm.)
Smithsonian Institution.
historical significance
11, 1959, establishing Horseshoe Bend Na Alabama. This 2,040-ac. park, the lands fol which were donated by the Alabama Power company and Ih. slate of Alabama, contains the site of the battle of Horsesbo Bend, fought on March 27, 1814, in which Gen. Andrew Jack
tional Military park,
son's forces defeated warriors of the
Creek Indian nation
led b^
Chief Menawa. Grant monument, the imposing structure Riverside park.
New
National Parks and Monuments. long-range park
and
conservation program initiated by the national park service of
the General Grant national memorial on
the United State.s in 1956, was
ac.
by improving
setts, the
moving steadily forward in 1959 and services in the various units of the
facilities
national park system, while at the
same time keeping
intact their
his wife, Julia
site
Completion of the Mission "66" program was set for 1966, when the national park service Would celebrate the 50th anni-
Seaton.
versary of its establishment. The programs major objective is to provide a national park system adequately equipped and staffed
establishment of a
an anticipated 80,000,000 visitors annually. The
tor total in 1959
visi-
was approximately 62,000,000, nearly double the
Since the start of the Mission "66" program, the national park service had invested in excess of $100,000,000 in various facilities,
such as visitor centres, roads,
trails,
parkways, campgrounds,
picnic areas, water
and sewer systems, ranger stations and other administrative structures. Park concessionaires had provided lodge, cabin, restaurant, store and other accommodations costing
dude
putting the Civil
in
War
in
units of the national park system in shape
War
centennial observance, 1961-65. These units present the story of the war from the firing of the
1861 to the war's climax at
gun at Fort Sumter. S.C, Appomattox, \'a., in 1865. One first
of the latest projects undertaken in a Civil level visitor centre at
War
area w-as a multi-
Gettysburg National Military park, Penn-
sylvania, in which Paul Philippoteoux's battlefield,
famous cyclorama of the one of the world's largest paintings, would be on
display.
Significant progress was made, under the Mission "66" program, toward developing a national inventory of existing parks and recreation areas and their facilities and of potential areas
suitable for administration at federal, state
and local levels of government. When completed this inventory would be available to the National Outdoor Recreation Resources Review commission.
Early
in 1959. the national
mending establishment
park service issued a report recom-
on Cape Cod. Massachusetts, to include a 40-mi. stretch of outer beach from Provincetown to the tip of Nauset beach.
The lic
of a 30.000-ac. national seashore
service also issued a report on
seashore needs
in
May
was established
its
year-long survey of pub-
the Pacific coast region. This report urged
broad-scale planning to protect and reserve the relatively few
remaining undeveloped seashore areas which
still
were
in a wil-
derness or primitive state. In 1955 the service issued a report on
An
1959.
i,
1959,
14,
a|
eighi!
by Secretary of the Interior Fred
/i :
legislation
enacted by the congress authorized
Minuteman National
tl'
Historical park to
Glenmont,
ii
in
West Orange,
N.J., for
many
years the
home
A. Edison, was donated to the national park service
McGraw-Edison company
for administration, along with
(
ti tl:
Edison laboratory, as the Edison national monument. The Philadelphia customhouse, a national historic site since 193 Israel cemetery, where many patriots of the Amei
j
and Mikveh
can Revolution are buried, were included in Independence
N
tional Historical park. Philadelphia, Pa.
Areas Adminiitered by the Nalional Park Service (Sep).
Mission "66" funds would be spent
for the increased public use anticipated during the Civil
in
buried,
the site and associated historic properties.
Thomas
an estimated $17,000,000.
About $25,000,000
on April
Subsequent
the
total in 1949.
Dent Grant, are
segment of the historic Lexington-Concord road in Massacbii scene in 1775 of the opening events of the America Revolution, was designated as the Minuteman National Histort
scenic and historic treasures.
to care for
i'
'Vork city, in which Gen. Ulysses S. Gran'
) ,
)
9591 Fcderol
Number
Type of area Nalionol National Notional Notionol Notional Notional National Notional National Notional Notional Notional Notional Notional
29
pork.' hiiloricol
porks
8
monuments
.'.[['.'.'.]'.'.'.'.'.['.
military porks'
memoriol porks bottlefield porks
83 12
'
1
26!5 68,7
3 5
battlefield sites
5.5 1
10 13 10
tiistoric sites
memorials cemeteries seashore recreolionol oreos
1,3
t.i 2
3
24,7 89,8 38,5 2,013.7
182
24,399,7
1
parkways
3
Capitol porks
1
recreation oreos
Totol
lo
locretf
13.10S,5 31,9 8 968 4'
'Largest and oldest notional pork is ttte Yellowstone in Wyoming (also includes smod p lions of Idoho and Monlono). Esloblished in I 872, tlie pork contoins more thon 2,000,000
Ground-breaking ceremonies were held
Expansion memorial on June tion of the terminal first
phase
in the
at Jefferson Natior
2^. 1959. initiating
work on
reloc
railroad elevated tracks. This work,
t
development of the great river front memori
was being financed jointly by the national park ser\nce, the ci of St. Louis and the Terminal Railroad association. Three units of the national park system were dedicated 1959 Cumberland Gap National Historical park, Kentuct Tennessee-\'irginia Fort Union National monument. New M( ico; and Badlands National monument. South Dakota, .\ttracti new visitor centres were provided in these areas under the M sion "66" program.
—
:
An "Operation
Inland Seas" ceremony was held at Perr
Victory and International Peace Memorial National
monume
Put-in-Bay. 0.. on July 21 in honour of the British and
.-Vmerit
.
WORLD
NAVIES OF THE I
who died
|)fficers
engagements of the
laval
Canada.
Lake
in the battle of
—A record
War
Erie, one of the greatest
of 1812.
469
Table I.— N(
!
of (he World. Dec. 1959' light
(C. L. Wi.")
total of 4.959,110 people visited the na-
crafi
Escort
I
ional •ear.
parks and national historic parks in Canada during the An extensive construction program to improve park high-
ways continued.
Voho
)ark to
The Trans-Canada highway from Banff
national park was completed and opened to
The province of Prince ional historic park, lear
national traffic.
Island established
Sweden
site
Turlcey
.
.
.
40
—
Australia
Recreation Association:
—
—
365 300 102
—
2
Argentina Brazil
Chile Indio
(1935).
see
53
....
Conodo
— Yosemite
10
Spoin
M. As.)
(H.
Societies
China (Communist). Ne» Zealand. .
.and
.
. .
Greece Pakistan Peru
Motional Safety Council:
see
—
Jopon
Accidents.
Science Foundation: Co-operation
Norway
International Geo1959; Scholarships and Student see
and Associations. U.S. jvlotional Socnety for Crippled Children and Adults, nc: see Societies and .Xssociatio.ns. U.S. Societies
«lational
.
Itoly
Fort Amherst, or Fort La Joie, a 207-ac.
\SS0CI.ATI0XS. U.S.
\id;
United Kingdom. Fronce
na-
ENCYCLOP^Di.iv Brit.4nn-ic.^ Films.
j'HYSiCAL
.
U.S.S.R
first
its
Charlottetown.
i^lotlonaj
United States.
Nettierlands
Edward
See also Tourist Tr.\vel.
hiational
Bottle
Country
Temperance League,
Inc.: see Societies
and
Portugal
China (Nolionalistl. Germon Fed. Rep..
.
.
Rumania Egypt Venezuela
3
Poland Thailand
Dominican Republic . South Africa, Union of Israel
USOCIATIOXS. U.S.
National
Colombia
Wealth:
see
We.alth and Income, Distrtbu-
lON OF.
I^ATO:
see .\rmies of
the World; North Atlantic Treaty
pRGANIZATION.
vessels are those of Iron, Uruguay, Ecuador and Bui Cambodia, Ceylon, El Salvador, Eth Honduras, Hungary, Iceland, Iraq, Lebanon, guoy, Philippines, Syria and Vietnam (South).
(auru: see Trust Territories.
pleted.
\.u.
Cubo
Korea (North).
Gas: see Feder.al Power Commission; Gas. Xatuand Manufactured; Public Utilities. ilaturalizotion: see Immigr.ation and X.aturalization.
fiatural
s
possessed by Bul-
gorio,
The
was still suspended. The "Ark Royal" and "Eagle" were being The aircraft carrier "Bulwark"
aircraft carrier "Leviathan"
large aircraft
carriers
reconstructed and modernized.
^dVICO 01
inB WOllQ.
three great navies, those of the
and the United Kingdom. Other lajor fleets were those of France and Italy, followed by those f the Netherlands. Sweden, Spain, Turkey, Canada, Australia, irgentina. Brazil and Chile. There were also 56 lesser navies. "he strengths in ships, of and above the escort categories, of the avies of the world were as shown in Table I. For ten days in .^pril the North Atlantic Treaty organization NATO) exercise "Medflex Guard" involved every destroyer nd frigate of the British Mediterranean fleet and most of the iips of the other N.ATO powers in the Mediterranean. The bigest maritime exercise yet held by the Southeast Asia Treaty rganization (SEATO began on April 14 when three naval task Drees sailed from Singapore and 40 ships from five of the
:"nited
the U.S.S.R.
States,
)
EATO
nations (.\ustralia. France.
om and United f
the flag officer
On
Sept.
New
Zealand, United King-
command
States) took part under the over-all
commanding
the Australian
to the Baltic
nuclear-powered surface ship, sailed
on her maiden voyage. On Sept.
21.
during his
Khrushchev casually told the plain of the U.S. coast guard cutter 'Gresham." on a trip ound San Francisco bay. that the U.S.S.R. was cutting its |umber of cruisers by gc^. U.S.S.R. There was a considerable increase in Soviet naval L tivity on the high seas during 1959. The Soviet na\'y was cutng down its cruiser strength and concentrating instead on the wilding of submarines, torpedo boats, mine sweepers and guard isit
to the
United States. N.
S.
—
new
Thirteen
In addition to the categories
enumerated
in
Table
I.
there
I
mine sweepers. 125 patrol vessels. 500 motor torledo boats. 120 landing craft and 160 fleet auxiliaries. Sreat Britain. The new aircraft carrier ''Hermes'' was comi.oco
—
new
frigates of the antiaircraft,
and antisubmarine t\pes were being submarines,
including
the
built.
nuclear-powered
"Dreadnought," were under construction and others projected. Warships other than those shown in Table I included 3 fast mine layers, 2 net layers. 28 ocean mine sweepers, 10 coastal
mine
layers,
104
coastal
mine
sweepers.
85
mine
inshore
sweepers. 13 motor torpedo boats. 30 coastal craft. 21 trawlers.
Si landing ships, 80 landing craft. 6S boon-defense vessels. 7 surveying vessels. 88 fleet support ships and many miscellaneous ships and auxiliaries.
France.
—The
new
stage of construction.
aircraft
carrier
"Clemenceau" was pre-
A
helicopter carrier was projected.
A
new-
antisubmarine destroyer was under construction; 3 new frigates were completed and 9 were under construction; and 16 sub-
marines were being built or were projected.
—
light cruiser was being converted to carry guided --X Three guided-missile escort cruisers, two guided-misdestroyers, six frigates and four submarines were under con-
Italy.
missiles. sile
struction or projected.
—
Netherlands. Four submarines were being built or projected and 16 inshore mine sweepers were in various stages of construction.
— Nine submarines, motor mine sweepers were being Canada. —The seven new destroyer Sweden.
oats.
fere
struction or projected. Fifteen aircraft-direction
paring for service and her sister ship "Foch" w-as in an advanced
fleet.
15 the newly completed large Russian icebreaker
enin," the world's first
was being converted into a commando carrier. The new cruiser "Tiger" was completed and the construction of the cruisers "Blake" and "Lion" neared completion. Four guided-missile destroyers and seven general-purpose fr-igates were under con-
five
built
six coastal
torpedo boats and or projected.
escorts of the "Resti-
gouche
"
class
construction.
were completed and
a
new batch
of six was under
NAVIES OF THE WORLD
470
Table
Nam*
Colagory f
fl..l Alrcr.h Co.,1.,.
or clo«
"tnd«p«nd»nca
|'A°l.'°RoVor' I
"OtilVony"
Ughl FI..I Corrl.M
(••H.rm.." < "Wflghl" l"lo FoyoK"
BaltUihlpi
replace the existing bureau in the department of taxation il finance: routed the Albany-to-Canada northway through 3 .
Adirondack mountains, using about 300
ac. of forest presei
land; allowed the state to negotiate the transfer or lease of
J
government; permitted the sts to use the federal definition of income for income tax purpos eliminated primary elections where there was no contest; J state barge canal to the federal
authorized two or
more
municipalities to contract and levy
ta s
NEW YORK municipal
for joint
facilities or services.
The
voters rejected an
I
to permit New York city to float a $500,000,000 bond issue for school construction. The legislature also granted to New York city the right to levy seven new ta.xes estimated to yield $127,000,000 yearly. Adjditional revenue measures enacted included a rise of 2 cents
amendment
a gallon in
the gasoline tax, 3
cents
a gallon in
diesel
fuel
and a 15% increase in the tax on manufacturing price of tobacco. A system of withholding was adopted for the state income tax. Rates were increased in the higher brackets and the amount of individual exemption was recents a pack on cigarettes
tax, 2
I
i
'
duced to $600. It was estimated the income tax additions would $150,000,000 annually.
yield
Governor Rockefeller called a special
legislative session on were passed replacing the 'state's single harness racing commissioner by a three-member paid commission. The three-year-old multimillion dollar state
July
1959.
I,
At
session, bills
this
I
[subsidy for harness track capital construction
and expansion was
[eliminated.
International ceremonies on June 26-27,
19S9, marked the Lawrence seaway and power projects. On ijune 27 at Massena, N.Y., Queen Elizabeth 11 joined Vice-Pres. Richard M, Nixon in dedicating the huge Moses-Saunders power dam at Barnhart Island, The seaway, which opened in 1958, recorded 3,982 ship passages both ways in the international St. Lawrence section between April 25. and Aug. 31, 1959. Cargo movements in this 1959 period totaled 11,214,000 tons. Governor Rockefeller named 1959 as New York state's "Year
'
dedication of the St.
of History" to celebrate the
3Soth anniversary of the pioneer
Henry Hudson and Samuel de Champlain
explorations in i6og of
on the waterways which bear their names. Efforts were launched ito
obtain federal approval for a world's fair to be held at
York
city in 1964.
New
commemorating the 300th anniversary of the
British capture of the
Economic activity
province from the Dutch.
New York
in
state took an
upward course
of 1959, providing a sharp contrast with 1958
in the first half
when the recession was at
its
worst. Nonagricultural
employment
reached 5,973,000 in Aug. 1959, an increase of 24,000 from July and 34,000 greater than in Aug. 1958. The manu-
489
search and teaching and Syracuse Psychiatric hospital for observation and temporary treatment of mental patients and for teaching and research. In 1959. there were about 113,000 patients in these institutions. For the year 1959-60, the department's budget was approximately $247,000,000. Communications. The dedication of the St. Lawrence seaway in June 1959 stimulated ship movements on the Great Lakes in which several New York state ports shared. Buffalo and Oswego were undergoing harbour projects, and work also was being done at the port of Ogdensburg. The state maintains 800 mi, of connected inland canals and waterways capable of transporting waterborne cargoes. More than 103,000 mi. of improved roads are included in the various
—
highway and street systems which comprise Xew York state's over-all network of highways. Of these, approximately 1.200 mi, are in the interstate system; 14,000 mi, are in the state system; 54,000 mi. in town systems; 16,000 mi. in cities and villages. The Xew York state thruway, the world's longest direct highway system, had 553 mi, in operation at the end of 1959- Thirty-six railroads within the state operated in 1959 a total of 6,738 mi, of first track, 2,243 mi, of second main track and 795 mi, of additional main track, Xew York state's registration of 5,054,678 motor vehicles and motorcycles in 1958 was 2,2% over the 1957 figure. Xew York state had 2S7 landing facilities including 242 airports, 38 seaplane bases and 7 heliports in 1959. The airports consisted of 47 municipally-owned. 184 privately-owned and 11 military bases. During 1958, the four New York metropolitan airports. New York International at Idlewild. LaGuardia, Newark and Teterboro, handled a total of 13,610,099 air passengers, a gain of 1,3% over 1957. During the first six months of 1959, passenger traffic was up_ 11,2% over the first half of 1958, During 1958. .New York city's four airports handled 335,940,000 lb. of air cargo and 107,899,000 lb. of air mail. Banking and Finance. ,\t the end of 1958, there were 562 banks in the state commercial, trust companies, industrial, private and savings. Their total resources amounted to more than $106,000,000,000 and their deposits to nearly $63,000,000,000. In addition, there were 277 savings and loan associations with about $3,900,000,000 of total assets and $3,400,000,000 due to private shareholders. Expenditures for operating the state for the fiscal year ending March 31, i960, were estimated at $2,021,000,000. The major share, $1,050,000,000, was allotted to localities in the form of grants for education, social welfare, highways, health and other programs. Direct expenditures for operating state departments, institutions, colleges, the legislature and the courts were estimated at $671,000,000. The remaining $300,000,000 was allo-
—
—
cated for construction of highways and other
facilities.
Revenues
for the
1959-60 fiscal year were estimated at $1,617,000,000. To make up approximately $400,000,000 needed to balance the budget, revenues were increased to yield an estimated $277,000,000. The rest was to be made up from bond funds and Capital Construction fund reserves. Total state debt was $897,000,000 on March 31, 1959, Agriculture, Cash receipts from farm marketings of agricultural products in 1958 totaled $857,252,000. The 1957 total was $830,464,000. Government payments to farmers in 195S were $9,095,000. as compared with $10,833,000 in the previous year. Cattle and calves sold for meat were valued at $76,624,000. Sale of milk and other dairy products in 1958 totaled $433,972,000, The value of livestock and poultry (excluding commercial broilers) on farms as of Jan. i, I959. was $488,036,000, Cattle and calves in the state numbered 2,153,000 head. There were also 10,244,000 chickens (exclusive of commercial broilers), 42,000 horses and mules, 129,000 hogs
—
in the state
work force in August was 1,859,000, or 23,000 above the previous month and above Aug. 1958. The world's first nuclear reactor designed for medical research had a test run at Brookhaven National laboratory, Upton, Long
Table \.— Principal Crops of
facturing
Corn, bu
Wheat, bu Dots, bu Borley, bu hoy, Ions Beans, dry (100-lb. bogsl Soybeans, bu Potatoes, Irish, cwt Apples, bu Peoches, bu Peors, bu All
Island.
Work on
Consolidated Edison company's $100,000,000
atomic energy generating station at Indian Point, was
50% completed
at the
more than
end of the year.
—
Education. In the 1959-60 school year there were an estimated 3.974.000 students enrolled in Xew York educational institutions. Of the^e were enrolled in public schools, 831,000 in private and parochial pchools and 408,000 in the 170 universities and colleges in the state, The State University of New York, established in 1948, has administrative jurisdiction over 2& state-supported institutions of higher education, Special state schools include 14 community colleges, 136 schools for nursing, three institutes for the blind and seven for the deaf. The state spent almost $2,000,000,000 on public schools in 1958. State aid toward current operations cost totaled $521,000,000, while local taxes produced $806,000,000. Xew York led all other states in per-pupil expendifures for public schools, with an outlay of $535 for each child in average jdaily attendance. James E. Allen, Jr., was state commissioner of education g. 735.000
Grapes,
tons
Maple sirup, gal •1949 57.
New
Ave 3ge 1958
1948-57
32,400,000 8,250,000 31,860,000 962,000 5,485,000 948,000 84,000 16,117,000 18,800,000 1,120,000 625,000 84,000 344,000
33,400,000 9,212,000 31,980,000 1,672,000 5,855,000 1,311,000 102,000 20,050,000 22,000,000 1,390,000 625,000 100,600 401,000
31,291,000 11,032,000 28,320,000 2,208,000 5,455,000 1,412,000 100,000 18,594,000* 16,469,000 1,122,000 491,000 74,020 434,000
Source; U,S. Deportment of Agriculture.
1
Table II.— Principa/ Ind^ siries of Ne
1
fn
1959.
Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs.— jApproximatcly 1,340,000 persons were given assistance, care or service r>t public expense in Xew York state during 1957. Expenditures for public fchargcs during the year were $570,000,000, of which the federal share was £128,000.000, the state share $165,000,000 and the local share $277,000,boo. In addition, about 2,800,000 persons received assistance or care from private institutions or agencies under the supervision of the state departSocial
I
jment of social welfare, The state department of correction administers 20 institutions (a reception centre, 7 prisons. 10 reformatories and camps and 2 hospitals for I
fhe criminally insane). In the fiscal year .\pril i, 195S. to March 31. [1959, the average yearly population of these institutions was I9,94i and |lhe estimated average cost of care and maintenance per person was $2,086, The state department of mental hygiene maintains 27 institutions, inpuding 18 hospitals for the mentally ill, 6 schools for the retarded, i Ihospital for epileptics, the York State Psychiatric institute for re-
New
All
Product
1957
Food ond kindred products Tobocco monufoctures
.
.
,
.
.
.
.
151,326 1,248
Textile mill products
Apparel and reloted products tumber and wood products Furniture and fixtures Pulp, paper ond products Printing and publishing Chemicals and products Petroleum and cool products Rubber products Leather ond leother goods Stone, day ond gloss products .
.... .
,
,
.
.
,
.
,
Primary metal industries Fobricated metal products Machinery, except eleclricol Electricol machinery Transportation equipment Instruments and related products Miscellaneous manufactures .
.
.
.
.
.
.
,
.
,
,
.
,
,
,
York
Indicated 1959
Crop
64,847 391,027 16,669 42,395 65,763 167,982 68,201 3,609 10,113 62,349 41,400 85,762 103,236 158,811 139,725 127,044 81,907 169,873
Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Anni
—
,
NEWYORKCITY —NEW ZEALAND
490
anil piK'- and 189,000 shetp and Umbs. Commi-rtial broilrri. laisc-il in lyjli Intiilrd 11.610,000; turkrys, 658.000. Manufacturing and Induitry.- |n 1957 the State's manulBCluring firms
qucnt adoption of the name
iidilril $i(i.oyj.4sv.ooo in vniui- lo the raw and M-milini»htd material lliey liurJew Zealand's
By
the end of the year
overseas exchange transactions showed a surplus
compared with a deficit of i30.000.000 in the )revious year. The budget, announced in July, remitted tiy,00,000 in taxes in a full year. Most of the remission was on ncome tax. Taxation for the year for consolidated fund and 'ocial security purposes was estimated at £280.400,000, a slight jail on the pre\'ious year, while total taxation was estimated to broduce £300,730,000. Ordinary income tax was reduced by 20% Kith a maximum rebate of £30 to any one person. To encourage (f
£41,000,000,
•verseas investment,
NEW
companies not carrying on business
in
New
llEW BRIDGE FOR ZEALAND opened ii 1959 at Auckland. The bridae pas expected to carry 5.000 cars a day, repl cing a ferry service which opbetween the commercial and residential ctions of the city. Total length |f the bridge is 3.520 ft.
Med
with a cabinet responsible to the local legislative
provision for review of decisions by a council of state.
would continue
to take care of the defense of
The New
New
Zealand prime minister, Walter Nash, said that
Samoa
Zealand if
neces-
sary.
In February Nash paid a goodwill
In spite of these setbacks the ibled the
would rest assembly with
the Japanese prime minister
land
by way
of Indonesia, where he attended a
Colombo Plan
conference, and supported an extension of the scheme.
under
land's contribution so far It
this plan
had provided aid by sending experts
New
Zea-
had been £9.000,000.
in various scientific, engi-
neering and educational fields to assist in planning projects in the various
Colombo plan
countries and had also
made
provision
for the training of Asian students in educational institutions in
New
Zealand.
arctic,
New
Zealand, with special interests in the Ant-
was represented
at the 12-nation conference
on Antarctica
held in Washington.
A
notable religious event was the visit of the U.S. evangelist,
Billy
Graham, and meetings held by him
population were attended by
The Indonesian Zealand
many
main centres of
foreign minister. Dr. Subandrio, visited
in Februarj'
and held friendly
ment. Education.
at the
thousands of people.
New
talks with the govern-
(A. T. Cl.)
— Schools
primary (including Maori, private, district high and intermediate schools or departments) 2,458, pupils 412,403, teachers 12,312; secondary (including secondary departments of district high and combined secondary-technical schools) 302, pupils 71,702, (1957):
teachers (excluding private) 2,716; technical 36, pupils 17,496. teachers 969: part-time vocational pupils (1957) 41.354: pupils in correspondence schools (for isolated areas, 1957) 1,176 primary, 1.640 secondary full-time and 2,041 part-time, 3,031 technical (part-time). Teacher-training colleges (1957) 6, students 4,014, University of New Zealand (4 constituent colleges with university status and 2 associated agricultural colleges), students (1958) 13,486. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: New Zealand pound, at par with the pound sterling (= U.S. $2.80). Budget (consolidated fund, 1959-60 est.): revenue £N.Z. 317, 3 70,000, expenditure £N.Z.3i 7,300,000. Social security fund (1959-60 est.): revenue £N.Z.i04.8oo,ooo, expenditure £.\'.Z.i04,782,ooo. Total public debt (March 31, 195S): £N.Z.782,ioo,ooo. Currency circulation (.\pril 195S) £N.Z.68,ioo.ooo, (.April 1959) £N.Z. 68.300, 000. Deposit money (.\pril 1958) £N'.Z.252,8oo,ooo, (.\pril 1959) £N.Z.239,300,ooo. Gold and foreign exchange (reserve bank, May 1958) U.S. $138,000,000, (May 1959) £N.Z. 239,000, 000. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports £N.Z.284,400,ooo, exports £N.Z.249,800,000. Main sources of imports: U.K. 53%; Australia 17%: other sterling area 6%; U.S. and Canada g%; continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 8%. Main destinations of exports: U.K. 56%: other sterling area 7%: U.S. and Canada 16%: continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 15%. Main exports: wool 32%: lamb and mutton 17%: butter 16%. Transport and Communications. Roads (March 1957): 90,300 km., in-
—
—
—
cluding 8,528 km. of state highways. Licensed motor vehicles (1958): passenger 465.714, commercial (including buses) 125,352. Railways (1958) 5,580 km.; freight (March 1959) 1,896,000.000 ton-km. Shipping; merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over (July 1958) 162. total tonnage 256,000. Air transport (195S); passenger-km. 377,448,000: freight, ton-km. 11,412,000. Telephones (March 1958) 605,224. Licensed radio receivers (March 1958) 549.307. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): wheat 184,000 (82,000); barley (1957) 68,000, (65,000 in 1956); oats
—
NICARAGUA
492
(1957) J5.000. (sj.ooo in 1956). Miscellaneous pr'oduction (metric ions): potatoes (1956) 197,000 (136,000 in 1955); dry peas (i9S7) J3,ooo (j3,ooo in 1956); tobacco (1957) i.ooo (j.ooo in 1956)- I-ivestocIc: cattle (Sept. 1957) 5,809.000; sheep (Sept. I957) 42,381,000; horses (Sept. 1957) iJ9,ooo; pixs (June 1957) 6oj,ooo. Food production (metric tons, 1958): lamb 356.400; other meat 308.400; butter }i8,40o; cheese 98.160; milk s.407,joo. Wool production, clean (1958) 162.700 (159.900 in
1957).
— Fuel
and power (1958): coal 858.000 metric tons; linnite 1,884.000 metric tons; manufactured Kas 154.800.000 cu.m.; electricity (excludinn industrial ceneralion) 5,628.000.000 kw.hr. Production (metric Ions. 1957): tungsten ore si; superphosphates (April 1957-58) 836.000; 121.000; sawn softwood woo' nickel produced in plants included 502 tons of the by-product of copper refining and 11.238 tons from domestic ore. The U.S. remained the world's largest consumer
Canodo
493
for 1959-60
it
as
a
last
of finance,
budget before
"budget of responsibility."
was estimated
at £83.900.000. of
which
£46.900.000 would be for federal expenditure; £4.000.000 would
go to the development fund
;
and recurrent e.xpenditure would be
£39.000.000. .At
the opening of the fifth session of the house of representa-
tives the
governor general. Sir James Robertson, described the
progress of "Nigerianization" of the public service which was
being pursued by
The
all
possible means.
British, Nigerian
and U.S. governments jointly sponsored
a commission on higher education under Sir Eric
Ashby
to in-
vestigate Nigeria's educational needs over the next 20 years. -An eral
agreement for 30 years was signed in June between the fedgovernment and the Shell-B.P. Petroleum Development
company providing for a 50-50 share of the profits, sanctioned by a federal act. The Nigerian Cement company became the first public company to issue shares in Nigeria. .At the end of 1958 a Nigerian national shipping line was established with an authorized capital of £2.000.000. Palm line and Elder Dempster lines were technical partners with the federal government in this venture and would train Nigerians as navigating and engineering and for other seagoing and managerial duties. Western Region. The regional budget for 1959 estimated
officers
—
re-
current expenditure at £14,700,000 and capital expenditure at
£14,900,000.
The government spent £31,000,000 under
the five-
NIXON
494
1959, to determine the wishes
of the people on
d)
tions:
two ques-
that the Northern
Cameroons should be the
Northern
Federation
part of
region
of
the
when
Nigeria
of
Nigeria becomes independent in
Oct. i960; or (2) that the
Cam-
future of the Northern
eroons should be decided at
The
a later date.
result of the
vote was 67,879 to 41,113 in
favour of the latter
—
to
re-
quo and leave
tain the status
the future of the region to be
decided at a later time.
Cameroons.
Southern
—
^In
the general election held on the Kamerun NaDemocratic party (K.N.D.P.) won 14 of the 26
Jan,
24
tional
seats and the allied
Kamerun
National
congress
and
Kamerun
People's party the
other
12.
leader,
J,
ceeded
E,
The N,
the
K.N.D.P.
Foncha,
suc-
M, R, Endeley,
leader of the K,N.C.. as pre-
The
mier.
main
wa^
issue
whether the Southern Cameroons should secede from the OTHER COLONIAL POSSESSIONS, PROVINCES
FR{NCH SPHERE I
I
D D
| I
AUTONOMOUS BfPueilCS, FRENCH COMMUNITY
AND
TRUSTS
sociate with
mous
BELGIAN
CUSTOMS UNION I
as an autono-
it
region.
The K.N.D P
I
favoured secession. In l^';r:
legislature tion of a long-needed
^^^^
bu'Wmg.
jsT^joiTw^ss^^ - -- --
^ajr
r
^s.
co^mued
o».
^^^^
Gr^^^^^^^^^^^
admU^N^-;;^^^^^.^^^^^^
:
:
:
:
:
Thad Eure, secretary v^tmuii, superintend^"f trpasurer' Charles f. jr. Pill treasurer „ (;^_,p,, auuiuc;auditor; Edwin GiU, general; beaweli, attorney 5 B. Malcolm instruction; f ,,„Ki;r .^^^ ic instruciio
governor;
T-j
_
pub ^^^^j^^^^^^^ i.. 1. WallaceWinborne. chief justice, of labour, commissioner Crane, Frank of agriculture;
. ent of
commissioner. Gold, insurance enrolled pupUs. S?^'\:S''prin^ci:>I.Vand .5,0:0
.
- ,,,„„;„•. oi,
i
:
:
:
:
:
..•
' ;
'
, ;
Depo...n,
u.s.
-~^
,.
y.
;
-- jlST^V .od." ^^-^^^
J-^^-
f343i
^I'^^t
fe
'^':-
•
:
:z.
:
:
:
•
:
»
U>^?
:
-^iTs^;- ... . c...e.e,
c
^i;r°™^-^=
^vu
:
.023,000
n.c. D.por-n,...
c a..
±^
^-^
.^^^^-^
^^J^^^^^^-
050 000
;
i-ro^oS
,^
s....,
5,426,000
!°',,,'ooo
-Zfol
;
/j-^g ^3,55.00
,
-.-;000
.
J.2,|^o°»
"g^^'.ooo
u,oo4,ooo
^^'l^-^:^... ,^,,
.
^
^^i^^ .2.3,0
:
S::^-"''^""'"
^"^-TiH^S^^ ^ffl'^U^ror,^
:
65.521000
.,"*'SS? ";2";ooo
^t'^eiro
:
tion to n.ent law of 1956.
andCharlott.wh^hha
its
—
^-- '" -^ ^^^'"*
^^^^ ^^^,,„
; '
'"I
---;.
„„rtpH rolleees and com-
--PP°
^P
^'i^'^::^J^'::^ ^^:^.
_^^_^^_^^^ ^^^^^ ^^
^..•••
°-'"
for to the voters to ,„,,ll„g $34,4x3.000
facilities at ^'a
"o.
Av-«-
m
::^b
"
,„,,,,,
,,pl,,l ^^^ -Pa-on of mental hosp^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^.^_ i^unity colleges, the ^ public agencies. 1 other improvements to plan commission was estab ished latK-e building
-
lor aid 26 565 families
5s^-:.^-^ ---"-^
e
the submission authorised l^o-^^jj^^^^^,, '""'^'"r -^f." a The legislature 01
-,' in/ol
^
rcij r^'^^t^rreSo^ni^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Attempts to reapportion every as the> j^j in census again failed basis of the 195°
27.
W
ft.i
£^^^ ^^.^T^jES^^'^^
controls. „f legislative
'Jl°^^
approval, on Uct.
»„
""""i"
'^:Z^^[:iZ i^->;^'^E^SAJ^£^"^'^^'^ •
..
-rS>=r^:srfrLe..ent
tee.
"
In hine 1959 publi":
.
k
i^H' ,^^
i
,,036..
-1;^,
l
^l^.t
t
/rl.
-^. .... s„.e, . m........
""
...-•• ::>^:« ^;>^^^^^ '•261,000
ci=ys Feidspor
;
«,„, s-op wic, sh«i
••• s=nd end •:•.:.. s ,
.
(ib.l
,rav.,
•
.
.
•
^.^^^'-'^ o^^-^"''
•
•
•
' •
53000 sfa'.Soo
4529000 ^^f^^^^
2.728,000 1,1/3,000 i.575.ooo 5,721,000
12,839000
2.000
,0.1,0
1,722,01 j.
^
i9,n2,o(
^,,„,
558.ooo
121,000
-•
^
t,, nna ".goo 7.o"'""2 ,2,85,000
'
„
'^„„„ '''" '
'
io,3,5,o.
— ;
NORTH DAKOTA — NORTHWEST TERRITORIES mately 7,000 industrial establishments employed 464,000 wage earners at average wages of more than $56 per week. Estimated industrial production in 1958 was more than $7,409,000,000, and electrical power produc(Jo. C. S.) tion was 19,403,000,000 kw.hr. Mineral Production Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in North Carolina in 1957 and r958 whose value exceeded $100,000. In 1958 North Carolina was first among the states in output of feldspar, sheet mica (79% of U.S. total), scrap and flake mica (more than half the U.S. tonnage), olivine, pyrophyllite and spodumene; third in talc and soapstone. North Carolina was the principal producer of lithium and the only state producing millstones. The state ranked 40th among the states in the value of its mineral output in 1958, with 0.24%
499
—
of the U.S. total.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Films.
A North Dakota. union Nov.
2,
— Southeastern
States (1956).
west north central state of the United
States,
North Dakota was admitted
to the
1889; popular name, "Flicltertail state." Area:
70,665 sq.mi., including 608 sq.mi. of water. Pop. (1950) 619,-
636; (July
1,
19S9, provisional est.) 642,000. Chief cities (1950 Bismarck (capital) 18,640
pop., with 1957 est. in parentheses);
(23,741)
;
Fargo 38,256 (46,250)
;
Grand Forks 26,836 (33,000)
Minot 22,032 (28,000).
—
State officers in 1959 were: governor, John E. History. Davis; lieutenant governor, C. P. Dahl; secretary of state, Ben
Meier; auditor, Curtis Olson; treasurer, John R. Erickson; attorney general, Leslie R.
Burgum; commissioner
of insurance,
A. J. Jensen; commissioner of agriculture and labour, Math Dahl; tax commissioner, J. Arthur Engen; superintendent of public instruction,
M.
F. Peterson; public service commissioners,
Anson J. Anderson, Martin Vaaler and Ernest D. Nelson. The Republican-controlled 1959 legislature was divided 31 Republicans to 18 Democrats in the senate, 64 Republicans to 49 Democrats in the house; it had more freshmen members (mostly Democrats) than any North Dakota legislature since 19 1 7. The legislature divided the state into two congressional districts (U.S. representatives had been elected at large since 1930) set up a commission to promote the marketing of wheat; increased the length and weight of trucks permitted on state highways; repealed the requirement of a third brakeman on long freight trains; established a department of accounting and ;
purchasing to centralize the
fiscal
administration of the state
government; and passed a resolution
to
encourage a favourable
business climate.
Through the summer of 1959 two outdoor "horse operas" were presented for tourists: "Trail West" about Gen. George Custer at
Fort
Abraham Lincoln
State park, and "Old Four-Eyes" about
Theodore Roosevelt
in the
nearly $2,000,000 of
new
Badlands at Medora. In Sept. 1959 and a $900,000 bridge were dedicated at Theodore Roosevelt National Memorial park.
—
visitor- facilities
Educotion. Public school teaching positions for the year ended June 30, 1958, were 6,79s; public school enrollment 128,950 (elementary 95,731; high school 33,219); schools in session 2,358; average cost per pupil enrolled $332; average salary of teachers including city superintendents $3,460; total expenditures for public elementary and high schools $43,099.056. Enrollment in 12 institutions of higher learning with 905 in the faculties totaled 12,904 full-time and 439 part-time students in Oct. 1959. In Sept. 1959, North Dakota had 1,106 one-room rural schools compared with 2,689 in 1949. Elections had reduced the number of school districts from 2,271 in 1947 to about 1,600 in 1959. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. For the year ended June 30, 1959, public assistance totaled $14,300,189 (federal 48.3%, state 35.6%, county 16.1%). Old-age assistance cost $7,422,314 (7,456 cases); aid to dependent children $2,913,928 (4.956 children); aid to the blind $84,455 (95 persons); aid to the permanently and totally disabled $1,156,061 (1,037 persons); general assistance $673,316 (869 cases); administrative expense $1,388,796. Total expenditures for three charitable and three correctional institutions in fiscal 1959 amounted to $5,062,698. Number of inmates in 1959: feeble-minded 1,362; insane 1,648: tubercular 41; penitentiary 272; state farm 35; training school 131. Communications. As of Jan. I, 1959, the highway mileage was; state highways 6,433 nii.; county roads 17,696 mi.; other rural roads 72,281 mi. There were 227 mi. with concrete surface, 4,33s mi. with bituminous, 45.248 mi. with gravel, 20,640 mi. only graded and drained and 25,960 unimproved. In 1958 North Dakota spent $37,485,703 on state highway construction and $8,016,831 for county highway construction. Motor vehicle registration as of Aug. 31, 1959, was: passenger cars 217,880: trucks 105,118. Six railroads operate 5,362 mi. of track. In 1959. 21 radio and 9 television stations were operating in the state and more than 178,146 telephones were in use.
—
1958
:
NORWAY
500
monarchy of northern Europe
Mackenzie district. In 1959 the commissioner was R. G. Robertson, who was also deputy minister of northern affairs and national resources. Appointed members of the legislative council were W. G. Brown, deputy commissioner; C. M. Drury; H. M. Jones; L. C. Audette; and L. H. Nicholson. Elected members were Robert Porritt, Knut Lang and J. W.
3,510,199. Languages: Norwegian and Lappish (about 20,000).
Goodall.
Religion:
divisions in the
nUIWdJ. bounded
Area (excluding Svalbard archipelago and Jan Mayen)
heim 58,915; at Chester-
and Ottawa during 1959. Under legislation passed at the Ottawa meeting, three Eskimo co-operative associations were formed, two in the Ungava bay area and the third at Cape Dorset. field inlet
and national resources conactivities for Eskimos. A handicrafts industry was being promoted and organized and a tourist industry developed. A number of families from the Keewatin district of the territories, whose survival was threatened by the decline of the caribou herds, were re-established at a community at Rankin inlet. There was a substantial increase in oil and natural gas exploration activity. By the end of March 1959, oil and gas exploratory permits for 66,426,209 ac. in the Northwest Territories had been issued and applications for priorities in the issue of oil and
The department tinued
its efforts
of northern affairs to find
new economic
gas exploratory permits received for 80,450,162 ac. of land in the .\rctic Islands north of 70° latitude.
—
Education. In 1959 the department of northern affairs and national resources operated 46 federal schools, 19 of which were primarily for Eskimo children. The department also assisted one residential school and 14 parttime schools operated by missionaries. Correspondence courses were available free of charge to any child whose parents requested them or to any adult who wished to enroll. Public Health and Welfare Services. In 1959, 14 hospitals were operated In the Northwest Territories, 10 by missions, i by a locally elected hospital board at Yellowknife, i by northern health services of the federal department of national health and welfare and 2 by private companies; 12 nursing stations were in operation, i by a mission. Medical and X-ray surveys were carried out during the summer months. Treatment was provided by the territorial and federal governntents without charge to crippled children, cancer patients and victims of tuberculosis. Children in Yellowknife, Fort Smith and Hay River received free dental treatment. A northern welfare service was established to provide the sources of trained social workers to
—
communities.
A team of physicians, a dentist, an X-ray technician and a number of nurses accompanied the annual eastern arctic patrol on board the government ship "C. D. Howe," treating persons at points of call and visiting many settlements to make physical examinations and X-ray surveys, to administer Salk polio vaccine and other preventive inoculations and to obtain material for medical research.
—
Transporiotion and Communications. The Mackenzie district and western arctic area are served by water and air transportation. The bulk of the freight is transported to most settlements during the summer months river route via the from Waterways (Alta.) to the Arctic ocean. Regular mail, passenger and express services were maintained by air throughout the year to all points in the Mackenzie district. Regular scheduled commercial flights to Frobisher Bay. in the eastern arctic were operated by two companies. The all-weather Mackenzie highway from Grimshaw (.Mta.) to
heavy
Hay River, continued to be used extensively and work continued on its extension to Yellowknife. Radio communications between important trading posts and settlements in the territories and outside points were maintained through government and private radio stations.
—
Forests and Fisheries. Timber cut in 1958-59 included 12.449,323 ft. b.m. of lumber; 328,535 linear feet of round timber and 7,814 cords of
wood. During the summer season of 1958 and the winter season of 1958—59, commercial fisheries on Great Slave lake produced a total catch of 5,763,000 lb., with an estimated market value of $705,000. Whitefish and lake trout were the principal species taken. Hunting and Tropping. Fur production in the territories, during the year ended June 30. 195S, was valued at $735,000 with a total of 257,183 pelts taken during that period. Trapping remains the principal occupation fuel
—
:
Svalbard archipelago (Spitsbergen and Bear Island)
Jan
Mayen (dependent
History.
—The
territory)
—Canada:
The Prairie Provinces
:
area, 23,-
area, 144 sq.mi.
municipal elections in Oct.
1959 were hard
fought, with national issues to the fore, but they produced no
With an over-all increase Communists could claim insupport. The Labour party in power nationally
significant swing in political affiliations. in votes cast, all parties except the
creased electoral
—
with an over-all majority
1945
—claimed
in the storting
(parliament) ever since
the result as a vote of confidence in
its
admin-
istration.
The opposition
on two issues relatgovernment was strongly criticized for permitting the export of ammunition to Cuba during the civil war there early in the year. The ammunition came from a state-owned factory, and opposition critics declared that the government had allowed local employment considerations to take parties took the offensive
ing to foreign affairs. First, the
precedence over prudence. The government's position was not
improved when it was discovered that the ammunition was U.S.financed under the military aid program. The government promised not to export ammunition in future to countries involved in a civil war.
The opposition
parties were also strongly critical of the gov-
ernment's decision to invite the Soviet Prime Minister N. S.
Khrushchev to Norway in August. Eventually the visit was postponed indefinitely on the initiative of Khrushchev, who referred to the unfavourable comments in newspapers in Scandinavia. Plans for setting up a Scandinavian common market, which the government had been studying for several years despite opposition from business circles, were shelved with the materialization of the European Free Trade association of the "Outer Seven." On the whole, Norwegian business welcomed the new association, although a European free-trade area including the six Common Market countries would have been preferred. Production and trade generally recovered well from the temporary recession which Norway shared with other countries in 1958. The economic improvement generally only slightly affected the low level of freight rates which had begun in 1958 and which had caused the lay-up of a considerable quantity of merchant shipping. However, toward the end of the year a number of idle ships were fixed at economic rates. In the course of the year the merchant fleet took delivery of more than 1,000,000 tons of new vessels ordered in earlier
boom
years.
Much
were high, and
On
market it was anticipated would make a large contribution to Nor-
in spite of the slack
the labour front a significant innovation
of the working
new tonnage when freights
of the
entered profitable time charters fixed in advance
way's foreign exchange income,
Encyclop.«dia Bkitannica Films.
:
958 sq.mi. The population, largely miners, shifts seasonally; in 1957 it was estimated at 1,530 Norwegians and 2,746 Russians.
The 5,000 reindeer maintained by the federal government in the Mackenzie delta region for the benefit of the native population were consolidated into two herds; one main government herd and one belonging to the Eskimos, .^bout 14,000 buffalo grazed in Wood Buffalo National park. A limited slaughter of reindeer and bufialo for meat is carried out annually.
(1958).
1958, admin-
minister in 1959, Einar Gerhardsen.
that shipping earnings
—
i,
est.)
Oslo (capital) 461,591; Bergen 114,711; TrondStavanger 52,848. Ruler, King Olav V; prime
of the native population.
Mineral Production. Mineral production in the Northwest Territories during 1958 was valued at $24,791,516, of which gold accounted for $11,392,475, uranium and silver $9,691,723. Crude oil is produced and refined at Norman Wells on the Mackenzie river; 1958 production was valued at $475,000. Production of natural gas was valued at $7,075. (R. G. R.)
(1958
3,278,546;
Lutheran. Chief towns (pop., Jan.
Gall in July 1959.
J.
— The Northwest Territories council met
(1950 census;
Pop.:
125,064 sq.mi.
istrative area)
History.
is
north by the Arctic ocean, east by the
U.S.S.R., Finland and Sweden, and south and west by the North sea.
There was a vacancy for one elected member resulting from the resignation of E.
constitutional
'^'''^
Unrtifou
week from 48
to 45 hours.
was the reduction
The reduction was
ai>
proved by the storting with the understanding that total output would remain undiminished. The storting also approved in prin-
compulsory schooling to the age of if compared with 14 hitherto. King Olav formally inaugurated the Halden boiling heavj water reactor on Oct. 10. It was designed and built by Norwegiai ciple the extension of
—
NOSE AND THROAT, DISEASES OF — NURSING nuclear scientists and engineers. Being the world,
first
of
its
kind in the
aroused considerable international interest, and an
it
lation passed at
the
an Act Respecting Fair Accommodation Practices, a significant
agreement was negotiated whereby nuclear physicists of a num-
contribution to social legislation.
ber of countries would operate the reactor jointly for a three-
ment announced
(O. F. K.)
year term. Education.
— Schools
(1956-57): primary 5,092, pupils 432,077, teachers (1955-56) 14.321; secondary 298, pupils 53,516, teachers (1955-56) 2,941 folk high schools (1955-56) 70, pupils 4,020; vocational (1955-56) 557, pupils 51,544; teacher-training (including vocational and physical education, 1954-55) 2>. students (1956-57) 2,421. Institutions of higher education (1957) 8 (of which 2 are universities with 4,132 students), stu-
501
1959 session of the legislature included
On June
5,
1959, the govern-
that an agreement
had been entered into with Stora Kopparbergs of Sweden, whereby a subsidiary known as Nova Scotia Pulp Limited would immediately undertake the conHawkesbury.
struction of a $40,000,000 pulp mill at Port
:
dents 6,216. Finance and Bonking.
—
Monetary unit: krone (plural kroner) with an exchange rate of kr. 7.143 to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1959-60 est.): current revenue kr. 5,802,000,000, expenditure kr. 6,032,000,000. Internal debt (June 1957) kr. 6,207.900,000; external debt kr. 1,593.600,000. Currency circulation (April 1958) kr. 3,126,000.000, (April 1959) kr. 3,280,000,000. Deposit money (April 1958) kr. 3,490,000,000, (April 1959) kr. 3,617,000,000. Gold and foreign exchange (May 1958) U.S. $229,200,000, (May 1959) U.S. $237,700,000. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports kr. 9,352,000,000, exports kr. 5,311,000,000. Main sources of imports: Germany 20%; Sweden 16%; other continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 22%; U.K. 15%; other sterling area 4%; U.S. and Canada 11%; Latin America 4%. Main destinations of exports: U.K. 19%; other sterling area 8%; Germany 14%; Sweden 10%; other continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 22%; U.S. and Canada 9%; Latin America 5%. Main exports: fish 14%; wood pulp 10%; paper 10%; whale oil 6%; ship exports 3%. Transport and Communications. Roads (1958) 49,535 km. Motor ve(including hicles in use (Dec. 1957): passenger 153,216, commercial buses) 94,288. State railways (1958): 4,380 km.; passenger-km. (June 1956-57) 1,565,000,000, ton-km. (June 1957-58) 1,416,000,000. Shipping: merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over (July 1958) 2,624; total tonnage 9,385,000; net freight earnings (1958) kr. 2,700,000,000. Air transport (1958): passenger-km. 565,956,000, freight 12,084,000 ton-km. Telephones (June 1957) 646,522. Radio receiving sets (1957) 985,000; television receivers (1956) 300. Agriculture Production (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): wheat 17,000 (30,000); barley 356,000 (316,000); oats 134,000 (136,000); rye 1,000 (1,000); potatoes 1,202,000 (1,010,000); milk (delivered by farmers: 66% of total in 1955) 1,188,000 (1,200,000); butter 13,440 (15,600); cheese 36,000 (31,200); meat (1951): beef and veal 48,000; pork 53,000; mutton and lamb 15,000. Livestock (June 1958): cattle 1,126,000; sheep 1,809,000: horses 126,000; pigs (June 1957) 459,270: goats (June 1957) 110,000. Fish landings (1957) 1,738,900 metric tons. Whale and sperm oil production (1957-5S) 144,600 metric tons; value of whale oil exports (1958) kr. 316,000,000. Industry. Fuel and power (1958): coal (Svalbard mines) 291,600 metric tons; manufactured gas 42,000,000 cu.m.; electricity 27,180,000,000 kw.hr. Production (metric tons, 1958): iron ore (mineral content 65%, including ferrotitanium) 1,765,200; pig iron 507,600; crude steel 366,000; zinc, smelter, 45,000; copper, smelter, 17,520; aluminum 121,560; cement 1,033,200; nitrogenous fertilizers, N content (June 1957-58) 217,700; wood pulp (mechanical, 1957) 668,000, (chemical, 1957) 645,000; newsprint (1957) 185,000; other paper (1957) 375,000; sawn softwood (1957) 1,869,000 cu.m. Dwelling units completed (1958) 26,412.
—
—
—
'
,
I
—
Encyclop.«dia Britannica Films. Scandinavia Denmark (1950); Tale oj the Fiords (1955).
Nose and Throat, Diseases Throat, Diseases
of:
see
—Norway, Ear,
Sweden,
Nose and
of.
four Atlantic provinces IJnuQ QpntiQ Second smallest of the llUVd OCOII2. of Canada, Nova Scotia entered the confeder-
(1956 census) 694,717, (1959 estimate) 716,000. Capital; Halifax, pop. (1956 census) v93.30i, metropoHtan Halifax 164,200. ation in 1867. Area: 21,068 sq.mi. Pop.
I
History.
,
—On
Oct. 23, 1958, an underground earth shift oc-
2 shaft of the Springhill coal mine operated by Cumberland Coal company, a subsidiary of the Dominion Steel and Coal corporation. Of the 174 men entombed, 100 were rescued; there were 74 fatalities. As a result of this disaster, the corporation withdrew its operations from the Springhill area and the mine shafts were permanently sealed off. The 50th anniversary of powered flight in the British Commonwealth was commemorated in a ceremony at Baddeck on Feb. 23, 1959, when tribute was personally paid to J. A. C. McCurdy, who, on Feb. 23, 1909, had flown the "Silver Dart" at this same site. Culminating the royal tour of Canada, Queen Elizabeth and Prince Philip honoured the province with a visit, July 31 and
Education.
—
Statistics for 1958 reported an expenditure of $27,696,922 on public schools. During the school year 1957-58 there were 164,255 pupils registered in all public schools, including 115,133 in elementary
schools, 33,732 in junior high and 15,390 in senior high schools. There were 76,525 pupils in urban and 87,730 in'rural schools. Of the 5,913 teachers employed, 2,577 were in urban and 3,336 in rural and village schools. There were 1,615 rural and village schools and 42 urban schools with a total of 5,583 classrooms. Public Health and Welfare.
—
On Jan. 1, 1959, the province entered into program. The provincial financed by a sales tax administered by a Hospital Insurance commission. In 1957 there were 47 hospitals in the province with a total of 3,388 beds. The number of hospital admissions during the year was 93.554- By March 31, 1958, mothers' allowances had been paid to 2,131 families, involving 5,568 children, in the amount of $1,576,585.15. For the same period old-age assistance was paid to 5,219, in the amount of $2,654,006.42; 745 blind persons received $417,467.44; and 1,790 disabled persons received $914,349.96. Transportation and Communications. During 1958 there were 119,569 passenger and 36,475 commercial vehicles registered. The total mileage of highways was 15,196, of which 2,218 were paved. Expenditure on highways and rural roads for 1957 was $25,305,365.93. ()n Aug. 31, 1959, there were 163,653 telephones in the province. On April i, 1959, there were 13 radio stations, 2 of which were operated by the Canadian Broadcasting corporation and 1 1 by private companies, and there were 2 television stations. On July 31, 1957, there were nine airports, of which eight were land based and one sea based. Banking and Finance. The net provincial debt, less sinking funds, on March 31, 1958. was $144,206,389.57, while the total direct debt was $246,660,000. The provincial revenue for the fiscal year ending March 31, 195S, was $66,757,795.53, while expenditure was $60,073,641.23. The sinking fund installments for the year totaled $5,526,190, leaving a net revenue surplus of $1,157,964.30. On Dec. 31, 1958, there were 6 federally chartered banks with a total of 160 branches and 1 federal reserve bank (Bank of Canada). On Dec. 31, 1958, there were 211 active credit unions with a membership of 59,314 and shares amounting to $11,762,487. Outstanding loans totaled $9,967,209, and total assets were $12,828,216. Agriculture. In 1957 field crops totaling 379,400 ac. yielded an income of $17,474,000, of which hay ($11,044,000), potatoes ($2,719,000), oats ($1,778,000) and root crops ($1,380,000) were the main crops. The total farm cash income was $41,955,000, the principal sources being dairy products ($11,804,000), cattle and calves ($6,667,000), eggs ($7,623,000) and forest products and fur farming ($5,176,000). The number of livestock on farms included horses (16,700), cattle (177,000), sheep (83,000), swine (31,000) and poultry (1,891,000). Fisheries and Forestry. Preliminary statistics for 1958 showed that the total value of fish landings was $24,841,000. The landings totaled 464,721,000 lb., including 110,548,000 lb. of cod ($3,711,000), 66,317,000 lb. of haddock ($3,051,000), 104,454,000 lb. of herring ($1,482,000) and 17,825.000 lb. of lobster ($7,301,000). During 1957 the total foot board measure (f.b.m.) of forest production was 519,908,678, made up principally of softwood lumber (245,076,000 acti\'e participation in the national hospitalization
share
3%
is
—
—
—
—
f.b.m.) and pulpwood (202,675,500 f.b.m.). Manufacturing. In 1957 there were 1,356 manufacturing establishments comprising a work force of 31,530 and a total annual payroll of $90,634,615. The total selling value of the manufactured product was $427,299,045, and the major industries included iron and steel products, fish processing, wood products and shipbuilding. Mining. In 1957 the total value of the mining industry was $68,058,743, of which coal, totaling 5,685,770 tons and valued at the mine at $52,877,614, was the principal item. Gypsum weighing 3,842,027 tons and valued at $6,005,640 was mined, as well as 210,784 tons of barite valued at $2,559,713 and 122,763 tons of salt (sodium chloride) valued at $1,900,-
—
—
538.
ENCYCLOPiSDiA Bhitannica Films.
—Canada:
(S. B. E.)
The Atlantic Provinces
(1958).
curred at the No. the I
I
Aug.
I.
Robert L. Stanfield continued to lead the Progressive-Conservative
govenmient which had assimied
office in
Nov. 1956. Legis-
Nuclear Studies: Nursery Schools:
see
Astronomy; Physics.
see
Home
Economics.
A
U
NUi 01115.
total of 35 national nurses associations were represented at the International Council of Nurses'
board of directors meeting and at the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the council in Helsinki, Fin., in July 1959. The date April 17-22 was set for the council's 12th Quadrennial con-
which was to be held in Melbourne, Austr. Health organization (WHO) conferences regarding nursing were held in Oct. 1959. At the Fifth Regional congress (sponsored by the Pan American Sanitary bureau of WHO) in gress,
Two World
Buenos
Aires, Arg., the subject
Better Nursing Service."
was "Nursing Legislation for
The conference on Post Basic Nursing
NUTRITION,
502
Education for International Students, held
E
XPERIMENTAL —
Hypnosis and Weight Reduction. In recent years the mcHi profession had shown increased interest in the use of hypnotic
Geneva, Swilz.,
in
considered the results of a series of questionnaires circulated among educational institutions, nurses then studying abroad and
cal
agencies employing these nurses after their study.
trol
In 1959 3 project to determine the content of maternal and child health nursing was begun, using funds granted by the chil-
duration to evaluate the use of hypnosis in weight reduction.
dren's bureau. U.S. department of health, education,
and welfare.
This followed a trend on the part of specialty areas of nursing toward identifying those elements of practice thai belong uniquely to their field of nursing and those that are part of all nursing. These examinations of nursing were expected to lead to an increased understanding of the components of nursing care, as well
as
improvements both
in the
administration of nursing service
and the teaching of nursing. Other continuing projects with similar aims were concerned with the use of the practice field in nursing education, improving the teaching of nursing aides for psychiatric facilities
and preparing nurses
for nursing in dis-
suggestion for the reorientation of eating habits in weight cni
programs. L. B. Winkelstein conducted a study of
In line with
its
continuing program of planning and preparing
monili
attempted to determine whether or not ideas relating to the could be more deeply implanted
trol of diet
and, consequently,
in
II
cur
the hypnotic sta-
more completely accepted and
followed.
Winkelstein selected for his investigation 42 female patient: ranging
in
age from 16 to 52 years on the basis of two factors:
the ability of the patient to enter a sufficiently deep trance state,
of
and normal
excess
histories
weight,
varied from 10 to 60
of 32
and physical examination. The amount from height-age-weight tables, with an average for the entire group
calculated lb.,
lb.
Active hypnotherapy was continued for the the study.
With
early treatment,
first 14 weeks of was noted that suggestions
it
offered under hypnosis usually lasted
aster.
six
With
than 24 hours.
for less
additional sessions, however, both the degree and the ef-
American Nurses' De-
fective time continuation of the suggestions were increased so
association agreed to co-sponsor with the OfiBce of Civil and
that, after the
fense Mobilization a one-week civil defense course for nurses,
of the implanted ideas would carry over for several days or even
professional nurses for disaster nursing, the
to be held in
ig6o at Manhattan Beach, Brooklyn, N.Y.
for weeks. In general, training
Federal traineeship programs for professional nurses and for public health personnel, established for a three-year period under the Health
Amendments
second to fourth hj^Dnotic induction, a large part
act of 1956, were extended in 1959 for
to
by hypnotic suggestion was found
be most satisfactory when sessions were held approximately
twice a
week
for the first
and
to 8 weeks,
2
weeks, once weekly thereafter for 4 up to 14 weeks.
at less frequent inter\-als
five years. By the end of Aug. 1959, an estimated 3,500 professional nurses in the United States had benefited from
months. The six-month average weight
the federal traineeships, created to help alleviate a critical short-
was
slightly less than 27 lb., with the
An
58^
lb.
an additional
age of teachers, administrators and supervisors in nursing.
estimated 8S5 nurses had been awarded public health traineeships to qualify
them
attempt to help overcome the
in the
The
in
weight were measured and recorded weekly for
and the minimum
maximum
loss being
results of the study
loss for the entire
g\
weight loss being
lb.
showed that hypnosis and hypnotic
of obesity in certain persons.
The main
up of new and more
efficacy
seemed
to lie
shortage of nurses prepared for administration in nursing service
in the building
and education, and for teaching and research in nursing, was made possible by a three-year extension of the Commonwealth fund grant to the fellowship program of the National League for
effective changes in dietary regime
Nursing.
not considered to be the answer for most cases of obesity;
In Oct. 1959, the research
staff
of the American Nurses' Foun-
dation, Inc., began a study of patient
cardiac disease,
and family adjustment to supported by a two-year grant from the Na-
its
international nursing project.
project, supported
by
The
international
a Rockefeller foundation grant,
was con-
cerned with securing information on the professional needs and expectations of foreign nurses working in the U.S. under the
exchange visitor program.
According to the National League for Nursing, admission
fig-
showed a slight increase over those of previous years. The pronounced growth in the number of practical nurse schools from 480 in Aug. 1957 to 5S0 at the beginning of 1959 showed that large numbers of students were being attracted to this field of nursing, which was open to men and women from 17 to 50 and over. (M. L. R.) ures for schools of professional nursing in 1958
—
—
The
the active
is
it is
Protein Deficiency.
—Many areas
of the world are concerned
with nutritional problems arising from inadequate amounts of certain nutrients.
and continued
when
lost
an expensive and time-consuming treatment.
protein
health nursing under a grant from the U.S. public health service
were not
trance therapy was stopped at the end of 14 weeks, but con-
the foundation completed
third year of a study of public
rational dietary habits.
tinued for the six months of the study. However, hypnosis
tional Institutes of Health, U.S. public health service. In 1959 its
six
group
suggestion could be used as therapeutic agents in the regulation
for staff positions in public health nursing.
Another step forward
Changes
is
The
lack of a sufficient quantity of high quality
one of the major deficiencies and
can result in
it
and work output. Proteins are made of about 22 amino acids which can be divided into two groups: (i) the nonessential amino acids which can be synthesized by the body from other nutrients; and (2) the essential amino acids which must be supplied by the diet. The quality of a protein depends primarily on the proportions oi deleterious effects on health
amino acids
the essential
relative to
one another.
Low
quality
proteins are typically low in one or sometimes two or three sential
A
amino
es-
acids.
high quality protein gives a relatively high
>'ield
of tissu*
measured by growth or the amount of protein retainec by the body. Examples are animal proteins, meat, fish, milk anc eggs. Per unit weight, these proteins are consistently two to threi
protein, as
times
more
efficient
than the proteins in most vegetable food;
such as the cereal grains.
Much
nutritional
research
Nutrition, Experimental.
during 1959 concerned problems resulting from the paradox of an over-abundant food supply in
some parts of the world and inadequate supplies
in other areas.
Obesity was considered a major nutritional problem in the United States. Since obesity
is
bility to certain diseases
associated with an increased suscepti-
and a shortened
phasis was placed on weight reduction.
life
span,
much em-
Protein deficiency exists generally in areas where the majo part of the dietary protein
is
supplied by vegetable foods. Th'
efficiency of the vegetable proteins can be increased in thn
ways: (r) The diet can be supplemented with high quality pn teins, such as meat products, fish or milk, which furnish th
amino acids lacking
in the diet.
However, these foods are
oftelj
unavailable or too expensive. Plant foods which furnish adequatj protein
by themselves or supplement
the other vegetable protein
NU TS may
be used. (2) The amino acids lacking in the diet may be added directly. For example, a staple food, like bread, can be supplemented with specific amino acids, such as lysine, in the diet
be lacking in the native foods. (3) The two methods can be combined. N. W. Flodin and his co-workers found that when rats were
may
which
in all respects except
maintained on diets adequate quality protein
protein and
(85% wheat
growth was retarded. The males,
toms of
The females had
proached normal
Symptoms
nonfat milk solids),
in particular, exhibited
less
severe symptoms.
but bore subnormal
size slowly,
symp-
perverted appetite and decreased
irritability, anorexia,
longevity.
15%
low
for a
of special significance
for
man
They
ap-
litters.
these studies
in
were a reduced level of voluntary action and a low calorie intake, a condition in adults which leads to a vicious circle (poor
—»
diet
—»
low work output
low food production
—=
poor
Other s>'mptoms of protein deficiency seen particularly dren, apathy
and
diet).
in chil-
those observed in
inactivity, are similar to
very
Acid Deficiency.
Essential Fatty
—In some
instances, a de-
ficiency of the essential fatty acids results in disease
Phrynoderma, a skin condition,
symptoms.
considered to be caused by
is
a deficiency of the essential fatty acids. It had often been at-
A
tributed to vitamin
deficiency, primarily because the condi-
tion could be cured with the administration of fish liver oil rich in
vitamin A, but later work cast doubt on
this
concept of the
etiology of phrynoderma. For example, in one area of India
it
was noted that although children had symptoms of vitamin A deficiency (Bitot's spots and xeropthalmia) few had phrynoderma. In other studies, the administration of vitamin A had no beneficial effect on the skin condition. Other researchers concluded that phrynoderma might be attributable to combined deficiencies of vitamin A and the essential fatty acids. Later biochemical and clinical studies indicated that the condition responded
to essential fatty acid therapy.
human
subjects had been reported, K. Bagchi and co-workers conducted
(grams weight gained by animals divided by the grams of protein consumed) of the diet fed to the rats by all three methods listed above. The protein efficiency was improved by 50% to 80% by
a study based on histologic observations. Clinical observations
A similar increase could be monohydrochloride. A combination
lysine
30%
to
40%
of
were made on 61 patients of both sexes, ranging to IS years, attending the outpatient
The
obtained with 0.25% of the two supple-
patients with
raw linseed
oil
phrynoderma were treated with
or one teaspoon of linoleic acid
of both normal and
supplementation relieved the deficiency
alone. All three types of
symptoms
from
5
biopsies of
-J
of
oz.
(an essential
The blood lipid (fat) content phrynoderma subjects was determined and the skin from sites affected was done before and after
fatty acid) given orally each day.
by iso^o, an increase greater than could be achieved by either supplement efficiency
in age
department of the School
of Tropical Medicine, Calcutta, India.
ments, milk (a high quality protein food) and lysine (an essential
amino acid), however, increased protein
treatment.
In order to compare the diets of subjects with phrynoderma
in the rats.
with the methods presently available
with those of normal persons of identical socio-economic environ-
for increasing protein efficiency,
it should be possible, in any program of protein supplementation existing dietary habits and economic
ments, a diet survey was carried out in 15 families of subjects
specific area, to initiate a
with phr>'noderma and in 15 comparable families showing no
was concluded
It
that,
which could be adapted to
cases of the skin condition.
Results of the diet surveys showed no difference in the total
status.
Amino Acid Imbalance. acids are used to
—Care must be taken when amino
supplement
diets, especially
barely adequate in protein or
when
when such
diets are
a large percentage of the
protein in the diet consists of low quality protein.
When
sup-
plements of specific amino acids are fed to growing rats subsisting
on such a
diet, a
decrease in food consumption and growth
amount
that
felt
the
growth rate observed
in
ability to utilize the
imbalanced
the
diminished
food intake and
animals might be the result of a reduced
to equalize the food intake
diet.
But when attempts were
by forcing the animals in two to three days.
to eat
imbalanced diet the animals died
U. eat
S.
Kumta and
his
co-workers thought that training rats to
only during a single short interval each day might eliminate
and increase the amount of the imbalanced diet eaten. Therefore they studied the effects of amino acid imbalance on protein efficiency in protein-depleted adult rats and in adult rats trained to eat for only two hours each day. Rats trained to eat a large amount of a low protein basal diet in a single, short daily interval were unable to consume an equal amount of the diet after amino acids which caused an imbalance were added. The growth of rats on this regimen was retarded. Likewise, the gain in weight of normal or protein-depleted rats given as much as they wanted of the imbalanced diet was markthe possible nonphysiological conditions of forced feeding
edly reduced.
the
in defining the
amino acid imbalance, they were consistent with
theory that feeding an imbalanced diet increases the break-
down of
in the diet of
normal persons and the paa significant differ-
ence in the total amount of essential fatty acids.
The observations
of histologic features and biochemical data strongly supported the hypothesis that
phrynoderma
is
a manifestation of essential
fatty acid deficiency.
tissue proteins
and
results in decreased protein
efi6-
—
L. B. Winkelstein, "Hypnosis, Diet, and Weight ReJ. Med., 59:1751-56 (May 1959); N. W. Flodin, "Supplementation of Diets With Proteins and Amino Acids," Amer. J. Publ. Hltk, 48:1315-22 (Oct. 1958); U. S. Kumta, A. E. Harper and C. A. Eh'ehjem, ".-^mino Acid Imbalance and Nitrogen Retention in .-Vdult Rats," K. Bagchi, K. Haider and J. Biol. Chem., 233:1505-08 (Dec. 195S); S. R. Chowdhury, "The Etiology of Phrynoderma: Histologic Evidence," Amer. J. Clin. Nutr., 7:251-258 (May-June 1959).
Bibliography. duction, N.Y. St.
—
(M.
B.
McC;
Encyclop.«dia Britannica Films. Foods and Obesity (1952); Understanding Vitamins (1952).
U
The
.
NUlo.
total U.S.
tree nuts
was
F. J.
Nutrition
Se.)
(1939);
1959 crop of 212,785 tons of four major larger than in 1958 and 8% above
5%
average. U.S. per capita consumption of tree nuts was 1.6
lb.
(shelled basis), two-thirds of which consisted of the above types
and one-third of "other" types, almost entirely imported. Prices were generally somewhat reduced during the earUer part of 1959. U.S. nut imports continued at approximately 209,000 tons, with cashews, Brazil nuts and almonds making up most of the total. Exports in 1958-59 of 13,000 tons were 22% smaller than in the
Although these studies had not yet succeeded basic disorder in
A
phrynoderma. However, there was
See also Vitamins and Nutrition.
Some observers
made
of vitamin
tients with
rate results.
'
is
Flodin and his associates could improve the protein efficiency
the total protein.
I
the total protein of the diet
Since no histologic investigations of this condition in
increasing the proportion of milk proteins to
i
when
low.
rats.
I
503
ciency, particularly
previous year, with indication of further decline in 1959-
60.
Almonds, a California crop, totaled a record 80,000 tons, far and the 1948-57 average of 41,280 tons. Prices were expected to average conlarger than the small 1958 crop of ig,8oo tons
NYASALAND — OBITUARIES
504
Oai Production of
siderably below the unusually high $772 per ton received for the
small 1958 crop. Almoncis continued as the world's leading com-
mercial nut, with Italy as a leading producer. Iran's production
was estimated at 10,000
tons, well
above the 1952-56 average
The
U.S. IQS9 filbert crop of
Oregon and Washington was
CO
f .u .u .U . 9,410 tons, roughly one-fourth larger than the 7,490 tons of 1958 1
19% above
and
courrry
1
the average 7,906 tons of the prior decade.
With
,
it
,
.
.
,
accounted for the decrease, with 55,000 tons against 120.000 tons in 1958; other major producers were Italy with 44,000 tons and 61.-
in 1959. 309^ smaller than the 88,700 tons of 1958 and below average for 1948-57. Prices to growers for the smaller 1959 crop were higher than the $380 per ton received for the 1958 crop. World production in noncommunist countries was indicated at 149,000 tons, substantially below the large 1958
16%
The 1959 commercial walnut crop
forecast at 28,500 tons as
of Italy
compared with 25,000 tons
1958 an average crop of 23,200 tons. France's commercial crop in
estimated at 25.000 tons, below the 29,000 tons of 1958 ,
,
,
„
the 1952-56 average 28,300 tons.
The
indicated 1959 pecan crop of 123,350,000 lb. was '-' U.S. ^ -^ ^' '^ smaller than the 174,750.000 lb. of 1958 and 18% below the
29%
average. Wild seedling varieties were 66,650,000 lb. 1048-57 '^ -" " ° against 69,250,000 lb. in 1958 and an average for 1948-57 of
.
Prirps lances wprp were pvnprfpH expected
tn to
avprairp average
The
m
66,000 tons (unshelled) as compared with a record 77.000 tons ^
,
,,.
,
,
,
,
,
Severe drought and high temperatures reduced the 1959 compared with " ^ ^ ^ 43,500 tons 1958; prices rose to about 23 cents per pound against pound a year before. The Iranian tpista10 to 12 cents a f ° in 1958.
Brazil nut harvest to 23.000 tons (unshelled) as
m
/
chio harvest
"^
was indicated
as approximating the 4,500 tons of
Q '
See also Pe.AXUTS.
NyaSaland:
see
(J.
K. R.)
Rhodesia and NyaSALAND. Federation
of.
.
1959 became
,.
than the 1948-57 average of 1,306,458.000 bu. Acreage Tj D crop .-tj o t'^ 9% to 28.823,000 ac, the lowest since 1892, re-
"
reduction by
fff
suited especially from a low support price in relation to corn. ^
A
hot dry June in the northern plains, plus rust, green bugs and rpri Ipaf virus, virus resultea rp«i.ltpr1in i-ihii nprarrp as compared rnmnarpr! ^\lttl with in 2,,.^ red-leat Du. per acre, as
44.7 bu. per acre in 1958 and an average for the previous decade r \ u o T lU JJ of 34.9 bu. per acre. As in 1958, Iowa was the leading producing 1
State, L
with 190,748,000 bu., follow-ed by Minnesota (174,7^4.s
,.-
/
,-
N
J
000 bu.), Wisconsin (124.224.000 bu.) and
T„-
•
Illinois
/„
Z
(89.6So.OOO
„' Ihe small 1959 crop, plus carry-over stocks of 369,000.000 of record—plus prospective imports from Canada
bu.—highest °
,
/
of about 2C.000.000 bu. (against actual imports of 3.265.000 bu.
1958-59), brought the total 1959-60 supply to about 1.464,000,000 bu., as compared with 1.750,000,000 bu. a year earlier. in
130 )3o
333 203 143
44
38 4* 34 39
's
33 *'
'
35 48
45 70
support price was reduced to 50 cents per bushel
of parity; as compared with 61 cents
(70%
of parity; on
September averagtij
standards were revised early
the year to pr-
in
vide for increase in test weight per bushel for numerical gratis
The world crop was
indicated at 3,700,000.000 bu. from iij
13%
below the large 1958 crop of 4,240,000,000 bu. from 116.520,000 ac. and 11% below the average crop for 1950170,000 ac,
54.
Reductions were indicated for most areas. ^^'^
Qt]Jtlldri6S.'
selected
a
is
women
(J.
list
K. R.;
of prominent
of the United States
and other
died during the year 1959:
_
.
.
fo'lo^ving
"'^" a"'!
who
countries,
.
,,
.
,
Sir Ibrahim Ibni Almorhum, Malayan sultan (b. Johore, Malaya. Sept. 17. 1873-d. London, Eng., May 8, 1959). Adams, Woyman, US. portrait artist (b. Muncie, Ind., Sept. 2i. 1883-d.
Abu-Bakar,
.Austin, Te.\.. .\pril
7,
1939).
dress designer (bNaugatuck, Conn., March 3 19« d. Los .Angeles. Calif., Sept. 13, 19o9), became a leading L.S. coutunct when he was the principal costume designer for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in Hollywood, designing gowns for Norma Shearer, Joan Crawford. GreU Carbo and many other leading movie actresses, including Janet Gaynor, whom he married. .Adrian opened his own fashion salon in Beverly Hilb, Calif., in 1942. He stressed "streamlining" in his designs. He was al80 known as a painter of .African scenes
Adrian
Gilbert
—
Alexander,
U.S
Sir Frank, British shipping executive (b.
igjji _^ Famborough, Eng., July 18. 1959). Anderson, Harry William, U.S. manufacturer 1891 d. Wallaceburg, Ont., Nov. 18, 1959).
(b.
London, Eng., June
17,
Cadillac, Mich., Dec. 2S,
—
Anderson, Maxwell U.S^dramatist (b. .Atlantic, Pa., Dec. 15, 1888--d Stamford, Conn., Feb. 28, 1959), was one of the most productive of 20thcentury U.S. playwrights. His 6rst success. It hal Price Glory/ (1924). "'"?." '" collaboration with Laurence Stallings became one of the ma n L .S. literary by-products of W orld \\ ar L The blank verse dramas, £/;: belh the Queen (193O), Mary oj Scotland (19J3) and it intersel (1935). last inspired by the Sacco-Vanzetti trial of the 1920s, gained for .\ndera prominent place in the American theatre. His other works inclu-'Sati-:,wi;***'2«^*s.,'*
Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, became in April 1959
23, 1959),
—
d
OBITUARIES
508
lirst nritinh prr^Ulrnt of the consultative ansemhty of the I'ouncil of Europe The «>n of a niilwnvmiin. he was educated at Aylesbury grammar school and for a time studied theology at the Community of the Resurrection, Minield. Yorkshire lie took a degree in economics at Leeds university and later had various appointments as a lecturer in economics. In 19J8 he was elected general secretary of the Post OfTicc Engineering union. He became Labour member of jKirliument for one of the Blackburn, Lancashire, constituencies in the 1*>4,S general elrtlion and two years later was apiiointed parliamentary secretary to the ministry of health. He was unsuccessful in the 1950 general election but shortly afterward won Hrighouse and S|jenborough, Yorkshire, in a by-election, becoming economic secretary to the treasury in Oct. 1950. With the Labour party in opposition, Edwards devoted most of his attention to the cause of European union. He became a delegate to the Council of Europe in 1955 and vice president in 1957. He was also chairman of the budget committee of the wc-stern European union and chairman of the executive committee of political and economic planning.
(he
Eisenberg, l')t:
et passion de Jeanne d'.irc and L'Eminence grise (1941)— reply to .Mdous Hu.xley's Grey Eminence (i.«,, Pere Joseph). i
Grock (Charles .Adries Wett.\ch). Swiss Switz.. Jan.
10..
1880— d. Imperia.
circus clown Italy. July 14, 1959).
(b.
Reconv
—
Grosz, George, German-U.S. artist (b. Berlin. Ger.. July 26, 1893 d. BerU July 6. 1959). began as a bitter caricaturist of post-World War I Germany_i| a series of drawings savagely attacking militarism, war profiteering, soa decadence and finally Naziism. His collected drawings were published in volumes. Grosz emigrated to the United States in 1932. the object of N« vilification, and became a U.S. citizen six years later. By this time he hal mellowed somewhat and turned to naturalistic themes in water colour all oil that drew the considered approval of critics and were exhibited in leadiil European and I'.S. museums. However, he continued his Goyaesqil 11 paintings of decadence and of the horrors of war— tvpicallv in "The Pit, Piece of My World." "Waving the Flag" and "The Wanderer." His autj" biography. Ein Grosser Nein und ein KIcines Ja, was published in 195S. I
I
(
'
OBrTUARIES US
educator and author
^!,*"/ ^"A',°r!'''/[^"', 1880— d. Stanford, Calif., Nov. 13, 1959).
(b. Paris,
""^
7bllogv'n9n1s^J'f ^^^ "' "'' °rom
Guest, Edgar Albert r.S writer and newspaperman (b. Birmingham, Eng., Aug. 20, ISSl-d. Detro.t, Mich.. .Aug. 5. 1959), became known is the -poei 01 the people for his sentimental and inspirational verse, published for more century in the Delroil Free Press and syndicated at one time in K ".^,An* about 300 newspapers. His verse was never considered good literature bv critics, nor for that matter by Guest himself, who preferred to refer to himself as a newspaperman. His first commercially book was -1 Heap Lnw (1916), a best seller; and he published published about two dozen others He also appeared on radio and television. Guest emigrated from England to the Lnited States as a child in 1S91 and began working for the Free Press in 1895 as an office boy after completing only a year of high school. He was later a police reporter column of verse. Guest
and exchange editor before starting became a U.S. citizen in 1902.
Guffey Joseph Finch, U.S. senator
his
own
"
daily
P^fe^^or in 1907 and Sterling professor
'^'"'^'"' °' '^'
N^""-'
Resear^cf council
^'^'«.="^° .("? Tokyo, Jap., Jan. 1, 1883-d. P"™^ minister of Japan from Dec 19S4 to
TokvriAth"? ^wf9n >: ™^ A ^^'nci ^oJ^c.^i-|:;^j;^-^-- ^-Ij^^^l'-;-
house
•
of the national diet
a^; melL'of the 5./r;.frPottcal'Fr°eL" f™" '° ''^.^he was minister of^^fcation.^Didig^WorU he'"' 'ff he was out of favour with Japan's mihtary rulers and took no part n public life. After the war he organized and led the N.kon y73.r aapan
-'*• P^^P^bed by Gen. Douglas MacAr hur in 1946 ^o^?, W^ Kr' "T ""^ ">« only Japanese purged spicifi ^Uv bv cam by name, name''"a„L°M''/"'^'''and did not resume "l"his seat in the diet
until after the oeace reaty with the Lmted States took effect in April 1952. In 1954 he left the Liberal party, Japan's largest, to join with the second largest group he Progressives, in forming the new Xihon Minshuto Japan Democrat cpartv) He was leader of the opposition until he became 195"^'
^ f
prime minister" Hawthorn John Michael ("Mike"), British motor-racing driver (b Mexbor ough, 'iorkshire, April 10, 1929-d. near Onslow, Surrey, Jan 2 1959) be came world-champion racing motorist in 1958. He was killed in a road acci ^^er announcing his retirement from Grand Prfx raHn/H"'r racing^ HawthornT^' began racing at 21 with Riley sports cars and tw"o years Bristol he won the Chiches?er cup at and wafolacedTi.\'^°°P" was placed high m numerous British and continental rn,-»o t„Goodwood ioj: j for Ferrari he w^n the French Grand P^flZ'tanManudlangro'af
Guggenheim, M. Robert, U.S. diplomat (b. New York, N.Y., May 17, 1885ooj j d. Washington. D.C., Nov. 16, 1959). ^'""'^^ ^"'-"'^ C'- London, Eng., Sept. 26, 1877-d. Woodland ^Z^u" r''r^"iililis, LaUt., Sept. ,
1959).
(b.
1946
I"'!
Wafft War II
(b.
Hale, Sonnie (pseud, for John Robert Hale-Munko), British actor tng.. May 1, 1902— d. London, June 9, 1959).
19!-8 to
A
near Pittsburgh, Pa., Dec. 29 1870-d VVashington D.C., March 6, 1959), was an early pohtical supporter of J-rankhn D. Roosevelt and one of the most influential of Roosevelt's backers in the senate during the first ten years or so of the New Deal In 1934 Guffey became the first Democratic senator to be elected from Pennsylvania in more than a half century. He continued in the senate for two terms but in 1 W6- Guffey was a successful businessman in PhM K l°\ '^"I'^'^'i?" Philadelphia before his election to the senate. During World War I he had charge of sales in the Office of Ahen Property Custodian.
6,
509
France, Nov. 3
London,
•
^a'"u"'
*^°ll*°P
'"'^''"'"^ ^'"dtey
Wood,
1st E.«l of, British statesman "'=*' ^'"='"' '^*=™°' Eng., April 16, 1881-d GarYorkshire, Eng., Dec. 23, 1959), was viceroy of
m'^'"" '^^^"'^; rowby Thall, near York ?* \l son IS^^hTk '^^','"u'' 1938-40. The fourth of the '
i^^
ri
.
nu
L -'Vig
°f "^'"^ f°^ ^°"='S^ ^ff^'irs
during
Mans 24_hr. race during which about 80 spectators ^c:1iil?^ra\?s''•''^r1,'"'''"-^^ were killed In 1957 he rejoined Ferrari and was highl>- placed in four Grands Prix and the Xurburg
'"=r'^''2nd viscount Halifax, who was well known as o-Cathohc movement, he was educated at Eton and at
p' ^? ^'""^'^ parliament in 1910 as Conservative m^lill f ''"d during World War I served for a time ?-' ^'1°"' Y"'^^^""' with the \orkshire dragoons in France. In 1921 he was appointed parhamentary undersecretary for the colonies and in the following year became "^"^ ''°'"''' °' education, holding this post until 1924 Durine .^\. ?nf! 1924-25 lie was minister of agriculture. His first major appointment was as viceroy of India (1926-31), and he served in India during a period of grea nationalist ferment, which Gandhi played a leading part. On his return from India he again became president of the board of education (193'-35) '"'^ ^"''^' "^^ ^^'^^^'^''^ ^'"d ^°"^ president "of the coundf °''^?,''^-,
n.
^fl
" W^';Wn7ton.'D C°^i'ul>''7'l9^'" "
m
a937-T8T'''''''^' The most controversial period of Halifax' career followed his as foreign secretary in Feb. 1938, after Anthony Eden's
U'
Hines,
appointment
resignatiolTfrom
°"'^'J"ding leader in the defeat of Japan. Early in Feb. 1942 he „h°'^'t'"' raided Japanese bases the Marshall and Gilbert islands. In October of that year he became commander of U.S. naval forces in the South Pacific, shortly "'" '^"^- °^ '^'?'''^'- ^"'"^ '°' his aggressive and often nn.rf ff.H""'''^ f h• H™flflagship, '^''u opposition. His the battleship U.S.S. "Missouri," was the surrende site for the Japanese Sept. 1, 1945. In Dec. 1945 Halsey was promoted omoteo to ro rne the five-star rank of fleet admiral. Son of a navy captain, Halsey was graduated from Annapolis in 1904 and commanded a destroyer patrol force during World War I Later he com manded the aircra.t carrier U.S.S. "Saratoga." After various other ship
']^^'''-
^""^^^^^
0"°her won
''^
'" 1958, his
him the
for
N'^"
""'^ ^°^^'
P90!-d.'^ch'enec'ta'S;:"Ma"v 2'r'l9T9f
^''" ^'^
"YeTullllm^Is^ttly 2t'l95^'°"''"'"
the Charnberlam government. Halifax had previously been politically close to ^hamberlain. and his acceptance of the foreign office meant that he v^ !'l Jdentihed himself with Chamberlain's policy of applasement toward Nazi Germany. When Winston Churchill became prime minister in May 1940 Halifax remained at the foreign oflice for seven months, but at the end of that year he went to Washington as British ambassador, remaining in this pos^ until May 1946. In 1957 he pubhshed a volume of recollections, VuUness
':-\VS- fleet admiral (b. Elizabeth, N.J., Oct. 30 "°yllV "^'"i^T ^'^i^^'^^J 1882-d. Fishers Island. N.\., Aug. 16, 1959), led the first U.S. nava offensive strike against the Japanese in World War II and went on to
"p"' ^^'^""'"^ the Tn'ro'" ^'°™"'"' ^'"""^ ^"^ '°
fn
champion
second pla? world
title of
^^^-
'-°"^' ^°'' ^'°^'
^"^
Feb.
'''^-''
Duncan U.S. pubhsher of guides to restaurants and hotels (b Bowhmr ^6. I880-d. Bowling Green, March 15. 1959 pubirshed L' ^^r^ inGood Eating in 1937 and within Adventures a few yea s was con
hi-'fir;t first
A
' ''°«-d.
S^^^-'^^^' ^Y-,
,
°n eating places for travelers. He late wrote '?""' and '\"f ^f^°"^>: published i»i^,„«/„r a Night (1938), a guide to hotels and motlj A• Goodman's attention to he
anlti^'shTh artistrj She became a"f""' featured singer
with Goodman's band and with the ' '^"^ ^haw and was among ]azz en Susfa stTls -EaT'Da"" "" H .""eeordings, beginningknown with "Your Mother's " ? Snn ,-o,?^-ISon-in-Law in 1933 became internationally knovvn; among others were Them There Eyes," "Lover Man," "Fine and Mellow,'"^'Driving Me Strange Fruit" She appeared in B ofdw,\ musical and in solo concerts. Miss motion pictures, telev isfon a Broadwa\ Holiday was convicted of a nar cotics y.olation in 1947 and thereafter her career declined, although she contmued her recordings and concert appearances and made a tour of EuropeTn .
m
f
?
•
"
IL
a^d '^"""^"dant of the Pensacola (Fla.) naval air stat?onT;^1station ^\''' H of an aircraft-carrier in 193, and head division in 1940. Following his retirement in April 1947 he was director of several corporations
T
"
TugeV''orr,Nov.''7'l9'5°9)'"""
ri
^"''"^ """''
Enrofc
w'lgsg);'-
"""
U.S. biologist
"Tiw?} New Haven, ^'"""'"P Conn., Sept.
30, 1959),
°®'" (b.
won
'^-
-^P"'
"
Philadelphia, Pa., Jan. 13, international fame
"" iTr'l
I870-d
^""^ ''"'''"P ""'^''^'^ 'heir original ''""^ l.ght on the origin of nerve fibrefand
CLAZ"r,'!,''^rr'' 7P°':'^nt discoveries-including
^"^^^^'-k'.-;^/-.
May
16.
Oct.
14,
1877-d.
1878-d. Hollywood,
"°Cahf' L-all.. .Sept. S°eD,°''in^'fQ,of°'' 30. 1939), was a matinee idol of the early 1900s in the United """'''^ °f ^"^"' -""'i™ Pi^'"^^^ ^'nd in Brold wav^hows way ? ' starring show^s. "l"''^ .Among ^T\ Ijis later stage roles were those of Jeeter Lester in Tobacco Road and the president in I'd Rather Be Right.
"
"
''"''".;''= -^^P-^^'
(b-
Cornwall-on-the-
HSd^o^^''^ Y^^Ocrn^'i'l^-"''!,' 188/-d. ^V^' Miami, Fla., Feb. 1, 1959) became the . .'u-,;'j^S'greatest billiards player of his time after winning the world's 8 1 ba™k 1 ne fh'""P;T-'"P '" "".' '° ^^'^ "' 'he age of I8^n both the balllfne
and
^«'--''- London,
as a pioneer in tesue culture-the cultivation of animal cells outside the body In his research first published in 1907. he devised a simple method of transplanting
-" Urns Thl-P
''^-
P""-'^' O-'
''
organ led to
those of Alexis Carrel and the ^H^fh °° ?^' '!'="' °f '"°"''^>' "Sidneys. Harrison took his Ph D .? j?^'\'?,°P'''°' T^''°h"'T' "P'^^^'ty ^nd his medical degree at the University of Bonn, Bonn Ger. After teaching at Bryn Mawr coUege and Johns Hopkins
he
"^' acknowledged master for about 50 years, but Le won w^^ h s greatest fame in "l" he the three-cushion version of the game In 940 at the international tournament in Chicago, Hoppe won all the 21 three cushion matches and in the nexfl2 seasons won 10 world championship, He retired from tournament play in 1952, still the three-cushion champion
^r?^
^^''^'' Francisco, Calif., I863:'-d. New "°Yorr''^-'^Y° nr"r/',^-o; "'^' ^'',^t° °"' ?^ \^% ""''' "lebrated U.S. actresses of '' the early tl^e earK.'^90?s h I 1900s, being known particularly for her starring role in the '
musical
"^de
her
Broadway debut
in 1891 in The Club Friend and had "'^'"^^' P™'^""'-' "ho commissioned Dav?H t ^v"''"""' T"^ " ^^Pecially for her. This comedy. The Girl f r^OR X 51? ?,X'f """"f'' Left Behuid Me (1893), secured Miss Wallace her future top biUiAg She wa^
il!?;.
!i
ru
rI
"'
A
OBITUARIES
510 mtrrird
him
Dt Wolt Hopper (I858-19J5), the comedian, but divorced IWS married .Mberl () Brown, a slockbrolter. .^fter 1910
in 18'cars withheld by censorship from public performance. Frunitla (1906). a charming fantasy in which Harley Granville Barker collaborated, escaped this fate. It was not, however, until 1922 that Housman again became prominent, with the publication of the first of three collections entitled Little Plays oj St. Franeis. In the same year appeared the \'ictorian historical piece Angels and Ministers, and in 1923 Dethronements. These preceded the many one-act Victorian '"palace plays" and the full length Vietorm Kesina, which was staged in the I'nited States with great success before it was licensed by the lord chamberlain in 19J7. The note of satire which in varying degrees pervaded much of his writing was dominant in the novel Trimblerigg (1924). of which Lloyd (jeorge was the thinly disguised butt. \a individualist without allegiance to any literary movement, Housman described himself as "a rabid pacifist and internation-
—
alist."
Howells, John Mead, U.S. architect (b. Cambridge, Mass., Aug. 14, 1868— dKittcrv Point. Me., Sept. 22, 1959). Hudson, Richord Furmon, Jr., C.S. publisher (b. Jeflerson Co., Ga., Oct. 24, 1884 d. Monlgomery, Ala.. Sept. 26. 1959). Huff, Charles H., I'.S. author (b. St. Louis, Mo., 1888?— d. Yonkers, N.Y., July 15, 1959). ironside. Sir William Edmund Ironside, 1st Baron, British military leader (b. Ironside, Eng.. May 6, 1880— d. London. Eng., Sept. 22, 1959).
Wallace, U.S. newspaper columnist and humorist (b. Oneida, N.Y., March 15, 1875— d. Southern Pines, N.C., Feb. 14, 1959). was best known for his "Letters of a Japanese Schoolboy," a series of satirical columns, written for various N'ew York city papers and published as a book in 19U9. He also published a number of novels and books of humour and verse. He was the brother of William Henry (Will) Irwin (187J-1948). also one of the best-
Irwin,
known humorists
,
i
.
Kendall, Kay (.Mrs. Rex Harrison). British comedienne (b. Witherniea, Enf., M:iy 21. 1926-d. London. Eng .Sept, 6. 1959). Khama, Tihekedi, Bcchuanaland regent (b. 1906— d. London, Eng. June 10, 1959).
King, Samuel Wilder, U.S. political leader (b. Honolulu, Hawaii, Dec. 17, 1886 -d. Honolulu. March 24, 1959), was governor of Hawaii from Feb. 1953 to July 1957 and was one of the first to campaign for admission of the territory to the union. Son of a pioneer Hawaiian shipping executive. King graduated from the I'.S. Naval academy in 1910 and had active service io World Wars I and II. .\t the time of his death King was a Republican representative in the territorial house.
Harry Dexter, U.S. vocational psvchologist and educator (b. Miibawaka. Ind Aug 11. 1886 -d. Mishawaka, Sept. 25, 1959). Knipper-Chekhova, Olga, Soviet actress (b. 1870 d. Moscow, U.S.S.R., Kitson,
.
—
March
22, 1959).
Kovocs, Belo, Hungarian Smallholders party leader (b. in a village of the county of Baranya, Hung.. 1908 -d. Pecs, Hung.. June 21, 1959). was one o{ the toughest opponents of Communism. The son of a peasant, he became, after World War II. secretary general of the Independent Smallholders party, founded by Ferenc Xagy, and was instrumental in the party's electoral victory of Nov. 1945. Kovacs was appointed minister of agriculture ia Nagy's cabinet, but the Communists, backed by the Soviet occupation authorities, forced him to resign. When the house of representatives refused to waive his immunity. Lieut. Gen. V. P. Sviridor. Soviet president of the .Allied Control commission, ordered his arrest on Feb. 25. 1947, accusing him of "organizing espionage against the Soviet forces." He was deported to the U.S.S.R. and imprisoned there for almost nine years. Physically broken, he was released in Jan. 1956 and returned to Hungary. On Nov. 2, 1956, duriof the October rising, he was given the post of minister of state in the Imre Nagy cabinet. When the rising had been crushed. Kovacs returned to Pecs. first he refused to collaborate with Janos Kadar, but on Nov. 16, 1958, he was elected to the house of representatives as a candidate of the Patriotic
M
People's front.
Krauss, Werner, German actor (b. Gestungshausen, Ger., June 23, 1884— Vienna. Aus., Oct. 20, 1959). Kribben, Earl, U.S. business executive (b. St. Louis. Mo., July 2, 1903— d. Lake Forest, 111., May 31, 1959).
(b.
Philadelphia, Pa., Jan.
2,
1887—
Jansen, Ernest George, South African statesman (b. near Dundee, Natal, .\ug. 7, 1881— d. Pretoria, U. of S. Af., Nov. 25, 1959), was governor general of the Union of South .\frica from 1951 until the time of his death. Educated privately and at Ladysmith and Durban, he studied law and was admitted as an attorney in 1906. Joining the Nationalist party in 1915. he was elected to parliament in 1921 as a member for Vryheid. a constituency he was to represent for 22 years. When the government of Gen. James Hertzog came into power in 1924. Jansen was appointed speaker, and he held this office continuously until 1943. except for four years between 1929 and 1933. He was considered by many to be the best speaker the South .African house of assembly had ever had. Having lost his seat in the 1943 election, he became for a short time editor of \ew Era. an English language Nationalist weekly. Returned to parliament at a by-election in 1947. he was given the portfolio of native affairs when D. F. Malan formed a government following the Nationalist victory in the general election of 1948. Three years later Jansen was appointed governor general, a post he was to hold with distinction during a ditficult period in his country's history.
—
Johnson, Edward, Canadian operatic tenor (b. Guelph. Ont., .\ug. 22, 1878? d. Guelph, .\pril 20, 1959). was general manager of the Metropolitan Opera company in New York city for 15 years (1935-50) after his retirement from the operatic stage. He began as a choral and concert singer and a player in operettas and did not make his operatic debut until 1912 in Umberto Giordano's Andrea Chenier, at Padua. Italy. Changing his name to Eduardo di Giovanni, he attained wide European fame before joining the Chicago Opera company in 1919. when he resumed his real name, .\fter three years Johnson was hired by the Metropolitan, where he created new roles in such U.S. premiere operas as Deems Taylor's The King's Henchman (1927) and
—
Peter Ibbetson (1931) and Howard Hanson's Merry Mount (1934). and continued to star in a score or more standard productions until his farewell performance in March 1935. .\s general manager of the Metropolitan during the ensuing >ears. Johnson considerably enlarged the company's repertoire and its roster of U.S. singers and guest conductors. He also was credited with having placed the company on a sounder financial footing.
Johnson, Ernest Amos, U.S. educator April 13. 1959).
(b.
Ouray, Colo., Jan.
10.
1895— d. Lake
La Gorce, John Oliver U.S. editor and geographer (b. Scranton, Pa., Sept. 22, 1880— d. Washington. D.C., Dec. 23, 1959), was editor of the Satioiul Geographic magazine and was president of the National Geographic society, in succession to Gilbert Grosvenor, from 1954 to 1957. La Gorce was one of the principal organizers of .\dm. Richard E. Byrd's expeditions of 1929 and 1933 to the .Antarctica. He also assisted Donald B. MacMillan's expedition of 1925 to the arctic. La Gorce was the author of several books oo fishing
and
^^
I
|
travel.
Napoleon ("Larry"), L'.S. baseball player (b. Woonsocket. R.I.. 5. 1875 — d. Daytona Beach. Fla.. Feb. 7, 1959). was one of the original i bers elected to the baseball hall of lame in 1936-37. In 21 years (1896as a major-league player with the Philadelphia Phillies in the Nat league and with the Philadelphia .Athletics and the Cleveland Indians in '
Lajoie,
(
.American league. Lajoie had a lifetime annual batting average of .339. batting championship mark of .422 in 1901 had still not been bettered at I time of his death; Ty Cobb came closest in 1911 with .420, equaled by George! Sisler in 1922. Originally an outfielder. Lajoie shifted later to second base. Sieu was manager of the Cleveland Indians from 1905 to 1909 and played his last| major-league games for the Philadelphia .Athletics in 1915-16.
Land, Frank Sherman,
1890— d. Kansas
L".S.
worker with boys
City, Mo.,
Nov.
8,
(b.
Kansas City, Mo., June
21,|
1959).
Landowska, Wanda, Polish harpsichordist and pianist
(b.
Warsaw,
Pol.,
1879— d.
Lakeville. Conn., Aug. 16, 1959). spent the last 18 years of 1 the United States, where she had made her American debut in 19'_ Her revival of harpsichord music in the 20th centuo' drew wide public i terest and support. See her biography in Encyclopedia Britannica.
5.
life in
Lane, Lupino, British actor
(b.
London. Eng., June
16,
1892— d. London, No
10, 1959).
Longer, William, U.S. senator (b. near Everest, N.D., Sept. 30, 1886Washington, D.C.. Nov. 8. 1959). was a dissident Republican during mosto (' his career in state and national politics. He was an early supporter of Nonpartisan league, founded in North Dakota by .A. C. "Townley in 1915. state's attorney in 1914 and North Dakota's attorney general in 1916, he
onsible for establishing Kafka's reputation in Britain. Muir's full stature as a poet first became apparent with The Voyage (1946) and The Labyrinth (1949). These were followed by Collected Poems, 1921-il (1952) and Ont Foot itt Eden (1956), while new poems which appeared in periodjcab until the laat months of his life all added to his reputation. He was honoured by oaanjr universities in Britain and abroad and in 1953 was created a commandeTi Order of the British Empire.
Muir, Sir Robert, Scottish pathologist and bacteriologist (b. Hawick, Scot,, July 5, 1854 d. Edinburgh, Scot., March 30, 1959), was one of the great pathologists of his generation. Educated at Hawick academy and Edinbur^ university, he gained a gold medal in 1890 and became lecturer on bacteriology at Edinburgh in 1892. From then on he held various teaching posts in the universities of Edinburgh and St. Andrews until his appointment If professor of pathology at Glasgow, a post he held until his retirement in 1936, Muir was best known as a teacher and author of standard textbooks dfi bacteriology and pathology, but he specialized chiefly in immunology published his Studies on Immunity in 1909. For many years a member of the Medical Research council, he was elected a fellow of the Royal society a, 1911 and was awarded a royal medal for his research on immunity in 1929. His knighthood followed in 1934.
—
Munford, Walter F., U.S. industrialist Hyannis, Mass.. Sept. 28. 1959). Munnings, Sir Alfred (James), British
1878— d. Dedham.
(b.
Worcester, Mass., June
artist (b.
Mendham
8,
1900—4
Mill, Eng., Oct.S,
Eng., July 17, 1959).
Namafjira, Albert, .Australian
artist
(b.
Hermannsburg, Austr., July
1902— d. Alice Springs, Austr., Aug. 8, 1959). Naumburg, Walter Wehle, U.S. banker and music patron Dec. 25, 1867— d. New Y'ork, N.Y., Oct. 17, 1959).
(b.
28,
New York, X.Y.,
Neal, John R., U.S. lawyer (b. Rhea Springs, Tenn., Sept. 17, 1876— d. Rockwood. Tenn., Nov. 23, 1959), was chief defense attorney in the "monke> trial" of John T. Scopes at Dayton, Tenn., in 1925 for teaching evolution ii high-school classes there. .Although Neal directed the defense, he was out shone by another defense attorney, the famed Clarence Darrow; also b> William Jennings Bryan, Darrow's counterpart for the prosecution. Nelson, Donald Marr, U.S. business executive and government official (b Hannibal. Mo., Nov. 17, 1888-d. Los .Angeles, CaUf., Sept. 29, 1959) was director of the War Production board (1942-44), during most of thi was the powerful agency tha U.S. participation in World War II. controlled and directed the procurement and production of all U.S. wa by Pres. Frankln supplies. Prior to his appointment as chairman of the D. Roosevelt in Jan. 1942, Nelson had been associated with Sears. Roebud & Co. for 29 years, as executive vice-president and chairman of the execu live committee from 1939 to 1942. .After his resignation from the Wa Production board. Nelson was a special representative of President Roose
WPB
WPB
velt to
Chiang Kai-shek's government
New
George Henry,
U.S. educator Haven. Conn.. Feb. 5, 1959).
Nettleton,
Newman,
Ernest, British
music
critic (b.
in
(b.
China
in 19+4-45.
Boston, Mass., July
16,
Liverpool, Eng., Nov. 30,
Tadworth, Surrev, Eng., July 7, 1959). Norton, Mary Teresa, U.S. pohtician (b. Jersey City, N.J., Greenwich, Conn., .Aug. 2, 1959).
1874—
1858— I
March
7,
187S— Iag>-. -As research sctor of Pies. Heitiert C. Hoover's committee on sodai trends 19J0-3 J) zZ'-mTi completed wbat was tamed tbe ''first oatiooai inventor^"" of CS. sudety. He was an antlaority on tlie social cbanees arising from te^moSo^cal advances; from tbe growth of cities and faom ocber bctocs. He served oa a nnunber of federal conunittees and aa tej also as arfaetef in a aumber oi isbiMir-Dianaganait disputes. Ogbmn was pcofessoc of sodohgy at Cotcimbia imivieiaty bom 1919 to 1927 and at The Cniversity of Chicago from 192 7 tmtil bis seCireinent in 1951. He was an editorial adviser on so-wood home.
r'eaich
r
i:
;
513
the Republican part>- for most of his 40 years as representative from the upstate 43rd Xew York congressional district. .\s senior Republican on the house of representatives ways and means committee and its chairman in 1953—54. Reed opposed Large federal spending and high taxes. He also worked for protective tariJs and broke with Pres. Dwight Eisenhower on the tariS issue, as well as on the issue of aid to foreign nations.
(b.
Papantb. Ver.. Met. April 2T. J8S7—d. Santiago. CMe. Marcit it. 1959). d. Nurfcse, Kognor, UJS. ecDcamist and ediHator (b. Estonia. Oct. 5. 1907
Reinert,
Egon Hans, German public
official (b.
I90S— d. Saarbriicken, .\pril li. 1959). Reiss, William A., U.S. shipping executive (b. d. Chicago. IIL. Oct. 24. 1959).
—
Saarbrucken. Ger., Sept. 24,
Sheboygan, Wis., Xov. 28, 1884
—
Reyes, Alfonso, Merican poet (b. Monterrev, Mes., May 17, 1889 d. Merico City. Mei.. Dec 27. 19591. Rboods, Cornelius Packard, U.S. srientist (b. Springfield. Mass.. June 20, 189S— d. Stooington, Conn.. .\ug. 13. 1959). Richards, Sfephen L, U.S. church offidal :b. Mendon. Uuh. June 18. 1879— d. Salt Lake City-. Utah. May 19, 1959).
1882— d.
Perigord, Podt U3- edocatoc (b. Toukxise, France, October 25, Xj-ack. X.Y.. Xov. 4, 1959).
Pertnon, Selig, CS. economEt Ok Biaiystok. PoL. Dec 9. 1888—d. PhOadelpii^ Pa.. .\ng. 14, 1959), was a pionetT in the sdentiJic study of labour ecorsfosnics and histacy, o!riginall>~ nnder tbe tntdage of John R. Commons (1862-1944)1 at tlae UniveraiCy of WiscoDisin. With Commons and others. Pertman wrote the dassc Bisiffry of Ltzb&r sk tkg VKkid St'ZUs 1918). His A Tkmy if Iks Lxior Mmsmmit (1928) w^s generally considered to be his greatest work. He albo wrote a histovy of trade tmioas in the U.S. 1922 and was coantbor of several other works. Perlman studied at the L'aiversit>' of Xaples, Italy, in 1906-OT, then emigrated to the United States and was n.£tMralized a ir.S. citiaeD in 1913. He took Ms bachek>r s degree at the Unitrsity of Wiscnisin in 1910 and ins doctorate there in 1915. Except during :.^15, when he was a special investi^tor for the U.S. Commission on - I'icsttial RdatiaiBS, be was ob the stall of tbe University of Wisconsin from \ .!*jfi. advandng to the tank of foD prafessor in 1927.
Richards, Vincent, U.S. tennis player (b. Xew York, X.Y.. March 20. 1903 d. Xew York. X.Y.. Sept. 28, 1959). was one of the four outstanding amateur tennis players of the 1920s a golden era in U.S. tennis when .\merican teams won seven straight Davis Cup championships '1920-26). The other three
—
were William Tilden II. Richard X'. Williams II and William Johnston. Richards, then eclipsed by Tilden, did not win any amateur U.S. singles title. With Tilden. however, he took the national doubles championship in 1918, 1921 and 1922: he also won the doubles title with Williams in 1925 and 1926. Ricliards turned professional in 1926 la siirprise dedsion that gave U.S. professional tennis its original impetus) he won the national professional singles title in 1927, 1928. 1930 and 1933. Injured in an automobile acddent in 1935, he came back to win the professional doubles championship in 1937,
1
(
'
:
1938 and 1945.
'
Peterson, Jfonalhin)
Whtaey,
tobacco emjitire
ir.SL
(b.
.\pjil 30. 1S9»—d. Greenwich, Cbmn., Oct- 6. 1959). fliilipe, G«rord, French actor fit. Cannes, France,
Dec
Brooklyn. X.Y.,
—
1922 d- Paris, Firance. Xov. 25. 1959). Pigou, Arthur Cecil, Biitish economist (b. Ryde. F.ng , Xov. 18, 1877 d. London. Eng., March 7, 1959). Pnsky, David. Yidifish amthor (k Mogilev, Rnssia, April 5, 1872—d. Haifa, IsiraeL -Ase. 11. 1959). Plonmo'11 T>Kync< us. Roman Catholfic ckcgyman and educator (b. iVvenirr Gct.. March 19. 1879—d. Oban, X.Y.. Feb. 13. 1959). ^ r Polk Z- 1 T z C-S. cocgresaman (b. Highland Co., O., Oct. 6, 1896 : d_ VVi, .\priI28, 1959). 4,
—
-
—
.
CiMMdIer Rothfon, U.S- aothority on Spanish art
ftwt,
—
Dec
(b. Detroit.
Mich.,
14. 1881 d. Cannbridge, Mass., Xov. 2. 1959), was Boardman professor of fine aits at Harvard nniveisity from 1923 ontil bis retirement in 1950. PrevBoo^y he had tanght Greek aiBd hngnages at Han>'ard snce first jojining the Eacnlty in 19IK. the year he took his master's degree There. At the tinDe of 1"^ A^ffltt he had coinpleted 12 volnmes of a history' of ~ T.i,^g>h pointiii^ and was at work osl the 13th. was also antbor of several ;^er woirks om the fine arts.
modem He
—
U3.
= :-er. George W., joonnlEt (b. Fall River, Mass, Sept. 20, 1899 d. .-"-.-idemce. R_L. .\ug. 10. 1959). Pe'.d^, Willioa Henry, U.S. bnsine^man and Boy Scoot leader (b, Brooklyn, '
\'..
JaE.
1875—d. Xew York,
1.
-;-•!, Hennng -
.
-4—d-
Webb,
I:-::
:.:-t:
Jr.,
Jf.Y.. Feb. 16, 1959).
U5. manrfactorer
(b.
St
Loois, Mo.. July 11,
Laocaster, Pa., Oct. 29, 1959)'. -
CS. goveranfient oSdal (h. Van Buren, .\rfc.. WasiringtoBi. D.C... May 8. 19591. was depatj- U.S. It "^re time of h^ A^irtfe Xeil H. McEiroy. seoetary of t'i his dfCJSBOgE to retire in 1959. reconsidered after deputy "ncaDy irreplaceable.'* Prior to bis 7 rretaiy of defense in March 1937, Qtiarles had •-rieruse for research and devdopment (1953-55) = -57). He was one at the most influential r policy and in the devrilopmiwnt of space Se!! Telephone laboratories from 1948 'r:trtc coEffipany and president of ildary, in 1952-53.
.brey),
Richardson, Sir Owen (Willons), British phvsirist and Xobel prize winner (b. Dewsbury. Yorkshire. Eng.. .-Kpril 26, 1879— d. .\lton. Hampshire. Feb. 13, 1959) was best remembered for his discovers- of the fundamental law of physics controlling the motion of etectroos from hot bodies, known as the Ridiardson law. He made tiiis subject pecuh'arly his own and gave it the name "thermionics." Richardson was educated at Batle\- grammar school and at Trinity college. Cambridge, where he became a fellow. He was professor of ph>-sics at Princeton university. 1906—14. and Wheatstone professor of physics at King's college, London. 1914-24. He was then appointed a Yarrow research professor by the Ro>-al Sodety and director of research in phj-sics at King's college, a post he held until 1944. In 1931, Richardson was elected a fellow of the Roj-al Sodety and he was knighted in 1939. He was awarded the Xobel prize for physics in 1928 and wrote the standard works: The Eledirim Theory af Matter (1914) and Tkt Emissiait of EUctricity Prom Bot Bodies (1916).
Richardson, Sid Williams, U.S. oQ producer (b. .-Vthens, Tei., .\pril 25, 1891— d. St. Josephs Island, Tei., Sept, 29, 1959). Richey, Lawrence, U.S. public servant (b. Harrisburg, Pa.. Dec 21. 1885 d.
—
Washington. D.C. Dec 27. 1959). Germaine, French sculptor (b. Provence, France. 1904 d. Montpelier, France. July 30. 1959). Riddell, Guy Crosby, U.S. engineer (b. Charlestown. Mass., 1882 d. Easton, Md., J'jIv to. 1959). Ridenour, Louis N., Jr., U.S. phvsidst (b. Montdair, X.J., Xov. 1. 1911— d.
15. 1959).
Sox (.\kthuk S.uisfield W.uid), English author (b. London, Eng., I8S3-— d- London. June I. 1959). was the creator of the famous mysteryFu Manchu. .\fter working brieSy in the fin.inria,l district of London and as a newspaperman. Rohmer's intense interest in Egypt and the middle east led him into fiction writing, E.xpanding his story character Dr.
interests to
-
:
:
-
:
-
:
'..-.:
:
Remi. Que.. Oct. 30. 1889—d.
May
6.
1875—d. Orange.
indude the
far east.
Rohmer
published Dr. Fit ilanck^. a m>-s-
terv- novel, in 1913. The villainous and inscrutable oriental immediately caught the public "s fancy, and Rohmer produced more than 15 novels about him during the next 30 years. Several of the novels were made into morion pictures, and "Dr. Fu Manchu" became a popular radio series of the 19305. Rohmer also wrote se^'eral plays in wtiich Fu Manchu was the chief character. In 1955 it was reported" that Rohmer Iiad sold the television, radio and motion-picture rights to Dr. Fu Manchu for $4,000,000.
:'
:
21. 1959).
Rohoier,
.
:
May
—
-
;
Washington D.C.
Henry Ware, CS. government official (b. GreenviEe. S.C.. .^pril 13, t9. JoI>" 21. 1882—d. London, Eng., Julv 14, l'.359:i. Rogers, Bisobeth Cobb, U.S. author (b. 1903?—d. Xew York. X.Y.. March Ritey,
^
:
— —
Richier,
X.J.,
Thomas W., CS. actor (b. Boston, Mass.. Jan. 22, 1875— d. Torrington, Conn.. Xov. 14. 1959). Ruben, Barney, U.S. dothing eiecnrive (b. Poland. 1885? d. Xew York, Ross,
—
XV
gs,
Anhar
Lionet,
U
~
X.Y.. Xov. 17. 195 Conyers. CS. e«fc-;£:
-
7:{. 18»1
—d. Xc"
1959). Z = H, CS. artist (b. Berlin, Ger., .Aug. 18, 1959).
Ov-t. 27,
.-:.' -
1869— d. Xew York, N.Y.,
:
.
Pa.. ^riiiiili ' .
I
-
Dec 23, 195 P. t^Mi ifiiiil. r"
P^iilji«Mpl»Sa> Jan.
Alden,
2.
:
I
-
CS. cocLgresanan
D.C. Feb.
19, 1959),
J.
.
;
i
?
-.:-.:
-
25,
1881— ?a..
;
Xov.
-
fb. Sheridan.
was a leads
X.Y.. Sept.
15,
1575
of the cooservative
—d.
wing of
,'-/
.^ierre, Belgian colonial administrator (b. .\atwerp. Belg.. Xov. 26. liiL d. Brussels. Feb. IS, 1959). graduated from Louvain university as doctor of Liw (1913). He served with the Belgian Congo forces in World War L Joined the Belgian Congo d^Tl service and was governor general of Belgian Congo from 1934 to 1947. Later he served as permanent representative to the UX" Trusteeship coundL In 1950 he was appointed Belgian high commissioner for atomic enezgy. ;,t.- c.-i,
d
I
OBITUARIES
514
Soavedra Lamat, Carlot, Argentine statesman (b. Buenos Aires, Arg., Nov. 1, 1878 d. Uucnos Aires, Muy 5, IVSV), won the I9J6 Nubcl pence prize for his part in ending the Chaco war which simmered between Paraguay and Bolivia from 19J8 to 1935. He was chairman of the conference that arranged
Me was Argentine's 12, 19J5. minister of foreign affairs (19J2-J8), president of the League of Nations assembly (1930), and was a delegate to a number of international conferences. See also his biography in Encyclopitdia Britannka. a truce between the two nations on June
Sochi, Curf, U.S. musicologist (b. Berlin, Ger., June 29, 1881— d. New York, N.Y., 1-cb. 5, 1959). Samlnsky, Lozare, U.S. composer (b. Odessa, Russia, Oct. 27, 1882— d. Port Chester, N.Y., June JO, 1959). Samuels, Bernard, U.S. physician (b. Front Royal, Va., June 29, 1879— d. Wiscossctt, Me., July 26, 1959). Samuels, Mitchell, U.S. art dealer (b. Mitchell, S.D., 1880?-d. New York, N.Y., Nov. 28, 1959).
Sopiro, Aaron, U.S. attorney (b. San Francisco, Calif., Feb. S, 1884— d. Los Angeles, Calif., Nov. 23, 1959), was generally considered the foremost U.S. authority on legal aspects of farm and other types of marketing cooperatives, lie also specialized in labour law. In 1927 Sapiro sued Henry Ford lor $1,000,000. charging that Ford's weekly, The Dearborn Independent, bad libeled the Jewish religion in articles dealing with co-opcrativcs. The suit was settled out of court. Following charges of attempted jury bribing (of which he was acquitted) Sapiro was disbarred from practice in federal and state courts of New York.
Palo Alto, Calif., July II, 1959), was an international authority on (rahwater and marine algae. A graduate of Bcloit (Wis.) college, he taufht botany at the University of Wisconsin from 19t/> to 1925 and was profcftiar of botany and biology at Stanford university from 1925 until his retirement in I95U. Smith was the author of Freihwaler Algae oj Ike United SlttUt (1933) and other works, and was co-author of a general textbook on botany. He was an editorial consultant on botany for Encyclopadia Britiinnica. Smith, Henry Gerrith, U.S. shipbuilder d. Bronxville, N.Y., June 2, 1959).
(b.
Warrensville, O., April 9,
1870—
Smith, Sir Matthew (Arnold Bracy), English painter (b. Halifax, Yorkshire, Eng., Oct. II, 1879 -d. London, Eng., Sept. 29, 1959), was a great colouriit with an international reputation. He was educated at Giggleswick, Yorkshire, eventually studying at the Manchester School of Art and the Slade school. In his late twenties he went to France, working for a time in Henri Matisse's school in Paris, where he became acquainted with Fauvist art. There he acquired his love of brilliant colour and began contributing to the London Group exhibitions. He continued to paint in the Fauvist spirit during his army service in World War I and in the immediate postwar years, producing some fine landscapes. .After 1920 he retained a London studio, but worked mostly in France, painting nudes and landscapes in richly splendid colour schemes dominated by brilliant crimsons and grecni, oranges and peacock blues. His one man exhibition in the Mayor gallety, London, in 1920 was a major success and was followed at regular intervalt by others. In 1938, 23 of his paintings were shown at the Venice Bieonalc and 26 more in 1950. He was created a C.B.E. in 1949 and was knighted in 1954.
Sartoriui, Irving A., U.S. banker (b. New York, N.Y., July 21, 1893— d. New York. N.Y., July 9, 1959). Sasorith, Kotay D., Laotian political leader (b. Ban Mouang, Cbampassak, Laos, July 12, 19U4-d. Vientiane, Laos, Dec. 29, 1959). Scheidenhelm, Frederick William, U.S. hydraulic engineer (b. Mendota, 111., June 10. 1884-d. East Stroudsburg, Pa., Oct. 17, 1959). Schenck, Edgar Craig, U.S. museum director (b. Hot Springs, N.C., Dec. 6, 19U9-d. Istanbul, Turk., Nov. 16, 1959). Schindler, Raymond C, U.S. investigator (b. Oswego, N.V., 1883?— d. North Tarrytown, N.V., July 1, 1959). Schocken, Salman, U.S. publisher (b. Margonin, Pol., Oct. 30, 1877— d. Pontresina, Switz., Aug. 0, 1959). Schoti, Alfred, U.S. educator (b. Vienna, Aus., April 13, 1899— d. New York, N.V., May 20, 1959). Selwyn, Edward Gordon, British chprchman (b. Liverpool, Eng., July 6, 1885 -d. Shawford, Eng., June 11, 1959). Shaver, Dorothy, U.S. department store executive (b. Howard Co., Ark., July 29, 1897— d. Hudson, N.Y., June 28, 1959). Shneur, Zalmon, Hebrew-Yiddish poet and author (b. Shklov, Russia, Feb. 11, 1S87— d. New York, N.Y„ Feb. 20, 1959).
Siegfried, AndrS, French political writer, geographer and economist (b. Le Havre, France, April 21, 1875— d. Paris, March 29, 1959), well-known interpreter of modern French, British and .\merican history, was the son of Jules Siegfried, a prominent Protestant Republican of Alsatian origin. Having completed his studies at the Sorbonne university, he traveled around the world in 1900-02. In 1911 he was appointed professor of economic geography at the £cole Libre des Sciences Politiques. In 1920 he became director of the economic section of the League of Nations department at the Quai d'Orsay and attended many international conferences. He left the Ministr>- of Foreign .\ffairs in 1922, continuing to teach, to tra\el and to write. By then he had already published six books of which Le Canada, Us deux races (1906) was a success. , In 1924 appeared UAngUterre d'aujourd'hui and three >'ears later Les Etats-Unis d'aujourd'hui both promptly translated in English, both models of comprehensive and unbiased analj'sis. His Tableau des partis en France (1930) was a penetrating if somewhat optimistic exposition of French politics. In La Crise britannigue au XX' siccle (1931), Le Canada, puissance internationale (1947) and America at Mid-Century (1955) Siegfried continued his study of the Englishspeaking world. In all he wrote some 30 books, Suez, Panama et les routes maritimcs mondiales (1940) and La Suisse, democratic temoin (1948) being worthy of mention. In 1932 he was elected a member of the Academic des Sciences Morales et Politiques and in Oct. 1944 of the Academic Franjaise. During World War II he restricted his public activities and did not wish to be associated with the Vichy government, .\fter the war he joined the board of Figaro to which he contributed until his death.
—
Simkhovitch, Vladimir
Gregorievitch, U.S. York, N.V., Dec. 9, 1959).
1874— d. New
educator
(b.
Russia Oct.
—
Sumner Huber, U.S. economist (b. Madison, Wis., Jan. 8, 1892 Boston, Mass., Sept. 27, 1959), was noted for his unorthodox economics
Slichter, d.
14,
— sometimes described as "liberal," sometimes "conservative."
He attracted
most attention
in his later years with his theory that creeping inflation is the "inescapable cost of the maximum rate of (economic) growth." He opposed farm subsidies but favoured deficit spending. He advocated tax reduction as a stimulus to increased consumer spending. Slichter was educated at the University of Wisconsin and the University of Chicago, and taught at Princeton and Cornell before joining the faculty of Harvard in 1930. He was Lamont University professor at Harvard from 1940 until his death.
Smith, Gilbert
Morgan, US, botanist
(b.
Bcloit.
Wis..
Jan.
6,
1885— d.
Smith, Sidney Earle, Canadian educator and government official (b. Pott Hood, N.S., March 9, 1897— d. Ottawa, Ont., March 17, 1959), was Canadian secretary of state for external affairs (foreign minister) from Dec. 1957 until his death, in the government of Prime Minister John G. Diefenbaker. Prior to this appointment Smith had a distinguished career in educatloa, as dean of the Dalhousie law school (1929-34), president of the University of Manitoba (1934-44), principal of the University College in Toronto (1944-45) and president of the University of Toronto (1945-57).
Sophion, Lawrence Henry, U.S. pathologist (b. New York, N.Y., June 26, 1903— d. .New York, .N.V.. July 8, 1959). Souter, Sir Edward (Motheson), British industrialist (b. Jan. 26, 1891—d. London, Eng., June 17, 1959). Speer, Robert K., U.S. educator (b. Peterboro, Ont., Aug. 11, 1898—d. Fresh Meadows, L.I., N.Y., Aug. 9, 1959).
j
i
|
I
|
I
Sir Stanley, English artist (b. Cookham, Berkshire, Eng., June 10^ I 1891— d. Taplosv, Buckinghamshire, Eng., Dec. 14, 1959), was, above al^ a distinguished painter of religious subjects. He was educated at the village I school and at Maidenhead Technical institute and then studied at the Slade School of .-Vrt. His bent for religious pictures, in which biblical characters were dressed in contemporary clothes, soon became evident as in "The Visitation" (1913). His great "Christ Bearing the Cross" appeared in 1920, but he did not become known to the general public until he painted his first "Resurrection" (1927), representing the dead rising from their, tombs. His major work, and indeed one of the greatest British works of the 20th century, was the decoration of the oratory of .\ll Souls, Burghclere, Hampshire. Those paintings, "Resurrection of the Soldiers" over the altar and scenes of army life on the side walls, were completed in 1932. Spencer's work also included closely observed and highly finished landscapes and humorous comments on the absurdity of human behaviour. In 1950 he completed his second "Resurrection," and a retrospective exhibition of his work was held in 1955 at the Tate gallery, .\lthough his paintings had never found universal favour, there was nevertheless general recognition of his power in representation. He painted with a Pre-Raphaelite attention to detail, but the distortion of his figures contributed to the sense of pressure, urgency and rh>thm of his larger compositions. His great achievement was to express timeless religious ideas through 20th-centur>', and usuall\' parochial, symbols, with a strong autobiographical element. In 1959, after a lifetime of controversy, he was awarded a knighthood.
Spencer,
—
Sphears, Wellington B., Canadian sea captain (b. Gloucester, Mass., .April 7 1849— d. Windsor, Ont., May 27. 1959). Sprengiing, Martin, U.S. educator (b. Centre, Wis., Oct. 9, 1877- d. Phila delphia, Pa., Sept. 5, 1959). Springs, Elliott White, U.S. textile manufacturer and author (b. Lancaster S.C, July 31, 1896- d. New York, N.Y., Oct. 15, 1959). Sprinzak, Joseph, Israeli government official (b. Moscow, Russia, Feb. 24 1885— d. Jerusalem, Israel, Jan. 28, 1959). Stadie, William Christopher, U.S. scientist (b. New York, N.Y., June 15 1886— d. Middletown, X.Y., Sept. 11, 1959). Stearns, Albert Warren, U.S. psychiatrist and educator (b. Billerica, Mass. Jan. 26. 1885— d. Billerica, Sept. li, 1959). Steele, Alfred N., U.S. businessman (b. Nashville, Tenn., April 24, 1901— New York. X.V., .\pril 19, 1959). Stenning, John Frederick, British Aramaic scholar and educator (b. Becken ham, Eng., Feb. 14, 1868— d. London, Eng., Nov. 18, 1959).
D. Leahy, U.S. naval officer; Douglas McKay U.S. government official; Victor McLaglen, Brilish-U.S. motion-picture actor Daniel Malan, South African statesman; George C. Marshall. U.S. soldier an.
1959 OBITUARIES: William
statesman
—
OBITUARIES Sterling, Richard, U.S. actor (b. New York, N.Y., Aug. 30, 1880— d. Douglaston. X.Y., .April 15, 1959). Stetson, Eugene William, U.S. banker (b. Hawkinsville, Ga., Dec. 5, 1881 d. Xew York, X.Y., July 20. 1959). Haven, Conn., Stetson, George A., IS. editor (b. 6, 1889— d. Stamford, Conn., June 20, 1959).
—
New
May
Stevens, Patricia, U.S. model-school operator (b. Clear Lake, S.D., April 12, 1914 d. Chicago, III., June 25, 1959), was a model in New York city from 1932 to 1940 before founding her own agency in Chicago to train young women for careers in photographic and other types of modeling. .At the time of her death her agency had a chain of training schools in more than 40 U.S. and Canadian cities.
—
Stevens,
Wayne
Edson, U.S. educator
Hanover, N.H., July N.Y., July
3,
(b.
.Avon,
lU.,
July 24,
20, 1959).
Abraham, U.S. physician
Stone,
(b.
Russia, Oct. 31, 1890
— d.
1892— d.
New
Y^ork,
1959),
Stone, Fred (Andrew), U.S. actor (b. Valmont, Colo., .Aug. 19. 1873— d. Hollywood, Caiif., March 6, 1959), was perhaps the most popular comedian in the United States during the first quarter of the century. He first came to public notices as the co-star of the vaudeville team of (David) Montgomer>- and Stone. .As the scarecrow in The Wizard oj Oz in 1903, Stone became a national show idol; he furthered his reputation with a number of successive hits that included The Red Mill (1906), Chin-Chin (1914). Jack o'Lantern (1917; his first solo starring role), and Stepping Stones (1923). Stone also played in a number of motion pictures, but mostly in minor parts.
Stoughton, Bradley, U.S. metallurgical engineer (b. New Y'ork, N.Y., Dec. 6, 1873— d. Bethlehem, Pa., Dec. 30, 1959). Strassburger, Ralph Beaver, U.S. publisher (b. Norristown, Pa., March 26, 1883— d. Paris, France. Feb. 26, 1959). Straus, Noel, U.S. music critic (b. Chicago, lU., Dec. 25, 1880— d. New York, N.Y., Nov. 6. 1959). Strecker, Edward Adam, U.S. psychiatrist (b. Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 16, 1886 d. Philadelphia. Jan. 2, 1959). Stroebe, Lillian L., U.S. educator (b. Illenau, Ger., Jan. 29, 1875— d. Charlotte, N.C., April 6, 1959). Stroud, William Daniel, U.S. phvsician (b. Villa Nova, Pa., Nov. 20, 1891— d.
—
Bryn Mawr,
Pa.,
Aug.
19, 1959).
Stuber, William G., U.S. businessman Rochester, N.Y., June 17, 1959).
(b. Louisville,
Ky., April
9,
1864— d.
Sturges, Preston (Edmcxd Preston" Biden"), U.S. playwright and motionpicture director and producer (b. Chicago, 111., .Aug. 29, 1898 d. New York, N.Y., .Aug. 6, 1959), won the 1940 motion-picture .Academy award for original screen writing with his The Great McGinty, which he also directed. Sturgis began writing stage pla\'s in 1928: the best known was Strictly Dishonorable (1929). His screen plavs included The Po-^:er and the Glor\ (1932), The Green Hat (1933), Diamond Jim (1935) and The Miracle oj Morgan's Creek (1943; also directed by him).
—
Don Luigi, Italian political figure (b. Caltagirone, Sicily, Nov. 26, 1871— d. Rome. Italy, Aug. 8, 1959). was the principal founder in 1919 of the Partito Popolare Italiano from which the modern Partito Democratico Cristiano derives. He was ordained priest on May 19, 1894, at Catania, obtained in 1898 a degree in divinit}" at the Gregorian university* in Rome and from 1899 to 1903 was professor at the Caltagirone seminary. In 1899 he was elected town councilor of his native city, of which he was later mayor for 15 years. He became the leader of the Christian Democratic movement, then politically limited to municipal and provincial contests. When after World War I the papal boycott of United Italy had been lilted. Sturzo formed the Popular party on a national basis. .As a priest, he was kept out of parliament, but as the party's political secretary he i;. ed an important part behind the scenes. When Benito Mussolini staged :oup d'etat on Oct. 30, 1922, Sturzo wanted the part3' to oppose Fascism, .' two popolari joined the first Mussolini cabinet. Under Fascist attacks : some pressure from the \'atican, Sturzo resigned in 1923 from his party .:e. Ordered by Pope Pius XI to leave politics, he left Italy in Oct. 1924. :L-r a long exile in Paris, London and Xew York, he returned to Italy 1946. In Sept. 1952 he was nominated a senator for life. He published LMV books, some of them translated into English: Italy and Fascismo ndon, 1926), Spiritual Problems of Our Times (Xew York, 1945) and ::ionalism and Internationalism (X'ew York, 1946). See also his biography in Encyclopedia Brilanni",^ r919 to 1929 and from 1931 -'-\TtUh "1 a !uto diabeus°rn which hypoglycemia, a 'i'^,^^^^^^.""'"" first to describe „ yood He was the clinic
^e
Ssiir"an^il^Llm Ma°ie A^ani.' He began writio reputation on a more than 2W ^"^'^.'""^f^' Dorothy Court, producing popular baUads for his ^e, t:'°\?'°^. „. p:'dy " "Bird of Love Divine
f
r^-rs:^l:^^ftLs^^^^s!^^|cce^^ -::^^t:^=I^.'^^o:^-bbetttrlh J^tring .uarte Wright. Prank L.yd,
^^^^f ^^f^'^'^^^tliS^^t^f
w. h the^n^tural backg^ Spon blending ^^is^.^ings ^^^ tojunction or pur,.se.^ .
seconda^ S^oo- tlLttsi^n mu^tbe by \\ rghtsotneo> hundreds bf buildings designed Chicago U9 10), the imperia the Robie house in witn.
Jokyo o (1916-22, the only large building '" '^^'^ °e, Johnson Wax building,
of 1923); the
m9);
aid the Edgar
Kaufmann,
J^-,
m
u is.
m
Kaufminn
.Wn.
tl
^ ^
ivj
^arthqual additions
, 1
,
a grea
adnlirer
I
^^i^^i^;^';^;^.^^Sa92!);;::.'^^Licaite.tbookon that disease.
r
OCEANOGRAPHY epochal figures who survive an era, Wright at the end of his career was producing works of dr>' purity and concision. In grandeur they resembled Wright's favorite music, the last quartets of Beethoven." See also Wright's biography in Eruyclopczdia Briiannica.
Wright, William Hammond, U.S. astronomer
1871— d. San
Jose, Calif.,
May
(b.
San Frandsco,
Calif.,
Nov.
4,
16, 1959).
Wylie, Ido Alexo Ross, British-U.S. novelist
(b.
Melbo
517
place from i960 to 1964. Twelve research vessels from Australia,
president of the congress, Roger Revelle, of the
received wide attention in the U.S. and abroad through the pub-
"Oceanography 1960-1970," by of Sciences-National Research Council Committee on Oceanography. The committee's conclusion was that a ten-year program should be initiated at a cost of lication of a series of reports,
the
third
National
Academy
$650,000,000, a tripling of the existing annual budget in the U.S. In the lo-year period $8,000,000 would go on education and manpower, $276,000,000 for 70 new research vessels, $146,000,000 on shore facilities, $100,000,000 on new devices, $32,000,000 on radioactivity studies, including its influence on marine life, and $87,000,000 for applied studies to utilize the ocean's
As a
resources.
result of the report's publication, the U.S. con-
gress held extensive hearings resulting in the presenting of a
congress recommending that the ten-year program be
to
bill
adopted.
The U.S.S.R. fleet of new oceanographic vessels was enlarged by the addition of two ships used principally to study the interchange between the ocean and the atmosphere. The U.S. National fleet
Science foundation started the renovation of the U.S.
by the awarding of a grant
to the
Woods Hole Oceano-
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, pointed out in his open-
graphic institution for the design and building of a 175-ft. deep-
oceanography had passed from the state of exploration into one of making deliberate attempts to answer
sea research vessel. This
ing statement that
properly
formulated
questions
and
test
carefully
conceived
hypotheses.
How
first
U.S. deep-sea research
vessel designed for the purpose since the "R. V. Atlantis" built in
1
93
1.
All other U.S. ships
were conversions from
was tugs,
yachts or ex-naval vessels. Japan and France also enlarged their
to divide the potential vast resources of the
oceans on
an equitable basis was the theme of C. O'D. Iselin's remarks to the closing of the congress.
He
applications in the near future.
The economic,
and po-
social
litical
problems raised by such developments would be a chal-
lenge
to
international law.
Ground
rules
should be
made to man-
develop the vast marine resources in an efiicient and safe
mankind.
during the congress: a multination sur\-ey of the Indian ocean,
through the earth's crust and
an international survey of radioactive' contamination of the sea.
The Indian ocean survey,
The sudden
as planned
by S.C.O.R. was
to take
increase in international effort so well engendered
during the International Geophysical year 1957-58 continued through the International Geophysical co-operation. The (Brit-
National Institute of Oceanography and the Woods Hole Oceanographic institution started a joint two-year study of subsurface ocean currents (first discovered during the IGY) using ish)
Bermuda
Three programs of international importance were announced the projected drilling of a hole
oceanographic programs, while in Great Britain interest was stimulated to obtain recognition and support.
suggested that existing knowl-
edge of the ocean was sufficient to expect considerable practical
ner for the benefit of all
would be the
as a
home
base. In addition to the fruitful exchanges
International
Oceanographic congress and the manynation Indian ocean survey discussions, a multiship Arctic Polar at
the
Front survey was carried out by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea. A similar program was to be carried out in i960 in the Faroe-Iceland area by nine ships of eight
OCHOA — OHIO
518 northern European countries and Canada.
A book, published in 1959, described the knowledge of the Gulf stream acquired during the last 15 years, and the existing theories concerning the current, A new theory was also advanced and the problems and methods of physical oceanography were described.
See also Antarctica; Arctic; Coast and Geodetic Survey, Geography; International Geophysical Co-opera-
U.S.;
—
1959; Marine Biology. Bibliography. D. Wolflc, "The Occanographic Congress," Science. vol. 130, 3378:761, also in United Nations Review, vol. 6, 4:28-32; M. Sears (ed.). Int. Oceanogr., Preprints Am. Assoc. Adv. Set.; C. O'D. Iselin, "Use of the Ocean," Science, vol. 130, 3380:895; G. LIU and W. Bascom, "A BorcHole to the Earth's Mantle," Nature, vol. 184, 4681: 140-144; Anon., "Radio-Aclive Waste Disposal From Nuclear-Powered Ships," N.A.S.-N.R.C, Publ. no. 658; Anon., "Oceanography 1960-1970," N.A.S.-N.R.C, Comm. on Oceanogr.; A bill to advance marine sciences, etc., S. 2692, 86th congress, ist session; G. E. R. Deacon, "Ocean Research," The New Scientist, Aug. 13, 1959, and following issues; Anon., "Ocean Research," The New Scientist, p. 499 (March 5, 1959); Anon., "Int. Geoph. Coop. 1959," U.S. IGY Bull. 28:1-7; H. Stommcl, The (C. O'D. I.) Cull Stream (1958). ENCVCLOP.CDIA Britannica Films. Ocean Tides (Bay of Fundy)
tion
—
—
1959
(1956).
(1905-
Ochoa, Severn
),
U.S. biochemist
who
received
Nobel prize for medicine and physiology with Arthur Romberg, was born at Luarca, Spain, on Sept. 24, and was educated at the University of Madrid where the
1959
he received a medical degree
in 1929.
He commenced
as a teacher of physiology at the University of
his career
Madrid and
after
spending several years teaching at Heidelberg and at Oxford university, he settled
permanently
in the U.S. in 1940.
Following a
year on the medical faculty of Washington university,
Mo., Ochoa joined the
York ment
staff of the college of
Louis,
St.
medicine of
New
university where in 1959 he was chairman of the depart-
He
of biochemistry.
shared the prize of more than $42,000
with his former student for their chemical work on heredity. In
announcing the award, the Caroline institute of Stockholm cited Ochoa and Romberg for their "discoveries of the mechanism in the biological synthesis in ribonucleic acids cleic
acids."
and deoxyribonu-
Working separately from Romberg, Ochoa
covered an enzyme that produces ribonucleic acid is
believed by biochemists that
tion of protein of
RNA
CLEVELAND BANK EMPLOYEES LEAPING FROM WINDOWS to eic«B« burglar trapped inside. Eventually overcome by tear-gas pellets fired into the bank by police, the burglar shot himself. The attempted robbery occurred Sept. 23,
which
all
RNA
(DNA)
that are believed to control heredity.
and Romberg was considered a understanding of the
life
It
essential to the produc-
is
living tissue
and deoxyribonucleic acid
dis-
(RNA).
is
primarily composed.
are the chemical agents
The achievement
of
Ochoa
significant contribution to the
process.
Office of Education, U.S.: see Education.
A north central state of the United States, popularly UIIIU. known as the "Buckeye state," Ohio became a state of ni.'
the union in 1803, but because there was
some question about the
legality of the action, the U.S. congress in 1953 jestingly
went
through the motions of formally admitting the state to the union. Area: 41,222 sq.mi., including 222 sq.mi. of water. Pop. (1950 census): 7,946,627, including 5,578,274 urban and 2,368.353 rural; 6,566,531 white
lation July
I,
and 1,380,096 nonwhite. Estimated popu-
concentrated on financial problems as the state faced deficit since
The
before World
War
first
its
II.
general assembly approved a two-year budget of $1,848.-
387,410.
When
the fiscal year began on July
than $13,000,000 deficient. deficit
was $3,152,000 and
By
the state was
i
more
the end of July, however, the
at the
end of August, Ohio had a
cash balance of $6,239,000.
Largely responsible for the financial improvement was the
new
The
tax program.
general assembly
sales tax structure to bring in
tax
from
3 to 5 cents a
made changes
more revenue,
the
in
raised the cigarette
pack and increased the gasoline tax
2
cents a gallon.
Major work
of the general assembly, which adjourned Aug.
14.
included passage of laws: establishing a state-wide fair employ-
ment practices commission; lifting ceilings on aid-for-the-aged payments; requiring licensing of physical therapists and chiropodists;
ing
legalizing
supplementary unemployment benefits;
maximum weekly unemployment
benefits
from $39
rais-
to $53;
legalizing fair-trade contracts; raising salaries of judges, county
and members of boards of election; making Columbus and adopting as the motto of the state "With God All Things Are Possible." In the November election, voters approved two constitutional amendments which provided legislative authority to allow more judges in appellate court districts and lifted limitations on the sale of water and sewer services outside a city's corporate limits. Shortly before the election the Ohio supreme court ruled off the ballot a third proposed amendment which would have permitted cities of 50.000 or more population to form metropolitan fedofficials
day
a state holiday
erations for essential area-wide services.
Other state
officers serving in
1959 were: lieutenant governor,
John W. Donahey (Dem.) of Alliance; secretary of state, Ted W. Brown (Rep.) of Columbus; treasurer, Joseph T. Ferguson (Dem.) of Columbus; attorney general, Mark McElroy (Dem.^ of Cleveland.
Floods in Jan. and Feb. caused damage in excess of $100,000.-
1959, 9,700.000.
1950 population figures, with Jan. I, 1959, estimates by the Ohio department of health shown in parentheses, are: Cleveland, 914,808 (926,808); Cincinnati,
000 and took 15 lives. Communities that suffered included: Fremont, Mount .Vernon, Mansfield. Newark, Warren, Dayton
503,998 (S7S.523); Columbus (cap.), 375,901 (479,431); Toledo, 303,616 (343,741); Akron, 274,605 (308,014); Dayton,
and Willoughby
The
principal cities
and
their
243,872 (300,704); Youngstown, 163,330 (185,875); and Canton, 116,912 (124,116).
History.— Michael V, DiSalle (Dem.) of Toledo took
office
after inauguration ceremonies Jan. 12 as Ohio's 6oth governor
and the
fiirst
to face a four-year term.
His
first
efforts
were
Delaware. Columbus, Vermilion,
Circleville,
Van Wert. Bucyru:
Hills.
—
Education. In 1959 the state had 2,995 public elementary schools wi'.: a total enrollment of 1.205.437 and a total teaching staff of 39.954: i.i; secondary schools with an enrollment of 588.335 and a teaching staff 26.359. Combined public, private and parochial kindergarten data: 2.2c classes. 136.000 enrollment. 2.240 teachers. State exp'-nditure? on educatiofor 195S-5Q were estimated at $165,000,000. Edward E. Holt of Springfiel< was state superintendent of public instruction. Th Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. average number of recipients of general relief per month in the fiscal yea
—
— —
OIL
— OKLAHOMA
ended June 30, 1959, was 46,235 and the total relief extended was $50,406,918. The average number per month recei\'ing aid for the aged was 89,273 and they received $67,808,768: aid to dependent children, 23,248 who received a total of $29,709,221; aid to the blind, 3,714 who received a total of $2,880,990; aid for the disabled, 10,087 who received a total of $8,047,958. ISenefits paid by the Ohio bureau of unemployment compensation in the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959, totaled $197,371,101 in compensation for 6,315,624 weeks of unemployment. Included in these figures were 1,741,519 weeks compensated for under the Ohio temporary extended unemployment compensation act which expired on Dec. 26, 1959. Ohio's correctional institutions had an average daily population of 11,386 for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959. The industrial training schools had an average daily population of i.oSo and the juvenile diagnostic centre an average daily population of 104. Hospitals for the mentally ill had an average daily population of 28,317 and state schools for the retarded, 7,878. Total operating expenditures for the fiscal year for correction and training institutions were $14,491,433; for mental hygiene institutions, $52,159,029. Communications. Ohio had 83,322 mi. of highways in 1959 outside of municipalities. Of this total, 15,745 mi. were classified as rural state, 29,244 mi. as county and 38,322 as township. Total state expenditures on the state highway system in the fiscal year ended June 30, 1959, were $339,376.701. There were 8,427 mi. of railroads in the state. In 1959 Ohio had 91 licensed airports, 94 licensed landing fields and 242 private-use airstrips. Banking and Finance. There were 375 state banks and 296 branches in Ohio with deposits (June 10, 1959) of $4,952,740,543 and resources of $5,665,870,386. There were 225 active national banks in the state with deposits (June 10, 1959) of $5,381,385,000 and resources of $5,980,838,-
—
—
000. State-chartered savings and loan associations
Table
numbered 444 with
Principal Industries of
I.
Ohio
Industry
employ
Group
(in
1957
Food ond kindred products. Tobocco monufactures
.
.
.
Apparel and related products lumber and wood products Furniture and flutures Pulp, paper ond products Printing and publishing Chemicals and products Rubber products leather and leather goods Stone, cloy and gloss products .
.
.
.
.
.... .
.
machinery Transportotion equipment Electrical
Instruments
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
....
and related products
Miscellaneous manufactures
.
Source: U.S. Deportment of
Table
II.
.
.
.
Wheat, bo
Maple
sirup, gal
Gropes, tons Pototoes, cwt
38,129 58,465 49,109 74,670 12,484 66,715 191,225 135,133 230,763 92,267 174,554 10,125 35,840
....
11,130 78,736 114,248 61,488 187,311 356,537 540,802 693,853
637,069 66,723 586,109
1,077,142
2,134,844 1,132,705 2,181,770 847,302 1,568,327 73,779 279,138
686,946 1,265,739
259,264,000 32,640,000 50,646,000 2.139.000 432,000 3,511,000 37,710,000 21,120,000 352,000 118,000 2,750,000 780,000 60,000 16,000 3,337,000
•1949-57 overage. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
1956
741,428
403,307 45,307 306,587
Indicated 1959
Oats, bu
Apples, bu Peaches, bu Pears, bu
23,201
$
446,473 998,429 47,165 161.722
Leading Agricultural Products of Ohii
Crop
Soybeons, bu. (for beans) Tobacco, lb Sugar beets, short tons
23,630 9,537
lulocturo OOOsI
1957
1957
Commerce, Annuo/ Survey of Monufoctures,
Corn, bu
(orley, bu Rye, bu Hay, tons
bymc
o:osi
380,701 4,734 45,086 76,000 34,460 103,585 191,230 310,726 255,135
$
1,664 10,662
Textile mill products
Primary metal industries Fobricoted metol products Mochinery (except electrical)
85,405
added
Volu
Salaries
and wage!
All
total
1
721,745 1
1,090
76,386 122,965 59,465 191,568 353,440 539,266 698,546 614,260 66,646 593,727 2,179,663 1,125,116 2,116,011
833,735 1,541,151 1
68,148 296,500 957,
519
——
a
OLD-AGE INSURANCE — OLYMPIC GAMES Table
Frincipat
I.
Wh.ol, bu
groin, bu
Hor.
loni
all.
I9'.,«
84,051,000 8,413,000 10,990,000 19.484.000 1.888.000 123,900.000 17,500.000 9,900 385,000 274,000 120,000
Corn, bu Ooli, bu
Sorghum
Cropi of Oklahoma
Indlrolad I'iV
C>op
P.onul., lb P.con., fb
Broomcorn, loni Collon, bolM Potoloei, cwl Pololoai, iwe.t, cwl
•1949-57 overoge. Sourco U.S. Oeporlment of
Table
Principal lndu$lriet of
omployooi 1957
Food and kindred products Priming and publiihing Petroleum ond cool product! Stone, cloy ond gloii producll
Tron!porlolion equipment Source: U.S. Deportment of
74-9- 5
"OKLAHOMA SUNSET
I
cartoon of
1959 by
Seibel of
The Richmond
(Va.)
Times-Dispatch which number 609 were home bound. A high percentage of the estimated 35.000 Negro children in public schools attended mixed classes in 1958-59, as Oklahoma public schools continued their fifth year under gradual integration. State institutions of higher learning included the University of Oklahoma (Norman); Oklahoma State university (Stillwater), with its technical school for vocational training at Okmulgee; Oklahoma College for rolled, of
Women
(Chickasha); Panhandle .'Vgricultural and Mechanical college (Goodwell); Langston university (Langston); Oklahoma Medical school (Oklahoma City); and 6 colleges for teacher training (.\da. .Mva, Durant, Edmond, Tahlequah, Weatherford), all state-owned senior colleges. There were 16 junior colleges, of which 7 were state-owned (including Oklahoma Military academy, Claremore), 3 independent with church affiliations and 6 municipal. There were also 6 independent senior colleges with church affiliations.
—
Sociol Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. On Aug. 31, 1959, the Oklahoma department of public welfare reported 91.483 old-age assistance cases receiving an average of $65.64 per case (a total of $6,004,934); 17,413 dependent children cases (representing 63.629 persons), each case receiving $109.87 (a total of $1,913,174); 1,890 blind cases receiving an average of $83.20 per case (a total of $157,251); 9,002 cases of disabled, each case receiving an average ofS74.8o (a total of $673,373). .\lso in .\ugust there were 2.928 cases of old age. dependent children, blind and disabled that received medical assistance, the payments totaling $532,609.32. There were 9,758 old age, blind and disabled cases that received nursing home service and nursing service at home in the same month, amounting to a total of $564,519.94. State-supported institutions included two tuberculosis sanatoria, one general hospital, four mental hospitals, two schools for deaf and blind, one reformatory and one penitentiary. Communications. The summary of disbursements by the state highway commission for construction and maintenance from Jan. i to Sept. i, 1959, was $53,301,329.88. The highway commission was responsible for 11,556 mi. of highway system in the state as of Jan. i, 1959; the total public open roads in Oklahoma was approximately 95.033 mi. Railroad and electric transit mileage approximated 6,000 mi., not including sidings. There were 16 cities served by major airlines in Oklahoma. Banking and Finonce. The state budget office reported state expenditures of $446,491,393.63 for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, this amount including $1,801,823.33 in payments on the state bonded debt. State receipts for the year ending June 30, i959, were $457,179,019.63. The 27th state legislature appropriated $292,683,935.82 for the biennium July I, 1959, to June 30. 1961. The Oklahoma state banking board reported 1S9 state banks with total deposits of $503,073,781.75 as of June 30, 1959. The Oklahoma Bankers' association reported 197 national banks in the state with total resources of $2,102,054,000 and total deposits of $1,849,946,000 as of Oct. 19, 1959. The 30 building and loan associations chartered by the state reported total assets of $168,765,839.40 as of June 3c. 1959. Agriculture. The State soil conservation board reported 87 soil conservation districts, its latest report in 1958 giving a total of 86.745 farmers operating 29,382,566 ac. on 143,308 farms under the conservation plan. Late fall and winter pasture was greatly improved by heavy rains in late September and early October. Wet fields delayed wheat seeding, and where already sown, some reseeding was necessary. Marketings of cattle and calves at the Oklahoma City stockyards from Jan. i through
—
—
—
1
Agriculture,
II.
Primory melol induOriei Fobricoled melol product! Mochinery, except eleclricol Eleclricol mochlnery
113,440,000 9,000,000 2J.J94,000 18.440.000 2,038,000 133.300,000 15.300,000 2,000 313,000 281,000 118,000
,
.
.
,
.
,
.
,
.
.
,
15,454 4,055 7,022 5,813 3,654 7,515 11,303 1,924
11,993 Commerce, Annuof
St
Oklahoma
1948-57
44,923,000 1 2,944,000 11,259,000 10,778.000 1.744.000 97.751.000 1 8,420.000 11,400 347,000 302.000* 133,000'
OMAN AND MUSCAT — OREGON May, expelled Nationalist China from the Olympic movement on the grounds that it "no longer represents sports in the entire countr>' of China." Tokyo was awarded the 1964 summer 01>Tnpics, with the winter games going to Innsbruck, Aus. Rome, host to the XVII Olympiad summer games of i960, faced Ger.,
in
a problem in providing housing for the
many
visitors expected
for the gathering Aug. 25-Sept. 11. Italian officials effort to solve the
made every
poser by providing housing through the co-
operation of private citizens and property owners.
The main
GljTnpic stadium, which, with standees, holds 100,000 persons,
and other stadiums for various sports were completed early in (T- V. H.) 1959-
Oman and Muscat (Masqat):
Muscat and Oman.
Second largest and continuing as the fastest growwas an original
flntorin UlllullU.
member
see
jug province of Canada, Ontario
of the confederation in 1867. Area: 412.582 sq.mi. Pop.:
(1956 census) 5,404,933, (1959 est.) 5.952,000. Capital: Toronto (g.v.) (1956) 667,706; metropolitan Toronto (1956) 1,358.028. Leslie
M.
Frost (g.v.) continued as premier of Ontario in 1959.
History.
—Population, economic and budgetary expansion
ac-
celerated during late 1958 and continued in 1959. as the economic
moved northward from the Great Lakes into where new mining, oil production and explora-
"centre of gravity"
northern regions,
tion activities reached to the Arctic circle
and beyond. Active
plans for Arctic ocean subsea explorations, in collaboration with
dominion government, were nearing completion, with larger New town-
the
521
700,000 to a new-high total of $126,300,000. An additional $434,000 went to the Ontario .Mcoholism Research foundation. Estimates for 1959-60, $130,401,000, included polio treatments and other child care costs, family relief and unemployment benefits. The premier announced on October 14 that a new $3,000,000 psychiatric hospital would be built in Toronto. Transportation and Communication. Capital allocated for highway construction C1959-60) was $187,007,000, (1958-59) $169,435,000. It was envisioned that a record $321,800,000 would be spent by province and municipalities combined. On a unit basis, highway construction costs had fallen 20% in two years. Motor vehicle registrations (1959-60). i,Soo.ooo. Banking and Finance. In his Feb. 25, 1959, budget. Provincial Treasurer J. N. .\llan reported a nominal surplus but forecast a higher one for 195960 without any increase in taxation, owing to economic e.xpansion and population growth. Net capital debt rose by S129.800.ooo, to $948,000,000; and for 1959-60 it was estimated at more than $1,000,000,000. Agriculture. Cash income of farmers was estimated in 1959-60 at more than $850,000,000, (1958-59) $791,000,000. Production of oats, barley, wheat and mixed grains made all-time records. Gross value of production (1958-59) was $1,191,089,000, (1957-58) $1,092,574,000. Livestock production at $339,675,000 topped all other categories: field crops amounted to $314,009,000: dairy products, $190,000,000; poultry and eggs, $163,200,000: and fruits and vegetables, $73,685,000. Tobacco also was a record crop for the province. Manufacturing. Gross product for the province (including agriculture) was $13,300,000,000, a gain to which uranium output was a major contributor. The labour force (.Aug. 1959) was 2,356,000, (1958) 2,300.000; unemployed and seeking work 69,000, (1958) approximately 46,000. Cutbacks in base-metal production and manufacturing accounted for most of the increase in unemployment. Capital investment, preliminary estimate (1958), was $3,156,900,000, (1957) $3,205,300,000. .\ total of 86 new industries was recorded in 1958, (1957) 115. Construction awards in all categories totaled $1,489,593,500, including major additions to existing in-
—
—
—
—
dustrial plants.
—
Mining. Mineral production preliminary estimate (1958) amounted to $799,168,474, (1957) $769,000,000. Uranium output (1958) $222,000,000, (1957) $83,000,000. Lower prices for copper reduced output value to $72,000,000, (1957) $97,146,246: nickel output value $179,000,000, (1957) $243,500,000. Gold output (1958) $90,667,612, (1937) $85,527,505. Value of all metallics (1958) S636.326.046, (1957) $595,641,773. Aggregate value of all nonmetallics fell in 1958 to $20,943,185, (1957) $21,238,580. Natural gas and petroleum (1958) $7,934,000, (1957) $8,311,688: structural materials (1958) $133,965,243. (i957) $114,027,177. (C. A. Sn.)
volumes of both U.S. and domestic capital involved. sites in
were being built and others were
laid out.
A
social feature
the far north was the industrial and commercial integration
of the
Eskimo population
in expansionist activity. Creation of
an electoral district to give Eskimos direct representation in the
Opera: see Music. Ophthalmology: see Oranges: see Fruit. Orchestras:
Eye, Diseases of the.
Music.
see
dominion parliament was being worked out.
The 1958 program
of direct grants to municipalities to finance
expansion continued into 1959 and larger allocations of public revenues for new access roads to resources farther north were
made. Primary, secondary and university educational
facilities
^
nroarin UlCgUiii
^'^'^ °^ '^^
United States, located
in the Pacific
northwest, Oregon was admitted to the union on
Feb. 14. 1859. as the 33rd state. Area 96,981 sq.mi.. including
666 sq.mi. of water. Pop. (1950 census) 1.521,341, (July
i,
1959,
continued to benefit from substantially larger grants providing
provisional est.) 1.766,000. Capital: Salem (43,140, 1950; 47,-
new buildings and operating costs. Similar outlays for new hospitals and increased beds in existing ones were planned, and special facilities for two-year courses in training of nurses were announced to relieve the severe nursing shortage. New provincial parks were opened and land was reserved in all areas for further
100, 1958). Chief city: Portland (373,628, 1950; 402.300, 1958).
$1,696,
statistics
its
looth anniversary as a state
state staged a loo-day Exposition
and International
1959, the dominion
estimated Ontario's per capita income at
buildings to represent the old west; in southern Oregon, .Ashland
On
July
9,
up from §1,656.
(1958 pop. 8,800)
A
general election on June 11, 1959, resulted in the government's voting strength in the legislature being reduced from 83 to 71; the opposition Liberal
22; splinter groups
—Oregon celebrated
The
Trade fair at Portland which drew about 1,330.000 visitors. Almost every city had a centennial program. In central Oregon, Redmond (1958 pop. 3,750) put false fronts on its business
extension of the park system.
bureau of
History. in 1959.
party membership rose from 10 to
were merged into the Co-operative
Common-
building.
Even
dedicated
its
the tiny crossroads
new Shakespearean theatre to\\Ti of Damascus received
statewide attention by building a candle which burned for 100 days.
In Januan,' upon his inauguration, the
new governor, Mark
0.
wealth Federation (socialist) party, with a total of 5 members, an increase of i.
Hatfield (Rep.) appointed Howell Appling (Rep.), Portland, to
Immediately before the voting Robert Macaulay was appointed to a new ministry of energy and resources and continued
elected officers were Sig Unander (Rep.), state treasurer; Robert Y. Thornton (Dem.). attorney general; Norman 0. Nilsen (Dem.), commissioner of the bureau of labour; and Rex Putnam, superintendent of public instruction.
after the election in that office.
On April 13, 1959, Premier Frost announced appointment of a t4-man regional development council "to correlate needs and aspirations" of the province's 7 economic districts. Ontario received a $1,000,000 increase in
its
$97,637,000 share of Ottawa's
tax-sharing plan.
—
Education. The 1959—60 enrollment in primary and secondary schools was placed at 1,249,673 (1958-59, 1,234,000). Teachers numbered 42,647, up from 42,200. Education costs were higher by $25,500,000, at $202,400,000. Capital and maintenance grants to universities totaled $24,400,000. Education grants to municipalities were up $35,000,000, to $202,200,000; the estimate for 1959-60 was $203,037,000, Public Health and Welfare. Grants for 1958-59 were increased by $io,-
—
be his successor as secretary of state. Others of the state's top
The Democratic-controlled legislature vied with Governor way to raise taxes to balance the state budget. The compromise solution reached was to raise state income taxes 9%. Deduction of federal income tax in figuring state income tax was eliminated. The tax increase was blocked, at least temHatfield over the
by referendum petitions which would place it Nov. i960. The legislature also voted ministandards for farm-worker transportation and housing. It
porarily, however,
on the state ballot
mum
in
withheld an appropriation for a $1,000,000 vocational building
——
—
ORGANIZATION FOR EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COOPERATION
522 for the
new
correctional institution which opened during the year
near Salem in order to provide rehabilitation convicted of their
The most
facilities for
men
felony.
first
serious disaster of
its
kind
in
the state's history oc-
Roseburg on Aug. 7 when a truck loaded with ammonium nitrate mixed with oil exploded during a warehouse fire. Thirteen people were killed, approximately 100 injured and eight square blocks of the business district were completely destroyed by the blast and accompanying curred
the southern
in
Oregon
city of
fire.
Educolion.
— Enrollmcnl
in
public schools of the stale for the school year
95,213 high-school students. The number was 15,936. The average yearly salary of classroom teachers was $5,053. Average cost per pupil in daily attendance was
I957~5^
^'^s 359>9^7i including
of certilicated personnel
$386.12, Total expenditures were $171,629,002, divided as follows; current expenditures $126,671,753; capital outlay $31,159,106; debt service $13,798, 143Total enrollment in the eight campus units of the state system of higher education for the year 1958-59 was 24,268. Enrollment in extension courses was 17,439. Total operating expiiiMS for the state system for the year were $35,684,221. Slate appropri.Ttion for capital outlay for building construction for the biennium 1957-1959 was $7,054,000. Social Insurance and Assistance. Public Welfare and Related Progroms. Expenditures for the year ending June 30, 1959, under the state public welfare program, including cost of administration, were $43,822,060.10. The program embraces general assistance, old-age assistance, aid to the blind, dependent children and permanently and totally disabled, as well as foster care and aid to child-caring agencies. Payments for unemployment compensation for the fiscal year 1958-59 dropped from an all-time high of $42,008,118 in the previous year to $30,276,409. Total operating expenditures for 11 state health, penal, correctional and eleemosynary institutions as of June 30, 1959, were $16,458,517. Inmates at this time totaled 8,966. (During the school year an additional 355 were enrolled in the schools for the blind and deaf.) Expenditures of the state commission for the blind from all sources for the fiscal year were $627,I41-33Communications. Railway mileage in Oregon as of Dec. 31, 1958, totaled 4,974.82 mi. for steam railroads and 63.33 mi. for electric railroads. Total mileage of the state highway system on June 30, 1959, was 7.466, of which 7,325 were surfaced. Total mileage of county roads was 28.417 with 20.511 surfaced. The number of miles of roads in national and state forests, parks and reservations and nonhighway streets was 25,870, of which 10.873 were surfaced. Total expenditures of the state highway department for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, were $88,469,025.
—
Table
I.
Principal
Crop Wheal,
Crops of Oregon
Indicoted 1959
27,312,000 4,030,000 8,643,000 19,976,000 8,490,000 1,813,000 7,155,000 2,200,000 46,000 24,700 42,000 4,700 9,000
bi)
Corn, bu Oats, bu Borley, bu Potatoes, cwl
Hay, Ions Hops, lb Apples, bu Peors, Ions
1
Clierries, Ions
Prunes, Ions Walnuls, Ions filberls. Ions
•1949-57. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
Table
II.
Principal Industries
Averogo, 1958
ORGANIZATION OF AMERICAN STATES
523
with the precedents that had been established during the ten years that the treaty had been in force. In all previous instances affirmative action on such a request
matic, for
it
had been
virtually auto-
implied no expression of judgment on the merits of
the case but merely put the councU in a position to inquire into the facts. Because of opposition from
influenced to no
little
Cuba and Venezuela, and
extent by strong public reaction to acced-
ing to a request that might be construed as support for an un-
popular regime, the council delayed action and in the request.
On
council that
it
eft'ect
denied
July lo the Dominican Republic informed the was withdrawing its request for the convocation
of the organ of consultation under the Rio treaty.
Instead, the council on July 13 adopted a resolution convoking the fifth meeting of the Consultation of Ministers of Foreign Affairs to be held pursuant to articles 39
and 40 of the charter
of the organization for the purpose of considering the situation of international tension in the Caribbean, as well as the effective
democracy and respect for human in Santiago, Chile, from Aug. 12 to 18, with the foreign ministers of the 21 American republics in attendance. The conference adopted a series of resolutions, including a Declaration of Santiago, which reaffirmed certain long-established basic principles, among them those on nonintervention, representative democracy and respect for human rights. of representative
exercise rights.
The meeting was held
It likewise delegated additional authority to the Inter-.American
Peace committee to be exercised until the
nth
Inter-American
conference at Quito. Ecuador, in Feb. i960 and entrusted to the
'WE CAN'T TOLERATE SLOPPY INTELLIGENCE REPORTS
from Latin An-
They indicate more revolutions than there are ica. TrufRe. 1959 cartoon by Lichly of the Chicago Sun-Tiwes syndicate .
.
.
committee the preparation of a report to be presented
countries,'
tion of the Santiago meeting. the council canceled the call for a
Although the Rio pact
is
meeting of consultation.
an intergovernmental treaty and
allay the is
intended to be invoked by one countrj' against another, in none
adopted by the council was reference made
of the resolutions
any other
to
countrj-. This innovation, obviously designed to
avoid embarrassment to any other
member
state of the organiza-
was followed almost inmiediately by the request from
tion,
Nicaragua.
On June
2,
1958, the government of Nicaragua informed the
council of the organization that individuals of various nationalities
had invaded
were approaching
its its
territory, that other
shores and that
it
armed revolutionaries
therefore requested the
charges were brought against anj' other government and the
Rio treaty was not invoked against any country, but in the light of the precedent established in the case of
Panama
:
1
able public sentiment against the existing
regime in Nicaragua,
1
i
1
the
able for ordinary banking operations. A special fund of $150,000.000 was also set up for projects that would not be able to meet the usual banking requirements for a loan. Of the authorized capital
stock $400,000,000 was to be paid in over a three-year period,
20'-by-country study of the problems and possibilities of economic development and an-
The report of the committee revealed that Nicaraguan case was essentially an internal matter and con-
other extending the procedure of consultation to economic ques-
both governments was one of
and nonintervention.
'
In the economic field an agreement establishing the InterAmerican Development bank was opened for signature at the Pan-American union on April 8, I9S9The bank was capitalized at $1,000,000,000. of which $850.000.000 represented authorized capital stock that would be avaO-
strict neutrality
the attitude of
;
meeting was to
effect of the
the Quito conference.
the councU
convoked the organ of consultation and again appointed a fact-finding commission, this one composed of representatives of Brazil, Mexico, the United States and Uruguay. The facts obtained by this committee revealed that of the no members comprising the invading force, 107 were Nicaraguans and 3 were Costa Ricans. No evidence was found of other revolutionaries approaching the Nicaraguan coast, and although in both Costa Rica and Honduras the committee found considerof the organization
'
The
immediate tensions but to defer the basic problem to
der was callable to meet obligations of the bank's loan operations.
convocation of the organ of consultation.
No
to the
Quito conference on the questions that prompted the convoca-
finned the impression held in
many
quarters that the action of
the council constituted intervention in a purely
domestic prob-
tions is
whenever
a
government considers that
its
national welfare
seriously aft'ected.
The problem
of stabilizing markets and prices of basic
com-
lem and a misuse of the Treaty of Reciprocal Assistance.
modities continued to confront the majority of Latin-American
On July 2, 1959, the government of the Dominican Republic sought to invoke the Rio treaty, alleging that its peace and se-
the
curity
were threatened by forces proceeding from and supported
by the governments of
Cuba and Venezuela.
In this case the request had been formulated in strict accord
countries, with little assistance
organization.
from the established organs of and outside the
Acting among themselves
framework of the organization, the coffee-producing countries of Latin America continued discussions looking toward a world-
wide coffee production and marketing agreement.
—
OSTEOPATHY — PACIF IC ISLANDS. FRENCH
524 Among
the other organs of the organization the Inter-Ameri-
can Council of Jurists held
Aug. 24 to Sept. tural council
9.
The
was held
its
fourth meeting in Santiago from
third meeting of the Inter-American Cul-
in
San Juan, P.R., from Nov. 22 to Dec. 2. nth Inter-American con-
Preparations were also begun for the ference, the
of
cost
$37,000,000 sewage-treatment
a
and collector
plant
sewers.
(G.
Encyclop>cdia Biitannica Filus.-
C.)
J,
Zanada: the Induttrial
Provirt'
(1958).
Outer Mongolia:
see
Mongolian People's Republic.
supreme organ of the organization, which was sched-
uled for Quito, beginning Feb.
i960.
i,
Under
See also Atomic Energy.
(W. Mr.)
PaCifJC ISlafldS, BfitiSh
this
heading are grouped
the territories administered by
the high commissioner for the western Pacific.
^^^ nctpnn!)thu UJlbU|jaillj.
osteopathic profession on Oct.
i,
1959, in
United States, was made up of 13,751 physicians and surgeons. They practice in all states and in 1959 were
Arao
[jjg
eligible in
38 states to receive licences granting complete diag-
nostic and therapeutic rights
and
privileges, including drugs
and
Solomon lilondt prol«ctorato Gilbert ond Ellic» lllandl colony t. Control and Soufhsrn Una lilondlt
fopulotlo'*
iKq.ml.)
1U,300
11,500
British
.
.
.
.
369
42,000
11,905
Tolol.
*I9S9
I
)lndud«i PhoanU and Northirn Una lilom Moldan and Slorbuck lilondi.
eit.
I
56,300
Idond. tComprltIng
Film, Carolina. Voilock,
major operative surgery. Osteopathic hospitals numbered approximately 400 in 1959 with approximately 12,000 beds, providing general medical and surgical care for patients in 3
1
states. In
1959 Los Angeles County
The New Hebrides (q.v.), an Anglo-French condominium, as Tonga (q.v.) and Pitcairn, are also administered by the
well as
western Pacific high commissioner.
unit, a $10,000,-
Populations: Melanesians predominate in the Solomons; Mi-
000, 500-bed institution, which provided medical services to the
cronesians in the Gilbert and Ellice Islands. High commission
indigent of Los Angeles county and furnished the College of Os-
headquarters:
General hospital completed
its
new osteopathic
teopathic Physicians and Surgeons (Los Angeles) with a
new
teaching hospital.
There were currently six osteopathic colleges approved by the American Osteopathic association for the education and training of physicians and surgeons. They were located in Chicago, Des Moines, Kansas City, Kirksville (Mo.), Los Angeles and Philadelphia. During 1959 all of these colleges received federal and Again
in
1959-60, the United States public health service
made
Islands.
chi.
History.
—Substantial progress was made
development of
a
cocoa industry
in the
in 1959 toward the Solomons. The project,
backed by Colonial Development and Welfare funds, entailed
in
stage the building of a road system to open up large
its initial
on Malaita Island. The discovery of valuable
of land
tracts
state grants-in-aid.
Honiara
(pop. about 2,750), on Guadalcanal, High commissioner in 1959: Sir John Gutch; resident commissioner, Gilbert and Ellice Islands: M. L. Bemac-
Solomon
stands of commercial timber in the Solomons further widened
various grants to osteopathic colleges. These included teaching
the scope for economic diversification in a territory long de-
grants in cancer, cardiovascular and mental health, and funds to
pendent on copra for most of
help build and equip health research
The American Osteopathic the profession,
is
association, the official agency of
located at 212 E. Ohio
president for 1959-60 was Galen its
The mass treatment
facilities.
S.
St.,
Chicago
11, 111. Its
Young, Chester,
Pa.,
and
executive secretary, True B. Eveleth. Its 64th annual conven-
tion
was
to
be held
in
Kansas City, Mo.,
in July i960.
(R. P. K.)
flttqiiiQ
UlldWd.
^^^
Canada, located at the confluence of the Gatineau, Rideau and Ottawa rivers in the prov-
ince of Ontario,
capital of
Ottawa covers 47.6 sq.mi. Pop. (1956 census)
222,129, (metropolitan area) 345,460; Dec. 1958 (city estimate)
Tax assessment (1959) $442,973,000. Mayor George H. Nelms completed in 1959 his third year in office, having another 12 months to go to complete his second
United Nations
completed
its
export trade.
of yaws, a campaign sponsored by the
in co-operation
with local administrations, was
in all territories.
A
major advance in the field of education was the opening of and vocational training college at Honiara. The Solomon Islands' first census, based on sampling techniques, was conducted in November. (R. P. Gn.) a teachers'
Education. Solomon Islands (schools, 1957); government primary 7 (incl. I European): secondary i; also 218 mission and native council schools: pupils, all schools, about 9.380. .\ teacher-training and vocational centre was completed in 1959. Gilbert and Ellice Islands (schools, 1957): primary 262. pupils 8.298, teachers 315; secondary i, pupils no, teachers 6; 6 student teachers in training. Finance and Trade. iMonetary unit: Australian pound (£Ai.2S sterling U.S. $2.80).
—
=
=
236,837.
two-year term. At the inaugural meeting of the city council in
1959 he said the
Revenue
Expenditure
Solo
(1957octuol Gilbert and EIIL l!.(1957actuol)
Main
.
£A1, 189,194
£A1, 159,348
(1957)£A1, 497,845
£A1,547,221
£A370,486
£A483,314
(1956)£A1,214,408
£A997,67I
Solomon Islands: copra. Gilbert and
outstanding debenture debt as of Dec. 31, 1958, was $60,767,000, of which 65.65% was to be met from taxa-
phosphate.
and 34.35% from the earnings of the city's public utilities. taxable debt of the city was equivalent to $168 per capita, based on 1958 population figures, and represented about 9.01% of the assessment on which 195S taxes were based. The city's to-
idCITIC ISIdnQS, riGnCn.
city's
exports:
Ellice Islands: copra.
tion
The
tal debenture debt, including that issued for public utilities, was $256 per capita and represented 13.72% of taxable assessment at the end of 1958.
On June
Queen Elizabeth II visited Ottawa and was reat Lansdowne park in a ceremony arranged for the city's school children. During the year the municipally owned Ottawa Transportation commission completed ceived by
grouped two French overseas and the Anglo-French condominium of the New Heb(q.v.). Areas and populations are:
territories
rides
Territory
New
Caledonia and dependencies
....
French Polynesio
Areo (sq.mi.l 7,654 1,448
Pop. I19S8
ell.
69,000 79,000
30,
Mayor Nelms
the transfer from streetcars to an all-bus system. tion of natural-gas transmission lines
and
The
facilities
introduc-
proceeded.
Considerable progress was made on construction of the $31,000,000 cross-town Queensway. The city continued to seek negotiations with the federal
government for a contribution toward the
Population, New Caledonia proper (6,533 sq.mi.) and the de pendencies: Melanesian with Polynesian admixtures; European 24.882. mostly French;
4,468 Metnamese; 3.260 Indonesians
Seat of high commissioner:
High commissioner
Noumea, pop. (1957
for the Pacific ocean
est.)
22,23s
and governor of Ne\
Caledonia in 1959. Laurent Pechoux. French Polynesia consists of the Society Islands (the larges of which
is
Tahiti), the Marquesas,
Tuamotu and
other smalle
—
:
PACIFIC ISLANDS
,
U.S.
— PAKISTAN
525
islands. Pop.: Polynesian,
for industrial paint producers, while postponing the need
est.)
decreasing the
majority Christian; Europeans (1957 1,600, mainly French; Chinese 7,000. Seat of governor:
Papeete, on Tahiti, pop. (1957) 17,247. Governor in 1959, Pierre
amount
these building components after erection. For example, a coat of conventional oil-type house paint
Sicaud.
New
History.
Caledonia.
—In the
elections to the territorial
Union Caledonienne (Euroits majority. At the municipal elections of March 8, 1959, the Rassemblement Caledonien (right-wing) was victorious, and also at the senatorial elections on April 26. But at the parliamentary by-election (May 24), the leader of the Union Caledonienne, M. Lenormand, was re-elected with an enormous majority. On Sept. II Jacques Soustelle, minister-delegate to the prime minister's office, inaugurated the dam at Yate, which was to help the nickel industry. The creation of a port and town at Nepoui, on the northeastern coast, was approved by the territorial asassembly held on Dec.
8,
1958, the
peans and Melanesians) maintained
sembly.
—
French Polynesia. In Dec. 1958 the territorial assembly unanimously decided that French Polynesia would retain the status of an overseas territory within the French Community.
The executive council was presided over by the governor and comprised five members elected by the assembly. The Parti de I'Union (pro-French) defeated the Parti de Puvanaa (autonomist) in all the elections: executive councils, town council and senatorial election.
French Community.
See also Education.
— (1958)
Caledonia: 13,000 pupils in primary schools and 1.800 in secondary. Polynesia: 15,300 pupils in primary schools and 1.200 in secondary. Foreign Trade. (1958) Monetary unit: franc C.F.P. (Colonies FranS5S; (1958 est.) 37,396,000, Area of East Pakistan 54,501 sq.mi. Pop. (1951 census)
posed
Industrial finishes continued their trend to increasing specialization.
310,-
ficial
During the decade per capita annual paint consumption had more than four gallons. Although alkyds based on phthalic anhydride continued as the largest class
I
West Pakistan
236 sq.mi. (including small areas in Karachi not part of West
Pakistan province but reserved to the federal government and
Mariana Islands; Trust Territories. Paint production in the United
at
sq.mi.). Total pop. (1951 census)
75,842,165; (1958 est.) 85,635.000. Area of
members. Although martial law continued to strengthen, not to
in
operation,
weaken, the authority of the
it
civil
'
PAKISTAN
526
ment, arbitral determination of industrial disputes, reform
and
of the educational, health
ocial services, the institution
of
new system
a
of
"basic
democracy," as well as proposals
and
for
the
simplification
cheapening
were
procedure,
of
judicial
all
put
in
radical
step
in
hand.
The most
1959 concerned land reform.
The
great
estates
in
West
Pakistan over which landlords
had ruled with almost feudal
powers were broken up and distributed
pensated bonds.
ARRIAGE,
RIDING THF>
"I
1959. Standinu
^J
v.,
or hi, visit to Pakistan Dec. 7. of
Pakistan
by
No
irrigated or 500 ac. of irrigated land
tenants, the
being
com-
interest-bearing
one could possess
more than 1,000
U.S. President Eisen-
Ayub Khan, president
among
owners
former
—maximum
ac.
of non-
holdings fixed
deliberately on the high side in order to
make
administration, the entire machinery of which functioned as
while occupation. Tenants became
owners.
usual.
000
The first care of the new government was to restore the structure of law and order. Vigorous measures were employed to suppress the black market in food and in imported goods, with the result that prices fell. Drastic steps were taken to stop the smuggling of gold and of foodstuffs. Tax evasions were dealt with by allowing an amnesty to those who made declarations of what they owed by a certain date. In this way, more than Rs. 20,000.000 of illicit gold and more than Rs. 1,000,000,000 of tax arrears were recovered for the treasury. Administrative reorganization, which took the form of simplification of procedure, drastic reduction of cadres by weeding out corrupt, incompetent and superfluous officials and the institution of strict codes of discipline for public servants saved about Rs, 28,000,000, These measures were all
land reclaimed by the state in colonization areas, was given to
ac.
the
maximum
over and above the
agriculture a worth-
A
further 6,000,-
holdings, together with
Tenants everywhere were given security.
cultivators.
An embargo was
full
placed on
rent
enhancement and upon
exactions of labour and service from tenants.
all
Standing land
commissions were appointed to enforce these reforms with the full authority of the state. The land reforms were by no
means wholly economic
in their effects. While they set the agrion a sound footing, they also broke the political influence of the great landowning interests, whose lobbies in the former federal and provincial legislatures fostered corruption in public life and contributed actively to the chronic political instability which had afflicted Pakistan almost from its
cultural industry
creation as a state.
financial outlook. Foreign reserves in sterling
marked the measures to clean up Karachi and remove the slums which housed thousands of refugees in de-: plorable conditions. Being unmoved by fear of offending potential voters, the government dealt firmly with all efforts at obstruc-
from Rs, 420, 000.000 to Rs, 780,000,000, In place of a balance payments deficit of Rs, 336,000,000, there was a surplus of
stamped out
part of the introduction of a strict system of treasury supervision
over every branch of national expenditure.
During 1959
intelligent
Similar energy
to
and forceful control transformed the and dollars rose
of
The index of industrial production rose by 11.8% 167,2% (1954=100), The restoration of confidence in the
tion.
Public health regulations were enforced; epidemics wercj
A
at their inception;
new town
and the water supply was
im-,
at Korangi, outside Karachi, with ade-
Rs.34,600,000,
proved.
to
quate accommodations, good communications, hospitals, schools!
country's finances was reflected both in an increase in foreign
investment and by the oversubscription in one day of a Rs,i5,-
000.000 development loan for East Pakistan
in
September. Fi-
nancial stability enabled the second five-year plan to
(1960-65) be based on lines which frankly recognized the necessity of
maintaining a
minimum
West Pakistan
—a
rate of
growth
in
East as well as
in
conclusion which envisaged the net transfer
of both domestic and foreign resources to East Pakistan to correct the disparity in
development
This recogni-
in that region.
avowed determination
new regime
large
and community kitchens, drew off 40,000 refugees, A commission recommended the construction of a new federal capital on the Patwar plateau near Rawalpindi and the govern-
ment endorsed the finding. The government was in form a constitutional limitations. Toward
military dictatorship without the end of the year, however
the president took the first step toward constitutional develop
ment by creating a suffrage, which was
tier of
elected assemblies based on aduli
to exercise
authority in villages and
cit}
to
wards, in subdivisions, in districts, in groups of districts anc
secure for East Pakistan a partnership of complete equality and
eventually in both regions of the country, These "basic democ
tion illustrates the
parity with
of the
West Pakistan,
zation the government carried through a
form the foundation of a new consti which were already being examined Since the regime came into power expressly to reform internal conditions and with no desire to alter existing foreign relations, few changes took place in this sphere. Ties with the common wealth remained strong and friendship with the United Stateii Iran and Turkey was maintained. On the initiative of the presij dent, who met the Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru racies''
Side by side with this administrative and financial reorgani-
number
of important
reforms. As soon as a problem was recognized as important, a small expert committee was appointed by the president to ex-
amine it, with a strict time limit. When the report was received, it was given first place on the cabinet agenda; and within a matter of days, a decision was taken and final orders were issued. By this means during the year land reform, refugee resettle-
were intended
to
tution, the requirements of
i
New
red Delhi in September, relations with India notably improve(
I
u
PALESTINE — PANAMA A
procedure was
laid
down
for obviating border friction in East
made
Pakistan; substantial progress was
in
composing
Palestine:
was resolved. Of the disputes which long embittered IndoPakistani relations, only the Kashmir problem remained un-
However
the continued U.S. aid to Pakistan in the
arms and munitions aroused
of
criticism
in
India.
form
The new
strength of Pakistan's internal situation was reflected during
1959 by fresh trade and financial agreements with Britain and German Federal Republic. During Dec. 7-8 Pres. Dwight
the
D. Eisenhower paid an
ofi&cial visit to
See also India.
527 Jordan; United Nations.
financial
A
disputes; and the quarrel over the Indus basin water resources
solved.
see Israel;
Karachi. (L. F. R.
W.)
—
republic on the isthmus joining the continents
Panama. of North and South America, Panama is bounded on the north by Costa Rica and on the south by Colombia and is
bisected
by the Panama Canal Zone, the possession
of which
with the United States. Area; 28,753 sq.mi.; pop.: (1950 census) 805,285, (1959 est.) 1,024,000, both exclusive of the Canal Zone. The capital is Panama City, pop. (1950 rests in perpetuity
census)
127,874, (1958 est.) 238,980; other principal cities (1950 census) are Colon 52,204, (1958 est.) 64,430; David 14,847; La Chorrera 8,652; Chitre 7,398; Puerto Armuelles 5,734;
Education. Schools (1957): primary 42,503, pupils 4,040,298; secondary 5,675. pupils 1,278,441; vocational (1954-55) 37. pupils (195455) 9.595- Teacher-training colleges (1952) 136, students (1952) 6,930. Institutions of higher education (1957-58) 163 (6 universities) students
and Santiago 5,886. Language; Spanish. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1959: Ernesto de la Guardia, Jr. In Feb. 1959 resentment against the alleged corHistory.
84.652. Finance and Banking.
ruption of certain municipal
— Monetary
unit: Pakistan rupee, with a par value of 4.761 and buying and selling exchange rates (May 1959) of 4.720 and 4.768 rupees to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1959-60 est.): revenue Rs. 1,584,500,000, expenditure Rs. 3,311,900,000. (Currency circulation (May
1958) Rs. 3,601,000,000, (May 1959) Rs. 3,603,000,000. Deposit money: (May 1958) Rs. 1,772,000,000 (May 1959) Rs. 1,925,000,000. Gold and (May 1958) U.S. $289,000,000 (May 1959) U.S. $259,000,000. Foreign Trade. (195S) Imports Rs. 1,890,000,000, exports Rs. 1,417,000.000. Main sources of imports: U.S. and Canada 31%; U.K. 18%; India 5%; other sterling area 12%; continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union/European fund) countries 21%; Japan 6%. Main destinations of exports: U.K. 20%; India 3%; other sterling area 10%; continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 3i7o; U.S. and Canada 11%; Japan 10%. foreign exchange, official holdings:
—
Main
59%;
cotton 17%. Transport ond Communications. Roads (1956) 97,019 km. Motor Vehicles in use (1957): passenger 31,800, commercial 21,000. Railways (1958): ri,333 km.; traffic (April 1957-58): passenger-km. 10.572,000.000, freight, ton-km. 6.684,000,000. Shipping (July 1958): merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and over 51, total tonnage 128,000. Air transport (i9SS): passenger-km. 228,924,000; freight, ton-km. 6,516,000. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 57,632 Licensed radio receivers (1955) 109,000. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1958; 1957 in parentheses): rice 11.407,000 (12,934,000); wheat 3,718,000 (3,663,000); barley 175,000 (134,000"); maize 473.000 (454,000): tobacco (1957) 88,900 (91,400 in 1956): jute 1,089,000 (1,125,000); cotton, lint, 285,000 (296,000); cottonseed 569,000 (592,000); tea (1957) 20,200 (24,800 in 1056); chick peas 696,000 (741,000); sugar, raw value 189,000 (172,000 linseed (1957) 14,000 (15,000 in 1956); rapeseed (1957) 229,000 e.xports:
jute
—
—
I
:
(317,000 in 195s); sesame (1956) 37.000 (38,000 in 1955). Livestock (Sept. 1958): cattle 31,060,000; sheep 6,145,000; buffaloes 7,067,000; horses (Sept. i9S4) 470,000; asses (Sept. 1954) 913,000; mules (Sept. 1954) 41,000. Industry. Fuel and power (1958); coal and lignite 612,000 metric tons: electricity (excluding industrial generation, 1956) 768.000,000 kw.hr.; natural gas 547,200,000 cu.m. Production (metric tons, 1958): crude oil 303,600; cement 1,080.000; woven cotton fabrics 526,800,000 m.: chrome ore (1957) 8,100 metric tons. Encyclop.«dia Briiannic.a Films. Arnold Toynbee: India, Pakistan, Ceylon (sixth lecture of the series, "A Changing World in the Light of History") (1958); India (Pakistan and the Union of India) (1952); Pakistan (1955).
—
—
—
officials of Panama City was fanned open demonstration by the broadcasts of the owner of a radio station. A citizens' emergency committee seized the city
into an
general strike, demanded the removal of the councilmen and named an interim council. The national government, by use of the national guard, evicted the citizens' committee, ousted the interim council, swore in a new council and hall, called for a
restored a semblance of public order.
Sporadic outbreaks of disorder occurred in January,
March
and April. The most publicized of these occurrences was th? alleged conspiracy led by Roberto Arias, son of a former president, and his wife Dame Margot Fonteyn, well-known British ballerina. Miss Fonteyn was arrested on suspicion of revolutionary activity and expelled from Panama. Her husband eluded capture and left Panama by means of a safe conduct from the Brazilian embassy. On April 26 a band of invaders, said to number 80 men, seized Nombre de Dios on Panama's Caribbean coast, and was reported to be intent on capturing Porto Belle and ultimately on overthrowing the government. Three members of the band, who were captured, indicated that Arias was their leader and
point of departure. Premier Fidel Castro of
Cuba their Cuba denied any con-
nection with the proceedings and offered assurances that no other
armed bands would leave Cuba.
On
April 28 the United States and ig other
pledged their aid to repel the invaders. tee of five
members was named, and
An
American republics
investigating commit-
a sea and air patrol to which
the United States, Colombia and Ecuador contributed was instiU,S.
SENTRY HOLDING OFF PANAMANIANS atUmpflng
Canal Zone during anti-U.S. demonstrations
in
Nov.
1959
to
cross
Into
the
—
PANAMA CANAL ZON E — PAN- AMERICAN GAMES
S28
The
tutcd to provide protection
investigating committee con-
ferred with the invaders and appeared to have induced their
surrender They were taken into custody by the national giurd and sent hack to Cuba for trial. Tlie obserx-ation of Panama's Independence day, Nov. 3, was marked by a disptlay of anti-United Slates feeling. Groups of men, said to have been students, attempted a march into the Canal Zone to plant the Panamanian dag there. Police turned them back, and scufiBes precipitated considerable \-iolence.
Panamanian as=.embly passed and the president signed a measure extending the territorial waters of Panama from 5 to i; miles The law could be so construed as to inclose both entrances of the canal and allow Panama to collect fees and In Dec
105S. the
regulate shipping.
The United
States and six other nations protested, but the
protest was rejected.
— la
Amuucan
States.
(A. R.
;
^"c-.-
par with the U.S. dollar.
ball>oa. al
revenue and expenditure and expenditure at $36,662,917. invcs. expenditure. S57,55i,i95 '.44SK The public debt on Dec. 31, Si3,&65.ooo was external. Demand d ordinar>'
r; at ?5'
.
•
riue
(
•
30.
1959.
The
cost-of-living index
I'it.a— a C::y -:jji i'. ,^ ;2 June 1959 (1953 = 100). National income in 1956 was estimated al S;45.9DO.ooo. Trod* o«d CommjT.tctrtio-o Et7o-*? in ic?? f including re-exports) " fxports were bananas totaled $;i,i:'
'
lumber. The leading :he I'.S. '55^^^ the ••nany (4%) and the de is generally offset tourist expenditures,
(65";), frtih customer wa^ r^-i.
--.r,.
rd there.
TT;faEf .:;;^l was 1,553, of which Jan. 1, 1059, there were 17,900 automobiles Arrr^rdirp rr* Ll^vd'j R^rifter of Skifpmi, -•t»e« -:--' - : 7; • : _ r-ciss tons were rphones (Jan.
Ri
hcrn^i.v
.::
On
l57 and
—
'
(preliminar>' centrifugal
.
it :
sugar s'r"
If
:
} .:;i:, .:;ii '.1-.
;jiCio
^.ioi.sDC
lb.:
1937 included bananas 7,421,716 -t'.ric tons, refined sugar 3.064 tons and coconuts July 195S there were an estimated 629.000 cattle and -IS.
:-
Exports
in
In 1957. 3.745 metric tons of fresh shrimp. 2,i66.oS5 ^any lumber and 3.55i tons oi mahogany timber were ei-
—Installed
electric energj- capacity (Panama City and rS.ooD kw. on Dec. 31. 1955 Production in 1958 included 153.600.000 kwir.; manufactured gas (Panama Citj- and
• j-0.000 mjn. ExcTCior/Esu BUTUCKICA FuMS.
C.'
: •..-.
(J.
W. Mw.)
Cemtral America (1944).
The Panama Canal Zone is a U.S. Eovemment reservation embracing 5:np acros? tie Isthmus of Panama and auxiliary areas. occupation and control of which were granted by Panama
Panama Canal Zone. a izt-TPA
the use.
to the United States in perpetuity trith exclusive sovereign rights.
pover and authority, its
for construction of the
Panama
canal and
perpetual maintenance, opteration, sanitation and protection.
Area 55S sqjnL (including
i
S6 5q.mL of fresh water
1.
Population
(1950. inchiding armed forces^ 52.822; C1958 est.) 57.000. Principal
to protect U.S. interests and
treaty rights.
As planned, mobs carrying Panamanian flags as to invade the Canal Zone on Nov.
symbols attempted
cammmities (195S
est.): .\nc6n-Balboa. 3,96:;
Gamboa,
826: Gatun. 629; and Cristobal- Margarita. 1405. Headquarters: Balboa Heights. Go%'emor in 1959: Maj. Gen. William E. Potter. hKstory.^-Ocean-goiiig trSSc through the canal in 1959 was majAttd by record numbers of vessels reqtiiring daylight passage or ooe-tray i>a\-ieatioa in Gaillard cut. causing transit delays
aad reducing capacity. Traffic studia indicated that transit demands would become critical in 1971. thus emphasizing the necessity for an early decisaoo on proposals for major canal operational impro^'ODents and capacity increase.
sovereign! 3,
but wct'
by U.S. forces, with injuries on both sides. Mobs attacked the U.S. embassy and other property. Notwithstanding these difficulties, the U.S. continued fulfillint;
repelled
the 1955 U.S. -Panama treaty obligations, among them being th of construction on the $20,000,000 Thatcher ferry si;i
start
1956-57 there were 1.151 public and
141,331 pupHs enrolled and 103 po&tprimar>' schools The national universjty had J. 563 students. The ••.at :5 j'"r of the population over 10 years oi age. s. ivas illiterate, .\bout 11.5% of the 195S budget
The "^
by the U.S. congress of measures
Toble the school )t«r
- ;;
w
^
W.)
priixvao' schools with i'.irlciv :h
.n^j.
by Panamanian extremists for wresting jurisdictiun ut ih-Canal from the U.S. The announced plans of certain unoffin radicals for "peaceful invasion" and symbolic occupation of ih' Canal Zone on Nov. 3, 1959, Independence day of Panami, ! gether with other unrealistic demands, led to the considcratioi
(M. DuV,)
bridge across the canal's Pacific entrance.
See also Osc;AXiiATios or E*»c»t»on.
U.S. -Panamanian relations were complicated by continur.l tation
I,
—Conof l»3«
Trofi>>t>
Corgo (tM Tolb
Troniifi,
Cargo and
Tof/f
g
en us
mr
2 I
-
PAN-AMERICAN GAMES
530
Pan-Ammrlean Gom«i* Champiom
— 1959
Bafball
Soccer
Batktfball
Swimming
V«fl*iu«la
Mm
Won
Unllcd Slolai
Men's Events
Boxing
n3
MIgud tolto, Waldo Claudia
lb.
119 t}S 133
lb.
UO
.
lb.
I
lb.
,
lb.
147 1b 136 lb 1«S lb. 178 1b Haavywalghl
Argtntif a II
Corloi Aro, Argontlna a
.
.
AbttI laudonio, Arganllna a .
,
.
VIncant Shomo, U.S
AKrado Corrolo, Chlla Wllbart McClura, U.S. Abroa da Souio, Braill Amot Johnion, U.S. Allan Hudion, U.S.
.
.
....
trial
protaitad (adarollonl.
(Raiull
Prii Prii
I
.
.
.
.
.Canada
.
U.S.
MIchaal Poga, U.S.
Fencing Harold Coldtmllh, U.S.
Follt
Taam
U.S. U.S.
folll
....
Epea
Rolond
Woommack,
MmIm
Events
style
200-m 400-m 100-m
>
m Mo
I
1
.03.8*
2:1 8.J* 4:55.9* 1:12.2« 2:56.8t 1.09.51 4.17.5*
style
4.44.«|
UA
Mrs. Poulo Pope, Mrs. Paula Pop*
dive
:ord for games. tMcKinney set games' mark of 1:03.3 In trials. tMiss mark of 256.4 in breast stroke Iriols; Miss Nancy Romay, U.S., sat mork of 1:09.1 in butterfly triols. SGomas' and world mark.
dal Pilar Rolda
UA.
C. Toblon, A. Coxlolo,
live
Folll
4>I4.»'
U.S. J. Farrall)
Chris von Soltzo. U.S. Chris von Soltzo Chris von Soltzo kstroke Corin Cone. U.S. 200-ni asl stroke Ann Warner, U.S. 100-m fly Ba^ky Collins, U.S. 400-m U.S. Aolly Botkin, Joan Spillona, Shirley Slobs, Chris von Soltzo) 400-mI. medley relay U.S. Corin Cone, Anne Bancroft, Becky Collins, Chris von Soltzo)
100-n,
Thraa-day avani (laom) Jumping (taam|
.
3.43.) •
3.1 B* 8.33.7;
Winters, D. Rounsovalla, P. Slnli|
a diva
Women's
da Draiioga. T. Golvin, U.S. da Draiioga llaom). Chila
Thraa-day avant
ink McKinnay, U.S. Bill Mulllkon. U.S. va Clllondan, U.S.
200-m. breost stroke 300-m. bullarfly 800-m. free style relay
Intarnatlonal
to
Equestrian
Grand Grond
1,500-m, free style 100-m. backstroke
400-m. medley relay IF. McKinnay, K. Nokoiona, M. Troy,
Ro Ro
Juan Canlo. Arganllno . A. Arganloa, Broiil
S6.2 MC.' 4,3I.4' I7,S3.3' 1.03.6t
style style
(R. Blick, T,
Cycling 1,000 m 1,000 m. tlma
100-m. Iraa 400-m. free
'
Warner M» gam
Gymnasfics Tennis
Men's Events John Backner, U.S. John Beckn John Beckner
All-around Long horsa
bo
Porollal
Abe
listha
Horizonlal bor
"»
*'
laid, U.S.
19.2 19.3
Ab
-stem. Seven insured mutual savings banks also functioned in the state. The total assets and liabilities of insured commercial banks in Pennsylvania on Dec. 31, 1958, were $15,254,505,000. .As of Dec. 31, 1958, 844 building and loan associations with assets of $3,124,316,580, were operating in the commonwealth. The total 1957-59 appropriations which were passed by the Pennsylvania general assembly and approved by the governor from the general fund amounted to $1,439,548,897.09. Executive authorizations from the motor license fund for the 1959-61 biennium totaled $623,012,112 as of of
May
in this total
• j
!.
j
1
j
I
—
Nov. 10, 1959.
The gross bonded debt at
$262,100,000.
of the
commonwealth
as of
May
31, 1959. stood
535 Table
delphia 2,071,605; Pittsburgh 676,806; Erie 130,803; Scranton
Crop Corn, bu
1.
Principal
Crops of Pennsytv
PENSION. OLD-AGE— PETROLEUM
536 Pension, Old-Age: various
see
Social Seciriiy. See also under
both houses uf the Peruvian congress. As the end of the year apit appeared that the Prado administration had success-
proached
sl.ilrs.
Pensions, Veterans': see Veterans Administration (U.S.)Persia: «" Ikan. Persian Gulf States: see Rahrain; Kuwait; Qatar; TruCIAL StAVKS
fully
weathered another year of
(R. N. Br.)
crises.
—
Educalion. In 1955 there were iJ.i6j primary schools wilh 28,163 teachers and 1,101,227 pupils; J48 secondary schools, 92.098 students; 217 technical schools, 33,963 students; 28 normal schools, 3,463 students; 7 institutions of higher learning, 16,789 students. Nearly 30% o' tlw population over j years o( age is illiterate. Finonc*. The monetary unit is the sol, valued during the first 10 months of I9S9 at a free rate ranging between a high of 4.05 cents L'.S. currency (Jan. 2) and a low of 3.35 cents (July 13). The 1959 budget, including special accounts, was balanced at 6,846,300,000 soles. The public debt on Ucc. 31, 1957, totaled 3,294.795,000 soles, of which 670,195,000 solei represented the external debt. Currency in circulation (March 31, 1959) totaled 2,404,000,000 soles; demand deposits were in the same amount.
—
republic situated on the west coast of South .\merica
'^
Doril r CI U.
bounded on the north by Ecuador and Colombia, on and Bolivia, on the south by Chile and on the west by the Pacific ocean. Peru has an area of 496.222 sq.mi. The population, 10.524,000 (1959 est.), is composed of approximately equal numbers of "white" and mestizo persons and Indians, with some Negro and Asian elements. Lima, the capital, ;,n(i
the east
by
Brazil
has a population of 1.186.212 (1958 est.).
The 1958 population
estimates for other major cities are: Callao 129,365; Arequipa 121,896; Cuzco 68,483; Trujillo 60,427; Chiclayo 54,390; Iquitos
Huancayo 47,486; Sullana 35.250; lea 34,230; and Language: Spanish, although Quechua is still spoken by some of the highland Indians. Religion: predominantly Roman Catholic. President in 1959, Manuel Prado y Ugarteche, History. The deterioration of economic conditions which af54,286;
Piura
32,147.
—
Peru during 1958 continued during 1959. A decline in the value of Peru's foreign trade, a government policy of issuing flicted
paper currency and a rising cost of living produced general unrest
throughout the nation. Discontent
Peru was reflected
among
during the
the workers of
quarter of 1959. During the next three months conditions became worse. Beginning
in
of the Federation of
When
to return to
when 12,000
Bank Employees struck
for higher
they refused to comply with a government order
work, constitutional guarantees were suspended and
strike leaders
The
first
April business throughout Peru was disrupted
members wages.
in 62 strikes
were arrested.
situation
was further complicated when Fernando Bela-
unde Terry, chief of the middle-class Party of Popular Action and a leading critic of the Prado administration, announced plans for a mass meeting of protest to be held in Arequipa. The government arrested Belaunde Terry and a number of his followers before the meeting could be held, and in spite of protests from their followers they were detained for nearly a week after the bank strike was ended on June 3. In the meantime the government had attempted to allay worker discontent by decreeing on May 29 an across-the-board wage increase for Peruvian workers, but this only served to arouse the criticism of businessmen
who claimed
that the govern-
ment was adding to inflation. During June the economic policies of the government came under increasing attack in congress. When the government admitted both the existence of a large deficit and the fact that the International Monetary fund had canceled a credit to Peru because of crisis
occurred.
On July
its
inflationary policies, a
4 Luis Gallo Porras,
who had been
premier and finance minister during the past year, resigned.
Two
weeks later a new cabinet was formed with Pedro Beltran and finance minister. Beltran, the editor of conservative La Prensa and an advocate of "free enterprise," embarked upon an austerity program. Controls on meat prices were removed in order to encourage production, and the price of gasoline was increased threefold to revive activity in the Talara oil as premier
fields.
Plans were announced for stopping the issuance of paper
money and duction.
A
for the
promotion of industrial and agricultural pro-
flurry of strikes in protest against higher prices for
meat and gasoline caused the government to suspend constitutional guaratitees at the end of July, but by the middle of August it felt strong enough to restore them. The position of the government was further strengthened at the end of .August and the beginning of September when it received votes of confidence from
National income in 1957 was estimated at 23,655,000,000 soles. The costof-living index stood at 152 in July 1959 (1953 100). Trod» and Communicationi. Exports in 1958 totaled 6,776,587,000 soles; imports, 7,808,082,000 soles. Leading exports were cotton (267c),
=
—
sugar and derivatives (w'S), lead (8%), copper (8%) and silver (7%); leading imports, machinery anrl vehicles (37%), food, drink and tobacco i^l^'/f.) and metals and manufactures (11%). Leading customers were the U.S., including the Panama Canal Zone (42rcl, Chile (10%), the U.K. (9%). Belgium (7%) and western Germany (6%); leading suppliers, the U.S. (47%), western Germany (11%), the U.K. (8%), Argentina (4%) and the Netherlands (i^'r). Railroads 1958) totaled 2,262 mi.: roads totaled about 18,600 mi. in 1954, of which 11,700 mi. were classified as improved. On Jan. 1, 1959, there were 68,356 automobiles, 51,903 trucks and 6,569 buses, .^ccording to Lloyd's Register of Shipping, the merchant marine bad 54 vessels (100 tons and over) aggregating 107,697 gross tons on June 30, 1958. Telephones (Jan. I, 1958) numbered 79,171, of which 81.4% were automatic. Agriculture. Preliminary production estimates for 1958-59 included cotton (lint) 114,571 metric tons; sugar 708,561 tons; rice (milled) 178,676 tons; wheat 143,413 tons. In 1958, 107,519 tons of cotton and 438.150 tons of sugar and derivatives were exported. In Dec. 1957 there were 512,000 horses, 3,244,000 cattle. 14,130.000 sheep. (1956) 1,281,000 hogs, (1954) 2.454,000 goats. 3,419.000 alpacas, llamas and vicunas. In 1958, 4,963 tons of wool were exported. Manufactures. In 1955 there were 4.093 industrial establishments with 110.087 employees and annual gross value of production amounting to 9.050.130.000 soles. Most important by value of production were textiles, food products, grain milling and hulling and cotton ginning. Cement production in 1958 totaled 544. Soo metric tons. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31. 1956) totaled 400,000 kw.; production in 1956 (public use only) was 675,000.000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production in 1958 (prelim.) included copper tin ore) 57,174 metric tons; lead 137,152 tons; zinc 154,456 tons; coal 140,557 tons; silver 24.157.000 fine oz.; gold 132,823 oz.: iron ore (metal content 60%) 2.592,000 tons; crude petroleum 19,221,512 bbl. (J. \V. M\v.) (
—
—
—
—
EscvcLOP/EDiA Britannica Films. Land of Ihe Incas (1955); Arnold Toynbce: Mexico and Peru (first lecture of the series. ".\ Changing World Light of History") (1958); Peru (People of the .Andes) (1959)-
in the
Petrochemicals:
see
Chemical Industry.
"^^^ ^^^^ '9^9 marked the centennial of the perCllUICUIil. troleum industry in the United States, an event) which was widely advertised and celebrated. On Aug. 27, 1859, Col. Edwin L. Drake brought in the first well drilled for oil near
Dotrnlaiim
Titusville, Pa.
;
The
strike started a rush similar to the 1849 Cali-
fornia gold rush but surpassed
it
in the effect
it
was
to
have on
the world's materia! progress, for today petroleum challenges
and lignite for leadership as an energy resource. In 1959 petroleum accounted for an estimated i5.22'propylenei| acetal, high-density polyethylene and polycarbonate) which been under evaluation for the past two years were now readily available. Automation in machine design and plant layout en-l
$1,125,000,000, mostly for completed projects. It was predicted
abled manufacturers to produce plastics products faster andjT
A
year-long bicentennial celebration in 1959 was accompanied in the city's rebuilding. The Allegheny ConCommunity Development announced that total ex-
by major progress ference on
that an equal, 15 years.
if
not greater,
sum would be
required in the next
lb.)
!
more economically than
before.
Several applications with far-reaching implications were
j
de-
PLATINUM — POLAND Production of Plastics and Synthetic Resins
in thie U.S.
Celluloje ploiHcs* Phenolic ond other lor ocid reiinit
Urea ond melomins Slyrene resins Vinyl resins
Coumarone-indene and petroleum polymer
resins
Polyester resins Polyethylene resins Miscellaneous t
Of
Dnfjintrw UUiailJ.
pounds)
Iln
1958
1957
141,350,000 461,098,000 325,412,000 695,501,000 820,523,000 236,523,000 113,853,000 865,306,000 211,461,000
148,112,000 531,306,000 349,077,000 680,100,000 885,505,000 285,1 44,000 95,232,000 707,500,000 225,592,000
'includes flllers, piosticizers ond extenders. tincludes friction moteriois. {includes data for acrylic, nylon and other molding materials, as well as epichlorohydrin, acrylic, silicone and other protective-coating resins. Source: U.S. Tariff Commission.
549 1959 was the greatly
significance during
in-
creased participation of the organized podiatrists
programs dealing with the total health and welfare of the people of the United States. Highlighting this was their planned in
White House Conference on Children and Youth and the 1961 White House Conference on Aging. A comprehensive catalogue of audio-visual materials for public and professional education was compiled and published. An participation in the i960
abstract
of
state
chiropody in
all
laws
regulating
the
practice
of
podiatry-
of the states was brought up-to-date and pub-
lished.
veloped during the year. Included among these were blow molded high-density polyethylene bottles for household detergents
molded high-density polyethylene
injection
first
flight
the
;
luggage
The annual meeting in New York city, Aug. 29-Sept. i, 1959, more than 1,300 podiatrists-chiropodists. There were
attracted
114 papers read, several panel discussions and 35 scientific exThere were also conferences on the allied
hibits at the meeting.
ever put on the market; mass-produced glass-reinforced poly-
health professions in hospital service
motorboat engines and lawn mow'ers the first entry of plastics, in the form of a phenolic-glass clutch cone, into automatic car transmissions; a sofa frame molded of ex-
cation for America's youth; symposia on arthritis of the foot,
ester shrouds for
;
pandable styrene; the
first
entry of plastics (a molded acetal
valve) into faucet construction, which had been traditionally
all
and a new type of building construction (first shown in the U.S. pavihon at the 1959 American National exhibition in Moscow) in which premolded polyester-glass "umbrellas" were grouped into a canopy effect. Among the new plastics that made their appearance was a vinyl fluoride film that combines flexibility with inherent weathering brass;
ability,
toughness and chemical resistance.
It
could be used
outdoors for glazing and as a laminate to protect wood, aluminum
and other materials from deterioration. Another
plastic, chlori-
nated polyether, although not new, attracted attention, a
major price cut and then with
industrial application (a water
its first
first
meter wobble plate that showed
The material had exceptional corrosion
it
resistance,
and melting point (365° F.) and essentially zero water absorption. In Europe a new material which was described as a mechanically mixed blend of vinyl chloride and chlorinated polyethylene was developed. The mixture had exceptional light and weathering stability, could be formulated with impact strength as good as that of rigid vinyl and had a wider working temperature range than had been pos-
high heat distortion (300° F. at 66
sible
p.s.i.)
with rigid polyvinyl chloride.
manufacture of reinforced
of the sole of the foot.
The American Podiatry
plastics products
in
association announced that
annual meeting in Washington, D.C., ing,
its
its
1962
50th anniversary meet-
would be an international conference on foot health.
Encyclop,cdia Britannica Films.
— Care
(A. Ru.) oj the Feet
(1943).
Poetry: see American Literature; Canadian Literature; English Literature; French Literature; German Literature; Italian Literature; Jewish Literature; LatinAmerican Literature; Literary Prizes; Soviet Literature; Spanish Literature. people's republic of eastern Europe is bounded Dnlonri ^^^^ rUldllU. east by the U.S.S.R., south by Czechoslovakia, west by the German Democratic republic and north by the Baltic sea.
Area 120.359 sq.mi. Pop. (1950 census) 24,613,684; (Dec.
1958 for the
(by spraying polyes-
31,
1959, est.) 29,600.000. National minorities (1959 est.): Ukrainians 200,000; Byelorussians 120,000; Jews 50,000; Slovaks 15,000; Lithuanians 10,000;
nantly
Roman
Germans
7,000. Religion: predomi-
Catholic, but (1958 est.) there were about 400,-
000 Orthodox and 120,000 Lutherans. Chief towns (pop. 1958
Warsaw 1,088,000; Lodz 696,000; Cracow 461,000; Wroclaw 410,000; Poznan 392,000; Gdansk 272,000; Szczecin 254,-
est.):
000;
The spray gun technique which was developed
health and recreation edu-
with
use in a precision molded
wearing qualities at least four times better than the brass disk replaced).
;
diminished circulation in the foot, and chronic intractable lesions
Bydgoszcz 224,000; Katowice 209,000;
12
other towns
with a population of over 100,000. First Secretary of the Polish United Workers'
(Communist)
1959 to permit the simultaneous spraying of polyester resin and an
party in 1959, Wladyslaw Gomulka; chairman of the council of state, Aleksander Zawadzki; chairman of the council of minis-
aggregate for surfacing and other building applications. Blow
ters,
ter
and
glass simultaneously
on
a surface)
was refined
in
molding, an older processing technique, had a full-scale revival in 1959.
The
availability of
new stock machines and improved
plastics, particularly high-density
of the revival.
The
polyethylene were the causes
technique, in which a hollow tube
out by air against a mold and held in place until
it
is
blown
sets,
was
die in front. Instead, a centripetal
move
home
signs to the contrary,
from the
candidates compared with 1,296,938 at the time of the second
new concept
congress
(March 1952). The reduction
was used. The chief uses for the
port to the congress
melt extruder was ex-
pected to be in profile and foam extrusions, wire coating, pipe (C. A. Bn.)
Platinum: see Mineral and Metal Production and Prices. Plums: see Fruit. see
Respiratory Diseases.
in Oct.
United Workers' (Communist) party was held
mainly the
Pneumonia:
by Wladyslaw Gomulka
1956.
be developed from the rotary shearing of visco-elastic melts
and for compounding plastic materials.
there were no fundamental departures
policies inaugurated
of ex-
The year
pumping action which could elastic
1959 was economically one of slight resomewhat troubled. In spite of some
politics
material out of the
wares, toys, automotive and industrial components.
1959 also saw the introduction of an entirely
—The year
cession and in
During March 10-19, i9S9. the third congress of the Polish in Warsaw. On Jan. I, 1959, the party numbered 1,072,932 full members and
expected to have an important influence on packaging, house-
trusion which did not require a screw to
Jozef Cyrankiewicz.
History.
of party
membership was
result of the 1958 "verification." In his six-hour re-
Gomulka
was meant a cleansing from ideologically embarrassing "revisionist" and "dogmatic" elements. But he was worried by the fact that the percentage of workers among the party members was only 41.8% (6.5% less than in 1954), and that the peasant membership had fallen during the same period from 13.1% to 12.2%.
not disturbed by the loss
in
said that the party leadership
numbers because
it
marek was accused of antistate propaganda. Only the pope has the power to remove from
bishop
a
diocese,
his
XXIII
but on Aug. 19 John
addressed a letter to
Msgr.
Kaczmarek sending him
his
fatherly love and expressing the hope that the conflict would be happily settled. In
of
spite
these
all
menacing
signs nothing irreparable hap-
pened
and
between
the
Vivendi
state.
the
Church
The modus
established
in
Dec.
1956 continued. POLISH
PEOPLE CHEERING
U.S.
VICE-PRESIDENT
through Warsaw durino his visit to the country In the car it Milton Elsenhower
in
NIXON
as
1959. To the right
he of
When
rode
Nixon
Warsaw on Aug. 2 way home from Moscow, the people received him enthusiastically. On .Aug. 3 Nixon had a five-hour talk with Gomulka, who brought up the problems for which he for a three-day visit
The congress approved the directives for a new five-year development plan for 1961-65. Industrial production would rise by s°''c compared with the provisions for ig6o and by 80%
on
his
held the United States responsible: the western refusal to rec-
compared with 1958. But agricultural production was lagging, and Gomulka said that between 1959 and 1965 it was planned to increase agricultural production by 30'^f He pointed out that while in Bulgaria 95"^^ of arable land was collectivized, in Czechoslovakia this proportion reached 759c and in Rumania 65%, in
ognize Polish sovereignty over former
Poland only
totaling $50,000,000. Together with loans
.
of arable land belonged to the "socialized
189J:
sector" (of which
12.5% belonged
to 6,079 state farms). In other
words, 82- "Govemmental Process" was somewhat refashioned, and reflected the forces of cross acculturation. The main subheads dealt with political forces and trends, political parties and political beha\-iour. "Political Forces and Trends
Polo club
be anticipated, led the
list
trio retained the national intercollegiate title
by defeating the
University of Virginia. 14-5.
In the
annual Sherman Memorial indoor toumey.
final of the
the Huntington iX.Y.) Turtles set back the Huntington Fal-
Schwaru. Arthur Xichols and Frank Rice
cons. 14-10. Joseph
made up
the winning team.
Among
bowed
the features of the eastern indoor season, was the apof.
an all-women's team at Squadron
A
armour>-. In a (.Conn.)
Braun. Helen Puuel and CjTithia Michaels York Knights 5-4. yielding to their male
trio of .Vnn
Xew
to the
rivals after a
hard-fought contest.
(T. V. H.)
'
treated the following: general studies, pressure groups, labour influences, general
Popular Music: Population,
.'tt'
Music: Records
Movements
.a.vd
Recordings.
of: see Reflcees.
and comparative studies, national and regional middle classes, business influences, ideo-
studies, rural influences, logical influences,
military- influences,
religious
influences, na-
and racial factors, and studies by areas. Such a grouping was at once both "sociological" and realistic, denoting a getting away from the formalism which characterized the development of political science in an earlier period. "Political Beha\-iour." the last of the three categories under "Government and Public .Administration." was also a fast-growing emphasis and one of the newest. The subdi\"isions here were tional minorities
general studies, political attitudes, political leadership, channels of communication, propaganda, mass communication media, voting beha\nour and elections
As
for
i
generally,
and by
were thought
topics, therefore, as well as in
space-age model, was finding
it
terms of the
increasingly difficult to "keep
f^"
year of the population figure.
won
n«|«
The
Circle
F
four of DaUas, Tex.,
r UIU.
title
when
it
halted the Aurora riders of Buffalo. X.Y..
the national op)en
1959 final at the Oak Brook Polo club in Hinsdale. Delmar CarroU. Ray Harrington. Jr.. William A. Mayer and
>--. in the
—
-ell
Firestone. Jr.. comprised the wirming team. Circle
ed the United States 20-goal
with an 11-5 triumph over
Rock club
title to its feats
Meadow Brook
F
for the season
("X.Y.'i at
the Piping
X.V. Firestone. Mayer. Harrington and Lester Armour rode for the \nctor5. The Menlo Circus team of Menlo Park. Cahf accounted for two national outdoor championships. Menlo. with William G. Gilmore. Da\-id S. Moore. iRobert Skene and W. Mackall Jason the mallet swingers, set back Oklahoma. 0-5. for intercircuit honours. Frank A. Mcin
Locust
The
totals
\'alley.
NeiUy. Moore. Skene and Jason routed the Solo
Cup
quartet of
Chicago. 15-7. in the final of the U.S. 12-goal event.
The Oak
Biook quartet of Victor Graber. William Linfoot. Cecil Smith
This table pro\ides a fundamental basis
Populafions
and Areas of
C
riders of Detroit, Mich., 5-4, in the
!Oft
WoHd
!>:.; s=-=s!
58,599,308
total
AFRICA B«lgion cotony and trvsteeship
.... .
,
.
Ethiopia (ind. Eritreo)
1,121,892
103,089 91,843 94,925 178,201 124,503 43,000 679,358 227,737 419,229 174,471 489.206 800,296 76,124
Guinea haHan Sotnaliland (SoaoEol Krory Coast: Liberio
Ubyo Malgache: Mouritonia:
Morocco Niger: Portuguese overseas provirKes Senegal: South- West Africa (mandate of Unioa of South Africo) Spanish colonies and possessions. . . Sudan. Republic of the .
Tunisio
Union of South Africo Union of South Africa possessions United Arab Republic
The Milwaukee CWis.) Knights took door season, the national
the
major prize of the
in-
12-goal crown, beating the Cornell
imiversity entrv- of Ithaca. N.Y..
16-15. s' the Squadron
A
pnnoury in New York. Paul Smithson. Jr.. William E. Stevens Donald G. McCarroU rode for the westem champions. Competing for Comell. the eastern di\"ision title winner, were Ben Ihad {Baldwin. Peter Baldwin and Stan Woolawav. The same Cornell
967,491
472733
...
110 386,100 71,227 105,839
Egyot Syrio Upper Volta:
ANTARCTICA (e»chisive of
British colonies
317,725 114,195 464.873 48,332
Sjoonese RepubtcJ
Afghoniston Bahrain Bhutan
925,907 1,968,8i3
2' buildings, purchase of equipment and excavation work, which included the drilling and removal of more than the
in process of construction in
30,000 cu.m. of rock.
The ultimate potential of this undertaking was given as 3,000,000,000 kw.hr.. said to equal the total estimated output of all other Angolan hydroelectric systems already completed or in process of construction.
An
incident considered
by some observers
to
be not alto-
gether unrelated to the political unrest in the motherland oc-
curred in Portuguese Guinea in August when what was described in
an
statement as a "strike and mutiny" of native port
official
workers at Bissau was put down with severity. The
ment declared
official state-
that public order and the prestige of authority
would be defended by
all
possible
means and added the govern-
ment's regret at the number of victims resulting from "repressive steps promptly taken in a
manner adequate
to the intention of
the mutineers' attacks." It did not, however, give the
number
of casualties.
—
1
557
(162,000); potatoes 1,196,000 (1,196,000); broad beans 45,000 (56,000); meat 90,000 (80,400); wine (1957) 958,000 (1,096,000 in 1956). Livestock (1955-56): cattle 895,000; sheep 3,592,000; pigs 1,516,000; horses 74,000; mules 126.000; asses 232,000; goats 738,000. Timber production (roundwood, 1957) 5,200,000 cu.m.; raw cork (1957) 139,586 metric tons. Fish landings (including Azores and Madeira, 1957) 464,600
result of the re-
Addressing the
UN
general assembly in October, Jose Vasco
Garin, Portuguese ambassador to the United Nations, once
more
declared his country's refusal to submit reports to the Trusteeship council on
its
overseas provinces. Nor, he added, would
Portugal acknowledge any international statute which sought to discriminate
between the
different parts of the national ter-
i
ritories, the
independence of which was clearly estabhshed by
Porfuguese Oversees Provinces Area Country
(sq.ml.l
Populofion 11950 censusi
Capitol I19J8
esl.l
AFRICA Angola
481,351
372 303,073
4,145,266 148,331 51 0,777 60,159 5,738,911
l"diat
1,619
637,591
(Eur.
892)
649,000
»*°"0
6 7,332
187,772
(Eur.
2,719)
442,378
(Eur.
568)
188,000 493,000
Cape Verde Is Guinea Sao Tome and Principe
1,552 13,948 Ij
Mozambique
(Eur.
78,824)
(Eur.
2,909) 2,2631 52) 48,213)
(Eur.
(Eur. 1,1 (Eur.
4,508,000 192,000 559,000 62,000 6,234,000
ASIA
'ii"or
'Govemor-eenerol.
fComprlsei
Goo
(1,394 sq.mi.),
Domoo
(211 sq.ml.) and Diu (14
sq.mi.).
Ipop. 1950 censusi
:
POST OFFICE
S58 the independence of the Portuguese nation
revenue io9,75S.ooo escudos, expenditure no,] 18,000 escudos. Monetary
itself.
September the second phase of Portugal's case against Iijdia over its right of access to the enclaves of Dadra and NagarAvcli opened at The Hague Court of International Justice. On In
the eve of the opening, India submitted to the United Nations a
—
ondary
3, pupils
it
was stated that while
it
jurisdiction of the International court
(
products
accepted the compulsory
it
government of any
was not applicable
state with which, at the
time of an application to the court, the government of India
had no diplomatic
the present case was
when diplomatic
first
relations
and the
Progress was
e.\isted
it
between the two
states,
was not affected by the Indian reservation. It was expected would continue until nearly the end of the year, after which the court would adjourn and announce its findings several weeks later. It was announced that during 1959 the 11 municipalities of Goa would together spend about 13,200.000 escudos on local works, a great part of it on road construction, conservation and
tion
that the hearing of the case
A
be borne by municipal and other local authorities.
(F. B. H.)
coffee
(exports)
— This
governmental
depart-
year 1959 i960 toward providing the nation with fiscal
efficient postal service.
made
chiefly along three lines
— building,
legisla-
parcel-post rate increase was approved by the Interstate 20, 1959.
Construction of modern-
ized postal facilities such as post offices, postal branches, stations
and substations moved forward during
negotiations being completed for
fiscal
more than
year 1959 with
three facilities each
working day. This represented an increase of about
ii%
over
the previous fiscal year.
The new would
parcel-post increase to be put into effect Feb.
to average
i960,
i,
annual losses of about $88,000,000. The increase,
offset
about 17.1% was the
move
first
in
approximately
six
years to meet substantial increases in the department's costs for
—
Angola. Schools (1936): primary (including rudimentary) 1,580, pupils 75,215, teachers 3,488; secondary 40, pupils 4.461, teachers 358: vocational 183, pupils 7,024, teachers 415; teacher-training i, students 20S. Principal products (metric tons, 195S): sugar {Ul quel) 65,000; coffee (1957) 75,000; cottonseed 12,000; palm kernels (exports, 1957) 12.300; cotton, lint. 6.000: agaves (e.xports, 1957) 46,000; diamonds (i9S7) 864,400 metric carats; salt (1957) 52,300 metric tons. Foreign trade (1958); imports 3,738,000,000 escudos. exports 3,689,000.000 escudos. Roads (1956): 35,489 km.; motor vehicles in use (1957): light 21.400, heavy 9,000. Railways (1957): 2,934 km. Shipping (1957): vessels entered 4,318, net tonnage 5,843,187. Budget (1958 est.): balanced at 1.910,041.919 escudos. Monetary unit: angolar, at par with the escudo. (Escudo valued at 3.5 cents U.S.) Cape Verde Islands. Schools (1957): primary 120. pupils 6,595, teachers 148: secondary i, pupils 8S3, teachers 24; vocational i, pupils 165, teachers 4. Principal products: castor oil, coffee, mustard, brandy, oranges, hides. Foreign trade ( 1957) imports 378,361,000 escudos, exports 364.820,000 escudos. Shipping (1957): vessels entered 4,627, net tonnage 5. '72, 515. Roads (1957): 545 km.; motor vehicles in use (1957): light 234, heavy 53. Budget (1958 est.): balanced at 47,846,107 escudos (ordinary), and 26.S50.000 escudos (extraordinary). Guinea. Schools (1957): primary 163, pupils 11,142, teachers 192; secondary i. pupils 239, teachers 14; vocational 8, pupils 160, teachers 16. Principal products: rice, palm kernels, seeds, hides. Foreign trade (1956): imports 198.288,000 escudos, exports 203,208,000 escudos. Shipping (1957): vessels entered 72. net tonnage 77.505. Budget (1957 actual) revenue 136.289.000 escudos. expenditure 150,087,000 escudos. Sao Tom^ and Principe Islands. Schools (1957): primary 19, pupils 2,651, teachers 48; secondary i, pupils 125, teachers 15; vocational i, pupils 104, teachers 6. Principal products (metric tons, exports): cocoa beans (1957) 10,400; coconuts (1956) 5,639; copra (1956) 4,033; coffee (1956) 360; palm oil (1956) 1.324. Foreign trade (1956): imports 132.481.000 escudos, exports 172,977.000 escudos. Shipping (1955): vessels entered 1.551. net tonnage 603,902. Budget (1957 actual); revenue 71,899.000 escudos. expenditure 66.S56.000 escudos. Mozambique. Schools (1957): primary 2,796, pupils 341,629, teachers 3,362: secondary 6, pupils 1,726, teachers 107: vocational 77, pupils 7.89s, teachers 135; teacher-training 6. students 557, teachers 23. Principal products (metric tons): copra (exports. 1958) 44,400; cottonseed (1958) 64,000; bananas (exports. 1956) 12.000; sugar (1958. tel quel) 170.000; cotton, lint, (195S) 32.000; agaves (1958) 33.000. Budget (1957 actual): revenue 3,131,067,000 escudos, expenditure 3,176,540,000 escudos. Foreign trade (1957): imports 3.111,562,000 escudos, exports 2,029.294.000 escudos. Shipping (1956): vessels entered (including coastwise shipping) 9,494,000 registered tons, net tonnage handled 5,622,000. Roads (1957): 37.373 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): light 20,970; heavy 6,263. Railways (1956) 2.800 km. India. Schools (1957): primary 170, pupils 15,456, teachers 285; secondary 4. pupils 1.837. teachers 49; vocational iS. pupils 1.159, teachers 69; teacher-training i. students 29, teachers 3. School of medicine, students 114. Copra production (1956) 1,900 metric tons; salt (1957) 9,500 metric tons; manganese ore (metal content, 1957) 60.000 metric tons: iron ore (exports, metal content. 1957) 1.739.000 metric tons. Foreign trade (1956); imports 549.94S.000 escudos. exports 496.446.000 escudos. Shipping (1957); vessels entered 917, net tonnage 1.495.015. Roads (1957): 761 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957) 5.975. Budget (1957 actual): revenue 344,913.000 escudos. expenditure 291.474.000 escudos. Monetary unit: (from Jan. i, 1959) escudo, at par with the Portuguese escudo (formerly rupia). Macao. Schools (1957): primary 226, pupils 39,697, teachers 2,632; secondary 20. pupils 3.886. teachers 441; vocational 18. pupils (1956) 271, teachers 92. Foreign trade (1956): imports 368.304,334 escudos, exports 183.290,696 escudos. Roads (1956) 109 km. Shipping (1957): vessels entered 3.988, gross tonnage 1,927,984. Budget (1957 actual)
—
:
—
—
—
—
States.
Commerce commission Nov.
small part of this expenditure was expected to be cov-
ered by government subsidies, but in the main the burden would
—
1,200;
and mechanization.
A
it
repair.
half of fiscal
first
referred to the court in Dec. ig5S, still
copra
1956);
UlllbC. ment progressed rapidly during
an increasingly
For Portugal
'-'"'^*'^
PflQt UOl (IffiPP I
was held that since
relations.
(metric tons,
did so with certain res-
ervations, one being that such jurisdiction to disputes with the
93, pupils 6,578, teachers 193; secJj8, teachers 18. Foreign trade (1957); imports 61,333,
000 escudos, exports 38,879,000 escudos. BudKet (1957 actual): revenue 74.357.000 escudos, expenditure 70,171,000 escudos. Roads 1957): 2,154 km. Shipping (1957): vessels entered and cleared 59, net tonnage 55.626. Principal
note in which
=
unit: pataca 5.50-5.70 escudos. Timor. Schools (1957): primary
wages, transportation and other items connected with parcel post services.
Plans
erect
to
mechanized post
Project
office in
half of fiscal year
first
"Gateway." a revolutionary, fullv Calif., were made during th-
Oakland,
i960. This
new
structure, to be built
through the commercial leasing program, followed by a
year the announcement
to erect Project
less
than
"Turnkey'' a labora-
tory-type post office in Providence, R.I.
The department's mechanization and automation program also moved forward with the unveiling of two of the world's largest which was capable of accepting and distributing them to any one of nearly 1,000
letter-sorting machines, one of
coded
letters
destinations.
The development
of semiautomatic parcel-post-sorting ma-
automatic address-reading machines and
chines,
other
mail-
handling devices showed marked progress.
For the
fiscal
year ended June 30, 1959, the post
office depart-
ment's revenues were $3,035,250,808 and expenditures $3,640,368,053, leaving a deficit of $605,117,245.
At the end of the 1959 fiscal year, U.S. treasury savings stamps in about 17.000 post offices. Sales for the fiscal year amounted to $19,274,000. During the year 86,000 U.S. savwere on sale ings
bonds were sold over the counter
in
about 1.220 post
offices
on behalf of the U.S. treasury.
Through the '35,750 post offices, 8.865 classified, contract and and stations, a total of 61.247.220.000 pieces of mail were received for domestic mails and foreign destinations, transported and delivered during the 1959 fiscal year. This reprerural branches
sented an increase of 1,117,309,000 pieces over the preceding year.
The class
postal serv'ice transported 1,209,417,000 pieces of fourth-
(parcel post") zone-rate packages, weighing about 7,500,-
578,000
lb.,
during
fiscal
year 1959. For the preceding year the
were 1,170,119,000 pieces and 5.860.373.000 lb. There were 249.558 mi. of domestic airmail routes in thel United States on June 30, 1959. and during the fiscal year mailsl totals
were flown 114.336.482 ton-miles over these routes. Ton-milesI for the preceding year were 103.322.381. U.S. flag air carriers! transported 11.676.320 lb. of foreign mails during the year. The| experimental
airlift
of four-cent first-class mail on a space
avail-i
able basis during fiscal 1959 provided direct service through
major and
local service airlines to
about 229 U.S.
cities in
POTASH — POTATOES fifth
states.
There were
in fiscal year
1959, 31.377
routes serving 9,189,211 families.
By
rural
free delivery
master general
Aug. 1958. Star routes in the United States (including Alaska) numbered
and
its
As of June
award from the National Safety
approximately
30, 1959,
80%
Canada.
— In
(A. E. S.)
1958-59 Canada's mail volume increased by
about 100.000.000 items, making a record total of approximately 3.800,000.000 pieces of mail processed by the post
ment during
fiscal
1959 totaled $5,-
158,275,000.
At the
were 1,740,000 decompared with 1.925,-
close of the 1959 fiscal year there
positors in the postal savings system, as
office
depart-
the fiscal year.
In handling this increasing volume of mail the department was constantly alert to measures to improve
Domestic money orders issued during
of the department's
ardized equipment.
possessions and were traveled 59,097,759 mi. during the
year.
safety
vehicles had been converted to modern, lighter weight, stand-
in
10,078 and were traveled 271,780,071 mi. during the 1959 fiscal year. Short-haul truck routes numbered 707 in the United States
559
traffic
council.
the close of calendar year
1959 a total of 453,000 families had been added to rural routes under extensions of service provided by a directive by the post-
consecutive
service.
its
Postage
stamp vending machines and curbside mailing receptacles were among the extended facilities which had been made available to the public.
The mailmobile,
had been introduced
a three-wheel vehicle,
852 on June 30, 1958. Outstanding principal to the credit of
on an experimental basis
depositors at the end of fiscal 1959 was $1,043,452,661, a de-
ing delivery service in urban areas.
same period the previous year. In addition there were accrued interest obligations amounting to $85,285,056, making a total liability to depositors of $1,-
reached a
at $169,928,734,
representing an increase of $5,029,982
128,737,717.
those of 1957-5S.
Money
crease of about $170,155,000 from the
Depositories on June 30, 1959. numbered 6.335, which was
536 fewer than at the same date the previous year.
The
were occupied under
fiscal
lease,
1959.
Of these
buildings. 8.771
15,409 were rented, 3,155 govern-
ment-owned were operated by the post office department and 108 government-owned multiple-purpose buildings were operated by the U.S. General Services administration. The number of buildings utilized during fiscal 1959 was 27,136. During fiscal year 1959 more than 100,000 mail drivers operated more than 70,000 motor vehicles and drove about i.ooo.000,000 mi. to deliver the mails. The postal service received its "THE POSTMAN ALWAYS RINGS AT LEAST TWICE," Fletcher of the Sioux City (la.) Journal
in
in
office
958-59 from
its
1 1
in
1959
cartoon
by
over
value of $853,443,891,
offices to the
revenue and i.6o5c in numbers sold.
savings bank facilities were accorded at 1,477 post
balance of $34,155,617 appeared to the credit of 302,349 depositors at the close of the year. New federal buildings offices. .\
offices numbered 65 at the end There were 81 more such buildings under con-
completed and occupied as post of the fiscal year.
struction at that time..
Letter carrier delivery was inaugurated in two communities
and 2S0 additional
letter carrier
walks were placed in operation
at other places, bringing this service to
dresses.
The
total
number
of
homes and
120,577 additional ad-
places of business served
was 2,680,925. There was a net increase of 45 a
,634 post offices
orders numbering 53,746,050 were sold
approximately 11.000 post
Post
1
usefulness in improv-
its
of $183,380,508. Total postage sales stood
an increase of 0.92%
postal service utilized 27,443 buildings, leased, rented or
government-owned, during
Canada's postal revenue
new peak
determine
to
in the
number
of rural routes in operation, bringing the total to 5,521
such
services carrying mail to approximately 601,500 householders.
Railway post
offices
numbered
96.
baggage car services 460 and
a staff of 792 railway mail clerks traveled 37,033,339 mi. during the fiscal year.
Domestic water routes numbered
55.
(G. A. Be.)
See also Phil..\tely.
Potash:
see
PntotnOC rUlalUCo. cwt., as
Mineral and Metal Productiox and ^'^^
'•"'^^
Prices,
'^^^ white-potato crop in the U.S. was
smaller than in 1958; the total was 242,172,000
compared with 265,729,000 cwt.
for 1949-57 of 229,829,000 cwt.
dicated at 165,854,000 cwt.,
above average for 1949-57.
in 1958
The important
and an average crop was in-
fall
9% below 195S but, even A dip in prices early in the
the lowest level since 1940. plus an official
so,
9%
year to
recommendation that
summer and fall potatoes be reduced by 11% below farmers' March planting intentions), led to an
total acreage of
(and 7'^
overall reduction to 1,397,000 ac, nearly 5^0 below 1958
and
even more below the 1949-57 average of 1.481,000 ac. Acreage planted for early-season harvest was reduced by about one-fifth, fall crop by less than 2%. Dry weather in important areas during the growing season and freezing weather at harvest time
the
hurt the crop; the yield declined to 173.4 cwt. per acre, as com-
pared with 181,1 cwt. per acre in 1958, but an average for 194957 of 155,8 cwt. For the second year Idaho was the leading producing
state.
Diversion of 1958 crop potatoes to starch and livestock feed under the sec. 32 program exceeded 22,000.000 cwt,, about 10,-
000,000 cwt. more than the previous year. Prices strengthened as evidence accumulated that the late 1959 crop would be less
POULTRY — PRESIDENTS. SOVEREIGNS AND RULERS
560
by Itading Statu
U.S. Potato Production
in
Ihouiord hundrod*e.(lMl Indkolod
lln
1959
1958
1957
38,740 33,090 13,072 12,000 11,000
41,580 37,250 17,050 14,700 10,530 10,557 7,905
35,S25 37,816 13,352 9,775 7,500 8,482 5,940 6,370 6,860 4,140 4,340 3,393
Slala
Av-focjn 1949 57
Oop
Fall
Idoho
Main*
N»w
Yark North Oakolo Mlnnaioto
Colorado Michigan
.
.
8,092 7,050 6,820 6,075 5,500 4,375 4,050 2,409
.'
P.f.n.ylvanla
Or.gon Wo.hlnglon California
Wl.coniin
Ohio N^braika Summar Crop Waihinglon
2,091
.
6,240 5,614 4,050
Coiilornla
N«w
Jarioy
Wi«con,in
3,045 2,812 2.520
Oregon
2,4 15
York
(l.l.)
Colorodo
Delowar«
5,830 2,805 3,420 3,215 4,200 2,737 2,628 2,362 1,665 1,131
867
18,228 5,977 1,776 2,645
24,005 7,610
2,100 2,040
Te«oi Eorly Crop Colifornio Florida
15,799 5,051
2,120 2,070 1,908
Ariiono North Corolino
Alabama South Corolino
Arkansas
4,501
5,743 4,177 3,865 4,442 2,262 2,579 1,992 1,033
2,661
1,722 2,400 2,595
16.997 5,262 1,124 2,655 2.359
518 488 425
499 760 473
708
580 540 480
Texas
1,800 1,809
8,313 8,125 6,732 8,439 5,801 3,342 3,795 4,652 2,248 3,218
5,760 6,610 4,050 3,747 3,000 2,948 2,840 2,750 2,310 1,767
3,341
VIrglnIo
N«w
7,822 7,000 5,280 4,760 4,205 2,080 2,077
27,323 35,390 14,152 10,572
burdensome; producers received $1.82 per hundredweight
646 875
in
November, as against $1.18 a year earlier. Consumption was indicated at 103 lb. (farm weight) per capita, 3% more than in 1958, but 10% less than in 1947-49 ^nd only 79% of the level that existed before World War II. Exports accounted for less than 2% of production. In April, Canada eliminated the Jan. ously in effect for
to
i
June 14 duty-free entry period previ-
new potatoes and
applied a 37.5 cent per
hundredweight import duty. Evidence accumulated that, because of a hot dry summer, the European crop, a major part of the world total, would be reduced by as much as io%-2o%.
Sweet Potatoes.
—The
largely
southern-grown U.S. sweet-
western Africa and the Synod of the Christian Churches of
Central
Java,
in
Indonesia,
brought the membership to
churches, comprising more than 45.000,000 Christians
in
76 the
Presbyterian and Reformed Churches throughout the world. This represented more than a
The
of 50 churches.
50%
membership
increase over the 1950
distribution of the 76 denominations was:
North America 10; Latin America
8; British Isles 6;
Africa 14; Asia 13; and Australasia
Europe 22;
3.
In the North American sector of the alliance the
member
churches were: Associate Reformed Presbyterian Church,
27,-
Cumberland Presbyterian Church, 87,531; Cumberland Presbyterian Church in U.S.A. and Liberia, 20,000; Evangelical and Reformed Church, 807,280; Hungarian Reformed Church in America, 12,000; Presbyterian Church in Canada, 196,096; Presbyterian Church in the United States, 869,501 Presbyterian Church in Jamaica, 12,265; Reformed CDutch) Church in America, 219,360; United Church of Canada, 980,461; United Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A., 3,159,562. Other Presbyterian churches, not members of the alliance, were: Associate Presbyterian Church of N.A., Bible Presbyterian Church. Orthodox Presbyterian Church, Reformed Presbyterian Church in N.A. and the Reformed Presbyterian Church of N.A., with a combined membership of approximately 25.000. 629;
;
Within the ranks of the Presbyterian bodies in the United program became effective by the union of the various boards and agencies of the former States a significant consolidation
United Presbyterian Church of North America and the Presby-
Church in the United States of .America, officially united form the United Presbyterian Church in the United States of America. The membership of this union reached 3.159,562, the largest single body of Presbyterians. For serving this number of communicants there were 9,454 churches and 11,801 terian
in 1958. to
ministers, organized on a national basis into 224 presbyteries,
35 synods and a general assembly. The Sunday church school enrollment was 1.932,954. There were 49 church-related colleges and training schools for lay workers to the support of which
potato crop of 1959 was indicated at 18,140,000 cwt., 4% more than 17,434,000 cwt. in 1958, but 7% less than an average crop
$1,351,212 had been granted.
of 19,516,000 cwt. Acreage was increased to 274,000 ac, about
United Presbyterian Church amounted to $242,583,778. Of this amount, $42,409,461 went into the general mission program of
39c over 1958, but small as compared with an average 353,000 for 1949-57. Generally favourable weather contributed to
ac.
on record. Louisiana was. as in recent years, the leading producing state, with 5,015,000 cwt., foUow-ed by North Carolina (2,387,000 cwt.), Virginia (1,892,000 cwt.), Texas (1,680,000 cwt.) and an indicated yield of 66.3 cwt. per
New
acre, the highest
Jersey (1,392,000 cwt.). Indicated consumption of 6.9
per capita was
3%
usage and only
32%
higher than in 1958,
many
55%
as
were used
contributions for furthering this over-all
the church,
Poultry:
see
See also Christian Unity;
Diamonds;
Gem
in the period
Stones.
^^'''''" *^ '^^"''^ Drochutorian Phiirnh ri CdUyiCI Idll UIIUI Ull. and Presbyterian
°^
^^ Reformed
Churches, united
World Presbyterian Alliance, 1959 marked a great commemorative year. The alliance held its i8th general council in Sao Paulo, Braz., from July 27 to Aug. 6, thereby commemoratin the
ing the looth anniversary of Presbyterianism in Brazil, .\pproxi-
mately 250 delegates from 53 countries celebrated the 400th anniversary of the first general synod of the Reformed Church of France, the 400th anniversary of the definitive edition of John Calvin's Institutes of the Christian Religion and the 450th anni^'ersary of Calvin's birth.
The addition
of two
new members,
Church Membership. (G.
Presidents, Sovereigns and Rulers. names
S.
K.)
the Presbytery of Liberia
J^l^^'Z
of those holding chief positions in their countries as on '
Dec, 31, 1959:
Afghanistan
.
.
Albania
.
.
Eggs; Livestock; Meat. see
local mission of the 9,454
churches.
Country
Precious Stones:
and $200,174,317 into the
work of the
lb.
of the 1947-49
193539. In September, producers received $2.68 per hundredweight, as compared w^ith $2.74 a year earlier. (J. K. R.) as
The
.
-
PRICES Country
Nome
Cambodic ,
King Prince (Norodom Sihanouk, Prime Minis Elizabeth II, Queen Moj.-Gen. George Vanier, Governor John George Dielenboker, Prime Mini
Central Afrie Republic.
Ceylon.
.
1955 1958 1952 1959 1957
.
Dacko, Prime Minister. obeth II, Queen. Oliver Goonetilleke, Governor Generol
rid
.
.
.
',',\
Minister
Chile
>
.
'Je"' of the People's Republic on of the Chinese Communist Party of the Stole Administrative Council
People's /Liu! Republic of hou En-loi, Chairmon Republic of hiang Kai-shek, President (T„: 'IT. en. Chen Cheng, Prime Minister Colombia . Iberto Lleras Comorgo. President Congo, Rep. IbertYoulou, Prime Minister Costa Rico = r,oEchand. Jimenez, President Cuba . . ;voldo Dorticcs Torrado, President .
f
^1
.
.
.
Hugh Foote, Governor
Cyprus Czechoslovak .
.
rny, p.rsi Secretary of the Com okio (1953) and Pr< sideni ncil of Minis
Mogarr.me ck
1957 1953 ,959 I 947 1955 1952 1954 1954 1930 1957 1956 1959 1959 1959 1959 1959 1949
en, Prir
'za agents
virus) that had been isolated
sembling the
South America, 450,000 were in Argentina Brazil. The remaining 100,000 were found in seven in
other states. In aU these, the
A
showed them
viruses that had been discovered over a 12 -year period were
in Sept. i960.
an increase of 177%. Since the education law
14,
only small sporadic outbreaks and isolated
cases of influenza were reported during 1959;
was revealed by N. R. Grist and R. G. Sommerville in were investigated virologically during a period of two years in the Glasgow, Scot., area. Type A influenza viral infections were detected during the autumn of 1957 and in the early months of 1958, but no new variants of the Asian \arus were detected.
In Israel, more than 600,000 pupils were expected to be enrolled in 1959,
influenza viral pneumonia.
It is of interest that
and plans were being completed
in Sept. 1959
women
rheumatic heart disease, might be important in the develop-
ment of
a report of 1,000 cases that
Hebrew Theological college received new Jewish university. A
5 to
the absence of bacteria, and that underlying diseases, particularly
elementary grades as
establishment of a
ages of
firmed that influenza virus alone could produce pneumonia in
Respiratory Infections With Other Viruses.
Yeshivah university added a department of supplementary
arts
B. Louria and co-workers reported results in 33 papulmonary complications. Their observations con-
of viruses that could be encountered in cases of acute respiratory
at the high school level.
7.7%
591
serum than did
by the study was the
rabbinic training for students preparing for ordination. In Chicago, the
Donald
other or multiple orientations.
The most disturbing
titers in the
tients with
and 1958, Jewish school enrollment increased
by 131.2%, far greater than the increase in Jewish population. Of the children in Jewish schools, 21% were in Orthodox schools, 38.6% in Conser\'ative schools, 28% in Reform schools and the
DISEASES
they developed higher
is,
those with a mild Olness.
report to the fourth National Conference on
its full
Jewish Education, held
that
sponse, that
cold.
—
-There were many reports on pneumonia caused by staphylococci and most authors assumed or observed that this form had become relatively more frequent and more severe since the advent of antibiotics. Shakeebe Ede, G. M. Da\is and F. H. Holmes, on the basis of cases observed since
Bacterial Pneumonias.
1955 in the U.S. naval hospital at Great Lakes, 111., believed was apparently no greater than
St.ates Congress.
that the incidence of this disease
Republican Party: see Political Parties, U.S. Research Libraries, Association of: see Societies and
prior to the development of antibiotics.
Associations, U.S.
the basis of simple tests for the sensitivity of these bacteria.
Resins: see Plastics.
Remarkably good
results
use of penicillin in the most
Rp^niratnrV nCdpildlUi; ni'inptoms of
Olness were referable to the gastrointestinal tract, namely, nau-
Census Data,
U.S.
the chest showed calcified lesion in and around the hilar regions
lymph nodes draining the lungs) in nearly twocases. The author felt that in patients with positive
(representing the
in the
Indian ocean has an area of 969 sq.mi. Pop. (1954 census) 274,370; (1958 est.) 318,000 (French Creoles, Negroes, Mulattoes, Indians and Chinese). Language: French and creole French. Religion: Roman Catholic. Capital, Saint-Denis; pop.
(1954 census) 26,310. Prefect in 1959, Jean Perreau-Pradier. History. At the municipal elections of March 8-15, 1959, the Gaullists (Union pour la Nouvelle Republique) won 211
—
seats, the
Independents (right wing) 235, the Communists 27
Socialist alliance
won with
57.
At Saint-Denis the
Gaullist-
7,300 votes against 6,700 for the
Communists. On April 26 Georges Repiquet (U.N.R.) was reAt the parliamentary by-election on May 24, M. Valere (U.N.R.) was elected deputy. elected senator.
Gen. Charles de Gaulle visited Saint-Denis during July.
vomiting and occasionally abdominal pain. X-ray films of
thirds of the
see
French overseas island departement
'^^'^
and various other parties
culin tests.
findings that
Retail
be important in the early
recognition of the disease, especially since
sea,
1959); H. Rubin et al., "The Course and Prognosis of Histoplasmosis," J. Med., 27:278-288 (Aug. 1939); E. Schwarz, "Radiologic Contributions to the Diagnosis of Histoplasmosis," /. A. M. A., 170:2171-2174 (Aug. 29, I9S9); E. L. Segal, G. F. Starr and L. A. Weed, "Study of Surgically Excised Pulmonary Granulomas." /. A. M. A., 170:515-522 (May 30, 1959); T. Takaro, H. E. Walkup and J. H. Matthews, "The Place of Excisional Surgery in the Treatment of Pulmonary Mycotic In(M. Fd.) fections," Dis. Chest, 36:19-30, (July I959)-
Am.
roentgenologist plays an important role in the recognition
many
that the roentgenologist's role
or
form progresses
be accompanied by remis-
and exacerbations.
sions
of
may
;
—
(1958) Monetary unit: i franc C.F.A. (Colonies Franmetropolitan francs. Imports; 10,000,000,000 fr. 2 d'Afrique) C.F.A., ind. 6,500,000,000 fr. from France. Exports: 6,500,000.000 fr., incl. 5,850,000,000 fr. to France. Principal exports: sugar 5,350,000,000 Foreign Trade.
ijaises
fr.;
=
essential oils 750,000,000 fr.;
rum 250,000,000
fr.
(Hu. De.)
skin reactions to histoplasmin and negative tuberculin tests, the
presence of isolated lung lesions or diffusely scattered (miliary) lesions with
involvement of the hilar regions should suggest the
In a report from the Veterans Administration hospital, where
many
patients with chronic fungous diseases of the lungs were
under intensive study, T. Takaro, H. E. Walkup and
Mathews
KncUnidllC UlSCdScS.
searches were continued in a search
for the specific changes in connective tissues of the
diagnosis of histoplasmosis.
tried to define the place of surgery in the
J.
H.
management
human
or-
ganism which permit the development of arthritis. The role of mechanical factors in producing disorders of connective tissue
was being studied. Localization of arthritis often
is
determined by trauma. Joints
and
to excessive use are
of such diseases, because a large proportion of the patients tended
which have been subjected
to disseminate their infection after operations
the intention of excising the infected lesions. For example, about
often sites of severe arthritic changes. Reactions of fibrous tissues to trauma are determined by the chemical nature of the sur-
one-fourth of the patients with North American blastomycosis,
rounding medium. The presence of small amoimts of nucleic acid
performed with
to injuries
RHODE ISLAND medium
or of other polysaccharides in the surrounding fibrous tissue to disintegrate rapidly
when subjected
causes
to grind-
A
path for research was the determination of what chemical features of connective tissues might set the stage for traumatic
ing.
of
fibrils.
Apparently calcification can proceed
treatment of rheumatic fever. Such steroid treatment had gen-
when
the basic molecules of collagen are
erally resulted in the disappearance of
geneous nucleation of apatite crystals in the presence of a highly stereochemical configuration in crystal structures
specific
in the organism only
packed
in a specific
which would would result
The
manner. Thus any disorder of fibrous tissues
result in
abnormal orientation of basic molecules
bone;
in
not
is
fact a
variety of reconstituted native-type collagen tissues which are
normally not
calcified
can be caused to take on calcium. All
collagenous tissues are apparently capable of becoming calcified,
but under normal circumstances
this calcification is inhibited
by
These inhibitors are believed to be acid mucopolysaccharides or polymers of these compounds. Accurate inhibitors.
delineation of the nature of calcification inhibitors could pro-
The data were significant because of their relevance to most frequent varieties of crippling human arthritis, namely steoarthritis, which is encountered with increasing frequency as aging progresses. Studies showed that the ratio of chondroitin sulfate to dry weight of cartilage decreases at a constant rate
with increasing age. The ratio of keratosulfate to dry weight of I
and then remains constant. The from zero at birth to the ratio of one to one when an individual reaches the age of seventy. Further, it was found that chondroitin sulfate present in the newborn is notably different in chemical characteristics from the chondroitin sulfate of adults. These data cartilage increases to maturity
ratio of keratosulfate to total polysaccharide increases
I
is,
those persons
which the disease results from an underlying hematopoietic
disorder.
Among persons suffering with women affected was much
proportion of
this tj'pe of gout, the
greater than
among
pa-
primary gout. Prolonged acute attacks, rapid development of tophi, urinary calcuh and marked elevation of serum tients with
uric acid levels
were also more characteristic of the secondary
tjpe than of the primary variety.
New
drugs being tested for the control of gout included 60 Correlation was
made
in the urinan.' excretion of uric acid. in size
and attacks greatly lessened
A new
Tophi were notably reduced
in frequency.
theory concerning uric acid excretion by the kidney
was formulated in an effort to account for paradoxical effects of small and large doses of salicylates and other compounds on the process of uric acid excretion. These studies showed that in addition to glomerular filtration there is a complete tubular reabsorption of urates followed by active tubular secretion. Pro-
longed administration of chlorothiazide, a diuretic agent in small doses,
was found to increase the
uric acid concentration without
inducing other changes in renal function.
When
tinuous chemical differentiation rather than one of degenera-
uric acid increased in the urine
tion.
serum was lessened.
Arthritis.
arthritis included
—Important new
studies of rheumatoid
one which showed that the presence of sub-
cutaneous nodules and high agglutination
titers
a poor prognosis and an unremitting course.
is
A new
indicative of
attempt was
reported to relieve the pain of rheumatoid arthritis through surgical e.xcision of
portions of the sympathetic nervous system.
The
operations were tolerated remarkably well, and during the im-
mediate postoperative period patients exhibited marked
relief of
by the segments of the nervous system which were removed. Notable improvement in mobility and general functional capacity was also reported. Neuropathic disorganipain in the area served
zation of the affected joints did not follow this procedure. It
was reported during the year that long-continued steroid
treatment could be carried out with successful suppression of the disease over long periods of time. In
some
instances, inflam-
matory damage progressed despite the most careful use of hormones. Most workers in this field agreed, however, that these compounds provided the most satisfactory agents presently available for the control of severe
Many new the
new
symptoms
of this disorder.
workers reported upon observations of
cortisonelike
compound dexamethasone.
effects of
All noted seri-
ous side effects, including gastrointestinal ulcerations, pathologi-
of their
of these studies, a compound known as sulfinpyrazone (G-28315) was discovered, which when administered brought about a marked lowering of serum concentrations and a striking increase
were administered intravenously, the opposite
I
I
in
indicated that the aging of cartilage involves a process of con-
Rheumatoid I
intensive study was carried out on the clinical
chemical structures and their pharmacologic actions. As a result
lie
1
—An
manifestations of so-called secondary gout, that
disappearance of abnormal calcium deposits.
Kears.
I
carditis.
analogues of phenylbutazone.
Another interesting development bore upon the nature of human cartilages with advancing
I
the rapid
vide powerful tools with which to bring about dissolution and
changes which take place in
I
murmurs and
lessening of other clinical and electrocardiographic evidences of
Gout.
specific for the fibrous tissues or collagen of
,
—
in disturbance of calcification.
ability to initiate mineralization or calcification
specific
face
tions of the use of triamcinolone, observations of the character
and permanence of improvement following local injections of cortisonelike compounds and studies of the value of combining cortisone with the other compounds were also reported. Rheumatic Fever. Persons with rheumatic fever who had been treated with steroids showed less severe carditis at autopsy than did patients who had not received steroid treatment. This appeared to be of great importance inasmuch as the results corresponded strikingly with the clinical experience with steroid
and degenerative arthritis. Another important question was the mechanism by which tissues become calcified or lose calcium from previously wellcalcified areas. Researches conducted during 1959 showed that the initiation of calcification results from the process of hetero-
native-type collagen
593
marked gains in weight, marked rounding of the and severe edema of the extremities. Long-term observa-
cal fractures,
Osteoarthritis.
larger
amounts
effect
resulted,
and the amount present
—Humans universally are
in the
affected in advanc-
ing years with osteoarthritis. Outstanding features of this condi-
and ulceration of cartilages, the overgrowth of bony margins of joints and chronic inflammation
tion include the deterioration
was suggested that the cause hormonal mechanism. Ovariectomy performed during the early months of life in female mice greatly retarded articular aging and decreased the incidence and severity
of bursae and tendon sheaths. It
might
lie in
a defective
of osteoarthritis. Castration of males also delayed articular aging
and the evolution of
osteoarthritis
ried out during the first
month
cated a possible important role
when
the procedure was car-
These observations indifor sex hormones in susceptibility of
life.
and progressiveness of osteoarthritis. See also Chemotherapy; Heart and Circulatory Dis(E. F. Rg.) eases.
A
Rhode
Island.
in
the 13 original states:
north Atlantic state of the United States,
New it is
England, Rhode Island was one of popularly
known
as "Little
Rhody."
Area: 1,214 sq.mi. (smallest of the United States), including 156 sq.mi. of water, 67% woodland. Population: (1950 census) 791,896;
(July
I,
I9S9, provisional
est.)
875,000.
The
principal
—
—
;
RHODE ISLAND
594 cities,
with 1950 populations and 1956 revised estimates
rentheses were: Providence (cap.) 248,674 (228,000)
;
in pa-
Pawtucket
81,436 (84,100); Cranston 55,060 (64,100); Woonsocket 50,211 (50,000); Warwick 43,028 (60,700); Newport 37,564 (38,500); Central Falls 23,550 (22,200).
East Providence 35,871 (39,700)
—The
History.
;
principal legislation enacted during the 1959
session of the state legislature included; the authorization of the
expenditure of $113,009,716 for the conduct of the government for the fiscal year ending
June
30, i960 (of this
amount, $29,-
184,560 were federal funds and $4,217,043 were restricted use revenues) a series of acts providing new and supplementary ;
funds totaling $2,164,573 '" further support of the state for the year ending June 30, 1959; a series of acts continuing the tem-
porary tax rates established
in
1958 on sales and the income of
banks and business corporations;
legislative
authorization for
referenda permitting the state to issue additional bonds of $3,-
500,000 for highway construction, $375,000 for
facilities
for
children-wards of the state and $2,500,000 as the state's share of the cost of the proposed Providence River hurricane barrier;
an act authorizing the city of Providence to issue $4,600,000 in to finance the municipal share of the hurricane barrier
9i>y mi. thereof having been built by the state. In the same month, railroads wire operating 184.12 mi. of track in the state. Water-borne commerce of the state for 1957 totaled 8,738,689 Ions, of which 8,277,047 tons represented activity in the Providence river and har-
bour.
As of Oct. 1958, there were four publicly owned (state) airporU and three privately owned and active airports. Bonking and Finance. There were 19 banking institutions in 1959. Resources of 15 banks under state supervision totaled $913,750,953; tboM of 4 banks under federal supervision totaled $542,866,801. Savings deposits (exclusive of club accounts) in savings banks and trust companiet (the IS state banks) amounted to $569,227,535 on June 30, 1959. In «ddition, 7 loan and investment companies had resources of $8,969,182; 7 building and loan associations $201,265,034; 90 credit unions $57,798,398. The state closed its fiscal year on June 30, 1959, with revenues totaling $102,433,078, including federal grants of $22,658,209; expenditures and encumbrances $105,548,359; operational deficit $3,115,281; free surplus $303,395. The state gross debt was $84,545,000; net debt after deducting sinking fund assets $76,812,946. Agriculture. The total acreage of principal crops harvested in 1958 wai 32,000. Cash income from crops in 1958 was $6,331,000; from livestock and livestock products $15,688,000; from governmental payments $76,000; total gross farm income $22,095,000. The estimated value of livestock on Jan. i, 1959, was $7,196,000. On Jan. i, 1959, the livestock population of the state included 1,000 horses and mules; 17.000 milk cows; s.ooo other cattle; 11,000 hogs and pigs; 2,000 sheep and lambs; 499,000 chickens; and 3,000 turkeys. Livestock products in 1958 included 130,000,000 lb. of milk valued at $8,814,000; 2,685,000 lb. of chickens, $440,000; 6,290,000 lb. of commercial broilers, $1,201,000; 512,000 lb. of turkeys, $155,000; 87,000,000 eggs,
—
—
$3,981,000.
bonds
Table
construction; an act providing an initial $50,000 in support of a
program; an act whereunder real-estate brokers and salesmen must be licensed by the department of business regulation; an act providing for the state's college of education to expand into a general college of liberal arts and sciences college scholarship loan
an act requesting the board of trustees of state colleges to study and report on the needs for community colleges; adjustments of the general appropriation act to the end that the finance
com-
mittee of the lower house of the legislature might employ
own
its
might be established; an act permitting cities and towns to protect and preserve historic areas by zoning ordinances and an act approvfiscal
advisory
staff,
and that a
legislative council
;
compact with the federal governEngland states with the objective of
ing the state's entering into a
ment and
the other
New
co-ordinated planning in the
management
of the region's water
and related land resources.
The
principal officers of the state in 1959 were: Christopher
Del Sesto, governor; John A. Notte, Jr., lieutenant governor; Augustus P. LaFrance, secretary of state; J. Joseph Nugent, attorney general; and Raymond H. Hawksley, general treasurer. The governor was Republican the other ofl5cers were Democrats. ;
—
Education. During 1958-59 there were enrolled in the public elementary and pre-elementary schools 82,766 pupils with 3,112 teachers; in junior high schools 23,670 pupils with 1,185 teachers; in senior, four-year and
vocational high schools 24,074 pupils with 1,24s teachers. Pupils attending private schools numbered; elementary and pre-elementary 35,534; junior high 6,284; senior and four-year high 7,970; business schools 335. The total number of teachers in private d.i)- schools was 1,655. Current expenditures for public day schools in 195S-59 were $43,544,586, and for evening schools $117,260. The commissioner of education in 1959 was Michael F. Walsh, working under the state board of education of seven members whose chairman was C. B. Collins. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. There were 34.208 persons receiving some type of direct monetary public assistance as of .Aug. 31, 1959, an increase of 48 over the preceding year (rev.). During the year Sept. i, 1958, through Aug. 31, I959. the total amounts paid out in the different categories of aid were as follows: old-age assistance $5,249,636; aid to dependent children $5,936,834; aid to the disabled $2,062,517; aid to the blind $101,973; general public assistance $3,100,523; soldiers' welfare $252,037; in addition, the first four categories were receiving medical services at an annual cost level of $2,275,000. As of Feb. 28. 1959, there were 77,065 persons receiving old-age, survivors and disability insurance benefits at a total monthly rate of $4,964,931. During the year ending June 30, 1959, 932,797 benefit payments amounting to $18,701,392 were made from the unemployment compensation fund, receipts into which totaled $17,932,371; an additional 217,237 benefit pay-
ments totaling $5,806,805 were made under the 1958 recession program of temporary unemployment compensation. In the same period, 263,467 benefit payments totaling $7,307,932 were drawn from the Temporary Disability Insurance fund, i.e., for those unemployed because of sickness; receipts
amounted
to
$6,581,159.
In July 1959, there were 634 inmates in corrective institutions and 5,541 patients in state-operated institutions, including 4,291 in institutions for the mentally ill or defective. Communications In Oct. 1959, the total miles of highway in the state were 4,177.4, of which 1,491.8 mi. were in the state highway system with
—
Crop
Com, bu
I.
Principal
Crops of Rhode Itiand
;
RHODESIA AN D NYASALAND Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Federation This
of.
a federation of three British central African countries:
is
Northern Rhodesia, protectorate (north of the Zambezi river) Nyasaland, protectorate (east of Northern Rhodesia) and Southern Rhodesia, self-governing colony (south of the Zam;
The
595
campaign of violence involving the assassination of the governor and other senior administrative officers. Events in February, the White Paper continued, had provided evidence that the early stages of the congress plan were under
summoning
gency had prevented the
On
full-scale
implementation of the plan.
(March 24)
mixed
2,360,000. Chief towns (total pop., African, 1956 est.;
a paradoxical situation, in which the
federation
is
—
European pop. in parentheses, 1956 census): Kitwe 73,000 (9,700); Ndola 57,500 (6,800); Luanshya 52,366 (6,000); Broken Hill 40,000 Mufulira 53,358 (5,600); Chingola 32,984 (4,600). Governors in 1959: Sir Arthur Benson and (from April 23) Sir Evelyn Hone. (4,200);
Nyasaland.
Pop.: (1959 est.) about 6,600; Blantyre-Limbe about 24,000. Governor in 1959: Sir Robert Armitage.
Southern Rhodesia. 2.860,000.
Chief
—Area:
towns:
150,337 sq.mi. Pop.: (1959 est.) Salisbury (cap.), pop. (1956 est.)
European (1956 census) 62,000; Bulawayo, African 94,000, European (1956 census) 41,000. Governors in 1959: Vice-Admiral Sir Peveril William-Powlett and Humphrey Vicary Gibbs (from July 10). Prime minister: Sir Edgar White.African
125,000,
of a
number
History.
—In Nyasaland the
first
three
months
of 1959 were
troubled by disturbances and demonstrations. Acts of violence
number
of widely separated areas during January and Feb-
ruary resulted in a request from the governor. Sir Robert Armitage, for troops of the King's
African Rifles to be
Lusaka, in Northern Rhodesia,
cessfully
moved an amendment
complete report.
to
moved from
Nyasaland, and European
March
3 Armitage declared a state of emergency and outlawed Nyasaland African congress. On the same day Hastings Banda, the congress leader, and other members were arrested and deported to another part of the federation.
the
In the
when
first
24 hours of the emergency 26 Africans were killed
security forces fired on demonstrators in different parts
of the protectorate.
The
declaration of an emergency in Nyasa-
land had been preceded five days earlier
by
a similar
move
in
Southern Rhodesia, where the Southern Rhodesia African National
congress, the Nyasaland African congress,
the
Zambia
National congress and the Northern Rhodesia African National congress had been banned as illegal organizations. The announcement of the Nyasaland emergency, however, was quickly taken up in the U.K. house of commons. An opposition offer to cooperate in the appointment of a parliamentary commission to
Nyasaland as soon as possible
in order to investigate the
background to the disturbances was rejected by the government, which argued that the next step should be for the minister of state. Lord Perth, to go to Nyasaland when the governor thought the time appropriate.
On March
23, the
U.K. government pub-
hshed as a WTiite Paper a dispatch sent by Armitage to the secre-
it
in
favour of accepting the
the middle of the year, however, only iso-
In Southern Rhodesia a series of
bills
was introduced into the
parliament in the earlier part of the year with the object of outlawing permanently the African National congress movement.
A
Preventive Detention
women wearing ment
aroused particular criticism, and
bill
black sashes stood at the entrance to the parlia-
building in silent protest against
it.
The
bill,
under the
terms of which persons detained for known or suspected subversive actixities might be detained indefinitely at the governor's
pleasure and without any recourse to the courts, was subse-
quently withdrawn. It was later replaced by another rather
less
leaders in Southern Rhodesia
of state for the colonies, A. T.
Lennox-Boyd, on March
18.
the governor traced the activities of the Nyasaland African
congress leading to a secret meeting on January 25 at which,
Armitage claimed, congress leaders arranged for demonstrations to take place, to be followed in the event of Banda's arrest by a
and from the Salisbury Bar
as-
sociation. It was, therefore, against this
stormy background that prep-
arations began for the review of the constitution to take place in i960. In April the secretary of state for tions,
Lord Home,
visited
commonwealth
rela-
Rhodesia for preliminary discussions,
Roy Welensky. flew where he met members of the government and also the opposition leader, Hugh Gaitskell. While in Britain, Welensky stated that he was agreeable to the proposal to appoint a July the federal prime minister. Sir
to Britain,
tary'
By
lated incidents were taking place in Nyasaland.
and
In
itself in
government introduced a
tained in the commission's report, while the opposition unsuc-
troops were also sent from Southern Rhodesia as a precautionary
visit
White Paper
The U.K. parliament then found
motion advocating the acceptance of only some of the views con-
measure. StOl the disturbance continued and in the early hours of
of other statements contained in the
published in March.
rigorous bUl, which, however, aroused objections from church
head.
in a
Nyasaland governor's emergency powers, it rejected the claim that a widespread murder plot had existed, and it challenged the accuracy feelings, for, while vindicating the
resort to
—Area:
46,066 sq.mi., incL 9,380 sq.mi. of lakes. 2,770,000. Chief towns: Zomba (cap.), pop.
that only the
it was announced that a commission of inquiry under the chairmanship of Mr. Justice Devlin had at last been appointed. However, the commission's report, which was published toward the end of July, aroused very
the following day
bounded north by Tanganyika and the Belgian Congo, east by Mozambique, south by Bechuanaland and the Union of South Africa and west by Angola. Area: 484,529 sq.mi. Pop.: (1959 est.) 7,990,000, incl. Asians and coloured. Language: English, tribal dialects and (in Southern Rhodesia) .\frikaans. Religion: Moslem, Christian, pagan. Federal capital: Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia. Governor general in 19S9: Lord Dalhousie; federal prime minister: Sir Roy Welensky. Northern Rhodesia. Area: 288,130 sq.mi. Pop.: (1959 est.) bezi).
way and
of reinforcements and the declaration of an emer-
in
commission to
visit the federation in
order to obtain informa-
advance of the i960 discussions, and he added that, if necessary, he was prepared to accept the inclusion in the comtion in
mission of members from other parts of the commonwealth
who
had had experience of a federal state. On July 21, the British prime minister, Harold MacmUlan, announced that a 26-man commission had in fact been appointed, on which the United Kingdom would have 11 members, the commonwealth 2 and central Africa 13. Of the last group, five would be Africans, and none would be members of either the governments or legislatures of their respective countries. It was later announced that Lord
Monckton would be chairman
of the commission.
In both Northern Rhodesia and Nyasaland, constitutional changes took place in the course of the year. After the legislative
councO elections in Northern Rhodesia in March, the first two Africans were appointed as ministers. Of the 22 elected seats in the legislature. Welensky's United Federal party won 13 but failed to obtain an over-all majority, since the
council
members in addition to the elected members. The formation of a new party, the Central African party, by R. S. Garfield Todd and Sir John Moffat, was expected to result in some loss of support for the United Federal party, since the new group had as its declared object the construction consisted of 8 appointed
of a united nation comprising
all
races on the basis of equality of
—
RICE — RIVERS AND
596
HARBOURS
1957) cattle 328,000; sbccp 58,000; goati 360,808; pigs 89,125. Ini^uilry. Production (metric ton», 1958): Soulhrrn Rhodesia, coal 3,540,000; chrome ore (metal content, 1957) 314,000; tung^^ten (metal content, 1957) 90,000; asbestos (1957) 119,900; iron ore (metal content, 1957) 74,200; gold 557, 7>4 fine oz. Norlhrrn Rhodesia, copper, smelter 376,800; zinc, smeller 30,720; lead, refined 13,920; copi>rr ore (metal content, 19 57) 422,900. Electricity (1958): Southern Rhodesia, 1,462,800,000 kw.hr.; Northern Rhodesia, 966,000,000 kw.hr.; Nyasaland 22,323,000 kw.hr.
—
production in the U.S.
DlPO
^''•^
"'''''•
53,111,000 bags of 100
015.000 bags of 1958 and decade.
Though
i^S4,ooo
ac.
lb.
11% above
rains interrupted
in
1959 was indicated at than the 47,-
13% more
each,
average for the previous
and slowed early preparations,
were harvested, 11.5% more than in 1958, but beac. average for 1948-57. The yield per acre of
low the 1,874,000
lb. was 43 lb. above the record set in 1958, and more than one-fourth above average. Texas was the leading producing state
3.352
with 13,136,000 bags (against 11,938,000 bags in 1958), followed by Arkansas (12,926,000 bags), Louisiana (12,910,000 bags) and California (12,735,000 bags).
The support
though continued at
price,
clined to $4.38 per hundredweight as
75%
of parity, de-
compared with $4.48 on
the 1958 crop; producers in November received $4.64 per hundredweight as against $4.75 a year earlier. The advance mini-
mum
national average support price for the i960 crop was set at
$4.36 per hundredweight. Stocks held by the
NYASALAND PLANTER EXAMINING RUINS durino a wave
terrorists
of violence in
of a
motor
fu
Commodity
economic and social fields. August that the number of Africans on the representative side of the Nyasaland legislative council was to be increased from five to seven, thus giving Africans a majority over the six official members representing Europeans and It
political,
was announced
in
$91,085,000 in the previous
fiscal year.
Rice Production of the Principal Producing Countriet oughl
Asians on that side of the house. The government side, however, retained
its
majority. It was further stated that two Africans Country
would
for the first time be appointed to the executive council.
The
combined with the fear that the events in the federation would have a discouraging effect upon capital investment from overseas led to a decision that the federal government's development plan for 1959-63 would have
fall in
to be
the price of copper
based upon a lower rate of expenditure than had
been proposed
in
the existifig plan which covered the period
(K.I.)
1957-61.
Northern Rhodesia (schools, 1957): European 62 (10 with secondary classes), pupils 13,988; coloured and .^sian primary and secondary 16, pupils i,49s; .\frican (1956) primary 1.427, pupils 209,599; secondary 11, pupils 1,198; vocational 36, pupils 1,857; teacher-training 15, students 1,192. Southern Rhodesia (schools, 1957): European primary 156. pupils 30,839; secondary 22. pupils 12,689; coloured and Asian (primary and secondary) 23, pupils 4.778; African (1952) primary 2,154, pupils 231,551. teachers 6,598; postprimary 18, pupils 1,575, teachers 99; vocational (1955) 18, teacher-training courses (1955) 32. The University College of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in Salisbury (established 1955) is multiracial and in 1958 had 125 students. Nyasaland (schools. 1958); European primarj' 7, pupils 1,214; secondary i, pupils 145; coloured and Asian primary 18, pupils 2,314; .African primary 3,098, pupils 268,693, teachers 6,031; secondary 19, pupils 1,119, teachers Education.
59; vocational 14, pupils 927, teachers 53; teacher-training centres 16, students 946. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: Rhodesian pound (£Ri=£i- ster-
—
Currency circulation (.\pril 1959); £23,539,036. Bank and federal government deposits (.\pril 1959) £15.761.833. Budget; (1958-59 est.) ling).
federal state revenue £51.400.000; expenditure £51,300,552. Foreign Trade. (195S) Imports £157,640,747; e.tports £142,577,875.
—
Principal exports: metals and manufactures £79,986,483; tobacco £28,365,252; minerals, earthenware, glassware, etc., £9,156,753; foodstuffs £6,978,591. Transport and Communications. Railways (1957): Rhodesia (Northern and Southern) 4.403 km.; Nyasaland 800 km. Roads (1957): 85.000 km. Motor vehicles in use (federation, 1957): passenger 96,000; commercial 37,500. .Mr transport (federation, 1958): 135,744.000 passenger-km.; freight, 1,572,000 ton-km. Telephones (federation, Jan. 1958): 84,300. Radio receivers: North Rhodesia (1955) 40,000; Southern Rhodesia (1951) 24,000; Nyasaland (1958) 12,000. Agriculture. Main crops (metric tons): Southern Rhodesia, tobacco (incl. N.W. Rhodesia, 1957) 76,300; peanuts (1956) 2,000; maize (farms and estates, 1957) 308,000. Nyasaland, tobacco (1957) 18.200; cottonseed (1958) 3.000; peanuts (1956) 13,000; tea (1957) 9.000; maize (1054') 52,000; cotton, lint (1955) 1,000. Livestock: Southern Rhodesia (Dec. 1958) cattle 3,514,000; sheep 248,000; pigs 116,000. Northern Rhodesia (Dec. 1947) cattle 1,047,000; sheep 15,000. Nyasaland (Dec.
—
—
i,
compared with 11,517,000 hundredweight in 1958. Exports of milled rice in 1958-59 were 1,328,903,000 lb., valued at $97,097,000, as compared with 1,120,475,000 lb., valued at 1959, as
opportunity in
Credit
corporation declined to 8,403,000 hundredweight as of July
March 1959
1959-60
160,000 102,000 34,000 28,100
China (moinlondl India
Japan Pakistan Indonesia
Burma Thailand
• .
18,800 16,500
Bralil
Korea, South Philippine Republic Formosa United Slates
7,500
5,311
Source; U.S, Department of Agriculture,
—
RIVERS AND HARBOURS Table
1.
U.S. River
and Harbour Over-alt Appropriations
597
ROADS AND HIGHWAYS
598
administered by harbour commissions and 322 administered un-
ment. They are responsible for surveys, plans and specifications;
der control of the department of transport.
let contracts and supervise construction of federal-aid These various steps are subject to review by the bureau of public roads in order to ascertain whether they are economical, meet good engineering standards and best serve the motoring
they also
Lawrence seaway to 27-ft. navigation necessitated considerable improvements which were being undertaken at different ports along the 2,000 mi. route from tidewater
The opening
to
of the St.
Lakehead. At the port of Montreal, two additional grain elevaand expansion to wharves and transit sheds were being con-
tors
Rapid unloading and loading equipment of modern design was being installed to speed up port operations. At Lakehead (Fort William and Port Arthur), already noted for grain structed.
and iron ore handling facilities, a modern terminal for handling package freight was being constructed. The ports of Toronto, Hamilton and Windsor were constructing additional
wharf and terminals or reviewing existing
facilities
projects.
public.
The Federal-Aid Highway
made
act of 1956
provision for the
construction, in a 13- to 16-year period, of the national system
of interstate and defense highways
—
a 41,000-mi. network of
controlled-access superhighways which would connect
all
of the
and link 90% of all the cities of 50,000 population or more. Designed to handle 1975 traffic of more than 100,000,000 vestates
hicles
— the
—
system would carry
would represent only
1%
20%
of
all
traffic,
although
it
of the country's total mileage. In addi-
Some
tion to the interstate system program, the 1956 legislation pro-
smaller ports on the seaway route requested governmental dredg-
vided for a step-up in the regular program of improving the
as a result of the first year's operation of the seaway.
ing of harbour approaches to existing wharves to the
requirements of
seaway
See also Canals and Inland
Waterways
;
St.
Lawrence
Sea-
(W. H. V. A.)
way.
— The Great Lakes — High-way oj — How They Were Formed (i9sO;
Encyclop/EDIA Britannica Films.
Commerce (i9Si); The Great Lakes
—
regular federal-aid primary and federal-aid secondary systems
and
27-ft. draft.
The Great Lakes Their Link With Ocean Shipping (19S1): Inland Waterways (1956); The St. Lawrence Seaway (1959); Water Power (1937).
their
urban extensions. Roads and streets
eligible for federal
aid in 1959 totaled about 810,000 mi., of which 256,000 mi. were
primary system (including the interstate system) and 554.000 mi. in the federal-aid secondary system, or farm-to-market roads. in the federal-aid
Accelerated Federal-Aid Program.
way program under
the 1956 act
made
—The accelerated high-
available to the states, in
K02dS 3nd nipW3yS.
two years' time, federal aid totaling $6,550,000,000 for the fiscal years (ending June 30) 1957, 1958 and 1959. An additional
exceeded
$600,000,000 provided by the Federal-Aid Highway act of 1958
United States during 1959 again previous records. An estimated $10,504,000,000 was
all
was apportioned April
spent during the year for highways and streets, in capital im-
for fiscal year 1959
provement, maintenance, highway police, administration and
cluded $200,000,000
interest
on highway debt. Of
tures alone
amounted
this total,
construction expendi-
to $5,750,000,000. Capital outlay,
which
for
the interstate
17,
1958. This in-
system and a special
authorization of $400,000,000 on a two-thirds federal and onethird state matching basis to finance primary, secondary and
includes right-of-way as well as construction costs, totaled $6,-
urban projects that could be put under contract before Dec.
940.000,000. Capital expenditure for the improvement of about
1958, and completed within a year.
39,000 mi. of principal highways amounted to $5,487,000,000;
amounted
to
unimproved,
economy.
in the L'nited States totaled 3,477,000 mi.
fiscal
Role of the Federal
Government
in
Highways.
— Since 1893
the bureau of public roads has represented the federal govern-
ment
in
matters relating to highways. Its efforts cover a wide
i,
of this special
authorization was to aid in the nation's program to stabilize the
on about 93.000 mi. of local roads and streets $1,453,000,000. AH roads and streets, improved and
capital expenditure
The purpose
The 1958
act provided $3,400,000,000 of federal aid for the
year i960. This amount, apportioned to the states effective
Aug. I, 1958, was the largest federal-aid apportionment for highways ever made more than the sum of all authorizations made during the first 24 years of federal aid for highways, from 1917
—
range of engineering, administrative and research activities which
through 1940.
have as
and defense highways, a $300,000,000 increase over the previous fiscal year, and $900,000,000 for primary, secondary and urban highways. The latter amount was divided 45% for the federal-aid primary system, 30% for the secondary system and 25% for urban highways. In these three categories the requirement that the states match the federal grant dollar for dollar was continued. For the interstate system the 90% federal, 10% state, matching basis was continued.
a goal a
nationwide network of highways designed to
meet the ever-growing needs of the public for the improved transport of people, goods and services. A major function of the bureau of public roads is supervision
by congress to highway improvement. Under existing law the the roads to be improved and the type of improve-
of the expenditure of federal-aid funds authorized assist the states in
states select
CONSTRUCTION ALONG THE "HIGHWAY OF THE SUN"
In the Apennine mountains between Florence and Bologna. Italy, in 1959. The photograph shows the two arches which would support the Gambellato bridge spanning two valleys. When completed the road would stretch from Milan to Naples
It
included $2,500,000,000 for the national system
of interstate
Of the
total
i960
fiscal
year apportionment, the largest share,
$302,000,000, went to California. This
amount was $2,000,000
1
ROADS AND HIGHWAYS more than
Apportionment of Federal-Aid Highway Funds Authorized for the Fiscal Year 1 96
the largest annual authorization of federal aid for
the whole United States prior to
World War
II.
The second
larg-
went to Ohio; New York, with Delaware received $12,000,000, the
est apportionment, $198,000,000,
was
$180,000,000,
third.
State
among
smallest apportionment
the states.
The 1956 act not only increased most automotive taxes but also created a highway trust fund in the treasury department to most of these taxes and
receive
to disburse therefrom federal-
aid funds.
The 1956
legislation anticipated a close balance of authoriza-
tions paid out
based on the
and tax revenues received. But
this
balancing was
of the interstate program, not on a year-by-year
life
reckoning. Congress anticipated a
"surplus" in the
first
few
which would be balanced by surpluses in the closing years of the program. The legislation permitted repayable advances from the general funds in the treasury to the highway trust fund in order to solve this deficityears, then several "deficit" years
surplus problem. But a pay-as-you-go clause also included in the
1956 act had the effect of requiring a year-by-year balance. This limitation had no immediate impact on the interstate program, but as the
fiscal
year 1959 (beginning July
i,
1958) ap-
was evident that the increased authorization called for in the 1958 act could not be met by the highway trust fund revenues anticipated for the fiscal years 1959 and i960. Accordingly, congress in the 1958 act waived the pay-as-you-go clause for two years and directed that the full amounts authorized for fiscal 1959 and i960 be apportioned to the states. These and other financial provisions of the 1958 act which increased federal outlays advanced the day when the highway trust fund would be threatened with a deficit, since this act made no commensurate provision for additional revenue and the pay-as-you-go requirement would come back into effect after its proached,
it
two-year suspension.
To meet
this situation, the
Federal-Aid Highway act of 1959
increased the motor fuel tax by one cent a gallon, to four cents,
July
from Oct.
1,
1961, to June 30, 1964, one-half of the
I,
automobiles and five-eighths of the
8%
—up
fund
to that time this tax
The 1959
from three
would go
10%
tax on
new
motor vehicle the highway trust
tax on
parts and accessories were to be earmarked for
the treasury.
i.e.,
1959, to June 30, 1961. Then, from
to the general
fund of
act also reduced the interstate system
authorization for the fiscal year 1961 from $2,500,000,000 to
$2,000,000,000. portioned.
The
However, only $1,800,000,000 could be apshows the apportionment of fiscal year
table
1961 funds to the states.
Progress During 1959. federal-aid
In the
program
fiscal
is
—A good measure of progress on the
reflected in the obligation of federal funds.
year 1959, such commitments totaled $3,223,000,funds and
000, including $2,284,000,000 of interstate system
$939,000,000 for the primary, secondary and urban systems.
Work Much I
fiscal year on the interstate system which $1,039,000,000 was federal aid.
completed during the
cost $1,325,000,000, of
of the year's expenditures involved preliminary engineer-
and right-of-way purchases, but construction contracts were completed on 2,290 mi. Completions on all classes of federal and federal-aid projects ing
during the
fiscal
year accounted for the improvement of 32.828
mi. of roads and streets at a cost of $3,275,000,000, including
$2,095,000,000 of federal funds. Federal-aid improvements on 7,135 mi. of primar>- highway cost $781,000,000, of which $407,-
000,000 was federal; federal-aid improvements on 16,310 mi. of
farm-to-market roads cost $505,000,000, with $261,000,000 being federal aid.
Projects were completed during the fiscal year on 1,113 of roads in national parks
and
forests,
i"'-
on national parkways and
on flood-relief projects at a cost of $75,000,000, including $65,-
599
ROCKEFELLER — ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH
600
Rockefeller, Nelson AldriCh governor and government ollicial,
became
a
i960 Republican
leading contender for the
presidential nomination after his election as governor of
York. Nov.
4,
New
Rockefeller, the second son of John D.
1958.
Georges Cardinal Grente, bishop of Le Mans, France, on May 4, 1959, and of Crisanto Cardinal Luque, archbishop of Bogoti and primate of Colombia, on May 7, 1959, reduced the membership of the college to 72.
Roman
Ministering to an estimated
and grandson of the fabled John D, Rockefeller, Sr., who founded the family fortune in oil, was born on July 8, 1008, at Bar Harbor, Me., and was graduated from
of 496,512,000 were 381,500 priests.
Dartmouth college in 1930. In the early 1930s he helped develop New York city's Rockefeller Center, of which he became presi-
This
dent.
lies
Rockefeller,
Jr.,
Rockefeller's long series of appointments to government office
began
1940 when he became co-ordinator of inter- American providing economic, social and cultural aid to Latin-
in
affairs,
American nations. He served he became
with Latin America.
in this position until
1944,
when
secretary of state in charge of relations
a.ssistant
He
resigned in 1945 and spent the next few
Catholic world population
Of
number, 116,000
this
belonged to religious orders and 265,500 were seculars.
numbered 39,505475
Catholics in the United States last figure
previous year.
in 1959.
represented an increase of 3,481,498 from the
The new
total
(which included
all
Catholic fami-
home and abroad
of the defense forces both at
the diplomatic and other services outside of
as well as
the continental
United States) represented an increase of 12,787,132, or 47.8%, from the 26,7:8,343 Catholics reported in 1949. There was a Catholic population of 17,341,117 in 26 archdioceses, and 20,164,358 in 114 dioceses in 1959. Among the
more than
archdioceses, seven had a Catholic population of
They were: Chicago
Boston 1,582,677;
years organizing and directing two private corporations for the
1,000,000.
economic and social development of Latin America. In 1950-51 he was chairman of Pres. Harry S. Truman's advisory board for international development (the Point Four program). In 1953-
New York
54 Rockefeller was undersecretary of health, education and welfare. In 1954-55 he was a special assistant to Pres. Dwight D.
population of 1,473,480. In second and third place, respectively,
Eisenhower
to develop
"cold war" policies, and
still
later
he
was chairman of the president's advisory committee on government organization, from which he resigned in 1958.
2,027,243;
1,558,328; Philadelphia 1,463,031;
Newark
1,345,-
944; Detroit 1,288,761; and Los Angeles 1,243,511. Brooklyn continued as the largest diocese, with a Catholic
were Pittsburgh with 866.554 and Buffalo with 847,554. Cleveland with 749,072 was fourth.
The number of parishes with resident pastors increased by 193 With 568 parishes without resident clergy, there was
to 16,185.
a record total of 16,753 Catholic parishes in the United States.
Rockefeller
Foundation:
see
and
Societies
Associa-
tions. U.S.
Rockets:
Rodeos:
see see
Meteorology; Missiles; Space Exploration. Shows.
RnffPrQ PiprPP llllliaill riClUC nUgCIO, William eral in 1957 to
^"^'^" ). us cabinet memwas appointed attorney gen-
ber,
succeed Herbert Brownell,
Bom
Jr.
at Norfolk,
N.Y.. June 23, 1913, Rogers took his arts degree from Colgate university, Hamilton, N.Y., and his law degree from Cornell
and was admitted
university, Ithaca, N.Y., state bar in
1937.
He was
York county from 1938
the
to
New York New
assistant district attorney of
and again from 1946 to 1947, after service in the navy. He was chief counsel for the senate war investigating committee in 1947-48, and from 1948 to 1950 chief counsel of the senate's subcommittee on executive expenditure. Rogers was named deputy attorney general under Brownell in the original Eisenhower cabinet of 1953. When Brownell reto 1942
signed Oct. 23. 1957, Rogers was designated his successor
Dwight D. Eisenhower. In 1958 he announced
Pres.
by
his opposi-
tion to a bill introduced in congress (but later defeated) to curb
the powers of the U.S. supreme court. eral
government would act promptly
land"
in
school integration.
He
He
declared that the fed-
to enforce the
"law of the
also said that the jurisdictional
scope of the International Court of Justice should be widened.
In 1959 Rogers announced that the Eisenhower administra-
was opposed
tion
ment
to repeal of the
22nd constitutional amend-
There were 4,867 missions. 1.603 stations and 10,390 chapels where Catholic activities were regularly pursued. Ordained priests totaled 52.689, or 1,876 more than last pre-
The new total was the largest ever recorded. The Roman Catholic hierarchy of the United States had 224
viously counted.
members. There were four
The number
A ars
and organizations
steadily growing inclination
among Roman
to explore all possible
Catholic schol-
avenues of approach
to fruitful dialogue with other religious bodies
marked the year
1959. Especially significant were the striking rapprochements
among
designated 23
new
cardinals on Dec. 14, 1958.
The year
1959 opened with the Sacred College of Cardinals increased to 74 members, the largest
number
in its history.
The death
of
number
of con-
tisms were counted during the year.
Three new institutions increased the number of Catholic hosbed capacities were extended by 2,718 to 145,190. The number of general hospitals was 803, with 133.819 beds. The 139 specialized medical and surgical institutions could
pitals to 942, while
accommodate 11,371. Patients treated in Catholic hospitals increased by 344.541 to a new high figure of 12.084,317. In the United States 580 Catholic newspapers and magazines reached a circulation of 24.273.972. a gain of more than 500.000 copies from the preceding year's total of 23,716,798.
Archbishop Egidio Vagnozzi, the apostolic delegate of the
Holy See
to the
United States, arrived on
May
8,
1959.
The
archbishop was the seventh apostolic delegate to the United
As such he would serve
States.
Cardinal Cicognani,
who
as intermediary
between the
He
succeeded Amleto Giovanni
sers'ed in
Washington for a quarter of
hierarchy and the Holy See.
a century.
of the
II. 1959. at
his first public address in English
ceremonies marking the looth anniversary
North American
Rome. Three American
college in
cardi-
800 other American churchmen and the student body heard the pope in an informal audience. The pontiff spoke warmly of the "vigorous faith" of the American church and especially
nals,
of "its unselfish devotion to the cause of charity."
During 1959 communism continued
biblical scholars of the various beliefs.
In keeping with the expanded needs of the church, Pope John
XXIII
of adult baptisms or converts to Catholicism dur-
versions during the decade to 1,301,335; 1,307,666 infant bap-
on Oct.
Catholic Church.
archbishops and 187
ing the year totaled 140. 411, bringing the total
Pope John XXIII delivered
limiting presidential terms to two.
Roman
cardinals, 33
bishops.
the
Roman
Catholic church with
its
its
relentless attacks on
52.000,000 adherents behind
the "iron curtain." Catholic institutions in East
Germany were new
closed or stopped while in process of construction, and a
decree of the authorities restricted the teaching of religion in
ROTARY INTERNATIONAL — ROWING
601
and professional life." The Catholic Interracial council gave the James J. Hoey Awards for Interracial Justice to John P. Nelson, Jr., of the Institute of Industrial Relations of Loyola University, New Orleans, La., and to Percy L. Steele, Jr., executive director of the San Diego, Cahf., Urban league. The awards are conferred yearly on two lay CathoKcs for distinguished service in the cause principles in her daily
of interracial justice.
On Nov.
16,
(J.
La
F.)
Pope John XXIII named the foUowng become cardinals at a consistory on Dec. 14:
1959,
eight prelates to
Agostino Bea, consultor of the Pontifical Commission for Biblical Studies.
German. William Theodore Heard, dean of the Sacred Roman Rota. Scottish. Arcadio Larraona, secretary of the Sacred Congregation of Religious. Spanish.
Paolo Marella, apostolic nuncio to France. Italian. Albert Gregory Meyer, archbishop of Chicago, El. Francesco Morano, secretary of the Supreme Tribunal of the Apostolic Signature. Italian. Aloisius Joseph Muench, bishop of Fargo, N.D. Gustavo Testa, apostolic nuncio to Switzerland.
See also Missions, Foreign (Religious); John XXIII; Religious Education; Societies and Associations, U.S.; Vatican City State and individual articles on newly appointed ;
cardinals.
Encyclopaedia Britannica Films. (Development and Rituals) (1954).
Rotary International:
see
—Major
Societies
Religions
oj
the
World
and Associations,
U.S.
The University
of Wisconsin eight furnished the
major surprise of the 1959 rowing season with a 2length victory in the Intercollegiate Rowing association championships on Onondaga Lake at Syracuse, N.Y., on June 20.
POPE JOHN XXIII KISSING FEET
of a priest in a revival of the symbolic geskissing the feet of the disciples at the Last
ture taken from Jesus' washing and Supper. The custom had not been practised by a pope since
the
govemment
hampered
schools. Religious instruction in schools
countless
in
1S78
ways.
Jozsef
Cardinal
was
Mindszenty,
primate of Hungary's Catholics, remained confined to the United States legation in Budapest where he sought asylum following the Soviet repression of the popular uprising of 1956.
In China the communists used the wedge of the schismatic Patriotic Association of Chinese
Catholics.
At
least 32
CathoUcs to cleave the faith of
Chinese priests were "elected" bishops,
and of these 15 were known to have been illicitly consecrated. Only about 500,000 of the 1,500,000 Catholics in Vietnam were living in the communist-dominated north of the country. The continued expulsion of foreign missionaries had reduced their number in North Vietnam to less than ten. The communist authorities, using a
method preconized by China, continued
to or-
ganize mass accusation meetings against priests and imprison
who spoke up in defense of their pastors. Robert D. Murphy, deputy undersecretary of state, received the University of Notre Dame's Laetare medal for 1959. This those Catholics
distinction
is
presented annually to an outstanding Catholic lay-
man. Msgr. Edward E. Swanstrom of New York was named recipient of the 1959 Peace award of the Catholic Association for International Peace. Monsignor Swanstrom was honoured for his work as executive director of the Cathohc Relief service, an agency maintained by Roman Catholic bishops in the United States to aid refugees
and to conduct overseas
relief
work.
Clare Boothe Luce, former U.S. ambassador to Italy, received the 1959 annual award of the Catholic Institute of the Press. The first woman to be thus honoured, Mrs. Luce was cited for
the "distinguished
manner
in
which she exemplified Catholic
Sweeping ahead of Syracuse at the midway point, the Badgers went on to win the 3-mi. varsity event in 18 min. 1.7 sec. Following the Middies were California, previously imbeaten Washington, defending champion Cornell, Dartmouth, Pennsylvania, Princeton, Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Colum-
won
bia. California
the junior varsity 3-mi. test in 17 min. 53.5
sec, with Washington second,
Perm
third
and Cornell fourth.
by ComeU in 1 1 min. 47.5 sec, Washington finishing second and Perm third. Washington, coached by Phil Leanderson, won the Jim Ten Eyck memorial trophy with 14 points. ComeD, winner of the scoring
The freshman
race of
2
mi. was captured
prize the five previous seasons,
was runner-up with
12 points,
CaHfomia tied for third with 11. The year 1959 saw the retirement from coaching of some of the sport's most colourful figures. Al Ulbrickson, Washington mentor for 32 years, stepped down in January with Phil Leander-
while Syracuse and
named to succeed him. Navy's "Rusty" Callow, because of ailing health, dropped his coaching reins and Louis
son being
Lindsey, formerly of Stanford, was selected for the position. Ky Ebright of California, who boated six I.R.A. champions and three -svinners, retired after a distinguished career of 35 years. Sprint Championships. Driving past Syracuse in the last few varsity won at Princeton, X.J., May i6. The Crimson Harvard's strokes. finished 4 ft. ahead of the Orange, covering the 2,000-m. course in 6 min. 3.1 sec. Yale, the 1958 champion, was third and Penn fourth. Cornell took the freshman event with Han.-ard next. Penn triumphed in the junior varsity contest, in which Harvard was fourth, behind Navy and Cornell. Harvard took home the Rowe cup for the first time since 1951 with iS points for the
Olympic
—
Eastern
three races. Blackwell Cup.
—
Yale defeated Penn by i sec. at Philadelphia, Pa., May 2. win the trophy for the fourth straight time. Columbia was third. Penn victor in both junior varsity and cub tests. In lightweight competition for the Wood-Hammond trophy Princeton scored in the junior varsity and freshman races and was second to Yale, which was not eligible for the award, in the varsity contest. Goes Trophy. Syracuse led Cornell, Xa\'y and Rutgers in a 2-mi. race on Cayuga Lake at Ithaca, X.Y.. May 2. Navy captured the junior varsity test while Cornell's freshmen won their event. Childs Cup. Penn repeated as champion in .\merica's oldest cup race, defeating Princeton and Columbia on the Harlem in New York, April 25, Penn's junior varsity also won, but its freshman entrj* finished second to to
was
—
—
Princeton.
'
RUANDA-URUNDI — RUBBER
602
HARVARD UNIVERSITY HEAVYWEIGHT CREW
(left)
crossing
the
finish
line ahead of the Isis Boa t club crew in the semifinals of the Grand Challenoe oup race at Henley-Oh-Tha mes. Eng.. July 3, 1959. The following day they won the cup, defeating the Thaimes Rowing club
Adams Cup. Md.,
May
in the feature event of the 4-day meet that drew entries from 21 nations. Royal Canadian Henley. .Amassing a record 429 points, the Detroit (Mich.) boat club won the Maple Leaf trophy in the 4-day competition at Port Dalhousie, Ont., that ended on Aug. i. The St. Catharine's club was second with 289.5 points. With the team championship at stake in the final event, the eight-oared race for seniors, Detroit triumphed in 7 min. 21.3 sec. A Detroit eight also won the senior 155-lb. final and Pat Costello, Detroit, captured the championship singles by defeating Jack Pearce of the Toronto .Argos. Pearce was first in the quarter-mile singles. The West Side club of Buffalo, N.Y., third in the final standing, surprised Detroit by win-
—
— Harvard's
varsity rowed to victory on the Severn at Andefeating Penn by 2 lengths. Navy was third and Rutgers, a guest entry, fourth. Penn captured both the junior varsity and cub contests, with Harvard second in each. Compton Cup. Harvard swept a 6-race regatta on the Charles river at Cambridge, Mass., May 2. Setting a record of 8 niin. 45 sec. for the i3-mi. course, the Cantab varsity defeated Princeton by 2I lengths. Dartmouth, M.I.T. and Boston university followed. Harvard's freshmen led home Princeton in 9 min. 48 sec, while the junior varsity heavyweights finished ahead of Dartmouth in 9 min. 6 sec. The Crimson started the day with victories in three contests for 150-pounders. Carnegie Cup. Vale finished ahead of Cornell and Princeton at Derby, Conn.. May 9. The Elis' varsity ended a string of Cornell victories, the Ithacan oarsmen having taken the junior varsity, freshman and two preliminary races on the day's program. Eostern 150-lb. Championships (V/right Cup). Harvard's varsity retained its title in this 2.000-m. event on the Charles. Dartmouth, Princeton, Cornell. Columbia and Vale trailed. The Crimson also won the freshman race, with Princeton leading the field in the junior varsity contest. Goldthwaiie Cup. Harvard defeated lightweight rivals from Yale and Princeton at Princeton. May 9. Princeton won the cub and junior varsity races, while Harvard's second freshman and third varsity eights triumphed. Dad Vail Trophy. Brown university surprised with victory in the 21st annual regatta for small colleges on the Schuylkill at Philadelphia. May 9. La Salle of Philadelphia was the victor in the junior varsity event and St. Joseph's of Philadelphia captured the freshman victory. Yale-Harvard. Harvard ended the 5-year supremacy of the Elis June 15 on the Thames at Xew London, Conn., in the 94th meeting with its old rival. Completing the regular season undefeated for the first time since 1942, the Crimson varsity triumphed in 19 min. 52 sec. over the 4-mi. course. Vale was clocked at 20 min. 2 sec. The Crimson junior varsity team led all the way in its 3-mi. race, winning in 15 min. 50 sec. Vale was the victor in the 2-mi. cub contest in 10 min. 44.4 sec. Oxford-Cambridge. O.xford rowing against a strong headwind, swept to a 6-length \ictory in the 105th meeting of these traditional rivals on the Thames in England, March 28. Oxford, leading almost from the start of the 4i-mi. grind, was clocked at 18 min. 52 sec, Cambridge finishing 18 sec. back. Pan-American Trials. Syracuse defeated the Vesper Boat club of Philadelphia by li lengths in the final heavj^veighl race at Syracuse, June 27. Other tests for the 1959 games were held as part of the I'nited States championships at Detroit, Mich., in .August (See Pan-.American Games). United States Championships. The Detroit Boat club, with a record 233! points, won national honours for the fourth straight year. Seattle's Lake Washington club was second, with the Vesper Boat club of Philadelphia third. Jack Kelly. Jr., and Bill Knecht of the Vespers won the double sculls and Harry Parker of the same team was the singles leader. Lake Washington gained the senior eight title, while the St. Catharine's (Ont.) Rowing club took the event for intermediate eights. Other champions included Paul Yager of Washington, senior quarter-mile singles, and .Bob Houston, New York .Athletic club. 150-lb. quarter-mile singles. Royol English Henley. Harvard eight-oared crews won two of the big pri2es at Henley-on-Thames, Eng., in July. The Crimson's heavyweight sweepswingers defeated the Thames Rowing club by 2} lengths for the Grand Challenge cup, covering the course of i mi. 550 yd. in 6 min. 57 sec. The Harvard university's lightweight entry successfully defended the Thames Challenge cup. beating the University of London by 2i lengths in 7 min. 13 sec. The Harvard lightweights had eliminated the Union Boat club of Boston. Mass.. in the morning semifinal. Stuart Mackenzie, an .\ustralian residing in England, was again the victor in the Diamond (singles) sculls. Mackenzie and C. G. V. Davidge of the Henley Leander club captured the doubles challenge cup. European Championships. Germany, winning 4 of the 7 titles at stake, carried off team honours for the third straight year at Macon, France, in August. German oarsmen tallied 45} points to 29} for the Soviet Union team, the runner-up. The German Kiel-Ratzeburg eight defeated the Czechonapolis,
slovakian entry by more than 3 lengths
9,
—
—
ning the race for 145-lb. fours, Detroit taking
—
—
(T. V. H.)
Ruanda-Urundi: Territories.
Rllhhor liUUUCI.
—
—
—
Rubber.
Natural
—World
production
of
natural
rubber for 1958 was estimated at 1,955,000 long tons, up 52.500 long tons over the 1957 output. Production for the first six months of 1959 was estimated at 982,500 long tons,
up 82,500 long tons as compared with the same 1958 jjeriod. After its meeting in London. May 11 to 13, 1959, the International Rubber Study group released only three estimates for 1959; world production of natural rubber would be at least 1,970,000 long tons; total world consumption of rubber, 3,520,000 long tons world synthetic rubber capacity (member coun;
tries
—
—
the other finals for fours.
see Belgian Ovekseas Territories; Trust
—
—
all
only) 2,040,000 long tons.
The New York at
spot price for no.
40 cents U.S. per pound
i
ribbed smoked sheets stood
in early Oct. 1959,
up 10 cents U.S.
per pound from the 1958 figure. Exports of natural rubber latex
from producing countries in 1958 totaled 171.576 long tons (dry rubber basis) or 8|9c of world production of natural rubber. Exports for the first six months of 1959 were estimated at 91,407 long tons as compared with 80,765 long tons for the same period in
1958
(all figures
on a dry rubber basis). Based on rubber
content, the price of centrifuged latex, entry,
was 8
to 9 cents U.S.
f.o.b.,
above that of no.
tank cars, port of i
ribbed smoked
sheets.
Total world area under plantation rubber was at 11.358.500 ac. (total in Asia 10.586,000
now
estimated
ac; Africa 692,500
ac; the Americas, 50,000 ac; Oceania 30,000 ac). In the U.S. on Sept.
15,
1959. the General Services adminis-
announced that 470,000 long tons of natural rubber had been declared excess to government stockpile needs, and that J plans had been developed for an orderly disposal over a period oil tration
|
about nine years. Total holdings
mated
at 1,250,000 long tons.
board of trade announced
its
A
in the U.S. stockpile
day
later, the
intention to dispose of
stockpile of 100,000 long tons, also in such a
were
esti-
United Kingdom!
manner
its entireiJ
as to avoidl
—
-
'
RUBBER Tobie
603 delivered; butyl 23 cents; neo-
World Consumph'on of Naiurat Rubber*
I.
II"
lo-'s '""'I
prene 41 cents World
hoif
July
Aug. Sept Oct
....
;
....
Nov.: Dec
Yeor'itolal.
.
Europe!
Canada
Chir,a§
Japan
55,000 49,500 63,250 63,750 62,250 67,250 739,500
2,925 2,434 3,920 3,877 3,969 3,757 37,085
12,500 13,500 25,000 19,000 10,000 16,750 148,750
10,630 10,540 11,830 12,030 11,980 12,360 128,170
152,500 145,000 187,500 185,000 167,500 187,500 1,982,500
3,341
10,790 11,720 12,300 13,280
192,500 167,500 165,000 172,500 170,000 182,500 llEstimoted and
Germonyf
U.S.
U.K.
Fronca
34,187 39,380 44,743 48,875 43,031 46,891 484,492
12,709 8,698 16,763 14,172 14,190 16,519 175,460
12,344 3,536 12,703 13,078 11,232 12,297 136,913
49,913 47,345 51,991 41,483
15,274 13,756
11,858 11,739
15,271
12,111 12,075
1958
11,041 10,836
12,350 12,765 11,962 9,699 129,300
—
U.S. cur-
all
rencv.
Tolalll
j tl, TT C TT" -In the U.S., firestone annnnnrpH LOllbUULUUll rnnetrnrtinn Ul nf d a ju, :!n nouilLCU
ooo ton Der vear olant for the
... either
production il,.
,
,
,
j-
,
.
.
their
01
.
s
Diene (cis-polybutadiene) or Coral (cis-polyisoprene) rub-
half
Jan
Fob Morch
....
April
Moy
13,933 13,814 18,328
38,777 47,786
June
12,523 11,327 10,872 11,920 10,036 12,248
10,268 ...
fFederol Republic
'Includes latex Idrybolisl. Includes all countries.
71,750 61,250 49,500 70,000 71,000
3,734 3,742
18,750 8,000 9,000 8,250 6,750
...
...
...
tEstimoted for total continent.
3,706 3,571
... ...
SEstimoted net importi.
oeK.
'
prene rubber in limited ton-
nagc
30
at
„ U.b.
,-
^
cents
pound OverSeaS f
SBR
capacity
Synthetic Rubber.
cis-Dolviso'^
their
per
a 70 000 tOn '
/
1
began
plant
production in Great Britain (International Synthetic Rubber Co.,
disruption of rubber markets.
thetic rubber for
began
ChemiCalS
bhell
marketine ^
—World
production of
types of syn-
all
and the other
1958, excluding the U.S.S.R.
countries which reported no figures, was 1,223,626 long tons, of which the U.S. produced 1,054,58s long tons. U.S. production by type was divided as follows: "regular" SBR (styrene-butadiene
SBR
Ltd., at Hythe, Hants.)
Notre tion
Dame
a 20,000 ton capacity butyl plant at
;
de Gravenchon (operated by Socabu") began produc-
— France's
first
synthetic rubber plant and the
plant outside the U.S.;
opened
in
the
first
Japan (Japanese Geon
synthetic Ltd.,
butyl
first
rubber plant was
Tokyo) with an
8,400-
630,917 long tons; neo-
ton capacity producing both general purpose and oil-resisting
prene (CR, chloroprene rubber) 97,806 long tons; butyl (IIR, isobutylene-isoprene rubber) 52,241 long tons; N-type (NBR,
types of rubber. This overseas production was expected to reduce
rubber) 144,166 long tons; "cold"
acrylonitrile-butadiene rubber) 31,976 long tons.
World produc-
months of 1959 was estimated compared with 562,352 long tons for the
tion of all types for the first six at 706.618 long tons as
same 1958 period. Principal world stocks of synthetic rubber at the end of June 1959 were estimated at 220,000 long tons. Production of synthetic rubber latices
in
the
for
U.S.
SBR-type 65,706 long tons;
totaled on a dry solids basis:
1958
NBR-
type 11.560 long tons; neoprene 10,679 long 'ons.
The
price structure of various synthetic rubbers per
pound
remained unchanged from 1958, except SBR which was reduced by 0.6 cent per pound: SBR 24.1 cents delivered; NBR 58 cents Table II.— WorU Consumption of Syniheiic Rubber' io„g ,o„;)
ii„
[^°'[
g^^
1958
Aug. •
Oc^:-
:
S.":: Year'stoioi. :
:
:
Canada jopon
U.K.
France
many}
Europe§
64,420 72 401
4,701 3,065
4,654
4,555
14,500
3,891
1,290
1498
4
352
11250
3
020
1300
95,000 97 500
lll't
lill
4'97i
nil
Vsfsl
i'"?
'All
Wiioo
u.s.t
....
July
Totaiii
liW
ll'll ii°9l tf/7 Vslio tfo? Wjo Vufoo 879,912 62,979 55,111 54,375 173,000 46,719 16,520 1,247^500
Rrst
some thought 22%. In 1958, exports totaled for all types: U.S. 193,846 long tons; Canada 98,750 long tons, Reclaimed Rubber. World production of reclaimed rubber in 1958 was 362,713 long tons. For the first six months of 1959. U.S. and Canadian exports of synthetic rubber,
by
as
much
as
—
world production was estimated at 200,839 long tons as compared with 174,093 long tons for the same 1958 period. U.S. production through June 1959 was 147,581 long tons as compared with 122,709 long tons for the same 1958 period.
—
Research and Development. Phillips Chemical Co. announced the availability of their cis-4 rubber (mainly cis-i, 4polybutadiene) in semicommercial quantities at a development price of 35 cents U.S. per pound in 5,000-lb. minimum lots. Montecatini, Milan, Italy, announced semicommercial production of ethylene-propylene copolymer rubber. Development of a continuous mixing machine for dry rubber stocks, known as the RotomlU, was announced bv B. F. Goodrich. Development of a ^. u r u j J . u > u tire, which Contains no rubber Or fabnc and does not have to be inflated, was announced by Goodyear as a possible solution of some problems of landing rocket-powered space craft. Made entirely of wire and resembling a wire burnishing brush, it was reported to have successfully passed dynamometer tests which ,
,
,.
•
,
simulated landings.
1959
Jo"
Feb March
,
.
.
April,
.
.
.
May.
.
.
.
'""'...-;
89,636 87,393 95,089 79,739 74,615
5,844 5,700 6,696 6,230 6,037
4,950 4,898 4,936 5,793 5,151
5,090 5,029 4,933 5,575 4,692
,'.'""
15,500 15,500 15,550 17,000 15,500
r
4,394 5,173 4,964 5,085 4,776
1,590 1,900 2,460 2,460 ...
122,500 122,500 130,000 117,500 110,000 '^°'°°°
,^'°"., ;•. •Includes latex (dry baiiil. flncludes oilf'""" content of oil-extended types. {Federal Republic. §Estimaled for lolol continent. and includes oil countries. ! Estimated
v.
The Research Association
m
of British
Rubber Manufacturers, .
,
,
endeavour, began a cover-to-cover translation of r .i. tt c- c- tv v-i_ il d each new issue of the U.S.S.R. rubber joumal Aa;/c«;/« / Acsjna a Significant ,
•
.
i
("Raw Rubber and vulcanized Rubber");
•
;
publisher: Maclaren
LoudoU price per year in U.S.. $50. Rubber Manufacturing. World consumption of new rub-
and SonS,
Ltd.,
;
—
ber in 1958 was again at an all-time record high of 3.230,000 long
Table III.— WorW Consumpfion of Reclaimed Rubber' lost
(In
?958 July
.
.
Aug..
.
.
Sept.
.
.
.
.
.
Oct.. Nov..
.
•
Ye'or's
total.
.
Canada
Brazil
YoTd
995 978 962 877 795
1,275
1,321
894 773 690 770 605
29,347 27,550 34,304 35,412 32 371
''"
""
''''^°
"'
"'^"^
35,591
10,221
15,121
8,449
378,896
U.K.
France
Germany
18,458
2,458
21,401
2,278 1,810 3,802 2,847 2,735
2,566 2,595 2,266
2,989 2,879 3,017 3,233 3,248
'"^'
^'^"
''''°'
248,156
33,567
19,461
21,899 23,708
809
27,791
tons. dlvlded 61^^:^ natural rubber,
long lonsi
U.S.
Australia
840 1,368 1,382
38^%
synthetic rubber. U.S.
I958 WaS 1,364,404 long tOnS,
in
synthetic rubber. World ^S^^ natural rubber, 64-^^ "^ ,, r l r Consumption of new rubber for the first six months or 19^9 was . ^ j . o J- -J J ^ . uu
divided
.
.
1
» estimated at 1,782.500 long tons, divided 59ared with 19,267,553 units on the same date a year before. (E. B. Nn.) Encyclop.«dia Britannica Films. Malaya, Land of- Tin and Rubber
—
(i9S7).
Rulers: see Presidents, Sovereigns and Rulers.
Diim months ending June }o. 1958. Estimated production of principal crops for the same period were (in metric tons): copra 762, citrus fruits i}0, bananas 2,500, breadfruit 2.400, and taro 1.500. .\ native handicraft industr>' produced about $75,000 worth of Soor inat5 and woodcraft in that year. Imports in the fiscal year ending June 30, 1958. totaled $1,262,497, of which the I'nited States was the major source followed by .\ustralia and New Zealand and Japan. Exports totaled $5,854,258, of which fish, mostly canned tuna, accounted for 97'>; handicrafts. 2*^: and copra, i"^. Revenues collected during the 1957-5S fiscal year totaled $767,002: expenditures amounted to $1,721,279. The U.S. government appropriated $1,169,400 in grants and $123,039 for operation of the governor's office,
—
the legislature and the courts. Tronsportotion ond Communications.
—In 1954 Tutuila had 69
mi. of roads, of which 4 mi. were surfaced, and a 6,ooo-ft. long coral-surfaced airstrip, Tafuna .\irheld. Construction of a new 9.000-ft. runway continued in 1959. There was one radio broadcastina station in 1959. broadcasting to about 500 receivers. There was a weekly Samoan-language newspaper, a daily English-language newspaper and a quarterly English and Samoan periodica!. There were 4 motion-picture theatres in 195S. (S. Xr.^
Samoa, Western:
see
New
Ze.al.and;
Trust Territories.
ing boom in San Francisco's histor>': more than $450,000,000 new construction was announced during the first six months
the year.
A
in
of
$100,000,000 Port Authority plan provided for the
modernization of about So blocks of the water front's northerly segment. "Embarcadero City" would provide restaurants, theatres,
centres,
art
shopping centres, passenger
offices,
terminals and convention
scrN-ice
and a li mi. elevated promebuilding to Fisherman's wharf
facilities,
nade would run from the
Ferr>-
Other major construction plans included a $50,000,000 water front
rehabilitation
project
addition to "Embarcadero program for International air-
(in
City''), a. $25,000,000 expansion
port and the construction of a $15,000,000 baseball park for the
San Francisco Giants.
Qan Uorinn OdII lYldllllU.
(R. B. Kr.)
'^
small republic in central Italy (with which
it
is
united by customs unionl, San Marino
by the proWnce of Emilia and situated on the slopes of Monte Titano, 14 mi. southwest of Rimini. Area 24 sq.mi. Pop. (1959 est.) 15,000. Language: Italian. Religion: is
entirely surrounded
Roman
Catholic.
San Marino is governed by two capitani reggenii appointed every six months by a grand and general coimcil elected by universal suffrage every four years.
San Francisco.
The population estimate
for the city
county of San Francisco.
Calif., as of Jan.
and
I. 1959. was Sri.ooo persons, compared with 775.357 reported by the U.S. bureau of the census. April i. 1950. Total area 93.1
land area 44.6 sq.mi. The mayor of San Francisco. George Christopher, was re-elected for a four-year term in Nov. sq.mi.:
—
On Sept. 13, 1959, the anti-Communist parties History. scored a clear \-ictory in the general election, the Christian Democrats and the
On
Democrats being assured of an abso-
Social
lute majority in the
grand and general council.
Feb. 16. James D. Zellerbach. the U.S. ambassador
to
average daily attendance of 96,696. College and university enrollment in San Francisco in 1958 reached 25.000; also several
San Marino and announced that the U.S. economic aid of S850.000 would be paid shortly. On Oct. 8 the two capitani reggenti in ofiBce at the time of the 1957 coup d'etat, Primo Mariano (Communist) and Giordano Giacomini (left-wing Socialist'), were sentenced to 15 years of imprisonment. They were accused of an attempt against tbe
thousand students attended private and technical schools. In
security of the state.
1959-
There were 130 public-school buildings 1958, the active enrollment
amounted
in the city. In
June
to 120.07S, with a total
Total emplo>-ment in the city in July 195S was 478,200. Retail
amounted
to Si. 584. 530.-
000; sales of food for off-premise consumption and of gasoline,
which were not included
would increase
in taxable sales,
total
1958 to about $1,800,000,000, Wholesale trade in San Francisco in 1958 amoimted to about S5 .000.000.000. The value sales in
added by manufacture in San Francisco in 1954 (U.S. census) was 8495,815.000 and in 1958 estimated at S620.ooo.ooo. compared to $454,000,000 in 1950.
The total foreign trade of amounted to $991,034,352 in
fiscal
year 1959-60 was SS.og
The assessment
roll for
the fiscal
which $111,763,849 would be derived from city taxes. The city's bonded debt limit for future bond sales, as of June 30. 1959, based on the 1959-60 assessment, amounted to $241,768,173,
Bonds outstanding not matured on June
City
for
to $62,642,304
and
and for the
to S315.10o.604.
of expenditures included water supply
way
amounted
of San Francisco proposed a capital improve-
1959-60 amounting seven-year period 1959-65 amoimting
gram
30. 1959.
bonds authorized but unsold June 30, 1959,
S64. 275.000.
officials
ment program
and
The
pro-
distribution,
recreauon and parks, public health, sewers and disposal plants, municipal railway, police and fire protection and libraries and museums. traffic
signals
150,000.000
lire
balanced
iS,
pupils
1,492:
secondary
=
C.S.
from
3,
Si.). Italy:
per annum.
;
Santo Domingo: see Domixic.vn" Republic. Sao Tome: see Portugt."ese 0\trse.\s Pro\tkces.
Sarawak:
see
British Borneo. Central of the three prairie pro%"inces of
Saskatchewan.
Canada. Saskatchewan was created a provby act of the federal parliament. Area: 251.700
sq.mi. Pop. (1956 census") 8S0.665 (1959 est.: 902,000 1. Capital: Regina, pop. (1956) 89.755. (1958 est.: 100.800); Saskatoon,
to $248,193,440, of
to
(1957-58)
primarj-
Italian currency (625 lire at S53.000.000 lire. Subsidy
195S. of which $546,272,703 repre-
year was $2,014,734,779. Estimated fiscal-year revenue amounted
amounted
Budget
uses
ince in 1905
San Francisco's tax rate for the
to $228,935,000.
pupils roS. Finonce. San
the San Francisco customs district
sented exports and $444,761,684 imports. per $100 assessed valuation.
—Schools (1955): — Marino
Education.
195S there were 2S.321 attending Catholic schools. trade based on ta.xable sales for 195S
Italy, \-isited
lights,
The year 1959 saw what was expected
to
be the greatest build-
seat of pro\-incial imiversity, pop.
(1956)
72,858
(1958
est.:
32,769V
—The
History.^
provincial legislature passed iii public and
13 private bills in
1959 during the third session of the 13th
Enactments included proWsion for new types of liquor outlets for both men and women, subject to local option, and the institudon of a farm credit plan to assist young farmers in establishing themselves on economic family farm units. The legislature.
uniform time legislation of the pre\Tous year was repealed to permit local decision on the adoption of fast time during sum-
mer months. Premier T. C. Douglas continued to lead his Co-operative federation (CCF.") government and his party
Commonwealth
retained the Kinistino pro\'incial constituency in a June 1959 by-election.
In July the government appointed a South Saskatchewan River Development commission to guide development in all aspects of this multipurpose irrigation and power project. The official start
i
—
—
-
-
SAVINGS AND LOAN ASSOCIATIONS construction of the river
:'
e
May
on
site
Meanwhile the
igjo.
27.
dam was marked
rporation be^an operating the
Qoem
-,evan,
\
and extaided
its
«TT
Medina 'c.acc
roo.oco: Buraida ra.occ:
Sask.-;
EEBsbe-
ism
Saskatoon and the Boundary
:
ceremony at
at a
-
gsr—---
racaf ffcrtwfici
000 farms.
-
Late in
1058 dissatisfaction
tv
irmers. under the leadership of
:.-.
the Saskatchewan Fanners' union, c^
--i
Ottawa
n to
dedciency
to request
iie Canadian
payr.-.
Wheat board durina
the
.
cr-.r -^ji:-.
.
-.n -..j : .i: contingent of 625 delegates, bearing a petition with 218.270
r'-.e
:
met the federal cabinet oa M^teek 10, rgjManitoba delegates swdted Adr iiimillin to
^natures, ::
the
>'-'—-.
r.-
1
;oo and the signatures to yan.aaa.
K potash mine
near Saskatoon, with a potential of 6cc
aimually. began production during the
'.s
jrear.
:
i: R.^.
-x-hi'-i;
nstruction of a $15,000,000 steel roiLM«giB3lBe.i
;
rduearion.
—
During tie 1557-53 school year rfere v - liled in secondary schools, j.156 in private schooU, ;5i,^c.r d:e^nrary schools 2nd 4.,ria in the government correspondence school. There •! S.i6j teachers with an average daily pupil enrollment of 169.4-5. .il receipts for all schools under the juri^ction ot the department ot -cation were $76,5cr.4ia. payments were J7+.345.4aj. '.ibiic Health and Wslfars. During ijiS the Saskatchewan Hospital icea plan, a government-sponsored program ot hospital care insurance, •red J65.544 persons, or more than 97.5'^ ot the total population. A i. ot r 73.001 patients (excluding newborns were admitted to hospital '. under the plan. Public assistance expenditure by the provincial gov:,iient, including old-age security supplementary allowances, blind per>; allowances, old-age assistance, mothers allowances and sodal aid for \f dscal year 1957-53 was J6.i36,j7i. ''ansportotion and Communicorion. At March jr. t959. there were 1 t73 licensed motor vehicles, including rao 495 passenger automobiles, 65,000 mi. of provincial and municipal roads. The provincial higinTay .•m of 3,155 ""i- included ;,oi t mi. 01 paving and 6,09c mi, of traveled is. There were 3,759 ""• of railway, 15% of the Canadian total. Daring :i. there were 2to,.z37 telephones in service, 14 radio and ; television
^
—
1
-
-
—
.
:
1
i.:smitting stations. inking ond Finance.
—and The
1959—^0 provincial budget
set
estimated
'nues at $tiJ.ji5,.i:o e-tpenditures at Jijj, .145.440. .\a of Dec jt, net direct debt less sinking funds and revenue-producing loans and ances was $41.^33, 911. In 1953 the t\vo largest publicly owned corKioos, power and telephones, showed a net surplus of $ij,d7J.ooc while remaining eleven crown companies together showed a net surplus of :34.ii7. Kx. March 51. 1959. there were j63 active credit unions with •embership of 107,154 and combined assets of $61,924,^34. Agriculture. Main crops, t9i3 1959 dominion bureau of statistics estile in parentheses); wheat t92,cco.ooo bu, ^ 253.000,000) oats 3j,"-:,cco bu. (95.aoo.ooo) barley 37.occ.ooc bu. 1,74,000,000); eye :-,Q,OQO bu. (j,ooo,aco): Sa-t it, 300, 000 bu. i,3,7ao.ooc>. Official pre.;nary estimate of farm cash income for r953 was J57t,6oo,oec. Valua'. of major items; wheat $271,925,000; oats $7,210,000; barley $52,rye $2,585,000; 3a.T $i7,33c,aoo: cattle $102,795,000; hogs : 000;
'
:'.
,
-.
-
—
i
•/UBS.
(E. S. Ah.)'
54r, pupils a^ 79c. teachers j,24Sr 45c; technical 7, pupils £,;o9. rexitsadans r.oj2. ceachers ij: insiruciana at higher education t, sudents 1952) ttj, teaching saS. zi. Rnonca; Monetary unit; rial, with an oiBcial eti'hange rate .tug. C9J9) of 5.075—5.17 rials to the C5. dollar and a free rare ijf apprnximaceiy 4.75 rials to the dollar. Budget C959 est.': balanced at :.4,ta.oco,oc.
Moslem. Chief towns ipop.. rQj6 est.'; Mecca 200.000: Jedda i6o.ccc: Hufuf
--„yadh leap.) rjo.ooo:
AsseH and
Liafaiir+ies.
—At the end of
aagE loans held amounted loans, as cfistinct
Sj.oco.aoc.acc in t(}jd and
to
mnrtConvenscmal
Sept. rojo, total
Sjt.jac.acc.aoc.
from either Federal Hiiusing a«faunistradcn-
insured or Veterans acfeniniatration-guaranteed, aggregated &i:.j20.aoa.aGc. or more rha-n Jo*^ of the total of mortgage toans.
United States gQvemmeat
obiigatiiQiis
were owned
in.
the
amount
SAVINGS BANKS — SCHOLA RSHIPS AND STUDENT AID
612
of $4,530,000,000 and cash holdings were $1,800,000,000. Total
universities,
cash and United States government obligations holdings were
ment) continued
12.1% of
total savings capital, a ratio slightly lower than
corresponding date
On
on the
dominant item, of course, was sav-
ings capital. Other liability items at the end of Sept. 1939 in-
Home Loan
bank advances of $1,800,000,000; other borrowings, $185,000,000; and loans in process, $1,550,000.000. Reserves and undivided profits, $4,125,000,000, amounted to about 7.9% of total savings capital. Mortgage Lending. New mortgage loans placed on the books of savings and loan associations in the nation from Janucluded Federal
all
to provide
levels,
govern-
federal
state
assistance to college stu-
liberal
but the most striking development was the
expansion of existing programs and the introduction of new
in 1958.
the liability side, the
dents at
and
organizations
private
—
ary through Sept. 1959 reached $11,955,000,000, almost
35%
programs of student aid by the federal government. National Science Foundation. This branch of the department of health, education and welfare enriched its assistance programs for graduate students, scholars and teachers of the sciences during the year. For graduate students the foundation continued, for the eighth consecutive year, its program of pre-
—
doctoral fellowships.
Under
stipends of $1,800,
$2,000 or $2,200
this
program 1,000 awards carrying in
addition
made
laboratory fees and travel allowances were
to
tuition,
to graduate
above the comparable period in 1958. Thus mortgage loans made by savings and loan associations in the calendar year 1959 were well over the previous highs of $12,346,000,000 in 1958 and
students working for the doctor's degree in mathematical, phys-
$11,432,000,000 in 1955. Savings and loan associations continued as the leading lenders for home financing, recording about 41%
tific
of total cial
home
financing transactions during 1959, with
banks next
at
commer-
medical, biological and engineering sciences and in certain
ical,
social sciences
which conform
In addition to this program, the foundation instituted a plan
summer
of assistance, during the
600 teaching assistants
i4''r.
to acceptable standards of scien-
inquiry.
of
for approximately
1959,
science departments throughout the
in
United States. The purpose of
program was
improve the
During the twelve months ended Sept. 1959, all operating savand loan associations increased their holdings of mortgage loans by a record $7,500,000,000. This was made possible pri-
appeal of teaching assistantships as a means of support for grad-
marily by the record net increase
uate assistants to continue their education during the
ings
amounted
period, which also
by an increase
Home Loan
in
in
savings capital during the
some extent
to $6,560,000,000, but to
and Withdrawals.
— Gross savings 20%
receipts in the first
1959.
Another new program instituted for predoctoral students was During the year 1,000
that of co-operative graduate fellowships.
from the program of predoctoral fellowships
independently by the National Science foundation. Another new
net inflow in the
first
first
nine months of 1959 was
nine months of 1958.
Most
14%
recent years, with the
exception of 1957, had recorded increases in the amount of net
ing universities
feature was that the funds involved were paid directly to the in turn
supported the fellowship
—
Competitive Pressures. The pronounced upsurge in lending by savings and loan associations during the first nine months of the year, substantially in excess of the gain in net savings inflow,
occasioned a severe credit stringency. In these circumstances, attention was being directed to the increase in outstanding ad-
vances from the Federal
toward a decline
Home Loan
of
and senior postdoctoral
postdoctoral
its
program These
fellowships.
awards, which provided a stipend considerably larger than those for graduate students, were designed to free
young or mature
scholars at the postdoctoral level from other duties for a year's
period so they could be free to follow research programs. In 1959, 140 postdoctoral fellowships and 75 senior postdoctoral
ing year.
banks and
in the liquidity position of the
to
any tendencies
savings and loan
associations. Managements necessarily gave thorough review to
a reassessment of association liquidity
and careful estimation of
fellowships were awarded.
For high school and college teachers the foundation supported them new) during the year. Each of these was designed to improve, in its own way, the quality of science teaching in secondary schools and colleges. All but one of them ten programs (half of
involved
summer
study, part-time study during the school year
or in-service study.
One provided
fellowships for an entire year of study. In each
of the programs provision
was made
for free tuition
and
in
some
for tinancial support for the participants.
cash flows. associations found that certain accounts carrying large
balances received quick withdrawal, particularly in view of
ris-
government securities. After showing months of 1958, the rate of divisavers by savings and loan associations again
ing yields on short-term
a slight decline in the last six
in 1959.
Savings Banks:
(J.
K. L.)
see B.-^nking.
—
Notional Defense Education Act. On Sept. 2. 1958. Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the National Defense Education act which provided assistance of many kinds to education in the United States. The basic purpose of the act was to assist the educational system to meet the demands placed upon the country by the need for adequate national defense. However, the act, administered by the department of health, education and welfare,
was not limited
in the field of science.
In
Scholarships and Student Aid.
the
there
year
was
a
1959 great
in the amount and kind of aid provided to students in and universities throughout the United States. All of the three main sources of financial aid (individual colleges and
colleges
who
holders.
For advanced scholars the foundation continued
During Jan.-Sept. 1959 the ratio of total withdrawals to gross savings receipts was 72.8%. slightly higher than the 71.3% figure for the same period in 1958. Similarly, the ratio of withdrawals to the amount of savings capital held by the savings and loan associations was slightly greater in 1959 than in the preced-
dend paid to shifted upward
rather than through a competition conducted
participating institutions
savings infiow.
increase
in that the candi-
Withdrawals increased 23"^. The net growth in savings all savings and loan associations set a new peak in
The
Many
summer
months.
dates for the receipt of fellowships were nominated by participat-
accounts of
over the
possible for grad-
over the corresponding period
nine months of 1959 were up in 1958.
it
to
fellowships were awarded under this program, which differed
rose $55,000,000.
Inflow
make
uate students in the sciences, and to
borrowings, for advances from the Federal
banks went up $790,000,000 and other borrowings
this
to the assistance of scholars
Two
and students
parts of the act provided important
new sources
of financial aid for college and university students. These were the provisions for national defense fellowships (title IV) and student loans (title II). The act provided that i.ooo fellowships were to be awarded to graduate students, preferably to
those interested in teach-
'
—
SCHOOLS — SECONDARY METALS ing in colleges and universities,
who were
accepted into depart-
ments of graduate instruction approved by the commissioner of education. To be approved by the commissioner each program had to be new or expanded in such a way as to increase the facilities available for graduate training of college and university teachers, and to promote a wider geographical distribution of such facilities. Each fellowship was awarded for three years (pro\'ided the student's academic record merited his continuation) and paid $2,000, $2,200 and $2,400 in the successiv-e years
613
Eisenhower. Eisenhower appointed him assistant secretary of defense for legislature affairs in 1953. and two years later he joined
House staff as an administrative assistant to the presiThe senate confirmed him as secretary of the interior June
the WTiite dent.
1956, and he was sworn into office June
6.
recommended
In 1957 Seaton
8.
that federal reclamation projects should be
made
as nearly self-supporting as possible. In 195S he proposed federal
subsidies for certain minerals, including lead, zinc, copper and
tungsten.
plus $400 each year for each dependent. In addition, for each fellow an institution received,
it
was paid
a
sum equal
to the cost
to the institution of the education of the fellowship holder,
Secondary Education:
to a limit of $2,500.
quate to cover the fellowship grants. The
began their graduate work
first
ade-
fellowship holders
the National Defense Educa-
tion act pro\aded $30,000,000 during 1959. This
sum was
allotted
and within
states proportionately
those institutions which applied for loan funds and agreed
to pro\ide at least $1 for loans for each $9 received
from the
federal government. Institutions receiving loan funds also agreed
make
special
Mptfll*: ITICiaiO.
1958,
foreign languages. Recipients of loans agreed to repay
their total borrowings within
Other platinum group metals
in
Table
I
included 38.883 oz.
of palladium. 1,223 oz. of iridium, 355 oz. of osmium, 2.639 oz. of
rhodium and 2,008
oz. of
ruthenium. Secondary platinum-
group metals recovered by refiners
in the U.S.
was
7%
lower in
1958 than in 1957. Table
Secondary Nonferrous Metals Recovered
I.
1 1
yr. after
they ceased to pursue
lin
Copper
programs of study, and to pay
3%
interest
paid balance during the period of repa\Tnent. Except in special
circumstances repayment was to begin within 12 months after the recipient of a loan left college.
be cancelled at the rate of
Up to one-half of any loan 10% for each year in which
recipient served as a full-time teacher in a public elementary
alloys
In
compounds
1956
1957
1958
212.2 609.6
246.9 726.2
273.1
248.0 579.7
532.8
18.1
15.9
14.7
.
242.9 694.0 21.6 958.5 429.4
839.9 407.1
989.0 514.6
930.7 468.5
841.9 444.5t
797.4 411.4
126.6
486.7 428.8
120.0 360.9 480.9 425.0
128.3 373.7
.
133.4 373.4 506.8 445.5
126.6 362.6 489.2 431.9
285.7 401.8 343.3
107.9 142.8 30.7 281.4 73.7
104.7 126.0 33.4 264.1 76.8
77.4 120.4 32.5 230.3 69.9
...
From old scrap*. As metal
360.1
alloys Total
From old scrap*. As metal In
alloys
In
compounds
.
.
.
From old scrap*.
.
Total
Approximately
s%
of aU college students in the United States
were being assisted by the federal loan funds
in the
autumn
of
As metal In
oiloy
In
compounds
...
Total
I9S9-
From old scrap*. As In
also section
see
Education; Uni\'ersities and Colleges. See
Education
in articles
on countries and
states.
Scotland: see Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United Kingdom of. Scrap: see Secondary Metals. SEATO: see Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.
In
SBdtOn, FrBOGriCK AndrBW
mentofficlal,
radio-television properties in several western states.
Seaton's active interest in Republican politics dated from his
when he was chairman in
M. Landon during
From 1945
of the Riley
County Young
Kansas. In 1936 he was secretary to Alfred the latter's unsuccessful campaign for presi-
to 1949
Seaton served two terms in the Ne-
braska state legislature and in the latter year he was secretary
Harold E. Stassen. In 195 1 he was appointed senator from to fill the unexpired term of Sen. Kenneth S. \Vherr>'. In 1952 he joined the presidential campaign staff of General to
Nebraska
30.9 21.4
358.8
compounds
...
From old scrap*.
.
98.5 147.2 26.1
271.8 72.7
98.8 177.1
28.9 304.8 83.5
0.5
116.1
3.3
3.3
3.9
27.6
3.7 28.5
4.0
25.3 0.7 29.3
22.6
21.0
0.8
0.8
0.6
0.6
31.7 21.8
33.0 19.7
27.2 16.5
25.5 15.2
19.1
Total
.
.
.
.
(in
alloys)
From old scrap*
9.0
5.8
282.6
4.7
3.6
368.7 78.9
292.0 60.0
11.9 6.0
6.5 3.3
8.4
8.6 4.6
325.0* 2.0
336.0* 76.4* 6.6* 4.6*
9.5
9.2
7.9
328.2
350.4
279.7
2.1
2.2
2.0
339.8 71.7
361.8 72.5
289.6
7.6 5.4
1
0.7t 5.1
64.1
8.7 4.8
Nickel— tons Total
From old scrop*
.
.
11.5 7.5
14.9
22.4 22.4 23.7 19.0 18.9 20.4 31.3* 32.9 29.5 34.3 31.4 34.3 966.4 664.5 1,068 19,389 18,628.722,135,1
24.1
5.2
8.5
12.0 6.7
7.4
22.6 20.0 49.0 38.4 791.8 38,342,0
19.5 16.8 36.4 45.0
4.1
Antimony— Ions Totol
(in
olloys)
.
. .
.
.
.
O.P.M.t— ounces
.
.
Gold— ounces
was appointed secretarj' of the interior May 28, 1956. by Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower to succeed Douglas McKay. Born in Washington, D.C., on Dec. 11, 1909, Seaton attended Kansas State college, Manhattan, and was a radio sports announcer and then an editor for newspapers in Manhattan, Kan., until 1933. when he founded his O'ft'n publishing firm, acquiring newspaper, magazine and
Republican club
3.2 27.1 0.6
5.2
uielol
alloys
Totol
From old scrap*. Platinum— ounces
college days,
.
78.6 181.4 34.7 294.7 64.2
502.0* 449.2
14.2
255.1
(M. Ht.)
See also Education.
Schools:
642.9
Lead— tons
or secondary school.
the U.S.
1955
— (oni
In
In
in
ouncosl
fine
1954
As metal
on the un-
000 short Ions Of
1953
Total
full-time
dent.
in primary metal output and business improved for
the secondary metal producers, notably those dealing in copper.
who expected to who were
consideration to superior applicants
modem
its
price,
loans easily available to eligible students, and to give
primarily interested in science, mathematics, engineering and
to
nonferrous
all
when curtailment
began to increase the market
teach in elementary and secondary schools, and to those
was
recoveries of
secondar>' metals declined from 1957,
according to U.S. bureau of mines reports. Oversupply existed
the states on the basis of their relative enrollment in
institutions of higher learning,
to
^PPnnriflrV dCbUIIUaiJ until late in
in Sept. 1959.
The student loan program under
among
bills
Education.
'^''*
^'^
In the early spring, congress passed appropriations
among
see
up
Silver— ounces
.... ....
21.0 60.9 45.3
786.4
769.2
36,000,0 30,000,0 *Secondory metal recovered from old materials, the remainder having come from the reworking of nev^ plant scrap, tOther platinum group metoU. JRevised.
Table
II.
— Scrap
in the U.S. Iron
and
Steel Industry
SECRET SERVICE.
614 \i.O.
— S El SMOLOG Y
carefully desiRned tests in an experiment performed with the
States secret service, a bureau of
bevatron at the University of California's radiation laboratory
'J
II
U.S.
"^^^°^ functions of the United
^^^
Qprrot OClVlbC, OCllCl ^Pn/iPP
the treasury department, are protection of the person of the
Livermore,
at
Although having the mass of
Calif., in 1955.
ordi-
family, of the president-elect and of the vice-president at his
nary protons, antiprotons carry negative electric charges as contrasted with the positive charges of ordinary protons. Upon
the detection and arrest of persons committing any
contact, the two destroy each other, thereby releasing nearly
president of the United States and
request;
members
of his immediate
offenses against the laws of the United States relating to obliga-
2,000,000,000 ev of energy. Physicists saw the discovery as fur-
and securities of the United States and of foreign governments; and the detection and arrest of persons violating certain
ther evidence of the essential
laws relating to the Federal Deposit Insurance corporation, fed-
Segregation, Racial:
tions
eral land banks, joint-stock land
associations.
defined in
18, U.S. code, sec. 3056.
During the year ending June
30, 1959, the secret service re-
ceived 640 cases requiring investigation and arrested 90 persons in
see Civil
of nature.
Rights; Education; Law.
banks and national farm loan
These and other duties of the secret service are
title
symmetry
connection with matters concerned with the protection of the
^"""^
°^ '^SS and in 1959 the
'*"^^''
'^^
P^''' ^Pl^^mnlnO'V OCIOIIIUIUgJ. Xorth American continent recorded more
mic activity than
in recent years,
there was only an average
The event
seis-
although on a world-wide basis
number
of damaging earth shocks.
of major interest in the United States w:as the
Mon-
president. Unusual presidential protection activities during the
tana earthquake which, though of moderate severity, caused 28
year included protection of Pres. Dwight D. Eisenhower during a
deaths, brought injury to a score of persons,
Ottawa, Can.,
visit to
July 1958; a
in
Acapulco, Mex.,
visit to
in Feb. 1959; and a trip to Canada in June 1959. In June, advance agents of the secret service were sent to the U.S.S.R. to make
damaged a dam and
toppled a mountainside. Principal Earfhquakes.
quake
in
Java
—On
Oct. 20, 1958, a severe earth-
and injured nearly 2,000
killed seven persons
M.
others in the town of Blitar, causing wide-spread damage. In a
Nixon.
three-day period, beginning Dec.
In the suppression of counterfeiting, agents captured 19 plants for the manufacture of counterfeit paper money. A total of
earth shocks occurred near Guatemala City, Guat. Although
security arrangements for the visit of Vice-Pres. Richard
$1,924,536 in counterfeit notes was seized, of which $1,664,207
was captured before
it
could be placed in circulation.
The
repre-
many were
6,
a remarkable series of 210
injured, there were no deaths.
Reminiscent of the 1957 quakes in southwestern Turkey, Mugia province again experienced three severe earthquakes
sentative value of counterfeit coins seized was $6,766.32, of
which wrecked 100 houses and damaged 600 others on April
which $6,359.07 w'as passed. There were 308 new issues of counterfeit notes and variations thereof during fiscal 1959, and 343 persons were arrested for
1959.
On Aug.
violating the counterfeiting laws.
hit
The
secret ser\'ice received 40,655 forged
for investigation
cases on
and
as of July
hand awaiting
i;
government checks
quake which
During the year, agents
killed
15. following a
On May
24, five
of government checks and bonds.
state of Veracruz.
of the largest check forgery rings ever encountered
all
the
town of 2,500 persons. On Aug.
many
On
by
injured
Aug.
when
when an earthquake dehomes in Nochistlan. Mex., a
persons were killed
stroyed or damaged almost
completed investigation of 32,173 check forgery cases representing $3,015,304. There were 2.878 persons arrested for the forgery
One
25,
Formosa, suffered a sharp earthtwo persons but did relatively little damage.
later, Taipei,
typhoon and flood, the island was again by a severe shock which killed 16 persons, injured 80 and caused extensive property damage in the Pingtung area.
1959, there were 24.659 such
investigation.
One day
26, 14
persons were killed and
a severe earthquake occurred in the
17, eight
persons died and
many were
Mexican
injured in a
the secret service was broken up in Dallas, Tex., with the arrest
violent earth tremor which rocked the Rio Amarillo zone in
of 18 persons.
Chiloe province in southern Chile.
Cases of
types received for investigation aggregated 53,271 and 19,060 had been pending at the beginning of the year. Al-
though 42,816 were closed during
fiscal 1959,
there were 29,515
cases awaiting investigation as of June 30, 1959.
(U. E. B.)
Securities: see Banking; Stocks and Bonds. Seeing Eye, Inc.: see Societies and Associations, U.S.
'''^""' "'° "" ' "'^
'''°'~
Segrei, Emilio Gino
ceived the 1959 Nobel prize for phys-
Owen Chamberlain, was born
ics jointly
with
on Feb.
and was educated
i,
at Tivoli, Italy,
at the University of
his doctor's degree in 1928. Segre
1938 and became a U.S. citizen
came
in 1944.
to the
Rome, taking
United States in
Before joining the Uni-
versity of California at Berkeley in 1938. Segre had taught physics at the universities of
World War
II,
first
Rome and
Palermo. During most of
he was at Los Alamos, N.M., where he was actively
associated with the the
On Aug.
all
Manhattan
atom bomb
in
District project which exploded
1945. In 1946 Segre again joined the
physics faculty of the University of California. Sharing half of the $42,606 award with his co-worker Chamberlain. Segre was honoured by the Nobel committee for his part in the discovery of the existence of antiprotons. Nuclear physicists had strongly suspected their existence for some time before Segre and Chamberlain observed them for the first time by causing them to pass
18, the
northwestern section of the United States ex-
perienced a series of severe tremors, which damaged the large
dam
at Hebgen lake in Montana and caused the face of an 8,000mountain to topple into and block the Madison river. \ permanent lake, with a depth of 170 ft. near the face of the slide, formed upriver from the blocked area. In addition, local highways were blocked by slides and fissures and scarps with vertical displacements of 30 to 50 ft. were found north of Hebgen lake. ft.
In the following weeks, the area experienced more than 200 tremors, and
it
was reported that the
largest
shocks caused
from the epicenter, to fluctuate from 2 to 15 in. This phenomenon is caused by an earth wave which compresses the land around a well, thus causing the water level to rise and fall. A panel on seismic improvement, Scientific Activities. water
levels, in wells as far as 2.100 mi.
—
headed by Lloyd L. Berkner, president of Associated Universities. Inc.,
recommended
the establishment of
new
seismic sta-
and the refurbishing of existing stations in order to provide a more reliable recording network for the study of the various earth waves caused by natural earthquakes and explosions. The development of unmanned stations with automatic recording at distant points, and the development of a method of processing data with electronic equipment, were also strongly tions
recommended. Seismic surveys in Antarctica were
made by
traverses from
SELECTIVE
S
ERVICE. U.S.
615
two years of active military service at age 18^. After
men
tion,
by
are classified
registra-
local boards into a variety of classes
on the basis of individual
each
status,
man
being considered
available for military service until he establishes his eligibility
Most deferments extend
for a deferment or exemption. to age 35. Otherwise, 26 sification
is
is
the upper age of liability.
clas-
permanent. Deferments are postponements of mili-
some
tary service, except in
men deferred because of may eventually through such
cases
reserve or national guard training training
liability
No
become
eligible for classification as
having "completed
service" under the Universal Military Training and Service act, the
same
class into
which men are placed after completion of the
term of active military duty required under the law. In
men
are exempt from induction except after
this class,
war or national
emergency declared by congress. While men are liable at age 18^, those found available are selected for induction in categories of priority. Selection
the order of the date of birth, and within categories, oldest
men
are called
first.
all
As a
is
in
but one of these
result of this sys-
tem, selections for induction in 1959 were being made from available men who were not fathers and who were between the ages of 19 and 26, oldest
These men were being reached under age 23. This 19-26 non-
first.
for induction during the year just
father group
for
men
the source of
is
(men in violation induction. Under existing
delinquents
nonfathers 19-26 to meet
to
fill
induction calls after
of the draft law) and volunteers conditions, there were sufficient
calls.
Other categories of priority for selection of available
men
men
over
after nonfathers 19-26 are: fathers 19-26, oldest first;
first; and men 18;^ to 19, These categories would be entered in sequence to fill calls if the 19-26 nonfather category was exhausted. Legislation approved March 23, 1959, extended to July i, 1963, the authority to induct men who have not acquired extended hability through deferment.
26 with extended liability, youngest
oldest
first.
The extension
legislation also continued for four years the
authority to induct on special calls physicians, dentists and allied
YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK EARTHQUAKE, I
1
I
!
Aug. 18-20, 1959. valley road destroyed when a section of it fell into Hebgen lake. Bottom, u.o. air force officer and national forest service pilot studying a map before sending In helicopters to rescue vacationers trapped in valleys cut off by land and rock slides following the earthquakes
men
America to the Ross ice shelf, thence to Skelton glaciers and along the Victoria Land plateau, under the direction of Al-
On March 19, 1959, the president amended Selective Service regulations to provide deferments from induction for men who
Little
I
I
bert P. Crary.
•
low sea
i
j
!
level,
While much of the land along it is
covered with as
much
As a
ice sheet
is
and that some parts
result of seismic
bottom surveys
in the Atlantic, Pacific
and Indian oceans, British scientists established the nearly universal occurrence of a 6.7 km. per sec. layer, which they assumed to
be basement rock.
from o
to 1.6
A
"sediment" layer ranging
km. with an average velocity of
2
in thickness
km. per
sec.
was
also found.
Methods of recording very long surface waves, while filtering by scientists from Columbia university and the California Institute of Technology. See also Antarctica; Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S.; Disasters; Inte^inatignal Geophysical Co-operation out shorter waves, were perfected
I
I
;
I
members
of
all
reserve and national guard com-
men
to qualify
ministrative policies which had been put into operation late in
by the
island groups.
•
are satisfactory
ponents, and to broaden the opportunity for
much smaller than may consist of
I
i
and provisions for extra service pay for
of the military forces;
physicians and dentists.
through reserve and national guard participation for classification as having "completed service" under the draft law.
indicated
\
dependents of
entering service; suspension of the ceilings on the strength
Frank Press and Gilbert Dewart of the California Institute of Technology determined by dispersion analyses of earthquake records that the land area of Antarctica
I
this profile lies be-
as 3,000 metres of ice.
specialist categories; provisions for assistance to
—
1959-
amendments
to the regulations formalized ad-
1958 and reflected legislative amendments. The amended regulawere based on a policy of not inducting men who were
tions
participating in of
men were
some
military training while sufficient
numbers
available for induction into the active forces
who
were not taking part in any training activity. Several hundred thousand men must enter the armed forces annually to maintain the required strength. Most of this number enter service voluntarily, but it is recognized that most of those ice
who volunteer do
and a time
The armed fluence
men
so in order to choose a branch of serv-
to serve in preference to waiting to
be inducted.
services rely on the prospect of induction to into enlist.
The department
of defense requests the
enough men to make up the deficiency between the numbers required and the numbers who enter service other than through Selective Service. During the Selective Service system to induct
(R- A. E.)
O6I6CIIV6 OGrVICB, U.O. Training and Service act, amended, young men register at age 18. They become liable
In part, these
as for
year, the department of defense asked for the induction of ap-
proximately 95,000 men.
SENATE — SEYCHELLES
616
Similarly, under the influence of probable eventual induction,
men
enter and remain in the reserve and national guard. Deferfor satisfactory participation
ments are granted
in
these pro-
grams. They also offer opportunities to participants to acquire exemptions from induction except in the event of war or national
emergency declared by congress as required periods
A major
provided for
is
men who
termine which members of the standby reserve
when
their recall
authorized.
is
Saint-Louis
(47,000),
History.
— The
may
is
to de-
be recalled
The number
of
national assembly and
Senegalaise
Progressiste
won
of the electorate). registrants were
added by
local
boards during the year and the total registration was expected
most cases men continued
in
around 23 or
away from
to
to wait to be
(85',;^
section of the Senegalese trade unions broke
The most important Adventists
was the
dition to the
—about
5,200.
—
made by
study.
The
test is
one criterion used by local boards
in
considering
men is
To
hold two la>Tnen's congresses in North America in i960,
the
more
students utilize sometime during their
they are ordered for
largest
with delegates from every church, thus to draw into service
student careers a statutory student deferment which permits if
1959 was to vote the sum of $27,881,182 for the mission program throughout the world. This
its
important actions were taken, as follows:
in-
effectively than ever, the lay potential of the church.
up a temperance department
set
complete an academic year
action
Seventh-day
the
for
registrant's class standing.
of
in
by
taken
sum in the history of the church, and was in admoney provided for the regular activities of the church in North America. The vote was taken at the annual autumn council held in Takoma Park, Md. At this council other
students on the college qualification
student deferments. Another guide used by the boards
to
A
Seventh-day Adventists.
But the number of registrants deferred as students during the year was substantial more than 210,000 on March 31, for instance. This number included men deferred for high school, college and graduate remained relatively small
them
Federalistc
the 80 seats with 954,500 votes cast
be reached for induc-
who choose
a little younger, those
number
1959, the Union Parti
(Hu. De.)
ing the Selective Service college qualification test in April 1959
small
22,
the
the Union Generale des Travailleurs de I'Afrique
expansion of
A
branch of
(a
Noire.
inducted can thus normally complete undergraduate study before induction is likely. Consequently, the numbers of students tak-
score
all
its
by the end of 1959.
to exceed 22.000,000
Because
Dia. French high
council of ministers. At the elections
its
assembly held on March
to the national
year drew to a close.
tion
Ziguinchor
(39,000),
Mamadou
Republic of Senegal, proclaimed on Nov. 25
Africain)
new
Ccap.,
commissioner, Pierre Lamy.
such reservists continued to grow to more than 1,600,000 as the In excess of 1,200,000
Thi^s
(40,000),
(23,000). Prime minister in 1959,
Dakar
(50,000), Kaolak
34,000 Europeans), Rufisque
incl.
1958, joined the Federation of Mali (q.v.), while retaining
function of the Selective Service system
to active duty
234,cx)o,
serve
the active forces.
in
Christian minorities. Chief towns (pop. 1957 est.):
eral
conference organization at
ordinate
To
all
Tu
w-ithin the structure of the genits
headquarters, thus to co-
the temperance activities of the church at one place.
enlarge and
make more
efficient the
plans for disaster relief
connection with the local churches.
To merge
the existing
duction while in school.
in
The system continued to aid in fuller national utilization of technical and skilled manpower through selection of men for enlistment in the critical skills reserve program. Under this pro-
general conference religious liberty department, the bureau of
by the local boards enlist in one of the armed forces reserves, perform three months of active duty for training, and serve the balance of their eight-year enlistment without reserve participation providing they remain in
To hold
gram, registrants found
work. Those eligible for consideration are
their critical
deemed
eligible
and to be using a
to possess
men
critical skill in a critical
defense-supporting industry, or in research affecting national defense.
The program
of law authorizing
it
is limited as to numbers, but the provision was extended during the first session of the
86th congress to Aug. Selective Service
up of volunteer jurisdiction.
is
i,
1963.
community where
services of about
made
the board has
40,000 volunteer citizens,
nearly 90^^ of the system's total personnel, are used to operate the system. Paid clerical help,
department at
much
of
it
part-time,
is
supplied
and appeal boards, accounting for more than 80% of all compensated employees. Other paid employees staff 56 state headquarters and national headquarters. (L. B. H.) See also National Guard. to local
known
to be
as the
department of public
affairs.
the next quadrennial session of the general conference
San Francisco,
Calif.,
July 26 to Aug.
4,
1962.
To
give
final
authorization to the College of Medical Evangelists (the .^dventist medical school), to
and
expand the
univ-ersity
dimensions
to give graduate courses leading to certain science degrees.
The membership
of the church at June 30, 1959,
216, divided as follows:
ObjflillCllCo.
was
(F.
^^^
1,162,-
United States and Canada, 322,868;
overseas, 839,348.
Qaunhallac
operated by about 4,000 local boards
citizens of the
The
public relations and the bureau of industrial relations, into one
British colony
D. N.)
and dependencies
consists
of g, islands in the Indian ocean 610 mi. north-
east of Madagascar. Area: 156 sq.mi.
(Mahe
55 sq.mi.). Pop.:
(1947 census) 34.632; (1958 est.) 41.901 Negro, Creole. Indian, European, Chinese. Language; English; French Creole patois. ;
Religion:
Victoria
Christian
(Mahe
(about
66% Roman
Catholic).
Capital:
Island), pop. (1956 est.) 10,000. Governor in
1959. Sir John Thorp.
—
History. In the June 1959 honours liat the governor, J. K. R. Thorp, was awarded a knighthood. In November details were given of a £2,500.000 development program for the Seychelles,
Senate:
see
government had allotted £1,000,000 from development and welfare funds. The scheme, worked out by the Seychelles government, included the development of roads, electricity, water supply and telephone ser\'ices. Plans of which the British
United States Congress.
colonial
Senegal, Republic
of.
21^'!".°:,
"Ttl
Community, is bounded north by the Republic of Mauritania, east by the Sudanese republic, south by the independent Republic of Guinea and by Portuguese Guinea and west by the Atlantic ocean. The British colony and protectorate of Gambia forms an enclave in the territory of Senegal. Area
76,124 sq,mi. Pop.
(1958 est.) 2,300,000, mainly Negro. Language: Ouolof, Peul (Fula) and other Negro dialects. Religion: Moslem, animist,
were also made for a hotel and tourist industry.
—
Education. Government schools (1958): primary 27, pupils 5.258. teachers 231: secondary 4. pupils 553, teachers 32; vocational i, pupils 20; teacher-training i, students 40. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: Seychelles rupee, equal to IJ. 6a., or 21 cents U.S. Budget (1958): revenue Rs. s. 742, 819, expenditure Rs. 5,395.796. Foreian trade (1958): imports Rs. 9,495,612. exports Rs. 8.165.S78. Principal exports (long tons. 1958): copra 5.599. cinnamon-leaf oil oil and bark 1,070, dry salted fish 112; also guano, vanilla, patchouli
—
and dried
leaf.
SHEEP^SHIPBUILDING Sheep:
see
Merchant Shipbuilding
Livestock.
617 in
New
Principal Countries of the World, July 1, construction
in
hand or on order
11,000 gross Ions
OllllJUUMUMIg.
and
or on order (vessels of i,ooo gross tons
Number Country of building
was approximately 20% below the July I, 1958, total. The figures shown in the table, released by the Shipbuilders Council of America, do not include construction over) as of July
i,
1959,
in the U.S.S.R.
United States.
—On Jan.
i,
1959, 75 merchant vessels (1,000
gross tons and over) aggregating 1,542,500 gross tons were on order, under construction or awaiting delivery in privately
U.S. shipbuilding yards. This total comprised 47
cargo vessels, 3 Great Lakes ore carriers, seatrain, self-unloader,
2
ferries
owned
tankers,
and
i
each of:
coast and geodetic survey vessel, and
During 1959, one tanker of 30,000 gross tons and the seatrain of 8,500 gross tons were canceled. During the first nine months of 1959, contracts for 19 new vessels were awarded. Of these, 15 were general cargo vessels aggregating approximately 147,600 gross tons,
all
for the ac-
count of five U.S. berth-line operators, replacing part of their Also ordered were two container cargo vessels of 4,000
gross tons each, a 23,500 gross-ton tanker and a 16,500 gross-ton
ore carrier, the latter to be built on the Great Lakes.
During the same period, 25 vessels were delivered, all for Of these vessels, there were 21 tankers of 526,-
private account.
580 gross tons, I
2
ore carriers totaling 26,350 gross tons,
i
self-
unloader of 14,084 gross tons and i ferry of 1,334 gross tons. Launchings during the first nine months of 1959 consisted of 22 vessels, comprising 18 tankers,
i
passenger and cargo ship
with nuclear power for the Maritime administration, rier,
ferry
I
and
i
government. In the
i
ore car-
geodetic survey vessel for the United States first
nine months of calendar year 1958 there
were 21 vessels launched and 19 delivered. The United States bureau of labour statistics reported that
employed in both construction and work in private shipyards as of Jan. 1958. In Jan. 1959 employment stood at 124,700 and as of July had decreased to 123,100. The average hourly earnings in the shipbuilding and repairing industry during July 1959 were $2.73, as compared with $2.58 in 1958. The average weekly hours worked were slightly lower in July 1959 than in 1958: 39.3 compared with
there were 125,400 persons repair
39-8.
New U.S.
ship contracts awarded to privately owned yards by the navy department during the first nine months of 1959
totaled approximately $279,000,000. Additional naval ship con-
struction
FIRST
U.S.
approved by the congress comprised the following:
NUCLEAR-POWERED MERCHANT
in the Delaware river after its launching at Camden, 22,000-ton ship cost $41,000,000
i
the N.S. "Savannah," N.J.. July 21, 1959. The
SHIP,
Spain Yugosia Belgium
ig
passenger-cargo ship to be propelled by a nuclear power unit.
fleets.
ond over)
"^^^ '"'^^ world tonnage under construction
ChinhllilHinrr
Germany Canada East
Austrolia
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
of
MERCHANT M AR
SHIPPING.
618
tankers resulting from the severe decline in the level of freight rates in the previous
came
two years. The
shipbuilding prices
rise in
most countries and quotations for such business as was available became very keen. Total shipbuilding capacity, however, continued to increase, as expansion and modernization schemes started in earlier years began to take effect. A large new shipyard was inaugurated in Rotterdam and new berths and other improvements came into operation in the United Kingdom. Sweden and elsewhere. In Sweden a new building dock capable of constructing tankers of 100,000 tons dead weight came into use and work began on the building of an ento an abrupt halt in
new shipyard capable
two vessels of this size simultaneously, by unorthodox methods. W'ork started also on the expansion of building facilities in Norway and Denmark, tirely
The
came
— the
from the United Kingdom
"Oriana" (40,000 tons gross), designed for service between Europe, Australasia and \orth
America across the
"Windsor Castle" (38.000 tons
Pacific; the
— S H O OT
E
complete year an unprecedented pairs at a dollar
volume
shoe pattern, especially
thin type to the
of 135
ft.,
•» «n Oriental 1
bemg
had an over-all length of 9 ° ^'50
ft.
r" Giant
o
J
»
J
1--
and a width
i.»\
The
oil.
u
r
(67.800 tons dead weight), which came from
slightly flattened,
was not intended
1959, but
in
to
medium and
low.
As
for leathers, materials
limit to their variety
and range,
men's shoe picture. The "continental" styling was gradually giving
way
an "American continental" which had a more
to
look. The main trend in men's shoes was to smooth or subtly grained leather uppers, and medium, slim leather soles trimmed close to the tapered contour of the uppers. Leather was in short supply in the United States in 1959 and
American
natural,
75%
Raw
materials markets recorded increases
100% during
to
May
April and
1959. Factors con-
tributing to this situation included a reduction in U.S. cattle
heavy buying by eastern European buyers
slaughter,
world
in the
hide and skin markets, and reduced inventories in the leather
and shoe
industries. ^°'''*
largest cargo ship in
capable of carrying 1,021,000 bbl. of
.'•/''s national emploj-ment service.
the
Austrian Socialist party and the Austrian People's party, long
ferences in a general election. In the
col-
cities.
of 150 parliamentar>' seats or one seat less than the
suppression of
in Berlin.
Early
many towns and
Catholic party. During the rest of the year
and of the four communist states from the Warsaw pact,
and the development of a zone of central Europe that would strict
In the general elections
won 48
in
the fun-
however, to
It continued,
Communist party
the road
—
continued throughout the year as party leader.
Socialist
Malaya." won 43 of the 51
assembly of the new
In Indonesia, the Socialist party voiced
its
state.
approval of Presi-
Socialists polled 44.75"^ of the vote; the People's party. 44.35*^.
dent Sukarno's recommendation to revive the 1945 constitution. On April 22, President Sukarno urged that the country proceed
As
along the path of socialistic reconstruction which, while elimi-
People's party representation decreased
in
a result,
ser\-ices
The
from 82
to
six ministers.
In the
fall,
proposed a plan for the nationalization of medical
nating the excesses of the capitalist economy, would leave intact private enterprise sectors of the Indonesian economy.
—
Awsfralia and New Zealand. The Labour party of .Ausremained the government opposition during the year. In
on the British pattern.
resignation in Italy on Jan. 26 of two Social Democratic
ministers led to the downfall of Christian
Fanfani's coalition government.
The
Social
Democrat Amintore Democrats remained
out of the government during the rest of the year.
Democrats and the left-wing Italian
Communist
party, called
The
Socialist party
separate political organizations during 1959. In
its
Social
remained
Januan.- con-
had been closely linked with for the autonomy of the party,
vention, the Socialist party which the
79.
on July 14 another coalition government was formed,
which each party was represented by
the Socialists
I
625 method must be chosen as and declared that socialism must guarantee
resolved that the democratic
tralia
March In
it
New
emerged the winner
in the
New
South Wales elections.
Zealand, the Labour government continued to develop
programs for full emplo\Tnent and increased social security payIt encouraged new housing, intensified import and
ments.
exchange controls and increased
its
economic aid
to underde-
veloped countries.
Africa.
—Kwame Nkrumah,
Ghana's Labour prime minister.
SOCIALIST SOVIET REPUB Lies — SOCIAL SECURITY
626
took an outstanding part on April 15 African Freedom day,
in
the celebration of the
co-operation with other
in
members
of
Africa to
Freedom day address, he was Ghana's "moral obligation to help the rest of gain her freedom." Numerous Socialist parties were
active in
various African countries
the independent African states. In his
declared that
it
Madagascar the
throughout the year. In
assembly and senate elected Philibert
legislative
Tsiranana, founder of the Malgache Social Democralac party, as [iresident of the
North Annerica.
Malgache
— In
Canada, numerous conferences were
held during the year by the National Joint committee composed
Commonwealth
federation
(C.C.F.) and the Canadian Labour congress to discuss the pro-
gram
of a
new
political
unmatched anywhere
else in the
world.
Japan expanded pension insurance by covering,
in effect,
every
adult not already insured by one of the existing plans. Small contributions
and a long qualifying period characterized the neu
system, and the law provided for old-age assistance until
thi
covered individuals could receive pensions through insurance.
was strengthened by eliminating sevhad previously kept wage earners, especially agricultural labourers, at a disadvantage in comparison with Italy's health insurance
eral inequities that
republic.
of representatives of the Cooperative
in recent years with a diversity
Labour-Socialist party and to obtain
the co-operation of other farm, labour and progressive groups.
The C.C.F. government in Saskatchewan continued throughThe party's dominion legislative program included
white-collar employees.
—
United States. For the programs under the Social Security developments during 1959 concerned the putting into operation of the 1958 amendments. One new law, signed Sept. 16, 1959, amended provisions covering state and local government employees under federal old-age, survivors and disabilact, the chief
insurance;
made coverage
available
to
policemen and
out the year.
ity
an old-age pension plan which would provide, on retirement, a
firemen in four additional states and gave certain states more
pension equivalent to approximately one-half of a worker's in-
time to arrange for coverage of a small group of employees.
come.
It
was
in
favour of a summit conference, a demilitarized
On May
it
19, 1959, Pres.
Dwight D. Eisenhower signed amendand the railroad unemployment
zone for central Europe, and a loose federation of the govern-
ments
ments of East and West Germany as a step toward the holding of free elections throughout Germany.
insurance programs. Effective June 1959 the railroad retirement benefits were increased 10%, the taxable wage base was raised to
In the United States, the Socialist party-Social Democratic federation continued to serve as an International. At
equal
its
civil rights for
demned
of the
affiliate
Socialist
July executive committee meeting,
Negroes, and, regarding foreign
it
urged
affairs,
con-
West Germany and other weapons except nuclear warbe made to achieve agreed and
U.S. agreements to provide
nations with
all
parts of nuclear
heads. It urged that every effort
$400, retirement for spouses and certain
made
ing for the islands' complete independence
by
i960. Socialist
wage requirement, improved
the
financing provisions and provided, on a permanent basis, for
extended unemployment benefits for those with ten years or
more
federation, the affiliates
the
benefits, raised the qualifying
vision
—In The West Indies
For railroad unemployment insurance, the amounts of unemployment and sicknes?
rates were increased.
new law increased
tary forces.
Latin America.
women workers was
possible at age 62 with reduced benefits, and future tax
supervised disarmament, including balanced withdrawal of mili-
of the Federal Labour party, a socialist organization, were work-
to the railroad retirement
of service
who exhaust
their benefit rights ("the latter pro-
was retroactive to July 1958). The maximum contribution rate was raised to 3J%. Contributions were being paid at that rate beginning July
i,
1959.
Federal payments under the Temporary
Unemployment Com-
groups were active during the year in Venezuela, Cuba, Costa Rica, Argentina, Brazil, Peru, Chile, Bolivia and other Latin-
pensation act of 1958, which had been set up to pay additional
American countries.
under the regular state unemploj-ment insurance program, were
See also Democracy.
(H.
W.
benefits to
scheduled to end as of
L.; N. T.)
June
Socialist Soviet Republics: see Union of Soviet Social1ST Republics.
^
Qfipiol QDPIiritu
OUUIdl OCuUlllj.
major
development
in
igjg vvas new retirement legislation
in
social security
unemployed workers exhausting
30, 1959.
The
the
first
March 1959 but were extended through
five states that
benefits under their
their benefit rights
own
had provided these temporary
laws continued to pay them throughout
half of 1959.
Other 1959 legislation in the field of social insurance and related programs included a law providing (effective July 19601 for the first time federal participation in the cost of health and
both Great Britain and Sweden that added to the existing pensions (which are flat uniform amounts not related to earnings)
hospitalization insurance for federal employees. In addition, the
new
liberalized for persons 65 years of age
wage-related pensions for persons with earnings above a designated level. Contributions for the new supplementary pensions
would also vary with wages. In both countries the new
supplemental insurance was compulsory but might be carried under private instead of public arrangements. In Sweden any private supplementary benefit plan must be achieved through collective bargaining; in Britain the scope for private plans
much
broader.
The
costs of the
new
was
benefits in Great Britain
pro\ision for group
On Aug.
life
insurance for federal employees was
and over.
29 the president signed the Veterans' Pension act of
1959, providing, on the basis of nonservice-connected need, pen-
World War II and the Korean conflict and widows and orphans. Social Insurance. At the end of 1958 about 55.600,000 gainfully employed persons were covered by old-age. survivors and
sions to veterans of their
—
disability insurance. (.\n additional 1,000,000 persons
were cov-
are shared by the employer and employee, but in
ered jointly by the railroad retirement and the old-age. survivors
are paid entirely
and disability insurance programs.) During the fiscal year ended June 1959 about $8,460,000,000 was paid into the old-age. survivors and disability insurance funds in contributions and transfers, and the assets held at the end of that period totaled $23,208,091,000. Employers and employees were each paying contributions during 1959 at a 2k% rate and the self-employed at si%\ during i960, 1961 and 1962, the rates for the employer
relatively small
Sweden they by the employer. Both countries would pay
supplementary benefits
in
the early years of
operation and thereby accumulate substantial reserves. Political
developments directly affected the former
curity arrangements in
de Gaulle's government
and
some in
countries.
The
social se-
policy of Charles
France led to closer administrative
financial controls, without
major reduction of benefits and
with several actual increases. The Cuban revolution resulted in the formation of a single social insurance bank to take over the resources of the existing retirement systems that had expanded
and the employee would be would pay 4^%.
The
3%
benefit increases provided
11
each and the self-employed
t
by the 1958 amendments under
(i
I
SOCIAL SECURITY
627
year ended June 30, 1959. During the 12-month period, the program paid out $9,388,000,000. Lump-sum payments paid at the
ments to cases averaged $65.79. Under these programs, there were 2,420,000 needy aged on the rolls in June 1959, 2,929,000 recipients of aid to dependent children, 109,000 blind recipients and 339.233 disabled persons receiving aid. At the end of 1959
death of an insured worker amounted to $150,000,000. Monthly
all
the old-age, survivors
and
Jan. 1959, and their effect
disability insurance
was
were effective
in
reflected in the data for the fiscal
benefits totaled $9,239,000,000,
represented benefits going to
and about 4% of this amount disabled workers and their de-
Guam, except which
pendents.
Of the 13,200,000
on the
beneficiaries
rolls at the
end of the
about 3,400,000 were the aged dependents or survivors of retired, deceased or disabled workers; 1,748,000 were fiscal year,
(some of them 18 years of age or over, with a disability that began before that age). There were more than 275,000 disabled-worker beneficiaries on the rolls, and benefits for their dependents (first payable in Sept. 1958) were going child beneficiaries
to 86,000 persons.
The average amount received by
a retired worker, not count-
ing any benefits going to his dependents, was $72.19; for those just going
the federal-state programs were in operation in
on the
rolls the
average award was $80.32.
Monthly retirement, long-term
disability
is
for aid to the
Total expenditures for assistance in the year ended June 30, payments for medical care made in behalf of
recipients,
were about $3,600,000,000.
Child Health and Welfare.
—
Under the Social Security act the government shares in the cost of state programs for maternal and child health services, services to crippled children and child welfare services through grants-in-aid. In the fiscal year ended June 1959, federal payments made to the states for maternal and child health services amounted to $16,494,000; for federal
services to crippled children, such
payments totaled $15,216,000; was paid.
for child welfare services, $11,833,000
and survivor benefits
Canada.
—With
of the ten provinces of
A
large
(W. L. M.)
See also Cn'iL Services. U.S. pital insurance plan in
service program.
permanently and totally disabled,
1959, including
retirement program, to 2,934.200 under the veterans' programs civil
grant-in-aid
program
the implementation of the provincial hos-
Edward Island in Oct. 1959, nine Canada were participating in the federal
Prince
for a nationwide system of public hospital
group of beneficiaries was receiving such benefits under state
services.
government employee programs. For temporary diswas not work-connected, benefits were being paid in four states and within the railroad industry. For work-connected disability, workmen's compensation programs were in effect for
sons. British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan,
and
local
ability that
and for federal employees. program of unemplo>Tnent insurance pays benefits to qualified unemployed workers. The programs are financed by employer contributions and, in three states, employee contributions. The federal aspects of the program are administered by the department of labour. Unemployed federal workers receive benefits through the state in which they reside under the terms of the program in that state, which acts as agent of the federal government. Under the state programs and that for federal employees, about 6.C00.000 unemployed workers reworkers
The
in all states
state-federal
ceived at least one check during the fiscal year 1958-59
one-fourth fewer than the
number
—almost
in 1957-58. Benefits totaled
$2,845,400,000 and compensated for 93,000.000 weeks of unem-
ployment
—about $85,000,000
less
than the amount paid in the
weeks of unemplov-ment. The average check for total unemployment was higher by 25 cents ($30-33 ) tbe average duration of benefits was longer and more earlier year for 100.000,000
workers exhausted their benefit
rights.
In an average week in
June 1959, 1,200,000 jobless workers drew benefits that totaled $146,700,000 for the month, and the average check for total unemployment was $29.23. The temporary unemployment compensation program paid out about $600,000,000 from June 1958 to
July 1959. Public Assistance.
government shares
— Under the Social Security
act the federal
four special types of aid to the
needy: (i) old-age assistance for persons 65 years of age and over; (2) aid to dependent children in need because of the absence or disability of a parent; (3) aid to the needy blind; and (4) aid to the permanently
and
totally disabled. General assist-
and local funds, is available for and most localities. In June 1959 the needy aged person was receiving, on the average. $64.76; each recipient of aid to dependent children was get-
ance, financed entirely
from
other needy persons in
all
ting
state
states
an average payment of $28.39; blind assistance recipients and the average
were receiving pajTnents that averaged $69.04
;
permanently and totally disabled was $63.37. For general assistance, wholly financed by states and localities, pay-
payment
to the
Coverage under the program reached 12.000,000 per-
Newfoundland entered the program
in
Manitoba and
July 1958. followed by
Nova Scotia in Jan. 1959 and New Brunswick in There was universal coverage of the population in all participating provinces except Ontario and Prince Edward Island. In these provinces the services were universally available and were compulsory for wage earners of employers having more than a specified number of employees. While all provinces carried the same comprehensive range of inpatient services in active treatment, convalescent and chronic hospitals, the inclusion of outpatient diagnostic services was optional, and only a few provinces were covering these services to any considerable extent. Ontario and
July.
The plan in Ontario went beyond the provisions of the federal programs by covering hospital care in tuberculosis sanatoriums and mental hospitals. Pa\-ments to the provinces by the federal government for its share of the cost, which reached $160,000,000 in the fiscal year 1959-60, were financed from general revenues. A variety of methods of financing the provincial share had been implemented by the provinces. In some instances all the funds were obtained from general revenue, and in others premiums were adopted with individual and family rates. Monthly rates of $2.10 for a single person and $4.20 for a married person with or without dependents were typical premiums. In 1958 the province of Newfoundland extended
its
provision
of diagnostic inpatient services for children in order to provide for a government-financed for
in the cost of
the states,
in operation in 49 jurisdictions.
were also being paid under other public programs. In June 1959 such benefits were going to 501,000 persons under the railroad
and 335,900 under the federal
all
the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands and
all
program of medical and
children under 16 years of age
who were
surgical care
hospital inpa-
tients. The province of Manitoba passed legislation in 1959 to provide public medical care for public assistance recipients, be-
coming the
sixth province to legislate for this type of formal
program.
During 1958-59 there were a number of important developments relating to housing for older people. Legislation was passed in four provinces, and changes in regulations under existing legislation were made in three other provinces. One illustration of the nature of these developments was the Act to Facilitate the Establishment of Homes for the Aged in Quebec, which authorized the appropriation of $15,000,000 for the construction and maintenance of homes and housing projects.
The
federal
Unemployment Insurance
act
was amended
in
1959 by increasing contributions into the insurance fund by em-
SOCIAL SERVICE — SOCIE TIES AND ASSOCIATIONS
628
as special ances, in addition to the ordinary scale, for such items or domestic helj) diet, laundry, exceptional fuel requirements
and the federal government, extending the maximum period for drawing benefits from 36 to 52 weeks, and raising adding two new classes of contributions and benefits, to $5,460. the annual wage ceiling for coverage from $4,800 agreement, under the Also, the federal government concluded an Assistance act, with the province of Quebec,
plovers, employees
Unemployment which meant that
all
provinces
now shared
a fifty-fifty basis the cost of
ernment on
The
at the
to
also
had to be employment. Provision was made for
in the national insur-
During 1959 the only major alteration amendment of the ance scheme taking immediate effect was the These penearnings rules for retirement and widows' pensions. were more than sions were not to be reduced unless net earnings For widowed mothers £3 a week week. Sixpence was the net amount was raised from £3 to £4 a between £3 deducted from the pension for every shilling earned week by and £4 a week and is. for each shilling earned over £4 a instead of £2 io5. as previously.
made
£5, respectively.
There were
similar
between £4 and £5
also changes in adminis-
trative procedure.
a
45J. to 505. National assistance rates were increased from week for week for a single householder and from 76J. to 855. a allowance. The arrangea married couple, plus the usual rent
of the household was assumed terminated. be contributing toward the general expenses was might capital and certain types of income which
ment whereby an earning member to
The amount
of
be disregarded
in
deciding the
amount
of
an allowance was
was estimated that the additional cost to the exin a full year. chequer of these alterations would be £32,000.000 insurance The report of the ministry of pensions and national
liberalized. It
for
1958 showed that new
claims for sickness benefit totaled higher than in any year since the
nearly 8.000.000. This was (when there was scheme started (1948) except for 1952 and 1957 pensions epidemic). About 881,000 new retirement a
account
in the sickness
insurance scheme, in Switzerland in in Sweden in the old-age
scheme and
New
cost of pensions.
and over
Uke
Post Office Savings to be paid in cash, or to the credit of the
during the increasing contributions at four five-year intervals meet the following 20 years if this should prove necessary to
deductions were
the general social security scheme, and
there were pensions scheme. In the German Federal Republic widows and invalids. increases in the rates of pension for old-age, Zealand.— Arrangements were made for a family benefit
rights the state scheme. These equivalent pension
widowed mother. In her case
in
the tuberculosis insurance
rights
in respect of earnings
improvements
were made
week
their retirement
occupational pension schemes connected with of the graduated part their employment could be contracted out scheme if their ocof the national insurance retirement pension pension cupational scheme was financially sound and provided of equivalent to the maximum under the graduated part
a pensioner other than a
68%
were also made in of the rise in the wages index. Improvements improvemenU widows' and orphans' pensions. In Italy general
of
preser\-ed on change of
end of 1958,
creased and old-age pensions were increased to
pension.
Members
allowances was
Netherlands the rates of contributions were increased. In the accidents was in rate of benefit for disability resulting from
more than £9 a the flat-rate pensions and benefits. Those earning contribuweek, and their employers, would also pay a graduated to £15 a
in respect of
Of the 1,649,000 beneficiaries were receiving supplemenUtions of na-
Other European Countries.- In France a supplementary opera scheme of assistance to the unemployed was brought into receive an allowanic tion. Workers who were unemployed could were which in total reached 88.5% of the lowest wage. There
unemploy-
0- W. Wd.) ment assistance recipients. scheme United Kingdom.— In 1959 a new national insurance retirement introduced a measure of graduated contributions and April 1961 pensions relating to employees' earnings. As from employees and emthere would be a minimum contribution by for ployers—covering all employees' earnings up to £9 a week
tion—a percentage of earnings over £9 and up and thus qualify for a graduated addition to
board
tional insurance benefits.
with the federal gov-
payments
total expenditure of the
at the rate of £119,000,000 a year.
serious
there were in all into payment, and at the end of 1958 increase mainly resulted 5.330.000 retirement pensioners. The who did not from the coming into the scheme of late entrants the start of the national qualify for pensions until ten years after and 28.5% of the insurance scheme. About 52% of the men
came
pensions during 1958 had earned supplements by continuing at work after pensionable age. showed The report of the National Assistance board for 1958 being the year 1,649,000 allowances were
inland bank account of the mother, or to the commissioner of the mother or revenue, to meet the income-tax payments of parents with the purfather. Provision was also made to assist capitalization of the chase of home properties. This was by the from the age family benefit in respect of one or more children 16, provided that the total of the I year up to the age of was not less advance or advances in the case of any one family benefit of £iio than £200 or more than £1,000. A superannuation means test, to all had been payable in New Zealand, without a year from April i, persons over 65. This was increased to £156 a
of
i960. The superannuation 1959, and to £208 from March 30, benefit, would then be equivalent to the rate of age would substantially replace, thus providing a standard
benefit
which
it
benefit free of
means
Social Service:
see
^^
Child Welfare; Social Security.
... The following „ J . II Societies and Associations, u.b. selected ust of .
is
.
a
us
and associations, with date of founding, membership, and chief activities during 1959. Veterans' OrSee also the separate articles on Red Cross;
societies officers
ganizations, U.S.;
etc.
is a fellowship of men recover. The only req-i'te^ and women formed in igis to help the alcoholic dnnkmg. ment for membership is "an honest desire to stop }\'^^l[\"^ The organi the world. were 250,000 members in 8,000 groups throughout Anonymous and .4 4. Con,ej ol Age. zation publishes the books Alcokal.cs other pamphlets. Office s name also The A.A. Grapevine (monthly) and
Alcoholics
Anonymous— .'Mcoholics Anonymous
tradition of anonymity-, are not given because of the organizations Headquarters: supported solely through voluntary contributions^ Grand Central Station, New \ork 17. Box
>•»
4sg.
u
is
P.O.
.
orlnc.--Founded and incorporated in 1917, this which proles^ to provide a main channel through f»:«^^° in diversified occupations might )0"> Membership in I9S9 "as work for community and world improvement. Canada^ Great Britain. Gua te^ Tbout 6.000 in 500 dubs located in the U.S., I959.the °^/^";^^''°" ""';/. mala, Me.xico. Bermuda and Puerto Rico. In information and international re in public affairs, vocational
Altruso
Internotionol,
ganization's purpose Lnal and executive
is
women
out t^roiects women, regardless of nationality, for voca°at ons and awarded grants to totaled 540,o°o. P>ibdraining. Club funds available during t959-6o Boo'he^ Officers (1959-61) included; ^'^ .iltrusan. Intefnalionat licalion: Headquarters: 332 S. Michigan president; Ernestine Milner, president-elect.
tS
academy, of Arts and te«ers.-The purpose of the arts of literature and the fin^ in 1904. is to further -the interests from consisted of 47 members chosen n .rmerica.''ln I959 the academy the National .1"^'". '''^ °' organization, parent its of members the 250 X^;! and Letters. On May 20. .959. the jomt f"""f several exThere Institute of .\rts and Letters was celebrated.
^"Ame^ilcn^Accdimy
women awarded
founded
that at the end of
tional hibitions, notably a
were being assisted made. Altogether about 1.000,000 pensioners discretionary allowand 47% of the recipients were receiving
(]>•'•
test.
fVT°"'le
\^
^''"f^""^ showing of works by candidates '"^ «^='"'= '" "''JS and «;„^dTnteres' ^e welfare and interest the purpose of promoting ^^^ ^^,^^^ clubs membership stood at '""^.^ fidd of activity of local nt 'Jf" ^.•^°°,h"e( 1 ^e erne, Mexico. is
«'-.p«of >P'"'""'/"g„^°;P°e, World „er hostTo the"d Quinquennial Uurmg .959, ^ \.h^°e"''''",ten men and women from 34 nation.. by at.eniitauy led was which Sodality congress, yar ous MCof
m
^^^^J^, Americo.-
855 and m^,^.^
^
.^
^g g
^^ ^^^.^_.^^
Tsra^cept'e^^rerp'on'sl^im^y for hdping
]
—
—
SOCIOLOGY in 29 countries. Publications; the Bookshelf : YWCA Maga(1959) included: Lilace R. Barnes, president; Mrs. Paul M. Jones, vice-president: Mrs. Howard S. Anderson, secretary. Headquarters: 600 Lexington .\\t., Xew York 22, X.Y.
the
Y.W.C.A.
zine. Officers
Zonta Internationol. \ service organization of executive women in business and the professions founded in 19 19. this organization encourages high ethical business and professional standards, the improvement of the
economic and professional status of women, and internaunderstanding through a world fellowship of executive women. in 1959 included 408 clubs with approximately 15,000 members in the L".S. and 15 other countries. During 1959 three .\melia Earhart graduate scholarships were awarded. Publication: The Zontian. Officers (1958-60) included: .Andra E. Francis, president: Lucille Crawford, executive director. Headquarters: 59 E. Van Buren St., Chicago 5, 111.
tion, there
635 were
at the
meeting at
them from the Free University
Among
least
200 students, most of
of Berlin,
the addresses at the plenary sessions were
— focused
many
of out-
on topics of importance, firmly based on relevant evidence that was closely analyzed and with conclustanding merit
legal, political,
tional
Membership
QnPinlniTU
OUblUIUgJ.
•^'though 1959 was not a year marked by the appearance of sociological writings that could at
once be judged as having extraordinarj' importance, the general quality of publication in
many
countries was distinctly credit-
able. Further, the spate of reasonably priced reprints of meri-
torious earlier works,
some
much among laymen and among professional sociologists who them long
of
the market, did
off
to diffuse sociological knowledge, not only
students at
all levels
but also
previously had been unable readily to acquaint themselves with
what tors
their predecessors had accomplished. Still further, translawere active, even from English into French or German and
sions cautiously drawn.
might be called ethno-sociology. Helmut Plessner of the University of Gottingen was re-elected as president.
Throughout Germany and
in
many
languages, went on broadening
scope.
its
A
and
articles
considerable
of
brought
Kiel,
Graz.
chiefly along the lines of research institutes
placed in positions of
much
influence or assurance of continuity.
London School of Economics done much toward the advancement of their field, and these efforts were carried further; nevertheless, little of high sociologists attached to the
earlier
significance occurred during the year. ties
were active
in sociology* to
some
The "red brick"
were no outstanding developments. To one observer
seemed clear that however widespread the reading of English had been or would become, a substantial part of the corpus of sociological publication would continue to make at least its first appearance in other languages. Rapprochement in the form of terminological equivalences, however, was
that
quite ob\nous.
both
it
The year 1959 was marked by
a
number
of important develop-
For example, at the Fourth World Congress of Sociology, meeting at Milan and Stresa, Italy, in early Septem-
ments
in sociology.
ber, there
appeared the
first
entrenched disciplines, particularly those
the
universi-
extent, but here again there
proportion of the works abstracted had initially been printed in English: nevertheless,
many new
them representing culmi-
and elsewhere. These developments were devoted to sociology, much like those earlier established at Cologne and Hamburg, and gave much promise for the future. In Great Britain there seemed to be less ground for optimism. Oxford and Cambridge appointed sociologists to their staffs, but although those chosen were of definite merit, they were not tingen.
had
frequently evident. Once more. Sociological Abstracts,
some
nations of earlier trends, at various universities: Munich, Got-
guages in which sociological treatises, compendious or brief, had less
.Austria the year
organizational developments,
The
the excellent journal abstracting, into English, books
at the smaller section
with sociology of work and with what, following Thurnwald,
\ice versa, and also into and from a wide range of other lan-
been
The papers read
gatherings were on the whole excellent, especially those dealing
it
appeared
among
or
linked with the humanities, were continuing their resistance to sociologj' with considerable effect.
Even Scotland provided no
exception.
French work
in sociology
continued to be notably productive,
and quality. The Italian Sociological association greatly expanded and intensified its activities; much of the in quantity
success of the Milan-Stresa congress was directly attributable to Italian initiative
and provision of excellent
facilities.
In the United States, organizational developments were
representatives of the Sociological
many
such association to which they could belong until late in 1957. The conduct of the U.S.S.R. official delegates at Milan and Stresa
and important. The American Sociological association (until 1959 known as the American Sociological society) reached a membership total of more than 6.500, making it well over three times as large as any other strictly sociological body of national scope. Sheer size, together with increasing specialization, brought
seemed
about the not altogether fortunate founding, within the general
Association of the U.S.S.R. There had been persons from the
U.S.S.R. at the Third World congress in 1956, but they did not represent any
official sociological association,
to be less aggressively
predecessors at the
for there was no
propagandistic than that of their
Amsterdam
congress.
Participants
in
the
Milan-Stresa congress from other iron-curtain countries included Poles. Czechs
and East Germans. Several of the Polish papers,
based on sound research, were well formulated and interesting.
The bulk
work reported at the Milan congress was that of from the west, those from Great Britain. France, Germany, Italy and the U.S. being most prominent. However, the near and middle east, the far east. Africa. Latin America, the Scandinavian countries and several other regions were well represented in quality, and sometimes in numbers as well. Sociolog>' of work, politics, religion and the family were among the chief topics of interest, but procedures and techniques of reof
sociologists
framework of the association, of established sections. Such sections, electing their own officers, and working with the general program committee in the setting up of annual programs, seemed likely to proliferate and to diminish further the already limited extent of mutual understanding among American sociologists. Three such established sections were approved in 1959 social psychology, methodology and medical sociology and several others were rapidly organizing. The section on social
—
psychology threatened to be divisive because of the inclination of
its
leaders to define their specialty in such a
way
that infringe-
Another important organizational development of the year was
most other specialists, and to general sociological theory as well, seemed inevitable. The establishment of the methodology section likewise had divisive possibilities because of the potential exclusion, foreshadowed in the preliminary organizational strategy, of all methods and
the meeting celebrating the fiftieth anniversary of the founding
procedures that did not follow operationist practices, narrowly
German Sociological association; this was held at Berlin in late May. Although attended primarily by sociologists from West Germany, who flocked to the gathering in spite of the tense
defined,
search, together with sources of evidence, such as historical docu-
ments, interviews and so on, received due attention.
of the
more than 400 professional sociologists and other social scientists present included a number from other countries, and among this number were several repperiod during which
it
occurred, the
resentatives of their respective national organizations. In addi-
ment on
cal
and
the fields viewed as proper to
and were not closely statistical
identified with certain
mathemati-
techniques suitable for use with electronic
computers.
On
the other hand, no particular exceptions could be taken
to the establishment of the section
on medical sociology (per-
haps better phrased as the sociology of medicine). The American Psychological association, long familiar with its own
SODALITY OF OUR LADY — SOIL CONSERVATION
636
established sections, had
been attempting to check their im-
perialism, disintegrating tendencies
and extreme specialization,
i8. In
the men's play, the Raybestos Cardinals beat the All-Star^
game by the same score. The womin won one game from the Brakettes by 3-0 and lost the
i-o, then lost the second
but with only partial success.
All-Stars
Hopeful, however, was the modus vivendi brought about in 959 among social psychologists of sociological derivation and among those whose training had been primarily or even ex-
second to the Brakettes by 2-1.
(T. V. H.)
1
The American
clusively psychological.
had
for
some time been
trying to persuade the
on state psy-
chological bodies active in lobbying for legislation designed to
the use of the
psychologist,
title
Bonk:
see
Agriculture.
American Psycho-
logical association to exert a restraining influence
restrict
Soil
Sociological association
with or without a
was apparent during 1959 that
It
Soil
Conservation.
rec-
ognition of soil and water conserva-
tion as a key to both economic and social welfare was having an important influence on planning for the maintenance of the sta-
Co-operation almost on a world-wide scale was
qualifying adjective, to those approved by examining boards
bility of nations.
by psychologists only. The persuasive efforts were successful; the American Psychological association finally agreed to recommend that social psychologists whose training was chiefly or even wholly sociological need undergo no examination or certifying procedure except as controlled by the American Sociological association, and that only when practicing outside the confines of ordinary academic instruction and research. What the various state psychological groups, to which
carried on to study and exchange ideas and plans for solving land
effectively controlled
merely make recommendations, would actually do toward changing their restrictive efforts remained to be seen, but it seemed probable that the modus vivendi would eventually extend from the national to the local level. their national organization could
Kingsley Davis of the University of California continued as
problems.
More than 300 part or
all
agricultural leaders
of the year
from 40 countries spent
working with the
soil
conservation service
of the United States to learn the conservation techniques used on that country's farms and ranches.
The device
of handling total conservation by applying
all soil,
water and vegetative treatments to small watersheds as units
was studied by 32 conservation leaders from 19 countries in a watershed-management seminar and tour in the United States from August to October under sponsorship of the Food and Agriculture organization of the United Nations. .Another feature of world co-operation involved the need, espe-
Asian and .African countries, for conservation methods
president of the American Sociological association until Sept.
cially in
was then taken by Howard Becker of the University of Wisconsin, who had been chosen president-elect in 1958. The 1959 balloting for the new president-elect, to become president in Sept. i960, resulted in the naming of Robert E. L. Paris of the University of Washington. This was the first in-
of preparing so-called wasteland for agricultural use. This ap-
1959. His place
stance of a father being followed by a son in the history of the
American Sociological association; the father, Ellsworth Paris of The University of Chicago, was president in 1937. The annual meeting of the association for 1959 was at Chicago, (H. B.) 111.; that for i960 was to be at New York city.
—
ENCYCtOP.«DiA Britaxnica Films. Centralization and Decentraliza(1952); Cities—How They Grow (1953); The Baltimore Plan (1953): Food and People (1956); Inside Story (1952): The Living City (1953): Man and His Culture (1954); Political Parties (1952); PresiPressure Groups (1952); Public Opinion dential Elections (1952); (1946): The Social Process (1952); Social Revolution (1952); Wastage a) Human Resources (1947). tion
Sodality of Our Lady:
see Societies
and Associations,
plied to semiarid steppes, brushland
United States.
completion of survey work
in
Softball. tournament
(III.)
of the
Sealmasters
Amateur
won
the 1959 world
Softball association at
Clearwater. Pla., Sept. 21-26. After losing
its first
game
to the
in-
soil
the public through the period 1960-62. in reports for each of the
and Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, including all and finally in a national inventory summary. The inventory would include data on present uses of all the nation's lands; a projection of expected changes based on land capabilities by 1975: needs for conservation treatments on both irrigated and nonirrigated cropland, pasture and range lands, forest and woodland and lands in miscellaneous uses, such as urban, industrial and others; and an inventory of watersheds and their needs for special treatments for flood prevention and water states
counties,
storage, in addition to conventional soil
and water conservation
and forest lands.
Steady progress was made
The Aurora
connection with the national
and water conservation needs, started in 1956. Plans were made to release the data and descriptive material to
ventory of
of farm, range
U.S.
and humid forest land.
— A major accomplishment of the year was the
in
planning and applying
water-conservation measures to the land.
An
soil-
additional
1
and
13.351
farmers and ranchers, operating nearly 39,000,000 ac, became aligned with their soil-conservation district programs and started
made
a total
had
finished
Clearwater Bombers, i-c, the Aurora team captured 9 straight contests to gain its first world title. Pitcher Harvey Sterkel was
applying conservation land use and practices. This
voted the tourney's most valuable player. Winning 8 consecu-
or were working toward complete conservation. Their land totaled
and struck outings on the
nearly 564.000,000 ac. of which 365,000,000 ac. had been planned
tive decisions after
out 84 batters.
He
i
loss, Sterkel
worked
61 innings
hurled 24 scoreless innings in 3
of 1,859.439 farm and ranch operators
in detail for protective
New
final day.
Pirst place in the
open division of the men's slow-pitch cham-
pionship at Cleveland, 0., Sept. 4-7. went to the Newport (Ky.) Yorkshires.
The
Cincinnati (0.) Turbine Jets w-on the industrial
division championship for the third year in a row.
A
total of 66
clubs competed in the two divisions.
The Raybestos
Brakettes, host team, retained their
title
the women's world series at Stratford, Conn., Sept. 4-1
won
1.
in
The
games. The Pearl Laundry team
who
either
land use.
and water-conser\'ation plans were reported for more than 29.000,000 ac. by 92,801 farmers and ranchers assisted by soil-
soil-conservation-service technicians.
.At
the
same
time, existing
plans were revised for 15.572 farms involving 8,600,000 ac. to
meet changed conditions. A total of 62,000,000 ac. w;as surveyed and the data compiled for use by planning technicians. In addition, 13,500,000 ac. were remapped to produce up-to-date soil information required. The year's survey work brought the total
amount
National Softball week featured double-headers between the
of land surveyed in detail to 709.500.000 ac. Nearly 29.000.000 ac. of farm land were added to soil-conservation districts by the organization of 55 new districts and additions of land to old ones. This brought the total number of
1958 champions and the world Ail-Stars at Stratford, July 17-
such districts to 2,861, covering 1,662,000,000 ac. The land of
Brakettes of
Richmond,
6 victories in 6
Va., retained
its title in
the third annual women's
slow-pitch tourney at Richmond, July 4-5.
:
CONS ERVATION
SOIL 20 States had been completely covered
Of the
the districts.
by the organization
nation's total farms
were within soil-conservation
of
and ranches, 94.7%
including construction of nearly i.ooo mi. of broad-base ter-
districts.
The trend toward complete conservation on a watershed
basis
continued to expand. People occupying 1.199 small watersheds, including
more than 85.000,000 ac, had applied
for technical
assistance in planning watershed protection and flood-prevention
Of the
projects.
total
number, 498 watersheds had been authorand 209 watersheds in 45 states
ized for planning assistance,
had been planned and had started programs. Some of the conservation practices that had been completed in the watersheds were as follows Floodwater retarding structures Water-flow stabilization and sediment control:
1,114
Structures Silt and debris basins Stream channel improvement Water diversions Roadside erosion control by revegetation: Grasses and legumes Woody plants Conservation crop rotations
2,353
and 200 grass-protected waterways; a combined
soil-
and
water-conservation project was started in Minas Gerais, while in
Rio Grande do Norte a unique project to develop methods for
the use and conservation of peat valleys, including a combination
and various conservation-farming pracwas w'ell under way by July 1959. Eleven of 18 grasses and legumes from the United States were declared adaptable to southern Brazil, Uruguay and northof irrigation, drainage tices,
ern Argentina, This was considered of great importance because the region had few improved forage plants and no sources of
introduced for
,664 mi. 177 mi.
Europe.
trials
during 1959.
—In France very
detailed studies on the serious ero-
Rhone valley were reported. Heavy runoff was main cause of the decline of plant growth, with
sion in the lower 161,644 172.480 1,373,214 2,460,802 2 ,206, 1 99 1,816.915 64.450 95-798 1 58,384 109,575 75.815 282,799
Pasture planting Ponds constructed Terracing Strip cropping Tree planting Grass waterways on farms Wildlife areas developed final
races
pure seed. Eighteen additional pasture and range plants were
475 i
Contour farming Crop residue utilization
A
637
was organized; eight teams of technicians assisted 100 farmers in establishing complete conservation on their land,
tion district
ac ac ac ac ac ac
revealed as the
low yields and the frequent death of cultivated plants before maturity. The need for drastic changes in land use and combined conservation
m: ac ac ac ac
summarj' of wind erosion during the 1958-59 blowing
season in the Great Plains showed that damage was less than in
treatments were recommended as urgent
if
the
land were to be saved from ruin. In Greece an agency of the ministry of agriculture was established to carry out a country-wide soil- and water-conservation program through research and technical assistance to farmers. Unusually rapid progress had been made in Spain since that
country's soil-conservation service was activated in
1956. In
two preceding years. By Sept. 19S9, 3,142 farmers
three years the service had organized and trained technical per-
and ranchers of the Plains, operating more than 8,500,000 ac, had contracted to take part in the program. As a precaution against wind erosion, they already had converted 263,000 ac,
for 16 brigades to work with farmers; 57 farmer committees were working with service personnel in as many watershed projects; 240.000 ac. had been terraced, and 417,000 ac. had been given complete conservation treatment. The re-
either of the
of cropland to permanent vegetation,
Latin-American Countries.
—A co-operative project
for the
evaluation of natural resources, started in 1954 and involving Brazil,
Argentina, Uruguay and Chile, and sponsored by the
Organization of American States, w-as proving valuable as an impetus to soil-conservation programs in the southern half of South
America, Soil surveys and mapping were completed
in the states
Pernambuco and Rio Grande do Sul, Braz, Soil and erosion surveys had been made in several large areas of Argentina where conservation work was most urgent, and more detailed surveys were started by scientists conof Rio de Janeiro, Sao Paulo,
nected with state experiment stations, Chile had completed
soil
map for the whole country, while in Uruguay, surveys were under way for the preparation of a combined soil- and land-classification map of all the country's surveys and published one
soil
were made available
land. All soil data
to soil conservationists
work on the land of Colombia gave promise that of some of the most difficult problems connected with
Studies and
and water conservation on equatorial lands might be found. complete conservation plan for the 2,500,000-ac. Cartagena
soil
A
basin, including the
into effect to serve, for
town of Palestina. was completed and put all practices were applied, as a mode!
when
the treatment of tropical
Colombia, a
soil
survey was
intermountain valleys. Also
made
Pacific coast rain-forest region to
to evaluate to
A
determine whether or not a
and water conserva-
a unified soil-
formation of a national soil-conservation service
zilian ministrj' of agriculture.
plishments
of
the
year
and water-
national conference was held in in the various states,
were
May
with a view in the
Bra-
In state programs some accomas
follows:
in
was being
of the country
closely co-ordinated
forest plantings a year.
Norway
86,000,000 young trees were planted during the
U.S.S.R.
—On-the-ground
by United States
studies
servation scientists revealed that certain
modem
soil-con-
conservation
methods were being integrated into the agriculture of the Soviet Union, Soil surveys, land use classifications and farm planning based on soil maps were found to be firmly established as fundamental to production on the country's 90.000 collective- and state-farm units. These methods were also being used in a large program to extend agriculture to new areas of Siberia and northern Kazakhstan, southern valleys requiring irrigation and other lands where drainage was essential.
tations designed to maintain soil fertility, tree for erosion control, shelter belts to
Sao
Paulo
a
watershed protection project was completed and a soil-conserva-
and grass planting
guard against
soil
blowing
and for moisture conservation, and snow ridging to conserve snow melt in the soil. An outstanding feature was the almost universal use of land according to
its capabilities,
with soil-types,
maps provided for each collecand state farm and cropping plans made to order and put effect by management officials.
land-capability and soil-fertility tive
soil
work
year on about 70,000 ac,
into
made toward
work already done
In
in
tion could be established.
In Brazil, headway was
new
of the sparsely inhabited
productive modern agriculture based on
conservation program.
forestation
with the soil-conservation program, with about 300.000 ac. of
Conservation practices noted on the farms included crop ro-
of the vast region for use in conservation planning.
solution
sonnel
Two widely used
erosion-control measures were planting across and taking slopes of 20% or more out of cultivation and planting them to trees. Research and field trials were in progress to develop strip cropping, gully-control methods and terracing suitable for repairing seriously eroded lands around the slopes
Stalingrad and along stream valleys.
Asia.
— In Ceylon, erosion-control practices were being rapidly
adopted. Broad-based terraces, contour strip cropping and contour tillage were incorporated in
all
settlement schemes. Tea and
rubber plantings on steep slopes were being
made on contour
SOLAR SYSTEM — SOMALILAND PROTECTORATE
638
dams
benches, and small earth
water
for storage of irrigation
were becoming common. Special
efforts
were made
to halt shift-
Europeans. Religion: Sunni (Shafi; Moslem. Capital, Mogadipop. (1957) 80,697. Administrator in 1959, Enrico Anziprime minister, Abdullahi Issa.
scio,
ing cultivation through regulation of permits, grouping and close
lotti;
supervision in order to induce cultivators to enter into settle-
On Dec. 5, 1959, the United Nations general asHistory. sembly unanimously decided that on July i, i960, five months in advance of the original U.N. timetable, Somalia would become independent. The news was received with great jubilation at Mogadiscio as the U.N. general assembly decision was in agree-
ment schemes practicing ture.
and
a soil-
and water-conservation agricul-
A
million acres in the dry zone were found to be irrigable,
to
provide water the irrigation department was restoring
reservoirs built
and improving
in
the days of the Sinhalese kings, enlarging
existing facilities
and providing new reservoirs
central soil-conservation organization of Pakistan
was
ex-
perimenting with various methods of dealing with land improve-
ment and conservation
and water
of both soil
in
connection with
projected land reforms and redistribution of acreages.
A
soil-
conservation project, well established in the Rawalpindi division,
was developing and adapting conservation practices for use on both irrigated and unirrigated farms of small and medium sizes. In India, contour farming had proved invaluable in several areas, resulting in
25%
to
increases in crop production. At
s°%
Bombay
the Sholapur research station in semiarid
increased yields by as
much
100% and
as
Even more spectacular
in wells.
Damodar
results
this practice
The legislative assembly was elected on March 4 and 8, 1959. Out of 90 seats the pro-western Somali Youth league obtained 81. The S.Y.L. and its leader, Abdullahi Issa, provided on the whole an
Ethiopia. His report proposed the establishment of a three-man arbitration tribunal to survey border questions and to final
was nominated by Ethiopia, Plinos Bolla (Switzerland) was named by Italy, and Erik Castren (Finland) was the joint choice of the two other members.
soil-conservation service estimated that of the coun-
try's 450,000,000 ac, of arable land, 150,000,000 ac. were ravaged by erosion. The new 30-year program to conserve soil and water included contour bunds (terracing) on all slopes of 2% to 12% and bench terraces on slopes over 12%.
In Formosa an outstanding conservation program had been
achieved through training of technicians over a six-year period.
By 1959 about 300 young men had graduated
See also Trust Territories. Education.
— Schools
(1955-56); primary (including preprimary) secondary
ii.oSi, teachers 324;
129, tech-
pupils 714, teachers 56;
8,
nical 12, pupils 690, teachers 79; teacher-training i, students 196, teachers 4, Institute of legal, economic and social studies (1957-58), students 62,
teaching staff
4,
somalo (= 14 U.S. cents). Budget (1957): — Monetary — (1957) Imports 116.825.800 somal exports 76,722,900 somalos. Chief exports: bananas, hides and cotton. Communications. — Roads (1957): 9.442 km. Motor vehicles use Finance.
unit:
balanced at 101,142.807 somalos. Foreign Trade.
OS,
skins,
in
(1957): passenger 1,914: commercial 1.507. Radio receivers (1951) 2,000.
3,166.
Telephones
1958)
(Jan.
as soil conserva-
and water-conservation centres had been
soil-
a
raised the water level
farmers, using contour systems and adequate fer-
and 16
make
settlement that both sides could accept. Ethiopia and Italy
pupils
tionists,
government.
the settlement of the disputed frontier between Somalia and
trebled production of badly needed food and fibre crops.
The India
efficient
At the request of the 1958 general assembly, King Olav V of Norway had appointed Trygve Lie independent commissioner for
were obtained by the
valley soil-conservation district in Behar, where con-
Some Behar
the wish of the Somali legislative assembly, expressed
25.
agreed to establish this body, Milosh Radojkovich (Yugoslavia)
servation farming had involved consolidation of small farms.
tilizers,
ment with on Aug.
or tanks.
The
—
Somaliland, British:
see
Somaliland Protectorate.
established,
Philippine Republic.
made on
—
Soil
Franqaise
(Cote
surveys and classifications were
2,000,000 ac, and conservation-farming plans were ap-
Somaliland, French
This
overseas
Somalis).
des
territory
of
the
on more than 50,000 ac, in eight soil-conservation districts. Some practices which were proving of great value were contour
bounded north, northwest and southwest by Ethiopia and southeast by Somaliland
planting of rice paddies, trees, cultivated field crops and hay
Protectorate. Area: 8.996 sq.mi. Pop. (1955 est.); 63.700
plied
strips; terracing
of
tall
iii
on sloping land; grass waterways; and the use
tropical plants in
narrow
Excellent progress was being
strips
made
between contoured
fields.
in introducing soil-fertility
French Republic
in the
Gulf of Aden
is
(1958
6g,ooo.
est.)
Governor
in 1959,
Capital,
Jibuti
(Djibouti),
pop.
— On May
Hassan Gouled was elected dep-
uty to the French national assembly and on April 26
feature of the conservation program of the Philippines was the
Kamil was elected
study devoted to forest lands and forest
minister.
soils. It
try-'s
was estimated
42%
History.
On
of the coun-
land area should be kept under either production or protec-
See also Dams; Irrigation. (Dd. A. W,) Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films, Birth oj the Soil (1948); Out Soil Resources (Formation and Conservation) (1947); Seeds oj Destruction (1948); This Vital Earth (194S).
—
senator.
Solar System: Co-operation
see
Astronomy; International Geophysical
— 1959;
Space Exploration.
Islands: see Pacific Islands, British;
Ahmed
scio,
Mohammed
Dini became deputy prime
July 3 Gen, Charles de Gaulle visited Jibuti.
movement, Harbi (who fied
the partisans of the "Great Somalia"
Mohammed
Somalia), that France intended to stay in
not abdicate
He warned
by the MogadiJibuti and would led to
its responsibilities.
— Schools (1958): primary, 83s: secondary, pupils 300. — (1957)= Monetary
Education, 8,
Solomon
27, 1959,
former prime minister,
tion forests.
31,855.
Jacques Compain.
methods, such as rotations, including green manure and other cover crops, and use of better pasture plants. An interesting
that to maintain a proper soil-cover balance,
incl.
28,000 Somalis, 25.000 Danakils, 6,000 Arabs, 3,132 Europeans;
pupils Foreign Trade.
French francs; U.S. $1 ports 157,000,000 fr.
state
14,
pupils
1.319:
private
=
unit: Jibuti franc 2.30 metropolitan 214.39 J. francs. Imports 864,000,000 fr.; ex-
(Hu. De.)
Trust
Territories.
Somaliland Protectorate.
eas't'AfSa isbTundeTnor^
bounded southeast by the Indian ocean, west by Kenya and northwest by Somaliland Protectorate and Ethiopia. Area: 178,-
by the Gulf of Aden and French Somaliland, west and south by Ethiopia and east by Somalia. Area: about 68,000 sq.mi. Pop.
201 sq,mi. Pop. (1958 est.): 1,320,000, ind, chief Somali tribal
stock with Arab,
groups: Darot, Hawlya, Rahaniun, Dighil, Dirr and Tunni (no-
with Arabic admixture. Religion:
madic or seminomadic
Hargeisa (cap.) pop. about 30,000 (about 45,000 max. in cold
This Italian trust territory in East Africa
pastoralists),
is
and Arabs, Indians and
(1958
est.)
650,000, mainly nomadic, of northeastern Hamitic etc.,
admixture. Language:
Moslem
Galla derivative
(Sunni). Chief towns:
—
SORGHUM GRAINS — SOUTH AFRICA, THE UNION OF
639
Berbera (port) about 7,500 permanent (about 30,000 max., cold season). Governors in 1959; Sir Theodore Pike and (from July 13) Sir Douglas Hall. season)
;
—
History. The political atmosphere in the protectorate greatly improved after a statement made at Hargeisa in Feb. 1959 by the secretary of state for the colonies, A. T. Lennox-Boyd, promising rapid constitutional development, a ministerial system and
an
majority in the legislative council following new
unofficial
elections in i960. If after Somalia attained independence the
wished
legislative council
to discuss the idea of
union with that
members
country, talks would be arranged. In March, 13 elected
were added
to the legislative council. Later
seven ministerial
posts were created.
came late in 1959, and for a time drought conditions accompanying grazing shortages. The annual government accounts showed revenue at £1,165,249, A deficit of (F, E, St,') £628,082 was met by a grant from the U,K,
The
rains
prevailed, with
—
Education, Schools (1957): primary and intermediate 155 (incl, 120 grant-aided private Koranic schools with 2,750 pupils), pupils 4,822; secondary i, pupils 69; i vocational training centre with 27 trainee teachers: I trade school, pupils 77, Finance and Trade, Monetary unit: East African shilling, divided into 100 cents, valued at parity with the shilling sterling and at 14 cents U,S. Budget (1957-5S): revenue £2,272,757, expenditure £2,176,777, Foreign trade (1958); imports £4,020,000, exports (incl, re-exports) £1,730,000, Principal exports: livestock, hides and skins, gums and resins,
—
QnrfThlim Trainc
OUIgllUIII UldlllO. 5'
"^^^ '^59 U.S. crop of this
newer major
feed grain was 588,539,000 bu,, about
smaller than the record 614,845,000 bu, production of 1958;
r
the 1948-57 average crop
was only 213,109,000 bu. Total acre-
age for harvest was reduced to 15,965,000 ac, nearly 5' in 1959 was highlighted conditions, organized efforts to attract
extensive road building,
challenges
by theatre
operators of the state's antiquated blue laws, an unusual of
bank robberies and defalcations, absence of further
developments on the issue of
number
significant
racial segregation in the schools
heaw rainfall and by extensive wind damage by hurricane "Gracie." The hurricane struck the southern and central coast Sept. 29. swept across central South Carolina, destroyed or damaged hundreds of buildings, caused seven deaths and did great damage to all unharand abnormal weather featured by unusually
vested crops. Later, eleven counties were declared disaster areas
j
;
j
by the federal small business administration. The tax proposals of newly inaugurated Gov. Ernest F. Rollings for meeting accumulated state deficits and balancing the budget were accepted by the legislature with little change. Higher bracket income taxes were increased, deductions for federal income tax pa>TTients abolished and a withholding system for income taxes inaugurated as of Jan. i. i960. The sales tax was extended to new goods and services and taxes increased on such items as cigarettes, beer, wine and admissions. Revenue was expected to increase by about S26.000.000. erase
deficits,
cover
general appropriations of 1158,096,623 and yield a substantial
of judges' salaries during their term of ofiice, allowed legislative
control of magistrates' terms and jurisdiction and gave spouses
of teachers and ministers voting rights after only six months
residence in
the state.
created a Confederate
Other legislation included laws which
War
made an
Centennial commission and
appropriation which would qualify the state for federal aid in
defraying the cost of medical and hospital care of aged and disabled persons on state welfare
rolls.
Among
significant laws af-
was one which limited 14- and 15-year-old daytime operation unless accompanied by an adult
fecting motorists
drivers to
licensed driver, a parent or guardian. (effective
Nov.
More important was
a law
i960) requiring owners of motor vehicles
i,
who
did not carry liability insurance to pay $15 into an uninsured drivers fund out of which insurance companies
part or
would be paid
of the cost of protecting their policyholders against
all
damages from uninsured Chief elective state
drivers.
1959 were; Ernest F. Hollings, governor; Burnet R. Maybank, lieutenant governor; 0. Frank officers in
Thornton. secretar>' of state;
McLeod. attorney
Jeff B. Bates, treasurer;
general;
Eldridge
C.
Dan
R.
Rhodes, comptroller
general; Jesse T. Anderson, superintendent of education;
W.
L.
Harrelson, commissioner of agriculture; Frank Pinckney, adjutant general.
—
Education, In the 195S-59 school year South Carolina public schools enrolled 600.509 pupils of whom 223,377 were in white elementary schools, 1S2.343 in Negro elementary schools. 121. 516 in white high schools and in Xegro high schools. Teachers numbered 19.930 distributed as 73.273 follows: 7.133 and 5,035 in white and Xegro elementary schools; 5,122 and 2,640 in white and Xegro high schools. Preliminary figures indicated that total expenditures for public school education exceeded those for the 1957-58 school year when the total was $132,469,01 1 of which $96,383,496 was for current expenses. $19,410,191 for capital outlay and $16,675,322 for debt service, .\verage teacher's salary in 1957-58 was S3. 274. Public school education in 1959 was still on a completely segregated basis in spite of the 1954 decision of the supreme court declaring this unconstitutional. State law gave local boards authority to assign pupils and were designed to close public schools when faced by a desegregation court order. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. In the year ended June 30. 1959. public expenditures for relief of needy persons amounted to S26.361.394 of which $20,261,738 were federal funds. The total of 91,145 persons receiving assistance June 30 included 37,501 aged. 2.150 blind. 41.221 dependent children. 9.1 iS totally disabled and 1. 155 needing general assistance. The estimated total number of persons receiving unemployment compensation during the \'ear was 61.132 and the amount paid in benefits was S13.052.315. On June 30 the funds available for unemployment compensation totaled S71.826.891. Patients in the state mental hospital. June 30, numbered 6.513; in the school for feeble-minded, 2.045. Oti the same date there were 2.179 in the state penitentiar>', and in state industrial schools (reformatories) there were 293 white boys, 299 Xegro boys. loi white girls and SS Xegro girls. Communications. Highway mileage in the state system on June 30. 1959, was 27.590 of which 23.354 mi. were paved; mileage outside the state system was 26.459 of which 4.238 mi. were paved. State highway department expenditures for construction and operation during the fiscal year totaled $96,589,588. .\t the end of 1958 railway mileage was 3.331 and telephones numbered 488.184. Estimated tonnage of waterborne imports for the calendar year 1958 was 1,338,630: exports, 338,288. Banking and Finance. On June 30. 1959. there were 25 national banks with 86 branches. 114 state banks with 38 branches. 2 military facilities and 6 cash depositories. Total resources, deposits and capital were, restate, spectively, national. $654,021,000. $581.101. 000. $48,763,000: $382,465,426, S340.932.982, $39,352,581. Resources of 43 federal building and loan associations were $408,938,000; of 36 state associations,
—
—
—
$146,403,947.
Table
I.
— Principal Crops
of South Carolina
|pdi':ated
l«59
Crop Corn, bu Wtieol. bo Ools, bu Hoy, Ions Peanuts, lb
Soybeans, bo.
(for
beans)
.
.
.
.
Pototoes, cwt
Sweet potatoes, cwt Tobacco, lb Cotton, 500-lb. bales.
.
Pecans, lb Peaches, bo
26,152,000 4,032,000 13,600.000 551,000 13,200,000 6,060,000 540,000 636.000 137,350.000 415,000 3,000,000 5,400,000
•1949-57. Source:
U.S.
Deportment of Agri
ollore.
1941
28,954,000 3,124,000 13,101,000 579,000 13,780,000 5,611,000 488,000 689,000 131.000,000 299,000 8,000,000 5,300,000
24,103,000 2,971,000 14,038,000 534,000 11,208,000 1,782,000 875.000' 1,386,000-
159,758,000 598.000 3,640,000 2,931,000
—
SOUTH DAKOTA
642
During the year ended June 30, 1959, the itite operated under a general fund appropriuiions budget of $is>.76s,886 and had a deficit of $4,706,10$ at the end of the year. Total state receipts and expenditures were, respectively, $386,134,171 and $399,814,153. The June 30 bonded debt was $^oS>J'9.ooo of which $146,475,000 was for schools and colleges and $39,104,000 for highways. Federal internal revenue collected amounted to $187,565,000; customs collection, $7,198,889. Agrlcuiiur*. The estimated cash income of South Carolina farmers in 1958 was $369,354,000 of which 61.5% ($117,004,000) was from crops, 19.6% ($109,188,000) from livestock and products, and 8.9% ($33.061,000) from government payments. The total was 7.6% above comparable 1957 receipts; farm marketing proceeds were 3.3% above 1957 but 5.4% below the 1947-56 average. Harvested acreage was 3,069,500. Of the two leading crops, tobacco for the third time exceeded cotton lint and seed in value. Manufaciurcri. For the year ended June 30, 1959, the South Carolina department of labour reported 1,146 establishments with capital investment of $1,485,613,589 and products valued at $3,071,758,115. Employees, exclusive of executives and salaried persons, numbered 191,096 (C. E. Cn.) earning wages of $571,087,364-
—
—
Table
II.
Principal Indu$tri9t of South Carolina
—
SOVIET LITERATURE above the ten-year average. The production index for all crops during 1959 season was estimated (Sept. i) at half that of the peak years 1948, i9S7 (Ev. W. S.) and 1958. Table
short tons, except as noted)
(In
.
268
.
176,000 46,000 568,000
Cloys Feldspor
Gold (oi.) Sond and gravel.
.
.
U,758,000
.
1,395,000 35,000
760,000 6,333,000
70,000 Other
240,000 155,000 26,000 571,000 14,705,000 153,000
8,001,000 122,000 5,068,000
135,000 1,718,000
Silver (oi.)
Stone irols.
Volue
Quontity
139,997.000 145,000 176,000 267,000 19,885,000
Total* Beryllium concentrote
Laos to
Value
Quantity
Mineral
$41,534,000 129,000 155,000 145,000 9,979,000 9,179,000 138,000 4,095,000 530,000 7,800,000
told the
Production.
— Table
while the
Communist Chinese premier, Chou
SEATO
Peking people's congress that
gressions in Asia.
En-lai,
plotted U.S. ag-
As the communist invasion of Laos began
to
take shape as an act of indirect aggression, the communist press
stepped up
trial,
ing
shows the tonnage and value of those mineral commodities produced in South Dakota in 1957 and 1958 whose value exceeded Sioo.ooo. In 1958 South Dakota was first among the states in the output of beryl fwith 52 Tc of total beryl) and first in gold production: second in concentrates of columbium-tantalum; fourth in sheet mica output: and seventh in uranium. South Dakota ranked 39th among the III
states in the value of its minerals in 1958. with .25% of the U.S. total. Encyclop.cdh Britannic.4 Films. The Sorth-aiestern States (1956).
—
its
propaganda campaign against SEATO. The official to put an insurgent up for judicial
Peking radio warned Laos not
at the very time that the
SEATO
Asian Mineral
In AprO, the U.S.S.R. issued statements unfriendly
join.
SEATO,
to
1
value of days and stone.
in ttie
hostility.
Nationalist Chinese irregulars stationed in Laos, so as to coerce
Mineral Production of South Dakota
III.
643
The Russian comments were as antagonistic as those from Communist China. In March, the Chinese alleged that U.S. policy was planning an invasion of Yunnan province by changed
Communist Chinese were
accus-
of interference in the domestic affairs of southeast
states.
Among
SEATO
was much less civil war continued, but the Djakarta press, with the exception of the communists, failed to see any connections between this war and the strategic defense structure set up by SEATO. Indeed, the local strategic security was so high that U.S. and British forces were able to hold some limited joint exercises in Borneo, in the British the neutralists, hostility to
marked than
in
previous years.
The Indonesian
Established
portion of the island, during June. In pre\'ious years a protest
in
1954-55 by the noncommunist members of the United Nations immediately concerned with the defense of Indochina and southeast
might have been expected from
Asia as geographic areas, the Southeast Asia Treaty organization
fulfilling its chief mission, that
(commonly
ous communist
Southeast Asia Treaty Organization.
referred to as
SE.\TO)
system
a regional defense
is
watching the southeastern perimeter of the Sino-Soviet bloc.
The year 1959 showed functions of
mental
SEATO. Many
the nonmilitary
in
of these were at the intergo\-em-
Others lay in the
staff level.
growth
a distinct
fields of
countersubversion,
many
Asian states;
in
1959 the
military rehearsals passed almost unnoticed.
By
many
1959
free-world leaders thought that
sallies into
SEATO
the general
SE.\TO was
of regional deterrence.
No
seri-
free-world territory had occurred in
zone since the organization was established.
See also .Armies of the World. (P. M. A. L.) ENCVCLOP.iDH Brit.annica Films. Arnold Toynbee: South-East Asia
—
and
Its
Peaceful Penetration by the Chinese (fourth lecture of the series, in the Light of History") (1958).
"\ Changing World
fellowships for study and research, cultural exchange, public
health and economic analysis.
Southern Rhodesia:
Of the military crises of 1959, only the communist interference in Laos provoked a SEATO alert. This issue was discussed by a meeting of the SE.\TO representatives in Washington early
eration
in
September. The representatives,
under the leadership of
Undersecretary Douglas Dillon of the U.S. state department, reaffirmed the original mission of
SEATO
ing protocols, which included the
nonmember Indochinese
by virtue of
see
Rhodesia and Nyasaland, Fed-
OF.
South-West Africa: see South Africa, The Union of; Trust Territories. Sovereigns, Presidents and Rulers: see Presidents, SOVEREIG.NS AND RULERS.
found-
its
states
was SoWet Writers held in the Kremlin during May 18-24. The main report, by the first secretary of the union, the poet Alexis Surkov, once more condemned tendencies hostile to socialist realism and denounced the conduct of Boris Pasternak as "treacherous and unworthy of a Soviet writer." However, the trend toward a certain liberalization and toward the pardoning of past errors had several defenders and was even strengthened by N. S. Khrushchev himself,
Qnuiot itoratiiro OUVICI LllCldlUIC.
"^^^ ™°^'- ™p°'''-a"'^ ^vent of 1959
I
(South Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos)
in the area of its protec-
approved a political approach involving the Laos issue to the United Nations. In part this reflected the desire of the SEATO powers not to affront the Soviet Union nor to alarm the neutralist Asian powers. SEATO tion: the delegates referral of the
remained, as before, strictly defensive.
The annual meeting was held
of the Southeast .\sia Treaty organization
in Wellington, N.Z.,
during April. Prince Pote Sarasin
of Thailand was re-elected secretary-general of the organization,
and
its
headquarters was continued
i960 annual meeting was to be held
No members
were
lost or
in
Bangkok, Thai. The Washington. D.C. in
gained during the year. The
SEATO
pattern included Pakistan, Thailand and the Philippines as Asian
New
Zealand as Australasian members; France, Great Britain and the United States as outside powers
members; Australia and
with important possessions in the Pacific ocean area. Laos.
Cam-
bodia and South Vietnam, nonmembers. were covered by the j
i
!
1
i
i
'
original protocols
was directed
which made
it
plain that the
SE.\TO
alliance
at stabilizing the situation in the geographic area
of Indochina. Burma, along with Indonesia, was affected only
because the SE.-XTO
staff
area of southeast Asia.
maintained vigilance over the whole
Malaya and India were
indirectly con-
Commonwealth
Nations along with such SE.\TO members as the United Kingdom, New Zealand and Australia. The communist reaction to SEATO remained one of unnected through their membership
in the
of
who on May
He
22
the third Congress of
made an extempore speech
before the congress.
called for indulgence towards the "deviationists." even to-
ward Vladimir Dudintsev, the author
Not by Bread The congress naturally
of the novel
Alone, which had created a sensation.
reminded its members of their duty to remain faithful to the system of socialist realism and to maintain the closest contact between literature and contemporary life. Soviet writers were mobilized to celebrate the seven-year plan and its heroes. The congress accepted the resignation of Surkov, who had been the subject of sharp criticism, and elected as
first
secretary of the un-
ion the well-known novelist Konstantin Fedin. It also appointed
the writer
S.
Smimov to be editor of Literaturnaya Gazeta. many writers left Moscow for the provinces,
After the congress
to see the places where work forming part of the seven-year plan was in progress, and a group from Literaturnaya Gazeta
visited Siberia, in particular the areas of reclaimed land, dur-
ing the summer months. As for Boris Pasternak, attacks against him ceased, and it was believed possible that under the new
SOVIET UNION — SPACE EXPLORATION
644
and two space probes. Fifteen were launched by the scientific satellites and space probes as part of the International Geophysical year (IGYj program and its 1959 extension, while five were engineering test vehicles of the department of defense. The first few months of the third space
leadership of Konstantin Fedin, he might be reinstated in the
satellites
Union of Soviet
United States: ten
VV'riters.
The 1959 Lenin
Among
prizes
were awarded, as usual, on April
22.
the prize-winners there were only two writers. First, the
dramatist Nikolas Pogodin,
who was the author of a trilogy s ruzhyom ("The ^Lln With a
dedicated to Lenin: Chclovek
year, coinciding with the last quarter of 1959, brought several
("The Kremlin Chimes") and Trrlyaa putvliclu'skoya ("The Pathetic Third"); and secondly the Kazakh writer Mukhtar Auezov. whose novel Abai was de-
additional
Krcmlivskic kuranty
C'lUn"),
voted to the
life
committee showed
selection
regard for the other national
its
literary
circles
on Nov,
considered
it
honour
great
a
that
—
in
particular "Explorer VTI," fired on
and the engineering 7,
more
clear: (i) exploration of distant space
to
Sholokhov accompanied him as official delegate when Khrushchev went to the United States in September. Khrushchev thus honoured the author of Quiet FloTi's the
Don
as the
first
great writer of the U.S.S.R.
(A. Pr.)
see
moon; and (3) applicaman, especially those relating
weather and communications. So far a few
initial
space exploration had been made, and considerable ticularly in the United States,
had been devoted
essays in
effort, par-
to the scientific
study of near space. Applications, readily feasible
in principle,
waited upon engineering developments but were expected to be in
Soviet Union:
became
and the moon and
(2) scientific studies, particularly of space near the
ernment, visited the novelist Mikhail Sholokhov at his Cossack that
years of
initial
earth, ranging as far as halfway to the tions of considerable interest to
Don and
"Discoverer VII,"
Important results were obtained during these
Khrushchev, the leader of the Communist party and of the govstantitsa on the
test device
1959.
the space age. Moreover, significant areas of interest
planets;
literatures of the U.S.S.R.
Soviet
fired
of the people of Kazakhstan and their national
hero .Abai Kunanbaiev, In honouring a non-Russian author, the
launchings
Oct. 13, 1959,
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.
evidence within a few years. Safeiiites.
— Four
earth satellites put into
of the scientific
were launched by the United States. Three of these carried instruments for meteorological experiments: "Vanguard II," "Explorer \I and "Explorer VII." "Explorers VI" orbit during 1959
Soybean production of the U.S.
in 1959 was 528,than the record 574,413,000 bu. of 1958, but the second largest crop of record and much larger than the 1948-57 average crop of 326.020.000 bu.
Soybeans.
111,000 bu.. 8"^
less
'
and "VII" carried instrumentation
Allen radiation belts.
Harvested acreage, after nine years of successive expansion, was
ment
reduced to 21,968,000 ac, 7.5% smaller than
to provide information
stantially
central area, a result of a
in
1958, but sub-
above average. Most of the decline was
dry summer
in
some
expanded planting
of the
main
in the
north
to corn. In spite of
area, the indicated yield
was
carried
"Vanguard cells to
of
its
to provide further informa-
The major new instruby "Vanguard III" was a magnetometer designed
Van
tion on the
on the earth's magnetic
field.
II," the cloud cover satellite, carried
two infrared
record cloud cover distribution over the sunlit portion
"Explorer VI" successfully transmitted the
orbit.
first
24 bu. per acre, only slightly less than the record 24.2 bu. of
rough electronic picture of the earth's cloud cover. Besides fur-
1958 and above the 21.0 bu. average for 1948-57. Illinois continued as the leading producing state with 126,590.000 bu.
nishing data on the
(against 140.364.000 bu. in 1958), followed
by Iowa
(64,071,-
000 bu.), Indiana (57,850,000 bu.), Arkansas (53,112,000 bu.), and Missouri (50,600.000 bu.). Carry-over stocks from previous crops, mostly held by the
Commodity
Credit corporation, mounted to 62,353,000 bu., as compared with 21,083.000 bu. on Oct. i, 1958. Prices fluctuated less widely and erratically in early 1959 than in some previous years; trading became of record proportions late in the year. The official support was reduced to $1.85 per bushel (64% of parity), as compared with $2.09 per bushel (70% of parity) for the 195S crop. In October, producers received $1.93 per bushel, the same as a year earlier.
Exports of soybeans were a record total of about 110,000,000 compared with about 86.000,000 bu. in 1958; exports of
bu., as
soybean meal and soybean
oil
also
were
at record levels.
World soybean production in 1959 was estimated at 944,480,000 bu., 5*^ less than the record high harvest of 1958, but 40% larger than the 1950-54 average, the first year of decline follow-
ing five consecutive years of increased production.
The
unofficial
estimate for mainland China was 350,000,000 bu.. as compared with 360.000,000 bu. in 1958; acreage was indicated as having
been increased tities
than
in
1959. Chinese beans, in
in 1958.
continued to
move
Japan increased production.
to
more
substantial quan-
Europe. Indonesia and (J.
K. R.)
ENCVCLOP..EDIA Brit.annica Films.- -Science and Agriculture (The Soybe.in) (1953).
In the
first
two years of the space
Space Exploration. sjiulnik
I,
man saw
age, beginning Oct. 4, 1957, with the launching of 21 artificial earth satellites
and deep space probes. Of these,
six
were Soviet devices: four
Van
Allen belts, "Explorer
VI" was
instru-
and was called the paddle wheel satellite, and the i.ooo solar cells on each side of its four vanes provided a power source to regenerate its batteries. "Explorer \TI" carried instrumentation for seven major experiments. Among these were six sensing elements designed to measure the
mented
provide
to
information
micrometeorite distribution.
on
the
magnetic
field
It
is absorbed or reflected from the earth's atmosphere. Its instrumentation also included devices to measure heavy cosmic rays, micrometeorite impacts and ionospheric composition, as well as intensity of the Van Allen
balance of the earth's energy as radiation
radiation belts.
"Vanguard III" was the last of the IGY satellites scheduled Vanguard program. The magnetometer was sealed
as part of the
in the tip of the 26-in.
tapered tube so that magnetic forces in
would not interfere. It consisted of a copper coil filled with hexane and connected to power sources in the satellite. After a two-second flow of current, the hydrogen atoms in the liquid spin in orbits inside the coil as dictated by the earth's magnetic field. The information on their orbits is then analyzed in relation to ground-based magnetometer readings in an effort to learn more about magnetic disturbances. "Vanguard III" also carried instrumentation to provide information on environmental conditions and X-radiation. "Lunik III" ("Sputnik IV"), launched in the So\'iet Union the satellite proper
Oct. 4, 1959,
was expected
until the spring of i960.
On
to
remain
its first
in orbit
orbit
it
around the earth
passed the
moon
at a
distance of about 4,000 mi. at time of closest approach. Its instru-
mentation included two cameras to make photographs of the far side of the moon, one with a 200-mm. lens for photographing a large area
and the other with a 500-mm. lens for more detailed
pictures.
Space Probes.
—Three
space probes were launched during
SPACE EXPLORATION
645 in the radiation belts since the
"Pioneer III"
flight
on Dec.
195S. and that of the viet
1959.
space probe on Jan.
The peak
tensity
2,
radiation in-
measured
zone on March
6,
So-
first
in the outer 3,
1959, was
about 300,000 counts per sec-
ond as contrasted with about 25.000 counts per second on Dec.
6,
The outer
1958.
was also found
to extend
belt
about
10,000 mi. farther outward from the earth's surface on March 3, 1959. Measurements
made with
FLIGHT PATH OF THE SOVIET SPACE STATION which
obtained the first photoflraphs of the far side of the moon. The station was launched Oct. 4, 1959. Its position in relation to that of the moon on subseouent days is shown on the diagram. The photographs were taken Oct. 7. They were then developed and transmitted by radio waves to earth from the station (one of the photos is shown on page 647). Source: Official Soviet report translated and distributed by U.S.
Department
Commerce
of
Of the
three U.S. space probes launched during the first two years of the space age, one was launched during 1959. Called "Pioneer IV," it was launched March 3 and went into heliocentric orbit with a period of about 395 days. Like the other space probes in the Pioneer series, it was instrumented to meas1959.
ure the extent and intensity of
Van Allen
radiation in space.
One
of the two radiation counters was nearly identical to that carried in '"Pioneer III,"
which was launched after a period of
little
solar acti\ity.
"Explorer
launched on Aug.
7,
VI,"
1959, on
showed intensities far lower in the outer belt than had been measured by both "Pioneer III' and "Pioneer IV." Since considerable solar activity was observed for several the other hand,
days prior to the launching of "Pioneer IV," these findings lent support to the belief that the charged particles constituting the outer
Van Allen
belt are
probably of solar
origin.
All evidence
indicated that the outer zone consists primarily of electrons with energies of less than 100,000 electron volts.
The
Van Allen zone showed no similar changes between March 3, 1959. On the basis primarily of the "Pioneer IV" measurements, the inner zone was thought to have a high-energj- component and a lower-energy component. The Dec.
6,
inner
1958, and
comparison of "Pioneer III" data with data from "Pioneer
former consists of protons with energies of the order of 100,000,-
rv," which was launched after a substantial geomagnetic storm,
000 ev and the latter probably consists of electrons with energies up to about 1,000.000 ev.
A
was therefore of particular value
Van
in the study of the nature of the
Allen radiation zones.
Two
U.S.S.R. space probes were launched during 1959. "Lunik
"Mechta," was launched on Jan. 2. Its instrumentation by the U.S.S.R. included two Geiger counters for measuring radiation within a wide range of intensity and two scintillation counters for ionization measurements. The data obtained, analyzed in relation to altitude, provided information on I," or
as described
the magnetic field out to great distances.
"Lunik II," launched Sept. 12, impacted on the moon about its launching. Radio contact was maintained during this period, and data from its instruments were received. 35 hours after
Soviet scientists reported that steps were taken to avoid con-
tamination of the moon. Results.
—Three major discoveries were
realized during 1959:
Van Allen radiation belts first found development of a new theory about the shape of the
fuller delineation of the in 1958. the
earth and the correlation of atmosphere drag with solar activity.
In addition, valuable data on satellite environments were first photograph of part of the far side of the
reported, and the
moon was
taken.
The Van Allen magnetic
earth's
belts of high-intensity radiation trapped in the field
were
first
discovered and delineated in
195S by satellite and space-probe radiation e3cperiments directed by James A. van Allen of the State University of Iowa (Iowa City).
The
inner zone
lies
between altitudes of about 1,400 and
3.400 mi. above the geomagnetic equator and has an intensity peak at a height of about 2.500 mi. The vast outer zone, which cur\-es
zones),
has
its
in the high geomagnetic latitudes (auroral between altitudes of about S.ooo and 12,000 mi. and peak intensity at about 11.000 mi.
earthward lies
and space probes launched during 1959 contributed new knowledge on the extent and characteristics of the Van Allen radiation belts. Measurements made by "Pioneer IV" on March 3, 1959, showed that considerable changes had occurred Satellites
i
It appears that the inner zone is relatively well shielded from direct solar influence, and many investigators believe it is formed largely from the radioactive decay of outward-movins neutrons or other secondary particles resulting from cosmic-ray bombardment of the earth's atmosphere. Data collected in a University of Chicago experiment carried by "Explorer VI" suggest the possible presence of a third region of intense radiation, much narrower and much less extensive than the others, lying just beneath the inner \'an .\nen belt. Studies of variations in the orbit of "Vanguard I" caused b.v regional differences in the force of gravity acting on the satellite as it passed over various parts of the earth suggest a new concept of the earth's shape. It now appears that the traditional concept of the earth as a spheroid flattened by an approximately equal amount at each pole and bulging at the equator probably should be somewhat modified. The "\'anguard I" orbital perturbations indicate a pear-shaped component of small amplitude in the earth's figure, consisting of a rise of about 50 ft. at the north pole, an additional flattening of about 50 ft, at the south pole, about 25 ft. of bulge in the middle latitudes of the southern hemisphere and an equivalent flattening in the middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The great stresses within the earth associated with these newly discovered components of the earth's shape imply either a mechanical strength greater than usually assumed for the interior of the earth or large-scale convection currents in the la\'er
On
beneath the crust. the basis of apparent periodic fluctuations in the acceleration of
"Vanguard I" and "Sputnik III," L. G. Jacchia, of the Smithsonian .\strophysical observatory, showed a correlation between the acceleration fluctuations and the 27-day solar rotation cycle. The satellite acceleration variations were attributed to semiregular changes in atmospheric density possibly resulting from the cj'clic reappearance of regions of increased solar activity which persist for several months at a time. In 1959 Jacchia found similar acceleration fluctuations following solar flares for the same two satellites. The acceleration fluctuations coincided exactly with two great geomagnetic disturbances following the flares and amounted to at least 40"^ during one of these events and at least during the other. The fluctuations were believed to have been caused by increases in the density of the upper atmosphere as a result of the influx of the stream of corpuscular radiation from the flare. Many rockets and most satellites launched during the IGV carried ex-
30%
periments to measure various aspects of the satellite environment. These measurements were continued during 1959, and a considerable body of new knowledge of environmental conditions in the upper atmosphere and in interplanetary space near the earth and moon was accumulated. These studies showed that the upper atmosphere is many times denser than previously estimated. a height of about 230 mi., according to calculations based on rocket measurements, the atmosphere is approximately 15 times as dense as previously believed. Even so. at this height, a cubic mile of air would weigh only two ounces. A strong dependence on latitude was also revealed. Measurements indicate that at a height of about 120 mi. the summer daytime density at arctic latitudes is six times greater than the corresponding density at temperate latitudes, .\rctic-region densities also depend upon season and time of day. At 120 mi., the arctic atmosphere is
M
SPACE EXPLORATION
646
bimjcU would it was inevitable that be would come about could not be prefollow, if he could. How quickly this was clear that .nan can develop the dicted as 1959 drew to a close, but it cannot conceive of his .topping short ability to man of the moon had never before been seen earth
...
Hence, the far side par 7, .959. showed A photograph released by the U.S.S.R. on Oc\2 was taken on Oct 7 when the of the moon's unseen side. The photograph surface of the moon. probe was about 35.000 to 45.000 mi. from the moon s unseen side was Qfte d.«erSoviet investigators reported that the described by U.S.S.R. scientists ent from the visible side. The far side was many fewer "seas" than the near ide^ as predominantly mountainous, with tw^o sides of the moon Th? reasons for the apparent differences between thephotographs were made would not be fuUv known until clearer and closer man. or until the moon was actually visited by .,„„a^ v;„„,f stands Man in Space.— With the beginning of the space age, man himselt as man was able to send poised on the threshold of a new world. As soon
"9*59, an American-born rhesus monkey named Able and 1 lofted 300 mi. into space on a 1,500Both monkeys were r«^0». 'he nose cone of a Jupiter rocket. the journey revc^ winds and water: thtis it ma> not face has not been eroded by of the Mrth also shed light on the development ts own'ancient historv but .othe*^'^^: life of «" forms possible liveliest interest is 'the question of funoa Perhaps no other question of. narticu larly Mars and also Venus. raises the this. But the question also menial science is as noteworthy as
'''r.rd\M"^:gir man""nterthe commonlv understood he eToToratory
as
was the objective
mv
"t
FAR SIDE OF THE MOON, televised
by
a
a crude
photooraph
Soviet loace tatelllte
in
Oct.
1959. To the left of the dotted line are regioni and landmarki visible from earth (Sea of Criiis, etc.). Other namet are thote be«tov«e: iron ore (50"^ metal content) 4,908,000: pig iron 1,341,600; crude steel (excluding castings) 1,560,000: zinc, smelter 20,640; copper, blister s.040; lead, refined 70.560; cement 4,812,000; cotton yam 75,960; wool yam 13.S00: rayon filament yam 16.680; rayon staple fibre 32,760: potash, K,0 content (1957) 402,000. Ore production (metric tons, metal content, 1937!; lead 65,200; manganese 12.600; antimony 200: tin concentrates 405; tungsten 718; pyrites 2.260,000. Index of production (mining, Jan. 1958; 1953 100) 133, (Jan. 1950) 130. Encyclop.«dh BRirANNic* Films. Iberian Peninsula (1948); People of Spain (1955).
Spanish Overseas Provinces.
—
Spanish-American Literature:
see L.\tix-Americ.\x Lit-
Areas, populations and chief towns are given in the table. Spanish Overseas Provinces
In
Weil
liq.iiTiJ
579
Spanish Sahara In
Population 1)958
est.l
Chlof town
Africa:
Itni
102,703
52,000 19,000
Sidi Ifnl
Aaiuo
Guinea:
Muni Iconh'nenlal Guinea) Fernando P6o
786
165,000 45,000
82
145,000
10,045
Rio
Places of Spanish Sovereignly in Morocco: Alhucemas, Ceula, Choforinas, Melilla, Peiion
de Velez de
la
Gomera
Bala liabe
Soma
—
The population of the places of Sponish sovereignly along the Medilerronean coast of Morocco is Arab. Berber and Spanish. The population of Guinean Sponish Africa is mainly Negro, with 1,900 whiles in Rio Muni ond 2,850 in Fernando P6o.
I
itorotiiro
Spain continued in 1959 to be one of
History. .^ period of calm marked relations between Spain and Morocco during 1959. This was a rehef after the tense situation in 195S produced by attacks of Moroccan troops on Span-
the few countries where verse and
ish
more successful and even more popular than Most people remained either semiliterate or satis-
the essay were serious fiction. fied
Areo Province
—
ER.ATURE.
ioh
l^Z^T'tZZ
possessions in Africa as they stood at the end of 1959. The total area was 114,195 sq.mi., and the population about 426,000.
—
=
(Ay, Kn.)
with the comic books which the censorship allowed to flood
consumed a substantial fare of philosophy and poetry. Relatively more books of essays were published in Spain than in any other countr}-. T>-pical were such imcompromising books as Jose Ferrater the newsstands in Ueu of a free press, but a minority
Mora's Ortega
V
Gasset, an analysis of that great thinkers de-
velopment. The Spanish edition was an amplification of a book
by Ferrater and published in Great by the same writer was La fiiosolia en el mundo de hoy. Americo Castro's first book to be published in Spain since the civil war was his Origen, ser y exister de los espaiioles, a coUecdon of essays on how the Spanish became what they peculiarly are and how they made their ''historiable" histor>-. Pedro Lain Entralgo published La originally written in English
Britain and the United States in 1957. Also
West
.\frican possessions which led to serious engagements and the Sahara with many casualties. There were, however, various questions still outstanding be-
in Ifni
tween the Madrid and Rabat governments, including the delicate one of the delimitation of frontiers in southern Morocco. During 1959 a mixed Hispano-Moroccan commission met several times to discuss these problems.
Mulay
.\bdallah Ibrahim, prime minister of Morocco, Rabat from Beirut after attending a meeting of the .\rab league, stopped in Madrid to meet Gen. Francisco Franco. The object was to deliver a cordial message of friendship from King Mohammed V, and to discuss outstanding questions between both countries. The Moroccan prime minister admitted there were problems, but between Spain and Morocco there was a close understanding which would help them to overcome any
In
on
.\pril,
his
way
to
difiiculties.
Several
officials
of the
Rabat government accompanied Mulay
palabra, an examination of the word, logos, as
Abdallah Ibrahim during his talks with the caudillo and also
therapeutic agent, and of Greek approximations to psychosomatic
with Fernando Maria Castiella y Maiz, the Spanish foreign minister. .Among questions discussed was the Moroccan government's
curacion por
medicine.
la
Monodialogos
de
Don Miguel
de
Unamuno, by
Eduardo Ortega y Gasset (exiled brother of Jose\ containing valuable memoirs of Unamuno in exile, was published in \ew York,
While brilliant youth elsewhere was dedicated to fiction and romance on the one hand and to science on the other, the outstanding new writer to appear in Spain in 1959 was Alberto Gil Novales (b. 1930"!. who documented the decadence of Spain during the pre\-ious three centuries in a series of fascinating sketches entitled (after Ortega) Las pequenas Atlantidas. Written in a style as subjective as that of a Latin Carlyle, uncon-
taminated by pale "objecti\-ity," the book stood up for the tragic valour and value of Spain in continuous decline.
L
The Premio de
la Critica
awards were given
to Bias de
Otero
all Spanish troops from northern Morocco, the former Spanish protectorate, with its capital at Tetuan, which was incorporated in the new independent Morocco under the Hispano-Moroccan agreement of -April 7, 1956. .A new juridical status for Spanish Guinea was approved by the Cortes on July 28. The old colony of Guinea was converted into two pro\-inces with the names of Fernando Poo and Rio Muni, subject to the same laws and legislation as pro\'inces in metropohtan Spain. This change in status thus ended the "colonizing phase," it was stated in the Cortes. The new provinces of Fernando Poo and Rio Muni followed upon the 1958 decree creating the new provinces of Ifni and
request for the withdrawal of
Sahara.
(X.)
—
—
SPEED RECORDS — STEVENSON
652
Finonc* Spanish Sahara. Budget (ind. Ifni, 1957): revenue 86,75j,2oo pesetas (of which receipts from territories 12,705.000 pesetas), expenditure 86. 762. 200 pesetas. Spanish Guinea. Budget (1Q57): balanced at 160,007,000 pesetas. Expenditure of central government on African territories (1958-59) 1. 440. 416. 187 pesetas. Fortign Trod*. Ifni (1957): imports 73. 224.830 pesetas. Spanish Sahara (1956): imports 31,765,000 pesetas, exports 16,836,000 pesetas. Spanish Cuinca (1957): imports 676.155,000 pesetas (of which 465,745.800 pesetas from Spain), exports 1,088,016,200 pesetas (of which 1,012,962,800 pesetas to Spain). Traniport and Communkolioni. //ni. Roads (1957) 359-5 km.; motor vehicles of all classes 316; telephones (Jan. 1958) I3S- Spanish Sahara. Roads (1957) 6.086 km.; motor vehicles of all classes 70; telephones (Jan. 1958) 46. Spanish Guinea. Length of bus routes (1957) 2,456 km.; buses in use 86; telephones (Jan. 1958) 668.
—
man
of Montreal, at Cambridge,
March
22
when they halted another Philadelphia team, Howard
of Pakistan.
Al Chassard, Bethlehem, Pa., finished on top in the national
New York when he defeated Mahmoud Kerim, an Egyptian playing for Montreal, on Feb. 26. Chassard bowed to Henri Salaun of Cam-
professional tournament at the University club in
Canadian open at Toronto, Canada on March 7 when
bridge, Mass., in the final of the
Apparent U.S. consumption of all spices in 1959 was 0|JlwCo> indicated as approaching, but probably slightly short of, one pound per capita. U.S. imports of complementary spices in 1958-59 were 84,516,000 lb. valued at $34,538,000, as compared with 76.180.000
years of high vanilla bean prices failed to bring the de-
Malgache Republic (formerly Madagascar) was reduced by hurricane damage to
sired increase in supply; the 1959 crop of the
about 820.000
lb.
a Canadian
and Pemba
with 54,000,000
lb. in
at
only 11,000,000
lb.,
compared
as
team triumphed over
to
a U.S. team, 10-5, in the three-
country competition at Toronto. Canada had shut out the Jesters club of Great Britain, 5-0, the night before.
Salaun repeated his victory of 1958 in the Cowles invitation at the Harvard club in New York, beating Carter
Fergusson, Philadelphia, on Jan. 25.
Englewood.
N.J., at Atlantic City, N.J.,
World production of pepper in 1959 was forecast at 149,500,lb., slightly more than the 147,000.000 lb. of 1958, but 14%
Atlantic coast cham-
Steve Vehslage. Princeton,
won
on Feb.
at
Princeton on
March
Princeton and Yale were tied with
1 1
won
MacCracken
of
8.
national intercollegiate hon-
ours and helped the Tigers win the team
Howe, Yale,
the previous year.
The
pionship went to Mateer when he stopped Cal
Early estimates placed the 1958-59 clove har-
vest of Zanzibar
The Lapham cup returned
tournament
Pepper, especially black, continued as the most popular spice.
Two
Jan. 18.
valued at $27,755,000 in 1957-58.
lb.
Ed Hahn,
Davis and James Whitmoyer. Mateer carried off the U.S. open crown in the 6th annual championship at Pittsburgh, Pa., Jan. 11 with an upset of
see
Cninno
23.
40 years of age and over when he turned back Vic Elmaleh, New York, N.Y. A Yale university entry beat Canada, 3-2, in 5-man team play. G. Diehl Maleer and John Hentz, Philadclphians, successfully defended their doubles title at Buffalo, NY., on
Hashim Khan Air Races and Records; Automobile Racing; Bousledding; Cycling; Gliding; Horse Racing; Ice Skating; Motorboat Racing; Rowing; Skiing; Swimming; Track and Field Sports; Yachting.
Speed Records:
Mass., Feb.
Detroit, Mich., gained national veterans' honours for players
by defeating Sam Going into the final,
title
8.
victories each in the tourna-
000
ment. Larry Brown, Fordham,
below the 170.900,000 lb. of 1957 and below pre-World War II levels. India with 60.000,000 lb., and Indonesia with 42,000,000 lb., were major producers. Latin-American (Brazilian) produc-
school was victor in the 15th annual interscholastic invitation
tion increased.
116.053,000
lb.,
Exports in
in
1958 were 98.813.000
lb.,
1957. U.S. imports were 38,078,000
against lb.,
as
compared with 34,959.000 lb. in the previous year. About onetenth was white pepper. Prices were fairly stable during the early part of 1959 at a level just above 30 cents per pound for black kinds and about 50 cents per pound for Muntok white. Buying by the U.S.S.R. firmed prices, and late in the year a Chinese syndicate was reported as having cornered the white pepper market, after which prices rose sharply, on some black kinds to about 50 cents per pound, and on Muntok white to about
(New York)
title at
the 6fh annual metropolitan
Hoboken, N.J. Ralph Howe of Haverford
New York's Racquet and Tennis club. Mrs. W. Pepper Constable of Princeton, who took the New Jersey state and New England titles earlier in the season, capevent at
tured the United States women's championship for the fourth successive year at Haverford, Pa., on Feb. 21, defeating Mrs. Sheila Speight
Macintosh of England. The doubles
title
went
to
Mrs. Charles Wetzel and Mrs. Carter Simonin, Philadelphians. as they beat Janet
Morgan and Mrs. Macintosh, topseeded Britwomen won the Wolfe-
ish team, at Philadelphia Feb. 28. U.S.
Noel cup from England for the first time since 1952 with 3-2 victory at Philadelphia on Feb. 23. (T. V. H.)
a
72 cents per pound.
The
world's 1958-59 hops crop reached an all-time record of
173.700,000 ing
lb.,
18%
larger than the 1957-58 crop
by 12.4% the previous record
set in 1951-52.
and exceed(J.
K. R.)
Spirits: see Liquors. .Alcoholic.
Spitsbergen: see Norway. Sports and Games: see Angling; Archery; Automobile Racing; Badminton; Baseball; Basketball; Bobsledding; Bowling; Boxing; Chess; Contract Bridge; Curling; Cycling; Fencing; Football; Gliding; Golf; Gymnastics; H..\xdball; Hockey, Field; Hockey, Ice; Horse R.acing; Ice Sk.\ting; Lacrosse; Lawn Bowling; Motorboat Racing; Olympic Games; Pan-American Games; Polo; Rowing; Shooting; Skiing; Soccer; Softball; Squash Racqi'ets; Swimming; Table Tennis; Tennis; Track and Field Sports; Wrestling; Yachting. Sports Car Racing: see Automobile Racing. Sputnilts: see Astronomy; Space Exploration. Ben Heckscher, U.S. army
Squash Racquets. title in
won
lieutenant,
the United States amateur singles
1959 when he defeated the Canadian
star, J.
Smith Chap-
Stamp Collecting:
see
Philately.
Standards, National Bureau of:
see
National Bureau
OF Standards.
Stars: see Astronomy. State, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments AND Bureaus, U.S. State Fairs: see Fairs and Exhibitions; Shows. Steel: see Iron and Steel. Stellar System: see Astronomy. Stereophonic Recordings: see Records and Recordings
Stevenson, Adiai EWing a^re^as bom in Lo^Angeles. Calif., on Feb. 5. He was graduated from Princeton university in
1922 and earned his law degree at Han.-ard and Northwestern 111.) universities. After serving abroad as a news-
(Evanston,
paper correspondent, he became a federal official, principally with the agriculture, state and navy departments. He was governor of Illinois from 1949 to 1953. As the Democratic nominee for president in 1952 and 1956, he was twice defeated by Dwight D. Eisenhower. Although Stevenson denied categorically and frequently in
STOCKS AND BONDS igsg that he would be a presidential candidate or the eventual Democratic nominee in i960, there was widespread but unorganized support for
him
in
many
sections of the country. Despite
two defeats, many influential Democrats envisaged him as- a compromise candidate in the event of a convention deadlock. Stevenson showed a keen interest in relations with the U.S.S.R., which he had visited in 1958. In a book recording his observations, he said that he was "deeply impressed" by the people's warm friendship for the U.S., and by the communists' progress in education, science and hydroelectric development. He approved of the 1959 Eisenhower-Khrushchev meeting, but he warned that the western alliance must be strengthened. He his
charged that the Republicans had permitted
it
to "disintegrate."
Generally, however, he approved the administration's foreign policies.
When
Stevenson was asked in advance of Khrushchev's arrival
in the U.S.
what aspects of American
life
and society should
be shown to him, Stevenson said that "we should teach him the
democracy of America, its staying power, adaptand dynamism." As exhibits, he recommended that Khrushchev be taken to the Tennessee Valley authority, a great industrial plant, a state fair, a midwestern cornfield, an integrated school and a session of a congressional committee. resiliency of the ability
As further evidence of a six-week
summer
his interest in foreign affairs,
he made
tour of Italy, Greece, Turkey and southern
France and planned a tour of South America
in early i960.
(R. Tu.)
The United
Stocks and Bonds.
States
stock
market
averages advanced very modestly in
1959 despite record-breaking displays of strength in most significant economic indicators. The upward drift of prices during the six months of 1959 was offset by declines in the third quarter of the year which coincided with the prolonged steel first
strike.
Most
of the
momentum
developed throughout a very
was dissipated during the first half of 1959. While the averages moved within a narrow range, however, many individual issues showed spectacular gains. As Table I indicates. Standard and Poor's composite index of 500 common stocks, which climbed steadily throughout 1958 from an average low of 41.12 in January to a year-end average high of 53.49 in December (a gain of 30%), was only able to advance from 55.62 to its July 1959 high of 59.74 or 7% before settling back at lower levels. The industrial index developed a pattern which was virtually identical with that of the composite index in 1958 and 1959. Whereas 1958 saw a steady uninterrupted rise, 1959 was characterized by brief declines in four of the first nine months. At bullish 1958
64.23 in July 1959 the industrial index achieved a record high.
Public utilities and rails both failed to display strength through most of 1959. During the first nine months, the high and low averages were 45.15 and 42.58 for utilities, while the corresponding figures were 36.86 and 33.78 for the rails. The optimistic post-recession mood of investors which typified Table I.— U.S. Stock Market Prices and Yields
—
STOMACH AND
654 for long-term
government bonds resulted
in
INTESTINES. DISEASES OF THE
a vigorous swing to
shorter-term issues which, in some instances, sold to yield as
much
as
s%.
Corporate bonds, as measured by Standard and Poor's index (Table III), also fell below the levels of the previous year.
The
hiRhest grade bonds sold well below par during the
first
.
nine months of 1959. In September a price of 93.0 was reached,
j
the lowest average price for such securities in Table
II.
U.S.
Government Long-Term Bond
many
Prices
and
years. Yietdt
i
;
STOMACH AND
INTESTrNES, DISEASES OF THE
flammation and ulceration. This hazard was diminished by
the liver and biliary tract, and severe diabetes, and occasionally
posing a segment of small intestine between esophagus and
appeared after the use of antibiotics (neomycin). Newly developed tubes facilitated the removal of tissue from the small bowel for diagnostic study. A unique illness, intestinal lipodystrophy,
stomach. Thinning of the esophagus in patients with chronic iron
and vitamin B deficiencies was found to result in strictures and webs in the upper esophagus and hypopharynx, interfering with swallowing. Prednisone and antibiotics taken by mouth prevented infection and stricture in children who had swallowed lye. Achalasia, a disturbance in the neuromuscular activity of the esophagus associated with the degeneration of nerve cells, was characterized by failure of relaxation of the lower esophagus. The narrowed area could be stretched successfully, without operation, with distending devices. Cancer of the esophagus can be removed with a relatively low mortality however, the poor end ;
results after five years re-emphasized the
need for
earlier opera-
tions.
—Duodenal
was more common in young chilhad been appreciated; often a family history of ulcer was found. Ulcers also were common after the age of 60. Because of frequent complications and increased mortality during medical treatment, surgery was recommended in this group. Many stomach ulcers (not duodenal) were ob-
Stomach.
ulcer
dren, especially males, than
served
among people
and multiple complications were associated with various endocrine tumours, including hyperfunction of the parathyroid glands.
The acute gastric and duodenal on the heart and blood vessels
to endocrine stimulation of acid production.
and not destroyed by the
liver.
The
by
a
ulcers following the use of
and rauwolfia.
salicylates (aspirin), adrenal steroids (prednisone)
were complicated by hemorrhage and perforation. Antacids and acid-suppressing drugs were helpful in
extracts occasionally
Many
approaches became available for diagnosing bleeding
from the digestive
tract,
a difl&cult problem.
These included
intravenous injection of radioactive iron which into the red blood cells
;
a
new
test for
incorporated
is
hemoglobin
in the feces
the use of fluorescein intravenously; the swallowing of radio-
aided
by
the
identification
in urine. Surgical
only treatment. Carcinoids also were found in
of
a
chemical,
removal was the the appendix and
the bronchus of the lungs.
A
destructive inflammation of the small bowel and colon,
pseudomembranous enterocolitis, was a serious postoperative complication. The use of antibiotics appeared to be an important
by circulatory failure and generalTreatment included the restoration of mineral balance and of the normal intestinal bacteria flora and
and
fluid
elimination of the toxemia. In the diarrhea
commonly contracted
by tourists, pathogenic bacteria such as Salmonella and Shigella were not found; but Escherichia coli enteropathogens and possibly viruses or staphylococci seemed important. Narrowing, malrotation and excessive surgical removal of the small bowel occasionally were complicated by vitamin B12 deficiency. Colon. Arthritis, including ankylosing spondylitis of the spine, frequently accompanied ulcerative colitis; other concomitants found were abnormal blood proteins and liver cirrhosis. Medical treatment was helpful in most cases of ulcerative colitis.
Rectal installation of adrenal steroids (hydrocortisone
hemisuccinate and methyl prednisolone) by enema or slow drip,
and careful operative
decreased the inflammation and facilitated healing, especially
inspection of the digestive tract with illuminated instruments
mild or moderate cases. Surgery (colectomy and ileostomy) was indicated in patients with uncontrollable hemorrhage, ful-
active tape to locate the site of bleeding;
I
(endoscopes). Decreased local temperature of the stomach via
by cooling through
in
introduced into the stomach, reduced acid-pepsin production,
minating disease, perforation, unresponsiveness to medical treatment, possible cancer and disabling ano-rectal complications.
retarded digestion and thereby controlled bleeding from peptic
Young women could undergo
ice-water lavage, or I
ulcer.
a thin-walled balloon
Emotional problems were important
ogy of the ulcer patient, and,
if
in the
symptomatol-
not managed effectively, caused
The incidence
of
stomach cancer was increased
in
people with
pernicious anemia, as a consequence of inflammation and re-
The
operation without subsequent in-
ability to bear children.
Opinions differed as to the relationship of polyps of the colon
and rectum
recurrent distress despite medical or surgical treatment.
to cancer.
However, people already having polyps
developed new ones more often than the general population and the polyps appeared to signify an abnormal bowel, susceptible
and its tendency to grow slowly or rapidly, determined the outcome of surgery. Exploratory abdominal operations revealed lymphoblastoma, tuberculous peritonitis and chronic granulomatous inflammation
rectum and sigmoid were removed by local excision or electrocoagulation. Approximately 75% of cancers of the colon and rectum were easily located by palpation or proctoscopy. In people under the age of
as causes of persistent obscure fever.
40 and in children the tumours tended to progress more rapidly than in older patients. In general, the five-year survival rate
generation.
biological nature of the tumour,
gional enteritis)
—Inflammation
of the small intestine
(re-
caused fever, abdominal cramps, weight
loss,
Small Intestine.
diarrhea and obstruction. Surgery was required for complications
and good health was possible despite extensive removal of bowel. Nevertheless, recurrences were frequent. Medical treatment was effective in
uncomplicated cases.
Excessive fat in the feces (steatorrhea) accompanied diseases I
was
5-hydroxy indoleacetic acid,
—
treatment.
I
Associated findings were asthma and disorders of the heart.
Diagnosis
ized intoxication.
substance absorbed from or produced by the small intestine
.
episodes of flushing of the skin, abdominal cramps and diarrhea.
pulse and diarrhea, followed
patients with chronic lung dis-
Ulcers, after operations in patients with liver disease (porta-
'•
Newer X-ray methods revealed an increasing number of tumours of the small intestine; bleeding and intermittent obstruction were common symptoms. Intestinal polyposis, a hereditary condition, was associated with blackish-purple pigmentation in and around the mouth. A special tumour (carcinoid) composed of argentaSin cells, on extending to liver and lymph nodes, produced the chemicals serotonin and histamine responsible for
ulcers complicating operations
among
caval shunts), were related to excessive acid stimulation
j
by microscopic examination of lymph nodes, show-
established
ing large cells with special staining properties.
ease (emphysema, tuberculosis).
were ascribed
i
men, and was characterized by fatty and weight loss. Diagnosis was
diarrhea, migratory polyarthritis
factor, but other factors were intestinal obstructions, malignancy and bacteria {Micrococcus pyogenes, Clostridium welchii). The initial symptoms were abdominal distention, colic, fever, rapid
Peptic ulcer was frequent
I
affected chiefly middle-aged
living at high altitudes. Ulcers with very
large outputs of hydrochloric acid, refractoriness to treatment
j
655
inter-
of the small bowel, poor function of the pancreas, disorders of
to cancer formation. Accessible polj^ps in the
after operation approximated
Liver.
some
—Liver
50%.
disease produced
many
biochemical disorders;
of these were utilized to evaluate liver function, identify
the t>'pe and degree of hepatic injury, and predict the course
of illness. Practical tests included bromsulfalein retention, serum
plasma prothrombin after administration and measurements of various serum enzymes, in-
bilirubin, estimates of
of vitamin
K
—
STRAUSS- -STRIKES
656
Strauss was
eluding cholinesterase, tr.insaminase and alkaline phosphatase.
bom
on Jan. 31, 1896,
Hoover
was
general anesthesia was used to detect obstructions and by-passes
peace conference and later serving with U.S.
in the circulation
(percutaneous splenoportography). Inspection
of the interior of the
abdomen (peritoneoscopy) and removal
of
by a needle were additional diagnostic aids. little chance of serum hepatitis in patients receiving pooled plasma stored for six months at room from the
tissue
A
liver
15-year survey indicated
temperature
in a fluid state.
Operative procedures to decrease portal hypertension (porta-
were increasingly successful; how-
caval, spleno-renal shunts)
ever, poor liver function
remained
a serious obstacle.
A
hazard
was the intoxication induced by the accumulation of excessive ammonia produced within the digestive
aide to Herbert
in
1917-19, attending the Parij^ relief agencies
New York During World War II he was a special assistant to th secretary of the navy and was also a member of the army-navyj munitions board and the interdepartmental committee on atomii energy, rising to the rank of rear admiral. He was credited wit] having developed several secret navy weapons during Work W'ar II and was named an original member of the Atomic Energ commission in Oct. 1946. He was named chairman of the AE Europe.
He
then entered the banking business in
city.
in 1953-
Strauss retired at the end of his five-year term as chair
of shunt operations
tract (hepatic
staff
W.Va. He
at Charleston,
Injection of radiopaque material into the spleen under local or
of the
AEC
in
June 1958 and then became a special assistant
1
President Eisenhower in charge of the atoms-for-peace pro
coma).
by abnormal quantities of fats and the blood, responded partially to the feeding of large amounts of ethyl linoleate. Gall Bladder. Newer X-ray techniques facilitated visualizaBiliary cirrhosis, characterized
gram.
in the liver
Strawberries:
see Fruit.
—
were men, but the stones had not produced symptoms. Heart ailments and gall bladder disease often were associated. Elective cholecystectomy usually was well tolerated in such patients and the operation often improved the angina pectoris and abnormalities in heart rhythm when these conditions existed.
United States.
tion of the gall bladder. Abnormalities, chiefly gall stones,
observed
in
approximately
15%
— For inflammation
of apparently normal
accompanying inflammation of the gall bladder, operations removing stones in the bile ducts and facilitating drainage of bile were very helpful. Overeating and excessive intakes of alcohol, by stimulating secretion of pancreatic juice, were important causes. Chronic relapsing pancreatitis originated in various ways. Hence, no single treatment was uniformly effective; operations chiefly relieved Pancreas.
of the pancreas
obstruction to the flow of pancreatic juice. Fibrosis of the liver occasionally w'as associated with pancreatic
fibrosis.
Cysts of the pancreas were
common
originating
after inflammation or injury. Total removal
was possible occasionally; other operative procedures included incision and drainage, evacuation and internal drainage. Cancer of the pancreas usually developed insidiously, but upper abdominal pain, poor appetite, weight loss and, in some cases, jaundice w^ere important symptoms. Despite previously discouraging results, total removal of the cancer by pancreato-duodenectomy often appeared
—
Strauss, Lewis Lichtenstein ment commerce by
official,
was rejected
the U.S. senate in 1959 after weeks
of hearings and debate; he had been given a recess appointPres.
Dwight D. Eisenhower on Oct.
24, 1958, to suc-
ceed Sinclair Weeks. The senate, by a vote of 49-46, refused, on June 19, 1959, to confirm the nomination, and Strauss resigned. Various reasons were given
by the anti-Strauss senators; most frequently mentioned seemed to be that Strauss had irritated congressmen and withheld certain defense information from them. Only seven times previously in U.S. history had the the
senate refused to confirm a presidential nomination to the cabi-
was succeeded H. Mueller {q.v.).
net. Strauss
erick
activity during
1958
wa
terms of the number of workers involved and total man-day
lost. Still it
was comparatively small
in relation to the
postwa^
The number of work stoppages increased slightly by little more than J% (from 3,673 in 1957 to 3,694 in 1958), bu| the number of workers involved in work stoppages increased trend.
i
about
48%
(from 1,390,000
in
1957 to 2,060,000
in
1958).
same period the total number of man-days idle increase by about 45% (from 16,500,000 to 23,900,000). The averag^ duration of work stoppages increased, but only slightly, fron 19.2 calendar days in 1957 to 19.7 calendar days in 1958. The' number of workers involved in work stoppages, 2,060,000, represented 4.8% of total employment, as against 3.1% in the previous year. The number of man-days of work lost in 1958, 23,900,000, represented 0.22% of the total estimated working this
time of
all
workers, as against 0.14% for the year 1957, an
in-
Man-days idle per worker involved in stoppages did not change much, the change being from 11. 4 in 1957 crease of 0.08%.
to
1
1.6 in
The
1958.
increase in the
number
of workers involved in stoppages
was mainly due to the increase in the number of large stoppages. There were 332 stoppages in 195S that affected 1,000 workers or more (an increase of 53 stoppages over 1957), involving al-
number
of
w^orkers involved, an increase of about 700,000 workers over
Bibliography. \. G. Hampton, J. R. Beckwith and J. E. Wood, Jr., "The Relationship Between Heart Disease and Gail-Bladder Disease," Ann. Inl. Med., 50:1135-48 (May 1959); .\. B. Raper, "The Incidence of Peptic Ulceration in Some .\frican Tribal Groups," Tr. Roy. Soc. Trap. Med. Hyg., 52:535-546 (Xov. 1958); J. .\. Rider, el al., "Polyps of the Colon and Rectum." ]..i.M.A.. 170:633-638 (June 6. 1959); 0. H. Wanaensteen, et al., "Depressant .Action of Local Gastric Hypothermia on Gastric Digestion," J.A.M.A., 169:1601-08 (April 4, 1959). (J. B. Kr.)
ment by
in
— Strike
considerably greater than in the previous year, botl
together 1,587,000 workers or 77.1% of the total
justifiable.
See also Surgery.
as secretary of
Strikes.
as secretary of
commerce by Fred-
the previous year. These large stoppages (1,000 workers or more) Table
I.
United States:
Work Stoppages, Workers
and Man-Days Idle* Work Stoppages Workers involvedf
Mon.doys
Inyolved idle during
yeor
—
STRI accounted for 17,900,000 man-days idle or 74.7% of the total. There were 21 stoppages of 10,000 workers or more, involving 823,000 workers or 40% of the total number of workers involved
and accounting for 10,600,000 man-days of
in stoppages,
44.2%
ness or
idle-
of the total idleness in 1958.
Concerning the duration of idleness, about two-fifths of the stoppages in 1958 lasted less than a week, representing
8%
the workers idle and 5
35%
of
of the total man-days lost. But only
of the 21 major stoppages were in this group.
The other
14
stoppages ending in 1958 lasted between 13 to 54 days. Onefifth of the total stoppages lasted one month or more, involved 23 -7% of the total workers concerned and 55.9% of the total man-days idle. Strike activity was once again distributed among various sectors of the economy. Stoppages in manufacturing accounted for 1,955 out of 3,694, involving 1,490,000 workers and registering 15,400,000 man-days idle (as against 1,965 stoppages, 778,000 workers and 9,390,000 man-days in 1957). In the nonmanufacturing sectors, 1,739 stoppages involved 574,000 workers and registered 8,520,000 man-days idle (as against 1,711 stoppages, 610,000 workers and 7,080,000 man-days in 1957). In the transport-equipment industry the number of man-days idle because of strike activity reached 1.06% of the estimated working time of all workers employed in the industry (involving 4.310,000 man-days lost). The level of strike activity in this industry was the highest since 1950 when 8,000,000 man-days were lost. Five
other
manufacturing
industries
— fabricated
metal
products,
WAGE NEGOTIATORS
Conrad Cooper (left), executive vici McDonald, president of the United Steelw were resumed June 28, 1959, over n Despite an appeal by President Eisenhower, no agreement was n strike began July 15. Work was resumed Nov. 7 after the U,S, s R.
U.S. Steel, and David J. hands as talks
shaking
upheld the Taft-Hartley act injunction, forcing the workers 80-day period
machinery, machinery (except electrical), stone, clay
electrical
and
to
glass
products, and apparel
—each
registered
more than
1,000,000 man-days of idleness. In the construction industry, 844 Table
Work Stoppages by
United States;
H.
Industry Group,
ginning
in
days
idle
during 1958 (all sloppogesi
1958
% of esli-
moled lolal
Number
group
Industry
3,694 1,955
All induslries*
Manufccturing* Primary metal industries . Fabricated metal products {except ordnance, machinery and transportation equipment)
...
Ordnance and
accessories
.
Number 23,900,000 15,400,000 711,000
working lime
.22 .39 .25
.
.
256
.46
.
12
147,000 12,800
1,220,000
.
94,700
.29
93 223 210
102,000 152,000 551,000
1,030,000 2,760,000 4,310,000
.36 .72 1.06
69 74
18,200 13,800 44,900 6,370
282,000 254,000
.18 .28
1,200,000 111,000
.91
machinery, equipment
Electrical
ond supplies Mochinery, except eleclricol . Tronsportotion equipment Lumber and v«ood products, except furniture .
...
Furniture
167
Worlcers involved
2,060,000 1,490,000 102,000
and
fixtures
Stone, clay and gloss products . Textile mill products Apparel and other finished products mode from fobrics ond similar molerials Leather and leather products . . Food ond liindred products. .
Tobocco manufactures Paper and allied products Printing, publishing and allied .
176 4
270
2,170
.
.
60
18,100
252,000
.18
.
46 100
22,300 20,300
324,000 218,000
.15 .15
Professional, scientific and controlling instruments; photographic and optical goods; watches and clocks industries
Nonmonufocturing* fishing
.
Mining Contract construction electric,
78,900 661,000
.37 .09 .18 t
16
8,090
141,000
.23
58
23,800
147,000
.24
27
14,300
233,000
.29
58
8,330
1,739 6
141,000 8,520,000 14,300
§,12
168 844
574,000 4,010 38,600 326,000
242 358
132,000 57,000
302,000 4,790,000
.12 t
.16 .71
retail
trade
.
.
Finance, insurance and reol estate Services
Government
benefits, accounting for
ning in 195S, 6-.2'^c of
all
50.8%
of
all
stoppages begin-
workers involved and
76. 7*^
of all
man-days of idleness due to work stoppages. Stoppages directly concerned with wage increases accounted for 32.6% of the total stoppages, 47.5% of all workers involved and 49,5% of all man-days lost. Stoppages due to working conditions accounted for 2^.y'yc of all stoppages, 27.1% of all workers involved and 14,4'^ of man-days lost. Job security accounted for 11.7'^ of
all
stoppages. Issues concerned with union organization accounted for a small percentage of the total
were subsidiary
number
of stoppages or they
to other issues.
The year 1959 was expected to show a rise in strike activity because of a combination of factors the revival of economic
—
activity, the expiration of labour contracts in tries,
some
basic indus-
the renewed concern over inflationary pressures, and the
—
United Kingdom. The number of work stoppages arising from industrial disputes declined by about 8%, from 2,859 in 1957 to 2.629 in 1958, The number of workers involved in all stoppages in progress during the year declined substantially from 1,359,000 to 524,100, a difference of 834,900, representing a 60*^ A total of 3,462,000 working days were lost in all stop-
decline,
pages
gos' and sonitory
services
Wholesale and
mentary
industry, especially, played an important role in the 1959 events.
plastics
.
ond
41
1,100,000
lost
wage-price-profit relationships. Developments in the basic steel
industries
Agriculture, forestry
.05
.
industries
products.
51
126
152,000 7,720 60,600
Chemicals and allied products. Petroleum refining and reloted
Rubber and miscellaneous
117
man(0.71% of the estimated total working time). This was the largest number of man-days lost in any single industry group, with a level of strike activity only exceeded by the records reached in 1952 and 1953. The major issues were once again wages, hours and supplestoppages, involving 326,000 workers, registered 4,790,000
1956
Mon-days Sfoppoges be-
8
600
102
14,100 1,720
15
2,270,000 942,000 4,500 196,000 7,510
.23 .03 t
progress during the year, an approximate decline of
The
loss
of time for each of the workers involved averaged about S\
t J
'Stoppages extending into two or more industry groups hove been counted in each industry group affected; workers involved end mon-days idle were allocated to the respecgroups, tless thon 0.005%. JNot ovoiloble, lExcludes government ond agriculture. Source: United States Department of Lobor, Bureau of Lobar Review, June 1 959.
in
58'^ from the 8.412.000 days lost in the previous year.
tive
working days, as against
The was
in
7
days
in 1957.
principal cause of disputes
leading to
work stoppages
connection with wage considerations. All wage disputes
accounted for 45. 9"^?- of the number of stoppages in 1958 (44,7% 1957), representing 46. 6tyl« 220-yd. frea style 440-yd. frsa ifyle I,JOO-m. free style 100-yd. backstrske 220-yd. backstroke 100-yd. breast stroke 220-yd. breost stroke 100-yd. butterfly 220-yd. butterfly 200-yd. medley 400-yd. medley 400-yd. free style relay
1
n
Soltzo
on Soltzo on Soltzo
10- yd. bockstroke
'..
220-yd. bockstroke 100-yd. breost stroke
.
\.
220-yd. breast stroke
.
..
'..
Cone Cone Horgreovei
Los Angeles Detroit A.C.
3 min. 59.5
s.
414.15 441.50
A.C.
78
1
Colif., July 16-191
Santo Clo I
Cl
S6,763, a monthly average of 25,436 families, including 80,218 dependent and neglected children, received monthly averages of $70.04 per family and $22.21 per child, totaling $21,375,891. Total expenditures for the fiscal year under the state welfare program were $167,678,383. Transportation and Communicotion. The total mileage of all classes of public roads in Texas at the end of fiscal 1959 was 197.756. The state designated system included 60.345 mi., of which 55,507 mi. were paved. There were an additional 1 1,61 1 mi. of paved highway maintained by counties. There were 288 mi. of highway that had been developed under the new federal interstate highway sj'stem and an additional 519 mi. of multilane, divided highwa>'s which required additional work. Total receipts to the state highway department for the fiscal year were $385,000,000 and expenditures were $411,000,000. However, including funds brought forward from the preceding year, there was a balance of $26,000,000 in the state highway fund at the end of the year. Total net railroad mileage in Texas as of Dec. 31, 1958, was 21,201.53. The number of passengers carried during the calendar year 1958 was 3,175.582 for a total passenger revenue of $14,333,378. Freight totaled 152,687.265 tons for a total of $394,881,242 in revenue. There were ten deepwater ports in operation along the Gulf coast of Texas during the calendar year 1959. with foreign imports of about 5,000,000 tons and exports of more than 18,000,000 tons. In addition there is coastwise domestic shipping which amounts to about 5,000,000 tons of receipts and 90,000.000 tons of shipments annually. Slate Government Finance, Banking. The state government collected $1,134,574,137 and expended $1,163,883,080 during fiscal 1959. However, the actual operating deficit at the end of the year was about $90,000,000. Principal sources of revenue were the tax on production of crude oil and natural gas. $183,990,102; motor fuel tax, $194,445,805: motor vehicle licenses, permits, etc. $72,483,176; franchise taxes, $39,812,683. Principal expenditures were for education, $399,526,246: highways, $406,411,366: public welfare $189,909,267. There were approximately 930 banks in Texas at the end of 1958 of which 480 were state banks and 450 national. Total resources were $11,400,000,000. There were 435 stock life and 65 mutual life insurance companies in operation with about 9.800,000 policies in force. Agriculture. The total cash income of Texas crop growers and livestock raisers in 1959 was estimated b\' the U.S. department of agriculture at $2,494,808,000, of which livestock and products contributed $929,587,000, crops $1,443,033,000 and government payments under the price control programs $122,188,000. The number and value of livestock on farms on Jan. i. 1959. were as follows: all cattle. 8.510.000 valued at $1,165,870,000; hogs, 1,226,000 valued at $30,773,000: all sheep, 5,355,000 valued at $93,435,000: goats, 3,093,000 valued at $25,700,000; horses and mules. 232.000 valued at $24,592,000; chickens, 17,196,000 valued at $18,916,000; turkeys, 515,000 valued at $:.i 12,000. Manufacturing. In 1959 there was an average of 507.800 wage earners
—
—
—
—
—
ond wages 1957
I.
Indicoled,
Barley, bu Rye, bu Rice. 100.1b.
bags
Flaxseed, bu
Sorghum
grain, bu All hay, ions
poloioes, cwl Sweet polotoes, cwt Peanuts, lb Peaches, bu Pecans, lb Grapefruit, boxej
Irish
Oronges, bonej
l'59
4,500,000 1,888,000 43,708,000 56,440,000 24,156,000 6,884,000 135,000 13,136,000 357,000 276,912,000 2,359,000 2,620,000 1,351,000 193,061,000 1,100,000 26,000,000 5,800,000 3,200,000
•1949-57. Source! U.S. Department of Agriculture.
1958
4,308,000 1,816,000 42,973,000 73,040,000 53,130,000 10,143,000 338,000 11,938,000 336,000 273,066,000 2,487,000 2,285,000 1,210,000 224,110,000 1,100,000 26,000,000 4,200,000 2,300,000
10,91
nd n>
paper and products. Priming and publishing Chemicals and products Petroleum and cool product! Stone, cloy ond gloss products Pulp,
.
Fobricoted metal products Machinery (except electrical! mochinery .
Tronsportafion equipment :
Average, 1948-57
753,000 113,524,000 1,753,000 1,513,000* 1,560,000' 221,200,000 625,000 35,040,000 3,800,000 1,676,000
11 2,41
{607,673 35,339 114,325
69.1 18
81,949 64,133 91,788 190,877 957,965 772,767 176,159 295,940
69,580 98,650 204,583 1,044,832
689,643 162,739 304,249 173,735 456,682
107,471
242,672 44,257 407,968
Co
of
1954
$«50,3«5 38,957 131.342
1
231,493 277,548 61,053 152,694
45,961
.
Deportment
U.S,
I
8,796 75,842
Electricol
145,891
436,693
67,701
496,639
415,213
of Monufoclurei, I9S7.
Table III.—/ iineral Production of Texas Iln
sho rl Ions, except as noledl 1957
Qu,
Mineral
(bbl.j
.
Value
$4,484,538,000
$4,036,656 000 79,756 000 5,424, 000
100,000 3,343,000 3,353,000
100 ,000 4,120, ,000 4,807, 000
22,144,000 2,992,000
.
Clays
Coket
Gem
Quonllr
Volue
....
Total*
Cement
tity
»
'
...
slonesS
?
....
Gypsum
Helium (000
1,043,000
204,000
cu.ft.l
Iron ore
?
796,000
7,489,000
691,000
i,000
.
.
•
.
.
5,156,215,000
500,153,000
5,178,073,000
',000
147,618,000 17,104,000 23,427,000
3,787,000 3,843,000 32,871,000
lime l^olural gas . (OOOcu.lf.l
Nolurol gosoline.
(000
gol.)
.
.
Petroleum (bbl.l
(000 gol.
.
2,944,000 1,073,867,000 3,832,000 4,612,000 23,685,000
'.
.
I
Salt
Sand ond gravel Sodium sulfate,
.
151,896 15,1 15,
30,806,
?
.
31,248,000 3,224,000
Stone Sulfur Sulfur,
recovered elementalt .
.
183,000
4,022,000
171,000
.
48,000
1 99,000 71,510,000
61,000
Talc ond .
Other
mir
•Tolol tVolue: for processed
late duplication in the value of ^Vi not included in the lolols.
a
of th» Tin Indyriry
In th»
Unitil SlaHt
Stole
Nsrih Carolina Kontucky .
.
.
South Carolina Virainia
.
GTor'o'ia*
.
.
!
;
Pennsylvonio
.
Maryland
.
.
.
.
.
.
floritfo.
.
Wisconsin
Ohio
.
.
Connecticut Indiana .
.
.
.
.
.
.
Massachusetts
Country United Stotai China .
India U.S.S.R. Brazil . .
Japan. Turkey. Pakistan
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
Rhodesia-Nyo
Conodo Italy
.
Indonesia
.
.
.
.
.
.
TOURIST TRAVEL — TOWN AND REGIONAL PLANNING
684
roads; residual powers are retained by the subordinate
Icrial
governments. The metropolitan municipality obtains
by tax
from the area municipalities
levies
its
revenues
Pennsylvania 19,500,000; Michigan 18,500,000; Ohio 16,900,000; Oregon 10,500,000; and Illinois 10,000,000.
same proportion
in the
Motels continued
to
open everywhere
in
the United States.
that their assessable property bears to the total assessable prop-
The
erty of the metropolitan area.
59,000, containing 2,100,000 units. California, Texas and Florida
The metropolitan municipality
is
governed by a 2s-member
metropolitan council, consisting of a permanent chairman, plus
and town and
12 township reeves
village
mayors, and 12
officials
of the city of Toronto. In 1959 the chairman of the metropolitan
council was Frederick G. Gardiner; the
Toronto was Nathan
From 1954
mayor
of the city of
number
more than
of motels in 1958 was estimated at
had more than 3,000 motels each; Oregon, Colorado, Minnesota, Michigan and New York had 1,500 to 3,000 each. Motels continued to assume more of the features of convenience and luxury usually associated with hotels.
Swimming
pools,
and wall-to-wall carpeting were standard items
room in
television
almost every
new motel.
Phillips.
to 1957 the metropolitan municipality gained
ers, e.g., police, at
total
By spending
pow-
the expense of the subordinate municipalities,
creased
its
For the
on roads, the U.S.
a record $6,000,000,000
total of toll turnpikes
became
and
in-
free expressways to 9,000
possible to drive from the Great
but in 1959 signs appeared that this process of aggrandizement might be nearing an end. One sign was the failure, after prolonged
mi.
negotiations, of an attempt to organize a unified fire-fighting
Perhaps the most important road completion of 1958 was the Illinois tollway, a three-pronged, 187-mi. pivot, which shuttled
However, in 1959 the metropolitan council was very much the prime mover in the area. On April 9 this body approved a capital program for 1959, part of a ten-year program, of $100,818,000. In November, thanks service for metropolitan Toronto.
by the metropolitan municipality, a was made on a ten-mile extension of the Toronto Transit commission's subway system, to be undertaken over ten years at
Lakes
traffic
first
time,
it
to the Atlantic seaboard without encountering a stoplight.
around Chicago.
Although summer continued to account for 65% to 70% of the over-all tourist volume, travel in other seasons was booming. for example,
had become the nation's
fastest growing
largely to pressure applied
Skiing,
start
vacation sport. During 1958 an estimated 3,000,000 enthusiasts
a cost of $189,000,000. This culminated three years of negotia-
between the 13 municipalities and the province over the
tions
di-
vision of the cost of the extension.
Metropolitan council estimates for 1959 provided for a gross current expenditure of $138,554,437, with $61,070,523 to be
met
by provincial grants and miscellaneous sources and $77,483,914 to be met by the area municipalities. This total exceeded the 1958 estimates by $14,841,754 (the 1957-58 increase was $17,168.015). City of Toronto estimates provided for a gross ex-
visited about
400
ski areas located in 28 states.
Marked improvements in air transportation also stimulated more tourist travel. By the end of 1959 the airlines had 300 purejet and prop-jet planes in service and were operating more tourist passenger-miles than
all
other forms of transportation combined
(except for the private passenger car).
Transport association reported that
its
The International Air member lines carried a
record total of 69,249,000 passengers during 1958, an increase of
12.4% over the previous rose
g%
year. Intra-European passenger traffic
but far greater was the
rise in traffic across the
penditure of $99,625,074, to be raised in part by a tax rate of 56 mills, 6 mills higher than in 1958. Total taxable assessment
Atlantic ocean, which under the impetus of the
was $1,747,048,713 (against $1,693,475,276 in 1958). In 1959 the more than 4,500 manufacturing plants in metropolitan Toronto produced goods worth about $2,750,000,000. The opening of the St. Lawrence seaway in 1959 prompted plans for the reclamation of about 1,400 ac. of water-front land to provide
carried.
additional berthing space for ships and manufacturing space for industry, but
by the end of the year no action on these plans had
been taken.
(L.
En-cyclop.«dia Britannica Films. —Canada:
Wn.)
the Industrial Provinces
{1958).
fares climbed
A
26.8%
to a record total of 1,292,166 passengers
Americans spent $2,140,000,000 on foreign travel during 1958. total of $1,460,000,000 was spent in other countries and the
remaining $680,000,000 for transportation. The
was mainly
rise in
so extensively as
it
^°' since the years immediately following World War II had tourist travel increased
did during 1959, both within the United States
and elsewhere. The
total
number
of U.S. vacationers rose to an
estimated 90,000,000 during the year, and their expenditures
amounted
more than $15,000,000,000. Automobile
to
accounted for
85%
travelers
of both totals.
Automobile registration
United States reached a peak of 58,591.000, a 3'^ increase over 1958 and a 75"^^- increase over in the
1948. Appro.ximately 37,600.000 U.S. families cars,
and the
total of all
motor vehicle
trafi5c in
owned passenger the country was
estimated at 700.000,000.000 mi.
The
than doubled over
in travel to
this period.
New York
state residents led
new records throughby the najumped from 33,000,000 in 1950 to more than
tional
park service
\"isits to
areas administered
58,000,000 in 1958; visits to the national forests from 52,000,000 to 68,000.000;
and
state parks rose
army corps more than 97,000,000. Visits
visits to the reservoirs of the
engineers from 20,000,000 to
from 114,000,000
in
led with 33,000,000 followed
of to
1950 to 237,000,000 in 1958.
Seven states reported more than 10,000,000
York
made
compared with 77.000 from California, the second ranking other leading states, in order, were Illinois,
New
all
the trip, state;
Jersey, Pennsylvania,
Massachusetts and Michigan.
U.S. tourist expenditures in
Canada during 1958 dropped
to
$323,000,000. 59c below the 1957 figure. In Mexico, on the other hand, they rose to a new peak of $320,000,000, of which twothirds was spent in Mexican border towns. The Mexican government estimated the number of foreign tourists at 700,000 and
expected a
lo'^c
The number
increase during 1959.
of foreign travelers to the United States rose to
472.000 in 1958 and their expenditures to $825,000,000, plus $90,in fares to United States steamship lines and airlines
000.000
use of public vacation areas reached
out the United States.
expendi-
Europe and the Mediterranean, where U.S. tourists spent $560,000,000. Of the 637,000 U.S. travelers to Europe, 419,000 crossed the Atlantic by air. For the first time since 1954, the number (218,000) of sea travelers was larger than in the preceding year. Air travel to Europe had more tures
others in travel to Europe. About 186,000 persons
Tniirict Trouol I UUlldl I laVcl.
North
new "economy"
visits annually.
for transportation.
Canadian expenditures
for about $425,000,000. Travel outlays
in the U.S.
by European
accounted visitors of
less than in 1957, with the number of travelers dropping from 208,000 in that year to 190,000 in
$86,000,000 were slightly
1938.
See also American Citizens Abroad; National Parks and
Monuments; Roads and Highways.
(Mi, Fe.)
New
by California 19,900,000;
Town and Regional
Planning:
see
City and Regional
Planning; Municipal Government. Retail sales of toys in the United States were
Tnu IllUUoUy. Inrflictru iUy 1959, tal
expected to amount to $1,650,000,000 in
compared with $1,500,000,000 sales,
1959
in the previous year.
Of
to-
about $1,000,000,000 were sold during the Christ-
mas season. The total number
of workers engaged in the
,800 toy
i
making
plants in the U.S. increased by about 3,000 in 1959 to a total of
73,000; they received wages amounting to approximately $270,-
000,000.
Despite the large production in the U.S. for
own consump-
its
imports of toys in 1959 rose by about 25% over those of 1958, about 85% of the imports coming from Japan.
tion,
Exports of toys from the United States were valued at more in 1959, the best markets being Canada and
than $15,000,000
South America. Japan, the leading toy exporting country, and West Germany, which ranked third after the United States, were
making
significant inroads in
both the Canadian and South Amer-
ican markets.
(E.
M. M.)
Athletes the world over, with
Track and Field Sports.
eyes
focused
on big interna-
tional meets ahead, achieved sparkling feats in 1959.
Dan Waern
of Sweden, one of the year's big distance men, ran his sixth
mile under 4 min. in London in September, being caught in 3 min. 59.7 sec, a month after running a 3 min. 59.2 sec. mi. at
Waern
improved on his own world m. when he was timed in 2 min. 17.8 sec. A University of Texas quartet eclipsed the 440-yd. relay standard with a 39.6-sec. clocking at Modesto, Calif., May 30. In the same meet, Roscoe Cook of Oregon Vaesterass, Sweden.
record of
2
min.
18.
i
also
sec. for 1,000
equaled the often-tied loo-yd. standard of 9.3 sec. as he defeated Bobby Morrow and Ray Norton. Parry O'Brien of Los Angeles,
with a listed standard of 63 challenged by
shot-put
former Kansas
2 in.,
ft.
Bill
saw
his
supremacy with the
Nieder and Dale Long. Nieder,
ace, attained a distance of 64
6^
in.,
a University of California freshman, reached 63
ft.
neither throw was recognition.
made under
ft.
and Long, 7
in.,
but
conditions necessary for record
Harold Connolly, Olympic champion, beat his own ft. 4 in. with a hammer throw of 226 ft. i\ in.
record of 225
Lieut. Al Cantello, U.S. marines, surpassed the javelin
Union
set
mark
3^ in., and Oleg Fedoseyev of the Soviet a hop, step and jump standard of 54 ft. g^ in. Edmund
with a toss of 282
ft.
Piatkowski of Poland improved on Fortune Gordien's 6-yearold discus Australia,
mark with a throw of 196 ft, 6^ in. At Melbourne, Herb Elliott, current holder of the mile record of 3
min. 54.5 sec, raced the anchor leg as his team was clocked in 16 min. 25.6 sec. for the 4-mi. relay. Hungary also filed claim for a 4-mi. relay record with a performance of 16 min. 25.1 sec.
Ray Norton, who
tied the loo-m.
mark
loo-yd. standard of 9.3 sec. several times, as the year's top sprinter. Bill
another
Penn
Woddhouse
who was caught at 9.3 sec. Woodhouse set
relays in April.
of 10. i sec. and the
won
general acclaim
of Abilene Christian,
for 100 yd., shone at the a games'
mark
of 9.5 sec.
and helped Abilene establish records in two relays for the Philadelphia show. Notable among the women's performances was the 54.3-sec. clocking for 440 yd. turned in by Betty Cuthbert in Australia. Norton, voted the meet's outstanding star, won both sprints at the national A.A.U. (Amateur Athletic union) title games in June. The Southern California Striders won team honours. Tennessee (State) A. & I. repeated as women's A.A.U. champion. Penn State added the I.C. 4-A (Intercollegiate Association of Amateur Athletics in America) crown to one it won indoors. Kansas capped a brilliant season by walking off with the National for 100 yd.
—
—
TRACKANDF lELD SPORTS
686
individual star of the meet, capturing the lOO- and 200-m. dashes
and running anchor U.S.
won
men
leg for the
women
took 14 of their 22 events, while the Russian
8 of their 10 contests.
Indoor Seoson.
— The
jumped 6 ft. ii| Columbus games
campaign on the boards proved the
with 8 world records bettered.
greati'sl in history
in.,
highest ever indoors,
Boston on Jan.
at
17.
Thomas
high
the Knights of
in
Under A.A.U.
rules,
to the next lowest
which cut lower fractions of an inch
this tirst
i-in.,
Thomas' mark was put at 6 ft. n^ in. The listed standard of 6 io| in. was set in 1953. Ron Delany of Ireland won the mile
ft.
in
vault at 15
Namo,
New
llndoon.
York
Winder, Morgan Sfalo
E.
Gilberl,
1000 yd
Z.
I'mi.
R.
l.mi.
wolk
Pole vault
Team
New
-mi.
6 min. 42.2
see.
2-ml. relay
medley relay
35.lb. weight throw
....
Broad jump 16-lb, shot-put
High jump
3 min. 16.6 sect
7 1
39.8
min.
lee.
min. 53.2 see.
66 ft. 2% in.* 25 ft. '/, in. 62«t. P/4in.'
7
1
(I.
5
1
in."
'/4
ft.
in.
1
1
2
York A.C.
Event
20-km. run 25-km. run Marathon
.
8.
MocDonald
.
.
.
R.
.
.
.
.
Holuio Holuio
.
.
.
.
Sipoi Sipos
Voncouver Olympic Vancouver Olympic
Denman
N.Y. Pioneer club
J.
T.Ryan
walk.
20-km. walk 25-km. walk 30-km. walk 35- km. wolk 50-km. wolk
.
.
.... .
.
.
.
Ouonlico Marines
R. F.
F. E.
4 min. 8 6 hr. 1 8 21 min. 54,4 1 1 mi. 3 4 Fleming, J. Kopil) 49 min. 42 hr.
1
1
2
hr.
1
M.
min. 34 2 hr, 1 4 min. 4 club 2 hr. 44 min. 20 club 3 hr. 12 min. 44.4 5 hr. 7 min. 47 1
hr.
32
sec.
min. tec.
yd. see. sec. sec.
sec. sec.
sec.
Other moior A.A.U. Oiidoor Chomoion), 1959 Decathlon Pentathlon All-around Women's pentathlon
C.
Yang
Formosa
D.
Farmer Pogoni
Orinda, Calif. New York A.C, Elmdole, Kon,
T. .
A. Roniger
7,549 3,194 7,874 4,075
pis. pis.
pli. pll.
pll.
'/j
record. (C. Pratt,
Table IV.— (.C.4-A Championships,
8%
100 m. 200 m
R.
400 m. 800 m 1,500 m
E.
R.
T.
Norton, Santo Clara Youth Villoge Norton, Soma Clara Youth Village Southern, Texas Murphy, New York A.C.
D. Burleson, Oregon B. Dellinger, U.S. Air Force M. Truex, So. Colifornia Striders
5,000 m 10,000 m
....
10-m. high hurdles
400-m. hurdles 200-m. low hurdles
.
.
3,000-m. steeplechose 3,000-m. wolk throw. Javelin throw Discus throw High jump Shot-put
.
.
.
P.
.
.
.
E.
.
.
Hop
step and jump Broad iump 56-lb. weight throw
.
.
.
Team •Meet record. (Brogg, U.S. Marines, tied
in
R.
20.8 sec. 46,1 sec, min. 47.9 sec. 1 3 min. 47.5 see.' 4 min. 47.6 sec. 3 1 min. 22.4 sec. I
Usee.
Colhoun, North Carolina A.A.
D. Howard, New Mexico C. Tidwell, unottoched
.
Pole vault
Hommer
L.
D. H. A. A. C.
0.5 sec.
1
50.7 see. 22.6 sec*
Coleman, Chicago Track club Denman, New York Pioneer club Brogg, U.S. Army
Connolly, So. Colifornia Striders Conlello, U.S. Marines Oerter, New York A.C. Dumas, So. California Striders P. O'Brien, So. Colifornia Striders Pioneer club I. Dovis, Philodelphia G. Bell, Fort Wayne A.C. B. Backus, New York A.C. Striders So. Colifornio
Morris, Siriders, 1 5 ft. 3
pole vault at
J.
Graham, Oklahoma
in.,
places
in
order
Stole,
1
9 min. 1 9.3 see. 3 min. 52.2 see. ft. 3 in. 1 5
216 ft. 10 in. 246 ft. 9 in. 186 ft. 5 rn.' 6
9
ft.
60-yd. high hurdlei
A.
600-yd 1,000 yd
J.
Slock, Yale
E.
Moron, Penn State Close, St. Johns (Brooklyn) Engelbrink, Penn Stole
New
mi
1
P.
2 mi.
R.
Pittsburgh (Z. Smith,
-mi. relay
1
C. Shine, Pennsylvonia E. Keerd, Boston U.
M. Herman,
lltidoors,
Washington, D.C.,
1
....
New
C. Stead, Villonovo
Pole vault
3.
High jump
Broad jump
Team lOutdoors,
100 220 440 880
New
yd yd yd yd
Basketball throw.
4-km. shot-put.
.
.
.
.
.
|eom (Flynn, Terry
Wood, Queens Mercuretles M. Lorney, Queens Mercuretles
A.
Tennessee A.
&
C,
1 mi 2 mi
.
.
20 yd. high hurdles -mi. relay
York
city,
Moy
60 m 100 m 200 m
400 m 800 m
K. Poison, Spolon A.C. G. Butcher, Clevelond Mogyor A.C.
80-m. hurdles 400-m. relay
S. Crowder, Tennessee A. & I. Tennessee A. 8, 1. A team (M. Hudson, I. Daniels, W. Rudolph, I. Williams) E. Brown, Sporton A.C. E. Brown, Spartan A.C, M. lorney. Queens Mercurettes M. Motthews. Tennessee A. i I. I. Josefson, Sporton A.C. Tennessee A. 8. I.
.
Team "Championship record.
in.
in.
1
ft.
B'/j in.
fl.
7V4
6
'A pis.
1
J.
J.
in.
on
first
T. Toil,
208
Pole voull
Andersen, Maryland Penn Slate
1
I.
B.
Table V.
N.C.A.A. Championships, lOu'do
100 220 440 880
,
Line
,
Ne
C. Tidwell, Konsi R. Norton, Son Ji E. Southern, Tex
Tnents, on their assessments toward the cost of maintaining
ting the term
re-
the
UN
Emergency
force
(UNEF)
;
$22,500,000 of $55,200,000
_l
—
UNITED NATIONS due had not been paid on May 31, 1959. The problem created by arrears in the payment of assessments for the regular budget may be illustrated by the fact that on Nov. 4, 1959, China still owed $2,167,929 for 1958, and China, France and the U.S.S.R. together owed $7,648,020 for 1959. On
Nov. 4, 1959, there were 24 nations that had made no payment toward the 1957 assessment for UNREF (United Nations Ref-
701 disarmament committee other major proposals, was
resolution, transmitting to the ten-nation
Khrushchev proposal and
the
sponsored by
On Nov.
members
all
all
of the genera! assembly.
1958, the general assembly urged the cessation of
4,
nuclear weapons' testing during the negotiations that were then progress in Geneva. These negotiations were again under
in
way
others in both groups refused to
in Nov. 1959. The general assembly in 1959 was asked by Morocco to consider the problem of proposed French tests of atomic weapons in the Sahara desert. Outer Space. An ad hoc Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space was established by the general assembly on
pay, claiming that the cost of the
Emergency force should be paid by France, Israel and the United Kingdom. Eight Latin-
Dec. 13, 1958, but Czechoslovakia, India, Poland, the United Arab Republic and the U.S.S.R. refused to participate. The com-
American states paid their UNEF assessments; live refused to make any payment (Argentina, Bolivia, El Salvador, Panama and Paraguay and eight had made only partial payments for
mittee met from
ugees fund), 37 that had made no payment for 1958 and 52 that had not paid for 1959. Only Yugoslavia among the communist
and Morocco and Tunisia among the Arabs, had paid
states,
UNEF
their
assessments;
all
;
)
1957 (Chile, Costa Rica, Cuba, Honduras, Mexico, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela). Ethiopia, Greece, the Philippines and
made no payment toward UNEF, and Afghanistan, China and Nepal had made only partial payments for 1957. Spain had
1959
Amounfs Assessed
$51,812,850 1,800,000 25,000,000 78,612,850
Regular budget Supplementory UN Emergency force • Sublolol
Income Provided Voluntarily Technical ossistance Special Fund for
program
Economic Development
.
.
$50,293,900
— 32,672,726 23,007,601
High commissioner fort refugees Subtotal
?
$19,000,000
UN Refugee
The do
to
pay
question as to
38,720,000 ?
90 governments
assessments
for
members should whether members intended
UN
might be necessary
to
borrow money
charter.
in
ary or March i960 in order to carry on the work of the
Febru-
UN, and
accordingly again requested an increase of the Working Capital
fund
to $30,000,000.
Table Working
Arrears
III.
in
$61,142
1957 1958 1959 1957 1958 1959
Regular budget
UNEF budget
$
65,652 2,637,955 12,050,035 4,372,636 8,468,373 6,626,070
Total
195S, the general
assembly approved several resolutions on the subject, chief of
which was one enlarging the Disarmament commission to include
members of the UN. On Sept. 7, 1959, the Big Four powers requested the secretary-general to convene the commission, which
all
met on Sept. 10 and unanimously welcomed the ten-nation disarmament committee established by the Big Four at Geneva, Switz., but with the recognition that ultimate responsibility for
general disarmament was vested in the
UN. On
Sept.
18 the
Soviet premier. Nikita Khrushchev, proposed to the general as-
sembly
a
Sheikh, where the approxi-
Colombian battalion in the autumn of 1958 was compensated by increases in the contingents from the seven states that continued to supply forces: Brazil, Canada, Denmark, India, Norway, Sweden and Yugoslavia. The failure of states to pay their assessments toward the cost of UNEF was a cause of concern. It was recalled that in 1956 the members of the general assembly had decided (by a vote of 62 to 8, with 7 abstentions) that the costs of UNEF should be borne by all members of the organization in accordance with the scale of assessments for the regular
budget.
was 42
On Dec. to 9,
—
13, 195S, the
vote on financing
system of complete and universal disarmament.
A
UNEF
for i960
with 27 abstentions.
Korea. On July 31, 1958. the UN Commission on the Uniand Rehabilitation of Korea (UNCURK) submitted a report covering two years, which noted that the commission had been unable to observe elections in North Korea in 1958, but that it had observed elections in South Korea on May 21, 1958. On Oct. 28, 1958, the Democratic People's Republic of Korea announced that all Chinese People's Republic "volunteers" had fication
10,
with the concurrence of the Chinese
People's Republic and the U.S.S.R., stated that conditions were
withdrawn. On Nov.
14, the general
free" elections and continued 19,467,079 $34,281,863
—
4,
el
were stationed. The withdrawal of
favourable for free all-Korean elections 14,753,642
Armaments Regulation. During 1959 discussion of the problem of regulation of armaments was, for all practical purUN. On Nov.
Sharm
UNEF
the
UN
The pleting
poses, conducted outside of the
of
withdrawn, and on Nov.
Payments of Assessments as of Ocfober 31, 1959
capital fund
men
for
all
to respect the obligations contained in art. 17 of the
it
recommended on
—
32,895,000 22,500,000
Unless there was some significant change, the secretary-general estimated that
1958,
United Nations Emergency Force (UNEF). Virtually unbroken quiet prevailed during 1959 in the Gaza strip, on the Israel-Egypt border and at
their
on Government Re-
years the resumption of consideration of the matter.
mately 5,400
after a general assembly decision that
so, raised a serious
1957, after not meeting in
32,034,303
fund {UNREF) and other specidi programs such
of governments
failure
—The Committee
on the Question of Defining Aggression which was estab-
29,128,400
as the World Refugee year.
UNEF,
Defining Aggression.
29,872,759
1959.
in
co-operation and authorize a small unit in the secretariat with limited functions.
25,781,277
•Voluntary contributions totaling United States in 1959 reduced the original assessment of $19,000,000. tOf this incoine, 87 governments contributed $19,966,000 in 1958 and {Includes contributions to the
UN
?
18,916,000
? 5,200,000 4,928,675 92,188,230 115,977,711 ? $170,801,080 $181,412,551 ? $3,785,000 by Irelond, Japan, United Kingdom and
TOTAL
6 to
April 22, 1959, that the general assembly postpone for three
for
Ciiildren's fundt
contributed
Members
$49,359,840 870,000 15,205,000 65,434,840 by Members
31,307,903
...
.
and Works Agency Polestine Refugees
Relief
June 25, 1959, and adopted a report agency to deal with the subject was not yet necessary, but that the general assembly should create a body to study ways and means of implementing international
lished in
1960
Agoifist
May
which concluded that a
plies
Table II.— UN Finances, 1958-1960 1958
—
if all
foreign troops were
assembly urged "genuinely
UNCURK
Korean Reconstruction agency
for another year.
(UNKRA)
was com-
but stressed the need for additional aid to
its activities,
the Republic of Korea,
UN
combat troops, composed of Thai, Turkish and United Korea in 1959. The Truce Supervision organization entered its Palestine. nth year with the number of observers increased from 77 to 105. The secretary-general continued to try to find some areas
The
States units, entered their tenth year of duty in
—
of agreement that might lead to a settlement in the region, but his conclusion in
be reported."
Aug. 1959 was that
The
15. 1958. considered,
against the United
peak of
or no progress can
but took no action on, Israeli complaints
Arab Republic.
Lebanon-Jordan. at the
"little
Security council in meetings on Dec. 8 and
—The
UN
its activities in
Observation group
in
Lebanon
1958 included 591 observers and
whether the decision to dispatch the subcommittee was a pro-
The
cedural or a substantive question.
representative of the
U.S.S.R. contended that the council's meeting had been called
m
violation of the rules of procedure because the secretary-
general had not invoked his right under art. 99. This argument
was overruled by the president of the council. As to the dispatch of the subcommittee, the U.S.S.R. representative argued that the voting on the establishment of such a group should be governed by par. 4 of the June 7, 1945, Statement oj the Sponsoring Powers ('China, U.S.S.R., United Kingdom and United States), in which it was agreed that "decisions and actions by the Security council may well have major political consequences and may even initiate a chain of events." For this reason, the Statement continued, decisions to make an investigation would require the affirmative vote of all the permanent members of the Security council. The decision to send a
subcommittee to Laos, therefore required the affirmative vote of the permanent members of the council.
all
JAPANESE IMPERIAL. DANCERS
rehearsing a traditional samurai dance to be performed for a select diplomatic audience In the United Nations general assembly hall May 25, 1959
The other permanent members
of the council argued that the
establishment of the subcommittee was governed by par. the Statement which provided that
The United
Other personnel from 21 countries.
States troops in
it
countries were sufficiently normal so that the Security council
The president then
deleted the Lebanese complaint from
organs under
the last observers left Beirut.
The
agenda, and by Dec. 9 office of the special repre-
Amman,
sentative of the secretary-general in
created by the
general assembly on Aug. 21, 1958, was continued, but the sup-
porting communication offices provided for in Beirut and Da-
mascus were never Suez Canal.
United Arab Republic continued to close
the canal to shipping to
and from
the right to do so as a belligerent. to the general
may
assembly on Sept.
Algeria.
Israel,
Both 24,
contending that
it
had
sides presented their case
1959. During the year the
but apparently without
1959, the
— A draft resolution
recognizing the right of the Al-
defeated by the general assembly on Dec.
result.
government of Laos addressed a
note to the secretary-general
concerning
its
difficulties
the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. This was followed
with
by quiet
diplomatic consultations between the secretary-general, the rep-
On Sept. 4 the secretarj'-general received another communication requesting resentative of Laos and others directly concerned.
1958,
13,
by a vote
of 35 in favour to 18 against, with 28 abstentions. The item was included on the agenda of the 14th session of the general
assembly tion.
4,
ruled that the establishment of subsidiary
art. 29 of the
gerian people to independence, and urging the two parties con-
Arab Republic and
—On Aug.
of the
charter was a procedural matter. He was supported by all members of the council except the U.S.S.R., which was thus blocked from applying a "double vote."
that there
Laos.
members
was the establishment of "such bodies or agencies as deem necessary for the performance of its functions."
secretary-general negotiated with the governments of the United Israel,
of
cerned to negotiate with a view to reaching a solution, was
instituted.
—The
council,
2
the matters, on which
council decisions would be taken by any seven
Lebanon were withdrawn by Oct. 25, 1958, and the British troops in Jordan by Nov. 2, 1958. By Nov. 25, conditions in both its
among
members who contended
in 1959, at the request of 25
had been "no indication of improvement"
made
This submission was, however,
de Gaulle's statement of Sept.
16,
in the situa-
prior to Pres. Charles
concerning
1959,
French
policy toward Algeria.
Thailand-Cambodia.
—On Dec.
22, 1958, the secretary-gen-
announced that the governments of Thailand and Cambodia had invited him to send a representative to assist them in finding a solution to the difficulties which had culminated in the mutual eral
the speedy dispatch of an emergency force to "halt aggression."
withdrawal of their ambassadors. The secretary-general desig-
On
and discuss
nated Ambassador Johan Beck-Friis of Sweden as his special
the secretary-general's report on the Laotian request, with the
representative, with the result that the two governments announced that they would re-establish diplomatic relations on
Sept. 7 the Security council
met twice
to hear
subcommittee consisting of representatives from Argentina, Italy, Japan and Tunisia was sent to Laos to "conduct result that a
such inquiries as
Under
it
may
determine necessary."
Feb. 20, 1959. Tibet.
—On
Sept. 9, 1959. the Dalai
Lama
cabled the secretary-
the chairmanship of .Embassador Shinichi Shibuzawa of
general asking that the general assembly consider charges of ag-
Japan, the subcommittee arrived in Laos on Sept. 15 and returned to New York on Oct. 21. On Nov. 5 the subcommittee
gression by the Chinese People's Republic against Tibet. At
reported that the evidence "did not clearly establish" whether
assembly agreed on Oct.
from the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (North Vietnam) had crossed into Laos, but that there was evidence of organized guerrilla warfare co-ordinated from a common centre
on the agenda of the 14th session.
and supported by arms from North Vietnam. On Nov. 10 the secretar>'-general flew to Laos at the request of the Laotian
the continued repression in
government,
the Soviet Union and the authorities in
troops
in order to obtain fuller
information that he could
use in determining whether or not to establish a
UN
special
representative's office in Laos.
the request of Ireland and the Federation of Malaya, the general
Hungary.
Security council engaged in an important procedural debate.
The
were whether the secretary-general had the right report on the Laotian request of Sept. 4 without invoking the
12, 195S, the general
question of Tibet
assembly (by
a vote
of 54 to 10. with 15 abstentions) adopted a resolution deploring
the execution of Irhre
Hungary
Nagy and
of
human
rights,
denounced
Pal Maleter, again called upon
Hungary
to desist
from
repressive measures against the Hungarian people, and appointed Sir Leslie
In reaching the decision to dispatch the subcommittee the
—On Dec.
12, 1959, to place the
significant eral
Munro
to represent the
developments relating
United Nations and report on to the
assembly resolutions on Hungar>'.
implementation of gen-
On Dec.
13. the general
issues involved
assembly decided (by
to
"take no decision regarding the credentials submitted on behalf
authority granted to him under art.
702
99 of the charter, and
a vote of 79 to
of the representative of
Hungary."
i,
with
Sir Leslie
i
abstention) to
was not permitted
UNITED NATIONS Hungary and was
to enter
Nations late
to report to the
members
of the United
in 1959.
—At
703
On
Sept. 29, 1959, Ricardo J. Alfaro of the International Court of Justice.
was elected
a
member
—
in Libya, as a special representative to assist the
International Law Commission. During its nth session, from April 20 to June 25, 1959, the commission continued its work on state responsibility, the law of treaties and consular intercourse and immunities.
Guinea in careful and co-ordinated planning of the activities of the United Nations "family" to provide for effective assistance.
ment of acceptance
Guinea.
the request of the government of Guinea, the
secretary-general on July
European
director of the
1959, appointed Adrian Pelt, former
8,
office
—After
and United Nations commissioner government of
meeting from March 24 to April
—
Reservations to Multilateral Conventions. India's instruof the Convention on the Intergovernmental
Future Statelessness adjourned without adopting a convention.
Maritime Consultative organization (IMCO), which contained certain reservations, was deposited at the UN on Jan. 6, 1959. On Jan. 13, the assembly of IMCO requested the secretary-
On
general to circulate India's instrument of acceptance, with the
Sfatelessness.
UN
1959, the
(Knud Larsen
April 16 the president
when
18,
Conference on the Elimination or Reduction of of
Denmark)
resigned
the conference adopted a provisional text which he con-
sidered would
mean
that
states could continue to be free to
all
deprive persons of their nationality.
—On Nov.
The International Court of Justice. were seven cases under consideration by
i,
1959, there
the court, another seven
members
reservations, to
of the United Nations.
secretary-general wrote to members, saying that to the declaration from a state party was received, India would be listed as
to the
if
On
Feb. 6 the
"no objection
IMCO
convention"
a party to the convention,
India asked the 14th session of the general assembly to "pro-
having been disposed of during the preceding 12 months. In the
nounce
Interhandel Case {Switzerland v. United States) the court on
secretary-general in discharging his function as the depository of
March
instruments of ratification of multilateral instruments. At issue
1959, decided that the dispute
21,
must be decided
was a matter which and rules of inter-
in the light of the principles
national law. In so doing
rejected the United States objection
it
was a matter within the domestic jurisdiction of the United States. The court went on to decide that it had no jurisdiction in the case because Interhandel had not exhausted the remedies available to it in United States courts. that the dispute
itself clearly"
on the principles
to be followed
by the
was the question of whether or not the secretary-general should accept instruments of ratification
when they contained
unilateral
reservations to conventions.
—
removed from the list because the had no jurisdiction in view of the failure of Bulgaria and the U.S.S.R. to accept the compulsory jurisdic-
Special Fund tor Economic Development. The general assembly established the Special Fund on Oct. 14, 1958, and on Oct. 24 the sum of $21,500,000 was pledged by 41 governments. On Oct. 28 the 18 members of the governing council were elected by the Economic and Social council, and on Dec. 5 the general assembly confirmed the appointment of Paul G. Hoffman as managing director of the Special Fund. When the governing board met May 26-28, 1959, it was reported that 75 governments had made requests totaling $81,000,000 and that $26,000,000 was available to meet the first year's goal of $66,000,000. By Nov. 1959 the available funds had been increased to $32,000,000. Technical Assistance. The expanded program of technical
tion of the court: the Cases Concerning the Aerial Incident of
assistance completed
the 27 Jidy 195s {Israel and United Kingdom v. Bidgaria) Cases Concerning the Aerial Incident of 4 September 1Q54 {United States v. U.S.S.R.) and the Aerial Incident of Nov. 7,
000
On Nov.
28, 1958, the
lands against
Sweden
court rejected the claim of the Nether-
Case Concerning the Application of
in the
the Convention of IQ02 Governing the Guardianship of Infants.
Judgment was rendered
in favour of Belgium on June 20, 1959, Case Cottcerning Sovereignty over Certain Frontier Lands
in the
{Belgium
v.
Netherlands).
The following
cases were
court considered that
it
;
;
jgS4 {United States stituted on July Still
7,
v. U.S.S.R.).
The
pending were four cases
:
Award made by
1906 {Honduras
v.
had been
in-
the Right of Passage over Indian
Territory Case {Portugal v. India) Arbitral
latter case
1959.
the
;
the Case Concerning the
King of Spain on 23 December
Nicaragua); the Case Concerning the Barce-
lona Traction, Light and
Power Company, Ltd. {Belgium
v.
and the Case Concerning the Aerial Incident of 26 July 7955 {United States v. Bulgaria). Three new cases, in addition to the Aerial Incident of Nov. 7, 1954, were brought to the court in 1959. On Jan. 19 the assembly of the International Maritime Consultative organization (IMCO) requested an advisory opinion as to whether the Maritime Safety Spain)
;
committee had been elected establishing
venience"
in
IMCO. At
in
accordance with the convention
was the question of "flags of conconnection with whether the largest ship-owning issue
nations should be determined by national flag or national ownership.
Under the former concept, Liberia would rank
Panama
eighth
among
third
and
the largest ship-owning nations and con-
sequently be eligible for membership on the committee.
—
in
its
loth year after having spent $245,000,-
140 countries and
territories, including the provision of
8,000 experts and 14,000 fellowships.
By
1959 there were 85
countries supporting the program.
On Nov.
I,
.1958, the general
assembly approved an experi-
mental program to provide governments upon request with operation, executive and administrative experts (OPEX). By Aug. 1959 the secretary-general, the leading proponent of
OPEX, had
received 90 requests from 28 countries for this type of assistance.
The funds available for gram in 1959 amounted
the expanded technical assistance pro-
to about $1,500,000 less than in 1958, probably because of the creation of the Special Fund for Eco-
nomic Development. Commodity Trade. On Dec. 12, 1958, the general assembly approved the decision of the Economic and Social council to reconstitute and make more effective the Commission on International Commodity Trade. This step was part of a much broader program of activities concerning commodity trade. In 1955 the
—
UN
began to move into the area of international regulation of
commodity
trade, hitherto the function of specialized interna-
and intergovernmental organizations. UN conferences were held which dealt with olive oil (1955 and 1958), copper (1958), lead and zinc (1958), sugar (1958) and wheat (1958 and 1959). The UN Wheat conference met from Jan. 26 to March 10, 1959, tional
On Feb. 13 France charged that the government of Lebanon had unilaterally altered customs and tax exemptions, which had been provided for in an agreement of Jan. 24, 194S, enjoyed by the Compagnie du Port, des Quais et des Entrepots de Beyreuth
and established a new International Wheat creased powers and functions.
and by the Societe Radio-Orient. On Oct. 6 Cambodia instituted
transmitted to the 14th session of the general assembly by the
proceedings against Thailand in connection with the alleged sta-
Economic and
tioning of Thai troops in the area of the temple of Preah Vihear.
Children.
—A
with
in-
draft Declaration of the Rights of the Child
was completed by the Social and
UN
council,
Human
Rights commissions, and
Social council.
Children's
Fund (t/W/C£/^).— Children
in 105 countries
—
:
UNITED NATIONS
704
were assisted by 368 projects that cost about $27,000,000 in 1959. In its efforts to improve children's nutrition, UNICEF found it necessary to devote more attention to such problems as com-
munity development, social services and the improvement of training for primary school teachers. There was some concern as to whether the steady increase in UNICEF's resources would
12%
keep pace with the anticipated
during the succeeding five years
UNICEF
Narcofic Drugs.
the
countries
receiving
— The long struggle by international agencies
illicit
moved
narcotic drugs
in
traffic
into a
new
1959 when the 28th session of the Economic and Social
in
recommended
council
in
aid.
to reduce the
phase
increase in child population
that
the
assembly include the
general
cost of technical assistance for narcotics control in the regular,
UN.
rather than the voluntary, budget of the
The
land suggested that a UN-supervised plebiscite be held in 1960, and that the general assembly in 1961 might terminate the trusteeship agreement.
The resumed
ern and southern areas of the British Cameroons.
portant source of the
illicit
If all of these
measures were completed there would be only by 1962: Tanganyika f United Kingdom), (Belgium), New Guinea (Australia), Nauru
The problem
Territory of the Pacific Islands (United States).
instance was whether the
members
of the
of sufficient importance to accept
as a regular budget obligation the cost of assisting relatively few
members
to control production within their
own
territories (in-
cluding the cost of measures designed to assist farmers to produce
crops other than the poppy").
Refugees.
— A concerted world-wide attack on the problem of recommended by
refugees was
when
the general assembly on Dec.
5,
approved a United Kingdom proposal for a World Refugee year to begin on June i, 1959. The purpose of the year was to focus attention on the problem and to encourage addi1958,
it
tional contributions for its solution.
The
UN
for refugees, Auguste R. Lindt, reported
high commissioner on June 15 that the
population of the refugee camps had been reduced the
first
17%
during
four months of 1959.
By September. 54 governments had pledged support of one kind or another to the Refugee year, including a special contribuby the United States. no progress had been made
tine refugees,
in resettling the Pales-
but the secretary-general recommended the con-
tinuation of the
UN
Relief and
New
Zealand) and the Trust
—
Nonself-Soverning Territories. The loth session of the Committee on Information from Nonself-goveming Territories was held April 20-May 14, 1959, and gave special consideration to educational conditions in the territories. It was found that there had been an appreciable increase in educational facilities
many
territories,
but the committee believed that an accelera-
tion in the pace of
development was necessary. The committee
in
noted the absence of reports from Portugal and Spain on their territories.
The United
States reported that
it
would no longer
report on .Maska and Hawaii which had been granted statehood;
France reported that the
New
Hebrides had achieved self-govern-
ment.
—
Nongovernmental Organizations. Five organizations were added to the "B" category of consultative status with the Economic and Social council the International Association of Plan:
ning Societies, the International Association for Social Progress,
Women's World Federation of
the International Federation of Social Workers, the
tion of $1,630,000 Little or
9,
five trust territories
Ruanda-Urundi (United Kingdom. Australia and
illicit traffic
13,
tions to be put to the people, as well as the voting qualifications.
opium poppy remained an imtraffic, and the governments directly
concerned needed more help than could be provided through the
UN' considered the
On Nov.
it
various a.ssistance programs financed by voluntary contributions. in this
March
was announced that the people of the northern area had decided by a vote of 67,879 to 41.113 that they wished to remain under the trusteeship system for an unspecified time, rather than join with Nigeria, which was to become independent in 1960. Because the wishes of the people in the southern area were not clear, the general assembly decided that a plebiscite there should not be held until after Dec. 1959 but before .^pril i960, and that the 14th session of the general assembly should decide the ques1959,
cultivation of the
illicit
session of the i3lh general assembly on
1959, proposed separate UN-supervised plebiscites for the north-
Works agency
for as long as
needed.
—
The Trusteeship Sys+enn. During the year, important steps were taken that were expected to lead to complete independence
International Zionist organization and the the Deaf.
The World Federation
of Trade Unions discontinued
the practice of maintaining an observer at the
UN
headquarters.
At the request of the Economic and Social council, the secretarygeneral convened a second Conference of Nongovernmental Organizations Interested in the Eradication of Prejudice and Dis-
Cameroun, Togo and Somalia during i960, and Western in 1961. On Nov. 14, 1958, the general assembly congratulated France and Togo on an agreement that would bring independence to French Togo on April 27, i960. The resumed
having consultative status.
March 13, 1959. agreed that the trusteeship agreement for Cameroun should be terminated on Jan. i. i960, and that the new state should be recommended for membership in the UN.
The "family" of 13 organizations related to the UN was increased in 1959 by the addition of the Intergovernmental Maritime Consultative organization. The number of members in almost all
tor
Samoa
13th session of the general assembly, on
On
Dec.
13,
1958,
the general assembly urged
Italy
and
Ethiopia to agree upon an independent person to assist in drafting the terms of reference for arbitration of a border dispute
concerning Somalia and, failing to agree, to accept a person appointed by the king of Norway. The two states having failed to agree upon an independent person, the king of
Norway appointed
Trygve Lie. the former secretary-general of the UN. The general assembly also agreed that Somalia should achieve full independence by Dec. 2, i960, or earlier if the Somali government or legislative assembly so requested. In 1959, only defense and foreign affairs remained in Italian hands.
The Trusteeship council's visiting mission to Western Samoa (March 25-April 17, 1959) received a tentative timetable for the independence of that territory. The government of New Zea-
crimination.
The conference met
Geneva. Switz., from June 22 to 26, by representatives of 84 organizations
in
1959, and was attended
Intergovernmental Organizations Related to the UN.
the organizations increased during the year.
During 1959 the following organizations were in operation (membership figures are as of Oct. 5, 1959) Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO). Headquarters in Rome, Italy; Binay R. Sen, director-general; 76 members. International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Headquarters in \"ienna, Aus.; Sterling Cole, director-general; 69 members. Organization Intergovern/nental Maritime Consultative (IMCO). Headquarters in London. Eng. Ove Nielsen, secretary-general; 35 members.
—
—
—
;
International Pittance Corporation (!FC).
Washington, D.C.;
— Headquarters
Robert L. Garner, director-general.
in
(See
separate article.) International
Bank
for
Reconstruction
and Development
UNITED STATES (IBRD).
—Headquarters
in
Washington, D.C.; Eugene R. Black,
president. (See separate article.)
International
Labour Organization (ILO).
—Headquarters
in
Geneva, Switz.; David A. Morse, director-general. (See separate article.)
International
Monetary
Fund
(IMF).
—Headquarters
in
Washington, D.C.; Per Jacobsson, managing director. (See separate article.)
International Civil Aviation Organization
(ICAO).
M. Macdonnell,
quarters in Montreal, Que.; Ronald general; 74 members.
International
Union
Telecommunications
—Head-
secretary-
(ITU).
—Head-
quarters in Geneva. Switz.; Gerald C. Ross, acting secretarygeneral; 96 ['.V
members.
Educational,
(UXESCO).
Scientific
—Headquarters
SwiLz.;
Organization
Cultural
France; \'ittorino Vero-
Si members.
nese, director-general;
Universal Postal
and
in Paris.
Union
(UPU).
—Headquarters
in
Berne,
Fritz Hess, director of the international bureau;
100
members.
World Health Organization (IVHO).
—Headquarters
neva, SwiLz.; Marcolino G. Candau, director-general; 87
in
Ge-
mem-
bers.
—
in
World Meteorological Organization (WMO). Headquarters Geneva. Switz.; David A. Davies, secretary-general; 102 mem-
bers.
See also Atomic Energy; Child Welf.are; China; Educa-
Foreign Aid Programs, U.S.; International Law; Middle Eastern Affairs; X.arcotics; Refugees; Space ExPLOR.ATION; Trust Territories. (W. Cn.) tion;
llnitoH Qtotoc UllllcU OldlCo.
^^^^ federal republic in North America has
an area of 3.615,210 sq.mi., including 63,-
012 sq.mi. of inland water. Its population was 150.697.361 by the 1950 census
and 178.000.000 by the Dec. 1959 estimate. (The
area and the 1959 estimated population include the
and Hawaii. Territories and possessions are shown Table II.
of .\la5ka
in
Table
new
states
1
1
in
Table
I:
chief cities
705
UNITED STATES Soviet PreScenes from the visit to the U.S. by 1959 mier Nikita S. Khrushchev, Sept. 15-27. Ezra Ao/icuiture Top left: With U.S. Secretary of aoricultural Tafl Benson (left) at Beltsville, Md..
Washington. D.C. right: At Lincoln memorial. Khrushchev's host in Centre left: Rosv»ell Garst, Iowa throwing silage at newsmen escorting Eisenhower President left: Bottom Md.. Khrushchev iato a cabin at Camp David. informal talks with concluded was visit the where
Too
Bottom centre; At Bottom lining
a
luncheon
in
New York
city
crowd right: Sign held up by part of a Francisco route of motorcade through San
UNITED STATES
707
ment was reached during the 8o-day period for which they were ordered by the courts to go back to work. In 1959 congress passed the first major labour legislation to be enacted since the Taft-Hartley act became law in 1947. The 1959 legislation, known as the Landrum-Griffith bill, sought to
the domestic events of 1959, important as they may have been, were not nearly so significant to the future of the United States
prevent corruption in labour unions and to assure democratic
was awaited with interest because United States officials felt that he might have some new proposals to make on the question of the future of Berlin. Little more than a month before Mikoyan arrived in the United States Soviet Premier Khrushchev had warned the west that the Soviet Union would give it six months to remove western occupation forces from the city and to make
procedures within the unions. after a special senate
Demands
were the new directions of the country's foreign policy. In January Anastas I. Mikoyan, first deputy premier of the Soviet Union, visited the United States. His visit as
Foreigfi Policy.
for the legislation arose
committee headed by Sen. John McClellan
(D. Ark.) conducted a two-year investigation which exposed corrupt and questionable activities in the Teamsters union and sev-
Labour Unions; Strikes.) The Space Program. Man's efforts to learn more about
eral other unions. (See
—
Berlin a "free city." Khrushchev's statements were regarded throughout the west as an ultimatum and were one of the important reasons why President Eisenhower decided to pursue a
space continued in 1959, as did the race between the United States and the Soviet to
first
push
scientific
tiers of the universe.
lag
Union
to see
which nation could be the
instruments and even
The United
behind the Soviet Union
men
men
policy of personal diplomacy.
into the fron-
States continued, however, to
in the race into space.
United States selected seven
—
Although the
considered to have been useful. For the
ence OF 1959.)
around the moon and take a picture of the side of the moon which has never been seen by man and which had never before been photographed. The picture indicated, as one newspaper headline
sions during the late winter
that the other side of the moon is a rather dull and drab By the end of the year it was generally conceded that howmuch the United States had accomplished with its space
The
still
seemed
pital in
Washington
He
post.
died in
Table III.— Mo/or Legislation Passed by U.S. Congress
19431
Increases in Railroad Employee Benefits (Authorized increases in retirement and survivor benefits under the Railroad Retirement Act,- increases in unemployment ond sicliness benefits under the Railroad Unemployment Insuronce Act; and increoses in applicable lax rotesl Life Insuronce Company Income Tax Act of 1 959 (Provided a permonent basis for taxing the income of life insurance componiesl. Public Debt Act of 1959 (Authorized a temporary increase of the public debt limit to $295,000,000 until June 30, 1 960, and a permanent increase from $283,000,000 to $285,000,000)
1
to
expire June 30,
1
9591
.
Renegotiation Act Extension (Extended the Renegotiation Act of 1951 to June 30, 1962) Clayton Act Amendment (Amended the Cloyton Act to provide for finality of orders of the Federal Trade Commissionl Mutual Security Act of 1959 (Authorized the appropriation of $3,556,200,000 for U,S. economic, mililory and technicol ossistance to foreign nations in the period July 1, 1959— June 30, 1960) Inter-American Development Bonk Act (Provided for U.S. contribution to the copitol of the Inter-Americon Development Bonk under on agreement between 2 1 American republics)
Department of Defense Appropriation Act, 1960 (Appropriated $39,228,239,000 for U.S. armed forces
in
the period July
1
,
1
959— June
30,
1
960)
Veterons' Pension Act of 1959 (Enacted basic provisions to govern payment of pensions to veterans in need due to nonservice connected disabilities) Labor-Management Reporting and Disclosure Act of 1959 (Mode numerous labour low changes, including provisions for reports of union expenditures, tightening of secondory boycott curbs and restriction of picketing) Stote Taxation of Interstate Commerce (Restricted the power of the states to impose income taxes on income derived from interstate commerce)
Housing Act of 1959 (Enocted numerous provisions extending and amending lows relating to housing, including authorizotion of 37,000 public housing units in fiscal year ending June 30, 1 960, in addition to earlier unused outhorizotions)
in
I
959
House vote
(Authorized the odmission of Hawaii to the Union as the 50lh state)
,
Union
sions with the Soviet
Act
Tax Rote Extension Act of 1959 (Extended to July 960, corporate income tax ond excise tax rates due
far the strongest
man
in the presi-
had been allowed by Eisenhower
much
to
as he thought
should be conducted. Dulles did not trust the Russians and
it
Hawaii
1,
more
he believed that the United States should approach any discus-
)
1
May. By
conduct the country's foreign policy pretty
and other missiles into space. (See also Missiles; Space Exploration. But both the developments in the exploration of space and
Extension of Selective Service (Extended the Universal Military Training and Service Act to June
February U.S.
for an operation, his second in a little
dent's cabinet, the secretary
artificial satellites
for
spring. In
cancer had recurred and in April Dulles resigned his cabinet
program ap-
peared to be the failure of scientists and technicians in the United States to produce the tremendous rocket power needed to hurtle
Statehood
and early
than two years. In Nov. 1956, a cancerous portion of the secretary's colon had been removed. It was soon discovered that
to be leading the space
principal difficulty with the United States
time since the 1930s
Secretary of State John Foster Dulles entered Walter Reed hos-
it,
race.
first
Foreign policy continued to dominate thoughts and discus-
place.
programs, the Soviet Union
new
a high Soviet official
Mercury man-in-space program and began to put them through managed to send a rocket
ever
did not present any
had been able to see the United States for himself. (See Berlin; Geneva Foreign Ministers' Confer-
to participate in the Project
rigorous training, the Soviet Union
put
Mikoyan
proposals to the United States, however, although his visit was
in a
most cautious manner. Dulles
UNITED STATES
708
by Sen. Lyndon
Johnson CD. Texas), the senate J. Fulbright CD. Ark.) succeeded Sen. Theodore F. Green CD. R.I.) as chairman of the senate foreign relations committee. Sen. Green was 91 years old and the oldest man ever to serve in the senate. He resigned as chairman of the committee after he was criticized for failing to ^|)onsored
B.
i)emocratic leader. Sen. William
give proper leadership to
Late
in the spring,
it.
controversies in the senate over the nomi-
commerce and
nations of Lewis L. Strauss to be secretary of
Clare Boothe Luce to be United States ambassador to Brazil
JOHN FOSTER DULLES and
Sir
(rioht) ocsturina as visited Dulle
Winston Churchill, who
le
at
spoke to President Eisenhower
Waller Reed hospital, May
5,
1959
overshadowed such foreign policy developments as Vice-Pres. Richard M. Nixon's decision to go to Moscow in July to 0f)en a United States exhibit there and the plans for a Big Four foreign ministers conference in May in Geneva. Mrs. Luce was confirmed by the senate as ambassador to Brazil, but two days after her confirmation she resigned. Sen.
Wayne Morse CD.
Ore.) led the
attack on her qualifications, charging that she was too "politialso believed that the Soviet
of
its
own
Union would eventually collapse He was succeeded as secretary
dictatorial blunders.
of state by Christian A. Herter. a former
member
of congress
and governor of Massachusetts who had been undersecretary of state. A man well liked on Capitol Hill, Herter did not demonstrate
much
of the tenacity and toughness which were the hall-
marks of the diplomacy of Dulles. As the year w-ore on President Eisenhower took over more and more of the diplomatic functions which he had delegated to Dulles. Other developments affecting foreign policy in the late winter and early spring included visits to the United States by Prime Minister Harold Macmillan of Great Britain, Mayor Willy Brandt of West Berlin and King Hussein of Jordan and a trip to Mexico by President Eisenhower. In April Fidel Castro of Cuba arrived in Washington to address a meeting of American editors. Castro, who had overthrown the dictatorial Batista regime on Jan. i, was still regarded in April as a man who would
democracy in Cuba, but by the end of the year United were bitterly disappointed with Castro, who seemed to be leading Cuba down the same discouraging demagogic road as Batista and its other strong men of the 20th century had done. Desegregation. One of the most significant domestic events in the United States during these months was the final breakdown build a States
officials
—
of \'irginia's "massive resistance'' to desegregation. In February,
which marked the 150th anniversary of the birth of Abraham Lincoln, schools in two Virginia communities, Norfolk and Arlington, were desegregated. In August the four high schools in Little
Rock, Ark., which had been closed by a desegregation
dispute during the 1958-1959 school year, were reopened without incident and without interference
from Gov. Orval E. Faubus
of Arkansas. (See Civil Rights.)
The Congressional Session.
—While Mikoyan was
visiting the
cal" a person to send abroad as an ambassador. Early in the
Eisenhower administration Mrs. Luce had served as ambassador to Italy. The senate, however, refused to confirm the nomination of Strauss, a former chairman of the Atomic Energy commission, following several weeks of hearings on his qualifications by the
commerce committee. The opposition to Strauss was led by Sen. Clinton P. Anderson CD. N.M.) and was based largely on a belief held by many senators that Strauss had not been frank in his dealings with them over the years. It was the first time that a cabinet nomination had been turned down by the senate
senate since 1925 B.
Warren
when
the senate refused to confirm Charles
as Pres. Calvin Coolidge's attorney general.
In 1959, for the
time since 1912 when Arizona became
first
the 48th state, the union was enlarged
by the admission of the
49th and soth states. Although congress had approved the admission of Alaska in 1958, Alaska did not formally become a state until in Jan. 1959. In the spring of 1959 congress also voted statehood for Hawaii, and Hawaii was officially admitted to the
union as the 50th state
in
August. The admission of both
Hawaii and Alaska climaxed 50 years of effort by the people of the two new states to gain admission to the union. In the fall a special house subcommittee held a series of hearings which revealed that many of the television quiz programs which had been so popular since 1955 had been rigged. Several contestants including the most famous one, Charles Van Doren
—admitted
—
subcommittee that not only had they been and answers in advance of their appearances, but they had also been coached in the way they should grimace to the
told the questions
in giving the answers.
Meanwhile, as June gave way to July, congress became bogged in a session which did not adjourn until September and which was the longest since 1950, the year that the Korean war
down
began.
The
inability of the foreign ministers of the
United States,
congress. In his State of the
and the Soviet Union to reach agreement at Geneva generated pessimism in Washington, even though the May 27 ultimatum deadline that Soviet Premier Khrushchev had set for a Berlin settlement had passed almost unnoticed. But
Union message President Eisenhower stressed the need for economy in government, an issue which dominated much of the ses-
soon after the Geneva talks recessed in June it became apparent that President Eisenhower was going to disregard the many sol-
United States
in
January, the
first
session of the 86th congress,
with an overwhelming Democratic majority in both the senate
and the house, got under way. There was an unusual amount of activity for the first
month
of a
new
sion of the congress. Rep. Joseph
who had been
W.
Martin,
Jr.
(R. Mass."),
the leader of the Republicans in the house for 20
years, lost his post to Rep. Charles A. Halleck (R. Ind.) after
Britain, France
emn warnings
of Secretary Dulles against dealing directly with
the Soviet Union and that the president would
preme
effort before his
second term of
office
make
Republican representatives decided that they wanted a more ag-
196 1, to reach a rapprochement with the Russians.
gressive leadership. In January the senate debated proposals to
went
make
it
more
death with a
difficult
filibuster.
if
not impossible to talk legislation to
The debate ended with
the adoption of a
compromise plan under which two-thirds of the senators present and voting on a motion, rather than two-thirds of all the members of the senate, could halt a filibuster. The compromise was
to
New York
a last su-
expired in Jan.
The
president
city to tour the Soviet exhibition there with
Frol R. Kozlov, Soviet
first
deputy premier, and the announce-
ment of Premier Khrushchev's trip to the United States soon followed. The announcement, made in August, was greeted with approval by most Americans as well as by most people throughout the rest of the world. In 1959 the world seemed to be sick
UNITED STATES of the "cold war" and ready to accept any efforts to bring about a
more permanent peace, however unorthodox
the attempts at
negotiating might seem to be in the light of disappointments of
the previous ten years.
Congress was determined to get out of Washington before Khrushchev arrived in mid-September, but the senators and representatives almost did not
make
it.
The
first
session of the 86th
congress adjourned only a few hours before Khrushchev arrived
and rode through Washington streets by curious but silent crowds. Khrushchev's welcome was polite in most of the cities that he visited, but the people who saw him could hardly be considered cordial to the Soviet premier. in a Soviet jet airplane
lined
The
principal legislative accomplishments of the first session
of the 86th congress were the admission of Hawaii as the 50th state, the
passage of a labour reform
bill,
increase in the federal gasoline tax (making
the passage of a housing
bill.
a one-cent-a-gallon it
four cents) and
The $77,000,000,000 budget
ap-
proved by congress was almost exactly what the president had requested. Eisenhower made economy in government one of the principal issues in 1959. Despite
much
criticism in congress of
the president for seemingly placing fiscal soundness above the
709
tween labour and management which closed almost
all
of the
nation's steel plants from mid-July until November. The strike was suspended by the Steelworkers union after ii6 days when the United States supreme court upheld a federal district court ruling that the government had the power under the Taft-Hartley act to order strikers back to work for 80 days if a strike imperiled the national health or safety. The two major issues in the strike were an increase in pay demanded by the union and a revision of work rules sought by the steel companies. In June
the U.S. bureau of labour statistics reported that the average
pay
was $3.11 an hour, which was one of the highest
in steel mills
rates of
pay
in
provisions as the
number
given job, authority for
and
restrictions
of
men
included such assigned to a
day
to take rest periods during the
on the kind of work that
men
in certain job
Although the issues which led
classifications could do. steel
Work rules men who would be
United States industry.
impasse were not seen by
many
to the
observers as questions of
principle, industry spokesmen indicated that they felt the union had usurped too many of management's prerogatives over the years and that the time had come for industry to reassert itself. Repeated efforts by President Eisenhower to bring the union and
military and domestic needs of the nation, congress went along
the industry together failed. Finally in October the president in-
with the administration's scaled-down spending programs.
voked the national emergency procedures of the Taft-Hartley
Although the 86th congress had the largest Democratic majorEisenhower, a Republican, was in con-
ity in 20 years. President trol
of the legislative situation during practically
all
of the
The president never hesitated to veto bills he did not turned down legislation taking away from the secretary of agriculture authority to approve loans made by the Rural session.
like.
He
and the house sustained the presiEisenhower vetoed two housing bills before congress
Electrification administration,
dent's veto.
passed one which was in line with his fiscal program and which he then approved. Only once did congress override a presidential veto; that legislation involved the authorization of rivers and
By his vetoes and other actions, Eisenhower showed once again how a president is uniquely able to lead the nation, whatever the size and composition the majorities may be in congress. Most of the members of congress went along with the president's program because it reflected the dominant middleof-the-road feeling among the senators and representatives who made up the 86th congress. The Steel Strike. The president was not able, however, to harbours projects.
—
use his considerable personal prestige to settle the dispute be-
SERVICEMEN HOLDING FLAG OVER CASKET OF JOHN FOSTER DULLES
at
the burial in Arlington National cemetery, May 27, 1959. Seated in the front right were Dulles' family, the president and vice-president and their
act.
The union appealed
the federal district decision granting
an injunction ordering the workers back on the job, but the
preme court upheld the law. The Ecottomy. Premier Khrushchev was unable
—
su-
to visit a
large steel plant during his trip to the United States because
all
had been shut down by the strike. Many Americans felt, however, that the strike, continuing in the midst of the premier's visit, must have brought home to Khrushchev the freedom which is such an integral part of American life and is a principal difference between life in the United States and in the Soviet Union. The rest of the United States economy was far from idle during Khrushchev's visit, however. In 1959 the United States had recovered from the effects of the recession which began in 1957 and continued into 1958. In congress, for example, proposals to expand public works programs and to give of the big plants
greater assistance to persons little
who were out
of
work received
support because the economy came out of the recession
remarkably quickly and with few permanent scars. "Cold War" or Coexistence? As 1959 drew to a close the traditional Christmas time hopes for peace and good will seemed to be more real than they had been in any other recent years. Al-
—
though the visits and other Soviet
to the
United States by Premier Khrushchev
ofiicials
during the year had not led to any
i*«..-^'
ir^
U
I
UNITED STATES
710 Tabl. W.
— fonign
CrtdiU of th* U.S.
Country, Juno 30,
tnl-by Program ond by
Go
1959 UmitlUud Outltanding
$13,904,017,000' %\2,79i,3S»,000
Tolal y
Afghonlitan
progromi Und«c Enporl-lmporl 4
3,442,563,000
763,724,000
Auilralio Auitrio
.
.
.
.
120,988,000 2,823,000 48,936.000 S,000 7,925,000 245,274,000 4,870,000 44,020,000 23,514,000 101,178,000 1,642,750,000 1,440,404,000 249,000 2,095,000 901,491,000 137,494,000 10,729,000 24,781,000 1,050,034,000 252,429,000 189,434,000 85,000 125.484,000 279,939,000 332,315,000 330,315,000 2,000.000 314,407,000 1,200,000 28,090,000 49,451,000 8,500,000 20,000,000 89,966,000 227,413,000 10,301,000 41,545,000 297,222,000 197,202,000 111,349,000 49,328,000 49,228,000 100,000 35,554,000 18,012,000 344,220,000 10,000,000 17,845,000 45,255,000
Ethiopia-Eri
Finland Frencti Corr
Id. for«ign
Loam
t
liub-
Frencti Equolorlol Afrlco
••Clioni 104|dl
ond I04ig||
438,273,000 .
1,001,059,000
.
Loam
lo prtval* •nt«rprii*i (lub*
•ctlon 104i«||.
.
Und'ments ($23,000,000), and a $150,000,000 prepayment of the annual amortization for the years 1961-65, on the German 1953 $1,000,000,000 credit settlement for postwar grants. The
United Kingdom resumed amortization service on
increase of $58,000,000
payments by France that country in
new
lines of credit
from the U.S. government, with the year's commitments aggre-
postwar
was about
offset
balance-of-payments
its
by the deferral of
re-
as a part of financial assistance provided difficulties.
Annual
re-
turns of lend-lease silver declined from $42,000,000 to $7,000,000, as most agreements to return these transfers were
consummated. Elsewhere, changes tions were moderate. In addition to
Germany and made
other European countries their indebtedness
India was again the leading recipient of
its
debts, after electing to defer service in fiscal year 1958, in accordance with the agreement of March 6, 1957; however, this
the U.S.
to
in
annual principal collec-
the United
Kingdom,
several
continuing annual inroads on
government.
Appreciable de-
creases were noted for Indonesia, Rhodesia and Nyasaland, and the
Union of South Africa.
gating the equivalent of $250,000,000, These 1959 authorizations $100,000,000 from the Development Loan fund and the
30, 1959, the outstanding long-term indebtedness of foreign governments and other foreign entities to the U.S. gov-
equivalent of $150,000,000 from rupees received by the L'.S. government for farm products totaled slightly more than had been made available for development in India in each of the two preceding years. Development Loan fund and foreign currency loan approvals were also the major components of the new commitments to Pakistan ($119,000,000), Yugoslavia
ernment was
—
—
($104,000,000), Indonesia ($92,000,000) and Spain ($88,000,-
A major
On June
cluding
A
new high
at a
World War
change
in U.S.
I
—
aggregating $12,795,358,000, exdebts (see Table IV).
government policy virtually eliminated main-
new credits disbursed in The new policy diminished
tenance-of-dollar-value provisions on foreign currencies after mid-1959.
the problem of the availability of international exchange as a factor in service on these debts, and introduced a greater ele-
Export-Import bank authorization was combined with these programs in the significant commitments to the
ment of approximation
Philippines ($102,000,000).
Of the indebtedness shown in Table IV, about $107,000,000 had been due and unpaid for 90 days or more. This included $3,587,000 which was paid by the U.S.S.R. in July 1959 and
000).
More than
bank authorizations durAmerican republics, which
half of the Export-Import
ing the 12-month period was to the
were pledged a total of $547,000,000 under all the U.S. credit programs. Export-Import bank loans to maintain essential imports from the United States and to allow major purchases of
U.S. equipment and services for development figured significantly in the contracts for Argentina
($173,000,000),
Brazil
Mexico ($110,000,000) and Peru ($65,000,000). Other noteworthy Export-Import bank loan authorizations were to Japan ($80,000,000). principally for short-term financing of cotton purchases from the United States, and to the European Atomic Energy community ($135,000,000). The commitment of $70,000,000 in credit assistance to Morocco was the only major mutual security program authorization outside of the Development Loan fund in the 12-month period. E.xport-Import bank outflows ($708,000,000), although 7% less than in the preceding year, continued to dominate disbursements. The significant year-to-year increase in pajTnents was from foreign currencies acquired under the .Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance act, which more than doubled to the equivalent of $328,000,000. PajTnents by the new Development Loan fund exceeded $68,000,000 and more than offset the decline in other mutual security program outflows. The latter aggregated $171,000,000, of which $50,000,000 represented the ($127,000,000"),
dollar equivalent of foreign currencies acquired by the U.S. government through the sale of surplus agricultural commodities under provisions of the Mutual Security act. Almost half of the loan disbursements in fiscal year 1959 was on credits to the American republics. Outflows to Brazil ($230,-
000.000) considerably exceeded those to Mexico ($83,000,000), Argentina ($76,000,000), Colombia ($67,000,000) and Peru ($61,000,000). In the eastern hemisphere, other major recipients were Yugoslavia ($131,000,000), Japan ($104,000,000), Pakistan ($62,000,000) and India ($58,000,000). Principal collections were at an annual record high of $668,000,000, in the
main
as a consequence of the first scheduled
into estimates of the dollar value of the
foreign indebtedness to the United States.
applied as the first principal collection on its indebtedness for postwar lend-lease transfers. Schedules of collections for the remainder extended past the year 2000.
The U.S. government received
the equivalent of $294,000,000
on the outstanding credits in fiscal year 1959. ExportImport bank receipts aggregated $120,000,000, increasing $23,-
in interest
000.000 over
fiscal
year 1958. There were moderate increases in
interest receipts for
mutual security and related program loans on these credits increased, and the
as the outstanding balances
first interest collections on the credits under the Agricultural Trade Development and Assistance act were received. Other interest collections were relatively unchanged during the year. See also Foreign Aid Programs, U.S. (E. S. K.)
Education. See the articles Educ^tio.v; Scholarships a.nd Student Aid; Universities and Colleges. Defense. For information about the armed forces of the United States in 1959, Iff .Armies OF the World; .Aviation, Military; Coast Guard, U.S.; AIari.ne Corps, U.S.; Missiles; National Guard; Navies of the World; Selective Service, U.S. Finance and Bani^ing. Statistics pertaining to the United States will be found in such articles as Banking; Budget, National; Business Re-
—
—
view; Consumer Credit; Debt, National; Export-Import Bank of Washington; Federal Reserve Svstem; Foreign Investments; Income AND Product, U.S.; Savings and Loan .\ssociations; Stocks and Bonds; Taxation; Wages and Hours; Wealth and Income, Distribution OF. Foreign Trade. See the articles Business Review; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates; Export-Import Bank of Washington; Foreign Investments; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development; International Finance Corporation; International Monetary Fund; International Trade; Tariffs. Communications. For Statistics, see the articles .Aviation, Civil; Canals AND Inland Waterways; Merchant Marine; Post Office; Radio and Television; Railroads; Roads and Highways; Shipbuilding; Telegraphy; Telephone; Trucking Industry; Urban Transportation, U.S.
—
Agriculture.
—
Statistical material pertaining to this subject may be found in separate articles on the principal crops and
under .Agriculture; also agricultural products. Mineral Production.
Metallurgy;
See separate articles on the principal minerals; also
Mineralogy;
Prices.
Bibliography.
Mineral and Metal Production and (X.)
—
(.Ml published in 1959.) Biographical: A. 0. .\ldridge, oj Reason (Thomas Paine) J. M. Blum, From the Morgenthau Diaries; M. Brecher, Nehru: F. M. Brodie, Thaddeus Stevens; V. W. Brooks, Howells; N. K. Burger and J. K. Betters-
Man
;
UNITED STATES CONGRESS
712
worth. South of Appomattox; R. L. Meriwclhrr (cd.), The Papers 0/ John C. Calhoun; M. C. Ross (cd), George Catlin; C. de Gaulle. Unity. 194'Touch 4.1; V. Counlryman, Doualiis ol the Supreme Court; K. Dunham, A ol Innocence; ;\. H. I)U|iro Cam.
Mlnnaopolta
R.p.
Minneapolis
Dam.
Grove
>.p.
Tyler
Dan.
Chliholm
Rap.
Kennedy
'Aba
Dam. Dam. Dam. Dam. Dam. Dam.
Okolono
Tho •Whillan, Jomla atlly,
•Smith, Frank
I
E
•William., John Ball
•WInilaad, Arthur •Colmar, William M nk M.
Si.
Paul City (R.F.D.)
Charlailon
Greenwood Raymond Phllodelphlo
Paicagoulo St. Louis
Webster Grovai
(Mm
•Solliv
•Randall, William •Boiling, Richard •Hull,
W.
.
.
.
.
R., Jr.
St. Louis
J.
Konsos City
Weston Springfield
•Brown, Chorlai H.
•Cornohon, A.
S. J.
n, CIc
"Jonat, Paul C.
•Mouldar,
.
.
.
Morgan M. Da Da
•Malcolf, Laa •Andarion, la Roy H
Rap. Rap.
•Cunningham, Glann Brock. Lowrance McGinlay, Donold F.
Dem. D*m.
.
•Boring, Waller S.
•Marrow. Cheilar
1
.
E.
Cohill, Willie
•Auchinclois,
James
•Thompson, Frank,
C.
Jr.
.
•Frellnghuysen, Peter,
Jr.
•Addoniiio, Hugh
.
J.
.
Wollhouser, George M.
•Montoya, Joseph M. Mo Tho ,
Stuyve lion, Steven E •Becke Frank J. Holpern, Seymour vright,
.
,
•Bosch, Albert H.
.
•Hollzmon, Lester
.
•Anfuso, Victor
Rep. Rep. Rep.
1
"Keogh, Eugene •Kelly,
•Celler,
•Dom,
Edna F. Emonual
Dam. Rep.
Froncis E
•Multer,
Abrohom
•Rooney, John •Ray, John H
Dem. Dem,
J
J
Rep.
•Powell, Adam Clayton Lindsoy, John V •Sontongelo, Alfred E
Dem.
19
•Forbstein,
Derr
20
•Teller,
L
Rep.
Dem.
Udw
•Dollinger. Isidon
•Buckley, Charles
26 27 28
•Dooley, Edwin
30
•O'Brien, Leo
Rep. Rep. Rep.
B.
Barry, Robert R. •St.
George, Katho
W.
•Taylor Stroltc
•Kilburr
Ale •Riehlman, R. Waller ,
•Tober, John
Howard
W
Rep. Rep. Rep.
Will
Rep. Rep. Rep. Rep.
Dulski,Thaddaus J John R •Goodall. Chorlei E
Rep.
•Robison,
Weis, Jessica
McC
•Osterfog, Harold
•Pillion,
C
Dem. Rep.
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES Name
Porly
Wright
ion,
ks, Jock worlh, Lindley
•Teogue, Olin E •Dowdy, John •Thomos, Albert •Thompson, Cork
12 13
'Wright,
.
.
.
.
Dem. Dem. Dem.
Dei Dei
De
W
Def
Weotherford
Jir
'Ikord, Ffon
De
•Young, John •Rutherford,
J.
Den
T
•Rogers, Wolt
•Moh
rge
•Kildoy, Poul •Fisher,
J,
O. C.
.
Cosey, Robert ,
Henry Aldous
Rep.
er, Willie
ling,
Tho
Dem.
•PofF, Richard H.
•Pelly, Tho M. •Westlond, Jock . •Mock, Russell V. i
Moy, Cotherine •Horon, Wolt .
.
.
•Tollefson, Thor C.
•Mognuson, Don
.
715
716
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
k
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
717
soiuniOA
punog
tr^Ntnto-o
CKC
siuepnis
ami puo
l"=d iinj
_-
_-,
66
^ o os J •D--5SSZ-
.5J'2=; =
'O i".I,la
.-"S
JZ
c
:J
^£
I
I
i-^cooKCNt
^
•
=-5-=
1
S^
."to'--'«r)* o' »oocNp>^ — — M— ^«fN -o** -o —
irt'V»ls."p'
OM —
*
I
,
VrJn"
I
I
C)
si 'siisi I:
Xlinsoj
,
-oo'oj-ooV — iz:2?;!ssR: Is
-
I I
"
*o«o
wio"
1
I
I
00 oo»c,^_^^^^ >oo«rt o^ - 005 ^^ ^ , op oooooo«npppxpoopppppopo«ooopooo poooooopopSooPoopopppo^oppoppp OP^OOOoSoO^OOO-OOPO " opoppopoo oo»ooop o o o o — po ppo_o_oo-oooo ^Ooo K 000 OOPOO o'—on • *— o«> '-•-•--•—' « on «"u^"o"o«o— oc
"^M*
•eN-003C < K||r4tOKOQr4'|tn
iflO
-fs.^00
iwi
— KOOO O KO op »0 « (Dtno O s O (O O O K —00 O O
00>*00
fN
>0 Sg5-;S .1-^^ £oQuOo oo-j°(3j°^ o _^^
•*
S
5
1
•
«
•
; S
^"s
_:5£
;z)*>.tS2cc^'2S£
i2:i:i
s|ss
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
721
»
-
r
UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES
722
tNoo oooKOOotsoo— §0000000 OOO-OOOOkpOrs. — 00 0000000 o oo oo ^ < o oo ooOK oo ooo
oo
f«i
»o
«
»n
Ml
S'
V « w o V "O o o>
V
«o m" -o
oooo'* ooxooo OOOON. ooooo 0020«rt»0 oo XoOK — $ -o o
r>
rs."
00000 o«ooo o < o_ o
O" •o
k •- o" — m
«'^'
S"^S'
00 ©•O'^opo^c 00 or»o p«->«o< 00 5^. o-o o— e
o_^
« k -o *o o
op — no
©rsto
or^p-oo
-oc
g
Pi
Ml;o||o jo«|ji|jn|jo|^||||
]^^ SSiS;-'
I
-^n
?
1 S-d"S SI
SiSzsSi,
1:2=
I
S 5
j-S
=
IS
^
lir-^^S
1
l"l
lil^l^Slll
I^IS
l£2l l£2l5l
^?. :S^£||
£
I
I
I
I
"c"^!
Ill'-; o^j;-5
J^looo » c »
U
S' itj
i
5-: 5O^K,""
* — oo-n
-ooo
— »n*o ^ o^o-^
o
-
,
ooooopo
o>
o
fCOOiOCN
o oopo-oppo opp
op
—
o
I— r>Mpl>>>>>l||lilM'i^li jli ^i§iii'^t = i „ 55J??555^5 55? S55S555555S? 5 55S55555555 555 55 5555 555555555 5 .
.
1-"!;
I'
I
I
§
I
1
:2
1
1
ss
III
"ii 0-»
qJ-.-:
siuepms suiil IJOJ
puo
iinj
S
^3°sJ«ui'° 1=5 >?5x-|„
?! = ^.„^
E
UlJilJ
,
leading cities (pop., 1954 est.) are Mercedes 44.900; Salto 44,-
900; Paysandu 44,000; Minas 36,700; 200;
Rocha
mostly
34,000.
Roman
Language:
Melo 36,000; Florida
Spanish.
Religion:
34,-
Christian,
Catholic. Presidents of the governing national
council in 1959: Carlos L. Fischer; Martin R. Etchegoyen.
—
On March i, 1959, Martin R. Etchegoyen, a memHistory. ber of the Herrerista faction of the National party (Blancos), was sworn in as president of the national council of government. The
election results of
Nov.
30,
1958,
had swept the Blancos They assumed
into office over the opposition party (Colorados).
control of the government for the
first
time in 93 years.
.
—
—
among new
national council.
A
last-minute truce
made
it
possible to
reach agreement on a cabinet composed of a coalition of Her-
and members of the urban wing of the party. Although the agreement had been supported by his own followers, Herrera rejected the arrangement and found himself under sharp attack from the Ruralistas. On April 8, 1959, Herrera died. In the wake of Herrera's death Uruguay suffered one of the reristas, Ruralistas
worst disasters in
its
history. Torrential rains caused the rivers
forming the northern and western boundaries to overflow and inundate lands aggregating approximately one-third of the country's area. In addition to heavy loss of life, the country suffered
''^
Iltoh Uldll.
Rocky mountain
to the
state of the
union in 1896, Utah
is
United States, admitted popularly
known
as the
"Beehive state." Area: 84,916 sq.mi. (2,570 sq.mi. water). Pop.: (July Salt
I,
Lake
1959, est.) 880,000, (1950 census) 688,862. Capital: City, pop. (1959 est.) 226,500: other principal cities
Ogden, 68,500; Provo, 41,000; Logan 18,600. 1959 state legislature contributed a number of changes to Utah's economic and political life. The senate, with 13 Republicans and 12 Democrats, and the house of representa(1959
est.) pop.:
History.
tives,
—The
with 22 Republicans and 42 Democrats,
made
the follow-
—
— UTILITIES. PUBLIC
728 mn
important changes
II. 8';;,
from
in
law: increased the biennial budget by
$i()8. 6:5,687 to
struction of a
new
$222,057,029; provided for the con-
state office building; allowed cities
and coun-
exempted gasoline used in farming operations from taxation, and at the same time noted the increasing importance of producing oil wells in Utah by increasing the occupation tax on wells from 1% to 2%; initiated income tax withholding on residents as well as out-of-state resities
the option to impose a
J%
sales tax;
dents; defeated an attempt to repeal Utah's right-to-work law; increased the basic program of guaranteed state aid to school districts
from $4,800
to $5,150; set
of higher education; raised
Weber
up a co-ordinating council Ogden from junior
college in
college status to a four-year degree-granting institution; granted
authority to establish a junior college in Roosevelt at ture date;
and made Carbon college
in Price a
some
fu-
branch of the Uni-
versity of Utah.
State officers in 1959 were: George D. Clyde, governor; La-
ment
F. Toronto, secretary of state;
general; Sid Lambourne, auditor;
Walter L. Budge, attorney
Sherman
J.
Preece, treasurer;
and E. Allen Bateman, superintendent of public instruction.
—
Education. For the 1958-59 school year there were 139,399 full-time elementary students and 85,821 full-time secondary students, with a total for all grades of 225, ;;o. The total instructional staff for the state reached 8.286 with 7,427 teachers, 450 principals, 89 supervisors and 320 other instructional personnel. In the school year 1957-58, total receipts for all districts were $82,885,951 and total expenditures were $85,446,089. For the same year the cost of instruction and supervision of vocational education in the state was $1,221,148.98. The assessed valuation of all school districts totaled $i,3t6,6i6,2 16 for the year. Social Insurance and Assistonce, Public Welfare and Reloted Programs. Total expenditures for public assistance during the fiscal year July 195S to June 1959 amounted to $17,51 i,95r. 50 (for 29,036 persons), which was an increase of $1,157,078.54 over the 1957-58 figure. The funds were distributed as follows: old-age assistance $6,667,828.26 (8.638 persons); aid to dependent children $5,298,614.64 (12,514 persons); aid to the blind $178,480.40 (224 persons); aid to the disabled $1,749,195.48 (2,203 persons); aid to uncmployables $668,022.85 (979 persons'): aid to employables $1,098,207.20 (4,040 persons); foster care $302,611.18 (438 persons); child-welfare services $265,942.31; marriage counseling $78,790.69; commodity distribution $63,019.71; and administration $1,141,-
238.78.
Appropriations for the 1957—59 biennium for the four Utah welfare institutions included $3,900,000 for the mental hospital at Provo: $r. 650. 000 for the training school at .\merican Fork; $934,856 for the industrial school at Ogden: and $425,000 for the tuberculosis Sanatorium at Ogden. Communications. .Ml highways and roads in the state (federal, state and local combined) totaled 31,692 mi. as of June 1958, of which 220 mi. were new roads. State and federal funds disbursed for highways and roads totaled $29,349,303 for the fiscal year ending June 30. 1958. This figure included sums expended by cities and counties in the state. Total registered motor vehicles as of Dec. 31, 1958, numbered 395,913, including 298,033 passenger cars and 70.890 trucks. .Ml railroads operating in the state numbered nine in 1958 with mileage (within the state) as follows; track mileage 3.008.22; line mileage 1.793.05 (mileage as of Dec. 31. 1957). .Airports and airfields in 1959 numbered 8 commercial. 48 municipal. 3 military. 12 private and 125 other. Regularly scheduled airlines operating in the slate numbered 5 in 1959. Operating radio stations in 1959 included 27 and 2 stations. There were 4 commercial TV stations and i educational transmitter. Banking and Finance. .\s of June 10. 1959. the 42 state banks had resources totaling $497,970,489.23 and the 7 national banks $478,453,307.15 for a combined total of $976,423,796.38, an increase of $70,395.486.31 over 1958. Deposits for the 42 state banks reached $455,233,652.71. while the 7 national banks noted deposits of $426,770,706.54 for a combined total of $882,004,359.25. There were 15 state-chartered savings and loan associations with total resources of $162,677,825.77 as of Dec. 31, 1958 an increase of $25,667,324,63 over the total assets of the 16 companies of the previous year. State receipts for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959. were $183,336.757.71: disbursements amounted to $187,004,164.63. The state of Utah had no bonded indebtedness as of Oct. i. 1959. Agriculture. Cash receipts from farm marketings for the first seven
—
AM
FM
—
—
—
Table
I.
Principal Agricultural Products of Utah Indie
Crop
Wheal, bu Borley, bu
Corn, bu Oats, bu
Hoy
(oil),
tons
Sugor beets, Ions Polotoej, cwl Peoches, bu
Apples, bu Peers, bu
•1949-57. Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture.
1959
5,351.000 7.650,000 2,940,000 1,666,000 1,427,000 527,000 1,280,000 470,000 360,000 1 40,000
1953
.
— VANIER
VARNISHES — VEGETABLE OILS AND ANIMAL FATS Quebec military district. He was subsequently promoted to major general and was named Canadian ambassador to France after the war. He retired from the diplomatic and military service in 1953. On Sept. 15, 1959, in a ceremony in the senate chamber. Gen-
commanding
as brigadier
eral
Vanier was sworn
the
in as
first
Roman
(G.
hold this position.
Varnishes:
see
Catholic to J.
C.)
Paints and Varnishes.
A
729
730 lay persons are the pontifical armed corps: 500 Palatine guards of
enrolled in
are ecclesiastics.
total of
honour, 100 Swiss guards, 80 papal gendarmes and 50 noble
The Swiss
guards.
guards,
first
formed
most
1505, are the
in
ancient of these troops.
On
Canada's igth governor general since
confederation, the second Canadian and
whom
most of
Oct.
1959, the papal secretary of state,
8,
Domenico Cardi-
announced that all persons on the Vatican City state payroll would benefit from the pay raises decreed by Pope John XXIII. The salaries were to be increased by amounts varying from a little more than 12% for the higher positions to 35% for nal Tardini,
the lower echelon.
This
Vatican City State.
independent
sovereign,
by the Lateran treaty between the Holy See and the Italian government on Feb. II, 1929. The treaty was recognized in international law with the reigning pope as sovereign and was made an integral part of the constitution of Italy on March 26, 1947. The pope has full executive, legislative and judicial power which he delegates to a commission of cardinals. The legal system is based on canon law. In the rare^ cases where this law does not apply the was
Vatican City state archaeologists announced the discovery of
state
established
new evidence is
Experts on medieval records from eight European countries Vatican archives. The collection would be made up of copies of
ments
years 1198 and 1417, and ecclesiastic,
tures correspond in Vatican diplomacy to legations,
incumbent's rank tentiary.
is
(J.
LaF.)
and
their
They rank immediately
The area and
of Vatican City its
number
Veal:
Meat.
see
equivalent to that of a minister plenipoafter nunciatures
which are
equivalent to embassies. In 1959 diplomatic representatives of 47 nations were accredited to the Vatican.
pope, a
John XXIII; Roman Catholic Church.
with other govern-
represented by 42 nuncios and internuncios. Internuncia-
is
basilica
and other papal documents written between the now scattered throughout Europe in governmental and private libraries.
bulls
letters,
See also
in its diplomatic relations
was entombed beneath what
basilica.
agreed to build a central collection of papal documents at the
laws of the republic of Italy prevail.
The Holy See
that the Apostle Peter
today Saint Peter's
is
108.7 ac- It contains Saint Peter's
square, the Lateran palace which belongs to the of service
and
office
buildings and approximately
50 ac. of parks and gardens. In addition, Castel Gandolfo, the summer residence of the popes situated 14 mi. southeast of
Rome, and certain offices, churches and colleges of the Holy See Rome, enjoy extraterritorial status. The normal population of Vatican City is approximately i.ooo.
within
and Animal Fats. ?he unitedlJatel above the 1947-49 average, but were low as above average in 1958. The cottonseed crop was 6,100,000 tons, 27% more than in 1958; the peanut crop of 1,602,115,000 lb. was down from 1,835,800,000 lb. in 1958; the second largest soybean crop of 537,895,000 bu. was nevertheless 7% below the 1958 record; 22,709,000 bu. of flaxseed (raw
Vegetable
Oils
1959 totaled compared with
61% 82%
in
material for linseed oil) was
pared with 39,543,000 bu. Table
I.
— U.S.
Peter's basilica during a canonization
ceremony
in
April
1959
a half crop as
com-
Production of Principai Fals and Oili* lln
RAYS OF SUNLIGHT STREAMING DOW/N ON THE PAPAL THRONE
more than
little
in 1958.
000,000
lbs.)
Average In
SI.
19S9t
Lard Edible tallow Edible vegetoble
Soap
fats
Drying
Other
and
1956
1,542 2,625 162 324 350 360 4,232 6,495 7,453 7,925 2,322 2,929 3,290 3,485 1,034 1,166 1.270 1,423 17 43 75 64 85 11,934 15,670 14,936 16,733 17,745 enported oilseeds. fForecosI by U.S, Department ol Agriculture.
....
oils
oils
oils oils
Total 'Including equivolent of tPreliminary.
1947-51
1,542 2,624 321 6,385 3,275 1,480
1.524 2,434
1,439 2,703
1,425 2,925
Butler
1957
1958t
Though butter production decreased
slightly, lard
production
over 1958 and edible tallow also was more abundant. 'With a large carry-over of soybeans from the 1958 crop available, prospects were that the total supply of edible
8%
increased about
fats, oils
and oilseeds
in
1959-60 would be about one-tenth above 5% above the
the record disappearance of the previous year and
supply available in 1958-59.
Exports of food fats and
oils,
including the
oil
equivalent of
soybeans, were indicated at a possible total of 3,600,000.000 lb., as compared with 3,300,000,000 lb. in 1958-59 when they were equal to about
were expected
28% to
of domestic production. Cotton
increase
by
60%
oil
exports
over the 404,000,000
lb.
1958-59. Lard exports were forecast at 750,000,000 lb., up from 605,000,000 lb. in the previous year. U.S. per capita civilian consumption of food fats was indicated
shipped
in
1% above 1958 and 10% more than the 1947-49 average. Prices in September for all fats and oils were 67"^^ of the 1947-49 average, with lard 42'^, butter 93"^^ and do-
at a total of 46.5 lb.,
mestic vegetable
oils 5o'~c as
World production
high as in the base period.
of fats, oils and oilseeds set a
of about 33,600,000 tons (oil equivalent),
5%
new record
above 1958 and
—
VEGETABLES — VE
730
al)out onc-thirii larger than avcraKt
lor
11)50-54. Kilililc vt-Kc-
table oils from larRi' cottonseed, peanut
and soybean crops and a large olive crop in the Mediterranean basin were particularly abundant; copra and coconut oil supplies were at the lowest level since 1948. Whale and sperm oil production, largely in
Table
compared with 1958.
as
itiimoltd World Production of Fofi, Oilt and Oilseedi
II.
lln
000 ol ihorl loni,
oil
oqulvolgnll
Avorogo
_ (.ominoddv Edible vegaloble
Palm
5%
more than
antarctic seas, declined
...
olli
oili
litduilrlol oilt
AnimaUal. Morin. old Totol
I9ll0"
1959t
1958
1950-54
1935-39
12,600 4,300 1,373 14,600 1,050 33,925
12,940 4,040 1,450 14,170 1,020 33,620
I1.82S 4,158
9,38S 3,836 1,468 10,455
7,393 3,630 1,570 9,367 1,053 23,237
1,442 13,425 1,030
990
31,880
26,134
•Forecoil by U.S. Daportmenl of Agriculture, fPorlly forecosl.
World
fats
and
oil
trade in igSQ, spurred by export pressure
on the part of the United States, set a new record of about 8,600,-
000 tons,
oil
equivalent,
6%
up from 1958 and
34%
1950-54 average. Sec also Cotton.
whereas
in
K. R.)
(J.
The
Vegetables.
higher than
total
output of vegetables in the United
was $% above the 1947-49 base, above that average. Though supplies
States in 1959
1958
it
was
7%
fall of 1959 were substantially smaller than a year earlier and below average for 1949-57, the over-all
of fresh vegetables in the
vegetable supply situation, including processed stocks, was such that prices received
by producers
for
November were 228 (1910-14=100),
commercial vegetables
in
compared with 234 a the price index for fresh vegetables was 248 against
year earlier;
as
256 a year earlier.
Consumption per dicated at 99 of canned
lb.
and
beans and 0.7
capita, other than that of potatoes,
of fresh vegetables; 25
lb.
7.9 lb. of frozen vegetables; lb.
was
in-
of melons; 44.5
lb.
7.7 lb, of
dry edible
of dry peas.
Exports of vegetables and preparations increased to a value of $134,947,000 in 1958-59, as
compared with $120,437,000
in
1957-58-
—
Comnnercial Truck Crops for the Fresh Market. Producand melons totaled 206.500,000 cwt. valued at $792,435,000, as compared with
tion of 27 principal fresh-market vegetables
213,400.000 cwt. valued at $762,395,000 in 1958. Onions, sweet corn, escarole
and
garlic set
new record high production
levels,
but watermelons declined 29'~o below the record 195S crop. The winter vegetable crop of 30,301,000 cwt. was 8% larger than in
1958; the spring crop of 46,854,000 cwt. was only the
summer
2%
crop of 94,714,000 cwt. was
Table
I.
— U.S.
94%
of 1958;
below 195S; and
Vegetable Production for Fresh Market lln
000 cwl.l
Average
Crop Artichokes
1959
1958
1957
1949-56
376
329
329
Asporoguj
1,254
1,314
1,338
Bsons, lima Beans, snap Beers
276
328
324
478
4,387
4,549
4,851
5,357
470
530
510
732
Broccoli Brussels sprouts
Cobboge Contoloupes Corrots Cauliflower
Celery Corn, sweet
Cucumbers Eggplant Escarole Oorlic
Honeydew melons
2,260
622
548
19,127 11,115
26,450
14,301 4,754
14,997 4,599 14,316 11,503 3,725
15,215 4,646 14,069 13,169 4,047
14,774 11,767 4,190
11,901
498 938 272
422 758 218
499 774
1,285
1,171
1,484
162 32,697 23,742 237
177 33,137 24,248 294 2,807 98
205 30,279
1,672
2,039 18,876
'175
Tomotoes Watermelons
12,601
1,239 33,011 25,561
Spinoch
1,998
570 21,166
Lettuce
Shollots
1,869
590 19,043 12,733 13,615 4,120 15,227 13,307 3,658
Kole
Onions Peas, green Peppers, green
2,192
315 1,106
273 2,578 62 1,564 19,609 29,437
2,412 86 1,654 18,824
36,306
196
20,127 29,757
473 635 157
21,991
558 2,555
162
28,726
1V5«
VENEZUELA
731
among males and females by both private physicians and clinics. The increase in reported infectious s>'philis cases was of great
UonoTiiolQ VbllCLUCld.
concern because there had been a consistent significant decline
noco, and the eastern ranges of the Andes and their coastal
reported in this stage of syphilis from 1947 to 1954, after which
foothills. It
a plateau
was reached
between 6,500 and 6,800 cases
at a level of
per year.
The trend
of gonorrhea incidence was similar to the syphilis
among whites and non-
pattern in that increases were reported
whites of both sexes, and by both private physicians and
However,
it
clinics.
was conservatively estimated that a minimum of
1,000,000 cases of gonorrhea actually occur annually in
United States, but
The
many
thousands of cases are not reported.
increase in reported venereal disease
was particularly
the
disturbing.
142 sq.mi.. occupies the river basin of the Ori-
the sixth largest country on the South American
is
continent.
The census
An
estimate of 1958 stated
official
of 1950
showed it
a population of 5,091,543. at 6,320,000. Caracas, the
had a population of 495.064 in 1950. It was estimated in 1957 to have 661,275 within the city limits and 939.996 in the metropolitan area. The population of the principal cities capital,
is shown followed in parenby the estimates of 1957: Maracaibo 237,750 (319,689);
as recorded in the census of 1950
theses
Barquisimeto 105,108 (142,560); Valencia 88,701
among young people
Infectious venereal disease
"^^^ republic of Venezuela, with an area of 352,-
cases
reported in the 15-19 year age group alone rose from 44,864 in
1957 to 49,909 in 1958, an increase of ii"~t- There was a 14.3% increase in the number of cases reported in the 10-14 year age
Maracay 64,535
Cumana
46,312
San
(87.732);
Puerto
(61,325);
(113,633);
Cristobal
53,933
(70,469);
Cabello
34,382
(43,424);
Ciudad Bolivar 31,054 (39,338); Coro 29,341 (36,973) Puerto La Cruz 28,389 (43,262); Barcelona 25,341 (34,879); Maturin 25,067 (35,627); Merida 25,064 (32,801), History. The provisional government in power throughout ;
—
group.
In recent syphilis epidemics, nearly half of the persons
volved were under 20 years of age.
An
in-
average of 148 cases of
venereal disease was reported every day
among persons under
20 years of age. The 54,000 persons under 20 years of age re-
ported annually with an infectious venereal disease of the extent of this problem, and plete morbidity reporting
it
is
an index
was believed that com-
would probably
triple
or quadruple
this figure.
In fiscal year 1959, public clinics in the United States reported the examination of 1,910.000 persons to determine whether or not they were infected with a venereal disease, and found 250,000 to be infected. Included in the 1,910,000 persons examined were 154,000 persons who were examined because they were known to have been sex contacts to infectious cases of venereal disease. The remainder of the examinations were for voluntary
admissions to
clinics,
1958 continued to direct the government in 1959, until the inauguration on Feb, 13 of Romulo Betancourt, who had been elected constitutional president on Dec.
signed the post of foreign minister to the Democratic-Republican
Union, along with some lesser posts, gave the Christian for his
education and communications.
An
syphilis alone claimed
the lives of 3,825 persons in 1957, representing a death rate of 2.27 per 100,000 persons.
The annual
and the
latest figures
showed an additional
life
Josue Lopez Henriquez, was entrusted
The
president's
wing of
that
it
policy.
his
main concern,
own
all
through 1959, was with the
party, which expressed loudly
should receive so
little
patronage and even
The Communists, even more
its
discontent
less
voice in
active in 1959 than in 1958,
due to
although shut out of the principal executive posts were vocifer-
expectancy,
ous in the congress and dominant in the press, the ministrj' of
man-
education and the university; and the Communist influence in
loss to the U.S.
deaths from syphilis was 68,850 man-years of
air force general,
with the ministry of defense.
left
Recent mortality figures indicated that
Demo-
fomento (industrial development) and kept own group the ministries of finance, petroleum and mines,
crats the ministry of
sons as marriage applicants, expectant mothers, and certain occupational groups.
The new regime
1958,
a coalition.
the presidency of the chamber of deputies), in the state governments (where the two parties just mentioned and the Democratic-Republican Union shared the governorships and the various executive posts) and in the cabinet. The president as-
persons tested in blood testing surveys in
high-prevalence areas, and blood testing required from such per-
7,
Three parties were given posts in the congress (Accion Democratica, the party of the president, receiving the presidency of the senate, and the Christian Democratic party began as
loss of 32,000
years through hospitalization for syphilitic insanity, at a mainte-
labour unions was considerable.
nance cost of more than $47,000,000 annually.
Throughout the spring and summer, Venezuela repeatedly prooil imports and assigning quotas, and in the early autumn it asked Washington
The Venereal Disease 'Research laboratory
at
Chamblee, Ga.,
and the Venereal Disease Experimental laboratory at Chapel were conducting research studies in the laboratory aspects of the diagnosis of syphilis and gonorrhea, and providing
Hill, N.C.,
reference diagnostic service and training to state health depart-
ment
The Venereal Disease Research laboratory World Health organization serological reference
laboratories.
also served as a
tested against the L^nited States law controlling
to be put
—
special basis as Canada not subject to Revenue from petroleum continued to falling prices abroad and declining exports.
upon the same
quantitative limitation.
diminish because of
A
controversy with the iron mining industr>' over the prices fixed
for iron ore in Venezuela, after brewing for
The ministry
some
time,
became
of mines contended that the mining
centre.
public in July.
Major accomplishments during the year included the development and evaluation of a fluorescent antibody method for the
companies had held prices
diagnosis of gonorrhea in the male, a procedure which continuing
Joint ventures of Venezuelan capital with foreign industry were
studies indicated in the female,
was
specific also for identification of infection
inmuch
higher percentage than possible with the
usual culture methods; the development of a ing antigen emulsion used in the
VDRL
method
for stabiliz-
tests for syphilis, thus
eliminating the necessity of daily preparation; the isolation of
an endotoxin from acid,
A'^.
gonorrhoeae, free from protein and nucleic
is more toxic to mice than any previously isolated and the demonstration that strains of suspected regonococci from various areas in the United States exhibit
which
in
Venezuela low, so as to avoid taxes.
Industrial diversification continued to
make
progress in 1959.
reported, such as a large flour mill in Maracaibo and a refractory
factory in Barquisimeto.
Late
in the year, the
drafts ff a
new
cultural reform.
congress reconvened to pass upon the
constitution and a comprehensive plan for agri-
The
latter
was not focused upon wholesale
expropriation, but rather upon inducement to owners of un-
productive land to put
it
into cultivation.
The government would out with long-
fractions;
use the extensive national domain, parceling
sistant
and providing for necessary clearing and irrigation. The program was expected to cost from $200,000,000 to $300,000,000 a year for ten years; and it was contemplated to raise
only decreased sensitivity to penicillin rather than absolute sistance.
(W.
J.
Bn.)
re-
term
credit,
it
VERMONT
732 most
ol the
money throuRh
the issue of long-term bonds, fully
guaranteed by the government.
The payment in advance of taxes due in ig6o from petroleum companies was requested by the Central bank in December. The operation was reported to have taken the form of the sale of Venezuelan treasury notes in a total amount of $100,000,000 to New York banks, which would then sell them to oil companies to be turned in as tax payments. On Nov. 20 a comprehensive list of products was declared to be thereafter subject to import licences. (C. E. Mc.)
Sec also Foreign Investments.
—
Chief officers of the state during 1959 included Robert T. governor; Robert S. Babcock, lieutenant governor;
Stafford,
George H. Amidon, state treasurer; Howard E. Armstrong, secretary of state; David V. Anderson, auditor of accounts; Frederick
1956 there were 7,101 primary schools, public and private, with 546.79s pupils and 18,995 teachers, and 264 secondary and special schools with 44.4JJ students and 3.JS9 teachers. There were three public and two private universities with enrollment of 9. '84 in 195''- EduEducation.
Lake Champlain by Samuel de Champlain in 160Q. The governor in 1958 (then Joseph B. Johnson; declared 1959 to be a year of history. At least 100 communities in the state celebrated in various ways, such as old home weeks, parades, pageants and plays, and historical events appropriate to their individual localities.
In
9'; of the 1959-60 ordinary budget. Finance. The monetary unit is the bolivar, valued at 29.85 cents U.S. currency during I9S9. The 1959-60 budget (July i-June 30) balanced ordinary revenue and expenditure at Bs. 5,098,900,000 and speci.al expenditure at Bs. 1,065,390,959. In 1958 59 revenue was Bs. 5,306,000,000 and expenditure, Bs. 6,241.000,000. Currency in circulation (July 31, 19S9* totaled Bs. 1,235,000,000; demand deposits, Bs. 2,640,000,000. .National income in 1958 was estimated at Bs. 17,600.000,000. The cost-of-living index (Caracasl stood at 107 in June I959 (i9S3 = ioo). TradB ond Communicolions. Exports in 1958 totaled Bs. 7,770.627,000; imports. Us. 4.798,126.000. LeadinR exports were crude petroleum and refined products (91%). iron ore (5%), coffee (2%), cacao and sugar; leading imports, machinery and equipment (18%), motor vehicles (9'"c^, iron and steel pipes and fittings (7%), industrial chemicals (.4"c) and iron and steel bars, plates and sheets (2%). Leading customers were the U.S. (43%). the Netherlands .Antilles (23%). the U.K. (6%). Brazil {3%) and .Argentina (3'"r); leading suppliers, the U.S. (S7%^. Germany (8%),
cation was allotted
—
—
U.K. (7%). Italy (6%) and Canada (3%). Public railways (1957) totaled about 590 mi., divided among a number of disconnected lines of varying gauges. In 1957 there were about 15.000 mi. of all-weather roads and on Jan. i, 1959. 212.745 automobiles, 99.693 trucks and 8.873 buses. .According to Lloyd's Register of Shipping, the merchant marine had 99 vessels (100 tons and over1 aggregating 233.127 gross tons on June 30, 1958. Telephones (Jan. i, 1958) numbered 139,826, of which 94.4*^ were automatic. Agriculture. Production estimates for the 1958-59 season (preliminary figures) included coffee. 500.000 bags of 132 lb. each; cotton, 25.000 bales of 500 lb. gross weight; cottonseed, 13.000 short tons; tobacco, 3,720 tons; cacao, 33.000.000 lb.; sugar. 190.000 tons. .According to official figures, there were (1956') 6.000.000 cattle, 2,360,000 hogs and 176,028 sheep. Lumber production totaled 187,260 cu.m. in 1958; timber, the
—
268.731 cu.m. Manufactures. Production estimates for 1958 included cement 1,615,513 metric tons; soap 19,398 tons; cigarettes 3,984.937,000 units; tires 674,661 units; beer 189.063,000 1.; cotton cloth 17,512,000 m.; rayon cloth 26.872,000 m.; rayon and cotton cloth 5,320,000 m. Installed electric energy capacity (Dec. 31, 1956) totaled 550.000 kw.; total production in 1958 was 2.250,270,000 kw.hr. Minerals. Production of crude petroleum in 1958 totaled 950.764,000 bbl.; natural gas, 31.517.422,000 cu.m. Crude petroleum exports tot.iled 690.000.000 bbl.; exports of refined products, 203,000,000 bbl. Refinery throughput was 267,104.000 bbl. Production of other minerals in 1958 included iron ore (average metal content 65%). 15.484.543 metric tons; gold. 75.970 troy ounces; diamonds, 90,004 carats; coal, 35.533 tons; manganese ore. 8,200 tons; nickel. 2,003 tons. (J. W. Mw.) Encyclop.€D1a Britannica Films. Colombia and Venezuela (1945).
—
M. Reed, attorney
Educotion.
A
Vermont.
north .Atlantic state of the United States, the
only one of the
New
England
states without a sea-
Vermont is popularly known as the "Green Mountain state"; it was admitted to the union in 1791. Area 9,609 sq.mi., coast,
of which 331 sq.mi. are water. Population (1950) 377,747 (in-
cluding 240.135 rural, 137,612 urban; 348,435 native white, 443 Negro, 28,753 foreign born). The U.S. bureau of the census provisional estimate of the population
1959.
The
8.599, Burlington 33,155
History.
sembly
in
was 372.000 as of July
i,
chief cities are Montpelier (capital, pop. 1950 census)
and Rutland 17,659.
—Legislation enacted
or
amended by
the general as-
1959 included significant changes in court procedure;
the creation, subject to a referendum vote, of a state racing
com-
mission to regulate pari-mutuel betting on horse races; a 3^? tax payable by hotels and restaurants; the licerjsand regulation of driver-training schools; parents' liability for damage to property or injury to persons by children; the raising of the minimum hourly wage to $1 revision of the motorboat laws to promote uniformity of laws and legislation; and
room and meals ing
;
the registration
Vermont,
Canada
in
and regulation of trading-stamp companies. 1959, united with the state of
in celebrating the
New York
and
350th anniversary of the discovery of
number
general.
elementary schools in the state on June jo, 1959. was 548; these had an enrollment of 54.679 and a teaching staff of 2.210 for the school year 1958-59. Public high schools in the state numbered 84, with an enrollment of 20,538 and a teaching staff of 987. The superintendent of schools was the commissioner of education, A. John Holden. Sociol Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Progromi An average of 5.919 persons a month received old-age assistance from stale funds amounting to $3,884,408.07 during the year ended June 30, 1959. .Aid to dependent children was distributed to an average of 4.2 11 persons a month (children and eligible relatives), amounting to $1,081,225. Blind assistance amounting to $93,365 was distributed to about 141 persons a of
month. .Aid to the permanently and totally disabled was paid to about 765 persons a month and amounted to $517,657. Unemployment compensation payments made under the Vermont law numbered 149,322 for the fiscal year 1958-59 and amounted to $3,476,411. The three state correctional institutions during the year had an average of 458 inmates; their total expenses were $1,068,414.74. Communications. The total mileage of the public highway system (state, state-aid and town highways) as of June 30. i9S9. was 13,656.41, of which 1,975 nii- W'ere in the state system and 2,736 mi. in the stale-aid system. Total expenditures during the year amounted to $33,539,455.97. Eight miles on Vermont's first limited-access highway (interstate) were completed in 1958 and 1959. There were about 827 mi. of railways (all diesel) in the stale in the year ended Dec. 31, 1958. .As of Nov. 9, 1959, airports numbered 21. seaplane landings areas 2, airways 4, with a total mileage in the state of about
—
300 mi. Telephone subscribers in 1958 numbered approximately 128.000. Banking and Finance. The number of State and national banks as of June 30. 1959. was 65. of which 33 were state-chartered, with total de-
—
posits
of
$292,771,757.03. The
six
state-chartered
co-operative building
and loan associations had assets of $7,280,245.71. Total receipts of the state as of June 30. I959. were $87,741,050.19; total disbursements $89,626,280.79: there was a deficit of $5,049,132.15; net debt $34,880,132.15. Agriculture. Cash receipts from farm marketing for the year 1958, according to the agricultural marketing service of the U.S. department of agriculture, totaled $115,500,000, compared with $119,500,000 in 1957-
—
—
—
— The
Table
I.
— Principal
Crops of VermonI Indie
Crop
959
195a
VETERANS ADMIN ISTRATION Table \H.— Mineral Production of Vermont
World War Value
Quanlity
Tolol*
Copper
3,000
lime
....
557,000
Talc
?
Other minerals
1,882,000
1,316,000
?
1,051,000 3,269,000 11,404,000
?
Stone
475
$21,443,000 250,000
t
2,216,000
Slate
t
808,000
733
G.I. loans,
The
and up
until July 25, i960, to
apply for
to a full year after that to close their deals.
Korea veterans was Jan. 31, 1965. Unemployment Benefits. Korea veterans may be eligible for unemployment pay under the Korean G.I. bill or, if they left G.I. loan deadline for
—
15,789,000
'
t
in
f
?
4,149,000
...
'Total hos been adjusted to eliminote duplicotion tVolue included with other minerals. Source: U.S. Bureou of Mines.
Volue
Quonlily
$21,893,000 2,050,000
?
Sond ond grovel
had
II veterans
1958
19S7
Mineral
(U.S.)
were for the purchase of homes.
1958, under a new- law passed in 1958. Both benefits are administered by the U.S. department of labour
service after Oct. 27.
t
4,111,000
...
the value of stone.
through state employment security agencies. Job-finding help
is
by the U.S. employment service. The mustering-out pay program is administered by the armed
offered
was second among the states in dimension slate output and crushed and broken slate. The Elizabeth mine, one of the naor more. In 1958 \'ermont
tion's oldest copper mines (worlied since 1793). closed because of depletion of ore. Vermont stood 44lh among the states in the value of its mineral output in 1938, with cij*;^ of the U.S. total.
Encyclop,idia Bhii.annica Films.
—
frntirf^fS by
Benefits for the Disabled: Vocational Training. vocational rehabilitation training
Xortkeaslerti States (1955).
Veterans Administration (U.S.).
forces.
is
— Special
available to service-disabled
veterans of the Korean conflict. While in training and for two months afterward, they may receive a subsistence allowance from the government, in addition to their monthly disability
the Veterans
compensation payments. By the end of 1959, about 60,000 vet-
administration, an independent agency of the United States gov-
erans had received rehabilitation training under this program.
ernment. Broadly considered, these benefits are of three kinds;
Under another program
ble veterans
and
their families are administered
make
those to help veterans
the transition to civilian life after
time spent in service; rehabilitative or compensatory benefits. for disabled
virtually expired, an
veterans.
World War
Disability
Compensation and Pension.
—
\'eterans with dis-
from either wartime or peacetime service may qualify for monthly compensation payments ranging from $19 to $225 for wartime service, and 80% of the wartime scale for peacetime-incurred disabilities. .-Additional statutory awards were
payable to veterans with certain severe disabilities such as blindness
and amputations.
The
V.A in fiscal 1959 paid out more than $1,152,000,000 in pensions to 879.781 living veterans and to the dependents of
Veterans administration.
528,111 deceased veterans. This
As of Aug. 31, 1959, living veterans of the country's wars numbered 22,644,000. Nearly 70*^, or about 15,235.000. served in World War II; 945,000 of these, with 4.510,000 others, a total of 5,455.000 served during the Korean conflict. The remaining 2,899.000 were veterans of earlier wars and peacetime service. With their families, veterans made up an estimated 45' congress in
2
to 2.0 mg. per
body weight. With the
.5
Many
such as antibiotics, tranquilizers and
t>-pes of drugs,
in this
manner; zoo veterinarians found
the projectile syringe to be especially valuable. Brucellosis.
gram
viation of suffering
to
in the
—Acceleration
of the brucellosis eradication pro-
United States during 1958-59 caused much attention
be directed to the methods of detecting
this disease in af-
fected cattle. Investigations showed that the ring test, applied to
this science.
—With
respect to this disease, a
the bulk milk received at dairy plants, was an
1959 was the discoverj' that meat from animals infected with the virus was not rendered
of identifying herds containing reactor cattle. It
by the usual commercial procedures of ripening, boning, salting and storage. As a result of this finding, the shipment of processed meats from South American countries to the United States was suspended. Cobalt Bullets. During 1959 the unique Australian method of treating ruminant animals for cobalt deficiency was introduced
to identify the reactor animals in the herd. It
Foot-and-Mou+h Disease.
development reported
in
free of the virus
—
North America. A prolonged shortage of cobalt in the rations of sheep and cattle results in a deficiency in the formation of vitamin Bjo by rumen microorganisms. In Australia the resulting in
disease
is
called phalaris staggers.
A
5-gm. pellet, containing
mixed with clay, when given to a sheep will reone compartment of the stomach, the reticulum, for
sary,
eflficient means was then neces-
however, to subject the herd to blood serum testing
combined use of the two
tests
would afford a much more eco-
nomical means of establishing and maintaining the certifiable brucellosis free status of a given area than
would blood serum
testing alone.
Hog
Cholera.
States was for
I,
major disease of swine
in the
1959. however, 30 states had enacted legislation which
either outlawed the use of virulent
hog cholera virus completely
main
U.S. swine are raised in those states.
slowly releasing the equivalent of
i
mgm.
of
cobalt per day.
The hog
86%
of
cholera vaccines
permissible in those states contain killed or attenuated virus
incapable of spreading the disease.
—
Rabies. A well-known disease affecting all warm-blooded animals including man, rabies was for many years believed to be ioo'~^ fatal for
United
years controlled by vaccinating swine with
and antihog cholera serum simultaneously. As of
virulent virus
Aug.
—This
many
or with limited or specific exceptions. Approximately
many months,
in order
appeared that the
cobaltic oxide in
pound of was
larger dosage rate, the recovery time
even vaccines were given
trol of diseases transmissible
significant
The
to 6 min. for cattle thus
to s hr.
of man's animal food sources, the con-
from animals to man and the alleof animals remained the primary goals of
in the fiesh of the target animal.
immobilized. Dosages ranged from
I
in
embedded
onset of drug action was reported to be
veterinar>
^^^ ^'°^^' ^'p^''' °^ Uotorinarv Mpriininp IClCllliai; mCUIblllC. medicine were accented
is
735
be forced out through a hypodermic needle,
to
mammals.
It
had become apparent, however, that
occasionally an animal could develop the paralytic form of the
and survive. Of 40 guinea pigs inoculated with the virus one experiment. 3 survived. Wildlife studies showed that some
See also Agricultural Research Service.
ii-
A
.
(D. A. Pe.)
country forming the easternmost part of the Indo-
llcllldlll. Chinese peninsula. Vietnam was until
World War
II
disease
divided into two French colonies and the French protectorate
in
of .\nnam. After an eight-year war, on July 21, 1954, Vietnam was de facto divided into two independent republics. Areas and populations are Republic of Vietnam: 65.948 sq.mi., (1958 est.) 12.366.291; Democratic Republic of Vietnam: 60,156 sq.mi.,
wild animals carry in their blood stream antibodies against the rabies virus, thus indicating that they
must have been infected
and subsequently recovered.
—
Anaplasmosis. This disease of cattle, which causes serious some areas, is caused by a disease agent which destroys the red blood cells. It is most frequently transmitted from animal to animal by means of insect vectors. Successful eradication programs combined the use of a blood test (complelosses in
ment-fixation)
to
locate
administration,
in
feed,
the
animals
carrier
of a
tetracycline
plus
the
antibiotic
oral
such as
chlortetracycline.
Prospects for completely eradicating the disease from areas containing deer as well as cattle did not seem promising, since deer are carriers and since some insects attack both species.
Ringworm.
worm
in
—A major breakthrough
man and
treatment of ring-
in the
animals received world-wide attention in 1959.
Griseofulvin, an antibiotic isolated from PeiiicUliiim griseoful-
vum and
other Penicillium species, can be given orally. Fungus
infections of
many
years' standing responded to this treatment.
Preliminary investigations indicated that infect the skin are inhibited
all
fungus species that
by the drug, but that fungi that
infect the deeper tissues are relatively insensitive to
Remote Administration
of Drugs.
—The
ancient poisoned dart and blow gun was put to
it.
principle
new
use in
of the
modern
When conventional methods of subjugating and capturing wild or vicious animals proved impracticable, a drug such as nicotine salicylate was injected by means of a pneumatic (CO2 gun and a projectile-type syringe. Firing of the gun causes an effervescent mixture in one compartment of the syringe veterinary medicine.
I
to
form gas
in flight, causing the drug contained in the adjoining
(1958 est.) 15,000.000. Three-quarters of the total population i.e.,
on
10%
of the total territory, the
live
Red
on coastal plains,
river delta
(North
Vietnam) being among the world's most densely populated areas. Religion: Buddhist and a Roman Catholic minority. Republic of Vietnam. This republic comprises the former French colony of Cochin-China and the southern part of the empire of Annam with its old capital Hue. It is bounded on the
—
north by the Democratic Republic of
Metnam
(along the 17th
on the west by Laos. Cambodia and the Gulf of Siam. and on the southeast and east by the South China sea. National minorities (1956 est.): Chinese 701,000; Cambodian and Laoparallel),
tian 300,300; European 10,700. Chief towns (pop. 1956 est.): Saigon (cap.), including the port of Cholon, 1.794.000; Dalat
250,000; Turan 101,000; Hue 90,600. President of the republic and premier in 1959. Ngo Dinh Diem. Democratic Republic of Vietnam. This comprises the former French colony of Tongking and the northern part of the empire of .\nnam. It is bounded on the north by China, on the west by Laos, on the south by the Republic of Vietnam and on the east by the South China sea. Chief towns (pop. 1957 est.): Hanoi
—
(cap.) 405.000;
Haiphong
(chief port) 170,000. President of the
Lao Dong (Communist) party in Minh; chairman of the execunational assembly. Ton Duk Thang; chair-
republic and chairman of the
1959. tive
man
Ho
Chi (pronounced Tskhi
committee of the
of the council of ministers,
History.
General.
—As
)
Pham Van Dong.
in the previous four years,
no prog-
—
——— —
VIRGINIA
736
was made toward Vietnamese reunification in 1959. On the other hand, political stability increased in both republics and ress
their
economic positions improved. At the end of Dec. 1958,
Pham Van Dong, prime minister of North Vietnam, sent another note to Ngo Dinh Diem, president of South Vietnam, suggesting negotiations in order to "normalize" the relations between the
two
republics.
Ngo
did not reply.
Republic of Victmim.
— Five
years after the Geneva agree-
which ended the Indochinese war, the danger of military aggression from the north had receded, but communist efforts at subversion in South Vietnam were intensi-
ments of July
20, 1954,
These were connected not only with the general election to in the south, but apparently also with the events in Laos (g.v.). By April communist underground activity was especially
fied.
be held
apparent in Cochin-China.
On July
8
two members of the U.S.
bomb
in a
compound at Bienhoa, 20 mi. northeast of Saigon. The general election of Aug. 30 produced overwhelming
sup-
Military Assistance Advisory group were killed by a U.S.
port for the policies of President Ngo. At a ceremony in Saigon's
former opera house, Ngo opened the republic's second national 5. He referred to the ever-present danger of
assembly on Oct.
communist subversion but declared that there was "a general regression of communist influence in the countries of Asia and Africa."
On May
an agreement on war reparations between Japan
13,
and South Vietnam was signed
in
amount to 85%. The rice crop in i960 was expected to be 7,600,000 tons, and an the number of pupils in all schools would rise to 1,630,000 increase of 65% as compared with 1957.
—
—
Education. Republic of Vietnam. Schools (1956-57): primary, state 2,70.', pupils 543,483, teachers 10.01 1; primary, private 719, pupils 90,621, teachers about 2,000: secondary, state and private 182, pupils 69,565, teachers, 3,367; vocational (1955-56) 20. pupils a, 743, teachers 178. University o( SaiKon (1955-56), students 2,841, teaching staff 125. Financ*. Republic of Vietnam. Monetary unit: piastre, with a free txchange rate of 74.50 piastres to the U.S. dollar. Budget (1958 est.):
—
balanced at 14,375,019,000 piastres of which 5,673,680,000 piastres came from U.S. military support aid. Currency circulation fSjarch 1958, latest pulilished) 9,370,000,000 piastres. Cold and foreign exchange, central banl< (.April 1959): US, $143,000,000. Foreign Trade. Rrpuhlic of Vietnam. (1958) Imports 8,125,000,000 piastres; exports 1,914,000,000 piastres. Chief exports: rubber 1,228,000,000 piastres; rice 471,000,000 piastres. Transport and Communications Vietnam. Railways Republic oj (1957); 1.321 km. Roads (1957) 13.974 km. of which 23% asphalted and 41% roughly metaled. Telephones (Jan. 1958) 12,667. Agriculture. Production (metric tons, 1957): Republic oj Vietnam. rubber 69,700; rice, paddy 3,192,000; maize 18,000; coffee 3,300: tea 4,400: tobacco 7,000; copra 26,000: peanuts 16,000. Livestock (1957): cattle 659,000; buffaloes 382.000; pigs 2,362.000. Fish landings (i9S7): 120,000 metric tons. Industry. Republic oj Vietnam.— Production: electricity (1958) 240,000.000 kw.hr.; sugar (1957, white and brown) 14,886 metric tons. Democratic Republic oj Vietnam. Railways (1956): 654 km. Rice crop (1958): 3,915,000 metric tons. Production: coal (1957) 1,112,000 tons (1939: 2,615,000 tons); electricity (1957) 123,000,000 kw.hr.; (K. Sm.) cement (1953) 291,000 tons. Encyclop/Edia Britannica Films. Arnold Toynbee: SouthEast Asia and Its Peace jut Penetration by the Chinese (fourth lecture of the series, "A Changing World In The Light Of History") (1958).
—
—
—
—
—
—
Saigon by the foreign ministers
of the two countries. South Vietnam would receive $39,000,000
Known
and $16,000,000 in loans and credits. The whole amount of $55,000,000 would be delivered in Japanese goods and
of Presidents," Virginia states of the union,
services.
history goes back, however, to April 13,
in a direct grant
—
Democratic Republic of Vietnam. On Jan. 23, 1959, in a letter to the Indian chairman of the International Commission for Supervision
and Control
in Laos,
Pham Van Dong
against the alleged Laotian "violations" of the frontier.
On
protested
North Vietnamese
Feb. 4 he addressed notes to the Soxnet and British
governments, whose foreign ministers had been co-chairmen of
"Old Dominion" and as the "Mother is one of the 13 original
as the
which
it
entered June 26, 1788, Virginia's 1607,
permanent English settlement was established
when at
the
first
Jamestown.
The
state's area is 40,815 sq.mi. including 922 sq.mi. of water. Pop. 3.318,680 (1950 census), 3,992,000 (1959 est.); cities include Richmond, the capital, with a 1950 population of 230,310;
Norfolk 213,513; Roanoke 91,921; and Portsmouth 80,039, History. A special session of the general assembly in the
—
Geneva conference, drawing their attention to the danger of Laos becoming linked with the Southeast Asia Treaty
spring of 1959 abandoned the state's policy of massive resistance
organization.
tive
the 1954
At the same time North Vietnamese press and broadcasts cused the South Vietnamese government of
"persecution
ac-
of
and of a U.S.-South Vietnamese conspiracy to keep Vietnam divided permanently. The three-year development plan 1958-60 was said to be progressing satisfactorily. It was hoped that by i960 agricultural production would be 74% greater than in 1957 and that the growth of industrial production during the same period w'ould patriots''
to racial integration of the public schools
and enacted a
legisla-
package widely characterized as offering individuals and
"freedom of choice"
localities
a
change
policy
in
came
in
the school dilemma.
after the Virginia
The
supreme court of appeals
had invalidated the school closing and fund cut-off statutes that were at the heart of the massive resistance program.
The new laws provided for continued state support of public whether they became racially integrated or not. At the
schools,
same time, the legislature appropriated up to $250 for each whose parents decided, for whatever reason, to send him
child
to a
nonsectarian private school or to a public school in a district
BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
IN
ment program
in
in
progress
VIETNAM, 1959
part of large-scale
highway develop-
outside that of his
own
residence. Integration occurred under
pressure of federal court decrees in Norfolk, Charlottesville,
Alexandria and Arlington county. In Warren county, the high school for whites was technically integrated, but only Negro children enrolled for instruction. In Prince
Edward county, an
was met by a decision on the part of the county's governing body to abandon education as a public function. Private schools opened for white chil-
integration order effective for Sept. 1959
dren there, but no comparable
Negro children
November
privately.
The
effort
was made
to educate the
results of the general election in
indicated a small gain in the strength of the legisla-
tive majority supporting the freedom-of-choice policy.
Principal officers of the state government at the close of the
Lindsay Almond, Jr.; lieutenant goverand attorney general, A. S. Harrison, Jr. Rights.
year were: governor,
J,
nor, A, E, S. Stephens;
See also
Cmi
—
In 1958-59, elementar>' school enrollment in Virginia was 587,575, including 435.333 whites and 152,242 Negroes. Secondary enrollment was 234,67s, including 184,722 whites and 49,953 Negroes. The eleEducation.
—
——
—
VIRGIN ISLANDS, BRITISH — VI RGI N ISLANDS, mentary school teaching staff included 18,046 positions, the secondary and vocational staff 11,083. In addition, there were 2,590 principals, head teachers and supervisors. Davis Y, Paschall was state superintendent of public instruction. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. During the \'ear ended June 30, 1959, general relief payments went to 11.886 persons and totaled $1,137,827. Old-age assistance payments amounting to $7,220,233 went to 18,155 recipients; 13,796 families with 43,469 dependent children received $8,652,877: the foster care program provided another $2,476,908 for 9,225 children; 7,802 totally and permanently disabled persons were paid $3,179,951, while 1.414 blind persons received assistance totaling $660,314. .Average daily population of six penal institutions for adults was 6.948 and of four industrial schools for juveniles was 814 at the close of fiscal 1959. Communications. As of June 30, 1959, Virginia had 7,925 mi. of primary highways and 41,670 mi. of secondary roads. During fiscal 1959. the state spent $138,176,745 for construction, maintenance and operation of its highway system, compared with $128,790,304 for this purpose in the preceding 12-month period. Total railway mileage in the state on Jan, i, 1959, was 4,126.69, The number of telephones in use by Nov. i, 1959, was 1,203.286. Banking and Finance. As of June 10, 1959, Virginia had 179 state banks with deposits of $1,303,523,000 and assets of $1,441,094,000. On the same date, the 130 national banks in Virginia had deposits of $1,739,588,000 and assets of $1,920,734,000. On Jan. i. 1959, resources of 20 industrial loan associations totaled $42,011,159: of 40 building and loan associations
—
—
$133,256,243 and of 95 credit unions $15,925,935, For the fiscal }'ear ended June 30. 1959, the state treasurer received revenues of $563,773,995 compared with $513,502,897 for the year before. Expenditures of the treasurer were $591,372,109, Gross state debt at the end of the fiscal year was $9,118,508. A sinking fund of $5,568,798 left a net debt of $3,549,710. The fiscal year ended with cash and securities in the general fund totaling $84,184,398.
total.
Encyclop/EDIa Bhitannica Films. Table
Principal Crops of Virginia Indicoled 1959
Crop
39,100,000 6,600,000 4,560,000 399,000 1,804,000 210,000,000 5,817,000 3,341,000 1,980,000 11,500 129,100,000 10,400,000 1,500,000 4,176,000
Corn, bu
Wheof, bu Oats, bu Rye, bu
Hoy,
all, tons Peanuts, lb
Soybeans, bu Irish
I.
lin
potatoes, cwf
Sweet polatoes, cwl Cotton, bales
Tobacco, lb Apples, bu Peaches, bu Barley, bu
1948-57
40,969,000 6,162,000 3,737,000 388,000 2,034,000 220,500,000 6,052,000 3,747,000 1,700,000 9,300 137,678,000 11,100,000 1,950,000 4,036,000
35,357,000 7,184,000 4,358,000 314,000 1,640,000 217,107,000 3,274,000 3,865,000' 1,332,000* 14,500 158,403,000 9,220,000 1,315,000 3,343,000
Total*
Cloy Cool Coket Leod
Source: Virginia Department of Agriculture.
....
Mongonese ore Noturol gas (000 Sond ond gravel.
cu.ft.) .
.
—
7%
rainfall. An output of 788,000,000 eggs in the first 10 months of 1959 represented a 16% gain over the same period in 1958. Pork production was expected to be up 5% to 6% and beef production to fall below 1958 by approximately 10%. Prices received by farmers for all farm products marketed in 1959 were expected to drop 1% to 2% below the preceding
—
Manufacturing establishments in Virginia were hit by the general business recession starting in late 1957 and continuing through the early months of 1958. The Virginia department of labour and industry reported, however, that diversification of industry proved to be a stabilizing influence on the economy as a whole. Employment in textiles during 1958 continued
downward
trend, but this category remained the lareest any single manufacturing group. The chemical industry experienced the sharpest loss in total employment during the vear. The value of products manufactured in Virginia during 1958 amounted to $5,103,153,000 compared with $5,139,311,000 in 1957. (\V. B. F.) Mineral Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Virginia in 1957 and 1958 whose value was $100,000 or more. In 1958 Virginia mined all the domestic aplite; was second in pyrites; and third in dimension slate output. It ranked 19th among the its
employer of workers
of
—
Toble
II.
Principal Industries of Virginia Solories All
employees Industry
Group
Food ond kindred products Tobacco manufactures Textile mill product
Apparel and related product! Lumber and wood products Furniture and fixtures Pulp, paper and products Printing ond publishing Chemicols ond products Leather and leather goods Stone, clay and glass products Primary metol industries Fabricated metal products Machinery, except electrical Transportotion equipment Source:
LJ.S.
. .
Slate Zinc
1958
Volue
Quonlily
$224,531,000 986,000 153,959,000 3,051,000 899,000 6,029,000
1,153,000 26,826,000 154,000 3,000 471,000
Other minerals
Volue
$203,226,000
1,058,000 661,000 9,877,000 1,003,000 21,158,000 5,277,000 29,752,000
14,244,000 23,000
.
US
(1956).
short tonsi
?
Stone
of the
8,000 2,521,000 7,158,000
1,143,000 130,319,000 2,281,000 687,000 5,533,000 647,000 681,000 10,834,000
?
t
15,413,000 18,000
"Totol has been adjusted to eliminate duplication in the volue of tVolues for processed moteriols ore not included in the totols. tVolue included with other minerols. Source. U.S. Bureau of Mines.
27,504,000 3,808,000 25,428,000
cic
^^'^ British colony comprises a
IchnHo Dritich
IdldllUb, DMllbll.
group of 36 islands (12 inhabforming part of the Leeward Islands, lying at the eastern extremity of the Greater Antilles in the Caribbean sea. The colony has in common with other Leeward Islands a govited)
Windward
Total pop.: (195S
West
est.)
Islands) a supreme court, but a sepa-
Indies,
The). Total
7,600. Population,
area: 59 sq.mi.
mainly Negro. Lan-
guage: English. Religion: Christian. Capital:
Road Town
[1958 est.]) on Tortola Island. Administrator G. P. AUsebrook. 1,500
— Following the
in
(pop, 1959,
from the Virgin Islands to London in July 1959 it was announced that when the office of governor of the Leeward Islands was abolished in i960, the head of the government of the Virgin Islands would be an History.
visit of a delegation
administrator directly responsible to the secretary of state for
was
also agreed that the e.xecutive council of the
colony should be increased by the addition of a third member.
Agriculture Based on conditions in early Nov. 1959, production prospects for Virginia's principal field crops were about below 1958, but nearly 10% above the 1948-57 average, according to the state department of agriculture. Lower tonnage of hays, a smaller corn crop and decreased production of peanuts, soybeans and potatoes were attributed to irregular
year. Manufacturing.
893,000 29,506,000 203,000 3,000 510,000 13,000 2,465,000 7,047,000
Lime
the colonies. It
•1949-57 overage.
— Southeastern States
1957
Quantity
rate legislature. (See
1958
737 1.23%
Mineral Production of Virginia
III.
Mineral
ernor and (with Table
U.S.
states in the value of its mineral output in 1958, with
1957
29,964 13,220 35,892 20,117 23,714 15,579 13,957 8,702 33,624 5,359 6,753 3,809 9,091
3,885 17,418
ond wages lin
Value added by manufacture
OOOsI
lin
OOOsI
1957
1957
1956
$ 96,984
$225,212 247,068 195,875 66,119 79,169 104,516
$196,862 241,858 177,196 61,518 82,450 109,104 138,759 59,526 459,808
47,674 109,082 46,803 55,945 53,254 63,721 41,215 167,696 14,103 23,820 16,263 39,296 18,862 93,762
156,521 64,439 444,831 19,381
63,962 27,233 64,606 33,440 159,665
Department of Commerce, Annuo! Survey of Monufoclures, 1957.
18,503 60,353
61,570
116,637
—
Education. Schools (1957): 18, pupils 2,145. Finance and Trade. Monetary unit: British West Indian dollar: B.W.I. $i.7 U.S. $1. U.S. currency also circulates. Budget (1957): revenue B.W.I. $840,000, expenditure B.W.I. $807,000. Foreign trade (1957): imports B.W.I. $1,231,000. exports B.W.I. $259,000. Principal exports: livestock, fish, charcoal, vegetables and fruit.
=
Uirtrin
—
klanric
VII gill loldllUo,
II
Q
U.O.
^^^
^''^^^"
islands
of the united
States have the status of an organ-
ized but unincorporated territory with a total area of 133 sq.mi.,
located 1,400 mi. southeast of
New York
Puerto Rico. The three largest islands are
and 40 mi. east of Croix (pop. 12,103,
city St.
Thomas (pop. 13,813) and St. John (pop. The chief cities are Charlotte Amalie, the capital (11,469), on St. Thomas, and Christiansted (4,112) and Frederiksted census of 1950), St. 749).
(1,961) on
St. Croix.
On
July
i,
1958, the estimated total popu-
was 31,250. The islands are under the jurisdiction of the U.S. department of the interior. History and Government. Since the enactment of the Revised Organic Act of the Virgin Islands on July 22, 1954, legislative power has been vested in a unicameral legislature composed of II senators elected for two years (five representing three electoral districts and six elected at large). The first codification of laws in the history of the islands was passed by the legislature of the Virgin Islands and approved by the governor in May 1957, becoming effective Sept. i, 1957. To attract outside business investment, the legislature also passed a measure granting subsidies and special tax e.xemptions to new businesses. John D. Merwin took the oath of office as governor on Sept. 25, 1958. Other ranking officials in 1959 included: Roy W. Bornn, government secretary; Walter A. Gordon, judge of the district court; Walter I. M. Hodge, president of the legislature; and Leon P. Miller, United States attorney. lation
—
VIRUSES — VITAMINS AND NUTRITION
738 Edu
-In 1950 the three major islands had 29 public schools, consistinx of 7 kindorRarlens, 13 rural schools, 7 rily elementary schools, i junior hiKh school and 1 junior-senior high schools. Total enrollment in public schools was 6.466, at a per capita cost (cxcl. of school lunches, adult education, capital outlay, community services) of $216.97. The budRctnry allotment for the department of education for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1959, was $i.S44..U9.94. Banking and Financ*.- -Total revenue for the fiscal year ending June jo, I9S9, from real property taxes, income taxes, miscellaneous revenues, matchinK funds. Krant-in-aid funds and miscellaneous federal contributions
amounted to $9,826,532.36. There are two banks: the Virgin Islands National bank, with assets (June 30, 1959) of $15,751,542.81, and the West Indies Bank and Trust
company with
assets (June 30, 1959) of $11,249,075.11. Later in the year the assets of the West Indies Bank and Trust company were purchased
by Chase Manhattan Bank of New \'ork. Social W»lfar«. The department of social welfare administered $342.818. 12 in public assistance payments during 1958-59. This total included principally old-age assistance amounting to $160,258.31 and aid to dependent children totaling $105,233.28. .Average monthly assistance payments per recipient were: old-age assistance $23.40; aid to dependent children $12.06 per person in families with children; aid to the blind $26.81; aid to the disabled $25.64; and general assistance $23.53. Three homes were maintained for the aged and indigent, and there was one training school for boys. Approximately $1,925,000 in federal grants and local appropriations was available during 1958-59 to the department of
—
health. Agriculture, Industry
and Trade.
livestock.
Croix is obtained from agriculture, that of St. Thomas is derived largely from the manufacture of rum and handicrafts and from tourism, trade and shipping. During the year ending June 30. 1959. income from tourists was estimated at $21,738,000. For the calendar year 1958. the value of exports from the Virgin Islands to the United States was $3,106,835; the value of imports to the Virgin Islands from the United States was $18,053,605. Communications and Transportation. Daily airmail and passenger service is provided between St. Thomas and St. Croix and between the islands of the Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico, and daily boat mail and passenger service is furnished between St. Thomas and St. John. Caribbean Atlantic .\irlines. Inc., and British West Indian .\irways, Ltd.. served St. Thomas in 1959. St. Croix was also served by two airlines Caribbean .Atlantic .Mrlines, Inc.. St.
—
—
and Pan-American World .\irways.
Inc..
addition, they received 750 mg. of a pantothenic acid antago-
the
making four
latter
flights
weekly. Eighty-nine large cruise ships made St. Thomas a port of call. There are three daily newspapers and one triweekly newspaper with a combined circulation of about 3,000. In 1959. St. Croix had iSo mi. of highway serving the island's 2,303 motor vehicles. On St. Thomas and St. John. 90 mi. of roads served 2.677 motor vehicles and one airport accommodated two airlines. On these islands. there were 3,112 telephones, two cable offices and two radio stations. (J. D. Mn.)
Later some of the signs and symptoms of deficiency began
to diminish spontaneously, so the dose of the antagonist
was
in-
creased to 1,000 mg. daily. At the end of the deficient period the antagonist was continued while 4.000 mg. of pantothenic acid daily
was added. The remaining "control" pair received the basic
formula supplemented by 20 mg. of pantothenic acid daily, together with all other essential vitamins and minerals given to the other subjects.
During the
deficient period, as time progressed the antagonist
symptoms, A little later the two men group began to note similar complaints. The signs
pair developed deficiency in the deficient
of deficiency included: serious personality changes with irritability, restlessness,
quarrelsomeness, malaise, sleep disturbances,
excessive fatigue, neurological disturbances such as
numbness of
the hands, paresthesias (a sensation as of pricking, tingling or
creeping on the skin), muscle cramps and a peculiar gait. Physical
— There
arc approximately 750 farms in the Virgin Islands which, according to the 1950 census of agriculture, covered 73.753 ac. of which 16.461 had been in cropland harvested the previous year. The appraisal value of privately owned land and buildings in 1959 was $28,045,665.62 and the appraised value of lands, buildings and structures owned by the government of the Virgin Islands was $io.74i.54i-86. Agricultural activities centred on the raising of sugar cane (almost 5,000 ac. were devoted to its cultivation) and the breeding of
While much of the revenue of
in
nist.
examinations revealed few objective findings other than
transient increase of the tendon reflexes and faulty co-ordination
The most
associated with tremor.
sistent complaints, fatigue,
constant, annoying and per-
headache and weakness, usually oc-
curred simultaneously.
Administration of pantothenic acid was followed by improvement of the paresthesias and muscle weakness, but fatigue and some degree of irritability persisted. Gastrointestinal bacteria could quite possibly have produced some pantothenic acid and limited the extent of deficiency obser\-ed. The degree of the deficiency probably was relatively minor since many biochemical reactions which require coenzymes containing pantothenic acid
continued unchanged. However, this study had produced a syn-
drome
in
man by
restriction of pantothenic acid
and admin-
istration of a metabolic antagonist to pantothenic acid.
Hypervi+anninosis A.
—Very high doses of vitamin A given
to
pregnant rats influence the development of the fetus. The abnormalities resulting from an overdose of vitamin
A
include
anencephalia (absence of brain), anophthalmos (absence of the eyes) or large, open, protruding eyes, spina bifida (absence of the arches in the spinal column), cleft palate, malformations of
the extremities, labial fissures and cataracts,
Viruses: see B.\cteriology Cancer; Epidemiology; MediPoliomyelitis; Respiratory Diseases. Visual Education: see Motion Pictures. Vital Statistics: see Birth and Death Statistics; Census Data, U.S.; Marriage and Drorce. ;
ci-\e;
Vitamins and Nutrition,
°t
^tl'^'it,..*:!!
assumed that pantothenic acid was necessary for the maintenance of health in man. Spontaneous deficiencies, however, had not occurred or had not been recognized because of the abundance of pantothenic acid in natural foods. Even in very poor diets, other vitamin deficiencies seemed to be limiting factors
F.
M. Deuschle and co-workers produced
congenital defects in rats of vitamin
A
a variety of such
by the administration of
a single dose
(75,000 to 150,000 I.U.) on the ninth, tenth or
eleventh day of pregnancy.
On the basis of present knowledge, no correlation could be drawn concerning pregnancy in women from animal research. However, the striking nature of the defects and the relative ease with which they could be produced (along with the fact that any \ntamin A taken in excess of the body's needs is stored) would suggest cautious use of large and repeated doses of vitamin A during early pregnancy.
Chemicals
in
Food.
—Legislation amending
the food
and drug
before pantothenic acid deficiency caused definite trouble. Six volunteers participated in a study conducted by R. E.
must be proved safe by industry' before being sold for use in foods, was proposed to the congress in 1957 by the L'nited States depart-
Hodges and
ment
associates,
which attempted to produce pantothenic
man by tube feeding purified diets low in pantothenic acid together with metabolic antagonists to pantothenic acid. Tube feeding of a normal hospital diet, which was acid deficiency in
emulsified in a blender, ical effect
was done
to detect
of the procedure itself for the
any psychic or physthree weeks of the
first
study.
of health, education
dent on Sept.
6,
and welfare and signed by the
in all respects
six
men
in three groups.
the basic diet, adequate
but devoid of pantothenic acid. At the end of this
deficient period, 4,000
mg. of pantothenic acid was given
pair, the antagonist pair, received the
daily.
same formula
but,
presi-
195S.
The amendment required that: before a food additive could be it should be shown to be safe for long-term, as well as short-
used
term, consumption; the addition of additives to food should not
be permitted unless they served a purpose beneficial to the con-
sumer; industry must provide evidence
The experimental design paired the One pair, the deficient pair, received
Another
law. so that chemicals used in the processing of foods
to establish the safety
of the additive and should submit the proof to the
administration for evaluation.
Common
Food and Drug
additives, such as sugar,
salt and vinegar whose safety had been established by experience would be exempt.
Insect Control
and
Human
Nutrition.
— G.
C.
Decker
dis-
WAGES AND HOURS cussed the problem of food destruction, deterioration and con-
tamination by plant pests. Growing crops and produce must be protected from serious attack by insects, plant diseases and other
through evolution, have acquired an enviable de-
pests. Insects,
gree of fitness that has permitted at least
some representative
to
survive in almost every earthly environment. Insect population can be controlled ical
means. In nature, insect control
by natural and by chemlargely biological
and
739
For travel which would extend for periods of more than six months, some scientists believed that the only source of food feasible was that provided by the use of a closed ecological system which used plants to provide food and oxygen to the traveler, and the traveler's expired carbon dioxide and waste products for plant nourishment. Supplements, however, would be needed to provide lacking essential nutrients with such a system.
—
ecological.
BiBLiOGR.APHY. R. E. Hodges, M. A. Ohlson and W. B. Bean, "Pantothenic .\cid Deficiency in Man," J. Clin. Invest., 37:1642-1657 (Nov. 1958); F. M. Deuschle, J. F. Geiger and J. Wari^any, ".Analysis of an
tend to keep plant and animal population in a state of near
.\nomalous Oculodentofacial Pattern in Xewborn Rats Produced by Maternal Hypervitaminosis .\," /. Dent. Res.. 38:149—155 (Jan. -Feb. 1959); Editorial, "Xew Law on Chemicals in Food," Am. J. Pub. Health. 49:94—95 (Jan. 1959): G. C. Decker, ''Insect Control vs. Human Nutrition," Nuir. Rev., 16:289-291 (Oct. 1958): J. C. Ebbs, "Nutrition in the Space .\ge," Sutr. Rev., 17:129-131 (May 1959)(M, B. McC; F. J. Se.)
is
Most pests have tremendous reproductive powers, whether they be weeds, plant diseases, insects or rodents. However, nature has arrayed a variety of dynamic forces which equilibrium.
For many pests suitable biological or ecological control measures have not yet been developed. Pesticides constitute the only
—
EncycloP/Edia Britannica Fums. Foods and Nutrition (1939); Fundamentals of Diet (1943); Understanding Vitamins (1952).
defense weapon. Decker pointed out that "the use of insecticides is
the only established protective practice available for com-
batting the majority of our injurious insect species."
Such control
is
of vast importance. Plant production
would be
almost impossible without the use of chemical sprays and other
measures applied
much
to control insects
and plant
diseases.
Although
progress has been made, current insect losses in the agri-
Waffp^ liagCO
1958.
1959 this I).
persons were concerned with the possible public health
cides and pesticides. The U.S. department of agriculture, the Food and Drug administration, the U.S. public health ser\-ice
and the National Research council had stated that the hazards were potential, not real, and that there was no cause for alarm. Before nutrition research workers had Nutrition in Space. little more than scratched the surface in solving the problems
—
of
man
on earth, the space age presented them with the challeng-
ing problem of feeding
man
in space.
Jane C. Ebbs stated that man's entr>' into the space age would depend largely on the ability of the scientist to solve the problems concerned with man's physiological needs
in space. For both between 10 and 120 mi. above the earth) and space travel (more than 120 mi. above the earth's surface), the biologist would be faced with duplicating the earth's environment for the survival of the traveler. While the duration of space flight would be relatively short, space travel might involve long periods of time. In space, the lack of gravity provokes numerous problems. Everything not fastened down will float. Liquids will not pour and, in an open container, they tend to break into small particles if the container is moved. Some solid foods form dust and can
space
flight
(travel in the area lying
cause trouble is
if
the particles get into the lungs before the food
put into a semiliquid consistency by the mouth. Unless "syn-
thetic"'
gravity can be established in the space vehicle, safe feed-
ing can be done best by using liquid or semiliquid food dispensed via a squeeze bottle or piped from closed containers directly to
the traveler's mouth.
The
logistics of subsistence
support for
man
in space is stag-
Water requirement alone was predicted to be a minimum of 5 lb. per day per traveler. The recovery and purification of water from expired air, perspiration and the waste products gering.
would provide a partial solution. It seemed unlikely that conventional foods or heating, storage and preparation equipment would be used for space travel of more than one or two days' duration because of their bulkiness. If s>Tithetic gravity could be induced, precooked dehydrated foods that required only the addition of hot or cold water for preparation,
and irradiated fresh foods, pasteurized
to al-
leviate the need for refrigeration, might provide a partial an-
swer.
months was 10.8% for April. In Sept. index was 3.6% above that for Sept. 1958 {see Table
1959, real wages were higher than in the corresponding in
cultural field alone are estimated to be in excess of $4,000,000,000
Many
'" °^ ^^^ "^^^ cession" disappeared late in that year,
^^' ^^^'"'^ '^''''
with the result that real wages in the United States in 1959 were the highest in four years. In each of the first nine months of
annually.
hazards that might be associated with the wide use of insecti-
;ini1 IIUUIO. Hniir, and bituminous coal
Table II.— AvBrog* U.S. Wttkly larningi, Avaragt Wttkiy Houri ond Avraga Carningi Ptr Hour in Moior Indviiriti
^''Tou,"""' '^"3,no°'"''
'""io'^'iror"'
1959'""
i„^^^,^
All MANUFACTURING Durabl. good.
Nordurabi. Bood.
:::::::
Er.c,°"oV,l°a'l,i„;,;
Non.i.ctricoi machin.ry Transportolion vquipment
....
Agiomobii..
Lumb.r and wood product.
.
.
.
.
Furnllur. ond n.lur.i Stone cloy and olo..
L.tiii
mill
prod^t
19m'"'i958
1958
$89.65 94.80 80.00
$83.50 89.83 75.66
40.2 40.5 39.8
39.2 39.4 39.0
2.01
1.94
'ii:?' !°2-?5 108.53 111.10 80.19 74.66 92.13 63.83
'io?
"j
11°
i.ll
lUi
JJ'T^ 100.19 97.39 74.28 68.85 84.40 57.90
til 40.8
Hi
^5? 2.66
lift 2.53
2.69 1.98
2.51
,
JV.o 38.8 39.3 38.9 40.0 38.6
41.3 40.5 40.8 41.5 40.4
60:90 85!48
579° 8K99
Itl
Pop.r and allied product.' '.'.'.'. 95.03 Printing and publi.hino 103.52 Chemicoi. and allied product. 100.28
88.83 97.38 95.06
43.0 38.2 41.1
41.9 37.6 40.8
'i?:J9 72.13
42:i 40.0
3i:? 39.2
^jyJhlTo'd'i.'arh.'r Vo'dJci.' Food and food product.
. ;
;
...;
!
.
.
.
RLbt^p:L'uc°tl°':^''r'^''"'.
:
:
li'j?
Mi,ceiianeou,n,anufacturina.
.
.
75.60
.
1959'''''i9S8
Ikt 4K2
4o:9
$2.23 2.39
$2.13 2.28
1.89 1.77
1.83 2.22 1.58
2.11
1.50
Hi
H?
^09
i:99
2M
2.i] 2.71
2.44
2.59 2.33
2I?
lit
1.89
1.84
NONMANUFACTURING '.'.'.'.'.'.'.'.'
323
302
2'2? 9*'38 42'9 432 86.29 79.31 39.4 38.5 2.19 106.04 100.12 41.1 40.7 2.58 91.76 88.26 40.6 40.3 2.26 49.07 48.22 35.3 35.2 1.39 47.44 45.60 40.2 40.0 1. 18 116.16 112.17 36.3 36.3 3.20 United State. Department of Commerce.
iVz
325
324
9547
T.iephone
Go. ond electric ulilitie. Wholesale trode Generol merchandise .tores
.
.
.
Hotel. Building construction
Source, Survey o^ Current
9785
104.98
st'«i"r*aiil"a'Tandbu.'..'
Bu.i-nesi,
exceeded $iio per week for 8 out of 12 months coal mining,
and
for
i
month
in transportation
in
2.06 2.46 2.19 1.37 1.14 3.09
bituminous
equipment manu-
facturing.
As of July 1959, earnings exceeded $100 per week in 11 Induscompared with 5 in 1958. Seventeen industries paid average weekly earnings of more than •rj 2X $90 (against 15 in 1958); vo" " tries,
\
more than $So
industries paid
1957); and
3"
I-
^
.
(against 22 in 1958 and 20 in
industries paid less than $60
(compared with
tips.
board,
room Or uniforms), but
in hotels
this
was 4
ccnts higher than in 1958. For manufacturing as a whole, the u . -.u /^ .u mcrca.sc houfly rates was 4.7%, comparedJ with 2.9% the
m
•
M
1
Pr'or y^-"- Steel workers struck
late
in
1
059 for
still
higher
wagcs, dcspitc the fact that their hourly rate increased 5.4% during the year, which was above the average increase foT manu_
,
r
,
factUTing aS a whole. t- ,, u c. lu f Table ttt III shows a fivc-year climb of
,^
u
23.9% m hourly eammanufacturing industries. The greatest improvement ovBT the five-ycar Span was onc of 40.9% in iron and Steel. The second bcst incTeasB was 29.7% in bituminous coal mining. Thc '"Ss for
•
i
all
'•
L mdustfy showing thc wi kcst incTcase smce 19S4 was anthracitc coal mining ro.er-.), followed by texUle products ri6.2%). J
^
.
,1
•
1
•
•
Common labouT f Toad building) in Julv 1959 Tecclved an avcTj •... » I. . r ao -r-i.^gc hourly rate of $2.14, compared with $2.07 1958. This
m •
represents an increase of 3.4%.
Farm wages went up
6 cents to
was 6.4% higher than foT the preceding year. Rcported farm wages do not include a monetary evaluation of room ,, ^ and board, which normally are furnished in addition to cash „„,.„„„» pavment. jp summarv. wage payments in 1959 reflected a definite up^ , ,. ,, ward trend. I his was true for all component and directly re$1.00, which
,,,,., .
,
'^'' during the year.
see
Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United
Kingdom of. Walnuts: '^ee Nuts.
War, Law
of: see International Law.
^
U/ochinn'tnn
lifloMlllglUM.
state in the
extreme northwestern United
known as the "Evergreen Washington was admitted to the union Nov. 11, 1889. Total area: 68,192 sq.mi., of which 66,786 sq.mi. is land. Pop. (1950) 2,378,963; native white 2,135,495, foreign-bom white 191.001. Negro 30,691 and other races 31,776. According to the U.S. census bureau the provisional estimate of population on July i, 1959, was 2.823,000. In 1950 the urban population was 1.503. 166. or 63.2% of the total population. The populations of States, popularly
state,"
the five largest cities, according to July figures in parentheses),
i.
1959, estimates C1950
were respectively: Seattle 581,300 (467,-
S9r): Spokane 190,400 (161. 721); Tacoma 15S.800 (143.673); Yakima 45,100 (38.486); Vancouver 40,800 (41,664). Olympia (state capital) 17,700 (15,819).
Table iii.-r;«
in
Hourly U.S. Earnings Roles index,i959
ijuiy figuresi
Industry
all manufacturing Durable goods
.
Nondurobie goods iron and steei Machinery (nonelectrical) .
rummer on"
.
.
.
.
.
allied pr'oduc's: Textile products
.....
Food ond food processing Tobocco products Rubber products
.
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959
"=iot'
$1.80
$1.89
$2.13 2.28
$2.23
2.01 1.71
$1.97 2.07
$2.07
1.91
2.39
168.9 170.7
1.94
2.01
162.1
2.94 2.38
3.10 2.50
198.7 171.2
f.li 1.50 1.99 1.66 2.35
?:98 1.58 2.09 1.76 2.52
1.66 2.20
1.82
2.20 1.90
2.46 2.08
2.47 2.20
2.71
lit
K72
III
^iw
1.36 1.68 1.37 1.95
1.37 1.72 1.40 2.09
1.44 1.86 1.50 2.17
2.51
2.49
2.43 2.50
2.58 2.83
2.93 3.08
2.59 3.02
2.75 3.23
159.0 173.7
2.11
2.66
li"!
2!94
sio^
3'20
lls's
2.01
2.30
1.50 1.92 1.61
2.26
1
70.7
141.1
172.7 176.0 170.3
nonmanufacturing Cool mining Anthracite Bituminous Buiiding°cons7rurtion
'.'.'.'.
Source: Suryec of Current Business, United Stotes Department of
Commerce.
History.— Democrats controlled both houses of the 36th legwhich met in regular session from Jan. 12 to March 12, 1959. and in extraordinary session from March 13 to 27. This was the fourth occasion in ten years that the regular session islature
... ., „ did not pro\nde Sufficient time to complete the legislative pro„ -rlo Stimulate . . j-i j » .i. j » gram. Credit and to attract capital, development Credit corporations Were authorized and State chartered financial .
l
.
,
.
,
,
-i.
i.
.
,
i
l
were authorized to f participate in such Organizations. o f Nine laws Were enacted to strengthen and e.xpand the operation ..,. , „, ,, ,f „ j ^ ,, j, authorities. Of these the so-called landlocked county P° port bill, designed to enable Spokane to develop improved in•. . j -.i. ^ a . .\. institutions ^ •
i
,
,
.
•
i
Qustnal sites
m
j,
.
Connection with port zones, reflected the general 1
stimulus to trade resulting from developments on the Columbia llver
and Other pOrt pTOJeCtS. Similarly alrpOrtS Were permitted
—
WASHINGTON, to use their funds to construct
manufacturing and warehouse
program received a setback when the supreme court ruled that the 1957 law which authorized port districts to use funds derived from a two-mill lew to acquire property for industrial purposes involved the condemnation
buildings and sites. This
— D.C Toble
741 I.
Principal
Crops of Washington Indic
led
948-57'
state
871,000 951,000 559,000 1 83,000 590,000 193,000 438,000 551,000 843,000' 75,000 588,000
of private property for other than public use.
In face of the prospect for a continued serious state deficit, the legislature increased the sales tax
On
from
3^%
to
4%.
Jan. 29, 1959, the state supreme court upheld the law of
1955 which required state employees to sign a loyalty oath. It however, that section three, which provided that mem-
ruled,
bership in a subversive organization be determined by the
list
prepared by the United States attorney general, constituted "an unconstitutional delegation of legislative authority to an officer of the United States over which the state government has no control." Also, the bill
an
had not
officer in the exercise of
set forth standards to guide such
such delegation.
United States supreme court was university professors
The
filed
who challenged
Application to the
on behalf of the two
the validity of the oath.
chief officers of the state for 1959 were; governor, Albert
D. Rossellini; lieutenant governor, John A. Cherberg; secretarv' of state, Victor A. Meyers treasurer, Tom Martin state auditor. Cliff Yelle; attorney general, John OConnell; state superintendent of public instruction, Lloyd J. Andrews (elected on non;
;
partisan basis); commissioner of public lands, Bert Cole; state
insurance commissioner, William A. Sullivan; and chief justice of the state supreme court, Frank P, Weaver. Education. At the close of the school year 1958-59, the total enrollin the public elementary schools was 389,581. the secondary schools
—
ment
109.833, junior high schools 87,756. The average daily attendance in elementary schools was 363. 87S. in junior high schools SS.76S and in high schools 107.625. Certified personnel in the state public-school s\'Stem numbered 25.836 and the average salary, exclusive of superintendents, supervisors and principals, was $5,194 and of all certified personnel $5,367. Total expenditures were $221,077,700 and the cost per pupil in attendance in elementary and secondary schools was $?So. Full-time student enrollment during the fall term of 1958 was 13.035 at the University of Washington and 5.724 at Washington State university (State College of Washington before Sept. i. 1959). During that term three colleges of education had a total enrollment of 5.712: ten publicly supported junior colleges had a total enrollment of 5,947: and 12 privately supported universities and colleees in the stale had a total of 10,783. Sociol Insurance ond Assistance, Public Welfare and Reloled Programs. During the period Sept. i. 1958. to Aug. 31. 1959, public assistance in the state, including federal expenditures and state aid, cost $102,516,951.16. An average of 133.851 persons recei\ed a total of S94.719.600.r2 and an average of 27.425 persons received general assistance to a total of $12,323,374.16. .\n average of 54.645 old persons received a total of $5°. 352, 535.98. .^n average of 41.315 dependent children received a total of $20,571,290.03. A total of $2,792,396.33 was provided for the foster care of 3.902 children. .\n average of 803 blind persons received a total of S818.641.25. A total of $6,603,565.83 was paid to an average of 6.530 disabled persons. .\ total of $1,055,998.30 was provided for public assistance service, of which $232,637.04 was extended to the blind and $823,291.44 was provided for burials. For medical service only. $911,528.88 was expended during the months June through .\ug. 1959. .\dministration of the entire program cost $7,087,619.74. On June i. 1959. three state hospitals for mental patients had a total population of 6.723: four adult correctional institutions had a total of 2.677 inmates; two veterans' homes and one colony had 749 inhabitants; II state schools or centres for children or youth were responsible for 4,183 persons: juvenile parole services had 629 and child guidance centres had 332 active cases, respectively. Total appropriations for the state institutions for the fiscal biennium, 1959-1961, amounted to $70,130,114 for
wages and operations. Communications. Railroads in the state during 1958 carried freieht to a total of 7.638,138.000 ton revenue freight miles, and passengers to a total of 246,247,641 passenger miles. There were 5.903 "!'• «' track of road operated. On Jan. i. 1959, the total mileage of highways in Washington was 59,058, of which 14,469 mi. were federal-aid highways. There were 6,585 mi. of hi-jhway under the state system and 38. 244 mi. uf highways, roads and streets under county jurisdiction and management. Total state expenditures for highways during the period Feb. i, 1958, to Jan. 31, 1959, were
salaries,
—
$96,660,734. In Sept. 19 59 the state was served by 10 scheduled airlines and there were 1,280 airline route miles. There was a total of 105 airports, 11 seaplane bases and 62 privately owned restricted-use airports. Banking and Finance. Tn 1958 the state board of equalization placed the value of real and personal property at $9,636,658,260 and equalized for purposes of taxation at S4.S1S.329. 130. The gross debt on June 30, 1959, was $86,496,912.32. For the year ending June 10, I959, receipts, including cash and warrant transfers, were $899,296,896.15, and for the year ending June 30, 1959, disbursements, including warrants redeemed to the amount of $704,883,038,94 and cash transfers of $i67,373,24i-32 amounted to a total of $872,256,280.26. The treasurer's cash balance was
—
$129,422,535.31,
lin
OOOsl
—
WATER SUPPLY — WE ALTH AND INCOME
742 bay.
The city of Washington
is
co-extensive with the District
of Columbia, covering an area of 69 sq.mi. with an estimated
population, July
i,
1959, of 840,000;
April
1950, census;
i,
principal proiilems of the District of
Columbia
in
1958-
59 were related to budget. A federal contribution of $32,000,000 was requested, but the U.S. congress granted only $25,000,000 toward the cost of running the city. The total 1959-60 district budget ($241,289,076) was the largest in history. Public school enrollment in Washington, D.C., totaled 117,452
on Oct.
relatively stable,
22,046; senior high and vocational high,
15,476;
DC.
Teachers college, 1,274; special schools 1,290). The total assessed valuation of real property in the District
Columbia was $3,312,198,062
for the fiscal year
1959.
Of
(59.9%) was taxable. The tax rate in 1959-60 was $2.30 per $100 of assessed valuation. In addition the district levied a sales tax, an income tax and other taxes comparable with metropolitan areas of similar size. Building permit activity in the first six months of 1959 rethis total,
in June 1959 (metropolitan area). Redevelopment projects were rapidly changing the face of sections of the city. The Southwest project, started in 1950, was Washington's largest redevelopment project in process. It would rid Washington of 600 slum acres when completed. A Northwest urban renewal project covering about 915 ac. was in the plan-
ning stage.
Two
1959 (elementary, including kindergarten, 77,366;
I,
junior high,
of
economy, remained
were employed
802,178.
The
the mainstay of the area's
standing at 301,900 in June 1959 (^metropolitan area). Private employment reached new highs during the year; 841,500 jiersons
$1,985,112,652
flected the unusually high construction activity
throughout the
new dwelling units were authorized during the sixmonth period as compared with 10,300 for the comparable period in 1958. The valuation of new dwelling units authorized for the six-month period in 1959 was $135,000,000, compared with $113,000,000 for the first six months of 1958. year; 12,000
All other building construction
lor the six-month period
was valued
at
$106,000,000
civilian
National Capital
The first was the establishment of the Downtown Committee Inc., a business group
interested in the organization, planning
better
downtown
for the capital city.
the comple-
Washington Area Transportation study which
tion of a
the spending of $1,600,000,000 for
major
and programing of a
The other was
called for
new expressways and other
arteries to handle the anticipated 3,000,000 population of
the region
by 1980.
(G. Kv.)
Water Supply and Conservation: cal Survey. U.S.; Irrigation; Public
see Dams; GeologiHealth Engineering;
Soil Conservation; Tunnels.
Wealth and Income, Distribution sumcr
T cI
of. I';
Finaiicis in the United States, published
by the board of
months
governors of the federal reserve system, supplied information
and military employment,
on the distribution of income for 1958 and liquid assets in early 1959. Previous surveys had made information available for the
and $61,000,000 for the
first six
of 195S.
During the year, federal
events of particular significance for the future of Wash-
ington occurred in 1959.
The surveys were based on small field canvasses consumer spending units, defined as all persons living in the same dwelling and related by blood, marriage or adoption who pooled their incomes for their major items of expense. Survey data on the percentage distribution of spending units period 1945-57.
SOVIET DEPUTY PREMIER ANASTAS MIKOYAN,
a
visitor
to
the
U.S.
In
1959. slopping in front of a Washington, D.C., bookstore displaying a sign advertising Dr. Zhivago by Boris Pasternak, Soviet writer who was offered the Nobel prize for literature in 1958 and was subsequently attacked by the !
of
—U.S. government associations — are provided
according to size of holdings of liquid assets
savings bonds, deposits in savings and checking accounts at banks
and shares in savings and loan in Table I. In early 1959, 75% of spending units owned liquid assets
—a
proportion that was higher than in nearly
all
other
years of the period surveyed.
Table II summarizes data provided by the sur\'eys on the tribution of spending units taxes) according to size of
was
little
Table
Amount! ol
1
$199 $200-$499 $500-$999 $1
1946
$I,000-$1,999 $2,000-$4,999 $5,000-$9,999 $10,000 and over
.
in
most
Spending Units by Size of Liquid Asset Holdings
liquid ossels held'
Mone
All units
total
change in the income distribution, whereas Distribution of
I.
dis-
money income (before income. From 1957 to 1958 there and
.
.
1950
1956
1959
1958
24%
31%
28%
26%
25%
15 14 14 14 13
16
15 12 12
18 14
11
10 12
18 13 12 10 12 6
11
10 10 13
4 2
6
100%
100%
3
11
12 6 4
5
100%
4
4
100%
100%
'Includes U.S. government savings bonds, checking accounts, sovings accounts in bonks, postal savings ond shores in savings and loan ossocialions and credit unions; excludes cur-
Source: Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System.
Table
II.
— Distribution, of Spending
Units
and Money
by Income Groups Annua
In
Received,
—
WEAPONS — WEATHER Table
by Each nits
inked
I
Fiffh
Third fifth fourth fifth
Highest
i
9.0
54.0
fifth
100.0%
groups
All
5%
Top
11.0 16.0 22.0 46.0
10.9
1957
4.8%
22.5 44.7
1957 lln
1929
45.3
I
poputatic
Massachusetts U.S.
Deportmen
War
Rhode
had been an upward movement. The e.xpansion of total money income in the postwar years resulted in a shifting of many consumers to higher income levels. The shifting pervaded the income distribuprevious years of the post-World
When
tion.
by
size of
income,
it
is
of the period from 1929 to 1957 the percentage of
all
income
649 11,641 1,720 6,524
7,531
Delaware Maryland Disl. of
Co
689
1,216
1,253
6,323 2,080 78,283 16,893 20,819
6,566 2,173 77,734 16,507 20,409 9,1 18 24,076 7,624
1,973 2,001
7,584 1,539 1,419 2,275
Nebrosko
253 288
.
The
loss of the highest quintile affected
and was heaviest
for the top
1%.
State Distribution of Income. individuals reached latest
1,046
470 1,015
753 856 570 866 564
the other brackets improved their relative positions.
new highs
mainly the top
5%
4,254 1,077 2,752 171
—-The dollar flow of income to
in nearly all states in
1958, the
available in 1959.
For the continental United States as a whole, personal
come or
in
in-
—
1958 totaled $356,000,000,000 about $8,500,000,000, than in 1957. Rates of increases were largest in the
2% more
plains, southeast, southwest.
gions.
Rocky mountain and
far west re-
Income expansion was comparatively northeastern part of the country New England
(See Table FV.)
limited in the
and the middle east
—while
an actual small decline. regions that the
recession had
its
slump
It
—
was
lots)
2,834 3,288 4,108 1,869 3,510 3,632 2,459 1,590 2,937 1,539 14,666 2,514 10,375
254 1,614
5,010
1,098 2,635 3,843
53,632 6,342 3,091
55,826 6,586 2,972
4,177
4,303 4,992 6,297 2,929 5,678 8,334 4,364 2,302 4,901 2,168
4,841 5,954 2,813 5,441
7,733 4,201 2,121 4,854 2,064
23,587 3,734 16,436 1,398 2,019 7,807
957 757
24,733 3,975 7,007 1
1,548 2,203 8,134
1,274 1,068
1,321
1,126
151
474
646
668
642 284
1,930
3,357 1,462
7,394
892 26,378
3,503 1,516
1,166
3,986
45,182 5,815 3,430
46,916 5,982 3,556
647 79
2,451
314
647
686
5,502
19,627
35,290
689
1,098
36,692 1,154
shown iented
the Federal
29,671 6,468 5,258 8,702 1,103 1,147 2,759 4,234
in this in
316 226 239 242 188
2,057 2,335 1,704 1,885
201
189 298 228 197 290 214 422
2,394 1,966 2,817 2,413 2,585 2,521 2,127 2,760
421
2,221
253 284 334 294 362
2,634 2,182 2,099 2,184 1,990 2,435 1,936 1,928 1,916 1,863 2,037 1,697
1,74 5
320 271
283 336 298 240 324 459 525 274 322 408 502 523 459 1,007
410 304 466 284 481
269 518 805 767 404 323 400 342 446 434 535 413 450 768 567
loble differ
Table IV of the
137 117 126 123 103 134 108 128 106 102 106
1,641 1,894 2,001 1,471 1,674 1,509 1,397 1,439 1,384 1,218 1,487 1,876 1,359 1,053 1,576 1,228 1,813 1,740 1,814 1,838 1,932 1,916 1,920 1,701
2,088 2,047 1,753 2,450 2,160 2,006 2,569 2,559 1,852
in
in one Income and
definition
article.
om
the stote estimates of income disbursed by military personnel stationed outside the Con-
This pe Governn
in these three "industrialized"
during the 1957-58 which the generally sharp
in factory activity
principal effect
and
in
expansion of farm income contributed least to the over-all
in-
come stream. Mainly because of the differing geographic effects divergent movements in manufacturing and agriculture,
of
changes in personal income from 1957 to 1958 varied considerably on a state basis.
For the country as a whole, per capita personal income
(total
personal income divided by total population) amounted to $2,057 in 1958, as compared with $2,043 in the previous year. By re-
income was almost one-fifth above the national average in the far west and middle east and was more than one-fourth below it in the southeast. The range among the states, of course, was much greater. Per capita personal income in 1958 varied from $2,817 in Connecticut to $1,053 i" Mississippi. In Connecticut and others in the top rank Delaware, District of Columbia, New York, Nevada, California and New Jersey average incomes ranged from approximately one-fourth to nearly two-fifths above the
gions, 1958 per capita
—
793
onol inct Product, U.S.
the Great Lakes states experienced
940
781
798 979
312 225
year for which department of commerce estimates were
16 8,364
1,949
794
9,231
23,856 7,484 28,154 6,158 5,1
2,643 34,193 4,024 2,203
982
all
15,984 5,060 19,854
811
1,020
The data indicate a distinct reduction in relative income differences. From 1929 to 1957, the share of total income received by the highest income bracket declined from 54% to 45%,
12,891 6,006
999 9,990 1,054
and unattached individuals), ranging from those with the
90,057 41,954 14,494 23,617
3,755 1,774 50,744 10,803
7,280
North Dakotc South Dakotc
41,078 14,220 23,5 60
240
615
lowest incomes to those with the highest.
whereas
1958
1,260
20,235 3,803 5,178
going to each fifth of the total number of consumer units (families
634 11,322 1,696 6,478 88,497
27,465 14,105 3,714
was found that the proportionate share of received by each tenth was fairly stable
afforded in Table III. This shows for selected years
448 7,799 1,287 3,860 59,448 28,054 8,699 16,477
Middle Ec
II period there
longer-term comparison of changes in the distribution of
income
225 1,641
throughout the postwar period.
A
1958
1957
3,862
596
Island
Conneci
the nation's spending units were ranked into tenths
money income
total
1950
85,661 225,473 347,911 356,328 7,125 15,180 22,769 23,257 479 1,087 1,573 1,622 322 699 1,066 1,101
of income
the
,
notion-
millions ol dollorsl
Continentol Unit
100.0% 22.2%
00.0% 19.9%
100.0% 21.4%
Totol personal income
11.3 16.3 22.3
11.3 16.6
16.1 22.1 46.1
100.0% 20.9%
30.0%
1953
4.9%
4.8%
5.0%
13.0% U.O
fifth
1950
1947
1929
fifth
Second
Units*
I
lowest to highest income
Lowest
C
of
743
Table IV.— U.S. Personal Income, by Stales and Regions
Percentage of Family Personal Income Received
III.
—
From 1929 to 1958, a period of tremendous economic growth, there was a pronounced relative shift of total personal income from the northeast (New England and the middle east) to the south and west. The share of United States personal income received in the northeast declined from 40% to 32%. whereas the proportion of the total accounted for by the four southern and western regions increased from 27% to 38%. The change in the share of the north-central area (Great Lakes and plains states)
—
was moderate from 32% in 1929 to 30% in 1958. Table IV shows the percentage increases in total personal income which occurred in the various states and regions over 1929-58 period. Despite their below-average expansions, England and the middle east form one of the largest concentrated markets in the world. Occupying only 6- quality. In 195S Bur-
g""dy and the Rhone produced 45.300.000 gal., of which 5.200.°°° gal- white and 21.900.000 gal. red were famous growths. The '959 estimate was 44.500.000 gal., including Burgundies of su-
c=,rrr,,
1959
Is/.a
ArgVn°na
^9!
a'',""^'"
37.0^
Brazil
'.'.'.'.'..
Conodo
In 1959. however, this program was found to be much too small, and a new authorization by the congress provided for
Colombia '.'.'.'.'.'.
an enlarged research program calling for $2. ^:;6v000 annuallv. -^ J ^ ^ . An inventorj- compiled by the Fish and Wildlife service
August indicated that the wild fur catch
in the
in
los.o
ioo]o
""^^^^
4.450 t -tJ7 mar-
,
321.900 minks. 5.608.410 muskrats. 513.586 nutria. 131.492 opossums. 16.595 otters. 1. 189. 576 raccoons. 79,857 skunks and tens.
and
coyotes and 356 wolverines.
A big-game ° " ice in
inventorv' published bv the Fish and Wildlife sers'' '^ ' September included not only reports of animals taken, as
in the fur-catch inventor>-,
but also estimates of total numbers,
although such estimates were not for all,
made
for all states, not even
some
that included reports of numbers taken by hunters. In ^ ^ the inventory accounted for 10,226.364 big-game animals
and a
kill
Lebanon Luxembourg
o.s" I.l* i.3|
moHo '.'.'.'.'.'.
Mor^co
^.'°'°"''.
Per*
!
!
!
»i'i/-^
!
ss'.i'
2j*
R°man°'
^ss'I*
SouihAfrico Spain Switzerland
435.6
7^0
75.5 29.0
'..'.'.'..'.
41.8*
....
129!4' '59.0
aw.R. United states
Uruguay
23.1
i06.7*
Yugosiovio
—
.
Totals for animals occurnng in both eastern and western states snowed o,8io moose andJ a 1,302 I'liy-.^ kill; 167,625 elk with a 65,167
l_j,n
sis-
'"o«"
^°'°'
of 1.860.466.
10 8*
,.JiV 1605.0
HungaV .'.'.'..'. ismei
civet cats. 3.402.619 squirrels, 51,142 weasels, 11.669 wolves
'
7.3
o!2*
Germany
badgers, 76 ringtail cats, 188.908 beavers, 9.445 bobcats, 712 Iv-nxes.
'
France
during the 1957-58 season totaled 11,709.255, comprising 12,381 86.732 foxes. 78.919 fur seals. 1.521
'
Cz«ho!iovakia l^'"''
United States
- directly into electrical energ>-. (1958) social hangover. The embarrassment and mortification felt on the day following a too hilarious party of the night before. social network. One's social group with its interrelationships, rights and
(1958^ dubbidobber, m. .\ small part of the seat-ejection mechanism of North .American's experimental X-15 rocket airplane. Dutch door. .X pull-out folded advertisement in a magazine. dynamic obsolescence. Planned obsolescence in car design. eorth-mon, n. .\n earth-bound person. (1958) Editeuropo, n. A project for simultaneous publication in eight languages. (I95S) electronic fence. A series of carriers and planes making a metaphorical
obligations.
fence.
electro-osmosis, n. Specif.
A method
of solidifying
cnmibling earth by
(1958) .\ controlled and hence a safe landing (on a planet). (1958) .\ device to clear radiation ahead of a space vehicle. (1958) .\ nail-shaped microphone able to be pushed through a wall or inserted in some other small area. subchannel, ». Radio. .\ division of a channel. soft landing.
space broom. spike mike.
sunik, n. .\ Russian cosmic missile. sun shot, allrib. Descriptive of a launching of a missile toward the sun. suprapolitical, adj. .Above politics. (1958) suspenser, n .\ suspense program on television. (1958)
swing
tail. .\
hinged
tail
on a cargo plane, permitting, when thrown open.
—
—
WORLD BANK — WYOMING class.
He
.\
parking system in which an attendant parks and gets a
sq.mi.,
New York
Athletic club.
The
Dave Auble,
took place at San Jose State college Sumikichi Nozaki, Hollywood, 130-lb.
division.
over-all;
which in the
Mas Yoshioka,
150
free style
Toledo, O.
1b
Newt Copple
Lincoln,
1b
Frilz Fivion
Oregon Stole college
Jim Ferguson Frank Rosenmoyr Bill Kerslake Cowboy A.C.
Lonsing, Mich. Son Francisco Olympic club
174 1b 1911b
Japan Neb.
Cleveland, O. Stillwater, Okla.
—
College Wrestling. Oklahoma State (Stillwater) won team honours for the 21st time in the 1959 championships of the National Collegiate Athletic association at Iowa City, la,, in March. Iowa State was second. Lehigh triumphed in the 55th annual Eastern tournament at Ithaca, N.Y., with three of its men taking titles and one being a runner-up. Cornell university retained the Ivy league secutive time in the
title,
New
Springfield
won
for the 9th con-
England association meet and Wilkes
N.C.A.A. Championj
115 123 130 137 147 157 167 177 191
1b 1b
Andy Fitch Doye Auble
1b
Stan Abel
1b 1b
Larry
1b
Dick Beoltio
Oklahoma Stale
1b 1b lb
Ed Homer Bill Wright
Lehigh
Hoyes
Ron Gray
Heavyweight
Yale Cornell
Oklahoma lowo State Iowa Stole
Gordon Tropp
Minnesoto Iowa
Ted
Oklahoma State
Ellis
Middle Atlantic conference honours. Other major team winners were Minnesota, Big Ten; Oklahoma State, Big Eight; and Maryland, Atlantic Coast college of Wilkes-Barre, Pa., again took
conference.
20, a
—
In a match with Russian stars at team of U.S. amateurs was routed, 7-1. The
international Wrestling.
Moscow, June
at 144,618.
was
50.2% of the total, The 1950 census reported
The
capital city
is
Cheyenne with a
population (1950 census) of 31.935 (1959 est. 40,000). Other cities with populations of 10,000 or more (1950 census, 1959 est. are Casper
23,673
(39,000), Laramie
Rock
(16,500), Sheridan 11,500 (11,700), and
15,581
Springs 10,857
'(11.400).
History. .
—Wyoming's economy operated on the highest plane during 1959, according to a report by the University division of business and economic research. Em-
in its history
Wyoming's
of
in June 1959 was estimated at 131,000, compared with 128,000 in 1958, and retail sales volume for the second quarter
ployment
—up
was $128.248,000
16.5% from the
first
quarter and 14.1%
higher than the second quarter of 1958. Tourist and vacation travel to
Wyoming was up 3%
August when
a series of
in spite of a
sharp
fall-off in
earthquakes rocked the west Yellowstone
The tremors created
By mid-November
a
new geyser
in
Yellowstone park.
Warren
three Atlas missiles had been delivered to
air force base's strategic air
tained four missile launchers, and
Tulio Y.M.C.A.
Heovyweigllt
it
Cheyenne. Construction was completed
Dick Wilson Torry McCann Yoshiloko Nishiwoki
Teom
suffrage, but
270,719 as native white, 2,557 as Negro, 3,963 as nonwhite and
the
1b
1b
it
has also been nicknamed
"Cowboy state." Estimated population at July i, 1959, was The 1950 census, which gave a total population of 290,-
area.
Champions of 1959 were:
1b
woman
lb.;
Lenwood Williams, heavyweight and
lb.;
and Southern California, team.
The U.S. 114.5 125.5 136.5 147.5 160.5
at
crown
California,
in
Calif., retained his
Other victors were
Vince Tamura, 180
representing the
7th United States judo tournament
Yellowstone National park.
the
grant
13,290 as foreign-born.
(domination of the heavyweight ranks in the na-
the national collegiate champion,
of
first to
in parentheses)
crown was Terry McCann of the Tulsa (Okla.) Y.M.C.A. in the i2S.5-lb. class. McCann was named the outstanding wrestler of the tournament after gaining a decision over
sq.mi.
2,973
529, listed rural inhabitants at 145,911, or
Kerslake, Cleveland (0.) star, continued bis
his
United
the
tional
defended
state of the
designated as the "Equality state" because
is
and the urban population
Child Welfare.
championships of the Amateur Athletic union held at Stillwater, Okla., in April. Another titleholder who success-
(T. V. H.)
Rocky mountain
319,000.
tions, U.S.
UfrPQtliniT IIIColMMg.
including
Wyoming
International Bank for Reconstruction AND Development. World Council of Christian Education: see Religious Education. World Council of Churches: see Societies and Associa-
'^'"
a
States, admitted to the Union on July 10, 1890. bounded by Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Montana, South Dakota and Nebraska. Ninth largest in area, it contains 97,914
see
see
is
It is
I
World Health Organization:
Wyoming
U/vnminO' lljUllllllg.
to extinguish a forest or brush fire. (1958) weirdie, n. 1. A curious thing. (1956) 2. SpeciJ. A British woman following lipstick. the current fashion of appearing unkempt, with eye make-up but no wet sell. (By analogv- with hard sell.) A business deal facilitated by alcohol. whye, n. A cross of wheat and rye. y] Wonny, n. [World War {one is pronounced the same as won) -\ d- W. R.) A World War I veteran.
fully
gained a decision over Y. Zamyatin, Soviet champion,
See also Pan-American Games.
wakeathon, «. The act of staying awake, or a contest in it. water drop. The dropping of water from an airplane or helicopter
World Bank:
of Tulsa in the 123.5-lb.
in 12 min.
Normal.
unbeat, valet parking. customer's car. adj.
753 McCann
only U.S. victor was Terry
large cargo items to be loaded or unloaded. teenism, n. The qualities of teen-agers. (1958) telegogue, n. A television demagogue. think contract. \ contract research program that calls for background theoretical worli rather than construction. triopoly, n. A group of three companies which control an industry. (1958) turbocopter, n. A turbine-powered helicopter.
work
command at site A,
operation at
which con-
started at four other
sites of the intercontinental ballistic missile base.
Wyoming' Was represented in the national congress in 1959 by Democratic Senators Joseph C. O'Mahoney (term expires in i960) and Gale W. McGee (term expires 1964) and Republican representative-at-large E. Keith Thomson. Elected in 1958 to state offices for the term 1959-62 were: Joseph J. Hickey (Dem.), governor; Jack R. Gage (Dem.), secretary of state; Minnie A. Mitchell (Rep.), auditor; C. J, Rogers (Rep.), treasurer; and Velma Linford (Dem,), superintendent of public instruction. Education. \t the beginning of the 1959-60 school year there were 484 elementary and rural schools in Wyoming, 2,246 elementary teachers, 345 rural teachers and a total enrollment of 56,869. There were 76 accredited high schools with 1,183 teachers and an enrollment of 1S.619. State operating expenditures for education in 195S-59 were $29,465,119.29. There were 80 superintendents and approximately 200 other administrative personnel emploved during this period. Social Insurance and Assistance, Public Welfare and Related Programs. Funds spent on public welfare for the period Oct. i, 195S. to Sept. 30, 1959, were as follows: old-age assistance, $2,618,500; aid to dependent children, $1,109,226.88; aid to the permanently disabled, $401,475: aid to the blind, $52,464; general welfare, $581,685.57: and general welfare health, $875.-
046.97. Correctional institutions had 385 inmates as of .-Vug. 30, 1959, and operational budgets for the period July i, i9S9. to June 30, 1961, were as follows; state penitentiary at Rawlins, 294 inmates, budget $449,481; penitentiary farm at Riverton, 15 to 30 inmates, budget $50,000: girls' school at Sheridan, 32 inmates, budget $248,350: boys' industrial institute at Worland, 59 inmates, budget $337,300, capital outlay $27,800. The 1959-61 budget for the state-owned and state-operated home and hospital for the aged at Thermopolis was $264,037. Communications. .\s of Jan. I, 1959, Wyoming had 53,521 mi. of roads of which 5,964 mi. were surfaced. Included in the total were 929 >"'• of federal interstate highway. During the fiscal year ending June 30. I959. $33,645,287 was spent for construction of state highway system roads and $3:900.070 for maintenance. .\ total of $1,721,380 was spent for construction of county farm-to-market roads. Placed under contract for construction in fiscal 1959 were 37S.7 mi. of state highway system roads and 232.7 mi. of county farm-to-market roads. A new urban highway system, the first
—
X-RAY AND RADIOLOGY
754
thf state. wi\s opened at Cheyenne In 1959. There were seven operaiini; railroads in Wyominn in 1959 with a total track mlleaRe of j. 378. 04. There were three regularly scheduled airlines opt-ratinR in the state. jS commrrcial and municipal airfields and 100 private landinx strips. The .Mountain .States Telephone and Telegraph company listed approximately 116.8R0 telephones in the slate. Bonking and Finonc*.June 30. 1959, there were 27 state banks with deposits of $100,715,672.88 and resources of $1 10.673. S09-Ji. There were IS national banks with deposits totaling $266,377,692.03 and resources of $297,839,743.57. On Oct. 30. I9S9. there were ten savings and loan companies with resources of approximately $61,000,000. Total state receipts for the fiscal year ending June 30 were $103,302,786.85 and total disbursements for the period were $96,974,421.20. .^s of June 30. 1959. the state was oblixated lor $1,136,000 worth of revenue bonds (not guaranteed). The slate had no ceneral obligation bonds. The legislative appropriation for state operating expenses for ihe 1959-61 in
On
biennium was S28. 377.913. 71.
—
Agriculture. Cash receipts for Wyoming agricultural commodities in 1958 totaled $167,944,000, with livestock and livestock products making up $135,461,000 of the total. Cash receipts from farm marketings for the first six months of 1959 totaled $45,697,000. a gain of approximately S930.000 over the first six months of 1058. Range conditions were reported from 4 to 6 points below 1958 and 4 to 6 points below the 37-ypar averace. Monufocturing. Manufacturing employment in Sept. 1959 was estimated at 7.200 and average weekly carninss were $93.86. For the mining industry, total employment was estimated at q.900 and average weekly earnings were $108.42. Estimated nonagricullural employment in September
—
(G, K. O.) Minarol Production. Table III shows the tonnage and value of those minerals produced in Wyoming in 1957 and 1958 whose value was $100,000
was 93.300.
—
Toble
I.
— Principo/
Crop Corn, bu
Wh.ol, bu Ooti, bu Barley, bu Hoy, oil, ton! B.ar,,, dry, 100 lb. boos Sugar beeli, loos Pototoes, Iriih, cwl
•1949-57. Source: U.S. Deportment of Agriculture.
Crops of
Wyo
195»
1,525.000 5,496,000 3,828,000 3.366,000 1,462,000 1,184,000 608,000
768,000
195S
8i:433-4SS (March 1959); John A. Kirkpatrick and Richard W. Olmsted, "Cinefluorographic Study of Pharyngeal Function Related to Speech," Radiology, 73:557-559 (Oct. 19^9); Ira I, Kaplan, "Genetic Effects in Children and Grandchildren of Women Treated for Infertility and Sterility by Roentgen Therapy: Report of a Study of Thirty-three Years," Radiol(Be. B.) ogy, 72:518-521 (April 1959)-
With no America's Cup matches, Olympics
Yachting. muda
race
during
from Los Angeles,
starting July 4
or Ber-
the Transpacific
1959,
was the major yachting event of the year.
It
race,
Honolulu, Hawaii,
Calif., to
was again won by a
boat of light displacement construction, Peter Grant's "Nalu
She stayed close enough
II," a 46-ft. sloop.
to larger, deeper,
heavier displacement boats to save her time allowance on them including
all,
This
Ralph Larrabee's
mammoth
world, was
vessel,
i6i-ft.
one of the largest
first to finish, in
schooner "Goodwill." sailing yachts in the
10 days 12 hr. 16 min. 15 sec. for
the 2,225-mi. passage. Actually, a 46-ft. catamaran, "Aikane,"
not permitted to enter the race because of her twin-hulled design, beat
"Goodwill"
in
by several hours but was not considered
in official standings of the race.
In other west coast ocean racing events, Ash Brown's 40-ft. sloop "Carousel" bested a record (Calif. )-Ensenada
sloop "Rebel"
On
won
(Mex.)
race
fleet
Newport
of 318 in the
and Doug Sherwood's
36-ft.
the Tri-Island series in the Pacific northwest.
the Great Lakes, the Chicago-Mackinac went to
W.
G. Pea-
cock's 32-ft. yawl "Feather II," and Wilfred Gmeiner's 45-ft.
sloop "Apache"
On
won
the Port
Huron-Mackinac
race.
the southern ocean racing circuit in Florida, the
Bahamas
and Cuba during the winter, Emil ("Bus") Mosbacher sailed John Brown's 43-ft. yawl "Callooh" to the series victory, aided by having won first place in the climactic St. Petersburg-Havana
The other major event of the circuit, the Miami-Nassau race, was won by Benjamin duPont's 40-ft. yawl "Rhubarb." The major east coast event of an odd-numbered year, the race.
Annapolis-Newport
race, attracted a record fleet of 71
for the
468-mi. race, and Irving Pratt's s6-ft. sloop "Caper" was the in relatively slow time. Peter Richmond's new s6-ft. yawl "Magic Carpet" won the Halifax race from Marblehead, Mass., and Thomas J. Watson's new s6-ft. sloop "Palawan" won Maine's Monhegan Island race. Long Island sound's two major distance events, the Block Island and Vineyard races, went respectively to Robert Bavier's 30-ft. sloop "Memory," the smallest boat entered, and William Luders' 39-ft. sloop "Storm." "Storm" caused consternation among cruising-racing men by sailing the Vineyard race without a mainsail or main boom, depending entirely on her headsails and spinnaker. By leaving her mainsail at home, she increased her time allowance by more than
winner
four hours. Luders did this purely to point out a loophole in the handicap rule.
In major events abroad, the Swedish "Anitra" net race in England and the Argentinian
won
the Fast-
"Tango" won the Buenos
Aires-Rio race. In the small-boat field, 1959 was the year of the catamaran. For many years, devotees of double-hulled sailing craft had claimed that they were capable of fantastic speeds, but this claim never stood up in races on all points of sailing. It was agreed that catamarans were very fast on reaches, but they had never shown ability to beat to windward as well as similar-sized single-hulled craft.
One means
was a series by Yachting Magazine in 1949, 1952 and 1954. Catamarans had never done well in these, but several new ones had appeared in the interim, and it was deof testing various types of small boats
of "one-of-a-kind"
regattas staged
cided to hold another "one-of-a-kind" in 1959 to see
if
these
newly developed craft changed the picture. This was staged at the Coral Reef Yacht club, Miami, Fla., in February, with 40 boats from all sections of the country taking part. The boats.
NEW DESIGN FOR
SAILBOAT,
an Sfl. boat consl
YEMEN — YUGOSLAVIA
756 Megles,
Zenda, Wis.;
Jr.,
Adams cup (women), Mrs. James
Mcrlz, Rye, N.Y.; Sears cup (junior), John Welch, Montreal. Winnors in one-design class championships were: Penguin, Jay
Markham, Gardcna, Calif.; Wood Pussy, Borden L. Hance, Fair Haven, N.J.; Snipe, Richard Tillman, Lake Wawasee, Ind.; Comet, John MacCausland, Cooper River, N.J.; Jet 14, Art Lange, Lavallette, N.J.; International 14, Paul Henderson, Toronto, Ont.;
Finn.
Jack Knights, Riverton, N.J.;
Thistle,
Hcrm
Nickels,
Jerry Jenkins, Grosse Pointe, Mich.; Lightning,
Fenton, Mich.; Jolly Boat, David Smith, Marblehead. Mass.;
Y-Flyer
Sandy Edmison,
(U.S.'), Bill Perry, Atlanta, Ga., (Int.)
Montreal; Flying Dutchman, Pat Duane, Delray Beach, Fla.;
no, Albert A. Frost, Jr., San Diego, Calif.; 210, Edwin A. Hills, Cohasset Mass.; Highlander, Mark Bratton, Corpus Christi, Tex.; Flying Scot. Sandy Douglas, Oakland, Md.; Raven, Al Bortolotti, Detroit, Mich.; Hampton, George Conrad, Norfolk, Va.; Star (North American), Gary Comer. Chicago. (World) Lowell North, San Diego, Calif.; L-16, Cyril Cooper, Bermuda; Dragon, Walt Swindeman. Toledo, 0.; 5.5-Metre, Arthur Knapp, Larchmont, N.Y.; 5-0-5, Walter Bowden, San Antonio, Tex.; Moth (U.S.), Bill Spencer, Hollywood, Fla., (Int.) Ken Klare,
YllCinclilui!! lUgUolflVlfl.
^
people's
federal
republic
southeastern
of
bounded north by Austria, north and northeast by Hungary and Rumania, east by Bulgaria, south by Greece and west by Albania, the Adriatic sea and Italy. Europe, YuROslavia
is
Area; 98,766 sq.mi. Pop.: (1953 census adjusted) 16,991,449 (June 1959 est.) 18,448,000. Chief towns, other than republican capitals Cpop. 1953 census): Subotica 115,342; Novi Sad 83,180; Maribor 77,387; Split Rijeka 75,328; Nish 60,704; Osijek S7427- Nationalities (i9S3 census): Serb4i.7%; Croat 23.5%; Slovene 8.8%; Macedonian 5.3%; Montenegrin 2.8%; undefined (Bosnian, Istrian, 75.695
;
5.9%; others (national minorities) 12%. Religion (1948 Orthodox 49.53%; Roman Catholic 36.7%; other Chris-
etc.)
est.):
Moslem 12.52%;
tian i.i4%i;
136%
"no
other 0.11%; at the 1953 census
chairman (government) and supreme commander of the armed forces in 1959, Marshal Tito (Josip Broz). Deputy chairman of the executive council: Edvard
of
replied
executive
federal
the
religion." President of the republic,
council
Kardelj, Aleksandar Rankovic, Rodoljub Colakovic and Mijalko
Todorovic.
Miami, Fla.; Rhodes. Bantam, Brud Nicholson, Skaneateles, N.Y. Intercollegiate, Harvard; Interscholastic, St. George's. (W. W. RN.)
Constituent Republic! of Yugoslavia
;
Federol republics
Vomon ICIIICII.
'"^^
kingdom
'^^^^
4,979,154 3,941,817
southwestern coastal region
in the
lies
.\
,.
^
.u
/
.
Red
lU
J
.\
_
sea (southwest). Area: 75.290 sq.mi. Pop.: about 4.500,000. Language: Arabic. Religion: Moslem. Chief towns (pop., est.):
Imam
(king),
ed-Din; prime minister in
Mohammed
Yahya ibn Mohammed Hamid 1959, Crown Prince Seif el-Islam
Ahmed
ibn
el-Badr.
May 1959 the imam left Yemen for medical treatment in Italy. During his absence Crown Prince Mohammed History.— In
Gamal Abdel Nasser, set up a army purge. Yemen "had entered the modern era." Specula-
el-Badr, a keen supporter of Pres.
,
)
470,172 350,829
Zagreb
...'!.'.'.;;;..
Mo«donio
i;304;5i4
of
I22!i43 14,324
skopii» Tilograd
419,873
'Including the autonomous province egion of Kojovo-MeioWio (sos.ui).
lU'lil
2i47'790
Montenegro
Vojvodma (1,712,419) ond the outononioul
History.— The year 1959 opened with
Sana (cap.) 60.000; Taiz (seat of imam) 12,000; Hodeida (port) 30.000.
11953 ceniuri
Belgrodg ^i"'*'*.''""'
|'°'''"'h
between Saudi Qf the Arabian peninsula, Yemen .,./., J AJ Arabia (northwest and northeast), Aden (southeast) and the
Copllol
11953 coniusl
Serbio* Croatia
a fresh round of furious
attacks upon Yugoslavia in the Chinese paper, the
Red
Flag,
which as usual, denounced Tito as "the tool of American imperialism." Marshal Tito used the occasion of the 40th birthday of the Yugoslav Communist party in April to reply. In an interview with the paper Kommunist he said that Yugoslavia must on no account allow itself to be provoked or to become isolated,
representative council of seven and carried out an
Speaking on April 19 at the celebration of the party's birthday
announcing that
he referred to the constant struggle between the progressive and
tion as to whether these reforms
the knowledge of the
were carried out with or without
imam was ended when
the latter returned in
Communist world and declared was "nobody's monopoly." He believed that rec-
conservative forces wuthin the that Socialism
August and proceeded
onciliation with the U.S.S.R.
tools,"
China
to restore the old order, denouncing "alien and having several people executed. Rebel elements fled
He
evitable.
the country.
On May
— would
iS a
Yemen
Aden
delegation arrived in
to discuss
problems between the two countries, but since the Aden delega-
did not apparently refer to it
was
historically in-
claimed that the Soviet Union had several times
followed the Yugoslav example, for instance in the matter of decentralization.
On May
Yemenis
tion included four rulers of the federated amirates, the
—he
take a long time although
N.
25
Khrushchev, who was visting Albania, made
S.
a
did not
point of congratulating Marshal Tito on his 67th birthday and
Technicians from the U.S.S.R., the Chinese People's Republic
even the animosity of the Albanian and Bulgarian press died down for a time. After his return to Moscow, Khrushchev on
refused to negotiate with
it,
on the grounds that
Yemen
recognize the federation.
and Czechoslovakia government agreed United States Education.
—
visited to
Yemen
of a road between
— Schools
during the year.
the building
—with
The Yemen
assistance
Mokha and
from the
primary
2,155,
pupils
teachers
German
l^L:':::'^.^^r^r:^t:^^^\e^iJ^in^i^!L
on
of higher education i, students 50, teaching staff 16. Finance and Trade.— Monetarv unit: Maria Theresa
at the t-v
called
the
riyal, equal to approximately ss cents U.S. Trade with the U.K. (1958): imports £10,245, e.xports £104,598. Agriculture. Main crops; coSee (5,400 metric tons in 1957); wheat,
—
barley, millet.
Yiddish Literature:
see Jew-ish
Literature.
and
.\ssociATioxs, U.S.
AND Associations, U.S.
which had been postponed
when he was touring Montenegro,
mining centre of Niksic. expressed i_
•
,
^-
,
.
-.
s visit
of \ ugosla\na
.
.»
to the
tt
-^
^
his satisfaction •
.,
•!_
over ..•
1. j ^i. «ii_ was not only echoed by the Albanian prime minis-
Mehmet Shehu
,.
,
i_
(then in Peking), but also repeated in the
Moscow toward
still
seemed
its
bridges
made
several
Belgrade
impenetrably obscure. Yugoslavia, on the other hand, while keeping
see Societies
in 1957.
Tito, in a speech
Unitedj Ci. States as a genume contribution to a general detente. Only a few days later renewed Chinese abuse 1
Khrushchev
Soviet press: the policy of
see Societies
Young Women's Christian Association:
credits to Yugoslavia
Sept. .o,
ter.
Young Men's Christian Association:
A month later, on July 7, not only German trade delegation arrived in
Belgrade to reopen discussions of the plan for Soviet and eastern
Ah.)
93,099,
dollar,
expressed appreciation of Yugoslavia's support of an
6
atom-free zone in the Balkans. a Soviet, but also an eastern
Taiz.
(E. S. (1956):
June
open
to
western Europe and the United States,
all
deliberately antiwestem gestures during the year.
As one of
YUKON TERRITORY
757
these might be classed the visit of the Algerian "rebel" leader
tion of the Slovenes in Trieste.
Ferhat Abbas to Belgrade on June 12. But this was also part of Tito's patronage of Asian and African nationalism.
protest in the
Although
in his
"We
speech at Xiksic Tito said with apparent
satis-
showed a tendency toward further nationalization during the year. At Christmas 195S. house property was nationalized, with the exception of small houses containing not more than two large or three small dwellings. Early in May 1959 Edvard Kardelj made a speech about agricultural policy in which he took up and emphasized a resolution which the federal parliament had passed in April 1957 in favour of closer collaboration between the state farms and co-operatives and the independent peasants. In practice the peasants were bound to depend on at least the co-operatives, if they were to make any technical progress. It faction
are revisionists," internal Yugoslav policy
was through advice and credits made available directly or indirectly by the state that British tractors and Italian wheat seed had come into use. Improvements of this kind, together with good weather conditions, made it possible in June to forecast a record harvest for 1959, making the country independent of wheat imports from the United States. Independence of foreign wheat was also an important gain in relation to the U.S.S.R.. with whom discussions about the delivery of Soviet wheat to Yugoslavia had been suspended
in
May.
On
21a Yugoslav
April
same vein was delivered
in
note of
Vienna.
Bulgarian attacks upon the supposed Yugoslav oppression of the Macedonians helped to bring Patriarch Djoris
Macedonia
German
to
Aug. 1959. Although he resided in Belgrade he was patriarch of the Macedonian as well as the Serbian Church, and in
the visit was intended to emphasize the national
autonomy of
Macedonia,
new law
In Jan, 1959 a
restored to the government the right
up
to banish suspects for a period legal
to
two years. But on
—and accepted by assembly on June 30—which lessened
changes were proposed
tional
May
19
the Yugoslav na-
legal severity.
Ex-
cept in the case of serious political crimes, capital punishment,
imprisonment and the loss of civil rights were abolished, the sentence becoming 20 years. It was also provided that work in prison was to be paid and that those serving sentence life
maximum
more than one year should be allowed a two-week annual It was interesting that, after a Swiss representative of the International Red Cross, H. G. Beckh. had visited for
holiday at home.
Yugoslavia, he reported in October that Yugoslavia's prisons
gave the country the position of a pioneer crime; he
made
it
clear that he
in the punishment of had been allowed the necessary
imimpeded intercourse with prisoners See also Communism; Greece.
in a
number
of prisons.
(E. Wi.)
—
to the value of $50,000,000 to be
Education. Schools: primary (1957-5S) 14,257, pupils 2.316,000, teachers 71,803; middle and secondary (1956-57) 2.466. pupils 598,604, teachers 28,602: vocational (junior and intermediate, 1956-57) 1,103, pupils 174.406, teachers 14.S46: fine arts (1956-57) 174, students 20.456, teachers 2,168; workers' educational colleges (1956-57) 161, students 6,279, teachers 259: teacher-training colleges (1956-57) 82. students 20,930, teachers 1,568. Institutions of higher education (1956-57) 98 (of which 5 unisersities), students 71,852, teaching staff 6.418. National minority' schools (1957-58); primary 1,649, secondary 23, teachertraining schools 10. Finance and Banking. Monetary unit: dinar, rath a par value of 300 dinars to the U.S. dollar, a remittance rate of 600 dinars and a tourist rate of 400 dinars to the U,S, dollar. Budget (1959 est,); balanced at 392,950.000.000 dinars. Currency circulation (Nov. 1958) 139,006,000,000 dinars. Savings deposits (Nov. 1958) 42,929,000,000 dinars. Gold and foreign exchange holdings: (March 1958) U.S. $48,000,000 (March 1959) U.S. S41.000.000. Foreign Trade. (1958) Imports 205.504,000,000 dinars, exports 132,419.000.000 dinars. Main sources of imports: U.S. and Canada 19%; Germany 12%; Italy 10%; other continental E.P.U./E.F. (European Payments union 'European fund) countries 15%; U.S.S.R. S'^c; U.K. %%: other sterling area 4^7. Main destinations of exports: Italy 12^; Germany g^c: other continental E.P.U./E.F. countries 21%; U.S.S.R. %%\ U.S. and Canada i'~c U.K. S*"^. Main exports (1957): copper, lumber, livestock. Transport and Communications. Roads (classified. 1957): 82.298 km. Motor vehicles in use (1957): passenger 21.570; commercial 38,162. Rail-
paid in investment goods, and credits were also offered by the
ways (1957): 11,760 km.; passenger-km. 8.059.000.000; freight (1958) 13,032,000,000 ton-km. Shipping; merchant vessels of 100 gross tons and
A
trade agreement between Belgrade and
Moscow on
Jan. 29.
1959. provided for a total exchange of goods to the value of
$108,000,000 compared with $124,000,000 in 1958. In the early months of the year trade with the other Communist countries be-
came increasingly
difficult
and by
April, because of a sharp in-
grown alarmDuring May. however, exports rose considerably, and by the end of July the economic news was good, not only in relation to the harvest. It was found that during the first half of the year Yugoslavia had produced 13% more coal, 14'^ more electricity and 24' Industry 58 67. 56. >V. Chemical ^-^^
58.
Bacteriology 57, 56
tural Research Service;
and Throat, Diseases
Art Sale. »iii„ Aruba: >r255a; Foreign .Aid Programs. Investments 266c; 265a;- Foreign Inter286a; Fruit 278b; Geography Innational Monetary Fund 340b;
ternational Trade 3S3c; Latm-Amer3'52d; ican Literature 387a; Lead Meat 418c; Merchant Marine 422c
and Mineral and Metal Production World Prices 435b; Navies of the Magazines 460b; Newspapers and
53Sa; 487d- Oats 504c; Petroleum Railroads 58,5c; Religious Education 617c; SOOb; Salt 6nob; Shipbuilding Silver 622a; Soil Conservation 6.Vh; Tropical Sucar 661a; Tariffs 668c; Diseases 680b; U.S. 710a; Wheat Yacht747c; Wines 740d; Wool 751c;
.Ar'idi '(Antoine Pierre): see
Obituaries
56
Arizona Crime. U.S. 180b
Arkansas
Education 220c iDikran Kouyoumd-
Civil Rights 165d;
Arlen.
Michael
Obituaries 57 Armies of the World iian)- ^cf
NATO
407b;
SEATO
643a
Armstrong, Louis ("Satchmo
)
,
57
ture
national Law 347c; Italy 369b; Japan Metallurgy 422d; Missiles 370c; Standards 440b; National Bureau of 497b; Navies of the 465a' World 469b; Norway 500d; PetroPublic 545c; Physics 537b; leum Engineering 571c: Radiation.
NATO
Health Medical Aspects of 5 '/a; Segrt Emilio Gino 614b; Socialism 6233, Veterans UN 701b; Uranium 726b; .Administration (U.S.) 734a .Audiospectogram 752a ^ Audiospectograph 752a see
Mo-
tion Pictures Aurora and Airglow: see InternaCo-operation tional Geophysical iQCQ 60 ^" International Geophysical Vear (1957-5S) 59, 58, 57, Arctic; Rock56. 5.. Antarctica; ets and Space Satellites 58 Astronomy 68b of Commonwealth Australia
-^rfc'iUuTe 27b; American Citizens .Armies Abroad 38b; Antarctica 44c; .Automobile Inof the World 63c;
Avidustry 78d; Aviation. Civil 82c; Banking 94d ation. Military 87c; and Baptist Church 95d; Birth and Brewing 106b; Statistics Death 172d. Beer 118d; Coal 169c; Coke Products Dairy Communism 180d; Eastern 105a; Debt. National 201c; Orthodox Churches 215d; Electnca
Industries 227a;
Employment
Baudouin
Insur-
Utilities
574d,
Strikes 650a Aviation, Military Armies of the Aircraft Industry 29b; World 60c; Canadian Literature Mis139a; Marine Corps. U.S. *1^hl»u.
Export- Import Bank of Washington 246c, 242d; Fairs and Exhibitions 277a; Friends. Religious Society of. InterGeological Survey. U.S. 287a;
Audio-Visual Education:
Public
139a;
231b,
Avila Camacho. aries 56
Avocados:
Fruit
see
. 1, ..—^ ana Awards
Prizesrriies.
see j^c
M,tio_ai National
Geographic Society 60, 59^^''^ American Library Association, Prizes;
SlTthropology; Literary Mineralogy; Motion P;» „ .Alabama 31d; Irrigation 365b, Pub,
HarUtilities 574d; Rivers and bours 597a; St. Lawrence Seaway 606a Spain see Canary Islands: Newspapers and Magazines 487d lic
Cancer
^ in^j. 10(5d Birth and Death Statistics Dermatology 206c; Industrial Hea th Health 340a; Medicine 419c; Public and Service. U.S. 573c; Societies and Associations. U.S. 629b; Stomach Diseases ol the 6530, .
Intestines.
Surgery 662c;
.
X-Ray and Radiology
754c
Candy Cane Sugar: see Sugar Canning Industry Cantelli. Guido: see
Canzoneri,
Obituaries 67
Tony 506a
INDEX
Machinery and Machine Tools 406b; and Hours 740a
Strikes 657b; Wages 67, 66
Chemistry
Standards 465c; National Bureau Nobel Prizes 4«6b; Societies and .\ssoiialions. U.S. 629c of
'erde Islands: ^fc Portuguese loas Provinces (Territories)
papers and Magazines 487c Bolt 7S2a
:
Anton
,
Julius: see
Dale:
e.
'
ll.lUl
L',
bituarle
Obituaries
Obituaries S6 (Mrs. John Zanfl);
)7
and
Societies
Chemotherapy
Rheumatic Diseases 59Jb; Stomach and Intestines. Diseases of the. 655a; Tranquilizing Drugs 687b; Tuberculosis 691b; Vitamins and Nutrition Chciinault. Claire Lee: see Obituaries
She Marshall,
59
nd Mariana Islands
Chen Ning Yang:
5(i()a
Ning 58 Cherenkov, Pavel A. 59
J oil
un Giles: see Obituaries 56 57, 56 Ceodetic Survey, U.S.
see
Yang, Chen
Obitu,
World 64a; Canada
the
of
es
Costa Rica 186c; Cuba 189d; 708b rophes: sfe Disasters l.iliznii; ;52b
Church
ic
Roman Catho-
see
:
hurch
Community
ic
Societies
see
il:
Service, Naand Associa-
U.S.
i,
Organizations for Youth:
ic
and
Societies
Associations,
Naand Associa-
Welfare Conference
Ic
Societies U.S. see Livestock zation 752b li: see
Edgar Algernon Gascoyne-Cecil: see Obitu-
Chelwood.
rt
and Metal Production and
4,15b
s
Data, U.S. and Death
106a; Welfare 156b; Crime. U.S. Geriatrics 290d; Hotels. U.S. Motion Pictures 450d; MuniciGovernment 458b; Radio and vision 577c; Tuberculosis 690d iniais: see Calendar, page xxii Dn S21d; Petroleum 536d; PhiStatistics
I
hy 541d city 752b
Fernando 59 Federation:
African
il
Salvador 60, British Honduras; Costa
II'
see El
Guatemala; Honduras; Nigua; Panama; Panama Canal ;
60, 59, 58, 57, 56. see SalvaEl 58, 57, 56 •ral and .Metal Production and !
iiSb
s
Treaty Organization: see of the World; Middle
li
I
;
Corn
Barley;
see
Rye;
Wheat
tion,
82c;
1
Child Labour
n Unity 161d; Com vealth of Nations 176c; Com sm 180d; Debt. National 201c sters 210a; Exchange Contro Exchange Rates 240b; Inter inal Trade 3S7c; Missions. For (Religious) 443d; Newspapers Magazines 487c; Soil Const 700c; U.S 637d; Tea 671b;
UN
Republic
60.
of,
see
Fren
itorial Africa 59, 58, 57, 56 ch Community 274d
Zechariah,
,
t>eriain,
Jr.: see
Obituar
I
Socl-
Ders of Cc
and Associations, U.S. ,r,
Kavniond Thornton 506a
el
Islands:
Northern I
see
of
Hayden
s !>ties
Great Britain United
Ireland,
Joseph
Foundation:
;
Co-operationtional Geophysical 1959. 345c; International Monetary
Fund 349b; International Trade 353c; Iron and Steel 362c; LatinAmerican Literature 387c; Manganese 410d; Marine Biology 412a; Marriage and Divorce 414d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Navies of the World 469b: Newspapers and Magazines 487d; Petroleum 538a; Prices S64a; Seismology 614d; Silver 622a; Soil Conservation 637b; Tariffs 668c; Tennis 674d; Tropical Diseases 689b; U.S. 710a; Vegetables 730d; Wines 749d
China 28c; Archaeology 49d; the World 59c; .Aviation, Civil 82c; Aviation, Military 88d; Banking 9Sa; Blood, Diseases of the, 110b; Canals and Inland Waterways 141c; Ceylon 147c; Clothing Industry 168d; Coal 169c; Commonwealth
.Agriculture of
of .Nations 176c;
Communism
178a;
187c; Dalai Lama 195c; Debt, National 201c; Disasters Education 221c; Electrical 210c; Industries 227a; Formosa 270b; Immigration and Naturalization 330c; India 334c; International Propaganda 352a; Iron and Steel 362d;
Corn 186a; Cotton
roads 585b; Refugees 587c; Religion 589d; Rice 596c; Roman Catholic Church 601b; Rubber 603c; Salt 609b; SEATO 643c; Shipbuilding 617c; Socialism 625d; Soybeans 644b; Sugar 66la; Table Tennis 667a; Tea 671b; Tibet 680d; Tin 682b; Tobacco 683a; Tropical Diseases 689a; U.S.S.R. 697b; Yugoslavia 756c
Chiropody: see Podiatry 60, 69. See Chiropody 68 Chiropractic Chlormethazanone (Trancopal) 687d Chlorpropamide: Chemotherapy 51b; Diabetes 207b
Dairy Products Industry 60, 69, 68
257d; Foreign Investments International Trade 354a;
Education
Bureau
of
Civil Aeronautics 69, 58, 57, 56
Administration
81b
219b; International Law 347b; Law 388c; Political Parties. U.S. 554a; Socialism 624d; Societies and Associations. U.S. 632b; U.S. 708b; Virginia 736d Civil Service, U.S.
Civitan International: sc; Societies and Associations, U.S. Claudel, Paul Louis Charles Marie: see Obituaries 56 Clement, Frank Goad 57 Cie Client State 752b Ciiburn, Van (Harvey Lavan) 59
Climate: 5ft' Meteorology Clothing Industry Home Economics 316b Coal Belgium lOld; European Unity 238c; International Trade 356b; Labour Unions 383d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 434c; Strikes 658a; Wages and Hours 739d Coast and Geodetic Survey, U.S. Oceanography 517c; Shipbuilding
ology Call pages 116 Churches of Christ
296c;
In-
.Agriculture 24c; International
Trade
3S3c see
Church Membership 162c Churchill, Sir Winston Leonard S 66
i
57, 56
Compensation, Veterans':
see Veterans Administration (U.S.) Compiler 752b Computeresse 752b Confaionieri, Carlo 69 Confectionery: see Candy Congo, Belgian: see Belgian Overseas Territories 60, 59. See Belgian Colonial Empire 58, 57, 56
Congo, Republic of, 60 French Community 274d Congregational Christian Churches
Congr
United States
U.S.;
[>ngr
Coke Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435a Cold Sleep 752b Coidwell, Major James 59, 58, 67, 66 Colleges and Universities: see Universities and Colleges Collier, Constance (Laura Constance Hardie): see Obituaries 56 Colman, Ronald: see Obituaries 59
Colombia .Agriculture 27b; Armies of the World 63d; Aviation. Civil 82c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Coffee 172a; Communism 180d; Debt. National 201c; Disasters 210c; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 240c; Ex-
port-Import
Bank
of
Washington
Fairs and
Exhibitions 246a; Foreign Investments 267a; Gas. Natural and Manufactured 280d; International Trade 353c; LatinAmerican Literature 387c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Navies of the World 469c 242d;
60. 5i
Com-
Federal
munications Con mission 60, Labour Unions Ur 60, 69, 58
59.
Congress of Industrial Organizations: see Labour Unions Connecticut Conscription:
see
Selective Service
Magazines 487d Petroleum 538a; Prices 564a; Rail roads 58Sc; Soil Conservation 637b;
Newspapers and
Tropical Diseases 668d; 688b; U.S. 711a; Wines 749d Tariffs
Colorado Crime, U.S. 189b
Colorado River Storage Project:
Utah 58, 57 Columbia, District of:
sec
see
Washing-
Mamie White (Mrs. David Leigh Colvin): see Obituaries 66 see Astronomy 58, 56 see Business Review; International Trade; Tariffs Canals and Inland Waterways 140a; 389c; Societies and .Associations. U.S. 631d
Law
Commerce, U.S. Department of: see Government Departments and Building and Construction Industry
127b
Commission on Organization
Conservation, Soil: see Soil Conservation Conservative Party, Great Britain: see Political Parties, British
Coinage
Bureaus, U.S. Ev
United Fund 58, 57. See Community Chest 56 Planning: see City and Regional Planning 60, 59, 58. See Municipal Government; Urban Transportation, U.S. 60, 59, 58, 57,56. >.e Building and Construction Industry 58, 57, 56. >. Town and Regional Planning 57, 56 Community Trusts 59, SB, 67, 56 Comoro Islands: si French Community 59. .St,. French Union 58,
Community
U.S.
Robert Peter Tristram: Obituaries 66 Cohen. Octavus Roy 506c Cohn, Harry: see Obituaries 59 Coffin,
Commerce:
i>f
Community Chest: see United Funds-Community Chests 60, See Community Chest59.
Television 578a
Agriculture 24c; Ghana ternational Trade 356b
ton, D.C.
Pric
World
Denmark
Automobile Industry 79a; Radio and
Coffee
Colvin.
Chr
Metal
Cocoa (Cacao)
Comet:
Metai Production and
of the
203c;
Federal 219b; Investigation 250d; International Propaganda 350d; LiForeign braries 394c; Missions. (Religious) 443d; Roman Catholic Church 6U0d. See also various countries
Advertising
Veterinary Medicine 735a
India 335b Chretien. Henri: Sf; Obituaries 67
Religion 589a; Religious Education 590c; Roman Catholic Church 600b; Societies and As^oci.itions. U.S. 633c; United riiiirrh "I Christ 699c and Chromite: see Mln-
Democracy
59c;
617a
Coast Guard, U.S. Cobalt: see Mineral and Production and Prices
Christian Science Christian Unity
see
^ee
cai ?rici*
Death Statistics 106c; Communism 180d; Copper 185a; Debt. National 201c; Disasters 210a; Exchange Con-
Chromium
SOfia
and Associations, U.S. Harry Woodburn; see Obltu|56 i:
46a;
World 63d; Aviation, Basketball 100a; Birth and
of the
Chou En-lai 66 Communism 179c;
Owei 60
Prizes 496a
:1
Antarctica
27b;
.Agriculture
Japan 370d; Lumber 404d; Merchant Marine 422c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Navies of the World 469c; Nehru. Jawaharlal 473d; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Olympic Games 521a; Rail-
Affa 60 360b; Turkey 693d ics 56 I
5;
Chile
Armies
America:
il
see
and Nyasaland, Federa-
desia of
Salvation Army 609c; Social Security 627b; Societies and .Associations. U.S. 631a; UN 703d; Veterans Administration (U.S.) 734a
trol
It
i
Education 216d; juvenile Delinquency Education 590d; Religious 376c; of the. 109a;
and Exchange Rates 240b; Foreign Investments 266d; Interna-
59 r therapy 7S2b ral
59
Child Welfare Blind. Education
Civil 82c;
:
if
I
•American Library Association 39c; Canadian Literature 139c; Libraries 394b; Literary Prizes 398b Child swapper 752b
Armies
i,
204d;
Rights 60, 59, 58, 57. See Law; Negroes, American 56 Arkansas 57d; Brown. Edmund Education G(erald) P(at) 123c;
Chicago Child Labour Children's Books
of Nations
Argentina 55d; Armies
Telephone 673a
Chiario
:ommonwealth
Building and Coiislruitioii Industry 125d
Civil
59
Agriculture; Budget, National Cotton 187b; Dairy Products 195a; Rice S96,j; W heal 747b ^ee Business Prices: Review; Prices lommon Market Treaty: u-e European Economic Community 68 iommonwealth Fund: iifc Societies and Associations, U.S. 60
Commodity
ment; Town and Regional Planning; Urban Transportation, U.S. 67,56
Civil Defense, U.S.
phy
,
Labour Unions
irban) 752b Sho Cir City and Regional Planning 60, 69, 68. ^ce Building and Construction Industry; Municipal Govern-
.Aviation, Civil
and
58 Fidel 60
Religion 589b; Religious Education 390d. Hee also various churches
CIcognanI, Amieto Giovanni 59 Cigars and Cigarettes: u-e Tobacco Cancer 141d C. I.O.: see
Cancer Uld; Chemical Industry 150c; Dermatology 20Sd; Diabetes Eye. 23Sa; Epidemiology 207b; Diseases of the. 24Jc; Medicine 419c;
7.i8b
U.S.
Church Membership
of the
Executive Branch of the Government: see Hoover Commission 66 Commodity Credit Corporation: see
56
Construction Industry: see Architecture; Bridges; Building and Construction Industry; Housing; Rivers and Harbours Consumer Co-operatives: see Cooperatives
Consumer Credit Banking 92d
Currsncy:
Contract Bridge
Control i
Coolidge. Grace Goodhue: see Obituaries 68 Cook. Joe (Joseph Lopez) S06c
Co-op dinner 752b Cooper. (Leon) Jere: see Obituaries 58
Co-operatives
Copper Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 43Sa; Secondary Metals 613c Corbin. John 506c Cori. Gerty Theresa (Radnitz): see
Ciprui
Obituaries 68
Corn Agricultural Research Service 22a; Agriculture 23c; Botany 114d
Cornubite 437b
Corporation Income Tax:
sje
Taxa-
tion Corridor 752b Corsica: see French Community 69. See French Union 68, 57, 66 Cortisol (Hydrocortisone) 232b Cosmic Rays: see International Geophysical Co-operation— 1969 60. .Si. Astronomy; Space Exploration 60, 59. S.I International Geophysical Year (1957-58) 59, 58, 67, Si'i' Arctic; Rockets and Satellites 58. .Si'i National
56.
Space Geo-
graphic Society 57. See Physics 66 Cosmic rocket 752b Costa Rica .Armies of the World 63d; Aviation, Civil 82c; Birth.and Death Statistics 106c; Coffee 172b; Coinage 172c; 180d; Debt. National 201c; Fruit 278b; International Bank
Communism for
Reconstruction
and
Develop-
ment 344c; Marine Biology Newspapers and Magazines
412a; 487d; Tariffs 668c; U.S. 710a Costello, Lou (Louis Francis Cristillo)
506d
Cost of Living: Prices
see
Business Review;
|l
Cotton Agricultural Research Service 22c; Agriculture 23c: International Trade 353b; Textile Industry 5;6d Cottonseed Oil: see Vegetable Oils
and Animal Fats Council of Europe: see European Unity 58, 57, 56 Counterfeiting: see Secret Service,
Agriculture 24c; Federal Trade Commission 2S4c; International Trade
356b
Dakar:
see
French West Africa
59,
Lama
60
World
.Armies of the
59c; India 335b;
Tibet 680d
Damon. Ralph Shepard:
Obitu-
see
Couve De Murville, Maurice
60 Miguel: see Obituaries
58 i
Middleto
•
Obituarie
58 Cranberries: see Fruit .Agriculture 26c
Crawtord. David: see Obituaries 58 Crawl space 752b Credit, Consumer: see Consumer Credit Credit Unions: sec Co-operatives; Farm Credit System
Crime, U.S. Boxing li6a; Federal Bureau of Investigation 250d; Friends. Religious Society of, 277b; Juvenile Delinquency 376c: Law 38^r
Obltuaria*
S9 K.ili.-it
Bcrnfrd
4.1a;
46h: C.uiaila 1.17a; Communism IROh; (•.rrinany 204b; (".real Britain -102c; Intrrnational Prop.i .•\iil.irrlir.i
ganda
N.\TO
.l-lld;
4')7d;
Political
Partips. f.S. .'i52b; Radio and Tele vision .Sglb; St. Lawrence Seaway
Spain
(>n8a;
Tiirkev
ft.Snh;
I'.S,
69.1(1;
MM:
Strikes 7n.Sc; H.S.S.R.
bIM Elsenhower, Milton Stover 67 Elsenhower Doctrine: srr Middle Eastern Affairs; United States 68 Elections, U.S. Electrical Industries
Canada
Cooperatives
1.17a;
184c;
Federal Power Commission 2.^20; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Trade 1.';6b; International 344b; Machinery and Machine Tools 406h; .S7.1d; Railroads rtilities Public
Dams
r.S.
lo.'iil;
and
Societies
.SS4d;
6.1l)b;
.Associations.
Wages and
Strikes 6S7b;
llo 740a Electric Power: ^ee Atomic Energy; Electrical Industries Electric Transportation: sir Urban Transportation, U.S. 58, 57, 56 AutMin.il.ili- liidu-^tiv 7')a
Electrincation, Rural: s,r Rural Electrification Administration 58, 57, 56 Elect. onic fence 7S2b Electronics Fairs and Exhibitions 246c; Foreign
Investments 267c; Radio and Television 577c; Space Exploration 644c; Telegraphy 671c; Telephone 672d; Administration (U.S.) Veterans 7.14a
Electro-osmosis 7->2b
Elementary Education:
see
Educa-
tion
Elementary Particles:
see
Physics 60
Eh/.d.eth ,Eli?;ibclh Charlotte Josephine \'ictoria .Mexandra) (former
queen of Greece): see Obituaries 57 Elizabeth II Canada 137a; Chicago 153a; Commonwealth of Nations 176a; Diefenbaker. John George 20Sc; Great International PropaS24b; 351d; Ottawa St. L.iwrence Seawav 6(ISa Benevolent and Protective El>.'a>ei of the.
Death Statistics
58, 57, 56
Hydroplane Racing: Racing
Law
391a; Tuber-
Cambodia;
see
and
Federal
Power Commission Hydrogen Bomb: see Atomic Energy
ice
Law
Archaeology SUb,
Indochina:
Vietnam
R..l«-it Urrni-icl 411.
Idaho
690d
Honours and Awards: sec National Geographic Society 60, 59. :>cy American Library Association;
57,
Ancler..,ii,
tistics
Hong Kong
Hammarskj6ld, Dag
Theatre
culoiia bVId
Hydroelectric
Armies of the World 53d; Aviation. Civil 82c; Birth and Death Statistics IU6c; Coinage 172c; Communism
American
Iftdlapa, 41c;
I
Agruultiiral Research Service 22d
Haiti
B8, 6T, 66 Literature
Anietiian
578d
Humphrey, George Magofnn
56. See
Insulin:
see
Co-operatives 184b; Dentistry 205b; Industrial Health 340a; Law 389c; Societies and .Associations. U.S. 629c; Strikes 557b; Taxation 570c; Veterans .Administration (U.S.) 734a Insurance, Old-Age: see Social Security
Inter-American Conferences: see Organization of American States 60, 59, 58, 57. it,
ference: 56
see
Panama
57
Investment Con-
Inter-American
Foreign Investments
Intergovernmental Committee for European Migration: see Refugees 60, 59
U.S.
Interior,
Government
Department of: see Departments and
Bureaus, U.S. Interior Decoration
International Atomic Energy Agency:
scf
Atomic Energy
60, 59, 58, 57
International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Costa Rica 186c: Foreign Investments 268c; International Finance (Corporation 345a; International Law 347b; International Monetary Fund 348d; International Trade 357a; Iran 360c; Middle Eastern .Affairs 432d: Roads and Highways 599d; Switzerland 566a; Tanganyika 667d
International Children's Emergency Fund: see Child Welfare International College of Surgeons: Societies and Associations, sec U.S.
International Confederation of Free
Trade Unions:
sec
Labour Unions
59, 58, 57, 56
International Cooperation Administration: see Foreign Aid Programs, U.S. Roads and Highways 599d International Court of Justice: see International Law; United Nations International Finance Corporation 60, 59, 58. i.. United Nations 57 International Geophysical Co-operation-1959 60. Sec International Geophysical Year (1957-58) 69, 58, 57, 56
Antarctica 44b; .Arctic 54c; Coast and Cieodetic Survey. U.S. 170d; Geography 285c; Meteorology 42Sd; Oceanography 517d; Space Exploration 644c
International Labour Organization Child Labour 154c International Law
UN
703a
International Monetary Fund Brazil 117d; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 239d; Foreign Aid
Programs. U.S. 264a; Foreign Investments 268c; Gold 298a; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 343c; Turkey 694a International Propaganda 60, 59, 58 International Red Cross: see Red
Cross International Refugee tion see Refugees 56 International Trade
Organiza-
:
Business
92b;
Baltimore
Review
130b; Census Data. U.S. 146b; European Unity 237c; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 239c; ExportImport Bank of Washington 242c; Foreign Investments 26Sc; Merchant Marine 422a; St. Lawrence Seaway 608a; Socialism 624d; TariSs 668a;
UN
703d. See also various industries.
International Trade Fairs: see and Exhibitions International Wheat Agreement: see Agriculture 60, 59, 58, 57, 56. See Wheat 58, 57, 56
Fairs
Wheat 747c Interplanetary Exploration: Space Exploration 60, 59
see
Interstate Commerce Commission Railroads 584a; Trucking Industry
689d
Intestinal Disorders: see Stomach and Intestines, Diseases of the Intoxication, Alcoholic: see Alcoholism 60, 59, 58. 5'; Intoxication, Alcoholic 57, 56 see National Bureau of Standards 60, 59, 58. See Electronics; Patents and TradeMarks; Printing; Telephone 60, 69,58, 57,56. See Munitions 58, 57, 66. See Standards, National Bu-
Inventions:
reau of, 56 Automobile Industri' 79b
Investment Banking:
see
Banking
Investments, Foreign, in the U.S.: see Foreign Investments Ionosphere: see International Geophysical Co-operation-1959 60. See Space Exploration 60, 59. See International Geophysical Year (1957-58) 59, 58, 57, 56. See Rockets and Space Satellites 58
Iowa Crime. U.S. 189b Iproniazid (Marsalid) 688a
Iran Archaeology
Armies
47c;
of
the
World 63d; .\viation. Civil 82c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Child Welfare 155d; Communism 180d; Cotton 187c; Debt. National 201d; Disasters 210c; Export-Import Bank of Wash-
ington 242d; Fruit 278a; Immigration and Naturalization 330c; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 344b; International Trade 356d; Islam 365d; Mineral
and Metal Production and Prices Newspapers and Magazines
435d;
487c; Nuts S04b; Petroleum 538b; Prices 564a; U.S. 705d; Wines 749d
Iraq Agriculture 28b; .\rmies of the World S9b; .Aviation. Civil 82c; Child Welfare 155d; Communism 179d; Debt. National 201d; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 242a; Foreign Aid Programs. U.S. 265a; International Propaganda 352b; International Trade 356d; Islam 365c; Middle Eastern .\tfairs 431c; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Petroleum 538b; U.S. 710c Ireland, Northern: see Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United
Kingdom
of
Ireland, Republic of Birth and Death Statistics 106c; China 158d; Debt. National 201d;
Shipbuilding 617c; U.S. 710c
Iron and Steel Income and Product. U.S. 333a; Inter-
Bank
Reconstruction and Development 344b; International Trade 353c; Labour Industry 382d; Mauritanian Islamic Republic 417c; Metallurgy 422d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 434c; New Zealand 49Ic; Secondary Metals 613d; Societies and .Associations. U.S. 630c; Stocks and Bonds 653b; Strikes 65gc; U.S. 705d; Wages and Hours 739d; West \'irginia 746a Iron and Steel Institute, American: Associations, see Societies and U.S. Irrigation national
for
137a; Commonwealth of Nations 176b; Soil Conservation 636d;
Canada
Tunnels 693b Irwin. Wallace 510a
Isham.
Ralph Heyward:
see
Obitu-
aries 56
Control and Exchange Rates 242a; Export-Import Bank of Washington 242d; Fruit 278c; International PropInternational Trade 353a; Jewish Literature 372b; Judaism 375c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Navies of the World 469c; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Petroleum 538b; Religious Education Prices 564a; 590a; Socialism 624c; Tarifis 669d; Tropical Diseases 689c; U.S. 710c;
aganda 352c;
Wines 749d Italian Literature Italy .Agriculture 27d; .Aluminum 37a; Archaeology 49a; .Architecture 53b; .Armies of the World 60a; .Austria 76d; .Automobile Industry 7gd; .Automobile Racing 80b; Aviation. Civil 82c; .Aviation. Military 88c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Blood. Diseases of the. 110b; Bobsledding Ilia; Coke 172d; Communism 179d; Contract Bridge 183d; Co-operatives 184d; Com 186a; Dairy Products 195a; Dams 196c; Dance 199b; Debt. National 201d; Democracy 203c; Education 221a; Electrical Industries 227a; Epidemiology 234d; European Unity 237b; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 241c; Export-Import Bank of Washington 242d; Fairs and Exhibitions 246b; Foreign Investments 267c; Gas. Natural and Manufactured 280d; Greece 305b; Immigration and Naturalization 330b; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 344b; International Trade 353c; Lead 392d; Marriage and Divorce 414d; Merchant Marine 422c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Motion Pictures 450d; Music 462a; Navies of the World 469b; Newspapers and Magazines 487d; Nuts 504a; Petroleum 538a; Photography 543b; Prices S64a; Railroads 585a; Refugees 587c; Religious Education S90d; Salt 609b; Shipbuilding 617c; Socialism 625b; Social Security 626c; Sociology 635b; Sugar 661a; Tarifls 668a; Tennis 674d; Tobacco 683a; Tunnels 692c; U.S. 705d; Wheat 747d; Wines 749b; Wool 7Slc; Zmc 758c Ivory Coast, Republic of 60, 59. See French West Africa 59, 58, 57, 56. See French Union 58, 57, 56 Cocoa 171d; French Community 274c Jackson. Chevalier: see Obituaries 59 Jackson. Joseph Henry: see Obitu-
s56 Jamaica: 59. See
see West Indies, The, Jamaica 58, 57, 56
Man:
Isle of see Great Britain and Northern Ireland, United King-
dom of Isocarboxazid 151b
28a;
Archaeology
47c;
60,
Foreign Investments 267b; Newspapers and Magazines 487d James Marquis: see Obituaries 56 Janis iBierbower). Elsie; see Obituar sS7 Jansen. Ernest George 510b
Japan -Agriculture
28c;
Aluminum
Javelin Throw: see Track and Field Sports Jazx: see Records and Recordings 60, 59. See Music 60, 59, 58, 57, 56
Jehovah's Witnesses Church Membership 162d Jersey Dozen 752c Jet Propulsion: see Missiles; Navies of the World; Space Exploration 60, 59. See Aircraft Industry 60, 59, 58. See Aviation, Civil; Aviation, Military 59, 58. See Jet Propulsion 58, 57, 56 .Air Races and Records 31b; Automobile Industry 79b Jetwalk 752c Jewels: see Diamonds; Gem Stones Jewish Literature Literarv Prizes 397d Jewish Religious Life: see Judaism; Religious Education Jewish Welfare Board, National: see Societies and Associations, U.S.
Jimenez. Juan Ramon: see ObitJuan 59. See Jimenez, Ran 57 Johansson, Ingemar 60 1
Boxing 116b
John XXIII Christian Unity Religion 588d;
Italy 368b; Catholic
162a;
Roman
Church 600b
John Simon Guggenheim
A
nd rial Foundation: see Societi Associations, U.S. Johnson. Charles Spurgeon: see Obituaries 57 Johnson. Edward 510b
Johnson, Lyndon Balnes Political Parties. U.S.
Joint Chiefs of Staff:
see
Govern-
U.S. Joliot-Curie. Irine: see Obituaries 57 Joliot-Curie. Jean Frederic; see Obit-
i59
Obituaries
Holn 57
Margo: see Obituaries 56
Jones.
Jordan .Armies of the World 59c; Aviation. Civil 82c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Child Welfare 156a; Communism 180d; International Propaganda 352c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Petroleum 538b; U.S. 710c Jowitt. William .Allen Jowitt. 1st earl: see
Obituaries 58
Joy. Charles Turner: see
Obituaries
.Alice:
see
Church Membership 162d; Religious
Track
and
Field
Departments
Biology 412d: Marriage and Divorce 413d; Merchant Marine 422c; Meteorology 426b; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Mis(Religiors) 443d; Foreign sions. Motion Pictures 450d; Navies of the
Kentucky Kenya 60,
469c; Newspapers and Magazines 487c. Petroleum 538b; Photography 543b; Prices 564a; Railroads S85b; Red Cross 587b; Religion S90b; Rice 596c; Rubber 603c; Salt 609b; Shipbuilding 617c; SUver 622a; Socialism 624c; Social Security 626c;
664d; Table Tennis 666d;
Tea 671b; Tobacco 683a; Toy Industry 685a; Trooical Diseases 689a; U.S. 710c; Wines 740d; Zinc 75Sc Jardine William M.: ser Obituaries 56
Java: see Indonesia Disasters 211a; Seismology 614c
Knights of Columbus: see Societies and Associations, U.S. Knowland, William Fife 58, 57, 56 Koerner. Theodor: see Obituaries 58 KSnig, Franziskus 59 Korda. Sir Alexander: see Obituaries^ 57 Korea Agriculture
28c;
.Armies
of
the
World 60c; Aviation. Civil 82d; Communism 180c; Disasters 210a; Edu221c; International Propaganda 352b; Japan 370d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Navies of the World 469c; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Red Cross 587b; Rice 596c; Table Tennis 667a; U.S. 710c
Kornberg. Arthur 60 Nobel Prizes 496a Kovacs. Bela 510c Kress. Samuel Henry: see Obituaries 56 Krupp von Bohlen und Halbach. Bertha; see Obituaries 58 Kubitschek, Juscelino 57 Architecture 52c; Brazil U7b Kusch, Polykarp 56 Kuwait 60, 59, 58. See Persian Gulf States 57. See Arabia 56 International Trade 356d; Petroleum 33Rb Labor, U.S. Department of; see
Departments and
127b see
Agriculture; Child La-
Employment; Internation-
Board;
Strikes;
United
States;
City 490c Kadar, Janos 58 Kaempffert. Waldemar Bemhard: see Obituaries 57
Pakistan
60, 59, 58, 57,
India 59, S3, 57, 56. See 59, 58
United Nations ;:inc
Kefauver, Estes 57, 56 Kellogg Foundation:
ism 56 Labour Unions Automobile
Societies
Political Parties. U.S. 5S4b Kennedy. Joseph William: see Obituaries 53 Kent. Frank Richardson; see Obit-
uaries 59 59, 58 .Agriculture 27c; .Anthropology 46d; Coffee 172c; Democracy 204b; Housing 325a; Mineral and Metal Pro-
duction and Prices 435d; Newspapers and Magazines 487c Ketterin?. Charles Franklin: see Obit-
uaries 59 S.
.Afghanistan 21c; Albania 33d; Berlin I03a; Communism 177d; Eisenhower. Dwight D. 223a; Finland 255c; Geneva Foreign Ministers" Conference of 1959. 282d; Germany 294b; International Propaganda 350a; N.ATO 497d; Nixon. Richard Millions 495b; Norway SOOd; Political Parties. U.S. 552d; Radio and Television 580c; Soviet Literature 643d; Sweden
Industry
78d;
Eisen-
Dwight D. 223c; National Labor Relations Board 467c; .Newfoundland and Labrador 478b Labrador: see Newfoundland and Labrador hower.
Labuan:
see British
Borneo
Lacrosse La Farge, Christopher:
see
Obituaries
57
La Gorce, John Oliver SlOc Lajoie, Napoleon 510d Lamb, Willis E., Jr. 56
Lamb: see
and Associations, U.S. Kelly, Grace (Patricia) 56 Kennedy, John Fitzgerald 60
Khrushchev, Nikita
Political Parties, U.S. 552c. See also various industries, products, states.
and
Juvenile Delinquency Child Welfare 156b; Crime. U.S. 189c; Education 216d; New York
World
57 King, Martin Luther, Jr. 58 King. Samuel Wilder 510c Kinsey. Alfred Charles: 5c< Obituaries 57 Kishi, Nobusuke 58 Japan 371b KIwanis International: 5^^ Societies and Associations, U.S. Klein. Charles Herbert l-'Chuck'): see Obituaries 59
Wages and Hours
63d; .Automobile Industry 78d; -Aviation. Civil 82c; .Aviation, Military 88c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Boxing 116d; Brazil 118a; Chemical Industry 149d; Clothing industry 168d; Coal 169c; Coke 172d; Communism I80d; Copper 185a; Dams 196a; Dance 197d; Debt. National 201d; Disasters 2lOc; EducaIndustries Electrical tion 221c; 227a; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 242b; Fairs and Exhibitions 246a; Fisheries 257a; Foreign Investments 268a; Fruit 279a; Gas. Natural and Manufactured 281a: Geography 286a; Gold 298a; Immigration and Naturalization 330c; International Bank for Reconstruction and Development 343d; International Trade 352d; Iron and Steel 362d; Korea 381c; Lead 392d; Lumber 404d; Manganese 410d; Marine
Di:
Obit-
Labour Organization; Labour Unions; National Labor Relations
Bureaus, U.S. .Automobile Industry 79a; Federal Bureau of Investigation 250c
see
see
uaries 59 King. Ernest Joseph: see Obituaries
bour;
Sports
56. See
Martin:
Kimpton, Lawrence Alpheus King. Edward Poslell. Jr.: see Obit-
al
Jungle Market 752c Junior Colleges: see Universities and Colleges Justice, U.S. Department of: see
Kashmir:
Harley uaries 57
Kilgore.
Labour:
Education 5Q0d see Wrestling 57, 56 Jugoslavia; see Yugoslavia Jullien, Andre 59
Judo:
see
664a; United Arab Republic 698c; U.S. 705c; U.S.S.R. 695c Kibbee. Guy Bridges: see Obituaries
Bureaus, U.S. Building and Construction Industry
Obituaries 56
Judaism
Jumping:
769
Government
57 Joyce.
INDEX
cation
553b
ment Departments and Bureaus,
Government 37a;
American Library Association 39b; Antarctica 46b; Armies of the World
Swimming
Islam
Israel Agriculture
of the World S9c; Aviation. Civil 82c; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Communism 180d; Exchange
Armies
see
Meat
Landowska. Wanda SlOd Lane. Arthur Bliss: see Obituaries 57 Langer. William 5IOd Langmuir. Irving: see Obituaries 58 Lanza Mario (.Alfredo .Arnold Cocozza) 511a Laos 60, 59, 58. 56 Armies of the World 60b: Aviation. Civil 82d; Communism 180d; Co-operatives 184d; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 242b; International Monetary Fund 348d; Japan 37nb; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; SEATO 643b; UN 702b Lard: see Vegetable Oils and Animal
Fats
Larraona, Arcadio 60 Lashley. Karl Spencer: see Obituaries 59 Laskv. Jesse L.: see Obituaries 59
America: see El Salvador; French Community 60, 59. See Argentina; Bolivia; Brazil; British
Latin
Nicaragua; Panama; Paraguay; Peru; Surinam; Uruguay; Venezuela 60, 59, 58, 57, 56. See French
Elections. U.S. J25b;
INDEX
770
\,n.-n.
Mormont
^r'
Latvia liiinugr.iUoii
llio.s 1S2I); ui.ilizillian I..iutcl.
N.it
.iiul
Boole lishiilK
Bftling
an.l 1 lu
Labour lS4a; Civil Righls 16(m; Eisenhower Civil Service. I'.S. 167c; DwiBht I). 223b; Fcder:il Bureau o{ Investigation 250d; Federal Com251(1; fed-
Lonardi. Edu.irdo:
the of Civil 820;
I80d; Export-Import Washington 242d; Inl^rnaBank Propaganda 352c; Middle tional Eastern Affairs 43 Id; Newspapers Petroleum and Magazines 487c; 538b; Prices 564a; Wines 749d Ledertwrg, Joshua 59 Lee John Cllrtord Hodges; stc Obit-
uaries 59 Lee, Tsung Dao 58 Leeward Islands:
The
60, 59. Sti
icr
West
,
Agriculture 26a. S« also individual nations and I'.S. states Legotards ^Leotights) 752c
Lyman
Louis 60
59
Leotights iLegotards) 752c
see Blood Diseases of the Percy Wyndham: see Obituaries 68 ^„ Lewisohn. Ludwig: see Obituaries 56 Liberia ^ , ,
:
Lewis.
.
.
Armies of the World 63d; .Aviation, Civil 82d; Foreign Investments 26 id; Merchant 362d; Iron and Steel Marine 422c; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; U.S. 710c
Libraries
.
.
American Library Association 39a; Book Blind. Education of the 109a; Collecting 1 12a; Patents and TradeMarks 533c; Societies and Associations. U.S. 634a \rmies of the World 63d; Aviation. Civil 82d; Child Labour 154b; Foreign Investments 267d; International Monetary Fund 349c; Newspapers Magazines 487c; Petroleum and 538b; U.S. 710c
Liechtenstein Life Insurance:
see
Insurance
and Death Census
Life Statistics: see Birth Statistics 60, 59, 58.
.s.t
Data, U.S. 60, 59, 58, 57, 56. iff Birth Statistics; Death Statistics; Infant Mortality; Suicide Statis-
tics 57, 56 ult LIr Lindley. Walter Ca
r
Obituaries
59
Linen and Flax
Portuguese
58, 57, 56
Agriculuire 2Jd
Linguistics 58 Lions Clubs, International Association of: Kf Societies and Associations, U.S. Liquors, Alcohollo
Jff
Obituaries J
,
,_
uaries 59
McDonald, Stewart: Jff Obituaries 58 Macedonia: Jff Yugoslavia McElroy, Neil Holser 59, 58 McEvoy. Jkoseph) Patrick): jff Obit-
Machinery, Farm:
Jff Obituaries 56 Jff Agriculture
57. 56 ,,.. Agricultural Research Service 22b
Machinery and Machine Tools
National Bureau of Standards 465d Mclntire. Ross T. 511c Mack. Connie (Cornelius Alexander McGillicuddy); Jff Obituaries 57 McKay, Douglas 56 Obituaries Slid MacKaye. Percy: Jff Obituaries 57
McKellar. Kenneth Douglas: uaries 58 McLaglen. Victor Slid
Jff
Obit-
Macmillan, Harold 60, 59, 68 Canada 137a; (iermany. 294a; Great
302a; International Propaganda 35 Id; U.S.S.R. 696d McNeil. Hector; Jff Obituaries 56 McNutt. Paul Vories: Sff Obituaries 56 Britain
Madagascar
Disasters 210c; French Community 274d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Socialism 626a; Spices 65 2a
Madeira: Jff Portugal Newspapers and Magazines 487d
630b
Isl
hall
Plan:
Jff
Foreign Aid Pro-
grams, U.S. 56 56 Martin, Glenn L.: Jff Obituaries Martin du Gard. Roger: jff Obituaries 59 Obituaries set Maria: Luis Martinez. 67
Martinique Newspapers and Magazines 48/d Maryland „,,„nr.)Masonic Fraternity (Freemasonry). Societies and Associations, see .
U.S.
Massachusetts Massey, Vincent Canada U7a
59, 58, 57, 56
Mathematics
56
Societies
Matsu:
China; Formosa
60, 59.
iff International Lavv 59 Revolt: Jff British East
56
Maurice and Laura Falk Foundation The: Jff Societies and Associations, U.S.
Mauritania .f French Community 58 59. ^.. French West Africa 59 57,56 57 56 v,< French Union 58, Mau'ritanian Islamic Republic 60 iff 59. Community French iff French West Africa 59, 58, 57, 56. 56 See French Union 58, 57, French Community llic
^'^i'lh^Li Death Newspapers
k vi ~ Christian Unity 161b; Church Membersiup 162d ^. .
Metropolitan Areas: Jff City and Regional Planning 60, 59, 58. i« Town and Regional Planning 57, 56
and
Statistics
Magazmes
_,„. ^ Research Service 23a, .
Agriculture 26d; American Citizens Abroad 38b; Armies of the World and 63d; Aviation, Civil 82d; Birth Death Statistics 100c; Blind. Edu-
U6d; cation of the. 109b; Boxing Chemical Industry 149d; Child WelCommunism fare 155d; Coilee I72a; Col186a; 180d; Copper 185a; Corn Diston 187c Debt, National 201d; 209b; Education 221d; Epiasters
demiology 235b; Exchange Control and Exciiange Rates 240b; Expo"" Import Bank of Washington 242d; Fencing 2S5a; Foreign Aid Prograins. 26/b; U S. 265a; Foreign InvestmentsManuFruit 278d; Gas. Natural and factured 280d; Gold 299a; Guatemala Naturaliza307b; Immigration and
330a; International Monetary Fund 349b; International Trade 353d; Iron and Steel 362d; Irrigation Literature Latin-American 365a; 387a Lead 392d; -Manganese 410d; Marriage and Divorce 413d; MeMetal teorology 426a; Mineral and Production and Prices 435b; -Motion World Pictures 451a; Navies ol the 469c; Newspapers and -Magazines 531a; 487d'; Pan-American Games Petroleum 537c; Photography 543b; Television Prices 564a; Radio and 599d; S83a; Roads and Highways Seismology 614d; Silver 622a; Sugar 661a' Sulfur 661b; Tennis 674d; Tourist Travel 684d; Tropical Diseases 689b; U.S. 710b; Wheat 747d; Wines 749d; Zinc 758d tion
Meyer, Albert Gregory 60 .Meyer. Eugene S12b
.
j
>
Michigan
Mau Mau I
644c
Michael (Tliucydides Constantinides). archbishop: Jff Obituaries 59
57, ,- = ^,f,h and Associations. L .S. 630b
Jff
.
Methodist Church
Agricultural
Peyton Conway; Jff Obituaries 56 Marelli, Paolo 60 Mariana Islands: Jff Marshall, Caroline and Mariana Islands Mane Louise ^Franzisca Josepha Louise Augusta -Mane CHelena)! jff Obituaries 57 Marine Accidents: Jff Disasters Marine Biology Fisheries 256d Marine Corps, U.S. \viation. Military 86d Maritime Administration, U.S. Merchant Marine 57, 56 Marriage and Divorce Mars.aid ilproniazidl 688a .Marshall. George Calletl 512a Marshall, Caroline and Marl
.
Civil 82b; \rit..r. t^a 44c; Aviation. International (geophysical Co-operaExploration tion- 1959. 345c; Space
Mexico
.
66
158a
Vlarch,
Af
,
.
Meteorology
Obituaries 56
Geological Survey, U.S.; vey, U.S.; National Geographic Society 60, 59, 58. iff Cartography 57, 56 „t...
Ma
Jff
.Associations. U.S.
Metal Prices and Production: Jf« Mineral and Metal Production
Maple Sirup: Jff Sugar Maps: Jff Coast and Geodetic sur-
Overseas
,
Jff
and
.
« e£ 66 Obituaries .
and
.
and Prices
oba
Chii
McCormick. Robert Rutherford: Jff Obituaries 56 ^ MacDonald. Betty (Anne Elizabeth Campbell Bard): Jff Obituaries 59 McDonald. Eugene F., Jr.; Jff Obit-
uaries 59 Macfadden. Bernarr:
So. leties
Trust Territories
Mao Tse-tung
Provinces (Territories) Newspapers and Magazines 487c Mac.\rthur, Charles: Jff Obituaries 67 McCarthy Joseph R(aymond); Jff
Obituaries 58 Macaulay. Dame Rose:
Lemons: st, Fruit Lenin" 46yb Leu kemia
Jff
aries 57
Frank U.: Metallurgy
U.S. 333d; International Trade 353b; Labour Unions 383b Prices 562c; Societies and AssoU.S. 633b; Strikes 657a; ciations Wages and Hours 739d. iff also separate industries and various states,
Mem-
..
Merrill
come and Product.
Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 241c; Export-Import Bank ol Washington 242d; International Trade 3S3d; Iron and Steel 3b2d; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Newspapers and Magazines 48/d, U.S. ;iOc; Wines 749d
Macao:
Trust
Manufacturing: .\ccidents 17b, BusiU.S. ness Review 133a; Census Data in146b; Foreign Investments 266b;
of the World 63d; Aviation. Civil 82d; Birth and Death Statistics 106c; Brewing and Beer 118d; Communism 180c, European Unity 237b;
Newspapers and Magazines 48*a L^ger. Fernand; set Obituaries 56 Law; Taiatlon; Legislation: sre United States ^
Lemnitxer,
.
Sff
Mann Thomas:
Armies
57, 56
.
:
Christian Unity 161a; Church bership 162d
58,
China
617»;
Shipbuilding
Strikes 659a
Manning, Ernest C. 60
^ . A and Radio
..
Lutherans
Indies,
Leeward Islands
M
Wages and Hours 740a Jff Astronomy; MisSpace Exploration 60,
Luxembourg
Jff
500d;
.Norway
^ „ Mercury: Jff Mineral and Metal Production and Prices ObituMerrill, Charles Edward: Jff
Mangar
Television 581b; Space Exploration 645a; Words and Meanings. New 7S2c Luque. Crisanto 511c
of
69, 68, 67, 66
Merchant Marina
.
Pacific Islands: Jff
Mandates:
Lunar Probes:
series
Fashions: Jff Clothing Industry 60. iff Shoe Industry 60,
MlnV
Territories
57
"Lunik (Sputnik)
U.S. 167d; Drug Administration. U.S. 213a; Electronics 22«a; IndusInternational Health 339c; trial Propaganda 350a; Motion Pictures 452a; Nobel Prizes 496a; Red Croia and 586b; Socialism 62Sa; Societies 29a; U.S. Associations. Jj"'"^ Funds-Community Chests 699d. S« medical and diseases also specific sciences ^m_,^ Mencken. IKenry) L(ouis): Jff Obltuice.
Madagascar
Jff
,.
Mandated
5 lie
69
American Literature 40b; Civil Serv-
and (ireat Britain 302c; Newspapers Magazines 487d; Wines 749d
ivil
siles 60. iff
abled
Medleln*
..
...
Obituaries 69
Malta
Lozano Diaz. Julio: see Obituaries 58 Luebke, Helnrich 60 Lugosi ^Blasko). Bela: Jff Obituaries
Armies
Aviation.
co Obituaries 59
Manchuria:
Strikes 057b;
^
60 Mall, Federation of 60 l-reiuh West Africa 276d Malik, Charles Habib 69 .M.illory. Molla Bjurstedt 512a
Rights It.Sd Low, Solon Earl 58, 57, 56
Communism
Pal: Jff
Malgache Republic:
56
Chemical Industry ISOd; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 434c; Secondary Metals 613c Laague of Women Voters of the United States: ser Societies and Associations, U.S. Leahy. William Daniel Sllb Leather: st. Shoe Industry Agricultural Research service 22c, Strikes 657b; Wages and Hours 740a 47c;
Maimer.
Los Angeles Louisiana Lowe, Thus
,
World .\gii, allure 28d; Armies of the Badminton 03d. Aviation. Civil 82d; Death 90d; Banking 95a; Birth and Coin158d; China Statistics 106c; munism 180d; Debt. National 201d. Exchange Control and Exchanije Rates 240b; International Trade 357c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 43Sd; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Singapore 622c; I in 682b; Tropical Diseases 088d; U.S.
.Mexico 428b Lord, Uaniel Aloysius: see Obituaries
I.
:
Malaya, Federation of
,„ ,. L6pei Mataos, Adolfo 60, 59
,
63d;
Jff
I
Malan, Daniel Fr.incnis 512a iff Tropical Dlseaaes 69, 58, 57, 56 ( hil.l Welfare 155d
Obituaries 57
JJl.
Service
3S3c; Livestock .IWb. Poland SSOl. Engineerini 571(1 Health Public Mechta" 752c "Mr.lllrxt.uard" 4691, Medical Rehabilitation of the Dis-
41U
Malaria
...
^
^
K.-«-arrh
\K,ir„llur»l
Frozen 142d. Canning Industry Foods 277d; International Trade
67 II yprus I9ta. Middle Eastern Aflairs
(
,
Long, Breckinridge: Lopez. Alfonso 511b
Lawrence. Ernest Orlando: src Obltu'r Fruit Plutonium: ^er Atomic Energy 58,
1
Obituaries 68
Perry. R:ilph H.irlon: irf
Persia:
Philosophy Phosphates: see Mineral and Metal Production and Prices
and Gambling Paris Parkette 752d
Communism
Veterans': i" Veterans Administration (U.S.) Performing Right Societies: irr Societies and Associations, U.S.
Pensions,
Exchange
Papua-New Guinea
Pears:
Se-
Plasma physics 7S2d
657b
Philadelphia Philanthropy:
Armies of the World 60c
Peaches Peanuts
Social
see
58, 57, 66
Afghanistan 2Ic
Orbiter 752d
Pennsylvania Pension, Old-Age:
I'.rlin.u.
see
Oranges: see Fruit Orbital bomber 752d Orchestras:
P:i.ili.
Pacinc Islands, British
710b
curity. 5c(-
67
Pan American Union: j.
Ottawa Outer Mongolia:
Fruit
Bacteriology 89c; Ear. Nose and Throat. Diseases of 215b: Epidemiology 23Sc; Public Health Service. U.S. 573a; Societies and .Associations. U.S. 633c Political Parties, British 56 Political Parties, U.S. Eisenhower. Dwight D. 223a; Elections. U.S. 224c; Radio and Television 578c. Set also under individual states
Political Science Societies and .Associations. U.S. 629a Pollock Jackson: see Obituaries 57
Polo Popular Music: Recordings 60,
see
Records
59. See
Music
and 60,
59, 58, 57, 56
Movements of: set Population, Refugees ^ Population Statistics: see Census Data, U.S. Populations and Areas of the Countries of the World 60. See Areas and Populations of the Countries of the World 59, 58, 57, 56
Pork: see Meat Porto Rico: see Puerto Rico .Agriculture 28d; .Armies of the World 61d- .Automobile Racing 80c; .Aviation Civil 82d; Banking 95b: Birth
and Death Statistics 106c: Communism 180c; Debt. National 20Id; European Unity 209a; Disasters 238a; Exchange Control and Exchange Rates 241c; Fruit 278c; International
Law
348b;
International
Monetary Fund 348d; International Trade 353a; Marriage and Divorce 414d; Merchant Marine 422c; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Navies of the World 469c; Newspapers and Magazines 487d; Petroleum 538b; Prices 564a; Ship-
building 617c; U.S. 710c; Wines 749d Portuguese Overseas Provinces 60. Portuguese Overseas Terrier fi02d; Rye 60.5a; St. Lawrence Seaway
600c;
606a; Salt 609b; Salvation Army 609d; Savings and Loan Associations 61 Id; Scholarships and Student Aid SEATO 643b; Secondary 612b; Metals 613c; Secret Service, U.S. 614a; Seismology 614c; Selective ServShipbuilding 617a; ice, U.S. 615b; Shoe Industry 618h; Shooting 6l8d; Shows 6l9d; Silver 622a; Skiing 622d; Smithsonian Institution 623d; Srxcer 624b; Social Security 626c; Societies and Associations, U.S. 628d; Sociology 635b; Softball 6.»6b; Soil Conservation 636c; Sorghum Grains 639a; Soybeans 644a; Space Exploration 644c; Spain 650a; Spices 6S2a; Squash Racquets 6S2b; Stocks and Bonds 653a: Strikes 656c; Sugar 660b; Sulfur 661b; Swimming 664c; Table Tennis 666d; Tariffs 67na; Taxation 570b; Tea 671c; Telegraphy 671c; Telephone 672b; Tennis 674b; Theatre Textile Industry 676d; 678b; Tin 682b; Tobacco 5g2c; Tourist Travel 684b; Toy Industry 685a; Track and Field Sports 68Sa; Tropical Diseases 689b; Trucking Industry 689d; Tuberculosis 690d; Tunnels 692d; Turkey 693d; United States Congress 712a; Universities and Colleges 715b; Uranium 726a; Urban Transportation. U.S. 726c: U.S.S.R. 695c; Vegetable Oils and Animal Fats 729c; Vegetables 730a; Venereal Diseases 730d; Venezuela
73ld; Veterans Administration (U.S.) 733a; Veterans' Organizations. L:.S. 734b; Veterinary Medicine 735a; Wages and Hours 739c;
Wealth and Income. Distribution
of.
742c; Wheat 747a; Wilderness Preservation 748a; Wildlife Conservation 748b; Wines 749d; Wool 751c; Wrestling 753a; Yachting 755a; Yugoslavia 756d; Zinc 758c; Zoology 759d. Set also various cities, states, territories and possessions United States Air Force Academy 56
United States Congress Eisenhower, Dwight D. 223b: cal Parties
l'„s.
Politi-
552c
United States Government Departments and Bureaus: -. Government Departments and Bureaus,
AU"
U.S.
-i.v
under
spe.
itir
r..ime.
e.g.. Coast Guard, U.S., etc. United States Information Agency:
see
International Propaganda 59,
58
United States Investments Abroad: see Foreign Investments United States Junior Chamber of
Commerce:
see
Societies
and As-
see Coinage and .Colleges
Donations and Bequests 212d: Education 216d; Home Economics 316c; Music 463c: Religious Education 590d; Scholarships and Student Aid 6I2b; United Arab Republic 698d. See also various sports and
games
Upper Volta, Republic of 60 French Community 274c; Mali. Federation
of.
410a
Uranium Atomic Energy 74b; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 437a Urbani, Giovanni 59 Urban Redevelopment: i.-. City and Regional Planning 60. 59, 58. .Sff Municipal Government; Urban Transportation, U.S. 60, 59, 58, 57, 56. .9,. Building and Construction Industry; Housing 58, 57, 56. See Town and Regional Planning City and Regional Detroit 207a
Planning
Armies of the World 63d; Aviation.
Communism
180d; Debt. Control and Exchange Rates 240d; Fencing International Tratle 255a; 354b; Newspapers and Magazines 487d; Soil Conservation 637b; Tariffs 668c: Tropical Diseases 689b: U.S. 710b; Wines -49d: Wool 751c U.S.S.R.: see Union of Soviet SocialCivil 82d;
National
201d:
Exchange
Republics
Utah Public Utilities see Obituaries 56 Tourist Travel
Utilities, Public: see
Maurice:
Vacation: \*alet
of
(cc
Parking 753a
Vanadium:
se,
Mineral and Metal
Production and
(iillK-rt
Denham:
see
Prices
Van Allen Radiation :. Astronomy; Space Exploration
Vjtnsittart.
Obituarlal
Palnta and Varnlshas Vatican City Stat* Demo.r.iry 203d Vaughan Williams. Ralph: lee Obltutee
rlat 69 Vaal:
fee
Meat
Vagatable Oils and Animal Fata Agri. ulliir:il K.-«.-ar(h .Service 22d; Agrirulliire 24d; Home Economics
316a: Paints and Varnishes S25b
Vagatablat Agriculture 23d; Canning Industry I42d; Frozen Foods 277c; Horticulture 320d: International Trade 356b Venaraal DIaaaaas Vaneauala Agriculture 27b: Armies of the World 63d; Aviation. Civil 82d: Coffee 172b: Communism I80d: Debt. National 20ld; Democracy 204a; Fencing 2S5a: Foreign Investments 267a; Gas. Natural and Manufactured 280d; Immigration and Naturalization 330c; International Trade 353d; Iron and Steel 362c; Marriage and Divorce 4l4d; Middle Eastern Affairs 432c:
Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435b; Navies of 469c; Newspapers and
World Magazines
the
487d; Petroleum 537c; Photography 543b; Tariffs 668d; U.S. 710b
Vermont Crime. U.S. 189b
Veterans Administration (U.S.) Housing 125b; Budget. National 323a; Insurance 340d; Savings and Loan Associations 51 Id; Tuberculosis 691b Veterans' Organizations, U.S. Veterinary Medicine Agricultural Research Service 22b Vidor. Charles 516a
Vietnam Agriculture 28c: Armies of the World 60b; Aviation. Civil 82d; Blind. Education of the. 108c; Cambodia 13Sd; Communism 180c; Co-operatives 184d; Foreign .Aid Programs. U.S. 265a; Laos 386b; Mineral and Metal Production and Prices 435d; Missions. Foreign (Religious) 443d; Newspapers and Magazines 487c; Red Cross 587b: Roman Catholic Church 601b; SEATO 643a: UN 702b; U.S. 710d Villa-Lobos. Heitor516a
Virginia Civil Rights 165d Virgin Islands, British 60, 59. See Leeward Islands 58, 57, 56 Virgin Islands, U.S. Farmpr? Home Administration 248b;
Newspapers
and Magazines 487d Viruses; see Bacteriology
60.
See
Cancer: Epidemiology 60, 59, 58. 5.'. Medicine; Poliomyelitis; Respiratory Diseases 60, 59, 58, 57, 56. Tropical Diseases 59
5..
R.;=»-ar